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H3«.n,3

•i

UNIVERSAL HISTORY ^

AMERICANISED;

. OR,

AN HI8TOBICAL VIEW OP THE WORLD,

FROM THE EARLIEST RECORDS TO THE YEAR 1808.
WITH A PAKTICUIiAK REFBBEITCB

TO THB

STATE OF SOCIETY, LITERATURE, REU6ION, AND FORM OF

GOVERNMENT,

nr THx

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
BY DAVID RAMSAY, M. D.

TO WHICH IS ANNEXED,

A SUPPLEMENT,

CONTAINING

A BRIEF VIEW OF HISTORY,

FROM THE YEAR 1808 TO THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO.

"Life is 8o short, and time so valuable, that it were happy for us if aU
" g^reat worlcs were reduced to their quintessence." Sir WUUamJonet,

<< Primaque ab origine mundi
<< Ad mea perpetuum deducite tempora carmen." Ovid,

IN nMrnTvoLUMEs.
VOL. IX,

MFT-miffBT uctrmiD, vom thx BKKEvrr of tbs paxtlt of doctob bajcsat, aitb

pBnrncD bt ABsioNKxirr from thsx,
BY M. CAREY & SON, PHILADELPHIA.

1819.

DISTRICT OF SOUTH CAROLINA.

BB IT REMEMBERED^ that, on the twanty-fiflh day of October, Aim6
Domini one thousand eight hundred and nineteen, and in the forty-fourth
year of th^ Independence of the United States of America, Eleanor H. Li.
Ramsay, Martha H. L. R«iiiaaiy» Catharine H. L. Ramsay, Sabina E. Ramsay,
David Ramsay, James Ramsay, Nathaniel Ramsay, and William Ramsay,
deposited in this office the title of a Book, the ri^ht whereof they claim as
propricton, in the words following, to wit:

*' Universal History Americanised; or, an Historical View of the World,
" from the earliest records to the year 1808. With a particular reference to
" the State of Society, Literature, Religion, and Form of Government, in the
" United States of America. By David Ramsay, M. D. To which is annex-
** ed, a Supplement, contuning a brief View of History, from the year 1808

«• to the Battle of Waterioo."

** * Life is so short, and time so valuable, that it were happy for us if all
** * great works were reduced to their quintessence.' Sir WtlUaa^ Jtme:

" ' Primaque ab origine mundi
'< < Ad mea perpetuum deducite tempora carmen.' OM.

^' In twelve volumes."

In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, entitled, '^ An
act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts,
and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times
therein mentioned," and also an act entitled '* An act supplementary to an
act entitled, ^^ An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the
copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such
copies, during the times therein mentioned," and extending the benefits
thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other
prints."

/AMES JERVEY, Dittriet Clerk,

South CaroSna JKatrict.

80MN!> vCT /i Iw'i^

ib^rt^^Hri

CONTENTS OF THE NINTH VOLUME.

Egypt 3

Carthage ........ 84

'Kumidia ........ 151

MauriUnia ........ 161

Kbynama ........ 165

Hottentots ........ 180

Afincanblands ....... 190

Bourbon • - - • - • ib,

Mauritius ....... 191

Madagascar - - ... • ib,

Comora Isles ....... 196

The Cape Verd Islands ...... 199

Brara ........ t^.

Fuego ---.---. 200

Mayo ----.. . . I'j.

Bonavista - ... . . . . t5.

IdeofSal ....... 301

St. Nicholas .......»&.

St. John's Island ...... i^.

St Vincent * - - - - - . - 202

St. Anthony - - . - ' . • - ib.

Canaries ........ 202

Pdma ....... 204

Ferro - - - 205

Gomera ....... 206

Teneriffe ....... jft.

Grand Canary ...... 207

Fuertuventuxm ....... 208

Lancerota •--.... ib.

Madeiras 209

Madeira ....... 1*5.

Porto Santo ....... 210

Azores ........ ib,

StMichael • - - - - 211

St. Mary -.---... »6.
Tercera .......i^.

Gracxosa - - ~ ' - - - . .212

St. Geoi^ge ....... ib,

Pico ib.

Fayal ib,

' Flores . .. . ' . - - - ib.

Corro ........ 213

CONTESTS.

Island of St. Helena ...... 314

America - -.----- 230

North America ..----- 226

British America -------«*.

Nova Scotia, including New Bnuurwicls: • - 231

Island of Cape Breton ..--.- 233
Newfoundland ..---- 234

The Bermudas, or Sommer Ubmds .... 235

Aboriginal America ------ 236

Greenland ..-..--»*.

New Britain : 240

New North and South Wales - 243

Central parts of North Ameiioa .... 243

Spanish Dominions ...-.- 247

Mexico, or New Spain . - - - - t5.

New Mexico .--..-- 275
Mexico, or New Spain .... - 276

South America .-.---- 277

Spanish Dominions ...... 280

Portuguese America .----. 305

Chief Cities 308

Guiana, or Cayenne - - - - - -313

Aboriginal tribes and unconquered Coontriea - 317

West IndU Islands 332

• St Domingo . - - - -^ - - »d.

Cuba 325

Jamaica - - - - - - 326

Porto Rico ,--.--- 327

The Antilles, or Caribbee Uands - - - - 338

General Obsefvations on the West Indies 329

Supplement .-..,-- 331

Introduction -..-..- 333

Europe

Section I. From the year 1808 to the conclusion of the Austrian

war of 1809 335

Section IL From the end of the Austrian war to the commencement

ofhostilitieswithBussia, 1810 to 1812 ... 346

Section HI. From the commencement of the Russian war to the

battle ofLeipsic, 1812, 1813 356

Section IV. From the battle ofLeipsic to the second abdication of
Napoleon, 1813 to 1815 ..... 368

Spanish America

From the Revolution of Old Spain in 1808 - - • 388

Index .--..,-. 395

RAMSAT^S

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

EGYPT,

HAS the Mediterranean for its boundary on the north ;
the isthmus of Suez and the red sea on the east ; Nubia,
the deserts of Barca, and unknown regions of Africa on the
south and west. It is called in the Holy Scriptures Misraim,
and the land of Ham, having been first inhabited, after the
deluge, by Noah's youngest son Ham, and by his son Mis*
raiih. Writers of Universal History, generally, treat of
Egypt first. It is doubtless one of the oldest nations of the
world, but cannot have an exclusive claim to priority. As it
lay south-west from the supposed centre of postdiluvian set-
tlement, it was in a line with the usual stream of population,
and was therefore prpbably soon occupied ; but being at some
considerable distance from it, was not likely to be settled be-
fore the countries which were nearer, or lay between. The
first choice of sites for settlement by adventurers into new
countries, are generally high, or at least dry lands. When
the low lands of Egypt were subdued by cultivation, their
fertili^ would both attract and maintain numerous settlers ;
but this must have been a work of time.* We have there-

* Of the fiunilles who went in quett of new settlement^ thofe who took
pOMenion of Egypt seem to have been the most fortunate. That singular
country giren, by its situation among deserts, to ei^oy more than insular
security, offered in wonderful abundance the necessaries of life. Its pe-
riodical floods, which to the unexperienced might appear ministers only of
desolation, would be known by those who had seen the Euphrates or Tigris

VOL. IX. [2]

4, BAMSATS VNrVEBSAL -HISTOBT.

fore, departed from our predecesBors, so far as to treat of
Egypt and other psu-te of Africa, after Asia.

Egypt is situated between the forty-eighth and fifty-third
degree of longitude, and the twenty-fourth and thirty-third
degree of north latitude ; its length from north to south, is
near six hundred miles, and the breadth of its coast, on the
Mediterranean, from east to west is about two hundred and
ninety miles. This country is divided into upper, middle,
and lower Egypt.

The first part, or that nearest the cataracts, was formerly
embellished with a great number of superb cities, majestic
temples, palaces, tombs, obelisks, and especially that fiunous
city Thebes, celebrated- for its astonishing population, its
riches, and its edifices. Ancient authorities tell, that from
each of its hundred gates it could send out two hundred
chariots, and ten thousand men. The ruins, sull remaining,
of this great city, render what we are told of it credible.
Memphis, in the middle Egypt, without equalling Thebes,
sbtl exhibits to the eyes of travellers magnificent remuns.
It is believed that the lower part of Egypt, named Delta, on
account of its resemblance in figure to the Greek letter of that
name, is a creation of the Nile, which by depositing its mu(^
has formed this accumulation of land.

periodioll; oTerflow their banka, to be tmong the moit precioui boons of
nature. Forfrom the operation of the waters of the Nile, almoit the whole
of that, nrietly called Egypt, receires > kind of lillBg^ a> weU ai a Terj rich
manuring, ao tbatbetidei producing Rpontaneouilr, a profuaion of heibiind
rooti, which foni\ a coane but wholesome food, it is, moreever, very adran-
tageoualy prepared by the hand of nature, alnratt alone, for the reception of
any grain that man may throw into it. Thu» invited, the occupanti of Egypt
gave their attention to agriculture ; and the fertility of the aoU making the
retuma prodig^oualy great, popuiouinew quickly Mlowcd abundance ; pobty
became neceasaiyi and we are told that In this country waa conatltoted the
fint Kgular goremment. ScieBce appeara to hare originated in Alia. Of
the arta, Egypt waa probably the mother of many, fa she wa* certainly the
nune of mo*t The aciences appear to have received attention there, only
in proportion to th^ luppoaed importance to dvil life. Geometry is aaid
to bare been the offspring of the peculiar neccasity of the country i fbr flie
annualoTerflovrings of the Nile, obliterating ordinary land intrkt, thattci-
ence alone could ascertaju the bounds of properly.

EGYPT. 5

The animals, peculiar to Egypt, are the hippopotamus or
river horse, an untameable, fierce, and very irritable animal,
the crocodile, an amphibious and voracious monster of the
Uzard kind, but 9ometimes thirty feet or more in length, the
ichneumon, a kind of rat, which clears the land from reptiles
and other insects, engendered in the mud after the inunda*
tion. It is also a very formidable enemy to the crocodile,
^^ ^ggs of which it breaks, wherever it finds them. We
likewise find there, cameleons, apes, camels, and gazelles.

Among the birds of this country, the eagle and falcon are
distinguished. From the banks of the Nile aiMl the lakes,
the pelican, the heron, larg^ flocks of wild ducks, and other
aquatic birds, take their flight. The ostrich runs over the
sandy plains which surround Egypt, and the ibis, a bird
formerly worshipped, and still gready esteemed, takes his
station at the entrance of the desert as, on a frontier to be
guarded, and devours the serpents which Lybia sends. Fish
are likewise very abundant, and furnish the principal food
of the common people. The revenue which the fish of the
lake Manzalak brings in to the Turkish emperor, amounts
to forty thousand crowns per annum.

Trees, excepting such as bear fruit, are rare ; of the latter
the date is the most common, and of the others the palm,
cedars, and a thorny tree, supposed to be the acacia, are die
most useful. EgypTproduces flax, which has always been
in much esteem, and the papyrus, which supplied the Eg^«
tians with paper, garments, utensils and medicines, and of
which they even ate the pith. They made similar use of the
lotus, or lily of the lakes. Whoever has tasted the fruits,
vegetables, and esculent roots of Eg3rpt, will not wonder
that the Jews so much regretted their loss of them. The
odier plants, roots, and fruits, which afibrd food to thq
inhabitants, are so excellent, and grow in such abundance,
that they are almost sufficient to maintain the people, with-
out the use of com ; but the great wealth of the country
arises from its luxuriant harvests, which, in an almost uni-
versal famine, enable it to support the neighbouring nations.
This was proved under the administration of the patriarch

• ?

I »

IQ RAMSArS D79IVERSAL HISTORT.

■ •

loiddle Egypt, it divides itself into twd large arms, a little
below Memphis, and subdividing itself into seven channels,
mingles its waters with those of the Mediterranean.

Though many subtle reasons were formerely invented to
account for the great increase of this river, it is now univer-
sally acknowledged to be entirely owing to die heavy rains,
which fall in Ethiopia. With respect to the time of its in*
crease, it first commences in May, yet no public notice is
taken of it till the latter end of June, when it has usually
risen to the height of ten or twelve feet. The public criers
then begin to proclaim it through all the Eg3rptian cities, and
continue to publish its daily augmentation, till it rises to the
height of twenty-four feet ; when die dam of the great ca-
nal at Bulak is opened with great solemnity, and the day is
devoted to feastings, fire works, and all otiier demonstrations
of public rejoicing.

As die Nile could not of itself cover every part of the coun*
try in a due proportion, the Egyptians have, with great la-
bour, cut a vast number of caiuds to fiftcilitate the overflow-
ing of their lands. The villages, that stand on eminences on
the banks of the Nile^ have tiieir respective canals, and tiie
more distant villages have theirs also, even to die extremities
of the kingdom ; by which means, the waters are successively
conveyed to the most remote places. It is not lawful to cut
the trenches for the reception of the waters, till the river has
attained its proper height ; neither must aU the trenches be
opened together ; as, in that case, some lands would be in*
jured by die inundation, while odiers would be almost totally
deprived of thdr needful refreshment. The trenches are
therefore opened with the greatest precaution, first in die
upper, and afterwards in die lower Egypt ; and the na*
tives, who stricdy attend to prescribed rules, contrive to dis-
pose, the fertilising fluid, so judiciously, that all parts of die
country are plentifully watered.

There are indeed many elevated lands, which, notwidi-

precipitate themieWes down the rocks, and when they seem to be twallowed
«p, they re-appear at a dutance, laiely floating on the river, become calm
as Ji canal.

EGYPT. 11

Standing, these canals cannot possibly receive the benefit of
the Nile's increase. This want is supplied by a great numr
ber of wells, spiral pumps, and wheels, which carry a rope
of large earthem pots and draw water from the canals. In
this labour no less than two hundred thousand labourers
are daily employed, besides the men who draw water in
wicker baskets of so fine a texture, that not a drop of the
liquid runs through.

The Egyptian husbandmen have not the laborious task of
ploughing, digging or breaking the clods ; nor have they
any occasion for manure, as the Nile, by bringing with it a
profusion of mud or slime, fattens the earth, and makes it
exceedingly fruitful. When, therefore, the river has re-
tired, the agriculturists have no more to do than to mingle
a little sand with the ^arth in order to abate its strength ;
after which, they cast in their seed with little trouble, and
at an inconsic^rable expense. They generally sow in Oc-
tober and November, as the waters subside ; within two
months, the ground is covered with a rich variety of grain
and pulse, and the harvest is gathered in March and April.

In consequence of the overflowing of this truly wonder-
ful river, £g3^t exhibits, at different seasons of the year,
two different, but very beautiful prospects. If a man as-
cends some lofty mountain, or one of the great pyramids of
Grand Cairo, in the months of July and August, he beholds^
with amazement, a spacious sea spotted with innumerable
towns and villages intersected with several causeways, and
occasionally contrasted with groves and orchards ; while a -*
magnificent display of mouptainous scenery, bounds the de-
lightful view, and terminates a most exquisite horizon, at
the utmost distance the eye. can discover. On the contrary,
if the view be taken in winter, that is, in the months of Jaii-
uary and February, the wholo country resembles one exten-
sive meadow clothed with the finest verdure, and enamelled
with an infinite variety of flowers ; the plains are embel-
lished with numberless flocks and herds ; the mild zephjnrs
are, literally, impregnated with the sweet odours that rise
from the orange and lemon blossoms ; and the air is altQ-

yoL. IX. [3]

•^

IS BAHSAfS UNIVEBSAL BISTORT.

gether so pure and ealubrious, that a one more healthy or
agreeable cannot be found any where. Nature, which seems
to droop and languish in every other climate, appears, at
this time, to triumph in the delights of her Egyptian abode.

The canal, by which a Communication was opened be-
tween the Red sea and the Mediterranean, was first pro-
jected and begun by Sesostrls, continued by his successors
Nechio and Darjus, and completed by Ptolemy Philadel-
phus, who contrived sluices by which it might be shut or
opened, as there was occasion. Its breadtii was one hun-
dred cubits, its lengdi fifty leagues, and its depth sufficient
to bear the largest vessels. It was formerly of great ser-
vice to the trade of Egypt, but it is now almost filled up,
and scarcely any remains of it are to be seen.

The lower Egypt ei ' ' *" " - ■.-.-..

terranean, and contai
cities of Mareotis ant

The last named of t
Rome for the grandeu
materials. It received
who caused it to be
chosen by the Ptolem
by which means it'bei
ancients assert, that ii
roy»3 palace, which co
erected in a most deli
contained, besides the
and the sepulchre* of

Near Alexandria w
bellished by Augustu
the distance of one 1
nopus.

That part of lower
said to have contained

■ The body of Alexander
viewed by the emperor Au|
most lively inuka of venetM

EGYPT. 13

enumerate, Sais, Butus, Leontopolis, and Tanis, formerly
honoured by the residence of the Pharaohs. The Delta is
now said to contain three hundred and sixty villages, it
yields a variety of fruit in so great abundance, that when a
scarcity is experienced in other parts of the kingdom, the
Delta is crowned with an exuberant produce.

Of the other cities of lower Egypt, we shall only notice
Bubastus, Babylon, Pelusium, and Heliopolis, or the city
of the sun, where a magnificent temple was erected to the
great luminary of heaven, and where particular worship
was paid to a bull, under the name of Menevis.

When we consider the proximity of Egypt to the tropic,
we may naturally suppose that the climate must be ex-
tremely warm. The air is generally dry in the upper part
of the kingdom; yet some refreshing dews descend for
several months, after the swelling of the Nile, and rain is
frequently seen in the lower Egypt during the winter. The
first summer, which is in March, April, and May, is rather
sickly and unwholesome, on accoimt of the parching winds
and excessive heats which then prevail ; but in June, July,
and August, which constitute the second Egyptian sum-
mer, as also in autumn and winter, the air is serene, the
weather settled, and the country altogether paradisaical.

Their government was always monarchical ; but it appears
that, from the earliest times, they took wise precautions to
prevent* the power of one alone from being hurtful. The
education of a king was not entrusted to his parents. The
presumptive heir to the crown was, from his birth, confided
to the priests, who were well instructed in religion and the
laws. He was attended only by young men of approved
manners ; no slave, nor any persons of suspicious character
might approach him. By religious exercises, by examples,
and by the daily recital of the consequences of noble or base
actions, the idea was inculcated in him, of a God reward-
ing virtue and punishing vice. His employments were ap-
pointed for every hour of the day ; the form of his habits
prescribed ; the time for the repetition of his exercises fixed ;
and the dishes of his table regulated, both with respect to '

EGYPT. 15

and the* defendant, if necessary, rejoined ; after which the
judge, without speaking a word, turned the image of Truth
towards the party in whose favour he decided. No advo-
cates, were permitted; their eloquence, subtlety and habit of
disguising the truth rendered them suspected. In general,
the Egyptians chose rather to judge by written, than parole
evidence, because the difference in facility of expression,
might give to one of the parties a superiority, unfriendly to
impartial justice.

Their laws have been acknowledged to be so wise, that
even distant nations came to learn and adopt them ; and the
wisdom of the Egyptians became proverbial. But in the ob-
jects of their worship, they were so infatuated, as to prove
the insufficiency, even of cultivated reason, in matters of
•religion. They descended so low, as to pay divine honour
to leeks and onions.

The Egyptians worshipped a number of divinities, the
principal of which were the sun and moon, under the names
of Isis and Osiris. They likewise assigned gods to preside
over all the elements. Vulcan over fire, Ceres over the earth,
Ocean over the sea, and Minerva over the air ; they placed
Jupiter, the spirit and vivifying power, in heaven. They
supposed the stars to be animated by other subaltern gods,
or by the souls of heroes.

From worshipping the emblematic figures of animals, it
was not a very wide step to the worship of the animals
themselves ; and this step the Egyptians soon made. The
attention, care, and precaution, with which they chose and
fed the ox Apis, are well known. There was not a single
town which had not its peculiar deified animal ; a cat, dog,
wolf, hog, crocodile, serpent, bird or fish, for which large
buildings, aviaries, or ponds were provided, according to
their several natures, and priests appointed to attend them.
But strange to tell, the animal which was adored in one
town, was sacrificed in another. Hence arose mortal enmi-
ties among the inhabitants of the same country. It is said,
that these enmities were excited and encouraged by the po-
licy of one of their kings, who perceiving that his subjects

id RAMSAY'S VSV

were naturally inclined to so
and province should worsh
Egyptians. being thus dividet
diced against their neighbout
objects of religious worship,
despising each other, becausi
toma^ could i^t, without grea
so as to cause any serious die
Thsugh the objects of div
dans were ridiculous, yet it
exceed the seriousness, boU
ne9s with which they perfomi
They offered sacrifices, anc
Their service was pompous,
splendid. Like other nations
temples and idols shone wi
ments, and were enriched by
this magnificence, it must 1
that the object of it could ha
But the human mind appears
positc extremes. Among the
civil institutions, in conjuQc
tioDS bordering on frenzy,
self.*

" "Perhaps fevpeople were more ■

ev«i7 production of nature wu >n ob

moDD, pUnet*, *tvi, the tiTer Nile,

being to the monkej', dog, cat, tuv

which grew id their gardens. Jupiter

a ram; ApoUo under the form of a cr

Juno under that of a heiTer. The re

those ■niiDols ii given by Eiuebius,

the Gods, they were obliged to take

^iguiie IhemselTes, under difiereui

Jupiter hid himself !n the body of a

!n ft goat, Uiana in ft cat, Juno in a n

CU17 in the bird ibis, ill which is sumi

Dusque gregij, St Jupiter —

Deliua in Corro, proles Semeleia, (

Felc loror Phxbi, nivea Satumia va

Piice Venus latuit, Cyllenius ibidis

ECfVPT. iy

Education among the Eg^tians was confided to their
priests, who taught them religion, geometry, arithmetic,
reading and writing, especially to the youth, who were de-
signed for trade. They were early accustomed to mode-
ration by not being permitted to eat of viands prepared by
too refined cookery. The Eg3q>tian8 wore but few clothes,
and walked barefoot. They were taught from their youth
to reverence old age. They made cleanliness a duty, and
gratitude a point of honour. In some districts, the women
carried on trade, and were employed in business without
doors ; while the men spun and managed the household af-
fairs. We still find among them several habits, which else-
where are peculiar to ohe sex, transferred to the other.

They were perhaps the first who taught the doctrine of
the immortality of the soul, in the metempsychosis. It
passes, said they, from one body into another and even into
the bodies of animals ; but these transmigrations do not
commence until after the corruption of the carcase, on which
account, they were so attentive to its preservation. They
spared neither labour nor expense, in the construction of
their sepulchres.

Their funeral ceremonies began by the mourning of the
women, which consisted in loud lamentations, and frantic
cries. The embalmer was then sent for, who, according to
the price allowed him, employed spices of greater or less
value, and performed his work with more or less exactness.
To such perfection was the art of embalming carried in
Egypt, that the body was not in the least disfigured. The
hair, even of the eyebrows and eyelids, suffered no alter-
ation, and the features were so perfectly preserved, that the
persons might be recognized. The embalmers prepared
the body, delivered it to the relations, who put it in a
wooden coffin, and placed'it in an upright position, either in

These animals, therefore^ became lacred to them on account of the duties,
^o, as fable reports, had taken refuge in them. Others suppose, that the
reason why the Egyptians would not sacrifice or kill those creatures was,
their belief in the doctrine of the metempsychosis or transmigration of souls ;
for they feared lest, in killing an animal, they should kill a relative or a friend.
This doctrine is still held by the Hindoos."— i>T\ ^dam Clarke,

EGYPT. ^f

ftBgle to the other tiro ; and Thakft, who had studied. geo«>
netiy among the Egyptians, sacrificed an ox to the gods, in
consequence of his having discovered a method of inscrib*
ing a right angled triangle within ar circle.

AritfametiiH on account of its great and general utility,
was diligently cultivated in this famous country.

Astronomy is regarded as an invention of the Egyptians,
who, by reason of the flatness of their country, and the pecu-
liar sereni^ of their air, mightobserve the motion of the ce-
lestial bodies with great facility.

It is certain, that this nation first adjusted the length of
the year to the annual revolution of the sun, by adding five
additional days and six hours to their twelve months of
thirty days each. But their knowledge of the theory of die
planetary motions was very imperfect ; for Thales W2i8 the
first mortal, who ventured to predict an eclipse, and the re-
duction of the motion of the heavenly bodies into tables and
h3^theses, was first effected by Eudoxus and Ptolemy.

The science of medicine is generally ascribed to the in-
vention of Esculapius, which name was given to Josothrus,^
king of Memphis, for his great skill in that art.

The physicians, spoken of in the inspired narration of
Moses, were, most probably, rather eqibabners than physi-
cians ; unless we suppose both arts to have been originally
practised by the same person, which mig^t have been the
case in the time of the patriarch Joseph ; though, in latter
ages, one set of medical men applied tiiemselves to chirur-
gical operations, while another prescribed solely for internal
distempers. Tlie human body was parcelled out among dif-
ferent physicians, the dis^ises of die head, teeth, eyes, and
of some other parts, were differentiy assigned to different
practitioners. This regulation might naturally have been
expected to produce many important improvements in their
Beveral provinces ; but every prospect of future discoveries
was obviated by the laws, which obliged die physicians to

* This prince was much more ancient than the Grecian Esculapius.
VOL. IX. [4]

'w^r

20 RAMSAY'S UNIVEBSAL BISTORT.

<:onfonn their prescripticms exactly to certain receipts* con-
tained in the sacred registe A which had been collected and
approved by the most eminent men of the profession. The
Egyptian physicians had a public provision from the legis-
lature, and were therefore expected to afford the best assist-
ance to miliury invalids or travellers, without any pecu-
niary reward.

The science, for which this nation was particularly famous,
was magic ; but it was not peculiar to them. Its professors
were the priests, and sacred scribes, two of whom, named
Jannes and Jambres, were selected by Pharoah to withstand
the Jewish lawgiver. They either performed real miracles
by divine permission, or exhibited some extraordinary in-
stances of the power of enchantment, deception or legerde-
main, though they were^ at length compelled to bow to the
superior power of Moses, whose miracles were avowedly
wrought by " the finger of God."

Commerce flourished in Egypt from the earliest times.
An inland trade was carried on between the cities and pro-
* vinces by means of the Nile ; and foreign commerce by ca-
. nals, cut through the deserts, and communicating with the
Red sea,t and by the river with the Mediterranean. Egypt
thus maintained the communication of the two seas. It
received, by caravans, the valuable merchandize of Arabia
and India, which it transmitted, with its com, to die south*
em parts of Europe ; at that time but indifferently supplied
with grain. We find in the writings of Moses, that the Mi-
dianites and Ishmaelites traded thither so early as the time
of Jacob. It is also cert£un that Solomon established a very
considerable trade in those parts ; and his trade seems to
have been carried on with litde interruption by the Jews,
till the time of Ahaz, when it fell into the hands of the Sy-

• While the phyncian acted consistently with these authorised prescrip-
tions, he was perfectly safe in every event ; but if he presumed to follow-
his own judgment in particttlar, he was ajiswerable for all consequences,
and incurred a capital punishment, in case his patient died.

t This was completed, or nearly so, about 246 B. C. After a period, not
known, it was so filled up as to be useless.

EOTPT. %l

vians, and afterwards devolved to the Tynans, till it was
completely restored to the Egyptians by the Ptolemies.

The Egyptian language is indisputably one of the most
ancient in- the world, and in all probability an original
tongue. This was the Coptic, and is still preserved and
epoken by a few. The native Egyptians, now, almost uni*.
▼ersally, speak the Arabic, but their predecessors changed
a great part of their language, as often as they changed
their masters.

No part of ancient history is more uncertain or abstruse,
tiian that of the first Egyptian monarchs. This nation,
fondly conceited of its antiquity, deemed it glorious to lose
itself in an abyss of countless ages^ as if desirous of carry-
ing its pretensions backward to eternity. According to the
account of its own historians, gods and demi-gods governed
it successively, through a series of twenty thousand years.,
But the absurdity of such an assertion is sufficiently ob-
vious.

To gods and heroes succeeded mortals, as sovereigns of
Egypt, of whom Manetho has left us thirty dynasties or
principalities, which (if allowed to be successive) make up
a series of time of more than five thousand three hundred
years before the reign of Alexander the Great; but this is
evidently erroneous. Much labour has been used by the
literati in attempting to clear up these difficulties ; but it is
now generally supposed, that the kings of these d3aiasties
did not reign successively, but many of them at the same
<ime, and in different parts of Egypt.

Menes is universally acknowledged by historians as the
first king who swayed the Egyptian sceptre. In this time
the greatest part of the country was a morass, till he di-
verted the course of the Nile, and founded the city of
Memphis within the ancient bed of that river.

Herodotus informs us, that the Egyptians had a cata*
logue of three hundred and thirty monarchs, extending
from Menes to Moeris, and that nothing worthy notice was
recorded of any of them, except an Ethiopian woman,
aamed Nitocris j bv^t Diodorus affirms, that the family of

j|g BAMSArS UNITESSAL HISTORY.

M enes, successively fifled the throne, tor die space of four*
teen hundred years.

It is matter of no kss regret than wonder, that the his-
tory of the most learned and celebrated nation -of the an*
cient world is almost as imperfect as that of the most bar^
borous tribes.

In whatever age of the world the foundation of the mo*
nwrchy by Menes may be fixed, from that epoch till the
reign of Sesostris, the history of Egypt is involved in im-
penetrable <4>scurity. In this dark period is placed the.
invasion and conquest of the country by the Arabian or
shepherd kings, on which so much learned research has
been wasted. In the midst of this chaos, however, five
princes, Busiris II., Osymandes, Uchareus, Egyptus, and
Moeris are distinguished. Egyptus perpetuated his name
by communicating it to the country. The others are famous
in history for their magnificent works of public utility and
ornament.

Busiris is said, by Diodorus Siculus, to have buih, or at
least to have greatiy enlarged Thebes, the primitive resi*
dence of the Egyptian monarchs. This city, which was
afterwards named by the Greeks Diospolis, or the city of
Jupiter, is described as being seventeen miles and a half in
circuit. If notiiing remained of this far famed city, the ac-
counts given of it by the ancients, would appear incredible.
But, after the lapse of so long a succession of ages, its stu-
pendous ruins, even at this day, attest its ancient grandeur.

Uchareus is, by Diodorus Siculus, represented as the
founder of Memphis, but Herodotus ascribes its foundation
to Menes. It is said by ancient writers to have been eigh-
teen miles in circuit. Among its principal ornaments was-
the magnificent temple of Vulcan.

The name of Moeris is distinguished by one of the most
stupendous works of the ancient Eg3rptians. In his reign,
the lake Moeris is said to have been, by an astonishing
effort of labour, excavated for a reservoir to receive the
superabundant water of the Nile, in tiie time of a copious
inundation ; and to retiun them, for the pujrpose of irrigat-

EGTFT. JI3

xng tbe adjaceBt country^ by ibe means of numerous canals^
running in every direction.

Tlie &me of Sesostris has eclipsed that of all his prede-
cessors; yet such is the obscurity of Egyptian history^ that
chronologers are unable to fix the sera of hia reign. He is,
however, commonly supposed to have been the Shishak,
mentioned in scripture ; who, about nine hundred and ae^
irenty years before Christ, invaded Judah, and pillaged die
temple and royal palaceof Jerusalem.* The relations, how*
ever, which most writers have given of his exploits, are
replete with exaggeration, and mixed with fiction. Some
have led him from the banks of the Nile to tiiose of the
Danube and die Ganges. But whatever were their extent,
he took no effectual means for their preservation, and none
of them descended to his posterity. Sesostris seems indeed
to have been one of those romantic warriors, who conquer
only for fitane. An inordinate and eccentric ambition actu«*
ated his conduct; and if he did not endeavour to retain his
conquests, he was careful to perpetuate the memory of his
exploits. For this purpose he erected two obelisks of one
hundred and twenty feet high, with hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions, describing the extent of his conquests, and the
amount of his revenues. He caused to be erected in seve*'
ral of the countries, through which he passed, his own
statue, armed in the Egyptian manner, with a bow in hia
right hand, and a belt across the breast, on which was en«
jgraved, in hieroglyphic characters, an inscription comme-
morative of his conquests. Herodotus, whose veracity, in
regard to what he himself had seen, is now universally ac-
knowledged, informs us, that he saw two of these statues in

* A ▼ariety of cuncamstances render this conjecture extremely probable.
From the geograplucal situation of these countries, no Egyptian conqueror
could make any progress in Asia, without involving the kingdom of Judah ia
the sweep of his operstioiis. But the Hebtew annals give not the digktett
intimation of any king of Eg3rpt, except Bhishak* ever approaching the con-
fines of Judea, before Pharaoh Necho, in the peign of Josiah, who was slain
in attempting to oppose his passage at Megiddo. This drcurostanoe affords
the strongest reason to believe, that the ShisKak of tbe scripture could be
no other thaa ths Sessstris of profane history.

%^ EAMSAVS UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

Asia Minor. Besides building a number of temples, mo^
numents of his piety or his ostentation, Sesostris also dis*
tinguished himself by numerous works of unquestionable
utility. He caused an additional number of canals to be
made, which, communicating with the Nile, and intersect-
ing the country in a variety of directions, increased its fer-
tility, and diffused abundance dirough all its districts. He
surrounded the cities with ramparts, to secure them from
the annual inundation, and cut navigable canals from the
river, to those that were situated at a distance from ita
banks, in order to facilitate inland commerce. These bene-
ficial works, performed wholly by the labour of captives,
together with the influx of wealth by conquest, greatly en-
riched and embellished the kingdom. His name was the
boast of the Egyptians, and his reign the sera of their mi-
litary glory ; for, excepting that period, they had scarcely
ever been a conquering or martial people. Egypt considered
him as the greatest of her monarchs, and his reign as the
most brilliant epoch of her national annals.

At the period, now under consideration, the monarchy of
the ancient Egyptians seems to have attained to the acme of
its greatness. From the reign of Sesostris till six hundred
and seventy B. C, Herodotus has exhibited a regular suc-
cession of kings ; but tiieir reigns are uninteresting, and
their history is disguised by fables. A few particulars only,
are worthy of notice. The reign of Anysis is memorable
by the irruption of Sabacho, king of Etiiiopia^ who invaded
and subjugated Egypt,' but ruled with such lenity that,
under his government, the kingdom flourished in prospe-
rity and peace ; and die people had reason to regard him
as a benefactor, rather than a conqueror. This prince, after
a.long reign over Egypt, relinquished his conquest, and re-
tired into his own country.

The reign of Sethon may be considered as a remarkable
sera in the history of Egyptian superstition, as well as in
that of tiie monarchy. This king, who had been the high
priest of Vulcan, and, through the preponderating influence
of the sacerdotal order, had raised himself to the throne.

EGYPT. JJ5

carried his despotism to a pitch beyond all example. With
a desperate boldness,4ie seized on the lands s4>propriated to
the soldiery, so that the whole landed property of Egypt
was in the hands of himself, and the priests. Nothing can
more evidently shew the unlimited influence of the priests
over the nation, and at the same time the abject superstition
of the soldiery and the populace. The Egyptian history is
a tissue of truth and fable closely interwoven ; but the whole
mass of fiction and fact, of which it is composed, tends to
shew how artfully, and how successfully the priests acquired
and maintained their influence over the kings, the soldiery,
and the people.

The reign of Sethon was the period, in which the sacer-
dotal power was in its meridian. Eg3rpt then exhibited the
curious spectacle of a priesthood, possessing not only the ab-
solute sovereignty of the most flourishing country on the
face of the globe, but also the entire and exclusive proprie-
torship of its soil. After the death of Sethon it seems that
the whole order of priests could not furnish another person
of equal abilities to sway the sceptre, and maintain the sacer-
dotal despotism. Egypt was, during some time, convulsed
with anarchy, until the intestine commotions finally settled
into an oligarchical government of twelve chiefs, each of
whom superintended a separate district, while their joint
authority extended over the whole kingdom.

The union of these pligarchs did not prove permanent,
though begun in perfect concord. The cause of their dis-
cord is unknown ; but its issue introduced the first lumin-
ous period that occurs in the history of Egypt. Psamneti-
cus, one of the twelve chiefs, whose district lay next to the
sea coast, having in some maimer excited the envy or jea-
lousy of his colleagues, was excluded by them from his share
in the government. A civil war ensued, and Psamneticus
having called in a foreign aid of lonians, Carians, and others,
made himself master of the kingdom, which he raised to a
higher pitch of greatness and glory than it had ever attained,
. since the days of Sesostris. This revolution, which hap-
pened A. Ai C. six hundred and seventy^ constitutes the

. I

RAMSAY'S UNIVERSAL BISTORT.

ftra of the true Egyptuui chronology. AU, previous to ^t
period, is wholly conjectural.

The whole history of Egypt, in those early periods, rests
solely on the authority of Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus.
These two writers had their information from the priests of
that country, a set of men fond of alleg^ory and fiction, and
strongly tinctured with vanity. The annals of the Hebrews
attest that as early as the time of the patriarch Jacob,
one thousand seven hundred and five B. C, Egjrpt was a
flourishing monarchy. In appreciating the testimony of the
priests, who were the only historians as well as philosophers
of the kingdoms, whatever allowances may be made for the
vanity oftheir nation and order, it must be confessed that
the stupendous monuments and ruins of the remotest anti-
quity, strongly corroborate their accounts of the ancient
grandeOr oftheir country.

Psamneticus cultivated with prudent assiduity the friend-
ship of those strangers, by whos^ ud he had obtained pos-
session of the kingdom, and established a colony of Greeks
in the Delta, on both sides of the Nile, with schools for in-
structing the Egyptian youth in the Grecian language. This
prince opened the ports of his kingdom to all foreigners ;
and, during his long reign of fifty-four years, Egypt enjoyed
the benefits of a flourishing commerce. In his time hap-
pened the famous irruption of the Scjrthians into western
Asia. By the efficacy of presents he concluded a treaty with
these barbarians, by which he prevented them from visiting
Egypt, and prudently diverted the storm from his domi-
nions. In his reign, was first established a general inter-
course between Egypt and Greece ; and from that period,
the Egyptian history, although far from becoming luminous,
begins to emerge from its former obscurity.

Pharaoh Necho, son and successor of Psamneticus, was
powerful by land and by sea, and being of an enterprising
and warlike disposition, was the great enemy and rival of
Assyria and Babylon. It is said, that in his reign, and
under his auspices, was performed the famous circumnavt^
gation of Africa by Pheenician and Egyptian mariners, who

EGYPT. jjj?

sailing; £pom the Red sesi, coasted round that continent, and
retomed by the straits of Gibraltar. This voyage, if it did
actually take place, was a more arduous enterprize than the.
circumnavigation of the globe in modem times. It was in
fighting against this prince, that Josiah, king of Judah, fell
in battle at Megiddo."^ Having defeated the Babylonians,
and taken the city of Carchemis, Necho deposed Jehoahaz,
king of Judah,. and placed on the throne Eliakim, to whom
he gave the name Jehoiakim, and imposed on the J'ew*
ish nation an annual tribute. Necho, however, did not long
enjoy this extensive power; for, about three years after-
wards, he was totally defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, king of
Babylon, who recovered Carchemis, and the neighbouring
provinces. The Egyptian monarch, being stripped of all his
conquests, confined himself within the limits of his own
kingdom, and died about eight years aftier his defeat by
the Babylonians. Psamnis, his son, next ascended the
dirone ; but his reign affords nothing that is worthy of his-
torical notice. He was succeeded by his son Apries, the
Pharaoh Hophra, spoken of in the scripture.

The commencement of this prince's reign was brilliant
smd happy ; but its termination was unfortunate. He entered
into a trea^ with Zedekiah, king of Judah, whom he pro-
mised to support against Nebuchadnezzar. When Jerusa-
lem was besieged, the king of Egypt marched his army into |
Syria ; but not daring to hazard a batde with the Babylo-
nians, he vetreated into his own coimtry, and, after diis
transaction, Amasis rebelled against Apries, and almost all
the Egjrptiaas favoured his revolt ; while the kingwas sup-
ported only by his foreign troops. During die civil war,
whieh, on this occasion, convulsed Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon, having completed his conquests of Tyre
and Jerusfedem, entered that country, which, in its divided
state, was far from being capable of resisting so warlijce
and powerful an invader. Profane history makes no men*
doo of ibis event ; and all we can gather from scripture is,
that the Babylonian monarch ravaged the country, and car-

• 2 Kings, ch. 23.
VOL. IX. [5]

28 RAMSAY'S UNIVERSAL BISTORT.

ried off an immense booty.* The usurper having vanquished
Apries, and, according to the denunciation of the prophet,
delivered him into the hands of those who sought his life,
the unfortunate king was strangled by his rebellious sub-
jects. Historians have assigned to Amasis, who now be-
came sovereign of Egypt, a prosperous reign of forty-four
years, and assure us, that the kingdom was never more po-
tent and flourishing, than during this period. According
to their relations he shewed a great predilection for the
people and manners of Greece. He encouraged the Greeks
to settle in Egypt, and to construct temples to the honour
of the Grecian gods. Solon, the celebrated legislator of
Athens, paid a visit to this prince, by whom he was gra-
ciously received. Amasis is said to have enriched his
kingdom by trade ; and, the Grecian historians assert, that
Egypt never displayed greater wealth and magnificence,
than during his reign. But whatever might be the pros-
perity of the reign of Amasis, it is certain that the glory
and splendour of ancient Egypt expired with that monarch.
His son Psammenitus, had no sooner ascended the throne,
than the kingdom was conquered by Cambyses, king of
Persia, and felt all the weight of his merciless hand. The
body of Amasis was dragged from the sepulchre, torn in
pieces, and reduced to ashes ; and Psammenitus, the reign-
ing king, was put to death by the command of the con-
queror. Egypt, which had so long flourished in splendour,
in power, and celebrity, now saw her cities pillaged, her
temples prophaned, and her gods destroyed.

These violent proceedings gave rise to that inextinguish-
able hatred, which the Egyptian nation ever after entertain-
ed against the Persians. This implacable animosity was
religious, as well as political, and was kept up by a variety
of moral circumstances, which particularly distinguished
the two nadons. The disciples of Zoroaster despised and
abhorred the idolatry of Egypt, and the Egyptians, being
zealously attached to their ancient superstitions and prejui-

* Jeremiah, cb. 21.

EGYPT. 29

dices^ were beyond measure exasperated at the contempt,
which the Persians shewed, for their gods, their religion
and laws. They were therefore incessantly occupied in
forming schemes for throwing off so insupportable a yoke ;
and| in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, broke out into an
open rebellion. In this they persisted till the second year
of Xerxes, when they were again reduced to obedience.
Wearied out with oppression, they revolted a second time,
in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, placed Inarus, king
of Lybia, on the throne of Egypt, and called in to their aid
the Athenians, the declared enemies of Persia. The Athe-
nian fleet, attacking that of the Persians, captured and de-
stroyed a great number of their vessels. The combined
army of the Athenians, Egyptians and Lybians, also totally
defeated the Persians, killed an almost incredible number,
and drove the rest into Memphis. But the Persians, being
hard pressed by the close pursuit of the victors, took refuge
in a strongly fortified quarter; while the Egyptians re-
mained masters of the, rest of the city, and kept the Per-
sians besieged in their fortress, during the space of three
years. So long were the different quarters of the Egyrptian
metropolis divided between two hostile powers. Inarus,
being apprised of the march of a formidable Persian army,
redoubled his efforts on their fortress in Memphis ; but met
with so vigorous and persevering a resistance, that ht was
at length obliged to relinquish the enterprise, and evacuate
the capital. After suffering a defeat fr6m the Persian army,
he retired into the isle of Prosopotis, which was formed by
two branches of the Nile, where he in his turn had the mor*
tification to see himself besieged. The Persians, at last,
having, by means of a canal, drained that branch of the
Nile in which the Athenian fleet was stationed, near the
island, Inarus, with his Egyptian adherents and Grecian
confederates, was obliged to surrender, on conditions,
which were afterwards inhumanly violated by the Persians.
Through the solicitations of the mother of Artaxerxes, Ina^
rus was crucified, and the rest of the Egyptian and Athenian
prisoners were beheaded. Such was the disastrous termi-

^ RAMSAY'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

4Uita<m of ^e war, -which Inarus, king of Egypt and Lybia,
^undertodk against Artaxerxes. The Egyptians were again
reduced to 'subjection ; but their spirit df independence was
not extinguished. Amyrtseus, one ef their chiefs, retired
(with a chosen band into the marshes, and other inaccessible
situations, until die tenth year of Darius Ntythus, wtten, a
general revolt of the kingdom taking place, he issued out
Irom his retreat, and,- putting himself at the head of the
patriots, expelled the Persians, and placed himself on the
throne of Egypt. Those revolts of the Egyptians had been
constandy favoured by the Greeks, the declared enemies of
the Persian power.

Eg^ypt, having at last thrown off the Persian yoke, was
again governed by a succession of native princes, who seem
to have been sometimes independent, sometimes tributary
to die kings of Persia. In general, however, a hostile sys-
tem subsisted between the two nations, and Egypt joined
in almost every confederacy that was formed against tite
Persians. After thirty years of this hostile independence,
during which period, the Egyptians neglected no opportu-
nity of shewing their irreconcileable aversion to the Per-
sians, Artaxerxes Mnemon, at last, resolved to make a
grand effort for die reduction of Egypt. Acfaoris, who at
that time swayed the sceptre of that kingdom^ perceiving
the impending storm, made the most vigorous preparations
for averting the danger with which he was threatened.
Before the commencement of the contest, however, Achoris
died. The reign of Psammethis, his successor, lasted oidy
a year. After him, Nepherotes reigned no tnore than a
month, and Nectanebus then ascended the throne. During
this time, the Persian preparations had been slowly carried
forward ; but, at lei^;th, their whole army, consisting of two
hundred thousand Persians, and twenty thousand Gredcs,
entered Egypt. Since die P^loponnesian war, the Athe-
nians had changed their system of politics, and were ex-
tremely desirous of cultivating tiie .friendship of llie great
king, in order to counterbalance the power of the Lacede-
^ mo n i a n s^ and the enmity of other Grecian states. They

BGVPT. , ^

had, dierdfepe, mc onfy recalled theif aanKoiy «roopft frott
Ae Egyptian service, ^but eem to ibe Persian king 4fae aUeM:
of their generals to conmnnd Ae Greeks, -wlioin lie «ater^
tained in liis pay. The differencea, howevtr^ vhi<^h -M^yse
"between the Persian aind die Athenian general, crii^lefl
their operations, and they were finally expelled froai E^sypt.
After the lapse of twelve years, Artaxerxes, nolw M te ftai nd*
ing the miscarriage of his former attempt, made prepam^
^ons for another expedition. Tachos, who had aocceeded
Vectanebus in the throne t>f that kingdom, concluded «
treaty with the Lacedemonians, who sent him a powerM
force, under the command of their celebrated king Agesi-
laus, whom tbe £g3rptian monarch had promised to make
generalissimo of his forces. But Tachos, in his first inter*
view with Agesilaus, formed so disadvantageous an idea of
that great man, that he never had «iy regard for hi« person
or counsels. He expected to see a man of a noble and
majestic presence, whose dress, equipage, and personal ap*
pearance should correspond widi the fame of his exploits,
but was disgusted, as well as surprised, when he fevind an
eid man, of a mean physiognomy, and clothed in }^ain ap*
parel. This contempt for the Lacedemonian king, and con-
sequent neglect of his counsels, caused the ruin of Tachos.
Having, contrary to the advice of Agesilaus, marched to
attack the Persians, in Syria, the Egyptians revolted, placed
on the throne another king, of the name of Nectanebus, and
expelled IVushos from the kingdom.

Nectanebus was no sooner seated on the throne, than a
powerful competitor, a native £g3rptian, at the head of one
hundred thousand men, was ready to ^Asp^e with him the
possession of the kingdom. Egypt now became the theatre
of a civil war, in which Nectanebus was reduced to the last
extremity. This prince had for some time been -extremely
jealous of Agesilaus, and even suspicious of his fidelity to
his cause ; but found himself, at lau, GA>liged to confide im-
plicitly in His counsds, and committed to him the whole
conduct of the war. Agesilaus soon after defeated and made

gj( RAMSArS UNIVB^AL HISTORY.

prisoner the rival of Nectanebus; Vho, in consequence of
that event, was left in peaceful possession of the kingdom.

Nectanebus, afterwards, entering into, a league with the
Phoenicians and Cypriots against the Persians, Darius Ochus
finding the operations of his lieutenants ineffectual^ resolv-
ed to take the command of his army in person, and to make
one powerful effort for the reduction of Egypt. The army
of Nectanebus consisting of about twenty thousand Greeks
and as many Lybians, with sixty thousand Egyptians, in all
about one hundred thousand, was not equal to a third part
of that of the Persians. From the latter, three vast bodies
were detached. One of these advancing into the country
every where proc^med mercy, on condition of submission ;
but total extermination, in case of resistance. Darius, with
the main body of the army, remained near Pelusium, in
order to regulate the operations according to the events of
the war. The Egyptians having made an attack on the en-
trenchments of Nicostratus, were defeated with great loss,
and the garrison of Pelusium, on hearing of this disaster,
surrendered on advantageous conditions. The Greeks and
Eg)rptians every where submitted to Darius ; and Nectane-
bus, who had prepared to defend Memphis, seeing tiie
kingdom lost beyond all hopes of recovery, took refuge in
Ethiopia. This conquest, which terminated the national ex-
istence, concludes the history of the ancient Egyptians, who
according to the prediction of the prophet Ezekiel* have
never, since this period, had any native king; but have con-
standy been subject to foreign rulers.

In this rapid survey of the early history of this extraor-
dinary nation, much has been omitted, which, for centuries
past, has been regularly copied by later historians, from
those who preceded them.

To make history interesting, it must be considered as
authentic. This authenticity is rarely to be met witii in the
early accounts of the Egyptians. In them facts are so fire-
quenUy mixed with fable, and disguised with allegory, that

• Ezekiel^ zxziii. 13.

EGYPT. ^ 88

we must often be contented with doubtful informalidn, or
loose conjecture. Hie general outlines, such as are here
concisely given, are all that can merit attention ; and though
volumes have beta written on the subject, perhaps this very
short compendium comprises every thing of consequence,
and all that really is or can be known of Egyptian history.

Egypt being finally reduced by Darius Ochus, B. C« 350,
remained subject to the Persians, and in the most abject
state of depression, until the subversion of tiieir empire by
Alexander, whom the Egyptians received as a deliverer ra-
tiier tiian a conqueror. Pleased with their voluntary sub-
mission, he treated his new subjects with humanity and
kindness ; built a city there, and called it after his own name ;
appointed one of their own country for their civil governor;
and permitted tiiem to be governed by their own laws and
customs. By these prudent measures, and the wise admin-
istration of the first Ptolemy, Egypt revived, trade and
learning flourished, and for a while, peace and plenty bles-
sed the land.

At the time of Alexander's death, Ptolemy Lagus \^as
governor of Egypt. Alexander always shewed great at-
tachment to him. He honoured him with particular marks
of friendship, nused him to the first posts in the army, and
entrusted him with tiie important government of Eg3^t.
Ptolemy finding himself, at tiie death of the monarch of
Asia, at a distance firom the centre of intrigues, took advan-
tage of his fortunate circumstances to step from the second
to tiie first place, and to maintain himself in his new dig-
nity.

' Ptolemy is said to have declared, that he never undertook
any wars, but such as were necessary, and which could not
be avoided. Some of the ancient kings, his predecessors,
by tiieir monuments, seemed to wish rather to excite the ad-
miration of the people than to promote their advantage ;
but the monuments of Ptolemy, while they displayed mag-
nificence, were attended with utility. Among the chief of
them is reckoned the city of Alexandria, on the- border of
the sea^ in a situation proper for uniting within itfr walls, the ^

RAMSArS UKIVBB8AL BISTORT.

caamm/eMCft of Europe, Asia, and Afriea. Alettider had
bulk k with that intentioo, and Ptoleioy, by increaaimg iissi
populalioa, riches, and- magnificeBt buildings^ reiulered' it
the qutfOB of the east; He constructed there the fiMB0u»
pharos, which became the model of so many others^ It was-
a white marble tower ot a prodi^ous heigfat, on die summit
c£ which fires, inwre kindled, to direct mariners during the
obscurity o£ the night. He caused die following inscrip*-
tioa ta be placed upon it : ^ Ptolemy to the protecting gods^
for the good of those who frequent the sea."

Ptolenvy employed great care in forming the famous li-
brary of Alexandria, which he increased to the number of
four hundred thousand volumes, and he placed it in a su-
perb edifice, under the inspection of several menof leanung,>
who lodged together in a palace ; where those, fond of lite-
rature, found, at all seasons, both amusement and instruc-
tion. It appears that they lived in common, at the expense
of the public. They ate at the same table, and were supplied
with every thing in such abundance, as to excite the jealousy
and raillery of those, who were not admitted to participate
with them. This was a remarkable insticution, and we may
say, that we are indebted to Ptolemy for societies of learned
men. This library, though so numerous, had- a supplement,,
called its daughter. The mother was consumed by acci*-
dent, and the daughter was committed to the flames, by the
fanaticism of Omar. After he had taken Alexandria, he
was intreated to save the library ; but he replied, ^ That if
these books contained the dame doctrine as the Koran, they
were useless, and if they contained what was contrary to it^
they were dangerous." In consequence of this reasoning,
he caused them to be distributed among the baths ; where,
for the space of six months, they served to supply the fires
of those public places, which were exceeding^- numeroua at
Alexandria..

Besides the surname of Lagus, that of Soter or Saviour,
was given to Ptolemy by the Rhodkms, out of grautude for
his having saved them from die fury of Dtsmetrius Poliocer*
tes^ His owu subj/ect» might have, given him epithets, no

III iii^^

■■ ■ ^ ■ I ail

l$j99,boiicmrable, hadlihey wished to e^reas .all his noble
iq^ualities. He was mild, beneficent, and easy of access. Hq
was desirous that the meanest person should be suffered to
9y)proach him. " They are my friends^" said he, " they tell
We truths, wl^ch my courtiers conceal from me." This
prince showed uncommon moderation in his raillery. A
gramxipbari^, whomjbe had ope day rallied, having returned
a severe answer, all those present trembled for the unhappy
man^ aud expected that the king would inflict upon him
^ome signal punishment. But Ptolemy jsaid, ^^ A king who"
knows his own dignity, ought never to behave to others in
such a manner as to make them be wanting in respect. I
am the aggressor, he has as much right to be offeiided widi
xny question, as I have to be with his answer ; and, there*
fore, we are on an equal footing." He was fond of invit-*
iog his subjects to his table ; and if, at any time, he want*
ed a sufficiency .of plate, he borrow;ed from them, thus
uniting economy with pleasure, the enjo3anent of which is
.more complete, when it is not attended with the remorse of
extravagance.

Ptolemy, during the forty years tbat^ he reigned, made
almost an entire change in the whole face of Egypt. It had
.been loaded by the ancient kings, with colossal statues and
.gigantic monuments. These masses had been destroyed
and broken to pieces. Their remains covered cities, choked
np the canals, and substituted r\ibbish for cultivated fields.
Ptolemy caused ctdes to emerge from these ruins ; rendered
the canals again navigable ; restored the fields to agricul-
ture ; and, in his buildings, united the Grecian delicacy,
with the Egyptian solidity; By his care, the ports on the
Red sea were opened, and those of the Mediterranean be«
came.more secure. He rendered the De\ta, that beautiful
part of his empire, the centre of commerce ; and left in a
very flourishing state, a kingdom which he had found laid
waste by the disorders of anarchy.

His successors, named like him, sdl Ptolemies, were dis-
tinguished by .surnames, which expressed their virtues or
vices, and S9mf times their natural, defects. Philadelphus,
VOL. ix. [6]

36 HAMSArS UNIVEBSAL HISTOBT.

the lover of his brothers ; Euergetes, benefactor; Philopaunv
lover of his father ; Epiphanes, the illustrious ; PhilometoTy
the lover of his mother ; Physcon, the big bellied ; Ladiy-
rus, the chickpea ; Auletes, the flute player. 7*heir spouses,
who, according to the usage of the country, were for the
jnost part their sisters, were called either Arsinoe, Berenice,
or Cleopatra. It might be imagined, that diese alliances,
perpetuated in the family from race to race, would have been
a permanent pledge of friendship and concord ; bnt on die
contrary, they produced hatred, which not only stained the
throne with blood, but involved the people in frequent civil
wars.

Ptolemy Soter associated with him on the throne, his
second son, Philadelphus, to the prejudice of Ceraunus, the
eldest. It would appear, when we consider the bad quali-
ties of thq latter, that this conduct of the father did not
arise so much from predilection as from prudent foresight.
Ceraunus took shelter in Macedonia Mrith king Seleucus, by
whom he was favourably received, and whom he assassi-
nated. After this murder, he married Arsinoe, the widow,
who was his own sister, and who had in her possession the
capital of the kingdom. To obtain her hand, he promised
to watch over her children with paternal care ; but he but-
chered them on the very day of his marriage. Arsinoe
was oncQ more rendered a widow by rtie indignation of the
people. It is not known whether she waited for these
events before she married her brother, Philadelphus, with
whom she sought refuge, after she had torn herself from
the arms of Ceraunus. She was much older dian Philadel-
phus, yet she acquired and preserved complete empire over
his mind.

Soter, the son, (tisplayed in a great measure the virtues
of his father. He is celebrated for his ability in the art of
governing. He regulated, with just proportion, the taxes,
and his own donations. Being always in arms, though he
made little use of them, he overawed his neighbours, among
whom he acted as mediator and arbiter. He extended na«
vigation ; caused commerce to flourish ; and attached fo-

EGTPT, ^

veifners to his states, hy the privileges which he thou^jht
l^roper to grant them. Alexandria contained a great num*
her of Jews, who, hy being long settled there, had for^t
iheir original language. To render their residence in Egy^t
more agreeable, and to make them, if possible, forget Judea,
he caused the bible to be translated into Greek. This is
called the Septuagint version, from the circumstance of its
being completed by seventy persons. It is of high authority
among Christians. In quotations from the old Testament,
Christ and his apostles used this version instead of the ori-
ginal Hebrew. It has been lately translated into English,
by Charles Rauson ^ of Philadelphia. y^A^/ft^inL.

Philadelphus protected the sciences, and those by whom
they were cultivated. His foresight gave him some idea
of the future grandeur of the Romans. To them, he sent
ambassadors, and from them, he received others in return.
The latter was Quintus Fabius Gurges, Quintus Ogulinus,
and Cneius Fabius Pictor. At the end of a splendid re«
past, the king offered to each of them a golden crown, which
they accepted ; but next morning they were seen placed on
the statues of the monarch, which were erected in different
public places. This disinterested and delicate manner of
shewing their respect for the sovereign of Egypt, gave the
Egyptians a high idea of the Romans. Philadelphus loaded
^m with presents, which he insisted they should carry
with them ; but when they arrived at Rome, they deposited
them in the treasiuy of the republic. The policy of the
Egyptians made him always observe strict neutrality, be-
tween the Romans and the Carthaginians. The latter hav-
ing asked money from him to carry on the war against the
former, he replied, '^ I cannot assist one friend against ano-
ther.'*

Philadelphus is known as the founder of many cities.
He erected a great number of monuments, so superb, that
works of extraordinary grandeur, and built in an exquisite
taste, were called Philadelphian. . He maintained consider-
able fleets in the Mediterrai^an, and in the Red sea.

RAMSAT*S UNIVERSAL mSTORY.

This prince constructed a canal,* wliich joined iKe ReS
sea to the Nile, except a small interval^ over which the car*
riage was performed by camels. By this canal ihe prodoc-
dons of Arabia, India, Persia and Ethiopia, were conveye<t
to Alexandria, which for seventeen centuries, carried on
die greatest commerce of any city in the world. Phila-
tfelphus, though far from being warlike, always kept on foot
an army of twa hundred thousand infantry, forty thousand
cavalry, three hundred elephants, and two thousand war
.chariots. He had also an arsenal containing arms for thre^
hundred thousand men, and a treasury capable of support^
ing all these expenses. His troops, it is said, were badl]^
disciplined; and, like their king, abandoned to ease and
luxury. He enervated himself at an early period; and,
even while young, died of old age, amidst pleasure.

The reign of his son Euerg^tes, began by a successful war
against Syria. He brought back with him a great many
idols, which Cambyses had taken from tfie Egyptians, and
placed them again in their temples. By this act of religioni
he guned the friendship of the people, and got the sur-
name of Eilergetes, the Benefactor. An inscription, stilf
preserved, assigns to him in addition to the sovereignty at
Egypt, that of Sjo-ia, Lybia, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Illyria, Ca-
ria, and the Cyclades ; and makes him to have subdued Ci-
licia, Pamphylia, Thrace, Mesopotamia, Persia and Media,
as far as Bactriana. To these, some add the two shores of
the Red sea, and the provinces of Ethiopia. If this enu-
meration be correct, few monarchs have been so powerful.

Kis spouse, Berenice, when she saw him set out for his
Syrian expedition, made a vow, that if he returned safe,
she would consecrate to the gods her hair, which was ex^
ceedingly beautiful. He returned victorious to his king-
dom ; and Berenice, faithful to her vows, caused her hair
to be cut off, and deposited it on the altar of Venus, in the
temple, built at Alexandria by Philadelphus, In honour of

* Some represent tliii cuul as coinplete; but whether it was or not is
inuntttemly for it has long been so filled up as to be useless.

EGTFT. 9f

Aninde, Ins^ oeloved spouse. Soon afWr, b^ some neglect
t)f the keepers of the temple, the hair disappeared, and the
king, being highly incensed, iras going to punish themi
Conon, however, an able astronomer, presented himself
before the monlirch, towards the clos^e of the day, and said,
*^ Raise your tyes towards the seven stlu*s, near the tail of
the dragon, and there you will behead the hair of Berenice,
lirhiich was carried away, and jJaced in the heavens as a
constellation.^' The king, no doubt, wished to be deceived^
for a knowledge of the heavens was familiar to the Ptole<*
tnies. They were even the authors of a system of astro-^
nomy, known by their name. The courtiers, after the ex^
ample of their master, seemed to be convinced of the truth
of the miracle, and it was celebrated in verses by the poets.
We have still remaining a hjonn of Callimachus on the hiur
of Berenice, translated by Catullus.

Euergetes was not only a lover of the sciences, but he
wrote himself historical memoirs, which were highly es*
teemed, and by his care the library of Alexandria was
increased. In the course of his conquests, he transmitted
to it every thing valuable that he met with ; and, when he
fetumed to his kingdom, he dispatched learned men into,
every quarter, giving them orders to procure books, let the
expense be what it might. When he could not obtain cu*
iious works, but by borrowing them, he caused beautiful
copies to be made of them; and sent the copies to the
owners, and kept the originals.

In returning from his S3n'ian expedition, he passed
through Jerusalem, and being desirous of seeing the Jew*
ish ceremonies, he oifered up sacrifices to the God of Israel.
The mind may have found some pleasure in reviewing
these three Egyptian reigns; but the reigns which follow,
will subject the reader to very different sensations. Ptole*
my Philopator is suspected of having put his father to
death, that he might reign the sooner. This imputation,
even if ill founded, is a proof, tha^fiHal duty was tiot con*
sidered as his favourite virtue. If he acquired an honour-
able name, without deserving it^ suspicions arise, that it wtis

40 BAMSArS UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

given to him only through irony. He has been branded
with being attached to the most infamous debauchery. He
had a brother, named Magus, who was much respected, and
on that account he put him to death.

This was only die sacrifice of one man ; but the destruc-
tion of a whole people was effected by the same monster*
Because the high priest of the Jews had refused to suffer
Ptolemy to enter the temple of Jerusalem, he resolved to
avenge himself for the supposed affront on all the Jews in
his dominions. They were exceedingly numerous, especi*
ally at Alexandria. By a solemn edict, he ordered them
either to adore the pagan deities, or to suffer themselves to
be marked with a hot iron, which would imprint on their
forehead a leaf of ivy, the symbol of Bacchus. All of them,
except three hundred, chose rather to suffer, than act incon-
sistent with their religion. Being incensed at this almost
general resistance, he commanded all the Jews resident in
Egypt to be brought in chains to Alexandria, where they
were confined, to the number of about forty thousand, in the
hippodrome, or place destined for the exhibition of horse
races. Elephants were to^ be introduced into this place to
tread them to death ; and the time was fixed for the execu^
tion of this cruel sentence. The people, always fond of
bloody spectacles, twice surrounded the hij/podrome, and
twice was the execution suspended, by Ptolemy oversleep-
ing himself, after intoxication. Philopator considered these
events as a warning from the deity, and he dismissed the
unfortunate Jews, under a firm conviction, that they were
indebted for their deliverance to a miracle, performed as a
recompence for their fidelity. But they disgraced this noble
conduct, by massacreing the three hundred, who had bowed
the knee before the idols. Notwithstanding this amnesty,
forty thousand Jews are reckoned to have perished in Alex-
andria alone.

Unfortunately, the king had in Sosibius a minister very
proper to gratify his fury, whatever might be its object.
A^sinoe, the wife and sister of Philopator, had followed him
in lus warlike expeditions, haranguing the soldiers, and

EGYPT. ^

tombfttttng b^ their side. After haying been barren for se-
veral years, she brought her husband a son. Her fecundity
•emboldened her to ask favours ; but, as she became impor*
tunate, the king complained, and shewed a desire to get
rid of her« As Sosibius had an official assassin, named Phi*
kunmoa, be detached him against the queen ; and she was
put to death. The female attendants of this unhappy prin-*
t:ess, took advantage of a sedition to attack the murderer,
in their turn, and they massacred him with stones and clubs.

Sosibius held the reins of government for sixty years.
He was artful and corrupt, and made no scruple of commitr
ing the most horrid crimes, to accomplish his views. We
are assured by the historian Polybius, that he was the cause
of the murder of Lysamachus, the son of Ptolemy ; of Ma*
gus, the king's brother; of Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysi-
machus ; of Cleomenes, king of Sparta ; and lastly, of queen
Arsinoe. After a life marked with so much cruelty, he
died in peace at a great age ; a singular instance, perhaps,
in history. Ptolemy led an obscure life, immersed in infa-
mous pleasures, and abandoned his kingdom to unprinci-
pled men, and to women void of modesty ; who, in his name,
distributed the civil and military employments to people
like themselves. This worthless prince, ekher through scru-
ples of conscience or vanity, gave away large sums in cha-
rity, and built temples. He left behind him a son, five years
of age.

It appears that, after the disgrace of Sosibius, the peo-
ple and nobility, had, as it were, forced the king to give the
ministry to Hepolemus, who, at that time, had die care of
the finances. The young prince was put into the hands of
a person, named Agathocles, to be educated. As Agathoclea,
the sister of Agathocles, and their mother, Oenanthe, resid-
ed in the palace, they were the first who heard of the king's
death, which they concealed, till they had carried away all
the gold, 8ilver,and jewels. From being keepers of th^ young
prince, these people wished to raise themselves to the regen-
cy of the kingdom. Agathocles appeared in public, holding
the young prince in his arms, and shedding tears. H^ ha-

HI RAM8AT*S mttftMMJkh mSTOKY.

langued liie courtiera^ nd knplored ibeir protei^e& £or the
infant which he said had been reoommended to his care., hy
the dying monarch. He even had the boldni^SB to aaser^
that Hepolemus aspired to the throne. This calumny, how
ever, proved mifortunate to the authors of it* The people
vere so incensed, that Aey assembled in a tumultuous
manner; tore the child from the arms of Agathocks, car-
tried him to the hippodrome, and placed him on the throne.
Agathocles, Agathoclea, his sister, and Oenanthe, their mo-
*Aer, were brought before the child ad if to be tried ; apd,
-being condemned in his name, were executed before his
^yes. The populace dragged their bloody carcases through
^he streets of Alexandria, and tore them to piec^. All the
Telations and partisans of the family, were subjected to^ the
-same fate.

The Egyptian nobility were at great variance in regard

^o the regency. In this state of embarrassment, they thought

tproper to refer the matter to the Romans, and the senate

^id not let slip this opportunity of extending their power-

^They sent Marcus Lepidus to Egypt, to superintend the edu-

( cation of Ptolemy; but he soon resigned his charge to

ArMtomenes, the Acamanian, a man of great experience.

The regent governed with general approbation; and, when

"Ptolemy had attained his fourteenth year, the age fixed

^amongthe Egyptians for the majority of their kings, he de*

livered the kingdom to him, in a most flourishing condition.

^It is vain to enquire, why he was sumamed Epiphanes,

that is, the Illustrious ; for he had scarcely got the supreme

' authority into his hands, when he employed it in such ,a

'manner, that every thing fell into disorder. Aristomenes

* having presumed to give him advice, he caused him to be

poisoned. His subjects revolted, and he appeased them by

' promises ; but as soon as he had it in his power he broke

^his word, and put the rebels to death with the most cruel

•-torments. The mistrust which arose from his misconduct

contributed to his destruction. His couruers often heard

« him speak of war, which he proposed to undertake ; but as

they saw no money, they asked him where he would find

fiGYrr.

ea^iigh to xlefrajr tlie expenses of his intended expedition.
He replied, ^^ My ftieads are my money." As they under-
stood by this, that he meant to cany on the war at their ex*
pense, they dispatched him by poison.

He left two sons, Ptolemy Philometor, and Ptolemy
Physcon, with a daughter, named Cleopatra, under the
tutelage of Cleopatra, their mother. This princess dis-
charged with great honour, ihte duties attached to the re*
g^cy. Ab Phyacon was suspected of having hastened her
deadi, the people rose agiunst him, and would have de*
acroyed him, had not Philometor taken him imder lus pro*
tedtton. He obtained this surname, on account of the love
and gratitude, which he shewed towards his mother. Thi$
prince maintained an unfortunate war against the king of
S3rria ; in the oourae of which, he was taken pris<mer. Th^
Alexandrians despairing of his return, caused Physcon to
assume the crown. The Syrian, whose object was to aub*
due Egypt, carried back Philometor ; restored his kingdom i
and even gave lum troops to oppose his bnother ; but .he
kept Pelusium, die key of Egypt, that he mig^t be able ^
enter it again with the greater facility, aittr the two hrothen
should be exhausted. The deceiver, however, was de*
eeived ; they made up their quarrel, Arough ihe mediation
of their sister Cleopatra, and reigned for some time in great
harmony.

Concord between brothers is rare ; and particularly hep
tv^een brothers, bom to royalty. Philometor, the mildeat
of men, being harassed by Phyacon, inatead of involving
his people in the horrors of acivil war, had recourse to the
arbitration ot the Romans. Philopator,Jthe &dier of diea*
princes, having been educated, as we may say, by the re^
public of Rome, bad always kept up with it, a close inti*
macy. The presents which he sent to Rome, during die
whole course of his reign, were so great and so regular,
diat they might be considered as tribuae. Philometor went
thither on foot, without any attendants ; cbid in a mean
dress, and stopped at the house of a painter. As soon as
the senate were informed ctf his anival, diey pcoeucedWrn

VOL. IX. [7]

4f RAMSAY'S UNIVEBSAL BISTORT.

a lodging, furniture and servants, suitable to his rank ; sent
some of their most distinguished members to visit him;
and admitted him to plead his cause. The decision was
attended with no difficulty. The kingdotn of Egypt had al«
ways belonged, to the eldest, and consequently it was pro-
per, that it should be given entirely to Philometor. But
the senate considering that Physcon had already reigned,
and being still more moved by political reasons, which told
them that it was for the interest of the republic, thafike i
kingdom should not be left entirely in one hand, they ad-
judged Egypt to Philometor, and Cyrenaica to Physcon.
The latter desired, that they would add to his share tlie
island of Cyprus ; and, in his turn, went to Rome to re*
quest that fisvour* As diis dismemberment tended to
weaken the strongest of the two brothers, it was granted.

It was not without regret, diat Philometor saw himsdf
ready to be daprived of so noble a possession. He delayed^
therefore', to give it up ; and temporized, widi the hope of
being able to keep this island, as Plqrscon, being otherwise
employed, was not in a condition to seize it by force. His
debauchery and cruelty had rendered him so odious to tiaie .
inhabitants of Cyrene, that they revolted; attacked him,
and left him half dead on the spot. Physcon judging of his
brother by himself, believed him to be the author of the re-
volt ; and he repaired to Rome, to complaun to the senate,
and to demand bade Cyprus. He returned with ambassa-
dors, who were charged to.prevail on Philometor to resiyn
Ids right to the island. The latter evaded giving a defim-
live answer ; and both parlies having prepared troops, the
Romans suffered them to proceed to hostilities. Thou^
Fhyseon was defeated and taken prisoner ; his brother, al-
ways indulgent, not only restored him to liberty, but put
him in possession of his kingdom of Cyrene, and gave him
an, indemnification for the island of Cyprus, which he kept*
He Aen carried the war into Syria, and died of his wounds
in the arms of victory.^

On the death of Philometor, two parties appeared ; one
for Cleopatra, who wished to place ontbe.tfarone a son, soil

BOTFT. 40

an infimt, and die other for Physcon. They, however, en*
tered into an agreement, by which it was actdcd, that Phya*
con ahoold marry his sister, the widow of his h tot hci, and
reign widi her as long as she lived ; hut that die son of
Philometor should be declared heir to the crown. Here the
reign of Pkyscon in Egypt commences. We shall give t
brief account of the actions of this ^rant

Physcon married his own sisSer ; hut, on the very wed^
I ding day, he butchered his nephew, at the Inreast of his mo-
dier. She brought him, however, a son, whom he named
Memphitis. Having already acquired the surname o( Phya*
con or the big bellied, whidi denoted his defmini^, he was
stigmatized with that also of Kakergetes, which signiiea
evildoer, a title wUch he too well merited. He caused all
those, who opposed him when he assumed the crown, to be
put to death. From such a monster, this is not astooishing ;
but those even who had been fisvourable to him, were trealf^
ed in the same manner; because, having been nn£Mthfiil
to his nephew, they might be so to him. It is not exagge-
ration to say, tiiat the streets of his two capitals, Alexan*
dria and Cyrene, were often inundated with blood. Hia
barbarous orders were executed by foreign soldiers, who
knew nobody but him ; and who being well paidt icrvod
him with blind obedience. His fear and suspicion inspired
him with the most atrocious resolutions. He had done so
much mischief to the city of Alexandria, that he was every
moment in apprdiension of some revolt. That he might
deprive it, tiierefbre, of its principal force, he caused die
most distinguished part of Um^ youth to be massacred, while
diey were assembled at their exercises in die hippodrome.
Their fcthers, mothers, and relations, fled and deserted die
city in crowds. In dieir room, he invited thidier all diose,
who chose to go, and put them in possession of the fumitiiret
and every diing else, diat had belonged to the fugitives ;
but diese new citizens soon perceived, by the severity of
die taxes and oppression of every kind, what confidence
ought to be plafeed in the kindness of a villain.

The ^ueen had n daughter by Philometor, named Cleo*

^ RAMSArs uifmnMUUi history.

p«cra;'lilee bet'self. This prtnctss tru so fuifoitimaie as to
excito the afiedfoo of Fhjracoa, Who ibst defaftached^ aadl
tfiMi marmd iMr ; aftsr he had divorceA her vofdier. After
iibe waMacte of Alexandria, he retired to Cyprues with
bia yomig spoase, to aToid the fiuy of ti» people ; who
fbreed the repudiated queen to resume the crown. The
king, on this inteWgeace, dumght he already saw his son
Menphitis iiivited to £gjft by his siothier, and snbstttuled
ifi Ms room. He, therefore, sent for his son in the utmost
kwte, and caused him to be pitt to death. As soon as ihe
erime iras known at AJexandria, the fury of dte people
against the tyrant was douMy inflamed. They loaded htm witb
knprecauons, broke to pieces his statues, and declared him.
taclnded for ever from the throne. The Alexandrians^
touched by the grief cf die mother, endeavoured to aHevi*
ate her aftiction by die most pisbllc teatinonies of their
etteem. Pbyscon having heard of these transports of af-
lldtion towards her, and of the hfctred entertaaned against
hhnselff imagined that dtia indignation of the people,, so
strongly expressed, was entirely owing to his old spouse«
As the bhth of Cleopatra was to be celebrated exactly aboiA
this tmie, under pretence of being reconciled to her, (he
Ibmg sent her a box said to c<xntain arich present ; but when
she opened it, she found the limbs and head of her own son.
' One might believe that nature had endeavoured to make
Phjrscon a monster in every sense of the word. He was
short of stature ; had an excessive large belly, and enormous
head 't and a savage look. Though he had twice exhibited
his hideous figure at Rome, the Roman aml»usadors, sent
to his court, could not behold him on his throne, without a
mixed sentiment of astonishment and horror. The repubr
Ue had charged them to visit Greece and Macedonia, whii^
had been subjected to, its government, and they were after*
Ivards to proceed in succession, to the courts of Egypt, Sy»
rii^ Tergamus, and Bydiinia, to examine the staie of these
kingdoms* The Romans derived more than One advantage
from each of these missions. Among the number of their
afnbassadors, there were always young persons, who were

aecttBtaned U> puUtc businn** Tke wbsm^ hy tbc
tkeyreceived from dieh rqmrt, were enabled
to judge reapecdng the evems wluch tock place in these
kingdoms, as if they had been on the spot ; and to pursue
the proper measures widi safety and effect. These envi^s^
by their noble and polite behaTioiur, and offers of servkt,
somedmes foDoired yfiih acts of kindneas, inspired a gene*
tal esteem for the Roman people ; and^ ia some iseasure,
prepared nations for tlw yoke, abouS to be imposed on
diem. Phvscon received the ambassadors with every mark
of distinction. He, peihaps^ was. too fond of displaying
before them his riches, and pointing out to them the beauiy
of his kingdom. They made a tour through it, with the
curiosity of persons who had some interested view $ and
were convinced^ that Egypt mi|^t be rendered one of the
most powerful stales in die world, had it been govened by
a better prince.

It r<5<|uives no great ability to be wicked ; but those wlu»
are eEcesaively wicked, requive abilky tp 9ucceed« Ffays^
con's tafents were considerable. During the short interval^
between his fits of debauchery, he cultivated the sciences,
and the fine arts. It is even said that he possessed great
•learning, and dmt .he could converse on every sutgect vridi
the utmost ease. A history^ ef his own tisie,^ which he
wrote, was highly esteemed. He commented on Homer ;
increased the library of Alexandna ; and shewed his gene^
rosi^ to men of letters, by gtatificafdons and penaions i
but, by a singular contrast, it was under hia reign, diait the
sciences began to decline in. Egypt. When they ab«adoaed
Asia, Greece, and the islands of the Ardupebgo,fri|^itei^
ed by the wars of the successors of Alexander^ diey found
an asylunt under the Ptolemies. Giammasiatts, pl^sicians,
painters, architects, poets and pyiosophers, flocked to Ah»p
andria, where a magnificent library was openndy and wheae
a connnonication of knowledge was facilitatsd. But with*
out liberty, these advantages become itseleas. Pfayscon^n
suspicious tjrant, wished not only to enchain speech, but
to overawe die thoughts. Tkim reatmint depapnkiud the

^ UAMSATS XJWnmUIs BIBTORT

academies of AlexaiK)ri*i md reduced Egypt, whidi had
been the seat i^die arts iad the scienees, to a stale of tgno*
i^ance, which has contiiiiied ever since to increase.

Physcon^ Aat monster of cniehy, Kved seventy^hree
years, and died a natural death, in the bosom of Alexan*
dria, which he had in u n d ated widi blood. By Cleopatra,
his niece, he had two s<his, Lolhyrus (Chickpea,) and
Alexander, with three daughters, Cleopatra, Selene, and
IVjrphiiBna. Phjwron left Am dirooe to his widow, with the
liberty of placing on it, after her, which erer of her sons
she might dunk proper. Site made choice of Alexander,
die youngest, as being the easiest to govern. Latfayrus
took shelter in Cyprus ; but Ae people, discontented with
die injustice of his modier, otriiged her to recal him. She,
however, did not sufler him to participate in die throne,
until he had repuitiated Cleopatra, his eldest sister, whom
he loved ; and married Selene, the youngest, to whom he
had no attachment. But his mother thought him proper
for her designs. By new intrigues, die expelled Lathjous
from the dirone, and placed on it Alexander. The two
brothers carried on wm* against each other. Alexander
having discovered that his mother wished to get him assas-
sinftted, prevented her, by putdng her to death. As this
action disgusted the Egyptians, diey drove him from the
kingdom, and recalled Ladiyrus. Alexander was kiUed,
while endeavouring to return to Cjrprus ; and left a son,
named Alexander also. In the bst place, Ladijmis died,
and left only one daughter, named Cleopatra, or Berenice.

Cleopatra was fond of the Jews, and had for her prime
ministers, two of dieir nati<m« Lathyrus on the other hand,
hated them, and it was on account of this aversion, that
Cleopatra esecited against her son the odium of the people,
and caused him to be expelled from Egypt, by the follow^
ing infernal stratagem. She prevailed on two of her eunuchs
to suffer themselves to be wounded ; and covered with blood,
diey appeared in die market pkce, crying out diat tkey had
been reduced, to diat state by defending their mistress, on
whom her son had attempted to coaunit a rape ; and,

IBAYPT.

ever, nmdithe people of Egypt w^fe accustomed to craneni
this one excited geaenJ indigtwrioo^ to whic^ LathjO'us feU
a victim.

In the war he carried on agidnst the Jews^ the foUawing
atrocioas actipn is said to have taken place* His troops be-
ing cantoned in some viUagesy the inhabituits of which lie
suspected not to be sincere in dieir submissaon, he collected
all the women and children, and caused them to be cut to
pieces and boiled in cauldrens, as if he had intended to re*
gale his army with this horrid repast* He committed this
barbarity, in order to strike a terror into the people, and to
prevent them from making any attempt against him. La*
diyrus was as litde sparing of his own subjects. On ae«
count of a revolt, which took place in Thebes, the most
beautiful city of this kingdom, next to Alexandria, he rased
it to the foundation. Some idea may be formed of the le«
gitimato clMldren of Physcon, from tfie following picture of
his two sons; cme killed his mother, and the other but^
chered, without distinction, his own subjects as well as fo-
reigners. The three daughters massacred each other.
One illegitimate child, named Apian, the son of bene, a
concubine, had no resemblance to his father. He confined
himself to Cyrenaica, of which Phy scon had made him king^
and never interfered with thaaffidrs of £g3rpt. . This small
kingdom flourished under his government. It contained
five principal cities, well built, extremely populous, and aU
places of great trade. Near one of them, named Berenice,
but which originally had been called Hesperis, lay the gaiw
den. of the Hesperides, celebrated for the beauty of its fruits,
and a river named Lethe. Both the garden and the river
have been an abundant source of fiction for the poets. After
a reign of twenty years, Apion thinking to ensure the hap*
piness of his people, left his kingdom to the Romans ; but
his wish was not gratified. They took only those parts
which suited their convenience, and abandoned the rest to
the mercy of those t3nrants, by whom it was seized. The
Romans, however, had some pity on tiiese unfortunate peo*
]de, and sent Luculhu to give them a plan of government ;

g§ BAMBArS UMnnHSAL mSTORY.

gHM», oa his ftrrivid iibftenred, llMt a peofde to rich as thejr
mre, could never submit to the snthori^ of laws.

Lathyrus left only one legitimate daughter, named Cleo*
yalra, iHio was placed oa the ilmiiie by the Alexandrians ;
bat she had a cousin, die son 4f Alexander, the fcrodier of
Lathyrus, named Alexander, like his father. When i»s
aodier, 'Qeopailra,wasobUgedtosuffM>the crown of Egypt
Ssbe tsken hwA her, she sent young Alexander with a great
deal of ridies to Cos, an island which abounded with
learned men, as being a place where he was likely to receiTe
Ae best education. Mithridates, having taken Cos, carried
with him the young prince and his riches to die kingdom
of Pontus. Alexander seeing with what readiness Mitfari*
dates got rid of his own children, was afraid for himself,
on account of his great riches. He fled for safety to Ae
camp of 'Sylla, who sent him to Egypt, when intelligence
was received at Rome of di^ death of Lathyrus. His cou*
sin, Cleopatra, who was only -seventeen years of age, had
already borne the crown six months. An arrangement
took place between them ; and, according to the custom of
tfieir ancestors, they entered into the nuptial bond. On die
nineteendi day after their marriage, Alexander put his wife
to death, either because she was not agreeable to his taste,
or because he was unwilling to have a spouse who possessed
an equal right to die throne. This crime produced a revolt
in Alexandria. Some say, that the inhabitants killed the
murderer, and others, that he escaped from dieir hands,
and reigned several years after ; but that he exercised so
many cruelties, and abandoned himself to so great irregu*
larities, that his subjects expelled Mm.

The last opinion is the most probalAe. Alexander cer-»
lainly survived die assassination of his wife, long enough
to sec himself opposed by a competitor, whom the Egyp»
dans raised up against him. For want of a legitimate
prince, they chose a bastard of Lathyrus, named Ptolemy
Auletes, or the Flute Player. Alexander complained at
"Rome ; but he died, before he knew with what success his
application had been attended. He had nmde a wiU, by

EGYPT. 01

which he appointed the Roman people his heirs, not so
much through afiection to the republic, as a desire to occa-*
, sion embarrassment to his rival. This will gave rise to
violent debates in the senate. The succession was a strong
temptation to the Romans ; but as they had acquired Cyre-
naica by the will of Apion, and Bythinia by that of Nico*
piedes, they were afraid that, by accepting Egypt, they
should give too evident proofs of their avarice and ambi^
tion. It was, therefore, determined, that they should trans*
port to Rome the riches deposited at Tyre; and that, in
regard to the kingdom, they should suffer Auletes to be
installed, without openly approving or disapproving of the
measure.

The first care of this prince, was to cause himself to be
acknowledged king of Egypt, by the republic. The negocia-
tion which took place on this subject, produced a very large
aum to Julius Caesar, then consul, and deeply involved in
debt; and another to Pompey, whose influence was neces-
sary to get the decision passed in the senate. By the pay-
ment of about one million sterling, Auletes obtained the
title of an ally of the Roman people. Ano1;her bastard of
Lathyrus, who had seized on the island of Cyprus, not be-
ing artfur enough to purchase, like Auletes, die consent of
the Romans, was declared, by a decree of the senate, to have
forfeited all right to the throne. He requested assistance
from his brother; but the latter refused, that he might not
displease the Romans. The Egyptians, incensed at this
servile timidity, expelled him from the throne of Egypt,
and placed on it his daughter Berenice, for whom they en-
deavoured to find a husband capable of supporting her ; but
they made a bad choice. Seleucus, her nearest relation, a
prince of the family of the Seleucidae, whom they gave to her,
was so ugly and disgusting, that he got the name of the
Scullion. His soul corresponded to his body. He violated
the tomb of Alexander the Great, and for the golden coffin,
which contained his body^ he substituted one of glass. He
became so odious and insupportable tq the queen, that she

▼OL. IX. [8]

HAMSAT^ trniYBMAL HISTORY.

caused him to be strangled. He was succeeded by Ardie*
laus, said to be the son of Mithridates the Great.

\^tle these events were taking place in Egyplb Auletes
|nd gone to Rome^to solicit assistance. When at Rhodes,
he learned, that Cato had arrived at that island. As this
was a favourable c^portunity for making himself acquainted
with the state of affairs, and the measures to be pursued^
he sent notice to Cato that he wished to speak to him, and
imagined that the Roman would readily pay him a visits
But Cato replied, ^^ Let him come to me." When Auletes
was introduced to him, he found a man plainly dressed, and
wi^ a very humble equipage. The republican received the
monarch as if he had been an ordinary citizen ; but lis*
tened to him with attention. When he had ended, Cato
replied to the following effect. ^^ How can you abandon
the most beautiful country in the world, in order to go to
Rome, where you will be exposed to the most contemptu*
ous treatment from the great, who are as avaricious as they
are factious ? I must candidly tell you, that all the riches
of Eg3q>t would not be sufficient to graufy their thirst for
money. ' You may rest assured, that a prince, who brings
with him only misery and complaints, will get nothing from
them; and, if you obtain a few protectors, you will find in
diem as many new masters. Return to £gypt, and endea*
wovoTy by a wise and moderate government, to gain the
affection of your subjects, which you have lost by your imi-
prudence.'* Cato offered to accompany him, and to exert
all his influence with the Egyptians, to induce them to
receive him. So noble and generous a resolution was not
suited to Auletes. He hesitated, but continued his jour*
ney to Rome.

The Eg3rptian monarch reflected on the account given of
the state of venality at Rome, and resolved to take advan-
tage thereof; success exceeded his hopes. Care was taken
that the arrival of Auletes at Rome should be preceded by
a report of his immense riches. Pompey received him at
hia house with great magnificence, and the most celebrated

EGYPT. §%

•f the senators, Gafbinius, Bibulus, and MarceUintts, were
eager to attend him. The Alexandrians having sent am*
bassadors to Rome to plead their cause, their orator was
thrown into prison ; and their chief, with several ofhiscot^
kagues, was assassinated. But money was necessary to
pay for all these crimes, and the king's treasures were ex*
hausted. Recourse was then had to usurers. Pompey pro*
moted the loans by becoming surety for the monarch, which
he could indeed do without running any risk, as the mone^
only passed through the hands of Auletes, to* come at hat
into his own. Csesar atdiis time was absent in Gaul.

This corruption was notorious ) but so many people were
interested in it, that- no one dared to complain* Ptolemjr
Auletes saw himself on the point of obtaining an army, the
command of which as an inexhaustible source of riche§|
was solicited by several of the ablest generals of the re*
public ; among these was Pompey. Some honest men in
the senate, for want of better means to oppose the measure,
employed superstition. Porcius Cato opened the book of
the SybtUine prophesies, and read or pretended to read th€
following words, ^* If a king of Egypt shall apply to you for
succour assist him, but not with troops." This oracle en*
tirely destroyed the hopes of Auletes, who being stripped
of his riches, set out pursued by his creditors. To avoid
them, he was obliged to conceal himself in an asylum. ' But
avarice always active and vigilant, exerted itself in his &-
vour. His partisans, at Rome, those who lent him money,
and who were unwilling to lose what they had advanced,
wrote to the generals of the republic, in the neighbourhood
of Egypt, that the restoration of Ptolemy to the dirone,
would be a good stroke of policy, which would make die
fortune of the person who should accomplish it. They
pointed out to them the means of eluding the oracle, and
of employing, in that expedition, the annies of the repub-
lic, without the fear of incurring blame. Several of them
refused ; but Crabinius, who commanded in Syria, under-
took die aflair for the sum of about two millions sterling,
to be pud to him when Auletes should be seated on the

04 RAMSAVS UlflTESSAL UISTORT.

throne. He accordingly entered Egypt, having Uie kingia
his army. His success Was rapid. Petuaium was the first
place diat he took, and the Egyptian monarch mshed to
put the inhabitants to the sword, but the Roman general
opposed this cruel and impolitic measure.
- Archelaus, the queen's husband, who attempted to check
Aeir progress, was defeated in a general engagement, and
taken prisoner. Gabinius might have immediately put an
«nd to Uie war; but, in consequence of a large sum oflered
to him by Archelaus, he pretended that the latter had pri-
vately escaped, and then demanded a new sum from Ptolc-
my in order to carry on the war. Rabirius, a Roman knight,
was ready in the camp to advance to the monarch on usun-
ouB interest the sum required. This was conveyed into the

BGYPT. Sb

have in your hands.'' Rabirius did not perceive the snare
which was laid for him. From being a Roman knight, he
cendescended to become a tax gatherer. When he had
taken upon himself responsibility, Auletes found a suffi-
ciency of pretences for causing him to be arrested. Rabi-
rius exclaimed against this act of injustice, and Pompey,
who had been surety at Rome, seemed highly displeased
with the king's conduct ; but as there was little to be hoped,
and every thing to be feared, from a cruel and avaricious
prince, Rabirius thought himself exceedingly happy that
he was suffered to escape alive from prison, and to quit
Etgypt. Such was the manner in which Auletes paid his
debts. This was the last event of a reign of thirty years,
much too long for his people, ignominious for himself, and
attended with very little honour to the Romans. They in-
deed wished to bring to justice the two offenders, Gabinius
and Rabirius, who were criminally prosecuted on their re-
turn to Rome ; but the eloquence of Cicero saved Rabirius
from punishment, though not from shame. Gabinius was
banished ; but those, by whom they had been instigated,
and who gained by their dilapidations, continued to walk
about Rome with dieir usual confidence.

Auletes had two sons, both named Ptolemy, and two
daughters, Cleopatra and Arsiaoe, die former of whom hsLs
been celebrated in*history« He disposed of his crown in
favour of his eldest son and daughter, on condition of their
entering into the bonds of marriage. Cleopatra was seven-
teen years of age, and her brother thirteen. Auletes re-
commended his children to the Roman people, and begged
them, in his will, to take them under their protection. The
senate accepted diis honourable office, and entrusted the ex-
ecution of it to Pompey. The eunuch Pothinus, was ap-
pointed prime minister, and Achillas conunander of the
troops.

These two men were not much pleased with a queen, who
not only seemed little disposed to suffer herself to be go-
verned, but even shewed a desire of commanding. By
threats or bad treatment, they obliged Cleopatra to leave

g% RAMSArs UNIYEBSAL HISTORY.

her court. She retired to Syria and Palestine, to nds^
troops ; and returned, boldly, to give battle to her husband
and his ministers under the walls of Pelusium. While the
armies were in sight of each other, Pompey, after his de^
feat at Pharsalia, was seen approaching the coast of Egypt,
where he hoped to find an asylum. Having sent to his pu*
pil Ptolemy, to request permission to enter his kingdom, a
debate took place in the council, whether he ought to be re*
ceived at the risk of oflPending Ae ccmqueror, or whether it
would be best to put him to death, with a view of preserv*
ing the friendship of Csesar. The latter opinion prevailed^
and Pompey was assassinated. This was a base crime,
and an act of ingratitude in the successor of Auletes, who
had been placed by Pompey on the throne. Csesar, who
was in close pursuit of his rival, arrived at the same time
at Alexandria. Achillas imagined he should do him a
pleasure, by presenting to him the head of his enemy ; but
Csesar turned aside his eyes with horror, and shed tears for
the unfortunate fate of his illustrious competitor.

Csesar found the whole city of Alexandria filled with die
utmost indignation, on account of the murder of Pompey,
and litde disposed in his favour ; but, by means of spfecious
words, he was able to calm the minds of the people, with-
out, however, forgetting his own interest ; for he strictly
demanded the remainder of the money stiU due to him by
Auletes, since the time that he procured frar him the title of
an ally of the Roman people. Pothinus, who wished this
importunate creditor at a distance, embraced that opportu-
nity of endeavouring to render him odious. He made the
exacdon appear still more rigorous than it really was, by
carrying away from the temples, the gold and silver con«
tained in them, and reducing the king, and all the nobility,
to the necessity of using earthem or wooden vessels, as if
to insinuate, that Caesar had seized on every thing. When
the people were disposed to murmur, it was easy to preju*
dice them against Csesar, on account of the order he sent to
Ptolemy and Cleopatra to come and plead their cause be-
fore him, and even to disband their troops* Tht Alexan-

M^Mb

B6TPT. ftf

drums were highly irritated, as they eonsidered this order,
an insult to the royal authority ; but Caesar appeased them
by causing to be read publicly, the will of Auletes, which
gave the guardianship of his children to the republic. He
aaid that, as dictator, he was personally charged with this
office ; but that he would act in no other quality than that
of arbiter. The ferment of their minds was allayed by thia
explanation, and advocates were appmnted on both sides.
. Cleopatra, who placed more confidence in her attractiona
than in the eloquence of her advocates, privately quitted
her army, and eqibarking in a small boat, arrived about sua
set at the gates of Alexandria. The great difficulty was to
enter the city without being known, as she would have been
stopped by her husband's troops ; and to make her way af-
terwards to the palace. ApoUodorus, who apparently waa
a very robust man, wrapped her up in a mattress in such a
manner as to appear like a bafe of goods ; took her up on
his shoulder ; and having passed without detection, depo-
sited her at the feet of diie judge.

Her appearing in this manner before Ccesar was of more
value, in his eyes, xhan a triumphant entry. Ptolemy, on
being informed of it, foresaw the consequences. He rushed
from his palace, as if frantic, and cried out, that he waa
betrayed ; tore the diadem from his head, and trod it under
his feet. The people flocked around him, lamenting hia
late, and ran to take up arms; but the Roman soldiers
seized and detained the young prince, and, next morning,
Cesar not only effected a reconciliation between him and
his spouse, but married Ptolemy, the youngest of their
sons, who was only eleven years of age, to Arsinoe, his
sister, who was a little older, and gtve them the kingdomr
of Cyprus, a present intended only to deceive the people;
for it was not to be supposed that the republic would resign
its rights to that island.

This good intelligence was not of long duration. Pothi-
nns, who had occasioned the -first discord^ found means to
renew it, in order that he might not be punished; and tha$
he might enjoy, in full liberty, the empire which he had

.'«

dg RAMSArS imiVBRSAL HI8T0RT.

always exercised over his pupils. He concerted with Achil*
las the proper measures for accomplishing what he had in
view. The dictator found himself besieged, in the quarter
which he occupied with the royal ftunily ; and never was
this general exposed to greater danger. He had few troops
to oppose, not only to a large army, but to a whole city, in
a state of revolt. It was during one of the combats, which
took place on this occasion, that the celebrated library of
Alexandria was burnt. Pothinus, who remained near die
king, sent private intelligence to Achillas of the measures
he was pursuing; but his treachery being discovered, he
was put to death. Ganymedes, an eunuch of the palace, to
whom young Arsinoe had been entrusted, and an a€com«»
plice of Pothinus, fearing the same fate, fled to the camp
of Achillas, and carried with him his ward. The Egyp-
tians were filled with great joy, to think that ihey had in
their army a branch of the royal family, whom diey could
place at their head. They proclaimed her queen, and ap*
pointed Ganymedes general, in the room of Achillas, whom
they found means to put to death. This eunuch was indeed
very fit to be prime minister; for we are told, by histo-
rians, that he was a man of activity, address and penetra-
tion, but of no probity.

Csesar, with his whole army, and the court, were in dan-
ger of perishing by thirst, as Ganymedes found means to
introduce the water of the sea into die cisterns of die quar-
ter where they were pent up, and thus to corrupt the water
of the Nile, which alone could be procured at Alexandria.
Cssar, however, caused wells to be dug, from which he
fortunately obtuned a supply of fresh water. Ganymedea
made several attacks, both by land and by sea; but, after a
great deal of bloodshed, the contending parties had re-
course to a conference. The Alexandrians said dieir only
wish was to recover their king, whom die dictator consent-
ed to restore. He therefore released him, after giving him
some good advice, respecting the government of his king-
dom, and exhorting him to put an end to the war, by a sin-
cere reconciliation with his spouse. The young princ^

BOTPT. .flQ

4€ fouttd Mmself at libevtf , he renewed the war with aoMaie
"fiirf than foefope.

ReiirfbroenienAi teVMiff axtiTied to the Rcnuma, from dl

'quarters, die 'dictator fiMaid hiaaaelf in a condition to fpimt

faatde, sad f^ned a cosaplete victory. The yoaag' htng,

•diwtAgiiia ftght, was drowaed in aa aroa of the Nile.

'wCnaar eaured Aieaaadvia without diftt iihy, rephusad Ctoo-

^tva^n the dirone, and Baade heriaany her yovaff brothar,

«:w4iio was only eleven years of age« Young Arainoe was

taken after diis defeat; and Caaar, the lover of her aialef,

-araaatacriieiaa to condiaet her to Roaie, and to lead her in

triiuBph, having her baada bound with jgcMen cfaaina. lie

allerwarda set her at Ufaer^, but with the prohifaadon wf

aafver vetuming to £>gypt. She letived ct> Asia, where her

cmel aiater put her to death. Cleopatra got rid of imr

-young huaband by fkmon; and she then found hcvaelf adb

. aoveaeign'of £gypt. Love detawed the conqueror of Phai^

.aalta with her muoh longer tlum hie interest ou|^ to haws

aiUoared; bat aoabition, at lengdi, auule him. break bin

ahaina. He umpc himaetf from the arms of the enchaatreaa,

»bttt left with her a aout called Casaarion.

Cleopatra, after the death of C»aar, <^ianly eapouaed dte
ifMUty of the triumvira. She waa, however, auapeded of
•haviag aent tvoopa to Caaaiua. Thia offence, added to the
complaintaof her subjects, and of die neighbouring prineea,
-naade her be 'summoned to appear b^cnt^ the tribonal of
Antony, who hadcome to Asia to establish die power of
<the .triumvirp. She had then attained to the twentjr^fifth
^ear of her age, a period of life as fit for business as fair
gallantly. The attr^tive charms which she had received
(from nature w^e accompanied with wit, ardfice, sprigh^
4ines«, aad the graces. The siuprise she prefmred for An*
tony had no resemblance to that which subdued C«sar|
lait, diougfa less abrupt, it was no less successful. Tht
triumvir had established his tribunal at Tarsus, a city cf
Cilicia. When Cleopatra arrived at the mouth of die Cydi»
0n^ she quitted the vessel which had conveyed' her htdier ;

VOL. IX. [9]

BAM8AT*8 UmirmiAL BISTORT.

and proeeedkdup the river im a gidlty proviinl tbtlim;pmt
pose. It iraa eatirely covered with gilding, die aaiU weve
of purple, and the cordage consisted of silk. The oars weie
plated with silver ; and the movewenti of the rowers were
regulated by the sound of muaioal instruments. The air.
was filled with the 'fragrance of perfuates, burnt in great
abundance ; and the deck was covered with a canopy of
doth of gold, elegantly displayed and arranged with the
utmost taste. Below it, a]^ared the queen, in a postuve
half reclining; and surrounded fay a great mai^ conely
youths and beautiful virgins.

When this spectacle was anwHtnced, the people ahas^
doned die tribunal of the triumvir, and haatened towards
the shore. Antony sent to invite her to supper. ^ Tell
him," replied she, with a flattering smile, ^^ that I expect ta
aee him in my tents.'' The repast was splendid ; soldiers
and oflkers, Rcnnans and auxiliaries, •were all praised and
caressed, and loaded with presents in that winning manner^
which renders refusal impossible. Antony, the object of
the most delicate attention, was intoxicated with pleasure
and admiradon. No more idea was entertained of.accuaar
don or reproaches. Cleopatra assumed an absolute empiee
over the vanquished triumvir. Every day she invented
ne.w pleasures ; and, like another Circe, supplied him widi
Ifurge draug^ of vohiptuousness, of which she had aa ii^
exhausdble cup.

After this period he saw only with her eyes, and co^
ducted himself endrely by her counsels. As it was her de-
sire, he placed with her on the throne of £gypt, her son
Cesarion, whom she had bom to Caesar. To diat kingdofl^
he added Cyrenaica, the island ctf Cyprus, Ccdesyria, Phia-
nicia, and die greater part of Xilicia. To three children*
whom he had by her, he assigned whcde kingdoms ; some
^ako conquered, and otha:« which he flattered himself with
die hopes of subduing ; but she could not prevail on him t»
put to death some of the kings of the states he had pro-
mised.

This distribution of empires was made after a

jwirr. ^

\m whicb Am&uy dragged a* Us chariot, widMa tke waUft
mt Alexandria^ Ar^tabaaaa, king of Media, togetker wUk
lus wife and children. He then preateted them to. Cleo»
patra, who was seated on a golden throne, raited above n
aoaiibid, overlaid with silver. The news of diis spectacle
gave great ofence to die inhabitants of Rome^
d&at Ae privilegpe of triiunphs belonged, exclusively, tQ
citjr. This discontent was fomented by Octavius, who be^
ag informed of the bad conduct of his colleague^ aimed ai
aodiiag leaa than to qypropriate to,himself the empire of tlm
world, which they possessed in oommon. They had die*
putes concerning the limits of their re^ectiye dominions ;.
but their friends interposed, and imagined that they diouU
put an end to all discord, by uniting in marriage Octavia^
Ae sister of Octavius, with Antony. This expedient^
iiowever, had a quite contrary effect, and embroiled them
'wMiodt the least hope of reconciliation. Clecqyatra shad»
dered when she heard of this marria^, which was about to
deprive her of a lover ; and she exerted her influence so
much, diat he first suspended the arrivalof his spouse^ who
was approaching, and dien sent Oetavia a letter of divQrca^
and to her brother a declaradon of war.

It would h%ve been necessary to support diese violeat
proceedings by a sudden attack. Ocuvius was unprepared,
while Antony had every duHig in readiness ; and, notwidi^
standing his foibles, he possessed the love of his soldiery
and the esteem of his friends; but he wasted his valuable
dme in luxury and enjoyment. Cleopatra possemed a great
•talent for varying amusements* A fishing party on the
Jlile, furnished her with an opportunity of emplo3ringa
piece of raillery. Antony made it a point of honour, to
•catch the laigest fish, and for diat purpose had provided
divers to aSx them to his hook. The queen, who was
wqnally ingenious, had divers also, and when Antony drew
'ttp his line he found at the end of it a beautiful salt fish. A
general laugh disconcerted the fisherman, and when Cleo*
• patia found that he relished the joke pret^ well, she durtnr

RAMSAY'S YnCifBMAL HISTORY.

ker wrmi* avMnd hk neck witd tald^ ^ het us thimAnirt •ur
Ifaies and tadde, to the kmgs aad qsceite^ Pliamis, and C^
BOpus. Yout amusenwRtB oag^ to be to cnfecH cities, kia^
domft, and kings.''

This prodigsd aaid extravagant queen, in the coarse of one
4f tbose orgifea, no doubt when reason becotnes lost, haTing
ftt her ears two beautiful pearls, eadi valued at about fiit}r
dM>usand pounds sterling, puHed out one of them, which
She dissolved in vinegar, and then swallowed the mixtus^
ttie was going to do the same with the other, h§U was stopf
ped by one of the guests.*

Such whimsical sacrifices were, no doubt, caloulated to
Captivate the ctedulouB«lover, and to persuade hhn that ha
was more esteemed than the tnost valuable jewels. But
whether it was owing to insinuations conveyed to him by
strangers, or to his own reflexions on the perfidious charao^
tbr of his mistress,* Antony began to shew some symptooM
of suspicion. The queen, instead of amusing him with pro*
testations, invited him to dinner^ and, in a monfent of
playful gaiety, carelessly detached a flower from the gar*
land with which she was frowned, and threw it into the cup
of her guest. Antony seized it widi eagerness, and was
l^ttig to apply it to his lips; but Cleopatrs. stopped him,
ind sent for a criminal, who. had been condemned to deathb
The criminal drank the cup and instantly expired, as die
flower had been poisoned. ^ Were it possible for me to
live without you,'' said the queen, ^^ you see that I could
liever want the means of realizing your suspicions."

Prudence advised Antony to fly from so expert a poi*'
ooner ; but^passion reasoned in a diSerent manner. Tlua
proof of fidelity, which was extremely equivocal, drew stiH
closer die bonds of their union. Antony appeared as if
mcapable of enduring a moment's absence ; and Cleopatra,
on her part, never quitted him, day or night: she aocon^
^panied him on all his journeys to the army, imd even to his
tribunal,* when he eat^to* d^etermine causes. ' Being bodi
equally misled by their .presompidon, they 'F^dalgH in the

iitoei«xMiv»ginit hopes. When tfananbitioitsqiieeil wished
to add solemnity to any asserdon, her usual oath was, ^ Aa
I hope to g:ive law in the capitol.^'

After several indecisive battles, between tiie lieutenants
of Antony and Octavius, the two armies, which were to
decide the empire of the world, met under the command of
their chiefs ; the naval forces, in the gulph of Ambracia, and
die land forces, drawn up on the promontory of Aetium.
Antony was on board his fleet; and, notwithstanding the
remonstranoes of his captains, he had suffered himself to be
accompanied by the queen of Egypt. This proved his ruin.
Cleopatra, who was still a prey to remorse, seeing victory
ready to favour the enemy, and fearing to fall into the
hands of Octavius, whom she had grievously offended, bjr
causing his sister to be repudiated, betook herself to flighty
with her whole squadron, and decided the defeat of An^
tany* He might have joined his land army, and again
tried his fortune, with those who had more than once made
him triumph ; but,'through some fatal enchantment, he toU
lowed his perfidious lover. Seated in a melanchcdy atti<f
mde, on the poop of his vessel, supporting his head with
his two hands, and, perhaps, still more occupied with her
than with his own misfortunes, he swore never to see hei^
again. But he proceeded after her, and arrived, along with
her, in port. He endeavoured to confirm himself in the
design he had formed of avoiding her; but the syren pro-^
cured an interview, made him listen to her complaints, shed
a few tears, and at last gained a complete victory over him*

They were oUiged to tear diemselves from the enjoy*
ment of reconciliadon, in order to cc^lect forces against the
enemy, who was approaching. Antony might have fomiA
troops had he only exerted himself. He was more belov^
ed than Octavius, and it was with regret that the army
withdrew from him that esteem wMch he had formeriy en*
joyed. Herod, king of Judea, came to ofier him his ser*
vices ; and to see whether Ant soul, which in times of dU^
fieul^ had ^splayed ae much strength and magnanimtty,
iras stijl swsoeptible of energy* But he found only Jan*

RAMSAY'S UNITEitAL HISTORY.

gqor aad weakness, with ma imfbitumte passtoa, to wliich
Antony referred mil his views and actioas. AU those,
whose assistance Antony solicited, his old friends and
commanders, jtidged like. Herod, and abandoned him to
his fate. He then saw no other recoarse left, bnt to T^uni
to Egypt ; where the queen had at her command, ships,
soldiers, and treasures. ^ I will employ these," said he,
but I will neither see her nor speak to her." Antony took
up his lodging without die city of Alexandria, in an aigree«
able country seat which he had caused to be built on die
sea shore. Messages passed between him and Cleopatra i
but their, common interest made it afterwards necessaoy
for them to have several interviews. The object oi diem
was to deliberate on treating with Octavius, who was
then advancing against them. After various proposids,
which were rejected, Antony confined himself io a re»
quest, that the conqueror woutdsuiFer him to live at Adieas,
as a plain individual along with the queen ; and diat he
would ensure to the children, whom he had by her, the
dirones which he destined for them. Octavius gave only
equivocal answers, as his object was to get the lovers inte
his power. While he advanced, he still continued to ne-
gotiate without neglecting the means of force or surprise ;
and Antony, amused by. his hopes, was in great danger of
fidUng into the snares laid for him. Like on enraged wA*
mal pursued to its last retreat, he then dnrew himself with
fiiry on those who wished to surround him, repulsed them,
and occasioned dreadful slaughter. Besides the negotiation
carried on in common, Cleopatra entered into a private one
with Octavius, who insinuated that she ought to ab«n«»
don Antony, and perhaps to g^ve him up. On this con^
dition he promised her every advantage she could desire.
In the meantime he demanded, sometimes, one city, and
sometimes anodier, and at last, the most important places
ef Egypt ; while the queen, deceived or seduced, delivered
diem into his hands. Incensed at diis treachery, Antony
wished to sacrifice his perfidious lover ; but she retired t0
a monument of great^ height, wlucfa she had built) where

alie nhfaM hersdf up wtdi twro female attendants aad a slave.
Ske then sent to inform her lorer that she had pnt herself
to death« Unable to endure the Idea of eidsting^ wtdiout
die ob}ect of his affection ; he sent for a dave on whose
fid^t^r he could depend, and. putting into his hands a po»
niard said, ^^ You behold me for the last time,*-^trike.*'
Rut the slave (dunged the poniard into his .own body, and
eSEpired at his feet. Antony took the poniard in his turn,
and having given himself a large wound, fell down bathed
in blood. His friends hastened to his relief ; but he coi^
jured them to dispatch him. . They were filled with horror
and pity, and left him in the agonies of death near die body
of his slave.

Cleopatra having heard of his desperate state, and diat he
was not dead, sent her slave to inform him that she was
suU alive, and wished to see him. On this invitation die
^ing lover seemed to revive, and suffering his wound to
he dressed, ordered himself to be conveyed to the monup
mesRt> As Cleopatra durst not open the door for fear of
being surprised by the emissaries of Octavius, she lei
down ropes to which Antcmy being made fisst, was in
that manner, drawn up to a window by the queen and her
two female attendants. The lamentation and mournful
cries, which were afterwards heard, informed the Akxai^
drians, who arrived in crowds to behold this spectacle, duit
the unfortunate Antony had survived a very short time,
the pleasure of seeing, once more, the obje'ct of his affec*
tioa.

The queen obstinately persisted in her resolution of re!»
seiaining in the monument to which she had caused com-
hustible matter, spices, and precious wood to be conveyed^
in order to bum herself in it, if any violence should be at^
tempted. She wished to procure the crown for her chit
dren ; and dreaded, more than deadi, the idea of being «&•
tttched to the car of Octavius, and dragged in triumph to
Rome. To obtain the one^ and avoid the other, she cousin
dered it necessary to remain mistress of her asylum. She
auffered no person to enter it, and conversed with the ases-

ift ftAMSArs mmnoBAL histobt.

.MBgen wtmt by OcttmM calf 'AKNigh the dwr i Imt wlAe
MM of the ne g o riano w wm e ng ag ing lier atfeenilm wilii pti^
y uuia^ another got hi Ae wi»low, through which Aaloi^
iMd We€B drswn uji» Finding' heraelf surprtaed, she wwrtched
« ponittrd from her girdle, moA al)lieM|ited to stab heraelf;
IkHI the weapon waa taken from her, and proper preeaadMMa
mtre employed to prerent die eifects of her deepair.

She then f oy c ate d penniaaion to see Octaviua. Me
seuae to visit her m peraon. She recdved him, hiyiag om «
<€oiKh, in a carekeaa mamier. Upon his eotmng the apait>'
mieart, she rose up to prostrate hnaelf baf one Urn. Sim was
idreased in a h>oae robe; her hair was diabeveHed; bar
voice trembling ; her complexion pale, and bar eyaa red
with weeping. Yet atiU her natvaal beauty aecnsed to gleam

•

ahrott|^ the diatresses with whkh ahe waa ancempassed ; dK
fpnuiaa of her motion and the aUnring soltneas of her looks,
jmtt boic testiflaQny to the former power of her cbanaa.
Ocmvioe raiaed her with his nenal complaisance, and de-
siring her to ait, plaoad hsmaelf bassde her. Cleopatra had
heen prepared fcr this interview, and made use of every
anethod ahe could think of lo propitiate the eonquevor. She
nltetnaitely eaaployed apologias, entreaties, and aUuremanis,
4o obtain hia favour, mMi soften his res en tments She talked
^ Cttsar's humanity to those in distreas ; she read some of
liis letters to her full of tenderness; and enlarged upon the
Jong intimacy that had passed between th^n. ^Butef
what service," cried she, ^ are now all his benefits to me.
Why could I not die with him. Yet he still lives ; methinfct
1 see him sdll before me ; he revives in jrou.*^

To her arguments, her importunity, and her solictmtions>
Oeuvias answered with a cold indifference, scarcely ven*
*turing to meet her eyes ; but when she indmatsd, as he sup-
posed, a deaire of life, he was highly pleaaed, and assured
•her, that she should be indulged to the height of her en*
fectations. He .then took leave an^ departed, imagining
lie bad reconciled her to life, and that he shonld have th^
l^ory of leading her as a captive in his triumph, on his re»
turn to Rome ; but in this he was deceived. Cleopatra, aH

mm. ffji

^ whUe, had kept a correspondence with Oolabellii, a
young Roman of high birth, in the camp of Octavius, who
seems to have felt deeply for her misfortunes. From him
^he learnt the intentions of Octavius, and that he was de-
termined to send her off in three days, together with her
children to Rome. She now saw what was intended for her,
and determined to prevent its execution, by a voluntary
death ; but previously entreated permission to pay her last
oblations at Antony's tomb. This request being granted
her, she crowned the tomb with garlands of flowers, and,
having kissed the coffin a thousand times, returned home to
execute her fatal resolution. She attired herself in the most
splendid manner, then feasted as usual, and soon after or*
dered all, but her two attendants to leave the room. Hav-
ing previously ordered an asp to be secredy conveyed to
her in a basket of fruit, she sent a letter to Octavius, in-
forming him of her feital purpose, and desiring to be buried
in the same tomb with Antony. Octavius, upon receiving
this letter, instantly despatched messengers to prevent her
design, but they arrived too late. Upon entering the cham-
ber, they beheld Cleopatra lying dead upon a gilded couch,
arrayed in her royal robes. Near her, one of her fEUthfol
attendants was stretched lifeless at the feet of her mistress.
Another immediately after fell down dead at her side.

There are some circumstances in the death of Clec^atra,
that interest our aBFections, contrary to the dictates of our
reason.^ She died at the age of thirty-nine, after havipg
reigned twenty-two years, and with her, ended the monarchy
of Egypt, which had flourished for immemorial ages.
Throughout life, she was distinguished for her beauty, wit,
and wickedness ; and was nearly in all equally ]M*e-eminent.

Octavius was much chagrined, at being thus deprived
of a principal ornament in his intended triumph. However,
her dying, request was complied with, her body being laid
by Antony's,, and a magnificent funeral prepared for her
^md her two faithful atteiidants.

From this time, Egypt was governed as a province of
Rome, and few occurrences present themselves for the hisr* .

VOL. IX. [10]

dg BAMSArS UHIVBBBAL HISTORT.

toriaii to narrate. Commotioiis, wan, and political intrigim«
are, indfced, the chief materials of history. During those
intervals, in which mankind have known most quiet, there
is little that deserves to he recorded. Like a level plain,
the smooth tenor of life exhibits nothing to arrest atten*
tton. This, with a few exceptions, was the case with
Egypt, for nearly seven centuries after die death of Cleo*
patra. It continued a Roman province, from that period
till it was subdued by the Arabians, A. D. Ml 4 £gypt
was one of die most potent kingdoms that had risen out of
the fragments of Alexander's dominions ; and the last ex-
isting portion of .that mighty empire, which the Greeks had
erected on the ruins of Persia. Alexandria was, after the
fall of Cardiage, die greatest commercial city in the wcnrld ;
and, after its subjection to the Roman dominion, it stiU
maintained that rank, being the great mart of Indian trade.
Famed for learning and philosophy^ not less than for com*
merce and wealth, Alexandria rivalled Rome and Athens,
in the number and celebrity of her schools, and her learned
men. The inhabitants, however, retained their seditious cha*
racter, and the same proneness to revolt, that distinguished
them under their native princes. The sediti<ms of Alexan*
dria often affected the tranquillity and subsistence of Rome,
of which £gypt and Sicily were the two granaries* In one of
these revolts, Alexandria supported a siege of eight months,
against die emperor Dioclesian, who, having rendered his
camp impregnable to the sallies of the besieged, and cut
off all their supplies of water from the Nile, at last reduced
die city, by blockade, and almost wasted it by fire and
sword. But Alexandria, from its commercial situation,
commanding the trade between Europe and India, had
always die good fortime to retrieve, in a short dme, its
misfortunes. After the fall of the western empire, Egypt
remained a valuable appendage to the eastern. Of diis
Alexandria was the second city, being, in extent, magnifi-
cence, wealth and population, next to Ccmstantinople, and
the principal granary of that metropolis, as it had formerly
been of Rome. After Christianity had made a considera-

«A<

EGYPT.

ih progr«e88 ia Egj^t, the schools of AlextmdrlR were not
less celebrated for the abstruse speculaUoas of theologjF^
dian for philosophical studies. Ia this city were bora or
educated, maay of the most learned fathers of the churchy
as well as a multitude of theologiaa^, whom orthodoxy has
denomiaated heretics. A very coasiderable proporUoa of
the theological coatroveraies, which so violeatly agitated
$lie church, duriag the third aad fourth ceaturies, origia*
ated ia the semiaariea of this city, aad Alexaadria wae
equal, if aot superior, to Coastaatiaople itself, as a distill*
guished theatre of civil aad religious factious.* These,
however, were aot productive of aay importaat revolutioas,
till religious pers^cutioa drove them to favour the Saracea
invasioa. The history of this great eveat conies ia the

order of time.

■

Egypt remaiaed as a ]Mroviace of the Greek empire, till
tiie first half of the seveath ceatury was aearly elapsed. It
tihea uaderweat a revolutioa, as importaat aad extraordiaary
as aay that it had ever experieaci^d. About this time,
Amrou, oae of the lieuteaaats of the caliph Omar, niarched
to the coaquest of Egypt. The forces with which he ua*
dertook tiiis great eaterprise are 3aid to have beea about
four thousaad Arabs. Pelusium was his first acquisition.
From theace he proceeded to Memphis, which, altho)agh
ia a decliaiag state, was still a |dace of such streagth, as
to arrest the progress of the conquerors, duriag a siege of
sevea moaths. Haviag received a reiaforcemeat of four
thousaad Arabians, with batteriag eagiaes, from S)aia,
Amrou, at length, carried the city by assault. The small
army of the Saracens, however, would have beea totally
laadequate to the coaquest of Egypt, had aot the people
beea alieaated from the government of Heraclms, by tiiat
viruleace of religious persecutioa, which is always calcu«»
lated to coavert subjects iato rebels. The p<^mical eon*

* ClemenB AI«zanclrmus, Origen, Arius, and a multitude of otifer Chria.
tian theologiang, both orthodox and heterodox^ v«re natiraa of Alesandria,
or pttpUs of the Akzaadmii tchoolflk

yO RAMSAY'S UmTBBSAL HISTORT.

troversy of monothelitiBm, or the dispute concerning; the
^stence of one or two wills in Christ--«-in other words,
whether the divine and human wills were united in his
person, had produced a general disaflfection. The emperor
considered and treated his Eg3rptian subjects as heretics ;
while they, on the contrary, regarded him, not as' the pro-
tector, but as the prosecutor of Christianiiy.

Such are the revolutions of opinions, that the Egyptians
were not less attached to their monothelitism than their an-
cestors, ten centuries before, were to the worship of Ac
god Apis. At the period of the Saracen invasion, the
Greeks, who persecuted them on account of a Christian
controversy, were not less detested than the Persians, who
sacrilegiously feasted on the flesh of the sacred bull, had
formerly been. The disaffection of the Egyptians to their
government promoted the designs of Amrou as much as
tiiey had before advanced those of Alexander. The Copts
unanimously favoured the Saracen invasion, and swore al-
legiance to tile caliph, who required only obedience and
tribute, as the price of religious liberty and protection. The
Greeks, whose numbers were scarcely equal to one-tentit \
of the native Egyptians, were overwhelmed in the general
defection. They retreated from tiie upper Egypt, and tiie
Saracens advanced to Alexandria, which was tiien abun-
dantiy replenished witii tiie means of subsistence and de«
fence. The native Egyptians attached themselves witii ar-
dour to tiie service of Amrou. Strong reinforcements ar^
rived in his camp. The tribes of the desert, and the vete-
rans from S3rria flocked to his standard ; and the merit of a
holy war was recommended by tiie value of the prize. On
the otiier hand a numerous population, fighting for religion
and property, made a resolute defence. The almost dsuly
sallies of the Alexandrians, were constandy repulsed by the
besiegers, who, in their turn, made incessant attacks. At
lengtii, in the year 640, after a siege of fourteen months,
and tiie loss of about twenty-three thousand men, the Sara-
cens made themselves masters of Alexandria, perhaps the
most difficult, but, without doubt, the most valuable of their

EGYPT. 7i

conquests. The Greeks were at diat time masters of the
sea ; and if Heraclius had been animated with die same
spirit as in the Persian war, fresh armies, pouring in from
Europe, might have saved the capital of Eg3rpt. In the
succeeding reign the clamours of the people of Constanti-
nople, (of which this country had been lately the granary,
as formerly of Rome) compelled the court to attempt the
recovery of Alexandria. The Byzantine fleets and armies
twice occupied the place, but were as often expelled by the
valour and conduct of Amrou ; who, thrice made himself
master of the capital of Egypt, before the conquest was con-
firaaed.*

Egypt being now completely subjugated, the Arabians
proceeded to secure and improve their conquest. Under
the prudent administration of Amrou, the canals and dykes
were annually repaired. The fertility of Egypt, supplied
the barrenness of Arabia, and strings of camels, loaded
with com and provisions, covered almost the whole length'
of the road, from Memphis to Medina. The plans of in-
land navigation, which had been attempted or executed by
the Pharoahs, the Ptolemies, and die Caesars, were re-
vived by the genius of Amrou ; and a canal was opened
from the Nile to the Red sea. Of the state of tiie country,
in regard to its population and opulence at tiiis period, some
sketch might here be expected, but the wild exaggerations
of writers who make the number of inhabitants amount to
twenty millions, and the revenues of tiie caliphs to tiiree
hundred millions, and other equally extravagant calcula-

* The desbuction of tbe Alezandiisn. libniy is aud to kave Veen tke
consequence of Uiese successeB. The evidence of this hd rests on Uie
sole authority of Abulpharagius, who says, that this magniiicent literaty
monument of the rei^s of the Ptolemies, was destroyed by the command
of Omar, who assigned as a reason fbr this procedure, *<that if the books
agreed with the Koran they were useless, and need not be preaerred^ but
if they disagreed, they were pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." Mr.
Gibbon, the historian, deduces from ancient writers, strong presumptive
proofs, that only the fragments of that famous collection existed at the time
of the Saracen invanon.

^4 RAMSAY'S UNIVEBSAL HISTOBT.

whole army of about twenty thousand men, was captured by
the sultan Turan Shah. In 1250, Turan was masta<:red
by the Mamalukes, who placed on the throne a youth of the
royal line, but afterwards usurped the sovereignty for them*
selves. These Mamahikes were originally Turkish slaves,
whom Malek the father of Turan Shah had purchased frofn
> « T / . the Tartars of Kaptchak. Of these he had formed a guard,
and had advanced many of them to the highest employ*
ments. This military corps estaUished an elective mo-
narchy, and raised one of their own officers to the throne, 9
system to which they ever after adhered. They are suled,
in history, the Baharite Mamalukes, from having been em-
ployed as mariners on board the sultanas fleet. The reigns
of those sovereigns were generally short, and most of them
fell by assassination. They performed considerable feats
of arms; finally expelled the Christians frcm Syria; and,
during several reigns, contested the possession of diat coun-
try with the successors of Tschinghis Khan, when the
Mongolian empire was in the full career of its conquests.
The last of the Baharite sultans was Haddi Salah, who
being a minor, was deposed by Barkuk Dahir, his atabek or
governor. Barkuk having seized the throne, founded the
dynasty of the Borgite Mamalukes, in 1389. These were
Circassian slaves, who had been purchased by the BaQiarite
sultans, and were in number about twelve thousand. They
derived their name from the word borge, which signified a
tower, because their residence was in the castle of Cairo,
where they kept guard, and went through their education.
Being favoured by the sultans, they rose to the first dig*
nities, engrossed all the powers of government ; and having
supplanted the Baharite or Turkish Mamalukes, succeeded
to their empire. The system of government, however, con-
tinued the same ; the sceptre was transferred to the hands,
not of a different class, but only a different race of men.
Barkuk, the first sultan of this line, having twice defeated
the troops of the victorious Timour or Tamerlane, had the
honour of checking the progress of the Monguls, in Syria.
In the year 1442, the Mamaluke sultan of Egypt, conquered

Cyprus, took its king, and most of its nobility prisoners ;
alid rendered the kingdom tributary. Nothing further of
any great importance occurred, till the beginning^ of the
sixteenth centuiy, when the Manialuke and Ottoman powers
came into contaict. In 15l6, the sultan Kiansu-el Guiri,
b6ing defeated iafi'd slain in battle by Selim II. emperor of
the Turks, Syria was annexed to the Ottoman empire, after
having bo long been an appendage to the Mamaluke king-
dom of Egypt. Toinah Bey was elected sultan by the
Ma:malukes, but his reign proved of short duration. Se-
lim II. undertook, in the following year, his grand expic'
dition against Egypt, having first made immense prepara-
tions for ensuring success. The Mamalukes, on their side,
were not neglectful in providing the means of defence.
The contest was arduous and bloody. Toman Bey display-
ed the talents of a general ; but hieing defeated by Selim,
in two decisive engagements, he was made prisoner, and
hanged at one of the gates of Cairo in 1517, after a reign
of about one year. Thus ended the singular monarchy of
the Maihalukes in Egypt, which, during the space of two
hundred and silty-three years, had exhibited the extrabn*
dinary political phsenomenon of a small body of military
slaves ruling an extensive, populous, and powerful king-
d6m.

Though the monarchy of the MamaTukes was abolished,
their aristocracy was, for political reasons, retained ; and^
this military body subsisted without any lilteration. A
convention was niade with th6 Ottoman emperor, who con-
firmed to the Mamaiukes their former privileges, on condi-
tions of allegiance and tribute, and also of acknowledging
the spiritual jurisdiction of the mufti of Constantinople.
The power of the beys has of late almost entirely set aside'
that of the port^. Egypt, stricdy speaking, during a great
part of the last centxiry, has been a military aristdcratical
republic, acknowledging a merely nbminal allegiance to the^
Ottoman ent{)eror. Since that period, Egypt presented no
mismorable occurrence tiH 1770, when Ali Bey, taking ad>
v^tage of the distriess^d sitoatiotl of the porte^ iH die

VOL. IX. [ll]

^9 RAMSArS UNIVEBSAL BISTORT.

RusBian war, threw off its yoke, assumed independence,
conquered the adjacent coasts of Arabia, with a great part
of Syria; and seemed- about to revive the empire* of the
great Salah-ed-din. His conduct and views tended to ren-
der Egypt once more the seat of commerce and wealth.
The assistance of a small foreign force would have enabled
him to execute all his designs. His flattering prospects
were blasted by the treachery of his brother-in-law, Mo-
hammed Abuhadab. His troops were defeated, and he him-
self mortally wounded. Mohammed Abuhadab received
from the porte the office of sheik-el-bellet, or governing
bey, which he held during the remainder of his life. Egypt
was, for some time, convulsed with civil ¥rars among the
beys, but in 1785, the contending parties came to an accom-
modation. With the exception of the French invasion, in
1798, the country has ever since remained in the quiet
possession of the Ottoman porte.

Egypt has retained its name through many revolutions,
and a long succession of ages. This country was the asy-
lum, the scourge, and tiie tempter of the primitive church.
To it Abraham, the father of the faithful, and his grand-
son, Jacob, with his patriarchal family, retired, and found
a supply of their pressing wants. In it their numerous
posterity groaned, for a long series of years, under cruel
bondage, and from it they were miraculously delivered.
This was the country where the children of Israel were, in
a measure, bom and bred. They were much perverted by
their education, and ever after retained a fondness for the
idols of Egypt. Several of the laws and institutions of
Moses were plainly calculated to wean them from, and to
guard them against, the manners and customs of the Egyp-
tians. This was the more necessary, for, in their hearts
and affections, they were much inclined to return into
Egypt. Solomon married his wife from thence. Upon all
occasions, they courted the friendship and alliance of
Egypt, rather than of any of the neighbouring powers.
This prepossession was the more extraordinary, as the
Egyptians generally treated them with great injustice.

EGYPT. yy

After they had oppressed them with the most cruel servi-
tude, they gave them leave to depart; but, at the same
time, pursued them as fugitives. Shishak, king of Egypt,
came up against Jerusalem, 1 Kings, xiv. 25, 26, and phm*'
dered it. And, in all their leagues and alliances, Egypt
was to them as a broken reed. Isa. xxzvi. 6, *^ whereon if
a man lean, it will go into his hand, and pierce it." In
Egypt, the infant Saviour, with his mother, found an asy»
lum from the blood-thirsty Herod. On all these accounts^
we might expect that Egypt would be frequently noticed,
in the sacred records of the Jews. The event corresponds
with this reasonable expectation. It has also been the sub*
ject of several prophecies.

There is a remarkable prophecy of Ezekiel,* which com*
prebends the fate of Eg3rpt, from the days of Nebuchad-
nezzar to the present time, in the following words : ^^ It
shall be the basest of the kingdoms, neither shall it exalt
itself any more above the nations; for I will diminish
them, that they shall no more rule over the nations:" and
again, in the next chapter, verses 12, 13, ^ I will sell the
land into the hand of the wicked, and I will make the land
waste, and all that is ^herein, by the hand of strangers;
and there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt."

The truth of EzekiePs prediction is fully attested, by the
whole subsequent history of Egypt. In the year 589 B. C^
the date of Ezekiel's prophecies, who could pretend to say,
upon human conjecture, that so great a kingdom, so rich
and fertile a country, should ever afterwards become tribu*
tary, and subject to strangers. It is now above two diousand
years, since this prophecy was first delivered, and wl^at
likelihood or appearance was there, that the Egjrptians
should, for so many ages, bow under a foreign yoke, and
never, in all that time, be able to refipver their liberties,
and have a prince of their own to reign over them. But,
as is the prophecy, so has been the event: for, not long
afterwards, Egypt was conquered by the Babylonians ; and,
after the Babylonians, by the Persians; and, after the Per^.

♦ jj\%. 15.

lyg RAMSAY'S TTMIVBIISAL. BISTORT.

sians, it became subject to the Macedonisne ; and, aitpr
the Macedonians, to the Romans ; and, after the Romans,
to tihe Saracens ; and then to the Mamalukes ; and is now
a province of the Ottoman empire.

The last prominent event, in the history of Egypt, is t^e
invasion thereof by the French. On the first of July, 1798,
general Bonaparte, one of the most daring ^d successful
commanders that modern times have produced, landed on
the coast of Egypt, with a formidable veteran army, coi|-
sisting of forty thousand men, besides an immense quantity
of artillery and military stores ; and immediately made pre-
parations for commencing an attack on the once celebrated
city of Alexandria. Having summoned the city to surren*
der, which was disregarded, he commenced the attack, on
the fifth of July, and, in a few hours, carried it by assault,

* i '

with the loss of only one colonel, and seventy soldiers, a
city that, in the sixth century, sustained a siege of fourteen
months, and inflicted a loss of twenty-three thousand meo
upon the besiegers. Having thus obtained possession of
Alexandria, he successively subdued Cairo, Rosetta, Etc.;
but this uninterrupted success was somewhat obscured, by
intelligence received of the total destruction of the French
fleet, by the English admiral. Nelson, in the bay of Abou-
kir. Shut out from all communication with France, in con-
sequence of this fatal disaster, general Bonaparte procc^eded
in the reduction of Egypt, but found it a more difficult
task than he expected ; for the Mamalukes, by their dex-
terity in the use of the scimitar, and the management of
their horses, proved an equal match for the veteran troops
of the. old continent. The plague, however, having broken
out in the French army, was more destructive than batde ;
and so great was the terror, even of the bravest, that De-
segnettes, the physician at the head of the F|rench medical
staff, inoculated hiqpfelf with the distemper, in the face of
the army; thus affecting to contemn the disease which he
could not subdue. Grand Cairo exhibited, at this period,
a scene of alacrity and industry, to which it had been un-
accustomed. Bonaparte, to soften the rigours of war, and

i^ompeaaate^ in Bome measure, Cor the miseries he had ia-
Sicted on the inhabitants, having first established a strict
discipline among lus troops, and taken measures to have
the markets well supplied with provisions, from the Delta,
be introduced many of the improvements of civilization.
For this purpose, he first established a public library ; the^
a chemical laboratory ; hydraulic machines, for the purposes
of civilized life, were constructed, and wind-mills, for
j;rinding corn, hitherto unknown to the inhabitants, were
erected. Literature and the sciences were cultivated, an^
learned societies formed, after the model of the French
institute. Commerce, also, became the object of his care:
the merchants were protected, and the imposts^ levied on
all commodities, were fixed and certain. The religious
prejudices of the natives were also flattered, by the respect
paid by Bonaparte to the doctrines of Ismalism, and the
ministers of that reli^on ; so much so, as to procure for
him the appellation of Ali ! The Copts and Greeks, also,
emerged from their obscurity,, under the protecting aus-
pices of the general. Schools were established, as in Eu-
rope, for the instruction of their children, and marriages
between the French and the natives were encouraged.
Numbers of them were, also, enlisted into the French
army, to supply the loss, occasioned by sickness and tht
sword. For the first time, since the days of Mahomet., a
divan was fofmed of Musselman representatives, which
weft also established in each of the fourteen provinces of
Egypt. That at Cairo was presided over by Abdalh^l
Keykaori, an Arabian prince. But, notwithstanding all this
parade of disinterested concern for the happiness and weV
fare of the Turks, their deep-rooted animosity to the in^
vaders could not be overcome ; and the grand seignior hav^r
ing issued a firman agitinst the infidels, the city of Cairo
revolted ; and it was not until after a most sanguinary con-
test, that the insurrection was quelled. While Bonapartt
was thus engaged at Cairo, Desaix and Regnier, twa
French generals, were employed, one in upper £g3^t^ in
Qi^elling the Mamalukes ^i^ that quarter, and libe oth^r

go BAMSAVS UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

in Syria, in the redaction of the strong fort of El ArisK,
where he was joined by Bonaparte, who, imniediately on
his arriv^, gave orders for one of die towers to be cannon-
aded, and, at the same time, summoned the place to sur-
render; which, after some time spent in negotiation, was
consented to, and the garrison allowed to retire to Bagdad.
The French army then. proceeded towards Gaza, where
they arrived on the twenty-eighth of February, having ex-
perienced, during their march through the deserts, all the
horrors of extreme thirst.

Gaza having surrendered, widiout opposition, they found
in it a large supply of military stores and provisions, which
enabled tiiem to direct their march for Jafia, the Joppa of
ancient days.

Having taken possession of Jafia, and established as was:
customary with him, in every place of importance which he
occupied, a divan, he proceeded on to Acre.

Thus far had success universally attended the arms of
Bonaparte ; and the rapidity of his conquests had given
him sanguine hopes of being able ultimately to establish
the ascendency of France in Egypt ; but he was destined to
experience a reverse of fortune, litde expected, by an occur-
rence which created no small degree of chagrin and aston-
ishment in the French army.

St. Jean D'Acre, so celebrated at die time of the crusades^
was, at this moment, defended by two men whose achieve-
ments entide them to an equal degree of celebrity widi its an-
cient defenders, and who combined the most heroic courage '
with a consummate knowledge of the modem art of war.
These were Sir Sidney Smith, a distinguished British naval
officer, and Col. Phillipeaux, an emigrant officer of Engi-
neers, and a school fellow and early companion of Bona-
parte.

Under the able conduct of these men, St. Jean D*Acre,
resisted all the efforts of military skill and determined cou-
rage of the French army. From the seventeenth of March,
to the ninth of May, no less than nine attempts to storm had
been made, and as often failed, notwithstanding that the

EGYPT. 81

French made frequent lodgments on the ramparts, and their
flag was frequently seen to wave on the outer angle of the
tower. The despair of the inhabitants animated them to
oppose the most determined resistance. The garrison had
been long expecting a reinforcement, which, however, did
not arrive until the fifty-first day of the siege. This was the
signal for a vigorous attack on the part of the French, who
hoped to get possession of the town previous to the disem*
barkation of the reinforcements. Accordingly, on the next
morning, the ninth of May, the French commander in chief,
having during the preceding night made a lodgment on the
second story of the north-east tower, where the French
troops had intrenched themselves with two traverses across
the ditch, composed of sand bags, with the bodies of their
dead, built in with them, continued to carry on his opera*
tions with every appearance of success. Already had a
breach been effected, when, at this critical moment. Sir
Sidney, having by unexampled energy, succeeded in land*
ing the troops, placed himself at their head, and marched
lip to the breach, each man being armed with a pike. A
heap of ruins served as a breast work for both, the muzzles
of dieir muskets, and the spear heads touched, and but for
the presence and heroic example of their leader, the Turks
must have fallen a sacrifice to the insatiable fury of their
enemies. A sorde was made from the garden of the Se-
raglio, (to which place the pacha D'Jezzar had reluctantly
admitted the troops,) on the enemy's third parallel or near-
est trench, which obliged the French to expose themselves
to the flanking fire of the garrison, and eventually caused
the destruction of all that remained. A new breach was,
however, effected, the fire of the besiegers bringing down
whole sheets of the wall at a time. Bonaparte was, at this
time, on the Mount of Richard Cceur de Lions, surrounded by
his generals, and aid-de-camps, indicating by his gestures
a renewal of the attack. A little before sunset, a massive
column appeared advancing in solemn step. The breach,
no longer defended by the advice of the pacha, was mount-
ed by this column, who descended into die garden, where

gj^ RAMSArs UNITfiBdAL HISTOST.

gi'e^ iiuittbcrs were decapitated by the TuAish soldiers ;
the suivivofs were obliged to retreat as expeditiously as
possible, and general Lannes was Severely wounded in en-
deavouring to encourage his men.

One eiFoft more was made by the French commander in
cljtef, but proved equally unsuccessful with the former; the
Firench soldiers absolutely refusing to mount the breach,
over the dead bodies of their comrades. On the night of
the seventeenth, the French army began to remove the
sick, the wounded, and the park of artillery ; and, on the
twenty-first, the generaie was beat, and the siege, after sixty
days continuance, was nused ; leaving behind them all their
heavy artillery, which afterwards fell into the hands of the
E^nglish.

Various insurrections having broken out in Egypt, the
utmost vigilance on the part of the French generals, could
scarcely preserve tlie public tranquillity. But that which
bore the most threatening aspect, was headed by an impos-
tor, who announced himself to be the angel £1 Mahdi,
whose coming is mentiqned in the Koran, and who assert-
led that the troops who should fight under his standard,
would be both invulnerable and invincible. Having collect-
ed a number of followers, he marched from Rahmanie to
Damenhour ; where, being met by a column of French, un-
der the command of general Lannes, his followers were de-
feated, fifteen hundred of them put to the sword, and him-
self wounded.

The last battle in which Bonaparte commanded in per-
son, was that of Aboukir, against a Turkish army, consist-
ing of about eighteen thousand men, under the command
of Mustapha Pacha, who had lately arrived on the coast
from Constantinople, and disembarking, had intrenched
himself on the peninsula. The success of this engagement
was so complete, that scarcely an individual remained of
the whole Turkish army, and their whole park of artillery,
&c. fell into the hands of Bonaparte.

During the Whole of this time, the British fleet had so
closely blockaded the coast, that no communication respect-

ing the affiun of Europe had reached Jum. AslonUhed at
receiving intelligence, through the intervention of the ene-
my, of a new war, as well as its disastrous consequences, he
determined to return to France, and to heal her distracted
councils, by elevating himself to empire. Leaving there-
fore a sealed packet, addressed to general Kleber, whooi
lie appointed to the command of the army, he embarked
^ith several of his &vourite generals, and some Mamft*
Ittkes for his personal guards, and his usual fortune attends
ing him, arrived at Paris, on the sixteenth of October.

The French were finally eipelled from Egypt^ by a Bri*
tiidi army under the command of the veteran general Aber*
crombie, who was killed at the close of the eag ag emem^
and the Turks once more left in quiet possession of the
country.^

* For a more particular acoount of the war in BgTpt, see Histoiy of the
wars of the French Reyolution.

VOJb, IZ. [1^]

91 BAMSArs UMIVERSAL HISTOKT.

CABTHAOE,

* Was situated near the spot where TimU mom standst and
was more ttieumt than Rome by thirty, or, as others say,
one hundred, or one hundred and forty years. It is agreed
by all, that the Phoenicians were its founders, under the coar
duct of Dido^K* Eliza, who flying from the avarice and
cruelty of her brodier Pygmalion, king of Tyre, landed^m
the coast of Africa, with a body of faithful adherents.

It is probafak she might find a few inhabitants in the
place, whom its local advantages had induced to aetde
diere ; but to her Carthage is indebted for a regular founda-
tion, and the establishment of its future greatness. Its
progress, however, was gradual ; and its early history, like
that of most other ertates, is involved in obscuri^. Succes-
sive additions raised it to a rank with the most celebrated
cities <m earth.

At the period of its greatest splendour, Carthage was
suiTounded by a triple wall, flanked, at intervals of four
hundred and eighty feet, by towers. Between the walls,
under arcades, were stables sufficiently large for the recep-
tion of three hundred elephants, and four thousand horses,
together with all things necessary for their maintenance.
Twenty thousand foot soldiers were also provided with
lodgings in the same place. There were two different har-
bours established, the one for commerce, the other for ves-
sels of war, of which, as many as two hundred and twenty
might find separate accommodadons at once. Beautiful pa-
rapets, and arsenals for military stores, were placed round
these ports. The city of Carthage itself, occupying the
space of twenty-three miles in circumference, was built on
four eminences, on the highest of which stood the citadel,
rendered strong from surrounding outworks, and also from
the advantages of a favourable situation. We may easily
imagine how numerous and magnificent were the tem]des
and public buildings in a town containing seven hundred

J -

thousand iohabitanto, endowed witli the sovereignty of the
sea for six centuries, and, consequently, enjoying die com*
nerce of the known world. Yet of all this gprandeur not a
wreck remains ; and the once omnipotent city of Carthage,
now lies buried under the ruins of its ovm walls. The ca*
sual appearance of druns and reservoirs are the only ob»
jects, which can now lead to the discovery of its original
position, and identify its site.

At one period the Carthaginians were possessed of the
greater part of Spain, Sicily, and the islands of the Medi-
terranean, in addition to numerous establishments which
they had formed, for die support and extension of their
trade with other countries. Their own immediate terri-
tory, however, consisted in what now forms the kingdom
of Tunis, which was once a city in the Carthaginian do-
main. Utica was reckoned second in point of size and po^
pulation, and next to this ranked Hippo. Other cities
bordered on the coast, or appeared in the more inland parts
of the country, in great numbers. They were chiefly situ*
ated on lakes, which frequently occur in thia quarter of
Africa. For the support of these establishments, all spo^
of the burning circumjacent sands, that would admit of cul-
tivation, became the objects of their most assiduous care.
But with all their industry and perseverance, they could
only fertilise a narrow strip along die edges of lakes, and
the inconsiderable rivers of this district. In excepdon to
this general rule, the soil, on which Carthage stocid, pro*
duced the most abundant harvests of every kind of grain.

Monarchy is supposed to have been the original govern-
ment of Carthage ; neither is it known, at what period
it assumed the form of a republic. It is, however, gene«
rally allowed, that the republic consisted of the people, a
very numerous senate, and two suffetes or presiding magis-
trates. These suffetes, corresponded in rank and power,
with the consuls at Rome, and kings at Lacedsmon; but
were not, like the latter, chosen for life. They were elected
from amongst the richest of the citizens, that they might
be iht better able to support their dignity widi splemlour-

i.X

3ft, RAM8AY*S UirnrftBSAL HISTORY.

When the votes of the senate were unanimous^ tiiey )l6tf-'
jessed the power t>f giving laws, from which there was tM3
appeal. But, when the suflrages were divided, or when dii»
suffetes stood alone, die decision was referred to the peo^
pie, who then gave the final decree. " Hence,'' says Poly*
bins, ^^ arose the misfortunes of Carthage, since, in die last
Punic wars, the judgment of die people, misled by ^eit.
orators, prevailed over the wiser di<^tes of the senate.**
There were, likewise, two other tribunals ; but their pur^
port or authority is merely conjectural. These were the
centumviri, or council of a hundred, chosen from amongrt
the senators, and the quinqueviri, or council of five, elected
from the members of the centumvirate. It is probable that
the centumvirate discussed and suggested matters to the
senate, and that the quinquevirate presided over all, even
the suiFetes themselves. But whatever were the powers of
these various orders, their regulations appear generally to
have been gmded by wisdom and discretion ; since the
history of the republic was, for a long period, un^blHed
either by se&ition, the insubordination of the people, <xr op««
pression on the part of their leaders.

The barbarous custom of sacrificing infants to a god,
supposed to be Saturn, was a long time prevalent in Car^
thage. These victims were selected from the first fSunilies,^
their mothers being constrained to assist in the execution
of their offspring ; and, in proportion, as they suppressed
the acute feelings of maternal affection, they obtained the
esteem and applause of die surrounding populace. The
number of two hundred were immolated to this sanguinary
deity at once, in times of any particular distress. They
reverently worshipped nearly all the Egyptian, Greek, Ro-
man, and Phcenician gods. Neither were they exempt from
other absurd superstitions derived from these nations, such
as holding up female prostitution as an act of piety, and
practising it, even in their temples, the profits being appro^
priated as the woman's portion. Yet we cannot imagine
that a practice, so disgusting to decency and morality,
could have been general. But even this is not more pecu-

liar ihtti other custbins weH knowil to have been in force at*
Carthage ; some whoUjr harmleBs, while others agwn, wercf
attended with the most baneful consequences. None^ but
the condemned, were allowed to be the messengers of any
pabBc or private calamity ; it being supposed, that the he-
rald of any bad news would meet with a speedy death. Oil
diis Bij^^antion, criminals were reserved, expressly for
that purpose. When the city was threatened widi any
great misfitntune, die walls were immediately hiing with
black ; during a campaign, soldiers were denied the use of
trine, and magistrates, during their office, were subject t6
the same restriction. The officers and soldiers wore a ring
fdr each campaign, in which they had served. On the re*
turn of a general from an unsuccessful expedition, though
he wereiree from die imputation of any blame or neglect,
he was put to death ; yet, notwithstanding this inhuman
severity, their army was never in want of a commander;
The Carthaginians possessed die most iniplicit faith in oran
cular divinations. They were accused by the Roihan's of
obduracy, and even ferocity ; and, according to them, their
sole object was the amassing of riches. But it ought to hit
tonsidered that this charkcter was given by dieir most in-
veterate enemies. Whatever may have been the general
character of this people, it is certain there might be foutid
amongst diem, men of the most distinguished generosity^
as well as heroic bravery.

From the few existing remains of the Punic language,
it appears to have been of Phoenician origin. By the in-
troduction of words from various other tongues, with which
the commerce of the Carthaginians rendered them familiar,
their language was aftierwards considerably enriched. In
Malta, many of its idioms are still retained ; and the Celdc
is said to bear a near affinity to it. Their written charac*
ters were partly composed of the Phoenician, and partly of
Ae Hebrew. Much encouragement, certainly, was not
given by the Qarthaginians to the proinotion of the sci-
ences ; yet it would be unjust to affirm, that they treated
them wid) neglect. Not only Are ai'chivea of this people,

gg RAMSArs umvetsAL histobt.

but an their literary and historical worits ^ere destroyed
by the Romans; an act which strongly eymces a mean
jealousy, lest the fame of this nation "should rival tkeir
own.

The Romans formed soldiers from the surroun£ngtta*
tions, as intrepid as themselves; but the Carthaginianfl
were obliged to hire distant mercenaries, who could not be
supposed to possess'that innate patriotism and zeal, whidt
natives feel in the defence of their country. Notwithstand*
ing these obs^les, the commanders, who were tmiversalfy
Carthaginians, inspired their armies with that energy, whidi
alone can give a probability of success. Yet, after aB, from
the too great mixture of nations, they could never equal
the discipline, nor attain the tactics of the Romans. Theit
mariners, inured to hardships by long voyages, were alike
brave and experienced ; yet, the inconvenience which weak*
ened their armies, had also the same effect on their navy.
The number of foreign auxiliaries was far greater than
that of the Carthaginian sailors. On this sole account,
their most able admirals often met with signal defeats*
Their knowledge of naval tactics may be conceived, from
their long voyages of discovery, as well as of trade. Un-
der Himilco, they explored the western coast of Europe,
under Hanno, they made the circuit of Africa, and beheld
the isles of Britain. There were many others, who made
excursions of greater or less extent in the establishment of
their extensive commerce ; but their names are unknown.

The Carthaginians appear to have exported from the pro-
duce of their own country, wheat, fruits of every kind, wax,
honey, oil, and skins of beasts. The chief manufacture
consisted in the materials, necessary for the equipment of
vessels ; they are supposed to have been the inventors of
galleys with four rows of oars, and also of large cables.
From Egypt they obtained fine hemp, paper, and wheat;
from the coasts of the Red sea, spices, aromatics, gold,
pearls, and precious stones ; and, from Tyre and Phoenicia,
' they procured purple and scarlet, rich stuffs, and tapestry.
Returning fr^m the western coasts, to which they carried

liidr dilkMiC comaoditieft £ar aale^ they hrouglit baek t»
^be ea^t, iron, tan, lead, and brass. They seem to have
leafed die greateat emolument from their traffic with the
Feriiatis, Garamantes, and Ethiopians. This commerce
was Goadttcted by means of caravans, and was esteemed
highly honourable, even in the leading members of the
state* They had a peculiar method of carrying on their
tirade with the Lyfaians, the manner of which was a convinc*
ing proof of theit mutual integrity. When die Carthagi-
nians reached their shores, they unloaded their merchan*
-dizes, and placed Aesn on an eminence, at the same time
Musing a thick imoke, in order to apprise the Lybians of
ihekr arrival. These immediately repaired to the spot,
jwhete tbe goods were dq;K>sited ; and having placed a cex^
lain quantity of gold near it, they retreated to a great dis-
tance. 1(^ on the retilm of the Carthapnians, they consi-
dered the sum adequate to the value of their commodities,
Aey accepted it, and immediately set sail. On the other
hand, if they did not conceive the money to be sufficient,
tiiey again retired to their vessels, without taking any thing
with diem ; and when the Lybians* found that the bargain
Was not accepted, llkey increased the sum, till such time, as
it was thought pnqportionate to the value of the mei^chan-
dize. Neidier of these people attempted to take improper
advanti^ges over the other, although they had such repeat^
ed opportunities.

Dido, whom we have already mentioned as the undoubt-
ed founder of Carthage, appears, when she landed on the
African coast, not only to have been young and beautiful,
but equally subtie and courageous ; neither is she less cele-
brated for her wisdom. Qn her arrival, she is reported to
have demanded only as much ground as an ox's hide would
encompass. This request being granted, she cut the skin
into narrow strips, and, by that means, encircled a large
extent of territory, on which she built the ciudel called
B3rr8a. The Qartiiaginians, however, annually paid a tri-
bute to the Africans, for the territory they thus possessed.
The new city soon became populous and flourishing, by

nAlf8AT*8 VW9fM9Mh HISTORY.

•ttraciied by n view of tctiEc. Nor waf; the fttratngemf fagr
yhich thqr e:ip«nded tbtir doowii^. IcM vivgiUar. tlwi tb^
jMfOiB by yfhich th^y obtmed tbcir fii:»t foacioB. On ikbt
Cyrc wans coi^pliaixi»g of the ad^mntag^a tbay had. tfHwi^
in respect to t^txHogcy^ii va» agreed, bptve«ii C^ene afi4
-Canbage^ that two coomuAsarks irom each ahould $$$
off at an appointed hour, and ihat the spot on which Aef
Qiet should be the boundaiy beitweisn the two nationa. . Two
l>i:x>th^rs, nam^d Phihfeni, wer^ deiNi&ted by.Cartbage^.wba^
making use of their mpst stmnuDus-csertioDat nuijube der
puties of Cyren^ much m^arer ih&ix ciqr than Ihej expected
They, tl^refore, complained of being sniprisedi accnaed tba
^ard>%{pni$u&s of having set off before, the ^a» appointed*
^d therefore demanded that the agreement should be ^^nt
4;elled. ^*' Suggest, tbW said the Fhil«iiit ^^ aiuy otbar
^ode of decision, and we wiU submit to yoinr proposals.*!
To which, the Cyi'enean3 anfiwered, !^£i|her ij^ediatelf
vetire, and. yield the advantages, you have, gained^ or suffer
yourselves to be buried ^ve, and your tomb shall a^ve as
^ boundary." Their pr<q>08al$ were accepted by these ht*
x:oic.. brothers, who underwei^ the moat dreadiul death
imaginable, in order to secure the ^st^nsion of territoiy
fhey had g^ned for their country— -an actioii by no means
4^pwoi^y of jQpmparijBoii with that of.* Gurtius, who, for the
sake of Rome, precipitated himself into the guJ^f*

In the early ^s^ny of Cnrthage, there is. a chasm of
three hundred years, owing to the destruction of the Punic
archives. by the f^qm^n^. Itf howevejr, appears, that from
their ve^ outset^ the inhabitsmts applied themselves to
naval tactics, and, were the objects of terror, during the
reign of Cyrus and pambyses* Their principal revenue
was derived from the mines in Spain, in which country
they appear to h^ve established themselves very early.
From t^e riches dr^wn out of these mines, they were ena*
bled to equip the most formid;ible armaments. It is ind-
p:iated by Justin, that the first Carthaginian settlement, in
Spaip, was made when the city of Gades, now called Cadiz,

.^•>-'7^

GARTHAGB. ^

i^as in its infkncy. The Spaniards, finding this new colony
begin to flourish, attacked it with a numerous army, and
obliged the colonists to implore the assistance of the mother
cx>nntry ; which being granted, the Spaniards were not only
vepulsed, but compelled to jneld the whole province, in
which their new city stood. Encouraged by this success,
the Cardiapntans attempted the conquest of the whole
country, but iailed.

HaTiTig made some successful maritime expeditions,
Mnd having obtained considerable advantages in Sicily,
'they turned their arms against Sardinia. But this enter-
prise proved abortive ; and, losing half their forces on the^
spot, diey banished the remaining portion of their army,
fogether with their commander, Machseus. Feeling hurt'
l^ this disgrace, he invested the city with the companions
of his exile^ Owing to those divisions, which involved in
fierce contention the nearest relations, the attention due to
9f achsBus was neglected, on his soliciting, that he and his
fellow-soldiers might be restored to their former stations.
The besieged, however, finding themselves hard pressed,
aent proposals of peace to Machseus, through the medium*
of his son Catalo, who was in the opposite party. These
were rejected ; and the cruel father ordered a cross to be
erected, and his son to be fastened to it. The town after-
wards surrendering, Macheus condemned those senators
to death, who had taken an active part towards his banish-
ment ; but, at length, he was killed, in attempting to assume'
the sovereign power.

What remains of the Carthaginian annals- does not ex-
hibit those terrible seditions, which sprinkled Rome with
blood, and made her republic totter. In Carthage, there
were seven or eight powerful families ; the Hamilcars, As-
drubals, Hannos, Bomilcars, Magos, Hailnibals, and Hi-
milcos, whose rivalry secured the public freedom. They
mutually watched, and counterpoised each other. One no
sooner aimed a^ dominion, than another opposed him. In
the battles, which took place between them, the various au-
thorities of the sufFetes, senate, centumviri, and quinquevir},

VOL. IX. [13]

^ RAMSAY'S UNITUUAL HISTOBT.

sdll remuned, aQ(i maintaioed the equilibrium ; or, if it were
for a moment destroyed, the existing authori^ easily
brought back order, as nothing in the government was al-
tered. On the contrary, among the Romans, the consti-
tuted powers themselves took the field ; the people wished
to be superior to the senate ; the tribunes to the consuls i
so that when peace was restored, from the various preten-
sions of each body, the seeds of war still existed. Among
the Carthaginians, nothing further was necessaiy, than to
suppress those rendered dangerous by their power, which
they rigorously performed ; banishing whole families tt
once. Thus the general, who, upon the crecUt of his par-
tisans, had been placed at the head of dte army, if tinauc-
cessful, durst not return to Carthage; or, if he returned, he
became a victim to the opposing cabal. Hence the fre-
quent examples, in the history of these people, of van-
quished generals killing themselves, or, when returned ii^o
the city, of being punished for their ill fortunes by a cru^I
death. Vet it does not appear, that these catastrophes
caused such sanguinary commotions as in Rome, because
the government itself still remained unshaken.

The wars of the Carthaginians and Romans bear also a
difierent character. The latter, in the flourishing days of
Ae republic, fought only for its aggrandizement and glory,
and the nations no sooner submitted to the consular forces,
than they were sure of being protected and maintained io
their possessions. The Carthaginians, on the contrary, are
represented, by the Romans, as greedy traders, who pur-
sued gain wherever it could be obtained ; and seized all
which suited them, without any regard to its cniginal pos-
sessors.

Their knowledge of each other was, from an early day,
marked with immediate and mutual distrust. But notwith-
standing the disagreements, to which a contraries of in-
terests sometimes gave rise, the two nations a long time
respected each other ; and their mutual animosity did not
be^n, till the Carthaginian conquest, in Sicily, became a
subject of alarm to the Romans.

m^^^

• ^

The Carthaginians, before they carried their arms into
diis large island, had made their essay upon the lesser
<Hies. On the Spanish coast, they had subdued Ivica, and
established themselves in Gaza, Malta, Corsica, and Sar-
dinia. When they attempted Sicily, to ensure its conquest,
they made astonishing preparations. Their army consisted
of three hundred thousand men ; their fleet was composed
of more than two thousand men of war, and three thousand
transports ; and, with these immense forces, they made no
«Aoubt of conquering the whole island,- in a single campaign.
But in this they found themselves deceived. Hamilcar,
-dieir leader, having landed his army, invested Himera, a
city of considerable importance. He carried on his attacks
with ardour ; but was at length surprised, and defeated by
Oelon and Theron, the tyrants of Syracuse and Agrigen*
turn. Of his very numerous army, not a single person
escaped; all being either killed or taken prisoners. Nor
^ifere the Carthaginians much more fortunate in their fleet,
4br of the enormous number equipped for this expedition,
only eight vessels were saved from the enemy. But even
these did not return to Carthage, being overtaken by a
etorm, in which they all perished. No description is equal
to the distress and consternation of the Carthaginians on
hearing these mournful tidings. They immediately dis-
pfttehed ambassadors, sueing for peace on any terms. This
was granted, on condition, that they should pay two thou-
sand talents, to defray the expenses of the war, and erect
two temples, where the articles of the treaty should be de-
posited and held sacred. Hard as the conditions were, the
Carthaginians, as a testimony of their gratitude for Gelon's
moderation, voluntarily presented his wife with a crown of
cme hundred talents value.

There is here a chasm of seventy years in the history of
Ae Carthaginians. But we know that they had enlarged
dieir dominions in Africa ; and had shaken off the tribute,
which they paid for the possession of their territory.

Being solicited, by the Egestines, to protect them from
the assaults of the Seluntines, two amaU states in Sicily,

^ RAMSW'S UKlTfiBSAL HISTORY.

they again attempted the reducUon of that islud- X)reat
preparations were made to accomplish this arduous busi-
ness i and an immense army and navy were instandy raised*
The command was given to Hannibal, who, hayioig landed
on the Sicilian shores, directed his march towards SeUniMf«
marking his path with general devastatioo. Having tak^i
the city by storm, he treated the inhabitfmts w:ith the most
barbarous cruelty ; sixteen thousand persons f^ in a dread-'
ful scene of massacre and confusion ; the temples were pij^
laged, and the city razed to the ground. After tUs, he
proceeded to Himera, which, after an ineffectual but valiaaC
resistance, yielded to the same fate as Selinus.

To such a degree, indeed, were the Carthaginians anir
mated by their late acquisitions, that they ant^cipi^ed die
.certain subjection of the whole island. But as age and ia^
firmity had almost incapacitated Hannibal, for the fatigues
of war^ they divided the command between him and Imil*
car, the son of Hanno, one of his own fiunijy. These ad^
vanced to Agrigentum, which, after a severo contest, yielded
to the Carthaginians, who did not fail to practise thear
usual barbarity. After having razed the city of Agrigea*
tum, they made an incursion into the territories of Gda^
and Camerina, both of which they ravaged in the most
dreadful manner, carrying off immenifte quantities of phuw
der. The inhabitants, now finding their enemy of such su^
perior force, abandoned their country, as the oi4y eipedi*.
ent for the preservation of their lives. The Carthaginiaa
army, however, being much debilitated, partly by the ca^
sualties of war, and partly by the virulence of the plague^
a herald was despatched to S3rracuse, to offer terme of peacej
by the stipulations of which, the people of Gela and Came-
rina, were reinstated in their respective cities, upon theii:
paying an annual tribute to the victors.

DionysiUs, who had been appointed g^neraUssimo of th#
Sicilian armies, and who had concluded the treaty with np
other view, than that of gaining time to a^ck the common
^nemy with greater force, soon broke the peace, by destroy-
ing the persons and possessions of the Carthagioiansy who

CASTHAfiB. gf

had mllded in Syracuse, on the fatth of treaties. Diony-
Mus, In the meantime, despatched a herald, bearing a letter
to the toMie, and peoffle of Carthage, informing them, dtait
if diey did not immediately "snthdraw their garriscms horn
.all the Greek cities in Sicily, diey should be exterminated.

Not waiting, however, for an answer, he advanced with
his army to attack the city of Motya, an extensive colony
of the Cartiiaginians. Soon after he proceeded, in person,
wilh tile mi^or part of his forces, to reduce the cities in
alliance with the Carthaginians, leaving his brother, Lep*
ttnes, to carry on the siege of Motya. Dionysius destroyed
their territories with fire and sword ; and most of the towns
opened their gates at his approach ; but the cities of Egesta
and Entella, baffled all his efibrts ; being at length obliged
to give up the contest, he returned to Motya, and carried
<m the siege of that place with the utmost ardour.

After a long and valiant defence, the Motyans yielded to
file Greeks, who, for some time, continued a horrible mas-
•acre of tile vanquiidied ; but on their flying to the temples,
Ae victors contented themselves with plundering the town.

Dionysius soon after made another attempt upon Egesta,
and was again repulsed. Alarmed at his progress, the Car*
thaginians despatched a powerful army, under Himiko,
who retook Motya. He next took Messina ; after which,
moat of the Siculi revolted from Dionysius. Notwith*
standing this defection, Dionysius, with forces to the
amount of tiiirty tiiousand foot, and three thousand horse,
advanced against tiie Carthaginian army, while Leptines at*
tacked tiieir fleet, and was totally defeated. Dionysius,
cfispirtted by this loss, withdrew his army to S3rracu8e. Hi«
milco immediately invested the city ; and, but for a maKgk
nant pestilence, would Certainly have become master of it:
but tiie havoc of this dreadful malady, combined with an
unexpected attack from Dionysius, terminated his career of
victory, being obliged to pay three hundred talents, that
he might retire, witii his shattered forces to Africa. Un-
able to survive his misfortunes, he soon after put a period

90 BAMSArS imtVBlBAL HISTORY.

Undaunted, however, amidst all these calamities, die
Cartiiapnians repeated their attacks on the isbmd of Sicily.
Under the conduct of Mago, they landed an army of eighty
thousand men. This expedition, however, was attended
with no better success than the preceding. Reduced to
great straits for want of provisions, they were obliged, once
more, to sue for peace. The Sicilian war continued, with
little interruption, for nearly twenty-five years, attended
with various success. At the expiration of this period^ die
Carthaginians, availing themselves of the civil dissentions
existing in Sjoacuse, exerted all their powers, assisted by
Icetas, t3rrant of Leontium, to subjugate die whole island.

The S3rracusans, reduced to the greatest distress, called
in the aid of the Corinthians. They immediately sent a
small body of troops, under the command of Timoleon, an
experienced general. He effected a landing, and marched
against Icetas, and surprised him at the head of five thou-
sand men. Of these he put three hundred to the sword,
and took six hundred prisoners. He then took post in Sy*
racuse, where he defended himself with such resolution,
diat the united forces of Icetas and the Carthaginians,
could not dislodge him.

Here he continued for some time inactive, expecting
reinforcements from Corinth. These succours, howevier^
were a long time detain^, which gave the Carthaginians an
opportunity of posting a strong squadron to intercept them
on their passage. But the commander left his station,
thinking it impossible for the enemy to effect their pas**
sage, at such a stormy season, and ordered his seamen to
crown themselves with garlands, and adorn their vessels
with trophies of victory, at die same time declaring, that he
had destrc^ed the succouiis which Timoleon expected. By
this stratagen^ he vainly thought to intimidate Timoleon
into a capitulation. The supplies were speedily waited by
a gentle breeze into Sicily, without meeting with* any oppo*
sition. The Carthaginian general was no sooner apprised
of the arrival of this reinforcement, than, struck with terror,
and dreading a revolt of his mercenaries, he immediately

lA^

OARTHAGC fff

set sail for Africa, in spite of the remonstrances of Icetas*
No sooner had he reached his native country, than, over«
come with shame and^morse, he killed himself. His body
was afterwards hung on a gallows, in order to deter sue*
ceeding generals from following his example.

After the flight of his most powerful opponent, Timoleott
carried all before him. He obliged Icetas to renounce
his alliance with the state of Carthage ; and even deposed
him. On the other hand, the Carthaginians made another
attempt, on the independence of Sicily with an immense ar*
mament; but the fate of this enterprise was similar to that
of the former, the forces being totally overthrown by Ti-
moleon. After having gained this signal victory, Timo^
leon returned to Syracuse, where he was received with the
greatest demonstrations of joy^ and applause ; while, from
the successive misfortunes which had attended their endea*
vours, the Carthaginians were induced to conclude a peace,
on terms honourable to the Sicilian confederates.

Reiterated ill success, however, could not damp the spi*
rit, nor lessen the zeal of the Carthaginians, to accomplish
the conquest of Sicily. In their greatest reverses, they had
never been totally expelled from thence. They had still-
preserved some territory there ; and ports, by which they,
r^-entered the island, and renewed their warfare, whenever
favourable opportimities ofiered. The civil war, excited in
Sjrracuse by Agathocles, was one which they chose to im-
prove. Sometimes they were in alliance with the tyrant,;
sometimes with the nobility, whom he had expelled. The
protection of the Carthaginians gave a superiority to the
latter. Agathocles found himself pressed within the walls
of Syracuse. At a time when his enemies thought his
escape impossible, he loaded his fleet with troops, deceived
the Carthaginian admiral, and carried the war into Africa.

Agathocles gained a signal victory over the troops, levied
in haste, with which the Carthaginians opposed him, soon
stfter he had landed. His appearance excited the utmost
astonishment, as the Carthaginians imagined his forces to
lie destroyed, since they had been shut up in Syracuse.

gg» RAMSArs umvcRsrAi. utrroRT.

They eould not conceive by what means he had been abfe,
not only to^ reach Africa, in die face of a powerful fleet,
by which he was blocked up, but, with the remainder of
his beaten forces, to defeat an army stronger than his own.
Prepossessed and blinded with superstition, they now re-
proached themselves with deceit, in having sacrificed, in
the room of children of quality, the offspring of poor fami-
lies, whom they had purchased for the purpose. To ex-
piate this strange species of impiety, two hundred children,
of the first families of the town, were immolated to Saturn ;
and more than three Hundred persons, who reproached
themselves with having failed in this duty, offered them-
selves as victims, to appease the wrath of this sanguinary
deity, by their blood.

After these expiations, the Carthaginians despatched a
messenger, to recal Hamilcar from Sicily. The utmost
endeavours, however, were used, to prevent the news of
Agathocles's successes reaching the ears of the besieged.
On die contrary, it was given out, that his army and fleet
had been totally destroyed. While matters remained in
this state, a galley entered the harbour of Syracuse, pro-
claiming his victories. Hamilcar, having observed that the
g^urison flocked down to the vessel, and expecting to find
the walls unguarded, thought this a favourable opportunity
to begin the intended assault. His troops had gained con-
siderable advantages, when they were discovered by the
patrole. Upon this, a warm contest ensued, and the Car-
thaginians were repulsed with great loss.

The Agrigentines, perceiving to what a deplorable state
the Carthaginians and Syracusans had mutually reduced
each other, commenced a war with both parties, and shortly
Wrested from them many valuable places.

Agathodes, in the meantime, carried on his conquests
with inconceivable rapidity, and prepared for die siege of
Carthage itself. But, notwithstanding the repeated losses
which the Carthaginians had sustained, they still mustered
a powerful army, to oppose his progress. While matters
were in this situation, advice was received of the destruc-

tiw of the CftiiJia^aiaa fpr^es bef<H>e Syracuse; whick
i|&ade 3uch an impressioti op their countrymen, that, had
ftot a sudden rebellion, arisen in the camp of Agathocles^
they would have probably lost their city, before they could
Jiave' recovered from the terror, which auch an unexpected
«vent had excited.

In the year following, an engagement took place, in which
^either party gained any advantage. But Agathocles, find*
^g himse^ unable any longer to carry on the war alone,
^ngagi&d the assistance of Ophelias, one of the captains of
Alexander the Great, who, with an immense army, march*
£d to the aid of his new ally. But these auxiliarieis werf
scarcely arrived, ^hen this treacherous Sicilian cut off their
commander ; and, by fair {»-omises, persuaded the troops ta
serve under himself.

At the head of such a numerous army, he jtiow assumed
•ihe title of king of Africa, carrying on his conquests wid|
^eat success. But, in the midst c^ his victorious careef,
$he Sicilians formed an association in favour of liberty, tO
hreak which required his immediate presence. Therefore^
returning, he left the command in the hands of his son,
Archagathus, who despatched EuQiachus, with a large de*
tachment, to invade some of the nei^bouring provinces*
This general, elated with his constsint good fortune, deter*
mined to penetrate into the more distant parts of Africa*
Here, too, he at first was successful; but, hearing that a
formidable body of the natives were advancing to give him ^
battle, he retreated precipitately to the sea coast, after har*
i|ig lost a number of his men by the climate and fatigue.

The Carthaginians, informed of the misfortunes of En-
machus, redoubled their activity an^ resolution. Theit
(Exertions were now attended with a share of good fortune*
llaving cut off two out of the three divisions, into which
Archagathus had split his army, they hemmed lA the othet
with the commander at their head, in such a manner aa
completely to intercept all supplies of provisions. Having
found means, however, to apprise Agathocles of their diffl*
cnlties, he hastened to their i-c^cue, with cpMidieriH^

VOL^ IX. [14]

100 RAMSAY^ USmXtAL mSTOBT.

force*, and, Mtacking die Carthagiaiui camp, made a e«B-
eiderable impression on it; but, being deserted by his men
eenaries, he was finally obliged to withdraw, with greai
precipitation and toes.

As an acknowledgment to the god« for diis advantage;,
the Carthaginians determined to sacrifice all the prisoacrB
of distinction. During the performance of ^se detesta-
ble rites, a vitrient gust of wind suddenly arose, which,
wafting the flames to die sacred tabernacle, near the altar^
^read to the adjoining tents of the genend, and other prin^
(upal officers. This occasioned a dreadful alarm dirou^
Ae whole army, whidt was heightened by the rapid pro<
gress of the fire. In a short time the camp was laid in
ashes, and many of the soldiers, endeavouring to cany oC
their arms, and the rich baggage of their officers, perished
bi the flames. Some of them, who had escaped the fury of
the conflagration, however, did not meet with a happici
fcte, for the Africans who had forsaken Agathocles, com-
ing over in a body to the aid of the Carthaginians, were
mistaken, by die fugitives, for the whole Syracusan army>
advancing is order of battle to attack them. Under this
fatal deception, a horrid scene of confusion ensued. Some
ran off; others fell down in heaps, one upon another; while
others engaged Aeir comrades, mistaking them for the
enemy. Five thousand men lost their lives in this c<»iflict;
die rest sought refuge within the walls of Carthage ; nor
could a return of day light, for some time, dissipate their
apprehenaions. The African deserters, unable to compre-
hend the cause of the confusitm, were so terrified, that they
ratumed to the army of Agatho<;leB. These, seeing a body
of troops advaacing^warda diem, in good order, conceiv-
ed they were marching to attack them, and, therefore, the
cry of " To asms !" was immediately thundered through
the whole* army. The lamentable screams wtdi which the
air was rent, ctHufoined with the flames, towering to the
heavens, c<»Toborated this opinion, and increased the coa-
Aision.
• Agathocles, disfurited by this catastrophe, immediately

tttraed his thougbits uj^n ceetriving sontke neaas for hit

escape, which, at last, with great difficulty, he effected.
•On his departure, the soldiers chose a leader from among
themselves, having put to dea^ his tvfo so&s, and made a
peace widi the Carduiginians.

Between this period and the commencement of the first
Punic war, nothing remarkable appears in the history of the
Carthaginians. At diis time they possessed extensive
dominions in Africa; had' made considerable progress in
Spain ; were masters of Sardinia, Cornea, and all the ist
ands on the coast of Italy, and had ejstended their con*
^ests over a great part of Sicily. The Mamertines being
leduced to great distress by HierOy king of Syracuse, had
determined to cede die city of Messina, die only one re**
maining in their possession, to that prince. On Hiero's ad*
vancing with his troops to take possession, he was met by
Hannibal, who, at that time, commanded the Cardiaginiaa
army in SKcily, under the pretence of congratulating Um on
his good fortune. While Hannibal amused htm with com«
mon place conversation, some of die Carthaginian troops
were despatched towards Messina. On seeing a new rein*
forcement arrived for their succour, the Mamortines were
divided into several opini<ms. Some proposed to accept
4ie protection of Carthage ; odiers were for rejecting its
services, and surrendering to the king of Syracuse ; but not
agreeing on eitheV alternative, at last it was deterininedi
diat they should call in the aid of the Romans. Deputies
were therefore immediate^ sent, offering their city to the
Romans, and imploring their protectipn in the most pathe*
tic terms. After some debate, their request was granted.
The Romans sent Appius Claudius, ai the head of a strong
army, to attempt a passage to Sicily. Caius Claudius was
despatched with a few vessels to reconnoitre the coast. He
found the Carthaginian squadron so much superior to his
own,* that it would have been bordering on madness to at-
tempt a passage into' Sicily at that time. He, however,
crossed the straits, and made the necessary preparations for
the transportatien of the forces. The Carthaginians^ 00

fj^ RAMSAVS UmVBMAL HISTORY.

Iieing itiSbirmtioi the desigfti of tHt Romans, fitted ouft»
strong squadron of galleys^ under the command of HaimOi
to intercept their fleet, which they accordingly attacked
%ith great fury, near the coast of Sicily. A violent stona
arose during the engagement, which dashed many of d»
Roman vessels on Ae rocks, and the Carthaginian squad"*
ton, likewise, sustained coi^tiderable injury.

Such was ihe beginning of the first Punic war, which is
said to have lasted twenty*four years. The two nations
irom this tittle, were accustomed to look upon each other
as enemies. The Carthaginians were actuated by the de*-
sire of extending their possessions in Sicily, and maintain^
ing their accustomed empire of the sea. The consideration
of humbling a haughty rival, in no small degree stimulated
their exertions. On the other hand, a spirit of opposition,
combined with the hopes of adding Sicily land Sardinia to
their dominions, urged the Romans to wai* with the Carlhar
ginians. It was alleged, that a detestation of die clur
racter of diat rival republic was the principal incentive.
But this abhorrence was mutual; for Cardiaginian faidi
was much on a par with Roman probity, when ambition
or interest was concerned.

In the first year of this war, the Carthaginians, in alls-*
ance with the Syracusans, laid siege to Messina. But not
.acting in unison, they were completely routed by the con-
sul, Appius Claudius. After this defeat, Hiero felt sudi
disgust at the conduct of the Carthaginians, that he imme-
diately entered into an alliance with the Romans. The
former soon felt the consequence of the change, for they
were bereft of all the cities on the western coasts of Si-
cily by the Romans. These had now only one object to
contend for, and one enemy to combat. At the- conclusion
of this successful campaign, they retired^ with the greatest
portion of their troops, into Italy, where they took up their
^inter quarters.

Hanno, the Carthaginian general, next year, fixed his
principal magazine at Agrigentum ; a place, highly fortified
hf nature,, buty from art, rendered almost impregnable^ pa^

Kit

Ckfihrljr^ fts ft wfti defended by * tiutnerotis gftfVlida, utide^
die tomttiftnd of Hftnnibal, a brave and experienced gene«*
riJ. Finding alt other means ineffectual, the Romans at*
tempted to reduce the place by famine ; but -wheik the gar^
rison was brought almost to the last extremity, a powerftd
reinforcement from Carthage, reanimated their depressed
spirits. The leader of Aese troops, while on his marchj
also received a deputation from some of the inhabitants of
Erbessa, the place where all the Roman magazines wero
eonftained, offering to put their town into the hands of the
Carthaginians. This being accordingly done, the. Romani
must inevitably have been compelled to abandon their en^
terprize, had they not received copious supplies of provW
sions from dieir ally, Hier6. But notwithstandmg all thtf
aid he could afford them, the difficulties to which they werf
reduced, must have decided their fate, had not diey ob«
tained possession of Agrigentum« Hannibal, however, widt
the greatest part of the garrison, made their escape. Such
was the end of this campaign, tn it, great losses were sus-
tained on both sides, from the complicated evils of famine^'
fatigue, and die ravages of war. The Carthaginians, in^
censed at their defeat, fined Hanno, who had fled to He«
raclea, in an immense sum of money, at the same time they
deprived him of his commission, which they conferred on
Hamikar ) while Hannibal was nominated to the command
of the fleet.

The admiral now received orders to ravage the coast of
Italy ; but the Romans having taken every precaution to
of^se his landing, he was unable - to execute his commin^
ston. At the same time the Romans, convinced of the ad^
vantages resulting from a superiority at sea^ immediately
built one hundred and twenty galleys, and subdued most of
die midland cities ; but the Carthaginians sdll maintained
their interest in the maritime places, so that the successei
of each, at the end of the campaign, were nearly equal.

In the fourdi year of die war, die Cardiaginian' admind
captured seventeen Romui galleys. Hanmibid next ad-
vanced at the head of fifty gaU^s^ i» brdffr to reconnoim

RAMSAY'S mOVBUAL HISTORY.

die remttMng naval ibrccs of die etteaiy. When mi thb
eRpedition^ he was attacked and defeated by them. Am*
mated by this success, the Ronuois, a second time, gained
a signal victory over him, taking eighty ships, besides thiiv
teen sunk, and making considerable slaughter among his
men. This in some degree, raised the dgected spirits of
the Romans. The excellent construction of the vessels of
the Carthaginians, and their ability in manieuvring them,
often disconcerted the best measures of their adversaries,
or rendered dieir valour useless. The Romans were not,
however, disheartened. They sup|dted their want of ex-
perience by the invention of the crow^a kind of macUne,
which, placed on the Rbman vessels, lifted up, or, by its
weight, pressed down and sunk ihe Carthaginian ships. It
is seldom that what astonishes does not terrify. The ef-
forts of these destructive machines finalfy secured victory
to the Romans, and &cilitated their carrying the war into
Africa.

Notwithstanding these defeats, the Cardiaginians stiB
maintained a very contemptible opinion of the Roman navy;
while, on the other hand, the Romans- dreaded the maritime
forces of dieir antagonists. With the shattered remains of
his fleet, Hannibal set sail for Carthage ; but to secure him-
aelf from the punishment, which he was confident would
be inflicted on him, he sent one of his friends forward^ be*
fore the final event of the battle could be puUicly known^
to acquaint the senate, that the Romans had put to sea with
a great number of heavy, ill built vessels, each carrying a
kind of machine, with the use of which the Cardiaginians
were unacquainted, and at the same time to inquire whether
Hannibal should attack them. The senate were unanimous
in dieir determinadon that the Romans should be attacked,
upon which the messenger informed them of the unfortu*
nate event of the batde. As die senate had already de»
dared that their admiral should fight, they spared his lifc^
smd continued him in the command of the fleet.

In a short time, Hannibal, with acoastderable number of
galleys, again sailed for the coast of Sardinia. He had not

Iieen on das station long, belore he was surprtMd by tho
Roman fleet, which captured manf of his ships, and took
■May prisoners. This io cttraged the remainder of hia
forces, that they immediately crucified dieir admiral. Had
he escaped to Cardiage, it is most probsMe he would have
met widi the same fate ; for, indiat country, it was fidsely
oonsidered as die mo^ heinous crime to be unfortunate.

In the meantime, diese disasters were, in some measure,
counterbalanced, by the successes gained in Sicily by Ha*
mikar. Arailing himself of a dissention, which existed
between the Romans and their Sicilian allies, he took dienr
by surprise, and put to the sword four diousand men. He
next proceeded to dislodge the Romans from their po s ts ■
took many cities, and overran great part of the island.

3oon after, we find that die Romans made themselves
masters of the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. In the sue*
ceedittg csunpaign, they took die town of Mytestratum, in
Sicily, from whence they proceeded towards Camarinaf
but, while on their march, diey were stirrounded, in a deep
valley, and in the most imminent danger of being cut off
by the Carthaginian army. While in this dilemma, M «
Calphumius Flamiaa, legionary tribune, demanded a de-
tachment of diree hundred chosen men, promising to divert
the attention of the Carthaginians, so as to eaaUe his col«
leagues to pass unmolested. He accomplished diis design
with a bravery truly heroic ; tot having seined, in defiance
of all opposition, on an eminence, he entrenched Inmself
there, which^immedaately drew the whole attend<m of die
Carthaginian army to Ae spot. Thus die brave tribune
kept the enemy employed^ while die consul conducted his
army safoly out of the intricate situadon, into which, by his
inadvertence, they had fallen. The legions, however, were
no soonw out of danger, dian they hastened to die assist-
ance of their gallant companions i but all dieir exertions
were too lata* They found their dead bodies lying heaped
one upon another. Calphumius betrayed some symptoms
of animauon, as they dntgged him from beneath a pile of

RAMS\r8 ■MIYIWftH HISTOST

Kfekai kodm* By uvtriiiitM^ ewe Md atteniiolh lie w««i
•t lengllft, redtor«d to the eigoynuem of life and h^ Al
% f evard for thb furious coterpriie^ he. vr» presentod
with a crown <^ gram^Hi.*

l» Ac fattowiBg yMT^ B^giAltts, who coamumded the
ftoman fleets obscrviog the CarthagiiuaQa lying aloag tki
eosMt, in a confuaed »tate^ ventured, with a atj^dron of tea
gaUi»y^ to obaerve their numbers and strength, ordering
the remainder of his fleet to foUow him, with aU expedi-
tion. Advancing too near the enemy, he waa imme^amly
eaeircled by a great number of their vessels. The Rpmane
IkHight with their aceusaooAed bravery, but were overpow*
ered. The consul, however, hi^ving found means to escape,
the rest of his fle^t soon retimed, and defeated the Car-
ihaginianSf taking eighteen of their ships, and sinking
eight.

Both parties immediaaely made arrangements for a deci**
live engagement, collecting their whole naval forces, in
order to determine the fate of Sicily, as well aa the doaife*
l^on of the sea* The consulst L. Manlius Vulso and C.
Attilitts Regulus, commanded the Roman fleet, consisting
of three hundred and fif^ galleys, each of them having on
)H>ard one hundred and twenty soldiers, and t^ree hundred
rowers. The Carthaginian fleet was composed of threi;
tmndred and sixty sail, and wa^, besides, much better man«
ned tlum that of the Roooianst

Thus ^epared to fight, both by sea and land, the Ro*>
maas advanced, with the intei^tion of invading Africa*
They had arrived off Ecnomus, a> promontory of Sicily^
when, being met by the Carthaginians, a bloody engage-
ipent commeDi:ed, which continued with unremitting ar^
dour the greatest part of the day. At length the Cartha^
f^uim^ were obliged to fly, with the loea of thirty s^Ueya
«unk, and sixty-three taken* Twenty-four galleys of the
Romans were sunk. Having surmounted this grand obsta^

* In* those happier days of Rome, this simple crown was considered 83 4
greater encouragement to serve their country, than the hopes of obtaining
the most splendid pecuniary reward.

GM(M1IA€SB. I0W

tde^ the Rmnans j^toceeded on their destinction, inA tfari^
utmost expedition, till thejr arrived before Clupea, a eil^
to the east of Carthage, where thef made their first de»
scent.

No words can express the terror and constemadon of the
Carthaginians, upon the appearance of the Romans, in A£»
rica. The inhabitants immediately abandoned tiieir bdii*
lations to the Romans. Having left a strong garrison im
diis place- for the protection of their fleet, and to keep the
Kdjacent territory in awe, the invaders advanced towards
Carthage, taking several towns in their way; they ala^
plundered a prodigious number of itillages ; burnt many
splendid seats of the great ; and took above twenty Aout
sand prisoners. After having laid waste the inHboIe coun*
try, almost to Ae gates of Carthage, they retumed to Chl^
pea, heavily laden with the immense booty they had ac«
cpiired in diss expedition.

Regiiltts* carried on his conquests with such rapidity^
that, in order to oppose his progress, Hamilcar wts recalled
from Sicily, and joined in ccmmsand with fiostar and Asr
dnzbid. Hamilcar commanded an army of equal ttrengdi
widi that of Regulus ; while his associates were intrusted
with sepiUvte bodies, which were destined to assist each
other, or act apart, as occasion required. Meanwhile, Re«
gulus pursuing his conquests, arrived on the banks of die
Bagrada^ a river which falls into the sea at a small distance
from Carthage. Here he had to contend widi a serpent of
prodigious magnitude, which, according to the descripdoa
handed down to us by early historians, infected the- waters
of the river, and, by its very breadi, proved fatal to every
creature that ventured within its reach. On the Romans
advancing to draw water, they were instandy attacked by
this monster, which, twisting itself around their bodies^
squeezed them to death, while others were swallowed aUre.

* Regulusy who fiUed this exalted ttation with such credit to himself and
benefit to his country, is said to have possessed only seven acres of landi
ikom the produce of which, his family ^ned a subsistence.

VOL. IX, [15]

Ua BAMSAT'S VmVmiAL HISTORY.

Ita hard and thick Bcaks verc irapcnetnible, eidwr to daits
tfr arrows ; wherefisre, Aty had recourse to tlie balisw, en'
gines, anciently used in sieges, to throw inunense atones
against the walls of cities. From these thejr discharged
voUe^rs of stones, and so far succeeded, as to bt«ak its back
bone, lliai disabled from twisting its cbotoous (tMa, the
Romans approadied, and despatched it. But the potsonoas
cfluTia, emitted from its deftd carcase, spread such infec-
tion throughout die adjacent country, ^atthe victors were
compelled to make a hasty retreat. The skin of this moir
■tra-, measuring in length one hundred and twenty feet, is
said to have been sent to Rome, where, as may be seen n
Pliny, it was long preserved.

After having passed this river, Regulus laid siege to
A<Us, a fortress of great importance, situated at a small <bB-
staace from Carthage, which Homikar and his coUcngucs
attempted to relieve ; but they imprudently fixed the en-
campment among hills and rocks, where the elej^urats, in
which their chief strength consisted, were inci^>aUe of act-
rag. Reguhis, taking advantage of this error, immediatelf
attacked diem in their camp, killed seventeen thousand men,
and took five thousand, together with eighteen elephants.
Upon die fame of this vicn>ry, deputations to die conqueror,
widi offers of surrender, poured in frtnn all quarters, so
that, in the course of a few days,' the Romans were posses-
sed of eighty towns, among which, was the city of Utiea.
The alarm of the Carthaginins was heightened by these
misfortunes, and diey were almost reduced to despur, when
Reguhis liud siege to Tunis, a ci^ about nine miles distant
from the capital. Terrorhad so completely unmanned them,
that they beheld the event of this siege from their walls, -
without making any attempt to oppose it. To comidctc
their calamities, at this very time, die Numidians, their in-
veterate enemies, entered die territories of Carthage, con-
mitdng the most dreadful devastations. From these com-
bined causes, provisions became scarce in the ci^. The
})ublic magazines were exhausted, and the merchants, taking
advantage of the general distress, demanded a most cxor-

I
I

bitam {triee, i&t what they had to fldU» A fcttilsie at C^a^
tbage was deemed inevitable ; more eepeeially as the pr^*
duoe of the earth had been, in a great measure^ deetn^isd
by the hoatile armies.

While under the heavy pressure of these complicated disi*
tresses, Regukis advanced to the very gates of Carthage^
Here he encampad, and despatched deputies, with poweiv
to treat for a peace. But the terms oflered were so insupr
portably arrogsmt, that the Carthaginians, mdi a buklable
aeal and indignation, spumed the proposals, determining to
suffer all extremities, rather than submit to the conditioM
which Regttlus had dictated.

At this perilous crisis, some mercenaries arrived froiH
Greece, at the head of whom was Xantippus, a Laceds*
monian, a person of great bravery and experience, hav«
ing httn educated in the warlike school of- Sparta, at
lliat time the most renowned in the world* On being in^
formed of the circumstances of tiie late engagement, titi»
general alleged in public, that their defeat ought to be a^
tributed to the £slse measures adopted by the Carthas^
nians, in choosing a situation where their chief strength
had not scope for action, and not to tiie superior powers
of the enemy. At the same time declaring that, by v^
opposite mode of conduct, they might retrieve their af-
fairs, and expel the Romans from their dominions. These
seasonable exhortations and suggestions at length reached
the. ears of the senate, who, together with the unsuccessftd
generals, begged tiiat Xantippus would tajce the command
hi chief of their forces. Having, after due deliberation,
consented to assume this appointment, he prpceeded to dis-^
cipline the troops in aU the evolutions and movements pf
the Lacedsemonian school. As nothing can inspire the sol-
diers with a greater degree of courage than confidence in
tiie abilities of their general, die Carthaginian troops, who
had been dejected by their late misfortunes, now thought
themselves invincible, under the conduct of Xantippus,
who, on his part, unwilling to suflFer their ardour to cool,
through delay, immediately drew them up in order of bat^

ll£(X KAMSAY'S imiVKMAL HISTORY.

tie. The Romsttts wertf surprUed at the sudden alteratioii
which ttppeftred in the movements of their enemy ; but Re»*
gnluSi trusting to his prerious good fortune^ instantly ad«
yanced within a short distance of die Carthaginian army,
who, in opposition to their £9rmer fatal arrangements, had
now pitched upon a vast |dain. The space between the two-
armies was intercepted by a river, which Regidns intrepid*-
ly crossed, leaving no means of escape in case of a defeat/
The engagement commenced with incredible fury on botlr
sides ; but, in the end, the Romans were completely defeal>-
ed ; their whole army, excepting two thousand who escaped
to Clupea, being either killed or taken prisoners; among
tile latter, was their general, Regulus.

The victorious Carthaginians entered the metropolis in
triumph, and were received with unbounded acc^unations.
Hiey treated all the prisoners with the greatest humanity,
except Regulus ; but, to him they applied tortures, which
no principles of honourable warfare can justify, and, at the
bare recital of which, undepraved nature revolts i though
it must be allowed that the pride and arrogance which he
had displayed, in his prosperity, were sufficient to exaspe*>
rate their feelings. The desire of revenge for the insults
offered by this man, was too predominant in the minds of
the Carthaginians, to suffer, for a moment, the interference
of the milder and nobler passions of the soul. He was
thrown into a dungeon, where he had a portion of food al-
lowed him, barely sufficient to support life, and a huge ele*
phant, to which animal he felt an insuperable antipathy,
was constantly placed near him, so «s to prevent die enjoy-
ment either of tranquillity or repose. But what was still
more barbarous, after his return from an unsuccessful em-
bassy to the Roman senate, they cut off his eyelids, and af-
terwards exposed him to the excessive heat of the meridian
aun for some days ; and, in order to complete their cruelty,
'they next enclosed him in a barrel ; the sides of which were
every where filled with large iron spikes, where he lay, in
excruciating agonies, till released by the welcome hand of,
death.

CASTHAGS. . If^l

The Curdiaginians, after this signal victory over Regulus,
neditated no less than an invasion of Italy itself. The Ro-
mans took care, however, to garrison all their maritime
towns, and put themselves in a state of preparation for thir
menaced attack. In the meantime, the Carthaginians be-
sieged Chipea and Utica ; but were compelled to relinquish
dkis enterprise, \rpon hearing that the Romans were fitting
o«it a fleet of three hundred and fifty sail. To oppose this
powerful armament, their old Vessels were immediately re*
fitted by the Carthaginians, and new ones built with incre**
dible expedition. The hostile fleets met off Cape Hermea,*
where the*Carthaginians were vanquished, with immense
loss. The Romans now pursued their course to ClupeaV
where they were attacked by die Carthaginian army, under
the two'Hanno's, &ther and son ; but the bravery and mili-
taiy skill of Xantippus,* no longer inspired the men widi
courage. Notwithstanding the Lacediemonian discipline
he had introduced, and which was sdll practised, ihe Car«^
tkaginians were routed at the very first onset, with the lossr
of nine thousand men, among whom fell many of their chief
oncers.

The Romans were, nevertheless, obliged to evacuate
Africa, from the want of provisions. The' consuls, desir-
ous of sigpializing the eve of their authority, by some im-
portant victory in Sicily, steered fordiat island, contrary
to the advice of die pilots, who represented the danger that-
would attend their passage, at such an inclement season.
Their minds, however, were too much bent upon diis en*
teiprise, to listen to the voice of reason. A violent stonft
arose, and only eighty, out of three hundred and seventy
vessels, escaped shipwreck. By this misfortune, Rome
sustained a greater blow than it had yet felt; for, besides a
numerous army and navy, all the spoils of Africa, which
had been amassed by Regulus, and deposited in Clupea, in
readiness to be transported to Rome, were swallowed up

* Xantippus had some time before., set out from Carthftge* to return to hi*
natiTe country; but was basely assassinated on his way by the ungrateful
Carthagiaians.

lis * BAMSAT*S tmrVEBSAb HISTORY.

by the waves. The whole coast, from Paehinuto to Caina«
rina, was strewed with dead bodies, and wrecks of ships.
In all the records of history there is scarcely to be found
a disaster that will bear a parallel with this, if viewed in
all its aspects.

On the news of this dreadful catastrophe, the Carthagi«
nians renewed the war in Sicily, with unabated ardour,
hoping, from its present defenceless state, to be able to
subjugate the whole island. Fired with this idea, Carthalo,
a Carthaginian commander, besieged and took Agrigen*
turn. To follow up these advantages, Asdrubal was sent
from Cardiage, with a powerful reinforcement* of troops,
and one hundred and fifty elephants. At the same time
Aey fitted out a squadron, widi which they regained the
island of Cosjrra, and marched a strong body of forces
into Mauritania and Numidia, to punish the inhabitants
for the disposition diey had evinced of entering into alli-
ance widi the Romans. In Sicily, Cephaludium and Panor>
mus were still possessed by the Romans ; but they were
obliged, by Carthalo, to raise the riege of Drepanum.

A Roman fleet of two hundred and sixty galleys, soen
after appeared off Lil3rb»um, in Sicily; but finding that
place impregnable, they changed their course towards ^tut
eastern coast of Afiica, where they made repeated incur*
sions. Then touclung at Panormus, in a few days after,
they set sail for Italy; but when they ciune near cape Pal»-
nurus, they were overtaken by a violent storm, in wluch
one hundred and sixty of their gidleys, and a great many of
their transports were sunk. The Roman senate, dejected
by this fresh naval misfortune^ issued a decree that, for the
future, no more tfian fifty vessels were to be equipped, and,
Aose used solely in guarding the coast of Italy, and con-
veying troops into Sicily.

In the fourteenth year of the war, the Romans gained
possession of Himera and Lipara, in Sicily ; but, at the
same time, die Cardiaginians, still unbroken, fitted out a
very powerful armament, both of land and sea forces, ap-
ipointing Asdrubal to the command of the whole. The

^ CARTHAGE. i|9

Ronasit, perceiving the advantages resulting fnun a fleeli
immediately set about preparing one, notwithstanding the
misfortunes which had attended their former endeavours.
While the vessels were building, they appointed two con^
suls, men of distinguished bravery and experience, to au«»
persede those acting in Sicily. Metellus, however, one of
the former consuls, was continued, with the tide of procoa-
sul, when, finding means to draw Asdrubal into a disadvan*
tageous batde, near Panormus, he gave him a most terrible
overthrow.

> Sometime after this action, the Carthaginians receiving
intelligence, that the Romans had laid siege to Lilybsum^
immediately reinforced the garrison of that place with a
strong body of chosen troops, and at the same time
strengthened the fortifications, so as to render them almost
impregnable. In the meantime, the Roman fleet was com*
pletely defeated by Adherbal, the Cartiiaginian admiral.
Eight thousand of their men fell in tfaia engagement, and
twen^ thousand were sent prisoners to Carthage. This
signal victory was accomplished without the loss of a ship,
nn^ even a single man, on the side of die Carthag^ians*
l^e remainder of the Roman fleet met a still more severe
fiite. It was composed of one hundred and twenty galleys,
and eight hundred transports, laden with all kinds of mili-
tary stores and provisions, which were so completely lost
in a storm, tinat nothing of value was recovered. The Ro»
.Bums were again deprived of all their navy.

About this period, some signs of mutiny sq>pearing in the
army of the Carthaginians, Hamilcar Barcas, fisither of the
illustrious Hannibal, was sent over into Sicily, with full
^ power from the senate, to act as he tiiought proper. Having
taken Eryx by surprise, he defended it with great ability.
But being at length obliged to yield, a convention was
drawn up between the two commanders, by which the Car^
thaginians were constndned to surrender all their remain*
ing possessions in Sicily, for the space of twenty years ; to
pay an annual tribute to Rome, amounting in the whole to
two thousand two hundred talents of silver, e({ual to four

L.,

11^ MAMSkTS UmVEB^AL HfBT(»Y.

hundred and thirty seven thousand, two hundred and Mtf
pounds sterling ; to restore the Roman prisoners, without
ransom ; but to redeem their own with money. This treaty
was sent to Rome, to be ratified by the senate ; but they,
taking advantage of the unfortunate situation of the Car-
thaginian affairs, added two more conditions, namely, that
one thousand talents should be paid immediately, and the
^wo thousand two hundred within the space of ten years.
They insisted also, that the Carthaginians should evacuate
all the small islands adjacent to Italy and Sicily, and never
inore appear near them with ships of war, or attempt .to
raise mercenaries in that .quarter. Dire necessity obliged
Hamilcar to comply with those additional terms ; but he
returned to Carthage with an inveterate hatred to the Ro-
mans. He did not suffer his enmity to die with him ; for he
bound his son, the illustrious Hannibal, by the most so-
lemn oath, never to be in friendship with the Romans* This
he fai&fully performed.

No sooner was this destructive war at an end, diui the
Carthaginians were embroiled in another. This arose from
the impoverished state in which Hamilcar found the repub-
lic ; for so far from being able to pay the largesses and re-*
yrards, which he had promised the mercenaries, it coiild not
even discharge their arrears. He had intrusted Cisco, an
officer of great penetration, with the care of transporting
these mercenaries, who shipped them off in small parties,
separately, that those d who came first might be paid off, be^
fore the arrival of the rest ; but the Carthaginians, at home,,
did not evince the same prudence. The finances of the
state being much impaired by the expenses of the late war^
and the immense tribute demanded by the Romans, they
judged it impolitic to reduce the public tp such a degree of
impoverishment, as the payment of these troops would ne-.
cessarily occasion. They, dierefore, waited tall all the mer-*.
cenaries were assembled together, in the hopes of obtaining
some remission of the arrears, but they were soon convinc-
ed of their error. At length, with some difficulty,^they pre-
^led upon the officers to canton their troops in the vicinity

CAnTHAGE. ii$

e/ l^t A, ^yhlg Ihetn a sum of money for their pteitnt sulw
ihtence, and promising to comply with their demands OK
the arrival of tfle remainder of the army from Sicily.
AmoAg the^e mercena^ries, immersed in idleness and dissi-
pation, to which they had been wholly unaccustomed, a to^
fd neglect of discipline prevailed, and, in consequence, af
petulant atid licentious spirit raged throughout their whole'
6amp. Gradually becoming more insolent, they were re*
dblved not to acquiesce in their bate pay, but to insist upon
the rewards, promised by Hamilcar, threatening to obtain
iheir dethands by force of arms in case of a refusal. Oti
being informed of these mutinous expressions of the sol**
diery, the senate immediately despatched Hanno, one of
the suiFetes, to ward off the impending storm. Thinking ta
appease these mercenaries by expatiating on the poverty of
Ae reptiWic, he requested them to be satisfied with receiv-
ing a certain portion of their arrears, and to relinquish tKe
claim to the rest. But, as they fought merely for pay, they^
would not give it up, for the good of a country to which
Aey owed no natural attachment. Thus finding their rea*
aofiaUe expectations deceived, so far as not even to receive
their stipulated wages, much less any gratuitous reward,
tfiey immediately had recourse to arms for the enforcement
df their claims, and assembling in a body of twenty thou-
sand men, encamped before the city of Tunis.

The Carthaginians, alarmed at the hostile disposition of
so formidable a body of men, made large concessions ta
Mng them ba<ilc to subordination. This, instead of having
the desired eflfect, served only to heighten their insolence.'
Perceiving their force, they grew averse to any terms of
accommodation. The Carthaginians, making a virtue of
itecessity, agreed to refer the business to some genera!,'
Who had witnessed their bravery in Sicily. Cisco was,
therefore, appointed to mediate between them, and accord-
ingly he soon arrived at Tunis, with money to pay off the
rebellious troops. Having conferred with the oflBcers o/the
Various nations which had been employed, all differences
were in a happy train of being adjusted, when Spandiu#

VOL. IX. [16]

H$ RAMSArS XJKWSB»Kh HISTORt*

and Madios, chief mutineers, fearful lest fhey ahould be
punished according to their demerits, spread the baneful
seeds of discontent through the whole camp, under pre*
tence, that it would be dangerous to conclude any treaty
with their former masters. In consequence of this insinu*
ation, the negociation was immediately suspended^ and no-
thing but the most horrid imprecations against Gisco and
the Carthaginians were to be heard. Whoever offered to
make any remonstrance, or seemed inclined to listen to any
temperate counsels, was stoned to death by the tumultuous
multitude. They carried their frantic rage so far, as to stab
many who had attempted to open their lips, before they
had time to declare, whether they were in die interest of
Spendixis, or of the Carthaginians.

In this trying situation, Cisco's conduct was marked with
firmness and intrepidity. He employed every means to
calm the perturbed minds of the soldiers ; but die torrent
of sedition was so strong as to overwhelm every thing
within its reach, and tiie vcuce of reason was drowned. The
military chest was seized by the mutineers, and tiie OKmey
distributed, as part'of their arrears. They next proceeded
to load Gisco and all his followers with irons, treating them
witii every indignity that brutal rage could devise. All the
cities of Africa, to which they had sent invitations to assist
in asserting their freedom, soon joined in the rebellion, ex*
cept Utica and Hippo, which still maintiuned their aUe*
gpiance to the Carthaginians.

The rebel forces were divided into two parts, one .of
which marched towards each of these cities, in order to in-
timidate tiiiem into a compliance with their demands, while
she Carthaginians suffered all die calamities incident to in-
testine commotions. After having been exhausted by a
tedious and destructive war, they were in hopes of enjoying
peace and repose ; but, on the contrary, they were now
harassed by an internal ibe, more dreadfiil even than their
foreign epemy, and, to complete their misfortunes, ^ey
had no hopes oi receiving assistance from any of their
Ibrmer allies. The Africans kept them in constant alacait

OABTHAGfi. iHf

advancing to the very walla of Carthage, and treating every
citizen, who fell into their hands, wilh the most exquisite
cruelty*

Hanno was despatched to the relief of Utica, with a strong
body of forces. He succeeded so far as to repulse the ene*
my with great loss ; but, after this victory, neglecting the
discipline of his troops, in his turn, he was totally routed
by the mercenaries, and obliged to talce refuge in the town.
Repeated proofs of Hanno's mismanagement, induced the
Carthaginians to transfer the command of their forces to Ha*
milcar Barcas, who, by consummate skill and courage, set
about retrieving the affaFrs of his country. After he had
taken a ficvourable position, by making a feint of retreat^
he drew the enemy into a disadvantageous batde, in which
he gave them a complete overthrow, with the loss of six
diousand killed, and two thousand taken prisoners. Nor
did he allow them time to recover from the shock, but Im-
mediately pursued ihem with courage and perseverance, in
cc^sequence of which, many towns made a voluntary capi*
tulation to die Carthaginians, while others were reduced by
force.

Undaunted amidst all these disasters, Mathos, who had
tesumed the principal command, still urged on Ae siege of
Hippo with vigour, appointing Spendius and Autaritus, at
the head of a strong body of Gauls, to observe the motions
of Hamilcar. At length these two commanders, having re*
ceived a reinforcement of Africans and Numidians, and
being possessed of all the heights surrounding the plain on
which Hamilcar was encamped, determined to attack him.
Had they followed up their design, Hamikar must inevit-
ably have been cut off; but they lost the opportunity. In
the meantime, Naravassus, a young Numidian nobleman,
deserting die enemy at this important crisis, with two thou*
sand men, the Cardiapnian found himself enaUed to offer
battle. The conflict was obstinate and l>loody ; but, in the
end, the mercenaries were overthrown, with an immense
loss. Those among Ae prisoners who were willing to en-
Het intalbe^ Carthafpnian army, were e^adly received by

mm should be completety disArmed, and that ten of their
raigleaderB should be left to the mercy of the Carthagimaiis.
This treaty was no sooner concludedy than Hamilcar seized
upon the negoctators. This being known, the revolters had
recourse to armS) conceiving their agreement to have beeii
violated. Hamilcar, on perceiving this 'eruption, drew up
his troops, and immediately surrounding them, cut in piece«
upwards of forty thousand of these unfortunate wretches.

After the destruction of this army, Hamilcar and Haniur
bal invested Tunis, whither Mathos, with his remaining
forces, had retired. The besiegers were no sooner encamp*
ed than Spendius with the rest of the prisoners were crucir
fied, within the view of the besieged. Meanwhile, Mathos
perceiving that Hannibal kept a weak guard, sallied forti^,
killed many oi his men, and took several prisoners, and
among them Hannibal himself. As if zealous to outdo
each other in deeds of cruelty, Mathos immediately to<^
dawn Spendius, and his feUow sufferers from the cross, and
substituted Hannibal, with thirty Carthaginian persons o^
distinction, in their room.

Still the Carthaginians left no means untried, that might
conduce to the welfare of the state. They, therefore, inw
mediately despatched thirty senators, to consult with Ha*
milcar about measures to effect the termination of thii
intestine war. Judiciously sacrificing private animosity t#
the public welfare, Hanno and Hamilcar agreed to act in
unison, to attain this important end. Pressing all who went
capable of bearing arms into their service, they now de^
feaited the eaemy in every rencounter. At length they gami
^athoe a decisive blow, near Leptis^ and the hostile troopt
ted in every direction ; but were chiefly overtaken, by the
iievengeful sword of the Carthaginian army. Mathos, with
a few odiers, having escaped to a neighbouring town, wa^i
taken alive, and, being escorted to Carthage, suffered sUt
that ingsniotts cruelty opuld inflict, b«it not more than his
enonpsities had deserved*

In die meantime, tjhe Carthfigtmaas In^oduced iikfkt
<miig»TtstniAi«i»ifa^iAlaads^ nod kept posaesauni of dtti

IIH) KAM8AY*S VNIVK1I8AL HISTORY.

towns, to secure the reimbursement of their expenses,
thdugh they had pretended they were acting as friends.
Hattiilcar, sensible of the inferiority of the power of his
own country to that of Rome, formed a scheme to raise it
to a level with its haughty rival, by extending his conquests
in Spain, with the expectation that it would employ and
exercise a vast number of soldiers, and render them fit to
contend with the Roman veterans. Having made -die ne*
cessary preparations for this grand enterprise, Hamilcar,
after extending the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, en-
tered Spain, where he remained in command for nine ytnn.
During this period, he amassed immense treasures, which
he distributed, partly among his soldiers, and partly among
the great men of Carthage. By these means, he effectually
«ecured the interest of those two powerful bodies. After
having subdued large tracts of territory, he was at length
killed in battle, and succeeded by his son-in-law, Asdrubal.
This general carried on his conquests in Spain, widi still
greater rapidity than his predecessor, and built the city of
Kew Carthage, now called Carthagena.

The acquisition which Asdrubal had made in Spain,
during a seven years' command, were such as to excite ihe
jealousy of the Romans ; but he was at length assassinated
by a Gaul, whose master had been put to death at his insti*
gation. Three years previously to the death of Asdrubal,
he had requested that Hannibal, then only twenty-two years
of age, might be sent to him. This request being granted,
Hannibal was no sooner arrived in the camp, than he con-
ciliated the sincere aiFection of the army, bodi from the
similitude he bore to Hamilcar, and his own natural talents
and abilities. On the death of Asdrubal, he was declared
general by the army, with every demonstration of joy, and
immediately exerted his superior powers, in subduing many
of the most considerable nations in Spain.
> No obstacle whatever impeded the progress of the Car-
diaginian arms, except that the city of Saguntum still re-
mained in the possession of the Romans. Hannibal, having
fiwnd means to embroil some of the neighbouring cantons

CARTHAGE. lf|

the Stfgtmtiiles, furnished himself with ft pretext for
ftttacking that city. Two ambassadors arriving from the
Roman senate, to rett&onstrate against this recommence-
ment of hostilities, he answered^ that the Saguntines had
drawn these calamities on ^emselves, by entering into a
quarrel with the allies of Carthage. Not satisfied with this
reply, the ambassadors proceeded to Carthage, where they
dechCred that, if Hannibal was not delivered up to the pun-
ishment of the Romans, hostilities should immediately be ~
renewed against them. Such was the origin of the second
Punic war.

After a siege of eight months, the city of Saguntum was
taken, and the inhabitants experienced all the severities
which the conquerors could inflict. This object being gain-
ed, Hannibal put his African troops into winter quarters at
New Carthage, in the meantime permitting the Spanish
auxiliaries to retire to their respective homes.

Having taken the necessary precautions for the security
of Africa and Spain, Hannibal now passed over the Iberus,
and subdued every nation lying between that river and the-
P3a-enees, a]^intingHanno governor of all the newly con-
quered districts. From thence he proceeded on his march
for Italy, across tiie Pyrenees; and, after surmounting
i)ciany difiiculties, ascended the Alps. After a fatiguing
march of nine days, he halted a short time on the summit
of these stupendous mountains, in order to recruit die spi*^
rits of his wearied troops. The snow and the piercing cold
alarmed the Spaniards and Africans; but, to raise their
spirits, he led them to the highest rock on the ^ide of Italy,
where he pointed out the fruitful pluns of Insubria, assur-
ing them tiiat the Gauls, who inhabited that country, were
leady to join them. He at the same time declared that; by
climbing the Alps, they had virtually scaled the walls of
Rome. His troops, thus inspired with resolution to suffer
and die, began to descend, through deep snows, mountains
of ice, and terrific precipices, more formidable than the
enemies they had to combat in their ascent. At length,
after vaoqi^ishing obstacles almost insuperable to any but

IfH BAMSArS II1I1TE»AL HI8T0R¥.

With ft «Mii 88 Hflimibal^ tlkey arrived (nI ditf ^bit^ ^ IfMiN
^a, ftftd a«mimed the bolctneM uid iiitrq)idilf af victor.

,On mmtcring Ms forces, Hamiibat found dle^ hafd suf-
fered a dreadiul diiftin&tioiif since dieir departure from
New Carthage* He refreshed the itttvivors with stn test*
iiMy and success which coold not be surj^sed, aAd utiit*
rag them with the Iiisubf ians, they laid siege to Tfturinutti,
the inhabitams of which city had wag^d war agaittst to
aUy of the CarthaginiaiiB. It resisted the combined armies
but three days. The victors taking possession, put all those
to the sword, who opposed their progress. This stfofeg
aieasiire struck the neighbouring barbarians with such ter-
vor, that they submitted to the conqueror ; supplied his ^-
vy with provisions, and dtd every diiftg in their power to
ftu:ilitate his progress.

The R(»nan general Scipio, surprised to find ditt his an*
tagonist, in quest of whom he had gone to the banks of die
Rhone, had crossed the Alps, and entered into Italy, im-
mediately returned with the greatest expedition. An en*
gagement ensuing near die river Ticinus, the Romans sus*
tained a severe defeat, and were compelled to repass that
river. In the meantime, Hannibal continued his progress,
till arriving on die banks of the Po, he halted for two days,
to refresh his men, and ta construct a bridge of boats.
Having efiected his passage, he despatched his brother
Mago, in pursuit of the enemy, who had rallied their scat-
tered forces, and fixed dieir encampment at Placentia. He
afterwards concluded a treaty with several GalUc cantons,
and, advancing a day's march bey6lid the Po, was rejoined
by Mago, widi die other division of his army. The Car-
thaginians again offered batde to die Roman consul ; but,
indmidated by the desertion of a body of Gauls, and by diief
sftrdour of the enemy, die latter retreated to an eminence on
diw opposite side of the river Trebia. Hannibal, apprised
of the consuFs departure, sent out the Numidian horse to
harass him on his march, and followed with the main ar*
my, in order to assist in case of necessity. They soon
brought die Romans to an engagement, and defeated them'

CARTHAGK. 423

with great loss, pursuing the fugitives, who amoUnted to
about ten thousand, as far as the river Trebia. After this
action, Hannibal made frequent incursions into the Roman
territories, endeavouring, by every means, to win the affec-
tion of the Gauls, as well as of the allies of Rome, by dis-
missing all the prisoners without ransom, and engaging to
defend them, in case of molestation from his enemies.

After carrying on this desultory warfare for some time,
he crossed the Apennines, and penetrated into Etruria,
when hearing that the new consul Flaminius lay encamped
under the walls of Arretium, he felt no doubt of being able
to inflame the impetuous spirit of his adversary to a battle.
To effect this purpose, he took the road leading to Rome,
and, leaving the hostile forces behind him, desolated all the
country, through which he passed, with fire and sword.
Flaminius, indignant at beholding the ravages commiued
by the Carthaginians, approached them with great temerity,
and being drawn into an ambuscade, near the lake Thrasy-
menus, lost his life on the field of battle, together with fif-
teen thousand men. Great numbers were likewise taken
prisoners, as was a body of six thousand men, who had
taken refuge in a town of Etruria. Hannibal lost but fifteen
hundred men in this conflict, who were chiefly Gauls,
though many, on both sides, aft^erwards died of their
wounds. Soon after he despatched Maherbal, with consi-
derable forces of cavalry and infantry, to attack a body of
horse, which had been detached from- Ariminum by the con*
sul Servilius, to reinforce his colleague, in Etruria. The
detachment, after a short engagement, and considerable
slaughter, was compelled to submit to the victorious Car-
thaginians. This disaster, happening within so few dayv
after the defeat at Thrasymenus, was severely felt by the
Romans, notwithstanding their natural fortitude.

A scorbutic disorder prevailing at this time throughout
the^ Carthaginian army, Hannibal reposed for a considera-
ble time in the beautiful and fertile country of Adria*
Having^taken possession of that part of the territory bor*
deritg on the s^ he despatched. a messenger to Carthage

VOL.. IX. [17]

IIM ItAMSAY'S innVBRSAL HISTOKT.

widi the newa of his victorious progreas, which mw recetv*
ed by his countrymen with the most joyful acclamations,
KBd they immediately res<dved to reinforce their armies, in
Italy and Spain, with a. proper number of troops.

The Romans, in the utmost consternation, appointed a
dictator, as was customary in times of <Unger. Fabtus Maxi-
mus, sumamed Verrucosus, was chosen to Ais oSke, a
man as remarkable for his deliberation and circumspection,
as Flaminius for ardour and impetuosity. He followed
Hannibal at a distance, into Apulia, keeping him in con-
tinual alarm ; but could not be prevuled on to come to
an engagement, though his army was clamcnwis for tins
measure. Their complaints rose at lengtii to such a heigiit,
that the dictator, fearing to irritate them, feigned a desire
to meet his opptment in the field. He, therefore, pursued
Hannibal with greater alacrity than usual, still, however,
under various pretences, taking care to avoid an engage-
ment, with even more assiduity than the enemy courted it.
At length, Hannibal, having exhausted every means to pro-
voke the dictator to a battle, determined to quit Campania,
which he found abounding more with fruit and wine, than
with com, and to return to Sammum, through die diftcidt
pan, called Eribanns. Fabius perceiving his intention,
from the direction in which he marched, arrived there be-
fore him, and, encamping on Mount Callicula, prepared to
oppose his passage. This scheme was, however, rendered
abortive, by a stratagem, which FaUus could neither fore-
see nor guard against. Arrived at the -foot of die mount
Callicula, Hannibal directed faggots to be tied to the boma
of two tliousand oxen, and tiien set on fire. The animals
were then driven by the herdsmen, without noise, within
sig^t of the Roman camp. Fabius depended on the troops
whom he had placed in ambuscade to prevent the paaaaga
of Hannibal, but these, seeing the lights approach tliem on
all sides, and supposing themselves surrounded by the ene-
my, fell back upon their own camp, and suffered their ad-
versaries to pass unmc^sted. The Roman genera^ though
rdfied by his soldiers, at being tibus over^«adie4 bf dte

GABTiUGE. i^

CanthagiBiaiis, still pursued his original plan of procrasti-
aadonf and coalented himself with closely watching the
motions of the enemy.

Hannibal^ amidst all his ravages, having studiously spared
the lands of the dictator, it was suspected, that an improper
coniespondence existed between the two commanders, on
which account Fabius was recalled to Rome, to explain the
motives of his conduct. Diuring his absence, Minucius,
the general of the horse, gained some advantages, which
considerably strengthened the allegations against the die*
tator; but, having satisfied the senate, the latter was re*>
stored to his rank, though Minucius was put on an equal foot*
ing with him in the command of the army. The force being
thus divided into two parts, Minucius led his division into
an engagement, which must inevitably have ended in his
total defeat, had not Fabius hastened to his assistance.
Minucius, ashamed of his rashness, and conscious of
want of skill, immediately resigned die entire command to
Fabatts«

The Roman .army was now augmented to an immense
immber. Hannibal, reduced to the greatest distress for
the want of provisions, left Samnium, and directed his
course into Apulia, leaving fires burning and tents remain-
ing in his camp ; the Romans were, therefore, for some
time led to believe that his retreat was only feigned. But
the truth being at length developed, the Carthaginian army
was overtaken at Camiae, and a batde ensued, as memora*
Ue M any which history has recorded. The contest termi*
Bated in the complete defeat of the Roman army, though
almost double in number to that of the Carthaginians. At
least forty-five thousand fell in this fatal conflict, and ten
thousand were taken prisoners. In Hannibars camp, the
night passed away in feasting and rejoicings, and on the suc-
ceeding day, the two Roman camps, jointly containing the
small number of four thousand men, were invested by the
victorious general.

Tha^ pcMTtion of Italy called the Old Province, Magna
Ovetia, Tarentum, and partH>f the territory of Capua, im-

JM RAMSAT^ VKlVmaKL H18TOBT.

mediatety surrendered to Huutibal. The neighbourtn;
provinces likewise evinced r disposition to throw off tlie
Roman yoke ; but waited to see whether the Cardiagnuans
could protect them. The humanitf which Hannibal had
heretofcH'e shown to the Italian piisoners, and ikt signal vic-
tories he had gained, induced many cities and provinces to
court his protection. Even llic CampsAians, a nation highly
&voured by the Romans, were strongly inclined to abandon
their natural friends. The Carth^inians, receiving intel-
ligence of this, bent their marc^ towards Capua, wluch
was easily added to their acquisitions. Soon after its sub-
mission, many cities of the Brutii likewise opmed thch'
gates to Hannibal. Mago was then despatched to Car-
thage with the news of the decisive victory at Caona, and
the successes resulting from it.

What Hannibri had already achieved, under so many
disadvantages, must undoubtedly entitle him to rank higher,
in regard to courage and abilities, than any other hero, ai^
cient or modem. To conquer, with inferior numbers, men
endowed with the most intrepid and warlike disposition,
was not to be effected by common place talents. He had
not to contend with barbarians, nor uncivilized nations ;
neither, as was the case with Alexander the Great, had he
to combat with a country sunk into sloth and effeminacy,
but with men of superior strength, and equally skilled in
military affairs with himself. With an army of only twcn^-
siz thousand men, he attacked the Roman nation, though
cut off from all resource, either for money, recruits or pro-
visions, except what he could procure in an enemy's coun-
try, by his own abilities. Nor was there any deficiency ia
the talents of the Roman generals. This is evident &om
their having conquered the most martial nations, when
under the command of the ablest generals, Hannibal only
excepted.

Yet, from the period of the battle of Cannc, the suc-
cesses of this illustrious warrior began to decline. The
Roman historians, wishing to detract from the high cha-
, racter of Hannibal, and unwilling that such % noble exam-

CARTHAGE. * iflf

pie of cottnge, skill and magnanimity should be faithfully
recorded, lest it should derogate from die fame of their
own heroes, have debased him, by declaring that he ener-
vated himself and his soldiers to such a degree, by de-
taucheries, whilst remaining in winter quarters at Capua,
that he was no longerable to cope with the Romans. But
this assertion is afterwards confuted by themselves, when
they confess ^at, subsequently to the batde of Cannse, he
gave their armies frequent and terrible defeats, taking
many of their towns, in the very presence of their de-
fenders.

But the insufficient resources supplied by the republic of
Carthage, for reinforcing his army, appear to have been
the real causes of the sad reverse of fortune, which Han-
nibal was now doomed to experience. When the first news
of his success reached Carthage, a body of four thousand
Numidian cavalry, and forty elephants, together with one
thousand talents of silver, were granted by the senate. A
large detachment of Spanish troops was also appointed to
follow, and Mago was commissioned'to hasten their equip-
ment. Had this supply been sent with proper expedition,
it is most probable, that the Romans would have had little
reason to cast an odium upon Hannibal's conduct at Capua,
as the next campaign must undoubtedly have terminated,
in the submission of that haughty republic to the superior
force of his arms. But notwithstanding the influence of
the Barcinian faction at Carthage, Hanno and his adherents,
sacrificing the public good to a pernicious jealousy of
that party, found means, by their artifices, not only to retard
the march of the intended reinforcements, but even to di-
minish their numbers. Thus deserted by his native coun-
try, Hannibal found himself reduced to the necessity of
acting on the defensive, ihstead of pursuing his career as a
conqueror. Though his army amounted to no more than
twenty-six diousand foot, and nine thousand horse, and
these laboured under such great disadvantages as prevent-
ed him from extending his conquests, yet the most strenu-

Ifg RAMSArS UMIVSMAI. HISTORY.

OQi eCdits of the Bomaa power proved utMtble « drive Im
iBcudl army out of Italy, lor mwre tfaaa fourteen years.

Every possible means was now put in practice by ik^ Ba^
mans for the purpose of strenglbening Aeir amy. They
supplied their newly enlisted troops with anns, which had
formerly been taken from different eo^nies, and had, for
some time, been hung up as trcyhies in the public temples
aad porticos. The treasury was also recruiiied by die vo»
luntary contributions of patriotic citizens, who stripped
themselves of all the gold in their possession, in order to
apply it to the public use. By these means the iinances
were put in good condition, and their army r^idered ja-o-
portionably strong.

But, notwithstanding these noble efforts, the Romans must
inevitably have experienced a repetition of the same itt
success, if Hannibal had been properly supported. Feeling
sensibly the want of money, he gave the Roman prisoners
permission to redeem themselves, and ten of their body
were immediately despatched to Rome for the purpose of
negociating their liberty, pledging their most sdemn oaths
for their return. They were commissioned at the sane
time to carry proposals for peace ; but on the arrival of
these unfortunate captives at Rome, the dictator sent a
lictor commanding tiiem immediately to depart the Roman
territory, as it was determined not to redeem the prisoi^
ers. On this, Hannibal immediately sent the greater part
of them to Carthage, and the rest, he compelled to act the
part of gladiators, obliging them to fight with eadi other,
for the savage entertainment of hts troops.

Meanwhile, Cneius and Publius Scipio, carried on the
war with great success, in Spain, against tiie Carthaginians,
and Asdrubal, while on his way to reinforce Hannibal, was
defeated. The dictator and senate of Rome, encouraged
by these events, made the most vigorous preparadcms for
a decisive campaign, whilst Hannibal remained in a state
of inactivity, at Capua. This inactivity, however, appears
to have arisen from the continual expectation of receiving

CASTBMOi Iff

ttinfcfrcemeutB from Cardnage ; but, ub iinn hope, he wa»
cUsappainted. The ruiii of the Carthftginian affiurs, m Xttdjr^
was the cimsequeiice.

Tlie Rcyman forces, notwithstan d i fP i g all their losses, slill
remained much superior to those of Hannibal ; twen^
five diouaand men marched out ot the city, under the com^
mand of the dictalor, whaie fifteen thousand were hdd m
reserve by Msrcelhis. Pussuing liie plan of his predecessor^
Fabitts Maximus, die dictator,, came to no eagagemei^ for
the space <^ a 3re«r after the battle of Cannse. Hamubd,
however, made an attempt opoa Nola, expecting it wxMild
be delivered up to him ; bat the Roman dictati»r entering
diat city, an4 sallying imexpectedly from ^e^ gates upos
the CarthaginianB, obliged them to retire in great confu-
sion, with the loss of five thousand men* This being the
first advantage gained where Hannibal commanded in per-
son, dM Romans were not a little animated by their suc^
' cess; but their spirits were again dejected by the news of
the consul PosthuAuus Albinus being ctit o£F with his whole
ajrmy by the Boti. Stitt they resolved to concentrate theit
whole forces against their moat formidable enemy, Hanni-
bal, who, noft w ilh s tattding his repnlse at Nokty had reduced
several cities; but the Campanians, who bad eq^oused
the Cavthaginom interest, havingraieed an army of fourteen
'tkooaand men in support of Hannibsd, were cMeafeed widi
great loss, by ike conaml Semproniiis. It having been dis»
covered about this time that the Garthaginian genend had
eoBckided a treaty of alliaace with Philip, kingof JMacedeity
a Roman army was tran^orted into Greece^ to prevent angr
annoyance from that quarter. Not long after tht8,Hannibid
sttstmned a terriUedefeatin a pitched battle with MaiceUna,
• who, having armed his men. with long pikes, pierced through
the Carthaginian forces, while the latter were umaUe to
make die least resistance, from the inferior kngdi of their
javdinSi. They were, therefore, obliged to fly,, and being
elosdy pomued by Marcdtlus, before they coukt take tei^
frige in their camp,, five thousand men were kiUed, and sis
hundred tsdien f»risoners» This calamity was consideiab^

ISO RAM9At*S mnVEMAL HI8T0RT.

augmented by the deserdon of tirelve handred of liie best
hoT^y who had participated in all the glory and fatigue^
which attended the passage over the Alps. Depressed by
these reverses of fortune, Hannibal left Campania, where
he had long sojourned, and retired into Apulia.

The Roman forces were now daily increasing their
• strength, while those of the Carthaginians were as rapidly
declining. Fabius Maximus immediately advanced into
Campania, whither Hannibal returned in the hopes of sav-
ing Capua. In the meantime, he ordered Hanno, at the
head of seventeen thousand foot, and one thousand seven
hundred horse, to seize Beneventum pbut he was repulsed
widi immense loss. Hannibal then advanced to Nola, where
he was again defeated by Marcellus. He now began to
lose ground with as much rapidity, as he had formerly
gained it : Casilinum, Accua in Apulia, Arpi, and Ater-
num, were retaken by the Romans ; but the inhabitants of
Tarentum, voluntarily delivered their city to Hannibal. So
intent was he upon reducing the garrison which still main-
tained the citadel of that place, that he was deaf to the en-
treaties of the citizens of Capua, wAo were threatened with
a siege by the Roman army. Hanno, in the meantime,
was again utterly vanquished by Fulvius, being forced to
fly with a small body of horse into firutium. The con-
suls then advanced with the intention of laying formal
siege to Capua; but, while on their march, Sempronius
Gracchus, a man of great bravery and skill, was assassi-
nated by a Lucanian ; and, in the death of this general, the
republic sustsuned an almost irreparable loss. Capua, how-
ever, was now assailed on all sides, and the besieged, a
second time, supplicated Hannibal, who at lengdi came to
their assistance. He so contrived matters that the period
of his intended attack on the Romans was communicated
to the besieged, with a desire that they would second his
endeavours, by making a vigorous sally ' at the same time.
The Roman generals, on the first news of the enemjr's ap-
proach, divided their troops ; Appius, with one portion^
making head against the garrison, while Fulvius defended

t^ ctttrenchmemts. The garrison was, with little dificul^,
repulsed, and had not Appiu^ been wounded as he was en-
tering the gaie, he would have pursued them even into their
ei^} but Fulvius found it no easy task to withstand Hafr*.
nibal, whose troops evinced incredible ardour and intrepi-
dity. A body of Spaniards and Numidians passed the
ditchi and) in spite of all opposition, climbing the ramparts,
penetrated into the heart of the Roman camp ; but, not be»
uig properly seconded, the life of every individual was &»•
crificed on the spot* The Carthaginian general, dismayed
at these misfortunes, immediately sounded a retreat. Still,
however, hoping to efieet the relief of Capua, he marched
towards Rome, where he supposed his approach would
strike such terror into the minds' of the inhabitants, as mi|^t
cause the recal of the army from Capua to their assistanee.
Having previously acquainted the Capuans with his design,
they were by no means disheartened at his departure ; biM
this mam^uvre was not attended with the expected suc^
cess ; for Fabius, having penetrated into his intentions, it
was judged sufiLcient to recal Fulvius, with no more than
fifteen thousand a^en, 4> the asMstance of Rome. Qn bin
anrival, Hannibal was obliged to retire, and returning to
Capua, he surprised Appius, driving him out of his camp,
with the loss of a great number of men ; die latter then en^
trenched himself on some eminences, till he cguld be joined
1^ his colleague, Fulvius. Feeling his inability to combat
with the whole Roman army, Hannibal now relinquished all
thoughts of relieving Capua. This, of course, was soon sur?-
rendered to its ancient masters.

, A short time prior to the submission of Capua, Hanni-
bal fell in with a Roman army^ commanded by M. Cente-
^Hls Peaula, who had frequently signalized himself as a cen^
turion. This rash adventwrer, on being introduced to the
senate, had the presumption to insinuate, that, if they woul4
iatrust him with the command only of five thousand men, he
would soeo give a good account <^ Hannibal. His army was,
however, augmented to the number of sixteen thousand,
with which, having.atlacked the Carthaginians, after a bat-

VOJ-. IX. [18]

Ifg RAM84Y^ VMrraMMiL HttTORT.

tk of tw».lioors,heiell,<8iirroiiiide4bydlhis soliMrt» ex-
cepting only about one thousand.

Not kmg after this, Hannihal, having found meaai t9
draw the praetxMr, Cneius Fulvius, into an ambuacade, put
to die sword nearly his whc^ army, consisting of eig^Meea
dMusand men. Meantime, MwceUus made great pnogreaa
in Samnium, guning possession of three cities, in two of
which, finding three diousand Carthaginians, he put them
all to death, and at the same time carried off immense 4|ua»-
tities of com. This by no -means compensated for die de-
feat which Hannihal gave die proconsul, Fulvius Cento*
nsaltts, whom he surprised and cut off, together with Air-
teen thousand of his men. Thus alternately victorious ^md
vanquished, large numbers of the human race were d^
stroyed, without any decisive effects*

9ooa after this defeat, Bfarcellus marched with his amy
to oppose Hannihal, and various losses are said to have
been sustained on each side, in their repeated encounters i
1>ut at length the subtle Carthaginian decoyed his antago-
nist into an ambuscade, and destroyed bodi him and hiv
army. In coase<|ttence of this event, the Romans were
obliged to raise die siege of Locri, with the loss of aU
their military engines. This happened in the eleventh year
of die war.

Hitherto die Cardiaginiaas, though no longer the favourw
ites of fortune, had sdll been able, in a great measure, t»
maintain dieir ground; but the misfortune which befel
Asdrubal, as he was conducting some auxiliary troops from
Spain to his brodier Hannibal, proved die death warrant^
the Cardiaginian aflhirs. After meeting with many fovourr
able circumstances, which conduced to ihcilitate his pro-
gress, he arrived at Placentia sooner dian the Romans, or
even Hanmbal himself could expect. Had he continued to
use the same expedition with which he began his march,
nothing could have averted the fotal blow impending over
Rome, from die united forces of Hannihal and his brother.
But, on die contrary, indecently indulging his repose before
PkoeiMia,. he gave an onportuni^ to the Ravmns of mos-

CAIITHACSS. igl^

taring all their troops to oppose him. Being noir obUged
to raise the siege, he directed his course towards Umbria^
and imnediately despatched a letter, to acquaint Hannibal
of his intended motions ; but die messenger being inter*
eepted, and the* consuls having, in consequence, united
Aeir armies, attacked the Carthaginians widi great vehe-
mence. These being much inferior to their opponents, bodi
in point of numbers and resolution, the issue of diis con*
llict was a total defeat. Asdrubal himself was among die
slain. About the same dme, Hannibal, after having sus*
tained repeated repulses, retired to Canutium ; but, on die
melancholy intelligence of his brodier's dei^, he withdreir
to the extremity of Brutium, and remained diere a consi-
derable space of time in a state of inaction. Yet such was
die terror existing in the minds of die Romans, at die rt»
collection of what this hero had achieved, that, although
his hopes and fortunes seemed to be wrecked, and the Car*
diaginian affairs appeared to be on the briidc of destroe*
don, th^ did not venture to provoke an attack.

The republic of Carthage now devoted their whole at*
tendon to the prsservndon of their possessions in Spain,
while the more important affiurs in Italy were treated widi
absolute neglect. AU dieir anxiety, however, about the
security of their dominions in Spain was to very litde pur*
pose, as diey fDund a courageous and successful enemy in
Scipio, who, besides gaining many odier considerable ad*
vantages, reduced the cides of New CarAkge and Gades*

At lengdi die mist, raised by prejudice and malevolence,
which had rendered die Carthaginians so blind to their
own iirt^rest, began to be dissipated by dear bought expe*
yience ; but it was now too late. Mago received orders to
leave ^ain, and sail to Italy with all expedition. Landing
on dw coast of Liguria, widi an army of twelve thousand
loot, and two thousand horse, he surprised Genoa, and at
the same time seized upon the town and port of Savo. A
ranforcement joined him at diis place, and new levies
were raisad in Liguria, with great speed ; but the oppoi^
ttttti^ waa now passed, and ooold not be recalled. Scipio^

^§1, RAM8AT*S VimnmL HOSTORT.

after having earried dl befinre him in SftiUf passed ovw
into Africa, where no eneoijr appeared capable of opposing
his progress. The affrighted Carthagimans, bdidding their
country on the brink of destruction, recalled theirvarmies
from Italy, for the preservation <^ dieir own capital; and
Mago, who had entered into Insubria, was routed by dw
Roman forces, and, retreating into die marituae quarters
of Liguria, was inet by a courier, with orders for his im«
mediate return to Carthage. On the same order being
communicated to Hannibal, he manifested the most acute
sensations of distress and indignation. Groaning imd gnash-
ing his teeth, he was scarcely able to refrun from shedding
tears. *^ Never did a man, under sentence of banishment,'*
says Livy, ^^show so much reluctance to relinquish his
native country, as Hannibal felt on leaving that of hia
enemy."

On Hannibal's landmg in Africa, he strained every nerve
to animate the courage, and increase the strengdi cf the
Carthaginian army. Encamping at Zama, a town about five
days' march from Carthage, he sent out spies to observe
the situation of the Romans. These men were taktWL pri*
8<mers, and carried before Scipio ; but so far from iniUictin^
any punishment upon them, acc<mling to the rules of warv
he ordered them to be conducted about the camp, to die
end that they might take an exact survey, and aiterwmda
dismissed them. Hannibal admiring the magnanimity of
his rival, earnestly solicited an interview with Um. The
two generals, therefore, escorted by equal detacbmeats of
horse, met at Madaura, where, by the asttstasite of fntef^
preters, they held a conference. Hannibal, pattering Scipio^
in refined and artful language, expatiated upon all die to-f
pics which he conceived most capaUe of inducing diatg^
neral to grant his nadon a peace, on moderate and equitn^*
Ue terms, affirming, that the Cardiagimans would wiUni^.
confine their possessions to Africa, while d»e Romans were
at liberty to extend their conquesta to die most raaote na^:
dons. Scipio replied, that the Ranums were not instigated
to engage in the fi>rmer or pcesevt war with Canknge, fajr^

CABTBAGE. £(5

uaAAdmik or aay sinister cdnsideradons, but by tbe strict
regard dtey paid to justice, and tlie security of their allies.
Hs oko observed, diat, previously to his arrival in Africa,
he had received more submissive proposals ; die Caithagi-
nians having oflered to pay a tribute of five thousand ts^-
lents of silver to die Romans, to restore their prisoners
wiAout ransom, and to surrender all their galleys. At
the same time, Scipio urged that, instead of expecting*
mcyre advantageous terms, they should be grateful diattfaey
vr^e not more rigorous ; but, if Hannibal would comply
with the proposed conditions, a peace should instandy en«*
sue ; if not, die dispute must be left to the decision of the
sword.

lliis conference, held between two of (he greatest conv«
manders die world has ever seen, ended widiout success ;
both returning to their respective camps, where diey in-
flamed dieir troops by the assurance that, not only the &te
of fiome and Carthage, but that of die universe collect! vely^
was to be decided on the succeeding day, by the exertion
of their arms. During die engagement, which accordingly
took place, Scipio is said to have passed a very high encomi*
um on the excellent military genius of his opponent, openly
avowing, that, the conduct of the Carthaginian hero was
siqperior to his own. Sut the precarious state of Carthage
admitted of no delay. Hannibal, obliged to hazard a batde,
with a coauderably inferior number of cavalry, was utterly
defeated, and his camp tsl»n, while he himself sought re-
fuge at Thon, and afterwards removed to Hadrumetum ;
from dience he was recalled to Carthage, where he prevail-^
ed upon his countrymen to conclude a peace with Scipio^
Oft die severe terms jnescribed by the victor.

Thui^ was the second Punic war terminated, on condi*
tioM, to the last degree humiliating to the Carthaginians.
They were obliged to surrender all the Roman deserters^
fitgitive slaves, and prisoners of war, as well as all the Ita*
liana, whom Hahmbal had constrained to follow him. At
the same dme they stipulated to give up all their ships of
war, eseept ten trirepes, and all dieir tame elephants, be*

i4K$ RAMSArs vmvndAL msTOftr.

ing likewise restricted from traiaing Anymore of those
animals for military service. They bound diemselTea alao
to undertake no war, without the consent of the Romans^
and engaged to advance, at equal payments, in fifty yeArs^
ten thousand Euboic talents. They further agreed to entier
into an alliance with Massinissa, restoring aU they hadr
usurped from him or his ancestors, and to assist the Ro»
mans, either by land or sea, in case of emergency. These
galling terms, roused the indignation of iSstt populace to such
a degree, dutt they threatened to plunder and bum the
houses of the nobility ; but Hanntbil assemlfing a body of
six thousand foot and five hundred horse, que&ed the msur*
gents ; and, by his influence, completed the trea^, in ra-
tifying which, the inevitable ruin of Carthage was sealed.

This fatal peace had scarcely been concluded, when Mas-
sinissa seized on part of ibe Carthaginian dominions, in
Africa, under pretence that it formerly belonged to his an*
cestors. The Carthaginians, through die potent but prgu«-
diced interference of the Romans, found themselves under
the necessity of ceding those countries to that ambitious
prince, and of entering into an alliance with oat, who had
unjustly despoiled them of dieir territories.

After the conclusion of the peace, Hannibal stll nndn*
tained his reputation among his countrymen. He was ea»
trusted with the command of an army against some aei|^
bouring nations ; but his enjo3rment of this post pviag of-
fence to the Romans, he was exalted to the civil dignity of
prsBtor, in Carthage. In diis office he continued fior some
time, making useful regulations in tile aflisdrs of the stale;
but his conduct, even in this capacity, exciting the jealousy
of his inveterate enemies, he was forced to fly to Antiochus,
king of Syria. After his flight, the Romans stffi watekcd
the Carthaginians with a suspicious eye, tiiough, to remove
any distrust, his countrjrmen despatched two ships to pur«
sue him ; confiscated his effects ; razed his house $ and,
by a public decree, declared him an enle. Ever seeking
some new asylum, the tranquillity of which was as ofbea
disturfaedt by his jealous persecutorSf Hannibal was inces-

GABTIUQB. igj

woAy in fear^ kst be should be unable to elude their pur-
suit. Under this apprehension, he, by means of poison^
put an end to a life, which had been marked with achieve*
ments sufficiently glorious to adorn the annals of ages. His
abilities were truly eitfraordinary ; intrepid in dangeiv-^
ll^xilific in expedients, and above the weakness of despair^
amidst the most complicated difficulties, he often defeated
the most subtle schemes of his adversaries, and rose supe*
nor to calamities, which would have borne down a common
man. The inveterate hatred entertained by the Romans
sgaiust this formidable adversary redounds more to lu9
praise than any eulogium* By the death of IJaimibal, his
country sustained an irreparable low^ and her glory sunk,
to rise no more.

Soon aft$r Hannibal's retreat and exile, disagreements
arising between the Carthaginians and Massinissa, the lat-
ter, notwidistanding the manifest iniquity of his proceed*
ing, was supported by the Romans, whom he cjyoled by af-
irming, that die Carthaginians had received ambassadors
from Perseus, king of Macedon, and that they were about
to enter into an alliance with that prince. Not long after
this, Massinissa made incursions into the province of Tys-
ca, where he possessed himself of many towns and castles.
In order to check his further outrages, the Carthaginians
a|^od, wi^ great impertunitjr, to the Romans for redress,
keing restrained, by an article in the last treaty, from re*
ptUing f<Mxe by force, without their coi^ent. The ambasr
sadors, prostrating themselves on the ground, implored the
Roman senate to determine the extent of their dominions^
that they might know, in future, what they had to depend
on ; or, if their state had by any means given offence, they
begged that they would punish them themselves, rather
than leave them exposed to the insults and depredations of
so merciless a tyrant. But even with all this solicitation
and humility, they could not obtain their request, and Mas-
sinissa was permitted to continue his outrages with impur
ntty. Whatever enmity, however, the Romans might bear
their natural foe, tbey, affected: to show some regard to the

m RAMSArS CnVEMAI. jaffiTMY.

principles of justice aa4 facmour. They, dierelbre, dec*
patched Cato, a man remarkable for the enormities be c<hb«
mitted, under ^ specious pretence of publie spirit, to tucm
commodate the differences between Afassinissa and tko
Carthaginians ; but the latter, aware of ike fatal conse-
quences which would ensue, should they acquiesce in suc|i
a mediation, appealed to the treaty concluded by Scipio, as
the only rule by which their conduct, and that of the ag^
gressor, should be scrutinised. This reasonable request,
from an mifortunate pec^le, so incensed the haughty- dia-
position of Cato, that, ^m diat moment, he detenniaed
upon the destruction of their state*

The Carthaginians, sensible that die Romans were their
implacable enemies, and reflecting on the harsh treatment
Aey had experienced from them as umpires in this busi*
ness, in order to prevent a rupture, impeached As^hrubal,
general of Ae army, and Cartludo, commander of the au3c-
iliary forces, as guilty of high treason, in having promoted
the war against the king of Numidia. A deputation was at
4he same time sent to Rome, to discover the opinions en-
tertained of their late conduct, and to learn what satlsfiie*
tion the Romans demanded. These messengers meeting
with a cold reception, others were despatched, who re*'
turned with no more &vourable success. The unhappy
citizens of Carthage, were now thrown into die deepest des^
pair, from an apprehension that speedy destruction awaited
them. Nor were dieir fears groundless, as i3\e R<Hnan se*?
nate, jealous and uneasy, lest the Carthaginian repuUis
should resume some share of its former vigour, had now
determined on its final subversion. The city of Utica, ret
markable for its magnitude and riches, as well as for its ca*
pacious port, having, through fear, submitted to die Ro-
mans, the possession of so important a fortress for the at*
tack of the capital, induced diem immediately to declare
war against Carthage. The consuls, M. Manlius Nepos,
and L. Marcius Censorinus, with an immense armament,
were despatched against the defenceless Carthaginians,
having previously received secret instructions from the

CABTHAeB. ISQ

senate, not to suspend offensive operations, till the com-
plete destruction of that state ; a treasure which they pre-
tended was esseniiaUy necessary to their own security.
Pursuant to their previous arrangements, the troops were
landed at Lilybsum, in Sicily, from whence, after making
the necessary preparations, it was proposed that they should
be transported to Utica.

In the meantime, the Carthaginians were not a litde agi-
tated by the last intelligence brought by their ambassadors ;
although they were still ignorant of the calamitous destiny
ibat awaited them. They, therefore, sent fresh negociatora
to Rome, invested with unlimited pow;er to act as they
thought proper, and even to submit themselves, without
reserve, to the disposal of the Romans. This embassy
appeared, in some measure, to soften the obduracy of the
Romans, who promised the Carthaginians not only the en*-
joyment of their liberty and laws, but likewise whatever
was, in their estimation, most dear and valuable. The rap-
ture of the Carthaginian populace was immoderate, on the
report of this favourable turn in the negociation; but a
melancholy reverse took place, on being informed by the
senate, that the Romans listened to their overtures only on
condition that three hundred of the young noblemen of
Carthage should be despatched to Lilybaeum, within the
apace of thirty days, to hear the final resolution of the con-
suls. This uncertainty impressed the inhabitants of Carr
thage with the deepest melancholy. The hostages, how-
ever^ were delivered, but the decision of their fate was de-
ferred till the consuls should arrive at Utica, where they
were assured that the further orders of the Romans should
be made knoifn.

No sooner, therefore, did the ambassadors receive intel-
ligence of the Roman fleet S4;>pearing oflF Utica, than they
hastened to learn the destiny of their city. The consuls
made their demands successively, and at some distance
of time from each other, lest their atrocity, had they all
appeared at once, should excite the indignation of their
victims, and put a stop to their execution. They first re-
vet. IX. [19]

140 RAMSAY'S UNiyCRSAL HISTORY.

quired a sufficient supply of com for the subsistence of
dieir troops— a point wMch was granted without difficulty.
Secondly, the delivery of all their .galleys, widi three rows
of oars — end, Thirdly, the delivery of all their warlike
machines, and that idl their arms, in general, should be
brought to the Roman camp. These harsh and ruinous
demands were submitted to with equal regret and uneasi-
ness. Thus despoiled, this unfortunate people were incar
pable of defending themselves, or supporting a siege*
^ Now, then," said the imperious consuls, ^ abandon the
eity which we are about to destroy, and carry off froin it
whatever you can. You are allowed to build another, on
condition that it is many leagues from the sea, and with-
out walls or fortifications."

When^the mournful news reached die city, through hs
deputies, the most dreadful consternation arose. Rage and
anger succeeded to despair, and, in their first emotions, the
people massacred every senator and public officer whom
they met, for having submitted to the required terms, and
suffered themselves to be deprived of all means of defence.
They cursed Aeir ancestors for not gloriously dying in die
defence of their country, rather than acquiescing in disho-
nourable conditions, which had brought, destruction on
their posteri^. Courage arose from the extremity of their
misery. All swore to perish rather dian submit to such
hard conditions. The senate made every practicable ezer*
tion, in their defenceless state, for sustaining a siege, lliey
closed the gates of their city, collected on the ramparts
great heaps of stones to supply the defect of arms in case
of a surprise, and liberated all the malefactors confined in
prison ; gave the slaves their liberty, and incorporated tiiem
in the militia. Asdrubal, who had been sentenced to die,
in order to deprecate the vengeance of the Romans, was
now entreated to employ, in the defence of his country, an
army of twenty thousand men, which be had raised against
it. Another Asdrubal was appointed to command in Car^
thage { but though every one appeared animated by the
most determined resolution for the defence of their capi«-

CARTHAGE 141

td^they sdll felt sensibly the want of arms. To obviate
Ais, by order of tbe senate, the temples, porticos, and all
other public buildings, were converted into manufactories,
in which men and woi^en were incessantly occupied in
preparing the means of defence. One hundred and forty*
four bucklers, three hundred swords, one thousand darts,
and five hundred lances and javelins, were daily furnished
to the soldiery. Wanting the usual materials for making
the balistse and catapultse, they used silver and gold, melting
the statues, vases, and even the private property of families ;
none, on this occasion, sparing fiitigue or expense in such
an important cause. As there were no supplies of hemp
and flax, to make ropes for working the machines, the wo-
men, even of the first rank, cut off their hair, and dedicat-
ed it to the service of their country. Asdrubal, forgetting
his private wrongs in those of the public, came to the
assistance of his native city, and having taken his post,
without the walls, employed his troops in collecting provi-
sions, which were conveyed to the CarthagiiAuis in great
abundance.

The consuls, in the meantime, supposing the inhabitants of
Carthage to labour under a famine, which must eventually
oblige them to submit, delayed their approaches to the city^
being in hourly expectation of receiving their concession |
but, at lengdi, discovering the real state of affurs, they ad*
vanced, and immediately invested the ci^. Firmly peis
suaded that the Cartiiaginians were unarmed, they flattered
themselves, they should carry the place with great facility.
Under this idea they approached the walls with their scal-
ing ladders ; but great was their surprise on discovering
multitudes of men on the ramparts, glittering in the armour
they had recently made. So powerful was the effect of this
unexpected discovery on the minds of the le^onaries, that
ihey drew back, and would have retreated, had not the con-
suls led them on to the attack. The Romans, however, in
spite of all their exertions, were obliged to relinguish the
enterprise, and abandon all thoughts of reducing Carthage
by assault. Asdrubal, having coUected from all places sub-

148 RAMSAY'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

jcct to Carthage a prodigious body of troops, encamped at
a short distance from the Romans, and soon reduced them
to considerable distress for want of provisions.

In the meantime, Marcius, one of the Roman consuls, be-
ing posted near a spot covered by stagnant waters ; the noxi-
ous vapours, combined with the excessive heat of the sea-
son, caused an alarming sickness among his troops. To
alleviate its virulence, he ordered the fleet to approach the
shore, in order to transport his troops to a more salubrious
situation. Asdrubal, however, apprised of this intention,
filled all the old barques in the harbour with combustible
materials, and sent them before the wind, upon the enemy's
ships, by which means, the greatest part of them were con-
sumed. After this disaster, Marcius was called home to
preside at the elections, and the Carthaginians, encouraged
by the absence of one of their principal opponents, made an
, attempt in the night to surprise the other consul's camp ;
but, meeting with unexpected opposition, they wtre ob-
liged to return to the city in disorder.

Asdrubal, having posted himself under the walls of Ne-
pheris, a city built on a high and almost inaccessible moun-
tain, about twenty-four miles distant from Carthage, made
frequent incursions into the neighbouring country, harass-
ing his enemy by every stratagem he could devise. The
Roman consul, therefore, immediately hastened to Nephe-
ris, determined to dislodge his adversary from so advan-
tageous a position. He was attacked by Asdrubal, how-
ever, with such impetuosity, that convinced of his imminent
danger, he was glad to sound a retreat. On this, Asdrubal
rushed down the hill, pursued the Romans, and cut a great
number of them to pieces ; but the invaders were preserved
from total destruction by the unparelled bravery of Scipio
.£milianus ; for, at the head of three hundred horse, he sus*
tsuned the attack of all the forces commanded by Asdrubal,
covering the legions while they passed a river in their re-
treat before the enemy ; and their passage bein{( effected,
he and his companions threw themselves into the stream,
and gained the opposite bank. When they had crossed the

CABTHAGE. 1^

river, it was perceived that four manipuli were wanting.
This was no sooner discovered, than ^milianus, taking
with him a chosen hody of horse, hastened hack to their
rescue. Attacking the Carthaginian forces, with the cou-
rage and intrepidity of men resolved to die or conquer,
they opened a passage for their countrymen. On his re-
turn to the army, who had g^ven him up for lost, Scipio was
carried to his quarters in triumph, and the nianipuli, whom
he had rescued from such imminent danger, presented him
with a crown of g^ramen.

In the succeeding year, the conduct' of the war in Africa,
fell by lot to the consul L. Calphumius Piso, who em-
ployed iEmilianus in several enterprises of importance, in
which he was attended with singular good fortune. After
taking several castles, he procured a private interview with
Thameas, general under Asdrubal, of the Carthaginian ca*
valry, and prevailed on him to join the Romans with two
thousand two hundred horse. Notwithstanding this de-
fection, however, the Roman army, under the consul Cal-
phumius Piso, made a very slow progress. On the ap-.
proach of winter, he retired to Utica, without performing
any action of decisive importance, during the whole cam-
paign.

In the ensuing season, Scipio iEmilianus passed over into
Africa, in quality of consul, and finding three thousand
iive hundred Romans in imminent danger in Megalia, one
of the suburbs of Carthage, he flew to the relief of his coun-
trymen, and having driven the Carthaginians within their
walls, brought them off in safety to Utica.

C^centrating his forces, he now directed all his ener-
gies to the reduction of the capital. To this, end he first
carried Megalia by assault, the Carthaginian garrison re-
tiring to the citadel of Bjnrsa. Asdrubal, who had comr
manded the troops in the field, and was now chosen go-
vernor of Carthage, was so enraged at the loss of Megalia,
that he inhumanly ordered all die Roman prisoners to be
brought upon the ramparts, and thence thrown headlong
into the sea, after having, with an excess of cruel^, caused

y>0^ r

I4i BAMSArs imnnuflAL history.

die hand* aiMi feet otiim luhappjr victimt to be eat elT, sad
their eye% and tongues to be rooted out. In the meanumey
jfimiliuiua was assidnoudy emplof ed in contriving means
to reduce Carthage, and at length so fiw effected his da*
sign, as totally to preclude the possibility of conveying snf^
plies into it. . The besieged, howerer, with almost incredi-
Ue industry and perseverance, dug a new baaon, and cut a
commuaicauon between it and the sen, therein obviating
the distresses which must have easued, from a vast mole
raised by the Romans, with the view of rendering their
port inaccessible to ships. -With equal diligence and ex-
pedition they fitted out a fleet of fifty triremea, and, conr
ducting them through this canal, suddenly laundied theis
on the sea, to the no small astonishnaent of the Romans.
An engagement ensued, which lasted the wholt dny, with
fitde advantage to either party. The succeeding day,
£milianus endeavoured to gain possession of a terrace,
which covered the city on the side next the sea ; and, on
tlus occasion, the besieged signalized themselves by extra-
ordinary valour. Great numbers, naked and unarmed, sal*
lied out in the dead of the night, holding unlighted torchea
in their hands, till they ajn)roadied within reach, when
they lighted their torches, and du^w them against the Ro»
man engines. The sudden appearance of naked men, re*
sembling as they did, so many monsters rising from di^
bosom of the waves, struck such terror into the Romans
who guarded the engines, that they retreated in the utmost
confusion. The consul, howe w, who commanded ki per-
son, endeavoured by every means to inspire lus' man with
resolution; but, the Carthaginians perceiving the general
consternation, fell upon the Romans with icresiatible fury^
and, having put them to flight, entirely destroyed the ma*
chines. Notwithstanding this disaster, iEmilianua, after n
few dajrs, renewed the attack ; carried the terrace by a^
sault ; and took every precaution to fortify it against the
sallies of the enemy. Having obtained this advantageoua
post, he, for a time, suspended all further exertions ; but
chrcumstances jdid nnt permit .h^ to renuun long in«otive.

Jri

CAftTBAGfi. 14f

The Ctt-duipniftiit reeling regular supplies of provisions
from Nepheiis^ where a very numerous army, under the
cesnmimd of Diogenes^ was enca^iped, iEmilianus made an
attack on that place, and at length succeeded in obtaining
possession of it, and thus cut off the chief source from
which Carthage received her supplies. Numbers fell in
the conflict; and, after a siege of twenty two days. Nephew
tia opened its gates to the victorious Romans; Asdnibal,
disheartened by the defeat of his army, and deeply affected
by the accumulated distresses of his countr3anen, now of*
fered to submit to any conditions that the Romans would
name, consistent with the preservation of the city ; but even
this proposal was refused. The approach of winter, in a
great measure, suspended the operations of the enemy, and
delayed the fate of Carthage.

Early in the spring, iEmilianus renewed die siege with
additional vigour. ' He ordered Laelius to attempt the re^
dttction of Cothon, a small island which separated the two
ports, while he himself made a feint on tike citadel, in order
to divert the attention of the enemy. This stratagem had
Ae desired effisct. Considering their citadel as of the high-
est importance, most of the Carthaginians flew to its aid,
making use of their utmost exertions to repel the aggres-
sors. Lcelius, meanwhile, having with inconceivable expe«
dition^ built a bridge over the channel, which separated
Cothon from die isthmus, soon made himself master of the
important fortress erected on tiiis island. No sooner did
the proconsul understand, from the shouts of the victors,
that their attempts were crowned with success, tiian he im-
mediately abandoned the fidse attack, and, unexpectedly
assailing the adjacent gate of the city, forced his way
amidst the incessant showers of darts discharged from tiie
tmmparts on his troops. The approach of nig^t, however,
retarding his further progress, he made a lodgment with-
in the gate till the return of day, when, pursuant to his de-
sign of attacking the citadel, he ordered a reinforcement of
four thousand fresh troops to advance from the camp. Thus
prepared, having previously devoted to the infernal deities

i40 ftAMSAY'S trmyBMAL HISTORY.

tbe unfortimate Caithaginiaas, he advanced i^ the bead oC
his troops to the market place. Here he fouiMi tliat the
way to &e citadel lay through three steep streets, the t<^
of the houses, on each side of which were lined with the
Carthaginiuis, who discharged heavy volleys of stones and
darts on the Romans, as they approached. In order to re-
move this impediment, iBmilianus, at the head of a detach-
ment, assailed the first house, and put all he met with to
the sword. This example was followed by the other officers
and men, who gradually advanced, as the houses on each
side were cleared. The Carthaginians, however, though in
this last and dreadful extremity, continued to make a vigo-
rous resistance ; two bodies of men, one placed on the roofs
of the houses, the other parading the streets, disputed every
step with the most desperate bravery. The slaughter was
jHTodigious and inexpressibly shocking ; the air was rent
with shrieks, which would have melted any heart but that of
a conqueror wading through the blood of thousands, to at?
tain the object of his ambition. Some were massacred by
the sword, others precipitated themselves headlong from
the tops of the houses, and the streets were paved wit^i
dead or mangled bodies. But the havoc was still more
dreadful, when iEmilianus ordered that quarter of the city,
adjoining the citadel, to be set on fire ; multitudes, who had
hitherto escaped the swords of the enemy, now fell victims
to the merciless flames, or perished amidst the ruins of
their habitations. After the conflagration had raged six suc-
cessive days, the Roirian general ordered the rubbish to be
cleared for a considerable space, that his army might have
scope for action. He then appeared with his whole forces
before Byrsa, whither many of the Carthaginians had sought,
refuge. Part of these fugitives, prostrating themselves at
the feet of the Roman general, supplicated no other favour
than the preservation of their lives. This was readily
granted, not only to them, but to all who had fled to Byrsa,.
some Roman deserters excepted. Asdrubal^s wife earnestly
entreated the permission of her husband to join the sup-
pliants, and to carry with her, to the proconsol, her two ..

9ARTHA0E. ^Jjff

mfant sons ; but dead to die tender feelings of a parent, he
silenced her request with menaces. Perceiving, however^
that the Roman deserters were excluded from all chance of
mercy, and had entered into a resolution to die, sword in
hand, rather than submit to the vengeance of their country^
men, he committed his wife and children to their charge.
After this unnatural and ferocious conduct, with the base
pusillanimity of a coward, he surrendered himself, and fell
at the feet of the conqueror. *

The Carthaginian .garrison, in the citadel, no sooner per-
ceived themselves abandoned by their leader, than ihey
threw open the gates, and put the Jtomans in possession 6(
Byrsa. They had now no odier enemy to contend with,
than about nine hundred deserters, who, reduced to des*
pair, had 90ug^t an asylum in the temple of J£sculapius. In
this situation the proconsul attacked them ; • and, debarred
of all hopes of escape, they set fire to the temple. The
flames spreading rapidly, these unhappy victims fled from
one part of the building to another, till at length they were
driven to the roof. Here the wife of Asdrubal appeared,
uttering the most bitter reproaches against her husband^
whom she beheld standing below in company with iEmi*
lianus. '^ Inglorious wretch," she exclaimed, ^^ what de^
grading actions hast thou perpetrated to preserve an exist-
ence so dishonourable, but this instant ihou shalt witness
the atonement of thy guilt, «n the death of these two guilt*
leas infants." On this she stabbed both the children with a
dagger, and, precipitating them from the top of the temple,
immediately leaped down after them, into the flames.

iEmilianus delivered up the city to be pillaged, in Ifae
aumner prescribed by the Roman military law. The soU
diers were allowed to participate in the plunder qf all the
furniture, and brass money found in private houses ; but
the gold, silver, statues, pictures and other valuables, were
reserved for the appropriation of the qusstors. l^rior to
the demolition of the city, iEmilianus, in conformity to
die religious ceremonies usual on such occasions,, oflered
sacrificea to the gods, and caused a plough to be drawn
VOL. 1:5. [20]

14B BAMSArs omvBnAL history.

round the walls. This done, the towers, ramparts, and aD
other public edifices, to erect which had been the labour of
ages, were levelled with the ground ; and, finally, fire was
set to the remains of this once majestic metropolis. Al-
though the conflagration began in all quarters at the same
time with the utmost fury, seventeen days elapsed befi^re
the whole was reduced to ashes.

Thus fell Carthage ;— the destruction of which oug^
rather to be attributed to the intrigues of an abandoned fic-
tion, composed of the most profligate of its citizens, tlum
to the superior power of its rival. It dawned, arrived at
maturity, and perished within the space of seven hundred
and fifty years. In expiation of the injustice of their an-
cestors, the Romans, many years afterwards, attempted to
erect a new city, on the site of the old. It did not, however,
arrive at any degree of splendour till the time. of Augustus,
when it was esteemed the second city in the empire. This
again was laid in ashes by Maxentius, in the reign of Con-
stantine ; but Carthage once more held a considerable rank
among the cities of Africa, under Genserick, lung of the
Vandals, and wa» re-annexed to the Roman empire, by the
memorable Belisarius. It was at length so completely de-
molished, towards the close of the seventh century of the
Christian s^a, that not a wreck remains of its ancieiit
grandeur.

. On ^e ute of Carthage, however, there now stands a
•mall village, called Melcha, in which may be seen three
eminences, formed, in all probabili^, out of the ruins of
temples, or some other public edifices.

It is, perhaps, worthy of remark, that the two cities .of
Rome and Carthage, were placed in a situation not lesa
diametrically opposite, than the respective interests and
views of their inhabitants. The aggrandizement of the one,
required perhaps the destruction of the other, and as public
spirit is scarcely compatible with the narrow policy of
commerce, where each pursues his private advantage, it
was the fate of Carthage to submit. «

The reader of Carthaginian history, will not £m1 td

■™^ ' —^

CAHTHAQB. ^^

observe, that tiM>se tremendous intestine seditions, which
imbrued Rome in the blood of her citizens, and shook the
very foundation of her republic, were less frequent in the
African fepublic ; but it should be observed, that there ex*
isted, in Carthage, several powerful families, whose com-
petition firmly secured the public liberty, and thus pre-
vented the conflict of demagogues. Narrowly watching and
counterpoising each other's actions, no sooner did one
party show a disposition to assume authority, than they
urere strenuously opposed by their rivals ; and in the oc-
casional dissentions which arose between these families,
the respective authorities of the suffetes, senate, centum-
viri, and quinqueviri, still maintained the equilibrium, or
if, for a period, the peace of the state was disturbed, the
disorder proceeded to no perilous lengths, as is evident
from the unchanged form of government. Xhey zealously
suppressed such as became dangerous from th^ir po#er,
sometimes banishing whole families at once, and by die aid
of one faction, preventing the encroachments of another.
In the Carthaginian history, we have seen, that a general,
placed by his partisans at the head of an armament, dared
not return to Carthage, if his endeavours had been unsuc-
cessful, or, if he returned, it was but to fall a victim to the
•pposing cabal.

The connexion, between the Carthaginians and Romans,
appears, from its earliest dawn, to have been marked with
direct and reciprocal distrust, and had not-tiie Punic ar-
chives been suppressed or destroyed, it would have proved
highly interesting to trace the progress of these two re-
publics, from jealousy to open enmity. Certain it is, that
from the commencement of the Carthaginian conquests, in
Italy, the hatred that the Romans had for them, su£fered no
diminution ; but, on the contrary^ gained new fire from time
and circumstances. That two nations should glory in the
calamities inflicted on each other, and strain every nerve to
lessen tiie sum of individual happiness, on both sides, is a
reproach to human nature. When the most exalted nations
of the present times have lost their rank, or sunk into insig-

<:^f.^T ^i.^.

IfQ BAM8AY*8 CrmVfillSAL HlSTDRt.

nificance, their mutual ambition, their groundless enmities
and distrusts, their eagerness to distress each other, and
the sordid objects which have influenced their conduct,
may, possibly, be regarded in the same lig^t, and give rise
to similar reflections. It is impious to suppose, that num
was bom to tyrannise over man, or one people over ano-
ther ; yet, this spirit of domination, to a greater or less
extent, pervades every human breast, as well as the public
mind. Its baneful effects are too often seen and felt in fa-
milies, and the smaller circles of social life ; but to a much
higher degree, when they extend to nations.

On a retrospect of the horrible scenes, which have been
reviewed in the preceding pages, the depravity of human
nature must be sufliciently obvious. Nor will the reader be
less struck with the great obligations we are under to Chris-
tianity, for lessening the horrors of war, especially among
nations, who respect that benevolent system of divine trutii.
While. the miseries of the Carthaginians excite our sympa-
thy, we cannot help looking back to the prophetic eurse,
pronounced by Noah, on their ancestor Canaan. The Car-
thaginians sprung from the Tyrians, the Tyrians from the
Sidonians, and Sidon was the first bom of Canaan. Of the
Tynans, Ezekiel, in 589 B. C. had prophesied, ^^ tiiat though
they should pass to Tarshish, and to Chittim, yet, even
there, they should find no quiet setdement, there also shalt
thou have no rest." The Tyrians might well be said to
have no rest ; for tiieir conquerors pursued them from (me
country to another. But it is more emphatically true of
their descendants, the Carthaginians. Their history is
made up of little else tiian wars and tumuks, even before
their tiiree fatal wars with the Romans, in every one of
which their affairs declined from bad to worse. Sicily and
Spain, £urope and Africa, the land, and their own element,
the sea, were theatres of their calamities and miseries, till
at lasty their unfortunate metropolis was utterly destroyed.

NOBnmA. ff^

NUMIDIA,

ExTEWDfiD from thirty-four degrees, five minutes, to
thirty-seven degrees north latitude, and from one degree,
fifteen minutes west, to nine degrees, sixteen minutes east
longitude of Greenwich. The Mediterranean washes it on
the north. The aspect of vegetation, in this country, is
uncommottly diversified. Fertile lands are found by the
side of a sandy and barren plain ; and a great extent of
desert lies. frequently in th«f vicinity of the moat populous
districts. The sides of IdAty mountains are adorned widi
rich and variegated landscapes, covered with orchards of
delicious fruits, and watered by fresh fountains. Near these
cooUng streams frequently spring up fountains of hot water^
which owe their origin, probably, to exhausted volcanoes.

Numidia was formerly well cultivated, and produced
com in abundance, while the scattered remains of nume-
rous towns, prove it to have possessed a considerable popu-
lation* The Romans carried thither a fondness for the
arts^ of which some monuments still remain. By the le-'
gends of medals wUch have been discovered, it appears
that the ancient Numidians possessed a vrritten language
of their own. §

Judging of their origin by their religion, we should! be-
lieve them to be Egjrptians, Phoenicians and Greeks'; for
they preserved the gods and the worship of these various
nations.

The ancient Numidians were divided into tribes, can-
tons, or hordes. Their mapalia, or tents, were of an ob-
long form, and secured from the inclemency of the weather
by a covering of hair cloth. A number of these fortned a
Numidian encampment. Each horde, having consumed
the produce of one fertile spot, removed, from time to
time, in quest of sustenance for themselves, and pasturage
for their cattle. Some, however, resided in fixed habitat*

£9^ RAM9AY>9 UmVBRSAL HISTORY.

tions, made of hurdles, mud, straw, and other light mate-
rials, which were distinguished by the name of magaria.

In their diet they were remarkably abstemious, living
chiefly upon herbs, grains, pulse and water. Their gar-
ments were loose, without sash or girdle. Their constitu-
tions were rarely impaired by disease, and many of them
attained to longevity.

The Numidians, in general, were a rude and barbarous
people, who have left few traces of an acquaintance with
the arts or sciences. They were, however, eminent for their
skill in horsemanship, and in the use of the javelin and
dart; and seem to have possetMd a competent share of
knowledge in some branches*^ the military art. The
Numidian cavalry was always in high esteem, and the Ro-
mans and Carthaginians, who equally prized it in their
wars, rendered it extremely famous. Though it was their
custom to dart impetuously on the enemy, in loose array,
yet they sometimes charged and retired in an orderly
manner.

Among the Numidians, no other government was known
than that of kings. But the thickest darkness shades the
history of these princes, till the time when, by their con-
nection with the Carthaginians, they acquired some cele-
brity. To all appearance, they rendered their people happy
by peace, and opened their ports to trade. They even
allowed the PhGcnicians to establish colonies amongst them ;
but the Numidians themselves were not g^at traders, and
appear to have had no marine of their own. Latterly even
their valour became a subject of traffic, and they transport-
ed their squadrons wherever pay was to be obtained, to
Spain, Italy and Sicily, in the fleets of the Carthaginians
or Romans.

By these rival republics, the Numidians, who were di-
vided into distinct kingdoms, were often set in opposition
to each other ; and it sometimes happened, that Numidians
who were on the side of the Romans at the commencement
of the war, found themselves Carthaginians at its close.

KUMIDIA. 11(8

The early history of Numidia has^ for many ages, been
buried in oblivion. It is probable, however, that larbus
reigned here when Dido laid the foundation of Byrsa ; and
it appears, from good authority, that, in the time of Hero*
tlotus, the inhabitants of this c6untry were called both Ly-
bians and Numidians. Justin also intimates, that about
this time the Carthaginians obtained a victory over the
Numidians, and shocflc off a tribute which had been exacted
ever since Dido's arrival in Africa.

After the termination of the first Punic war, the Micata-
nian Numidians, with other African tribes, carried on a
sanguinary war witii the Carthaginians, till Hamilcar sent
a strong detachment to punish the aggressors. The com*
mandant of that detachment executed his orders with
great severity, for he not only plundered the country with-
out mercy, but sentenced all the inhabitants whom he made
prisoners to the ignominious death of the cross. This filled
the survivors with such indignation, tiiat both they and
their descendants, ever afterward, bore an inveterate ha-
tred to the Carthaginians.

Whilst Massinissa, at the head of a Numidian army, was
assisting the Carthaginians in Spain, his father Gala died^
and his brother Desalces took possession of the throne.
That prince dying also, soon after his accession, the sove*
reignty devolved on Capusa, his eldest son, whose reign
'was speedily terminated by the successful revolt of one
Me2%tuius, a person of the royal blood, but an implacable
enemy to the family of Gala.

To support himself in his usurpation, Mezetulus espous-
ed Hannibal's niece, and sent ambassadors to conclude a
treaty of alliance with Syphax.

Meanwhile, the warlike Massinissa receiving intelligence
of his' father's death, his cousin's unhappy fate, and the
usurpation of Mezetulus, hastened to the court of Bochar,
king of Mauritania, and obtained a body of four thousand
Moori, to escort him to the confines of his paternal king-
dom. The news of his approach spread with astonishing
rapidity through the country, and the Numidians flocked

1(14 nAMSXtS UKIVBRaAL HISTOBT.

from all parte, to enlist beneatli his baBner. He was
Boon in a condition to g^ve battle to the usurper, and an
engagement ensued, which terminated in the recovery of
the crown b^ the lawful heir. The conqueror used his for-
tune with becoming moderation.

But Numidia was soon disturbed by new commotions.
Syphax marched, at the head of a numerous army, to reco-
ver a district, which had long been ;flisputed between him
and Gala, and fell upon the Massylians widi such resistless
fury, that their forces were soon dispersed, and their king
driven from the throne. In this exigence, Massinissa re»
tired, with a small party of cavalry, to the summit of
Mount Balbus, and from thence made nocturnal incursions
into the Carthaginian territory, which lay contiguous to
Numidia, ravaging die district with fire and sword, and
enriching his companions with the spoil. To put a final
stop to these depredations, S3q>haz offered an ample reward
to any one who should take Massinissa, either dead or
alive ; and, after some time, sent out one of his most active
commanders, named Bochar, to reduce the daring ma-
rauders. Bochar, having watched a fieivourable opportu-
nity, surprised the Massylians, as they were straggling
ld>out the country, and attacked them with such success,
that many were taken prisoners, and all the rest, with the
exception of Massinissa and four others, were put to the
sword.

Thus stripped of his inheritance, and deprived of his
faithful companions, Massinissa eluded the vengeance of
his enemies, by swimming over a river, and retired with
his surviving comrades to a solitary cave, whilst Sjrphax
and the Carthaginians triumphed in his supposed deaths
In this place he remained undiscovered for some time, but
having recovered from his wounds, he boldly advanced to
his own frontiers, and raised an army, with which he soon
reinstated himself in his kingdom, and even made an in-
cursion into that of die Massssyli.

Syphax, provoked at this daring enterprise, assembled a
body of troops, and formed a strong encampment upon a

NCMIDLV 101^

ridge' of hills, betveen Hippo and Cirta, whilst his soi^
Vermina, was despatched with a considerable force, to
attack the enemy in the rear. Massinissa prepared for hi^
defence, and inspired his soldiers with such resolution,
that the whole army performed prodigies of valour; but
being unexpectedly assailed in the rear, and overpowered
with numbers, they were routed with so dreadful a slaugh*
ter, that only Massinissa with sixty horse escaped. Desr
pairing not, however, of his fortune, Massinissa wandered
on the confines of his kingdom, ready to make use pf the
first opportunity which should offer for his re-establishment*
Nor did he neglect that presented him by the arrival of
Lselius in Africa, and he became, from that moment, invariar
bly attached to the Romans. They restored him to bis kingr
dom, or rather, by their assistance he again conquered it*.

Massinissa proved one of the most powerful and fbrtur
nate princes of Africa.^ After a youth of misfortune, he.
preserved to the end of a very long life, that robust healUf
for which he was indebted to exercise and temperance. He
performed at ninety years of age, the usual exercises of
young men, mounting his horse without assistance, and re»
maining whole days on it without a saddle. At his deatbi,
which happened between his ninetieth and ninety-fifth yestr^
his youngest child was only five years old. He left fiftyv
four sons, three only of whom were bom in marridge. They
each succeeded him in a portion of his kingdom. Micipia
had the government and exclusive possession of the capi«
tal ; Gulussa, the regulation of war department ; and Mas.*
tanabal, that of justice; each possessing the title of king.
This distribution was made by Scipio iEmilianus, to whom
Massinissa at his death recommended his kingdom. The
Romans probably saw in the character of the three bror
thers the propriety of their disposition. The warrior and
administrator of justice died ; and the latter, leaving a son,
named Jugurtha, Micipsa had him educated in his palace
with his young sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal.

It is not to be doubted, but that Micipsa, who had the
reputation of being a mild and wise prince, discovered the

VOL, IX. [21]

156 RAMSArS UNIvntSAL HISTORT.

bad disposition of his nephew, since it is believed he en-
deavoured to get rid of him. He gave him the most pe-
rilous commissions, and exposed him to dangers in war,
from which by his valour and ability he extricated himself.
His success gained him the general esteem ; his features
were regular, his person well formed, and his mind adorned
with talents ahd information. An enemy to luxury, and
pleasure, he performed his exercises with those of his own
age, throwing the javelin, and mounting on horseback with
them ; and though he surpassed all, yet he knew how to ren-
der himself beloved. His sole amusement was the chase.
Lions and other wild animals were his antagonists, and ta
conclude his eulogium, ^^ he excelled in every thing, and
apoke little of himself." Such was Jugurtha ; and with
these attractive qualities^ a monster of cruelty, ingrautude,
and deceit.

Whether Micipsa changed his opinion respecting his ne-
phew, or hoped to soften his disposition by benefits and
confidence, he adopted him as a child, and by his will de-
clared him heir to his crown, conjointly with his two sons,
Hieo^al and Adherbal, whom he recommended to him
with his dying breathi^ Jugurtha promised every thing, but
his uncle no sooner expired, than he caused his cousin Hi-
empsal to be assassinated, and Adherbal would have expe-
rienced the same fate, had he not fled to Rome, where he
implored the vengeance of the senate on the murderer of
his brother, and its protection for himself. The assassin,
when he sacrificed his cousin, had seized on the treasures
of the crown. These he made use of for his justification
at Rome, and even retorted the accusation on Adherbal,
charging him with being an accomplice in a plot, laid by
ihc two brothers against him. Adherbal pleaded his cause
in the most pathetic manner before the senate, but notwith-
standing the obvious justice of his complaints, a majority
of the conscript fathers having been corrupted by the am-
bassadors of Jugurtha, pronounced him guilty of exciting
the late troubles; asserted that Hiempsal had been killed
by the Numidians for his excessive severity ; and palliated

KUMTOIA. 197

the inhaman proceedings of the usurper. Some of the
senators, indeed, expressed their detestation of this venal
conduct, and insisted upon hringing Jugurtha to condign
punishment, but their exertions being overruled, the best
part of Numidia was allotted to the latter, and Adherbd
was obliged to rest satisfied with the residue.

Emboldened by the behaviour of the senate on this occa-
sion, Jugurtha resolved to pursue his ambitious designs.
He accordingly attacked his cousin by open force — ^plun*
dered his territories--4tormed several of his fortresses-^
defeated his troops in a pitched battle— -and at length in-
vested his metropolis. Adherbal, having despatched depu->
ties to Rome, to complain of these outrages, expected sue*
cour from the men whose friendship he had been always
taught to prize above all the treasures and troops in the
world. But in this he was fatally disappointed, for though
two deputations arrived from Italy, to effect an accommo*
dation, and threaten Jugurtha widi the resentment of their
republic, unless he rused the siege of Cirta, the power of
gold proved irresistible, and the unfortunate Adherbal was
left to the mercy of his barbarous relative, who, having ef*
iected the reduction of the city, caused him to be put to a
cruel death, and massacred the Numidian inhabitants with*
out pity or distinction.

Upon the first news of this tragical event, the Romans in-
veighed bitterly against the venality of their senators, and
clamoured incessantly for the punishment of the murderer.
An army was accordingly raised for the invasion of Numi-
dia, under the command of the consul, Calphumius Bestia,
who landed without opposition in Africa, and carried on
the war for some time with great vigour ; but, upon the ar-
rival of Scaiu-us, a conference took place between the, Ro-
man generals and Jugurtha, in which the latter obtained a
peace upon advantageous terms.

The indignation of the Roman populace being rekindled
by this scandalous treaty, the praetor Cassius was sent to
invite Jugurtha to Rome, that he might discover which of
the senators had been seduced by the influence of corrup-

-ffg RAMSArS tJUfrmSTAi. HISTORY.

tion. Thither Jugnitha reaiily went. White iheiit, iK
found meftxis to corrapt Bebius Saica, a man of great au*
thority among die plebeians, and contrived to get Maasita,
an illegitimate son of Micipsa assassinated in the streets of
die city.

Having by this nefiirious action, exposed himself to the
resentment of the Romans, he hastened back to his own<
dominions, and was soon followed by an army under the
command of the consul Albinus, who had flattered himself
with reducing Numidia before die expiration of his consu-'
Kite. His design, however, was frustrated by the artifices
of Jugurtha, and his inactivity rendered him suspected of
having betrayed his country, after the example of his pre*-
decessors. The command of the army was then vested m
his brodier, Aulus, but this general was still more unfer**
tunate ; for, having marched his troops into a narrow de-
file, whence it was impossible to extricate himself, he was
dUiged to submit to die ignominous ceremony of passing
under the yoke, and to quit the country within ten days.
This infamous treaty, however, being concluded widiout
the consent of die republic, was declared void, and die Ro*
masi forces retired into Africa Propria, where diey took up
dieir winter quarters.

The command of the army was next conferred on Lucius
Metellus, who acted widi such resolution in die discharge
of his commission, that the sanguinary usurper soon expe<*
rienced a melancholy reverse of fortune. He was defeated
in a pitched battle, and compelled to take shelter in die
most dreary part of his dominions.

About this dme, Bomilcar and Nabdalsa w^re persuaded*
by Metellus to assassinate Jugurtha, but die design was
discovered and die conspirators suffered deadi. The plot
had, indeed, such an effect upon his mind,diat he was ever
after tormented by fear and jealousy, and destroyed such
numbers of his friends on ill grounded suspicion, diat he
soon found himself destitute of counsellors, generals, or
any odier persons capable of carrying on the war. All his
movements were consequeady unsuccessAd^-his troops were

bwa^Kd with Iniiilera iuid'ccnitnulktorjr cmohitksM^'tnd ift-
the first battle with Metellna he was utterly routed.

MeteHtts pursued llie NmnidMUi fitgitiveB to Thala, and
afttaeked the city with such vigouTii that Jugurtha thought
proper to retire into Gstulia, where he raised a considerable^
fmce, and obtained some powerful auocours from Bocchua^
king oCiMauritania.

Marias, having in the meantime, been promoted to tlir&
censulate, hndied with a numerous body of forces at Utica^
where he cut •ff great numbers of the G^tuliaa marauder^^
and defeated severaLiof Jugurtha's parties ; and after redue^
ing different places of less importance, marched against
the ci^ of Capsa, which he delivered up to milituy exe*
ottion, and dien razed it tathe ^tMmd. This exploit struck
so much terror into the Numidians, that many towns of
considerable strength either opened their gates, or werfr
evacuated at the approach of Marius ; while others, dui(
presumed to resist, were laid in ashes, and die greatest part
of Numidia was desolated and literally covered with blood*

Jugurtha, perceiving his inability to repel so fcurmidaUe
ai^ enemy, had recourse to his usual method of bribery, and
dbtributed his gold so successfully among the Mauritn*
nian ministers, that Bocchus, after some heaiti^on, con-
sented to assist him with his whole power, and accordingly
marched together with die Numidian army against Marius,
as he was retiring into winter quarters. But the Romaa
g^Kral obtained a complete victory, and the host ai barb»*
rians, consisting of ninety thousand men, was almost mk/^
tirely destroyed. Syll^ the lieutenant of Marius, distin«
gnished himself in an extraordinary manner upon tUs oe^
casion, and thus laid the foundation of bis future .greatness.

Bocchus, regarding Jugurdia's condition as altogether
desperate, and dreading the vengeance of the Romans, now
thought proper to provide £6r die safety of his own domi*
nions by offering terms of accommodation. After some
time, he consented to deliver the king of Numidia into the
hands of Sylla, by which means a terminauon was put to
this sanguinary and expensive war. For this important ser*

|§0 BAMSArS UnWBSAL HISTORY.

Tice, Bocchtts was remunerated with the country of iikt
Massaesyli, which, from this time, bore the name of New
Maimtania. The whole kingdom of Numidia also assumed
a new form, being divided into three parts, two of which
were given to Hiempsal and Mandrestal, both descendants
of Massinitsa, and the third annexed to Africa Propria,
which had been made a province by Rome on a former oc-
casion. I"
' On the first day of the new year, Jugurdia waa led through
the streets of Rome by the triumphant Marine, and exposed
to the view of a people whose indignation had been raised
to the highest pitch by his wanton and unnatural cruelties.
Plutarch observes, thatupow diis occasion the captive ty-
rant became distracted ; thiK wlien he was remanded to pri-
son, his distress was greatly augmented by the insults of
Ae spectators, some of whom stripped him of his clothes,
while others tore off his golden pendant, with such force as
to bring away the tip of his ear ; and that when he was cast
almost naked into Ae dungeon, he forced a ghastly smile,
and exclaimed, ^^ O heavens, how intolerably cold is this
bath of yours." In this situation he struggled for some
time with the pangs of extreme. hunger, and then expired :
his two sons survived him, but passed their lives itf cap-
tivity at Venusta.

Numidia took part in the quarrels of Marius and Sylla,
and afterwards in those of Cesar and Pompey. Each had
Numidian cavalry in his army. Juba, one of the last mo-
narchs sincerely attached to Pompey, was defeated in aa*
sisting him, and fearing to fall into the hands of Casar,
after he had lost the batde, caused one of his slaves to de«
stroy him. Under Augustus and his successors, die Nu-
midians became subject to the Romans as much as was
possible for a people like them, impatient of the yoke of
servitude, uncurbed like their coursers, and like them re-
volting at the bit and bridle.

..J

'mt'm^ * ^yWMP^"^^^»^^**w>~"ii^Hn

MAtntrrAmA. tff

MAURITANIA,

So cttted from die Mauri, an ancient people, frequently
tnentioned by old historians, runs along the strait which
divides Africa from Spain. It was bounded by the MedU
terranean on the north, by the Molucha on the east, bjr
Getulia on the south, and by the Atlantic ocean on the
weist. It contained several cities of note, and was fiuned
for a luxuriant produce of grapes, i^les, and other pro*
ductions.

The Mauritanians are said to be descended from Phut,
the son of Ham. The Phoenicians, however, planted oalo*
nies ambng them, in very early ages ; and it is probable that
the Arabs had a place among the most ancient inhabitants
of their country.

Their government seems to have been monarchical, from
the earliest ages ; for we are told by Justin, that Haimo, a
Carthaginian nobleman, in order, to accomplish some aa^
bitious designs, had recourse to the king of the Mauri ; and
die great figure, which the Mauri made in Africa^ before
the Romans became formidable in that country, render it
probable that most of them were united under (me sove*
reign.

Their religion cannot now be satis&ctorily described}
its peculiarities having been for many ages buried in obli-
vion. It appears, however, that Neptune was one of their
principal objects of adoratioDr-*that die sun and moon were
worshipped after the manner of the other Libyan nations*—
and that human victims were occasionally sacrificed to their
gods. Their language seems to have differed from that
of Numidia only as a dialect of one Umgue does . from
another.

Of their arts and sciences, historians have said but little.
It is evident, however, that they had some knowledge of
nautical affairs. They applied themselves, in the earliest

UlHTBMAl. mSTORT.

ages, to Ae study of magic, sorcery, and divination ; and
Cicero informs us, that Atlas first introduced astrology, and
the doctrine of the sJi&erQ, into - Mtaritania— <t circnm-
stance which, probably, gave rise to the fable of Atlas
iyearitig the heavens opon his Aoulders. Neptune, who
reigned in this couttry, is also said to have first fitted out
ft fleet, and invented lofty ships with s«ls, so that the
Maurkanians must haw possessed some ideas of astrono>
my, astrology, geography and navigation, at a very evaif
period.

The Maurttanians were strengers-to the art of husbandry,
and roved about the country, like the ancient Scythians, or
Arabes Scenits. Their tents, or mapalta, were so ex->
tpsnely small, that they could scarcely breathe in them,
and their principal food consisted of com and herbage,
which they ate green, without any preparation. They are
said to have possessed considerable skill in the prepara-
tion of poisons, and perpetual exercise rendered them very
expert in lnHrling tfie d^ut. Their soldiers bore a remark*
,aUy savage appearance, -being clad in the skins of lions,
bears or leopards, and carrying targets or bucklers, made
of elephants' hides* Their horses were small, but exceed*-
Ingly swift^ land so perfectly under command, that they
would follow dieir riders like dogs.

The two first princes of Mauritania, after Neptune, men-
6<Aied by h]$toriaas, were Atlas and Antaeus. Both ruled
with despotic audiority over great part of Africa-— bodi are
said to have been overcome by Hercules— «and both are
celebrated tar their superior knowledge in the celestial
sciences.

Antaeus is said to have evinced the most undaunted
bravery and resolution in his war with Hercules, and to
have achieved some important advantages ; but that famous
warrior, having intercepted a numerous body of Libyan
forces, defeated him with great slaughter, and thus made
himself master of the kingdom and royal treasures : hence
arose the fable, that Hercules topk Atlas's globe upon bii

iiAviirrAiviA. I§g.

alioulderfr*— vanquiahed the dragon diat guarded the or-
chards of the Hesperides, and took possession of all the
golden fruit.

Nothing worthy of notice is related of the Mauritanians^
from the defeat of Antaeus to the time of Bogud, who, in
conjunction with Publius Sitius, contributed very consider-'
ably to Csesar's successes in Africa, and rendered him some
important services, when the memorable victory of Munda
annihilated the Roman republic. After the death of that-
iUastrious general, he joined Mark Antony against Octa*
vius, and endeavoured to make a diversion in favour of the
former in Spain, but whilst he was engaged in this expedi-
tion, the Tingitanians revolted from their allegiance, and
bestowed the sovereignty uponBocchus, who was confirmed
in his new dignity by the emperor. After making some
unsuccessful efforts for the recovery of this part of his do-
minions, Bogud was slain by Agrippa, at Methona ; and
Tingpitania soon afterwards became a Roman province.

The younger Juba received the two Mauritanias from
the munificence of Augustus, who also gave him in mar-
riage the princess Cleopatra, (daughter of Antony, and the
famous queen of Egypt.) This prince, having received a
liberal education at Rome, imbibed such a variety of know-
ledge, as afterwards enabled him to vie with the most
learned natives of Greece. He was remarkably well acquaint*
ed with the Assyrian, Arabic, Greek, Punic, African, and
Latin histories, and wrote some excellent treatises on gram-
mar, painting, natural history, &c. a few fragments of these
are still extant. His mild and equitable conduct in the go-
vernment of Mauritania, is honourably mentioned by an-
cient writers. He conciliated the esteem of his subjects so
effectually, that they erected a statue to hi^ memory, and
retained a grateful recollection of his administration.

He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy, in whose reign
Tacfarinas, a native of Numidia, assembled ^n army of
barbarians and committed many depredations in Africa;
but after some time he was defeated by Dolabella,and most

VOL. IZ. [22]

Iff RAMSArS UHtVeMML RISTORT.

Other event, to raise them above the ordinary level of
can barbarism. But after the Arabian conquest of Svria
and Egypt, the Ethiopians, surrounded by the enemies of
their religion, and «hut up in a remote part of Africa, r^
mained above eight hundred years, forgotten by die world.
In this sequestered situation, their Christianity was grad«H
ally corrupted, their arts and commerce extinguished, and
they had almost relapsed into a savi^e state, in this coi^
dition they were found about the commencement of Ae six-
teenth century, by the Portuguese, who, appearing among
tfiem as if descended from a distant planet, conciliated their
esteem by the similarity of dieir religion, while an evident
superiority in learning and science, in arts and arms, com*
manded their admiration. The common name of Chris*
tians, and the common profession of the religion of Christ*
was at first considered as a bond of union. The Porta*
guese, in that age of commercial enterprise, and of eastern
conquest, promised themselves great advantages from die
alliance of the Christian emperor of Ediiopia, who might
on his part expect their aid against the Mahomedans. An
intercourse was opened between Abyssinia and Europe,
and an interchange of embassies took place between the
shores of the Red Sea and the banks of the Tagus and the
Tyber. The Abyasinians, conscious of their defects^ form-
ed the rational project of introducing the arts and ingenuitf
of Europe, and solicited a colony of mechanics and artislutt,
for the use of the country and the instruction of the people.
The public danger also called for the effectual aid of the
disciplined soldiers of Europe, to defend an unwariike peo*
pie against the inroads of the bartiarians, and the invasion
of die Turks and Arabs, from the coast of the Red Sea. In
this important crisis, about four hundred and 6ffBf Porta*
gueae troops^ who displayed in the field the vakmr of £u*
itypeans, and the power of fire arms, repulsed the invaders,
and saved Abyssinia. But all the projects of advantage^
which both nations might rationally have hoped to derive
from their alliance, were defeated by dieological disputes,
from which neither could obtain any subttantial benefit;

AiiMiinA. Iiy

ttid amatt were slaughtered to decide the pious question^
•whether the Jtoman Pontiff or the Alexandrian Patriarch
should be the head of the Abyssiiiian church. The empe*
vor was converted to the £uth of Portugal and Rome ; but
lost his crown and his life in a revolt of his subjects. Se-
gued, his successor, avenged his death, and adopted his
measures. The emperor, the court, and the clergy acknow*
ledged the sufuremacy of the pope. Alphonso Mendez, a
Portuguese Jesuit, was constituted patrinxh of Abyssinia,
^md his clergy erected dieir churches in every part of the
empire. The religious and political alliance between Eth^
opia and Portugal seemed now to be confirmed; but.it was
soon dissolved, or rather vic^ently broken, by the rash in-
discretion of the ecclesiastical chief, who equally forgot the
jBuld doetrinf s of the gospel and the profound poli^ of hie
order. Instead of conciliating the affections of recent coi^
verts, and gradually eradicating their prejudices, the new
patriarch established a system of persecution against aU
who remained attached to their ancient rises.

A general spirit of revolt was thus excited against the
PorUiguese reUgion, and the government of their eqs^
peror. Successive rebellions excited by the Abuna, and his
Abyssinian clergy, were extinguiiJuMl in the blood of the
insurgeatt. After more than half a century of contest, in
irhich both spiritual and tempcnral arms were employed, the
Portugibese were finally expelled from Abyssinia, and the
gates of that sequestered realm were for ever shut against
die relig^oK, the arts, and the sciences of Europe. Frofli
that time, the Abyssinians, again secluded from all inter*
course with the civilized world, appear to have passed in a
ra^id dectine towards bail>arism. A very small portion of
learning, of art, auid of science is left ; and although the
Abyssinian church exists, under the superiatendance of the
Abuna and the supremacy of the Coptic Patriarch, its doc*
trines as well as its morals, are extremely corrupted, r if*>
teen centuries- of Christianity have had little influence on
their morals and manners, and among these Christians po?
If gamy is frequently practised;

fgS RAMSAY'S llMillM1Ui.HIST0BY.

The poiiliail and lailituy trw rtiiw •£ At^MtniaMe
Mftilttr to dtose of all •end-hftiterma MtHWM, Wars, cai»
vied on with cmelty, bat without skill, against the rtmhiiai
and savage tribes of the African interior ; perpetu^ cm*
. tests between die emperor and tlie powerfoi aad refractosy
nobles, frequent rehsUioBS, multiplied treascms, and bloody
oxecntions, are the eventt which mark its pages. The
most distinguishing feature of the history of Ahyssiaiay is
4die singular spectacle of a Christian empire esistiag far so
atany ages in the midst of Pagan and Mahoraedaa b»»
^ons, and totally forgotten by the rest of the Cfanscisa
world.

From a general view of dias unique people, we ]»oceed
to more particular details. The extensive empire of Abys-
sinia, is known by various names ia different nations ; baft
Ae inhabitants ctM it Ityopid or fidiiopia. It extends iitna
six degrees, thirty minutes, to twenty degrees, north i«A-
tnde, and from twenty^six to lorty-ive degress, east longi*
tude. It lies entirely in the torrid zone, yet on acoount
-of die great rains, forests, moonuias, and riwevs of this
^Miuntry, there are some districts of it whish an as cool
and temperate as Carolina; or Georgia. But the valbes
and sandy deserts, are extremely hot and scorching, lite
%inds are violent and impetuous, the thunder and light*
ning awful, alarmiag, and dangerous ; and die rain frtts
in torrents. The moisture and heat, cover their meadows
with perpetual verdure, and their trees with blossoms and,
fruit at the same time. The soil produces wheat, barley,
millet, and odier grain ; but die principal com in diis couar
try is called teff. It is small and slender, and becomes nv*
tridve and palatable, when made into bread. A plant growa
in Abjrssinia, which possesses the singular poorer, by its
touch Mid smell, of dirowing all venemous creatures into a
torpid insensibility. An esculent, herbaceous plant, called
by Bruce ensete, seems analogous to the banana, and serves
as an excellent substitute for bread, being wholesome and
Mitritive. The papyrus, fer which Egypt was fo r me r l y so
famous, is found also in Abyssinia. The sycMiore, die

d«to tote^ die fig^ aad alargetrm vMA Bruce Bemet reck»
whkh 18 used fer the building of boats, as well as the
wkkh yield the t»ln of Gilead, are described as qa*
tives of the cpuntiy. Cofiee is also asa Abysttttian as well aa
vm Arabian prodttctioa.

• There is semeijr a country that produces greater abun*
diaiice, or more variiety of animals than Abyssinia* Oxen:
sore here ei such prodigious size, that they have been mia^
taken, at a distance for elephants ; and one of their home
in capable of containing more than ten quarts. But besidea
^ese large oaen, wUdi are fattened for slaughter, they have .
others intended for labour and carriage, the horns of which
are soft and flexible, and hang down like a broken arm.
The hones of Abyssinia are remarkably beautiful, and weU
■aade : dieyare generally used in war, and are very fleet-
The elephanu remain in a wild state, and are extreme^
4estmolive to the com and grain. Their plajias are alsQ
ravaged and laid waste by the rhinoceros, as well as bj
Bona and tigers. The himting of the rhinoceros, forms e
oonsideraUe part of die amusement of the Abyssinians*
Hyenas abomKl in Abyssinia^ particularly in the towap^
where from the commenoement of darkness till the dawn
of day, they prowl in search of the remains of slaughtered
earcases, whieb this cmel and unclean people expose in tb^
streets without buriaL The hyaena, accustomed to human
flesh, yaU| idMnit boldly in the day time, and attacks man
wherever hd finds him, whether armed or unarmed, but his
appetite generally leads him to choose the mule, or ass iii
preference to its rider. The crocodile and hippopotamus
abound in the Nile. The former of these amphibious ani*
amis is well known ; but the latter is almost inaccessible^
and is only discovered by the havoc and devastation it
occasions. TUs creature is almost as large as the elephanti
and like it is armed with tusks. It has obtained the name
^the sea horse, though it partakes more of the nature and
quality of the ox. It is much bolder in the water than o«
land, choosing die former in die day^ and the latter at nig^
and fsofaenity atMsk^ and. destroys txipta and bargest It

^iATtJ^

1^ BAMSArS UNIfVMAI. HISTOEt.

tears and devours, not so much for the sake of food, at to
glut itself with blood ; and leaves the carcases to other vo»
racious creatures. It avoids the sight of an armed man,
and is terrified at fire arms.

Another source of calamity in this country arises from
ravages and desoladon of Jocusts. These small but fovmid*
9ble creatures, occasion famine by devouring die plants and
blades of grass, and pestilence by the putrefiu:tion of their
dead bodies which cannot all be burned or interred. The
Abyssinians have found means to convert them into a kind-
of food. They are eaten fresh, or dried, and reduced to.
powder, of which a paste is afterwards made, and are said,
to be agreeable and wholesome.

The Jews have been settled in this country frooLUma
immemorial. There are also nsany Mahomedans and Pftv'
gans. The religion of this latter people is very little known,
but consists rather in superstitaous rites and ceremonieSt'
duin in the adoration of idols. The Christiana are ^e
most numerous in Abyssinia. Among such n varieQr of:
people, a proportionate variety of languages may be ex-
pected, and in fact every province, and almost every disr
trict has its own particular dialect.

• The Abyssinians, are, in genei^d, well proportioned ; they
are of a tall majestic stature ; are rather brown than fair;
have large and sparkling eyes ; noses rather high than fiat;
thin lips, and very white teeth. They are of a sober and
temperate disposition, and seldom quarrel with each other*-
The administration of justice is neither tedious nor com-
plex. Every one pleads his own cause, and when judge-
ment is once given, they faithfully observe the decree with-
out murmur or appeal. Mr. Bruce obseri^res, that marriage
is unknown in Abyssinia, unless that manr be called matri* .
mony, which is contracted by mutual consent, without any<
form, and which subsists only till dis#olved by consent of.
each other. When a separation takes place, the children
jve divided between them. One woman nuiy probably.
have six or seven husbands successively. They have nei-
ther mofi nor ciderf though they might have abModaMe.of .

ABTSSIKIA. |y£

the former. Their usual beverage is hydromel, which is a
mixture of honey and water, brought into a state of fermen'*'
iBtion. The forms of a banquet in Abyssinia, appear pe-
culiar to that country. A cow or bull, we are told, is brought
to the door of die room, where the company is assembled ;
ami the dewlap being cut so deep as to arrive at the fat, a
few drops of blood are sprinkled on the ground. They then
penetrate the skin on the back of the beast, and on each
sMe of the spine, and strip, oif its hide, halfway down the
ribs'. All the flesh is then cut off the buttocks in solid
square pieces, and eaten raw with teff bread, and the ani-
mal continues alive till nearly the whole is consumed. The
men are fed by the women, who having wrapped the meat
¥Bni bread into the form of a cartridge, thrust it into the
first mouth they find open and empty.

They were, till lately, unacquainted with the toots employ-
ed in dMferent arts ; and for them as well as for the means
of using Aem, they were indebted to the Jesuits. When,'
dierefere, they who had never before seen one stone placed
aiK>ve ano^r in a regular manner, beheld a bmlding with
high stones, they were astonished at die sight, and called
it a house upon a house. Notwithstanding dieir deficiency
of .ordinary means, they had cloth stufs, exceedingly well
woven, and jewels of the neatest and most curious woric«*
manship. Silks, brocades, velvets, tapestry, carpets, and
other costly stufis, are brought by die Turks, by die way of
die Red Sea, and exchanged for gold dust, emeralds and
valuable horses, together with skins, furs, leather, honey,'
wax, ivory and iabundance of superfluities. . Notwidistand-
ing die productions of the country, Abyssinia is poor.
' They have neidier inns nor public houses for the enter-
tainment of strangers, but considering their extreme indi-
gence, they are very liberal and hospitable. A stranger*
Med only enter die first hut or tent he likes, and acquaint
ike owner with his wants^ when he is immediately furnish*'
«d widi all necessaries and conveniences from the chief
•f the pbype. The women have no occasion for the ud of a^
W^wife 4^HrHig parturUton : they bring ferdi widi great

VOL. IX. [23]

f^ BAMBArS tTNlVT.KSAL HISTOHT.

iicility, and aucUe dieir children without tfouMe »tm^
iMUTassmeBt. Notwithstanding the various changes of their
climate, from the extremes of sultry and burning lieats, tck
file violent and continual rains and inundattons which hap«
pen in Abyssinia, die people are remarkable for longevity.

This empire is equally fertile in mineral, as in animal and
vegetable productions. The Abyssinians possess mines of
gdld, but prudently conceal this treasure from strangers^
ratiier tiian hazard tike subjugation of their country. They
gather, however, great quantities of that metal, whicli
U washed down by the torrents from the mountains, and
sometimes consists of large grains. Silvcfk* is more scarce
among ihem ; but they have mines of lead and iron, which
are very valuable. They wx>rk little, indeed, in their mines,
and are satisfied with die quantity of metal they find on tiie
surface of die ground.

Sak is dug from rocks in the shape of bricks, but of dH^
frrent sizes and weights ; that which is on die surfitte of
the rock isiiard and solid; but in the internal parts of At
mine, it is extracted from sdine springs, where it is soft,
till consolidated by die heat of the sun. This article, dioug^
very common, is considered no less valuable ; and it is usual
tx> carry a smaB piece of it, suspended in a bag, frt>m die
girdle. When two friends, or acquaintances meet, diey pro>
duce dieir bits of salt, and pve them to each other to Uek.
The refusal of diis compliment, on eidier side, would be
considered as a gross affront, or at least as a mark of tIK
civility.

The natural curiosities of Abyssinia are, its lofty and ak
most inaccessible mountains, in comparison with which die
Alps and Apennines are mere hiUocks. They are of very
great service to this country, trhich, without these im-'
penetrable barriers, would long since have become the pos*
session of the Turks and GaHas, or other hostile natioM.
Whilst dieir awful and inaccessible summits seem td readf
above the highest clouds, die vallies beneath appear to hide
diemselves in die lowest abysses of die earth. The stdes?
of diese monntai i ni arc steep precipices, (fanm which dM^

•

tcnrreots voUgmtt stones with alood and treBstttdotts noissi
9iid on their summits are plains, where towns appear to
have been built. Some parts of these mountains have also
been converted into prisons, where the first children of
their kings, whose competition for the throne was appre^
bended to be productive of mischief, were kept in confine*
ment, where ihty languished in solitude and miseij.

Tlie beautiful rivers which water Abyssinia have their
rise in these mountains. Mr. Bruce's indefintigable labour^
Iiave tended xikuch to gratify the geographer and Ae philo^
aopher, relative to the rise and progress c^ th^ Nile in
Abyssinia. That learned and ingenious traveller discovered
its source in the Mountains of the Moon. The inhabitants
of this country pay divine honours to the Nile, and offer
sacrifices of cattle, to the spirit supposed to reside at its foua'
tain. The hillock which ccmtains the principal stream is sur*
lonnded by a shallow trench, and a bai^Jc of turf^ winch
serves as an altar for die performance of their reltgioua
rites. An interesting account is given by this writer of the
venerable appearance of die priest of the Nile. This river
has three sources, which soon unite and form one stream.

In its progress, after partial windings, it reaches the ik*
mous cataract, near Alata, and exhibits, in passing it, one
of the gpmdest and most magnificent spectacles in the world-
The noise of the Nile, precipitated over this dreadful ca*
taract, resembles the loudest thmider, and may be heard tKt
an almost incredible distance. Below the cataract, the river
cuns in a narrow channel, between two rocks, with loud
noise and impetuous veloci^. Atbtv pasnng along for
many leagues, it forces a passage through an opening of
mountains, and precipitates its waters over a frightful ca*
taract, whose height is not less than two hundred and eighty
feet. Terror and amazement seize the mind of the traveller,
on beholding such an assemblage of waters, dashed with
the sound of thunder, from such a dreadful and stupendous
height, into avast and rocjky basin below, from whence the
foam of the precipitated billows rebounds to the clouds.

474

RABiSAY'S UmVEBaAI^ HISTORY.

After v«ceivuig maiqr tributtty atreamfi, and^ paaung over
seven cataracts, in its various windings, it enters Egjrpt.

The government of Abyssinia has been, always monar-
chical, and entirely despotic. There are w written laws to
restrain the exorbitant power of the prince, or to defend
Sjfid secure the privileges and property of the subject^ and
the clergy have been the only persons who have ever dared
to resist the unjust proceedings of the emperor. These
princes boast that they ave descend^ts of Menilek, or Da^
vid, the sos\ of the gieat Solomon, by the q^een of Sheba.
They also carry in their arms the lion of Judah, holding a
cross, with this legend inscribed: ^^The lion of die tribe
of Judah has conquered/'

The respect which is paid to the emperor is very great,
axid none of his subjects approach him, without exhibiting
marks of the most abject submission and servility.

The crown of Abyssinia is hereditary, and must devolve
on the posterity of Menilek, their first monarch; but the
succession does not necessarily pass to the eldest. The
emperor, if he thinks proper, can make choice of a. younger
son, whom he deems more worthy, or is more inclined to
favour.

This custom has frequently occasioned a jealousy and
misunderstanding between the young princes, and has
sometimes been the cause of civil wars, and in all proba-
bility gave rise to the practice of confining those who had
a right to the throne, upon the top of a mountain. Neither
message nor letter can be conveyed to these unfortunate
prisoners ; and they are obliged to dress themselves in the
usual garb of the common people, lest they should become
proud and ambitious.

The ceremony of the coronation of their king is grand
and magnificent. Much of the performance consists in reli-
gious rites, such as reading the liturgy, and singing psalms
and hymns suitable to the occasion. The grand almoner an-
nounces the monarch to the people, and informs them that
he is made choice of to govern them. The duty of a sove-

ABmaxMk. 0^

reigft is wtaA 9mA explaiiied to the enperor, irlK> takes an
oath that he will discharge it with justice and moderation.
He is Aen anointed by^the metropolitan, who invests him
with the royal robes, places a crown of gold and silver on
his head, and puts the sword of state into his hands ; after
which he is saluted emperor of Abyssinia, and received by^
thepeople with loud and repeated acclamations. The king,
having assisted at divine service, and taken the holy com*
munion, the ceremony terminates in acts of festivity.

The emperors, in imitation of Solomon, from whom they
boast to be descended, allow themselves a plurality of
wives^of diiFerent religions; insomuch, that both Christi-
anity and Paganism have been encouraged at the same
time.

Of these wives, the prince chooses one, whom he causes
to be proclaimed empress, and who enjoys superior pri-
vileges.

The Abyssinian emperors recei\'e holy orders, and some
of them have been consecrated priests, and officiated in that
capacity; but with this restriction, that if by any means they
shed the blood of man, they are immediately divested of
their office.

The abuna's principal employment is ordination. A num-
ber of men and children present themselves at a distance,
and there stand, not daring to approach him* He then asks
who they are, and being told that they are persons who
wish to become deacons, he makes two or three signs with
a cross, and blows with his mouth twice or thrice upon
them, saying, ^^Let them be deacons.''

In all matters, excepting those which regard the discipline
of the church, the emperor enjoys absolute and uncontrol-
ed autiiority over the lives and property of his subjects.

It was formerly the custom of Jthe emperor not to appear
in public, and at present, tiie Abyssinian monarch is never
seen to walk, nor to set his foot on the ground, out of his
own palace ; and when he would dismount from the horse
or mule on which he rides, a servant attends him with a
stool, who places it properly to receive him. He rides into

fjlf BAMSArS tJKIVemAL H18T01IT.

Ae aatachimher, where hks throne ttMid»> or to Ae aic*Te

of his tent.

Instead of a &vH>urite miaiflter, a chief officer is ereateti,
whom they caU ras, or prisctpal, and who is generalisnmo
0f the forces.

- All places of honour or authority, are bong^ and aoht
to those who bid the greatest prices for them ; hisomucfa,
that the purchasers, in order to profit by the bargains they
make,' are obliged to oppress those who ane under them ;
and hence these governors and officers become ^underers^
rather than protectors of the people. ^Nor can the injored
and oppressed obtain any re^ss of their grievances ; for
though appeals are admitted from the inferior to the supe*
rior courts, and from thence to the emperor himself, yet
few dare to venture on such an attempt, from die coaser
quences which commonly follow^

As all employments, both civil and military, are disposed
of by purchase, we need not be at a loss to judge how the
troops are commanded, and in what manner justice is ad*
ministered. The forms of proceeding in their courts of la^r
are wisely established. Neither counsellors nor attomies
are permitted to impeach or implead any. man. The plain-
tiiFand defendant argue dieir own cause, and the judge hav*
tng consulted the opinion of the assembly, passes sentence
accordingly ; but he is not compelled to fcdlow die genend
sentiments of the people.

In criminal cases, if die accused be found guilty, he is
imprisoned by the^ judge, till he has made sufficient restitu-
tion and satis£su:tion to the person he had injured ; or if
the crime be capital, he is delivered into the hands of the
accuser, to be punished with death, at his discretion. When
a murder cannot be sufficiently proved against any man, all
the inhabitants of the place where it was committed,
are severely fined, or condemned to some corpofal punish**
ment; which prevents the concealment, and not unfre*
quendy the perpetration of crimes.

The king of Abyssinia very often judges capita^ crimed
himself. That ju^cature is reckoned fiivounUde, where die

iildy g H sloir to tiiimaH, »pd ready to rewiwrd. Nontaiiia )(^^yf^
CMidemned to suffer death bjr the king in person, for the u Cf
fret cAnce, yxitess he shtfU haVe comtliitt^d parricide, or
aaclikge, or some other dreadful crime. In -general, the
life and merits of Uie prisoner are considered, and opposed
to his tnimediiite guik, and the detision is made accord*
bigiy. When the prisoner is condemned for any capital
offence, he is not remitted to prison, a proceeding which ia
tiibught cruel, but is immediately executed conformably to
Ms 'sentence; The grtate!(t puAishinents in this country are
ibe tross excoriation, er the flaying alive, and lapidation (mt
atoning to death. Another barbarous punishment is plucks
ing out the offenders eyes, a cmtity which is frequently com*
mitted in Abysi^nia, and is generally inflicted on rebels and
disaflkcted persons. The dead bodies of criminals executed
Hmt treason, murder, and vi<AeBoe on the highway, are seK
dom buried \ the streets of Gondar are strewed with pieces
^ their carcases, which bring wild beasts in multitudes into
the city as soon as itibecomes dark, insomuch that it ia
scarcely possible for any person to walk in safety during
die night. ^ The dogs,** says Mr. Bruce, ^* used to bring
j^eces of human bodies into the house and court-yards, in
order to eat them widi greater security. This was most
disgustful to me, but so ofbn repeated, that I was obliged
to leave them m possesion of such fragments.''

The army of the emperor is by no means equal to the
Wtent of his domhiions, nor indeed to the exigences of the
gbvemment. The largest army which die king of Abys-'
sinia ever brought into the field at any one time, exclusive'
of his household troops, did not amount to more tium fifty
Abousand men.

The neglect of dBscipline is the cause of the inefficiency
of ^e Aiyjrssinian troops, for they are in gieneral stout, hardy;
and able to enddre hunger and fatigue. The reveauetf
of the king, are by no means inconsiderable, were they faith-
fully coUeoted and deposited in the ti^asury ; but they pass
through so'lBuoy hands, ahd there are to aaany ex«tpie#

z_rf>?

178

RAMSArS UmV1£llSAL mSTOBY.

or priirileged penons, thit the amount wbich is reeeived Js
very trifling^.

' In the church of Abyssinia, there are diffsrent kinds of
degrees. The depseras are neither priests nor deacons, but
a sort of Jewish Levites^ or chanters.

As they boast that they are descended from the Jews,^
they pretend to imitate the service of the Jewish tabernacle,
and temple of Jerusalem, and the dancing of king David be*
fare the ark.

There are more churches in Abyssinia than in any other
country; five or six may be seen in one view; and five
nmes the number from an elevated situation; Wherever a
victory has been gained, there a church is erected. The
site of these edifices is always near a running stream, for
the convenience of purifications and ablutions, in which the
Abyssinians strictly observe die Levitical law. They are
frequendy placed on the summit of a hill, surrounded en-
tirely with cedar. The churches are of a circular fonn, and
have thatched roofs, the tops of which are perfect cones.
The inner part consists of several divisions, according to
the regulations prescribed in the law of Moses:

The Abyssinians pay a great respect to these sacred edi-'
fices, and always enter them barefoot. The prayers, j^salms,
and hymns, which are used in divine service, are suited to
the occasion, judiciously composed, and performed widi
great decency and devotion.

They make no use of the aposties creed ; but receive the
same books of the old and new testament as canonical,
which are so acknowledged, by the American churches.

For two hundred and forty years, there was a succession
of kings of the Solomonic race ; of this period very litde is
known,, but it appears to have been chiefly past in wars
with their neighbours, and insurrections among themselves,
the particulars of which are not worthy of historical notice,
. The cities of Abyssiniift are few and insignificant.

Gondar, the present capital, is described by Bruce as con-
taining ten thousand houses, built chiefly of cls^, and

iimtAtd with reeds, ilie roofs b«mg of a conical form. It is
surrottnded by a strong stone wall, comprising within a
square of about an English mile and a half in curcuit, not
<mly the palace itself^ but aU the contiguous buildings. This
wall, which is thirty feet high, has battlements and a para-
' pet, on which is a walk round the wiiole enclosure.

Axum is generally understood to have been>die ancient
capital df Abyssinia. The relics of its splendour are still
visited. There is also a large Gkythic cathedral, which is
fidltng to decay. The town itself is now inconstdend>le.

Disan is chiefly remarkable for ha singular situation, and
the infamous trafic carried on by its iriwhitants. These
atre a mixture of Mahomedans and Christians, and their only
trade is that of selling children. The Christians bring
hither such as tiiey have stolen in Abyssima, and tiie Ma-
homedans receiving tiiem, carry them to the market at Mas-
suah, from whence they are sent into Arabia,.and other
countries. The priests in the province of Hgre, are openly
concerned in this abominable traffic.

Massuah is the only port in Abyssinia. It is situated on
an island of the same name, in the Red Sea, at a very small
distance trcm. the sh<nre, and contains about twenty houses
of stone. The rest of the edifices are constructed of poles^
and covered with grass. The town, however, eanries on a
coassdccnUe trade.

i^pL. tx. [M]

Ifp ' RAiiSAT*g vrnwuL lontMnr.

HOTTiSNTOT&

The country of Ae Hotleiitolih the soutfaen eztremitr
of Africa, is situated betveen the twenty-eighth and thirty-
fifth degrees of soudi latitude. The Hottentot nittions are
sixteen in number, but all agree in the general outlines of
their character. The soil, in general, is so rich, as to be
capable of producing every species of grain, herbs, and
fruits The country about the Cape, is full of rocks and
mountains, but their spacious summits are clothed with rich
{Histure^ enamelled with a varie^ of flowers of the most
exquisite beauty and fragrance, and abound with delicious
.i^prings, which flow down the slopes and meander through
die vallies. The plains which intervene, are as beautiful
J9A the imaginauon can conceive.

The Cape of Good H<^e was first discovered by the Por^
tuguese, in the year one diousand four hundred and ninety-
three^ but they establisi^ed no settlement nearer to it than
on the banks of the Great Fish river. About die year one
.thousand six hundred, almost every European nation be-
jgui to visit Ae Cape, in the course of its voyages to dte
East Indies. In one thousand six hundred and.twent^t a
formal possession of it was taken by two conamaaders of
the East India company, in the name of James, king of
Great Britain ; but it was no further noticed, at that time by
the English government. In one thousand six hundred and
fifty, captain Van Riebeck having touched at this place,
with a Dutch fleet, represented the great national advaiT'
tagea which might accrue from establishing a colony at the
Cape of Good Hope. In consequence of these reprc^pta-
tions, the directors of the Dutch East India company^ Mted
out four ships for the expedition, appointed Van Riebeck
commander in chief, and vested him with lull powers to
treat widi the Hottentots, and to make such discretionary
sdpuladons as might conduce to the interest of the repub-
lic and of the company. Having arrived at the Cape, the

- X

nai

nonvirraTf • fm

Diitoli canmandcr presented the nadves with a vast qaaa^
tity of toys, trinkets, and liquors to the value of fifty thock
sand guilders, upon which the Hottentots oharmed with his
generosity, gave them permission to settle among ihem,
and resigned a pan of the country in iheir ivrouy.

The dificuMes which for a time impeded the extension
of die setdement, were principafly occasioned hy Ae wild
heasts of various kinds which abounded In every part <tf
the country. Deprived, by dieir passion for intoxicatittg
fiquors and babbles, of die only means of existence, die
natives began rapidly to decBne in number, and die en^
croachments of the setders, were in proportion to the dimi^
nution of obstacles. No land was granted in property, es*
cept in the vicinity of die Cape. A law was passed that
the nearest distance from one house to anodier, should be
three miles ; and on account of die scarcity of water, it fre*
quendy happened diat many faims were much further di»*
tant from each odier.

In one diousand seven hundred and ninety-five, the Dutch
colony at die Cape surrendered to die arms of his Britan*
nic majesty ; but at the general peace of one diousand
eight hundred and one, it was restored to ita former pos-
sessors ; widi this agreement, diat the port should be open
to die commerce and navigation of the English and French
nations. No permanent fiinits had been fixed to die colony,
under the Dutch government: but during the period in
which it was held by Great Britain, the territory compos*
ing die setdement of die Cape of Good Hope was defined;
•and its mean Icngdi from west to east was found to be ftv^
hundred and fifty, and its mean breadth from soudi to nordi,
two hundred and diirty-diree English miles, comprehend*
ing an area of one hundred and twentjr^eight diousand, one
hundred and fifty square miles. Hiis great extent of coun-
try, if we deduct the population cf Cape Town, is probably
peopled by about fifteen thousand white inhabitants ; inso-
much diat every individual possesses eight and one*hidf
square miles of ground.

It has been supposed dtttt die Hottentots are the descend*

Ifld BAMSArs vmnasuiis sistoby.

ants of the mctmt Troglodytes, who were' the poateiiljr oi
AbnJuan by his wife Kethura. It is conjectured by a latf
Writer, who traydled through this country, diat they will
become ejttinct. Various, it seems, are the causes which
ha^e contributed to the depopuhl&oii of this peo^e ; amoiy
which may be reckoned the impoUtic c«sM» of hordii^
to^^ther in families ; their extreme poverty, and the cruel
treataaent they receive from an inhuauui and unfeeHog pea^
santry.

The language of the Hotteatots, it is generally supposed,
eannot be acquired by any European ; but the 4ificuky of
speaking it, iriiich is chiefly occasioued by the action of the
tongue, is soon overcome. Most of die Dutch peasantry
in the distant districts have learned it ; and many of them
are so much accustomed to its use, that diey introduce into
their own language a motion of the organ oi speech, su&'
ciendy distinct to show from whence they obtained it.

The person of a Hottentot, while young, is by no means
void of symmetry sind beauty. They are wellfroportioned
and erect. No protuberance of muscle indicates str^igcb ;
hut the body is delicately formed, and marks the effemi-
nacy and inactivity of the mind. They have large heads,
lively eyes, a flat nose, tluck lips, teeth white as ivory, hair
resembling that of negroes and exceedingly black, and large
broad feet. The colour of the skin is a yellowish brown,
and not unlike a fiaded leaf, but very different from the
sickly hue of a person in the jaundice, which it -has been
said to resemble. Some of the women, when young, and
previously to their bearing children, might serve as models
of perfection in .the human figure. Their hands a^ feet
•are remarkably small and delicate ; and in dieir gait thqr
are not altogedier devoid of grace.

The Hottentots are subject to no pardcuhr disease. Life
is generally terminated by a gradual decay, smd at mi
earlier period of existence than in most countries of a like
temperature. It is rare to see a Hottentot sixiy years of
age. When a man has become old* and infirm, the son, or
nearest reladon, assembles all the male inhabitants of the

HomnTom.

kraai, or liamkt ; ttfarmft them of hU mixwiblft condirimi ;
asd reqaeaiB that thef will eapel him frcmi ^e socie^*
This dmiaml is wirnnyB complied with. Having placed die
<|Bcrepid old men itp<m ea ox, a gveat part of the iahid>i-
tents accoBipafty and coodiiet him to a hut erected for thef
purpose, in some remote and solitary spot. Here they de*
posit a few acticles within his reach, and then dq>art, and
leave, this miserable outcast of society to perish of age and
hunger, if h^ is not devoured by wild beasts.
' Low, however, as they are sunk in the scale of humanity,
their character seems to be much traduced and miwepre*
seated. They are, in general, a miU, quiet, and timid peo«
pie ; entirely harmless, honest, and fiathful; and, though
oofiastonaUy phlegmatic, they are kind and i^Eecttonate to
oach 4>th«r, . and not incapable of strong attachments. A
Hottentot woald divide the last morsel he had 'With, his
eompanioQS,. They aire mot defective in talent, but possess
little enerbon to. call it into aetkm. Their indolence is a
real disease, die only remedy of which is terror. Rather
than have the trouble of procuring food by the chase, or of
digging the ground fior roots, they will fkst the whole day,
jirovided they may. be allowed to sleep. EaUng and sleep*
ing form their highest grattfications ; and when they cannot
indulge in dieioriner, they generally find immedtsrte relief
in the latter. ^^ To diink," says the Hottentot, ^^ b to lar
bouTvand to labour is the scourge of life."

The Hottentot women, like diose of most odier. nations^
ve fond- of finery, and have dieir necks,, arms, and legs,
ioaded with glasfr4ieadsi but the largest and most splendid
•of these ornaments are bestowed on a little apron, about
seven or eight inches in width, which himgs from the waist»
and scarcely reaches the middle of the thigh. A vast num*
•ber of Dutch toys and trinkets are constantly imported, of
.which these people are extravagantly fond, and for which
they foolishLy barter their cattle and most valuable property.

They eat the entrails of beasts, after depriving them of
impurities, and washing them in clean water. Buly besides
the flesh of calite jmd oerlain wUd animals, they also sub*

BAMSiLrs mrmBBSAii msroRT.

^ on frwtotni TOoto. Thejr bntl tlKhf «Mt aAer die
Europtan mamer, but rotsc it diferenily. Few, however,
•re lU Mij treuMe in cooking their vi^iude ; and the)r mow
genevaUjr prefer raw meat, which they tear in pieces wMk
their fingers, and eat so yoraciottdly, diat die ytry sight of
diem is snAcient to nanseate a delicate ctomach. Thef
have some tradidooaiy htws among dtem, uriiidi pnrfithit
die eating of swtne^ flesh and of fishes without scales. The
women are also forbidden to eat die blood of beasts, and
the flesh of the mole ; bat diis pn>hibition extends not to
die men. In dressing dteirfiDod, diey nse addier sah net
q>ice; bat they are not averse to the highly seasoned
viands of die Europeans.

The ordinary beverage of the Hottentots is miUt orw»»
Iter, which are the natural liqoid prodocdons of dieir conn*
try i but, unfortunmely for thtm, diey are gve&t kfrers of
wine, brandy, and arraok, which, if dieir circumetances
permit, they drink to such excess, dint diey frequently be^
come victims to diis species of iwSemperanoe.

The crimes of adultery, robbery, and murder, are consl^
dered as capital offences, and pimished with deadl. The
culprit is placed in a circle, surrounded by die itdiabitants
widi dubs in dieir hands, and die motnent that sentence is
pronounced by the captain of the kraal, he is despntehed
widi their kirri«sdcles.

The religion of this people formerly consisSed in acknow*
ledgtng oaie Supusme Being, whom they called die God of
Gods, and the creator and governor of idl things, endued;
Ss they believed, with unsearduible attributes and perfect
tiona, and whobe residence is far above the moon. They
offered him, however, neither presents nor vkdms, bi^
made sacrifices and paid dieir adorations to subordinate
deides, die principal of which was the moon, whom they
dius addressed: ^ We salute thee !-«*Thou ai^ weleome U^
Give us fodder for our catde, and abundance of milk !" Bnait
Mr« Barrow informa us, that no ttnoes of religion are now
to be found among them.
. fipme^f dK Hott snt ots, however, have been converted

^T-'A

to Cipri»tMiitt^ <€pici>Biy by tile MiMfwiaM mWtkimuri— <•<»
tubUfth^d attoag tlie Bo«)etBi«M« wIiom proteWtea in*
€|e^fted to Mich a degreey duriag Ae tune that this colony
vaaia th^ poMeMkm of the fia^ah^ that it was found iie*
oesaaiy to aend to £ur<^ for more teachf rs of the goapeL
The converta, on SioMifiya, regularly attend divine aerviocty
apd appear at dnirch neat and dean, and the very reverae
of the reat of dieir countrymen ; and dieir deportment is
^11^ devouit and commendable* They aeem much affected
Wth what ia delivered by the miaaiopariea, and teara fro*
qioently flow from the eyaa of ^iioae, to whom the dkoouiye
ia v/k0fp pacticijdarly addreaaed.

Having given a conciae account of what aeemed meat M*
aaarfcable in 4i# mannera, p^Ucy, and reUgien of the na^
tivaa» we ah%U next proceed to deaerihe Cape Town, and
ita principal edificea. ThU oi^tal ia pleaaastlf aituated ae
the head of Tabk Bay^ and afforda. ahdier tp aUpa in the
hafbour from ihe wmda that Uow from ^ weat* The town
conaiato of about eleven hundred houaea^ built widi regn*
larity* aad k^ in neat order ; and ia diapoaed into atsaight
and pan^l^l atim^,. which intaraect each other at right an*
glea. There are three or four aquarea, in one of which ia
hdld the public markat ; anefthar is tlie reaort of the peasan*
try, mlh their waggana, from the remote diatricta of Ae
colony; and a tlnrd aervea aa a parade, for exerciaing dm
tmopa. Mtny of die atreeta are open and auy, and have
canala of wat^ ranmng tbrou^ them, walled, ami planted
wkh oaha on each aide*

The gowrnment of the Cape ia eooqioaed ttf ei|^t coun*
cila. Hie firat,or grandcouncil^conaiftta of the governor
and eig^ othera, who are generally the faigheat oficera in
the conqiany'aaervice $ Ae aecond ia the college of jnaticei
the third tefcea eogatnanee of 'all brmudiea of the peace, and
ia dep e a de aA on the laat; the fourth ia called die court of
naanriagea, and takea care that all nuptial contmcu be em^
tared Anto- with die eonaent jof the parenta or guardians of
both parties ; the fifth ia the chamber of ^orphans ; the sixA
is tkt ^ecdeaiaaticaL eoHaga^ -die aevendt ia Aecouatof

.^H tLkmnTi umfmBJA hotohy.

CMonon oooncil; and tke eigbth ^aperintnidt rij^iriitwiiy
9tgrimAooA. The servaala of die D«tch comptaf Miocnt
io about moL hundrod, wbo are divided innotva ckiaaea^^lle
qimlified and the uaqualiied; the former are thoae -wIId
aoiKpoae theadminiatraCion, and their ckrka; Aehrttct aie
(he 8okb««^ artificers^ and memal aerraiita. - «

Tbe three hills which farm the Table VaHey^4B«sealled
die Tid>le Mmmtain, liott Mooataiii^ aad WimA or D»*
vtt'a MomitatB. The first appearance of so stapeadims «
jaass of ndked recks as the Table MouBtain^ cauiot hSk^/l
arreadng die ataendan ot everjr indiiiSsreat o h s e riwa ei^ath
tore, and must pardculatiy interest thatof diemineralogial.
The north froot of thismoimtain diveedf iKcsCape Town,
in nearly a horizontal ttne of ahoat two nilea in kngdi.
The ««mit reMnriile. tke iMf of • tabfe^ ud .ppear* «t a
distance smooth and level, bat is craggy and tasrvon. fmnkt
astddle are several chasms, which give to it dm appearance
ef die rained walls of soaae huge and teRftle furtreas.
•These walls rise abwve die level of Tnbk Bay to die heigltt
of diree diouaand five hnndved and ei|^iiy*4wo Aet; ami
dm east ride, which temmates at right angles todm fteni,
is moch higher.

The Lion Bfountainis condgnons to the aea, enMids a»-
wards the netdi, and is acpavaafed fnsm T^Ue Meuntaln bf
n small chasm. The depredadoos of time, and die force ef
torrents, having carried away dm looser and less c om p act
parts, the summits of diese three momMains lian^ heoonm
disunited, but they are still joined as a very ce ne i demMe
elevadwrn above the -eomrnon base. The hetghf ef Lion
Moimtain 4s diree thousand three hondred and fifteen feet$
and die upper part consists of a spUd mass of stone, found
ed and fasldoned similar to a work of art, and from solne
points of view very much resembles the dome of St. Bald's
^diedral in London* The Wind or Devffa Moumimii^ >•
two thousand one hundred and rimy feet in height, com-
mands an extensive prospect of the whole surroundlDg
fountry, and abounda widi excellent pastuies.

In the Cape collies is abundance of cntde of every de^

*»•

flormsiTOTS. §gff

aonjiciott) particularly of oows smd sheep. In this countrjr
are two species of tame hogs ; ooe of which has no bnstlety
and was originally imported from the island of Java*
Horses, which were at first brought from Persia, are now
Tery numerous. A pound of tobacco will procure a fine fat
ox ; and sheep and other animals are proportionably cheap.

The wild beasts, however, make terrible havock among
the tame animals, and kill vast numbers, merely for the sake
of sucking the blood, as they generally leave the carcaae
untouched. Of these, the lion is Ae most formidaUe and
destructive, and usually prefers the blood of the Hottentots
to that of any other creature. The rhinoceros also attacks
men with great fury ; and is die most implacable enemy of
the elephant, the belly of which it rips open with the hom
that protrudes from its snout, and leaves the wounded
beast to ex{nre.

Whales are numerous during the winter season in all the
bays of Southern Africa, where they are caught with more
hciikty dian in the midst of the ocean. They seldom ex-
ceed sixty feet in length, and dieir bones are of little value $
but as each fish }^elds about ten tons of oil, they are deem^
ed of sufficient consequence to attract the attention of a com-
pany, which has been established within these few years,
Smr the purpose of carrying on a fishery at Table Bay.

Though tiaaJber is extremely rare and expensive, little
pains has been taken in the vicinity of Cape Town to pro-
mote its cultivation. Plantadons, indeed, of stone-pine and
white poplar, with avenues of oak-trees, are sometimes
seen near the country houses ; but the timber they produce
is seldom equal to what might be expected from the rapi-
dity of their growth.

-Various exotics might, no doubt, be successfully culti-
vated here. Already, the cotton plant, indigo, the sugar
cane, tea and coffee plants, are to be found in different parts
of the colony, and seem to flourish as well as many of the
indigenous productions.

From the approximation of the Cape olive to the cnld-,
vated. plant of £urope, it is matter of surprise that the latter

VOL. IX. [25]

fg$ BAHSA'rS tStlTBUAL RIBTOItV.

hw iWTer been imrodocad, bukc its sacceas appwm iio^
dottbted, and ^e coka^ w dcstllats of any vegetable oil,
duU is fit io be applied to OuUBary p«rp«a««.

Many of (be tropical, and moit of tbe EuropeaaiiBits arc
Mfcrad at tbe C*p» ; and the table is constant supplied
iridi a variety of cboioc pnxbKlimis, eitber green or dry,
•uch HB Chun and mandarin otangea, grapes, figt, gvavaa,
•fvicata, peadies, pears pomegrMMtteB, applea, (|wnccaf
strawberries, walnuts, almonds,' cbesnutSf and molbexriea,
All of excellent quality add easy purcbasc.

Tbe vineyarda, fruiteries, and gndans, are cxmaaaaif
divided iato squares, and defended froBs tbe parching ui-
Inence bf the soodi-cast wind, by cut hedges of quiace,
mk and myrtle.

- Bariey, the princtp^ grain in tbe pcniiaula, is cbiefly
raised in open grounds ; but beyond the isthtnna, and. akog
tbe western coast, grain is cultivated to great advantage.

The seaaona are exactly the reverse of dnse ia Europe!
Spri&g, wUeh commoncas with Stptenaber and ends wiA
Deoember, is by ^ tbe most agreaable season ha«, as, iaa
deed, it Is In most eoumries. The summer, from Dcoew-
b«> to tbe cad of March, ii rather sultry ; the antumn, froaa
March to June, is diadnguished by a variety of weatbsr,
though g en er al ly pleasant towards its cIcmc ; and die win-
ter, brom June to September, is usually rainy, cold, and
stormy.

On the summit of the Table Mountain, the temperUure
is considerably lower than in Cape Town, during tfie clear
weadier of winter ; and in the summer the tUfference is still
more perceptible, when the head of tbe mountain ii enve*
loped by a fleecy cloud, not inaptly termed "tbctaUe-
cloth."

Of all the winds which Mow here, the soudi-east and
north-west arc the most powerful : die former is extremely
violent when die cloud rests upon die mountain, and gene-
rally predominates from the end of August, till tbe middle
of May. The latter commences about tbe end ot May,
and blows occasionally till tbe teimination of August. The

«p|iroiicii of irinter is generally indicated by the sobBidenee
of the winds, and the disappearance of the fleecy ch>ud«
These tokens are su^eededby heavy dews, thick fogs, and
cold north-westerly winds, accompanied by violent storms of
diunder, Hghtning, and rain. At the expiration of three
days, however, the atmosphere genei^Uy begins to brighten,
and die moun^ns on the continent appear with their tops
hofiad in snow, and a ti^^t sprinUing of die same is seen
jAonit die head of the table.

The nights are always cool, diough die motmiags are
eomedmes dose and snltiy i a soQfth«east breeze generally
e^ngs up abottt the middle of die day, and gradual^ diiea
away as evening approadies. The general standard of dm
temperature of Cape Town, during the winter numdis, is
tnm fifty degrees at sun-rise to sixty m noon ; and in die
middle of summer the thermometer ranges irom serven^ to
ninety.

The barometer varies litde eompsved widi what is ob*.
served in our dimate. The soulfa-eaBtiimds rarely occasion
an afttomtion in the tube of more dian the fifteen hamireddl
pare of an inch. The regularity of die seasons, indeed, is
"wonderful hem ; and <hy .the daily gales which Uow over
Ci^ie Town, a perpetual tiurculatkm of air is kept up, which
not only contributes to die comforts, but to die healdiiness
of the inhabitants, among ^rtiom few diseases are known,
exeept such as are the result of pernicious habits.

4f9 BAIf8Arfl OMTEBtAL

AFRICAN ISLANDS.

BOURBON.

Trk I«b of Beui4>oB, which is sitaated in twetntf^tme dfr>
grees of south latitude, and fif^-four of cut longiMdc frook
Z.oiidoii, and about eighty leagues to tlw eastmrd of Ma-
dAgaacar, is of an oval fonn, and niaCty miles in ciwaiia-
fermce. This island is beautifiiUy diverufied widi bUb-
and vallies, forests and pasturage, and refreshed with a
immber ot dcUghtful springs and rivulets- Though die di-
nate is inteoaety hoc, it is esteemed stJubrioiu, and the air.
is. cooled, hy iiie breezes which blow every monung and
evening. Bourbon abounds in fruit, herbs, and cattle ; it
produces eKocllmt tobacco ; and a greu variety of {danta,
roots, and spices, yrow spontaneously. Many of die trees,
yield odoriferous gums -, while the rivers are well stocked/
irith Sab, the coast with land and s^* turtles, and every pate
of die island with neat cattle, hogs, gOats, and various bcaa*
tiful birds. Ambergris, coral, and the most curious sheila^
arc found on the sea shore. On the north and south side»<
are many good roads for ships ; but there is scarcdy a har-. ^
bour in which vessels can ride secure against those dread-*
ful hurricanes, which frequently happen during the mon-
soons. Indeed, the coast is environed with blind rocks,-
which render navigation at all seasoos dangerous ; and Oft
the southern extremity is a volcano, which continually emits
flame, stnoke, and sulphur, accompanied with a hideous
and tremendous noise. This island was discovered by the
Portuguese in ISiS^ who stocked it with hogs and goats,
and then deserted it. In 1613, an £nglish commander,
named Castleton, having landed on it, was charmed with
itk beauty and fertility, and bestowed upon it the ^pellation
of the English Forest. The East India Company, howevo-,
having nev^r coloqized this island, the French to<A posses-

iian of it in 1654^ aad named it the Isle of Bourboh ; but a
few people of that nation, with aeveral negroes, were all
that were left upon it ; who having resided there upwards
of two jreara, were brought away by an English vessel, to-
gether with a large cargo of tobacco, ambergris, and coral,
which they had cultivated and collected diuing their stay
on the island : and it was not tiU 1672, when the French
were comp^ed- to abandon Madagasear, that they estab-
Ikrtied a permanent colony on the i^and, where they have
now three pretty considerable ports : St. Paul ; St. Dennis^
the rendence of the governor ; and St. Susanna ; at one of
which, dieir East India ships usually touched for refredi*
ment:

Mavritivs. On the east of Bourbon is situated die is*
land of Mauritius, which is in twenty degrees of south lati*
tade, and fif^r^six of east longitude, and distant a hundred
leagues from Madagascar. The Dutch, who first disco-
vered it in 15M, gafve it the appellation of Matontius, in
honour of Prince Maurice, who was at diat time their stadt^
holder. It is of an oval form, being about fifty leagues in
circumference ; and there is a safe and secure harbour, suf-
ficiently deep and capacious for containing fifty large ships*
The climate is reckoned healdiy and pleasant: and the
mountains, some of which are very lofty, produce the finest
ebony in the world, and various other trees of great value*
A number of rivulets descend from the bills, that are plen-
tifully stocked with fish^ and render the soil surprisingly
fertile, which produces sugar-canes, tobacco, rice, and va-
rious fruits, and affords pasturage for great numbers of
sattle.

When the Dutch first took possession of Mauritius, th^
found it destitute of inhabitants, and even of animals, ex-
cept deer and goats ; but with their usual industry, they
rendered it fertile and productive, and the island soon
abounded with cattle of almost every description. They re-
signed it, however, into the hands of the French, in whose*
possession it has since continued.

Mada^oascar. We come now to Madagascar, which is

Iff VLAUBISn mSVEttUIi HISTORY.

leckoned b^r geographers to be not oeif tile Isrgett uImiA
ef Africa^ but of the world, unless Nevr Hollmd shoidd be
diottght to fall under the description of an ishnid. IKfcir-
ent iwrtifinw have given it diflerent appelations ; the nKdvee
call it Madacasck; the Portuguese, St. Laurenee; dM
French, Vide Dauphin; and die Nubians, PersicBs, and
Armbians, Serendib. It is attnated between die twdfdi aad
twentjr-sizdi degrees of sondi latitude, and between tkw
fbrtji-fiHutb and fiit^^rst cfegrees of east lengilu dc from
I^ondoo^ and about fortjr leagues from the continent of
Africa. Its length from north to sooth is neaify one thon*
sand miles; and its breadth, at a medium, two bundled
and fifty miles. Between this island and die continent, die
sea frnns a channel or passage, dirough which European
vessels commonly sail in their voyage to and from India.

The general appearance of the country is pleaaant, fa^
die, and inviting ; it is environed by loflpf mountains, and
diversified by numerous mounts and fruitful plains. The
productions are sugar, honey, vegetables, vines, fruit-trees^
valuable gums, spices, com, cattle in great abundance and
variety, wild and tame fowls, precious stones, iron, siliwr,
copper, tin, and steel. The pasturage for catde is exceHent^
the forests are ever green, and the rivers, some of whicil
are very considerable, are plentifully stocked with fish. To
these local advantages we may also add, diat the nir is es<*
teemed temperate and salubrious.

The natives are commonly tall, well proportioned, and of
an olive complexion, which inclines to black. Unlike &e
negroes of Guinea, their hair is not woolly, though UadL
and curling ; their noses are small, but regular ; and dieir
lips are of moderate thickness. The general dress consists
of a short piece of cotton cloth or silk, wrapped round dieir
Waists, which diey call a lamber ; but persons of rank of
both sexes, in addition to this, adorn their wrists with rings
of the most valuable metal, and with which they also braid
tiieir hair. Hie women wear lambers or robes, which reach
to th^r feet, and are covered with a garment resembling %
strait shift. Tl|is covering is commonly made of cotton.

dymA tf a darit Colour aad trimmed with beads, nUch ue
fiiiicifially arrBnged.

. Po)y|;«my i» praetised throughout the island, and every

man tnjoyB a phuaMty of wives, according to the extent of

Ua fortune. The most accurate and best informed wriurs,

however, affirm, that the females are exemplary in thcit

cmqugai obed&ence, their amiableness of disposition, and

agieeableness of deportment ; and the inhalntants, in gene*

ml, are considered as possessing many virtues, which per^

iMips aiFe not shaded by greater and more numerous vices,

shun those which are commo^ practised in more refined

and civifized countries. The salutation of a superior, ^iiich

ia esteemed most respectful, and is generally used by diose

who address the prince, is to lick his feet; and this abjecf

mode of submission is also practised by the wives, when

dwir husbands return from the wars, or after a long ab^

aanee.- The art of coinage is utterly unknown among this

people ; and goU and silver are only made use of in om»>

■acnting the person, or in exchange for other commodities*

Their principal riches and resource, therefi»re, consist in the

number and value of their catde.

TThe sovereigns of Madagascar affect a great deal of pomp
and parade. They exercise an uncontroled md unlimit*
able power over the lives and fortunes of their subjects, to
whom they give audience, sitting cross-legged on a mat.
Great numbers of noblemen and slaves continually attend
them ; and they have a varie^ of palaces, which, though &r
exceeding the huts and habitations of the rsst of the people,
consist only of boards formed by the hatchet, and raised to
the height of eight or ten feet.

These princes, however, keep no regular or standing ar^
my, but when an emergency demands it, employ vassals for
the purpose. Their manner of waging war is by surprise
and ambuscade $ and when an advantageous opportunity of«
fers, they assemble privately, and attack the enemy una*
wares, and before he can be made acquainted with their
design. They employ spies to discover and make known to
them the state and condition of the foe. During die war^

10^ BAMSAnt %nawm»Ah histcay.

diey freqa^ntly change tlieir resideace, and ihim calde wtt
driven to the highest mountains and the most-iaaocessiUe
situations. Parties of tfairQr or forty men are despatched to
plunder and destroy the lesser villages, and* to make captives
of the inhabitants. These marauders, in case of necessi^
are generally provided with billets, written in Arabic chfr*
racters, which they firmly believe will diapel the stnengtb
and courage of their enemies, and occasion their defeat.
Having taken and burned the town, they make the women
and children prisoners, and drive the cattle away* This
last transaction closes the contest, unless the vanquished
can obtain assistance and make reprisals. The ooly aiSM
made use of, are lances and hatchets, with a few firelodca^
purchased from the Europeans.

Though letters have never been introduced into ihie
country, the laws of Madagascar, which are traditional, and
handed down from father to son, are founded in equity^
and enforced without partiality or -indulgence. * Punidi*
ments for capital offences are few, and, indeed, seldom ne^
cessary ; but fines, which are paid in cattle, are frequent,
and levied on the slightest and most trivial occa8ioi»«.
Theft is punished by a fine, four times the value of that .
which is stolen ; but if the offender cannot restore cattle to
such an amount, he must become the property of the injured
person, or forfeit his life. Adultery with the wife of a su-
perior must be expiated by a forfeiture of thirty head of cat-
tle, besides beads and other articles : but with the wife of
an equal, by a fine of only twenty. An assault is piiiushed
by a fine of fifteen head of cattle.

The religion of these islanders is paganism, and consists
of a gross and idolatrous superstition. They acknowledge,
however, the existence and superintendance of a Supreme
Being, whom they call Deaan Unghorray, and which signi-
fies, *^ The Lord above ;" but they maintain that there are
four other subordinate lords, each of whom presides over
that part of the world to which he is appointed. These lat<*
ter are considered as the immediate servants of the great
God i and as mediators between him and man ; and, there^

favei ia i^nMk ttejr addtesft tdl their suppficatioM and pray^
«r», aad perfbrm their religiottB sacriiees. It is wt>rdi3r of
obacrmtien, diat among these ignorant and superstittous
fieople,'there exists some faint knowledge of the creation
andfisdlirfman; the death of Abel ; the deluge; thepreser^
Illation of Noah and his family; and some oAer eircum-
siinces of a simslar imtare.

CiTCsumdaion is performed in this island, but in adiflferent
manner from that of the Jews and Mahometans. The cere*
ssoay is preceded by mirdi, drinking, and fenting; after
wfaidi an ox or bull ia presenasd for each child, and fastenecl
to the ground, ready (or immolation. The fadier, or nesr^
aatcoimeaion, then takes the difld in his arms towards the
animal to be sacrificed, and putti»g its right hand on the
bull's right horn, exclaam»«-^^ Let the great God diove, the
lords of. the four quarters of the world, and the grnvdiflit
qarifts^ pflrosper and protect this child, and cause him to be«
came migb^ ; let him equal this bull in strength, and oveiv
•opfto all his enemies." Having thus ^okcn, the ctrcum<f
ciaer performs his offiqe ; after which the child is delivered
toias modier or nearest kin, and a feast concludes the cere*
mosiy.

It is evident, from every. circumstanoe of die few reli-
(mis ritts which the inhabitants of Madagascar perform^
that, they believe in a future sute of existence. The me*
mory of their forefathers is cherished by them with the.
greatest veneration ; and, m. their funeral aolemnitieSf they
marks pf a decent and becoming sokouit^. £veiy.
has a place appropriated as a depository for its dead»
which is enclosed by a kind of palisadoes, and is never en*
t^ed without sacrificing an <aor a cow to the manes of the
de&nct. When any peraonis to be inttmrd, 4ie prindipal or .
chief of the fiunily apj^ioaches the entrance of the cemetery;-
and catting aloud on all the dead deposited there, informs
..diem diat sudi a person is coming to repose among thon^
and requests, they will own him as a friend aad relativ«^
This being peirlbrmed, die gates of the bmying ground asat^
opened, and the corpse is deposited in the earth. During^

VOL. IX, [26]

RABCSAm OimttMi MrroRT.

Aa hHHar p«t mt Ab «cr»noiif t^he psofl^ withwit we
•ted in ktUiay tad Avidiag dw catde, wkkh die nirfiviii|^
fineiMbaadielMlMiMttf diftdocMsed hidpifmdcd ferilMto
MtertMmnent. No |Mueti«ular drett it made use of m
■MHuraing for the deed; but co such a&ckiitlioly occeeimm
liwy shave the head*

In this island are umosees, cnr ma^eiaas, who psetBad tm
peaftmtB and UAdetetaiid the most secret poweta of iMEtuve^
and aa may he refiiired^ to proeiure the assiataoee of bm»
Kar and iiiiiematiumL beings ; ^nd who a^ke a kind of lalis
tianiie composition^ which is cayried atthe headof ihearnqr
toMMurs vietovy and saceesa. These impostors ha^ie ohiainsA
sttchcredit and reputation among the [people, by thehr pre«
tsndsd power; and incentation, diat io»pIicit Obedience ia
paid to d^ir injunotioils; and no act oi importanee is un**
dbimhen nathout fast eonsaldng dira* opinion. And though
eveofts do not alw^^s correspond to their predietionsi diey^
never $t a kss to find soase plansibk and sndelsciiny
to aecQunt for theb fttflure i and as their coofectiuifia
mSk sometimes necessarily be jnst and n^% a very ftw iiw
stances of diis kind servo to inswe their ftitimeand peima*
jpmt reputation. In sacred and religious acts and cerenMK
^iies, however, these magpciananever interfere ; and, indeed^
mmy individuid considers hiasaetf at liberty to adept or
reject the general forass of r el igion, aceor^ng to hie owm
diqpositien.and fipcy.

* M% i aBa s rar waa first discovered by die Pbrtagnesoi in
ftfOft, but dmynewr attempted taoolomze it. in 1441, dio
Vbeneh usurped die possession of this isfamd, and ereQMd a
fart in an advaatageoiis steuntiott, whkb they denoaHnatsA
Vert Pa u p hin i but^the nativee having eoneeivod a vioka^
aversion, towards dmir new naighhows, and being pro^

^pked Iqr dieir tyranaical and arbitrery pitwee^fings, expe^
oA.theaa foon after; and since that period no Sntopean na-^
tjaat ha« everattempted % siatikr esmblisl|meat.

CojsoaA Isua. Between the northern point of ftnia
gascar and dm oeast of Africa, are skuated dm Comom
Wea» which ana phwed boiMW forty^m and l^-ein dsN

MfmuMwrnAnm. Iff

•oaith kcttade. Their nmnber k firec }bbanBa^ CMn<)i%
Maf otta, Mohitta^ mmI Aiigueja. Of ^mm^ JvliHiaa, the
pitteipal, is about tUity miles kng and f fte^ broai^ and
aboumis wMi all Idtids of pmviricdis attd trofical Drahs. At
Ais island die East India ships lisuidty wach for tvfmh-
flKMs, and meetwidi an hospittNljr aadUndness trcm the
natma seldom experienced on the eondneai of J^bwem.
They are negroes^ profest 4he MAdmmmk relititMh ud mm
remarkable far dieir aJfiebiAitjr and politeness. MaBt of #•
kUiahitants «^ tmH^ robnst, and iv«ll propoHBoned ; Aivf
hare pieivfaig eyes, long Md dark helT) and 4ieir xrcniplev
ions are betireen an olive and black eriour. They are, hi
general, a ]^in, simple, inoflfentitve people, de^d of mn hiw
tion, and entipely ignorant of the arts of tNfir«

The island is productive of rice, yiams, potatoes, tasw*
rinds, oranges, lemons, pine-apples, cocoa-nuts, honey^
fcteck catde, and goats. . The women, in general, are em*
ployed in hua^Mtndry, and other laborious occupations;
whilst the men enjoy ease, and indulge themselves in idle^
ness and luxury. Their usual food is rice, roots, flesh, wOkf
and fruits. The Arabic language, incorporated with dko
Zanguebsr tongue, is in general use. The town of Johaima
consists of about two hundred houses and huts, the former
of which are buik with stone, and are the property of die
king and principal inhabitants ; but the latter are construct^
ed of reeds fastened together, covered widi a mixture of
day and cow-dung, and diatched widi cocoaJeaves.

The g(oveminent of this island, is entirely monarchical^
die origin <^ which is ascribed to a Moorish merchant, who
flying for murder from Mosambiqne, put to sea in an open
boat, and accidentally reached Johamia. Being favourafafy
received, and joined soon after by some of his countrymen^
he formed the resohition of endeavouring to ndse himself
to the sovereignty, which, without violence or usnrpation,
and merely by means of superior abilides and address, was
speedily eiected. His knowledge was highly useful to die
ignorant natives^ and rendered lam gveady respected $ and

RAMSAY'S wnfwmAL woneon.

hammg secured the fitvour of the oiajortey of die people,
IUmI established himself on the thro&e by dieir united and
▼oluiitBiy ebncurrsBte, he fbuAd ttitans'to oTercome all
opposition. After a long and happy reign, he left .the king-
Ami to his son, tn ivhose family it has since remained.

When any European ship arrives at the island, tlie king
usuaity goes on board ; m no trade cati be opened wtdi the
people till the toyal licence be obtained ; for procuring
vriiich they generaUy give a little g^aipowder, a few mu9»
fuets, or any odier European commodities of small value,
iHnch die sofvereign may fimcy . Of die other Coqsora isles^
we are gready ignorant of dieir productions, and of the
manners and customs of the inhabitants ; but it is generslly
supposed, that they are more inhospitable than diose de«
scribed, and that diey are extremely averse to any inters
course with foreign nations.

IVB eAI« nSO IBLAMM. f9|

THE CAPE TERD ISULNDS.

V ...

These i»bu;ids obtained their denominatioa from aa op»
poaite Cape on the African coast, which projects into the ^
sea between the rivers Gambia and Senegal, and is called
Cape Verd. Their distance from th^ continent is. one hun*;
dx:ed and twen^ leagues ; and they are situated between
twen^nhree and twenty-six degrees of west longitude, and
between fourteen and eighteen degrees of north latitude*
It is affirmed that these ielands were unluipwn to the mor
dems till the year 1460, wb^ot Anthony Noel, a native ol
the state.of Genoa, in the Portuguese service, first disco-
vered them* They amount to near twenty in number, some
of which, however, are only sterile rocks, and unworthy of
notice. The most considerable were peopled by the Por-
tuguese ; though the air is in general hot, and, in some of
the islands, unfavourable to- American constitutions.

The largest of this group is St. Jago, which is sizly
leagues in circumference. It is of a triangular form ; and
though the country is rocky and mountainous, the soil pro-
duces sugar, cotton, Indian, com, cocoa-nuts, oranges, le-
mcms, and other tropical fruits. This island also abounds
with horses, asses, mules, cows, deer, goats, hogs, civet-
cats, and a remarkably beautiful species of green monkies
with white faces. The surrounding sea furnishes great
plenty and variety of excellent fish ; and the outward-bound
£a8t India ships generally touch here for fresh water and
provisions. Riberia Grande is the capital of the island, the
seat of government, and a bishop's see, containing a cele-
brated and well-built monastery, the gardens of which are
highly admired. The other towns of note in this island,
are St. Jago, St. Domingo, St. Domingo Abacen, and Pray a;
the last of which has a most excellent harbour, defended
by a fort, situated on the summit of a hill.

Brava is in fourteen degrees of north latitude, about
four leagues in circumference, and principally consists of

gg§ RAMMrt UHMHMAi. tnrrMY.

lugh oMMmtaims, which me in die form of a pyramid. It
has an excellent harbour, and is, dierefare, much frequented
by die Dutdi and Portngoe«e Teasels trtuliag t» die East
indies. The ps^oductions of diis island are siAtpetre, In*-
fian com, urith die fruits and roots common to tropical cH*
nates ; and it is particularly eminent for its wines.

The island of Fuego, takes its name from a dreadful vkA^
oano, situated in the centre, which sometimes emits rocks
of a prodigious size to an amazing and incredible height,
and with a noise more tremendous dian die loudest thun-
der ; and sometimes torrents of flaming sulphur flow dowd
tfie sides of die mountain, and the lava ib afterwards cdl-
lected in great qnanttties. Water is extremely scarce ; ne-
vertheless, the soil produces vast quantides of fruits and
roots ; and the island is well stotked widi cattle'. The in-
habitants are chiefly negroes, who manufinrture cotton clodi,
and are famous for breeding mules, which diey dispose of
to Europeans.

Mato is of an oval form, seven leagues in circumfer-
ence, and derived its name froftfi being distovered on May^
day. In this island immense quantities of sak are made
from the sea, crystalized by the heat of the sun, which is
only effected during the dry season, contrary to die opera-
tions of crystalizing performed in die West Indies. Thfe
commodity furhishes a very considerable trade to die Eng-
fisb, which costs only a present to the negro govemor,
who is generally invited on board every riiip that arrivea
for this purpose. Though die soil is dry and parched, it
produces com and provisions sufficient for die-consumption
of the inhabitants ; and feeds a great number of asses. With
which the English sometimes freight whole ships, and
carry them to Barbadoes, and odier British islands. The
surrounding sea furnishes a plentiful supply of fl^, espe*
cially of doradoes.

BoNAVisTA was first discovored by die Portuguese, and
obtained its appellation from die beautiful prospect it a&
fords towards the sea. It is twenty miles long, and twelve
broad s and produces iminense quantities of inctigo, and

«icirtt^e«llm diMi all Ae i«i»t of the Gape VetdtfllmAi. A»
mx eoiioirTiMli cmt' on a cemidemUe irafie wt A the &»«
tivee of Boaatvii^ tbe EngM^h bmgiiage ia not only tmder*
staod^ but ako opakett U7 the iahabitants of this islaad. A
pmofitf exists here^ wludh is Kkewise to be found in aomtt
of the other Ulaada t this is a kind of vegetahle stone, ex^
tvemefy porauSv <^ of a greyish colour ; wtnch, protruding
sterns^ feorms. somathuig ib shape resendding the head of 11
cauKflowcsr.

The isle of Sal obtained its appeUation from die vast
aad UicrediUe quantilpies of salt natairalfy ptoduced from
the sea-water. The total defidieasy of fresh water has oe«
casiooed it to faeooaie a dtesolale. and descat island.
. St. Nicholas b die hirgest of die Cape Verd islands^
excepting St. Jago. The land is chiefly high, and the soil
produces maixe in great abundance, nooost tropical fruits,
and a f^furiety of trees, .pavticidarly die dMq;o»*tree, mmt
whidi exudes the drug catted gum-dragon* The nativea
are iogemoaa and. industrious, and employ themselves in
maott&cturing cotton doth, and in fcrming it into dresses
Sat the Guinea trade. The capkal is St. Nicholas, which
is die most compact and populous of any town on these isl-
aads^ duug^ the best and most superb- buildings are co^
veied and duttohad wid^ gtaas^

St. JohnNi Isi.aiii>^ which is very high and mountainous,
abounds will^ wood and fresh water, and produces large
<|nant]Sies of sakpetre, various fruits and roots common ta
tropical dimatea,andplettty of fowl&and cattle. Thenadves
ase repceaented as a simple, inoftnsive, and hospitable race
of people, who wear a slight covering of cation clodl, which
they maBufisctare. When the govemor g r a a is leave to the
inhabitants to hunt the wild goat, which is considered as a
healihftti recreatioo, diey all, assemble with their dogs ;
and when die game is killed, and die chase ended, the flesh-
ie dividsd aoeording to die distribution of the governor ;
who reserves a part fop htmseif, and bestows the shins on
Aese who, through age or i»lrmi%y, are ilieapiMe of pur^
swttg the sport. Besides dds oAsa, the govemov is also*

jMtfr RAU8At*9 CmVEBSAL HISTORY.

die only liiagistrftte, and decides in all matters. It My one
is so stubborn as to reltise complying with the decisions of
the governor, he is confined till sach time as he thanks pr(y-
per to^ubmit to his decrees. It is seldom that capital of*
fences are perpetrated ; but when a crime of that nature
happens to be committed, Ae noxious person is imprisoned
till the parties agree, and a bond be obtained from the re*'
hitions of the offending person, that he shall make his ap-
pearance at a public tribunal, whenever a judge shall ar-
rive frbm Portugal to administer justice.

St. Vincent is inhabited by no human beings ; but is
frequentiy visited by mariners, on account of its excellent
bay, in which ships may ride with safety, and Where wild
goats and turties, and other necessaries may easily be pro-
cured.

St. Anthony is chiefly distinguished by its elevated si-
tuation, and contains a mountain which is tiiought tp equal,
if not exceed, the Peak of Tenerifie in height; and its sum-
mit, which is constantiy covered with snow, notwithstand-
ing tiie clearness and serenity of tiie sky, is generally en-
veloped in clouds. Several pleasant rivulets water the
ground, and diflfuse plenty throughout tiie island : the soil
produces maize, oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, plantains^'
pompions, guavas, musk and. water-melons, in great abund-
ance, besides a vast vajriety of trees and shrubs. The ge-
neral character of the natives is, that tliey are inoffensive
and humane ; and they are supposed to amount to near
three thousand persons, three-fourtiis of which are slaves ;
who, after the manner of the fr^e negroes, are possessed of
wives, houses, and plantations, but are governed by a
steward, appointed by a Portuguese nobleman, to whom'
the island belongs.

Canaries. The Canaries, supposed to be the fortunate'
of happy islands of antiquity, amount to seven in niimber^
and are situated between twenty-seven degrees thirty mi--
nutes, and twenty-nine degrees thirty minutes, of nortii la-
titude ; and between twelve degrees, and seventeen degrees
fifty minutes, west longttnde from London. The Cartha*^

OANABBS. JMBl

gUuattS) when in the height of their power and glorjr, first
descried and colonized these islands ; but after the Romans
had conquered and annihilated that state, the navigation to
the west was completely stopped, and the Canaries were
veiled in obscurity and forgotten, till they were redisco-
"Aered by the Spaniards, in the year 1405, to whom they
still belong. On their arrival, they found that the natives
resembled the Africans on the continent, in their stature
and complexions ; but that their language was totally dissi-
milar, and their customs and manners in no respect cor»
responded with those of their ancient progenitors, or o£
their continental neighbours. They were gready ignorant
of the arts, and altogether of the sciences ; and being told
that there/ were other countries in the world besides their
own, they expressed much wonder and astonishment.

In Grand Canary, the number of inhabi^mts is sud to
have amounted to thirty thousand ; and in Teneriffe, to
fifteen thousand. The Spaniards called them a barbarous
and inhuman race of people ; but it does not appear that
their ferocity to their captives, who had maltreated them,
and over whom the chance of war had given an absolute and
unlimited power, extended further than to compel them to
guard and herd their catde. They were denominated
Guanches ; were of a gigantic stature, which has since de-
creased ; and had the dexterity of throwing stones with a
force equal to that of a musket-ball. But this art, from dis-
ease, has been for a long time lost among them. Their
other weapons of annoyance and defence consisted of lances
pointed with, horn, or hardened in the 'fire. Polygamy was
not only permitted, but the virginity of every bride was
considered as the property of the chief; and both the hus-
band and wife thought it a mark of distinction and regard,
when he condescended to claim his right* . Whenever a
new prince ascended the throne, a certain number of young
persons, of both sexes, sacrificed themselves in honour of
him, and to render his reign prosperous and happy ; and as
a reward for their loyalty and disinterested conduct, the
monarch considered himself bound to bestow all possible

VOL. IX. [27]

BAMSArs vmnmUi iostobt.

kmdtieM and &yiMir on ikt ftattnt^ qS ili«0e in&tiMLted vk-
tiiiis. The Gttttncket «re active «iid lively, natunJly bcdd
and warlike ; and so aimble, that with the atsittaiiGe of a
pole diey wiU leap from one rock to another, though at a
considerable diftance, widi amazing agility and precisioo^
When immured in tasdes and fiutresses, they contrive to
seaie the inside of the walls, and by poising their bodies,
they will descend the most steep and rugged precipices^
They speak their own language with great rapidity, and
pronounce only with .their teeth and lips. A few of them
have been converted to Christianity ; but as they were in-
duced to assume this profession through fear of the inqui-
sition, it is not to be supposed that their religion is alto-
ga^r real and without hypocrisy.

In these islands a pure and temperate air prevails, and the
mOsS delicious fruits abound, particularly grapes, from
which that rich wine is extracted, that is cUstinguished by
Canoryyand of which the greatest part is exported to £ng^
land) where the annual consumption of it is upwards of ten-
thousand hogsheads. The Canaries are also abundant in
cattle and various other animals, and are pauticularly famous
for diose beautiful and pleasing birds of song which bear
the name of die islands.

Palma is the most western and further distant from the
continent of Africa of any of the Canaries, and is twenty-
four miles long and eighteen broad. In this island is a high
and spacious mountain, called Le Caldera, or the Chaldron,
from a hollow in its summit, which gradually declining oc*
ci^es a space of nearly thirty acres, and from which several
springs issue, that, passing through an aperture of the
nsountain, unite ac the bottom, and are made use of in turn-
ing sugar*mills. The former existence of several volcanoes
in different parts of the island is apparent, and the channel
of the lava may still be traced. In November, 1677, the*
earth shook for several days continually, which was ac-
companied with loud and tremendous noise, during which
period, many openings sqipeared in different places ; but the
most considerable chasm was at Mount aux Chevres, which'

enuijldl Auiws and stones. In 1 7*50, another eraplion took
place, when the lava flowed down the aides of the momii*
tain, and discharged itself into the sea, about a mile north
of Ae town of Santa Cruz. This island produces mote
fruits, sugars, and wines, than the inhabitants can possiUf
consume. Santa Cruz is the best and largest town in Palma,
and is situated on the soudi«east side of the island; It con*
tains many neat and elegant structures, and has a commo-
dious haven, in which vessels may ride secure from every
wind.

Ferro, from whence the French geographers formerly
computed their longitude, as the Dutch did theirs from
Teneriffe, is fifteen leagues in circumference. For above a
league from the sea, it has a steep ascent, beyond whieh Ae
land is tolerably level and fruitfrd, abounds with a variety
octrees and shrubs, and produces pasturage and flowera
in greater luxuriance than any of the aister islands. As
there is neither spring, well, nor river in the island, Provi->
dence has supplied diat want by providing the inhrintants
with the leaves of a tree, resembling an oak, which growtf
on the summit of the ascent, and from which they dis^ a
quantity of water suficient to eupply every living creature
in Ferro. The branches of this wonderful tree are- thick
and extended. Every morning a cloud rises from the sea,
which being driven by the wind to the summit of the elMF,
by degrees setdes on the tree, from the leaves and branchesf
of which the water flows down into a large stone feservmr
to the quantity of twenty hogsheads. This lingular phe-^
nomenon is attested by travellers, who affirm that Aey
were e3re-witnesses of the fact, and is only contradicted by
one, who, it is said, is no further a philoBopher than he is
sceptical and incredulous. The natives of this island, pre-
vious to the arrival and settlement <^the Spaniards among
them, paid religious veneration to two deities, one of whonr
was a male, the other a female, each being worshipped by
die respective sex. It was believed by them, that tiiough
these deities resided in heaven, yet they descended to ^rtik

]|g§ RAMSArS UHIVBBSAL HtSTORT.

to receive tbe pra|rer8 and petitions of their suiiidiaiits^ and
dien returned to their celestial abodes.

GoMER A is a small but fertile island, and produces sugar
canes and wines. Mules are very common, and more nu-
merous here than in anv of the sister isles ; and there are
also many deer, which were originally imported from Bar*
bary. The heroes of this island were esteemed immortal^
and their martial achievements are still celebrated in rude
and inharmonious poetry. A singuhu- custom of admit-
ting a community of women prevails in Gomera; and,
though every man has a wife of his own, it would be con*
sidered as uncivil, not to lend them to those who request it.
And hence it is, that the sister's son always inhents. The
principal place in the island is denominated La Villa de
Palmas, or the town of Palms, from the great quantity of
palm-trees growing in the neighbourhood. In this town
are a church, a convent of friars, and nearly two hundred
private houses, and it abounds with plenty of water.

Tenbriffe is celelHated for its peak or mountain, the
summit of which resembles a sugar-loaf; its height is about
four miles perpendicular from the earth, and it may be seen
at sea to the distance of more than one hundred and twenty-
miles. This island is of a triangular form, whose three
sides are nearly equal, each of which is about twelve
leagues in extent. The peak consists of vast rocks, piled
on one another, and is evidently the effects of subterrane-
ous enij^ons and violent concussions of nature ; and this
mountain still continues at times to emit such incredible
quantities of burning sulphur and melted ore, that the rich-
est and most cultivated lands are thereby converted into
barren deserts. On the summit of the peak is continual
snow ; the air is subtile, cold, and piercing ; and the tra^
veller, who has the curiosity to make the attempt of reach-
ing the top, feels a palpitation at his heart, which is accom-
panied with a difficulty of breathing. Before he has reached
one-half of the ascent, the clouds appear below him, and
the whole surrounding country resembles a vast and un^
bounded ocean.

CANARIES. ffff.

The (Capital of diifl bland is Santa Cruz, which ia situa*
ted near the shore, and has an excellent and commodious
hart>our. The town is large and populous, and contains
several superb and elegant structures. In 1704 happened a
very dreadful earthquake in this island, and no less than
twentymine concussions were experienced in the space of
three hours. 'On the thirt3r*first of December, the earth
opened, and two volcanoes were formed, which emitted such
a quantity of stones as to raise two considerable mountains.
On the fifth of January following, the scene became still more
dreadful and alarming; the sun was totally. obscured by
the clouds and flames ; and the whole surrounding country,
to the distance of nine miles, exhibited an universal de-
luge of devouring fire. The violence of the thunder in*
creased, the island was shaken to its centre, and the wretch-
ed inhabitants every where fleeing for refuge, met certain
and inevitable destruction. Notwithstanding these dread^
ful disasters, the island is fertile and salubrious, and
abounds with com, wine, and oil. Most of the Guanches,
who survived the devastation and havock of the Spaniards,
built a town in Teneriffe, in which their posterity still re-
side. They speak their own language, which resembles that
of the Moors of Barbary. They acknowledge a supreme
Being, whom they consider as just, compassionate, and
merciful. They had kings to whom they swore fidelity, and
whose palaces were caves and rocks, formed by nature,
which are still distinguished by die name of the iPoyal ca-
verns.

C&AiTD Canary is a most delightful and fertile island,
possessed of a happy temperature of air, and abounding
with delicious fruits, trees, and salubrious streams ; inso-
much that, in every point of view, it merits the appellation
of the Fortunate Island. In the interior part of it are se-
veral mountains of great height, which adorn the prospect ;
and it abounds with wood of various kinds, of which the
pine, palm, wild-olive, poplar, laurel, dragon-tree, lignum
rhodium, Indian fig, and many others, grow spontaneously.
Its fruits are oranges, lemons^ citrons, pomegranates, ap-

'll^Og BAMSAY*S UNIVEKSAL HISTOHY.

pies, pears, peaches, apricots, figs, dates, and, ia short, all
that is commcm to the European or American climates, ex-
cept pine-sapples. It also produces a variety of roots, herbs^
and plants, and two crops annually of wheat, barley, and
maiKe ; and is not destitute of any animal or vegetable pro-
duction which human nature may seem to require. Palma,
the capital of this island, is situated three miles from the
sea coast, and though a place of no great strength, is large
and populous, and contains many superb and elegant build*
ings, public as well as private. At some distance is a safe
^OkI commodious harbour, which is secure against every
urind except the south-east, which seldom blows with such
violence as to endanger vessels.

FuERTuvENTURA is about eighty miles long, and at a me-
dium about fifteen broad. The soil is in general fertile in com,
roots, and fruits ; and the island is beautifully diversified with
hills and vallies, and well watered and supplied with timber.
It has several bays and harbours ; but as the sea sometimes
rises upwards of sixty feet in height, the strongest vessels
are in danger of being dashed to pieces by the force and
violence of the waves. In this island are three towns, the
capital of which contains a church, a convent, and about one
hundred and fifty houses. There is also a number of vil-
lages, scattered throughout the island, which are populous,
and the inhabitants of which enjoy an uninterrupted state
of health to a very advanced period.

The last island of the Canaries, of which we ihall give a
description, is Lancerota, which is fifteen miles in length,
and ten in breadth, and at a distance appears high, black,
rocky, and barren. It is divided by a ridge of mountains,
whieh afford only pasturage for cattle, but the vallies ore
fertile and pleasant, imd the air is pure and wholesome. It
abounds with grain, fruits, neat cattle, camels, and asses.
On the rocks which encircle the coast, grows the orchilla-
weed, an ingredient used in dying purple, which is believed
to be the getulian colour of the ancients. About seventy
years since appeared a volcano, which emitted an immense
quantity of ashes and stones 3 and a small rock, ia dit form

o£ a pjvamid^ aftenmds arose, which stiU continues. The
principal port of this island is Porto del Naos. To these
seven great islands might be added: St. Clair, Graciosa,
Rocca^ and Allgranza ; but they possess nothing worth de«
scribing.

M ADEikAB. These islands are two in number, and, ac-
Cfirding to several writers, were first discovered in 1344, bjr
an Englishman of the name of Ovington ; but the Portu-
guese first took possession of them in 1431, when they found
them uninhabited and covered with wood ; which being cut
down and burned, the soil was rendered abundantly fertilei
akid has continued so ever since.

Madeira, which is the larger island, is one hundred and
eighty miles in circumference, and possesses a most delight-
ful climate, and a perpetual spring. It is composed of one
continued hill, that extends from east to west, on the south-
ern declivity of which are vineyards, and the seats of the
richest merchants. Madeira abounds with wine, com, oil,
sugar, and fruits ; the trees are perpetually in blossom ; and
the soil being well watered, and fertilized by several rivers^
produces every delicious vegetable that can contribute to
the luxury or gratification of life. This was the first place in
the west where the manufacture of sugar was attempted, and
from whence the plantations were removed to the Brazils.
The sugar that is made in this island has a sweet smell, and
a beautiful appearance. Madeira is now chiefly distinguish-
ed for its excellent wines, which seem intended by Divine
Providence as a refreshment to the inhabitants of the torrid
zone. There are several sorts of these wines, and it is com-
puted that at least twenty thousand hogsheads are annually
exported to other countries. The wine of this island not
only endures a warm climate, but even improves by being
exposed to the rays and heat of the sun. The most consider*
able town is Fonchiale, which is fortified with a castle, and
battery of cannon. The inhabitants of this place are the de-
scendants of English and French Roman Catholics, and na-
tive Portuguese. The clergy are exceedingly rich i and the
essentials of religion are very little observed.

JI10 RAMSAY'S UNIVEBSAL HISTOEY.

PonTo Santo, the other Madeira island, lies opposite
to the kingdom of Morocco, and, though extremely fer-
ule and productive, is only about ten miles in circumfer-
ence. The Portuguese fleet, on a voyage of discoveries to
the coast of Africa, in 1412, being surprised by a storm^
were driven upon this island, which, on account of the pro*
tection it afForded them, they denominated Porto Santo, or
the Holy Port. The East India ships generally touch here
to procure water and fresh provisions, as there are several
large and commodious harbours in which they may ride se-
(jure. We must not forget to mention that the islands of
Madeira are wholly exempted from venomous animals ; and
diat if any noxious or poisonous reptiles be introduced,
they will immediately die. The air likewise is extremely
salubrious, and is often recommended for pulmonic com-
plaints.

Azores. It has never yet been determined whether the
Azores are to be reckoned among the number .of the Afri-
can, American, or European islands ; as they are situated
at nearly an equal distance from those several parts of the
world: they lie in the Atlantic ocean, between twenty-five
and* thirty-two degrees of west longitude, and between
thirty-seven and forty degrees of north latitude. They were
first discovered by a merchant of Bruges, in Flanders ;
who, sailing to Lisbon, was accidentally driven upon them
by a storm, and gave them the appellation of the Flemish
islands. Boasting, however, of his discoveries, on his ar-
rival at Lisbon, the Portuguese immediately sent a fleet of
ships to take possession of them ; and great numbers of
hawks and falcons having been observed in their approach
to these islands, they received the name which they have at
present, though they are sometimes called the Western
Islands. The sky here is clear and serene, and the air tem-
perate and salubrious ; but violent earthquakes, and inunda-
tions of the sea, are frequent ; and, from both these causes,
the inhabitants suffer considerably. They abound, how-
ever, with com, wine, and a variety of fruits, cattle, fish,
and fowl.

-^lt:^ifcnBL^'iiie ltii^;eftrdf dw Jfalgres; is Afliost 'oop

ra in ciii mhIi renci^aiKt cbiKdiills oife dtjr, fii^
1^ tir0D;i^'^MPO'*idVmiMf wd' upMfiraft off fiftj^ vidQSMtim

ries on a cqimdfiruMff €QaAerci&'hi^«iiMrn/wiiie, ^uitf eofdfe,
.(bi two pHndJiidl ■ higlictos are MltoBrigncA^ ftdff:¥l9l
i%»aa»i#wTliiftiMf iiuiicure «iid^i1iwi|ghiuiii ftytyfeagrfgy -

faroad, IS amsfliiialed bjr' a sttinag aiif li aUiiU^iAiA ft Bi y <tf
4^jkfiliouttt8i!bia^ kijaii^a niaiiiiexi|^9it*RciiliBi xaMttii^'Mr
fiMtiificirimis, are requiaite fer hs'defciice. The uiteriar
jfgft nf 4he island is finrtile, popuhraa, and weH ^^dtfrated^
and supplies all the. necessaries and canvenienees of life iH
-great abimdfenca. Wha»cMe% nMrita^oiir atertattooB, is die
<Hahiiahifcent o# a p6^celaii»^inanufactiiraf in whtak <dmuai
ware Is hapf^ imitated, and wliidi atfasAntrf a lhtrftiu eh>>
pal article' of- commevoe in fliis isbwl:' Ptirkr ii^itft.aitidF
ia«ni. StMaiy IS «WTonsded by k lampeatiioni aea ; MA
«tclautf,* idKchx»vers the sumikite of ilie"M|^eat taaaJtBoik
an ibis isliind; announces ike aj^roadi' of a starm: "WheA
thi^jpracvssir aaf f<:yret6llbr of ilie tr^nfwrtt a^peferte,4i^aart ef
mannunag noise is Jieavd .in Ac air, the taMie Mtmnuadf
'land terrified, and the bards wtira to some -piacef hlt^
«ttMiaU Soon Ifter, theada becomes agitated, and sU|lii
immetBatety abandon this dangerous coast^ tf^ thejr ttedl|l^
airoid betngi dashed to pieces.

\ . TsacjouL, which is thirtaanrmile&bsag and siarbreiail,haS
•aispafinDuScaad colmiisodioaa luf^nf for wfaidb twaaoii it is die
mosSrtmptetanaiiind valnaUe,bfi«t^J^soM. «fhUM^
ia of a: circular form, and^ts strdh| ^ -^a<ilnile tf'mft bf^mii^
iteeandart. 3^paoitoaea«lueaa^aiidriiii«^
4pr catftk^^fSaHl Z'ffi$9it^viMtf^VMu90it^><rt!9iii^^

tbose^fruita'commc* to tr^'^*'^'**'^!*^*^* ■**'*'''
Angra^wkicftis tfcef«MisipoiB^lfTMctem^
Azorcai lit JUi il shtiiii ^f «iifc:gow^»i»H'te* <* ^e df *
bishaipf^iylaais the aaftHBm siiil Ae dependant of the pa*
triarcii of Lisbon. Tins capslsl is strong and popidous, and
contains sewsral spaoioas straatSy a cathedral^ five phurches,

VOL. IX. [2a]

g4S BABCSArS UMVBMAL BISTORT.

an ho«pUil» and etg^t cewretits. Tfafe Bnail tmd Emat In-
4iM fleets genertlly t»uoh at tikis iahmd fbr rtfiredMnmt*

The bland of Geaciosa, wkish^ it is saad« derived its
ttune from ike remwrksble krtiHty of the soil, U.alKMit tai
auks long and sei^vn broad, and oontains two to«ms, d«s
^nc]|Md of whi<^h, is Santa Cruz, seated on a hay of die
sea whidi forms a commodious harbour, caUed Caheta, and
jdefended by a fort and battery.

. The island of St. GEonoi is chiefly distiaguisbedSar its
lofty and valuable cedars, with which the natives cirry im
a considerable trade. It is in some parts rocky nnd moiwi^
.tainoas ; but in others, well cultivated and populous; and
conttuns diree towns and four villages. The capital is dor
ttominated ViMa de Velaa, and is a soudl and inconsider-
able place, wiikoidy one church and one convent, but poe*
sesses the advantage of a port.

The island of Pico, db^tined its name from a lofty moun-
tain, terminating, like durt of Teneriflfe, in a peak, and said
by some authors to be neariy equal to it in height. This is*
land may be seen at a great distance, and is sixteen miks
in length and five in breadth. Its productions are neaady
4ie same as those of all the Azores. The principal port is
at ViHa des L|igens, from whence the natives carry on a
considerable trade with wines, and various kinds of wood,
particidarly cedar.

The island of Fatal, which is nine miles in length and
three in breadth, derived its name from the great quantity
of beech-trees with which it was covered. The principal
place in this island is Villa de Horta, which has a harboor
•defended by a castle and batteries. In the reign of queen
Elizabeth, the English, imder the command of the earls of
Cumberland and Essex, took and burned a squadron of ships
richly laden, which was in the harbour, made themselves
masters of this island, and destroyed its fortifications.

The island of FLOREB,is tolerably large, and its capital is
called Santa Cruz. It abounds with wood, com, pasturage
and other necessary and useful productions. The inhabi-
tants live to a great age i and the island is populous.

ASORBS.

'CoR^o, the last of the Azores, lies opposite to Flores,
and derived its same from tlie great muaiber of crows, with
which it abounded when first discovered. The whole cir-
eifinference of ihe island is not more tlian three leagues,
and the cOMt, except two insignificant harbours^ which can
deceive only vessels of small size, is every where surround-
ed by a chiun of rocks.

. The Azores, like the Madeiras, aro wholly exempted
from poisonous or obnoxious animals, and when any of
these creatures happen to be imported, the air immediately
destroys them. The king of Portugal claims and receives
^e tsntb of all the productions of these islands, and the
single art)cle of tobacco raises a considerable revenue*
.Wines, .however, are the chief produce of the Azores, and
twenty thoosand pipes, ior upwmrds are annually exp<Hted.

1^44 BA118AV8 nmRBnu.'mmMnr.

nd|pM««|ttfa^r«WlMn«flrfgiii. But,bariJ ihwrnMufcdii nit

of 4iCber Iftadfl, or found quite uni — miWJ a nd xilfciy ^ m
die- nm^ T^nat&^and, wnfciimiimiil «^e»<^ 'llie Mean.
I^wka j ^ < »a rft]ie'tmwta»g^ oflfeta

1^ descvif«i«/i« Ae jblaiid of St.^lM^
tratA ^gr<e of Mftilhvfettitiide, a^d aa|^ ot-^kft^^mtdt,
nMt of. I^Mdoii, neiir tk^r cawtre of « iraat'HiimMi niJii'ii
tbere ana ao irthw iMb^ iMMiiir que Aouaand ^adln,^^^
iD4VPM0 iBC: iMdifjr the cMHe -tf aia aea^oa*.

gr^Ktest breadth betweaft aia*aiid soimbiw - 'Eha-hiflb nearaat
ilie sea areimn «i|iiMD fouvtae^hmdaaMoat in haij^t.
TIlaBt vtlma mmwmh%fjhm^i aadf Dian'a^^dc, tha«att
ekvated. fttPt^oMha ridg|i» MAitck rams from aadtfl-veafrtar
north^^awtt is :gjgjjyiiae|djri3tj^
la^abore jha4 aae li# f Sb^oaiaii.^ Pram & baaeof dria
eanttaT n<ife tha auiniiiidia^ dape^and daacead to-
mcdft the sea.

ThaJnghantaiaiiaiHi win! thairdMlmtka, wMi everp tiu
de .tatMM»4lMk. jtfia out from ihahr abdas, «a>irA'«»tiie ia^
t^aaadfa^a holla««t are covered with the laost bcrariam
W9«Mioo^^rhElatfaei6i«aer hHboibtfia coast, aatttoat of
dto^JBapii iha^Iir Ifcttaan thaga, aadnotoaty
baoren, hat have aa.aapact.of vudeattsa aad daiisiaiian^

Tile {MMaMiaft of dwa iin|aaaiaaia§ apat^ ahiah
bnaTenaawLao far fnaa airife aad cettndoa» liaa beeiii
n^Mthalasa, tfupaiad fajc dita naiiwiaa oC Caaape, m h

* Oaa qf1fc»higiiat<-^tfliati» b^ars the nane of the celebnted HhMef,
w<iafiaedfatetri>Bayr4»t>'daaapaiyfc t1i»y»ptia-qf ^imuuhiffhe su t t

I l|H^ I 111 •

ST.

1M»

iabotmdti "wUk OK^em water, «A)rds a oonvettieBt place cC
wrftethniani u ldM»i and nqqir^ iQ>|faricrQf?wtry be c<mvei|^
ed into m military atatton cS^gn^ Uftnuffh and inaportanrf
hMHraiifiiali OlaiiuiaJ* ii}r'4a»'9IgMtg«efle, in l5iD6 1 lAo,
■NHigianjwBn'itHHa'tM'tweBcj'iiiMi in* MajiytiHs^nwff«i*iS&
MaiM^gM^kdiewMae^iriBidk^iiatsBrBtaifts. TbeEjttglMh
■ii<li» tfiiliilMmH ottit-ih IMOj awhitt l«7d, iImi Btttck
4»hy — t ^iaei It w«a tvtalcev Ae Mlowing yeaf , aald

itt the fOBwtnAm c^tke Eng^kli

. The Mstoiy ol^facg imy —J cokiatttion, is tM> often
A^ h i aaa i'} ' > lifr la j mi c te -aadr o y ii l it a aiua df* ecnmtries ittP*
vaded; iMmae tiMy iviA« ridi aiidtvalaaUe I aadof tke ri»*
10bFy«<ir ••tB#n»iiaallioii' of dieir iskaibitaiita, because they
wmm mt^t^ Happily Ihu ' a t tlle ntaat^ tMft bairea iriand
lias afcfdedao oppottmiity'of iaeremaiiig the um fc %u e of
Crimea coimhimad' hy. die diaco9ci«ra of' new mgioaft. it
Wtta lMifdlpMi8«t any hiwan iahahitafleav widioutquadnN
pad>i andalnwat widicwt biads*

nait ^^iMtlaim hMbeen <he*8Mt of volcMie flvaa, Wit
hM%«he fweatMMd^.ny one iriio'aamiMite*ilMi aaate*
aialii of w^ch ir la-aamposcd. -Vor^ toaa^Maattdag of thr
laameoae {nroitwioii of aeorified; eawMttas Hghtf spongy^
vilniod ataiHa, ^^ch ew oi y n i i e i » c HWiFer ttr surface,
las ^at hada of ihe aavat won^mmvu^ cemoattd to-
gedier with lava, which pesetratte ks'wlMle stdnitaaiaf ; evem

aaoat^cQiBptfet maasiMa -hfttr et^dcnt ves^

-iro.* The* Mmmita aad baaea ofAeiittaildc aoclr
re «vleaa acolifiad, eeHidar, aodltaaeyi^

.r «ni aavetal of-tham bf ««|aohy, bldak talhtst^ 9i
if froHMhe ellocta of recenritipitieA. A great pan oiJF die
mataratfawhidi campoar Bt. GMou^muathaive Aawedfroi*'
dtt^t9dfitsd<vaaer of a vcAaaao; Matty appeamaacea reader
itprobafale, dmt ita^braaalkm'lMa taieairpbaie at « vory m^
moAlHpiriQd } aad^ dmt Ihe canaea,' to wMtdi it oweaiH {iec«a
Itai^satmctin9e<navl eleviitioii above die waves/ have^Hfw
mfta^l^at^,- caaaed . to exei:t their agracy. The seaabn i£'
remMfettaat^tAUky aeems? here to hawe:

f lg BAMAim mnfvraMi. mtnoBY.

period Df ooBMbim ; flndAe atMMaMiiof MtaohriMi^
ttid tfobtcrrancaii expllOiiot^ has i>ec«me llie ttMcmoAtim!*^
perate tbode of plant* aad «ilnial«»

The climate of St. Helena is puM mui Mklri^ua^ and
die temperature very iBodetate, tot an idaiai tieaaied
Widiin ^e torrid zone. As its surfiMce consists tlisiAf of
rock, unsheltered by wood, whidi Is exposed tirice m die
jrear to die peipendioblar ra;f«of the sun, and parched wiiii
long cdbtinued drouglM, we might suppose it sufafeet togreat
heat : yet this never rises to excess, andtbe island ie entirely
exempted from all diose severe agitations of nature, whidi
tMxasionally afiict and deadate odiav tropical countries.

From its great ^vatton, and vtriety of surfiK:e, there is
a diversity of climate at difievent heights ; but die whole
mnge of the diermometer is firom f fly-two^ to eighty-feur,
of Fahrenheit.

Within thescf limits of temperature, the hilb and vdlles
of St. Helena are preserved 1^ die influence cf die soudi-
east trade wind, which continually blows over die island ;
imd, except for a short period, when die sun is ^erdcal,
passes widi a steady and uniform current, overspreading
die heights with si light vapour, and modenadng the ttetecfv*
ed heat of die adjacent vaUies.

St. Helena being of an extent too inconaideraUe to than|^
or modify die general course of die wtedier, whlehpredoMi*
nates in these latitudes, enjoys a setded serenity of dimMe,
an exemption from storms, and ai^egular revohitieo-of eei^
eons. The priiicipal inconvenience of this fine olimate ariaes
from a want of rain, which proves a great obstruction to
die improvement of die soil. At some perioda die drouf^
is so excessive as to destroy die cattle, kill the trees, and
entirely wither every appearance of vegetation, fiain has
sometimes not fallen lor the spacexif diree years. It is nih
tural to suppose, that a mountainotts roek,ri«iDgottt of tlie
waters to die height of r^ear tm^o diottsand seveas bimdre d
'feet,^ would become the centre of attraction to Ae dotids,
which settiing and condensing round its summit, would dis-
charge themselves in frequent showers wd stonM« The

§m^ hm mv n^ U isAnwaH^* 8l. Helma presents thei «ttif
gular ^MSttVMium of a jwid gmhowwiied in th^ qcqm, «ii4
jnftt sufferiBg as aeverelgr from cUnmg^t as if h 1^ in the
Wddk of a saodf desert*

No cottatryui the worU«aa:axQeed&. Heleslafm the sa^
Itibntgr of 4ts cliBiaia* Atmo^ed from the estrones of heal
aod-cold, esBesapted from all sUddm ohaages of temperatuvc^
mid.freod fi«>m Ait ioconvemenee of an exoeMtvely humid^
or an ioMaodieraldf dry afmo^ihrnrOf it may easily he supf
poaed that suab. a aitaatioii mutt be £E»roiuabte to healtk
mid longevity. We aceordtngly ind that ^e natives, im
gencnd^arrivie at a good dd ago, and what is of stiU mona
GonsoqaeAee, that thay esoi^ from moat of those diseases
whkk QfifMsfiss dm itdmbitaats of kss temfxerate and mova
vaiaabk cUmatas* The sicfcly crews of ships that touch
here, very shortly recover, S2id many of the invalida who
mre discluirged from the different vegiments of India, and
sent home as incurable or unfit for service^ recover so fail
during- tfieir stsjr ait St. Hekna, that tliey again enUist and
oontiaiiie tx> eayoygood healthy. Hare ib» ships' crews rug
m» risk by aioepiag onabote^ or by any unguarded ezposun^
to the night air, .and the vessels tbemselvas are never UaUa
to sudbr from storms or horricanaa* There are few placea
indeed^ which mttfee so many advanmges as diis volcanic
rock, whose rude and naked aspect seems to promise so
liada* Its fi ^ao dom from noxio«is danqis and vapours can-
not ha ascribed to the nakedness of its surface. These e£-
fects, more probably arise from the constant prevalence of
dm trade-wind^, blowing over a vride tract of sea, wiiere
there ame no neighbonrtng lands to disturb or.intemtpt its

Though this climate is, in gmwral, very dry*, assd hardly
c^er refreshed wkh a soiiciency of rmn, it is, however, at
pardddar seasons very damp^ and the evenii^ and monip
ittgs are frequency raw and chilly^ From malignant or
conmgions' fevers, and from many^ of the severest diseasea
ofodier countries, die inhabitants are wholly exempted.
The smatt^poz-hasyhidterto^jsotiamidits wayao St* fib*

■n

^19 MlMKPt'VMliaMf. MMmV.

I«M. ItisalsoasifigatiirtetftlHittliedoghflB'ii^^
Mfecled with the h jr i l i' i nJImh i i ^Jn thh hig My i farouie d tile*

When St. U«|eM ims ^fiMC .diacovcrtd,' scjmil «iknib0
and plants were ibond grof9BBg'OA4«---6iime-o£..ii4ik^
said to be of anew asdpeciiliarciimoter. Ctttiaff lirvttilit
fnain UuMi> by a ^rnxX extettt of ^oeeaa, we caaiio4»«aaiif eiM^
ceive whence tbU iahmd xxHiht^ Atriw JWfe ^a edfc of P tg aw u
Ueft, after H became fit to recehne and niMiiflh tlien* vfivn.
ingp the period gfits-cambuflthm, it CMld^novlie'^^ ibdde;
ei^er of plants, or of^aniaak, and it will •pot beauppooe^t

diat any latent ^poti' tA fife could be \ ■ i i il llinji'ni^

among materials^lmch ftcvred franul»'CMtert of ^^(tanoaifc

Of indtgenonr ifambs aand treea,«<iMDe of which vt adt
to be peculiar to this isIaad,«ihKi«.Jureoaty^'i4MiVI'nibMr
ten diiferent ^peciea. One of the mosi cufiona, is-calM by
^ inhabitants, the Tree Fem^ It ^rows to llie:faeigfat dl
twenty or twenty-five ^Mt, and hears 4t very elnee retem*' >
Uance to- the fern. *

The apple tree, is said to. yield .fmit twipe a year* The
nppks are i^ery fine, and ^oniA^of thean nuceaintoBlydlWfBk-
The peadft used tobc the aaost ahuikdantt fruitaii the irimiit
but there are few of these, now. Teinainin§L«^Thi8 vnhflMt
fruit, which was introdueed. nutty, years-^go,. ihnnre and
imiltiplied amazingly, in aln^ost eytfty aitaatif^ny a<kt pr« i ^
fpttbg iitelf Uke aaindigenaus pbmt4*hiutin^the..lasrhalf of
'die- eighteenth centi^,*att«ipflated intioc deaimyialjstmoit^
^1 the trees, and no nuaas« have jajhurtu becmtjjMifliiifr
-checking its tallages. r^ v

We :are unaeqiUHiited wtdt-the preciaern n a sher efdiiipp
bttants in ft. Helena;.. 'Bmy4HKiimBgUxcah:«h»tpA«-^Nr
years sinee at about taro duanand, of wfaMs^fiy^ h andled
were sbMiegava«ld^x JMu w hjL d^Macfcs* tMost-fimltes h^g^
ODuntry Beats,in ^idH|ib.tlieyi9anaMlI}iti«aide Iran Octtiher
till April or May, whjj^iarttiifBic.sotamer;^^
ing Aa^ period, JameyV VaUey i%dawir|iarli b <|^eae ro»
•mantic and aidubmus abodes, diey enjoy die solaces of
domestic Kfe^ and die happiness of rearing large and pro*
mising fawiliiH. Females are ftolific, iheiKJafaoars easy.

nuunx OF sr. heixna. 910

aad theur . o^^priog he^ltliM- But, it deserves particular
iiptice, that the number of females bom here, is said to ex*
cced that of males. • .

The interior resources of the island, as far as they re-
gard the means of subsistence, are but scanty and limited.
There is no bread com, and the grounds seem not at all
adapted to the culture of farinaceous grains. A little bar-
ley, indeed^ has been raised, and it grows well, but it is de-
stroyed by rats which abound here. Caterpillars are also
very numerous, and with the insect that attacks the peachy
are the greatest pests which the inhabitants have to contend
with in their gardening and agricultiu-e. The rats are sup-
posed to have been brought in ships, and the peach insect^
and caterpillars, seem to have been imported on some exo-
tic plants* But in whatever way they have been brought
thither, they have multiplied amazingly to the great an-
noyanee of the inhabitants, and the detriment and obstruc-
tion of agriculture. The best and most plentiful article is
beef, which is very fat, juicy, and, delicious.

VOL. :ix. [29]

jiMl RAMSAY'S UNITEBSAL HIStORT.

• AMEBIC A.

Thb C6ttti|i#iit of Aneiicft, extends irtM* Mvenly-tiio
degrees north, to t%>four degrees south laithiide, coaij^^s*
-tag an extent of seven thousand five hundred and sixty
^eograpkieal mites. The greatest breadth of North Aiiie-
vka, may he computed at lANMXt tfiree thousand nine hun-
#i«d, and that of South Amerka, at, en- about, two tkouaand
eight hundred and Sftjr geographieal miles.
' For the discovery of tlus new world, ^^^^^ ^* indebted
to Ae enterprising genivs'and scientific wws of Cbisti^
pher Gohm, more generally Icnown^by the name of Colum-
hus, a native of Genoa, who had conceived the hope of
reaching bdia, by sailing ^to tlie west. His adventurous
project, fmmded on die mistaken structure c^the maps ef
Aat age, nrfiioh represented tlve oriental countries of Asia,
as stretcliing vastly ferther to die east, dian aetuid obsei^
vation has found them to extend, was submitted to the
Genoese government hy dds bold and intrepid projector,
who represented the advantage that would accrue to his
country, from -die possession of a new route to the great
source of <^ulence. The Genoese, however, treated the
idea as absurd and chimerical. Disappointed in his first
attempt, he applied to foreign courts, to procure the means
of realising his plan. His next application was made to
Henry VII. of England, but the cautious politics of that
prince, deprived him of the honour he might otherwise have
acquired.

His next step was to a^ly to the court of Portugal,
which, in that age, gready encouraged the spirit of dis-
covery along the African coast ; but could entertain no
idea of so 'hold a design as that of Columbus. Spain was
now his only resource. He laid his scheme before the Spa-
nish court, and after eight years of tedious application, and
repeated disappointments, at last succeeded dirough die
interest of que/cn Isabella. Under her Uberal patronage,

tad ftt her frinM csp«a»e, In vet muI in ikm year 14M,
from the port of Paloe in Andehisia, with three email vea^
eele^ on die moet adveatvroue and importaft expedition
ever undertaken by man-*an expedition destined to ope«>
rale a total duage ia the poUlieal and commercial etats of
Europe and America^ but the glory of which was not reap
ed without difficulties and dangers^ and torts that would
have deterred less resolute navigators. His sailors at one
aime, despairing of success* and apprehending nothing less
than total destruction, broke out into open muuny, and
threatened to throw him overboard, unless he would im-
mediately consent to return to Europe. The firnmcss of
the commander, repressed the mutinous spirit of his orew*
and the discovery of land after a voyage of thirtydiree
days, extingoished every cause of discontent. The Balui»
ma islands were the first put of America, on which the
feet of Europeans were placed, but from the pover^ of the
inhabitants, it was soon discovered that they were still at a
distance from the opulent sh<wes of Itidia. The fertile islanA
of St» Domingo was next discovered ; and from some sam-
ples of gold that he received, Golumbua beg^ to entertain
brighter hopes. Here he left a few of his men to torn the
ground work of a colony,* and returned to Spain to ptfocure
the necessary reinforcements. On his arrival, he lmme»
diately proceeded from Seville to Barcelona, where ^
fiourt tl^n iesided. He travelled through the oonmiy
amidst the acclamations of the people, aad attended b)r
§ome of the inhabitants, with the gold, the arms, vtteneils,
and ornaments of the newly diseovered eounoaes. His en*
trance into Barcelona, was a triumph more (^orious than
dmee ot oonquerors. The glory and advantage, which pro*
mised to result from so unexpeeted a discovery, renderiMl
the court eager to forward his designe. A fleet of seven-
teen sail was immediately ei|uipped, and furnished with
every thing necessary for dieooviery or conquest. Seveml
persona of fartune, and rank, prepared to visit this new
field of enterprise. Columbus, bemg now appointed viee-
vey. of aU the conntries that he absiild discover, imme-

11^ RAMSAY'S UNIVOnAL HISTORT.

flttiled for HMpeniok. On kis atrivd^ he ttedtA
ferto br the protection of tiie new colony, and sailing from
isknd to island, vistsed the coasts of Cidia, and discovered
Jamaica.

The success of dds great man had at first excited adni-
cation, but by its continuance, admiraition vas changed ittt»
envy. His enemies at die court of Spun, put every engine
ef intrigue in motion against hisd. An ofie6r was sent to
act as a spy over his actions, and Columbus soon disco-/
vered the necessity of returning to Europe,, to defeat the
cabals of his enemies. This he found So be no easy task.
It was not without difliculty that he obtained leave to set
out on his third expedition, in which he discovered the con-
tinent of South America. Sailing soudi from Spain, as fiur
as the equator, he then directed his course to the west, and
steered widi the trade winds across the Atlantic* At the
end of seventeen days of a westerly course, land was dis-
covered, which proved to be die island <^ Trinidad. He
then sailed to die mouth of the great river Qroonoko, where
he was surprised by an aj^arance which he had never be-
fore' seen. Hiis was the tumultuous agitation of the wavea,r
occasioned by the conflict between the tides of the ocean>
and the rapid current of that immense river* Proceeding
a litde further, he found that he was in fresh water, and
deeming it impossible, that an island should contain so vast
n river, he ccmduded that he had discovered the continent.
After leaving the mouth of the Oroonoko, the continuance
of the land to the westward, confirmed the fisct. Satisfied
with this conviction, he returned to HispMii<da. This cour
tinent was supposed to be a part of Asia, and it was not till
long after the death of Columbus, that another vast ocean
was known to exist between India and die newly discovered
countries.

. The glory of C<dumbua, and the envy which that glory
escited, were now at their height. The grandees and conr«
tiers of Spain were sensible of the importance of die new
worid, and viewed, with an invidious eye, the honours and
eniphinients of an obscure Italian* As there is no difficulty

-A* -^

AlflHBCA. MW

ih findtiig grounds of accusation against those who are em*
ployied in die execwtfon of an extensive and complicated
phmi their intrigues were at last successful. Columbus was
superseded in his government*— treated as a traitor, and.
sent home in irons. He justified himsdlf, however, in spite
of his accusers, and was restored to the favour of the Spap'
aish court.

A sinrit of discovMy and adventure, was now umversrihf
excited. In 1499, Ojeda, who had accompanied Columbus
in his Beoond voy«ge, sailed nath a small squadron to die
new world ; but made very litde addition to die recent dis«-
coveries. One of the adventUi^rs in this expedition, more
fortunate dian the commander in chief, acquired a lasting
celebrity, bjr transferring his own name n> that extensive
portion of die globe which the adventurous spirit of Colum-
bus had first laid open. Hiis was Amerigo Vespucci, a
Florentine, a man of science, and a skilful navigator, who,
on his return, published die first description of the new dis*
coveries that had yet appeared. The year 1500 was distin*
guished by the important, although accidental discovery of
BnoBil, by Alvarez de Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, in
consequence of being driven too far to the westward, in his
voyage to die East Indies. In 15012, Columbus made his
fourth and last voyage, in which he discovered the harbour
c^ Porto Bello,and a considerable part ^ the continent. He
then returned to Europe, and died at Valladolid, in the year
1506, in the fif^-ninth year of his age ; leaving a name and
rftputadim as durable as the condnent he discovered.

During the first periods of discovery, the idea was sdfl
entertained, that America was a part of the continent of
Asia, and some time elapsed before the notion was ex*
ploded. In 1513, the Pacific ocean, being descried from the
mountains of the isthmus of Darien, by Vasco Nugnez dd
Baiboa, this chimera began to vanish, and was finally dis*
Spaced by succeeding discoveries. Hispaniola and Cuba
sdll continued the chief seats of the Spanish power in the
new world. From the first voyage of Columbus, twent3S»six
venrs had elapsed, befbce die existence of dife great empire*

BAMSArS CfMVflMAL HISTOBY.

of Mexico and Peni was known to the adventuro's o££u^
rope. The hrmer of die^e two extensive states was coBr
quered by Cortes, in 1521 ; the latter, by Pizarro, in 1540*

In North America, the progress of discovery was much
slower than in the southern half of the continent* So early^
however, as the year 149r, Giovanni Gaboto, a Venetian^
whose name has been anglicised into John Cabot, having
received a commission froan Henry VII. of England, to
trace out a shorter way to India, discovered the island
of Newfoundbndf and the coast of North America between
diat island and Florida. But this extensive tract of land«
forming a grand obstacle to the accomplishment of his de?
sign, he returned to England. No attempt was made for the
next eighty years, to improve these discoveries. About
three years afterwards, Corte de Real, a Portuguese cap-
tain, occupied in a similar search after a north-west pas*
.sage to India, fell in with the coast of Labrador. In 1^15,
Florida was discovered by the Spaniaids. Till 1534i
JFrance had taken no part ijn this new scene of adventure;
but in that year, Francis I. who could not long bverloojc
any scheme that afforded a prospect of glory for hinsr
self, or his kingdom, commissioned Verazano, a Venetian,
to sail on a voyage of discovery. This navigator explored
n great part of the coast of North America. The same m^r
narch, in 1534,/ sept out a fleet from St. Matoes, for the
purpose of establishing a settlement in North America*
Cartier, the commander of this expedition, discovered, on
St. Lawrence's day, the great gulf and river, to which he
gave the name of that saint. In the year following, he sailed
three hundred miles up that stream— -built a fort, and gave
to the country the name of New France^ This inkportaat
territory, which afterwards received the name of Canada^
was, by the fortune of arms, transferred, in 1763, to Great
Britain, and now constitutes the only seat of her power in
that quarter, whife* her own extensive dmninions have re*
jected her authority, and esubli^ed an: independent fede*
jral republic. Such are the xevolutioos of human, afiurs.

The capacicwa country of Florida^ aHhoufj^ diseovered.

AMRRICA.

lind not yet become the seM of any European 8etdement.
Extensive coasts and great depths of territory presented
^emselves in so constant a succession, that it was impos-
sible for colonization to keep pace wldi the rapidity and
extent of discovery. In 1539, Soto, a Spaniard, set out from
Cuba for the conquest of Florida. He advanced into the
continent as iar as the thirty-fifth degree of nordi latitude,
but died on the banks of the -Mississippi, during his expe-
dition. The French, about the year 1562, attempted to
form a setdement in Florida, but they were shordy after
. expelled ^y the Spaniards. The English, during this pe-
riod, had made various discoveries on the North American
coast, but had not attempted to make any settlement. Sir.
Humphrey Gilbert, in 15f 8, first obtained a patent for diis
purpose. In 1583, he took possession of the harbour of St.
John, but was lost on his return from the voyage. The
practicability of a north-west passage to India was a phan-
tom which still haunted the imagination of European adven-
turers. In the search after Ais chimera, Frobisher bad, in
the year 1576, <fiscovcred the straits that bear his name.
The circumnavigation of die globe by Drake, roused die
spirit of adventure in England ; and Raleigh, in 1583, ob-
tained a patent for forming a setdement. The situation,
however, was ill chosen, and the event proved unsuccessful.
At the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, at a period when Spaiii
had already established in America, an empire more exten-
sive than Alexander, or the Cesars, had ever possessed,
tflere was not one Englishman settled on diat vast conti-
nent. The first permanent setdement established by the
English, was at James Town, in Virginia, in 160T ; and from
this epoch, civilization went rapidly forward. At various
periods, several discoveries have been made towards the
north, especially by Davis, who, in 1575, explored the
itraits which bear his name ; and in 1607, and 1610, by
Hudson, who advanced along the coast of Greenland to
eighty or eighty-two degrees of latitude, and discovered
the iiarrow passage, and the inland sea called Hudson's

RABIBArS mmttSAL mSTOET.

Straits ud Bajr* la die eig^taendi centuiyy Cdok^. Vuicott-
Fer, and the Rustiaa navigatora, seem to have completed
the discovery of the western coast of America. Beanie, and
Mackenzie, have also penetrated by land to the latimdf of
seventy degrees, and e:(plared a part of what diqr regvded
as the coast of die arctic ocean.

NORTH AMERICA,

. £xtends to the vicinity of Panama. Its vast lakes, or in-
land seas, and extensive rivers, are worthy of particular
notice.

Hudson's Bay, one of the largest of these inland seas,
is abfOttt one thousand and fifty miles in length, and affords
a considerable whale and sturgeon fishery. The extensive
tract of country, on the southern side, belongs to the Hud-
son's Bay Company, and abounds in furs, which furnish an
important article of commerce. The shores are rocky ; and,
* except in the month of June, when the heat, thou|^ shorty
is violent, the climate is the reign of perpetual wintisr. The
regions to the north of Hudson's Bay, are a scene of geogra-
phical obscurity. Perpetual ice presents an insurmountable
barrier against discovery ; and a rigorous climate precludes
the possibility of colonization.

BRITISH AMERICA.

The British possessions, although in a disadvantageous
climate, and thinly pec^led, are «f considerable importance
in commerce. They consist of Canada, New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia, the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton,
and the Bermudas. The chief of these is Canada, now di-
vided into two provinces, the Upper and the Lower. Ca-
nada extends from the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
in. longitude sixty*four degrees, to about ninety-seven de*
grees, west ; and from forty-three degrees, to about forty-
nine degrees, north latitudJe : its lengthy from east to west.

AjflEBRTA* SflQT

being about oae thousand two hundred, and its breadth,
- from north to south, about three hundred and uxtjr geogra-
phical miles.

The soil is Tsorioas in this extensive territory ; but, in
^general, fertile, in Lower Canada it eonsists prineipally of a
blackish earth, of about a foot deep, on a bed of clay. The
island of Orleans, near Quebec, and the lands on the St
Lawrence, and other rirers, are romsskable for the richness
of dieir soxL The meadow grounds, or savannas, are, for
Ae most part, exceedingly fertile. The severity of the cli-
mate counterbalances Ae fertility of the soil. Though C»-
nada is situated in the temperate latitude of France, the
climate corresponds with that of the middle of Russia, or
even with diat of the parallel off sixty degrees in Sifieriow
The extremes of heat and cold are astonishing. Winter
reigns with such severity, from December to April, that
the largest rivers are frozen, and die snow generally Met
from four to six feet deep, during the whole of that season.
In January, the ccdd is so intense, that it is dlmgerous tobe
long out of doors ; as an imprudent exposure may occasion
the loss of a limb. Winter, however, is not without its ap*
propriate amusement, notwithstanding the ' intenseness of
the cold. Sleighs, drawn by one or two horses, aiFord an
easy and speedy conveyance in travelling; but, .on going
abroad, it is necessary to cover with furs all part& of the
body, except die eyes. During this rigorous season, die
air is serene and healthful. In May, die diaw comes sud-
denly^ and, vegetation is i|ptantaneous. The summisr heats
Are as oppressive, as llNflold of winter is piercing. Sep-
tember is, generally, oAe oTtiie most agreeable months.
Among its vegetable produetidns may be reckoned wheat,-
' Slid all kinds ol grain. There is also a i^iecies of indigen-
0(Bi% vine, whith ^produces a small- sour grape. Many oi
the culinary vegetables, and fruits of Europe, especially
gooseberries, raspberries, ^c. are met widi in Caoada ; and
scmie tobacco is cultivated for private use. The forests aA>
ford unmense qliaslSties of timber, of vffirious kihds : oalr,
elm, beech, pine, chesnut, walnut, sycamore, ash, &e. iThe

VOL. IX. f30]

RAMSAY'S UMITVMAL HISTORY.

maple. 6«e also abounds, and fiirmshes a useful tmpfpiy of
dttgar, for home consumption.

Quebec is the capital, not only of Canada, but of all Bri*
tish ^^merica. This city is situated on a lofty point of land^
at the confluence of the river St. Charles, with diat of St*
Lawrence. It consists of two towns, the uf^r and the lower i
the upper town seated on a rock of lime stone, is strong by
nature and art ; but the lower town is open to attack. The
monasteries are almost extinct, but here are three nunneries*
It is supposed to contain about fifteen thousand inhabitants*
The river St. Lawrence is five miles wide, a little below tint
town, which is nearly four hundred miles from du sea.
Its depth, corresponding with its breadth, affords a capa-
cious harbour, in which a fleet of one hundred sail of the
line may Ue just below the town.

The second city of Canada, is Montreal i a handsome
town, situated on the east side of an island, in the river St*
Lawrence. It contains about six thousand inhabitants*
While Canada belonged to the French, ^Montreal was a.
delightful spot, producing every thing that could contribute
to the conveniences of life ; but since it came into the pos-
session of the £nglish, it has suffered greatly by firea.
The town is well built, forming nearly a square, with regu-
lar .and handsome streets. Here are four convents, and six
churches, of which, four belong to Roman Cathcdics, and
the two others to the Protestants. Montreal is about one
hundred and sixty miles distant .from Quebec, and is the
utmost point to ^wiiich vessels ascend from the ocean. The
St. Lawrence, as far as this plad^^ from two to fourmiles
in breadth. Montreal carries on a very considerable trade
in furs, which are seat from Canada to England.

The town of Trois Rivieres, lies about half-way between
^^ebec and Mpntreal. It derives its name from three
rivers, which here join their streams, and fall into the St.
Lawrence. It is greatly resorted to l^ several nations of
Indians, feu: the purpose of trading with die inhabitants^
bringing various kinds of furs and skins, which they barter
for European commodities.

•

Prqoi Qittbec to Montreal, in sailing up the river St.
Lawrence, the traveller meets with a succession of beauti-
M landscapes, the banks being in many places, bold and
atieep, and shaded with lofty trees. The farms are pretty
elose idl the wny, and villas neatly built, appear at inter*
vals, but there are few towns or villages.

The French began in 1603, to fdrm setdements on the
voFth bank of the river St. Lawrence, and in 1608, built the
town of Quebec. They continued to extend their settle*
naents on that side of the river, till 1629, when the country
was reduced by the English ; but in 1631, it was restored
to France. The principal commerce carried on by the set-
tiers, was that of fiirs, which they purchased for a triile,
from the natives, and afterwards sold to great advantage in
the European markets. This trade, to which die colony
owed its prosperity, became at but so important, diat in
1743, the value of the peltry imported at Rochelle, from
Canada, was estimated at one hundred and twenty thousand
pounds sterling. Canada was a French colony, till 1763^
when it was ceded to England.

The religion (^ Canada, is die Roman Catholic, but the
British settlers follow their own modes of worship. The
munber of the Catholic clergy, is about one hundred and
tweaty-ux ; that of the clergymen of the church of Eng-
land, about twelve, including the bishop of Quebec.

The government may be properly denominated a vice
vcfydltf. By an act, passed in 1791, a legislative council
and an assembly are appointed for each of die two pro*
vinces. The leg^riative Jl^Kil consists of seven membera
for Upper, and fifteen for Lower Canada, summoned b^
the governor under the king's authority, and nominated
during life. The house of assembly is composed of fifty
members from die Lower, and sixteen from the Upper pro*
viace, chosen by the freeholders of the towns and districts*
These councils assemble at least once every year, and tha
house of assembly continues four years, except in case of
dissolution. The whole of British America, is superin*
tended by the governor general, who is also commander in

» . r

' 4

flQ RAMSArs mnvnuAL msroRir.

chief of die militaiy force, and eich pro^oce Inft aiteute-
nant governor, who possesses lA ^e powers requisite to W
diief maguftrate. By the constitiicioii of 1791, lA fands in
Upper Canada are hereafter to be granted in free toccage,
and the same provision is extended to Lower Cannda, af
the option of the grantee, but subject, nevertfaelestf, (o ai«
terations by an act of the legislature.

The legislative councils and die assembly, have power to
make laws with the consent of die governor, but the king"
may declare his dissent, at any dme widiin two years after
receiving a bill.

The only revenue arising to Great Britain from Canada,
seems to proceed from an advantageous commierse, which
is said to employ seven diousand tons of shipping. The
expenses of die government of diis province, which are
^i^ry considerable, are supposed to be more than counter*
bidanced by die advantages of its trade, which consists
chiefly in furs.

According to an actual enumeradon ordered by general
Haldimand in 1784, the population of die Upper and Lower
Canada, amounted to one hundred and diirteen thousand
and twelve, exclusive of ten dioUsand loy^sts, who had
i^red'into that province. From die natural increase and
emigration, die inhabitants of Canada may, at diis period,
be reasofiiably supposed to amount to about two hundred
diousand.

Canada has .no political importance or relations, but in
connexion widi Great Britain. If ever diat should be dis-
solved, it will probably be in(Jiq>orated into die federal
union. While it remained a French colony, it was a diom
in die side of die neighbouring English colonies. Diiring
die revolutionary war, it was equally a means of detriment
to the United States. In the former case, Indian fSsrocity
was wofked upon by French policy to the injury of the in-
habitants, and die destruction of the setdements of die ad-
jacent Protestant English colonies. In the latter, English
policy in like mantier prevuled on the Indians, to act in the
same cruel manner against die United States, who were re*

• «

ttt

iiaiiag tbe jOfiffKm9kiA mad violence of Great Btitain. Smce
tke petce of 1783, Caaadatuia crippled the financial ^ipera*
tions of the Unite A Statea, by adrnmiaterisig facilities to
amuggliiig on the long line of the adjoining borders of ihe
lakes, and for evading thetr municipal regulatioiM for em*
bargoes ; and in varions other particulars, has been an in-
convenient neig^ibour.

' The French is the generel language, and as the Casuu
diana derive their origin fron France^ their manners and
Customs are encbety French, and a consideraUe^portion of
die gaietjr and urbanity of that nation has descended to
diem from their ancestcMrs. The amne mi^ be said of their
nati^ial characler» But it is among the French of the sCi-
venteenth, nnd the first part of the eighteenth century,
rather dian those of the present day, that we must look for
the Canadian manners and character. In modem France^
manners, ideas and character, have imdergone a change, in
which Canada has had no share.

NOVA SCOTIA, INCLUDING NEW BRUNSWICK.

Nova Scotia, was, in the year 17M, divided into two go*
vemments, of which one is called New Brunswick^ and the
other retains its ancient appellation. We include Aem bodi
in die same description, as littk differenee is perceptible in
their physical or moral circumstances.

This country, situated between forty-three degrees, and
forty-nine degrees north latitude, and extending iriiewt throe
hundred and siauy miks in length, and dbout two himdrcd
and fifty in fasreaddi, is bounded on the north by the river
St. Lawrence ; on the east, by die Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and the Atlantic ocean ; on the south by die same oceans
and by Canada and New England on ^le west. Nova
Scotia is the easternmost, mid New Brunswick the westr
emmost province. The face of the ^country is neidier
flM^untainotts, nor quite level. There are several rivers,
among which, those of Annapolis and St. John, are the moat
ctmstderaUa, besides eome onlensive lakes. One of these

/
ijgjl ' BAM8AT*8 UmVIBtAL HISTORY.

m New Bnnidwick, is about Hdrty mtkBm leBgd^a]Hlldo^
IB breadth. The bay of Fuady, betireen the tw6 provmoes^
extends no less than one hundred and fifty miles wiAiii
kmd, and the ebb and flow of the tide is. from forty-live to
si3Ety feet. A great part of the country is covered widi
forests. The soil is, in general, thin and barren ; but on the
banks of the rivers, and in some other parts it is sufieiendy
fertile, producing large cropft of grass, hemp, and flax. The
climate is extremely disagieeable, as weU as unbealthyv
During a great part of the year, the atmosphere is clouded
with thick fogs, and in winter the cold is intense. The'
vegetable productions afford no great abundance nor varie^t
except in the article of timber. The soil and the dmate
are both un&vourable to the cultivation of grain, and the
inhabitants do not raise provisions sufficient for their ow«
consumption. The fisheries compensate, in some measure^ '
lor the sterility of the soil. The principal is that of cod, on
the Cape Sable coast. The chief town of Nova Scotia, is
Halifax, on the bay of Chebucto. It has a good harbour,
where a small squadron of ships of war commonly lie fov
the purpose of protecting the fishery. Halifax is supposed
to contain fifteen diousand inhabitants. The other towns
are of little importance.

Notwithstanding the forbidding aspect of Nova Sqotia, it
was here, that some of the first European setdements in
North America were formed. The first grant of lands in
dns province, was made by James I. to his secretary, ^sir
William Alexander, from whom it obtained the name of
Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. Since that time, it has fre-
quendy been transferred from one private proprietor to ano»
ther, and alternately possessed by the French and the £ng*
lish, until it was confirmed to the latter, in 1713, by Ae
peace of Utrecht. It was, however, in a great measiure, ne-
glected dll the year 1749, when about three thousand £uni-
lies, sent thither at the expense of government, built the
town of Hali&x, now the capital of Nova Scotia, and' the
centre of its trade.

The commerce of jk> unproductive a settlement, cannot

he vmty exteaMve } but it i» of coafliderabfe iaportance ta
Great Britain. The British exports to Nova Scotia consist
chiefly of linen and woollen cloths, fishing tackle, and rig*
gingfor ships. The imports from that country are timber,
and die produce of the fisheries. By the erection of saw
mills. Nova Scotia may aid in supplying the West India
islands with lumber, which, together with the produce of
the fisheries, must constitute an important commerce^equally
ben^cial to both.

ISLAND OF CAPE BRETON.

This island is separated from Nova Scotia by a strait of
only one mile in breadth. It is about one hundred miles
in leng^, and eighty in breadth. The country is cover-
ed wtdi numerous lakes and forests. After various ex-^
periments, the soil has been found totally unfit for agricul-
ture. ^Except in the hilly parts, the sur£eu:e of the ground
appears to have but little solidity, being every where co*
wered widi moss and water. The climate is excessively
ocdd, foggy, and unwholesome. This island has some mines
of coal; but, with the exception of timber, it can scarcely
boast of any vegetable productions. The zoology of Cape
Breton is not much richer than its botany. The scarcity of
pasture prevents the increase of catde ; and the wild ani*
mals are fiur from being numerous.

The island of Cape Breton was discovered by Ae French,
about the year 1500, and was then supposed to be a part of
dM continent. They did not, however, take possession of
it till tiie year 1713 ; when they erected Fort Dauphin. In
1720, XfOttisburg was built, and made the principal settle*
ment. • The island remiuned in the possession of the
French till 1 74a ; when it was captured, for the crown of
Great Britain, by a body of troops from New England. At
the peace of Aix4a»Chapelle, in 1746, this ishnd was re*
• stored to France ; but, in 1758, it was again reduced under
the dominion of Great Britain, and has ever since rraiained
in her pos^essipip^.

SAMSAT'a IQWHUAL HBTORT.

Hio ooBMMarcc of Cape BseKMi esaaivts. fiiniljr km tke
pmdiice of its faheriet. The poyAitkm of this iiihiBd» m
1745y was coiapiitod at four thooflSBd ; ait pmentt it » swp*'
posed net to exceed one thoBsand. Hie soil and chvnie
ase such^ aa raider it unfit far the rotidfgs of aaqr hot
fiahemieD.

The island of St. Johii^ at a small distaniaa book Ae.iaes-
tsm shore of Cape Bmaaii is about sixt^ nMlea itt length, hgr
thirty in breadth ; and said to be rich and ferlUe. . The aana*-
her of inhabitants is estimated at about five thousand*

NEWFOUNDLAND.

The disland of Newfoundland, extendiag from fasitp-
ttx dagpees, forty minutes, to fifty*one degrees, facty mi-
miAes, north latitude, is about duree hundxed geograpUedl
milos in its greasiest kngth, from north to aamih, and a b a t
tmo hundred and fifty in its greatest farsadA, 4-iwn> east a»
ivcst. Its farm is soneivhat triangular. The face of the
eoimanr, as fiu" aa it is known, is hilly^ and eoamsd wilh fa»
tests. It is watered by seveml rivers, and has* many large
and cqmaMMlious harbours* The scul, as far as it has been
asplored, is rocky and barren. The climate is exceedingly
disagreeable; the cold is severe, and of long continuance;
and in summer, the heat, though of short dumition, ia vio»
lent. The coasts are entirely subject to fogs, attended with
ahnoat continual atorms of snow and sleet* Widi the exoep-
ticm of a abort tame in summer, the sky is generadly €^m»-
east wid& thick clouds. The only ipaegetable production of
any importance 4s timber, of wfaioh there is great abmi»
dance. The creations of animated natore are, on #iis kt^
and, of aa little impmtance as those of the vegetable kfaig^
draii but, if die land be a scene oi sterilky, the sea dwt
irashes its shores is an inealiaustible source of wealth and
pl«n^« Ever since the first discovsry of its impertance, dm ^
cod fishery on die banks of Newfoundland has been an ell^
jact of industrious enterprise, and a mine of gold 4o the nn^
tiand that have engaged in die pursuit. Tha duel toima itt

Wtf w femik i d 4tfC'Pl>c«itia, St. Jdm, and Bottavista ; but
dMy Qf« liSlfe ittore thtft fishing stations. There are net
aMre diaa one ibidusaiid iiemiilies which remain during die
l^imer^easotn. '

NewlbiinAltid vas di8C6¥ered in 1497, b^ John and Se-
bastian Cabot ; but its fishery is not mentioned till tile year
1#17. Theso Vct ' rig aft y ^rftiiis island ha6 been claimed and
possessed dkematety by England and Prance : it was finally
eeded to England in tftS^ and the last treaty of peace con-
firmed to botii nations the right of fishing. The United
States of America, also enjoy this right, by the treaty of
peace in 1783.

The commerce of Newfoundland, consists entirely in its
fi a he r i etr; but itis^t great vidue both as a source of na-
ticmal -wealA, «id as a nurseiy of seamen. The fishery is
60mpated to 5aeld about tiiree hundred tiiousand -povmds
9tei^g, per aonum^ from tiie fish sohl in tile Catholic toun-
tries. Gveat Britain and Nortii America, annuflfiy employ
tiffee thousand sail of small craft in titis fishery, on board
9i which, and en shore to cure and pack the fish, are up*
wards of one hundred tiioiisand hands. Pirfieries, indeed,
are a branch of oommerce, of whieh the extent can be KiliitN
ed Goiy by the oansiunption, as the article is ineadiauatifle.

THE BERMUDAS, OR SOMMER ISLANDS,

Lie almost at an equal distance from Nova Scotia, and
dfes^ West Indies.' They are ibur in nuniber, the chief is
that oi St. George, in which is the capital town of tile sam6
name, oontahung about five hundred houses, buik of a soft
frperstone, and about three thousand inhabitants. The
iMuses are white as snow, and when beheld from an -elni*
nence^ exhibit a striking contrast with the greenness of tiie
tedars^ and die verdure of ^e pasture grounds and isl^
aads. Over this romantic •scenery, a perpetual spring pre*
vails, and these advantages are heightened by tiie salup
hrity of die climate. The Bemnidians are mostly sea Bar^
mg pec^le, and'faw of the men are long at home. These

VOL. IX. [31]

BAMBArS umaWML HI8T011Y.

i%Un4i^ 9rt, ia ^irtf'tm> degrees north. \Mitmhi ^mi
fl^lttekundred mUea dietant from South Cmtdiaa^ the
eet part of t|ie oomineiit of Ajnerice* Th^r weco irttdie^
covered in 1517, by John Bermudas, a Spaaiaisd ; but bmg
afterwards neglected, were again brought iatv» notice, by
the shipwreck of sir George Sommern in 1609. They are
extremely pcyukms. The island of St* George is a cob?
tinued vilhge. The goyemn^nt is conddctedby a go*
veraor, appointed by the crown, ;r comucU, and a gOMpail
assembly.

ABORIGINAL AMERICA.

, The extensiye.rei^oBs which stretch from the northetat
^d wessem borders, of Canada, to the shores of the Arctic^
^ad Pacific Oceans, may be denoapinat^d Abwiginal, aa
they are still possessed by the native tribes. They seep^
destined to be the last retreat, and secure asylum of th^
Aboriginal Americans ; the vigwous rlimattt and scapMy
vegetaticHi of .these countries offering no temptatioii to av9^
rice or ambitiop. A very sli^t sketch of these solitary re^
gifms is all that can possibly be given, and all indeed that
is requisite. We shall begin with the northern andeaetmmt
and proceed to the central para.

GREENLAND,

Which extsnds from uixty degrees, to seven^nix da-
g;rees, north latitude^ presents a most dreary aspect, eyhi:*
biting .scarcely any thing but a vast assemblaipe of rock%
ice, and snow. Of its topography, little is known, but it ap*
pears to contain mountain^ of a prodigious elevation^i^we
are told, that some of them may be seen at the distance of
fifity leagues. The famous ice blink, is one of the most
sublime appearances of nature. It is an as^niahing.con?
glories of ice, stretching across the mouth of an inlet of the
sea, and forming a range of mugnificent arches of twen^f^
fimr.miles in length,.and ebo»u two in breadth* The mcIma

AHRRICA. ' iggf^

<» e I kmi I t mrte m to forty yftridA in height. This immense*
muss of ice reflects a splendour, resembHng the aurora bo>^
lealis, which is discerned at the distance of many leagues/
The soil of Greenland, except in some small districts on thiier
western coasts, has never been e^mined, bnt whatever may
be its quality, a great part of the cbuntry being covered
wiA eternal frost and snow, all die powers of vegetation
are checked. The asost severe cold commences in Januarys
aad soon becooMs so piercing, that rocks are oisen splir
through' by the intenseness of the frost. The Danish mis^'
sionaries inform us, that the ice and hoar frost reached'
from the chimney, to the moudi of dwir stove, without bet-
ing thawed by the heat of the fire ; that the doors and walls
were pbssered over with frdst; that beds were froaten' to*
the bedsteads ; and linen to the drawers. From diecndofi
April, to die begimung of November, die inhabitants en*
camp in their tents, but it is not till June, diat the surface off
the ground is thawed, and the snows cease-falling. In sum^
mer it is occasionally very hbt. The fmty vegetables; aro'
various kinds of grass and herbs. No grmn can be pro*
duced. This dreary region is also destitute of forests. The
only trees dmt are found, are a few small junipers, birehes,
and wittows. Greenland ' supplies food for a few wild aai**
mals, as rein deer, white hares, foxes, and white bears;-
The neighbouring seas afford plenty of fish, and the sea fowl-
are numerous. The natives live by hunting, and fishing.
The flesh of these animals, supplies them with food, and
their skins with clodiing. The seals, in pmticular,.are va»
hiable for both these purposes. Mr. Crantz supposes, that
die population of this country may amount to sevtn theu«
sand, but his opinion can only be regarded to a vague con-
jecture. It is said, that the country is inhabited as far at:
seventy-six degrees, but this appears scarcely probable.:
The natives are of a short stature, with long bkck hatr,
small eyes, and flat faces; and greatly resemble the Lap*
landers and Samoieds of Europe. In hunting and fishings
and in the construction of their canoes, they discover great
ittfennity. They ttrtofalivcly and Gheerful.tempcr,stroo8l7

RAM SArs VIBVBMAL HISTORY.

flMneked ttf ikeir iunifies, their fmnds^ anft ihkir
tauimy* Some of them who hmve been hidiiapped^ and csr*
ried to Copeiluigeii, ooidd not, amidst Ae pkttures and
jiftnty (^iitt Danish cmpitBly forget their former attachments,
imr recottttle themsrives to their new Ktaaiiott. In regard
to roligioa^ the Greeidanders are said to beKeire in fim ex*
istenoc of oae Si^eme Beiag, and the inmorlalitjrof 'dMr
soul; and some aflhm, that tbejr hold die doctrine of inuw*-
migration. Bnt the refipons ideas of a people so barbae
ions, most be extremely obscure and canfased. .Their go-
i^enuneaty if mich thing can be said so exist among ^xm, is
aiq>posed to be of die patriarchal kind.

This reasote and inhospitable region, has given rise to n
circumstance, which may be considered as a phenomenon
in history and phjrsics. Greenland was, towards die end of
die eighth centmy, discoTered by die leelaaders. A co^
bmy was afterwards established in that country, and in pre^
oess of time, becanw populous and iouriihing. Chriadanity
was propagated among the colonists, by missionaries from
Norway and Iceland. They had many towns, churches,
and convents, with an episcopal see, die bishop being sirf^
fragan to the archbiflliop of Drontheim. Greenland, to*'
gather widi Iceland, being reduced under the dominion of^
Norway, became, by the union of that kingdom with Den*
mark, in 1307, an appendage of die Dantsh monarchy. A
constant intcrcmrse was carried on between Greenland
and Norway, undl the year 1400. At that period, the hist
bishop was sent over, and soon afterwards the colony was
totally lost By some means or odier, all communication •
between Denmark and Greenland was cut off, and the Da*
ntsh colony maak into oblivion. That a civilized colony,
sifeould thus suddenly disappear, after several centuries of
&red setdiement, and regidiir communicadon widi the pn*
rent countries, and while within less dian A week's sail of
Iceland, and sdH subject to Denmark, is perhaps, a circnm*
stance uiqparalleled in history. It appears, howeN'er, equidlf
astonishing that such a colony should have prospered dur-
ing so kmg a period of dme, in a country whidi now appears

a £M;t of unquestionable authenticity ; and during the losg
^paoe of 9t least five omt^vies, it was.well knova to the
£wopMn<werid.

Thia strange and abrupt ceMUioe of all trade aad iiMr»
course^ hm been attributed to various causes. It has, by
some, bee» supposedb^ ^t die colonists were extirpated fagr
tha aativea ; but there is no satkfiKtory evidencae to sup-;
poort ik^ conjecture. It has also been said, that an epideiai-7
cal disease swept away asoetof the Greenland m ercha ml a
auad seamen. But the most probable supposition is, thafta
vast quantity of ice from the Arctic ocean, having drifted
ott die coast in some severe winter,* had initereepled the
eo mmw ai f ari on bet we e n the land and Ae sea. This ccdoayv
baiag, in consequence, con^^tely imprisoned by the froaew
ocean, must have perished throu|^ want of supplies. That
tihia was the case is sosaethiag more than conjeeture. Vm-i
rious expedidona have, in successive reigas been despatch*
ed from ilenmark, ibr the express pai^pose q£ discovering
the reasatns of the ccdony, if any such existed. It was at
least expected that it might be ascertained, whether aayv
descendants of the Europeans yet reasained. All the vas*
eels, however, sent out Cor Aat purpose, have found ^
em shove toiwanls Iceland, where the principal coUmbW'
settled, totally inaccessible by reason of the vast accumu*
lation of ice. Accidents of nearly a similar nature, but of
shorter duration have occurred also in Iceland, where die
inueense quanttty of ice drifting oa the coast, bas> during a
long time, interrupted all cMuaunication with the sea, awl;
by preventiag supplies from abroad, caused HMmy of the lar-
habitants to perish by frmine. 'It is evident^ that since the
latter p^rt of the fourteenth century, a very great chaagt
has taken place in the northern regions, chiefly from the
eiwroathments of the Arctic ice. Ever since that periodf
the eaaiem coast of Greenland^ the seat <^ the ancient co*
lony, which was before without difficult, visited evevfy
summer, haa been found absolute inaccessible ; wlule a
laage oi impaasaMr aMauHMm oov<^4 wUh perpetual iee

f|0. RAMSAY'S UOOVMML HISTORY.

sad smMT, pMeliidss its pomhXIity of appitM«ii from tiie

The western cosst ef Greeftlsnd^ has been explitred b^
Davis, and other English navigators, bat Great Brftsm hm
never attempted to establish anjr cdlony in tUs nnprott^s*
lag region. In 1T31, the Greenknd Co^af^any at Bergen,
in Nanray, estaUished a colony on tfie western eoast, in
about simy-ilbur degrees north latitude. Tliese new coio*
aUts were aeeompaaied by Mr; Egede, a jrfons Norwegian
dergjrman. This gendeman remained manyjrears in Green*
' land. Being aetnaeed by an ardent cnrioslty, and at die
same time strongly impressed wMi an idea of die aielaa*
choly situation otAe Icelandic colony, if it still existed, he
anuie an attempt to reach the eastern district, by coasting'
aloi^ the soMhem shores, but fbutid it impra eti caM c to eAM€
his purpcwe. In 17M, his Danish majesty eansed horses^tcr
be transported to Greenland, in order to fiscililate the means'
e£ travelling over land, from the western to the eastern dis^'
trict, but the immense raonntiuns of ice and snow in Ae in-
tarior, rendered all access from this qnuter not4essdiAcQh
than from the ocean. The impossibility of reaching the
place where this famous colony was formerly seated, seeaKS'
now to be fidly proved, and its venerable relics loehed uff.
in eternal ice, will) in all probalnlcty, never be discovered.

NEW BRITAIN.

Mew Britain comprehends the countries of Li^rador,
New North Waks, and New South Wales, all lying conti-
guous to Hudson's Bay. Great Britain claims die sove-
reignty of those regions, and possesses some forts in them.
Notirithstanding diese, and some other scattered setde*
meats or factories, the whole extent of country may be con-
sitfered as belonging to the Aborigines, and probably no
attenipt will ever be made to subdue and coloniae the in-
terior.

The face of die country is varions ; that part calted La-
btadsf , is fidl of frightful mouataitts, many €# which are of

a ¥nfmi&»*hAfjkt. The soil firodiieeft' nodihig tnit moss j
or in some pUces a £ew blighted, and thinly scattered shmbtt^
TPbe flcrvmly of ibe €ttaiat» is eqiml to the harreimeBs of
the sou, and greatly resemUes that of Greeniaild. Bveti
ia the pandldi of ftfi^Hieveti, the cold is in winter exoessive.
The riyers are covered with ice, eight feet in thickness.
Bort wine, and eVen brandy freezes into a soUd mass-
Through the mtenseneas of tlie froet, the roeks ofieen flptit
with a tsnemendoos noise, eqnol to that of the heaviest artilp-'
]ery,a]id thrcrw out aplinters toan astonishing distance* In
JMay, die ioe begins to dUappear. The hot weadher com-i
mences about the middle of June, and the heat is sometimes
violent The thunder storms, though not frequentv^re tre-
mendous. In the winter season, the beauties of the firma«
asent, in some measure compensate for the horrid prospect
which the face of the country displays. Mock suns, and
hfldoes frequendy appear. The sun rises and sets with a*
large coabs of yeUowash light. The nig^t is enlivened by
die aurora borealis, which diffuses an endless variety of-
lights and colours, over the whole concave of the sky ; and
die stars shine with a fiery redness. But as this country*
esfctends from^ hby degrees, forty minutes, to sixty»thrce de-
grees north latitude, the climaie admits of some variety.
In the parallel of sixty degrees north, all vegetadon ceases. *
A late traveller, however, who, at different intervals, re-
sided a long time in those regions, thinks that the southern
parts mi^ht admit of some improvement. But, it must be
observed, this in^erfect sketch of Labrador is talden oidy
from the sea coast. The interior has never been, and, in att'
probability, never will be ex{dored. The animals of these
.frozen deserts, are white and blaek bears, wolves, beaver,
rein deer, and nCimerous animals of the fur kind. The bards
are those common to the arctic regions. The natives are
chiefly Esquimaux, apparently the same race, as the Green-
landers^ Md resem'bling the Samoieds and Laplanders.
Bot,^ in some of the mountainous parts, another race
exists that might aflbrd a curious subject of enquiry. They
live in wigwaasy «h: tents, covered with skins and the rind

IHH RAMSAY'S vxnwmmjju histost.

pf hink ttTMfl ; 1ileiri<lodbei|^: romxleert mki
kinds of wild Miimak. They resemble gypsie*^ witki
thing of the French festere, aad appear to be Hfiiitfwdwtn
of the French settlers in Canada^ as Aey adhe^ to the Bo-
man Cathobc form of worship, and resort to Cbiefaoc lor the
purpose of religion. What could induce Frenchmen to retire
into these dreary regions and habituate Ahemaelvea ta a sa-
vage lile^ we are at a loss to imagine. The most ptdbaUe
conjecture is, that they have originated from a mixed breed
of French and Canadian savages, who for some unknown
reason, have fixed their residence in this uninvitnig.coustry»

NEW NORTH AND SOUTH WALES.

» •

The countries commonly called New North mid S<mtfa
Wales, are less mountainous than Labrador, ob the eastern
aide. As fu* inland as the setdementa of the Hudson's Bay
Company, the country is flat. In some parts, howofsr, the
coasts, and the adjacent lands, are hig^ and rocky. SeYeral
parts of the flat country are moderately wooded with pinoa^
birch, willows, &c. In some places there is sufficient ground.
Cbr toleraUe pasture. The face of the country has not quite
the same aspect of unconquerable sterility as that of Lnbtmn
dor, but the climate is little less rigorous.

Hudson's Bay was first explored in '1610, by the miter-
jnising navigator whose name it boars. He ia said to have
penetrated as far as eighty degrees, thirty minutesi nordi
latitude : but the fact is doubtful. Subsequent attempts wmre
made at further discoveries ; and, in the month of Decem-
ber, 1770, Mr. Heame was employed, by the Hudson's Bay
Company, to undertake a journey over land, which seeoui
to have ascertained, in one point at least, the extent of
America towards the north. Thi^ gentleman proceeded,
over land with a company of Indians, as &r as the Cc|qper
Mine River, at which he arrived on the fourteendi of June^
1771 ; and following it all the way to the aea^ found it e^
cumbered, throughout all that part of its course^ with
shoals and falls. On the seventeenth of June, he cameras

AMERICA. J^^

he supposed, within view of the sea. Mr. Heame also vi-
sited die Copper Mines about thirty miles south-east from
the mouth of the river. The copper is found in lumps, and
the Indians beat it out by the help of fire and stones. The
Esquimaux, near the coast of what he conceived to be the
Arctic Ocean, are of a dirty copper colour, and of a shorter
stature than those more to the south. Their ketdes are
made of lapis ollaris, and their knives and hatchets of cop-
per. Mr. Heame finished his adventurous journey the thir-
tieth of June, 1772.

The Hudson's Bay Company, established in 1670, claims
an extensive territory, not less than one thousand three
hundred and fifty geographical miles in length, by an inde-
terminate breadth. This vast en^pire of ice and snow, can
be of Uttle value, in regard to its vegetable productions ;
and, in all probability, will never be colonized by Euro-
peans, or their descendants. It is of importance only on aci>
count of the trade in furs, and the fisheries on the coast of
Labrador. The Indians, by means of the rivers, which dis-
charge themselves into Hudson's Bay from the west, bring
their furs from far distant regions, and barter them at the
factories for all kinds of British manufactures. This trade
is extremely advantageous to Great Britain ; for, the arti-
cles taken by the Indians, in exchange for their furs, are all
of British fabric, and frequently such as, to use the mercan-
tile phrase, are drugs in the market, savages not being very
nice in their choice. The furs also, which are brought to.
England, furnish articles for an advantageous trade with
other nations.

CENTRAL PARTS OF NORTH AMERICA.

The central parts of North America were almost totally
unknown, before Mr. Heame performed his journey. Since
that time, the still more difficult and laborious expedition
of Mr. Mackenzie, has thrown some additional light on
their obscure geography. This adventurous traveller, in
his two journeys or voyages, for they were both performed
VOL. IX. [32]

SM RAMSArs UNIVCRSAL BISTORT.

mostly m canoes on the rivers, reached the Pacific, and ap-
parently also the Arctic Ocean. He commenced his first
voyage in June, 1789. Embarking in a canoe at Fort Che*-
piwian, he proceeded along the Slave river, till he reached
the Slave lake, in latitude sixty-two degrees, north; he
describes the Slave river as very considerable, and found
the lake covered with ice^ although in the month of June.
He then entered Ae river, now called by his name, and
proceeded to its mouth. Mr. Mackenzie's whole voyage
occupied the space pf one hundred and two days ; being
completed on the twelfth of September. On the tenth of
October, 19^, he began his second journey from Fort
Chepiwian, and proceeded up the Peace river or Unjiga,
in a south-west direction, till he reached the stoney moun-
tains. The canoe being with some difficulty transported
ov^r the heights, he and his companions embarked on a
small river, on the western side, which soon brought thein
into the Ouregan or Columbia. After proceeding a con"
siderable way on that great western river, Mr. Mackenzie
travelled over land to the Pacific Ocean, in fifty-two de-
grees, twenty minutes, north latitude. In some parts of
his route he passed over a beautiful and variegated coun-
try, consisting of hills and lawns, adorned with groves of
poplars, and enlivened with numerous herds of elks on the
uplands, and buffaloes on the plains. Beavers are common
in these countries, and the tracks of the moose deer are
Sometimes discovered. Some of the Indian tribes inhabit-
ing these regions, especially towards the north, were ob-
served to be of a low stature, with round faces, high cheek
bones, black hair and eyes, ajid their complexion of a
swarthy yellow. Towards the Pacific Ocean, the people are
fairer and taller. One man in particular, was not less than
six f^et four inches in height. Their eyes are not dark,
like those of the other Indians, but of a grey colour, with a
tinge of red. The dress of the men consists merely of a
robe made of the bark of the cedar tree, rendered as fine
as hemp, and sometimes adorned with borders of red and
yellow. To this robe the women add a short apron. They

AMERICA. MS

hav« cazioes, some of which are fortyfive 'feet in kngth.
These regions are watei:ed by several considerable rivers.
The principal of those that are known, are the Unjiga^
which is supposed to run a course of about one. thousand
seven hundred miles before it falls into the Arctic Ocean ;
the Saskashawin, which, rising on the eastern side of the
long range of mountains, passes through the great lake of
Winnepig, and after a course of not less than one thousand
miles, falls into Hudson's Bay ; and the Ouregan, or Co*
lumbia, which, after a course of about seven hundred miles
discharges itself into the Pacific Ocean* . These rivers^
however, are very imperfectly known in geography, and
ages may revolve before they acquire any historical or comr
mercial importance.

The countries here imperfectly sketched from scanty
materials, are the seats of various native and unconquered
tribes^ Their ]lopttlation, however, is very small* What we
have long been accustomed to call Indian nations, are only
clans, or fSunilies, of which the enumeration would be tedi*.
eus. The principal tribe is the Esquimaux, who a|q>ears to
extend over the whole northern extremity of America, from
Greenland to the northern Archipelago. To these might be
added, numerous tribes, both in the interior, and towards
the Pacific ocean, many of whom are totally unknown to
Europeans. Their manners and ideas are such as are natu-
ral to a savage state. Their wants being few, and their mtt«
tual dependance on one another but small, their union is
very imperfect, and their natural liberty almost unimpaired.
There is scarcely any subordination, either in their civil, or
domestic government. In most of the tribes the sachem, or
chief, is elective ; but a council of old men is chosen, whose
advice determines his conduct in all affairs of importance*
He neither possesses, nor claims any great authority* His
office is to propose, rather than command, and all obedi-
ence is voluntary* When a war is determined on, a chief
arises, and offers himself as their leader. Such as are wil-
ling to follow him, stand up and sing the war song* The
chief has scarcely aoy criminal jurisdiction. The punish-

JMiS BAMSArS mnVEBSAL HISTORY.

ment of offenders belongs entirely to the person or family
injured. Their resentments are excessive, and are neither
extinguished nor abated by the lapse of time, but are trans*
mitted from generation to generation, until an opportunity of
vengefllnceis found. Sometimes, however, the offended party
is satisfied by a compensation. In case of murder, this com-
monly consists of a captive taken in war, who, being substi*
tuted in the place of the person murdered, assumes his
name, and is adopted into his family. The American sa*
vages are distinguished by their unparalleled contempt of
pain and death y by the horrible torments which they inflict
on their captive enemies ; and the astonishing fortitude with
which tiiey suffer the same, when they fall to their lot.

Nothing, in the history of man, forms a stronger contrast
than the cruelty of these savages to their enemies, and their af*
fectionate regard for their friends. The latter is sufficiently
evinced in the lamentations with which they bewail the death .
of any member of their society ; but is still more strikingly de*
monstrated in the general feast of the dead, which is common-
ly celebrated every tenth, but in some tribes every eighth year.
At this pious and awful, but disgusting solemnity, all those
who have died during tiiis interval, are disinterred, being
sought up from all quarters, and brought to the general re-
ceptacle. A great feast is prepared to their honour; their
actions are commemorated ; every thing that can excite af-
fection is recalled to remembrance ; smd strang^-s, some-
times, come many hundreds of miles to join in the general
condolence. The solemnity concludes by depositing those
venerable remains in the place of general interment, in a
large pit, dug for that purpose. The whole is conducted with
the strongest demonstration of the most pungent sorrow,
and a striking display of savage magnificence. Each person
present takes from the pit a littie earth, which is preserved
as a precious relic ; and each one makes an offering to the
dead, of something that is esteemed most valuable. In re-
gard to religion, it appears that all the American tribes, be-
lieve in the existence of a Supreme Being, and of a future
state, in which those who have been courageous in war, or

AMEBICA. . i^

akilMl in huntiitg, will be rewarded with endless felicity;
This appears to constitute the sum of their faith ; th^rest
of their religious ideas are, as it may reasonably be sup*
posed, various, confused, and indeterminate.

The western coast, of North America has been explored,
first, by the Russians: and, successively, by Cook, Van-
couver, Meara, Dixon, La Pejn'ouse, and other able navi-
gators ; but Mackenzie has the merit of having first reached
the Pacific Ocean, by a progress from the east.

SPANISH DOMINIONS.

NORTH AHfiRICA.

The Spanish empire in North America may be consider-
ed as extending from seven degrees, thirty minutes, to
thirty-^ine degrees, thirty minutes, north latitude, reckon-
ing as far as that nation has any settlements. But the Spa-
miard^ lay claim to the whole north-west part of America,
which they include in the government of California.

The North American possessions of Spain consist of
three gran4 divisions. The principal of these is Mexico, or
New Spain. The others are New Mexico, and Flcnida.
New Mexico 'includes the interior country west of Louisi-
ana. Of each of these principal divisions, separate descrip-
tions will be given.

MEXICO, OR NEW SPAIN.

The face of the country is, in general, abrupt and moun-
tainous, but flat and low near the coasts. The mountains,
and many of the plains, are covered with thick forests.

The interior of Mexico* is afanost every where en-
cumbered with high mountains. That of Orizaba, is re-
garded as the highest in Mexico. It became volcanic in
A. D. 1545, and continued in that state till 1565 ; since
which time there has been no appearance of irruption. It
is of a conical form : the summit is covered with perpetual

IMS RAMSArS UNIVBR8AL HI8T0UY.

snow, and die sides are adorned with beautiful forests of
pineS) cedars^ and otKer valuable trees ; so that it forms a
magnificent object. The detached mountains, situated at
about the distance of thirty miles to the south-east of the
city of Mexico, are likewise volcanic, and perpetually co-
vered with snow. These mountains supply die capital, and
other places, to the distance of forty miles round, with snow
for cooling their liquors. The mountain of Juruyo, is a sin-
gular phenomenon. It was originally a small hill, which, in
1760, burst with furious volcanic shocks, and continued to
eject fire and burning stones till 1766, when it had formed
three high mountains, of which the circumference was not^
less than six miles.* Many other of the Mexican moun-
tains, are of a great elevation ; and no fewer than five of
them have, at diflferent times, been volcanic. That of Gua**
dmala raged furiously in 1773, during the tremendous earth-
quakes which destroyed that great city, and buried eight
diousand families under its ruins.

From the narrow dimensions of the country, extending
about six hundred miles in length, and not above one hun^
dred and fifty in medial breadth, between the two seas, the
rivers have only a short course, and are not of great im-
portance to inland navigation and commerce. Those of Pal-
mas, Panuco, Tabasco, and St. Juan, fall into the Gulf of
Mexico. The Guadalaxara is the largest of those that dis-
charge themselves into the Pacific Ocean.

In Mexico there are several lakes, which embellish the
country, and afford some convenience to inland commerce.
The largest of these is that of Nicaragua, which extends
about one himdred and seventy miles in length, from south-
east to north-west, by about half as much in medial breadth,
and has by the river of St. Juan, a grand outlet into the Gulf
of Mexico. By a canal from this lake to die Pacific Ocean,
it is probable that a complete passage between die two seas,
which has been die object of so many fruidess expeditions,
might be effected at no enormous expense, and in the most

* Clvn^not Hist of Me&oib TQl.i* p. 14,

AMERICA. M0

direct course Aat coald be desired But as almost tlie
whole trade of the Spaniards in those parts, centres in the
city of Mexico, such a communication might have an un»
fiivourable interference with the<lnterests of that capital ;
and this may probably concur with their colonial jealousy^
to prevent such an undertaking. The lake of Chapala, in
the nordi-west part of the province, is also of considerable
extent, being about sixty miles in length, by twenty in
breadth. There are several odier lakes of inferior dimen*
aions and importance.

The mineralogy of Mexico, is well known to be unusually
rich, having been famous from the period of its first disco*
very. The mountains abound with every kind of metal, and
an infinite variety of fossils. Gold is found in many parts
•f the country. The chief silver mines are said to be situ-
ated about two hundred miles to the north-west of Mexico.
But the Spanish writers (Swerve a mysterious silence, in re-
gard to the local situation, and other particulars relating to
tilieir mines. Mexico, being the centre of the Spanish
power and commerce in the new world, and less remote
from hostile neighbours than Peru, the national jealousy
seems to have been if possible greater an regard to this
country, than to the South American colonies. It is, there*
fore, extremely difficult to procure any authendc intelligence
concerning the actual state of Mexico, especially in what
relates to its mines. According to the statement of the
coinage given by Helm, from the official register of the
mints of Mexico, Lima, Potosi and St. Jago, in 1/90, it
' seems that die Mexican mines produce a greater abundance
of the precious metals, than those of South America. The
whole coinage amounted to twenty-eight million three hun-
dred and seventy-six thousand eight hundred and thirty-five
piastres, of which eighteen million, sixty-three thousand
six hundred and eighty-eight, were issued from the mint of
Mexico. The same author accounts for this striking differ*
ence by the following considerations. In the first place^
Mexico, he says greatly surpasses the other parts of Spanish
America, in population. Secondly, being much nearer to

IQ0O RAMSAY'S UMIVSHSAL HISTORY.

tiie parent country, it is better enabled to enforce obedience
to her laws and regulations, and to promote the speculations
of enterprising industry. Thirdly, this province possesses
great advantages over the others, in regard to royal and
private banks. And fourthly, mining speculations meet wkh
great encouragement from every commercial house in
Mexico. To these causes, and not to any natural advan-
tages, Mr. Helm ascribes the superior quantity, and pro*-
duce, from the Mexican mines, both of gold and silver,
which he esteems far less numerous and opulelit, than those
of Peru. Copper and tin are to be found in tiiis country,
and the ancient Mexicans are said to have used tiiem for
money. The mountains, also, produce jasper, marble, ala-
baster, and great quantities of loadstone.

The mineral waters are numerous, and of various quali-
ties — ^nitrous, sulphurous, vitriolic, aluminous, witii springs
of a petrifying nature, and others remarkable for tiieir ex-
traordinary heat. Few countries abound more in mineral
waters, but probably through want of proper investigation,
tiieir medicinal virtues are generally unknown.

The soil appears to be exceedingly fertile, except in the
most mountainous tracts, but the mountains themselves,
are clothed to a considerable height, witii verdant forests,
and interspersed with delightful vales.

Although the greatest part of Mexico, lies between tiie
tropics, the unequal surfeice of the country renders the cli-
mate exceedingly various. Moisture, however, seems in
general to predominate, tiiough not to such a degree as in
Terra Firma and Darien. The maritime parts of Mexico,
are exceedingly hot, and unhealthy ; the atmosphere being
so sultry and heavy, as to cause great perspiration, even in
the depth of winter ;* while the inland parts near the high
mountains, are so cold, as often to suffer from frosts in the
dog days. The rest of the interior, however, which is the
most populous, enjoys a mild and benign climate. From
April to September, the nuns, which generally fall every

* Clavig«ro» Histoty of Mexico, voL i. p. 11.

AMEHICA. jg5£

afitonMKm, are abundant. Violent storms of thunder and
lightning are also frequent, and earthquakes are ati addi-
tional circumstance of terror.

The productions of Mexico, favoured as it is by the fer-
tilitj of the soil, and the genial nature of the climate, are
abundant and various, almost beyond description. Besides
those which are common to the West Indies, and other
tropical coimtries, Mexico boasts of a great number of pe«
culiar indigenous productions, which enrich and adorn this
fertile and opulent region. Among these must be ranked
a variety of drugs used for dyeing and medicinal purposes.
The jali^ tree, with those which yield the balsams of Ca-
pivi and Tolu, are natives of this country. The shores of
the bays of Honduras and Campeachy, have been celebrat-
ed from the time of their first discovery, for their immense
forests of logwood, and mahogany ; and the neighbourhood
of Guatimala is distinguished for its indigo. The different
species of timber are numerous, and some of the trees are
said to be fifty feet in circumference. The trees which
adpm the forests, and the flowers which embellish the
meads and gardens of Mexico, would afford ample matter
for volumes of natural history'. In addition to the native
productions, a great variety of fruits and grains have been
introduced from Europe. Most of the European fruits,
attain to great perfection in Mexico ; and wheat, batley, -
beans, peas, and rice, are cultivated with success.

The zoology of Mexico comprises a numerous catalogue
of animals, which have been described by BuiFon, Pennant,
and othernaturalists. The chief of die ferocious kind is a
large species of panther, sometimes called the Ameri-
can tiger. The homed cattle, and odier domestic animals
of Europe, are in abundance* But of all classes of ani-
mated nature, the feathered tribe are particularly nume-
rous and curious. Swans, geese, ducks, and pelicans, are
seen in great numbers. Ducks, in particular, of which
there are said to be at least twenty difterent species, are so :
numerous, as to cover the fields;, and to appear, at a distance,
like flocks of sheep. It is said, that no less than two hun*

VOL. IX. [33]

jggS RAMSAY'S UNIVBB8AL mSTOEY.

dred specieB of birds are peculiar to thk country ; move
than seventy species of which afford a wholesome and
agreeable food ; while thirty-five are disUnguished for Uie
8uperla:tive beauty of dieii" plumage. The ornithology of
Mexico, indeed, presents an abundanee and variety, equaly
at least, to what is seen in any other part of the globe«
Among the numerous insects, the cochineal fly iacelebratedy
for its use in manufactures. The animal, vegetabk, and mi*
neral kingdoms of Mesico would affoird ankple materisda for
the pen of the philosopher.

Among the natural curiosities of this variegated i^oiuntry,
may be reckoned the volcanoes already described, as well
a2i many stupendous cascades. About one hundred miles
south-east from the capital, is the Ponte di Dios, or the
Bridge of God. This is a natural bridge, over the deep
river Aquetoyaque, which is used as a highway for coaches,
and all kinds of carriages. Among the romastlc cata-
racts, that of the river Guadalaxara, between the cifty of that
name, and the lake of Chapala, is reckoned die mo»t re-
markable.

Mexico, like other American countries, is of too recent
civilization, to exhibit any monuments of anti<|uity. But
the city of Mexico may be regarded as an artificial curio*
sity. It has always been represented as standing on an isl-
and, or rather an assemblage of islands, in the lake of that
name, and as accessible only by three causeways, across the
shallow vraters that separate it from the main land. Such
was the situation of the ancient capital of Montezuma i ami.
it is certain, that modem Mexico stands on the same
ground ; but a considerable part of the lake has been drain*
ed, by means of a canal cut through the mountains. Mexi-
co, therefore, is now seated, not on an island, but on. the
banks of the lake, in a fen, crossed by numerous canals*
The houses are all built on piles, as the ground, in many
places, gives way, and several edifices are observed to have
gradually sunk, some of them nkore than six feet, without
any visible alteration in the body of the building. The
streets are very wide^ perfectly straight, and, in general,.

AMERICA, ]|Bg

iMerMct one anofther at right angles. There are three
^^iiarea. They are tolerably regular, and each is oma-
mented with a fountain in the middle. On the north side
6f the city is the Alameda, or public promenade, which is '
a large square, with a rivulet running quite round it, and a
jet d'eau in the middle. Eight walks, having each two rows
of trees, terminate at this basin, in the form of a star. Fac-
ing the Alameda, and at the distance of only a few paces,
IS the Quemadero, the place ibr burning the Jews, and other
unhappy victims of the inquisition. The Quemadero is an
inclosure, €lled with ovens, into which are thrown, over
the walls, die poor wretches who are condenmed to be
biimt alive, by judges, professing a religion, of which the
first precept is charity.

The houses of Mexico are tolerably well built. The pa^
htce of the viceroy is a firm and substantial structure, con«
prising withili its circuity three handsome court-yards, each
of which has a Couatain in the middle. Behind this, is the
mint, a noUe building, where upwards of one hundred
workmen are constantly employed for the king, in coining
piastres.

The most sumptuous buildings are the churches, chapels,
and convents, many of which are splendidly ornamented.
The cathedral, especiaUy, is remarkable for its rich and
oosdy decorations. The railing round the high altar, is of
solid silver ; and there is also a silver lamp, so edacious,
diat it is said to be capable of receiving three men. This lamp
is adorned .with figures of lions' heada, and other ornaments
oifxm gold. The inside columns of the cathedral are hung
with rich crimson velvet, decorated with a broad gold
fringe. The profusion.of riches in the numerous churches of
Mexico is aatbnialiing. Gold and precious stones are la^
visited on the sacred vessels, and ornaments; and the
images of the Holy Virgin, and the saints, are Either of
massy silver, or covered with the most costly drapery.

The oitfr of Mexico is the abode of all the most opulent
merchants, and the centre of the commerce carried on widi
Europe, Mamtta, &e« by the ports of Vera Cruz, and Aca-

SM RAMSAY'S UNIVB^AAL HISTORY.

pulco. Its riches^ therefore, are uadoubledly immense* la
regard to its manners and customs, as all the great officers
and principal ecclesiastics are natives of l^[>ain, and the vice-
roys are sent every three years from the parent country, the
influx of Spaniards must naturally be supposed to direct
the national taste. The Creoles are, in every part of Ame-
rica, known to be more luxurious and effeminate than the
Europeans. The population of Mexico has been vartondy
estimated : but we are told by Dr. Robertson, that it amounts
at least to one hundred and fifty thousand, and it does not
appear that the number of the inhabitants has decreased.*

The vale of Mexico displays the most luxuriant fertility;
but the environs of the city must undoubtedly be unpleasant,
and the situation insalubrious. Except the Alameda al-
ready mentioned, there is no other walk in or near Mexico.
All the adjacent country is swampy ground, intersected by
numerous canals. The climate is not so scorching aa in se-
veral other parts of the torrid, or even of the temperate
2one. But the coolness of the air, arises from die humidity
of the ground and atmosphere. The e&cts, which so great
an abundance of moisture in a tropical climate, must have
on the human frame, may be easily imagined. These, in-
deed, are too frequently displayed in dreadful epidemical
diseases, amiong which, that called the black vomit, another
name for the yellow fever of the large cities of the United
States, is the scourge of Mexico. In 1736, and. the follow-
ing year, it swept away more than one-third of the inhabi-
tants of that city : and in 1761, and 1762, the same disease,
in conjunction with an epidemical small-pox, almost depo-'
pulated the whole country, and carried off at least twenty-
five thousand persons in the capital. It is somewhat singu-
lar, that this distemper always begins among the Indians,
who are natives of the country, and attacks them more fre-
quently than the Europeans.

New Spain contains several other cities of considerable
magnitude, but of which there is litde recent intelligence.

* HUtory of Amencs. voL ii. pi^ 497« note 73.

AMERICA. JNf9

PUebift de Iob Angelos is supposed to contain sixty thou-
sand^ and Guadalaxara, thirty thousand inhabitants. Gua-
timaki, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 1773^
when no fewer than eight thousand families perished, must
have been a very considerable city ; and New Guatimala
is already well inhabited. Indeed, the Spanish cities are
bar superior in population to those of the other European
nations in America. Vera Cruz, and Acapuico, the former
on the coast of die Mexican Gulf, and the latter, on that
of the Pacific Ocean, are the two ports to the city of Mexi**
CO. Through these the trade of that capital is carried on
with Spain, and the Philipine islands. But both of them
being in disagreeable and unhealthy situations, are fre-
quented by the opulent merchants only, at the arrival of
^ike fiotiUa from Europe^ and of the Acapulco ships from
ManiUa. At those seasons. Vera Cruz and Acapulco are
crowded with people ; but as soon as the business is
transacted, they are almost deserted.

The origin of the Mexicans, as well as of the Peruvians,
has been a subject of curious investigation, and a source of
various conjecture* These two nations have been by many
considered as a distinct race from the rest of the Ameri*
cans- But the Mexicans, and Peruvians, seem, in regard
to religion, language, and all other moral circumstances, to
diAer as much from each other, as from the rest of the abo-
riginal tribes. Perhaps, all these diiferences may have
been the effect of situation and accident. But whether Ame-
rica was peopled from Asia, or Africa, it is not improba-
bk that similar migrations might take place in different
ages. On this supposition. Dr. Forster's conjecture, at
least in regard to the Mexicans, appears the most plausi-
ble. That sagacious enquirer attributes their origin to the
troops on' board the fleet which Kublal Khan, in the thir-
teendi century, sent from China, for the intended conquest
Qf Jsq)an.* That great armament, having been scattered,
and most of the vessels supposed to be lost by violent tem-

* Dr. Ponter^sHist Toytge in the North, p. 43.

JI58 RAMSArS UKtVfeMAL HISTORY.

pests, it is not improbable, that some of them might reach
the western coast of America. This hypothesis has a sin*
gular coincidence with the Mexican traditions, whidi assert,
that their ancestors moved in successive migrations from
unknown regions towards the north, and north-west, and
established themselves in Anahuac ; and that, about Hie
beginning of the thirteenth century, a tribe more civilized
than the rest, advanced from the borders of the Califomian
Gulf, and took possession of the vale of Mexico.* This
sera remarkably coincides with the time of Kublai Khan's
expedition, and seems to authorize the supposition, that
the more polished tribe here mentioned, was a remnant of
Mongolian and Tartar troops, that had saved themselves
from the general wreck of the fleet. They were, for some
time, governed by a council of chiefs, and from tiie most
authentic accounts, tiie monarchical government commenc-
ed about one hundred and ninety-seven years before the
Spanish conquest.

The unexpected success of Columbus, the conquests of
Hispaniola and Cuba, with the successive discovery of new
countries, which appeared one after another, opened an im-'
mense field to ambition and avarice. The spirit of enter-
prize among the Spaniards, had risen to a height, of which
it is difficult at this time to conceive an idea, and tiieir ad-
venturers in the new world were ready to form, and to exe*'
cute the most daring and desperate projects. The doasts of
Mexico had already been discovered ; and from the obscure
and confused accounts which the Spaniards had received,
that rich and extensive country, seemed to pfomise an ample
field for adventurous enterprize. In 1518, Don Velasques,
governor of Cuba, projected an expedition against Mexico:
and desirous to arrogate to himself the glory and advan-
tages of the conquest, he conferred the command on Her-
nando Cortez, a bold adventurer, whose abilities were
equal to any undertaking, and whose fortune and rank were
not such, as seemed calculated to inspire him with any

* Robertson's Hist, of Aneriea, Tol. iU. p. 369.

1^1 N

]M|^}«r kleaSf tbaa of actixig in perfect sttbordination to his
employer. The event proved contrary to the expectations
of Velasques. Before the expedition sailed from Cuba, he
}iegan to suapect the aspiring ambition of Cortez, and re-
solved to deprive him of the command. The latter, how-*
ever^ apprized of his design, and perfectly sure of the at*
tachment of his followers, immediately set sail with eleven
small vessels, of which the largest was only one hundred
tons burden. His whole force consisted only of six hun*
dred and seventeen soldiers and seamen ; all volunteers,
and men of the most daring resolution. With this small
force, he undertook the conquest of a vast empire. Having
landed on the continent, he laid the foundation of the town
of Vera Cruz, and built a fortress sufficiently strong to re-
sist the attacks of an Indian army. At his first arrival, he
received a message from. Montezuma, requiring to know
his intenticms, in visiting the country. Cortez announced
himself as ambassador from the king of Spain, a most
powerful monarch of the east, and declaring himself en-
trusted with such proposals, as he could impart only to the
emperor in peraon, requested to be immediately conducted
to the capital. The Mexican officers hesitated at this re-
quest, which they knew would be extremely embarrassing
to Montezuma, whose mind had become harassed with
alarming apprehensions ever since he had heard of the land^
ing of the Spaniards on his coasts. During this interview^
some painters in the train of the Mexican officers, were em-
ployed in sketching, in their rude manner, figures of the
ships, the h<»rses, the artillery, the soldiers, and whatever
attracted their attention. Cortez,, perceiving this, and be^
ing informed that the pictures were designed to be present-
ed to Montezuma, in order to give him a just idea of these,
strange and wonderful objects, resolved to render the repre-
sentations as striking as possible, by exhibiting such a
spectacle, as might give both them, and their monarch, an.
awful impression of the irresistible force of his arms.
The trumpets, by his (Mrder, sounded an alarm ; the troops,
in a moment, formed in OR^r «f haldei both cavalry and

||0g UAMSArS UNIVBB8M. HI8T0BY.

mfantiy performed their martiid exereises and evolutioBs^
while repeated discharges of the cannon, which were pointed
against a thick forest adjoining the camp, made dreadful ha-
voc amongst the trees. The Mexicans were stmck widi that
amazement, which a spectacle so novel, so extraordinary,
so terrible, and so much above their comprehension, might
be expected to excite. Reports and representations of it
were sent to Montezuma, who, as well as his subjects, con-
ceived that the Spaniards were more tham human beings ;
an opinion which Cortez took every opportunity of impress-
ing on the minds of the Mexicans. Montezuma, after-
wards, sent ambassadors with rich presents, to the Spanish
camp, expressing the greatest friendship for Cortez, and die
sovereign of Castile ; but constantly requesting him to de-
part from his dominions. This was the purport of every mes-
sage from the Mexican monarch. Cortez, however, conti-
nuing to advance ; the request was changed into a command.
Montezuma absolutely forbade him to approach the capital,
and required his immediate departure from the country.
The Spanish general, however, determined to proceed to
Mexico, and concluded an alliance with die Ca&:iques of
Zempoalla and Quiabislan ; who, being weary- of Montezu-
ma's t3rranny, took this opportunity of revolting against his
government. Several other chiefs followed dieir example,
and Cortez soon perceived, that, aldiough the Mexican
empire was extensive, populous, and powerful, it was far
from being firmly consolidated. This circumstance in-
spired him with new hopes of effecting its subjugation.

Previous to the commencement of his march towards
Mexico, Cortez, resolving to shake off his dependance on-
the governor of Cuba, organized the new colony of Vera
Cruz, on the model of the other Spanish governments, es-
tablished in the new world. Having appointed as magis-
trates such officers as were most firmly attached to his
person, and most aixlently bent on pushing forward the ex-
pedition, he resigned into their hands the commission
which he held under Velasques, and requested them to
appoint a general, in the name of die king of Spain, whose

AMSmCA. j^g ^

p«80n they represented, and whose authority, alone, they
acknowledged ; declaring, at the same time, his readiness
to senre in the capacity of a common soldier, equally as in
that of commander. By this judicious proceeding, he
invdlved them in his rebellion against the governor of
Cuba; and the affidr terminated by his re-election to the
chief command of the espedition, with a commission from
the colony, under the authority of die Spanish crown. His
next measure aifords an evident proof of the ascendancy
which he had gained over his followers, and of their ardour
for carrying on the enterprise. He represented to them, in
the most fiyrcible terms, that it would be the highest degree
of folly, to think of ' returning to poerer^ and disgrace, after
having expended their whole fortunes in the equipment of
^ the expedition^^that diey must absolutely resolve either to
conquer or perish that the ships were so much damaged
as to be unfit £ar service, while their small force would de-
rive a very considerable accession of strength, from die
junction of one hundred men, necessarily left with the fleet.
By these alignments, he ccmvinced them of the necessity of
fijcing their hc^s on what lay before diem, without looking
back, or suffering die idea of a retreat to enter their minds.
With the consent of the whole army, the vessels were strip-
ped of their sails, rigging, iron work, and other article^,
which might become useful, and afterwards broken in pieces.
Thus, from an efficNrt of magnanimity, to which there are
few parallels in history, a few hundred men voluntarily con*
sented to shut themselves up in a hostile country, filled with
powerful and unknown nations-; and, having cut off evety
means of escape, left diemselves without any resoprce but
dieir own valour and perseverance.

Cortez landed in Mexico on the second of April, 1518 ;
and, on the sixteenth of August, he began his march tp«
wards the metropolis, with five hundred foot, fifteen horse,
and six field pieces. The rest of his men were left to gaar-
rison the fort of Vera Cruz. In his progress, he was in-*'
terrupted by a war with the TIascalans, a numerous and
warlike people, whose impetuous valour, howrner, was

VOL. IX. [34]

8flA RAMSArs VTXmBBMh mSTOBY.

ebliged 10 yield to the superLmty of SkffOiifaft W^mpom^
and tactics* The TUscaUns, who ware mvateralsa ai^Aiea
to the Mexicans, having experienced what they now con*
aidered the invincible valour of the Spaniarda, conduded
inth them a treaty of peace, and afterwards of aUiaaee,
and contributed in no amajl degree to the SHcceaa of their
enterprise.

Cortex, with his %nniards, accomptoied by ttz thou*
sand €^ his new alUea, immediaaely advanced towards
Mexico. They were met, in different parts of their jour-
ney, by mesaengers from Montenuina, beariiig rich pre-
aents, and sometimes inviting diem to prooeed^ but at othen,
requesting them to reture. In tUa period of indeciaiony
no measures were takcm ta oppoae the progress of Cortex.
Such was the embarrasanMnt of die Mexican monarchy that
ibe Spaniards were ahready at die gaeaa of hia capital, be*
fiare he had d^tennined whether to receive them as frienda
or as enemies.

Mexieo, eeated on ialanda oaar the western side of the
lake^ was tnaecessibk, cscept by three cauaewqrs, exmnd-
ittg over the shallow waters. That of Tacuha^ on die wnat»
was a mtte and a half in kngdi ; that of Te«c«co, on the
norA-wesii^ ent«aded threes and that of Cunyiu^an, on the
aowdi, not ksa than sin miles* On the eaat side^ Urn oitji
could be approached oniy by canoes. The Spaniarda^ be*
mg arrived on th^ b<Hrders of the lake, advanced akmg the
caA»seway witii great ciieumspeetion, and, on their near ap-
proach to the ei^, they were met by about one thousand
persona, clothed in mantles of fine eotton, mid adorned
with phimea. They aimouaced die approach of Montemi-
ma, and were followed by about twoc hmaired oAeta, in a
sinnlar dresto, adjomed also with pluakea, and marehing in
solemn silence. Next aj^ared a conq^y of a hij^ec
^rank, in shewy apparel, in the midst of wiiom waa Monte*
zuma, in a chair, or litter, richly omamcartad mA g^
and featbets of various coloura^ and casried on the shoul-
diers etf four el his priancipal officers, while others, support*
ad a caaopy wreir hia head» Thua amnoundfld withfaarbar

Tie pomp, did die Mexicui oumardi uitrodEuce into his
cmpital, ifae subverter of his dirone. He conducted the 9pii»
niftrds into the city, Assigned them quarters in a large
building, encompassed with a stone wail, with towers at
proper distances, and containang courts, and i^rtmentiy
•sidicientljr spacious for their accommodatiosv and that of
their allies. Here Cortez planted the artillery, posted celi<*
duels, and ordered his troops to preserve the same strict^
ness of discipline, as if they had been encamped in the fiu;e
of an enemy. During some time, liie greatest harmony sub<>
sisted between the Spaniards and the Mexicasis, and Mon*>
tezuma made presents of such value not only to Cortez^
and his officers, but aboto the private men, as demonstrate
ed the opulence of his kingdom. The Spaniards, however,
soon began to reflect on their situadon, shut up in Mexico,
and surrounded by the waters of its lake. They perceived,
that, by breaking down the bridges placed at intervals in
the causeways, or by destroying part of the cauaewajnl
diemselves, their retreat mig^t be rendered impracdcabfo.
The Tlascahms had eavnesdy dissuaded Cortez from ven*
taring into Mexico, where, from so peculiar a situation, he
might be enclosed as in a snare, out of which it would be
impossible to escape. They also assured him, that the
Mexican priests hi^, in the name of the gods, counselled
dieir sovereign to admit the Spamards into their capital,
where he might widi perfect security, cnt them off at one
Mow. The mind of Cortez, however, was imsqvpaUed by the
dangers of his situation, and he formed a plan no less ex«
trSKMrdinary than daring. He resolved to seize Montezu^
ma in his palace, and to canry htm prisoner to the Spanish
quarters* From the veneration of the Mexicans for the
penMm of dim monavch, and from their implicit obedience
to his triU, lie hoped, by having Montezuma in his power,
#0 obtaia the supreme direcdon of afiairs, or at least, by
having so sacred a pledge in his hands, he made no doubt
<^ being secure from aggression.

Before Cortex entered Mexico,4m engagementhad takes
plttce near Vera Cms^ betweenrtbe Mexactas and a detach*

RAMSAVB V^IYBBSAL UISTAIY.

itient of the Spaniah garrison of that {dace, and although the
Spaniards were victorious, one of them happened to be taken
prisoner. This unfortunate cs^ve was immediately be-
headed, and his head, after .being carried in triumph to dif-
ferent cities, in order to convince the people diat their in-
vaders were not immcntal, was at last sent to Mexico. Al-
. though Cortez had received intelligence of this affiiir, in
his route, it had not deterred him from entering that ci^,
but reflecting on Ids precarious situation, he resolved to
make it a pretext for seizing the emperor. At his usual
hour of visiting Montezuma, he went to die palace, accom-
panied by five of his principal officers, and as many trusty
soldiers. Thirty chosen men followed, not in regular order,
but sauntering at intervals, as if they had no other object
than curiosity. Small parties were posted at proper inter-
vals, between the Spanish quarters and the court, and the
rest of die troops were under 9rms ready to sally out on the
first alarm. Cortez with his attendants being admitted as
usual, he reproached die monarch with being the author of
die violent assault made on the Spaniards near Vera Cruz,
by one of his officers. Montezuma,<onfounded at this un-
expected reproach, asserted his innocence, and as a proof
gave orders to bring the officer and hisaccomplices prisoners
to Mexico. Cortez professed himself convinced of Montezu-
ma's innocence, but told him, diat to produce the same con*
viction on the minds of his followers, it was necessary, that
he should give a proof of his confidence and attachment, by
removing from his palace, and taking up his resid^sce in
the Spanish quarters, where he should be treated with the
attention and respect due to so great a monarch. Mcmte-
zuma eamesdy, but ineffectually, remonstrated against this
extraordinary proposal. He saw diat Cortez was deter-
mined; and he found himself under .the necessity of com-
plying. His officers were called, and he communicated to
them, his resolution of taking up his residence among his
new friends. Although astonished, and aflicted, they durst
not presume to quesdon the will of their master. He was,
.therefore, carried in silent and sorrowful pomp, to the Span*

AMfiBICA. S63

ifllt quarters ; but when it. was made known to the people,
that the strangers were carrying away their emperor, they
broke out into the wildest transports of rage, and threatened
the Spaniards with immediate destruction. But, as soon
as Montezuma waved his hand, and declared that it was an
act of his oiim choice, the multitude, accustomed to revere
every intimation of the sovereign's pleasure, quietly dis-
persed.

Cortez, having die emperor in his power, now governed
the empire in his name; and Montezuma was only the
organ of his wiU, although he was attended as usual by his
ministers ; and the external aspect of the government un-
derwent no alteration. The unfortunate monarch, however,
was obliged to acknowledge himself a vassal to the king of
Spain, and to accompany his professions of fealty, and ho-
mage, by a magnificent present to his new sovereign. His
subjects, imitating his example, brought in liberal contri-
butions.

Cortez, although master of the Mexican capital, and of
the person of the monarch, was now threatened with a new
danger. Velasques, hearing of his success, and enraged at
seeing his OMm authority rejected, fitted out, at Cuba, an
armament of eighteen vessels, having on board eighteen ca-
valry, eight hundred infantry, and twelve pieces of cannon.
The expedition was placed under the command of Pamphi-
lo de Narvaez, who had orders to seize Cortez, and his
principal officers, to send them to him in irons, and to com-
plete the conquest of Mexico. Cortez now saw himself in
a more arduous situation tium ever, hieing under the neces-
sity of taking the field, not against unskilful Indians, biit
against an army equal in courage, and discipline, to his
own— in numbers, far superior— and commanded by an of-
ficer of distinguished bravery. Having made an unsuccess-
ful attempt to accommodate matters, by hegociation,he de-
termined to advance against his new enemy.

He left one hundred and fifty men in Mexico, under the
command of Pedro de Alvaredo, an officer of determined
courage and res^^tion. To the custody of this slender gar-

Sg4« RAMSAY'S TJNIVE&SAL HISTORY.

risen he was obliged to commk the capital, and iint captive
moAarch. With the rest of the troops he marched for Zem*
poalla, o( which Narvaez had taken possession. A nego-
ciaUon was again commencedi but without success : Nar-
vaez required, that Cortez and his followers should recog-
nise him as governor of Mexico, in virtue of the powers
which he derived from Velasques ; while Cortez refused to
submit to any authority which was not founded on a com-
mission from the emperor Charles V. then king of Spain.
The time employed in these negotiations, gave Cortez an
opportimity of corrupting the troops of Narvaez. His own
forces did not exceed two hundred and fifty ; yet, with this
small body, he attacked that general, who had almost four
times the number, and gained an easy victory, with the loss,
of only two soldiers; while no more than two officers, and
fifteen privates, were killed on the adverse side. Cortez
treated the vanquished in the most generous manner, giving
them their choice, either of returning to Cuba, or of eatei;-
ing into his service. Most of them chose the latter ; and
Cortez, when he least expected such good fortune, saw no
kss than one thousand Spaniards ranged under his stand-
ard. With this reinforcement, he marched back to Mexico,
where his presence was extremely necessary. A courier had
brought him intelligence, that Alvaredo's mismanagement
had excited an insurrection ; and that the Spaniards were
dosely besieged in their quarters, and harassed with inces-
sant attacks. The danger was so great, as not to admit o£
deliberation or delay ; and Cortez immediately began his
march.) It is somewhat extraordinary, that the Mexicans
did not take the precaution to break the bridges in Ae
causeways, by which they might have enclosed Alvaredo,
and have prevented the entrance of Cortez. instead of
adopting so obvious a measure, for prevendng die junction
of their enemies, in the heart of their capital, they suffered
Cortez to enter die city, without opposition, and take pos-
session of his former station. This apparent calm, however,
was only a prelude to a violent storm. The Mexicans, who
now a{^»cared i:esolvcd on die cxtennination of diesr ene-

nftet, resmned tiieir orms^ smd att&cked the Spanish qaar*
ters in such formidable numbers, and with such undaunted
courage, diat althoug^h the artiDery, pomted against their tu-
mukuous crowds, swept downmulutudes at every discharge,
Ae impetuosity of the attack did not abate* Fresh bodies
of men incessantly rushed forward to occupy die places of
the slain ; and all the valour of the Spaniards was barely
sufficient to prevent them from forcing their way into the
fortifications.

Cortex was astonished at the desperate ferocity of a peo*
pie, who seemed at first to submit so patiently to a foreigit
yoke. He made two desperate sallies from his quarters^
but, although numbers of Mexicans fell, and part of the city
was burned, he gained no permanent advantage ; and be^
sides, being wounded himself, he lost twelve of his soldiers ;
a serious siffair at that time, when in his chrctimstances, die
Uie of a single Spaniard was of importance. No resource
was now left, but to make use of die influence of the o^*
live emperor, in order to quell the insurrection. Monte-
zuma was brought in regal pomp to the batdement, and
was compelled to address the people. But dieir liiry rose
above all restraint. VoUeyft of arrows and stones poured
in upon the ramparts ; and the unfortunate prince being
wounded in the head by a stone, fell to die ground. The
Mexicans as soon as they saw their emperor fall, were
struck with sudden remorse, and fled wvd% precipitation
and horFor,^ as if they supposed themselves pursued by die
vengeance of heaven for their crime. Montezuma was car-*
ried by the Spaniards to his apartments^ bat being now
weary of life, he tore the bandages from his wounds and
obstinately refusing to take any nourishment, expired in »
few daiys. The Sfpaniards endeavoured to convert him ta
the Christian faith, but he rejected all their solicitations-
with disdain. Christianity, indeed, was preached to this
unfortunate prince by very unsuitable aposdes, and it could
scarcely be supposed that he should embrace its doctrines
on the recomnendatioa of perstms, whose whole conduct

IMM BAMSAirS UN1VEB8AL HUTOBT.

appeared to be bo diametrically in opposition to tbe tenets
of that religion.

The death of Montezuma loosed the Mexicans from alL
the restrsunts, which their feneration for his person, and
dignity, had imposed on theii^ actions. A war of extermi*
nation was the immediate consequence, and after various
attacks in which the Mexicans showed the most daring re-
solution, the Spaniards found it necessary to retreat from
a situation, in which they must be finally overwhelmed by
the immense multitudes, and incessant assaults of their
enemies. This measure was, however, not effected witiiout
extreme difficulty. The Mexicans, astonished at the re-
peated efforts of Spanish valour, had now changed their
system of hostility, and instead of renewing their attacks,
had adopted the measure of breaking the causeways, and
barricading the streets, in order to cut off all communica-
tion between the Spaniards and tbe country. A retreat
from Mexico, being now a measure of absolute necessity, it
was effected in tiie night ; but not witiiout great loss, for
the Mexicans from whom their preparations could not be
concealed, had not only broken the bridges, and made-
breaches in the causeways ; but attacked them on all sides
from the lake. All Mexico was in arms, and the lake was
covered with canoes. The Spaniards crowded together
on the narrow causeway-— hemmed in on every side,
and wearied with slaughter, were unable to bear up against
the weight of tiie torrent, that poured in upon them.
The confusion was universal. The tremendous sounds
of the warlike instruments of the Mexicans, with tiie
shouts of their barbarian multitudes, gave additional hor-
ror to the scene. Cortez, with part of his soldiers, broke
through the enemy, but many, overwhelmed by the multi-
tude of aggressors, were eitiier killed on tiie causeway or
perished in tiie lake ; while otiiers, whom the Mexicans had
taken alive, were dragged away in triumph to be sacrificed
to the god of war. In this fatal retreat, which is yet dis-
tinguished in New Spain by the name of Noche Triste, or

AMERICA. S87

die night of sorrow, not less than half of the Spaniards, with
above two thousand Tlascalans were killed ; many officers
of distinction also perished, among whom was Velasquez
de Leon, considered as the second person in the army, and
in daring courage not inferior to Cortez himself. All the
artillery, ammunition, and baggage were lost ; and only a
small portion of the treasure which they had amassed was
saved.* The whole empire was now in arms, and Cortez
having reviewed his shattered battalions, continued his re«
treat towards Tlascala, the only place where he could hope*
for a friendly reception. He met with no opposition till he
veached the valley of Otumba, where the whole force of the
Mexicans was concentrated. When the Spaniards had
gained the summit of an eminence, they saw die spacious
valley through which they were obliged to pass, covered
with an army extended as &r as the eye could reach. At'
die sight of this immense multitude, the Spaniards were
astonished, and even the boldest were inclined to despair.
But Cortez, without allowing time for their fears to gain
strength from reflection, briefly reminded them that no al"*
temative remained, but to conquer or die ; and instantly
led them to the charge. The Mexicans waited their ap-
proach with inflexible firmness. Notwithstanding the su*
periority of European discipline and arms, the Spaniards,
diough successful in every attack, were ready to sink under
die repeated efforts of innumerable multitudes. But Cor-
tez, observing the great standard of the empire, wht^ was
carried before the Mexican general, and recollecting to have
heard that on its fate the issue of every batde depended,
put himself at die head of a few of his bravest officers, and
pushed forward with an impetuosity that bore down all be-
folre it, to the place where he saw it displayed. Cortez,
having brought the Mexican general to the ground with a
stroke of his lance, the select body of guards was broken,
and die imperial standard disappeared. At diis spectacle,
die Mexicans were struck with a universal panicj and fled
precipitation to the mountains.

• Robertson's History of America, vol. ii. pag^ 95.
rox. IX. [35]

Jigg BAMSArs L^NIVBBSAL HISTORY.

The day after the battle of Otumha, the Spaniards reached
the territories of the Tlascalans, their allies, who being im«
placable enemies of the Mexican name, continued faithful
to Cortez in this reverse of his fortune. Here he had aa
interval of rest and tranquillity, that was extremely neces*
aary for curing the wounded and for recruiting the strength
of his soldiers; exhausted as they were by a long series of
hardships and fatigues* During this suspension of military
operations, he recruited his battalions with one hundred and
eijj^hty adventurers, newly arrived from Spain, and the isl-
ands ; and obtained possession of some artillery and anunu-
nition, which had been sent by Velasquez for the use of the
army of Narvaez, and had been seized by the officer, whom
Cortez had left in command at Vera Cruz. Having received
these reinforcements, he resolved to recommence the war,
and attempt the reduction of -Mexico. But as he knew this to
be impracticable, unless he could secure the command of the
lake, he gave orders to prepare in the mountidns of Tlas-
cala, materials for constructing twelve brigantines^ which
were to be carried thither in pieces, ready to be put to*
gether, and launched when it should be found necessaiy.

On the twenty-eighth of December, 1530, Cc^rtez began
his second march towards Mexico, at the head of five huft-
dred and fifty Spanish foot, and forty horse, with ten thou*
sand Tlascalans, and^i train of nine field pieces. The Mexi«
cans, however, were not unprepared for his reception. On the
death of Montezuma, their nobility, in whom the right of
electing the emperor appears to have been vested, had raised
his brother, Quetlavaca, to the throne. The courage and con*
ductof this prince had been displayed in the direction of diose
attacks by which the Spaniards had been obliged to retroat-
from his capital ; and he took the most prudent and vigor-
x>tts measures for preventing their return; but^ while he
wa9 arranging his plans of defence, with a degree of fi^^
sight uncommon in an aboriginal American, he difdd of tln^-
snudl«pox ; a disorder, unknown in that quarter of the globe^.
until it was introduced by the Europeans. In Im steady tha*
Mexicans elected Guatiduizin, ne^Wf and sonHn4aw of

AMERICA. JIJ99

Mofftezuma, a young prince of distinguished reputation Tdt
id>ilitie8 and valour. Cortez having advanced to Tezcuco, a
city situated near the lake of Mexico, and about twenty
miles distant from that capital, was near seeing all his vast
jilans of conquest ' defeated, by a dangerous conspiracy
among his troops ; many of whom, on a near view of the
difficulties which they had to encounter, in attacking a city
of so difficult access as Mexico, had formed the desigti of
assassinating him and his principal officers, and of confer-
ring the command on some other, by whom this desperate
project would be relinquished. The conspiracy, however,
being detected, and the mutinous spirit of the troops al*
layed, by the consummate prudence and firmness of the ge«
neral, the preparations for the attack of Mexico were car*
ried on with unanimity and ardour^ In the space of three
months, the materials for the construction of die brigaittinea
were completed, and carried from the mountains of Has*
cala toTezcuco, on the lake of Mexico, a distance of above
sixty miles, by ten thousand men, escorted by fifteen thou-
sand Tlascalan warriors, and two hundred and fifteen Spa-
niards. A great number of Indians, also, were employed,
during the space of two months, in widening the rivulet
which ran from Tezcuco to the lake, and forming it into a
navigable canal, near two miles in length. About die same
t&me, the army received a reinforcement of two hundred
Spanish soldiers, eighty horses, and two pieces of battering
eannon, with a considerable supply of arms and ammuid-
lion; aU which had been procured in Hispaniola, by the
agents of Cortez in that island.

The brigantines were now put together and launched ;
and every preparation was made for the siege. The Spa-
niards were already posted at Tezcuco ; and their first step
was* to take possession of Tacuba and Cuoy oean ; the citiea
which commanded the other two causeways. This Aey ef-
fected, widi little opposition, as the i^abitams had fled into
Mexico, where the whok fierce of the nation was coneeil-
^ trated. The first efibrt of the Mexicans was to destroy the
brigantines $ but their numeroup canoes were socm JM^

«ro

RAMSArS UNIYBRSAL HISTORY.

persed, and the Spaniards, after a great slaughter of the
enemy, were left masters of die lake. The siege having
continued a whole month, during which time one furious
conflict had succeeded another ; and many of the Spaniards
being killed, more of them wounded, and all of thetn ready
to sink under the pressure of unremitting fatigue ; Cortea^,
in consideration of these circumstances, resolved to make a
grand eflfort to obtain possession of the city.

In consequence of this rcBolution, a general attack was
made by the three causeways. Cortez himself led the di-
vision which advanced by the causeway Cuoyocan ; while
the two others were commanded by Sandoval, and Alva-
redo ; two officers of distinguished braver}^ The Spaniards
pushed forward, with an impetuosity that bore down all op-
position, and forced their way over the canals and barri-
cadoes, into the city. Guatimozin, now seeing the Spa-
niards within his capital, and observing that they had ne-
glected to fill up the great breach in the causevray of Cuoyo-
can, although Cortez had stationed an officer there for that
purpose, commanded his. troops to slacken thrir efforts,
and to suffer the Spaniards to advance into the heart of the
city, while he despatched bands of select warriors, by diiier-
ent routes, to intercept their retreat. On a signal g^ven by
the emperor, the priests at the principal temple struck the
great drum consecrated to the god of war. No sooner did
the Mexicans hear its solemn and impressive sound, caku-
lated to inspire them with a contempt of death, and an en-
thusiastic ardour, than they rushed on the enemy widi fran-
tic rage. The Spaniards were obliged to retire ; and, m the
soene of confusion which ensued, six Mexican captatns,
having seized on Cortez, were carrying him off, when two
of his officers rescued him, at the expense of dieir o¥m
lives : but not till after he had received several dangerous
wounds. Above sixty Spaniards perished in this second
retreat ; and forty of these fell, alive, into the hands of an
enemy never known to show mercy to a captive. These
unfortunate men were dragged in triumph to the temj^,
and sacrificed to the god of war*

■A^ri

AMEftiCA.

i7i

AiSser tfais dreadful disaster, CoHez changed liis mode of
attack ; and, instead of attempting to become master of the
city at a single stroke, contented himself with making
gradual approaches. The three divisions recommenced
the attack, but proceeded with great circumspection. As
the Spaniards advanced along the causeways, the Indian al-
lies repaired the breaches behind them ; and as soon as they
got possession of any part of the ci^, the houses were im*
mediately levelled with the ground. Incredible numbers
of the Mexicans fell in these conflicjts, which were every
day renewed. The survivors experienced all the horrors
of famine, as their stores were exhausted by the multitudea
that had flocked to the capital, to defend their sovereign^
and the temples of their gods ; and the Spaniards, with their
allies, were masters of the lake, and of all the avenues that
led to the city.

• The invaders continuing their progress, all the three di-
visions of their army at last met in the great square, in the
centre of die city, where they made a secure lodgment.
Three-fourths of Mexico were now laid in ruins, and the
remaining quarter was so hard pressed, that it could not
long resist the eflPorts of the assailants. At this juncture,
Guatimozin was taken by the brigantines on the lake, in at-
tempting to make his escape in a canoe. As soon as die
capture of the emperor was known, the resistance of the
Mexicans ceased ; and Cortez took possession of the small
part of the city that was not destroyed. Thus terminated
ih^ siege of Mexico, after having continued seventy-five
days, soarcely one of which passed without some extraor^
dinary effort of attack or defence. The Spaniards, as may
be expected, were elated widi joy, by the completion of
their difficult conquest, and the expectation of sharing im-
mense spoils. But in the latter respect, they were mise-
rably disappointed. Guatimozin foreseeing his impending
fiite, had caused the riches amassed by his ancestors to be
thrown into the lake ; and instead of becoming masters of
the treasures of Montezuma, and the spoils of the temples,
the conquerors could collect only a small booi^ amidst

fffjl^ UAMSAT'S ummSBSAL HISTORY.

tttiii ud desokcimi. The Spaniards exclaimed londly
against their general, vrfaom Aty suspected <tf appropriating
the greatest part of the spoils to his own use, as well aA
against Guatimosin, whom they accused of obstinatdy con*
cealing his treasures. In order to atlaj^ithis ferment, Cor-
tez consented to a deed that sullied air the glory of his
iormer actions. He sufored the royal captive with his
principal minister to be pot to the rack, in order to oblige
him to discover the place where his riches were concealed.
The unhappy monarch bore his sufferings with all die firm*
•ess of a hero, and when his minister uttered some com-
^aint, he asked, ^^ Am /now reposing on a bed of roses."
Hie favourite, stung with remorse, persevered in dutifol
silence, and expired. Cortez ashamed of so horrid a scene,
rescued the royal victim from the hands of his tcurtttrers.
The unfortunate Guatimozin being some time afterwards
suspected of forming a scheme to throw off the Spanish
yoke, was by Cortez condemned to be hanged, togeAer
with the Caziques of Tezcuco, and Tacuba, two persons of
the greatest eminence in die empire. The success of Cor^
tez uid die splendour of his conquest, procured him from
the emperor Charles V. the viceroyal^ of Mexico, in spite
of the claim of Velasquez, and die insinuations of his odier
enemies.
. The religion of die ancient Mexicans, was the most wild
and extravagant system of idolatry, that the world has ever
seen. Their worship appears to have been directed, not
to a benevolent, but a malignant deity, who delighted in
destruction, and whom they endeavoured to appease by
horrid rites and human sacrifices* Their principal duties
were thirteen in number, but diey also acknowledged a va-
riety of local divinities, who presided over the mountains,
the vallies, and other parts of nature, as well as over die
affsirs of life ; but Mexidi, the god of war, seems to have
been the chief object of adoration. They had various idols,
rudely formed of stone, wood, or clay, and someumes de*
corated widi gems and gold. Their priests were numerous,
and had an almost unliniited inftuence over the people.

Tbaf wore a black cotton mantle^ rMembltng a veil^ aad
dwre seems to have been an order of monks, as in the east*
em countries of Asia. The principal part of the Mexican
worship seems to have consisted in human sacrifices. Ever^
captive taken in war was cruelly tortured, and immolated
on the altars of the Mexican gods. The head and the heart
were 'the portion of those sanguinary divinities ; white
the rest of the body was assigned to the captors, who feast<i
ed on the flesh. The number of Imman victims offered up
to the Mexican idols, has beeri variously stated, and un«
doubtedly often exaggerated. When Herrara tells us that
five thousand, nay even twenty thousand, had sometimes
been sacrificed in one day, we find ourselves obliged to sus*
pend our belief. Zummurraga, first bishop of Mexico;
Gomara, and Torquemada, concur in stating the annual
number of vicdms at twenty thousand, and the last of these
writers represents them as consisting chiefly of children.
Bartholemew de las Casas, the avowed advocate of the
Americans, on the contrary, reduces die number to fifty or
one hundred. The account given by Barthol Dias, how-
aver, i^ears the most probable. This author informs us,
diat, from an enquiry set on foot by the Franciscan friars
immediately after the conquest, the number of human vic-
tims annually sacrificed in Mexico, appeared to be about two
thousand five hundred; a number sufficient to make humanity
shudder. The idolatrous systems of the ancient Egj^tians,
die Ghreeks, the Romans, and the modem Orientals, must
- be considered*as innocent superstitions in comparison with
diose horrid oblations. The Mexican religion was founded
solely on fear, commanding rigid fasts, severe penances,
v<duntary wounds, or tortures ; and the temples were de-
corated with the figures of destructive animals. In fine,
die whcde apparatus of this barbarous religion, was calcu-
lated to inspire terror. In no other part of the world does
the human mind appear to have been so dreadfully disor-
dered by tenrifiic ideas.

The ancient government of Mexico was monarchical,
and hereditary ift tlie royal fiunily, aMiougfa the succession

fgj^ RAMSAY'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

was not strtcdy confined to lineal descent ; as a brother or
nephew of the deceased prince was sometimes preferred to
his sons. Thete were several royal councils and claases of
nobility, which were principally hereditary ; and despotism
seems to have been first introduced by the celebrated Moa*
tezuma. Land, however, was not supposed to belong to the
monarch, as in China and some other Oriental countries^
but was alienable by the proprietors. As wriung was unp
known, there was no code of laws, all litigated cases being
determined by traditional rules and established customs. .

If the Mexican armies were so numerous as they have
been represented by the Spaniards, it seems that the
whole eiTective population, according to the general cus-
tom of remote antiquity, was in cases of emergency brought
into the field. Their arms and tactics were, indeed, extreme*
ly rude. Nothing can be said with any appearance of pre-
cision, concerning the national revenue.

From the relations of the Spanish writers, the population
of Mexico at the time of the conquest, would appear to
have been immense. These accounts, however, were un-^
doubtedly exaggerated. The Spanish conquerors were dis*
posed to swell the importance of. their own exploits, and
the Spanish authors amplified and embellished all their
narrations. Every story relating to these new and singu-
lar countries, was greedily swallowed in Spain, and soon
gained implicit credit throughout Europe.

In the arts of civilized life, the Mexicans were certainly
far inferior to the Peruvians. Their symbolical paintings
exhibited brilliant colours, but the designs were extremely
rude. Their edifices were meanly built of turf and stone,
and generally thatched with reeds. Even the great tem-
ple of Mexico, was only a square mound of earth, partly
faced with stone. The very ruins of the Mexican build-
ings have perished, while the solid structures of the Peru-
vians yet remain.

The Mexicans cultivated maize, and various kinds of
vegetable3, but their agriculture was rude. Their dress
was a loose cloak, and a sash girt round tbo naked waist.

AMBUCA. ^

Their wars wtere constttit and saagutnayy ; a circumdtimtd
iriiich concurred with their religion in tiUctaHng their
manners with ferocitjr ; as their principal warriors tiLsed to
dance through the streets, covered with the skins of their
unfortunate captives. The dedication of their temples was
solemnized by the destruction of human life. We are
told by Clavigerp, that no less dian twelve thousand vic>*
tims were sacrificed on two of these occasions.* On die
deadi of a chief, a great number of his attendants were im^
molated. In fine, superstition and cruelty were the pre*
dominant features in the Meitican character.

NEW ItfEXICO.

This extensive territory, which the Spaniards did not
bepn to explore till after the middle of the sixteenth cen^
tury, is yet, in a great measure unknown, and its northern
boundaries are still undetermined. Several considerable
rivers pervade this extensive region ( of which, some dis^
charge themeelves into the Gulf of Mexico, and others into
that of California. The largest of these rivers is the Rio
Bravo, which empties itself into the Gulf of Mexico, nearly
in the latitude of twen^-six degrees, north ; but its origin
and its course, which appears to be scarcely less than twelve
hundred miles, have not been ascertained. The Spaniards
did not completely subdue this country till 1771, after a
war of six years with the savages. During their marcheS|^
they discovered at Cincguilla^ in the province of Sonora,
tiiat singular plain of forty^two miles in extent, in whicb^
vast quantities of pure gold are found in large lumps, at
the depth of only about sixteen inches. Before the end
of the year 1771, above two thousand persons, attracted by
this brilliant prospect of wealth, were settied at Cineguilla^
which must in all probability become an opulent and popu*
lous colony. Other rich mines have since been found in
the provinces of Sonora and Cinaola ; and the mineralogy

* HSstoij of MesicOy ToL L p. 332.
VOJL. a* lS6]

fi^0 RAMSAY'S imiYEESAL HISTORY.

of this newlf acquired territoiy) promises to equals if not
to exceed in importance, that of Mexico and Peru. The
ektensive peninsula of California, which may be considered
as an appenda|^ to New Mexico, was discovered by Cor-
tex, in 1536 ; but amidst the vast extent of acquisition, it
was afterwards neglected, and long regarded as an island.
It was at length explored by the Jesuits, who acquired as
complete a dominion here as they did in Paraguay. On their
expulsion in 1766, it was found to contain several mines,
with a valuable pearl fishery on the coast. The soil is said
to be extremely fertile, and the climate mild, but foggy.

MEXICO, OR NEW SPAIN.

The government of Mexico is vested in a viceroy, who is
changed every three years. The viceroyalty is the office
of the greatest power, and trust, that the crown of Spain
has at its disposal, and probably the most lucrative employ
that is held by any subject in the world. Meidco is the cen*
^ of the Spanish power in America. The jealousy of that
country, in regard to her colonies, renders it extremely dif-
ficult to acquire any just ideas concerning them. In regard
to commerce, Mexico, from its central situation with respect
to South America, the Philippine islands, and Europe, pos-
sesses great advantages, and is, undoubtedly, the most opu-
lent of all the Spanish provinces. It yields a revenue of
about one million of pounds sterling to the crown of Spain,
and is, in every point of view, the most important part of
the Spanish empire in America.

1 J*^:-l

SOITTH AMUIGA.

■KT

SOXTTH AMEBIGA,

Extends from about twelve degrees nprth) to fifty-four
degrees, south latitude, and from about thirty-four degrees^
thirty minutes, to about eighty degrees, west longitude. Its
greatest length, from north to south, may, therefore, be com*
puted at three thousand nine hundred and sixty, and its
^eatest breadth at two thousand eight hundred and eighty
geographical miles. Many parts of the interior yet remain
unexplored ; and it is only at a very recent period, that any
tolerable m^ of South America has been given to die pub^
lie. This quai$er of Ami^rioi is disunguishe4 by the lai^st /
rivers, and the highest mountains, on the face of the glbbe. /
The principal river is that of the Amazons, so called fro|n
a female tribe, inured to arms, reported to have beendisco^
vered on its banks by the first navigators. The story, i^
fabulous, and has, probably, originated in fiction^ or mis;*
take. The Amazon river is said by geographers, to be t(^^
largest in the world ; and the estimate is undoubtedly just,
when breadth, as well as length, is considered. Its source
is not yet exactly ascertained ; as two large rivers, the Ma-
ranon, and the Ucaial, join in composing this vast bpdy of
water. The whole length of its course, before it falls into
the Atlantic, is computed to be about three thousand three
hundred miles. The Maranon passes through the Andes,
at a place called Pongo, remarkable for its sublime an4
magnificent scenery. The river, which is there contracted
from a breadth of five hundred, to one of fifty yards, is con?>
fined within its two parallel walls of almost perpendicular
rock. After the junction of the Ucaial and Maranon, theii;
united stream receives from the north and south, ma^y
other large rivers ; which, being bkewise composed of a,
number of inferior streams, water a vast extent of country*
The depth is, in many places, more than one hundred &->
ihoms ; and the swell of the tide is perceptible at tfie dis,-!
tance of six hundred miles from the sea.

fin RAMSAT^ mnfUBAL IBSTOftT.

•The Rio de la Plata, is, in magnitade and extent of coone^
the. second river in SouA America. It is formed by die
united waters of diq Paiagniiyf the Parana, the PiloK
mayo, and the Urucuay $ the two fonner of wluch are the
principal streams. The Rio de la Plata is imerspersed mdi
mimerond islands. Tlie breadth of the ttstuary is such,
that land cannot be discovered on eidier side, from a riiip
hi the middle of the stream ; and vessels ascend near one
Aousand two hundred miles from die sea.

The third great riyer of South America, is the Oroonoko,
which rises in latitude five degrees, ten minutes, north. In
its course, which is exceedingly tortuous, it receives many
large rivers. One striking pecufiarily is observable in re«
gard to the Maranoo, pr river of Amazons, and the Oroo*
BOko. The streaou issuing from the lake of Parima, form
Aree diflferent communications between ' these immense
rivers ; and that lake may be regarded as the centre of this
singular connexion. It is easy to conceive what great ad-
vantages those countries may, at some future period, de-
rive from dus remarkable inland navigation, which nature
has prepared, and art may exceedingly improve.

The mountains of Soudi America, may be ranked among
die most sublime objects of nature. They are die lofdest
on the face of the globe, and are intermixed widi die most
sublime and terrific volcanoes. Tiie immense chain of the
Andes extends from the southern, almost to the northern
extremity of diis continent, at the medial distance of about
one hundred miles from the western coast; the whole
lengdi, allowing for die windings, being not less dian four
Ihousand five bundled miles. The highest summits are
diose of Pern, near the equator. Chimborazo, the most
efevated summit of the Andes, was computed by the French
madiemadcians to be twenty thousand, two hundred and
eighty feet above die level of the sea. The next in eleva*
don is supposed to be Cotopashi, a tremendous voleano^
which is said to eject stones of eight or nine feet diameter,
to die distance of more dian nine miles. The height of
Cotopashi, is estimated at d>out ei^^tecn thousmd sixhun*

dred feet. It it thiMted sbMt tw«^*five miles to the
aoudi-east of Quito. The murntt^ <rf Stnguay , the sum*
mtt of which is covered with pefpetual snow, is a constant
riieatio; ami ka Mfioikms avo- sometimes so tremeikkms,
as to be heard at the distance of one hundred and twelity
mUes. Besides the Andes, itie chief df the South Amerl*
can mountiuns, there Are, accorAng to Mumboldt, three re-
Attrtuddo nmges, Ijdug in a direeliein from west tqeast^
ntwAy parallel to the equator. In Terra Pirma, Brazil,
and some other parts of Ais vast continent, are scTeral
rsBsges of mousatmns, which are Ittoe known, and do not,
indeed, appear very considerable. The whcde interior of
South America, eomprising Ae.vsftt countries watered by
the Rio de la Plata, the river of Amasons, theOrbottoko,
and an dieir tributary streams, is an imnvense plain, of
wUeh many ex te nsWc districis are annually immdated by
dietr redundant waters.

^ The most considerable lake yet known, on dtis division
of the new continent; b diat of Titicaca, in Peru, which is of
an oval figure, and about two hundred and forty miles in cir-'
cuit. There are, however, nmny temporary lakes of great
extent, whidi exist only during the annual inumlations of
die great rivers, duit deluge large tracts of country.

One of the chief characteristics, which distSngulsh Amt*
rica from die old continent, is die superior degree of cold
that reigns in die same parallels. Canada, in the tempe*
rate latitudes of France, has a climate as rigorous as that •
of Russia ; and the island, or rather collection of islands,
known by the name of Terra del Puego, in the latitude of
fifty*five degrees south, is exposed to the almost perpetual'
winter of Greenland. This predominancy of cold in the
new, above what is perceived in the old continent, may be
accounted fisr, in a grcM measure, by the superabundance
of wood, and the want of cultivation and drainage. Ex-
cept tile setdements of Cayenne and Surinam, and the
countries yet unconqured, die whole of tiiis vast continent,
so famed for the richness of its mineralogy, is subject to
Spain and Portugal.

jiSO^ EAMSArp BwniintMi tmnmy.

SP AMIIH DOMINIOMS.

, The Sitfuush Empir«.tii Bomh AmuiM% f iOttiMk» aficoni*
tag to their geognqphere^ ^e wM<^ iMgth/ of that conti*
Dent ; but in a more reiltmAd eeoffih ke;«(tMl bouodaiy
may be fixed at thei for^rfourth degrM. of soutK leiilude.
In this view, ita length mMg be compiitM 9^ thn^ tbouMad
three hundred and sixty gepgv^n^i^ lltijesi cm a medial
breadth of at least nine himdred of the same measure. The
boundaries, except on the coasts, are doi^btfiii j. and towards
the uncooquerod countries, the frontier can be fixed only
at the point, to which the Spaniards may think it proper to
expend their settlements.

Terra Firma, cempriaing the greatest part of the isthmus
of Darien, extends firom twelve degrees north latitude, to
the equator. The country is extremely mountainous, and
rugged. The mountainous tracts, however, are , inter'
eqpersed with extensive plains of extraordimu^ fertility, but
subject to inundations in the seasons of the tropical rains.
Peru, stretching along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, from
die equator to twenty«five degrees south latitude, consists
for the most part of an elevated plain, presenting a high,.
bold coast. In Chili,* as well as in Peru, the chsiin of the
Andes runs at about the medial distance of one hundred
miles from the coast. Chili, extending from the extremi^
jof Peru in twenty-five degrees to forty-five degrees south
latitude, is the southernmost of the Spanish provinces. The
vast country of Paraguay, extending from twelve degrees,
to thirty-seven degrees south latitude, and from fifty de-
grees to seventy-five degrees, west longitude, is supposed to
contain about one million square miles. It is an immense
plain, so uniformly level, as not to be interrupted by the
least eminence, for several hundreds of miles in evexy di«
rection^ and in many parts, exposed to annual inundations
from the Parana, the Paraguay, and their tributary rivers.
This vast level is of an extraordinary fertility, but contrary
Jto the general nature of America, it is almost destitute of
wood, except a few scattered palms, and other trees, and

SOOra iABHCA.

presents oofy a uniliMrm ezpeme of long eavaimas, covered
with the moetluxuriaatmeadowB and paatiirage.

The mineTalc^ of die Spemah dominioiu in South Ame-t
ricft, b nntvemlty celehnMd aa the richest in die world ;
and is superior, not oidf to that of Brasil^ bat even to that
of Me^dco. The Soudi American possessions of Spaing
are chiefly funed for silver ; but in many districts, gold
also abounds. Many parts of Tora Firma, especiidly in
the dBstricts of Darien, and Popoyan, abound in the finest
gold. But the mines of Darien were lost in a revolt of die'
natives. Chili also has several mines of that metal. The
celebi^ted mountain of Potosi, in Peru, has been long con*
aidered as an inexhaustiUe fountain of silver. This moun*
tain, which rises in a conical form, is about twenty miles in
circumference. It is perforated by more than three hundred
shafts, and its surface presents neither trees nor herbage,
an vegetation being blasted by the numerous furnaces.
The mine was accidentally discovered in 1545, by a Peru*
vian named Hualpa, who in pursuing a Chamois puUed up
a burii on the side of die mountain, when, to his astonish"^
xhent, the breach made in the surface laid open diis im«>
mense vein of silver, the richest that the world has ever
yet aflbrded. The provinces of Chili, and Buenos Ayres»
have mines of silver as well as of gold. Helm enumerates
in die vicerojralty of Buenos Ayres, thirty mines of gold,
twenty^seven of silver, seven of copper, seven of leiid, and
two of tin* It may here be observed, that silver mines are,
in general, fiur more productive than those of gold. The^
'ftrmer metal is in many piKces found in considemble^
masses, wUle die latter seems sparingly scattered by thos
hand of nature. Widi the single exception of the noted,
phun of Cineguilla in North AoMrica, there has hithertot
been no instance of a gold mine eininentty rich. No one
has yet been found, that could bear any comparison in va-
lue widi die celebrated silver ndne of Potosi. The vahu
able mine of qiucksilver, a litde to the south-east of Liaui,
was discovered in 1567. In possessing a asine of this mine-
ral, indispensable in the process of amnlgamatiag giold nd.

' /

ftAM8AY>« QMVUBU. WSTORY.

tilvcr^ Pam hM « grett mdwnrtage wntr M«ddo» ivUdi is
supplied with yiickiHter tnm, Bysm Haalaftf m si&gulw
qiecics of mstali valued b7 Mine abo^e g^M^ is fooad iii the
SiittBs of Neir GM&ada ; sad tin in ^diose of Chynaaai and
Faria« Several parts of Sendi AflKtica prodiiee lead and
copper ; but die cohiaies are dneiljr supplied witk the latter^
&OOI the mines ^ Cuba. These eonntries ako produce a
variety of useful and eurious fossils and minerals, as die
inea stone, and the gaHinazo, both used as mirrors, saiphur^
bituaaen, vitrtoL, and oopperms. Hiere are also some pre*
Clous stones, especially emeralds, whidh are esteemed the
best in the world, since the emerald mines of Egypt have
been neglected and lost. The chief modem mines of Feru^
vian emeralds are near Bogota.

A nsinute examination of die soil of regions so extensive^
would lead to an endless prolixity. It is suiEcient here to
observe, that in the mountainous parts, and in some sandy
plains, it is barren ; in die level country, and die vaHies, it
Is generaUy fertile, and the vegetation luxuriant.

Terra Firma, especially in the nordiem division, is ex»
cessfvely hot. The greatest heait ever felt at Paris, is said
to be she constant temperature of Cardiagena. The suas«
aser, or dry season, extends from die beginning of Decern*
bar to die end of April. The rest of dia year is die rainy
season Or winter. During this long period of six months^
die rains descend in such abundance, as, apparent^, so
threMen a general deluge. All the level pans of the coun*
trj are, in consequence, almost continually iooded ; and die
Mmbination of heat and Sftoisttire impregnates die w wit&
ao great a <iuandty of mepbidc vapour, as to render the mj^
mosphere in most places, but espeiAslly about Popayan, and
Porto Bello, extremely wawholesome.
' The slimate of Peru is exceedingly various, and distxn*
guished by some remarkable chamcteristics. The hi^
ridges of the Andes, eoveMd widi esemal snows, consd^
lute the dreary reign of perpetual winter. In the lower
mountainous tracts, on the western side of this immense
dialhi) the diy season from Mfty ta Nbvtmbar, ia ^Asn eas-

I90UTU AiflUHCA. f^S

^re^aefy cold ; and t(ie jreat of the year ia ramy. At QudtOf
which is situated on a plain of remarkable devation, be-
tween two ridges of the Andes^ the raias are almost copti-
nual from September to May, and frequest duping the rest
of the year, which constitutes the summer. The plains of
Peru, lying between the upland countiy and the Pacific
Ocean, are totally exempt from rains, and receive no other
moisture than that which descends in copious dews. From
the Guyaquil to the deserts of Atacama, a space of one
thousand two hundred mites in length, and from ^ty. to
ninety in breadth, hardly any rain ever falls. Thunder and
storms are imknown. Peru, though situated in the torrid
zone, enjoys a temperate va&d salubrious climate, greatly
different from that of oth^r tropical countries. The pecu«>
liar characteristics of the Peruvian climate, to the dis^sace
of about sixty or eighty milc^s , from the coast, are the to-
tal absence of rain, and the unfrequency of sunshine.

The climate of Chili, in a great measure, resembles that
of Peru : dryness beii^ one of its chief characteristics*
Chili, however, is considerably colder than the latter coun-
try ; and the climate is, in general, extremely pleasant and
healthful. The extensive province of Par^guay^ although
uniformly level, and exposed to annual injundationst being
destitute of woods, is said to enjoy a serene atmosphere
and salubrious climate. Frqm the purity of the air, the
town of Buenos Ayres derives its name ; and the waters of
the Rio de la Plata, on which it is situated, are both sweet
and wholesome. . .

. From the isthmus of Darien, in twelve degrees north, to
the southernmost extremity of Chili, in forty-four degrees
south latitude, all the vegetable products of the tropical re-
gions and of the temperate zones, would, undoubtedly, pros^
per under the fostering hand of agriculture. But the mines
have attracted the principal attention of the colonists, who
have paid little regard, to the cultiva^on of a soil, mostly
fertile and productive. The coasts of Terra Firma are,
generally, a barren sand ; but many parts of the inland
country display the most luxuriant vegetation. Tbe perpe*'

VOL. IX. [37]

fjg^ RAMSArS UnmBBSAL BISTOST.

tatl verdure of the wooda, and the exuberlmt crops of grasi
on the plains, form a rich contrast with the towering height
of the mountains. Among the most remarkable of the treea^
are the caobo, the balsam, and the cedar ; the last of which
often acquires an extraordinary size. One of the most sin*
gular and interesting productions of Peru is the cinchona,
from which that valuable drug, the Peruvian bark, is pre-
^ared. No less than twenty-four species of pepper, and five
or six of capsicum, are reckoned among the native produc-
tions of that country. The provinces on the Rio de la Plata
are remaritable for the luxuriant pasturage that covers their
extensive plains.

The most distinguishing and important circumstance in
die zoology of South America, is the amazing number of
horses and homed cattle, in several parts of the Spanish
territories ; but especially in the provinces adjacent to the
Paraguay, the Parana, and the Rio de la Plata. It is well
known, that neither horses nor homed catde existed in any
part of the new continent, previoua to its discovery by the
Spaniards; and, consequently, the surprising herds with
which the country is now overspread, have multiplied from
a few that were cMried over and turned loose by the first
settlers. They are now so numerous, that they are hunted
ibr the sake of their hides. Mules being highly useful
in the mountainous countries, are bred in great numbers
in the plains of Paraguay, from whence about eighty diou«
sand are said to be annually sent to Peru. Flocks of
European sheep, also, are numerous. Dogs, which, like
the otiier domestic animals of the old continent, were ori-
ginally unknown in America, having been introduced 1^
the Spaniards, have multiplied in the same manner as the
horses and catde, and now rove about the country. Th«
wild animals of South America, are both numerous and of
various kinds ; but the zoology, as well as the botany of
those regions, is very imperfectly known ; and some late
discoveries confute the theory of the celebrated BufFon^
concerning the universal inferiority of the American ani-
mals, when compared with those of the old continent. The

$OOTH AMmCA. IIS

tigers of Paraguay exceed Aose of Africa, in size aii4
strength, and seem to equal diemy at least, in ferocity. Q(
American birds, the most remarkable is the comior, wiiich
seems to be a species of vulture. It is described bynatiir
ralists as the largest and most ferocious of the £eathered
race. It is regarded as peculiar to South Af^erica, and-^
seems to be the most common in Peru.

The natural curiosities are both grand and numerous.
The towering Andes, with their terrific volcanoes, u^y be
tanked iamong die most sublime features of nature. Th^
cataract of Bogota, in New Granada, is said to have a per*
pendicular fall of more than four hundred 3rards ; which,
if the fact be correcdy stated, surpasses every thing of the
kind yet known in any odier part of the world. The interior
of South America has been as yet little explored. Whenever
it shall be more completely known, its mount^nous tracts
will be found variegated with numerous scenes of sublimity,
Qow lost to sciendfic observation. Like the rest of the new
continent, the countries now under consideration can boast
of no remains of antiquity. Few monuments of Peruvian
art, now exist, to attest the former civilization and iuge*
nuity of that people*

The capitals of the three viceroyuhies or grand divisions,
are Lima, Buenos Ayres, and Santa Fe de Bogota. Of
these, however, Lima is deservedly esteemed the chief|
and generally considered as the metropolis of die whole
Spanish empire in South America. This city is situated
about si^ miles from the sea, on the small river Rimac. The
houses are slightiy built, as die mildness of the dimfi:^, and
fre want of rain, render substantial buildings unnecessary j
and the tremendous earthquakes which frequently happeoi
have proved them to be unsafe. The cht^rches we rkhly
adorned with a profusicm of gold and silver ; and every
tiling bears die appearance of opulence. The commerce of
Lima is extensive, ^d its merchants are rich. The popii«
lation is computed at about $fty-fqiur tiiousand* Callao, oi^
4 bay of the sea, «t the 4i«tm$;e c^ litde mof^ than si:

rr M^. ^^^— ^^^^ - — ..^ _'■

jQ89 BAM8AT*8 trmVCBSAL HISTORY.

miles from the city, is the seaport at which the trade of Lima
is conducted.

Of Santa Fe dc Bogota, Ae capital of the viceroyahjr of
Nlew Granada, very little is known, except that it is a place
of considerable wealth and population.

Next to diese capitals, the chief towns are Potosi, Qui-
to, and Cuzco, in Peru. Potosi is grown rich and populous,
through its neighbourhood to the mines. It is the largest
and most populous town in all South America. Quito is
in this respect little inferior to Lima, being supposed to
eontain about fifty thousand inhabitants. Being an inland
city, and without any mines in its neighbotfrhood, its chief
trade consists in its manufactures of various coarse arti-
cles of linen, cotton, and woollen, with which it supplies
the home consumption of a great part of Pferu. Cuzco, the
ancient capital of the Peruvian monarchy, is in extent near-
ly equal to Lima ; and its population is also considerable.

The other principal cities are Carthagena, which has an
excellent harbour, strong fortifications, a flourishing trade,
and about twenty-five thousand inhabitants ; Cuenz, the
population of which is about twenty-six thousand; Guya-
quil, and Riobamba, each of which has about eighteen thou*
sand inhabitants. St. Jago de Chili is also a pleasant and
elegant town, of considerable extent and population. Pa*
nama is the point of commercial communication between
the northern and southern colonies, and consequendy be*
tween Peru and Spain.

Most of the islands of any importance contigaous to the
coast of South America, are claimed by Spain ; but none of
them are very considerable, and most of them are neglect*
ed. In a brief enumeration, beginning with those in the
Pacific Ocean, it will be sufficient to mention the most con«
siderable, and those that are best known. Chiloe, the-

•

principal of these, is in the bay 6f Chonos, and is aboat
one hundred and forty miles in length, by about tfair^ in
breadth. In the Gvlf of the Holy Trinity, is the island of
St^Martin, on which are some Spanish setdemeats of little

fiOOTH AMERICA. fgJT,

I
importance. The pleasant and healthful island of Juan

Fernandez, appears to be uninhabited ; but it is famous for
being during several years, the solitary abode of Alexan-
der Selkirk, a Scotchman, wlio was wrecked on its cOast^
and whose singular adventure served, in the hands of Da»
niel De Foe, as the basis of the celebrated romiance of Ro«
binson Crusoe. It is mentioned in the voyage of lord An*
son^ who found it an excellent place of refreshment for his
men, when sufiering extremely from the scurvy. Terra del
Fuego, at the southern extremity of the South American
continent, is generally considered as one island, but is in
reality, an assemblage of no fewer than eleven, separated
by narrow straits. This miserable region is entirely left
to the natives, who are of a middle stature, with broad, flat
£ftces, and use for clothing the skins of seals. Fish, espe-
cially shell fish, appears to be their only food, and they live
in villages, consisting of miserable huts of a conical form.
To the north-east of Terra del Fuego, and nearly opposite
to the straits of Magellan, are the Falkland islands, in fifty-
two degrees, south latitude. These islands were disco-
vered by sir Richard Hawkins, so early as the year 1594.
Being of little value, however, they were long neglected.
But in 1764, commodore Bjrron was sent to take possessioii
of them, in virtue of the British claim, and a small settle-
ment was formed at a place called Port Egmont, of which
the English were, in 1770, dispossessed by the Spaniards^
and the islands were soon after ceded to Spain.

To the south-east of the Falkland islands, is another isU
and of considerable extent, discovered in 1675, by L||
Roche, and in 1775, named Georgia, by captain Cook. It
may be described in a few words, by calling it a land of ice
and snow. Further to the south-east, are other islands, still
more dreary, bdng the throne of perpetual winter. Of the
few islands on the eastern coast of South America, that of
Trinidada may be reckoned the chief. On the northern
shore, the most celebrated is the island of Cayenne.

The conquests of Mexico and Peru, are the most striking
events ia the history of the new worlds previous to the es*

f^ RAMSAY'S UNIVEHSAL HISTORY.

fabUshmeat of the United States. According to the tradi?
tio^ of the Peruvians, their monarchy had existed during
thf reigna of eleven successive sovereigns, previous to the
|ime of ih^ Spanish invasion, and the twelfth was then on
the throne. They do not appear to have had any regular
chronology i but frcxn the common calculations of reigns,
their empire could scarcely have lasted more than three cen-
turies. Their traditional history may be comprised in a
few pages. Peru was originally possessed by numerous
^vage tribes, stnuige|*9 to every species of cultivation and
industry. From time ipamemorial, they had struggled
with all the inconveniences of this kind of life, without any
prospect of amelioration or any effort towards improvement^
^t last there appeared on the banks of the lake Titicaca, a
man and woman of majestic appearance, and clothed in
^^cent ga^ents, such as were unknown to the savage Pe-
iruvianft. They declared themselves to be the children of
the Sun, sent by their beneficent parent, to instruct and
civilize the human race. Their exhortations being en-
forced by a reverence for the Divinity, in whose name they
were supposed to speak, many of the savage tribes united
themselves together under their direction, and receiving
liieir commands as celestial injunctions, followed them to

. Cu^co, and laid the foundation of that city.

* . Manco Capac and his wife, whom the Peruvians call
JMamma Ocella, first instructed those savages in agricul-
ture and other arts necessary to the comfortable existence
of the human species. Their next step was to institute
liuch a system of government and laws, as might secure their
pwn authority, and the happiness of their subjects. The
Peruvian empire was at ^rst of small extent, its territory
isxtending only eight leagues from Cuaxo. It was more ex-
tensive, however, than that of Rome, under the first of her
king^ ; and within its narrow precincts, Manco Capac exerr
fised an absolute and uncontrouled authority. Many qf
the neighbouring tribes submitted to bis government ; tQ
that of his succesam-Si^odiers wene reduced by force ; and
the empire of the Incas was in this maaner gradually en*

»
larged. Hutihca Clipat, tfie twtellih in ski^fceftsiotk thM thii
founder of the state, reduced the province of ^uito^ and
by that important conquest almost doubled the extent of
the PeruTian^dominions.

Notwithstanding the obscurity of this traditional account^
it is easy to perceive that Manco Capac was one of thosii
extraordinary men, whose superior genius enables them to
|;ain an ascendency over others, to civilize barbarous tribes^
and lay the foundation of empires. The worship of th^
sun, the most conspicuous and the most glorious object, \h
the whole system of nature, was not uncommon in maiiy
Pagan nations, who were unenlightened by science ; and it
appears that, from time immemorial, the original inhabi*
tants of Peru, had been accustomed to pay divine honour!
to that splendid luminary, which they considered as the
author of the seasons, and the visible ruler of the heavens.
On this established opinion, Manco Capac founded his mi&<*
sion, and made it the basis of his authority. He deceived
an ignorant people; but the illusion was no less con*
ducive to their happiness, than to his own aggrandizement;
His laws were equitable and humane ; his government Was
beneficent ; and he introduced among his subjects a greater
degree of civilization than existed in any other part of the
vast continent of America. The laws of this extraordinary
person were far more beneficent than those of Lycurgus^
and if we were better acquainted with the particulars of hid
history, there is reason to believe, that, circumstances bi&^
ing considered, he might justiy be ranked with Solon and
Numa.

From the time that Nugnez de Balboa, had discovered
the Pacific Ocean, and some obscure hints had been re-
ceived, relative to the extensive and opulent country of
Peru, die eye^ of the Spanish adventurers were turned to-
wards that quarter. Among these, were three persons set-
tied in Panama, who undertook at their own expense and
risk, this daring and dangerous enterprise. These were
Francis Pizarro, Diego Almagro, and Hernando Luquez,
all of them persons of the lowest eictraction. Pizarro had

■

[_ ■

ir^A

jiQQ RAMSAY'S' VKiVfi|» AL AlSTdRT.

been es^doyed in keeping hogs tefore berenli^d. for;a «ol-^
dier ; and Almagro was originally a foundling : but both
were men of dauntless courage, trained up to war from
their youth, and accustomed to dangers and difficulties.
Luquez was a priest and schoolmaster, and his province
was to remain at Panama, to raise recruits, collect warlike
stores, provisions, &c.

On the fourteenth of November, 1524| Pizarro set sail
from Panama, with only one small vessel and one.hundred
and eighty-two men. He touched at several places on the
coast*; but his men being distressed with famine, fatigue,
and sickness, he was obliged to retire to Chuchama, where
he expected to meet Almagro with a supply of provisions
and troops from Panama. Almagro had, indeed, already
arrived at that port, but not finding Pizarro, he had sailed
to a different part of the coast — encountered the same diffi-
culties and dangers as his colleague, and even lost an. eye
in a sharp conflict with the natives. Chance, however, at
last brought them together, and they agreed that Almagro
should return to Panama for fresh supplies. But. the go-
vernor endeavoured by all the means in his power to
thwart the expedition ; and Pizarro was at last obliged to
return, after having landed at Tumbez, a place of some
note, where he obtained such a glimpse of the opulence of
Peru, as determined him to make fresh preparations for
prosecuting his enterprise. He arrived at Panama, nearly
three years after his first setting out, and so great had been
the mortality among his men, that out of his small number
of one hundred and eighty-two, he lost in less than nine
months no fewer than one hundred and thirty, by sickness
and hardships, few having fallen by the sword.
' The next step of Pizarro was to cross the Atlantic, and
procure a commission from the court of Spain. In this ob-
ject he succeeded so well, as to procure from the emperor,
Charles V. the commission of captain general, and governor
of the countries which he should conquer. For Hernando
Luquez, he obtained an ecclesiastical preferment : but the
interests of Almagro being neglected, a difference ensued

SOtTH AIIERICA. 2^

between them. A recoiiciliation, however, was efiected
through the mediation of Luquez, after which the prepara-
tions for another expedition were commenced. But with
die utmost efforts of their united fortunes and interest, the
whole armament which they were able to fit out, consisted
only of three small vessels, and one hundred and eighty
soldiers, thirty-six of whom were horsemen. With this
inconsiderable force, Pizarro landed in Peru, and having
surprised a town in the province of Coaque, he had the.
good fortune to find vessels and ornaments of gold and sil-
ver, amounting to the value of thirty thousand pesos, with,
such a quantity of other booty, as dispelled all the doubts
of the adventurers, and inspired them with the most san--
guine hopes. He immediately despatched one of his ships,
to Panama, with a large remittance to Almagro, and ano-
ther to Nicaragua, for the purpose of alluring adventurers
and procuring supplies. This judicious step soon brought
from Nicaragua two different bodies of troops, of about
thirty men each, who, small as their numbers seem, were
in his circumstances an invaluable accession to his force.

Had the Spaniards been able to penetrate into Peru In
their first expedition, they would probably have met with a
fmnidable resistance. Huanca Capac, the twelfth of the In-
caSy was then seated on the throne, and the Peruvians were
united under a monarch equally revered and beloved. The
state of afikirs was now changed. The blood of the Incas
had always been held sacred, and had never been contami-
nated l^ mixing with any other race. But Huanca Capac,
alter his conquest of Quito, had, in order to confirm his so-
vereignity over that province, married the daughter and heir-
ess of the vanquished prince. By her he had a son, named
Atahtudpa, whom, at his death, in 1529, he appointed his
successor in the kingdom of Quito, leaving the rest of his
dominions to his other son, Huascar, whose mother was of
the rojFal race of -the Iricas. This arrangement of the suc-
cession, produced a civil war between the two brothers.
Atahualpa was the conqueror, and made a barbarous use of
his victory. Conscious of the defect in his own title to the

VOL. IX. [38]

^)g RAMSAY'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY.

4:rown of Peru, he attempted to exterminate the royal race,
by putting to death all the children of the San, descended
from Manco Capac. Those of them he could seize by-
force, or by stratagem, became victims to his cruel policy ;
but Huascar, who had been taken prisoner in batde^ wa&
preserved for some time, that, by issuing orders in his name,
the usurper might more easily establish his authority.

When Pizarro first landed in Peru, the civil war between
the two brothers was not terminated ; and neither of the
competitors psud any attention to the operations of an ene-
my, whose number appeared to them too inconsiderable to
excite alarm. By this coincidence of events, the Spaniards
penetrated to the centre of Peru, without opposition, and
then met with only a feeble resistance from a disunited and
disaffected people. Pizarro immediately advanced towards
Caxamarca, a town near which Atahualpa was encamped.
On the road he was met by an officer, bearing a valuable
present from the Inca, with an offer of peace and alliance.
Pizarro, following the example of Cortez, in Mexico, an-
nounced himself as the ambassador of a powerful monarch,
who courted the friendship of the Inca ; and declared that
he was advancing to offer him his assistance against all
those who should dispute his tide to the crown. On enter-
ing Caxamarca, Pizarro took possession of a strong post in
the town, and sent a message to Atahualpa, whose camp
was about a mile distant from that place. The messengers
were instructed to confirm his former declaration of pacific
intentions, and to request an interview with die Inca, fin-
die purpose of explaining! '^he motives that induced him to
visit his country. On their arrival at the Peruvian camp,
they were treated with the most respectful hospitality, and
the Inca promised to visit the Spanish commander the next
day at his quarters. The vast profusion of wealth which
they observed in the Inca's camp, struck the messengers
with astonishment. On their return to Caxamarca, they
gave such a description of it to their countrymen, as excited
at once their wonder and avarice.

Prom his own observation of American sumners, and

SOUTH AMEUGA. SQg

xdleas, as well as from the advantages which Cottez had
derived from seizing Montezuma, Pizarro knew of what
consequence it would be to have the Inca in his power ;
and immediately made his arrangements for seizing on his
person, at the approaching interview. His troops were dis«
posed in the most advantageous manner, and kept in rea-
diness for action. The next day Atahualpa appeared in all
the pomp of barbarous magnificence, with several hundreds
of sn^adants, and seated on a throne almost covered with
gold and silver, carried on the shoulders of his principal
officers. Several bands of singers and dancers accompanied
the procession, and the plun was covered with his troops^
mountkig to about thirty thousand in number. The inter*
view was conducted in an extraordinary manner on the
part of the Spaniards. As die Inca drew xuear to their
quarter. Father Valverde, chaplain to the expedition, ad^
vanced with a crucifix in one hand, and a breviary in die
other, and began a long discourse, explaining to him the
mysteries of the Christian religion, requiring him to em-
brace its doctrines, and acknowledge the king of Spain as his
sovereign. This extraordinary harangue, confused rather
than explained by an unskilful interpreter, filled the Inca
wil;^ surprise and indignation. Of his own dominions he
declared himaelf the absolute master ; and with regard to
religious matters, he expressed a wish to know where the
Spaniards had learned such singular doctrines. ^^ In this
book," answered Valverde, reaching to him his breviary.
The Inca opcotd it with eager curiosity, and turning over
the leaves, lifted it to his ear, and listened with serious at-
tention. ^^ This," ssud he, ^^ is silent-^it tells me nothing,"
and threw it with disdain on die ground. The Monk im-
mediately cried out, ^^ To arms. Christians, to arms ; the
word of God is insulted." Pizarro at that instant gave the
ngnal of attack. The martial music struck up, the cannon
and musquetry began to fire, uid both horse and foot made
a furious charge. It is easier to conceive than describe the
amazement and^constemation of the Peruvians, at an attack
dbieh they so litdc ejq^ected* Dismayed at the destructive^

|BQ4h ttAJMSAY«9 lOmrSBgAL HISTOBY.

effects of the fire arms, and the irreaittibk charge <tf &e
cavaby, they fled in the utmost cooiiision. Pizarro, at the
head of a choaen band, rushed forward aad seized the Inca*
About four thousand Peruvians fell in this fiital rencounter.
Not a single Spaniard .was either killed or wounded, except
Pizarro himself, who received a slight wound inhts hand.
The conduct of dieir countrymen in this transaction is
condemed by all the Spanish historians..

The plunder of the field and camp was rich beyim^ny
idea which the Spaniards had. yet formed of the wealdi of
Peru, and they passed the night in the extravagant exul*
tation natural to indigent adventurers, on so great and^so
sudden an acquisition of wealth. The captive :moaarch ia
the meanwhile, soon discovered the ruling passion of the in^-
vaders, and hoped by gratifying their avarice to regain, his
liberty. The room in which he was confined was twenty-
two feet in lengdi, by sixteen. in breadth, and he offered to
fill it as high as he could reach, with vessels of gold. Pi-
zarro closed eagerly with the proposal, and the Inca imme-
diately took measures for fulfilling his part of the agree-
ment, and sent messengers to Cuzco, Quito, and other
places, to collect the gold amassed in the temples, and in
the palaces of the Incas. At the same time,- apprehending
that his brother Huascar, who was kept in confinement,
might engage the Spaniards to espouse his cause, he des-
patched private orders for his execution, and these, like his
odier commands, were punctually obeyed.
' Pizarro, in his cmnpact with Atahualpa, sq>pears to have
had no other intention than that of inducing him to collect,
by his authority, the whole wealth of his kingdom. Among
various circumstances whidi concurred to accelerate the
catastrophe of the unfortunate Inca, one of a singlar nature
is related by the Spanish historians. Of all the European
arts, that which he most admired was the use of letters ; but
he vras uncertain whether it was a natural or an acquired
talent. In order to determine the point, he desired one of
tibe soldiers to write the name of God, and then showed it
to others, of whom several couJkl read. At length he exfai«

Inted it tot Pizarro, who, nerer lumi^ learnt to read, was
obliged to confess his ignorance. From that moment, Ata«
hualpa regaided the commander in chief as a mean person,'
less instructed than many of his soldiers ; and he had not
the address to conceal his sentiments on the sul:(ject;
•llus mortiiied the pride of Pizarrov and operated as an ad-
ditional motsve to induce htm to hasten the destruction of
jthe Inca. It was^ however^ deemed requisite to give a legal
appearance to the transaction. A dourt of justice waa
foraied: Pizarro and Ahnagro sat as judges. Before this-
siogubr tribunal, Atahualpa was accused of usurping the:
dirone, of putting his brother, and htwful sorvereign, t<t
deadi, and of various other crimes. To judges predeteri *
pftined to condemn, slight evidence was su£Sicient. The im*:
fortunate prince was convicted, and sentenced to be burnt'
alive. Astonished at his sentence, he used every means to*
avert his fate : he even consented to be baptized ; but his
enemies were bent on his destruction. All he could obtain^-
was a midgation of punishment ; and, instead of being-
burnt^ he was strangled. Among those profligate adven-^
tturers, there were some who not only remonstrated, but
pntesled against diis barbarous proceeding; but their en-
deavours were inefiectual, and the more violent faction pre*
vailed.

. The treasure coUecfeed for the ransom of the Inca, had
been immediately divided among the soldiers ; and there is
no example in history of so sudden an acquisition of weal^
by military adventure. No less than eight thousand pesos,
a sum at that time equivalent to considerably more than as
many pounds sterling in tite present century, fell to tile
share of each horseman ; and half as much to each foot sol-
dier, after the king's fifth had been deducted, and Pizarro;
wirii tiie odier oScei^, had received shares proportioned to
tbeir rank. This abundance of wealth, flowing all at once
upon indigent adventurers, eaccited, in many of them, a d6*
sire of retiring, to spend the rest of their days in opulence
and ease. Piaarro readily gratified their widi, sensible that
the sight of Irishes, so rapidly' acquir^ w'ould aUiire^resfc

jiABfSArs wgnrmBML wstort.

adTenturers. He could not^ indeed, have seat «mt better re*
cmiting officers. No sooner were they arrived, at Paaama,
where they displayed their wealth to the view of their as*
tonished countrymen, than fame spread abroad, widi exag^
geration, the account of their success. The spirit of advent
ture was excited beyond all former example ; and the go-
vemors of several provinces found great dificuUy in re»
•training the colonists from abandoning their possessions,

'to go in quest of the inexhaustible treasures of Peru. In
spite of every check, however, so many fresh adventurers
resorted to the standard of Pizarro, that he began his nuurck
to Cuzco at the head of five hundred mea^ after leaving a

* considerable garrison in die fort of St. MichadL In his
march, he was feebly opposed by two bodies of Peruvians ;
but these he put to flight with great slaughter, and with
veiy little loss on his side. He then marched forward to
Cuzco,^ and met with no resistance in taking possesion of
that capital. The riches found there, even after all that the
natives had carried off, or concealed, exceeded in value-
what had been received for the Inca's raasimi. But as the
number of soldiers was greater, the shares were propor*
tionably saftaller. Each person, however, received four
thousand pesos, after the king's fifidi, and the shares of the
officers, were deducted.

Ciril as well as foreign war now desdated Peru* The
Spaniards had invested the young son of Atahualpa, with
liie ensigns of royalty, in order to use him as an instrui*
ment in completing their conquest. The Peruvians had
phiced a brother of Huascar on the throne of the Incas, and
die general who commanded for Atahualpa in Quito, hav-
ing seized die brother and cluldren of his master, pxit them
to death and usurped the sovereignty of that kingdom.
During these transactions, Ferdiaando Pizarro who had
been sent to the court of Spain, returned after having met
witii the most favourable reception. His br ot her, the general,
was confirmed in his audiority, and Almagrohad a govern*
ment allotted to him, extending two hundred leagues from
Ae stnriSism fiaiitt <tf iliat which was asaignsd to Pizarro.

la Ae year ISSS^ Pisarro laid the foundation of Lima, and
flbout the same time, Ahnagro attempted the conquest of
Chili i but having with great difficulty, penetrated a con*
siderable way into that country, he was recalled and obliged
%o desist from die enterprise, by a general insurrection of
the Peruvians, who then besieged Cuzco and Lima, and
with so numerous an army, as to threaten the extinction of
the Spanish name in that country. While Pizarro was
closely shut up in Lima, Cuzco, where three of his bro*
thers, Juan, Gonzalo, and Ferdinando commanded, was
reduced to the last extremity, as the Peruvians directed
their (nincipal efbrts against that ancient c^>ital. Juan Pi*
zarro, and several other officers of distinction were kille<j,
and the Spaniards had begun to think of abandoning the
city. Almagro arriving at this critical moment, defeated
the Peruvians, and raised the siege. But having obtained
possession of the city, he refused to deliver it up to Pizar^
TO, as he conceived it to be within the limits of his own
government. The Peruvians being subdued and dispersed^
a bloody civil war commenced between- Almagro and Pi*
zarro, which, after being for some time carried on widi great
vigour and various success, terminated in favour of the.
latter* Almagro was taken prisoner, in a battle fought on the
twenty-sixth day of April, 1538, and afterwards beheaded
in the seventj^fifth year of his age, by the command, of his
aatagonsst. Pizarro, now considering himself as the unri*
vaHed possessor of Peru, parcelled the whole territory
smiong.the conquerors : but from this division, which gave
immense estates to oaany of his adventurers, the partizana
of Almagro were excluded, aldiough several of them had
eminently contributed to llie conquest. This proceeding
irritated their minds against the governor, and excited
them to revenge. Almagro had left a son, a young man of
a noble and generous disposition, to whom the whole party
locked up as a leader. A conspiracy was soon formed unp
der his auspices, and Juan de HemMla, an officer of (listing
gttished abilities, had Ac charge of its execution. On the
twenty-sixth ef June, IMl, Herrada widi eighteen of the

jriii

HQg RAMSAT^ lamrEBSAL mSTOKV.

lAost detennined conspiratof s, clothed in complete amioinv
rushed at mid-day into the palace of Lima, and attacked
the governor with several of his adherents. Pisarrbs;
although without any other arms than his sword and
his buckler, defended himself widi a courage wortfiy of
his fotrmer exploits ; but his few companions bemg alt
killed or mortally wounded, he was overpowered by num«'
bers, and fell under the strokes of the conspirators, in
die seventy-fourth or seventy-fifth year of his age. The
assassins immediately rushed out of the palace, and waving
their bloody swords, proclaimed the death of the tyrant*
Being joined by about two hundred of dieir party^ they
carried young Almagro in procession through the streets,
and declared him lawful successor to the government. This
election, however, was not agreeable to all : and ahhough^
numbers of desperate adventurers and of persons disalfected^
to Pizarro's government, flocked to his standard, many of
die officers at a distance from Lima refused to recognize
his audiority. While things were in this unsetded state^
Yaca de Castro arrived from Spain widi full powers to as-
sume the government, and speedily assembled a body of*
troops. Hie Almagrians, having no hopes of obtaining'
pardon for so heinous a crime as the murder of the go-^
v«mor, marched against him, and both sides were eager to
bring the aSair to the speedy decision of the sword. .A
batde was fought with all the aaimoBi^ that could be isp
spired by the rancour of private enmity, and the last efibrta
of despMr. Victory, after remaining long doubtful, de*
clared at last for Vaca de Castro. The carnage was great
in proportion to the number of combatants. Of one thou- •
sand four hundred, the whole amoimt of the troops on bodi
sides, five hundred were left dead on die field, and a much,
greater number were wounded. Of the prisoners that were,
taken, for^ were condemned to deadi, and die rest banished.
' from Peru. The young Almagro, who had displayed great
courage in this engagement, made his esciq>e, but being be-
trayed by some of his officers, he was taken and beheaded
at Cuzco.

BOtfTH AMfiRICA. jjfQg

Ourfni^^iese transactions in Peru, the court of Spain IumI
ftrmeil a variety of new regulations for the better govern-
ment of the cohmies. Vaca de Castro was superseded, and
fliasco Nugnez Vela was appointed governor of Peru, with
tke titfe of viceroy. The new laws, however, occasioned a
great ferment in many of the colonies, but especially in
Peru ; and Goretalo Pizarro, brother of the conqueror, put
Mmself at the head of the malcontents. A bloody engage-
ment took place between him and thte viceroy, in whieh the
latter, after displaying' in an eminent degree die abilities
of a commander, tod the* courage of a soldier, fell covered
with wounds. By Gon2alo's order, his head was cut off"
and placed on the public gibbet in Quito. All Peru now
submitted to GonzalO, who immediately assumed the tide
of viceroy; Prancis Carvajal, one of the boldest and most
daring of* the' Spanish adventurers, and who althou^ near
fourscore years of age, possessed all the animation and en-
terprizing spirit of youth, advised him totally to reject the
audiority cyf Spain, and to assume the rank of an independent
sovereign. But OonzaSo, tonsidering this as too bold an
utidertaktng, chose rather to rule Peru in subordination to
Spain, and aspired no higher than to obtain his confirmation
in the tiffRce of- viceroy. His proceedings, however, be-
came a subject of serious consideration* at the court of
Charles Y . ; and it was fouikl necessary to send over some
person of consummate prudence, to quell this formidable
rel^olt. Pedro de la Gasca,'an ecdesiastie, a man of mild
and engaging manners, but of an extraordinary fimmess and
intrepidity, wais ehosen for iSiis important undertaking.
Prom die power in^itii Pitfcarro had ac(|uif^, and 4ie dis-
tihce of Peru from Spain, it was considered a diiiculttask
SO reduce -Mm to subjection by fbrce ; and it was deemed
most expedient'to offer a general pardon to Mm and his ad«
Itoerents^ on condition t>f resigning his authority, and sub*
tBMbig 4o a viceroy apt>ointed 4yy the crown. Gasca, how*
ever, having arrived at Panama, and hearing that Pillarro
was pj eparing for war, found means to assemble a body of
me:^, imd proceeding to Peru, endeavoured to compromise
▼oi. IX. t^^]

IIOI) BAMSA^i IHttlTBUAL HfiTMMIT.

matters by treaty. Bat Ptearro would not tiilMi to any
terms of accommodation ; refiised to resign his viceroyalljr;
*and declared Gasca a tnutor, and an enemy to ^tm cokMqr:.
There were, at that time, above six.tiiousand ^aniards set*
tied in Peru, all of them men accustomed to darin|^ and des-
perate enterprises ; and as he had no doubt of their union
in his cause, he thought himself able to set every efert of
Spain at defiance. Gasca, however, by Us address, detadied
numbers of them from his party, and tbe royal aomy waa
constandy augmented, while the farces of Pizarro giadnaUy
/u^u diminished. Observing this decrease of his influence, he
resolved to Jbting matlers to a decision* Both armies wese
drawn up in the field, ready for an engagement,- when Pi-
zarro, being abandoned by his whole ani^, exoept a fev
faithful adherents, was made prisoner. He was beheaded
the next day; and Carvajal, with some others of tiie moat
distinguished leaders, suffered the same punishment. The
esKecution of Gonzalo Pizarro, which ha{^>ened in 1548, put
an end to die civil wars of Peru, in which die gtcatest part of
those ferocious and desperate adventurers, who eonquered
that rich country, fell by each others' hands^in die field, ear
on the scaffold. It is somewhat remarkable, that among all the
adventurers who conquered Mexico and Peru, there were
none who ccmld be called regular, or merceaary soldiefs,
although many of them were extremely indigent, and had
money advanced for their equipment, by their principal
leaders. Every adventurer considered himself as a ooa»
queror, entided to share, according to his rank, not only in
the spoils, but also in the lands of the conquered eouatiy.
The conquerors of Peru^ however, acquired Ibrtuaes much
sooner than those of Mexico, as may readily be perceived
irom this sketch of their history. In Peru, the sham whicfa
fell to each man, at the division of Atahualpa's ransom, anA
at the capture of Cuzco, were sufficient to enrich the first;
invaders. It is also a singular event in the history of Spain
, and her colonies, that those rich and extensive countries,
were subjected to her empire by private indi^duals, at their
own expense and risk. The crown fi&rmdied them only

gOOTa AMttiCA. g04

wWi •coMtttftsions, wilhoat assivtiag^ them vntb a dollar
Jiom the treasury ; aad the hardships which these Spanish
desperadoes suffered, as well as the intrepidity and perse-'
veranoa which they displayed in prosecuting their enter-
pnaes^ equal any thing recorded in the history of human,
adintnture.

IWreHgion of die Pecuviaas was <kf a very different na-
aniv from diat of the Mesicaas. It was mild and benevo^
lent, and no human sacrifices were offered ia the temple of
die Sun. Some detached customs, however, indicate a spi-
rit less humane. On die death of an Inca or other eminent
peraoB, a |^eat number of his attendants wm^ put to death,
and interred round has sepulchre, in order that he might
appear in -die next wortd in a manner suitable to his dig-
nity. This,iiowever, does not appear to have been consi-
dered aa an act of cruelty, as the persons thus put to death
were supposed to hold the same offices under their former
mastors^ as diey did in diis world. Their government was
intimatsly comiected with their religion. They worshipped
the Sun^and venerated the Inca as his descendant and minis-
ter, la the arts of refinement, the Peruvians were superior
to> all the other Americans. They had the art of smelting
silver, mid making utensils of duu metal, as well as of gold :
and the Spaaiarda found a much greater quantity of diose
metals in Peru than in Mexico. The buildings of the Pe-
ruvians were far more substantial, as well as more elegant,
tbao those of the Mexicans ; but their cities were fewer in
number, and k^a populous. Cuzco was in magnitude far
inferior to Mexico, and thfre was no other place in Peru,
duit deserved the name of a city- The Peruvians seem to
iiave iKMseaaed a greater genius £or the arts of peace than
die Mexicans, but diey were far inferior to them in war,
and were much more easily conquered.

The religion of tho^ countries is the Roman Catholic,
wbicKis professed by the natives, who are subjects of Spain,
as well as by the S^paniards. The churi^hes and moiiasteries
are nummroua,. and many of them exceedingly rich.

The Spanish territories are divided with great precision

ji^:^tg^mmmjaa^&.^m^^^.

^0(1 RAteSAY'Q vmumMAi* HttrrOHY.

una vicer^yidtiM, «udi#fMes, frovtAcMy goystrnlwitt, jMr^
tidos, and missiona, or parishes. The three ▼keroyakwe
are those of New GrgBada, in the north ; Pevu^ inchkKng
Chili, in the middle i and Buesios Ayivs, in the south. Xlia
efipital of the first is Santa Fe de Bogota ; of the aeco«d»
Lima $ and of the third, Buenos Ayres. The nmmt aarifc*
ing characterietiQ of the polios of Spain, in- regard to h^
American eniptre, is an eMreme caution, which abnqm
|:eqps one m«un object in .vi#w, that of -retaining the cokttiea
in the most abject state of dependeDcte on thn parent cnin»»
try* For this purpose, ererjr asethed is praotised that can
IttfLve any tendency to counteract die anpiringTiewa of mm*
Vition, and render the cokmiata inattentiTe to puUic con-
oems. This jealous poHcy enckides owtry native of Ane«
raca, akhongh bom of Spanish parents, from ofices of
honour, emolument and trustir The viceroys and othet groat
officers, civil and militaiy, afe tdl nottvetf of Spi^ and
their appointment is only for a short thne. Their powet
being extsnsive, and its scene at a great disttoiee, the sifeort-
ness of its duration is considered as the sorest aseans of
securing their dependence. The chief ecclesiasties are ab^
sent from Spain, in conf (Mmity to tba snmn general syseem
of policy*

The colonies having no amy or n«fy, independent of die
mother country, their military and mnridme force is neces*
sarily included in that of Spain, and is increased or di»
mimshed as circumstances require^ We have not die metaia
of ascertaining die strength of Spanish Ameri^or die
number of tropps stationed- in die different pans of that
vast empire. It is certain, however, that it must at tSL
dme6 be small, in proportion to the great ensent of teivi^
^tory ; and those opulent coloniea must eonsequendy present
many vulnerable points.

]>r. Robertson computes the net revenue at one mil-
lion, three 'hundred and fifty diousand pounds steilhig.
Accordilig to a late writer, however, America is conttder*
ed ks'&cai-cely leaving any ckar revenue to the crown of
Spfun^ when all the expenses incurred on its account are

mnfk AMBWCA.

df^u&ied. TkbBGr cakulatiowy indoed, am little better ihaa.
loote cei^ectuDe.

#»nffTg the articles' of comnurce which the South Ame*
jmoi cokmies fiimiah, nay be reckoned cocoa, co^Um, si»«
t^f PerunaB bark^ and various other drugs ; but the chief
eftporta oonsist of the produce of the mines. The state-
ndBt of the . coinage of one year, that of 1790, given by
HelaM, hook th^x>fiaal f«gisters- of the minu of Mexico,
I^una, Potopi, and &t* Jago, may enable us to form some
idea/^diis bsmicb of commerce inthe South, as well aa in
the Nonb American dominions of %Nun. According to
this wri^, th# coui^;a of Mexico in that year, in gold and
silver,.amouBted to eighteen millions, sixty-three thousmidy
aix hundred and eighqr-^ifat piastres of eight reals, or
three millions, one hundred and sixty-one thousand, one
hundred and ibrtyfive pounds, eight shUlings steiting f
and that of the three Soesh Aafterican mints, to one million,^
eig^t hundred and four diousand, eight hundred pounds^
fourteen shillings, and siy pence. The great diSerence in
fjic .quantity of produce from die mines of Mexico, and
from thoae of South America, he aseribes to the following
causes ; first, the greater population of Meuco ; secondly,
its superiority in civil. police, commercial arrangements,
and habits of industry, in consequence of its being lesa
distant from Spain, and more advantageously situated for
trade ; and thirdly, the great encouragement given to min-
ing by every commercial house in Mexico. But he asserts
that Mexico can bear no compm*ison with Peru, in the
number and opulence of iti mines. As the Spamards l>ave
no setdements on the African coast, the colonies are wsph
plied withnegroes^dueiy by the Dntch and the Portuguese,
«^ tiU lately by the £ngfish.

The manufactures . of South America are of litde im-
portance. Its populadon may probeUy amount to nine
miUftesMi. But all compumtions of this kind, without any
positive data, must be considered as vague and unsatisfae-
lory.. It ia e^atty imposaibkxtQ make any just estimate
of the nnmbet of Spamards aad Creeks, scattered through

* -— "

fQ§ RAMSArS tmffeilSAL HBTORY.

Awse extensive domaifis, tmt tliey csn scttrcety be siippoft^
ed to amount to one million, five hundred dwosand. Tlie
pohcj of Spain has inratiftUjr tended to keep wSk other na»
lions in the dark concerning the state of her coloniet. Thfai
eircamstance snficriently accounts for the defeethreness ef
oar knowledge on these subjects.

The political importance of those immen^ ierritcnieSy
is at present involved in that of Spain, and to her tloiie
dieir political relations are confined. But it is easy to eott«
ceive their natural importance to be such, dvat tlieir trsns*
fer to aojr other power wotdd produce a considerable *poli*^
tical, as well as commercial rei^uiion ; and whenever they
shdl asMrae an independent form, a period which certain-
If^ must one imr arrive, Spanish America, if tmited, may be*-
come one of the most opijdent and powerful empires the
world has ever seen. Mexico alqne would constitute a great
aiid extremely rich state ; and Soudi America is still more
extensive and wealthy.

The literature of Spanish America is generally represent-
ed as very contemptible. There is, indeed, no reason to
sttppose it in a flourishing ttatt. It is, nevertheless, true,
that printing was commenced in Spanish America at least*
as early as 16T1, or thirty-six years before the first esta-^
Uidiment of a permanent English colony iA the country
now called the United States ; and that there are at present'
several periodical papers issuing from Spanish American'
presses. It is universally allowed, that the Spanish charac-
ter has degenerated in tiie colonies. Thiv is easily ac-'
counted for, from the private character of tiie first settlers,
tile nature of their pursuits, and the circumstances of their
situationl Their views are generally those of avarice. The
love of money is a sordid passion, which enervates tiie*
nrnid. The degeneracy of die Spanish character in Ame-
rio%m«y further be attributed to tiie depressing system of
pcdicy, trfiich extinguishes the spirit ot enterprise ; die flow
of wealth, which generates luxury ; and the prevalence o€
slavery, which pves rise to Ucentiousness, effeminacy, anil
indoksKe^ in a climate eufieiently iiivourable to their

MCIBAI

ICA./

grasrai* r von * ism iicstc MuifintiMf * nowcvct* ^ 'it uppcsvs
tlMtt'the SpMMfttds of America, if they lukvekrat tbe daring
aad enlevpriBiiig timrtt of their anceiiora, who conqiiered
thoae regioiii^ are leas coiitaliii»ated with the iKagustiiig
vices of aVarice aadantekjr. Both the SfNauards add Cre«
ofes, being attached to luxury, Badolsncet and o»tentatic%
rather diaa amuatod by the spirit of enlerpriae^ and the ati*
dity of gain^ treai th^r«slaves iHth huwanky. This is ob«
seifvaUe^ both in Ndrth and South Ameriea. In Me9i«o»
LiflMh and other great and opulent cities^ the negroes, like
die Roman slaves in the prosperous ages ot Rnase, aro
chiefly employed for domestic purpo^asy being kept for the
sake of ostentation, to swell the rstimies of the great and
opulent. In Soudi Amoriaa, indeed, the colonial character
appears to be the least contaminated.

PORTUGUESE AMERICA.

The Portuguese empire in South America, extending from
the frontiers of Ginana, latitude three degrees north, to
Port St. Pedro, in thirty-two degrees south, is about two
dioutand two hundred and forty miles in length; and the
hraadth may be considered as of at least an etiual extent

The country towards the coast is, in general, rather low
dian ekvated ; but, according to the common accounts, a
range, or perhaps diflerent ranges of high mountains run in
various directions, but chiefly from north to south, giving
rise to num^ous streams that flow into the great river
AmasBon. A great part of the coimtry appears to be co>
vered widi wood* JEhit we have no precise knowledge of
Brazil, except with respect to the coasts, nrfiich have been
frequently esqilored by navigators, and the principal ports at
which they have toudhed in dieir vojrages. From the warn
of curiosity and science among the Portuguese, this vast
country is still less known than Spanish America. The
extensive regions watered by the river Amazon, are an im«
mense level, in some parts covered with impenetrable
forests, and in i others frequently flooded by thf annual

|B§ BAMSATV iWUHftH »8T«T.

iMiiidstites of tiiat rmr/md it» mnoMmrj stHean.
CondftiMie, lA MuUqg 4awii liie river A i t aE o n ^ di4 aec
obierve a vingle MM, duriiip ihe spttce of t«M> bodAs,
lifter leiTTiii; the Poogo, tsH ^die nwBiunn of GuMoa «^
peared. * flevend rivers rise fram tbe ck viod tfacts of
ike * interior, and tun into the Atlande. Of diese, dbe
Hio PiiHicisco is the largest ; biit none of ditm 'are ir^
tsonsiderable. They are, however, extremely usefnl, in
alferding exceHent situations Coir sngarnniik. Gin* im^
perfect topography of dds coimtry, leaves ns ignorant
with regard to 4ie existence of any lakes except tiiose of a
temporary kind, formed in the iat country fay the annual
inundations. THie ihineralogy of Brazil is one of the most
important ftatures of its natural history, and that which
has at present die g re a test influence on its politicttl and
commercial state. Concerning the celebrated mines of this
country, however, we have little precise information. Alf
that we know of them is collected from scattered fragments,
in relations of voyages often founded on no better authority'
than vague report. The diamonds of Brazil aire not so fine
as those of Golconda. By an edict of 17S5, the king re-
serves to himself under certain conditions, all the diamoaddi
that are found to ' be above twenty carats. Gold mines
abound in several of the mountainous tracts, and some of
Aem are far within land. The soil of so extensive a c6un«
try must afford every possible variety, but according to aff
that is known or reported, the most luxuriant fertility is its
general characteristic. In an extent of thirtyfive degrees
of latitude, the climate is also various. In the northern
parts, under and near the equator, tiie climate is hot, the
tropical rains exceedingly heavy, and the country being flat,
and subject to extensive inundations, as well as encumbered
with immense forests, the air must necessarily be extremely
insalubrious. In proceeding towards die south, the climate
as well as the country grows more agreeable ? the coasts are
refreshed by At sea breezes, and the heat is less violent
tiian in several other countries in die same geograpliical po-
sition. In the southernmost part of Brazil, which lies be-

SOUTH AMHUCA. 00}!

yoad llie tropic of Capricon^ the climate is exceedingly
temperate, pleasant and healthful.

The vegetable prodactions are, in general, the same as in
other countries under corresponding parallels of latitude.
Those of the greatest importance are sugar, tobacco and
ported. The tobacco is excellent. This^rich and fertile
^fK;^;^|dig!c»» JQxeat ^iCft^ties.of sttgu- are ..]^raduced 9sAeifi^
country produces several species of pepper, with a variety
of drugs used in medicincy as well as in manufactures, and
abounds in all die esculent plants c<Mnmon to the tropical
regions. The plantain, the banana, the cocoa and the cho-
colate nut, are common, and to these many others might be
added. The different species of fruits are almost innume-
rable. Among these, die pine apple, the numgo, and the
tamarind, hold a distinguished rank. The forests are im-
mense, and the timber appears almost inexhaustible. We
have no precise account of the various productions of the
Brazilian and Amazonian forests, but among them we find
logwood, mahogany,, ebony and Brazil wood, from which
the country derives its name, and a multitude of odiers,
which grow here in as great perfection and variety as in
any part of the world. There is every reason to believe,
diat the southern parts of Brazil, under proper cultivation,
would be extremely fertile in the various kinds of European
grain, and perhaps also in wine. But the more profitable
cultivation of sugar, impedes that of grain, and die general
spirit of speculation in mining, causes agriculture to be ne-
l^ected. The zoology of Brazil corresponds, in general,
with that of Spanish America. The remarkable circum-
stance of die existence of herds of wild cattie is common to
bodi. In the nortiiem parts of Brazil, as well as in the
^anish territories, they are so numerous, that they are
hunted for dieir hides, which constitute a considerable ar-
tide of the exports, both of Spanish and Portuguese Ame-
rica. In various parts, especially of the northern provinces,
. serpents abound, and attain to an enormous size. The Bra-
zilian seas are also well stocked witii fish. We are not
informed. of any remarkable curiosities in Brazil.
VOL. IX. [40]

^"">

RAMSAirS UmrVBBBAL HISTORY.

CHIEF CITIES.

Rio de JaAeiro, or, as it it sometiiiieB called, the city of
St. Sebastian, the capital of Bra»l^ is situated in twentf*
two degrees, fifty-minutes sondi latitude ; about four milea
within die entrance of a bay of die sanse name, wluch fonne
a harbour, that for convenience can scarcely be excelled*
The city is built on a projecting tongue of land, and dl the
ground behind is broken into hills and rocks, on die sum**
mits of which, are woods, houses^ convents, and churches*
The squares are adorned with fountains, supplying water
from a magnificent aqueduct. The water is escdient, and
the aqueduct is a great ornament to the town. Hie shops
are well stocked with Manchester goods, and all other
.sorts of English manufactures. The mn^kets are well sup*
plied,aiid the ci^ is in a flourishing state.

At Rio de Janeiro all is bustle sad activity *in tiie vari*
ous pursuits of business, devotion, and pleasure. The city
' has several public walks : and <q>era8, balls, and masque-
rades, with a fine public .garden, c^tribute to the amuse**
ment of its inhabitants. Notwithstanding, however^ tiiis
general appearance of gaiety, the external oflices of re»
ligion are assiduously observed. Every hour .in the day
bells and other signals announce some religious solemni^^
and the streets are often crowded with processimu. The
inhabitants have, in general, an air of gaiety and content*
meat, and even the slaves exhibit no indications of q^isery*
The slave trade is here carried on to a great extent. Of
about twenty thousand negroes annually imported into Bra-
zil, nearly five thousand are sold at Rio de Janeiro, at the
average price of twenty-eight pounds sterling a head. The
population of this city is estimated at not less than forty
thousand blacks, and about three thousand whites. The
Portuguese ladies are remarked for their fine Uack eyes,
and animated countenances.

The environs of Rio de Janeiro are grand and picturesque*
The shores of the harbour are diversified and embellished
with cottages, farms, and planutions, separated by rivulets.

t^k

80UTB AMBKICA* 0Q|

ridges of rocks, indeaturea of small bays, or the skirts of fo*
rests : and the whole terminates in the distant prospect of an
tunphitheatre of mountains, rising in rude fimtastic forms,
and covered with trees to their summits. With all these beau«
ties of situation, the atmo^here is unwholesome. The in-
land mountiuns and forests, prevent the circulation of the
mr, and some marshy places near the town, the greatest
part of which atandr in a plain, emit noxious exhalations*
Fr<mi these causes the nights are generally damp and fog*
gy, and musquitoes abound. Rio de Janeiro merits parUcu^
lar attention, being destined in all probability to be one day
the capital of a vast independei^t empire, which shall per-
petuate the Portuguese nafne and nation in spite of all the
revohitions of Europe. It is at present the residence of
the royal family of Portugal, and the second civilized
sovereign power in the new world. As such it has been
recognized by the United States of North America, by the
a^pcnntmentof a ministier plenipotentiary.
. The religion of Brazil is the Roman Catholic. Here are
aiK episcopal sees, of which the bishops are suffragans of
the archbishop of St. Salvador. Most of tiiose dignified ec*-
desiastics are natives of Portugal, who find acomfortaUe sul>-
stetence onthis side of. the Atlantic. Churches and convents
are indeed sufficientiy numerous. The government was
fiormerly vested in a viceroy, whose office has now been su*
perseded by the presence of the reigning monarch. The
lnws may be presumed to correspond, in general, with those .
of Portugal. Of the military force kept up in this import*
ant colony, there is no certain account, but it is undoubtedly
small in jNroportion to the extent of territory. The naval
force stationed on the coasts seldom exceeded two or three
small frigates, but this number is now in<^eased by the
navy of the parent country. The revenue which the crown
of Portugal used to derive from Brazil, has been the sub-
ject of different statements and conjectures. By the best
information, it has been stated at one million of poimds ster-
ling, of which one-tiiird may be assigned for the expenses
of the government. The chief pan of this revenue is de«

-. -i.

$10 RAMSAVs vmnnAL histoky.

lived from iSie duonond miiies, wfakh are now li&e exclii^
sire property of llie crown, and from the king's fifdi of tbe
produce of the gold mines.

The commerce of Brazil is of great importance. Ander-
son has^^Ten^ in detail, the immensely rich cargoes of the
two fleets which arrived, in 1734, at Lisbon, from Bahia,
-*6r St. Salvador, and Rio de Janeiro. These consisted of
fifteen millions five hundred thousand crasados in gM^ be-
sides a vast quantity in dust, ingots, and bars, as well as of
diamonds ; togedier with sugar, tobacco, hides, and vaikious
other kind? of merchandise. The cohmy, since that time,
has become much more flourishing; and, from recent
events, its commerce is now still more important and ex-
tensive. The exports, as already observed, consist cbtefly
of the produce of the mines, sugar, tobacco, hides^ indigo,
various drugs, materials for dyeing, See. The imports are,
com, wine, and severd odier European productimia, witii
almost all the articles of European manufacture. The Bra-
zilians, however, have begun to make for themselves seve-
ral of tile most necessary articles of consumption. Hie poi*
pulation of tiiis extensive region has not yet been given in
any accurate statement, some having estimated it at nine'
hundred tiiousand, and otiiers at six hundred thousand'
souls.

The literature of Portugal is inferior to that of afanott
every odier European country ; but that of Brazil is in a
state truly contemptible. The polite arts are littie known'
in the colony.

Luxury, ostentation, and indolence, are the general ch»-
tacteristics of tiie Portuguese in Brazil. In proportion, in-
deed, to tile prevalence of negro slavery, these features are
more or less predominant tiiroughout America, and Ae
West Indies. In Brazil, this system prevails in its fiille»>
tent. The neighbourhood of the African coast supplies ti^
indolence of the rich, and tiie avarice of the planters witii
great numbers of menial servants, and robust labourers, at
a moderate price. About twenty tiiousand negroes are an-
nually imported into Brazil, tiie price being not above-

SOim AMKRICA.

814

tmemty^ght pounds each, for such as are sold for seventjr
pounds in the West Indies, or for diree hundred and ihf
dollars in Carolina and Georgia. Labour of every descrip*
tion is chiefly performed by slaves ; and so great is the
number of domestic negroes^ that in some towns, where
ihe greatest dissipation and extravagance prevails, it ex-
ceeds Aat of die whites in a ten fold proportion. The easy^
condition of negro slaves in Spanish America has already
been noticed. Their- state in Arazil is nearly simikr. The
peculiar circumstances of the Spanish and Portuguese co-
lonies in America, in combination witii the luxurious modes
of life which there prevail, have introduced a system of ne-
gro slavery greatiy different from that which has long pre-
vailed in the otiier European colonies. In the Spanish and
Portuguese setdements, tiie numerous Indian population
has inculcated the policy of attaching the*negrOies to tiie
European interest, in case of any contest witii the natives*
With this view, die legislature has used every prudent
means of encouraging tiieir acquisition of rights and privi-
leges. In these countries, the state of the slaves has a much
greater resemblance to tiiat of the villains in Emrope, in
the feuctal times, or even to that of the Russian peasantry,'
titan to slavery as it exists in the West Indies. The Spa-
nish and Portuguese negroes enjoy tiie same protection of
llie laws, tiie same possession of rights, and tiie same power
of acquiring property, tiiat marked the condition of the Eu-
rofpean bondmen in their progress towards liberty. Hie
aegroes are a sort of tenants, or undertakers of work, hk
particular districts, the asaater supplies the sbve witii a
certain quantity of provisions and toots, and tiie dave ia
obliged to retinrn a certain quantity <tf gold and jewels^
All that remains over tins fixed amooint, how great soever
may be its valuer is tiw jnpopertf of tiie slave. Under such
TSgulatioas, a negro, who happeaato be fortunate in his ua^
deftakings, may sometimes acquire a very considerable
p r o p eity * The rich pearl fisheries of Panama, and odier

* Brongbam't jM. PoL voL %bosl; ir.

_. jr

9AS

BAMSAY'g milVBRML WBTORY.

parts, are, in the same mawaer; in the hands, as it were, of
negro tenants. The skives in the towns are allowed to hire
themselves out at different kinds of employment, on condin
tion of paying to their masters a certain portion of their
wages. After a slave has by any means aci^ired property^
and wishes to purchase his freedom, if the master's demand
be exorbitant, the laws enaUe him to have the price fixed
by sworn appraisers, appointed by the magistrate. On all
occasions, in case of ill treatment, the slaves can, on making
complaint to the magistrate, ]H*ocure immediate redress. In
consequence of these regulations, the slaves are faithful and
laborious; the free negroes are numerous, industrious,
quiet, and attached to the country and government. The
greatest part of the artificers are of this latter class, from
which some of the best troops in Spanish and Portugueses
America have been taken. These circumstances will add
greatly to the strength of the colonies, either in repelliAgfcH
reign invasion, or in asserting their independence. Thi^-
part of the moral picture of Spanish and Portuguese
America demonstrates, that the existing system in those
countries is gradually [M-eparing the way for the complete
^mancipation of the. American slaves, by a process analo-
gjMis to tiiat which liberated the European viUmns. Thele»
nity with which the slaves are treated is, however, far from
having a beneficial effect on their morals, althoui^ in
Brazil, at least, they are probably corrupted less by indulig^.
ence than by example. If the morals of the South Ameri-
can Spaniards be as untainted as any of the other European
colonists, it is universally agreed diat the Portuguese of
Brazil are the most corrupt of all cis*atlantic nations. In
the country districts, they may, in regard to morals, be
placed in the same degree of the scale as the inhabitants of
the West India islands ; but in the great citiea, die Portu^
gnese and Creoles seem to unite the worst parts of the chap
raoter of the most vicious nations. The opul«it and Ivax^
riotts cUies of St. Salvador and Rio de Janeiro are regarded
as the centre of criminal dissipation, where the scattered
vices of all countries are eoUected.

WtfTB AMBttfCA. Sl3

Srtzil wat diteovered in 1498, but no settlement was
fDrmed till 1549, when the Portuguese fixed themselves at
liiebay of All Saints, and founded the city of St. Salvador,
which was made an archbishopric, and the seat of die vice^
vay. Portugal, in the year 1580, lost her independence, and
was, vnA all her flourishing colonies, absorbed in the then
etiormous empire of Spain. That fatal revolution, which
obscured the glory and overturned the power of Portugal,
deprived her of most of her valuable setdements in the East^
and had nearly produced the same eiFect in the West. The
Dutch having seized her chief possessions in die farmer,
turned their arms against her American territories. They
reduced the greatest part of Brazil, and would probably
have completed the conquest, had not the courage and con^
duct of the archbiriiop, assisted by a few priests and
monks, who could fig^t as well as pray, given a check to
progress. The Dutch made their first attack on Bra«
in 1624, and before the end of 16S6, had gained posses-
sion of the greatest part of the country. The Portuguese,
however, after emancipating themselves from the yckt of
Spain, gradually gained ground in Brazil ; and in 1654, to<«
tally expelled die Dutch, about thirty years after they had
first obtained a footing in that country. From diat epoch,
die Portuguese have remained in peaceable possession of
diisk exceedingly rich and extensive territory ; and the late
removal of the Portuguese court to tiiis country, forms f
new and in^nntant «ra in its history.

GUIANA OR CAYENNE.

The aetdement of Guiana or Cayenne, so called from a
small island in which the chief town is situated, lies between
the equator and the sixth degree of nmth latitude, and ex*
tends about three hundred miles from nordi to south, and
about two hundred and fortjr from east to west, along die
shores of die Adantic Ocean. The land near the coast is
low, and subject to great inundations during the season o£
the tropical rains. The soil is, in general, fertile i but the

%\% KAM8AY?B UnmiAL HISTQRT.

msC extest of Ae finrests and flooded grouiids,Teader8 the air
miliealtlifial. The moat noted produdioiis are sugar, coeon^
indigo and Cayenne pepper, which derives its name froaa
this country. 'The chief town, called Cayenne, ia shoaled
in a swampy and unhealdiy island, about thir^ miles, in
circumference. The town does not contain above <me Aou*
sand two hnndred in^te inhabitants, exclusive of Ae garri-
son. This dreary spot was the place of exile to which the ce)e<-
brated Cveneral Pichegru, with his associates, were in Sep*
tember 1797, doomed by the directory of France. Tins,
country is now subject to Great Britain.

Guiana, frequently called Surinam, from dw river of that
name, is situated <m the north-east of Cajrenne, and between
five and seven degrees north ksitude. The face of ^e
country is flat, to the distance of about one hundred miles
from Ac sea, and subject to inundations. It is watered by*
several rivers, the chief of which are the Essequibo, the
Surinam, the Demerara, the Berbice and the Conga. The
Essequibo b more than three hundred miles in length, and
nine miles wide at its mouth. The Surinam is a fine river,
three quarters of a mile in width, navigable for the largest
ships to the distance of twelve miles within land, and sixty
or seventy miles further for smaller vessels. The banks,
quite down to the water's edge, are covered with evergreen
mangrove trees, which render its na^gation extremely
pleasant. No country, perhaps, on the suHhce of the globe
has a richer soil, or displays a more luxuriant vegetation
than Guiana. The climate in the autumnal months is un*
healthy. Along the coast the air is damp and sukry, and
the waters brackish and unwholesome. The sea breeze
from the north-east, however, contributes to refresh die
atmosphere. The waters of the lower parts of the river
being unfit for drinking, the inhabitants make use of rain
water, caught in cisterns. The vegetable productions are
chiefly sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, ginger, rice, to»
bacco, and all the tropical plants and fruits, except such as
require a dry and sandy soil. The botany of this country is
a copious subject, and has been better illustrated than that

BOtJTR AWBSaCA. 81S

.of «sjr other part of South America. An herbaceous plant
called trocdie, grovs here, which most be esteemed a nngu*
lar praductiou of nature. Its leaves lie on the ground, and
aometimea attain the almost incredible dhnenBions of thirtjr
feet in lengdi, anddwee in breadth. So extraiordinary a
production is not beatowed on this country in vain ; itiservea
as a general covering lor houses, and will last several years
without any repair.* This country also produces quassia^
the castcr-oil nut, ipecacuanha, and balsam of capivi, as
well as some of the most mortal poisons, both of the slow
and the rapid kind, but equally fatal in their operation. The
woods are infested Mrith tigers, but of a diffierent species
from those of Africa. The birds of Surinam are remarked
for the beauty of their plumage, but few of them are lamed
for their melody. The rivers abound with fish, and areren*
dered dangerous by the alligators. The reptiles and insects
are numerous, and of an endless variety of species ; among
them may be reckoned scorpions, and tarantulas of the
largest size, and the mo^ venomous nature. Serpents of
various kinds also abound. Of diese, some are venomous,
and others remarkable for their -enormous size. One kind
of snake is described as attaining the prodigious dimen-
sions of thirty-three feet in length, and three feet in circum-
ference, being, with the exception of the Boa of India,
perhaps, the largest of all the serpent tribes. The immea-
aurable swamps and entangled forests of Guiana, Amazo-
nia, and the northern parts of Brazil, where the combinatton
of beat and moisture characterize the climate, are the great
nursery and unmolested rendezvous 6f the serpent and in-
sect race.

The chief town of Guiana is Paramaribo, situated on the-
western bank of the river of Surinam, at the distance of
about twelve miles from its moudi, in latitude six degrees
north. It contains about two thousand white inhabitants,.
of whom about one-half are Jews. The same remark may
be extended to the whole colony, a circumstance arising

* Pinketton.
VOL. IX. [41]

^te

■k-w a^ -j-r'J?

jHf uAM&jL'n xmmmAL iostoat.

fiKsn ibe tsfnhimx of tli«l people from Snqul. The dk*
proportion of cc^urs it greater isi diis, than in aajr odiar
European colony. On comparing the accounts of ^ffierest
writers, it appears that the ^ve population ezeeeds that of
die whites, in the proportion of at least twehre to one, ami
this is th^ colony in which slaves have always been the
wwrst treated. Nothing, indeed, can be more horriUe than
|he accounts which various authors have given of the inhu*
nmnity of die oolonisto in Surinam towards dns unhappy
class of men. If the Dutch have in this respect surpassed
all the odier Europeans, they have been the first that have
fclt the eflects of this impolitic as well as unprincipled con-
duct. Bands of negroes, impelled to revolt by despair, have
ledred into ihe interior parts of the province, and under
leaders of dieir own, have formed themselves into a dis-
tinct community, Hisse Maroons, as tihey are called, ra-
]^idly increasing in numbers by successive desert&ons from
Ae settlement, soon became formidable to their former
masters. The defonce of the colony against die negro
power, has for near a century past, been a principal object
of the Dutch government in Surinam. At last, in the year
If Td, the #hDle settlement was surrounded with a cordon
and forts at small intervals, as a bulwark agdlnst the ne*
groes# This measure rendered a strong military force in-
di^Mnsably necessary. The critical situation of the colo-
ny cddiged all the white inhabitants who were able to bear
arms, to form themselves into a militia, and led diem to
use every means of conciliating die native tribes and pro^
curing diei|: assistance. These circumstances exhibit a
striking feature in the history of negro slavery, and form
an intf resting contrast with what is seen in Spanish tmd
9ortvi^ese America, where die negroes being liberally
treated^ and eiyoying many opportunities of emancipation^
have i|eVer shown any disposition to revolt*

*Qse Bro^ghm's l ai gi U ga H sni sT thete wbjsctiy Coi Fsk Tsl. L
book X, $1 sad 4.

ABORIGINAL TRIBES ABTD UNCOMfiiUSRED

COUNTRIES.

A TCty couidcvable part of. South Ammot still enjoya
iu aaiive Uberlf . The imoieme interior region from Gin*
MM to the SpMii«h province of La Plata, may be comprised
in this descriptftOB } and further towards Ae south, Patago* '
aia is still possessed by its wandering and savagps tribes^
These countries are yet unexplored except by royagers on
the Maranoa, and some of the principal rivers which dis^
charge thonselves into that vast channel of the South
American waters. Here nothing is seen but wide regions^
extending along the banksy covered with immense and im*
peBMnd>le forests, or flooded by the annual inundations*
The vast countries called Amaaonia are, for the most part^
oemprised within the ostensible limits of the Portuguese
empire ; and further to the south, a considerable povden of
the interior is claimed by the Spaniards^ The Portuguese
are sole masters of the Maranon, or river of Amazons, as
the Spaniards are of that of La Plata ; and both these nationa
have extended their scattered settlements along their banks
to a vast distance into the country. Their empire, how-
ever, is here only nominal, and the central parta of the
South American continent are, in general, possessed solely
by the aboriginal nations. Little is known with certainly
of these vast tracts. They are supposed to be an immense
level of the most luxuriant fertili^, abounding in wild
beasts and venomous reptiles, and inhabited by numeroui^
tribes of savages, who, like their country, are in a state o£
uncultivated nature. Some writers afl&rm that these abori«
ginal Americans display considerable ingenuity in the con-
struction of their canoes, as well as in the manufacture of
tiieir warlike weapons, &c. The want of accurate know-
ledge with respect to these tribes, has in this, as in many
€»ther cases, been supplied by fiction. In die fabulous agea
of remote antiquity, the Greeks had imapned the existence
of a nation of Amazons* With this fiction, they embellished
many of their histories, as well as their poems. Other na-

( t t

S|g [HAMSAY'S UmV&RSAL mSTORY.

ticms adopted the fable. TheSpamards, cfaarmed'iridi
dream of antiquity, transferred it to America. There they
fixed the Amazons, and feigned a number of appropriate
circumstances to give the romance an air of credibiSty.
Since the propagation of this story, great pains have befen
taken to ascertain the fact ; bat this modern phenomenon htfs
hitherto eluded all research. Of the savages of Paraguay,
the more southern part of this central region, we hav^ some-
what more knowledge. The natives of this part of South
America are, in general, of a good size and of a fairer com*
plexion than most of die other aborigines of that continent.
They display also considerable ingenuity, vivacity and wit.
The Abipons appear to be a warlike tribe, but their num-
ber is not above six thousand. They inhabit the country
near the banks of the Rio Grande, a river which falls into
the Paraguay, not far from its junction with the Parana.
Their features resemble the European, and the nose is com-
monly of the aquiline form. From their childhood they are
accustomed to the use of the bow. Their arrows are some-
times pointed with iron^ and they are also armed with spears
of above eight yards in length. These pfeople have, by their
ferocious and warlike spirit, rendered themselves formida-
ble to the interior settlers. They undertake all their expe-
ditions on horseback. To supply themselves with horses,
they catch and tame those, which, as already related, run
wild in the woods. They appear to have no idea of a Su-
preme Deity, but acknowledge an evil principle, whose ma-
levblence they endeavour to avert. Their magicians have
y' great power and influence. The interior'part of Paraguay
. constituted the theatre on which the Jesuits, in the seven-
teenth century, erected a spiritual and temporal dominion
that astonished the world. That religious order, which, for
the policy of its measures, as well as for the talents and
erudition of many of its members, has been the most cele-
brated of all those that have flourished in the church of
Rome, was then in the meridian of its power and credit. In
Ais favourable moment, the Jesuits represented to the court
4»f .Madrid, that the immorality and imperious conduct of

SOFTH AMBinCA. ^ff

the 9()eiiiaFd8 excited the aver flion of the IndiuisaguMt their
government, and that throughlfae ministry of their order, ex*
tensive regions and mjrriads of uncivilized savages, might
without force or expense, be converted to the Catholic reli*
'gion, and brought under the dominion of the crown of Spain.
The project was approved of. Hie sphere of their operations
was marked out, and they entered with great spirit and ac-
tivity on their arduous undertaking. It is difficuk to con*
ceive the motive that induced these men to abandon the
Beats of ease and tranquillity, in order to traverse immense
deserts, to plunge into unexplored swamps, and subject
tiiemselves to every kind of misery and danger, in the midst
of ferocious and unknown savages. Whether it was an avi-
dtty of wealth, a thirst for glory, or zeal for religion, that
impelled them to sacrifice all the comforts of civilized so-
ciety, and encounter so many diificulties and dangers, re-
mains a problem in die history of lUe human mind. Their
-enterprising spirit, and vigorous perseverance, however,
were crowned with success. They found the inhabitants
but litde removed horn a state of i^iture, strangers to the
arts and comforts of civifized life, subsisting precariously
by htmtsng and fishing, scarcely a<iquainted with the. first
principles of subordination and gov^emment. The Jesuits
were so successful as to civilize and Christianize these sa«
vage tribes. They taught diem to cultivate the ground*—
to rear domestic animals— to build houses, and live in vil*
lages. They instructed them in arts and manufactiures—
accustomed them to the blessings of security and order»
and taught them to relish the pleasures of society. Respect-
ed and beloved almost to adoration, a few Jesuits presided
over many thousands of Indians, whom they governed with
a paternal attention. They maintained a perfect equality
among all the members of the community. The produce
of their fields, and all the fruits of their industry, were de-
posited in common storehouses, from which every indivi-
dual received what was necessary for the supply of hb
wants. By this singular institution, almost all tiie passions
that disturb the peace of society were extbiguished. Ptt^

jiABi8AY*j| vmmMkh HnrOBT.

BJahmfatt w«n, tlieMf<»«, cxtMiiiclf rare, aad ttft ngorMt
Imts were necessary*

The Jesuits had so arranged their ^a&, diat their goTenif*
iveat formed a kind of imperium in imperiq. On canditioA
of allegiance to the crown of Spain, and of paring the cajn*
tation tax for their subfects, they were left absolute masters
of the administration of their extensive provinces ; and their
whole system was artfully calculated for the establishment
of an independent empire, which should acknowlege no
otl)er sovereign than the society. They cut off all commn*
nieation between their subjects and the neighbouring set*
dements ; they endeavoured to inspire the Indians with a ha^
tied and contempt of the Spaniards and Portuguese ; an4
prohibited the private traders of either nation frcm enter-
ing the territory of the mission* ^ven such as were admit*
ted in a public capacity from the neighbouring governments,
were not allowed to have any conversation widi the inhabit
tants. In order to render all communiaiftion as diflfeult as
possible, they carefully avoided giving their subjects anjF
knowledge of the Spanish or other European tongue ; buA
laboured to make a certain native dialect the universal Ian*
guage throughout their dominions. Having, like the priests
of ancient Egypt, acquired an unlimited influence over the
minds of the people, secured their attachment and venenu
tion, and monopolized all the sources of power and emolu^
ment, they instructed their subjects in the European art of
war, in <Mnder to give stability and permanency to dieir em^
pire. They formed ihem into bodies ot cavalry and in£ui«»
try, CMnpletely armed and regularly disciplined. They pro-
Tided a su|kient train of artillery, together with magazines
well stored with the implements of war, and thus establish-
ed a military force not a little formidable to their Spanish
and Portuguese neighbours. Such is the account given by
hisUHians, of the empire established by the Jesuits in Soudi
America* Its tranquilli^ was not interrupted, nor its force
called into exertion, tiU the year 1757, when part of the
country being ceded to Portugal by Spain, the Jesuits re-
fused 10 submit to.tbis transfer. The persecution of their

Mimf AiCitiOiL Ml

oNtor in FdHngd, and afterwurds in Ffttuce, involved them
is ft new series of troubles ; and at last, in 176T, ihey were
expelled from America. It must, howeTcr, be observedf
that this piece of history appears to partake of the mystery
in which every thing relating to that celebrated order is in*
volved. Dr. Robertson, who consulted not only Charlevoix
and Ulloa, but also the reports of Chalotais and Monclar,
and most of the works that were written concerning the Je*
suits, at a period when Aeir affurs attracted the attention
of Europe, seems to pve implicit credit to the history of
their empire in South America, as it is here related, neariy
in his own language.* But it must be confessed, that in ihe
accounts of modem travellers, no marks appear of diat ex*
alted state of civilization, which has been represented in co-
lours so attractive, and of which die traces could scarcely
have been so soon obliterated. And it is equally certaitt^
that their armies, which in the writings of historians appear
so numerous and formidable, soon vanished before the Eu^
ropcaa troops. There is, on the Whole, strong reason to sua*
pect, that the history of the power of the Jesuits in Para^
guay, and of the civilisation and happiness off their sirii*
jects, has been considerably exaggerated.

A numerous Indian population existe bodi in Spanidh
and Portuguese America. The same may be said of Gui-^
ana^ of winch a small part only is subdued and colonised.
The natives of Brazil are represented, for the most part, aa
irreclaimable savages, of a middle stature, strong aiKl mua^
eular* Some of tiiose of Guiana are peaceable and inollen*
sive, but others are the most ferocious eS human beings,
especially the Caribs, who are said to be canaibala.f In
Terra Pirma are various native tribes, who are yet unsub*
dued* The Peruvians were found to possess a considera-
ble degree of civilization, and are ingenious, humane, and
lively. The Chilians are a warlike people. They made a
vigorous opposition against the Spaniards on their first in*

* Bohertioa's Hist. Charles V. vol 3»«book yi.
t Bancroft's Nat. Hist of Gttiaiia» p. 2W.

flflft> RAM8AT8 UWraiBM. OBTORY.

W9aaon of the country, and towanto ^lemountaiflifi niflaBr»
otts tribes ate yet free and formidable. Patagonia^ a coub*,
toy for the ixioat part level, but dry, destitute of timber^
and in a cold climate, is left entirely in the possession of
the natives. . It is here that a real or fictitious nation of
giants has caused as much controversy as that of the Ama-
zons.

WEST INDIA ISLANDS.

The numerous and important islands which border the
Gulf of Mexico, extending nearly from East Florida, al«-
most to the -mouth of the Oroonoko, have obtained the
name of West Indies, from an erroneous opinion entertain-
ed by the first discoverers, that they constituted a part of
India, or that they were not far distant from that continent.
Tlie principal of these ranging in a direction from west to
east, are Cuba, Jamaica, St. Domingo, and Porto Rico;
These are followed by tiiat remarkable groupe, known to.
the English by the names of Leeward and Windward Isl-
ands ; the former-distinction extending from Porto Rico to
Dominica; the latter comprising Martinico and all the
southern part of the range. The French include them all
under tiie appellation of windward, as being situated to-
wards die east, the point of die trade wind: ifaey are also
known in geography by the names of &e Antilles, and the
Caribbee Islands. Their situation and products are such^
as to render them of great commercial importance, but, ex-
cepting St. Domingo, their political weight is considerable
only by their connexion with Europe. The West India
Islands are so well known, that a minute description is un-
necessary, and a general view will suffice for every pur-
pose.

ST. DOMINGO.

Of all die islands comprised in tiiis extensive range, His-
paniola or St. Domingo, constituting an independent negro

^ .J

vnm 1NDIB8. 311^

giNRMBtteiit, apheaoiaeiicm in Ae hi«tor|r of Ac new world, '
htm acquired the greatest political importance, and merits
ia the highest degree the atte&tioii of the sta^tesman and^
die philoei^her. The ceatral part of St. Ddmingo, is «itti-^
ated under the nineteeath' degree of ndrdi l&titude. Its ex-
tent may be computed at something more than four hun-
dred English miles in length, from east to west, by about
ttOfi hundred and twenty miles in its greatest, or one hunr
dred^in its medial breadth. The face of the country is ex-
ceedingly diversified. Towards the coasts, numerous val-
ues and extensive plains disi^ay the most hixuriant fer-
tility. The interior of the isknd is/mOuntunous, and pre--
sents an intricate mass of hills, vallies, and forests, whidv
notwithstanding the early eoloniaation of the coasts, appear-
to-be imperfectly known to the Europeans. The diknate,
like that of the rest of the -West Indies, is hot and extreme- •
ly unfavourable to health. Homiipech's regiment of hussars
was in little more than two months reduced from one thou-
sand to three hundred ; and the nine^-sixthregpment totally
perished on this inhospitable shore. Of fifteen thousand Bri- '
tish and foreign troops employed in the expedition to St.
Domingo, no more than three thousand were left alive and
fit for service at the end of the year 1797; and about five >
thousand seamen are said to have perished in Aat ill fated
enterprise ."^ The Europeans, however^ having pecuniary:
gmn for their chief object in the establishment of cokmies/
have invariably postponed the advantages of health to the
views of avarice ; and in the eye of the! merchant, or the
planter, the exuberant fertility of the soil of St'. Domingo,
Blight ah^>ly compensate for the inconveniences of the cli-
mate. ' The average produce of all' the sugar lands, while
in the hands of the French, was not less than twenly-four
hundred weight per acre, which is' three times the average
fortility of those of Jamaica. In the richest soil of St. Do-
pdingo, a single acre has been known to 3rield the enormous
f|uantity of two tons and a half of sugar. Before the revo-
lution, the annual value of the exports in sug^, coffee, ii>-

* ♦ Edwarcb'8 Hist, of the West Indies.

VOL. IX. [42]

BAMS Ars uvnmsAii RisntmT.

Ago, BAokaseft, ruan, law and tinned UdMt awomNd «i
about four milliopii, sev^n hundred and «ixt)r-five thimwmj^
one • hundred and twea^-ouia pounds sterling. In regard
to^oBuaeice, St. Domingo was the OEKMt valuable of aU the
West India islands, and a mine of wealth to France.

Of all the Eur<q>ean settlements, too, Uiis was the most
remarkable for the abundant importation of slaves. Dur-
ing the ten years previous to the revolution, the average
nnmber of negroes annually imported, amounted to twenty*
nine thousand. And amidst this immense influx of Afiicans^
die nundb^ of white inhabitants had somewhat decreased^
la dM year 1790, the population of the French part of St.
JJKwningo, amounted to,&Mir hundred and eighty thousand
negro slaves^ with about twenty*fottr thousand mulattoes^
nr free people of colour, and no more than thirty thousand
eight hundred and thirty whites. From a view of diese
ctieumstaaces, it is easy to perceive, that the extent tn
which the slave trade was carried, paved the way to that
tpemendous revolution which proved so fatal to those
dealers in human flesh, whose grand object was to acquire
by dM sweat and the toil of die negroes in St. Domingo^
a finrtune that might enable them to pass the rest of their
Uves in die luxury «if Europe* The injudicious attempts of
liie national assembfy of France to reform her colonial
system, at a moment, when the modier country was agi«
tated by die moat violent commotions, gave the impulse to
dmt dangerous power, which die rapid increase of black
populadon had introduced into St. Domingo. Some ccm*
tmdictary decrees oi that assembly respecting the rights of
die fine mulattoesf to vote for represenmdves, excited the
first disturbances, which were farther famented by die in»
trignes of die Frendi planters. Various struggka ensued
between the wUtes and the people of oobnr. The obmmis*
sieners of France had emancipated and armed die sfatvea,
in orderto defend the island against the English.^ The rewK
ludonimng and levelling spirit of France was intiodnced i
her colonies, and St. Domingo afforded an ample and
vouraUev field for its oparadons. Theconseqjsonisehaabee^,

'WMrrntmsr. anil

diftt^ ifbr a ww of auny years on tte erMi prindple df •
exiermhntioii, the French are toCd7eipdledfW>matt|NDnft
of the iBfaund) and Ae singular spectacle is exhibited of an
independent and powerful negro ewpire, in the most eon*-
manding situation of die West Indies..

CUBA.

Hie island of Cuba maybe mnked next to St. Domingo,
to which it is equal or even superior in extent, and inferior
only in political importance. The southernmost part of the
coast is under the parallel of twenty degrees nordi, wMdi
is nearly the latitude of Ae norAern shores of St. Domint
go ; aiid Ae norAem extremity extends almost to Ae tro»
pic of Cancer. Cuba is about seven hundred miles in
lengA, by someAing less thatf seventy in medial breadA*
A chain of mountains runs across Ae interior, from east to
west; but the sml is in general extremdy fertile. It jfro^
duces a great quantity of sugar ; and its tobacco has a faier
flavour than that of any odier part of America* Among it»
productions may alsobe reckoned cocoa, mastic, longpepper,
ginger and aloes. The forests jMtxiuce ebony, mahogany^
and most of Ae different species of West India timber;
Aey also abound wiA cattie and swine. In consequence off
Ae more liberal policy, whioh Spain has adopted in her co-
lonial system, since 1765, the state of Cuba is gready ini»
proved. In a few years its cultivation has been so gready
extended, that its trade, instead of requiring only six ves*
sels, as formerly, soon emplojred two hundred. The coast
has several good harbours. St. Jago, on Ae souA side of
die island, was formerly dM ciq>itsl ; but diat honour is now
transferred to Ae Havanna, situated on the norAem coast.
This city was founded about die year 1519. In 1600, it
was taken by Morgan, the femous buccaneer. It surrender-
ed in lf6l, alter a gaUant defenee, to the British arms un-
der admival Pocoek and Ae eari of Albemarle ; but in two
years afterwards was restored to Spain. Knee Ae peaceof
1163, ita feftificatiens have been greadjr aufmented^ and

Lk.

3f0 RAH8AT*8ilIIIITfiB841. HISTORY.

fffe now reckoned almotc impregnaUe. ' Cubawas iita: dib*
covered by Columbus. But he ■oon afterwards abuidoned
it for St. Domingo, where he expected to find greater abun-
dance of gold. Some gold dust; however, is found in the
rivers, or rather rivulets of Cuba ; and there are- mines of
excellent copper. The gold mines of St. Domingo seem
not to have fully answered the expectations of the Spani-
ards, who abandoned them as soon as those of Mexico
were discovered. It was'not known whether Cuba was tm
island or part of the continent, till it was circmmavigwted
by Ocampo, in 1506; and in 1511, it was conquered by
three hundred Spaniards, under Don Diego de Velasquez.
From that time, until after the conquest of M^co, Cuba
seems to have been the principal seat of the Spanish power
in America.

JAMAICA.

. Jamaica, the phief of the British West India Islands, ii
in extent the third in the American Archipelago, being
S|bout one hundred and seventy miles in length, by sixty in:
breadth. A ridge of mountains runs from east to west, qtute-
through the middle of the island, and forms a variety of
beautiful landscapes. The lower declivities are covered
with forest, overtopped by the blue summits of the central
ridge. The blue mountain peak rises seven thousand four
hundred and thirty-one feet^ or nearly a mile and a half
above the lev^l of the. sea ; and the precipices are interspers*
ed with beautiful savannas. From these central mbuntains
descend aboye one hundred rivulets, of which the Black
River, running to the south, is the most considerable. - By.
the industry of the planter9, Jamaica is become a 'flourish-
ing setdement, but in fertility it is far inferior to St. Do*
mingo and Ci^ba ; and the cliiiiate, .though tempered by the
sea breezes, is extremely hot. St. Jago, or Spanish Town,
is regiirded as the capital, but Kingston is the princ^tidport-
The population is composed of two hundred aad;fifty thou-*
sand negroes, ten thousand mulattoes, and* about twenty
thousand white inhabitants^ The legislature consists of the

guvwuai, At council 4>f imtlve^ nbminated' by the onywn,
and a represeBttdve assembly of forty-diree menbers, cho-
sen by- die freeholders. The importation of slaves fr«n
Africa, formerly constituted a considerable part of the trade
of this island. To the immortal honour of the British parlia-
ment, tiiis commerce^ is now abolished ; and tiie capital
fHuch it emplo^red will be directed into some more lauda^
ble, perhaps, more pr<^table channel. The chief exports of
Jamaica to Great Britain, Ireland, and North America^ ars
sugar, mm, cofiee,.indigo, ginger and pimento. In t79f^
they were estimated at tiie value of two millions of pounds
sterling ; and jdie imports at one million five hundred thou*
sand pounds. The intercourse with Honduras and other
parts of the Mexican coast, is now neaiiy abandoned ; but
some litde trade is carried on witii Spanish America, by
small vessels which elude the vigilance of the Guarda Cos-
tas. The ammal revenue of the island, arising from a poll
tax, witiia duly on rum, and formerly on negroes, amount*
ed to more than one hundred thousand pounds sterling, off
which about seventy-five thousand pounds went to defray
die ordinary expenses of government. Jamaica was first
discovered by Columbus in his second voyage^ A. D.
1494. In 1655, it fell into the hands of die English, in.wfaose
possession it has ever since remained. The most striking
evems in its history are the wars with die Maroons, or in-
dependent negroes. These were originally slaves to the
Spaniards, and being left behind when their masters eva^
cuated the island, retired to the mountains, where diey
maintained their independence until they were lately sub-
dued, and most of them sent to Nova Scotia.

. PORTO RICO.

PcMEto Rico,whicK belongs to Spain, is about one hundred
and twenty miles, in length, by about forty in breadth. It
is a beautiful, well watered, and fertile island. The pro*
dnctions are die same as diose of Cuba« The northern
parts are said to contain some mines of gold and silver;
but the richer veins of Mexico and Peru have caused them

lUMSArs UWffVflASiyif BISTORT.

t9 be 4ieglect0d. Thit iafauMl wm ofte of those discovwed
by Columbus. In 1509, it was conquered bj Ponce de Le-^
on, the first explorer of Florida.

THE ANTILLES, OR CARIBBEE ISLANDS.

' The Garibbee islands, including Batbadoes^ which stands
detached towards the east, at some distance fircMn the ge«
neral range, are extremely fotile, and of great commercial
advantage to their possessors, who are chiefly the English
^nd die French. Belonging to the former are Barbadoes,
Andgua, St. Christopher's, St. Vincent's, Dominica, Grar*
■ada, Montserrat, Nevis, and the Virgm isles. Maitinlque,
Guadaloupe, St Lucie, and Tobago, were formerly Frendi^^
bat have lately been reduced by Great Britain. The Da-"
nish islands are St. Croix, St. Thomas^ and St. John. The
Swedes possess St. Bardiolomew's, and the Dutch, St. £u*
Stada. Of the whole groupe, Guadaloupe and Barbadoea
are die most important. The first, including Grand Terre,
br surpasses any of the odiers in size, being about sixty*
miles in length, by twenty-five in breaddi. Barbadoes, id«
though only about twenty miles in length, and thirteen in
breadth, is supposed to contain seventeen thousand white
inhabitants, to export annually ten thousand hogsheads of
sugar, and six thousand puncheons of rum, besides cotton
and other commodities. Maflinique is also a valuable isK
and. St. Vincent's may be considered as divided between
die £iq;lirii and the black Caribs, a sort of Maroons or des-»
ccndants of revolted negroes ; the whole British territory
eonsisdng of only six parishes. In some of diese islands^
are short ranges of central hills ; but die coasts are in ge-
neral level, and display the most exuberant fertility. Do-
minica contains several volcanoes, and there is reason to
believe that there have formerly been many in Guadaloupe.
The noted soufiriere, in dus island, is a natural curiosity,
being a vast mass of sulphur or sulphurated earth, which
eauts a continual smoke. The productions of all diese isl-
ands are similar, consisting of sugar, rum, cofiee, cocoa,
oMum, indigo, 8cc.

ii ^^

A. grouye of islands abo rws parallel to the coast af
S<»|ith Aaserica, of which the most noted are Curafoa and
Bonuri the fonner bekmgiiig to Great Britain, die fa^tser
to the Dutch. Under this division may also be classed
the island <tf Trinidad, recently ceded by Spain to Great
Britain. It is situated under the. tendi parallel of north lai*
titttde, and is about dtghty or ninety males in length. Aboat
one^thifd of the island consists of m^|paaino\LS tracts ; tho
rest has a fertile soiL The soudiem side is well adapted
to the culture of coffee, and the western coast has a safe and
commodiotts harbour. The climate of Trinidad is repre*
aented as excellent, and remarkably free from those hurri*
canes, which so ofina spread devastation in the odier West
India islands ; but the vehemence of the north winds has
been found prejudicial ao^die cocoa plantations. The B**
hama islanda form a nunevaus gro«^, but are little known
v^ noticed. The s<»l is, in general, barren ; their trade is
consequently small, and theiar es^Kirts of Htde vahie. The
whole nuinber of English settlers in these islands does not
exceed four thousand.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WEST

INDIES.

The situation of the West jndia islands within the torrid
2one-*-the similarity of climate, products and commerce-^
the mixture of European and African inhabitants^— 4tnd in
finct the whole combination of physical and moral circum*
sttmces, place them in nearly the same common predicament,
and remler aome general observations qyplicable to the
whole of this interesting portion of At globe. A moun-
tainous and woody interior, preaenting lofty heights, and
encumbered widi pathless forests and waste fertiUty, con-
trasted with level and cultivated coasts, may be regarded
as the most striking geognqphical feature in all the larger,
and most of ike smaller islands. Their situation indicatea
the common advantages and inconveniences of the tropical
cUmates. From their exposure to the sea breezes, the heat
in the West India islands, however, is far from being so in-
tense, as in the interior of Africa, Arabia, or Persia, where

RAMSAY'S UKtVCRSAL HISTORTv

Ais refiresKang influence is wanting. In all these islaaids
die: sea, breeze commences about nine or ten in die mom-
wg, when the solar rays have to a certsun degree heated the
kmd, and rarefied the incumbent air. Ttiis breeze blows
from every point of the compass, from the surrounding
coast towards the interior. In the evening, when the eardi
Is cool, die land breea^ begins, and blows in eveiy di-
rection .from the centre of the island towards die coast.
This alternate. motion of the winds, constantly tending to
restore the .equilibrium of the^ur, in proportion aa it is de-
stroyed by rarefaction, gready contributes to mitigate the
hei^t of the .climate. The combination of heat and mois^-
t^pxe, in the West Indies, however, is such as to render them
very dangerous to European constitutions. The frequency
of hurricanes, which ruin at once ML the hopes of the plan-
ter, and occasional recurrence of isarthquakes, which have
sometimes proved so fatal in Cuba, Jamaica, and odier isl-
ands, must also be considered as a striking and tremendous
characteristic of the West India climate.

The peculiar circumstances of the West Indies have given
rise to a particular state of society, in a great measure
common to all the islands, although possessed by different
nations. Littie attention is paid to literature or the arts.
Commercial speculation absorbs all the faculties of the
mind ; aild gain is the only object of pursuit. The dis{»t>-
ppitionate numbers of the two sexes, and the long preva-
lence of negro slavery, have unavoidably contributed to the
contamination of morals, and to the introduction of licen-
tiousness, as well as of indolence. The abolition of die
African trade bids fair to produce a beneficial change in
the. structure of West Indian society, more &vourable to
industry and morality, than the former state of things.

END OF DR. RAMSArS BBTORY.

.A.

SUPPLEMENT.

VQI., IX. [4.1]

SUPPLEMENT.

INTBODUCTION.

THE lamented death of Dr. Ramsaj prevented his bring-
ing down the faithful and useful record, which is presented
to the public in the preceding volumes, to a later period than
the year 1808. Had his life been spared, no doubt can exist
but that he would have continued the chain of his narrative
to the memorable year 1815, in which a period was put to the
ravages of war in every quarter of the globe. The winding up
of the great drama of the French Revolution, and the close of
the second war between these United States and Great Britain,
serve to mark that year as an era in universal history ; and it
has been deemed advisable by the publishers of this edition,
to pursue what it is probable was the design of the author,
in continuing the history of Europe down to that period. Ac-
curacy, the first duty of a compiler, has been studiously con*
suited in this Supplement, and if the narration be found suf-
ficiently clear, and free from prejudices, the want of the less
important qualities of ornament in style and diction, will, it
is hoped, be overlooked.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY

(CONTINUED,)

EUROPE.

SECTION I.

Ftfm the year 1808, to the conchtaton of the Austrian War

of 1910%.

The treaty of Tilsit, with which the preceding part of this
history terminated, was followed by a period of comparative
peace on the European continent. The armies of Austria,
Pnissia,^and Russia, had been successively defeated and dis-
persed by the great captain who at that time controlled the
destinies of Europe, and, from his perhaps politic liberality,
the two iirst of those powers had received the gift of an inde-
pendent existence : independent at least in name, whatever
proofs of humility and submission may have been required
of them. Austria, with crippled forces and an impoverished
treasury, saw herself surrounded on almost every side by the
tributaries of her ancient rival. The battle of Jena had so
effectually destroyed the energies of Prussia, 9nd had
at the same time so exalted the character of her conquer*
ors, that both physical and moral causes seemed to rivet the
chain of dependence upon that nation. With regard to
Russia, the case, though in some respects different, was
still essentially the same. Her hardy and superstitious
barbarians had, after an obstinate contest, been routed by
the disciplined soldiers of France ; and her emperor, struck
with the character, or duped by the artifices of Napoleon,
had, after a personal interview with him, signed a treaty of
peace and alliance, by which the continental politics of Rus-
sia were identified with those of France, and the saoie sys*

886 SUPPLBMENT.

tern adopted towards the commerce of England. The nu-
nor states of Germany composing the confederation <^ the
Rhine, a powerful engine in the hands of the French mon-
arch, enjoyed also, for some period after the sanguinary scenes
of 1807, the blessings of tranquillity. Denmark, whose unof-
fending weakness, and impartial neutrality between the belli-
gerents, ought rather to have excited respect and kindness,
had, as we have seen in a preceding part of this work, been
made the subject of one of the most unprincipled outrages of
which the records of history make mention. The cruel and
selfish policy of the British government had deprived her of
her whole navy, and of the extensive stock of military muni-
tions, which her prudent government had laid up for a season
of danger. Taken by surprise, she had no power to resist, and
the smoking ruins of her capital displayed the avarice and
perfidy of that government which in every quarter of the
globe has left desolation and destruction in its path. Sweden,
governed by a monarch whose conduct gave rue to the belief
that he suffered under a species of mental derangement, at-
tempted, after die treaty of peace at Tilsit, and die plunder
of Co^nhagen, to make a stand against the whole power of
France, and even ventured to enter the lists with Russia*
With all the boldness, but without any of the talents of
Charles XII, Gustavus Adolphus endeavoured to stir up a
crusade against the French emperor, whose destructicm he
conceived was predicted in the scriptures, and required by
our holy religion, and, with characteristic confidence, con*
stdered himself qualified for the station of leader of the
enterprize. His visionary projects brought great distress
and misery on his subjects, and would have terminated in the
the ruin of Sweden, had they not fortunately been coun«
teracted ; whik his versatile disposition and pecuUar frame
of mind prevented his receiving the confidence and sup-
port of any aUy. Shordy after the treaty of Tilsit, both Rus-
sia and Denmark declared war upon Sweden, and the for-
mer power invaded Finland with a considerable force. The
English government agreed, by treaty, to allow Gustavus
t 8 ^ 8 ^ subsidy of twelve hundred thousand pounds sterling, and

sent, in the month of May of 1808, a fleet and army to his

SUPFUSBIENT. 887

support. A iiiiiilindenUttidiQg soon arose between the allies :
Guatavus attempted to arreat the English commander, sir
John Moore, who escaped to the shipping ; and although a
paitifll action was fought between some English and Russian
ships of the line, nothing decisive was effected. The Rus-
sian amy in the mean time gained ground in Finland, and
Abo, its clpital, fell into their hands. Universal discontent
arose among the Swedes, which was not lessened by a know-
ledge which began to prevsul of the mental characteristics of
their monarch. A confederacy of the principal nobles was
formed against him, and, by a bloodless and well-managed
revolution, he was expelled from a throne for which he ap-
peared in every respect unfitted. This event took place on the f f^ /) ^
diirteenth of March, 1809. A diet being soon afterwards as- _ /
semUed at Stockhobn, the duke of Sudermania, uncle to the
late king, was chosen his successor, and assumed the tide of
Charles XIII.

The new monarch found it in vain to attempt the defence
of Finland against the overwhelming power of Russia. Mis-
fortune still attended the arms of Sweden, and peace was at
length purchased by the sacrifice of that province. The re-
lations of amity were soon afterwards re-established with
France, by the treaty with which Swedish Pomerania was
restored to its former rulers, and the government of Swe-
den consented to become a party to the *^ c<uitinental system,"
as it was caHed, which had for its ofaj[ect the exclusion of
British manufactures.

War, however, still raged with universal violence in the
south-western part of Europe. The penmsula was the theatre
of a coldest between an armed nation and a host of disciplined
veterans ; and all the horrors of an intestine conflict were
experienced by the people of Spain. Here, where exactly a
century before a similar game of tonbition, of intrigue, and
of warfare had been played by Fiance apd England, the same
contest was renewed with equal vicissitudes of success and
disappointment. The cause of the people, however, finally
triumphed in the nineteenth, as it had done in the beginning
of the eighteenth century. And it may be confidently assert-
ed, that neither Philip V nor Ferdinand VII would have

8S8 80PPLBMENT.

gained posseakion of the tbtone, had not the great mass of
die eommunity given them a thorough and active support.

The intrigues at the Spanish court previous to the nomina-
tion of Ferdinand VII ; the detention of diat monardi and
his parents by Napoleon ; the sudden and unanimous <^ipo-
sition of the Spanish pecqde to the elevation of Joseph ; the
preparation of a military force by the provincial Jimtas, and
the alliance with England ; the surrender of a ceosiderahle
French army, and the entrance of Joseph into the capital of
the 'kingdom, have been narrated in a preceding vcdume*.
We shall now take up the thread of the history from die lat-
ter event.

The arrival at Madrid of die '* intrusive king," for thua
he was styled by his subjects, took place on the same day
that general Dupont surrendered his army to the patriots.
No sooner was intelligence received of diis event, dian Jo-
seph found himself under the necessity of retnuunghis steps.
.He accordingly quitted the capital on the srth of July, and
fell back to Bufgos. Here the principal French army was
stationed; but die operations of Palafox, Castanos, and
Blake compelled it to retrograde still further^ and a strong
position was taken north of the Ebro, where it remained ui
expectation of reinforcements.

The British government, in the mean 'time, seizing eagerfy
upon the opportunity now presented to diem of acquiring
new allies, and of harassing their powerful opponent, inflaoK
ed by every means in their power the spirit of resistance in
the Spanish people, and took immediate measures for afford-
ing them aid in men and money. One of their first steps
was to set free a Spanish army, which, under the marquis
de la Romana, had been drawn by Napoleon to the north of
Germany. This force, in number about 8000, was brought
off from the Danish isle of Funen, and landed on the north-
ern coast of Spain. An expedition of about nine thousand
men, under the command of sir Arthur WeUesley, since so
much celebrated under the tide of duke of Wellington, was

♦ Vol. ril, p. 80, Sec.

supPLBMEirr. a9

dispatched froiA Cork ; and, after touching at Corunna and.
Oporto, proceeded to the Tagus. An insurrection similar
to diat of Spain had broken out in Portugal. The town of
OpoitofeUintothe hands of the insurgents. The French force,
under Junot, duke of Abrantes, was reduced to about 18,000
combatants, and the capital was threatened in different direc-
tions by the patriots, while the retreat of the maift French
army from Madrid had cut ^ all communication and sup-
port from the detkchment in Portugal.

Under these circumstances, the British troops landed at
Mondego bay. Their numbers by successive reinforcements
were increased to*" about twenty thousand, and an additional
force of ten thousand men, unde^Ur John Moore, was on
its way to their support. On the 16th of August, sir Ar-
thur WeHesley attacked and drove back dbout^six thousand
French, under general Laborde. On the 21st, Junot, having
collected together all his disposable force, which did not ex-
ceed nine thousand men, made a vigorous assault on the
English army, three times as powerful, and posted on Asi
strong hdghts of Vimiera. After an obstinate contest, the
French* army drew off in good order, without molestation
from die English ; and on the succeeding day a convention
was signed at Cintra, by which it was agreed that the French
army should evacuate Portugal, and be transported to France
in British vessels, with all its baggage and munitions. No
provision incapacitated tile emigrating army from serving
again in the same war. These honourable terms, obtained
by an army inferior by two^thirds in number to its opponents,
in a hostile country, and cut off* from supplies and assistance,
afford a strong proof of the superior skill of tiie French gene»
ral, and of the respect with which his talents,' and the brave*
ry of his troops, were held by the British.

The opposition to his plans in regard to the Spanish tiuone,
appears to have been somewhat onezpected to die French
emperor. When the intelligence of tiie capture of general
Dupont, and the retreat of Joseph from Madrid reached
France, he saw that it was necessary for him to repair by
his presence the military faults that had been con^mitted.
Having obtained a senatus consultum for the levy of 160,000

VOL. IX. [44]

* ^\

f$0(f

kien^ be 8«t out to a congresft at Erfurth abptU the middle of
October, and with bia usual expedition 'tramacted the buai-
ness for which it was asaembled, dispatched his legions across
the Pyrenees, and on the 8th of November raised his impe*
rial standard at Vittoria. The army of the ttorth«>we8it under
Hlake, amounting to about thirty thousand men, bad been
routed p^^evioufly to t)ie arrival pf Napoleon. That of Cas-
tano's, about sixty thousand in number, was posted on the
left bank of the Aragon. On the 33d of November a general
action took place at Tudela, in which the patriot army was
completely defeated by Napoleon, with the loss of ten tboi»»
sand men.

In the space of three .weeks after his arrival 14 Spain, the
French emperor found himself without any organized oppo*
nents; thetj|femies of Blake and Castanos having been in a
great measure br^^en up bv successive defeats. On the 4tli
of December, little further opposition having been made tQ
hia^progres&y he entered Madrid. The British army, now
commanded by sir John Moore, had after the conventioa of
Cintra advanced into Spain, where it was joined by a force
under general Baird, who had landed at Coruima. ^he two
corps now moved forward towards Madrid, when ike news ot
the destruction of the Spanish armies ccMk^^Ued the English
general to fall back. ' He was closely pursued by it^arft^a l
Soudt with about twenty thousand men, and, after a KHreat
of great hardship and suffering, led bja troops Ip Cocymna*
Here, on the 16th of January, iao9, a battle took place ber
tween the two armies, the force of which was probably about
equal. Both sides fougiht with great resolution^ The £n»
glish commander was killed, and the French troops vere
drawn off without much loss. At midnight the Sjng^Mi amy
were embarked on board their transports with little nsdestar
tion. Thus ended an expedition, which cost the Brittahna*
tion immense sums of money, a large qumber of men, m}*^ a
braye and skilful genend*

^For some time after this period, the French armies lay in
a state of comparative inaction. In the month of January,
Napoljipn, foreseeing ^ breach with the Austrian court, set
out fro^ Spain with the imperial guard on his return to Pa^

8U|»fU6MENt. i4l

ris. 8arag<d48a however, the defence ef which had excited^ / pyj m
80 miKh admiratioii, surrendered to the invaders on the 14th / «^*^ y
of February. After the capture of Corutma, marshal Soult
bent his steps to Portugal, and took possession of Oport% on
the 99l!h of March. A strong British army still remained
in Portugd, and was about this time reinforced by a body
of troops under sir Arthur Wellesley, who as^med the chief
Gommmid^ while a considerable force of the natives was dis-
eipltned and organized by .the English general Beresford.
These circumstances, together with the consequences of the
Austrian war, obliged marshal Sbult to retreat through the
province of Leon. General Wellesley having formei^ p junc*
tion widi the army of Cuesta, advanced soon afterwards into ' ^ '
* Spain. Onthe 2fthof July, nearTalavera de la Reyna, he
wan attacked by marshal Victor, and succeeded^'^fter a hard *

s^niggle, in maintaining his giaAnd, ^im the fbss of six
tb^msand men. The number of^the allies on this occa^on
amounted to sixty thousand : the French were liMe i^re v
than half as numerous. This victory, if victory it might be
called, where the numbers were so disproportioned, and the ^ ^ ^
k)S8 of the allies so great, was followed by the precipitate re- ' ^ ^^
'%^ treat of genial Wellesley into Portugal, leaving behind him ^ ^
all his skfrand w<;fltkded at the merc^of the enemy. For
his services on thitf oc^nion, geuei al'm'ellesley was created
by tl)f British gavernment viscount Wellington, of Talavera,
and^eceivad ^ thanks of the parliament, and a pension of
twl» tbdusand pounds sterling per annum.

In the north-eastern part of Spain, defeat and disaster fol- f ^ "

lowed the armies of the patriots, ifilt Belchite, Blake was ^ « '

attacked and routed by Suchet, with the loss of nine pieces
of cannon and three thousand men. In August, Venegas
was defeated with great slaughter by a French corps under
Sebaatiaoi. On die 19th of November, a signal action was
fought at Ocana between a Spanish army of fifty thousand
men under the marquis of Ariezaga, who succeeded Venegas
in command, and a French corps under king Joseph. A de-
cisive victory was obtained by the latter, the consequence of
tvhidi was the reduetton of Cordova and Seville, leaving a
free access to Cadix. Gtsrena, after a Idng resiiitance, capi*

//^f

Stt SUrPLEllBKT.

tulated OB the 16th of December ; and thus, artbe dose of
1809, the adherents ol Ferdinand had scarcdy an artny left
in the field, or a f<ntre88 untaken. The junta, driven from
SeviUe, betook theiilsdves to Cadiz, and, sensible that thejr
had lost the public confidence, issued a prochrasation for the
convocation of a national cortes at the be^nntng of the ensu*
ing^year. #«

Tife fiames of war were now again kindkd in Germany*
For some time previous to its actual breaking out, politictans
^ predicted a rupture between Austria and France. The peace
of Pfesburg had left the former reduced in poiArer,.Jbtut at3t
strongf^nough to be a dangerous enemy, and burning with
shame, and a desire to retrieve her misfortunes. She h*l
ickictantly declared war against England, and her hostilitiea
with that power were throughout merely nominal. She saw
with alarm the intiiihp utiion between l^ssia imd France^,
and the growing importance of the confederation of Ih^
Rhme. She assiduously husbanded her resources, and ap»
^ peared to wait only for a favourable moment to plunge again
4Bto hostilities.
^2 ' The opportunity was offered by the presence of Napoleon
with a large part of his force in Spain, to increaMtfae levies
of Austrian troops ; and on the 8th of Ap||l warM^formad*
ly declared. The whAl Austrian army is said to fl»ve cooh
sisted of nine corps of thirty or forty thousand men ea|A|. On
the 13th of April Napoleon left Paris, and arrived at Dana
wert on the iT'th, where he fixed his head quarters. On l||e
aoth and 33d two battleslwere fought, one at Avensburg
against the archduke Jdftn ; the othei^at Eckmuhl agaixM:
the archduke Charles, in wMch the Austrians were defieated,
with the loss of forty thousand men. The archduke Chariea
then retreated, and was pursued with his usual rapidify by
the French emperor, who took possession of Vienna on the
10th of May.

The archduke Chmies had retreated along the left bank of
th^ Danube, and by assiduous ezertbn collected an army of
about one hundred thousand men, with which he fixed his
head quarters on the 16th at Engersdorf, on the road to
Brunn. On the 19th, the French en^ecrs having consmict*

SUPFLBMSHT. 349

•

cd bridgtB acrois the river, lit a spot where' its stream is bro-
fceD by islands, the whole army passed over, and took post
on the left bank ; the right wing resting on the viUs^ of
Easting, and the left On the village of Aspera. In this posi-.
lion the archduke determined to attack them. On the 21st
and 23d of May* were fought two battles, which, whether we
consider the talents of the opposite commanders, the amoupt
of force dispiajred, the obstbacy of the struggle, or the^oss
of Uvea it ocoisioned^ have few parallels in history^ After
a series of successes a|id ceveraes, and the most unexampled
carnage, the French retreated in>tho night of the 22d, and
took a position on the island of Lobau. Their loss, ifldud*
ing some of their mcfit distinguished officers, is said to have
' amounted to upwards of forty thousand in killed and wound*
ed, exclusive of prisoners. The Austrians acknowledged to
have lost upwards of twenty thousand iif killed. ^

.After diis repulse, the first which the^French emperor had
ever received in the fidd, both armies lay stationary for
aoii^e weeks* The time, however, was not idly tfpent. Con«
siderable reinforcements were received on either side, and
the French employed themselves in re-constructiog the
bridges between the island and the left bank of the i>anube*
At length,'*^ the lught of the 4th of July, their whde^ army
crossed over, and on the 5th appearoi in order of battle on
the left^'^flao^ of the entrench^ Austrian army. Hie day
was «pent in manceuvring, and, in consequence of superior
gMeralship, the archduke Charles was cbmpelled to aban*
don his entrenchments, and meet his enemy in the open

9 piSn- Near to Wagrftm^ on the 6tb of July, was Cbnght the
celebrated batde of thai name, in which, according to the
PrencR bulletins'^ from three to four hundred thousand men^
with from twelve to fifteen hundred pieces of cannon, were

^ brottghtinto the field* The attacks of Napcdeon were as usual
directed agunst the centre of his enemy, which the archduke
had injudiciously weakened. That part having been driven
back, the wings were compelled to retreat, and a total and
irretrievable rout soon took place. Upwards of twenty thou«
sand prisoners are smd to have fallen into the hands of the
Victors, and the whole Austrian loss was rated by the French

^^ SOFKBHffillT. •

mt Bixty thousand men. The hitter admttted a lots of up*
wards of five thousand, and probably the nuanber was not
less than double that amount.

The result of the battle of Wagram put an end to die hopes
of the Austrian govemaEicnt. On the twelfth, an armistice
was agreed to, by which all the strong posts were given up to
the French. Ob the fifteenth of October, the definitive treaty
of peafce was ngned. Austria ceded all her territory on the
Adriatic to France, and portions of that in Germany to the
Rhenish confederacy, the king of Saxgoy, and the . ea^ieror
of Russia. The emperor Francis 'agreed also to acknow-
ledge Jcweph Napoleon as king of Spain, to accede to ^ the
continentaLsystem, and to l»reak oflF all inteicoune with Greai
Britain.

During these occurrences, on jnsurretiieo against the
French sys^m took place in Saxony, Westphalia, and Hai^
over. The revolt was headed by the didie of Brunswick,
but was of limited extent and short duration* The TyroAese
mouihtaineei%, also, who had. been transferred to die po^er
of Bavaria, took advantage of the rupture between Austria
and France, to U*eak out into a general insurrection, whidft
was for some time successful.. The trea^ bf peace between
these powers, however, stipulaSed that no succour AooU be
given by Austria 'to her former subjocta, fod a large force
being sent against diem, they weie oonspeUed, afher a gaflant
^crug^, to submit* Their leader Andrew Hoficr, who di»«
played all die virtues of a patriot, was taken and executed.

Thus terminated the thM war which Austria had undu^
taken agabst the French since the period of their nevolutste^
Every previous contest had left tliat empire defeatedand shorn
of its dominions, and it certainly was now in the power of
France to have reduced her to the condition of a province,
or so to have crippled her strength as to leave her no longer
in a condition to be formidable. The moderation of die em»
peror Napoleon was, however, equally remarkable and wiex-
pected ; and he had full occasion afterwards to regret the ex-
ercise of so much forbearance* With the war of 1809, ter-^
minated the career of his glory in Germany. After

SWmiBfBMT.

U§

period he was deMned no more to return to France with
the splendor and fame of a conqueror.

During the progress of the Austrian war, an expedition
was fitted out frpm E^oglasd^ which from its magnitude ex-
cited ^neral attention, and promised at one time to have a
nsateriil infliience oa the issue, of that contest. It consisted
of upwards of 4O,jD0O men, jirho were embarked on board a
ieet of thirty-nine sail of the line and thirty frigates, ac«
* oompaMed by numevous gun^boals and other vessels. The
bad forces were under the comosand of the earl of Chatham^
a son of the g^eat statesman of that name, but whose conduct
on this oecaaion fiuraished a strong proof 4iat talents are aol
always as hereditary as titled* The principal object of the
expedition appears to have been to gain possession of Flush*
ing, and tlie iriaads at the -entrance of the Scheldt, and to
dcatsoy tiie Fr^ich men <rf war and dock«yards at^Antwerp.
Qa the fifteenth of August^ 4ie island of Walchetfsn surren*
dcreds after a siUKit resistance, kat Ae assemblage « of large
bodies of tvoops |»«v«Bted any aittempt upon die continent*
The Britisb troops lay inaqj^ve for a considerable period^
exposed to the contagious fearers of that spot* In the mid»
die of Septeaibe|J[4^'^ Chatham with a part of the army re*

^^ turned A En^nd. Of those thatAJ^maiDed, the greater
jmportton wan swept off by diseaaev aad the island was finally
abandoned; on the twenty-third of December. This e^^edi*
tion, spared, aad continued at avast expense of money and
li vea» beeame the sdbject of ridicule to the French'^naticii, but
was approved of, after coDsidcraUe discussioo, by the pliant

» maforitiea of the British psurliament.

•Akboiigh uiMttCcess£ul io ita £ui:»pean operattons,. the
Engjiish government coatimMd to add to the foreign posses*
SJfloa of that country by conquest or otherwise, bk the course

i^ of the year \9M the Frsttch ookmiea of Cayenne, Martinique^
aad Seategsl, and the Spanirii city of St# Domingo smren*
dei«d t& the Bridsh arms. The ishmds «f ZanSe, Cephalo*
xua^ and odiera were also taken possession of, and the gov«r»*
asent of the septnittsular repuWc, as it was called, was re*
stored.

-^- • *

S46 aanuariai't.

SECTION II.

Ff^m the end of the Auetrtan IVar^ to the cwnmencement of
hoetiktkes witA Russia^ t810 to 1813.

Peace having been restored by the treaky of Viemia, ao*
thing but the oppoaition of the Spaaiarda to the king imposed
on them by^ Napoleon, seemed to interfere with his great po»
Uticsd projects. Germany enjoyed a cabn, which, altfaoogfa it
was the repose of slavery, appeared still prefen^le to the scene
of carnage and horror recendy exhibited on her plains. In
Italy the power of France was yet more firmly established*
The papa^ territories had been recently annexed to the king-
dom of Italy. Rome was declared the second city of the em-
pire, and the holy pontiff, illio had ventured in the nineteeniii
century a feeble^ sentence 6f excommunication against the em-
peror, was sent a prisoner to Avignon, wlusre he was stripped

^ of his external dignity, and deprived of i^ C(»imumcatioa
with his church. The celebrated tribunal; oF die inquisitioii
was abolished, the temporal power of the clergy att^ogated, ^
and various other measures in acamlanoe with the genius o f
the age, were adopted by the French government! ^ ^

The increase of the French dominions in Italy was fd*
lowed by the annexation of the seven Dutch provinces so the
empire. Under different names, tins country had partaken
of the changes, and followed the fortunes of France, since
the revolution of 1793. Originally called die Seven llinted
^ Provinces, it received afterwards tlie appellation of the Bata-
vian Republic, and when, in process c^ time, democracy be-
came unpopular with the versatile dispositions of the French
peofde, their more coM and phlegmi^c neighbours wot^e
coBq>^Ued to follow their example, md receive the present

.of a monarch in the person of Louis Bonapanse* Hie ays-
tern of Napoleon was adopted, as for as it was practicable to
compel an industrious and commercial people to a renuneia-^'^
tion of their ancient and approved mode of gaining a sub-

-- - ■*

SUPPtBMBMT. 847

aistesce. Holland sent forth her conscripts to swell the
ranks of the imperial forces, but all the efforts of her govern-
ment were insufficient, although aided by large bodies of
French douaniera and military trbops, to destroy entire-
ly her remaining commerce. British manufactures and
colonial produce still found their way into her ports. Her
ftew king, although a brother of the French emperor, pos-
sessed none of his genius or energy, and appeared' far better
fitted for the quiet walks of private life, than for the giddy
eminence to which he had been — it now appears unwillingly
—-raised. Napoleon, therefore, determined to take the bu-
aittess of the government into his own hands, and, with as lit-
tle respect to the wishes of the people, as he had displayed
in the change of their form of government, he compelled hts
brother to descend from the throne, and annihilated by a
simple decree the independent existence of Holland. In the
month of July, 1810, the seven provinces were formally an-
nexed to the French empire. The next object in 'the pro*
gress of armexathn^ to use the imperial phrase, was the
Hanse towns. After having suffered severely from contri-
butions and the destruction of their commerce, these once
opulent and flourishing cities were converted into provinces of
France, by an ordinance which declared, ^ the necessity for
die junction of the mouths of the Scheldt, die Meuse, the
Rhine, the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, to the French
empire/'

• With a more extended empire than Europe had witnessed
ainoe the days of Charlemagne, with a military force before
which the armies of every other nation had fallen, and with
a personal reputation to which nothing greater is found in
history, the emperor Napoleon found yet something wanting
to complete the lustre of his diadem. A matrimonial alii*
asce with one of die ancient families in « the circle of Euro*
pcan kings would, it was supposed, lend permanence to the
new dynasty, liesides giving reason to hope for personal
issue; of which with his then empress he was deprived.
These considerations, if we may believe the courdy records
of the empire, had their due weight with the patriotic Jose-
phine,' and accordingly, by mutual agreement, a sentence of
VOL. IX. [45]^

dm>rce was pR»outiced in legal iarm^ about the dose p£ Uie
year 1809 ; the comtinuaoce «^ the imperial title with an am*
pie revenue having been decreed to her.

The other scenes of the drama b^qu follow^* In the
/ j/^^ tnonth (^February of the succeeding year it was anooiincedt
that a marriage contract had been wgaed with the pfincess
Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria ^ jand a
few weeks afterwards, the ancient dynasties of Europe were
scandalized at the spectacle of a union pf a descemtant of
the house of Hapsburgh with one who from the station of a
private gendeman had raised himself to the throne by the
mere force of his genius. Nor was the connection more agree^
able to a considerable portion of tfa^ French people. The
men of the revolution, who had attached thenuelves to his
cause, looked' upon the measure as displaying too great a
leaning towards the practices of legitimate monarchy, and
many feared the influence which this new Cleopatra mig^
possess over his mind. One of the wishes of the emperor
was in due time gratified, by the birdi of die kiiig^f Rgme ;
but, whatever ideiw he may have entertained with regard Ip
the effects of lus connexion with the house of Austria upon
his possessicNi of the throne of France, his subsequent mia*
fortunes add another to the thousand proofs in histmry, of
the little influence su^h alliances peasess upon the pdUcy of
monarchs.

The war in Spain and Portugal, was in the mean time coa-^
ducted widi vigour on the part of the invaders, and, hdSorc
the close of the year 1810, the cause of Ferdinwid seemoil
totally lost. The battle of Ocana had left no force in the
field able to make head against the French, and the dty of
Cadiz, the place of refuge of the junta, was invested by
marshal Victor. Within the town, the niost vigorous pre-»
parations were made for defence. The fortifications were
riqiaired, all persons capable of bearing arms were eorcfled,
and a reinforcement of British troops were admitted isM
the city. The junta, which had become unpopular in SpaiB^
soon after the abandonment of Seville, conveyed the govern-
ment to a regency of five persons.

In the southern and eaaiem parts of Spain, die wiar wib

MtendeA widi aberatte success sod dtteut. Geseral Lacy,

wiA a body of patriots, defeated a Ffeach fofce of 6000 men,
and a sanguinary cooteat subsistcNl for some thne between
the momitidneers d Grenada and the invaders. On the 20th
of Fefetfuary, an obstinate engageanent took place between m
Frencli army under general Souham, and a Spanish force un*
der general O^Donnell, which resulted in the defeat of the
latter, with great ahui^Ur. The towns of Hostalric, LerU
dtt and Tortosa^ soon afterwards fell into Ae hands of the io*>
•vaders.

The great object of the French, however, in this campaign
was to 6bfaiii possession of Portugal. The army destined far
Ihfs ptirpose consisted of about fifty thousand men, and was
pkced tinder the command of mar^al Massena. That of the
irifies, under lord Wellington, is said to have amounted to
nearly eighty thousand, of whom tiiirty thousand were Brit*
ish. The plan of tile English general appears to have been
to retire slowly before the invaders, devastating the country
at their approach, unt3 he reached the vicinity of Lisbon,
where » strong Kne of entrenchments was prepared for his
defence. The fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida
were in possession of the idlies, and these it was necessary to
possess, before the French could advance into Portugal. The
first was invested by BEiarshal Ney about the middle et June,
and sustained a vigorous cannonade until the lOth of July,
trhen the garrison surrendered at discretion. Almeida was
next invested, and the trenches opened before it in the mid*
Ae of August. Although garrisoned by upwards of 5000
men, it surrendered by capituhtticm on the 27th. After the
capture of this post, lord Welfington concentrated the differ**
•nt d ivis ions of his army, and began Ins retreat towards Lia*
bon. On the 91st of September he took a position on tile
Sierra de Bnsaco, where, on the 37tti, he was vigorously at-
tacked by the French army. The principid efforts of Mas-*
aena were directed against the centre of his opponent, hot
fnding that the nature of the British position presented insu-
perable obstacles to success in tiiat quarter, he made a detour
to the right, and gaining the enemy's flank, lord Wellington
was compcied to reti^at. No ftirdier contest took place, and

aso

sumjoirarr.

the British trcx>pt were firmly established on their impregofr-
ble lines of Torres Vedras.

On reconooitriBg the British posts, Massena detemuned
that it was in vain to attempt carrying them by assault, and
contented himself with fortifying his own position and col-
lecting provisions, which began now to grow scarce, in con-
sequence of the measures adopted by lord Wdlington. Par>
ties of Portuguese militia scoured the country, and intercept-
ed his communications, while the British army, havmg die
sea in their rear, were amply supplied with munitions and re»
inforcemeats from England. Things remained in diis state,
neither party taking any decisive step fiar several montfaB.
. At length, finding that no prospect existed of kiducing
Us antagonist to meet him in the field, and being reduced
to extremities in consequence of the want of provisions, mar*
shsl Massena was compelled to g^ve orders for a retreat.
lyi On the night of the 5th of March, 181 1, he quitted his strong

camp at Santarem, and fell back leisurely towards the Monde-
go* \jXxA Wellington displayed no great eagerness to pursue
him. The prudent dispositions of the French commander
prevented his losing many of h» men, or much of his bag*-
gage, and in different skirmishes the British troops were re-
pulsed with loss. About the beginning of April, Massena
entered Spain, and Wellington laid siege to Almeida. With
the hope of relieving this place, the former collected all his
disposable force, and on the 6th of May made an attack i^mw
the British army, strongly posted at Fuentes de Onoro^ and
greatly superior in numbers. A varie^ of evolutions took
place on each side, and the contest was maintained with no
little effusion of blood till evening, when marshal Massena
drew off his forces, and crossed the Augida* Almeida was
now left to its fate, and the capture of its garrison was deem-
ed inevitable. On the night of the 10th, however, they blew
up the works, and silendy passing through, the blockading
posts, without being perceived, reached the main army on the

11th.

• While these affairs were takipg place in the north, the
province of Estremadura had been the theatre of some im-
portant operations. Early iu the year 1811, marshal Soult,

i^k

SUJVLIMENT. Ml

with an army of about twenty tfaousaBil men, after
defeated a Spaniah force of equal numbers under general
Mendiaabal, apd captured upwards of six thousand mcn^ laid
Mege to Badajoz. This important place surrendered on the
llth of March, and the garrison, more than 7000 in number,
were made prisoners of wan In the next month, marshal
BeresfiDrd, hariog collected a considerable force of Britkb
and Portuguese, advanced towards Badajoz, and established
a blockade of the place.

On the news of this event, marshal Soult left Seville, and
advanced to engage the allies. The latter were posted at Al«
buera, and on the 16th of May were vigorously assaulted by
the French army. The issue was long doubtful ; but the su«
perior numbers of the allies at length prevailed, and the
French fell back in some confusion* The force of the latter
was about twenty thousand men, chat of Beresford exceedod
forty thousand* The loss was very great: upwards. of six
thousand men having been killed or wounded on each aide*
On the next day, marshal Soult ccMnmenced his retreat, and
Ac siege of Badajoz was again resumed. Two successive as-*
saults were made on the 6th and "dth of June, which were
bravely repulsed by the garrison ; and lord Wellington, who
had now taken the command of this force in person, soon af*
terwards relinquished the siege, and with his whole army
went into cantonments in Lower Beira.

The siege of Cadiz continued during the year 1811 to at-
tract attention, being conducted with great vigour by the as-
sailants, while the place was defended with equal abili^r by
the Spaniards. In the beginning, of March, a body of about
ISfiOO men, English and Spaniards, under general Graham,
landed at Algesiras, and occufMed the heights of Barossa. In
tlus poaitiMi they were attacked by »- French force of 6000
9Aen, and, after a short but obstinate contest, were compelled
to retreat to their ships. The French lost a great number of
men, an eagle, and two generals, but had the glory of having
beaten back more than double their numbers. The chief ope-
ration in Catalonia was the siege and reduction of Tarragona*
Under the command of Marshal Suchet, the French invested
diis unfortunate town about the eqd of April. The inhabi-*

V^\U

/8i<L

•4* ^UPPLEMtiNT.

latits made t fp^ikt ^md most et>6ti«iate defence, by which thfe
wege was protracted ttiftil the 28th of June. On that day the
place was carried by assauh, and the most sboekhig scenes of
masmrcre and p91age KK>k place. Sachet then advanced intD
Valencia, and, after defeating Blake, on the S5)rii of Octo-
ber, captared the strong fortress of Murviedro. The citj df
Vs^encia was then invested, and, iMiough defended by up*
wards df eighteen thousand troops, surrendered in a few
weeks.

Early in the year 1812, lord Wellington, having received
eonsiderable reinforcements, broke up from his cahtomiients,
and moved into Spain. IiT« first measure was the siege of
Gindad Rockigo. On die 19th of January the place was car*
tied by storm. The garrison, which had sustained severe
losses, submitted, to the number of ITDO nnen. Badajoz was
next assailed. On the I6th of March the hivestment was
complete, and, practicable breaches having been effected, an
assault was made on the Gth of April. After perfanning pro*
digies of valour, the garrison were compelled to surrendet^
The total loss of the allied army in tMs affinr'was eqc^t to
the whole number of the French, which did not exceed fite
thonssffid men.

* After this event, the British commander moved t o w a r d!
Salamanca, where marshed Marmont was posted with con*
siderable force. Having recetved information that reitrfbrce*
ments were on dieir way to join his opponent, WelKngtoa
determined to attack him. On die ttd of June, a general
engagement took place between the two aomies, which at the
close of the da^ terminated in tfie defeat of the French, with
great loss. Two eagles and eleven pieces of cannon were
taken by ikt victors ; md to die severe wound received by
Btiarsha) Marmont, the French attribute the misfeitaiies of
Ihe day. The allies, however, are said to have asiounted to
upwards of eighty thousand men, while the Freneh force did
not exceed half that number.

Lord Wellington did not foil to improve ther advantages he
bad gained. The intelligence of die defeat at Salamanca had
eompelkd king Joseph to abandon MadrM, which was en«
tefed by die allies on die 19th of August. Another impor-^

f9Bt efiisct piodi^ced by this victQiy^ wu the dcimrtioD by tbf

French pf the blockade of Cadiz. Oa the 24di of AHgu«>

the inuaenae forts and batteries which had been erected lor

the purposes of the siege were destroyed, and the besiegers ^ \ '^

retired^ leaving behind them a numerous train of artillery.

On the 1st of September, lord Wellington quitted Madridi

and followed the retreating army towards Burgos. Through

thim city the French retired in the mjg^ leaving a considera^

ble garrison in the castle, which was defended by an exterior

Upe of works. After making some breaches in the forti4ica*

titms, the English attempted to carry them by storm, bvt

were repulsed with great loss. The French army having been

now reinforced and united, lord W<;llington raised the siegc^

and commenced a retreat upon the Douro. He wa^ immer

diately followed by the French, who pressed close upon hif

rear, and occas i on e d great losses to the allies. Nothing could

have been more disorderly or licentious than the conduct of

the English troops in this retreat, which was marked l^ f

total want of discipline and the most savage excesses towards

the unfortunate inhabitants.. Madrid, having been evacuated

by the allies, was again entered by the French on the 1st of

November. On the 24di of that month, lord Wellington

reached the Portuguese frontier, and distributed bis troops

into cantonments.

While die Spanish nation was thus struggling to throw off
the yoke of the invaders, it availed itself of the interregnum in
the executive power, to recur to its ancient constitution. Thf
general cortes or congress of the nation, which had been
convoked by the supreme junta^ assembled at Cadiz in the
month of September, 1810» From its outset it displayed a
spirit of freedom and independence, wordiy of the best days
of Spain. The liberty of the press was established by law ;
a redress of grievances was declared necessary ; and various
other measures adopted indicative of a disposition to reform
^e state. In the beginning of the year 1811, the members
of this assembly issued a proclamation, declaring that they
would not recognize any act of Ferdinand VII, while de*
prived of his penonal freedon^. But their most importaat
Inmsaction^ ^nd that for which thi^y will for ever deserve t^e

JS 1^

Kspect of mankind, wsn the formation of a written constita-
tion, founded on the principles of free government. This
great measure was adopted on .the 18th of March, 1812. It
is painful to reflect how few of the wise and good men by
whom this charter was framed escaped the proscription of
Aeir ungrateful and wretched monarch.

The period comprised in this secdon was distinguished (^
some important events in the political history of Great Bri*
tain. About the close of the year 1810, the king, who had
twenty years before been visited by an attack of mental de-
rangement, gave tmequivocal indications of a return of the
aai^e disorder with greater violence. The parliament, hav-
ing been summoned to take the subject into consideration,
passed an act for vesting the government of the kingdom in
a regency, composed of the prince of Wales, the heir appa-
rent of tiie crown. Certun restrictions were annteed to the
office for a limited period, which expired in 1813, when tiie
prince regent assumed the full power of the monarch. No
change of ministry however took place, and the political sys-
tem of Mr. Pitt, administered by his feeble disciples, con-
tinued to maintain the ascendancy in England. The same
course of measures, in regard to the internal politics of Great
Britain, was still pursued. The unfortunate catiioKcs of Ire-
land, who had hailed the accession of the prince of Wales as
opening a brighter prospect on their cause, were doomed to
have their hopes again blighted by the impolitic bigotry of
the British parliament. Another remarkable event was the
assassination of the prime minister, Mr. Percival, who was
ki&ed by a person of the name of Bellingham, while on his
way to the pariiament, on the 11th of May, 1812. Private
disappointment was supposed to have produced the act, which
was justly censured by all parties in that country. In a gene*
ral point of view, the abstraction of this minister from the
administration of affairs was of no disservice to the interests
of England. His adherence to the plans he had formed, was
as obstinate as those plans were injudicious. He mistook the
true interests of his country in its European policy, plunged
it into a war with the United States by his celebrated orders
in council, aiid alienated the afiections of a great portion of

SUFPLSMENT.

the people of Ireland by his religious bigotry. An endea*
▼our was made after his decease to procure a change in the
ministry, but the attempt failed of success, and his former
coDeagues were continued.

Several important acquisitions of territory were made dur-
^g this period by the* British government, which appeared
to proceed pari passu with that of France, in adding to its
already enormous extent of possessions. Guadaloupe, the
last of die French West India islands, was taken possession
ef in February, 1810. The isles of Bourbon and France,
and the Dutch setdement of Amboyna, were also taken dur-
ing that year. The island of Java fell into their hands in
tStl. On the continent of Asia the old system of conquest
mid oppression was still pursued. The dominions of the
East India Company were every year increased, and a pre-
test was never, wanting for the dethronement of some unfor^-
tunate native prince, and the plunder and massacre of his sub*
j«cts.

In the year 1810 an event took place in Sweden, which
may be Tanked asMOg die most extraordinary changes of the
time. The heir»apparent of die throne having expired sud-
denly, while reviewing a body of troops, the states of the
kingdom assembled in the month of August for the purpose
of choosing a successor. A variety of candidates presented
themsdves, but the choice fell upon the French marshal Ber*
nadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, who was elected by the gene-
ral voice of all die orders. This unexpected result was sup-
posed to be occasioned by the influence at the French em-
peror ; but, whatever may be the fiiet, it is certmn that the
conduct of die new priMe, after his elecdon, diaphyed fittla
attachment to the system or imeiests of his old master.

vol. IX. [46]

SECTION ni.

Fr§m the commencement tf- the Ruuian wctr to the battle of

LeifoicL 1812, 1813.

In adopting ifac principles of Napoleon is regard to
merce, and pledging himself to an alliance widi Aac tnonarcb^
the easperol- Alexander appears not to have been anfficicndjr
aware of the wants and habits of his subjects, and of die con*
sequences to which Uie new system migiic lead. Tvade was
an object of considerable importance to Ksssia, andhadbnen
sedulously encouraged by all the successors of Peter the Greats
With England especially an advantageous traffic had lo^g
been carried on. The commercial relations of the two coihh
tries were as old as the reign of queen Elizabeth, and had
become, in the process of time, too firmly, knit to be eas^
dissdved. 'Hie sudden stoppage, alter the treaty of THait^
of a great source of wealth and ^roqierity to individuals, as
well as of revenue to the nation, caused great distress and
considerable discontent in Russia ; and the nobility, the m^
comes from whose estates were sensibly reduced by the pro*
hibition of traffic, joined in the general opposttioo to the men*
sure. Influenced by diese circumstances, the emperor deteiv
mined upon a species of compromise, and in the manth of
December, 1810, imued a tikaoe^ or edict, forbidding the in*
troduolion of British produce and manufactures into his do*
minions, escept by special license ami in nentnd drips, ii^
censes were in consequcswe not uairequendy gmnted, and a
considerable relaxation took place in other respects in die
anti-commercial system.

To render the continental system, however, perfect as
a weapon of hostility against England, it was necessary that
it should be strictly enforced in all the maritime states of the
continent. While one government remained, by which it
was not rigidly executed, it became harmless, in consequence
of the facilities of communication from that country to others.

Hit pMte«iinga ki Russia were llierefbre regarded by Na-
poieoii with f egret md indigmitioii, because they were in
violatio* of a peeidye coaipact ^ and his remcnistraiices grad*
wdlj assumed a hostik air. The emperor of Russia, ah the
other haad, might prdbMj have been induced lo comply
with the wishes ol France, had not the increamig encroaeh*
ments of that power upon the territiM-ies of otiier sovereigns^
MMne of them in violation of the same treaty of Tilsit, given
faim a justifiable ground of resistance. Besides the annexa-
tiott of HoUaad and die Hmse towns to France, which we
have already noticed, the dutchy of Oldenburg, belonging to
m brGther»in-(aw ot Alexander, was taken possession of in
tSl 1 ; « large Froach force still remained in Prussia ; and in
she month of January, IglS, Swedish Pomenmia was occu*
fkd by a body of 90,000 French troops. In fine, it became
iSvident, in the beginning of 1812, that war between these
great powers was inevitable*

• The preparations on each side were on a^greater scale thaii
kave Srten place at any period of modem warfare. Russia
had since 1M9 been engaged in hostilities with the Turks, iik
ii4»di she had met with various success. A considerable
l^ortion of her troops was occupied in this contest, and it
was plainly her poficy to disengage them, for the purposes of
her approachrag hostilities with France. Peace with Turkey
Wtm accordingly effected in August, 1812. The whole
amount of the Russian armies, at the commencement of
the campaign, did not grefttly fall short of four hundred
Acmsand men, who were amply provided with artiHery,
and aB die munitions of wm*. This large force was how*
ever scattered in different parte, and it is not probable that
more than two hundred thousand were assembled at onie
pioint. The force of the French has been variously estimated^
It may safely be computed at not less tium four hundred and
fifity thousand men, including allies of all descriptionsw Fif«
teen hmidred pieces of cannon attended this immense host.

h the spring of 1812, treaties were concluded betwe^
France on one side, and Ausdria and Prussia on the other,
by which the latter powers agreed to furnish a contingent of
troops-; and^reciprocal guarantees of each others tenitoriea

t «

were entered inlo. Oa the 9ih of Magr Mapolecm Iclit Pam^
8ind arrived at Dresden on the 16^. Negociatioot were still
continued between Russia and France, but without elect.
On the 22d ot June, a proclamation of the French emperor
announced, that all attempts to preserve a good uHderstanfl-
ingliad failed i and orders were given Cor passing the Nie*
men. Somf accession of strength, was at this time received
by the French, in die meeting of a Polish diet at Warsaw,
which declared the independence of that unfortunate cotttt»
0*7, 4nd obtained the protection of Napoleon for the cause of
their reviving pro6perit}\

fhe French now entered the Russian territoriea.in nine di»
^^oos. The plan adopted by the emperor Aksandar, who
tgok the field in person at the commencement of the cmsp
pai|^ appeans tp have been purely a defensive one. The
'^ first Russian army of the west," as it was called, under
the command of general Barclay de ToUy, fell back on the
approach of the invaders, devastating the country around
them as much as possible. The first considerable stand waa
n^ide at the city of Smolenskow, on the direct road to Moa-
cow. On the 16th of August the French possessed theoa*
selves of the heights above this place. On the 17th at noon,
tb^ contest began, and, after a vigorous resistance, the Rua-
sians were driven into the city. At night the whole town was
discovered to be in flames, and it was found the next morn-
ing that the Russians had made good their retreaL.

The invaders continued to advance in the direction of
Moscow, and the emperor Alexander determined to mak^
an effort to save thia important city. For this putpose the
main body of the Russian army, amounting to. about one
hundred and thirty thousand men, under the command of
general Kutousoff, took a strong position near the village of
Moskwa. Here they were attacked on the Tth of September,
by the French army, of equal numbers, commanded by Na*
poleon in person. Seldom has a more obstinate or sanguinary
conflict been described by the pen of a lustorian. It conti-
nued without intermission from six in the morning until
night. Upwards of thirty thousand men are said to have
beto killed or wounded on each side. The pahm of victory

§tn>nmEMQr* "^

daimtthy both pttrdes, but the retreat of the RuMiana
dia next day, and the immolested advance of their opponents,
leave no doubt by wluch the esaendal advantages were

Ob the 14th of Jl^a^pA the French Army entered Moscow.
With this memorable day terminated the hitherto unbroken
aeries of glory and triumph that bad attended the arms of
Napoleon. Fortime, who had previously attended his foot-
steps in every pert of his career, seemed now to delight in
showering calamities upon him. Heretofore we have seen
him triumphant as a soldier and monarch, elevating himself
to the throoe of a paat empire, and adding to his own glory
imd>th«t of bis country in every campaign. Henceforward
we must behold him the victim of defeat and disaster in
every shape, deserted by his allies, deprived of his family
and of his cTown, a prisoner, and an exile.

Of the capUMPe and destruction of Moscow, very different
accounts have been given. The generally received belief is,
that for the purpose of depriving the French of a place for
winter quarters, the governor caused the city to be set on
fire. Whatever may have been the cause, the result was in
the last degree injurious to the hopes of the invaders. Mos-
cow was no longer tenafliMe, and Napoleon, who, presum-
ing on Ills past experience, and the terror of his arms, had
expected to dictate the terms of peace from the ancieat capi-
td of the czars, now finding the Russians inflexible in their
<^poutipn, determined upon a retreat, which ought to halve
been made long before. In this resolution he was confirmed
by the news of a defeat given to the king of Na|des, as he
was advancing with reinforcements from Smplenskow. On
the 19di of October, the French army quitted Moscow, and
began tcr retrace their steps to the Niemen. Hardly had they
commenced their retreat when winter set in, with all the hor*
rors of a Rusrian climate. It is not in the power of language to
pmnt the suferings endured by this once splendid and tri-
umphant army. Worn down by fafigue, hunger, and cold,
and closely pressed by di^ regular troops of their enemy, and
by myriads of savage and unrelenting Cossacks, who hover-
ed- round them, they fell by thousands along the high-way, olr

/i'/i

i\v >

■

ii<t«m]^ed to fli Ae a tfttfsd only to lie oat to fi^im -hf ikf
cfverwhelming force of the RusuaiM. Amid til tfe daim ny
md suffering, the native couMge of th« FVe«eb, and Ai
skill and magnanimity of HlMMgrertt^a^er, shone strikivglf
conspicuous. It is beyond the scope Af ' lhi a suflnnaiy 1» eas-
ier into the dcrtails, multiplied as they are, of this campaign.
It is sufficient to say, that after a series of losses and calami*
ties unparaUeled in history, the remains of the French army
Cached the Niemen on Ae 14th of Deeemher, andcrosaed
)t at the same spot at which they had pass^ six moiitln ha^
fore, flushed with the anticipations of gtory and success*
Their total losses in this memorable campaign have not been
pi«cisely ascertained, but it is believed that not more dm
fifty thousand of the whole allied force escaped capture o^
destruction. The Russian <^cial accounts boasted of lurr*
ing taken upwards of one hmidred and eighty dionaand oS^
^ers and soldiers, and eleven hundred and thiffty-one |»ece8
of cannon. Napoleon escaped unhurt. On the 9A of De-
dember he left his army at Wilna, and proceeded rapidly tn
Paris, where he arrived at midnight of the 19di.

The misfortunes of the French did not end widl Ae eva*
cuation of Russia. Animated with their recent successes^
die Russian troops, attended by tl m fe tmidafale Cossackk,ad<*
tanced into Prussia and Pdandy driving before diem tha
emaciated remains of the invaders. Theeifetis oJFtlie Prettck
feverses upon other powers began now to exhibit liiemsdvea.
The Prussian troopsy which, by the treaty of dio preceding
spring, were to assist the French as aHies, had ehieiy aated
(m the coast of the Baltic, and been emplo^^ed in the siege of
Riga. On the retreat of marshal Macdonald from that place,
die Russian general Wittgenstein, advancing along die Nie-
men, succeeded in cutting off his oommunicatiim' wkb a
Pfnssian' corps of fifteen thousand men, under die command
of general D'Yorck. On tlie following day, the Prusainn ge-*
nevaf eMtered into a negociation, and on die 30A of Decens*
ber a convention was signed, by which it was agreed that tim
Prussian force should retire within their dominlbns, and re»
main neutral during the i^maindcr of the campaign. -The
army of Macdonald was by this defection reduced to six

■-ir

tlnmliftd «M« By a 4cries of fliMteriy mw«»avrf0, lie mc-
CMd«d in cfffdbg Ms retreai islD Diotzic. Koa»g»b^g wii»
tniemd by tbe Rutaitns on tbe 6ch of Jtmiary. The PrMft^
MMM overy where received ibtcm at frieode. At Konigsberg
a regency wet estaUiilied in the name of the kiog of Pruaeie*
A procbmalioii was issued, calltDg upon the peo{^ to come
forward bf the rescue of their country i and a patriotic armyi
as it waa called^ waa established, of which general D' Yorck^
who had now openly jcnned llhe Russians^ took the com*
mand*

Thekkig ot Prussia was thus placed in a peculiar situa*
tioo« His capital was in the hands of the French, but hi|
-pMipla appeared clamorous for a war with their late aWcsi
and he hioftself could not but perceive that the moment waa
«nived tor retrieve his losses, and regirin his rank among
monarchs.. In this state of things, he suddenly withdrew
from Potsdaas, and removed to Breslaw« He there issued «
pfockmatita, smaioniag his subjects to tfd^e up arms in de*
ftnce of their king and country, but without specifying against
whom they were to be employed.

The Russians, in the mean time, continued to advance*
On the 8th of Febmary, Warsaw was entered by genera)
Miloradovitch. Dantsic and Thorn were invested, snd the
Austiians, having concluded an unlimited truce, withdraw
into Galicia. The king of Piussia now came forward, and
ofiercd himself aa a mediator between the belligerents. On
die 15th of Februairy, be proiposed an armistice, on the con^
dition that the Russians should retire behind Aft Vistula^
and the French behind the Elbe, leaving Prussia and all her
fort r e sses free from foreign occnpation. The proposal was
lasmediatdy rqected by the French. An equivocal answet
was returned by Akxander, who professed sentiments of
great attachment to Prussia. Frederick WiUiam then de*
termtnod to adopt decisive meaAres. On the 2£d of Feb«
xuaty, 1i treaty at alliance offensive and defensive was form*
ad with Russia, and in an energetic proclamation the people
of Plmasia were informed, that no medium was left between
war and an in|^rious ruin.

86ft sumjoiBNT.

Beriin was evacuated fay die French cm die 8d of Mai^
and entered by the Russians on the fottowiog day. Ham-
burgh fell into the power of the latter on the 18di, and its
garrison, together widi die troops that had occupied Swedish
Pomerania, were made prisoners in an attempt to join the
main French army. The king of Saxony, who adhered to
the cause of Napoleon, quitted his capital on the approach of
die Russians, a body of whom took possession of that part of
die city on die right bank of the £Ibe.

About diis period Sweden added herself to die increasing
confederacy against France. The political relations between
these two powers had for some time been in an unsetded
state. Sweden was eidier unable or unwilling to com|dy
with the requi^ions of Napoleon in regard to British com-
merce, and, although she had declared war against that coon*
try in 1811, it was more in name than in eflbct. The en*
croachments of the French emperor produced a^sptrit of op-
position in the crown prince, as well as in the people, which
led to atreaty of peace with Eng^d, condnded dxmt die
period of Napoleon's advance into Russia^ His reverses in-
duced a more decided step. In March, IBld^ a treaty of
alliance offensive and defensive was entered into between die
courts of Stockholm and London, by which Sweden bound
herself to employ a corps of thirty diousand men under the
crown prince against France, and to grant to Great Britain
die right of entrepdt in certain pons for the term of twenty
years. The consideration fior these services was the aimeza-
tion of Norway to Sweden ; a measure subsequently eflbcaed
by the aid of British fleets, in opposition to the earnest
remonstrances, and violent resistance of the unfortunate io*
habitants. The enormity of this act, and the unrighteous
manner in which it was carried into execution, ought to have
consigned its authors to perpetual infamy. Denmark, which
had been already robbed m her navy by Great Britain, was
now doomed to witness the dismemberment of her territory,
and the deliverance of her brave and generous subjects to the
oppression of their hereditary enemies. The partition of
Poland was not more morally flagitious, or more dangeroua

^^^nm

as an exampk, than this outrage, which, it ought to be re-
membered, was perpetrated by men who pretended to be
fighting for the liberties and happiness of mankind.

The empercH* Napoleon was employed, in the mean while,
in recruiting his forces, and preparing vigorously for another
campaign. He was received on his return from Russia with
die accustomed tokens of respect and admiration, and found
the senate still pliable to his will* A conscription of three
hundred and fifty thousand men was placed at his disposal,
and the most strenuous efforts were made in all quarters to
repair the losses incurred on the fatal retreat. Men enough
were found, but they were not the veterans of Marengo,
Austerlitz, and Friedland. Most of these had perished, and
the superb body of cavalry, the finest and most efficient per-
haps that the world had ever seen, was almost totally de-
stroyed. The new army, however, was still formidable, and
consisted of twelve corps, besides the imperial guards.
Their march was directed so as to form a junction near Jena,
and upon the Saale. Raving caused the empress to be de-
clared regent during his absence, Napoleon left Paris on the
15th of April.

The allied armies of Russians and Prussians, amounting
to about two hundred thousand men, had beeen for some
time concentrating near Leipsic, the sovereign of each coun-
try being present with his troops. On the 25th the emperor
of France took the command of his own^inny, in number
aboin one hundred and seventy thousand men. On the
Sd of May he was attacked by the allied troops in the plains
of Lutzen. The combat was long and obstinately contested.
Victory was claimed by both parties, but the retreat of the
allies on the succeeding day^ and ^he advance of the French
to the Elbe, shew that the result was in favour of the latter.
At Dresden Napoleon was joined by the king of Saxony
with his troops. On the I9th, another sanguinary battle
took place at Bautzen, in which the French were superior
in numbers. The allies fell back with great loss, but in good
order. They were pursued by the French, who advanced
through Silesia towards the Oder.
VOL. IX. [47]

864 SUPPLEBIEKT.

•

The emperor of Austria could not remain insensible to the
important operations that were taking place around him.
The greatest exertions were made to place his armies on a
respectable establishment, and he saw that the penod was ar-
rived, in which his interposition, backed by an imposing mili-
tary force, might settle the affairs of Europe on an e(][uitable
footing. With this view, he offered himself as a mediator
between the belligerents. The proposal was accepted by all
parties, and an armistice was concluded on the fourth of
June, preparatory to a congress to be holden at Prague, in
order to a general pacification. Plenipotentiaries from all
the powers accordingly assembled at Pi^gue, but the' nego-
ciations proceeded so slowly, that a prolongation of the armis-
tice became necessary, which continued it to the tenth of
August. It was plainly seen, however, that no prospect of
peace existed. Each party, therefore, exerted itself in pre-
paring for a renewal of the contest. The Austrian govern-
ment, especially, adopted such vigorous measures, as left no
doubt of its intention to take a leading part in future transac-
tions.

At length, on the eleventh of August, the day after the
termination of the armistice, a formal declaration of war on
the part of Austria against France was issued,^ which was
followed by the promulgation of treaties with Russia and
Prussia.

Hostilities now recommenced, with this important addition
to the strength of the allies, who so far succeeded in their ef-
forts, after a series of engagements^ as t6 force their opponents
to withdraw into Dresden. During several months the French
engineers had been occupied in adding to the fortifications of
this place. It was defended by 130,000 men, under the com-
mand of Napoleon. Notwithstanding these obstacles to suc-
cess, the allies determined upon an assault. This took place
on the twenty-seventh, and terminated in the repulse of the
assailants with great slaughter. Qn the succeeding day.
Napoleon led out his troops, supported by an immense train
of artillery, and an obstinate engagement' ensued. The allies
were again defeated with considerable loss. Among the killed
was the celebrated general ]\f oreau, who had quitted the

» V

SUPPU&MENT. 865

■

United States in the spring of this year, and received an im-
portant command in the allied arn^y.

With the battle of Dresden ended the victorious career of
the French in this campaign. A few days afterwards, gene-
ral Vandamme, with 10,000 men, was forced to capitulate to
a body of the allies. An accession of about 55,000 men was
received by the latter by virtue of a treaty with Bavaria.
The crown prince of Sweden joined them about the same
time ; and, after a series of hard fought actions, the French
were obliged again to fall back to the Elbe. On the fifth of
October, Napoleon quitted Dresden, in company with the
king of Saxony, and concentrated his forces, about 180,000
Strong, in the vicinity of Leipsic; To this point the opera*
tions of the allies were now directed ; and, on the sixteenth,
eighteenth, and nineteenth of October, were fought those de-
cisive battles which settled the fate of Europe. The allies
were greatly superior in number to the French, but it may
reasonably be doubted whether success would have crowned
their efforts, had not a spirit of disaffection prevailed among
the German confederates of the French. The desertion of a
large body of Saxon troops on the eighteenth, laid open an
important point in the French line, and although every thing
that military skill and valour could do to repair the loss was
effected, the mischief was irreparable. Napoleon ordered a
retreat upon Erfurth, and the whole of that night was em-
ployed in the operation. On the succeeding morning Leipsic
was carried by storm. The king of Saxony, with all his
court, the French garrison and rear guard of 30,000 men,
and the sick and wounded, computed at upwards of 20,000,
with the magazines, stores, and artillery, fell into the hands
of the allies. Napoleon himself escaped with difficulty. The
battles of Leipsic will long retain a conspicuous place in his-
tory, from the immense number of the hostile troops, the
skill and rank of the commandefs, and the great interests at
stake. Some part of the success of the allies ought certainly
to be attributed to the . moral influence of their cause ; and
the desertion of the Saxons and Bavarians from the side of
Napoleon affords an additional proof of the instability of

866 SUPPLEMBNi:.

those alliances, which are founded on fear rather than on af-
fection.

The operations of the Spanish war during thb period, al-
though on a smaller scale than those of which we have en-
deavoured to give a general oudine, were still of some mo-
ment in a political point of view. At the close of the year
1812, the main French army was cantoned in the neighbour-
hood of Salamanca and Valladolid, and occupied various
posts on the Tagus. The reverses in Russia had obliged
the French emperor to withdraw a considerable portion of
the best troops from Spain, together with which he re-
called marshal Soult, the most able of his surviving lieu-
tenants. The force left was far inferior in numbers to that
of lord Wellington ; and in discipline and equipment much
below what is generally seen in French armies. A contracted
scale of operations, and those chiefly on the defensive, seem-
ed to be the only course left for king Joseph to pursue.

The campaign, however, did not commence till towards
the end of May. On the advance of the allies, the French
were compelled successively to abandon Madrid and Valla*^
dolid. On the twelfth of June lord Wellington arrived at
Burgos, through which they had retreated after destroying
the works. Under the command of king Joseph, the French
now took a position in front of Vittoria, where, on the twen-
tieth, they were attacked by the whole force of tibe allies.
The superior numbers of the latter carried the day, though
not until after a hard struggle, which cost them upwards of
five thousand men in killed and wounded. The French loss
did not gready exceed this amount. Few prisoners were
taken, but nearly all their artillery and baggage fell into the
hands of the victors.

The consequences of the defeat were the evacuation of all
this part of Spain by the invaders, who retreated across die
Bidassoainto France. The intelligence of the reverses expe-
rienced by his army induced the emperor to order back mar-
shal Soult, who was constituted commander-in-chief of the
French forces in Spain, and joined his army on the thirteenth
of July. On the twenty-fourth he attacked the British posi-

. 8UPPLKMENT. 867

tion. at RoDcevalles, and drove the allies back with con-
siderable slaughter. Various other engagements took place
in this mountainous district, in which the French, although
seldom exceeding fifty thousand men, were generally vic-
torious. St. Sebastians, however, fell into the hands of
the allies on the thirty- first of Augusts An unsuccessful
attempt to carry it by storm had been made on the twenty-
fifth of July, which occasioned a severe loss. The final as-
sault succeeded, with the loss of upwards of three thousand
men, and was followed by the perpetration of outrages upon
the unfortunate inhabitants, which will long remain a blot
upon the British character. After several spirited actions of
posts, the army of lord Wellington entered France on the
seventh of October.

On the eastern coast of Spain, attempts were also made
to dislodge the French, but with a different result. The
English general, sir John Murray, landed a considerable
force in that quarter, and invested Tarragona. On receiving
intelligence of the approach of marshal Soult, he raised the
siege, and, without waiting to ascertain the strength of the
French, retreated precipitately to his ships, leaving behind
all his artillery. He was succeeded in command by lord
Bentinck, who resumed the siege, but abandoned it on the
advance of Suchet. Tarragona was subsequently evacuated
by the garrison, after they had destroyed the works.

8«S

SUPPLE&IENI'.

SECTION IV.

From the battle of Leipsic to the second Abdication of Napo-^

leon. 1813 to 1815.

The influence of the faul defeat at Leipsic, upon the
French interests in Europe, became visible not long after that
event. The remaining links of the confederation of the Rhine
were soon broken asunder. Hanover was freed from the
occupation of the French by the army of the crown prince,
of Sweden, and the king of Wirtemberg, who owed his re«
gal title to the favour of Napoleon, now joined the ranks
of his enemies. But the most important of these events
was a revolution which took place in Holland. On the fif-
teenth of November an insurrection against the French au-
thorities arose in Amsterdam. The Orange colours were
hoisted, and a temporary administration was organized in
the name of the late stadtholder. The example was followed
by the principal towns in Holland and Utrecht, and a depu-
tation was sent to London to invite the prince of Orange to
come over and place himself at the head of his countrymen.
The invitation was accepted, and the prince landed from a
British man of war on the twenty-fifth, and made his entry
into Amsterdam on the first of December. The Russian
^pny, under gsneral Winzingerode, had previously occupied
Amsterdam, and the small number of the French troops ren-
dered resistance unavailing.

On the retreat of Napoleon from Leipsic, a large body of
French troops had been left in Dresden, under the command
of marshal St. Cyr. The place was immediately blockaded
by the Russians ; but the garrison, although reduced by dis-
ease and famine to a wretched condition, held out until the
twelfth of November, when they were compelled to surren*
der, to the number of about fifteen thousand. In the same
month the French garrison in Stettin and its forts^ amounting
to 7000 men, also capitulated.

SUPPLEMENT. 869

The m^n body of the allied army was in the mean time
improving its successes. The retreat of the French from
Leipsic had been conducted in great disorder, and a la/ge
number of prisoners fell into the hands of the victors. An
attempt, however, which was made by a combined Austrian
and Bavarian army to intercept the retiring troops under
Napoleon, met with a signal discomfiture. The allies still
kept close on the footsteps of the Freiich till their arrival at
Frankfort. On the seventh of November, Napoleon crossed
the Rhine at Mentz, and proceeded without delay to Paris.
The senate was immediately convened, and a new army of
three hundred thousand men placed at his disposal. 'But a
•small part of this force was nevertheless raised. The con-
scripts now called out were necessarily raw and undisciplined,
and much of that prestige which formerly appeared to hang
around this great commander, had been dissipated by recent
events. That enthusiasm, too, which animated the people oi
France in the early part of the revolutionary contest, had al-
most entirely subsided. There still existed in France a con-
siderable degree of patriotism ; but it was not that species of ^

patriotism which republicans feel ; becausel it had reference ^

only to the mere country, and to the social ties common to
all mankind, and was not warmed and invigorated by an at-
tachment to the form of government, and those by whom it
was administered.

The allied sovereigns had now advanced with their armies
to^e line which divided them from France ; and on the first
of December, they issued a proclamation expressed in terms
of great moderation and propriety. It referred to the am-
bitious views of Napoleon as the cause of their taking up
arms, and professed their willingness to put an end to hostili- /^

ties as soon as the political state of Europe should be re-es-
tablished on a just equilibrium of power, promising, at the'
same time, to confirm to the French empire an extent of ter-
ritory which France had never possessed under her kings.
This declaration being pi^roulgated, Napoleon felt himself
compelled to pay so much regard to public opinion, which in
his situation was important, as to announce that he had en^

--*_ w-

i$n

8T0 SUPFLBMBNT.

tered into ncgociadcMM wkh the allies, and liad accepted of
die preUminary bases which they had presented.

The latter, although they agreed to negociate, determined
not to suspend their military operations. They accordingly
crossed the Rhine at different times and places, from Coblenta
to Bask, in three divisions, under prince Schwartzenbur^,
marshal Blucher, and the crown prince Bemadotte. The
whole force that entered France is supposed not to have been
much less than half a million of men. The first anrnes which
passed the Rhine, however, did not exceed three hundred
thousand. By the middle of January, marshal Blucher had
advanced to Nancy, and prince Schwartzenburg to Langres.
On the 25th of that month. Napoleon left Paris, to put him-
self at the head of his armies. He immediately advanced to
St. Dizier, and with wonderful activity and skiU attacked and
routed different bodies of the allies : but an engagement at La
Rothtere, on the 1st of February, in which he commanded,
terminated in his retreat, with the loss of seventy^three pieces
of cannon, and a considerable number of men. Its conse-
quences were the advance of the allies to Troyes, which was
entered on the 7th of February, and the capture of Chalons
sur Saone by the Austrians. Napoleon, finding himself thus
unable to contend in a general line of opers^ons with the
vasdy superior force of the allies, determined to concentrate
his troops, and to endeavour to cut off their communication
with each other, and to beat them in detail.

His first enterprise was against the army of Blucher, whiah,
after a series of well-fought actions, he beat back to Chalons
sur Maine, and destroyed its connection with the Austrians.
Schwartzenberg, in the mean time, taking advantage of these
operations, had pushed forward upon Paris, in the direction
of the Seine. Sens was taken on the ] 1th of February, and a
body of Cossacks had even penetrated to Fontainebleau. Na-
poleon was now obliged to hasten to this quarter, and here loo
his great genius triumphed. The Austrians were compelled
to fall back upon Troyes, from which also they were driven
on the 23d, and this city was re-entered in triumph by Napo*
leon. It was, however, recovered on the 4th of March bv

}

9ti
gmaalWtaiiti, Napoleon haviag Atn nMnked «gua«t-Blti»

/S/:>

Thediviuon under the crown priace waa in die meantime
gmitng possetoion of different posts in the Low Countries^
aad a part of his foroe^ under general Winaingerode, had
advanced to< Soissoas, which was carried . by assault** la
Holland^ the British failed, with great loss, in an attempt to
carry Bergen op Zoom.

Negociatioos had been in progress at Chatillon from the
tame of the entrance of the allies into France* Plenipptentia^
riea from most of the powers of £urope were present at this
Gongrasa. A suspension of arms was proposed io the first
instance by the French ambassador, who offered a surrender
fcachwithfOf the fortresses ia the countries which Franca was
to give up. The proposal was rejected by the allies, who re-
quired.the immcdiatd signature of a treaty of peace, and the
oociqiation of Pads by their forces* The 15th of March waa
mahnaHy fixed on for the period of a definite answer to the
treaty offered by the allies* On that day the French plenipo-
tentiary preaentad a cootre projet, which was immediately re- ^ l 11 i

jecied, and the negociatioos were declared to be at an end* ^ ^

On the 3d of March, marshal Blucber had effected a junc-
tion with the corps of Winaingerode and Bulow at SoiascHis.
His force was dius rendered &r superior to that of Napoleon*
The latter, however, again attacked him, and drove him back
to Laon. At- this place, on the 9di, an obstinate baide was
feuf^it, which ended in the rftreat of the French, widi the
loss 6f forty-eight pieces of cMmon, and 5000 prisoners* The
intelligence of this success now induced Schwartzenberg
again to advance, and on the 21st he occupied Arcis sur Aube*
Napoleon, who found himself unable to contend with forces ^

treble his own, suddenly made a movement in the directly
of St. Dizier ; his plan being, as was discovered by an inter*
cepted letter, to draw the allies off from the capital, by threa-
tening their rear. He succeeded effectually in cutting off their,
communications, but the discovery pf his intentbns produced
an immediate determination in the allied generals to unite their
forces, and march direcdy for Paris. The resolution was car-
ried into effect without delay. The intelligence of their ap-

VOL. IX. 1 48]

i»n

8^d sCM«JKmtiT.

proa^h Wu a auMM ttrdlit m dw nriMnt, wkm ImmI
flattered into the belief that the emperor was every
victorious, llie mood ati^ntiofis ekertioas irtre Made for die
defence of the capital. On the 99th, the cei^ of asarahal
Marmont and Mortitr entered the town, having retired hi»
fhfe the advance of Mucher. The atties mow arrived in a^ght
of the capital, and were posted with their right aowarda
M ontmartre, and their left near the wood ofVinftimcs. Their
first step Miras to address a prodanaasion to the people of Pa-
rfs, in which they declared that their object was to eiiecC a
sincere and lasting reconciliation with Prances which it was
itittmated could not be obtained as lovg as the goveinaaiHof
N^ipoicon was permitted to exist.

Patis, however, was not given up without an obtftitoaat raiaa«>
a'nce, which reflects the highest hononr «poQ the little amy Aat
defended it. On the dOch of March, Joseph Bonaparte^ the kSe
king of Spain, with ihecorpsof anarshals Moitier and Manaont
smd the national gtiard of Paris, took a poaltioa on the heighse
in front of the city. Early in the sanie morning, the aHies
toTntnenced an attack. A vigorous opposition was made, hat
the heights were at length carried. To prevent an assadt,
sfnd a further effusion of blood, which nnder the existing dr*
cumstances wotdd have been unavailing;, a 'flag of trace was
sent to the posts of the aNies, proposing a cessarien of boa*
tHMes, aH the ground without the harrievs of Paris being gp«
vcn up. The terms were accepted, aod dis great city, which
for centuries had not been poi^rted by the footstep of an en«
emy, was now surrendered to the united armies of Europe.
The corps of Marmont and Morrier were permitted by the
capitolation'^to retire with their milhary appurtaoaaces ; but
the arsenals and magazines were left in their existing state.
On the 3l8t, the aDied sovereigns entered Paris, accompa-
nied by their guards and their respettive suites. The empeaor
Alexander then issued a declaration, expressing the iuteatkms
of the confederacy. They aflimied that they would no aouve
trvat with Napoleon Bonaparte, (thus they now styied their
brdther monarch,) nor with any of his family, but that they
would respect the integrity of ancient Prance. They invited
the senate to appoint a provisioaal govcraaiant, and ppomised

^%^

siflPfUEiiisyT. <79

to goonmcee the <«nttitiltioii which die Fratich natign should
^ehoose for itself.

It is probable that the process of dechvonement had h«ea
duly arraoged for sotne tine beforehand by the intrigues of fi
fcw indrviduals, who had been the confidential advbers ami
wHIing agents of Aose schemes of aabitioii and oppression,
which now in the season of danger they were eager to di^
claim and denounce. On the 1st of April, about sixty meou
bers of the aenaie assemUed, pursuant to an extraordinary
coBirocatimi, and passed a decree for a provisional govern*
fnent of fcior persons, at the head of which was the cekhm-
Iwd TsHeyrand. On the succeeding day, another ordinance
declared that Napoleon Bonaparte had violated his compact
wflh the French people ; that he had thereto forfeited hia ti-
tle to the throne ; and that the hereditary right established in
Ms family was abolished.

He, upon whose political destinies the senate of France
were thus legislatsng, endeavoured with his accustomed ener-
gy to repair the fouU he had committed, llis army was ad-
vanced by hasty marches from Troyes to Sens, and arrived at
Promant on thedOth. The intelligence of the occupation of
Paris caused it to retire to Fontnnebleau, where the proceed^
ingS'Of the senate were cmnrnuaicated to the dethroned mon-
arch. On the 4lh of April he sent a deputation, to that body, .
offei in g to abdicate in favour of his son. The proposal, ho^- / 3 ^ ^
ever, came tM late^ and, inding the tide, of public favour to
set so strengly against him, and (hat the albed powers had
proclsdmed that he was the oidy 4ibslacle to the re-establish- ^ V ^V
ment of peace in Europe, he made an absohite renunciation ^
for himself and his heirs of the thrones of France and Italy.
On the f 1th of April, a treaty was signed at Paris between
the respective parties, by the articles of which the island of
Elba was assigned to Napoleon as las place of residence,
with ftiH powers of sovereignty, and the continuance of the
httperial tide to himself and the emfn-ess for life i while cer-
tain duchie» in Italy were allotted' to the latter, with succes-
sion to fa^r son and descendants. An annual vcrexme was also
conceded tb Napoleon, and the different members of his fami-
ly, wMch was to be paid by 'France.

874 SUPPUfiMBIST.

On die 90th of April, after having been detained for aoow
days by indisposition, this once*powerful monarch set onC
from Fontainehleau for his place of ezik. Previoua to his de*
parture, he assembled his guards for the last time, and it
was not without deep emotion that he took, as it was then
supposed, a final farewell of those whom he ha^ 1^ to glory «
and triumph,*and conquest, and who wet e stiM attached to has
mined fortunes with a fidelity unshaken by temptation, and
unabated by distress and adversity. In a few words, but
with that pointed and forcible style for which he was always
remarkable, he told them, that hfr had renounced the impe-
rial crown for himself and his posterity, to save their belored
Country from the miseries of a ctvil contest, and admonished
them to be foithfol to their new monarch whom Franee had
chosen ; then kissing the eagle, the standard and emblem of
liis empire, he joined the commissioners by whom he waste
be accompanied to his litde island.

To com[dete the narrative of the military occurrences of
this period-, it remains that we should notice the condusioB
of the war on the Spanish frontier. The capture of the for*
tress of Pampeluna, which took place soon ajfter his entry in-
to France, disengaged the right of the dlied antoy, and ena-
bled lord Wellington to advance upon the French lines. A
series of hard-fought engagements took place about the be-
ginning of November, - 1813, in which the superior numbers
of the aUies prevailed, and the French were forced to aban-
don their works, and subsequently to retire to an entrenched
camp in AT>nt of Bayonae. On the-9tb of December locd
WeUington crossed the river Nive, during the passage of
which, several desperate attacks were made by the French,
which were finally repeUed, with the loss on the part of the
allies of not less than four thousand men. The able manou-
vres of marshal Soult, with his little army, kept lord Wel-
lington in check during the whole month of January. Oa
the 35th of February, at Orthes, another sanguinary engage-
ment was fought, whkh cost the allies several thousand men,
and ended in the retreat of the French, and the passage of
the Adour by lord Wellington. Bourdeaux was now leftjufi*
covered, and on the 12th of March marsbel BerQsford enter-

^4-

SWPiBfifBIIT. 97S

cd that city. This event was jToUowed by a dedaratioa ia
fivour of the Bourbon Cftinily, made by Bome of the principal
inbabitanta* The white flag was hoUted^ and* the duke of
Aagouleme, nephew to Louis XVI, who was with the Bri-
tish army, was received with acclamations. Marshal Soult
had in the mean time retired to Tarbes, from which place
he was driven on the SOth^ and retreated to Toulouse. Here
he fortified himself stron|^y, and on the .10th April was attack-
ed by lord Wellington. The engagement was an indecisive
one. The great numerical superiority of the allies, the supe-
rior equipment and discipline of their troops, were unable to ef-
fect their purpose against the consummate skill of marshal
Soult, and the bravery of his raw conscripts. Upwards of
fifteen thoosand of the allied troops are said tahave been put
bors de combat in this engagement. Of the French, the loss
was not more than twenty-five hundred. Shortly after this
sanguinary battle, the intelligence of the revolution in Parb
pttt a stop to further c^erations in this point. The war was
closed by another, gallant operation performed by the French..
On the 14th of April, a sortie was made by the garrison of
Bayonne. All the British posts were carried with great
alaitg^iiter, and the British commander in chief, with a Urge
number of his troops, were made prisoners.

On the same day on which the deed of abdication was
i^gncd by Napoleon, a new constitution, founded on the prin-
ciples of a limited monarchy, was adopted by the conserva-
tive senate. By this charter, Louis Stanislaus Xavier, bro-
ther to Louis XVI, was called to the throve, and the crown
was declared hereditary in. him. and his infde deacfcndants.
This monarch, who had resided for J^e ]^ears in England,
now left his retirement, and on the 3d of May entered the
capital of France. He was receiy^d with respectful civility,
but without any marks of warm or general attachment. His

first acts had not been of a nature ^ endear him to the

• • •

French people. He had assum^fl the lide. of Louis XVIII,
in opposition to the expression of the sen^f 9, which had des-
cribed htm as the brother of the kut tingy and, instead of ac-
cepting the constitution, by which alone he could pretend
any title to the throne^ he had signified an intention of pro-

[

■mm**.

»76

SUPPLEMKNT.

posing a new charter to the legislative assembly. Hit sub-
jects, too, could not but fieel their national pride wounded by
reflecting upon the manner in which he had been forced
upon them : And the contrast between the brilliant and tm^
posing character of their late emperor ; and the physical tn^
firmities and pacific disposition of their neW manarch, wMcli
seemed to fit him rather for a cloister than a throtie, was
not of a nature to render them more satisfied with their
choice.

Shortly after the accession of Louis XVIII, the prelimina*
ries of peace were signed at Paris between the dtfftrent
powers. The most remarkable articles of these treaties were,
the settlement of the limits of France as they existed on the
lat of January, 1T92 ; the annexation of Belgium to the
Dutch provinces ; the erection of the whole NetherhHMls into
a kingdom, under the sovereignty of the house of Orange ;
and the restoration to France of all her dependencies com-
quered by Great Britain, with the exception of Tobago, St.
Lucia, and the Isle of France. By an article in these treaties,
the different powers agreed to send ministers to a congress
to be holden at Vienna at a future petiod.

In the general restoration of dignities and possessions to
those who were pleased to consider themselves as their legiti-
mate proprietors, we must not forget two, the pope, namely,
and the king of Spain; Wh6se re*estabfishment was necessaiy
to complete " the ancient order of things.** The first of
these monarchs, after assuming his former title of ** God*s
Ticar upon earth,** was re-instated in his temporal posses-
sions, and on his part revived the order of Jesuits, and the
ecclesiastical systenwtT the holy see. The king of Spain had
relieved the dreary Hours oMmprisonm^nt, and solaced die
deep regret he must have experienced for the bleeding con-
dition of his unhappy subjects, by the performance of the holy
offices of religion, 't'he chief part of his time is said to have
been passed ior emtfroidef iilg* an under garment for the mo-
ther of our Saviour. By this suitable and interesting occu-
pation, the captive monarch probably hoped to obtain the in-
tercession of that holy person in favour of his unfortunate
countrymen, or at least to secure for himself an incorruptible

I *»

dVfPU&MBNT.

ordim Ml fbc« oUtml tempond one, for which mm in gene*
ml dcevacd him so iU qualified* One of the first aua of Na**
peleon after the entry of the allies into France, was to llbe-
ratelu9i frotft his confinement, on certain conditions, favour-
able to France, to which Ferdinand acceded. He accord-
ingly entered Spain about the month of April, 1814^ and was
every where received with acclamations. His subjects, who
had ahed their bipod in defence of his rights, vied with each
other in celebrating his return. The gratitude of the mon-
arch was soo|i dis|^yed in a striking manner. His first step
WAS to rc^ct tW constitution framed by the Cortes. That
body was tht^a dissolved. The whole powers of the govern*
mcfit were tuikeii into his own hands. The greater part of
those who had bei^n conspicuous in his behalf, during the rev-
olutieii, fell iato disgrace. All who had been active in favour
of liberal principles were arrested. Many were sent into
esdle ; some were executed ; and hundreds expiated in prison
the crime of having breathed sentiments favourable to public
liberty. Tke holy office of the inquisition was restored with
its ancient prerogatives : and thus ended that revolution, tn
which so many lives had been lost, and from which so much
good had been anticipated for the Spanish people.

The general congress t^ which the political aflfaits of Eu-
rope were to be settled on a permanent basis, convened at Vi^
eona, in the autuam of 1814. To restore order from the coa^
f uaiaQ which twenty years of war and revolution had produced,
was the professed object of this a.ssembly, to which representa-
tives from all the great powers, and most of th^ minor states of
Europe were delegated. A minute detail of their proceed^-
in^ is iaaonsAStent with the plan of this outline. It may be
sufficient iol state, that their deliberations ended in the s|g-'
grmdizemcnt ^ Russia, Prussia, Avistria, and Sweden, who
cMne out of th^ wars of the French revolution with a con-
siderable accession of territory, but with impaired finances
and a weakened population. The king of Saxony was com^
petted to submit to a curtailment of his dominions, part of
wUch, in spite of the opposition of that monarch and of his
subjects, were made over to the king of Prussia. Genoa was
annexed to Sardinia, and Venice to Austria. A new confede-

3W , BCPPLE&tfeMt.

ration 6f the Swiss cantons took place, at the hwtafioe of die
allied powers^ and Geneva, with ain increase of territory, was
added to the union. That part of Poland which had hecn
occupied by Russia was annexed to the great empire, but whh
the preservation of its own constitution, and Alexander took
the title of king of Poland. Germany was once more united
under a confederation, the affairs of which ars to be managed
by a general assembly or diet, composed of the repfesemstives
of the diflfereut states.

While thus employed in re-modelling the £soe of Europe,
increasing or diminishing the power of didferent monarcfafe,
and transferring men like catde from one master to ano-
ther, the congress was suddenly interrupted in its deKben^
tions, by an occurrence altogether unlooked ibr, and which
threartened at once to destroy the web which tliey had been
so laboriously weaving.

The restoration of the Bourbon dynaacy to the throne of
France could not be said to have been the act even of a ma-
jority of the people of Paris, much less could it be pretend-
ed to have received the approbation of the people at large,
without which no monarch can long wear his crown, unless
supported by the affection or obedience of the military «. Bo^
Louis XVIII was eventless beloved by the latter than by the
great body of his subjects : and the contrast we have beCore
remarked between his personal qualities, and thoee of Na-
poleon, could not fail to strike the cohorts of that great lead*
er in a strong point of view. The commencement of the
reign of Louis, however, although the charter which he had
framed was not calculated to satisfy the wishes of the friends
of rational freedom, was upon the whole temperate and mild,
and there appeared a prospect of France again enjoying that
repose of which she had been so long deprived. These
agreeable dreams were soon dissipated. A few mondis were
sufficient to shew, that the lessons of the revolution had been
thrown away upon the Bourbons. Symptoms of a return to
the ancient system were observable in all the actions of the
court. The old nobility were pointedly preferred in favours
and appointments to those who had earned their titles by
services to the state;, the. old hierarchy, with all its in-

SUPPLEMENT. 879

tolerance, began to Uke its stand alongside of the throne ;
and, besides restoring to the emigrants their landed property
that remained unsold, the idea began to gain ground, that it
was in the contemplation of the government to appropriate
that which was in the hands of innocent purchasers to the
same purpose. The charter, too, given by Louis himself,
had been grossly violated in several instances, and while by
these measures a serious discontent was excited, the ceremo-
ny of disinterring the remains of Louis XVI and his que^,
and various other religious pageants, served to throw ridicule
upon the antiquated solemnities of the court.

During this period, the former master of Prance was ap-
parently enjoying the pleasures of repose and retirement in
his little isle, and seemed to take no further interest in the
business or politics of France, than as one who from a dis*
tance contemplates the swell of the billows, and the other in-
dications of an approaching storm. His mind, however, was
otherwise occupied than in the concerns of Elba. Whether
there existed, dtkring the period of his exile, an understand-
ing with the former chiefs of his party, and an arrangement
in regard to his return, is a point which appears yet involved
in obscurity. If no direct communication had taken place,
still he could not be ignorant of the discontent of the French
people, and of the disposition of the army in his favour. In
the winter of 1814-15 he manifested an unusual fondness for
retirement from strangers, and appeared chiefly employed in
disciplining his little army.

On the evening of the 26thof February, 1815, this extraordi-
nary man embarked at Porto Ferrajo, onboard a brig, followed
by four small vessels, all together conveying -about a thousand
men, of whom a few only were French, the rest being Poles,
Corsicans, Neapolitans, and Elbese. On the 1st of March
the expedition anchored off the small town of Cannes, in
Provence, where the troops were landed. The emperor, for,
by a proclamation issued on lanclin'g, he had resumed his for*
mer titles, then put himself at their head, and marched for
Grenoble. An opportunitj- was soon given to test the in-
clinations of the French soldiery. The 7th regiment of the
line, commanded by colonel Labedoverc, was in garrison

VOL. TX. [49J

880 SUPPLBBIBNT.

at that place. On the news of Us advance, they marched
out with enthusiasm, and joined the ranks of thdr former
chieftain. On the 8th, the garrison opened their gates to
him, and he was now supplied with a body of regular troops
and a train of artillery.

On the succeeding day he entered Lyons, whither the king's
brother had repaired, accompanied by marshal M acdonaid,
on the receipt of the intelligence at Paris of the landing of
the emperor. Finding, however, that no regular opposition
could be made in this quarter, they had withdrawn a short
time previous to the entrance of Napoleon.

The news of the landing of this dangerous opponent had
filled the court 'of the Bourbons with astonishment and dis-
may. The unfortunate king saw that he had no hold on the
affections of the people, and that little was to be expected
from the services of the army. He attempted to purchase
the good will of both, by concessions and explanations that-
ought to have been made before. It was now too late. Some
effort, however, was necessary to oppose the rapid advance
of the invader. A considerable body of troops was posted
at Melun, for the immediate protection of Paris, and another
corps \^as stationed at Montargis, on the road to Fontaine-
bleau. Great reliance was placed on marshal Ney, who had
made a voluntary offer of his services to the king, and had
been appointed to the command of about 12,000 men, posted
at Lons le Saulnier. The dependence, however, was vain.
As soon as. the emperor had advanced to Auxerre, he was
joined by the marshal with his whole force. This step deci-
ded the fate of the expedition. All confidence in the army
being now at an end, the king, with the royal family and some
of the court, left Paris on the I9th, which was entered by
Napoleon on the following day. Thus, by one of the most
sudden and extraordinary revolutions recorded in history,
was the throne of a great empire taken possession of, and its
former sovereign expelled, without the loss of a drop of
blood.

It was not enough, however, for the new emperor to have
received t*ie sanction of the people of France in his enter-
prize. Those who had declared in the preceding year " that

SUPPLEMENT.

981

they would no more treat with him, nor with any of his fami-
ly," could not be supposed to have altered their intentions in
so short a space of time. The congress of Vienna was in
session at the moment, and, as soon as intelligence of the
event reached that place, a manifesto was published by the
sovereigns who had bee^ party to the treaty of Paris, in
which they declared that they were firmly resolved to main-
tain the articles of that ccmvention, and with an extraordi-
nary decree of rancour they added, that by breaking that
convention, ^^ Napoleon Bonaparte had placed himself with-
out the pale of civil and social relations," and ^^ destroy-
ed the only legal title on which his existence depended."
This inflammatory proclamation, which tended to produce
the assa^ination of the individual against whom it was di-
rected, was followed by a treaty signed on the 25th of March,
by which the four powers of Austria, Russia, Great Britain,
and Prussia, agreed to maintain in the field 150,000 men
each, and not to lay down their arms until Napoleon should
be deprived of the power of again disturbing the peace of
Europe.

The situation of the emperor of France was not without
difficulties arising from other causes. He was no longer the
absolute monarch of the empire, supported by a veteran army
able to cope with the confederated force of Europe. Previous
wars, and the policy of Louis XVIII, had diminished the
number of the military in a considerable degree, and weak-
ened their discipline and force. To give his cause, then, any
.prospect of success, it was necessary that the enthusiasm of
the people should be excited, and the new war upon which
they were about entering become a national one. This, how-
ever,, could not be effected, without attaching the people to
the government, by giving them a free constitution, and thus
weakening his own personal powers. The political party,
too, who had aided his return, consisted for the most part of
the friends of liberty, and appeared determined to receive
him only as a limited monarch. In this stat^ of things, he
was compelled to adopt a system, for which it is probable
he had no serious attachment at heart. On his first landing,
he had issued a decree, dissolving the chamber of peers and

SUPPLSMEMT.

deputies, md ordtsriog an aMembly of the electoral colleges
at Paris in the ensuing May, for the pfurpose of correcting
and modifying the constitution. On the 23d of April, be
promulgated what was called *^ An additional Act to the
Constitutions of the Empire,*^ in which he professed to have
endeavoured to combine the highest point of political liberty
and individual safety, with the strength necessary to secure
the independence and dignity of the empire. The ceremonial
of the Champ de J(&t, which was deferred until the 1st of June,
took plac(i on that day. This imposing spectacle was attend-
ed by deputies from almost all parts of France, who announ-
ced the nearly unanimous acceptance of the constitution by
the people ; to the observance of which the emperor and the
assembly bound themselves by oath. The two chambers
were then constituted and commenced their sittings. Having
thus ordered political matters, the emperor began to prepare
for the contest, which it was evident was close at hand.

In conformity with arrangements made by the trea^ of
Paris, the principal fortresses in Belgium, on the French
frontier, had been occupied by British troops, and by those
of the Netherlands. From the period of the landing of Na«
poleon in France, this force was continually increased, and
the whole placed under the command of the duke of Wel-
lington. In the month of May, the Prussian army, under
marshal Dlucher, amounting to about one hundred and twen-
ty thousand men, arrived at Namur, and was stationed in
that vicinity. The troops under the comnumd of lord Wel-
lington, io number about one hundred thousand, were also can-
toned in different parts of the same neighbourhood.

Oif the 12th of June, Napoleon left Paris, to decide his
title* by the sword. Having collected together a force of
about one hundred thousand men, he hoped, notwithstanding
the superior numbers of the Prussians and F^iglish, to defeat
them before the remainder of the allies could get into the
field. In conformity with this plan, a general attack was
made on the Prussian outposts on the 15th, which compelled
theiti tofallback upon Fleurus, whence they were again driven.
On the 16th, marshal Blucher concentrated his whole force
at Ligny, where, after a hol»engagement, he was totally de->

\ ^

SCPPLSMSKT.

feaied, mtk the loss of 16 (ueces of canooa, and a contidera*
ble number of priaoaers. His anny was, however, bn>ught
off in good order, in consequence of the intervention of night,,
which prevented a pursuit, and fell back upon Wavre.
While the Prussians were thus occupied, a division of the
French army, vender marshal Ney, amounting to about twen*
ty-five thousand men, had driven before them a body of BeU
gians to a position at a spot called Qaatre Bras* Here, on
die 16th, the greater part of the army of lord Wellington^
who appears to hrfve been completely taken by surprise, was
beaten by the ccvrps of marshal Ney, with the loss of five
thousand, men, and compelled to fidl back to Gemappe.
On the morning of the 17th, lord Wellington continued his
retreat, and took a position with his whole force, amounting
to about one hundred thousand men, on the heights of mount
St. John, in the vicinity of the village of Wateiioo, crossing
the main road to Brussels, and having die wood of Soignies
with its defiles in the rear.

Napoleon, after detaching marshal Grouchy, with thirty*
five thousand men, in the direction taken by die Prussians^
moved himself with the rest of the army, reduced now to
sixty thousand men, in pursuit of the £nglish. On the 17th,
diey were discovered posted on the heights of Waterloo, and
a corresponding position was taken by the French army. Had
anattackbeenthenmade,or at an earlier hour of the next day,
inferior in numbers as the French were, it is probable that
the British army would have suffered a route much more
complete than that of the Prussians at Ligny, as, from the
unmilitary position taken by lord Wellington,^ he would have
been unable to save the wings of his army, had the Centre
beei\ driven in. Unfortunately for the cause of French m*
dependence, the attack was postponed till the next day, and
time was thus given to the Prussians to come up to the re«
Kef of their allies.

At 10 o^dock op the morning of the 18th of June, tMs
memorable engagement commenced. A series of vigorous
assaults were made upon the British position, supported by a
heavy cannonade against the whole line, which was received
with great firmness by the allies. In one>of these onsets the

M4 dCJPPIXMENT.

farm house of la Haye Sainte, the key of the British left,
was carried with great slaughter. The battle raged with
great fury on both sides during the whole day. The French
were gradually gaining ground, and began to occupy the
positions of their opponents. Every thing evinced that
they were about to obtain a decisive victory, when the sound
of the Prussian cannon was heard on the French right.
Marshal Blucher, who had been apprized by lord Welling-
ton that he intended to receive battle at Waterloo, advan*
ced to his relief from Wavre, and arrived in time to save
his allies from destruction. A vigorous assault on the
French right was commenced. Napoleon ordered up his
reserve, but it was in vain to contend with the over-
whelming-superiority of the Prussians. The French, fa-
tigued with twelve hours combat, fell back in confusion.
The panic soon became general, and lord Wellington, taking
advantage of the opportunity, advanced with his army. The
French then fled from their positions^ leaving the greater
part of their artillery and equipments on the field, and it was
not without difficulty that the emperor himself escaped.
The carnage in this fatal batde was immense. The loss of
the French in killed and wounded could not have been less
than thirty thousand, while that of the allies in the three
days has been stated by their own official authorities at up-
wards of fifty thousand men.

The battle of Waterloo was decisive of the fate of France.
. No attempt was made to collect the shattered remains of the
army, and although by a masterly retreat marshal Grouchy
succeeded in bringing off his corps, yet no head could be
made^gainst the overwhelming force of the allies. Finding
that»all was lost, the emperor hastened back to the capital,
at which he arrived on the night of the 20th. On the news
of his return, and of the causes which led to it, the chambers
declared their sittings permanent. They saw that no hope
remained of preserving France by military means, and as the
allies had declared that they made war not upon the people,
but upon the individual who then occupied the throne, they *
resolved to address the emperor, and request him to with-
draw from the government, in the name and for the sake of

supptEfifEirr. 885

their common country. They were anticipated in their de*
sign by the voluntary 'abdication of the monarch in favoin* of
his son, whom he proclaimed emperor by the name of Napo*
kon II. The resignation was accepted by the chambers;
but no measure ratifying the nomination of a successor was
adopted, and a commission was appointed to repair to the^
allied. armies to treat of peace.

The victors, however, appeared determined again to occu-
py the capital of France. The issue of the batde had produced
a total change in their professions, and, although it had been
publicly declared, previous to that event, that it was not their
desire to impose a monarch on France, yet it soon became
evident that nothing but the re-establishment of Louis would
satisfy them. They met with little opposition in their ad-
vance through the French territory. Paris was surrendered
on the 3d of July, by a capitulation which provided that no
individual who remained in that city should be called to ac*
count, either for the situation he might have held, or for his
political opinions. The chambers continued their sittings for
a few days after the convention had been signed ; but on the
^h the doors of the legislative hall were shut by order of the
commandant of the national guard, and thus was dissolved
an assembly of patriots as pure and enlightened as ever strug-
gled against the power of an oppressor. On the same day
the capital was re-entered by Louis XVIII, and the French
people were again compelled to submit to a government re-
pugnant to their feelings, and alien to their habits, and pes-*
sessing the additional grievance of having been imposed upon
them by foreign task-masters.

Of the political life of the emperor Napoleon, the closing
hours were now fast approaching. On the advance of the
allies to Paris, he had quitted that city, attended by a few
personal friends, with the view of gaining a seaport, from
which he might embark for the United States. Had he suc-
ceeded in reaching this country he would have been received
with the respect due to his genius and misfortunes, and might
have renewed in the new world the philosophic retirement of
Salona and Plazencia. In the pure atmosphere of the repub-
lic, whatever dangerous qualities he might possess, would

CM SUFMHIEMt.

)iave been rendered harmleitt, as some poisonous plants are
said to lose their deleterious powers by cultivation in other
etiolates. And, while throwing around him the mantle of
personal security, which the oppressed of every country ex*
perience in this republic, the citizens of riie United States
could not iail to contrast the character of his political life
with that of Him who had led them in safety throXigh the
storms of their own revolution, who had wasted none of the
Mood of his countrymen in die projects of a vile amUtion,
who had supported by every actibn of his life the free insti-
tutions of the republic, and who, after seeing his country ele-
vated to an unexampled height of prosperity, had voluntarily
relinquished the power which the unbribed and unawed suf*
f rages of his fellow citizens had conferred upon him.

Providence had however reserved anothe;* destiny for Na-
poleon than that of becoming a citizen of the United States.
On his arrival at Rochefort, he found the port blockaded by
a British squadron, whose vigilance prevented any hope of
escaping. In this situation he took the resolution of j^acing
himself under the protection of the British government, and
accordingly, on the 15th of July, he was conveyed with his
suite and baggage on board the ship of war Bellerophon, which
immediately got under weigh for England. From this ves*
sel he addressed a letter to the prince regent, claiming the
protection of the laws of England, and throwing bimself,
like "Fhemistodes, upon the hospitality of his enemies. None
of that generous and liberal feeling, however, which was dis-
played in the conduct of Artaxerzes, animated the bosom of
the English monarch. The fallen emperor was not even al-
lowed to land on the shore of England. He was detained in
captivity on board the Bellerophon, until the determination
of the allied powers was made. In a few days orders were
received for his conveyance to the island of St. Helena, a
gloomy and barren rock in the middle of the Atlantic. Here
he arrived on the 15th of October, 1815, and has since re-
mained. His captivity appear to have been rendered addi*
tionally grievous by the barbarous and unnuinly severity ex-
ercised towards him by the officers of the British government ;
and there is every reason to believe* that the diseases occa-

SUPFIiSMBWT. aS7

Bioned by the rigour of his confinement ivill before long close
the singular career of this great man. -^

Not long after the conclusion of the last reign of Napo-
leon, an enterprise similar to that in which he failed, was un-
dertaken by the king of Naples for the recovery of his throne,
of which he had been deprived by the arms of Austria.
Having collected together a small body of friends, he
landed on the coast of Calabria, where he hoped to excite
the peasantry to take up arms in his behalf. He found them,
however, cold and indifferent to his cause, and, being attacked
by a superior Torce of the existing government, he was de-
feated, himself taken prisoner, tried by a military court, con-
demped, and executed. Thus fell Murat, one of the most
difitinguished men to whom the French revolution had given
birth, and who, in his capacity of a monarch, had done more
for the improvement and benefit of his subjects, than a whole
dynasty of ^^ legitimate*' kings.

Peace followed the restoration of Louis XVIII, and has
since continued in Europe. France, notwithstanding the red-
action occasioned by the restoration, seems to have gained
considerably in freedom and in general improvement since
the revolution i and, possessing now a constitution compara-
tively liberal, she may hope gradually to attain the full en-
joyment of the greatest of political blessings. The other
nations of Europe appear to reguire repose to recruit their
disordered finances, and repair that waste of population and
industry, which so long a series of wars must have occa-
sioned.

vox. IX. [50]

^ /u UkX^ ^-^^ '^^^

88S strPHJBMBliT.

SPANISH AMERICA.

FrorA the Revolution of Old Spain in 1808.

Few countries have undergone a more important change
in political affairs since the period with which the Universal
History of Dr. Ramsay closed, than the Spanish provinces
of America. The attempted alteration of dynasty in the mo-
ther country was followed by a series of revolutions in her do-
minions on this side of the Atlantic, the issue of which is still
in the womb of time. A very brief and superficial outline of
these events is all that can be given in this place.

Notwithstanding the many grievances under which the
people of Spanish America laboured, from the cruel and mis-
taken policy by which the governments of modem Europe
have generally been guided in regard to colonies, they still
appear to have retained a strong attachment to the parent
state. This feeling was clearly evinced throughout the whole
of this immense country, when intelligence was received of
the invasion of Spain and the captivity of Ferdinand. The
example of the patriotic juntas was followed in every quar-
ter; Ferdinand was proclaimed with enthusiasm, and the
sufferings of their European brethren, as they still generously
considered them, excited universal sympathy. Upwards of
ninety millions of dollars are said to have been sent to Spain
from her Spanish settlements previous to 1810, besides pri-
vate contributions to a large amount. The central junta of
Seville was at first generally recognized as administering the
affairi ofSpain.

The Spanish provinces, hoWever, could not but perceive
that the period was arrived in which a redress of their griev-
ances was, if ever, to be obtained. A new era had taken
place in Old Spain, and it was hoped that the same freedom
wluch the Spaniards were claiming for themselves, would be

HOPPUMBMT. 'm

tateaded to America. In this hope they were destined to
be disappointed. The old system of mis-government, of mo-
nopoly, and of oppression, was pursued by the central junta,
by the regency that succeeded them, and by the general cor*
tes. The influence of the merchants of Cadiz, whose interests
were oppdsed to any change in the odious system of mono*
polies, was sufficient to defeat the claims of justice and true
policy.

I'he first step taken in the provinces, after the revolution
in the government in Spain, was the appointment of juntas,
or assemblies of the principal men, in imitation of those of
the mother country. This measure was resisted in Caraccas,
Mexico, and other places, by the royal officers, and, until
the formation of the regency in Old Spain in 1810, was not
generally carried into effect. Ip that year, the inhabitants of
Caraccas believing that the regency was illegally constituted,
and that the power of France was firmly established, deter-
mined to take the government into their own hands. An
union was formed with the adjoining provinces, which as-
sumed the name of the confederation of Venezuela, and a
supreme junta was established, administering affairs, how*
ever, in the name of Ferdinand. In the same year juntas
were established at Buenos Ayres, New Grenada, Chili, and
Mexico.

These independent proceedings determined the regency to
take such measures as were in their power to cause their au-
thority to be respected. By a decree issued in August, 1810,
the province of Caraccas was declared in a state of rigoroua
blockade, and troops were sent out to different parte of South
America to enforce the royal government. The temper pf
the cortes which assembled at Cadiz in September, 1810, was
equally at variance with conciliation and sound policy. In
this state of things, the confederation of Venezuela publicly
declared iteelf independent, by a solemn instrument publish-
ed on the 5th of July, 1811. Similar declarations were made
in Meuco, by the confederation of New Grenada, and sub-
sequently by the c<mgress of Buenos A3rre8.

For some time after the declaration of independence, the
prospects of the Venezuelans were suffi(Aently flattering. A

mo SVPFUOtoKT.

liberal coastitutioa was farmed for the govemnent Df tke
union ; a considerable military force supported tke wishes of
the people } and commerce, which had been opened to other
countries, flourished in an unprecedented degree^ This
prosperity was, however, but of short duration. On the
36th of March, 1S12, Venezuela was visited by an earth-
quake of unusual violence. Upwards of twenty thousand
persons fell victims to it, and the town of Caraccas, with se-
veral others, was totally destroyed. TMs awful calamity
was unfortunately interpreted by a great part of the people
into a judgment of Heaven upon their recent political mea-
sures. The general congress became unpopular, and Monte-
verde, who commanded a roydist army, taking advantage of
the situation of the Venezuelans, marched against them, and,
after beating the celebrated general Miranda, who command-
ed the independents, compelled the province of Caraccas to
^submit, and brought Venezuela once more under iht Spa-
nish government.

In 1813, however, these provinces were again restored to
freedom by Bolivar, who, having been sent by the confede-
ration of New Grenada to the aid of the Venezuelans, de-
feated the royalists in several engagements, and'took possea-
sion of Caraccas. In the succeeding year he was in his turn
defeated by Boves, a royalist officer, and compelled to eva-
luate the Caraccas. At Araguita he was again defeated in
August, 1814, and, seeing litde prospect of restoring inde-
pendence to his country, embarked for Caithagena. In
1816 he again returned in force ; and since that period the
contest has been maintained widi various success, but
stained by the perpetration of great cruelties on both sides.
'The cause of independence appears upon the whole to gain
ground, and will no doubt eventually triumph, aldiough the
dispute may be protraoted for several years.
. In Mexico the royrii^t party appears predominant. Mea-
sures »milar to those of Venezuela were taken in that coim-
tty soon afier the revolution in Old SpaiA, and for a aboft
time the patriot forces were victorious in aU their engage-
ments. But the tide of success turned against them, and what
produced the most decisive effect in favour of the old gov-

SUFPLBMBHT. Ml

ernment was th« appointment of Don Jpan de Apodaca as
Vice$n^, in place of Don Felix Calleja. The mild and coiv>
oiliating policy of the new governor won over the affections
of the Mexicans, and, if we may give credit to the Spanish
accounts, the revolation in that quarter is nearly at an end.
Part of the Provincias Intemas, however, held out for a coo^
siderable time against this revival of the royal authority. In
the month of May, 1817, a considerable force, under general
Mina, who had distinguished himself in the war of the pe-
ninsula, arrived at Matagorda, and entered Mexico. For a
few months fortune smiled upon their arms ; but in the month
of October of that year this gallant officer was signally de^
feattd. He himself was taken prisoner, and executed on the
11th of November. Since that event few occurrences of mo-
mem have transpired.

New Grenada, which comprehends the provinces betweea
Ouatimala, Venazuela, and Peru, has, like the rest of Spanish
America, undergone many vicissitudes of fortune. There ap-
pears, however, considerable reason to hope that here, as well
as in Venezuda, the patriot cause wiU in the end triumph.

The united provinces of the Rio de la Plata, after eajoy*-
ing for some years an actual independence, formally dissol*
.vad the connection with Spain, by a declaration issued on the
•IHh of July, iai6. Previous to this period considerable di»
vision of opinion exasted among the people, unskilled in the
business of self-government, and possessing little confidence
in their officen or themselves. Both the fotni of govemmeat|
which, fap waver, has always, since 1610, been essentially free;,
aftd those by whom it was administered, have been repeated^
ly changed. Since the election of Don J. M. Pueyrredon t»
the office of supreme director, a kind of dictatorship whidk
appears so have been rendered necessary by the situation of
the country, these dissensions have been less frequent.

The provinces of £ttlre Rios, and Banda Oriental, on thf
eastern shore of the La Plata, are, although independent of
Spain, and nominally united to the confederation of Buenos
A ]rre8., in a state of hostility with the latter* This unfortunate
division arose from a dispute between the goverament of
Buenos Ayres^ and Artigas, one of the officers employed in

ati expedition to reduce Montevideo. The latter has collett*
ed a considerable force under his standard, and has defeated
the troops of the confederation in several engagements. Af-
ter a long period of hostility, an armistice was concluded be-
tween the two parties on the 5th of April, 1819, which, it Ap-
pears probable, will lead to a final settiement of the dispute,
and an union of the whole country in support of their inde-
pendence. Montevideo, however, which was occupied by a
Portuguese army under general Lecor in January, 1817, re-
mains still in their possession.

Of all Spanish America, that which is comprised within the
confederation of La Plata may be considered as the most
firmly secured in its independence. The government appears
BOW to be well established in the o]>inion of the people, and
the population is numerous, and has become enlightened and
improved in an astonishing degree, since the yoke of Spain
has been withdrawn. In the month of November, 1817, the
government of the United States sent out three commission*
ers, Messrs. Rodney, Graham, and Bland, to ascertain the
actual condition and political prospects of these provinces.
On their return to the United States, in the succeeding year,
they presented a report to die president, which gives on the
whole a favourable picture of the condition of the new re-
public, and authorises the belief that their independence is
now beyond the reach of injury from Spain. In the month
of March, 1818, a resolution was offered in the house of re-
presentatives of the United States by the speaker, Mr. Clay,
appropriating a Certain sum to defray the expenses of a min-
ister to these provinces. The question, which involved the
propriety and expediency of recognizing their independence,
produced an animated debate, which lasted several days. iTke
resolution was finally negatived by a vote of 115 to 45. A
new constitution was established in the confederation of La
Plata on the 25th of May, 1819. The provisions, as &r as
*they are known, are favourable to independence and freedom.

In the captain-generalship of Chili, the same revolutionary
steps were taken in 1810, that were adopted in other parts of
the continent. A congress assembled in 1811, but appears
not to have been popular with the people. In 1814, nearly

jSUPTLEMENT.

893

the whole district was subdued by a royalist army from Lima,
and remained in their possession until 1617^ when a body of
troops under general San Martin, assisted by a force from
Buenos Ayres, succeeded, after several hard fought batdes, in
expelling themT Chili appears now to be in a situation to de-
fend itself with success. Independence has been declared,
and a free constitution established, while an intimate union,
advantageous to both parties, appears to be maintained with
thf confederation of Buenos Ayres.

THE END.

INDEX.

jiBERDEEJV; description of, yi. 354.

Morigmai America^ description of, ix. 936.

Maolution^ formula of, v. ^97 ^notc,

AbysHnia^ view of, ix. 165.

Jidam and Evcy history of, i. 3.

Mkibency history of that province, ii. 268.

Adrianofile^ description of, vii. 330.

Africa^ account of the unexplored countries of, Tiii. 398.

Africa^ central, account of these regions^ yiii. 305. Travels of
Mungo Park, 306. Travels of Mr. Browne, 309.

Africa^ eastern coast of, described, viii. 303.

Africa^ general description of^ viii. 378.

Africa^ northern, extent, soil and climate, viii. 383« Productions,
384. Antique remains, ib. Government and law, t^. Army,
navy, commerce, 385. Manufactures, political importance»
language, literature, manners, 386. Subjected by the Romans,
387. By the Arabs, 389. Division of their empire into petty
states, 395. History of Barbarossa, 395.

J^fncan UlandB^ description of, ix. 190.

Agesiiaus^ kin^ of Sparta, takes the command of the Grecian for-
ces in Asia, iv. 334. His victories there, 235. Is recalled, 337.
Defeats the confederate army at Coronaia, 238.

Agrigentumj by whom founded, iu. 347. War with Carthage,
350.

Alcibiadesj of Athens, his birth, education, and character, iv. 41.
His deceitful conduct towards the Lacedaemonian ambassadors}

46. Persuades the Athenians to enter into the Argive alliance,

47. Persuades the Argives to break their truce, 50. His de*
bate with Nicias, respecting the expedition to Sicily, 71. His
armament sails, 78. He takes Catana, 83. Is recalled to
Athens, on an accusation of impiety, ib. Makes his escape-
from Thuriumon Ijis way to Athens, 85. Passes to Sparta, 89.
Surprises, with a Lacedaemonian fleet, the Athenian partisans
at Chios, 136. Seduces the spouse of kingAgis, 136, 7. Takes
refuge with the Persian satrap, Tissaphemes, whom he alien-
ates from the Spartan interests, 127. Intrigues against the
democracy of Athens, 138. Recalled to Athens 133. Cap*

VOJL, IX. [51]

396 INDEX.

tures the whole Pelopooneaiaii fleetf 133. Takes B]rzantiain»
134. His triurophant return to AthenSf 135. His fleet de-
feated during his absence by Lysander, 136. Impeached bf
Thrasybuiusy and disgraced} 137. Retires to Phrygiai 174.
Manner of his death» 175.

Mexauder the great^ his birtby it. 266. Saves the life of his Ci-
ther in battle, 315. Ro<its the Thebans at the battle of Ch«-
ronsa, 337. Succeeds his fother on the throne of Macedoo*
335. Defeats the Thracians, 336. Passes the Daoubei 337.
Defeats the Taulantii, 338. Reroll and destruction of Thebes,
339. Passes the Hellespont on his expedition against Persia,
341. Battle of the Granicua, 343. He demolishes Halicar-
nassus, 346. Chastises Ibe duplicity of the citiaeaa of Aspen-
dus, 348. Fulfils the oracle relative to the Gordian knot* 349.
Totally defeats Darius, 353. Lays siege to Tyre, 356. Takes
that city by assault, 360. Reduces Gaza, ib. His easy con-
quest of Egypt, 361. Founds Alexandria, ib. Visits the tem-
ple of Jupiter Ammon, 369. Marches into Assyria, 363. Bat-
tle of Arbela, 365. Pursues Darius, 36S. Pursues the mur-
derers of Darius, 369. Besieges the Sogdian fortress, 372.
Reduces it, and nufries Roxami, captured there, 373. Surren-
der of the fortress of Chorines, ib* He undertakes bis Indian
expedition, 378. Reduces mount Aomos, 379. His passage
over the Hydaspes disputed by Porus, ib. The passage effeet-
ed} 380. Defeats Porus, and treats him generously, i^. Founds
Nicacd and Bucephalia, 381. Besieges and takes Sangala, 333.
The eastern bounds of his conquests, ib. His rashness at the
siege of the Mallian fortress, 383. Traverses the Gedrosian
desert, 384. Punishes the revolt of his governors of Babylon,
Persepolis, and Susa, 385. Improves the internal state of his
conquests, 386* Discharges the debts of his army, 387. Pro-
motes intermarriages with the Asiatics, 386. His immoderate
grief for the death of Hephxstion, ib. Reduces the Cossaeans,
389. Arts practised to prevent his return to Babylon, 390. His
death and character, 391. His murder of Ctitus, 392. Uis
magnanimity, 393. His account of his father and himself, 394.
The division of his conquests, 396. Reign of hia successors,
430.

Mexantlriaf (bunded, iv. 361.

Mexandfian library^ formed by Ptolemy Lajus, ix. 34. Notes re-
specting its destruction, 71, and ii. 135.

Alfred the Great j reign of in England, vi. 43. His code of laws,
43.

Amboynuy account of the island of, ii. 355.

America, extent of, ix. 320. Discovery, ib»

American trade with India, 1. 190.

America^ South, general description of, ix. 377. Aboriginal
tribes and unconquered countries, 317, See Sfitmieh Domi'
niona in South Ameiica.

IV0BY, 987

Amerkm^ Poitu^eie» dascribedt ix. SOS. See Brazil.

Amfikktyonic council^ origin and institutioii of, v. 43.

Amfih^oliM^ revolts ft^m the Ailieiiianiy iv. 36. Taken by Phi-^
lip of Macedon, 364.

JinutertUmf deacriplion oU viii* 5*

AnabmfttUtM^ levdlbg principles oftbey viii. 205. Their proceed*
ings In Gemiuif , t^.

jinehorite^j Inatltotion c^y ▼• 377.

Angleteoj detcripdoa of the island of, vi. 26.

^ngolay accomit of that country, viii. 903.

AntedUuvianMy history of, i. 3.

^nttUcMj or Cartbbee islttids, descripiioB of, ix. 328.

Jlnt^iaro$i description of the island of, vii. 334.

Anttmy^ Mark, his amours with Cleopatr*, ix. 60.

Amtwerfij described, viL 393.

Afw9tU% qf Chri9tf life «nd character of, ▼. 308.

Arabia^ boundaries oj^ ii. 43. Face of the couocry, ib. Produc
tions, 43. CitiiDs, 44. General history, 46. Manners and
cttstOBSt 479 ^^^ ^7. Religion, SO. Government, 53. Com-
merce, 55. Language, ib. Lkerature* 54.

Arab9i the, overrun western Asia, ii. 139. Conquer northern
Africa, 133. Overrun Spain, 140. Attack ConetantiDoplei
147. Conclude a peace with the western empire, 146. Again
besiege Constantinople, ib. The siege raised, ISO. Invade
France, 151. Are repulsed and driven out of the country b|r
Charles Mariei, 153. Their literature, 159. Crete and Sicily
subdued by the And>s, 16 1 • They ravage the neighbourhood
of Rouse,. 168. Hostilittes with tiM western empiro, i6. Se«
ditions of the Turks, 165. New sect of the Carmatbiaas, 166.
Causes of the- decline and fall of the empire of the caliphs, 1 48,
Capture of Antioch by the Greeks, 171. The caliphate ex-
tinguished by the Tartars, 173. Present siaiiS of the Arabsy
173. Review of tlieir history, 174.

Arabian learnings introduction oif into Europe, an. A7.

AreMelauM I, king of Macedon, enlightened policy of, iv. 360.
^4reopag%i9y court of, at Athens, described, ni. 1A9.
^rgotf the Argive alliance, iv. 36, 39. The Argives take arms
on the renewal of tiie Pcdoponnesian war, 46. Couc^cVe a
truce. 36. The truce broken at tlie instigation of Akibiade»>
60. Settle of Mantinca, 5 1. Tumult at Argos, in wkfeh the
league ai Adieos is abjuced, and a confsderacy entered into
with Sparta, 53.

ArioH Jkeretyf the, ▼. 374,

Ari§iowuue9i appointed commander of the Messeaian forces, til*
133. His gallant expedition to the city of Sparta, ib. Has auc«
cesses agwist the Spartans, 133. is taken prisoner, 135. His
cxtraardmary escape, 4b. Is surprised by the Spartans, 1 36.

ArkutU^ life imd cliarader of, iv. 696.

Armenia^ Major and Miner, iuatory of, lii. 333,

S98 INOBX.

jfrminiariMy rise of that sectf y. 447. Tbeir sentimemsi 44t.

JlrtaxerxcM^ reign of, i. 87.

Artaxerxe9^ the reviver of the Persian eini>ire, reign of^ i. 1 1 7.

Artaxerxet Mnemon^ reign of, i. 92,

JrtaxerxeB TMnemon) succeeds to the throne of Persia, iv. 192^
Is opposed by his brother, Cyrus, ib. Battle of Cynaxa, where
Cyrus is killed, 19jh-6. Concludes a truce with the Grecians
in Cyrus's army, 197* His perfidy, 200. Makes war against
the Spartans, 230. Is persuaded by Conon to rebuild the walls
of Athens, 240. Dictates the terms of a general peace, 242.

Jtia^ general view of, i. 23.

Atia^ under the Seleucidas, v. 5. Reign of Seleucus, ib. Of An-
tiochus Soter, 7. Of Antiochus the Great, 9. Is incited by
Hannibal to a war with the Romans, 14. Is forced to make a
huroilWing peace, 16. Reign of Seleucus Philopater, ib* Of
Antiochus, 17. The minority of Antiochus Eupator, 23.
Reign of Demetrius Soter, 24. Of his son Demetrius, 27. Of
Tryphon, 29. Of Antiochtis Sidetes, ib. Revolutions till the
countiy falls into the hands of the Romans, ib. InvaaioD of the
Saracens, 35. Of the Turks, ib.

jftia Minor , described, ii. 209. iii. 104.

Amatk klandty account of the, ii. 339.

Miotic RuMsUtf description of, iL I. Climate, 2. Productions, ib.
Cities, 4. Inhabitants, 5. Overrun by the Moguls, 14.

Miaiie Turkey ^ extent of, ii. 102. Face of the country, ib. Riv-
ers and lakes, 103. Climate, 104. Productions, 105. An-
tiquities, 107. Cities, 109. Islands, 114. Sketch of its his-
tory previous to the Arabian conquest, 1 1 7. In? asion of the
Arabs, 129. Capture of Jerusalem, 130. Finally conquered
by the Arabs, or Saracens, 1 32. See Jiraba.

Miamj account of the distria of, IL 32a*

jiM9a94in9j extirpation of the tribe of, ii. 14.

Mayrian empire^ history of, i» 26. Its monarchs, 28.

Mtrachan^ described, ii* 14.

jfthensf first settlement of^ iii. 99. Reign of Theseus, ib. Abo-
lition of royalty, 144. Athens under the archons, 160. Con-
stitution of Athens, as regulated by Solon, 165. Usorpation
of Pisistratus, 175. Expulsion of the Pisistratidae, 181. The
Athenians assist the Greek cities in Asia, in their revolt against
the Persians, 201. Form an alliance with the Lacedaemonians
for defence agunst the Persians, 208. The Persians invade
Ettboea and Attica, 209. Battle of Marathon, 211. Battle of
Thermopylae, 229. The Athenians abandon their city, and re-
move their fiiimilies and effecu to Salamis, 232. The Per-
sians enter Athens, and take the citadel by assault, 234. Bat-
tle of Salamis, ib. Retreat of Xerxes, 236. Battle of Platasa,
343. Battle of Mycale, 246. Athens rebuilt and fortified, 258.
Artful embassy of Themistoclcs to Sparta, 259. Piraeus for-
tified, 260. Banishment of Themistocles, 262. Success of

INDEX* 899

Cimon againit the Persian dependencies^ '366. Athens re-
nounces the confederacy of Lacedaecnonf and forms an alliance
with Arg08> 375. Banishnient of Cimon) 376. Pericles ukes
the lead m the commonwealth, 377. The Athenians assist the
revolt of £|7pt from Artaxerxes, 37a. The long walls built,
379. Unfortunate event of the Egyptian expedition, 38 1 . Re-
cal of Cimon, 383. His death, 385. Thirty years truce, 391.
Character of Pericles, 393. Origin of the Peloponneslan war,
397. The Corinthians and Corcyraeans appeal to Athens, 300.
A treaty of defence concluded with Corcyra, ib. Revolt of
Macedonia, 303. The thirty years truce declared to be bro-
ken, 307. Account of the states confederated against Athens,
308. The people of Attica lay waste their territory, and retire
to Athens, 310. Invasion of Attica, 313. The invasion reta*
Hated on the confederates by sea, 313. Athens visited by the
plague, 3 1 8. Events ef the second campaign, 33 1 . Death
and charactet of Pericles, 337. Siege of Platsea, 328. Third
invasion of Attica, 330. Revolt of Lesbos, ib»

Viuted by the plague, iv. 13. Expedition against Melos, 14.
Expedition to Etolia, 15. The Athenians reject the Spartan
overtures for peace, 16, 17. Capture the island of Cythera, 19,
Destroy Thyrcay 19. Battle of Delium, 38. Revolt of Amphi-
polis, 36. Truce concluded with Sparta, 30. Peace made with
Sparta, 37. Accession of Athens to the Argive alliance, 47.
Renewal of the war, 48. Expedition to Melos, 55. Send a
fleet to Sicily, 64. Another expedition to Sicily debated, 70.
Departure of thearmament from Athens, 78. Attica invaded by
Agis, who fortifies Decelea, 97. Vigorous exertions against
Sicily, 101. Athenians finally defeated at sea before Syracuse,
113, 113. Their disastrous retreat from that city, 114. Con-
sternation at Athens at the news of this disaster, 134. Combi-
nation of the Grecian states against Athens, ib. Revolt of their
Asiatic dependencies, 135. The democracy overturned, and the
government of the Four Hundred formed, 129. Their tyranny,
id. The democracy restored, 133. Beat the Spartans by sea,
ib. Capture the whole fleet, 133. Callicratidas defeated by the
Athenians and killed, 1 39. Defeat and loss of the Athenian fleet
at iEgospotamos, 144. Athens besieged, 147. Embassy of
Theramenes to Sparta, 149. Surrender of Athens, 1 53. Cruel
treatment of the Athenians by the Thirty tyrants, 161. Thrasy-
bulus opposes the tyrants, 168. He seizes the Piraeus, 169. The
tyrants deposed, and the ancient government restored, 173. The
walls of Athens rebuilt, 340. Oflend the Thebans by their pre-
sent to the temple at Delphi, 319. Raise a confederacy against
Philip, 333. Battle of Cheronsa, 326.
Jtheruj present state of, vii. 331.

^uguatuMy first emperor of Rome, his duplicity, v. 108, note. His
character, 1 10.

-v

400 IKPBX.

Aurenztbej his reign io lodiS) i. 145. Civil vart of bis cbildDeiii
147.

Juetria^ extent, fiice of tbe counuy, mountains, riversi aiid mine-
raiog^i vii. 167. Soil, 169. Ciinaate and productions, 170.
Natural curiosities and ancient monuments, 171. Okies, 173.
Religion and government, 175* Laws, army, revenue, and
commerce, 176. Manufactures, population, and political im-
portance, 177. Language and literature, 179. Education and
manners, 179.

y4zore IttantU^ deiicriptioo of tbe, ix. 210.

Babetj tower of, built, i. 18.

Babylon^ history of, i. 33. Its sovereigns, 38. Subverted by Cy*
rus, 50.

Bactriaj account of, ii. 265.

Bajazety the Ottoman emperor, conquered by Tamerlane, ii. 38.

Bally y account of the island of, ii. 351.

Barbaro9Ba^ history of, viii. 295.

Bataviay (or Holland,) kingdom of, boundaries, viii. 3. Face of the
country, rivers and lakes, ib. Soil and climate, 4. Cities, 5.
Original population, 11. Geographical revolutions, 12. The
provinces acquire independence, and form a federal republic
under the prince of Orange, 13. Their war of independence,
ib. Truce with Spain, 17. Religious dissensions, 18. Renew-
al of the war, 19. Peace of Westphidia, 20. Policy of tbe
Dutch, ib. War with England and France, 23. War in sup*
port of the United States of America, 23. Civil war, 24. The
government overturned by the French, ib. Review of the Dutch
commerce, ib. Religion, 26. Government, army, and navy, 27.
Revenue, commerce, manufactures, and population, 28. Lan-
guage, literature, and education, 29. Personal appearance, man»
ners and customs, and character, 30.

Belgium^ extent, face of the country, mountains, mineralogy, vti.
291. Soil, climate, and products, 292. Cities, ib. The Belg«,
295. Early history, 296. United to Burgundy, 298. Estab-
lishment of the inquiution by tbe emperor Charles V, 305.
Oppressive conduct of the duke of Alva, 306. Plunder of AdI*
werp, 307. Pacification of Ghent, ib. Renewal of the civil
war, 308. Becomes a part of the Batavian republic, 309. Siege
of Antwerp, 310. The Hollanders shut the Scheldt, 311. A
part of Belgium conquered by France, 313. Revolution of 1789,
ib* Ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio, 314. Re-
ligion, commerce, manufactures, language, literature, and edu*
cation, 315. Manners, 3 1 6.
Benedict^ institution of that order of monks, v. 303.
Benjamin^ of Tudela, account of his travels to ascertain the state
of the Jews, i. 880.

mi>MX. 401

Benin^ account of the kingdom of| yiiii 301.

Bergen^ described) yiii. 136.

Berlin^ described) viii. 354.

jBeniuMAif, description of the islaiidi of» ix. 235.

Btrman efnfiirej account of thC) ii. 339.

Bithynia^ history of, ii. 227.

Blue Monday J suppresfdon of, Yiii. 250.

Bteotia^ settlement of, iii. 142. Its constitution) t^.

BunavUtay description of the island of, ix. 300.

Borneo J account of the island of, ii. 351.

Boafiorne^ account of that kingdom^ ii. 265.

Bdurbimf description of the island of, ix« 190.

Bourdeauxj description of, vii. 1 37.

Bramdae^ his expedition to Thrace, iv. 23. His address to the
AcanthianS) 25. Procures the revolt of Amphipolis, 36. His
character, 39.

Braailj discovered by the Portuguese, vii. 104.

^rava, description of the island of, ix. 199.

Brazily general description of,ix« 305. Cities, 306. Religion^ 309.
Commerce, literature^ and general character of the BrazillanSi
310.

British America^ extent o( ix* 236. Soil, climate, and produc-
tions, 337. Cities, 235. Settlement, 329. Religion and govem-
mentf tb. Revenue, population^ and political importance) 230.
Langttftge and manners, 331.

BriHsM empire in India^ progress of the, i. 233.

British isleSf state of religion in, v. 490.

Brugesf described, vii. 293.

Brussels^ described, irii. 398. -

Caesar ^ JulinS) his life and character, v« 96. Killed in the sen-
ate-house, 90.

Cajfres^ or Koussis, description of the country of the, viii. 303.

CaUicratidasy defeats the Athenian fleet under Conon, iv. 138.
Is defeated and killed at Arginusae, 139.

Qa^Ummius Fiamina^ his heroic bravery, ix. 105.

dUvin, John, character oi^ v* 431. note,

Calvvtisticy or refiMrmed church, doctrines of the, v. 430.

Cfimbodkif account of thai country, ii« 337.

Cambysesj of Persia, his reign, i. 71.

Canada^ discovery and settlement of, ix. 224.

Canary islands^ description of, ix. 202.

Candia^ description of the island of» vii. 33 1.

Canton, description of, ii. 277.

Cape Breton^ description of the island of, ix. 333.

Cape qf Goad Hope^ effects of its discovery on the commerce of
India, i. 187.

402 INDEX.

Cufie qf Good Hope^ discovered bv the Portugoese} viii. 100.

Cape Ferd ItlandSf description of,ix. 199.

Cafifiadocia^ account of, ii. 256.

Caranusj an Argive prince, founds the kingdom of Maoedoo, iy.
259.

Caribbee islands^ description of, ix. 328.

Carmelites^ institution of that order of monks, r. 360. Their
ridiculous pretensions, 363.

Carthage^ founded by queen Dido, ix* 84. Description of, ib. Its
government, 85. Religion, 86. Language, 87. Naval and
military power, 88. Commerce, ib. Conquests, 90. Sici-
lian war, 93. First Punic war, 101. Peace with Rome, 113.
Revolt of the mercenaries, 114. Conquests in Spain,- 130.
jThe second Punic war, ib. Is concluded by an ignominious
peace with Rome, 135. Third Punic war, 137. Siege of
Carthage, 143. Capture and demolition of the city, 147.
. Catholiea^ persecution of, in England, vi. 122,

Cayenne^ description of, ix. 313.

Ceiebetf account of the island of, ii. 353.

Celtesj account of the nation of the, ii. 192.

Cerafn% account of that island* ii. 355.

Ceylon^ description of that island, i. 191.

Charlemagne^ king of France, conquers Lombardy, ISO. Sub-
dues the Saxons, 151. Undertakes an expedition into Spain,
and receives the homage of the northern Moorish princes, 152.
Complete reduction of the Saxons, ib. Reinstates pope L.eo
III, who crowns him emperor of the Romans, 153* His war
with the Normans, 155. His death and character, '156.

Charles Martel^ drives the Saracens out of France, 153.

Charles T, reign of that emperor, vii. 53. viii. 196.

CAi'na, empire of, extent, antiquity, ii. 371. Great wall, 373.
Tartar conquest, 273. Topography, ib. Rivers, 378. In-
land navigation, ib. Lakes, 379. Mineralogy, ib. Climate,
280. Population, 281, Political importance, 283. Language,
ib. Education and science, 384. Personal appearance and
manners, 386. State of society and national character, 388.
Religion) 289. State of the Jews in the empire, 390. Of tjie
Mahometans, 291. Of the Christians, 293. Government,
laws, and politics of China, 393. Learning, arts, sciences, and
language, 398. Agriculture and manu&ctures* 301. Charac-
ter, genius, manners and customs, marriages, fasts, festivals,
and artificial rarities, 311.

Chinese Tartary, account of, ii. 319.

Christianity f history of in the first century, v. 199. Second cen-
tury, 338. Third century, 255. Fourth century, 268. Fiflth
century, /289. Sixth century, 398. Seventh century, 304.
Eighth century, 312. Ninth century, 321. Tenth century,
332. Eleventh century, 338. Twelfth century, 345. Thir-

^_^ i

immn. 4M

t«iWth eentaryi 355. PoHiteenth cenlwy, 36f. m^eoth
centuiy, 377. Sixteenth centurj, 389. Seventeenth century,
434. Eighteenth centupy^ 454.

CharlcB Xlly of Sweden, ascends the throne, viii. 118. His w^r
with Denmark, Poland, and RossisI, 119. His character^
133.

CAt/i, see ^>ft<nil«A Domini$n0 in South America.

Chinese emfitre^ subdued by the Moguls, ii. IS.

CAfo«, or Scioj account of the island of, iv. 427.

Chivatry^ introduction of, iii. 36*

Chora99any account of, ii. 2A5.

ChrtMty life and ministry ef, v. 199.*

ChrUtianUyy introduction of, i. 6.

ChrUfiatUty established in the Reman empire, t. 1 66. State of
seciety under this dispensation compared with that under pa«
ganism, 148. Introduction of superstition into the church,
169.

ChrUHatUi eonTOPted by the sword, y. 384, 304, 315, 33 1, ^39, 33df,
340, 348, 356, 377.

ChuTth of ChrUty history of, v. 199. The ministry of Christy
ib. The deseent of the Holy Ghost, 300. Peter's Sermons,
801. The church persecuted by the Jews, 303. First ap-
pointment of deacons, 20f . Death of Stephen, the first mar-
tyr, ih. Conversion of Paul, 306. His apostolical labours, 307,
313. Character of Peter, 308. Of Andrew and John, 309. Of
the other apostles, 310. Great spread of the Gospel, r 5. Stat9
of the church in the first age, 311. Its form, ib. Its obser-
vances, 319, 917, 350. The gospel ordered to be preached to
the gentiles, which eauses a new persecution by the Jews, 313^
A council at Jerusalem decides that the gentiles are not bound
by Jewish observances, 914. Persecution by the Jews, 318.
By the Romans, 319. Heresies of the first century, 330. Doc-
trines of the primitive Christians, 33 1, 393. Beneficial effects
of the gospel, 333. Completion of the canon of scripture, 934.
Review of the New Testament, ib. Sufferings of th^ churcl|
at different periods, 338, 355, 368, 389, 304, 319, 331. Here-
sies, 345, 359, 274, 386, 991, 303, 310, 330, 350, 353, 375.
Principal personages and writers of different periods, 347, 360,
385, 397, 433, 443, 447. Corruptions of the church, 351, 958|
363, 376, 393, 999, 309, 315, 319,335. Progress of purfs
Christianity, 965, 379, 987, 397, 303, 310, 330, 333, 331, 337,
344, 351, 366, 375, 384. Conversion of Constantine, 971. Exter-
nal state of the church, 978, 989, 398, 304, 319, 331, 333, 338,
345, 367| 377, 494, 434, 454. Commencement and progress of
the papal power, 978, 393, 313, 317, 333, 343, 358, 376, 389,
Disputes in the church respecting image worship, 317. The
council of Constance deposes three popes, and burnt Huss and
Jerome of Prague, 379. The reformation, 389. 3tate of
VOL. IX. [52]

404 INDSXU

jjBligion at that periody S90. Present stale of the dlmnhf

484.

Church and 9tatej first alliance betweeoi v. 287.

Church fuuronage^ orig^in of* Y. 287.

CUicUi, now Caramnnia, account of» ii. 230.

Cimon^ of AtheoS) bis successes against the Persians, 266. HU
character) 270. He reduces Eion and Thasus, 272.

drcaMua, account of, vii. 358.

Cleon^ of Athens, is killed before Ainphipolis, iv. 35.

Cicofiatraf queen of Egypt, her life, ix. 55.

Cochin Chinaj account of that country, ii. 338.

CtmobiU9j a monkish order, instituted, v. 277.

ColchiSi account of that country, ii. 263.

Colo99U8y of Rhodes, account of^ iv. 402.

ColumbuMj or Colon, Christopher, his discovery of America, ix.
220.

Comora islcM^ description of, ix. 196.

Confe$9^n^ the practice of, introduced bto the church, t. 297.

Congo^ account of that country, yiii. 301.

Conon^ of Athens, one of the ten commanders appointed to super-
sede Alcibiades, iv. 137. Is defeated by Callicrstidas, 138. His
advice rejected, and the Athenian fleet captured by Lysander^
144. His interview with Artaxerxes, 237. Defeats Pisander
by sea at Cnidus, 23$. Prevails on Artaxerxes lo rebuild the
walls of Athens, 240.

ConsiarUino/ile founded, v. 158.

CoTutanHnofiie^ description of, vii. 319.

Co/ienhagcTij described, viit. 136. Its destruction by fire, 150.

Corcyruj tumult between the Athenian and Corinthian factions in,
iv. 7. Arrival of Nicostratus with an Athenian squadron, 10.
Massacre of the Lacedemonian partisans, 11* PeiHfidious cru-
elty of the Corey rfleans, 17.

Cor/korartoiitf, origin of, ill. 21. Introduce democratic principles
into European governments, 22. Cause the enfranchisement
of the villeins or vassals, 23.

Corsica^ island of, described, vii. 1 39.

Cofica^ first settlement of that island, iii. 158.

CorvOf description of the island of, ix. 213.

Corieif Fernando, conquers Mexico, ix. 256.

Council ((f jimfihictyon»f origin and constitution o^ v. 43.

Council of Constance deposes three popes, and bums Huss and Je-
rome of Prague, v. 379.

Crealhn of the world, i. 3..

CredulUy in the church, extraordinary instance of, v. 393. nate^

CreUj account of that island, iv. 418. Institutions of Minos, 419.

Critiat^ chief of the Thirty tyrants of Athens, his character, iv.
162. Accuses Theramenes, 165. Orders him to.be put to
death, 166. Is killed in battle with Thrasybulus, 169, ro.

CrteiuM^ king of Lydia, subdues the Asiatic Greeks, iii. 154.

Oru9fuU9i history of, iii. 17, and vii. 173. Beneficial conaequences

of, ill. 19, and vii. 184.
CruHide8y history of, v. 338, 345, 355, 367.
tTfi^o, accoant of the island of, is. 325.
Cycladesy account of these islands, ir, 436.
Cyt»ru%^ account of that island, iv. 431.
CyruBj king of Persia, his reig;n, i. 70.
Cyrtuj king of Persia, conquers Lydia^ Hi. 187. Subdues the Gre-

cian cities in Asia, 191. By the capture of Babylon becomes

master of Assyria, 193.
Cyru9j son of Darius II, disputes the succession of his brother

Artaxerxes, iv. 193. Procures the assistance of the Greeks to

acquire the empire of Persisf 194. His death, 196. Celebra-

iad retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, ik.

Dahomyf account of the kingdom of, viiL 300.

DariuM CodomanuMf reign o^ L 94.

Darius Codoma7iu9j his accession to the throne of Persia, ir. 341.
His dominions invaded by Alexander the Great, ib. Battle
of the Granicus, 343. Is totally routed at the battle of Issus,
353. Battle of Arbela, 364* His flight, 368. His assassina-
tion, 370.

JDariua HyMtavfiea^ king of Persia, undertakes an expedition
against Scythla, iiL 194. Revolt of th(D Asiatic Greek cities,
300. Invades Greece, 206.

Darius M}thuSi reign of, i. 90.

Darius Ochust reign of, i. 93.

Dark ages^ state of Europe during that period, ili. 15.

Deacons^ first appointment of in the Christian church, v. 305.

Dtfender qfthe Faithy why the kings of England so called, v. 405.

Delos% account of the island of, iv. 437. vii. 335.

Delphic orachy establishment of the, v. 37.

Deluge^ the universal, i. 9.

Demoathenesy the Athenian general, his expedition to Etolia* iv.
15. Carries a reinforcement to Nicias before Syracuse, 103.
He and his troops captured on his retreat from Syracuse by
Gy lippus, 119. Is put to death, 121.

Demosthenes^ the orator, his orations against Philip of Macedon,
277, 283, 398, 304, 308, 345. Receives Persian pay to en-
courage his opposition to Philip, 306. Honours conferred on
him for his services in Euboea, ib. Repairs the walls and for*
tifications of Athens, at his own charges, 338. His oration in
honour of the slain at Cheronaea, 330. Intellectusl conflict
between him and JEscbines, 375. His death, 376.

Denmark f extent, bee of the country, soil, climate, and ]:roduc-
tion«» viii. 132. Citiesi 136, Islands, 132, 137. Early his-

406 IKOBX.

ful fire, 153. Reign of James IIj 157. The revolution, 158»
Reign of William and Maiy, 160. Establishment of the fund-
ing system, 164. Reign of Anne, 167. War of the Spanish,
soccession, i5. Reign of George I, 169. Scots rebellioo of
1715, 169. The South Sea bubble, 170. Reign of George
II, 173. War with Spain, t^. Peace of Aix la Chapeile, 175.
War with France, 176. Capture of Quebec, and death of ge*
neral Wolfe, 177. Operations In Europe, 178. The New or
Gregorian Style introduced, 179. Reign of George III, 180.
Operations of the war in America, 181* War declared against
Spain, ib. Peace of Parisi 188. American war, 183. Lord
peorge Gordon's mobs against the catholics, 184. Siege of
Gibraltar, 187. A general peace, which establishes the inde*
pendence of the United States, 189. Disputes with Spain re*
specting the settlement at Nootka-sound, 191. Repeal of the
penal laws against the catholics, 193. Riots at Birmingham,
193. War with the French republic, 194. Battle of Cape St.
Vincent, id. Mutiny in the fleet, 195. Admiral Duncan's vic-
tory over the Dutch, 196* Admiral Nelson defeats the French
fleet, t3. Expedition to Holland, 198. Coalition of the north-
em powers against the pretensions of the British flag, 199.
Bombardment of Copenhagen, 300. Dissolution of Uie north-
em confederacy, 301. Expedition to Egypt, ib. Expulsion of
the French, 304. Peace with France, ib. Renewal of hostili-
ties, t!06. The coalition of Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Na-
ples, with Great Britain dissolved by the battle of Ansterlitz,
210. Battle of Trafalgar, 311. The crown of Naples con-
ferred by Bonaparte on his brother Joseph, 313. Expeditionno
Calabria, ib. Capture of the Cape of Good Hope, 314. Death
and character of William Pitt, 315. The kinj" of Prussia ukes
possession of Hanover, and shuts his ports to British shipping,
ib. Blockade of the Elbe, Weser, and Ems, 316. Parliament
passes a resolution for the abolition of the slave trade, ib. Ex-
pedition to La Plata, ib. Project lor assassinating Bonaparte,
317. Death and character of Mr. Fox, ib. The Danish fleet
carried oiF by the British in time of peace, 218. The British
declare all the ports of France and her allies in a state of block-
ade, 319. Great Britain assists the SfMinish and Portuguese
patriots, 330. Religion of England, 231. Government, 233.
Jurisprudence, 336. Army and navy, 239. Revenue, 330.
Funding system, 333. Civil list, 333. Political importance,
ib* Mines, 334. Manu&ctures, id. Commerce, 336. Annual
income, 337. Capiul, 338. Fine arts, ib. Literature, 339.
Education, 340. Population, 341. Personal appearance of the
English, ib. Manners and customs, 343.

Expedition to Walcheren, ix. 354. Conquests in the West
Indies and Mediterranean, ib. The king becomes mentally de-
ranged, ib. The regent, ib* Astossination of Mr. Perdyal, «6,
Acquisitions of territory, Sss,

iirosx. 409

M»ockf the fiM prophet) i. 7.

£ifiiruBj description of> ▼•51. Reign of PyrrhuS} son of Achillety
ib» Of his saccessora, ib. Of Pjrrrhus, son of Eacides, 53.

• See FyrrhuB, Becomes a Roman province, 63.

J&rtmiic9y formation of that order of monks, v. 377.

Mtna^ mouoti deacription of, v. 77.

£ubmh account of the island of, 17. 428.

JCurc^e, general view of the ancient 3tate of, iii. 1 . Boundaries^
id. Original population, 3. Inland seas^ id. Introduction of
the feudal system^ 10, The crusades, 17. Their beneficial
effects, 19, Introduction of corporate bodies, 31. Their ef-
fecta on society, ib. Enfranchisement of the villeins, 33. Im-
provement in the administration of justice, 35. Prohibition of
private war, 36. .Of judicial combat, 37. Limitation of baro-
nial jurisdiction, 31. Introduction of the Roman law, and dis-
covery of the Pandects of Justinian, 34. Law becomes a sci-
ence, 35. Rise of chivalry or knight errantry, 36. Progress

. of science, 40^ Improvement of commerce, 43. Recapitula-
tion, 56.

I^abius Maximusy his procrastinating mode of warfare, ix. i34fk

JFayal^ description of Uie island of, ix. 3 1 3.

Ferdinand and Isabeilaj reign of, vii. 48.

Ferroy description of the island of, ix. 305.

Feudal Mytem^ origin of the, iii. 10.

^/orencf, history of, V. 191.

Fiores^ description of the island of, ix. 313.

Florida^ discovery and settlement of, ix. 234, 335.

jP'ranccy extent, fetce of the country, and mountains, vii. 1 33. Riversr
134. Canals, 135. Minerals, soil and climate, and products, 186.
Specimens of ancient art, 137. Cides, 138. Islands, 138. State

. of the ancient Gauls, 139. Gaul under the Romaqs, 140. Over-
run by the Franks, who change its name to France, ib. Mero*
vingian race of kings, ib. Conversion of Clovis to Christianity)
141. Usurpation of the Carlovingian dynasty, 143. State of
' of society at this period, 144. The usurpation of Pepin sanc-
tioned by the pope, 149. His gratitude, t^. Reign and con-
quests of Charlemagne, 1 50. Reigns of his successojrs, enti-
tled the Carlovingian race, 1 60. Wretched sute of France, 1 69*
Hugh Capet, count of Paris, seizes the crown, and establishee
anew dynaaty» 173. The crusades, 173. Institution of parlia«
ments, and admission of the third estate, or commons, into the
general ateembly,'lB6. King; and kingdom of France laid under
an interdict and excommunicated, t6. Revocation, 187. Dread-
ful state of France after the battle of Poictiers, 189. Reign of
Charles V, 190. Civil wars during the minority of Charles VI,

4EtA tKMBX:

191. Reign of Charles VII, 194. llie Maid of OrlMw »p-
pMirs, ib. Reign of Lo«k XT, )99. Of Charles VIII, 3M. Of
1^9uis XII, ^3. Of Francis I, ib. Sle^ of Pavia, 307. Fvui-
CIS taken prisoner, 909. His character, 9 1 U RmgfW of iieory
II and Francis II, 212. Of Charles IX, ib. Matoicre of St.
Bartholeniew, 2 1 3. Reign of Henry IH, 9 1 4. Of Heavy IV,
216. His assassination, 217. State of Frence, 1^ Regency of
Mary de Medicis, 918« Ministry of cflrdinel Richelieo ander
Louis XIII, 219. Siege of Roc belle, 290. Reagn of Loais

r XIV, 223. Reign of Louis XV, 325. Disastrous acheme of

the Mississippi company, 226. Reign of Loots XVI,3S(X Ruin

k of the finances, i^. Assembly of the notsbles, 331. Meeting

f>f the national assembly, 232. Destructien of the Bastille, 233.
Fete of the grand confederation, 335« Formation of the Jacobin
eleb, 236. Flight of the king, ib. War declared against Aus-
tria, 237. Duke of Brunswick's manifesto, 358. Tragedy of
the tenth of August, 339. Progress of the PmssianB, 341.
Royalty abolishc/d, ib. Success of Dufnetirier, i&m Trial and
execution of the king, 242. Powerful confederacy against
France, ib. Defection and flight of Dumourier, 343. Success
of the allies, 244. Trial and execution of the queen, 345. R^gn
of terror, 247. Downfall of Robespierre, 349. Campaign of
1794, 251. Reduction of Holland, 352. Peace with Prussia
and Spain, 353. Death of the Dauphin, ib. Expedition of the
emigrants to Quiberon, 354. Successes of Bonaparte in Italy,
ib. Peace of Campo Formio, 255. Deposition of the pope,t^.
Expedition to Egypt, 256. New confederacy against France,
257. Campaign of 1798, ib. Revolution which places Bona-
parte in the consular chair, 358. Campaign in Italy, succeed-
ed by the peace of LuneTille, 959. Peace with Great Britain,
ib. Renewal of the war with Great Britain, 960. Bonaparte
crowned emperor by the pope, ib. Third coalition against
France, ib. Battle of Austerlitz, followed b^ the peace of Prea-
burg, 262. The Prussian power overthrown et Jena, 263- De-
feat of the Russians, and peace of Tilsit, 264. Review of the
history of France, ib. Government, army and navy, 286. Re-
' venue, manufectures and commerce, 287. Popuhtion, lan-
guage, 288. Education, manners and customs, 289.

State of Europe after the peace of Tilsit, ix. 335. French
war with Austria, 342. Capture of Vienna, ib. Battles of the 91st
and 32d of May, 343. Battle of Wagram, M. Treaty of Vienna,
344. Insurrections in Germany and Tyrol, ib. English ex-
pedition to Walcheren, 345. Holland incorporated with France,
346. The hanse towns also annexed, 347. Bonaparte marries
the daughter of the emperor of Austria, 348. Causes of the
Russian war, 356. Battles of Smolenskow and Moskwa, 358.
Moscow burnt, 359. 'Disastrous retreat of the French, t6. De-
fection of the Prussians under D'Yorck, 360. Prussia johis
the Russians, 36 K Sweden follows her example, in considers-

nrnu* 4ii

tion 4>f receifiog Norwajr, 363. Battles of Lutzen and Bautieiiy
363. Armisticey and congress of Prague} 364. Hostilities re-
commenced, and Austria join the allies, id. Battle of Dresden,
ib, Bavaria and Sweden loin the allies, 365- Battles of Leip*
sic, id. Revolution in Holland, 366. Proclamation of the allies
on entering France, 369. Operations in France, 370. Battle of
Paris, 378. Surrender of the citjr, id. Dethronement of Napo-
leon, to whom the isle of Elba is assigned, 373. Operations of
the Spanish army in the south of France, 374. Accession of
Louis XVni, 375. Treaties of peace, 376. Restoration of
the pope and Ferdinand VII, 376> Congress of Vienna, 377.
Return of Bonaparte, 379. Louis XVIII leaves France, 380.
Manifesto of the sovereigns, 381. New French constitution,
382. Commencement of the campaign, id. Battle of Water-
loo, 383. Return of Louis XVIII, 385. Bonaparte surrenders
to the British, and is sent to St. Helena, 386. Fall of Murat,
king of Naples, 387.

France^ state of religioo in, v. 485, 389.

FraneitcafUf institution of the order of, v. 361. Are made the
medium of distributing indulgences, id. Roger Bacon, a
member of the order, 362. Disputes in the order, 372.

FrajU^ort on the Mayne^ described, viii. 185.

JF^ee cities J in Europe, rise of, v« 187.

Fuegoj description of the island of, ix. 200.

Fuertuventura^ description of the island of, 208.

r^ /^' */ -i^ V // ■ 3t\ 'i

Gaza^ reduced by Alexander the Great, iv. 360.

Geneva^ state of religion in, v. 485.

Genooy history of, v. 195.

GeoTf^^ account of, ii. 264.

Germany i extent, face of the country, rivers, viii. 181. Mines,
182. Climate and productions, 183. Caves, i3. Antiquities,
cities^ 184. Constitution, 185. ' Religion, army, trade, 186.
Population, political importance, language, 187. Literature,
arts and sciences, 188. Education and manners, 189. Char-
lemagne and his successors, 190. The empire becomes elec-
tive under Conrad, duke of Franconia, 191. Origin of the
Hanse towns, id. Election of Rhodolph, count of Hapsburg,
193. Reigns of Albert and Henry, 194. Of the rival empe-
rors, id. Of Sigismund, 195, Of Charles V, 196. The Re-
formation, 199. The recess of Augsburg, 221. Charles re-
signs the empire, 222. Reigns of the successors of Charles,
227. The thirty years war, 228. State of commerce previ-
ous to the treaty of Westphalia, 230. Reign of Leopold, 233.
War of the Spanish succession, 236. Reign of Charles VI,
VOL. IX. [53]

41^ IKDEX.

339. Seven year's war, 340. Reig;n of Joseph II, 348. His
character, 349. Reign of Francis II, 353.
Germany^ state of religion in, v. 486, 488.
Ghent f described, vii. 393.
Giiolo^ account of that island, ii. 354.
Giatgowj description of, vi. 351.
Gno8tic9j heresy of the, v. 331.
Gcmera^ description of the island of, ix. 306.
Gordian knot^ origin of tlie, ii. 313.
Grarto«a, description of the island of, ix. 313.
Grand Canary^ description of the island of, ix. 303, 307.
Great Britain^ see England,

Crreece^ boundaries of, iii. 71. Wealth, 73. Political instituUODSt
i6. Settlement, 75. Institutions of Minos, 80. Establishment
of cities, 80. Ancient state of the country, 87. Origin of the
gods, 88. Political situation, 89. Employments, 97. Man-
ners, 98. Siege and destruction of Troy, 104. Conquest of
Peloponnesus by the Dorians, 109. First Messenian war, 136*
Second Messenian war, 131. Third Messenian war, 139. Set-
tlement of the Grecian colonies, 145. Subjugadoo of the
Asiatic colonies, by Croesus, 154. Conquered by the Persian^,
156. Causes of the Grecian wars with Perua, 198. First in-
vasion of the Persians, 306. Second invasion, 308. Third in-
vasion under Xerxes, 316. League among the Grecian states,
333. Battle of Thermopylae, 339. The Peloponnesians cmi-
struct lines across the isthmus, 333. Capture of Athens, 334.
Battle of Salamis, id. Retreat of Xerxes, 336. Battle of Pla-
tsa, 343, Battle of Mycal6, 346. State of Greece by the event
of this battle, 35 6* Commotions among the Greeks, 386. Thirty
years truce, 391. Peloponnesian war, 397. Sec ^thensj Sparta^
FhUifiy and Alexander,
Grecian colonies^ origin of the, iii. 145.
Grecian countries north of the isthmus, general view of the state

of, ui. 143.
Grecian gamea^ origin of the, iii. 111.
Grecian manner e^ iii. 94.
Grecian mythology ^ origin of, iii. 88.
Grecian Mlavee^ state o^ iii. 93.
Greek JirCi description of the, ii. 150.
Greek islands^ account of the, iv. 436.
Greek taw qfnatione^ v* 44.
Greek oraclesj origin and progress of, v« 36.
Greeks^ manners of the early, v. 45.
Greenland^ description of, ix. 336. The lost colony, 338.
Guernsey^ description of the island of, vi. 38.
Guiana^ description of, ix. 313.
Chutavu9 Vaaay achieves the independence of Sweden, viiL 108.

INDBf. 4i8

Haarlem^ description of, viii. 9.

Hague^ the, describedi viii. 10.

Hamburgh described, viii. 184.

Hannibal^ of Carthage, takes an oath of hatred to the Romans, is.
114. Succeeds his father in the command of the army in
Spain, 120. Marches his army thence into Italy, 121. De-
feats Scipio, 123. Defeats Flaminins, 123. His victory at
Cannae, 125. His talents as a general, 126. Reduced to de-
fensive measures by the want of support, 137. Concludes an
alliance with Philip of Macedon, 129. Is twice defeated by
Marcellus, ik. Loses Capua and other towns, 1 SO. His alter-
nate defeats and victories, 131. Evacuates Italy, 134. His
conference with Scipio, ib. Is totally defeated by him, 135.
Concludes an ignominious peace with Rome, t^. Is forced to
fly into Syria, 136. Poisons himself, 137.

Hanaf towntj origin of the, viii. 191.

Hebudet^ or Hebrides, or western isles, description of, vi. 355.

Heterodox churcheu^ doctrines of, v. 433.

Hindoo religioriy compared with the Jewish, v. 223.

Holland^ see Batavia,

Holland^ state of^religion in, v. 485, 489.

Holy watery introduced into churches, v. 376.

HomUiee of St. Eloi, specimens of, v. 308. His miraculoiis gifts,
309.

HoaftUallerMi institution of the order of, v. 347.

Hottentot*^ view of their country, ix. 180.

Huntingdon^ lady, her exertions in the cause of methodism, v.
475.

Hyder AUy^ his wars with the Bridsh in India, i. 154.

Jamaica^ account of the island of, ix. 326.

Jameitown^the first permanent settlement of the English in North

America, ix. 325.
JanUsarietj origin of the, vii. 338.
JafiaHf account of the empire of, ii. 339.
Javaj account of the island of, ii. 350.
Iberia^ now Georgia, account of, it. 264.
leelandy description of the island of, viii. 138. Its literatare,

139.
Jesuits, labours of the, v. 434, 434, 438. Foundation of the ON

der, 435. The order abolished, 463. Re-establishment of the

order, ix. 576. '-i . -^

414 IUDBX.

Jifwff, history of the^ u 195. Call of Abraham) ^. Jewish ^r-
emmenti 203. Ecclesiastical polityi 314. Comparison c^ the
Jewish and Hindoo religion, 333. Of the Jewish aod EgyptiaOt
336. Domestic history of the Jews, id. Their funerals, 3S5.
Creed, 336. Prophets, 3311. Proneness to idolatry, 339. Slaves,
340. Parental power, id. Military arrangements, 341. Power
of their kings, ib. Condition of captives, i6. Sacred books,
343. The Jews favoured by Alexander the great, 358. Mas-
sacred and persecuted by Antiochus Epiphanes, 360. Re-
volt of the Maccabees, 361. Acquire independence, 364.
Reduced under the Roman empire by Pompey, 367. He-
rcd ascends the throne, 369. Birth of Christ, 371. Judea
' reduced to the form of a Roman province, id. State of reli-
gion at the coming of Christ, ib. His ministry, 373. Cru-
cifixion, 374. Resurrection and ascension, 275. Judea under
the Romans, 376. Revolt of the Jews, 379. Siege of Jerusa-
salem, 286. Destruction of the temple, 290. Demolitioo of
the city, 393. Destruction and dispersion of the Jews, 395.
State of the Jews, after their dispersion, under pagan Rome,
395* State under christian Rome, 302. Their state in the
6th and 7th centuries in the east, Spain, and France, 308. Their
state during the crusades, 317. Sources of the general hatred
against the Jews, 319. Their state in the twelfth century, 320.
False Messiahs, 324. State of the Jews in England, 336. Id
France, 338. Admitted by the revolution to the rights of citi-
zens, 345. An assembly of the principal Jews convened by
Bonaparte, 346. Meeting of the grand sanhedrin, 348. Their
proceedings, 349. State of the Jews in S|>ain, 350. In Ger-
many, 360. In Italy, 365. In Poland, 368. In Holland, 369.
' In Asia and Turkey in Europe, 370. In Africa, 383. In Ame-
rica and the West Indies, 386. Religious rites since the de-
struction of their temple, 390. Religious tenets, 391. Chris*
tian converts, 393. State of the Jews in India, 394. Fulfilment
of the prophecies in regard to the Jews, 400.
Image worahi/ij disputes in the church respecting, v. 317.
India^ description of, i. 139. Invaded by Darius Hystaspes, 141.
By Alexander the Great, ib. Mahometan conquests in, ib.
Arrival of the first English ambassador, 144. Reign of Au-
rengzehe, 145. Civil wars of his successors, 147. The English
and French intermeddle in these contests, and thereby get a
footing in the country, 150. History of the establishment of
the English power in India, 151. Their wars with Hyder
Ally and Tipppo Saib, sultans of Mysore, 154. Capture of
Seringapataro, 157. Religion of India. 159. Missions for the
conversion of the natives, 1 63. Population and manufactures,
168. Commerce, 179. Portuguese empire in India, 187.
Progress of the British empire, 188. American trade with In-
dia, 190. "^
India beyond the Ganges, account of, ii. 338.

IUDBS. 4ii

Ihdul§^enee€^ foondatipn of the system o(j ▼• 39 1. / V .

Infanticidej allowed in ancient Rome, v. 152

InquUUUm^ institution of that court) v. 361.

In9otvency^ harshly treated in ancient Rome, y. 158.

Ireland^ population and boundaries of^ vii. 1. NamO) ib. Lakes,
ib. Bogs, 3. Mines, ib. Soil, climate, and productions, 3.
Curiosities, 4. Cities, 5. Original population, 7. Introduc-
tion of Christianity, 8. Literature, ib. Invasion of the Danes,
ib. Invasion of Henry II, 9. Massacre of the protestants, 13.
Battle of the Boyne, 14. The Irish effect an improvement in
their government, 15. Origin of the society of United Irish*
men, 16. Expedition of Bantry Bay, 17. General insurrec-
tion, 18. Landing of the French at Killala Bay, 19. The
union, 20. Oppression of the government, ib. Confiscating
and proscribing laws, ib* note. Religion, government, and
military force, 23. Revenue, trade and manufactures, arts
and sciences, and language, 34. Education, character, and
manners and customs, 25.

Me qfMan^ described, vi. 38.

I»le qf fyigrhiy described, vi. 28.

Mffiahanj description of, i. 60.

lialyj history of the Grecian settlements in, iii. 353.

Boundaries of, v. 64. Face of the country, mountains,
rivers, and onnals, t^. Minerals and mineral watAv, 65. Cli-
mate and productions, ib. Cities, 67. Islands, 75. Religion,
commerce, population, language, and literature, I97« Educa-
tion, and manners and customs, 1 98. See Rome.

Jubilee year^ instituted, v. 366.

Juiianf the apostate, his character, v. 383.

Jum/ier9j sect of the, v. 375.

Justinian^ Pandects of, discovery of the, 34.

Kmght9 of S( John^ institution of the order, v« 347.

Knighta aword'bearera^ baptize the pagans at the point of the

sword, V. 349.
Kr^ight9 Tem/iiarsy account of that order, vii. 187.
Koran^ an account of the, ii. 91.

Labyrinth of Egypt, description of, ix. 8«
Lancerota^ description of the island of, ix. 308.
Lao9y accoynt of that kingdom, ii. 337.
Learning f revival of in Europe, iii. 67.
Lei/i9iCf described, viii* 184.

4|6r INDBZ«

LeonidiUf king of Pertiay hk memorable conduct at the battle of
Thermopyl», iii. 338.

LeMboMf account of the island oi^ iv. 426.

Leyden^ description ofy viii. 8.

Limay describedtix. 285. .

Liadoftj described, vii. 97, Tremendous earthquake} 1 10.

Luie, city of, described, vii. 135.

Loangoy account of that country, viii. SO 1 .

London^ description of, vi. 13.

Z,ondon MUt^Umary- Society f efforts of, y. 469.

Luther^ Martin, life and character of, iii. 63.

Opposes the sale of indulgences, v. 397. His character,
398. Is summoned before the pope, who is prevailed on to re-
fer the decision of the affair to his German legate, 399. Writes
a condescending letter to the pope, ib. Disputes with Eckius on
papal power, 400. Is excommunicated by pope Leo X, 401.
Separates himself from the church of Rome, 403. Offers sub-
mission to the determination of a general council, ib. Is ban-
ished by a diet at Worms, 403. His '< Babylonish Captivity"
answered by Henry VIII of England, 405« Assists in drawing
up the Confession of Augsburg, 409. His letter to Erasmus,
414} note.

Lutheran churchy doctrines of the, v. 428«

Irttzofi, accoAnt of the island of, ii» 352.

Lycia^ account of, ii* 335.

LycurgttMy the Lacedaempnian legislatori his institutions, iii. 116.
Lydiay history of, ii* 2 19. iii. 184.
Lyoney city of, described, viL 134.

LytandeTy defeats the Athenian fleet in the absence of Alcibia-
des, iv. 196. Is succeeded by Callicratidas, 137. Resumes the
command of the fleet, 141. Takes Lampsacus, 143. Defeau
and captures almost the whole of the Athenian fleet, 144. Puts
hit prisoners to death, 145. Reduces the coasts and islands of
Asia and Europe, 146. Lays uege to Athens, 147. Takes and
dismantles the city, 1 52.

Macedony kingdom of, founded by Coranus, iv. 259. PrudenjE
conduct of its first princes, ib. State of, previous to the reign'
of Philip, 361.

MadagaecoTy description of the island of, ix. 191.

Madeira leiande^ description of, ix. 209,

AMtomety life and character of, ii. 130. v. 304.

JSfahometaniem^ view of, ii. 65. Splits into three factions, the
Abassides of Bagdat, theFatimites of Africa, and the Ommia-
des of Spain, 154. , *

Mtiaeca and the Malays, account of, ii. 334.

IKDBX.

4i7

Mmco Cafiac^ legislator of PerU) his institutions, ix. 388.
Manner9 of the early Greeks, v. 45.

MardoniuSi the Persian general, his invasion of Greece, iii. S06«

His fleet being destroyed by a storm, he returns to Asiai 307.

Is left in charge of Greece, on the retreat of Xerxes, 336. Is

killed at the battle of Plataea, 343.

MaraeiUe4j in France, found by the Phoccans, iii« 191. Descrip*'

tion of, vii. 136.
Mary^ queen of Scots, her reign, vi. 387.
Mauritania^ description of, ix. 161. Its history, 163.
3iattn^cK«, description of the island of, ix. 191.
Mayo<i description of the island of, 300.
Mediay history of^ i. 55.

Medici^ family of, their sway in Florence, v. 191.
Mendicanta^ establishment of the order of, ▼. 360.
Meaaine, or Messina, in Sicily, founded, iii. 138. 139.
Meaaenia^ causes of the war with Sparta, iii. 136. Seizure of
Ampheia, 137. An indecisiTo battle with the Sparuns, 139.
The country reduced under the power of Sparta, 130. The
Messenians rcTolty 131. Disastrous consequences of the war,
137. Third war with Sparta, 139.
Methodi9i9j account of that sect, v. 473.

Mexico^ described, ix. 347. Mineralogy, 349. Mineral Waters
350. Soil and productions, id. Zoology, 351. Natural curiosi-
ties, 353. The city of Mexico, id. Original inhabitants, 355.
Conquest by Cortex, 356. Religion, 373. Ancient government,
373. Army, population, srts, 374. Mannerst ib,
Mexico^ New, description of, ix. 375 .

Miitiadesi appoint^ one of the Athenian commanders in the
Persian war, iii. 3 10. Disposition of his army at thtf battle of Ma-
rathon, 31 1. Is dispatched to punish the islands in the Egean
sea, 314. His unhappy end, ib.
Mindanao^ account of the island of^ ii. 353.
flUnoa^ institutions of, iv. 419.

Mocaranga^ or Monomotapa, account of that country, viii.iS03.
Moluccae, account of these islands, ii. 354.
M(ma9tcrie8» suppression of in England, vi. 131.
MongtiUi or Moguls, conquests of under Zingis Khan and his
^ successors, ii. 7. Dissolution of their empire, 18.
Monka and Friars^ first institution of, v. "^77,
Montreal^ description of, ix. 338.
MooTBy banished from Spain bv Philip III, 73.
Moravian brethreih account of that society, v. 464.
Moacorvy decription of, viii. 35. \x^ i^^
Mount Etna^ description of; v. 77.
Myaia^ account of, iii. 318.
Mythology of Greece^ origin of, iii. 88.

4iB ivoBX.

Mitoliay historj of, ii. 209.

J^antXy city of, described, vii. 137.

MtfUcBy description of, v. 73.

J^ebuchadnezzoTy history of, i. 39.

J^e/itune^ king of Mauritania, his invention of ships with saib,
ix. 163.

JVr'w Britain^ description of, ix. 240.

Mwfoundlandj description of the island of, ix. 234.

JVew Mexico y see Mexico^ Mw.

J/enxf J^orth and South fValea, description of, ix. 242.

JVrtv S/iain^ described, ix. 247.

A>w Teatamenty review of, v. 324.

Mneveh^ history of, i. 30.

JSToaky history of, i. 8. His prophecies and descendants, 17.

North America^ discovery of, ix. 224. Description of the central
parts of, ^243.

Nor way y state of religion in, ▼. 488.

Extent, face of the country, rivers and mineralogyi viiL
133. Soil, climate, and productions, 134. The Maelsirom,
135. General history, 153.

'Nova Scotia^ including New Brunswick, description of, ix. 231.

NumidiOi description of, ix. 151. Early history, 153. Reign of
Massinissa, id. Of his sons, 155. Usurpation of Jagurtba,
156. The kingdom is divided, 160. Finally becoaies a Ro-
man province, id*

Niccj assembly of the council of, v. 147, 275.

JViria«, of Athens, his character, iv. 14. Opposes the Sicilian
expedition, 71. Lays siege to Syracuse, 92. Reinforced by
Demosthenes, 106. Is defeated in a general engagement, 107.

* Superstitiously delays to raise the siege till his retreat by sea
becomes impracticable, 109. Retreats by land, 114. Is har-
rassed by the enemy, 117. Surrenders to Gylippus, 121. Is
put to death, id.

Oracles, origin and progress of, v. 36*

Ordeal f a trial by battle, institution of, v. 330.

Orkneysy description of those islands, vi. 258.

Olynthusj besieged and taken by Philip of Macedon, iv. 283.

Onomarchusf conducts the retreat of the Phocian army after the

death of Philomelus, iv. 271. Is defeated and killed by Philip

of Macedon, 372.

PaoniOf overrun by Philip of Macedon^ iv« 362*

Pauley i description of, vi« 254.

Palermo^ description of, v. 81.

Palma^ description of the island of, is* 304.

PandectM qf Justinian^ discovery of the, iii> 34.

Pafial flower^ coininencenient and progress of the, v. 278, 293,
313, 317, 343, 358, 370, 463.

PafuU $eey foundation, of, v. 185. View of Rome under the popes,
189. The papacy abolished by the French, 191. Revenue* of
the pope, 197.

Paraguay^ see SfianUh Dominions in South America.

Parity of Troy, his rape of Helen, iiL 106. A similar event in
Irish history, 108.

Pari*f described, vii. 128.

Paro9y account of the island of, iv. 427.

Patronage^ introduction of into the church, v. 387.

Paul^ conversion of, v. 206. His apostolical labours, 307, 213.

Pekkiy description of, ii. 374.

Pergamtuj history of the kingdom of, ii. 359.

Peficleti death and character of, iv. 14.

Persecution of the Jews by the Christians, v. ?68, 377. Of the
Moors, 440. Of the protestants by the catholics, 440, 450*
Of the dissenters by the episcopalians, 443. Catholics by pro-
testants, 446. Of the Arminians by the Lutherans, 449.

PevMepotity ruins of^ i. 60.

Persia^ description of, L 57. Reign of Cherdarlaomer, 69. Of
Cyrus, 70. Of Cambyses, 71. Of Sroerdis, 73. Of Darius
Hystaspes, 74. Of Xerxes, 79. His invasion of Greece, ib'
Of Artaxerxes, 87. Of Xerxes H, 90. Of Sogdianus, i6. Of
Ochus, or Darius Nothus, ib. Of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 93.
Of Darius Ochus, 93. Of Darius Codomanus, 94. The em-
pire destroyed by Alexander the Great, 95. Reigns of the Seleu«
eidae, 116- Reign of Artaxerxes, the reviver of the Persian
empire, 117. Of Sapor, f 6. Of his successors, 1 1 8. Persia
conquered by the Mahometans, 123. Becomes once more in-
dependent under Turkish princes, 124. Conquered by Tamer-
lane« i6. Race of Tamerlane expelled, '5. Persia under the
Sophis, i6. Revolutions during the 17th and 18th centuries,
126.
Conquered by the Moguls, ii< 14.

Rise of the power of that kingdom^ iii. 187. Cyrus conquers
Lydia, i^. And the Greek cities in«Asia, 19.1. Egypt con-
quered by Cambyses, 193. Expedition of Darius Hystaspes
against Scythia, 194. Acquires Samos, 197. Revolt of the
Greek cities in Asia, 300. First invasion of Greece, 206. In-

voL. IX. [54]

^ ' . •. . '• *

vasion of Eub«a and Atuca, 308. Battle of Marathoih 211.
Xerxes aucceeda hia father Darioa, 316. Hia iovaaioD of
Greece, id' See Xerxe*'

Artaxerxea and Cyrua dispute the aucceaaion, iv* 192. Ex-
pedition pf Cyrus into Upper Asia,. 194- Battle of Cynaxa,
195 6. Invaded by Alexander the Great, 341. Battle of the
Graiiicus, 343. Battle of Isaua, 353. Battle of Arbela, S65.
Death of Darius, 370.

Perth^ description of, vi* 253.

Feru^ see Sfianiah Dominion* in South America. Traditional his-
tory, ix. 387. Expedition of Pisarro, 389.

Peteraburgy St. description of, viii. 36,

Pttcr the Great becomes sole emperor of Russia, vtii. 62. Hia
Swedish wars, 64. His efforts to civilize the state, 67. Hia
personal character, 68. Hia death, ib,

Phitifi \l of Spain, history of his reign, viL 70.

PJU^fii king of Macedon, hia education and early transactions, iv.
360« Hia military inatitutiona, 361. He conquers P«onia,
362. His motives for atucking the lUyrians, 363. He takes
Ampbi polls, 364. Founds Philippi, ib. Settles the affairs of
Thesaaiy, 265. Marries Olympias, t^. Greatly enlarges his
boundaries, 366. Defeats Lycophron and Onomarchus, 373.
Opposed at the straits of Thermopylae by the Athenians, 275.
His chamcter, 279, 333, aud profound policy, 380, 289, 395,
301, 308. Besieges Olynthus, 283. Takes that city, 387.
Seizes Eubcea, 288. Vested. with the custody of the temple of
Delphi by the A niphictyonic council, 393. Intermeddles in the
disputes of Peloponnesus, 397. Attacks the Spartan terriio*
riea, 300. besieges Perinthus, 305. Restores the convoy of
provisions seized by Aoiyntas, 309. Attempts to surprise By-
zantium) 310. Is invited to the assistance of Atheas, king of
Scythia, 3 13. His expedition to chastise the perfidy of Atheas,
313. His life saved by his son Afexander, 315. Is appointed
general of the Amphictyons, id. Review of his difficuUies at
thia time, ib. Employs Antiphon to burn the Athenian docks,
3i6. Is applied to by the Amphictyons to punish the Amphis-
seans, S21. Takes Amphissa, 323. Seizes Elatza, 323. De-
leats the confederated Greeks, 326. Is appointed general of
the Grecian confederacy against Persia, 3^2. Is assassinated
333.

Fhili/i/iine islandsy account of the, ii. 352.

Philomelus, the Phocian, instigates his countrymen to withstnnd
the decree of the Anipbictyouic council, iv. 268. Seizes the
tempte of Delphi, and employs the sacred treasure in raiding
mercenaries, 269. Hiit defeat and desperjtte end, 270.
Phocian^or sacred war, history of, iv. 267.

Phocion^ defeats the Macedonians and Euboeans, iv. 282. Expels
the Macedonians from Euboea, 306. Arrives at Byzantium
with a fleet, und saves theThracian cities, 311.

WM»i 4At

PktnUem^ lutlonr of, M. U3. Skg* ef Tfra, \90.

Phrygk^^ eoctontf otigki, gfyvenmieait, comnerce) ii» 3L1« Reli-
gion, 312. History, ib.

Pico^ description of the island of, is. 213.

PUgtimagea^ their rise, v. 379.

Pillar 9axnt9y account of the, v. 194.

PiMtratua usurps the supreme authority of Athens, iii. 173.

Plato^ life and character of, iv 356. ^

Pliny'a letter to Trajan on the persecution of the Christians, ▼.
238.

Poland^ state of religion in, ▼. 4f9«

Polycraiea^ monarch of Samos, history of, 195.

Pontua^ history of, il. 342. Reign of Mithridatea» VII, 343. Of
Phamaces, 355.

Porto Rieo^ account of the island of, is. 327.

Porto SantOi dcscriptioD of the island of, ix* 310.

Portugalj situation^ face of the eouniry, rivora, toil, climate and
productions, vii. 95. City of Lisbpp, 97. First kings, 99.
Geographieal discoveries, i6, Conqueits in indta, 106. Por-
tugal reduced by Philip II of Spain, 109. Independence re-
stored, id. Overrun by the French, 1 18. The prince regent
abandons his country, and removes his court to Brazil, i^* Ex-
pulsion of the French, 119. Religion, goveriiment, and laws,
ib. Trade, colonies, manufactures, population, language and
literature, 120. Polite arts, 123.

Portugueac jfmeriea^ described, ix. 305. See Brazil,

Prmtwrian guards^ instituted by Augustus, v. 117.

Preater Jokny his exploits, v. 348.

Printingy introduced into England, vi. 114.

Proteatantiam^ state of in the 16th century, v. 433. In the !7th
century, 443.

Pruaaki, face of the country, mountains, rivers, minerals, climate,
and pLXKhictions, viii. 254 Capital, ib. Religion, 355. Con-
stitution and laws, army, revenue, commerce, manofectures,
populatSon, 256. Political importance, language, education,
257. Primitive inhabiunts, ib. Conquered by the Teutonic
knights, 358. Becomes a hereditary duchy^ iS, Reign of Fre-
deric WilJiam, r^. Becomes a kingdom under Frederic 1, 359.
Reign of Frederic William I, ib. Reign of Frederic the Great,

• 360. Of Frederic William II, 2r4. Of Frederic William III,
375. His overthrow by Bonaparte, 376. Comncrce of Prus^
sia, 377. V

Ptoiemiea of Egypt, history of their reigns^ ix. W.

Ptolemy Lagua^ founds the Alexandrian library, ix. 34.

Purgatory^ origin of the belief In, 394.

Pyramids of Egypt, description oj^ ix. 6.

Pyrrhuaj king ef Eplros, invited by the Tarenlines to assist them
against the Romans, v. 53. He lands at Tarentum, 54. His
victory over the Romans, jH- His defeat, 58. The plan of

4M tiitoKX*

his phjrsician to poison him fai deftntod by the magimiiiiiihy of
tho Romans, id. He leayes Italy, 59. Conquers MacedoD^ 60.
His^hostilities in Greece, id. His death, 61.

Quebecy description of, ix. 338.

l?<^nna/to4t, origin of Uie, V* 189.

history of the, v. 389. Tiii. 199. Its fandumental doctrines,
▼.414. Decline of these doctrines, 445, 453, 455, 471.

Regulu9y the Roman commander, his conquests in Africa, is.
106. His army captured, and himself tortured to death by the
'Carthag;inians, 110.

i?tf^« of saints, &c. discovered and venerated, v. 395.

Rhodf9y description of the island of, iv. 403. History, 403.
Dreadful inundation, 406. Siege of Rhodes, 407. War with
Mithridates, 415. War with the Romans, 416. Finally taken
by the Turks, 418.

Rio de Janeiro^ description of the city of, ix. 308.

Roman emfdre^ causes of its decline and fall, iii. 6.

Rcme^ founded by Romulus, v. 85. Reign of the kings, 86« Con-
stitution, 87, note. The republic, ib. Wealth and luxury of
the Augustan age, 93. Radical defect in the constitution, 95.
The first triumvhate, 96. Caesar slain, 98. The second tri-
umvirate, 103. By the battle of Actium* Octavius' becomes
emperor under the title of Augustus, ib. Military system of
the Romans, ib. Duplicity of Augustus, 108, note* His cha-
racter, 1 10. Reigns of the auccessors of Augustus, 111. The
sovereignty exposed to sale by public auction, 1 15. Reign of
Severus, ib. Incursions of the barbarians, 1 19. The barba-
rians employed as auxiliaries by the emperors, 123. Calami-
tous situation of the empire, ib. First adoption of the Caesars,
137. The emperors abandon Rome, and fix their residence in
the provinces, 138. The senate sinks into oblivion, 139.
Reign of Constantino, 131. He embraces Christianity, 13^.
Constantinople founded, and the seat of empire carried there,
158. Reign of Julian, 161. Is killed in an unsuccessful in-
cursion into Persia, 163. The Huns domiciliated in the em-
pire, 165. Christianity established as the national religion, by
Theodosius, 166. Final division of the empife into two sove-
reignties, 170. The western empire falls a prey to the nor-
thern barbarians, ib. Rome plundered by the Vandals, 174.
Italy conquered by Belisarius, 178. It beccmies a province

* of the eastern "xmplrs, §6. Lamenti^ble state of Rome,. l!r9.

Conttantiiiople taken and ravaged^ 183.. Partition of the em*,
pire, las. Conataotinople talLon by the Turks, 185. General
view of the principal atatea that aroae out of the ruins of the
Roman empiret 187*
Description of, viii. 97

Rouerh city off described) vii. 135.

Rotterdam^ description o^ viiL 7.

RtinUi^ state of religion in^ ▼. 488.

European, boundaries of, viii. 31. Face of the country,
mountains, rivers, and canals, f^. Lakes and morasses, 33.
Minerals, i6. Soil,»d. Climate, 33. Productions, id. Natu-
ral curiosities, 34. Cities, 35. Original population, 40. Ru-
rick founds this Russian empire, 41. Invasionaof the Mongula
or Tartars, 43. Reign of Alexander Newski, 45. Of Ivan
Vassillievitch I and II, 48. Usurpation of Boris, 50. Reign
of Dmitri the impostor, 53. Intestine commotions after his
death, 53. filecticm and reign of Mikhaila, 56. Reign of
Alexis, ib. Of Feodor, 59. Of the co*sovereignSf Ivan, So-
phia, and Peter, 60. Peter, surnamed the great, acquires sole
power by the death of Ivan and deposition of Sophia, 62. His
wars with Charles XII, 64. His efforts to civilize the state,
67. Reign of Catherine I, 69. Of Peter II, 70. Of Anne,
7 U Of Elizabeth, 73. Of Peter III, 75. Hie assassinatioo,
77. Reign of Catharine 11, 78. Her interference with the
affairs of Poland causes the war with Turkey, 79. Events of
the war, ib. Journey of the empress to Cherson, 83. War
with Turkey and Sweden, 83. Subjufcaiion of Poland, 85.
Character of Catharine II, i6. Reign of Paul and Alexander,
87, 8. Religion and government of Russsia, 88. Army and
navy, 89. Revenue and commerce, 90. Manu&ctures, 92.
Population, 93. Language and literature, 94. Arts and
sciences, and education, 95. National distinctions, 96. Mvl-
sic,97* Baths, 98. State of society, 99.

Sacred war against the Phocians, history of, iv. 367.

Sainf worM/i^ introduced, v. 276.

^/, description of the island of, 20.1.

Samo9i account of the island of, iv. 424.

Safior and bis successors, reign of in ^Persia, i. 1 17.

SarabaitcBf fraternity of instituted, v. 177.

Saractnt^ see Arabs,

Scio^ or ChioBy account of tlie island of, iv. 437.

icionaans, massacre of the, iv. 40.

Seifiio j^/ricanua drives the Carthaginians from Spain, Ix. 133» In-
vades Carthage, 134. His conference with Hannibal, t^. Total-
ly defeats him, 135. Puts an end tp the second Punic war, ik.

4M tvrax.

Scotland^ »tate of roligiov ini ▼. 484.

ExtCDty face of the countryt mooiiUioB^ vL 347. JEUvers
and caMlst 348. Lakes, imnerahy'aoil) climatey productions,
34d. Antiquities, 350. Cities and towns, 351. Islands, 355.
Primitive inhabiunts, 362. Incursions of the Romans and
Danes, 363. Introduction of the feudal system, 364. William
the Lion is taken prisoner by the English king, and forced to
do homage for his kingdom, id. B^IM and Bruce become
candidstes for the throne on failure of the issue of Alexander
III, 365. The nobility refer the decision to the king of Eng-
land, i6» He decides in favoof of Baliol, who acknowledges
Scotland to be a fief of the English crown, 368. BaKol ateert-
ing his independence is overthrown, and resigns his kingdom
to Edwurd, 269. Insurrection of William Wallace, 37 L Ro-
bert Bruce crowned at Scone, .374. Battle of Bannockbnm,
277. A truce of thirteen years concluded, 379. Accession of
the house of Stuart, 280. Reign of James I, 281. Of James
II, 282. Of James III and IV, 283. Battle of Flodden, i5.
Reign of James V, 284. His contests with the nobility, 385.
Reign of Mary, 387. Battle of Pinkey, 388. Mary sent to
France for education, id. The reformation, 289. Mary retnms
to Scotland, 393. Marries lord Damley, 298. Murder of
Riszio, 303. Breach between Mary and her husband, 306,
310. Murder of Damley, 311. Bothwell seizes the queen,
313. Their marriaj>e, 315. Insurrection of the nobles, which
forces Mary to dismiss Bothwell, 3 1 6. She is kept prisoner in
the castle of Lochlevin, 3 1 8* Signs a resignation of the crown
to her son, 319. Makes her escape, and raises troops to reco-
ver the throne, 330. Is totally defeated by the regent, and
takes refuge in England, id. Elizabeth's artful condtict, 321.
Anarchy in Scotland, 329. James takes on himself the go-
vernment of the kingdom, 330. Extraordinary act of the Eng-
lish parliament, 331. B«bington*s conspiracy, 333. Queen
Mary's trial as an accessary, 333. Remonstrance of king
James, 336. Execution of Mary, 337. Commerce of Scot-
land, 341, 345. Advantages of the union, 343. Ecclesiastical
government, 344. Political constitution and laws, id, Manu-
fiictures, language, and literature, 345. Education, 346. Po-
pulation, national character, 347. Manners and customs, 348.

Scyihiansf account of the nation of the, ii. 196.

SeieudtUj reigns of in Persia, i. 1 16, v. 5.

Setuhe9y a Thracian adventurer, takes the troops under Xenopfaon
into his service, iv. 226. Recovers his dominions by their as-
sistance, 337. His ingratitude, 239.

Shetland u^t, description of, vi. 2s8. The herring fishery, S60>

^iam, account of, ii. 333.

Siamptt^ account of that kingdom, ii. 338.

4Mte» Vfftef., massacre of the, v. 83, 4.

• . «

'Siciiyj hittoiy of the Grecian seuleinents in, ilL 247.

Kevolutions iof iv. 58. Leontiuni desertod, 66. Siege of
Syracuse, 92. Miserable retreat of the Athenians, 115.

Description of, v. 76. History, 83. ^

Siavet/m Oreece, state of, iii. 93. ^. O ^ ^ J / -

Society^ European, improved by the crusades, iii. 19. By the in- <-«-*•

troduction of corporate bodies, 21. Of the science of law, 35. '

By chivalry, 36. By the progress of science, 40. Of com- J^ '^ ,

uterce, 43. By the introduction of standing armies, 49. By
the extension of the royal prerogative, 50. By the union of
princes to maintain the balance of power, 55. By the discovery
of America, and of tii passage by sea to India, 58. By- the
inventions of gunpowder and printing, 59. By the reforma*
tion, 61.

Sociniana, sect of, v. 452.

Socratea^ the Athenian philosopher, bis life and character, iv. 184.

Solon^ the legislator of Athens, his institutions, iii. 165.

Sommer Jelanday or Bermudas, description of, ix. 235.

South Jmeiica, See ^merka^ South,

S/uUn^ overrun by the Saracens, ii. 140* The Spanish Saracens
embrace the white faction, and establish an independent ^li-
phate, 155.

Boundaries of, vii. 30. Face of the country, ib. Rivers and
inland navigation, i^. Gold mines, i&. Soil, climate, and pro-
ductions, 31. Natiiral curiosities and antique i*emains, 33. Ci*
ties, 34. Islands, 3B, Revolutions till its conquest by the Visi-
goths, the founders of the piesent monarchy, 39. Moorish in-
vasion, 40. Knight-errantry, 45* Trial ancUdepofttion of Hen-
vy, IV, king of Castile, 47. Union of Ferdinand of Arragon
with Isabella of Castile, 48. They reduce the last J^ioorish
kingdom in Spain, 51. Pillage, banishment, and massacre of
the Jews, id. Reign of Charles V, 52. Institution of the' Holy
Junta, 59. Take arms against the crown and nobility, 60. Ter*
mination of the civil war, 67. Meeting of the Cortes, 68. Reign
of Philip II, 70. Reign of Philip III, 72. Banishment of the
Moors, id. Reigns* of Philip IV and Charles II, 73. Contest
for the succession ended by the establishment of the Bourbon •»
race, in Philip V, 74. Succession of kings to the deposition of
Charles V by Bonaparte, 75. In(crnal and colonial policy of
Spain, 75. Revolutions and commotions, which terminate by the
abdication of C buries and his son in favour of Napoleon Bona-
parte, who confers the crown on his brother Joi»eph, 83. Gene*
rdl insurrection of the Spaniards, 84. King Joseph, evacuates
Madrid, ix. 338. The English land in Mondego bay, 339.
Convention of Cintra, id. Bonaparte enters Spain, overthrowa
the patriots, and forces the British to retreat, 340. Battle of
Corunna, id. Battle of Talavera, 341. Success of king Jo-
seph, id. Convocation of the cortes, 342. Cadiz invested by
the French, 348. Operations in Portugal, 349. Affairs in £s«^
cremadura, 350.. In Catalonia, 351. Lord Wellinglon takes

m%M§» •

4M iNpsz.

Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, 352. Battle €if Salamancat iiu
The siege of Cadiz raised* 353. Proceedings of the cones* 1^.
Battle of Vittoriat 366. The French driven out of Spain* 366.
Restoration of Ferdinand VII| 376. His proceedings. 377. Re*

' Ugion and government of Spain> vii. 86. Array* navy, and reve-
nue« 87. Commerce) 88. Manufacturest 89. PopulatioDi ii^
Political importance, 91. Language and iiteraturet i^- Polile
arts, 93. Education, ib* Manners and customs* 93.

SfianU/i dominioiu in North Americat description of, is. 247.

Sfiamah dominions in South America, extent, ix. 380. Subdivt*
sioos, id. Mineralogy, 281. Soil and climate* 282. Vegetable
products, 283. Zoology, 284. Natural curiosities, 285. Chief
towns, iS, islands, 286. History, 387. Pizarro conquers
Peru, 289. Religion, 301. Government, ib. Revenue, 302.
Commerce and manufactures, 303. Political imporunce, 304.
Literature and character of the colonists« i6> Proceedings of
the colonies, oo receipt of the intelligence of the French usur-
pation, 388. Oppressive colonial system continued by the jun-
tas and portes, 389. The colonies declare themselves indepen-
dent, 1^. Earthquake at Caraccas causes a countei:*revolutioo,
390. Campaigns of Bolivar, id. State of affairs in the prov-
inces of Rio de la Platai 39 1. Report of the United Sutes' com-
missioners, 392.

S/iarta^ early history of, iii. 114. Institutions of Lycurgus, 1 16.
First Messenian war, 136. Second Messenian war, 131. Third
Messenian war, 139. Office of the ephori, 141. An alliance
formed with Athens for defence against the Persians, 208. Bat-
tle of Thermopyls, 229. Battle of Plataea, 243. The Spar-
tans remonstrate with Athens on fortifying their city, 258. An
earthquake destroys Sparia, 273. Revolt of the Helots, id.
The Peloponnesian war, 297. Capture of Plataea, 335.

The ovettures for peace with Athens rejected, iv. 16, 17.
Base treatment of the Helots, 22. Truce concluded with
Athens, 30. Peace made with Athens, 37. Renewal of the
war, 48. Battle of Mantinsea, 51. The Spartan fleet captured
by the Athenians, 133, Battle of ^gospotamos, 144. Capture
of Athens, 152. Thimbron sent to defend the i£olian cities,
330. Cinadon's conspiracy, 232. A league formed against
Sparta, 237. Makes peace with Persia, on the rebuilding the
walls of Athens, 342. War with Thebes, 243. Battle of Man-
tinaea, 349.

Sfiice Inlandgi account of, ii. 354.

Sfoorade9n account of these islands, iv. 426.

St* jfnthonyf description of the island of, ix. 202. '

St. Domingo^ account of the island of, ix. 332.

Stephen^ the first martyr, v, 205.

St. George J description of the island of, ix. 312.

St. Helena^ description of the island of, ix. 214.

St, JagOy deecription of the island of, ix* 199.

INDBX.

49T

St. John^B Itiandj description of| is. 301.

St. Mary^ description of the island of) ix. 3 1 1.

St. Mkhaelj description of the island of, ix. 31 !•

St, Mchoiagy description of the island of) ix. 301.

Stockholm^ city of» described) viii. 103.

St. Peterabuf^i description of, viii. 36.

St. Firtcentf description of the island of, ix. 302.

Sumatroy account of the island of, ii. 348.

Sufiererogationi works of, invention of that doctrine, v. 363, 39 1 •

Sf^edetij state of religion in, v. 488.

Extent, iace of the counti^, rivers and lakes, viii. 100.
Mineralogy, soil and climate, 101. Productions, 103. Cities,
103. Original population, 105. Margaret, queen of Denmark,
unites in her person the three Scandinavian kingdoms, 106.
After a succession of wars and revolutions, the Swedes finally
subdued by Christian II of Denmark, 107. He massacres the
nobles, 108. Gustavus Vasa recovers Swedish independence,
i6. Progress of society in Sweden, 109. The successors of
Gustavus Vasa, 111. Reign of Gustavus Adolphus, ib. Swe-
dish settlements in America, 1 16. Reign of queen Christiana,
117. Of Charles Gustavus and Charles XI, id. Of Charles
XII, 118. Reign of Gustavus III, who overthrows the con-
stitution, 135. Reign of Gustavus Adolphus, 137» His cru-
sade against Bonapart<^, ix. 336. His deposition, 337. Reign
of Charles XIII, if^. Government of Sweden, viii. 137. Re-
ligion, army and navy, 138. Commerce and manufactures, 139.
Population, language, literature, and education, 130, Personal
appearance, faianners, and national character, 131.

Gustavus Adolphus endeavours to stir up a crusade against
Bonaparte, ix. 336. His deposition, 337. Bemadotte elected
crown prince, 355.

Switzerland^ state of religion in, v. 489.

extent and face of the country, viii* 159. Mountains, ib.
Lakes, soil, climate, and productions, 160. Natural curiosities,
161. Ancient monuments, 162. Original population, i^. Wil-
liam Tell lays the foundation of Swiss independence, 163. His-
torical epochs, 164. Religion, government, military force,
commerce, manufactures, and population, 165. Political in\-
portance, language, literature, education, customs, and personal
appearance, 166.

SybarUj history of the city of, iii. 253.

Syraeusey history of, iii. 347. Reign of Gelon, fb.

Syriay history of, il 177.

VOL. IX. [55]

408 INBAX.

Tamtrlaney or Timottri conquers Peruaf i. 124. (nvades ladia,
141.

Tamerlane^ history of, ii. 19. Conquers Bajaset the Ottoman em-
peror, 28, Mdrnage feast of bis grand-children» 33. His death
and character, 34.

Tarentum^ founded, iii* I30«

Tartar^j account of the, il. 306.

Tartaryj Chinese, account of,ii- 319.

Tartaryj Independent, account of, ii^ 334*

TV//, William, lays the foundation of Swiss independenoe) viii.
163.

TemfUarMy institution of tlie order, y* 347*

Tenedot^ account of the island of» iv. 436.

Tencriffe, description of the island of, ix. 306.

Terceruj description of the island of, ix. 31 1.

Terra Firma^ see SpanUh Dominions in South America.

Teutonic kmghi9y institution of the order, y* 346.

Thebe%i demolition of by Alexander the Qreat, iy. 339.

Thernutocleay his artful embassy to Sparta, iii* 359. Pertuadesthe
Athenians to encourage the nayy, ib* His banishment, 363. Es-
capes to Persia, where he is honourably receiyed» 364. His
death and character, 365.

Thermofiylttj straits of described, iii. 335.

Theramene9y his embassy to Sparta on the aiege of Athens by

Lysander,iy. 149. As one of the Thirty Tyrants, endeayolirs

• to mitigate the oppressions of his colleagues, 165. Is accused

by Critias,id. His defence^ i^ Is violently dragged to deaithy

. 16r.

r^idr/, account of, ii. 331.

Thrace^ account of, ii- 368.

TAroMybuhfi of Athens, seizes Phyle, and defeats the Thirty Ty-

. rants, iy. 1 68. Surprises the Pirsus, and again defeats the tyrants,
169. Procures a general amnesty, and restores the goyemment
to its ancient form, 173.

JH/ifioo Saibf his wars with the English in India, i- 154.

Tonquinj account of that country, ii. 339.

Touiouae^ city of described, yii- 135.

7W««/^, description of, viii. 174.

TVoy, history of, ii* 314*

Founded, iii. 104. Besieged and taken by the Greeks, 107.

Turkfy in Eurofie^ extent, climate and productions, yii. 317. Po*
pulation, 318. Ancient monuments, id» Cities, 319. Islands,
331. Historical yiew of the Turks, 336. Siege of Constanti-
T\ople, 335. Exploits of Scanderbeg, 543. Battle of Lepanto,

347. Causes of the rise and declension of the Ottoman power*
S49. Religion of the Turks, 352. Government, 353. Laws,
3S^, Armj and navj, id- Revenue, commerce, population, and
political importance, 355. Language, literature, education,
manners find customs, 356.

7)/rant, signification of the term among the Greeks, iii. 174.

Tyre^ siege and destruction of, iv. 356.

UrdgenitUBy bull of, V. 461.
Ufdted Irishmehy origin of that society, vii. 16*
UfiBoly city of, described, viii. 104.
Utrechtf descriptioii of, viii. 9.

It) '^ > )

Va9C0 <H Gamoy his discoveries, vii. 101.

Venice y description of, v« 84. History of, 193.

Vienna f congress o^ ix. 377.

Vienna^ description of^ viii. 173.

Virgin Mary^ institution of service to the, v. 395, 336.

WaldenaeMj account of that sect, v. 311, 320, 354, 357.

Wallace^ William* his insurrection in Scotland, vi. 371.

JVatcherty institution of this order of monks, v. 294.

fVat Tyler^B insurrection in England, vL 99.

Wesley y John, character of, v. 483.

Wett Indiesf general view of, ix. 332. General observations on,

339.
WMfi/iersy sect of the, v. 375.
Whitfield f George, character of, v. 483.
Wickliffy account of that reformer, v. 373. His bones ordered to

be burnt by the council of Constance, v. 380. .

Jenofthony the historian, history of his military transactions in
Persia, 193.

Xerxet*9 invasion of Greece, L 79.

His accession to the Persian throne, iii. 316. His prepa-
rations for the invasion of Greece, ib. Passes the Hellespont,
317. Strength of his fleet and army, 318. Strength of the

480 INpEX.

Grecian confederates, 325. Xerxet's inarch checked at Ther-
mopylae, 338 Surprises the Phocians who guarded another
pass, lb. Battle of Thermopylae, 339. Devastation of Phocis,
230. Rescue of Delphoa, ib. Capture of Athetis, 334. The
Persian fleet defeated, ib, Xerxes retreats, leaving Mardo-
nius with three hundred thousand chosen troops in Attica^ 236.
Ximene»f cardinal, history of his regency in Spain9 vii. 53.

Zabaiamy or worship of the heavenly bodies, origin of, i.
ZviigU Khan^ life and conquests of, ii« 7.

36;

Vol.

paiare

168

179

300

414

308

ERRATA.

line

1 1 for exact read enact.

2 for terms read statues.
19 for revolution read resolution.
19 and 35 for Goths read Gauls.
22 for armed him with read armed vfith.

12 for Charles Rauson read Charles nomson.

^^^m

SUBSCHIBEH8' NAMES.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Boston*
Holbrook, Pinknej S.

CONNECTICUT.

Mw London.

William, Thomas W,

NEW YORK.

J^Tew Fork,

Astor, John Jacob
Anthon, John
Allen, S.
Bethune, Divie
Brinckerhoff, George
Borrowe, Samuel
Bleecker, Anthony
Bucklejy J.
Barney, William
Buckmaster, G.
Buloid, Robert
Bojd, Samuel
Clarkson, M.
Cod wise, D.
Coggill, George
Colden, C. D.
Carrol, Matthew
Dej, Anthony
Douglass, George

I^ayj Sylvester
Edgar, W.

Emmet, Thomas Addis
Ferguson, John
Francis, John \V.
Flagler, Philip

Floyd, J.
Few, W,
Gelston, David
Graham, Joseph
Greene, J. D.
Gracie, W.
Hoff, John
Hobart, J. H.
Huger, Sarah E.
Heyer, Isaac
Hedges, Timothy
Huntington, William
Howland, Joseph
Hellills, Thomas
Hone, Philip
Irvine, John T.
Jackson, H. H.
Jones, Joseph
Johnston, Thomas
Kike, R.
Knox, John
Laight, E. W*
Livingston, Daniel
Lawrence, A. H*
Milnor, James
Morton, J.
Montgomery, James
Mills, Thomas H.
Nead, Richard
Ogden, J. L.
Parkinson, William
Peyster, Frederick De
Pomeroy, F.
Pierson, Isaac
Picket, John W.
Penny, Samuel
Perrit, P.
Romeyne, John B.
Rutgers Henry
Bodgers, John R. B.
Romaine, S. B.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Rogers, Benjamin Woolscy
Riker, R,
Searing, A. P.
Squire, Charles
Sjkes, James
Trumbull, John
Timpson, John
Townsend, Samuel
Varick, Richard
Whelpley, PhUip Mel.
Wilson, P.
Wyman, John W.
Wells, John
Whitney, S.
Watts, John

fFest PoinL

Burton, A. G.
Davies, C.
Thayer, A.
Walsh, Samuel A.
Washington, William T.

Paughkeepsie.

Crosby, —
Ruggles, Philo

AJhany.

Cumming, Hooper
Hawley, Gideon
Hempsted, Isaac
Jenkins, Elisha
Lansing, John
Spencer, Ambrose

Troy,

Library, Troy
Tilghman, Lewis

Kingston.

Hasbrouck, A. Bryan
Lawrence^ John L.

Hudson.

Gardner, G.

CanandaigWBL.

Spencer, J. C.
Washington^ Duchess County,

Swift, £. M.

Staten Island.
Tompkins, Daniel D.

NEW JERSEY.

Baldwin, Samuel

Elixabeihtoum.

Rudd, John C.

8ussex County.
Linn, John

Trenion.
Wilson, James J.

PENNSYLVANIA.

FhUadelphia.

Birch, W. Y.
Bankson, William
Drake, Thomas
Hollingshcad, W.

Union.

Dawkins, Elijah
Reid, Joseph
Tucker, William R.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Somerset

Ogle^ Alexander

fFashington,

Patterson, Thomas

Ifttmmers Town^ Dauphin Co.

Wallace, James

Broumsmlle*

Youngblood, W.

DELAWARE.

Wilmington.

Bringhurst, Joseph
Bonsai, Isaac
Haughej, F. V.
Harper, J.
Harvej, W.
Milligan, Ratherine
Shivers, W.
Williamson, N. G.
Wales, J.

Brandyunne.

Price, James
Shipley, Samuel

MARYLAND.

Baltimxfre,

Atkinson, Leroj
Brut^, S.
Baker, Joseph
Burt, Andrew
Cooper, W.
Coleman, John
Chase, SUmuel
Dojle, James

De Gnmbj, J.

Damphoux, E.

Deems, Jacob

Elliott, Joseph B.

Frick, William

Falconer, A. H.

Finlej, E. S.

Fen wick, Enoch

Gill, John

Gilmor, William

Grace, Oliver

Gould, James F.

Greiff, John M.

Hinckley, Edward

Howe, John

Hook, Michael

Hayes, Reverdy

Jenkins, William

Jenkins, Thomas C.

Johnson, Reverdy

Jennings, Samuel K.

Kemp, James

Knox, James

Karrick, Joseph

Laborde, J.

Lamdin, Nicholas

Lowry, William

Latrobe, Mr.
Lanstred, John
Learned, Joseph D.
M'Faden, J. W.
Meredith, J.
Mills, William P.
M'Clean, James G.
Miltenberger, Anthony
Norvell, John
Napier, Augustus
Nelson, Philip
Newman, Geor2:e H.
O'Neill, Charles
Ogden, Joseph J.
Pyke, Abraham
Rice, Thomas K.
Rusk, John
Revere, John
Smith, D. A.
Sebring, Cornelius C.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Small, William
Seebohm, A. F.
Shevrier, Beale
Stansburj, Job G.
Sanderson, J. M.
Steiger, Jacob
Snjder, John
Smith, R.
Snow, John
Toy, John D.
Thomas, Evan
Vance, William
Williams, James
Williams, Nathaniel
Williams, N. F.
Wellslager, J. B,
Wetherall, Wm.
Young, Peter A.

Georgetown,

Bartlett, Isaac
Billagurdj, George
Clements, B. Junr,
Crawford, Thomas
JEnglish, David
Fenwick, Ben.
Finch, Dr. Robert
Kerth, John
Lee, John
Porter, John
Stewart, William
Smith, W.
Semmes, Richard T,
Suter, Alexander
Thompson, Hugh

Havre-de-Qrace.

Bond, Z. O.
Pringle, Mark
Ramsay, William White

Elkton.

Bank, Elkton
Richardson, Joseph
Veasey, Edward

Cumberland County,

Bethune, S.

•iccomack County,

Jaques, Levin S.

Stafford^ Harford County.

Archer, John, M. D.

Leonard Town.

Daffin, James
Forrest, James
Greenwell, P. B.
Hammett, William
Millard, £. J.
Neale, Henry C.
Plater, George

Port Tobacco.
Hawkins, Josias

Upper Marlborough.
Brooke, John B.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Washington,

Anderson, Joseph
Addison, John
Anderson, Samuel
Boyle, John
Bradley, W. A.
Brent, William
Cutts, Richard
Crawford, W. H.
Coy le, Andrew
Carberry, Thomas
Cutting, Nathaniel
Coates, Albin
Clarke, Walter
Clark, Sattishes

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Cobb, James D.

Department of War

Department of State

Dyer, Thomas P.

Elgar, Joshua

Force, Peter

Fagan, Daniel

Fleming, Andrew

Frost, John Parle

General Post Office Department

Ganta, Edward A.

Gilpin, Thomas

Gales, Joseph, Junr.

Hickey, William

Hill, H. V.

Had field, George

Ironside, George E.

Jones, David S.

La Ball, William

Mecklin, William

Matthew, William

M'Leod, John

Mude, Ignatius

Moseley, William

M'Leod, John #

JNaylor, George

Odlin, Peter

O'Neill, Bernard

Polk, David

Reily, John H.

Smith, William

Stretch, Joseph

Stelle, W.

Smith, Richard, Junr.

Smether, Robert

So wall, Robert

Thompson, James

Tenntson, Joshua

Tyler, Benjamin O.

Tmus, Henry

Vandevinter, C.

Van Ness, John P.

Underwood, John

Wirt, William

Waters, Somerset P.

Westertield, David

Walker, Zachariah

Waters, Montgomery
Young, Moses

VIRGINIA.

Richmond.

Allen, J. A.
Armistead, John M.
Alley, Thomas H.
Ames, Isaac
Baber, Hardin
Bootwright, James
Brown, Thomas E.
Baker, Elisha
Bosher, James
Buchanan, Alexander
Botts, Alexander L.
Colquhoun, S.
Crane, William
Carrol, William
Crawford, Isaac
Carrington, James
Cunningham, Edward
Caw, John M.
Davis, Edmund
Dabney, William, Junr.
Del Campo, J. M.
Dunbar, Charles
Dobie, Thomas
Dane, H.

De Grothmey, Temple
Enbanks, H.
Ege, Jacob G.
Ewing* John
Ennes, J.
Fenwick, William

Fenwick,

Ford, William
Furguson, John F.
Fulerton, Joseph
Greenhore, R.
Gamble, Robert
Gill, Patrick
Heath, James E.
Harris, Samuel
Hackley, Robert J.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Hill) Joseph
Harris, Richard
Irving, Robert
James, Flemming
Leache, Walter, Junr.
Lacej, H. H.
Ladd, Amos
Lang, James
Miller, Hugh M.
Moss, Reuben
M'Dermot, John
Moslej, H.
Mitchell, Thomas U.
M'Bride, John
Phelps, A. R.
Parker, Richard E.
Parsons, Samuel P.
Pleasants, Samuel
Pickett, G. L. Junr.
Pajue, Robert A.
Rawlins, Samuel D.
Reynolds, William
Rojster, James H.
Rockwood, Curtis
Riche, David
Spooner, W. A.
Sneppard, Dr.
Seabrook, John
Sullivan, M.
Smith, George William
Shore, John
Seabrook, Kdward S.
Strother, W. P.
Tate, Benjamin
Tompkins, Henry
Tinslej, John
Turner, Leonard
Tompkins, John F. M.
Vermerson, Thomas
Vaughan, Jesse C.
Walehall, Madison
Wilkinson, Thomas L
Wright, J.
Wolfe, Joel
Wilbourne, Robert
White, H.
Wood, William R.

Allmand, Albert
Barren, B. B.
Bruce, William
Burroughs, J. J.
Biddle, William
Boush, N.
Cocke, Buller
Christie, James
Crocker, D. Wolcott
Drake, Rev. Ethelbert
Docermit, Joseph
Foster, Joseph
Graves, H.
Goodwin, Richard
Ghiselin, John D.
Haytie, Henry
Hall, John W.
Horslej, Samuel
Jennings, William U.
Jordan, A.
Lestradi, Joseph
Mai lory, Charles K.
Ma#y, Butler
Moore, W. C.
Newton, G.
Newsum, William
Newton, Thomas
Redman, Henry H. H.
Smith, Andrew
Silvester, Richard
Sexton, Edwin
Swift, Capt T. W.
Talley, Thomas
Warrington, L.
Woodis, Henry

Petersburg.

Riordan, Francis D.
Matthews, William
Yancey, F. G.

Martinsville.

Harriston, Nicholas P.

SUBSCRIBERS* NAMES.

dleoeandria^

Bttckner, Ariss
Brawner, H.
Chapin', Charles
Hose, Samuel H.
Kiocoid, George
Mason, Richard E.
Milburne, Stephen

Mecklenburgh,

Nelson, J.
Clarke, John
Townes, William

Jdilledgeville.

Watson, Abraham
-Crawford, Joel
Kellis, Otho W.

Currituck County.

Etheridge, Caleb
Hall, Spence

Franklin County.

Harvey, A.

Farkersburg.

Allen, John

WiUiamsburgh,

Campbell, James
Dozin, John
Ker, Peter

Hampshire.

Hayden, John R.
Sharp, George

Wythe.
Smyth, Alexander

Lexington.
Ross, Randolph

Middleburg.
Beveridge, Noble

Lynchburg.

Miller, John

Mingdon.

Beaty, Martin

Rocky Mounts Franklin Court
House.

Townes, Joseph H.

Hardy.
Litter, John, Senr.

Fork.

Clendenin, Robert
Robertson, Thomas

JUiddleburne.

Hickman, David
Somerville, Maxwell

Fauquier County.
Yorkly, Thomas

Winchester.
White, John

Chesterfield.
TiOwry, John

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

NORTH CAROLINA.

Raleigh^

Ashe, P.
Bowers^ T.
Beverley, Robert
Bond, S.

BrowD & Wilson
Carney, John
Cannon, H. H.
Cobbs, Thomas
Cary, John R.
Clinch, Duncan L.
Devereux, J. P.
Edmond, Thomas
Fitch, Roger
Gales, J.

Glendenning, William
Gatlin, John
Gillis, K.

Henderson, William
Haywood, S.
Harris, W. A.
Haywood, John
Hill, M.S.
King, B. S.
Lane, J. H.
Martin, Leonard
Patrick, J. M.
Pearce, William
Pride, Nathaniel
Rand, Parker
Ruffin, William
Sims, Herbert
Smith, Benjamin B.
Scott, Thomas, S*
Sraub, Susanna
Thompson, Joseph
Taylor, J. L.
White, Wm. M.
Wiatt, J. C.
Yancey, Lewis

Wilmington.

Ashe, Samuel
Anderson, William
Burr, Taliott

Britton, J. W.
Bunting, Daniel
Brown, William
Cortnary, Robert
Campbell, M. W.
Campbell, M.
Cowan, John
Callender, Joseph
Dudley, C.
Dick, Villiam
Draughon, James H.
Dickson, James
Dudley, Edward
Darrell, John T.

fmpie, Adams
dens, Robert
Elfe, Thomas
Freeland, Francis
Grant, H.
Gautier, J. N.
Gurley, Anthony C.
Gardiner, J. D.
Green, James
Green, James S.
Ginley, A. H.
Hall, Edward P.
Hartman, Jacob
Henderson, Maurice
Hurst, C. Junr.
Hill, Thomas
Halsey, W. H.
Holmes, Gabriel, Junr.
James, Joshua
Jones, David
James, Hinton
Kelly, Hanson
Lord, William C.
Loring, Thomas
Lark, James R.
Loring, Reuben
Lazarus, Aaron
Laibeck & Co.
Mac Coll, J.
Mackey, Franklin P.
Morris, Charles B.
M'Calobb, John
Mac Rae, Alexander
Mitchell, William
Macneilly A. T.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Mickle^ Andrew
M'Kee, James T.
Malison, Maurice M.
Mackay, Williani
Miller, D. M.
M'llhenny, Jamea
Moore, J. A.
M'Kaj, James
M'lnnes, Duncan
Nixon, L. A.
Orme, James
Perry, Samuel
Potter, Miles
Ramsay, John
Robison, Thomas
Smith, D. Junr«
Swann, Samuel
Simpson, Robert
Swam, Stephen
Walker, James W.
Wright, Charles J*
Ward, John H.
Ward, Edward
Wingate, William
Wooster, Henry

Fayetteville,

Ashe, Samuel P.
Armstrong, John
Bon, A. T.
Bass, Daniel
Bothia, Hugh
Broadfoot, William
Baker, Daniel
Beggs, James
Campbell, John
Carruthers, M.
Chisholm, A.
Douglass, Joseph £.
Egnu, Joseph
Fownes, James
Grove, William B<
Graham, Neal
Hall, William AV.
Huckabee, R.
~A\y John H«
bday, Stark
)wie, David

Hearsey, George T, •
Harrington, H. W.
Hall, W.
Kinan, M. G.
Kinan, Lewis W^
Leonard, John P.
Lea, Bennett
Levy, Jacob
M'Rae, Colin
M'Ray, Edward
M'Rae, John
M'NeilK Duncan
M'Lawrin, Hugh
M'Donald, John
M'Cole, Duncan
M'Donald, George
M'Lauchlin, Archibald
M'Millan, T. W.
M'Rae, Daniel
M'Gilvary, Angus
M'Nall, Neil
M'Intosh, Daniel
M'lntyre, John
M*Pher8on, Martin
Matthews, John
M'Guire, Hugh
Murchisin, Colin
M'lver, E.
M'Kay, James, L
Nixon, Thomas
Ochiltree, D.
Perry, Peter
Robson, John
Robison, Thomas J.
Rosser, Thomas
Robinson,—
Robinson, Benjamin
Selph, John
Salmon, Samuel
Stevenson, Archibald
Stedman, E.
Shaw, John
Travis, Joseph
Terry, William
Tisdale, William
Williams, Edward
Watson, Abraham
Wetmore, J. J. .

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Bladen County.

Wriglet, Isaac

Smithfield.

Helme, R. C.
Jackson, J. N.
Watson, J. 0.

Oxford^ Granville County.

Booth, Thomas
Littlejohn, John B.
Lewis, Willis
Ridlej, Aswill L.
Smith, James
Young, John Y.

Warrenton.

Hawkins, G.
Somerell, James

Edenton.

Iredell, James
Johnson, Charles E.
Muse, W. F.

Swanborough,

Smith, R. Bazen

Hillsborough,

Lockhart, William
Murphy, A. D,
Nash, T.
Scott, John
Smith, James S.

Wadesborough,

Carh, Bo^gan
Pickett^ Joseph

RichvMmd,

M'Navi, Neal
Steele, Thomas

Gat€8.

Givilliam, Henry
Hunter, J. R.
Riddeah^ J.

Salisbury.

Farrand, S. L.

Tyrrdt.

Leish, Thomas
Tarkinton, Zeb.

Montgomery County.

Crump, John
Deberry, Edward
Wade, Andrew.

Tarborough.

Benton, J.
Wilson, L. D.

J^ash County.

Hilliard, Robert C.

Halifax,

Alston, Gideon, Junr.
Burton, H. G.
Edelen, Richard
Escabaile, Joseph

Elizabethtowny Bladen County.

Cowan, William J.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

JoMS County,

Smith/ William J. B.
Simmons, John

JN^ewhem*

Roff, Robert

Windsor,

Garland, Samuel
West, T. L.

Wake.

Jones, Joel P.

Person County,

Lea, P.

Wayne County.

Johnston County.

Bryan, Hervej
Curtes, J. H.

Sampson.

Blackman, William

Rockingham.

Hill, Thomas

Burke.

Collins, Brice
Perkins, Alexander
Stone, William

Rutherford.

Atley, J. H.
Atley, H. F.

Bradley, Benjamin H.
Craton, Isaac
Carson, Joseph M. D«
Hamm, Edwin
Hampton, Jonathan
Kirkpatrick, W. D.
Lewis, James O.
Moore, John
Mott, J. C. C.
Mills, John
Mills, Ambrose
M'Dowell,'John
Paxton, John
Wood, Zacariah

Hyde County.

Eborn, Benjamin

Stokes County.

Armstrong, Thomas
Winston, Joseph U.

Pasqu4)tank County.

Pool, John, Junr.

Winton.

Felton, Boon

Charlotte.

Davidson, William
Wilson, John

Mecklenhurgh.

Bozzell, Reuben

Lawson, John

Rape, Peter, Junr. Esq.

Mount Prospect.

Dicken, R. H.
Dicken, Lewis, B. K.
Lewis, E.

SUBSCRIBERS' KAMES.

SnowhiU^ Green County.

Blake, Demfrey
Cartwood, James
Derdt^en, A.
Hart, W. D.
Mosely, Palmer
Pope, Samuel D,
Speylet, J.
Troley, Ann
Wilcox, Reuben

jyashvilU.

Anderson, D'Athelston

Buncom County,

Lewis, Willii^m J.

Granville,

Young, John Y.

8mithwaterf

Morgan, R. M.

SOUTH CAROLINA,

Charleston^

Ancrum, Jane
Atkins, Sarah
Adams, David
Adamsy David L,
Addison, James
Ash, John
Abbot, Samuel
Axson, Jacob
Ayrault, Peter
Ashbj, Thomas
Bav, Judge
Bij^Ks? James
Barnwell, W.
Beattj, Jonathan
Belin, Maria A.
Brownfield, R.
Baker, Samuel

Ball, J.

Bennett, John S. •

Bennett, William 8.
Bulklej, S.
Bailey, Benjamin
Brailsford, William.
Benjamin, Ezra
Bours, Luke
Brailsford, Elizabeth
Broughton, Miss Charlotte
Bowman, Eliza A«
Bay, Andrew
Brown, H. L.
Benthune, Margaret
Bulow, L J.
Ball, Anne
Ball, W. A.
Bennett, Thomas
Blackwood, Thomas
Baker, Alpheas
Bryan, Lydia
Bally, John
Bacott, T. W.
Brickell, W. A.
Bacot, H. H.
Butler, Charles P.
Bennett, L S. K.
Bacot, Peter
Beard, Frederick
Bowen, E.
Black, John
Bee, I. S.
Broughton, Peter
Bailey, W. E.
Bee, Peter S.
Ball, John
Burnie, William
Ball, John, Senr.
Byrd, Oran
Baker, Richard
Bentham, Robert
Burgoine, Dr,
Beard, T.
Broughton, A.
Bond, Jonathan Jacob
Crawford, John
Chisholm, George
Cooper, James
Cleary, N. G.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Crosg, G. W.
Contomcier, John
Carrol, Bartholomew
Canningham, Richard
Cole, Joseph ,
Crafts, William, Junr,
Crocker, D.
Champnejs, John
Cowdraj, J. M.
Cohen, Solomon I.
Calhoun, John £.
Coldough, Wm. Alexander
Chnpeine, L.
Cogdell, John S.
Clement, W.
Danjon, Lewis
Dehon, Sarah
Debois, Lewis
Drajton, S. M.
Doughty, Mrs. W.
Dart, Mrs.
Daniel, Lewis
Duncan, John
Dattj, J.
Duncan, B. F.
D'Oylej, C. W.
Deas, Mary
Deas, David
Dickinson, Francis
Drayton, William
Darbj, Robert A.
Delesseline, P. A.
Dickinson, Samuel
Doughty, William, Junr.
Delesseline, Johft P.
Dubois, Lewis
Douglass, Campbell
Duncan, —
D'Jonjh, Joseph
Drayton, John
De Boir, John
Elliot, Juliet G.
Ewing, Alexander
Elliot, Charles
Everingham, John
Edwards, T.
Eadon, William
Elliot, Stephen
^rich, Jonn M.

Elliot, Benjamin
Elliot, Mrs.
Edmonston, Charles
Elmoyle, William M.
Fitzimmons, Catharine
Futerell, James
Faber, John C
Flagg, George
Fayolle, Peter
Faber, Christian Henry
Fitzimmons, Christopher
Ford, P.
Feries, William
Fuller, Benjamin
Fuller, Oliver
Furman, Richard
Ferguson, Eliza
Fuller, William
Fuller, William
Flood, Daniel
Fair, Richard
Flinn, Andrew
Findley, J. E. B.
Foster, W. B.
Folker, J. H.
Fuller, Benjamin
Garden, Mrs. Mary Ann
Gibbs, Sarah
Gregorie, Mary C.
Glover, Margaret
Gough, John Parker
Gibson, William, Senr.
Gibson, William, Junr,
Groning, Lewis
Garden, John
Grimkie, J. F.
Glover, Charles
Gibbs, W. H.
Grimkie, Thomas S.
Gadsden, John
Godard, Rene
Geddes, John
Grange, Joseph
George, James
Gordon, John
Glover, Joseph, M. D.
Gibbs, George
Gilleland, W. H,
G2(bo9n,.Jamea

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Potter, John
pinckney, Eliza H.
Poinsett, J. R.
Poyas, John Lewis
Russell, Mrs. Sarah
Ried, Mrs.
Rose, Miss
Rutledge, Mrs. Jane
Rutledge, John
Rutledge, C.
RightoD, J. M.
Roses, Mrs.
Reynolds, Benjamin
Reynolds, William
Robertson, John
Richardson, J. 8.
Roddy, James
Rose, Henry
Reine, Thomas
Robertson, Samuel, & Co.
Reeves, -Eneas
Robinson, P.

Russell, N.

Rumph, D.

Read, William H.

Rivers, George Junr.

Richardson, Charles

Reeves, Abraham

Smith, Mrs. Robert

Smith, Mrs. William M.

Smith, Mrs. T. R.

Skirving, Mrs.

Simmons, S. K.

Simmons, Eleanor

Simmons, A. C.

Simmons, Mrs. M. Read

Smith, Thomas Junr.

Smith, Polly Anne

Smith, W. S.

Smith, Thomas L.

Smith, B. B.

Smith, Juliana

Smith, Benjamin J.

Smilie, Susanna

Schultz, John

Siffly, Henry

Sraylie, Andrew

Swinton, Hannah

Smith, Thomas B.

Seabrook, Benjamin
Simmons, S. R.
Spears, George T.
Stephens, Charles
Shecutt, J. L. B. W.
Strohecker, John
Skinner, S. H.
Screven, Thomas
Smith, J. L.
Smith, W. S.
Schultz, John
Smith, Juliet
Smythy, W. S.
Seabrook, William
Smith, Eliza
Simons, J. W.
Simmons, Joseph
Simmons, Mary R.
Steele, John
Simmons, John W.
Smith, Thomas, Junr.
Smith, Richard
Smith, Peter
Sturgers, Mrs.
Shaw, William
Smith, George
Tyddymun, Susan
Toomer, W. D.
Talavand, Andrew
Timrod, W. H.
Thomas, James
Trezvant, John
Tyler, Joseph
Thomas, S. Junr.
Trozevant, J. F.
Townsend, Daniel
^Taylor, Josiah
Taylor, Joseph
Thomas, R.
Tucker, W. B.
Thomas, Mary Lambell
Vanderhorst, R. W.
Yaughan, Margaret
Ward, Miss M. S.
Washington, Jane
Washington, Martha G.
Watson, Alexander
Wilson, Robert I.
Wakefield, Miss

SUBSCRIBERS* NAMES.

Wyatt, Peter
Waharm, William 6.
White, John B.
White, John P.
Walton, John
Wightman, William
Wigfall, Thomas
Wightman, William Junr.
White, James
Waring, Horatio S.« M. D.
Wilson, H. Senr.
Wilson, H. Junr.

Wych,

Wilson, Hush
Wakefield, Isabella
Wakefield, Sarah C.
Washington, W.
Whitridge, Dr. J. B.
Webb, William
Wairing, Thomas
Willow, James
Wairing, Morton A.
Wates, Thomas
Yates, Jeremiah A.
Yates, Samuel
Yeadon, William
Yates, Joseph

Columbia.

Barrillon, C.
Brjce, John
Bradburj, William F.
Boatwright, James
Clines & Hines
Courson, Benjamin
Coalter, David
Dellis, James
Durham, Joshua
Douglass, James
Din^j, William
Davis, James
Elmore, Benjamin T«
Egan, Thomas H.
Ewart, David
Fleming, James D.
Fisher, Edward
Gregg, J.
Gnignard, James S.

Goodwjn, James T.
Goodwjn, Robert F.
Glover, John
Green, Samuel
Goss, William
Hilliard, W.
Hopkins, James
Howell, J. M.
Hall, Ainslej
Haile, F. W.
Head, Benjamin
Hillbrough, David
Hampton, H. P.
Kennerlj, James
Kennerly, Eli
Kilgore, Josiah
Means, D. H.
Magwire, Peter
M'Clellan, James
Maxej, Jonas
Meek, S. M.
Murphj, John
Montgomery, B. A.
Nelson, John
Nutting, George
Nutting, G.
Perry, William S.
Park, Thomas
Partridge, John N.
Ried, John

Rutherford, Walter B.
Smith, Henry G.
Stork, Robert
Smith, Edward E.
Strickling, Michael
Thomson, David
Taylor, Thomas Junr.
Taylor, Thomas, Senr.
Taylor, Benjamin F.
Taylor, James
Taylor, James S.
Van Ever, E. D.
Willright, Thomas
Wyelie, John
Wakely, David L.
WilPison, Thomas F.
Willis, D. W.
Yancey, John

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Camden,

Abbott) Henrj
Anderson, E. H.
Boy kin, John, Senr.
Brevard, Joseph
Boykin, John
Bennett, James
Blanchard, A.
Bincham, B.
Blanding, William
Blandine, Abraham
Carter, John
Clark, James
Care ton, Edward
Chesnut, John
Chesnut, James
Cook, H. R.
Cunningen, Frederic
Campbell, Drury J.
Carpenter, Samuel L.
Carter, R. W.
Doby, John

Disteon, Abraham, M. D.
Dickinson, H. H.
Douglass, James K.
Darrington, J.
Edmond, James
Evans, Thomas P.
English, Thomas, Janr.
Gerry, E. M.
Graj, Sherard
Gibson, William, Junr.
Hodges, A.
Havis, John
Johnston, P. W.
James, Samuel
Kelly, Joseph
Kershaw, John
Lee, Francis S.
Lang, William W.
Luc J, Burwell
Langley, William
Levy, Chapman
M'Caa, John
M'Rae, John H,
M'Cauts, John
M 'Willie, William
Mathieu, B.

M'Neill, John
M'Rae, Dancan
Nixon, William
Paton, John
Patterson, Joseph
Perkins, Caleb
Reid, Georee
Reynolds, Joshua
Starke, Wyatt
Salmond, Thomas
Trapp, William
Thompson, William
Thornton, Phineas
Thornton, L S.
Wilson, Willis
Whitaker, John W.
Whitaker, W. B.
Wiggins, M. C.
Vauglian, Willie

' Mbeville.

Bart, Moody
Bowie, Alexander
Bowie, Georgia
Chile, John
Davis, EH S.
Fulton, Thomas
Groves, Joseph
Jack, Jane
Livingston, T.
MTarland, Robert
Miller, J.
M'Comb, John
Noble, Patrick
Perrin, Samuel
Ward law, James
Wardlaw, David
Yancey, Charles C-

Edgefield.

Armstrong, R. L.

Butler, Sampson

Ellison, W.

Female Library Society

Gray, John

Harris, Ludlow W,

Hightower, Benjamin

SUB^CBIBRBS' NAMES.

Johnson, Daniel
Jeter, John S.
Lowe, Henry W»
Meredith, Jiunes
Moss, A. H.
Simkins, Eldred
Samuel, Beverly
Simkins, John
Alston, L. A.
Davis, John
Kincaid, James
Moorman, James
Pearson, William T.
Player, Joshua
Rogers, Rev. James
Ross, Abner
Tropp, Aaron
Woodward, Osmund

Beaufort District.

Brantly, W. T.
Bockner, B. H.
Burleson, Daniel
Barnwell, John G.
Barnwell, John B.
Chaplin, John
Chaplin, Benjamin, Junr.
Cooper, W. D.
Edings, Joseph
Ewart, David
Frampton, James
Fripp, John A.
Fripp, John
Fripp, Wm. C.
Givans, Thomas E.
Hedgcock, John
Jenkins, Col. John
Jenkins, Benjamin
Jenkins, Wm.
Jacobs, Myer
Keith, Sampson W.
Leith & M'Bride
Means, Robert
Maner, John S.
Martin, Wm. D.
Pope, John E.
Petigrue, J. L.
Sams, Lewis R.

Sams, Berners B.
Stewart, Dr. James
Smith, Josiah
Smith, Dr. E. D.
Sams, Edward H.
Talbird, John, Junr.
Talbird, Thomas
Verdier, John M. Junr.
W^allace, John
Waring, B. R.
Youmans, John

Orangeburg District.

Bowdoin, James B.
Bowdoin, J. E. B.
Bant, Conrad
Brumly, Thomas M.
Bremar, T.
Bruton, George
Clapp, Benjamin
Dicks, William
Darby, Artemus B.
Dudley, John ^

Felder, John M.
Friday, Martin
Goodwyn, W. T.
Glover, Sanders
Hoffman, Jacob
Harper, William
Jennings, Ann
Jennings, P. S.
Jones, 1). B.
Jamison, V. D. V.
Murchison, Roderick
Moss, Stephen
Neal, Joseph
Patterson, A.
Paullintr, William
Poom, Em.
Rush, Charles G.
Rumph, Jacob L.
Stroinan, Jacob
Stuart, James
Snell, Adam
Tonant, James W.
Thomson, William S.
Thomson, C. R.
Thomson, John L.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Frederick,
Lee, John W.
Perry, Ezekiel
Simkins, Jesse
Scott, Ira
Watson, Elijah
'Williams, Johii
Witlis, Robert

Georgetown,

Anderson, James A,
Burgess, John D.
Capers, William
Capers, Gabriel
Flemming, Dr. Wm. H,
Gresg, I^bert H.
Graham, John
Hodges, Rev. S. K.
Johnston, Gilbert
Ludlam, Isaac
M'Farland, John
Murrell, John R.
Russ, Masters
3mith, Benjamin

Marlborough,

Irbj, James
Evans, Thomas

Greenville District,

Bradford, P.
Thompson, Waddy
Thompson, Waddj, Junr.

Farnandes, James
Farnandes, Joseph H,
Gray 9 Dimon P.
Nance, Frederic
C^Neall, John B.

Fendkton,

Anderson, Robert
Griffin, James C.
M'Miilion, John

Darlingtcnn,

Darsan, Timothy
Williams, John N.

Colleton,

Cannon, Ephraim
Ford, James M.
Morgan. James

Stateshurg,

Billiman, A.
Huger, Francis K.
MiUeri Stephen D.
Morse, Josiah B.

WiUiamshurg,

Witherspoon, J. W.
MathewS) J. Junr.

Marion,

Landsford^ Chester District, Paul, Andrew

Green, Allen Jones
Pride, Frederick L. J.

Chester,

Gillills, Robert
M'Creary, John
Rundelly Theodore

Chesterfield,

Witherspoon, John D.
Fords, Greorge R.

Kingston*

Burgessy John D.

817B8CBINSKS* VAMBS.

IdmcttiUr.

McDonald, Henry

BamwdL

Walker, William
Newman, John
Higginbottom, James

Miehland.
Ballard, William

St. BaHhUomew.
Youngblood, W.

Lawrens*
Cook, Mitchell

Spartanburg,

Hammett, James
Farrer, Pattello

Fulton.
James, Matthew

SaUm^
Witherspoon, R.

St. Paulas ParUh.
Jenkins, Benjamin W.

^1^. Stephens.
Palmer, Thomas

Sumpterville.
Miller, Charles

Cambridge.

Dreon, Jeptha
Mayson, Charles C.

GEORGIA.

Jiugusta.

Ansley, Jesse
Allen, Richard
Broadwater, Joseph
Bogg, W. A.
Brogles, Cain
Brown, O. P.
Bolles, G. A.
Bolan, Richard
Brant, Samuel
Black, James A.
Baird, James B.
Bowman, David '
Bosworth, Richard.
Barton, W.
Bird, Edward
Bugg, A.

Crenshaw, Walter
Clarke, John
Clenin, James E.
Crawford, Charles A.
Cunningham, J.
Castin, John
Creswell, John
Cunningham, A., M. D.
Clark, James
Cumming, John
Cams, Patrick H.
Cummine, Dr. J. B.
Caslej, Overton
Cooper, Lewis
Cox, Clement
Course, John
Dickinson, Henrj
Dearmond, Wm. P.
Dwight, Thomas
Danforth, Oliver
Davenport, J. M.
Delap, John

SUBSQBIBEBr PfAM^-

Dcwar, W. &

Danforth, Jacob
Donaldson, Peter
Edrington, Daniel
Evans, Ezekiel, Junr.
Flewellin, Taylor
Galphin, Milled^,
Glover, Warren
Gatiin, Patrick
Groves, S. B.
Glascock, Edmund B.
Glascock, William
Glascock, Thomas
Green, Jesse D.
Hall, Benjamin
Howe, James
Harper, H.

Hutchinson, Henry D.
Hamill, W. S.
Hand, Augustus F.
Hudson, David
Hansen, William Y.
Harrison, James
Haynsworth, John
House, James
Jelks, Nathaniel H.
Jones, Thomas
Jones, William
Kneeland, Solomon
Labuzan, Charles
La Mar, Philip
Logan, John
Langston, D.
Lawrence, William C.
Larnar, G. B.
Leach, Thomas
Lequeux, Peter
Labuzan, A.
Liverman, John
Langston, E.
Malone, Robert
M'Mullen, John
Malone, P.
Mackenzie, L
Meigs, R. I.
Mitchell, John
M'Kinney, David
Murrell, James D.
Montgomery, John H.

M'Kenzie, B«ii4U>ch» & Co.
M'Murphy, Daniel
Mills, Dr. Tho^uu 8,
Moore, John P.
Myers. Jamiea
Marshall, Greene B.
M'Cullough, John
Mantz, Philip H.
Newman, John
Neves, Wm. Junr.
Nesbitt, Hii^b
Oliver, James L.
Oliver, Alexander
Pierce, Benjamin
Pearri, George W. g.
Picquet, Antonie
Pemberton, A.
Putnam, J. G.
Porter, Silvester
Powell, William
Quizenberry, Thomas
Randolph, J. H.
Rogers, Moses
Russell, Surgeon
Rucker, John
Rinebell, John H.
Ralston, David
Read, John W.
Rodgers, Hugh
Stewart, Alexander
Simkins, A.
Selleck, Ersbaw
Simms, B.
Suttle, J. S.
Speare, Charles
Stuart, James
Starnesy Ebenezer
Stovall, P.
Stone, Joshua
Shanum, 'William
Slaughter, Augustus
Sharp, John
Speed, A. H.
Simpkins, Wm. Junr.
Torrence, W^m. H.
Thompson^ I.
Tubman, Richard
Twiggs, George
Twiggs, Asa

svnacnmKBs^ namk.

Vanzantes, Joseph
Watkins, Thomas
Walker, John S.
Woo] folk, Austin
Wriglet, John
Wesitcott, C.
Ware, Wm. C.
Whipple, Jesse
Walton, G.
Winslow, A. G,
Watkins, G. W.
Whitaker, James
Winey,JohnA.
Walker, T.
Ware, Nicholas
Whitlak, James

Savannah.

Battelle, Jonathan
Ball, F.
Belcher, Wm.
Bell, D.
Brjan, J. S.
Berrian, J. Macpherson
Bacon, Nathaniel
Bogue, John
Boyd, Wm. H.
Bos worth, Nathaniel
Bjrd, Solomon
Barthelness, John
Black, W. W.
Barclay, A.

Charlton, Thomas U. P.
Chase, J. W. C.
Cohen, Isaac
Cooper, Bphraim
Cooper, John
Cooper, W. D.
Chamberlain, Thomas N,
Carpenter, Charles F.
Course, Isaac
Cammings, George B.
Campbell, P.
Cope, A.

Cuyler, Richard R.
Cocks, Francis

Cohen, J.
Cummins, Joseph
Dyer, Otis
Davies, Thomas W.
Dinker, Wm. H.
Davies, Charles
Davenport, Samuel
D'Lyon, Levi, S.
Ewing, Samuel B.
Eden, George H.
Eden, Thomas
Fell, F. S.
Fry, Samuel
Furth, L. H.
Faries, George G.
Gilleland, W. H.
Gardner, Thomas
Gayton, Wm.
Glen, George
Gillett, Wm. S.
Gardiner, John
Glass, John
Gould, Ebenezer
Haw, John B.
Habenbam, Richard W
Hotchkiss, Daniel
Hunter, Alexander
Herbert, M.
Harris, Thomas H.
House, Samuel C.
Harris, Gabriel
Howard, Benjamin
Hurt, Benjamin
Hollis, Silas
Harden, Edward
Hill, M.L.
Henry, William
Hunter, John
Herb, John H.
Jewett, Jasper
Jackson, J.
Joor, William
Kimball, llazen
Kopman, Joseph
Kitchen, Joseph
Lethbridge, Sabin
Law, William
Lucas, William

SUBSCRIBEB8' NAMES.

Llojdi Edward
Low, Andrew, & Co.
Morel, Thomas N.
Middleton, Henry J.
Morrison, James
Mathiettx, Charles
Miller, G. L.
Morel, John
M'AlHster, M.
M'Daniel, Yongue
Macleod, Donald
M'lntyre, Archibald
Nicholas, Samuel
Neff, William
Neston, Isaac
Naidbure;, J.
Ponce, &mas
Parker, Joseph
Panie, John
Pelot, Joseph S.
Pelot, Samuel 6.
Palmers & Davidson
Porcher, Francis
Roberts, John J.
Rees, Eben S.
Raiford, Philip
Speakman, John
Scott, J. A. P.
Stephen, Alexander W.
Smith, James
Shell man, John
Shaffer, Jacob
Smith, Thomas B.
Scott, Robert
Starr, Wm.
Speisseger, Samuel S.
Stephens, W.
Stiles, Benjamin Edward
Shaw, James
Tattnall, Edward F.
Taylor, Robert
Tufts, Gardner
Taylor, William
Wayne, William
Wirtiford, D.
Wayne, James M.
Wylly, Elisha
Walton, Thomas G.

Way, William
Watts, Robert
Wajrne, P.

Waldburg, Qeorge M.
Williams, Stephen
Wallen, Elias
Wateon, J. H.
Wild, John
Warren, Edmund
WiUeford, David
Waldburg, J.
Wall, Benjamin

Warren CoUtdy,

Miller, William
Alexander, Moses

8parta.

Baxter, Andrew
Tirrell, William
Atkinson, Lewis

PeUrsburg^

Richardson, Wm. N.
Leigh, Thomas G.
Smith, B.

WilkeSf fFashington,

Wingfield, Garland.

Fort Hawkins.

Hughes, Daniel

Oreen,

Porter, O.
Ligon, Thomas

Scriven County,

Pearce, Joshua
Wilkinson, Reuben
Stone, Joshua

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

8t Simon's Island.

Columbia Covjity,

Frazer, John

JrVIntosh Court House.

Sallet, Robert

LouisviUe,

Cobb, John A.
Harman, William
Patterson, Charles
Raiford, Alexander
Shelmun, M.

Sandersville.

Brown, Morgan
Greenlee, S.

TwiggSy Marion County,

Lleun, Robert

Clark County,

Ligon, Joseph
Moore, Thomas

Amdia County,

Anderson, William

Clinton,

Smith, Harrison

Lexington,

Taylor, William
Lumpkin, William, Junr.

Movtieello.

Cook, William
Price, Joseph

Cary, Ceorge

Milledgeville.

R. M. Morgan
Crawford, Juel
Kellis, Otho W.
Watson, Abraham

TENNESSEE.

Nashville.

Taylor, Fletcher

Lebanon,
Hogg, Samael

Green County,
Carter, William

INDIANA.
Detroit,
Gray, Samuel

ALABAMA TERRITORY.

St, Stephen,

Crowell, John

KENTUCKY.

Lexington.

Arthur, William
Bell, John C.
Jones, £. S.
Miller, Elisha P.
Schroch D.

SUBSCRIBERS' NAMES.

Great Crossings*
Johnson, Richard M.
Columbia.
Morrison, C. D.

LOUISIANA.

n^ew Orleans.

Ripley, U. W.
M'DoQald, W.

Baton Rouge,

Willis, Major Perrin

MISSOURI TERRITORY.

Woodville.

Pemberton, George

VIRGINIA.

Richmond.

Bich, J. W.
Echol, Joseph
Gvvathmey, Temple
Pollard, Robert
Reeves, H. T. & S.

Scott County,

Fuller, James
Moss, James

Martinsville,
Hariston, Nicholas P.

Middhsex County,
Blakely, Robert

Surry County.

Ellis, Jonathan
Velvin, John

Lynchburg.

Gaines, John
Pleasants, John Hamden
Harrison, Richard
Guenes, I.
Ljrain, Epes
Grain, £.

Clarksburg.

Davisson, George I.
Dolbeart, Benjamin

Prince George.
Williams, John B.

J^Tottoway.
Dyson, Francis

Bowling Green.
Pendleton, Edmund, Jn
Hanover Town.
Starke, William

Charlottesville,

Minor, Dabney

Manchester,

Miller, Hugh M.
Lancy, James
Payne, Robert A.

Franklin County,
Cook, Benjamin

SUBSCRIBERS' KAI^IES.

fTarrenton.

Smith, John A. W.

Powhatan,

Pleasants, Robert
Povall, F. B.
Miller, Thomas

Rockino^ham,

Williamson, Jacob D.

Staunton*

Clarke, Samuel

Goochland.

Pleasants, Isaac

Tazewell County.

Thompson, Rees B.

Mng <§• ^ueen.

Hill, Charles

Montgomery County,

Craig, Robert

Sussex,

Booth, Peter

Dumfries,

Harrison, Philip

Campbell.

Clark, William

Louisa,

Clayton, Arthur

Mbemarle,

Lewis, David S.

J^orthumberland,
Gordon, William

Lewisburg^ Greenbriar.
Wethered, Pere B.

Pittsylvania,
Townes, George

Gloucester,

Balfour, James B.
Logwood, Thomas

Malaga,
Barrel, G. G. American Consul-

Madison,

Banks, S.

THE BORROWER WILL BE CHARGED
AN OVERDUE FEE IFTHIS BOOK IS NOT
RETURNED TO THE UBRARY ON OR
BEFORE THE LAST DATE STAMPED
BELOW. NON-RECEIPT OF OVERDUE
NOTICES DOES NOT EXEMPT THE
OJKE&^EWM^ OVERDUE FEES.

\^ ^ IM^ 4

UE
in on 3j

^ ^

►>#^»>c

SOOKOUE ^

40 1982

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Full text of "Universal history Americanised ; or, An historical view of the world, from the earliest records to the year 1808. With a particular reference to the state of society, literature, religion, and form of government, in the United States of America."

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