The Universal Preceptor: Being a General Grammar of Arts, Sciences, and Useful Knowledge

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UNIVERSAL PRECEPTOR;

GENERAL GRAMMAR

USEFUL STJCOWLBDGE.

BY THB SET. DAVID BLAIR;
Author of the CW^Rook- Er.^5* Gnawr, Ifodekof
Juvenile Lcttei^g^^n^gLjgrciaes aadGi
of Katmal and Experimental ffeilosephy.

PUBI4SHED BY EDWARD & SfCBAKD PASSES.

»•. 173, SiBOI 9TBSET.

j*ir.

"^^^■WPP!

THE

UNIVERSAL PRECEPTOR;

BEING A

GENERAL GRAMMAR

of * •

ARTS, SCIENCES,

and

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE*

; BY T6B REV. DAVID BLAIR; *

I Author of the Class-Book, English Grammar, Models of

Juvenile Letter^ Reading- Exercises, and Grammar
of Natural and Experimental Philosophy.

FIRST AMERICAN FROM THR EIOHTH 1OND0N EMTTWT;
"WTTH ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS.

PHILADELPHIA:
PUBUBHED BY E&WARD & RICHARD PARKER,

NO. 178, MARKET STREET.

« Off •••••••*-••

1817.

1%.

. ' !0 5~

Diafrict ef Pcmutflvama, to -wit: » 7 j',—

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the 19th da/ of Much,
in the forty-second year of the independence of the
United States of America, A, D. 1817, Edward & Ri-
chard Parker, of the said district, hath deposited in this
office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim
as proprietors, in the words following, to wit:

" The Universal Preceptor; being a general Grammar
of Arts, Sciences, and Useful Knowledge. By the Rev.
David Blair; author of the Class-Book, English Grammar,
Models of Juvenile .Letters, Reading Exercises, and
Grammar of Natural and Experimental Philosophy. Firjt
American from the eighth London edition; with addi-
tions and improvements."

In conformity to the act of congress of the United
States, entitled "An Act for the encouragement of,
learning, bv securing the copies of maps, charts, and',
books, to the authors and proprietors of such copiesjl
during the times therein mentioned;" and also an act/
entitled, " An Act supplementary to an act entitled,
* An Act for the encouragement of learning, by secur-
ing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the au-
thors and proprietors of such copies, during the times
therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof
to the arts of designing, engraving and etching * *
toxical and other prints."

D. CALDWELL,
Clerk of the Bittriat ef JPermigfaardi

^.

k, V \-»^ vl • PREFACE

FIRST AMERICAN EDITION.

i
i
i

if

TO THS

The Publishers of the first American edition of
this valuable work of the Rev. D. Blair, and which
is taken from the eighth and last British edition,
feel gratified in believing that they are rendering: to
the American public a service of no inconsiderable
value. From the prosperous state of science in the
United States, its growing energies and the in-
creasing number of seminaries for the education of
youth, both of a private and public nature, it is ob-
vious, that nothing can be more important and use-
ful than an able and well-digested system, em-
^o bracing in a clear, correct, and comprehensive
'form the first rudiments of the various sciences.
This desirable object appears to be at length fully
effected in the work now offered to the public.
The number of editions through which it has
passed in England, is a proof of the estimation
n which it is there held: Vrid the Publishers
must be allowed to state, that in this edition,
not only the errors incident to all works of so
comprehensive a nature have been diligently cor-
rected, but that several gentlemen of science, im-
pressed with the utility of the work, have bestowed
much pains not only in the corrections, but in
contributing additional matter and entirely new-
modelling many of the heads and sections, and
thus rendering the whole work decidedly superior
to all the foreign editions.

PREFACE.

THE author of this work has been many
years anxious to achieve his present under-
taking. His experience, reason, and feelings,
prove to him, that, in the progress of educa-
tion, young, persons ought to be enabled to
acquire correct general views on all subjects*
which may serve -as food for the mind in
after-life, and as the bases of further studies
in such branches of knowledge, as, at a fu-
ture period, may gratify their tastes, or ac-
cord with their interests.

Early education cannot make adepts in any
branch of science; at least, without sacrific-
ing every other subject to one: it ought,
therefore, to embrace the elements of gene-
ral knowledge, as the true means of enlarg-
ing and exercising the understanding, and
qualifying it to engage with advantage in any
peculiar pursuit

To fill the storehouse of the memory, is
the rational business of education; and, at a
season of life, when the powers of reason have
not acquired a useful degree of action. Nor
Will such general instruction interfere wttfc
particular studies, if tlte tutor be provided

IV PREFACE.

with £ Text-Book, embracing the founda-
tions of human learning: such, it is presumed,
will be found in the following pages.

When the author compiled his Class-
Book, he was actuated by similar princi-
ples; and he believes it is generally felt,
that great advantages have accrued to young
persons, from the perusal of that work.—
Every tutor must be sensible, however, that
the Class-Book, as a means of enlarging the
sphere of knowledge, is rather to be consi-
dered as a commentary, than as a key to the
temple of Science itself. The Class-Book
lias its superior uses; but, through its me-
dium, the building can only be viewed at a
distance; the object, then, in the present
Work, is to lead the young student up the
steps of the portico, open the doors to him,
and usher him into that superstructure, which
raises man above his fellows, and places him
in contact with the good and the illustrious of
his species! .

Without interfering with particular
branches of education, all the parts of this
work may be rendered familiar within two
years : one paragraph may be committed to
memory every day. When this task has been
finished, what an accession of varied know-
ledge will have fallen to the lot of the pupil !
How stored, will be his mind* with interest-
ing ideas for contemplation and conversa-

•

tion ! and how comparatively blank must be
tlm minds of others, who have not enjoyed
the same advantages ! — Yet, particular stu-
dies, at the same time, need not be neglected !
This book may, indeed, be collateral in la-
bour; although it will prove primary in
effect ! — But the author may be said to be
sanguine; he, therefore, forbears to say alt
that his hopes prompt him to; and leaves his
book to speak for itself, and prove its worth,
by its actual effects on the rising generation.

D. B.

A 3

'»Tv".l

■V

THE

UNIVERSAL PRECEPTOR;

OR,

GRAMMAR

OP

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE.

. L Introductory Particulars.

1. KNOWLEDGE is either necessary and
useful, or ornamental and luxurious.

It distinguishes civilized from savage life. Its
cultivation in youth promotes virtue, by creating
habits of mental discipline; and by inculcating
a sense of moral obligation.

Knowledge is, therefore, the best foundation
of happiness.

2. Necessary Knowledge is that which sim-
ply provides man with food ; and with the means
01 sustaining life.

3. Useful Knowledge is that which teaches
the arts of agriculture, clothing, building, re-
storing health, preserving social order, main-
taining national independence, and rendering the
produce of all climates subservient to the wants
of our own.

4. Ornamental Knowledge relates to subjects
of taste; as drawing, painting, poetry? gram-
mar, geometry, eloquence, history, music, danc-
ing, dramatic representation, and, the living lan-
guages.

2 INTRODUCTION.

5. Luxurioiis Knowledge includes abstract
enquiries ; as physics, metaphysics, many branches
of experimental philosophy, heraldry, antiquities,
and ttie dead languages.*

6. Man is an animal endowed with powers of
communication, memory, association, imitation,
reflection, and reasoning ;— talents given him by
his Maker ; for the good use of which, he is ac-
countable in a future state.

7. In his unimproved and uncivilised condi-
tion, man is naked, without habitation* without
means of defence or offence, and possessed of no
means of subsistence, besides the wild fruits and
spontaneous produce of the earth.

8. To this day, many nations live naked in
caverns under ground, perform no labour, and
depend for their subsistence on the spontaneous
products of the earth, and on the flesh of animals,
which they destroy by simple stratagems.

Observtrtion.— Such, are many of the nations of Africa ;
the inhabitants of New Holland; of many of the South
Sea Islands; the Greenlanders j the natives of Hudson's
Bay; and some of the Siberian nations; of whom, very
curious particulars will be found in books of voyages and
travels, and in Goldsmith's popular system of Geogra-

phy-t

9. Till the Romans invaded England, the
Britons lived naked, chiefly under ground, paint-
ing their -bodies of various colours, bestowing no
cultivation on the soil, and depending for sub-

* This division of knowledge is unavoidably imper-
fect-, and is little respected in the details of this work.

f The observations, are not to be committed to me-
mory ; but to be read by the pupil to the tutor, or by
the pupil alone.

ARTS OF SAVAGE UFE. S

astence on scorns, berries, and roots, and upon
their skill and success in hunting and fishing.

Obs. — The people of England are indebted to the
wild ambition of Julius Caesar, for the introduction into
these islands, of those arts of civilization, which had
travelled from the Ganges into Persia, thence into
Egvpt, .from Egypt to Greece, and from Greece into
Italy : whence, by the lust of conquest, they were spread
over Europe. In like manner, at this day, {he English
are the instruments, from the same causes, of reflecting
back the arts of civilization, amended by a true religion,
to the banks of the Ganged ; and of dissimulating the
same blessings, to the Africans ; the Americans ; and
the insulated people of the South Sea Islands.

10. The Romans introduced among the Bri- ,
tons, all the arts and knowledge which they had
themselves received from the Greeks; and laid
the foundation of that social state, in which we
find ourselves in England, after the lapse of near-
ly two thousand years.

0b9. — To take a view of knowledge, as *t has extend-
ed itself from the most barbarous and uncultivated
ages, down to this age of literature; science, and philoso-
phy ; and to render the whole, plain and familiar to
young minds, and to the meanest capacities, are the ob-
jects of the present work.

II. Of the Simple Arts of Savage Life- .

11. The arts of savage life were those which
were possessed by the ancient Britons; and
which are witnessed at this day, among all bar-
barous people. They include the arts of swim-*
ming, hunting, taking aim with missile weapons,
and procuring fire.

12* The art of swimming, depends first, in

/

4 ARTS OP SAVAGE LIFE.

keeping the arms and bands under the water ; in
protruding only the face and part of the head out
of the water; and then using such action,, as will
direct the body in any particular course.

06a. — All animals swim without instruction ; because
they are unable to lift their fore-legs over their heads.
The secret of this art depends, then, on keeping down
the hands and arms, and acting under the water with
them. The parts of any body which rise out of the
water, sink the parts that are immersed within it.

13. Hunting is performed by most savage na-
tions on foot, and with many of them the prince
pal weapon is the club.— Therefore the swiftest
and strongest usually become chiefs.

Obs. — Hence, Hercules, the hero of antiquity, is
drawn with no other weapon than a club ; with which,
alone, he is said to have performed all his wonderful ex-
ploits. Some nations,- nothing removed above savages,
are, however, found to have acquired the use of bows
and arrows. •

14. In taking aim, with missle weapons, the
precision which savage nations have attained, is
wonderful. In throwing a stdn.e, they seldom
miss the smallest mark; they transfix fish in the
water; knock down birds on the wing; and
strike every enemy with unerring exactness.

O^r^Every one is acquainted with the success of the
shflKfetii David, in killing Goliah. Even such is the
precision of the South Sea islanders at the present day.

15. The greatest attainment of savage life, is
the procuring of artificial' fire; but this was an
art not known to all barbarous people. The in*
habitants of the Ladrones considered fire as an
invisible monster, when the Spaniards first in*
troduced it among them.

16. The Persians, and other eastern nation^,

ARTS OF SAVAGE LIFE. 5

after they Had once acquired, or discovered fire,
made its preservation a religious duty ; and fire
was continued in their temples, without being
once extinguished, for many hundred years.
Hence, they became, or were considered, fire
worshippers.

17. Among savages, the usual mode of pro-
ducing fire, is, by the rapid friction of two pieces
of wood till they produce flames. Having no me-
tals, they do not possess the simple method of
communicating a spark to tinder, by the violent
collision of flint ana steel.

18. The cloathing of savage nations has refer-
ence solely to the inclemency of the weather:
and consists generally of the skins of animals, or
of the, natural products of vegetables, prepared by
the most ingenious processes.

19. A precarious mode of subsistence is so un-
favourable to the hutnan species; that it is found,
that savage tribes, in a series of ages, do not in-
crease their numbers; and that they often be-
come altogether extinct.

20. In the back settlements of North Ame-
rica, the souls in the various half-starved savage
tribes, do not exceed twenty thousand; while, on
an equal sgace of country in China, two or three
hundred millions, aided by the arts of civilization,
are mu£fa£etter fed and provided for.

21. j« wretched Indians who resjdfc in the
district^^at surround Hudson's Bay, often pass
a week together without food; and frequently
die of want, during the chase of an animal, which
they have pursued on foot for many days to-
fei&tir*.

6 AGRICULTURE.

06#.— Hence, the origin of hospitality and social
meetings kept up in civilized life, for purposes of plea-
sure; but originating in ages, when to divide with
friends and neighbours the produce of the chase, was
the first and the kindest of duties.

22. If there are some privations to be borne in
society; if the successful emulation oi industry
and talents, creates great inequalities of enjoy-
ment; and if the laws are abused, and sometimes
bear oppressively on weak individuals, the worst
condition of social and civilized man, is better
than the best condition of the untutored savage.

Ob*. — Such is man, in his native and original state, in
all countries ; and such, are the boundaries of know-
ledge, among all aboriginal people : let us now consider
him, in a better, happier, and more respectable condi-
tion.

III. Of Farming, or Agriculture.

23. The first step, from savage towards civi-
lized life, is the acquirement, protection, and re-
cognition of property* I» early ages this.cbnsist-
edNMily, of what was essential to the immediate
wants of man.

24. The first property consisted of. sheep,
goats, %nd oxen; and the first husbandmen were
shepherds, who tended their flocks, and drove
them without restriction from pasture to pasture.

Obs.—mWe have a beautiful picture of the pastoral life
in the «fek of Genesis: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and
their families, were shepherds or husbandmen of the
earliest a^es. It will be seen, that their wealth consist-
ed in their flocks and live stock ; and that they roamed
«ver the country to find pasture.

25. In the pastoral age$ of husbandry, there

AGRICULTURE. 7

was no property in land: all the country, was
open and common to any occupier; and no one
assumed to himself a property in the soil, or con-
sidered as his own, the produce of any particu-
lar spot.

26. In Africa, among the native Americans,
and in most parts of Asia, there exists to this day,
no property in the land; hence, in^ those coun-
tries, there is little cultivation; and subsistence
is precarious; notwithstanding the fertility of the
soil, and the genial character of the climates.

9,7+ The recognition and protection of pro-
perty in the soil, is the basis of industry, plenty,
and social improvement; and is, therefore, one
of the most important steps in the progress of
man, from the savage, to the civilized state.

28. As soon as any man could call a spot of
ground his own, and could secure to his family
the produce of it; he would carefully cultivate,
sow, and plant it; knowing that he should reap
the regard of his labour in the season of harvest.

29. Countries, however, in 'general, lie open;
with nothing but banks and ditches to divide the
land of every husbandman : but in all civilized
coaniries,each separate farm is divided from others,
by hedges and fences; and the farms them-
selves, are sub-divided into small enclosures.

30. In France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and
most other nations, the lands still remain unen-
closed, in large open fields; and those countries
in consequence, present a dreary appearance.

31. Enclosures greatly improve the climate of
a country, by protecting it from inclement winds;
they pleasantly sub-divide the labours of the far-

g AGRICULTOltE.

mer; and, by restraining the exercise of cattley
they occasion them to get fat much sooner.

32. Farmers are called arable farmers, when
they are chiefly employed in raisirig corn and
grain; and pasture or grass-farmers, when they
are engaged in rearing and fattening sheep, and
other live stock.

33. Farms vary in size, from fifty to one
thousand acres. Arable farms are generally
smaller than those employed in pasture, or graz-
ing. Those, from one to two hundred acres,
are the most beneficial to the occupiers and the
public.

34. Soils are divided into clayey, loamy,
chalky, sandy, gravelly, peaty, and moory. The
clayey and loamy are called stiff or strong soils ;
and the sandy and gravelly, light soils.

35. Soils are barren, when they consist of too
much of one kind of material, do not hold mois-
ture, or are too shallow. They are fertile, when
they contain a due mixture of several primitive
earths with vegetable and animal matter.

36. To render a barren soil fertile, it requires
to be frequently turned up to the air, and to have
manures mixed, with it: which manures consist of
animal dungs, decayed vegetables, lime, marl,
sweepings of streets, &c.

37. In turning over the soil, the chief imple-
ments of the gardener are the spade, the hoe, and
the mattock; and of the farmer, the plough, the
harrow, the roller, the scythe, and the sickle.

38. As a succession of the same crops tends to
impoverish the soil, a rotation of different crops

AGRICULTURE. 9

is necessary. Potatoes, grain, and white crops,
are exhausting; but, after them, the soil is ameli-
orated by tares, vetches, turnips, and green or
covering crops.

39. On stiff soils, clover, beans, wheat, cab-
bages, and oats, may be cultivated in succession;
and on light soils, potatoes, turnips, pease, or bar-
ley, may succeed each other* The general rule, is
one crop for man, and one for beast.

06*.— This plan of varying the crops, is a new disco-
very. Formerly, land lay long in fallow ; that is to say,
was not worked every third or fourth year; but now, it
is usual, by varying the crops, to get two or three crops
in a year from the same soil, without its being exhaust-
ed; and fallowing is, consequently,, found to be unne-
cessary.-— See Y<nmg*a Farmer*8 Kalendar.

• 40. Wheat is sown in September or October;
'trat the spring-wheat is sown in March. It ripens.
in July and August, when it is reaped, housed, and
threshed. After being ground at the mill and
sifted, wheat forms flour: the flour mixed with
water and yeast, and baked in an oven, becomes
Bread.

41. Barley is sown in April and May: it is
made into malt, by being heated to a state of ger-
mination, and then broken in amill. If the malt
be infused in hot water, the infusion, with the
addition of hops, may be fermented into beer, ale,
and porter.

42. Oats are sown in February or March ; when
ground, they form oat-meal, and mixed with water
the meal becomes oat-bread ; but unground, they
are the favourite food of horses.

4S. There are other species of grain cultivated,
as rye, pease, and beans. The former makes dark

JO AGBICULTURE.

bat wholesome bread; and the latter are well'
known as delicious and wholesome food. Rice,
a very nutritive grain, is much cultivated in warm
climates; and preferred to other kinds of grain
for the food of man.

44. Modern husbandry has sub-divided grjasft
into nearly a hundred several kinds; of which,
there are two principal divisions ; natural grasses,
and artificial grasses. The several sorts are 1
sown and cultivated together, or separately; ac-
cording to the nature of the soil, or the object of
the cultivator.

45. The natural grasses are very numerous;
and are preferred for lands intended to be kept in
grass. The artificial grasses are ray -grass, red
clover, trefoil, sainfoin, lucern, orchard grass, ti-
mothy, &c.

46. On many farms, cows are kept for the milk
they yield; and for the purpose of making butter
or cheese. Butter is made from cream by agitat-
ing it in a churn; and is the oily part of the
cream. Cheese is made from milk by curdling it
with rtinnet; and the curd is then pressed, shap-
ed, and dried*

Obs. — The runnet is the inside of the stomach of a
calf; and is kept in pickle for the purpose of setting
the curd. The cheese would be white, if the milk wei*-
not previously coloured with Spanish arnotta. The*
largest cheese-farms in England, are in Cheshire and
Denbighshire ; and on some of these, 500 milch cows are
kept. In the United States, the largest dairies are in
New England and New York.

47. Of late years, selections have been made of
breeds of cattle, sheep, &c., from among those

AGRICULTURE. 11

which fatten the quickest, which have the best-
flavoured flesh y best wool, &c.

48. Among oxen, the kinds that have been pre-
ferred in England, are the middle-horned, or De-
vonshire, for working; and the short-horned, the
spotted, and the Alderney, for milking.

The long-horned, the Welch, the Kyeloe, and
the Fifeshire, have also their separate purposes
and recommendations.

49. Among the improved breeds of sheep, the
favourite is the South Down; but the Tees-water,
Dartmoor, and Romney-marsh-breeds, are the
largest ; the new Leicester, and Lincoln are the
next. The fleece of the Ltficoln weighs 11 lbs.

50. Those sheep which produce the finest wool,
are the Merino, the Rytland, and the Shetland;
but their fleeces weigh only from 2 to 3 lbs.

A male sheep is called a tup or rams and a
female, a eive. They are usually shorn in May or
June; and are called one-shear, two-shear, or
three-shear sheep, according to their ages.

51. Horses are divided into blood-horses or
facers; hackney or riding-horses; coach-horses;
Cleaveland-bays; Suffolk-punches; Clydesdales;
and heavy-blacks : each of them adapted to dis-
tinct purposes of use or pleasure.

52. Hogs are severally of Berkshire, Hamp-
shire, Shropshire, Gloucestershire, Chinese, white,
and swing-tailed breeds; all different in their
shapes and character.

53. Numerous other productive animals are
also objects of the farmer's care; as poultry for
eggs; geese, ducks, turkeys, Guinea-fowls, and
pigeons; bees for honey; and fish stocked in

b£

JL2 AGRICULTURE.

ponds. Farmers likewise extract cyder firomap?
pies; perry from pears; and delicious wines from,
various fruits*

54. Every farm-house i$ provided with its
kitchen-garden, for the cultivation of vegetables
and fruits. The Art of Gardening forms also one
of the most useful and delightful branches of ru-
ral employment. Besides kitchen-gardens for
raising vegetables, there are fruit-gardens, or
orchards, flower-gardens, and pleasure-gardens.

55, By the art of Gardening, the fruits of one
part of the world? are propagated and cultivated
in other climates, to which, at first, they seemedL
to be ill-adapted.*

Thus? in England, the only native fruits were
the acorn, the blackberry, ttie alder-berry, hips,
and haws ; but it now enjoys gooseberries, cur-
rants, apples, pears, plumbs, apricots, peaches,
nectarines, and grapes — ail exotics, and first cul-
tivated in England, about three hundred years
since.

• 56. Within a few years, the bread-fruit tree
has been transplanted from the islands of the
South Seas to the West Indies ; and all the rare
spices, natives of the East Indies, are now culti-
vated in the West Indies.

. 57. The Potatoe, so considerable and whole-
some a portion of our food, was unknown in Eu-
rope, about two centuries ago ; and was brought
from America by sir Walter Hal eigh. The period
is on record (500 years before Christ,) when the

* In the present edition, the long paragraphs have
been purposely broken, for the ease of junior students;
but the numbers remain the same.

AGRICULTURE. 13

first wheat was brought into "Europe, from Asia
Blinor. Peas, beans, and all other grain* are ex-
otics in England.

58. Such, also, is the art of man, that he im-
proves whatever he cultivates. By grafting buds
of superior fruits on ordinary stocks, he amends,
and even alters, the natural produce of the tree;
and by managing and selecting his seeds, he im-
proves and enlarges every vegetable production.

59. By the art of Gardening, two, three, or
four persons may derive ample subsistence, from
every acre of ground in cultivation ; but there is,
in no country, without cultivation, above one hu>-
man inhabitant to two square miles; and even on
that space, subsistence is obtained with .difficul-
ty • such are the triumphs of art over nature !

60. In England and Wales there are ten mil-
lions of inhabitants; and forty-seven millions of
acres of ground ; of which, nearly /o/fy millions
are cultivated, or are employed in grazing cattle ;
fte other eight are waste.

There are, consequently, four acres of cultiva-
ted ground to every person; and nearly another
acre, of that which is uncultivated.

Qb9. — It having been ascertained, that an acre of land
employed as a garden, will produce regular subsistence
for four persons ; it follows, that if the ground in Eng-
land was thus cultivated, it would support a population
of 160 millions; and with various allowances, at least 100
millions, or ten times its present number. The ground
still uncultivated, might, perhaps, be made to maintain
the present number of inhabitants in plenty.

61. Each of the people consume in every year,
one quarter of wheat, (eighteen bushels) being the
produce of half an acre; three bushels of barley

U AGRICULTURE.

in beer, being the growth of the eighth of an acre ;

one sheep, one-eighth of an ox, one-third of a lamb,

calf, and pig, being the produce of two acres ; and

in Vegetables and fruits, the produce of die eighth

of an acre.

Oba. — Hence, every human inhabitant uses the pro-
duce of three acres; and the remainder of his share is
consumed by horses; or engaged for buildings, roads,
hedge-rows, and pleasure-grounds, or occupied in water.

62. Of the forty millions of cultivated land,
twelve millions are employed in arable farming ;
twenty millions, in grazing cattle ; two millions,
in woods and hedge-rows ; two millions, in roads,
water, and buildings; and one million, in hop,
garden, and pleasure-grounds; and the remainder
lie in follow.

Ofa.-jThe eight millions of waste consist chiefly of
commons or heaths ; and it is computed, that five mil-
lions of them are equal to any purpose of cultivation ;
the other three, are in mountains; or have no depth of
vegetable soil.

63. The number of bullocks killed, annually,
in England and Wales, are at least a million; of
sheep, nine millions ; and of lambs, calves, and
pigs, nine millions; besides thirty millions, of
poultry and game ; and innumerable small birds
and fishes.

The number of horses are nearly two millions;
of which a million and a half are employed in
agriculture and commerce.

Ob$. — It is calculated, that horses consume one-fifth
of the entire produce of the land i.e. the produce of four
acres per horse on the whole of the land, or two acres
each, of that 12 millions employed in raising corn.

64. On an average, each man, woman, and
-child, consumes ten ounces per day, of animal

METALLURGY. 15

food 9 or 220 lbs. in the year; which, in animal
food, is the annual produce of two acres of land.
It is found, however, that the same two acres,
cultivated in potatoes, would yield, on an aver-
age, upwards of ten tons per acre, or forty-four
thousand pounds weight 5 and, consequently, af-
ford one hundred ava twenty pounds of potatoes,
per day, Ae year round!

65. If cultivated in wheat, the produce of the
same two acres (which produce but 220 pounds
of antmit food,) would produce 4000 pounds
weight of grain; or afford ten pounds of wheat,
per day, leaving sufficient for seed.

Peas and beans yield in the same proportion.
Turnips and carrots are as productive as pota-
toes ! wit parsnips actually double the weight of

potatoes! c

Ode.^Mr. Middleton well observes, "that every acre
would support its man well, on vegetable food; but,"
says he, "only let him change his diet to one meal per
day of animal food ; and he will require the produce
Of four acres !" The same author observes also, " that
the starch or nourishment of a potatoe, is one-fourth of
its entire weight ; and that the quantity of starch or nu-
triment* on an acre of potatoes* is four times greater
than in an acre of wheat!" Those, who seek further
information on agricultural subjects, should consult
Young* *§ Farmer* * Kalender; a work which ought to be
found in every farm-house.

IV. Metallurgy.

66. Before man could till the ground, dig it,
hoe it, or plough it, he required the aid of some*
thing harder than the ground itself; that is to say,
he wanted iron or metals. Without iron, he

1« METALLURGY.

could have no very useful, sharp instrument;—
9uch a9 the spade, hoe, plough, scythe, or sickle.

67. Hence, men were found to depend for food,
on the spontaneous productions of the earth, and
on the flesh of animals ; till they had discovered
the means of obtaining and working iron. Holy
writ tells us that Tubal-cain (or Vulcan,) before
the flood, was the instructor of all those who
worked in brass and iron.

68. Viewing the metals in ordinary use, we
consider mem common productions ; but no art is
so curious, as that of extracting metals from the
earth, or ore in which they are buried or conceal-
ed ; and no discovery or invention was ever more
wonderful.

69. It is very seldom that metals are found in
a pure etate ; but perhaps the first discoverer,
having found some metal in a detached or pure
state, was led to make experiments on those
lumps of shapeless, and coarse, but heavy earth;
which consist of a mixture of earth ana metal,
and are called ores.

70. Gold-dust is frequently found in the sand
of rivers; into which it is washed by the rains
from the mountains. This itself might lead to the
discovery of metals. Much of the gold used in
England, is collected out of the rivers in Guinea,
on the coast of Africa.

71. Workers of metals imitate nature when
they beat and wash their ores ; and having cleared
them, in that way, of much of the earth, tney then
burn them in various ways ; and, at length, get
the metal by itself in a pure State.

7& No one, on looking at most of the metallic

METALLURGY. Tf

ores, would suspect them to contain metal : they
are, apparently, the roughest, coarsest, and least
desirable stones or earths ; but, on being broken,
repeatedly washed, and burnt (or, roasted, as it
is called,) they yield Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron,
and other metals.

. 73. These ores are found in the veins of moun-
tains, or in the strata, or divisions of rocks ; ge- .
nerally beneath the surface of the ground 5 and
the pits or -wells, dug in search of the ore, are
called mines. The well itself, is called the shaft
of the mine. Pits, from which stone only is ex-
tracted, are called stone-qmrries.

74. The deepest mines are in Hungary-; and
are about three-quarters of a mile below the sur-
face. Many mines are like towns under ground 5
and many miners pass their whole lives in them.
The want of fresh air, and the influx of water,
prevent mines from sinking deeper.

75. All the substances which fonn the ground
and earth, are called minerals. Clay is a mine-
ral ; all stones are minerals ; coal is a mineral ;
chalk $ and, in short, whatever is not animal or
vegetable, is called Mineral.

76. The study. of minerals has been metho-
dized, and called the science of mineralogy. . In
this, as in many other branches of science, little
more, however, has been effected, than to attain
a systematic classification and nomenclature.

77. All minerals, i. e. all earths, soils, stones,
and metals, -are scientifically divided into four
classes.

L Earthy, Minerals— being all such, as are void
of taste' and smell, light and brittle 5 as mill-

IS METALLURGY.

stone, flint or silex, clay, sand, crystals, spar,
gypsum, alabaster, chalk, stones, cornelians,
iasper,topazes,sappto
diamonds.
IL Saline Minerals— being such, as have a pun*
gent taste, and are heavier, softer, and partly
transparent ; as salt, alum, nitre or salt-petre,
borax, and alkali or potash.

III. Jr^mmaMe Minerals— being lighter, brittle,
opaque, and never feeling cold; as coals, sul-
phur, black-lead, and amber.

IV. Metallic Minerals — being heavier, opaque*
cold, ductile (capable of making wire,} and
malleable (capable of being worked into snape,)
consisting 01 gold, silver, &c.

78. Many metals exposed to air become rusty;
that is to say, they imbibe a part of the air called
oxygen, and the rust is called an oxide. If
melted and burnt on a fire for a considerable
time, they also imbibe oxygen from the atmos-
phere; and turn into earthy substances called
oxides: the process is called oxidation. _

79. If 10 lbs. of lead be melted and burnt in
this manner, it will be converted into an oxids
called red lead; and the red lead so produced,
will be found to weigh 11 lbs., the additional
pound arising from the imbibed oxygen,

80. Oxides may be converted into metals
again, by depriving them of their oxygen. In
the example of red lead, if it be burnt again with
powdered charcoal, the charcoal will detach the
oxygen from the oxide, and the lead will be ob-
tained again in its pure state tfthis process ia
called reduction.

H

METALLUBGY. i9

61. Modern chemists consider the whole earth
as metallic ; and all the different earths to be no-
thing more than various oxides, or rusts of me-
tals, produced' by the continued action- of the air
and water on them; and capable, by suitable
means, of being reconverted into metals !

• 82. Platina is the heaviest of all metals, being
23 times heavier than water; but it is a modern
discovery. The colour is light grey, and it cannot
be melted in ordinary fires.

83. Gold is 19 times heavier than water $ and
the most brilliant of all the metals. It is so mal-
leable, that an ounce of it will gild a silver wire,
1300 miles in .length ; and it may be beaten into
leaves ; 300,000 of which, are only the thickness
of an inch.

84. Silver is 11 times heavier than water ; and
next to gold in beauty ; such is its ductility, that •
it may be drawn out m wire finer than a hair,

• 85. Mercury, or Quicksilver, is 14 times hea-'
vier than water ; and is reniakable for being li-
quid like water; and for not becoming solid, ex-
cept in cold greater than that which renders wa-
ter solid.

86. Copper is 9 times heavier than water 5 and
is found in great abundanoe in the mines in Swe-
den. It unites well With other metals; and
forms a variety of useful compounds.

87. Iron is 8- times heavier than Water ;" and is .
Hie most useful; and the moslt abundant, of
all the metals. It mixes with the animal, vege-
table, and mineral kingdoms. It is melted
with more difficulty than gold, silver, or copper*
and it usefully strikes fire with flint.

20 METALLURGY. *

Oft*.— The loadstone, which possesses the singular
and unaccountably property of always pointing to the
north, is an ore of iron. •

88. Tin is an English or Cornish metal, 7
times, heavier than water. It is very malleable ;
and is highly useful as a coating to. iron and cop-
per ; requiring only, to have iron dipt into it,
and copper to be rubbed with it, to become per-
fectly coated. -

89. Lead is 11 times heayier than water ; easily
melted, and highly useful for various pur-
poses.

90. Nickel is b. Chinese metal of a light grey 5
9 times heavier than water, and melted with dif-
ficulty. . -

91. Zinc is 7 times heavier than water, of a
bluish white colour, and used in various com-
pounds.

92. The other metallic substances are Anti-
mony, Bismuth, Cobalt, Arsenic, Manganese,
Palladium, Rhodium, Potassum, &c, to the num-
ber of thirty; although the ancients knew of only
seven metals.

93. Iron is formed into steel, by being heated
with charcoal. Brass is a compound of zinc and
copper. Bell-metal is brass with a little silver.
Pewter is a mixture of tin, lead, and brass.
BronTx is a mixture of copper and tin.

94. Coals are minerals augout of tke ground
in immense mines; and they are the best
fuel yet discovered by man. The British isl-
ands are celebrated tor their coal-mines; ma-
ny countries being obliged to depend on wood;
which is often scarce and dear.

METAIX.UHGY. 21

95. Half the civilized employments of man,<
consist in working the metals and minerals. In
England, the large towns of Birmingham and
Sheffield are wholly engaged in the useful and
ornamental manufactures of various metals.

96. Civilization depends so much on the dis-
covery of the useful metals, that little progress
can be made from a savage state, without the
useful trade of* a blacksmith.

He makes all the implements of gardening and
agriculture ; all domestic utensils ; knives to cut
with ; and spears and swords to defend the soil
and its produce, against invaders.

97. To avoid the inconvenience of exchang-
ing or bartering, men, in early ages, fixed on me-
tals ; as on gold, silver, copper, or iron, for a me-
dium of value : so that, if one man had too much
corn and wanted wine, he was not obliged to give
corn for the wine, but he might sell his corn for
so much metal, and buy. the wine with the metal,
irt his convenience.

Ob*. — Hence, the origin of money ; and as it was
found inconvenient to weigh metal in every transaction, •
(as Abraham did when he bought the burying-place of
Sarah;) stamps were put on pieces of metal, to indi-
cate that they might be safety received for a settled
weight or value. Hence, there are pieces of stamped
gold of known value ; as guineas, half guineas, eagles,
half eagles, &c. : pieces of stamped silver, as crowns,
dollars, half dollars, &c, : and . pieces of stamped cop-
per; as cents and half cents:— all of universal worth.

[223

V. Of Building.

98. Man, like other animals, would seek places
in which he might shelter himself, from the incle*
mency of the weather. Beasts of prey retire to
thickets and caves; beavers build mud houses;
and rabbits make burrows under, ground. Man,
in his most savage state, imitates their practices ;
and then improves on them, by the aid of his
reason. •

99. Among the savage tribes in Siberia and the
most northern parts of America, their habitations
fire constructed in the rudest manner, principally
with earth intermixed with leaves, twigs, and the
6tems of weeds, &c. and'the bottoms of their huts
are frequently partly under theground or the snow,
and are thus more effectually closed during the
long continuance of their winter season.. In
warmer regions, the American Indians build wig-
wams of stakes, leaves, turf, and straw in the
shape of a soldier's tent.

Iji Africa, the materials of the kraals are the
same as the wigwams; but the shape is circular,
with a hole at the top to let out. the smoke ; and
the entrance is so low, in order to keep out beasts
of prey, that the inhabitants crawl in and out

100. A number of. these habitations in one
place; or a collection of wigwams or kraals,
forms a Siberian, American, or African tribe.
In many islands of the South Seas, the na-
tives, when first discovered, had learnt to ele-
vate the roofs on poles, and to fill in the sides of
their houses with boughs or rushes, mud, or gods*.

feUILDING. 23

Obs. — The cottages of many of the poor, are still
built in this manner in England : and few need travel a
mile from their own residence, to see the original style
of architecture. '

101. Those nations which first raised the roofs
of their bouses on poles, were discoverers in this
art. Those which first used -stone, however rude, .
and mud or clay to fill tip the interstices between
tiie stones, and cement them together, made con-
siderable improvements.

After the discovery of iron and metals, when
the ate, the hammer, the saw, and the plane, be-
came the tools of builders, it may be supposed,
houses would soon be raised to two stories, and
increased in size and convenience.

102. Burning clay into bricks, was a further
invention of great importance ; because, it afford-
ed a universal material for building, as durable
as stone, without carriage, and often with less la-
bour than was required to dig and fashion the
stone.

The best bricks are made of clay, and are nine
inches long; four and a half broad, and two inches
and a half thick.

Obs. — Hence, in laying bricks two in breadth, with
the interstices for mortar, are equal to one in length,
and the requisite crosses and ties may then be made
without inequalities in the wall..

103. The first cement for walls, was either
mud or clay; but experiment led, in due time, to
the preference of a mixture of lime, water, and sand ; •
to which, for plastering, hair is now added. Trees
presented the next building material, for beams,
and boards for floors. With these materials, the

c2 ^

24 BUILDING.

dwellings of ike whole civilized world are now
made.

" Ob8. — Cast iron for many purpose*, to which timber
was usually applied, has lately -been used to great ad-
vantage. . .

104. Simple as is the contrivance of chimnies
to carry off smoke,. yet, they are a recent inven-
tion; and were unknown in building, till within
the last five hundred years : down tq that pe-
riod, the smoke escaped through a bole in the
roof of the house.

105. The means of letting in the light, and
keeping out the cold, is also a recent invention.
Anciently, holes for light were made with wooden
shutters, to open by day, and close at night.

Various were the contrivances to let in light;
and, at the same time, keep out cold. Bladders,
horn, and membranous substances of animals and
fish, were used for this purpose, in the houses of
the great: but all these gave way, to the fine in-
vention of glass.

106. That useful material was discovered bj
accident: some Phenician carriers of soda, a few
years before Christ, happening to light their fire
between some of their lumps of this mineral; it
melted, and mixing with the sand, produced glass.
Soda and sand, or flints, melted together, con-
tinue to be the materials of which glass is made to
this day.

Ob». 1. — The manufactory of glass was long confined
to Poenicia; but so little improvement was made in it,
that Nero give 60,000J. for two glass-cups that had han-
dles, ft was first applied to windows about the year
300; but did not get into general use till about 1000.

2^—A gfos^mamrfactory is a proper object to gratify

the curiosity of young; persons. Flint, or putifled stony
sand, called silex, is mixed with pure sods, and exposed
to a moderate heat, producing what is called the/rS/
this is then put into moderate sized vessels, and exposed
to a violent heat, till melted* and on cooling a little, it
Becomes a kind of hot paste, which may be worked add
moulded to any shape :— the ingenuity and ezfreHnets
of the workmen, in so moulding and shaping it into va-
rious vessels, is highly amusing. .

107. Tiles for the roofs of houses are made of
clay in the manner of bricks. Slates dug from
quarries are also used for the same purpose. In
country-places, where the earliest practices Ufi
still continued? roofs are thatched with straw;
these will keep out the wet and cold, but generate
a musty smell.

Faints, consisting of the oxides of metals, and
of certain coloured earths, or natural oxides, mixed
with oil, at once serves to preserve wood; and to
purify and beautify the inside of bouses.

VI. Of Architecture.

108* After the art of building had attained wha£
was useful and necessary; luxury would aim at
ornament : — an ingeniouscarpenter would become
a carver; and an ingenious stone-mason, a sculp-
tor.

The pillars which supported the work, would
not be allowed to be quite plain; but would be
cut or carved in ornaments, at the head and base ; .
and other parts of the room, or structure, would
be ijbde to correspond. Hence, arose what are
called the five orders of Architecture,

26 ARCHITECTURE.

109. The five orders of architecture were suc-
cessively invented -in ancient Greece and Italy;
and are called the Tuscan, the Doric, the Ionic,
the Corinthian, and the Composite : they are
to be found in all the principal buildings of the
Christian world.

110. The Saxons, also, had a simple style of
architecture ; distinguished by semi-circular arches
aud massive plain columns: these still are found
in many of our oldest buildings.

The Normans, too, invented a beautiful style
of architecture, called the Gothic; distinguished
by its lightness and profuse ornaments; by its
pointed arches; and by its pillars, carved to imi-
tate several conjoined.

The Gothic architecture is found in all our old
cathedrals; and is often elegantly adopted in
private dwellings.

Ob*. 1. — As a more effectual means, than any verbal
descriptions, of conveying a knowledge of the several
species of architecture, the characters of each are here
given ; and to fix them in his recollection, the pupil
should trace or copy them.

S.-r-The Hindoos, Egyptians, Chinese, and Moors,
have likewise their own separate styles of ornamental
building; and nothing can be more grand, harmonioifs,
«&drmore picturesque, than each of these, in the splen-
did specimens, which are to be seen in their several
countries. In Engffarid, the Pagoda, in Kew Gardens,
k a pleasing specimen of Chinese architecture ; but
we seem, in general, to prefer the five orders ; or the
Gothic.

ARCHITECTURE. 27

1. The TUSCAN okder. 2. The DORIC orm!r.

7"

J

3^

3. Thh IONIC order. 4. The CORINTHIAN order.

28

I

ART OP CLOTHING.
TftB COMPOSITE ORDER.

The Cornice,

The Frieze;
The Architrave.

■t

The Capital.

The Shaft

VII. The Art of Clothing.

*

111. Most animals are provided with a coat of
hair or wool for covering; but man seems to
have been left naked, ana in many respects des-
titute; apparently, to serve as a stimulus to his
industry and invention.

Man seems, as to his own wants and powers, to
have been formed, to equalize climates, and con-
quer the elements. His superb edifices, his con-
trol of fire and water, his application of light in
the night, and his various clothing, distinguish his
superior intellects.

112. In all climates, clothing is not alike ne-
cessary; between the tropics it is little required,
except for ornament: but in the temperate and

ABT OF CLOTHING. 29

frigid zones, man could scarcely subsist without
some covering. •

Holy writ tells us, that the first clothing of
Adam and Eve wore the leaves of fig-trees, sewn,
perhaps, together; and even at this day, our man-
ufactures of clothing .are derived, chiefly, from
the fibres of the vegetable kingdom.
. 113. The skins of animals were doubtless the
first substantial clothing. The shepherd would
dress himself in his sheep or goat's skin; and the
hunter, as a trophy, in the skin of a wild beast.

The Tartars clothe themselves in horse-hides to
this day; the Americans, in the skins of buffaloes;
and even in some parts of Europe, a sheep's skin,
with the woolly side inward or outward, makes a
winter or a summer-garment.

114. Some natives of the South Sea islands
clothe themselves in mats made of reeds or vege-
table fibres; others render pliable the common
bark of trees; but none of these will wash, or are
durable.

Civilized man, however, adapts the means of
nature to his purposes, by a process of his own;
he separates the fibres themselves, then twists
them into thread, and by interweaving this thread,
he obtains a pliable and durable material.

115. The most useful plant, for this purpose,
is flax. It is cultivated like wheat; and as soon
as its seeds are ripe, it is pulled up by the hand ;
the seed-vessels are taken off) and the stems are
put into pits of water, till the mucilageous or
gummy matter, which holds the fibres of the stalk
together, are dissolved.

116. After the stalks have been taken out of

30 AtfT OF CLOTHING.

the. pits, they are. dried, beaten, and combed, till
they are fine, loose, and shining; the flax is then
spun, or twisted by a distaff, and wound on a reel
or spindle. This thread is either adapted for
needle-work ; or is given to the weaver to be wo-
ven into linen cloth By his loom,

11L. The process of weaving is simple :— the
threads in their length are called the warp ; and
are drawn tight by weights at one end ; at tha
other, they are divided into two sets, each set
composed of alternate threads: — on moving a
treadle, one set, or every other thread, is thrown
up, and the other set is brought down ; and at
this instant, a cross thread or woof is thrown be-
tween them by means of a shuttle.

The lower set of ends are then raised; and
the other brought down and the woof is again
thrown between. The operation is thus conti-
nued, till the whole length of .the warp has been
interwoven with cross threads.

Obs. 1. — A figure of a simple loom is here given; in
which, the parts referred to above may easily be traced.
The forms of looms are, however, various, and often
Very intricate. There are stocking-looms, or frames,
. silk-looms, cloth-looms, cotton-looms, linen-looms, cam.
bric-looms, carpet-looms, lace-looms, &c.

m

ART OF CLOTHING. a*

2. — As the loom is one of the most important of so-
%ial machines, its principle of action outfit to be well
understood. Look at a piece of linen with the eye, or
with any simple magnifier, and it will be seen, that the
loom has simply crossed the threads, and thereby mat*
ted the whole together. The lour fingers present them*
selves, as the most simple illustration of its action ; but
the student may fasten six or eight pieces of string to ft
wall, to represent the warp ; and then by raising every
other one, and depressing the others, he will be able td
pass the woof by any contrivance, which will represent
fee shuttle. . He may thus make a piece of packthread-
cloth; and so, completely illustrate the principle of
weaving.

118. After the piece has been woven, it re-
quires to be bleached by the air and sun, or by
exposure to some acid. It is afterwards, if de-
sired, printed to any pattern, by means of blocks
of wood, cut out to .the pattern $ and is then
pressed and glazed before it is used.

Much skill and experience are required in fix-
ing colours, so that they will not wash out ; but
in printing, dyeing, and similar arts, the Hindoos
ana Chinese excel ail nations.

119. Hemp is another fibrous stalk, much cul-
tivated for the manufacture of ropes and sail-cloth.
But the fibrous substance now tne most used for
every purpose of clothing and furniture, is the
product of the cottorutree, or plant.

The cotton wool is found in a state nearly fit
for the manufacturer, in the seed-pod of the
plants ; and in the West Indies, they yield two
crops* in the year.

120. Hundreds of ships arrive in England
every year, laden with this material. The chief

33 ART OF CLOTHING.

manufactories of cotton are in Lancashire; and
they are wonders of human invention.

The articles used in cloathing, produced from
this substance, are muslins of every degree of
fineness, corduroys, sheeting, calicoes, quilting,
bed-furniture, hangings, &c. ; all of which -have
been the means of extending the commerce of
England to every part of the world.

06*.— -Manufactories of Cotton are now scattered aH
over the United Kingdom ; and employ a million of me*,
women, and children.

121. The wonderful - operations of a cotton-
mill, have been so correctly described by Dar-
win ; that they will be much better remembered
in that form, than in prose :

First, with nice eye, emerging' maidens cull '

From leathery pods, the vegetable wool ;

With wiry teeth revolving' cards release

The tangled knots, and smooth the reVell'd fleece ;

Next, moves the iron hand with fingers finey

Combs the wide card, and forms the eternal line j

Slow, with soft lips, the -whirling can acquires

The tender shains, and wraps in rising spires;

With quicken'd pace successive rollers move,

And these retain, and those extend, the rove *

Then fly the spoles ; the rapid axles glow ;

While slowly circumvolves the laboring -wheel below.

122. Civilized man does not disdain to con-
vert the covering of animals to his purpose ; but
he changes their appearance, and prepares them,
so as at once to preserve and clear them from of-
fensive odours.

One of the most common articles of external
clothing is derived from the wool of the sheep;

ART OF CLOTHIW6. 33

and this forms' the most admired and useful* of
the native manufactures of Great Britain.

123. The fleece, as it comes from the animal,
is first picked and sorted ; and then cleansed
from stains, dirt, and grease. The wool-comber
afterwards prepares it for the spinner ; who
twists it into woollen-thread called tcorsted, or
yarn. Of late years, the twisting has been per-
formed by worsted-mills, on the plan of cotton-
nnHls.

124. This yarn or worsted, is then wove in a
loom into cloths; flannels, or stockings, of various
degrees of fineness, according to the nature of the
fleece: the weaver delivers the cloths to the
fuller; who, by means of fuller's earth, deprives
it of all remaining grease.

It is, afterwards, dyed any required colour; is
pressed, and then sold, under the name of broad
and narrow cloth ; to the draper, taylor, or mer-
chant.

Obs. — England and Wales feed 36 millions of sheep ;
each of which, yields a fleece of four pounds weight ; or
144 millions of pounds at 1*. per pound, value 7,200,000/.
These manufactured, produce 20 million of pounds
sterling ; leaving a profit of upwards of 12 millions per
annum, to the manufacturers.

125. Carpets are another production of wool;
and in making them, the warp is workedperpen-
dicularly instead of horizontally. Trie fine
shawls of the East, are made from the fine wool
of the sheep, which range the mountains of
Thibet

Obt. — Cable-ropes, of superior strength and durabi-
lity, have lately been made from the long- wool, which
is useless for cloths.

34 AUT OP CLOTHING.

126. Man's golden clothing, however, is de*
lived from the web of a crawling insect, or ca-
terpillar, called the silk-worm. All the coun-
tries of the south and east preserve and propa-
gate this insect; and the produce of its labours,
Forms a considerable article of commerce with
China, India, Persia/Turkey, Italy, and the South
of France.

127. The worm is hatched by the heat of ike
sun, from eggs laid by a moth, in the preceding
year. Its food are the leaves of the mulberry ; in
which tree it lives in warm climates. After it at-
tains its full growth, it winds itself in its silky
web, attached to one of the leaves; and in this
cone of silk, it is converted into a lifeless chry-
salis.

128. In a few days, the chrysalis produces a
lively and delicate moth, which eats its way out
of the cone of silk; flutters its wings for a few
days, lays eggs for future supplies of silk-worms,
—and then aies ! Such is tfie curious and won-
derful economy of this insect, whicn supplies .
man with the material of silk. See the cut after
paragraph 498.

129. The cones of raw silk are about the size
of a pidgeonfs egg ; and each of them, when wound
off, contains, in length, a quarter of a mile ! These
webs, after slight preparations, are spun into
thread, by machinery in silk-mills, and then,
called organized or thrown silk. The weaver
converts, the thread into the various elegant fa-
brics made of silk; and the dyer and presser
finish them for consumption.

Oba. — Attempts have been made to reader the web
of the spider useful; and stockings have 'actually been

GOV£RNM£ftT AND LAWS. 35

made of this material ! In short, whatever man can spin
into thread, he contrives to weave into garments ; and in
this respect there is* no bound to his materials, but in
nature.

ISO. Hats are made of the fine hair of animals,
felted, or beat; and then gummed together, till
they are tenacious and firm. Shoes and gloves
are made of the hides of animals, first prepared
by the tanner and currier by expelling the fatty
and unctuous matter of the animal, and infusing
into its place, an astringent made of oak bark.

Skins are many weeks in the tan -pits or bark
infusions, undergoing this conversion; and they
are then shaved and coloured by the currier, for
their various uses.

VIII. Of Government and Laws.

131. The heads and fathers of families were
anciently their governors; and this, kind of go-
vernment, was called Patriarchal. The histories
of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, are beautiful illus-
trations of this state of human society.

132. When the family grew too large, the
branches sometimes separated, as we observe in
the instance of Abraham and Lot ; and of Jacob
and Esau ; but when they resided together, some
one would be regarded as the head : in due time,
a title would be given to this ruler; and he
would be called a chief, captain, judge, dictator,
king, sultan, or emperor.

133. Such was the origin of all governments;
and they would prove of various tendencies, ac-

d 8

3$ GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.

cording to the character of the first rulers. Any

3 uarrel between two tribes, would give to both of
lem a military character.

He who got the better, would be in danger of
being inspired with a love of conquest; hence,
much misery would arise. In time, many tribes
Qr families would unite into one; as well for of-
fence as defence : such, doubtless, was the origin
of nations.

134. The land of Canaan, when invaded by
the Israelites, was sub-divided, in this way, into
petty tribes; so was Britain, when it was invad-
ed by Ceesar; Italy, .also, was divided in the
same way, before the ambition and military cha-
racter of certain Romans led them to make war
with their neighbours.

Such, too, is the state of nameless tribes in
North and South America; in Africa, Tartary,
arid Siberia, at this day.

1S5. Every man in a society, or nation, is bound
to respect its welfare ; to do nothing injurious
to its members; and to conform himself to the
rules or taws by which it is held together, main-
tained, and protected. By obeying the laws
himself, he ,sets an example to others; and he
also partakes of the common benefit and protec-
tion afforded by them.

136. A constitution is that plan of govern-'
ment and system of laws, under which a people
live together in the same society. In England,
for example, we have a chief magistrate, or king,
to execute the laws and conduct the business of
the government; and we have two houses of
parliament, to concur with the king in making

GOVERNMENT A3fD LAWS. 37

laws, and levying money: this arrangement is
called the constitution of England.

137. The two houses of parliament consist of
about 400 peers or nobles in the House of Lords;
and of 658 members, elected by and represent-
ing the people, to the House of Commons.

No law can be enacted without the joint con*
sent of the king, lords, and commons ; and no-*
thing can be done contrary to the laws so made;
or to the established and known customs, or
Common Law, of the country.

138. No tax can be levied on the people, unless
it originates in the House of Commons ; and is
first approved of by that assembly. The creation
of peers and transactions with foreign nations, be-
long to the office of king; as does the direc-
tion and appointment of the Army and Navy, and
the management of Wars.

139. The laws of England consist of the Com*
mon Law, the Statute Law, and the Civil Law.

The Common Law is the ancient law of Eng-
land, supposed to be derived from the Saxon
laws, ana founded on principles of reason and
justice, on the revealed laws of God, and on the
customs and rights of the people.

The Statute Laws are particular laws to de-
clare, enforce, and modify, the common law; and
are made by the two Houses of Parliament, and
assented to by the king.

The Civil law is the law of our spiritual courts
and universities; and is derived from the an-
cient laws of the Romans, as condensed into a
code by the emperor Justinian.

3d GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.

140. The laws are administered in the king's
name, in the courts of King's Bench, 'Exchequer,
and Common Pleas, and also at assizes in county
towns bj judges; of whom, there are twelve.
There is also a court of Equity, called the Court
of Chancery: in whteh, in particular cases, in
which the principle of the law does not apply,
the letter of it is moderated so as to do real jus-
tice.

141. There are also courts of quarter-sessions
held by justices of the peace, for trying petty
offenders ; and by corporate bodies, who act un-
der the king's charter. Courts of request, or of
conscience, are instituted for the recovery of debts
under five pounds.

142. No man in England can be put on his
trial, for any offence, unless twelve of a Grand
Jury have declared, in a bill of indictment, that
there is cause for trying him ; and he cannot be
convicted or punished, except a verdict has been
given against him by another Jury, composed of
twelve honest and unexceptionable men.

143. By our laws, wilful murder, forgery, house-
breaking, nouse-burning, horse and sheep-stealing,
rape, hi|n way-robbery, cutting and maiming, pira-
cy, coining, and treason against the king, are pun-
ishable with death.

144. Numerous other offences are also punish-
able with death; but the sentence is generally
changed into transportation for life : smaller of-
fences involve transportation for fourteen or seven
years; and petty ones are punished by imprison-
ment, whipping, pillory, burning in the hand, and
by fines.

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS: 39 '

«

145. A man who has committed a crime, is
charged with it before a justice of the peace;
who issues his warrant to the constable for his
apprehension.

The justice commits him to the custody of the
sheriff in the county goal, on the oath of the accu-
ser; who, at the assizes, must repeat his charge be-
fore the grand jury, _ *

If they find a true bill, he is then tried before
the petit jury; and on being found guilty, re-
ceives from the judge, the sentence ofthe law.

146: ♦ Death is inflicted by hanging : transport-
ation is made to Botany flay in New Holland;
but many such culprits are employed in England
on board of hulks, or old ships : small offenders
are sent to houses of correction and kept to hard
labour.

As the king is the executor ofthe ^aws, and as
all prosecutions are carried on' in his name, he
has the power of pardoning criminals.

147. The constitution of England secures the
liberty, as well as the good government, of the
people,—

Because no law can be made, without the con-
sent of their representatives in the House of com-
mons.

Because no tax can be imposed, without it
originates and first passes in that house. And

Because no man can be punished, in any way,
without the consent of twenty-four of his peers,
or equals; i.e. by twelve of a grand, and twelve
of a petit jury.

148. Tne public rights of Englishmen are also
secured by Magna Charta, by tne Habeas Corpus

f ' 40 GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.

Act, by the Bill of Rights, and by innumerable
acts or statutes of parliament passed chiefly in
the reign of Edward the First, and William the
Third.

Obs. — The two most enlightened countries in Europe,
having published the general principles of government,
the one in a document, called the Bill of Rights, 1689 ;
and the other in a Dhcxahatiow of Rights, ■ in 1789,
both are subjoined as the completest and least objec-
tionable summaries that were ever compiled on these
subjects. ,

The lords spiritual and temporal, and commons of Eng-
land, being assembled in a full and free representation of
the nation, did (as their ancestors in like case had usually
done) for vindicating and asserting their ancient rights
and liberties, declare,

1. That the pretended power of suspending of laws,
or for the execution of laws, by legal authority, without '
consent of parliament, is illegal :

2. That tj^e pretended power of dispensing with laws, .
or the execution of laws by legal authority, as it hath'
been assumed and exercised of late, ia illegal :

3. That the commission for erecting thelate court of
commissioners for ecclesiastical causes, and all othar
.commissions and courts of tike nature, are illegal anil
pernicious: ** *

4. That levying money for, or to tie use of the crown,*
by.pretence of prerogative, without grant of parliament,
for longer time, or in any other manner than the same is
or shall be granted, is illegal :

5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the
king 1 ; and all commitments and prosecutions for such
petitioning are illegal :

6. That the raising or keeping a standing army within
the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent
of parliament is against law :

7. That the subjects which are protestants may have
arms for their defence, suitable to their conditions, and
as allowed by law i

•

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS. 41

8. That election of members of parliament ought to be
free :

9. That the freedom of speech, and debates or pro-
ceedings in parliament, ought not to be impeached or
questioned in any court or place out of parliament :

10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punish-
ments inflicted : .

11. That jurors ought to be duly impaimelled and re-
turned ; and jurors which pass upon men in trials for
high-treason ought to be freeholders :

12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfert-
tures of particular persons before conviction, are illegal
and void: • .

IS. And that for redress of all grievances, and for the
amending, strengthening* and preserving of the laws,
parliaments ought to be held frequently,

And they do claim, demand, and insist upon all and
singular the premises, as their undoubted rights and li-
berties; and that no declarations, judgments, doings,
or proceeding^, to the prejudice of the people in any of
the said premises, ought in any wise to be drawn here-
after into consequence or example.

Again, in 1789, the National Assembly of Prance re-
cognized and declared, in the presence of the Supreme
Being, and in the Mpe of his blessing* and favour, the
following sacred rights of men and citizens. •

1. Men are born, and always continue free and equal
in respect of their rights. Civil distinctions, therefore,
can be founded only on public utility.

2. The end of all political associations, is, the preser-
vation of the natural and imprescriptible rights df man;
and these rights are liberty, property, security, and re-
sistance of oppression. • A

3. The nation is essentially the source of all sove-
reignty, nor can any individual, or any body of men, be
entitled to any authority which is not expressly derived
from it.

42 GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.

4. Political liberty consisting 1 in the power of doing-
whatever does not injure another ; the exercise of the
natural rights of every man, has no other limits than
those which are necessary to secure to every other man
the free exercise of the same rights ; and these limits
are determinable only by the laws.' *

5. The law ought to prohibit only actions hurtful to
society. What is not prohibited by the law, should not
be hindered; nor should any one be compelled to do
that which the law does not require.

6. The law is an expression of the will of the commu-
nity; all the people have a right to concur, either per-
sonally, or by their representatives, in its formation. It
should be the same to all, whether it protects or punishes;
and all being equal in' its sight, are equally eligible
to all honours, places, and employments, according to
their different abilities ; without any other distinction
than that created by their virtues and talents.

7. No man should be accused, arrested, or held in con-
finement, except in cases determined by the law. ; and
according to the forms which it has prescribed. All
who promote, solicit, execute, or cause to be executed,
arbitrary orders ought to be punished; and every penton
called upon, or apprehended by virtue of the law, ought
immediately to obey, and he renders himself culpable by
resistance.

8. The law ought to impose no other penalties than
*uch as are absolutely and evidently necessary ; and no

one ought to be punished, but in virtue of a law promul-
gated beforl? the offence, and legally applied.

9. Every man beingpresumed innocent, till he has been
convicted, whenever his detention becomes indispensible,
ail rigour to him more than is necessary to secure his
person, ought to be provided against by the law.

10. No man ought to be molested on account of his
opinions; not even on account of his religious opinions ;
provided his avowal of them does not disturb the public
order established by the law.

11. The unrestrained communication of thoughts aril

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS. 43

opinions, being one of the most precious rights of man ;
every person may speak, write, and publish freely, pro-i
vided he is responsible for any abuse of this liberty,, in
modes determined by the law.

12. A public force being necessary to give security to
file rights of all the people, that force is instituted for the
Benefit of the community, and not for the particular be*
Befit of persons with whom it is entrusted.

13. A common contribution being necessary for the
support of the public force, and for defraying the other
expenses of goyernment, it ought to be divided equally
among the members of the community, according to their
ability to pay.

14 Every person has a right, either by himself, or his
representative, to a free voice in determining the neces-
sity of public contributions ; the appropriation of them
and their amount ; their mode of assessment* and their
duration.

15. Every community has. a right to demand of all its
agents, an account of their conduct

16. Every community in which a security of rights is
not provided for, by a separation of powers, wants a Con*
sfitution.

17.. The right of property being inviolable and sacred,
no one ought to be deprived of it, except in cases of evi-
dent public necessity, legally ascertained, and on condi-
tion of a previous just indemnity.

*,* Students toho desire to become more intimately ac-
quainted -with these subjects, should consult Blackstanfs
Commentaries on the Laws of England; Delolme on the
Constitution ; Miller on, the Constitution ; or, Goldsmith* s
British Geography. On other public subjects, Smith on the
Wealth of Nations, and Ganihl on Political Economy, are
valuable tborks,

149. The enjoyment of private property, which
is the stimulus of industry, and the foundation
©f social order, is secured by the common law of
the land, and by the intervention of a jury \ who

£

44 GOVERNMENT AND. LAWS.

decide- in cases of private right, as well as in
cases ofpublic injury, or crime.

150. rroperty is divided into real and person-
al 5 real property consists of lands and their ap-
pendages, and of houses and other buildings ; per-
sonal property signifies. moveables, goods, cattle^
and every thing, in which the holder has but a
temporary interest.

151. SLeal property is held in fee simple* Le.
by the party and his heirs for ever; or if is held
by entail, i. e. by him, and his own children, or by

; him, and afterwards to. go to some particular per-
son^ Estates may also ne occupied far life j or
by lease on certain conditions, for a term of years ;
: otat will* for an annuaVrent.
* 152. The house of peers consists of the Prim-'
ces of the blood royal ; of Dukes? Mar<piises,
Earls, Viscounts, and Barons. The public sign
of their. rank, and that which they bear on their
carriages and seals, are their respective Coronets,
here given. .

The other ranks are Baronets, distinguished by
abloody hand,quartered in the arms; zxi& Knights,
distinguished!^ their helmet ; Esquires are so by
creation, or office ; and Gentlemen, having S00£
in real property per annum.

!■ AND LAWS. 43

THE KING, OR REGAL CORONET.

THE MARQUESS.

46 GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.

THE EARL.

THE VISCOUNT.

THE BASON.

1
i

GOVERNMENT AND LAWS. 47

153. The heads of the church represent that *
establishment in the house of peers ; and consist
of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, and '
of twenty-four English, and four Irish bishops.

Other dignities of the church are Deans, or as-
sistants of the bishops. ,■•

Arch-Deacons, or subordinate bg||af>s.

Rural Deans, who preside over%1fft of the dio-
cesew

" Rectors or * Vicars of parishes/ .according as
they receive the great or small tythes.

And Curates, who receive a salary for doing
the clerical duty.

. 154. The twelve Judges sff occasionally in the
house of lords, but they do not vote. In the law,
there are also Recorders, or judges of corpora-
tions ; Sergeants at taw ; Barristers, or counsels
and Solicitors or Attornies.

The Attorney and Solicitor^seweral are barris-
ters, who plead on the legal business of the crown.

155. Sheriffs are officers, who are the executive
deputies of the king in their county ; they serve
all writs and process; keep the prisons*; name
and summon juries; execute sentences of the law.

Coroners are officers appointed to enquire into
the causes of sudden deaths.

Justices of the peace hear complaints ; commit
offenders for trial, ip the sheriffs' public prison ;
and redress many grievances. '* ' *

Headboroughs are constables of hundreds : and
petty constables execute the warrants of justices.

GOVERNfrfENT AND LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES.

156. The government of the United States, is
a representative democracy. All power resides

e 2

48 GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.

. ultimately in the people 5 bui they exercise if by
means of their representatives, or persons chosen
by them for that purpose. The constitution is a
written one; ana to its provisions all the depart*
meats of the government are bound to conform ;
&nd the act of any one of them, even an act of
congress, if Jj6»trary thereto, is void. •

157 V The^xeeutive power is vested in "The
President of toe United States." He is cho#
sen every fourth year by electors* appointed by
the several states.*— He is the commander in chief
of the army and navy; and by and with the ad-
vice and consent of the Senate, makes treaties,
appoints judges, foreign ministers and other offi-
cers^— He is liable to be impeached and removed
from office for misbehaviour.— He is re-eligible as
often as the people please to re-elect him.

158. The legislative power resides in a Con-
grbss, consisting of a Senate and House of Re-

fresevtatives. The Senate consists of two mem*
ers from each state in the union, chosen by the
legislature thereof, and remain in office six years*
The members of the House of Representatives
are chosen by the people of each state for two
years. The Senate has the power to "try all in>
peachments— the house of representatives prefers
them.

159. Every law must be. passed by both the
Senate and House of Representatives, and also
receive the approbation of the President ; or if he
dissent, two thirds of each house must after his
dissenT, concur in passing it. >

160. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme
Court, established by the constitution, and in such
inferior courts as congress may think fit to esta-

GOIFERNMENT AND LAWS. 49

(dish. Besides ihe ordinary exercise of its power
of deciding controversies, it is incident to the
judicial power of the United States to pass upon
the acts of congress and decide upon their con-
stitutionality; a power essential to the mainten- *
ance of the rights of the people, but not known
in any of the governments of Europe. In Eng-
land the power of parliament is said " by a iigure
rather too bold" to be omnipotent; and the peo-
ple are bound by its acts however arbitrary. In
the United States, the legislative power is wisely
limited.

161. Besides the general government, whose
powers for many purposes extends over the
whole union, each state has a separate local gov-
ernment, whose jurisdiction is confined to the
regulation of. its own concerns.. These separate
governments are all republican, and consist ge- %
nerally of a governor, and two legislative bran-
ches; though the powers of the different depart-
ments are variously modelled in the several
states.

162. The rights of personal security, personal
liberty, and private property are equally protect-
ed in this country as in England, and by much -
the same means. The Magna Charta, the bul-
wark of English liberty* & acknowledged in
most, probably in every one of the states. The

Srivilege of the Habeas Corpus, the right of trial
y jury, to be heard in criminal cases hy himself
and counsel, to meet the witnesses face to face,
to be protected from giving testimony against
oiuts-self, and the other great and essential prin*
ciples of liberty are firmly established.

50 MECHANICAL POWERS.

163. There are no titles, no orders of nobility,'
nor privileged orders of any kind in the United
States* Merit alone it is considered ought to
distinguish men. Nor is there any established
religion here : every man is allowed to worship
Almighty God according to the dictates of his.
own conscience. Well may the exclaimation of
the Mantuan poet be applied to these people:
" Ofortunatos nimium, sua si bona norintP

IX. Of Hie Mechanical Powers.

164. Without the aid of art, man could not
raise massy stones to the tops of churches and
palaces ; he could not apply immense beams of
timber to his purposes ; in short, he would still

% have been abuilaer of huts and cottages. He
however, soon discovered the use of a lever ; and
the principle of that power he soon applied, in
various shapes. . .

Obs. — A lever is the foundation of all the mechanical
powers. It is nothing more than a straight stick or bar
of wood or iron ; and any common lever may be applied
in an instant to any object by way of experiment : — a
poker, a fire-shovel, or strong -walking-stick, for the pur-
pose of illustration, is as good a lever, as any that could
be made. Lay a shovel across a fender, and put a large
eoal into it, then balance 'the coal with the hand at the
other end of the shovel ; in this situation, the shovel is
a lever, the fender is the fulcrum, the coal is the -weight
or resistance, and the hand is the poiver to raise and over-
comes it. ,

165. The force with which any body moves is
■— . j&attfd its momentum. If a boy walk at the rate

MECHANICAL POWERS. 51

-rf two miles an hour, and go against a wall, he
will strike it with a sensible force or momentum $
if he walk at the rate of four miles an hour, and
eoFagainst it, he will strike it with double the
force ; or if he run at the rate of six miles an hour,
he will strike it with three times the momentttm.

Obs. — Every child that thrpws a ball 9 or shoots a mar-
ble, is sensible that its force or momentum is in propor-
tion to its velocity; the same marble will hit twice as
hard, he will tell you, if it move twice as fast, or ten
tim- s as hard, if it move ten times as fast. Let him sub-
stitute the word momentum for hard, and velocity for fast,
tod he will at once, understand the principle, of the me-
chanical powers. . '

166, If a man, twice the weight of the boy, go
with the same degree of swiftness, or with the
same Telocity as the bpy; he will go against the
wall with twice the momfehtum of the boy in everj
instance. Henc'e* it is a general rule, which must
not be forgotten, that the momemtum is always
in proportion to the combined or united size- and
velocity of the forces employed.

0b8. — A marble, twice the size of another, thrown
with equal velocity, will strike with twice the force, and
this is all that need be understood. Any one who has
learnt the multiplication-table, may easily calculate forces
«r momenta: a ball of two pounds weight, moving with
a velocity of six miles an hour, will strike with a momen-
tum which may be represented by two multiplied by «#,
producing twelve; 'and a ball weighing six pounds, and
moving at the rate of eight miles aojiour, will have a mo-
mentum equal to six multiplied by eight, producing 48:
hence, those two balls move with separate momenta
equal to 12 and to 48; or, in simpler terms, one moves
with four times the force of the other.

167. If a stone weighing 500 pounds, is to be
raised one foot by a man, who can lift only 100 '

52 MECHANICAL POWERS.

pounds, he cannot raise ft, unless he can contriv*
to make his arm move five feet, while the stone
moves only one foot ; because 100 multiplied by
five, is equal to 500 multiplied by one* %

168. This increase of motion in the arm is ef-
fected by. the lever ; because the motion of one
end is in the same proportion to the motion of the
other, as the distance of the two ends are from
the fulcrum.

If a lever, six yards, ia length, be laid on a ful-
crum, at one yard from one end, and the above-
named stone be fixed to that end ; the hand which
pulls at the long, or five yards' end, moves over
five times the space that the other end does ; con-*
sequently, though pulling but 100 pounds, it will
be equal to 500 pounds at.the short end of the le-
ver.

169. The grand principle then of mechanics, is
this,— that we gain in power, what we lose in
motion j and hence, the strength of one man could
move the earth, if he could bring his strength to
act upon it with such a velocity, as there i& differ-
ence betwixt his power and the weight of the
earth,

06*.— The property of the ample lever is exemplified
in the steelyard used by butchers for weighing meat ; and
in the iron crow.

170. Single* pulleys merely improve the pur*
chase ; but compound pulleys enable the hands of
those who pull them, to move over twice the space
according to the number of pulleys; hence, two

. acting pulleys increase the power four times, and
three increase it six times.

171. A force applied to the circumference of a
large wheel) as water, wind, and the feet, or

MECHANICAL POWERS. *3

strength of men and horses, gains power in the
proportion of the diameter, of the wheel to the
axle.

if a water-wheel be IS feet in diameter, and
tarn an axle of one foot, the powers acting at 'die
circumference of the large wheel, moves over
twelve times the space which the' circumference
of the axle moves ;• hence 12 cwt. may be raised

with the power of one cwt.

Obaj— Ail windlasses, cranes,' mills, windmills, and
watermilU, are formed on this principle. The power,
whatever it be, is applied to the circumference of a large
wheel, whose circumference moves in consequence, per-
haps, ten miles ah hour, while its axle, one tenth of the
diameter, moves but one mile an hour; consequently,
the strength of one man at the circumference, will be
equal to that of ten men at the axle.

172. , Inclined planes, or sides of hills, wedges,
screws, jacks, &c, are all used* in mechanics on
the same principle : their power depends on the
proportion between the height actually attained,
and the length of the plane moved over.

A .screw is an inclined plane ; and if a lever be
added to it as in presses, the power gained is so
great, that a man can multiply his awn strength
many thouand times.

Qba* — If I wish to roll a cask weighing six hundred
weight, on an elevation equal to ten feet, and my own
force is but two hundred weight, it is- obvious, on the
above principle, that an inclined plane must be three
times ten feet, or 30 feet long. If a mail-coach weighs
two tons, and is drawn on level ground, by a force equal
to eight hundred weight, and is to be drawn to the top •
of a hill which rises twenty yards in a hundred, the hor-
ses will have to pull with an additional force equal to
one-fifth of the weight of the carriage, i. e. one fifth of 40
cwt, or double that with which they could draw- on tevai.
ground.

54 MECHANICAL POWEfeS.

173. A body put in motion, would move for
ever, if it were not for the friction of the parts,
and the resistance of the air,. which alone stop it,
A fourth, of all power is lost in machinery, jwim
Friction and Resistance : hence, the use of oil to
soften the parts.; the necessity of smooth roads
for wheel-c^ma^s ; m d hence, various contri-
vances called friction- wheels for diminishing friq^
tion.

Oba. 1. — The principle of bodies continuing in motion
after being put into it, is fek by those who are in a" car-
riage which suddenly stops. , They are thrown forwards,
owing to their not parting with the motion they have
acquired. From this cause, when a ship in full sail strikes
on a rock, eyery one on board is thrown down, and ge-
neralfe the masts snap in twpH so when an open chaise
stops Trom a horse falling, those in it are thrown forward*
not from the position of the chaise, but owing to the mo-
tion which has been communicated to their bodies

2. — Hence also,' rollers are very useful assistants in
moving Jieavy stones or bodies, from the little friction
they create. ~ ..

174. The principle of all the mechanical pow*.
ers, however they are combined, is the same ; that
is to say, to create all the difference possible be-
tween the velocity of the power, and the velocity,
of tliat body which is to be acted upon, so as to
increase the momentum of the power..

One of the most common combinations is ef-
fected by cogged-wfieels ; which, when turned by
some power, move greater or smaller wheels, or
give new directions to the force.

175. A small wheel, with eight cogs or teeth,
moving another which has forty cogs, diminishes
the motion, of the axle of tne larger wheel SLJifthy
and increases the power five times, and this is
the common windlass.

MECHANICAL POWERS. 55

Some wheels are destined to effect certain ob-

( jects without increase of power, as in clocks or

watches. Sometimes, a greater power is applied

to produce increased motion, as in the roasting

jack, and in many mills.

Obe.-On duly considering the vast increase of power
by some of these combinations, it cannot be matter of
further wonder that first-rate men of war, and other
such vast objects, are easily constructed. In some in-
' stances, one man is enabled' to lift as much as 1000, and
pow.ers may be applied equal to the strength of a hun-
dred thousand men.

176. Clocks and watches are nothing more than
a simple arrangement of wheels of different dia-
meters and nunjbers'of teeth, so as tp indicate
seconds, minutes, hours, days, and even months.
» Clocks are set in motion by a weight which
turns a cylinder, which cylinder sets fee whole in
motion.

Watches are kept in motion by a coiled spring;,
which, in seeking to uncoil itself,' exerts a power
that givefc motion to one wheel, which turns all
the others.

Obs. — A lecture of ten minutes at a Watch-maker's,
with the wheels and other parts under the eye, will ex-
plain more than could be done by verbal description in
a volume.

177. The triumph of mechanics is the steam-
engine. The* inventor observed^ the excessive
force of steam in lifting up the stiff lid of a ket-
tle as he sat at breakfast, and he and others have
since applied this resistless power to produce
a motion applicable to all kinds of machinery.

178. In constructing these engines* steam
from a copper is thrown into a hollow iron ey*

56 MECHANICAL POWERS.

Under, with a close lid or stopper, which rises as
the steam rushes into the cylinder, and falls,
when the steam is condensed by cold water
thrown in for the purpose.

An upright iron rod is fixed to that lid, and
to one end of a large beam ; which, in conse-
quence, has an action communicated to it similar
to that of a see-saw, and is lifted up and pulled
down, with wonderful precision ana force.

THE STEAM ENGINE.

0*».l. — A regular and powerful motion bcinj* thus pro-
duced, the mechanic seizes upon it, and applies it with
ease to all kinds of machinery. The apparatus itself
has been slightly varied by different persona, and for
different objects ; but the principle remains die same,
. and it is, perhaps, the greatest discovery that ever was
made in mechanics.

2. — Mr. Watt, of Birmingham, has made many im-

nvements in the steam-engine ; and, among others, he-
ens the top of the cylinder, workingthe rod through
it, and injects steam above as well as below, su that the
motion downward is produced by steam, as well as that
Upward) be also condenses the steam in an adjoining

MECHANICAL POWERS. ST

vessel. One hone can, by common machinery, raise
25,000 pounds one foot high in a minute ; but some steam
machines perform the labour of 60 or 80 horses ! A smalt
one of a ten-horse power, with the steam produced by a
tingle buehel of coals, will raise 30,000,000 of pounds one
foot high; or it wjll jp-iud and dre sis three sacks of wheat,
slit and draw into nails fiVe cwt. of iron, and drive at
the same time 1000 cotton spindles. Steam-engines have
lately been applied with success, to impel boats and

3. — Mr. Blenkinsop, of Leeds, has lately applied
steam to move coal waggons on a rail-way, instead of
drawing them with the power of bones, with great
success. Here is represented his machine, to which
any carriage may be annexed. .

BLENMNSOP'S MACHINE.

A. Boiler.

B. B. B Patent Boad Back and Wheel.

C. C. Crank Rods.

' D. D. Steam Cylinder.
E. Discharging Pipe.
P. Smoke Chimney.
G. Fire Door.
Scale one-eighth of an inch to afooj;

-J

5$ MECHANICAL POWERS.

179. The Pump for raising water is a verjf
useful machine $ and its principle should be un-
derstood. It can raise water, if required, to the
height of thirty-three feet, bj the pressure of the
air on the water; and is founded on the principle
of the elasticity or pressure of air.

Obs. — If a long glass tube closed at one end, were
deprived.of air, aiid its open end Immersed in quick-
silver, the quicksilver will rise in it about 29 inches ;
or if placed in water, 33 feet of water will rise in it,
the weight of 33 feet of water, being equal to 29 inches
of quicksilver. The rise of those fluids in, such a tube, •
is caused by the pressure of !the air on the surface of
the external mercury or water : hence, it is inferred,
and with reason, tjiat the elasticity of the air which we
breathe, is in all places equal in force to the weight of
about 29 inches of mercury, or 33 feet of water.

180. To raise water 33 feet high,' nothing
more then is requisite than to put one end of a
pipe in it, and to draw the air out of that . pipe,
when the water will instantly ascend in the pipe.

Such is the purpose and effect of a pump ; and
all that is tobe done is by proper contrivances to
draw out the air above, and keep up a supply qf
the water below.

181. A pump consists of a wooden or copper
pipe, with a long iron rod to work up and down
within it, by means of a handle.

At the lower end of the iron rod is fixed a me-
tallic hoop, provided with leather to fit the pipe:
in the centre of the hoop is a little trap-door or
valve, which opens only upwards, and when .
down, shuts very close.

At the bottom of the pipe, near the water, ano-

MECHANICAL POWERS.. 59

~ ther such valve also opening upwards, is fixed
tight within the pipe itself.

182. The handle of the pump being raised, the
iron rod {called the piston}) with its valve at the
bottom of it, is forced down the pipe. ,

As the valve opens upwards, the air in the pipe
passes up through the valve.

On pulling clown the handle, the piston is
. raised, and with it the valve, leaving a vacuum or
vacuity between it and the lower fixed valve.

To fill up the vacuum, the water rushes up
through the lower valve.

On again raising the handle, the piston again

descends; and the water now rushes through its

valve, and. on pulling down the handle again,

• the piston ancl its closed valve rise, bringing up

the water.

Its ascent creates a new vacuum, and other
water rushes through the lower valve; the. upper
valve is made to descend again, to rise 'again
closed, and bring up water*

183. Fire-engines^ and other forcing-enghiesy
have no valve or flap fixed to the piston; out a
solid plate is moved up and down by it, and the
rising water is thus violently driven into an ad-
joining air-tight vessel.

Through the top of that vessel, the playing pipe
is so inserted, that its mouth may lie below the
water, leaving the upper part of the vessel filled
with air.

Then the elastic power of that portion of air,
forces the driven water up the playing pipe.

The energy of the stream, will of course de-

f 2

60 TRADE AND COMMERCE.

pend on the power applied to force down the pis-
ton, and drive the water into the air-vessel.

Obs.—An inspection of a pump or fire-engine, will
teach more in ten miuutes, than mere description in as
many hours.

X. Trade and Commerce.

184. The barter of commodities is necessarily
coeval with the first formation of society. One
man might have too* much com; and another too
much wool; and each would be willing to give
what he had to spare of his own superfluity, for
what he might want of x the superfluity of the
other. .

185. In time, such barter would become a sys-
tem ; otherwise, every family would have to grow ,
every commodity it wanted; and to manufacture
every article it consumed. The taylor would
make clothes for the farmer, and take provisions
for his labour. The carpenter would build on the
same principle df reward; and hence, all the dis-
tinct hades would arise, which we now see exer-
cised.

186. One farmer too would cultivate wheat;
and another make cheese and butter, according to
the nature of their respective soils.

They would either exchange on *the spot, or
each would carry his peculiar produce to a com- \
mon market, and exchange it for gold or silver,
articles x of universal currency^ which he could
exchange at any time, for whatever else he
wanted.

TRADE AND COMMERCE. QL

187. The application of labour to particular
or individual objects, has also tended greatly ifi
improve every manufacture.

A man who is nothing but a taylor, is far more
expert at making clothes, than it he were also, a
shoemaker, carpenter, and blacksmith ; and still
more so, if instead of making all kinds of clothed,
he work at particular parts of garments.

This is called division of labour.

188. The utility of dividing labour is exempli-
fied in making pins. .

Were a piece of metal given to a man to make
one pin, he could scarcely do it in a day.

In pinimanufactories,. however, each pinpasses
through twenty-five hands: <ftie drawswit; the
wire, another straightens it, aribther cuts it, ano*
ther points it, three or four prepare the head, two
or threef puts it on, and others finish them, and put
them on a paper.

Twenty-five persons, thus, make one hundred
and twenty-five thousand pins in a day; or five
thousand to each person !

189. Labour likewise sub-divides itself nume*
rously in every branch of the elegant and useful
arts.

Thus, in building, there are, the brickmaker,
the stone-mason, the architect, the surveyer, the
bricklayer, the sawyer, the carpenter, the joiner,
the slater, the plasterer, the plumber, the gla
zier, the ironmonger, and the painter; nil neces-
sary in their several departments.

190. In villages and remote countries, where
every separate branch could not meet with suffi-
cient employment, the same person often pur-

62 TRADE AND COMMERCE.

sues two or three branches; for example, the
stone-mason, bricklayer, slater, and plasterer, are
often united in one workman ; so the carpenter
and joiner; also the plumber, glazier, and paint-
er ; and probably, the carpenter , or bricklayer
takes it on himself, to act also as architect and
surveyor. See the Book of Trades.

191. In the arts connected with the furnishing
of the house, there are the smith, the ironmonger,
the cabinet-maker, the looking-glass maker, the
frame-maker, the carpet-maker, the bedstead-
maker, the feather-merchant, the blanket manu-
facturer, the oil-cloth-maker, the copper-smith,
the venitian blind-maker, the tinman, jthe pint-
seller, the bookseller, and the painter; all neces-
sary for the house* of a man of taste and fortune.

192. In branches of trade connected with the
clothing of a man, we have the wooUman, the
comber, the spinner, the weaver, the fuller, the
dyer, the presser, the packer, and the woollen-
draper.

For linens, we have the flax-dresser, the spin-
oer, the weaver, the bleacher, the presser, the
packer, and the linen-draper.

For cottons, there are the planter, the mer-
chant, the cotton-spinner, the weaver, the bleach-
er, the dyer, the presser, the packer, the ware-
houseman, and the draper,

195. In the silk trade? there are. the importer,
the silk-throwster or spinner, the weaver, the
dyer, presser, and mercer.

In the iron and metallic trades, called the
hardware-manufacture, there are the miner, the
smelter, the iron-master, the founder, the scythe-

TRADE AND COMMERCE. 6?

smith, the button-maker, the gun-smith, the sword
blade manufacturer, the cutler, the polisher, the
plater, the finisher, the sorter, the packer, the
factor, and the hardware-man.

194. In connection with books and literature f
there are the .author, the designer, the publisher,
the rag-merchant, the paper-maker, the stationer,
the *t jtte-fonnder, the press-ttiaker, the ink-maker,
the pelt-maker, the chase-maker, the composite?,
the pressman, the gatherer, the folder, the stitch-
er, the leather-seller, the binder, the copper-smith,
the engraver, the wood-cutter* the copper-plate
printer, and the bookseller; in all 23 trades, to
produce the Universal Preceptor.

06*.— The author requires, too, his quill-merchant and
his ink-maker ; the designer, various branches of trade;
as the pencil-maker, colour grinder, &c. &c.; thera^a
require sorters; the paper-maker has his vatmen, his
dryers,* pickers, sorters, pressers, &c. &c; and so oft in
each department, extending the 23 even to 100.

\-

fi* TRADE AND COMMERCE.

COLUMBIAN PRESS.
Invented- by George Clymer, Jniw Domini, 1813.

TRADE AND COMMERCE. 6$

195. A pack of wool weighing 240 pounds,
employs 200 persons, before it is ready for sale,
in the form ot stuffs, cloths, &c. ; to be made into
stockings, it will occupy 184 persons for a week;
as 10 combers, 100 spinners, winders, &c; 60
weavers or stocking-makers, besides dyers, pres-
sers, &c. . i

A sword made of steel, the original metal of
which was not worth. a shilling, is sometimes
sold for 300 guineas; and a watch-chain has pro-
duced 50 guineas; the metal of which before it
was wrought, was not worth three-pence.

In ' like manner, a yard of Mechlin-Jace will
fetch 20 guineas; the flax in which was originally
not worth three-pence.

So likewise, a painting, not two yards square,
has been valued at 25,0002. ; and a shawl, which
contains but a few ounces of wool, sells for 60 or
80 guineas.

196. As it* is with individuals, so it is with
distant nations: what one nation .possesses in
superfluity, it is. desirous to exchange for some
article it wants r with any other nation which pos-
sesses a superfluity of tnat article. Anciently,
England had tin, wool, and coals, which it ex-
changed for wines and manufactures.

Oba.—A people, who have no superfluities desirable
among other nations, can have no trade, nor can they en-
joy any foreign commodities; but if they have such eu- 1
perfluities, they can exchange them, and trade. Gold'
or silver are superfluities which command trade/and
pay the balance of trade, when the goods receupd, ex-
ceed the* goods delivered. Hence, arises the wealth in
gold and silver, of all fruitful and industrious countries.

<K TRADE AND COMMERCE.

197. Suck was the origin, and such is the prin-
ciple of foreign commerce. At this day, England
manufactures for a large portion of the world, and
gives its manufactures in exchange for raw ma-
terials; and in some cases for manufactured pro-
duce, which is consumed at home, or re-ex-
ported.

198. The Phoenicians or Philistines were the
first people on record who employed ships to

_ carry the produce and manufactures of one nft-
1 tion to another.

They were followed by the Carthaginians;
and these, by the Venetians, Genoese, and Hans
Towns. • •

During the two last centuries, the Portuguese
and Dutch divided the trade of the world with
the English.

199. The English are not only the greatest
manufacturers, but the greatest carriers of pro-
duce ; and they have had as many merchant-vessels
on the seas, as all other nations put together.

£00. Besides trading with the remotest na-
tions, the English have established considerable
settlements or colonies in Asia, Africa, and Ame-
rica ; by means of which, they enjoy the profits
of cultivation, in addition to those of monopoly.

£01. In Asia, the colonies of the English are
Bengal, all the countries on the Ganges, the
coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, and the
large islands of Ceylon and Sumatra.

From these and neighbouring Countries, they
bring to Europe spices, silk, rice, tea, muslins,
coffee, drugs, perfumes, and precious stones.

202. Ijdl Africa, the colonies of England are

TRADE AND COMMERCE. ' 67

• -

the Cape of Good Hope, Goree, Sierra Leone,
and forts on the coast 01 Guinea.

From these, they bring to Europe gold dust,"
ivory, gums, md drugs.

203. In America, the English provinces of
Upper and Lower Canada and Nova Scotia, pro-
duce fnrs, corn, and fish. In the West Indies,
England occupies Jamaica, Barbadoes, and many
other islands. And in South America, Deinarara,
Berbice, Guiana, &c. ; all which supply sugar,
rum, cotton, coffee, spices, drugs, mahogany,
sweet-meats, &c-.

- 204. These luxu^es serve- at once to gratify
ourselves; and as desirable mediums of exchange
for the produce and manufactures of all other
countries."

We give them to Russia, for hemp, tar, and
tallow :

To' Sweden, for copper :

To Norway, for timber :

To Germany, for linen rags and smalts for
paper t

To France, for wine and brandy :

To Portugal, for wine :

To Spain, for gold and silver, and fruit:

To Italy, for sBk, rags, oil, and fruit:

And. to Turkey, for silk, drugs, oil, and coffee.

205. This amazing intercourse, in time of
peace, was carried on in about 24,000 vessels of
all sizes, carrying three millions of tons burthen,
and employing 200,000 seamen.

The trade and manufactures employ, besides,
from four to five millions of the inhabitants of

6% TOADS AND COMMERCE.

• •

Qreat Britaift and Ireland } and serve also, to
enrich all its inhabitants.

$0$. Several branches of the foreign trade of
England is carried on by subscription-companies ;
Who divide the profits in halt-yearly or yearly
ditvideftds.

THe& are the Bast India Company; which
eriors a monopoly of the trade to Asia:

The Bank Of England ; for bullion and pre-
dims atones:

And the Hudson's Bay Company ; which mo*
nopolizes the trade in furs from those countries.

There are also the nearly extinct Turkey, Rus-
sia* African, and South Sea-Companies.

207. The inland or domestic trade of Great
Britain and Ireland, is carried ontSy 'theajis of
many thousand waggons and stage-coaches; by
canals and rivers, which intersect every part of
the two islands $ and by many hundred coasting-
vessels, which carry toe produce and manufac-
tures of one place to another.

208. The chief ports. are London (equal jut*
trade to all the others,) Liverpool, Bristol, Glas-

fow, Hull, Falmouth, Dartmouth, Plymouth,
ortsmtuth, Yarmouth, Lynn, Shields, Leith,
Aberdeen* Whitehaven, Swansea, Dublin, Cork,
a*d Waterford.

£09% The chief manu fkctu ring towns are Bir-
itengham, Wolverhampton, and Sheffield, lor cut-
lery, and metallic wares.

Manchester, Stockport, Bolton, and Paisley*:
for calicoes and muslins.
. Leeds and Norwich, for woollen cloths.

TRADfc AKt) COMMERCE. fe

Nottingham, and Leicester, for hosiery.

Belfast and Londonderry, For linens.

Wilton and Kidderminster, for carpets.

Newcastle and Worcester, for china, porce-
lain, and glass.

210. The United States of America, under
the advantages of a long peace, the possessitib
of raw materials of every kind, numerous fine
ports, and a free government, are rapidly ad-
vancing in the manufacturing system ; have nu-
merous ships' at sea, and are carrying on an ex*
tensive trade with all parts of the world.

£1*1. The trade oi most other nations his
been ruined by unwise governments, otby po-
litical revolutions. That of China, by its im-
mense canals, is the greatest and most advanta-
geous that is carried on in any country^ in Asia;
but, the Chinese have no general foreign trade,
except with Japan.

£12. The exports and imports of Oreat Bri-
tain have been nearly fifty millions each per ah-
*" num. . The worth of the various merchandise
and manufactures in hand, is estimated at 60
millions ; and the value of the shipping employ-
ed, at about 25 millions.

213. The employments to which so vast a
trade gives rise, are, as far as regards the shib,
those of the ship-owner, the ship-builder, the cop-
per-smith, the rope-maker, the biscuit-baker, the
provision -merchant, die ship-carpenter, the an-
chor-smith, the mathematical instrument-maker,
and the slop-seller.

214. In regard to the cargo of ships, there are

ZO NAVIGATION.

the merchant, the ship-broker, the factor, the ma-
nufacturer, the packer, and the lighterman.

Among merchants, there are Spanish mer-
chants, Turkey merchants, Italian merchants,
Russia merchants, Hamburgh merchants, West
India merchants, American merchants, Brazil
merchants, and African merchants.

XI. The Art of Navigation.

21 5. That must be allowed to be. a most useful
as well as an extraordinary art, which enables
men to conduct great ships with precision, across
vast seas many thousand miles wide, in which
they often sail for months together without seeing
any land to guide them in their course.

216. Anciently, and indeed till within the last
400 years, ships seldom ventured out of sight of
land; and if they did, it was by mere accident
that they ever regained the shore : such were the
disadvantages of the Egyptian, Phcenician, Cp&+
thaginian, Roman, and Grecian commerce.

217. About the beginning however of the 14th
century, a new sera was produced in this most no-

, ble and useful of all the arts, by. the discovery, or
perhaps more properly, the application of the pro-
perties of the Load Stone. This substance is a spe-
cies of iron ore, or ferruginated stone, which is
foound, generally in iron mines, and of various
forms, sizes and colours, and has" not only the pro-
perty of attracting Iron and Steel, but the more ex-
traordinary one of pointing always towards the

NAVIGATION. Yt

north pole of the earth, and in that state, it is called
a natural magnet. It has also the property of im-
parting its virtue to a bar of Iron or Steel, which
is then called the artificial magnet or thagnetit
needle, and which being properly balanced and
fitted up, forms the mariners compass. With
this instrument, the navigator can now always
shape his course with correctness and safety,
over all the oceans of the earth.

Gfrt.— Considerable controversy and uncertainty has
subsisted in relation to the discovery of the Loadstone
and mariners compass, and various nations haVe contend-
ed for the honour of it. Some learned writers assert-
that it was known to the Chinese above a thousand
^ears before the Christian aera. It is certain that the
Load Stone was known to the ancients before the time
of Plato and Aristotle, as its properties are referred t6
in their worfcsl But it appears, that they were only
acquainted with its capacity of attracting and repelling
iron, and not at all with its polarity or always pointing 1
towards the pole of the earth. Among" the moderns,
this discovery has been claimed by the Neapolitans,
the Venitians, and the French. It has been generally
ascribed to the first of these, the (Neapolitans) but
however, this may be, it was not until about the 14th
century, that the mariners compass as It is now con-
structed- was adopted into general use, and which has
since been greatly improved under the denomination of
the Azimuth Compass.

21 8. As the compass enabled him to keep an
account of the course Of his voyage out, so it was
not difficult to retrace the same course back by
referring to his journal. If a' man in the dark,
so 50 steps to the right, 20 strait on, and 30 to
the left ; he will easily return to the place whence,
he set out, if he take 30 steps to the right, 80
strait an, and 50 to the left*

g2 a

7*2 NAVIGATION.

319. In the wide and pathless ocean, therefore
this instrument proves a certain guide to the ma-
riner and enables him, if he has recorded his past
course correctly, to ascertain his exact position at
all times on toe sea, and to shape his future
course accordingly.

220. In the construction of the compass, the
magnetic needle is usually placed in a frame, and
covered by a glass. Beneath it, in the frame,
are marked the'33 points of the compass ; that is
to say, the whole circle of the horizon is thus di-
vided into 32 parts.

The principal of these are, the four cardinal
points, the north, south, east, and west; and
these are subdivided into north-east, north-west,
south-east, and south-west, &c. &c.

Ob». — Annexed is the representation of this division;
the taxing or repealing- of which is, among young' sai-
lors, deemed a conisderoble achievement.

THE MARINE'S COMPASS.

NAVIGATION. 73

221. The practice of navigation led, however,
to various other discoveries ; which now render
the mariner's compass not the* only guide to the
navigator,' except, during a series of cloudy wea-
ther.

Every child can always tell where he is, by
looking at objects out of himself: i. e. at the
houses, trees, and places, to which he is accus-
tomed.

So. it is with sailors : there are certain fixed
objects out of the earth, as the sun, moon, pla-
nets, and stars ; and by the position of these, a
'skilful sailor with the aid of his instruments can
always ascertain his true situation.

222. If it appear by the nautical almanac, that
the sun is, on the 5th of. June, at London, 61 de-
grees high at 12 o'clock, and a sailor, by his qua-
drant, finds it at that time to be 70 degrees high,
he concludes that a£^#ine degrees, or 625 miles,
nearer to th* fe^c^yjfece of the sun, or more
to the south ihmljomtori.

223. If it appear by the almanac, that at ten
o'clock on the evening of June 5, that the moon
comes to a conjunction with the planet Mars, at
London, and a sailor find that tne conjunction
takes place at nine o'clock where he is, he con-
cludes that he is one hour, or 15 degrees, or 1045
miles west of London.

224. The nautical almanac is a work published
annually by the British government expresslv for
the use of navigation. It consists of tables ana cal-
culations, shewing the positions and motions of
the heavenly bodies ana their various relations to
each other, by means of which, the navigator with

74 NAV1GAT16N.

his quadrant, or sextant, and a good watch or time
piece, car now ascertain his position in any part
of the ocean within a few miles. Several Ameri-
can editions of tins most useful work, have been
published with important additions and improve-
ments, for die facility of navigation.

325. So expert are navigators become in our
days, that a ship has sailed from Portsmouth to
Calcutta in 55 days, and from Batavia to Phila-
delphia in 78 days, voyages which formerly em-
ployed sis months ; from Portsmouth to Malta in
11 days, formerly two. months; to New York ih
21 days, formerly two months; and to the West
Indies in 21 days, formerly two months-
Drake and Anson were three years in sailing
round the world ; and this is now frequently
performed by merchantmen, in nine or ten
months.

NAVIGATION. 75

Obs. — Of all the arts and professions which at any
time attract notice, none appear more astonishing* and
marvellous, than that of navigation, in the state in which
it exists at present This cannot be made more evident,
than by taking a retrospective view of the small craft to
which navigation owes its origin; and comparing them
to a majestic first-rate ship of war, containing 1000 men,
with their provisions, drink, furniture, apparel, and
other necessaries for many months, besides 100 pieces
of heavy ordnance, and bearing all this vast apparatus,
safely to the most distant shores. A man in health con-
sumes, in the space of twenty-four hours, about eight
pounds of victuals and drink: consequently, 8,0001b. ef
provisions are required daily, in such a ship. Let us then
suppose her to be fitted out for three months, and we
shall find, that she must be laden with 720,0001b. of pro. .
visions. A large forty-two-pounderweighs about 6,1001b.,
if made of brass, and about 5,5001b., of iron; and gene-
rally, there are twenty-eight or thirty of these^on board
a ship of 100 guns; the weight of which, exclusive of
that of their carriages, amou/its to 183,0001b. On the
second deck, thirty twenty-four-pounders ; each of
which weighs about 5,1001b., and therefore altogether,
153,0001b.; and the weight of the twenty-six or twenty-
eight twelve-pounders on the lower deck, amounts to
about 75,4001b.; that of the fourteen six-pounders on
the upper deck, to about 26,0001b.; and beside that, on
the round-tops, there are even three-pounders and swi-
vels. If to this we add, that the complete charge of a
forty-two-pounder weighs about 641bs., and that at least
■pwards of 100 charges are required for each gun, we
shall find this to amount nearly to the same weight as
the guns themselves*. In addition also, to this, we must
reflect, that every ship must have, by way of providing
against exigencies, at least another set of sails, cables;
cordage, and tacklings, which altogether amount to a
considerable weight: the stores, likewise, consisting of
planks, pitch, anckow ; the chests belonging to the offi-
cers and sailors; the surgeon's stores, and various other
articles requisite on a long voyage ; with the small-arms,

76 €fiOGftA*H¥.

bayonets, swords, And pistols, make no inconsiderable
load; to which we must finally add, the weight of the
crew; so that one of these large stops carries, at least,
2,162 tons burden, or 4,324,0091b.; and, at the same
' time, is steered and governed with as much ease as the
smallest boat

226. There does not exist a more prodigious
and wonderful combination of human industry,
than is- visible on board a first-rate man of war. It
Appears incredible that a vessel as large as the
largest parish church, should he moved and di-
rected in the water with nearly the same rapidity
and precision as a small boat; and it is wonderful
that numan hands could have fabricated and put
together such gigantic materials.

227^ The immense ropes and cables consist of
hemp spun together; the aggregation of timbers
lately grew separately in the forests; the iron-
work was melted and prepared from the ore : the
cannon were cast in the ibundery; in short, the
whole fabric has been assembled together by man
from the raw productions of the eara!

k XII. Geography and Astronomy .

228. Geography describes the surface of the
earth; the shape and -size of the land and seas;
the boundaries of empires and states, and their
climate and natural productions.

It also teaches the character of the inhabitants ;
iheir government, religion, manufactures, and
mode of living; and it ought to enable us to avoid
their errors, and profit by their experience*

GEOGRAPHY. 77

05*.— -As there are numerous works adapted for
schools on this subject, and the details are very exten-
sive and prolix ; it would be trifling with the pages of
this work, to dweH tediously on geography.

229. The earth, on which we live, is a round
bull or globe, about 8,000 miles in diameter, and
25,000 miles round. Its surface is covered with
one part of land, and three parts of water, which
are inhabited and filled with innumerable living
creatures.

• 230. Of. the internal parts of. this immense
globe little is known to us. from the surface to
the centre is 4,000 miles, jet no mine is a mile
deep.

As far as man has penetrated, he has found
successive layers or coats of different earths } ly-«
ing over each other, like the coats of an onion, ©/
the leaves of a book.

(%«.— -In digging weHs, various thicknesses of differ-
ent soils are found in different places ; and what is
remarkable, every layer is nearly the same thickness
as far aa it extends, and generally parallel with the sur-
face of the earth. — See my Grammar of Philosophy.

231. The highest mountains subtract no more
from the roundness of the earth than the inequal-
ities on the rind of an orange subtract from its ge-
neral rotundity. Chimboraco, one of the Andes,
rears its lofty head four miles high, yet this is hut
the two thousandth part of the earth's diameter.

Obs. — The Peak of TenerifFe is but two miles and' a
half high ; and Mount Etna and Mount Blanc not two.
miles. Our Snowdon is not three quarters of a naife *
and hut atresia of sand compared to the whole earth.

232. The mines, valleys, and. mountains, there-
fore, may be compared to the inequalities in the
Had of an orange; yet, vast as is the earth,, the

78 ASTRONOMY.

sun, which lights and warms it, is one million
times greater ; or, in other words, one million
earths united in one mass, would only be the size
of the sun.

233. The land consists of two continents; the
old one consisting of Europe, .Asia, and Africa $
and the other,, the newly discovered continent of
America. u»

There are also many thousand islands sur-
rounded by the Sea ; many of them, as Great Bri-
tain, anciently united to the continent, and others,
the tops of mountains peeping out of the sea, the*
bases of which are at the bottom of the ocean.

234. When a point of land juts out into the
sea, it is called a Cape or Promontory ; as the
Cane of Good Hope.

when two masses of land are joined together
by a narrow slip, it is called an Isthmus $ as the
Isthmus of Sues, and the Isthmus of Panama.

A Peninsula is the smaller portion of the two ;
as the peninsula of Spain, in regard to Europe.

235. Tht waters are usually divided into four
Oceans: the Great Ocean, ten thousand miles
across ; the Atlantic Ocean, three thousand miles
across j the Indian and Southern Ocean ; and the
Northern Ocean.

Seas are detached pieces of water $ as the Me-
diterranean and the Baltic.

Gulfs and Bays are parts of the sea that in-
dent into the lana.

And Straits are narrow passes joining one sea:
or ocean to another. '

236. The vast Sun, to which we are under
such sensible obligations, for light, heat, and ve-

ASTRONOMY. 79

getation $ and without whose genial influence all
the Earth would become a dark* solid mass of
ice, is 900,000 miles in diameter ; and the earth
is 95 millions of miles distant from it

237. The Sun is the centre, of a vast system of
planets, or globes like the earth; all of which
move round his body at immense distances, in
periods which include the various seasons to
each, and are therefore a year to each.

Ob*. — They w e all pressed to each other's centre ; hut
the action of their fluid parte Against their solid, parts,
gives them a tendency to go forward in a straight fine;
and those two forces so balance each other^ that they
neutralize one another, and, in consequence, the planets
are moved round the sun in an orbit which is nearly cir-
cular. See 267.

23& The Sun has been commonly considered
a globe of pure fire. But this has been doubted
by modern astronpmers, particularly the ce-
lebrated Herschel, bv whom that great planet is
considered an inhabitable globe somewhat like
our own ; and that its luminous properties which
affect our globe, are derived from its atmosphere.
A number of maculse, or dark spots, by means of
a telescope, may, however, be seen on his sur-
face, but without any regular periodical returns.

These consist of a nucleus, which is much
darker than the rest, and surrounded by a mist or
smoke ; and they are so changeable as frequently
to vary during the time of observation.

Some of the largest of them exceed the bulk of
the whole earth, and are often seen for three
months together.

They are supposed to be cavities in the body
of the sun \ the nucleus being the bottom of the

H

excavation ; and the shady zone surrounding it,
the shelving sides of the cavity.

D SOME of- HIS SPOTS.

Great 'inurce of day ! belt image here below ,

Ot' thy Creator, ever pouring wide,

From world to worii the vital ocean round i ,.

' On Nature, write with every beam, His praise-
Soul of surrounding worlds ! — —
Til by thy secret, strong attractive force,
(As with a chain iiidissolubly bound,)
Thy system rolls entire i from the far bourne
Of utmost "Berechei," wheeling wide his round *

Of " eights" years' i to Mercury whose disk
Cmi scarce be caught by philosophic eye,
Lost in the new effulgence of thy blaze. — Tqoksor.

8S9, As the Sun is one million times larger *
than, the earth, it is evident that the balance of
their mutual pressure would not be destroyed, if
one million of earths moved round the Sun ; but
at present, we know only of seven such bodies,
some nearer and some farther oft'fhan die earth, .
and some greater, and some less ; called Mercu.

AmOtfOMf. SI

ry, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and
Herschel.

The Sttn revolving on his axis turns,
And with creative fire intensely burns ;
First Mercury completes his transient year,
Glowing, refulgent, with reflected glare ?
Bright Venus occupies a wider way,
The early harbinger of night and day ;

^ More distant still our globe terraqueous turns,

Nor chills intense, nor fiercely heated burns ;

4t Around he rolls the lunar orb of light,

f Trailing her silver glories through the night

Beyond our globe, the sanguine Mars displays
A strong reflection of primeval rays ;
Next belted Jupiter far distant gleams,
Scarcely enlightened with the solar beams;

ft With four unfix'd receptacles of light,

He towers majestic thro' the spacious height :
But farther yet, the tardy Saturn lags,

. And six attendant luminaries drags ;

f Investing with a double ring his pace,

He circled through immensity of space.

•

£40. These several globes, so revolving to re-
ceive light and heat from the sun, serve, sotne of
them, as centres to other minor globes called
moons. These satellites accompany the planet
in his tour round the Sun $ serving to balance its
>. motions, and to reflect the Sun's light on the pla-
net by night for the use of the inhabitants.

241. The Earth has one moon, about 2,000miles
in diameter, and a quarter of a million of miles
distant from the Earth.

Jupiter, another planet, has four mooitt^;;

Saturn sevtft moons 5 and he is also sgrfbund-

4i

89 ASTRONOMY.

ed by a large double ring, 30,000 miles distant
from his body.

And Herschel has six moons.

343. But if die matter of all these planets and
moons were put together, they are not equal to a
ten thousandth part of the Sun; or rather, it
would require ten thousand such masses to make
up the bulk of the Sun.

243. Besides the seven planets, and their eigh-
teen moons, there are four very small bodies
called Asteroids, which move round the Sun
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, called
Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, all of them late
discoveries.

244. There are also a multitude of bodies,
some as large as the earth, called Comets, which
exhibit very peculiar phenomena of the Sun. The
Planets move round him in orbits nearly circular,
but comets almost touch the Sun in one part of
their orbit, and then stretch out into space thou-
sands of millions of miles.

THE COMET of 1680.

ASTHONOMf.
th* comIet or 1811.

Hast thou ne'er seen the comet's flaming light!

Th' illustrious stranger passing, terror sheds

On gazing nations, from his fiery train

Of length enormous; takes hisample round

Through depths of ether ; coasts unnjimber'd worlds

Of more than solar glory ; doubles wide

Heav'ns mighty cape; and then revisits earth,

From the long travel of a thousand yean. Toons,

345. The twinkling stars, of which we see so

many every clear evening, do not belong to our

solar system ; but ara themselves so many Suns

to other systems like ours.

Each Star is supposed to be the centre of its

own system ; and to have planets, moons, and
. comets moving round it at immense distances,

like those of our solar system !
Bright legions swarm unseen, and sing, unheard
By mortal ear. the glorious Architect,
In this his universal temple, hung
With lustres, with innumerable lights,
Thatshedreligiouon the soul; at once,—
The temple and the preacher! O how loud, *"*

It oalb Devotion! genuine growth of night!
h 2

r

84 / ASTRONOMY.

— Devotion ! daughter of Astronomy *

An undevout astronomer is mad. Y*tiir».

" ' I

246. They are called fixed stars, because they
never appear to move; aud are so distant, that
although the orbit of the earth is twice 96 mil-
lions, or 192 millions of miles across; and we are
consequently 192 millions of miles nearer to some
stars at one time than we are at another, yet the
stars always appear in the same places.

Oh Nature ! all-sufficient ! over all !

Enrich me with the knowledge of thy works !

Snatch me to heaven ; and show thy wonders there ;—

World beyond world, in infinite extent,

Profusely scatter'd o'er the blue immense. Thomson.

247. The distance of the nearest of the fi^ed
stars from the earth, is estimated to he not less
than many thousand millions of miles, and they
are all of them probably as far distant from each v
other. They appear to fill infinite space in vast
clusters or systems, and our sun , is supposed to
be one of that amazing cluster of stars, whose
myriads form that bright cloud or path in the
heavens, called the Milky Way. #

How distant, some of the nocturnal suns !
So distant, says the sage, 'twere not absurd
To doubt, if beams, set out at Nature's birth,
Are yet arrived at this so foreign world ; ^ '

Though nothing half so rapid as their flight. ™

, An eye of awe an4 wonder let me roll,
And roil for ever. Who can satiate sight ;

In such a scene, in such an ocean wide
Of deep astonishment ? Where depth, height, breadth, .
Are lost in their extremes ; and where, to count *

The thick-sown glories in this field of fire, '
Perhaps a seraph's computation fails. Youjtg.

ASTRONOMY. 8&

348. Hie stars as seen through modern Tele*
scopes of improved constructions, appear to be
infinite in number. By ancient observations, the
whole number contained in the. different constel-
lations amounted to about 3,000, but of these not
above one-third can be perceived by the naked
eye in the blearest night. This depends however,
somewhat upon climate, and the clearness of the

• sky. By the improvement however in modern
Telescopes and their increased powers, and par-

• ticularly the great Telescope of Herschel, not

• less than one hundred and sixteen thousand stars
have passed through the field of his instrument,
in 15 minutes.

249. The ancients, in order to find and de-
• scribe the stars, classed them into figures of men

and beasts, called Constellations, and there were
fifty of these. The moderns have added thirty
M ' others) so that the celestial globe, in which the
"/ stars are accurately laid down as in the heavens,
is covered with the figures of these imaginary
constellations, and now amount to eighty.

250. In the Zodiac, or part of the heavens
, where the sun appears to move, there were twelve

of these constellations: as,

Aries, the Ram V

Taurus, the Bull 8 .

* Gemini, the Twins n

Cancer, the Crab 25

Leo, the Lion . . . , • SI

Virgo, the Virgin ; i»R

Libra, the Balance * =&

Scorpio, the Scorpion ....... n\, :

Sagittarius, the Archer I

.

/

86 ASTRONOMY.

Capricornus, the Goat ....... VJ

Aquarius, the Water Bearer . . SSf
Pisces, the Fished X

On the earth 9 8 orbit, see the various rim*.——
Mark where the Sun, our year completing, shines;
First the bright Ratth his languid ray improves:
Next glaring wat'ry thro' the Bull he mores ;
The am'rous Twins admit his genial ray ;
Now burning, thro' the Crab, he takes his way ; ,

The Lion, flaming, bears the solar power ;
The Virgin faints beneath the sultry shower.
Now the just Balance weighs his equal force ; «

The sKmy Serpent swelters in his course ;
The sahled Archer clouds his languid face ;
.The Goat with tempests urges on his race ;
Now in the Water his faint beams appear ;
And the cold Fishes end the circling year. ^

Chattebtok.

Obs. 1.— These constellations were of Egyptian con-
trivance ; and the characters (which it is needful to .-.
learn) are Egyptian hieroglyphics, or rude paintings of *m
the things represented, or some known emblem of the
tilings.

2— The signs of the Zodiac, in Which the earth and
planets move, may also be recollected by means of the
following lines:— •

The ram, the bull, the heav'nly twins,
And next the crab, the lion shines,
. The virgin and the scales: '

The scorpion, archer, and sea-goat,

The iji&h that holds the -water-pot,
AndjfoA with glittering tails.

251. The most showy of the constellations is
Orion, distinguished by his belt of % in a row \

beneath these is Sirius, the brightest of the stars;
and above, to the right, are the red star of the

ASTRONOMY. 8?

Bull, and the Pleiades or Seven Stars; and to
the left, two bright stars, Castor and Pollux.
These bright constellations are always visible,

on a winter's evening.

Od*.— The student o? Nature, who takes an evening's
walk to admire the magnificence and the glory of the
starry heavens, and desires to profit by his observa-
tions, should learn to class the heavens into particular
divisions ; and fix on certain points, as a sort of land*
marks, to direct his attention.

By knowing the part of the heavens in which the
Sun rises, he is able to determine the eastern side ; by
attending to its situation at noon, he "ascertains the south;
and by noticing* the place of its setting, he determines the
•western side of the horizon. He need not be told that
the north is opposite to the south.

The moment, then, in which he casts his eyes on the
sparkling expanse of heaven, he is supposed to be sen-
sible of the bearings of the cardinal points, north, south,
east, and west.

The next principle to be recognized is, that he sees
above his horizon,* one-half of the whole heavens ;
that is to say, one-half of the heavens are always visible,
or above the horizon, and the other half is below the
horizon. He must not expect, therefore, to see all the
constellations and planets at once ; but only that half
which, at the time of observation, is above the horizon*

For' the sake of precision and accurate reference,
astronomers have supposed the 360 degrees, into which
geographers divide the surface of the earth, to be ex-
tended to the heavens : so that the whole round of the
horizon of the heavens is supposed to be 360 degrees,
or proportional parts ; half is 180 degrees, and a quar-
ter is 90 degrees. And as we see one-half of the hea-
vens above the horizon, it is of course 180 degrees from
one side of the horizon, in a line passing over our heads,

* The horizon is the part all around where' the sky
and the earth seem to meet. The zenith is the point
directly over head, 90 degrees from itkt horizon.

W ASTRONOMY.

to the directly opposite aide ; and of course from the
point over our beads, called the %enith> it is 90 degrees
to the horizon on every side.

Remember, then, that the whole heavens are 360
degrees, or proportional parts round, and that it is al-
ways 90 of these degrees from the point directly over
head down to the horizon.

An observer of the heavens will discover the pro*
£ression of the whole, from east to west, by a quarter
of an hour's attention. Let him bring a star, m any

Eart between the zenith and the southern part of the
orizon, into apparent contact with the end or a house*
steeple, or other fixed object, and he will in a few mi-
nutes perceive the motion of that star, and of the whole
heavens, from east to west

It may be proper for the student now to consider,
that this general motion of the whole heavens is mejrety
apparent ; and is occasioned by the rotation of the earth
en is a^cis in a conttasy direction. .Of course, if tie
Spectator is moving on the earth from west to east, the
distant stars will appear to move froti east to west

The rising and setting of all the distant heavenly bo-
dies will, hence, be easily understood. The earth
turns completely round every twenty-four hours : every
inhabitant of it will, therefore, be carried round to-
wards all the bodies out of it; and distant from it, every
twenty-four hours. Hence, the rising and setting of
the Sun ; the succession of day and night ; and all the
dependent phenomena.

This progression of the whole heavens from east to
west; the rising of some stars in the east,, and the set-
ting of others in the west ; are objects which, viewed
in this manner, will leave impressions much stronger
than the mimic representation of the same phenomena
on the celestial globe. The immensity of the great
vault of heaven; the still, solemn, uniform motion ; the
accompanying association of the immeasurable dis-
tances, the apparent perpetuity, and the countless
numbers of the stars, will nil the mind with reverence
and devotion towards the omnipotent, infinite, and
eternal Author bf the whole !

'*.

ASTRONOMJ. 99

Having thus obtained ocular demonstration of the
motion of the stars from east to west, or rather of the
motion of earth in the contrary direction, it will then
be necessary to attend to another circumstance which
Is a consequence of that motion.

A slight consideration will evince, that the stars im-
mediately above the axis on which the earth may be
supposed to turn, will appear to remain stationary over
those .places, at both ends of the axis. In turning a
wheel on a fixed axis, all the parts of the circumfer-
ence will successively present themselves to different
objects; but the axis will continue to point to the same
place. If the wheel be supposed to be a globe revolv-
ing on an axis, the effect will be the same ; the point of
the axis, called the pole of the globe, will point to the
eame spot, while all the parts will perform smaller or.
larger circuits, in proportion as they are removed in a
greater or less degree from the poles. • •

It is important, then, to be able, to determine the
points in the heavens which are opposite to the poles
of the earth; these always appear to stand still, while
the other stars appear to make a daily circuit round
them. As, however, we can only see 90 degrees in the
heavens from the point over our own heads, the inhabitants
of no part of the earth can see both poles, except those
who live at the equator, from which both poles are dis-
tant ninety degrees. The poles of the heavens may
therefore be seen at the equator, exactly in the horizon,
in the- north and the south ; but if * you travel or sail
one degree to the north of the equator, so as to be
within 89 degrees of the north pole, you will, of course,
see one degree beyond the north pole, and not so far
' as the south pole by one degree ; because, as before
stated, you can always see 90 degree in the heavens,
from your zenith,- or place over your head. In England,
which lies between 50 and 60 degrees from the equa-
tor, or within 40 or 50 degrees of the north pole, we
always see 5Q or 60 degrees beyond or below the north
pole ; or, in other words, the north pole in the heavens,

90 ASTRONOMY

or the stars immediately over 4he north pole of the
earth; witt be 50 or 60 degrees high.

Rather above mid-way between the horizon and the
zenith, in this .northern part of the heavens, we are in
England, to look for the north pole of the heavens, or
. the part which never appears to move. It happens that
there is a star so near the north pole, that for all ordi-
nary purposes it may be taken for the north pole itself ;
and this star may always be found very easily, by means
of two other stars which point to it in a right line.
During th# winter months, these stars, which are in the
constellation of the Great Bear, are to be found with the
other stars of that remarkable constellation on the east- .
ern side of the pole. They are about six degrees asun-
der, and the nearest is five times that space, or thirty
decrees from the polar star, at which they se*em to
point, and are, thence, called the Pointers, •

The north ^>ole star being thus found, it will be a
pleasing, employment to observe, that all the stars ap-
pear to move round it, according to their several dis-
tances, while it constantly stands still. An hour's con-
templation of this star, and of the motions of the rest of
the heavens, while it remains an immoveable centre,
will teach more, to the uninformed in astronomy, than a
thousand lessons or lectures in the closet

On a winter's evening, the other remarkable objects
in view, will be the Pleiades, fit seven stars, inthesouth-
east; and below them, a little to the east, the grand
constellation of Orion: and still lower, the dog-star
Sirius, the brightest of all the fixed stars. The three
bright stars' together in a line", called the Belt of Orion,
are at about equal distance from the Pleiades and Sr-
rius; that is,' about twenty-Jive degrees from each. Be-
sides remembering this distance, and that of the Pointer*,
before-mentioned, for the sake pf occasional compari-
sons, it will be useful to recollect, that the most northern
of the three stars in the Belt of Orion, is exactly over the
equator ; so that from that star to the north pole«star is
exactly ninety degrees.

ASTRONOMY. B

The P&kufea are in the Zodiac, on the south side; and
go is the red star Jlhtebcran, near them; and the two
brieht stars about _/«-eif degrees to the left, called Cottar
and Pollux, or the Twins, are also in the Zodiac, and
about floe degrees north of the Sun's place, on the 13th
of July.

On such an evening, the Milky- Way will be seen in
the west, as a light cloud ; supposed by some to be
formed of a mass or cluster of stars, almost infinite in
number, but indistinct from their distance; though others
suppose it to consist of a luminous space, and not of star*. '

A celestial globe. Rectified to the day and hour, will

point to other objects: an ephemeris will indicate the

names or places of the planets which may then .be above

. the horizon; and any telescope will render visible many

other interesting and wonderful phenomena.

Should the Moon be visible, the motion in her orbit
may be nightly traced by her approximating to, or re-
ceding from certain stars 1 ! and the samemay be observed
in the motion of the planets in their orbits.

The morning and evening-stars arethe bright planets,
Venus and Jupiter, so called from their rising or setting
with the Sun. Mars is red; Saturn of a pale colour;
Herschel is so distant, and Mercury is so near the Sun,
that they can seldom be seen but with a telescope.
vENcs, as seen 'Through a telescope.

82 ASTHONOMY.

Very small telescopes will stew most of the celestial
phenomena; Jupiter'* moons, Saturn's ring, the moon-
like phases of Venus, the Pleiades, the luminous space
U the sword of Orion, the spots in the Sun, and the
atounUin* in the Moon, may all be seen with such tele-
scopes as are bought for ten or fifteen shillings. Galileo
made his great discoveries with a telescope eight or ten
laches long, and which magnified only ten or twelve

SATUXtN, HIS HOOKS A

ASTRONOMY. *»

252. Hie stars, according to their distances,
are of seven sizes, called Jlrsf magnitude, second
magnitude, &c. down to the seventh magnitude,
which can only be seen with a telescope. The
stars may be distinguished from the planets by
their twinkling; whereas the planets have a
Stead j light.

Oft*.— Hating now acquired same -knowledge of the
wonderful things out of the sabth, we will return again
to it, observing, that these fixed stars and other celes-
tial objects are constantly made use of to determine
the relative situation of places; and that they are
unerring guides both in regard to time and space.

253. Besides their motion round the Sun in
their respective years, the earth and the planets
also turn round on their own axes, and by turn*
ing to and from the Sun, produce to their inhabi-
tants, •alternate light and darkness, or day and
night; so that their seasons and years are pro-
duced by the grand revolution round, the Sun;
and their days and nights by turning on their
own axes.

06*. — If a boy throw a ball out of has hand, beside*
gofrigr forwards, it turnaround en its axis* and this is the
precise motion, of the earth and planets.

254. The distances of the seven primary pla-
nets from the Sun, in round millions, are*— Mer-
cury S 36, Venus ? 68, Earth © 93, Mars %
142, Jupiter 7t 486, Saturn h 892, and Her-
schel V 1800 millions of miles from the Sun. *

Their diameters are respectively 3, 8, 8, 4, 89,
79, and 35 thousand miles.

And their periods of revolution are 3, 7, 12,
22, 144, 340, and 1000 months.

255. In their grand orbits, the planets do not
move exactly in the same level or plane; but ^

94 ASTRONOMY.

each moves regularly in its own level. Nor are
their axes exactly perpendicular to the plane of
their orbits, but variously inclined; and this in-
clination produce the difference of their seasons,
and. the different lengths of day and night.

256. The whole earth is calculated . to be 4 J
times heavier than water? the Sun, Jupiter, and
Herschel about the weight of water; Mercury
nine times* and Venus six times heavier. In this
way, taking matter for matter, it is found, that it
would take a million of our earths, to make a body
equal to the Sun.

257. Next to the Sun, the Moon is ihat of the
heavenly bodies, which the most interests our
curiosity. She is but 240,000 miles distant from
the earth, only 2346 miles in diameter, and near
7000 miles in circumference. She accompanies
the Earth in its annual orbit; and, during that
period, goes herself nearly thirteen times round
the eactn in an orbit of her own.

258. The moon goes round her orbit in 27
days 8 hours; but, as the Earth moves forward
during the time, it is 29 days 12 hours before
she returns again to a conjunction with the Sun.
The Earth is sixty times larger than the Moon ;
or it would require sixty moons to make up the
bulk of the Earth.

259. The mountains in the Moon are, how-
ever, higher than those on the Earift. For exam-
ple, Mount Leibnitz, in the Moon, is five miles
nigh, which is a mile higher than Chimboraeo, in
Peru. The surface, of the Moon is, besides, co-
vered with deep pits or vallies, some, of them
four miles deep. .

ASTRONOMY. 9.

THE MOON, AS SEEM THROUGH A TELESCOPE.

260. The Moon always keeps the same side
towards the Earth, so that she turns once on her
axis as she moves round the Earth ; and her day
and night are, consequently, as long as the period
from new moon to full moon. But the Earth acts
also as a moon to her, being at the same time far
more luminous; so when it is new moon to the
Earth, it is a full earth to the Moon, and the
contrary.

961. As the Moon shines with no light besides
that which she Teflects from the Sun; it is evi-
dent, that her shape must depend on her position
in regard to the Sun and Earfli.

When the Earth is exactly in the middle, the
whole illumined side of the Moon will be towards
the Eaith, and it will be a full moon.

When tiie Moon is in the middle, her dark side
will be presented to the Earth; and it will be new
or no moon.

As she proceeds from new to full, more and
more of her light side will appear, or it wilt in-
'2

96

ASTRONOMY.

crease; and on going from full to new, it will, of
course, decrease.

THE MOON'S PHASES.

EXPLANATION.

S is the San; T the Earth; the inner circle represents
the Moon in its orbit receiving its light from the Sun.
The outer circle is the portrait of the Moon in each ad-
joining" part of her otbit as seen at the Earth. Thus at
A it is full moon, or all light, as at a ; and at E it is new,
or alltlark, as at e. At E it is in a position to produce
an eclipse of the Sun, or overshadow the Earth; and at A
to be eclipsed itself, or receive the Earth's shadow.

262. As both Earth and Moon cast long, sha-
dows, it is evident, if they be moved on the same
level, that every time the Earth passes between
the Sun and Moon, the Earth's shadow #3uld
fall on it, and darken or ptlipse the Moon ; and

ASTRONOMY. 9T

that every time the Moon passes between th*
Sun and Earth, the Moon's shadow would eclipse
the Sun.

263. The Moon, however, ascends and de-
scends 5 degrees in every revolution, do that in
general the shadows pass under or over; but when
the new or full moon take place at the very time
she is passing the plane or the Earth's orbit, in
ascending or descending, then the striking phe-
nomena of an eclipse take place.

264. The shadow of the Earth, as seen on the
Moon, demonstrates its rotundity; and the sha-
dow of the Moon on the Earth, proves that it is
nearer than the Sun ; so the passing of the Moon
over planets and stars, called Occultations, proves
that they are more distant than the Moon. \

265. Occasionally, Venus and Mercury, the
two planets nearer to* the. Sun than the Earth,
pass over the surface of the Sun like black spots,
called transits of Venus and Mercury.

This proves that those planets are nearer to the
Earth than the Sun ; and, by observing the pro-
gress of the transit at different parts of the Earth,
we can obtain the measure of an angle, by which
we can determine the exact distance of the Earth
from the Sun.

266. Having ascertained, by means of the ob-
servation of a transit, the distance of the Earth
from* the Sun, the distances of all the other pla-
nets are determined by that law of nature, which
exactly ^proportions the cubes of the distances of
tlie planets, to the squares of their respective pe*
rioaical revolutions. That law, was discovered

98 ASTRONOMY.

by the celebrated Kepler, in the beginning of the
seventeenth century.

267. Besides affording us light, the Moon af-
fects tne waters, and causes high tides ; which
obey her influence, as the seas pass beneath her.
But as she mores forward in her orbit 12 or IS
degrees every day, and consequently passes over
etery sea 50 minutes later one day than the day
before, so the time of high water is always 50
minutes later each following day.

" O&r. 1^—Th«re are two tides in every twenty-four
boars; and one is evidently but a returning vibration,
stroke, of effect of the preceding tide. If the Moon were.
to be destroyed, and not to re-produce the effect on the
following day, the vibration of the waters would proba-
bly continue for many days, tilt it gradually ceased, like
the motion of a pendulum. Many mathematicians nave
{nuzzled themselves in calculating the relative forces act-
lngonthe near surface, centre, and remote surface of the
earthy but to little purpose, a* the effect is so much bet*
ter accounted for by the . vibratory property of fluid
bodiei.

2. — Sir Richard Phillips, in a late Essay in the Month-
ly Magazine for September and October, 1811, success-
fully combated the prevailing notion of an occult or in-
visible influence called attraction, acting between the
planetary bodies by means of supposed effluvia. He
proves, on the contrary, that all the phenomena of the
planetary motions are produced by tne universal pres-
sure Of an elastic medium, on all masses of matter; the
interception of which pressure, by the different masses
Hi regaVd to one another, produces their mutual -gravi-
tation towards one another. Their circular and rotary
motions, he ascribes to the action of their fluid parts;
and thence, he explains the courses and uses of the tides
of the sea.

268. 3&e Sun and moon concur in raising the
tides) and hence, we have high or spring tides,

ASTRONOMY. W

when their actions concur at the new and full
moon ; and low or neap tides, when the forces
act in Opposite directions, as at the quarters ; or
when the Moon is half way between the conjunc-
tion and opposition.

Oba. — On small seas not readily communicating with
others, and on which the rotary forces act generally,
there are no tides.

. 26& All the terrestrial phenomena, and all the
problems on the globes and maps, may be reduced
to one general principle ; that the Sun always il-
luminates one half the earth, and that the other
half is in darkness ; and that, from every part of
the earth, we always see om half Hie heavens, the
other half being invisible.

£70. The circumference of the earth, the hea-
vens, and of all circles of the earth and heavens, is
supposed to be 360 parts or degrees ; consequent-
ly, naif a circle, or half the heavens, is 180 de-
grees, and a fourth 90 degrees. On the surface
of the Earth, each degree is 69£ miles ; but the
actual size of a degree, as carried out to the hea-
vens, is indefinite.

271. Hence, if the Sun illumines half the Earth,
he illumines 180 degrees of the. Earth ; or 90 de-
grees every way, from the place over which he is
vertical. Hence also, it is 180 degrees from the
north to the south pole $ and 90 degrees from each
pole, is the middle of the Earth called the Baud*
tor. *

272. Hence, as half the heavens are always vi-
able, 180 degrees are visible, and from the point,
over head, it will be 90 degrees to that line, where
the earth and the heavens appear to He eye t?>

100 ASTRONOMY.

meet called the Horizon. Hence also, an inha-
bitant of the equator can see the stars as far as
each pole ; i. e. he can see 90 degrees each way.
" 273. -The inhabitants of the poles can see the
stars as far as the equator and no further ; t. e.
Ihej can see 90 degrees. When the Sun is ver-
tical over the equator, he shines as far as each
pole; because he shines 90 degrees from the
ftace where he is vertical, or over-head. *

374. Also, when the Sun is vertical 10 degrees
north of the equator, he shines 10 degrees beyond
the north pole, and his rays do not reach the south
pole by 10 degrees ; and when he becomes verti-
cal 251 degrees north of the equator, he shines*
83£ degrees beyond the north pole, and 23 £ de-
grees snort of the south pole.
- 275. In its annual orbit, the Earth ascends 23 j
degrees above the level of the equator, and de-
scends 294 degrees below. Hence, when it is at
the highest pomt above, the Sun will be vertical
over that part of the globe which is 23 i below the
equator, and when below, the contrary.

Obs.l. — The terms above and below, up and down, re-
late merely to the feelings a*d sensations of human be-
ings. In nature, there is no up or down, or above or be-
low ;^-th# earth is round, and all bodies tend towards its
centre; tecause the universal pressure of the universal
medium ^taken of£or interrupted in that direction. See
Obs. 2, paragraph 267. All men and every thing called
upright or perpendicular, stand in a straight line towards
the centre of the earth ; with the earth beneath their
feet, and the heavens, which surround the earth, over
their heads. We usually place the south pole down-
ward, but the inhabitant of the south pole, like him at the
north pole, stands with his feet towards the centre of the
dRrth, each having' the heavens over-head. The inhabi-

tants of New South Wales are the Antipodes to us in
Great Britain, standing with their feet towards ours, and
their heads in opposite directions, each of them wonder-
ing how the other stands ; but the earth is the centre or
loadstone of all its inhabitants; and in nature up and
down are mere relative terms.

2. — It istoual for authors to talk about fee inclmatioh
of the axis to the orbit, its parallelism, &c. fee. ; but as-1
consider the ascent and descent in the plane as more am-
ple, and more accordant with the phenomena, although
it is a mere change of terms, Iprefer my own explication
to that generally adopted, particularly in aid of the tutor,
if he should amuse his pupils by passing a globe round *
candle, to shew the change of the seasons. The idea of
an inclination of the axis I consider a vulgar error. Tte
moon ascends and descends in its orbit about 5£ degrees ;
but no one ever talked of the inclination of the moon's
axis to the plane of its orbit !

3. — The obliquity or angle of the orbit diminishes at
the rate of a minute in 110 years, and a degree in 6600
years. Observations were made in China 3900 years
ago, by which it appears, that the obliquity was 23*
54' ; but it is now only 23* 28'— -a wonderful coinci-
dence, and a proof at once, of the diminution and th* ob-
servation.

£76. It must be evident, that during all the
time the Sun is vertical north of the equator, he
will shine as many degrees beyond the north
pole as he is vertical north of the equator ; and
that, during all the time he is vertical to the
south of the equator, he will constantly illumine
as many degrees beyond the south pole*

. Oba. — As it is ninety degrees from the equator to each
pole, and as the Sun shines ninety degrees from the part
where he is vertical, he must of course shine as many
degrees beyond either pole as he is degrees advanced
towards i£ from the equator. If I can read an inscrip*
tiom ninety yards off, and I advance 23} yards nearer to
it, it is evident I could read if it were «?w {diced 23J

H» ASTRONOMY.

yards further. The undersanding of tliis single propo-
sition, is all that is needful to comprehend the pheno-
mena of the seasons, and the various lengths of day and
night.

277. The earth, in its diurnal rotation, carries
every place round in a circle which is equi-dis-
tant from the equator ; and all places which are
exactly the same distance from the equator, are
carried round in the same circle.

Distance to the north or south of the equator
is called latitude; and of course, if the Sun shines
vertically at 10 degrees north of the eauator, all
places having 10 degrees of north latitude will
pass exactly under the Sun on that day.

278. As the Sun, when vertical 10 degrees
north of the equator, shines 10 degrees beyond
the north pole, and 10 degrees short of the south
pole, it is evident that during that rotation of the'
^arth, no place within 10 degrees of the north
pole can turn out of the sun-shin.e, so that to them
it will be all day ; and that no place within 10
degrees of the south pole, can turn into the sun-
shine, so that to them it will be all night.

279. When the sun is vertical over the equa-
tor, he will then of course, shine exactly as far as
each pole, and the boundary of day and night will
cut all the circles made by the diurnal rotation
of every place, into two equal parts ; so that the
day -part of the circle being equal to the night-
part, the days and nights will then be equal all
over the world.

280. The Sun is vertical over the equator on
the 21st of March: and the Earth descends in its
annual orbit for 91 days, till the 21st of June,
when the Sun is vertical over all places 23} de-

ASTRONOMY. tt£

grees north of the equator ; so that, during the 91
days, the Sun gradually gains the 23 £ degrees,
and has been successively vertical over all coun-
tries within that distance of the equator.

281. During; the same time, he has successively
shone, by similar- gradual advances, as many de-
grees bey on cl the north pole, and afforded to those
countries perpetual day; and, of course, an in-
creased length of day, to all places in the north-
ern hemisphere, in proportion to their proximity
to the pole, in consequence of his shining over the
larger part of their diurnal circles.

282. The opposite phenomena will, necessa-
rily, take place in the southern hemisphere of
the Earth. , .The Sun's rays will fall short of the
south pole as many degrees«as he advances above
the equator, and the country round that pole will
be involved in darkness; and the nights will in-
crease in length, in the same proportion as the
days increase in the northern hemisphere.

Oba. — All this will be made evident, by hanging 1 any
round body somewhat below the level of a fire or candle.
It will be seen, that the light shines over one pole, and
doea not reach the other. If, then, the ball be turned
round, it- will b« observed, that the circles performed by
Any parts of the surface are unequally divided by the
light; that it will be constant day near the north pole,
and that all the phenomena will be reversed in the other,
or lower hemisphere.

. 283. When the earth has so ascended in its
orbit, as to render the sun vertical 234 degrees
north of the equator, it then begins to descend
again after the same rate; and in 91 days, viz.
the 21st of September, the Sun becomes vertical
again over the equator.

K

106

ASTRONOMY.

meter, he appears just above the horizon, when,
in reality, his upper edge is just touching it.

So it is at his setting; and with his appearance
and disappearance in the polar regions; and also,
with the Moon, and all the heavenly bodies.

289. The denominations of various parts of
the earth are derived from the phenomena pro-
duced by the Sun in the Earth's descent and as-
cent in its orbit All these are given beneath, and
they should not be forgotten.

North Pole, 90 degrees from the Equator.

Frozen Zone, ^

— Arctic Circle, 66 J degrees.

»

Temperate Zone,

— Tropic of Cancer, 23£ degrees.
Torrid Zone.

— Eq.UA' -JB, OR MIBDLB.

Torrid Zone.
— Tropic of Capricorn, 23 J degrees.

Temperate Zone.

■—Ant-arctic Circle, 66J degree*.

Frozen Zone. *

South Pole, 90 degrees from the Equator.

290. The space between the tropics, twice 23 J
degrees wide, is called the Torrid Zone, from its-
extreme heat; the spaces within 234 degrees of
each pole are called the Frozen Zones, from the
length and frigid nature of their winters; and the
two spaces between the hot and cold zones, are.
called the Temperate Zones. *

1 :/

GEOGRAPHY. lGf

£91. Sqch are the divisions of the earth, arising
from the phenomena and effects of the Sun, the
source of Light, Heat, and Life. They give rise
to ail the varieties of climates, productions, co-
lour, and habits of man; and ar£, therefore, the
key to a further and more correct knowledge of
his habitation, the Globe of the Earth.

GEOGRAPHY.

292, The natural divisions into lands and wa-
ters have already been noticed. The other great
divisions, founded on local views only, are called
. Europe, Asia, Africa, and America;- each

Suarter is divided into kingdoms ; and each king-
om into provinces, principalities, or counties. gt

' 293. This last division gives national' denomi- " . ^
nations' to men 5 but the. climates or zones fix
, their colour or character. These divide man into ..
at least six varieties, produced by habit, and th« \
effects of heat and cold during a series of ages.
I. The dwarfish inhabitants of the polar re* • *
. gions; *

v II. The flat-nosed, olive-coloured tawny race ;
III. The blacks of Asia, with European fea-
l tures;
^ IV. The woolly-haired negroes of Africa;

V. The copper -coloured native Americans, with
' black hair and high cheek-banes.

VI. The white European nations.

294. Man is at the head of the animit$d crea-
tion; and unites all the advamtages of strength,
beauty, and structure, which 'are but partially
v possessed fry other animals. His Creator his also

H2

endowed him with the faculty of reasoning, and
with the power and will to adapt all the contri-
vances of other animals, to his own wants and
luxuries.

£95. Man supports his- body erect; and his face
turned towards tne heavens, displays the dignity
of his nature. His soul is painted in his visa»e$
.and his majestic and resolute step announces the
nobleness of his rank. His <arms and hands were
'not given him for support, but to second the in-
tentions of his will, and to adapt to his purposes
all the rifts of nature.

£96. vVhat animals effect by natural instinct,
man effects by reason, invention, and by combined
power. Birds build their nests; bees their cells;
and beavers their habitations; with unvarying
uniformity; but the works of man possess every
possible variety ; and afford evidence of his pos-
sessing a mind and soiil distinct from the body.

Obs. — Man, however, disgraces his intellectual charac-
ter by engaging in frequent wars of aggression, malice,
and ambition. Nor are such wars confined to the sa-
lvage tribes of his species; but are often wantonly and
lightly engaged in, by nations which boast the highest
civilization.

£97. Men are to be found, however, in every {
stage of improvement throughout Europe gene-
rally. In India, China, and some other Asiatic
nations, and in the cultivated parts of North.and
South America, man appears to have advanced
towards the summit of his powers. But in Africa,
Siberia, and among the Aborigines of America,
die inhabitants are still in a state below that in
which the Romans found the. Britons two thou-
sand years ago.

298. Man, in point of natural intellect, is near-
ly 'equal in all countries; notwithstanding the
differences of colour, and gradations of civiliza-
tion. Those differences are the effects of climate,
habit, and education-; and there is little doubt,
but the whole human race sprung from one stock,
as recorded in the Scriptures.

299. Considering man, as we find him, scat-
tered over the earth, the Laplanders, the Esqui-
maux, the Samoides, the Greenland era, the Nova
Zerablauians, and the Kamschatkadales, appear to
be of one family, inhabiting the northern frigid
zone.

Vast regions, dreary, bleak, and bare!

There, on mn icy mountain's height,

Seen only by the moon's pale ligmi

Stem Winter rears his giant-form.

His robe a mist, his voiceastorm;

His frown, theshiveringnatioiui fly,

And, hid for half the year, in smoky caverns, lie.

IDE-MOUNTAINS, &C. OF THE FRIGID ZONE.

I

AAV VUUU«W»( U It

300. No inhabited land has yet been discovered
in the southern frigid zone ; but the climate and
habits of living, the effect of climate, render all
the inhabitants of the northern frigid zone of a
deep brown colour approaching to blackness.
Their statures are shrunk by cold to a diminu-
tive size; and their countenances are as ferocious,
as their manners are savage.

301. Their usual height is four feet, and the
tallest are not above five feet; their voices are
thin and squeaking; their heads large; their
cheek-bones high; their eye-lids drawn aside;
their mouths large; and their lips thick, and

turned outward.

06*. — Yet, they account themselves the handsomest
and most civilized people in the world; and the Green-
landers, when they, compliment a stranger, say, he is al-
most as well-bred as a Greenlander.

The following is Dryden's description of the Polar re-
gions:—

The sun from far peeps with a sickly face,
Too weak, the clouds and mighty fogs to chase;
Swift rivers are with' sudden ice constrained;
And studded wheels are on their back sustain'd—
The brazen caldrons with the frost arc flaw'dj
Tlie garment stiff with ice at hearths is thaw'd.
With axes first they cleave the wine; and thence
By weight, the solid potions tyey dispense.
From locks uncomb'd, and from the frozen beard,
Long icicles defend, -and crackling sounds are heard.
Meantime, perpetual sleet and driving snow,
Obscure the skies, and hang on herds below.
The starving cattle perish in their stalls, ^

Huge oxen stand inolos'd in wint'ry walls
Of snow couceal'd ; whole herds are buried there ?+*
Of mighty stags* and scarce their horns appear.
The dextrous huntsman wounds not these a&r

'•

GEOGRAPHY. Ill

With shafts or darts, or makes a distant war
With dogs, or pitches toils to stop their flight ;
But close engages in unequal fight ;
And while they strive in vain, to make their way
Through hilts of snow, and pitifully bray;
Assaults with dint of sword, or pointed spears,
And homeward, on his back, the burthen bears.
The men to subterranean caves retire,
Secure from cold, and crowd the chearful fire ;
With trunks of elms and oaks the hearth they loa4,
Nor tempt th' inclemency of heav*n abroad. .
Their jovial nights in froHe and in play
They pass, to drive the tedious hours away.

302. Their food consists of dried fish, and the
flesh of bears, rein-deer, and other wild animals.
Their drink is water, or train-toil as a luxury,

•when they can get it.

0b8. — Two inhahitaats of Nova Zembla were brought
to Copenhagen a few years ago; and they pined for
want, till they met with some train-oil, whicn they drank
with, the same relish as we would drink chocolate or
wine ; and they danced in testacy, when they found they
were to be sent back to their own country.

303. The next variety of the human species
are the Tartars, the Chinese, and the Japanese,
who inhabit all that vast spa$e of Asia from the
great ocean to the Caspian Sea. They have
Broad foreheads and narrow chins, small sunk
eyes, high cheek-bones, short and flat noses, large

• and separated teeth, short set statures, and olive
complexions.

304. The Tartars have no settled habitation ;
but wander from place' to place, and live with
their horses and herds under tents covered with
hides. The Chinese are the most numerous peo-

112 GEOGRAPHY.

pie in the world, inhabit one of the finest climates
of the earth, and cultivate with success, most of
the arts and sciences.

The Japanese inhabit certain large islands, and
are not inferior to the Chinese in industry and
ingenuity; but wisely allow little or no inter-
course with meddling foreigners.

305. Another distinct family of the human
race, are the black and swarthy inhabitants of
India, and of the islands of the Indian Ocean.
They have European features, long black straight
hair, and slender shapes. Their manners are ef-
feminate ; but their dresses and houses are very
elegant.

Many millions of them, called Gentoos, never
cat flesh, or any thins that has lived ; but subsist
chiefly on rice ana fruits/ -and enjoy health,
strength, and long life.

306. The peaceable habits of the Hindoos have,
in all ages, rendered them a prey to foreign in-
vaders. The Tartars have frequently invaded
and plundered them.

Latterly, the European nations, particularly
the English, have established themselves among
them ; nut though they nave sometimes commit-
ted excesses, yet they are happily introducing
among the natives, the arts, philosophy, and th*
religion of Europe,

307. The fourth variety of the human species,
and the most remarkable of the whole, are the
Negroes of Africa. Their black colour, their
woolly heads, their flat noses, and thick lips, are
well known among us.

GEOGRAPHY. 112

Far many agqs an infamooai and most shock'
ing traffic was carried on in these poor people,
who were torn from their country to workjn the
a u ear-plantations of the West Indies ; but, hap-
pily, the slave-trade is now nearly abolished.

308. These simple people inhabit all the
coasts and interior of Africa between the tropics,
and hare been retained in a barbarous state by
the effects of the slave-trade ; which induced
their. tribes and nations to make war on each
other, for the purpose of stealing the people, and
selling them for slaves to Europeans.,

GEOGRAPHY.

HOTTENTOTS.

909. Thejiext distinct family of men, are the
native American Indians, spread in small tribes
over the whole of that vast continent. They are
of a dark copper -col our, have black hair, and
small black eyes, 'high '. cheek-bones, and fre-
quently flat noses.

As the Europeans advance, the natives retire,
and form the inhabitants of what are called— the
Back Settlements. : ■■

GEOGRAPHY. 1W

S 10. The sixth variety of the European race,
are the English, the French, the Germans, Ita-
lians, Spaniards, and other modern Dations. These
had their origin partly from the Scandinavians,
(Swedes and Goths,) characterized by light hair
and blue eyes ; and from the Celts, distinguished
by black eyes and black hair.

The Swedes, English, Irish, Scotch, and Ger-
mans, are very fairt but the Italians, French,
Spaniards, ana other nations occupying the south
of Europe, are of brown complexions.

<,

SPANISH.

311. The clear complexion of the Europeans
ia best adapted to express the passions of the soul
and the health of the body ; while the energy of
<their understandings, and the vigour of their cor-
•poreal frames, qualify them to carry all the arts
to perfection : and to raise man to that scale of *
eminence, to which he seems to have been fitted!
and destined by his Creator. •

313. Such are the natures and the varieties of
men, as scattered over the face of the earth.
Their numbers united are supposed to be nearly
eight' hundred millions : of whom, in Europe,
every square mile contains 34, in Asia 36, in
Africa 6, and in America 3 individuals.

The whole number of human beings being re-
newed every 32 years, on the average, 25 miflons
must die and be born every year, i. e. 3000 every
hour, or 50 every minute. ■

Like leaves on trees, the race of man is found ;

Now green in youth, now withering 1 on the ground.

Another race the following spring supplies,

They fall successive, and successive rise ;

GEOGRAPHY. 117

So generations in their course decay, \

So flourish these, when those are past away.— Pope.

313. As- men have divided by chance or design,
into separate governments, tney have* assumed
the names of Nation^ Republics, Kingdoms, or
Empires ; and the knowledge of these constitutes
a leading feature of geographical study. .

The most populous nations are, the Chinese of
S00 millions, the Hindoos of 40 millions, the
French of 40 millions, and the Russians of 36
millions. The most extensive are the Russian,
Chinese, Turkish, and* French empires.

314. From north to south, Europe is divided
into Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Poland,
Saxony, Westphalia, France, Wurtemburg, Ba-,
▼aria, Switzerland, Austria, Turkey, Italy, Na-
ples, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain and Ire*

- O**.— Jfe will be highly proper that tutors point out &U
these countries to the pupil oi\ the map of the world,
and render him expert in pointing to them himself. He
ought also to be directed to write out the boundaries and
latitude axifUongltude of each from the map. Nothing
can be so ridiculous, as to compel children to comma
verbal descriptions of the boundaries of countries to me*
mory. The only guide is a good map ; and that they
ought to trace or copy, till they can answer any question
that is put to them. No one need blush for ignorance
of geography, after he has twice or thrice traced or co-
pied the annexed map. The scale of mountains should
also be copied in like manner, and the lines of compara-
tive sizes deserve some consideration. The best exer-
cises Jn geography, however, are in the Geographical
Copy-Books and the Royal School- Atlas.

315. The following is an enumeration of fha
names, capitals, and population qf the countries
of Europe:

118 GEOGRAPHY.

Nation*. Chief Cities. PopulatuM-

STweden . . Stockholm • . 3 millions

Russia in Europe Petersburgh . 30 do.

Denmark . . Copenhagen • 3 do.

Prussia •. • . . Berlin . 8 do.

Poland . Warsaw . 6 do.'

Batavia (now French) Amsterdam . . 3 do.
Germanic States . Dresden . . .18 do.
Austria • . "Vienna . . 2S do.'

Turkey in Europe Constantinople . 8 do*
Prance (proper) Paris . . . 32 do.
Switzerland . Berne . ' . 2 do.

Italy . . . Milan . . . . 4-do.
Etruria . Florence . . 2 do.

Pope's States . Rome . . . . 2 do.
Naples . Naples . . . 6 do.

Portugal . Lisbon • . . 4 do.

Spain . Madrid . .lido.

G.Britain and Ireland London . . . if do.

316. Europe has three inland seas : the Medi-
terranean, the Baltic, and the White Sea; and its
shores are washed by the Atlantic, the Bay of Bis-
cay, the English Channel, the Northern Ocean,
St. George's Channel, and the. German ocean.

317. The great European rivers are, the Da-
nube, the Rhine, the Elbe, the Weser, the Maine*
and die Oder, in Germany $ the.Wolga and the
Nieper, in Russia ; the Rhone, the Garonne, and
the Seine, in France ; the Thames, the Severn,
and the Humbert in England ; the Clyde, in Scot-
land; and the Shannon, in Ireland.

v 06a.— The rirers of SouthBritain are thus described:—

. From his oozy bed,
Old father Thames advanc'd his rev'rend head:
Around his throne the sea-born brothers stood, *
Who swell with tributary urns his flood.
First, the fam'd authors of his ancient name,
The winding Isis and the fruitful Tank .'

GEOGRAPHY. 11$

The Ketmet swift, for silver-eels renovnM:
The Lodtfon slpw, with verdant alders crowti'd:
Cole, whose dark streams his flowery* islands lave :
And chalky Wey that rolls a milky wave:
The blue transparent Vandq&s appears: '
The gulphy Lee his sedgy tresses rears: '
And sullen JWb/e that hides his diving flood:
' And silent Darent stainM with Danish blood.— Pope.

318. The mountains of Europe are, the Alps,
of Switzerland ; the Pyrenees, between France
and Spain; the Dofrafelds, in Norway; the
Welsh, in Wales ; and Ben Nivis and Ben Lo-
mond, in Scotland. It has also three volcanoes,
or burning mountains ; viz, Etna, in Sicily ; Vesu-
vius, near Naples; and Heckla, in Iceland.
. 319. The British' empire is composed of two
large islands, Great Briton, and Ireland, and se-
veral small ones, as the Isle of Man, Isle of Wight,
the Hebrides, the Orkneys, Jersey and Guernsey,
and the Scilly-islands. Great Britain is 700 miles
long, and 250 broad ; and Ireland 300 long, ami
200 broad. Great Britain includes Scotland on
the north, Wales north-west, and England on the
south, east, and west.

320. England is Subdivided into 40 counties
as follow:

Counties. Chief Towns.
Northumberland Newcastle
Durham Durham

Cumberland Carlisle

Westmoreland Appleby
Yorkshire York

Lancashire Lancaster

Cheshire Chester

Shropshire 'Shrewsbury
Derbyshire Derby

• Counties, Chief Town*.
Lincolnshire Lincoln

Rutland Oakham

Leicestershire Leicester
Staffordshire Stafford

Warwickshire Warwick
Worcestershire Worcester
Herefordshire Hereford
Monmouthshire Monmouth
1 Gloucestershire Gloucester
Nottinghamsh. Nottingham 1 Oxfordshire Oxford

120 GEOGRAPHY.

CaunHes. Chief towns.

Counties.

NorthamptnsJ^ortham^ton
BuckinghamslL Aylesbury

Kent

Surry

Bedfordshire Bedford

Sussex

Huntingdonsh. Huntingdon'

Berkshire

Cambridgesh. Cambridge

Hampshire

Norfolk Norwich

Wiltshire

Suffolk . Bury

Dorsetshire

Essex Chelmsford

Somersetshire

Hertfordshire Hertford

Devonshire .

Middlesex London

Cornwall

Chief Tettns.

Canterbury

Guildford

Chichester

Reading

Winchester

• Salisbury

Dorset

Wells

Exeter

Launceston

321. Wales is divided into 12 counties, as be-
neath.

Counties. Chief Towns.
Flintshire Flint

Denbighshire Denbigh
Montgomery s.Montgomery
Anglesea Beaumaris

Caeniarvonsh. Caernarvon
Merionethshire Harlech

Counties. Chief Tovmr.
Radnorshire Radnor

Brecknocksh. Brecknock
Glamorganshire Cardiff
Pembrokeshire Pembroke
Cardiganshire Cardigan
Carmarthensh. Carmarthen

322. Scotland is divided into 33 counties, as
follow:

Shires. Chief Towns.

Shires.

Chief Towns.

Edinburgh Edinburgh

Argyfe

Inverary
Perth

Haddington Dunbar

Perth

Merse Dunse

Cincardin

Bervie

Roxburgh Jedburgh

Aberdeen

Aberdeen

Selkirk Selkirk

Inverness

Inverness

Peebles ' r Peebles;

Nairneand?
Cromartie >

Naime and

Lanerk Glasgow
Dumfries Dumfries

.Cromartie

Fife

St Andrew's

Wigtown Wigtown

Forfar

Montrose

Kirkcudbright Kirkcudbri.

Bamff

Bamff

Ayr Ayr

Sutherland Strathy Darhoc

Dumbarton Dumbarton

Clacmannaa

Clackmannan

Bute & Caithness Rothsay.

Kinross

Kinross

Renfrew Renfrew

Ross

Taine

Stirling Stirling

Elgin
Orkney

Elgin

Linlithgow Linlithgow

Kirkwall

.UROGRAPHY.

121

323. Ireland is divided inter four provinces j
Ulster to the north, Leinster to the east, Mun-
ster to the south, and Connaught to the west;
and ihese are subdivided into 32 counties.

Counties.
Dublin
Louth
Wicklow
Wexford
Longford
SastMeath
West Meath

Chief Town*.

Dublin

Drogheda

Wicklow ,

• Wexford

Longford

Trim

Mullingar

King's County Philipstown
Queen's Co. Maryborough

Kilkenny
Kildare
Carlow
Down
• Armagh
Monaghan
Cavan

Kilkenny

Naas and Athy

Carlow

Downpatrick

Armagh

Monaghan

Cavan

Counties. Chief Towns.
Antrim Carnckfergus

Londonderry Deny

Tyrone Omagh

Fermanagh Inniskilling
Donegal Lifford

Leitrim Ballinrobe

Roscommon Roscommon
Mayo Carrick on Shannon

Sligo

Galway

Ennis

Cork

Tralee

Limerick

ClonmeH

Waterford

Sligo.
Galway
Clare
Cork
Kerry
limerick
Tipperary
Waterford

Obs. — For the particulars of the British Empire, see
Goldsmith's British Geography.

324. Asia includes countries the most popu-
lous and fertile of any on the globe. It was, be-
sides, the first peopled, was the residence of our
.first parents, the scene of scripture-history, and
in Canaan, Jesus Christ worked his miracles, and
promulgated the doctrines of revelation and a
future state.

325. Modern Asia contains, Siberia, Tartary,„
China, Birmania, Malacca, Hindostan, Thibet,
Persia, Arabia, Syria, Turkey in Asia, besides
the vast islands of Japan, Borneo, Sumatra, Cey-
lon, New Holland, the Phillipines, Formosa, &c.

626. The internal seas of Asia are the Red Sea,
the Persian Gulph, the Caspian Sea, the Japan-
ese Sea, and the Yellow Sea. Its coasts are J|

122 GEOGRAPHY.

washed besides, by the Great Ocean, the Indian
Ocean, the Chinese Sea, the Northern Ocean;
the Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea*

327. Its great rivers are, the Ganges, the Eu-
phrates the Indus, the Amur, the Kian Ku, and
the Koan Ho ; and the mountains where these
rise are, the Uralian, the Gauts, those of Cauca-
sus, Taurus, and Thibet

328, British India, or countries governed bj.
Great Britain in In^lia, are those immense and
fertile districts watered by the Ganges, of which
Calcutta is one of the capital towns ; nearly the
whole of the coasts of the peninsula of India; and
the island of Ceylon.

Where sacred Ganges pours along the plain,
And Indus rolls to swell the eastern main,
What awful scenes the curious mind delight ;
What wonders bunt upon the dazzled sight!
There giant-palms lift high their tufted heads;
The plantain wide his graceful foliage spreads;
Wild in the woods the active monkey springs ;
The chattering parrot claps her painted wings ;
'Mid taU bamboos lies hid the deadly snake;.
The tiger couches in the tangled brake;
The spotted axis bounds in fear away;
The leopard darts on his defenceless prey.
'Mid reedy pools and ancient forests rude,
Cool, peaceful haunts of awful solitude !
The huge rhinoceros rends the crashing boughsj
And stately elephants untroubled browse.
• Two tyrant-seasons rule the wide domain,

Scorch with dry heat, or drench with floods of rain;
Now feverish herds rush madding o'er the plains
And cool in shady streams their throbbing' veins :
The birds drop hfeless from the silent spray,
And nature faints beneath the fiery day:
Then bursts the deluge on the sinking shore,
* Anjl teeming Plenty empties all her store.

GEOGRAPHY. 123-

329. China is one of the moat ancient, most

lions of people ; and its laws and government
have subsisted, with very slight changes, for up-
wards of 3000 years.

330. It is covered with canals,, and almost
every acre of its soil is cultivated. To secure it
from invasion, it is separated from Tartary by a
wall 1500 miles long, and so thick, that five horse-
men may every where ride abreast on it j yet the
Tartars conquered China about 150 years ago,
and still retain its government.

S31. The chief cities of China are, Pekin, Nan-
kin, and Canton, each of which contains more in-
habitants than London, and they are rather more
extensive. Canton is the only port where foreign-
ers are allowed to trade ; and from hence, the
English bring the teas and other Chinese commo-
dities for the supply of Europe.

ISA GEOGRAPHY.

332. The Birman empire, of which the capi-
tals are Ava and Pegu, separates China from
India. Persia, celebrated in ancient history, has
for many years been torn in pieces by civil
wars. Arabia is famous for the exploits of Ma-
homet; and For the wandering character of its in-
habitants.

O'er Arabia's desert sands •

The patient camel walks :
'Mid lonely caves and rocky lands

The fell hyena stalks.
On her cool and shady hills, • , .

Coffee -shrubs and tam'rtnds grow 2
Headlong, fall the welcome rills

Down the fruitful dells below.
The fragrant myrrh and healing balm

Perfume the passing gale : #

Thick hung with dates the spreading palm

0'er-tow*rs the. peopPd vale.
Locusts oft, a living cloud, •

Hover in the darkened air ;
like a torrent dashing loud,

Bringing famine and despair :
And often o'er the level waste

The stifling hot winds fiy ;
Down falls the swain with trembling naste ;

The gasping cattle die.
Shepherd-people on the plain

Pitch their tents and wander free »
Wealthy cities they disdain;

P001? — yet blest with liberty.

33*** The land of Canaan^ how called Syria,
has been for four centuries in* the hands of the
Turks; and, like other parts of their empire, has
become almost a desert. Jerusalem* Bethlehem,
and the places recorded in the Old and New Tes-
taments, are now supported chiefly by pilgrims

GEOGRAPHY. 125

from Catholic countries, and there are still
chapels for their reception.

334. The following is a summary of the great
divisions of Asia:-** •

Nations.

Chief Cities.

Population*

Turkey .. ;

Aleppo

12 millions.

Russia

. Astracan ' * .

10 do.

China . ' »

Pekin and Nankin

300 do.

Japan

. Jeddo . .

30 do.

Birman Empire .

Ava . .

17 do.

Siam

. Siam . .

5 do.

Hindostan

Calcutta.

60 do.

Persia

. Ispahan

10 do.

Taiiary :

Saroarcand .

12 do.

Arabia

. Mecca and Medina

10 do.

335. Africa is that quarter of the world
which lies, for the chief part, within the torrid
zone; and its soil is therefore much parched and
dried up by the extreme heat of the sun. It
abounds with deserts and extensive barren sands,,
and also with various species of ferocious and
poisonous animals* It is therefore unhealthy;
and in every respect unfavourable to the civiliza-
tion of man.

336. It was in Africa, however on the shores of
the Mediterranean that the famous city of Car-
thage was situated. This city was in ancient
times the rival of Rome, and for ages the mistress
of the commerce of the world; and through all
history, Egypt has been famous as the Nursery of
the Sciences, and the Emporium of Commerce.
At present, Carthage lies in ruins; and Egypt is
a prey to civil anarchy.

337. The northern coasts are inhabited by the
Moors, at whose head is the despotic Emperor

126 GEOGRAPHY.

• i

of Morocco. The piratical states of Algiers,
Tunis, and Tripoli, are also on these coasts. At
present, the Cape of Good Hope, the southern
promontory, and an English settlement, is the only
part of Africa adapted to the enjoyment of man.

338. From the northern coasts, to the Cape* of
Good Hope, the whole of this great continent is
inhabited by innumerable tribes of Blacks;
many of them in a state of absolute barbarism,
and few possessing any considerable degree of
civilization.

339. The rivers of* Africa are,— the Nile, the
Niger, and the Senegal. The mountains are
those of Atlas and the Moon. The islands are— -
Madagascar, the Cape Verd, and the delightful
Canaries, in one of which is the lofty Peak of
Teneriffe.

340. The following is a survey of those parts ^
of Africa which are perfectly formed: — . S

Nations. Chief Cities. Population.

Abyssinia . Gondar . 2 Hellions.

Egypt . . . . TJairo . . . . 3 do. -
Mofocco . . . Morocco ... 2 do.
States of Barhary . » .3 do. .

Savage Tribes . . • . . .50 do.

341. Till the discovery of the powers of the
magnetic needle, navigators dared not to venture
out of sight of land ; but, about 200 years after
that discovery, Columbus, a Genoese, aware that
the earth was round, conceived, that if he sailed
from Europe westward, he should in time arrive
at the East Indies, without having to sail around
Africa.

342. He sailed accordingly from Cadiz, ui the
autumn of the year 1492, jcross the Atlantic $

GEOGRAPHY. 127

and, on the morning of the 12th of October, one
of his anxious and mutinous crew spied land;
which proved to be the Island of San Salvador,
and which is sometimes called Cat Island, one of
the Bahamas, and part of a new world, till then
unknown to the other three-quarters.

343. In fact Columbus could not reach the In*
dies in this direction; because the continent of
America intervened from the North Pole almost
to the South. America, and all its islands, were
found, at this time, to be peopled by the raee des-
cribed . in Art. 309 ; ana among them were es-
tablished the two extensive and populous empires
of Mexico and Peru.

344. Unhappily these empires, and many other
parts of. this new world, abounded in gold and
silver; and, as the inhabitants knew not the use
of gunpowder, and the rapacity of the Spaniards
bad no bounds, they destroyed nearly thirty mil-
lions of the natives, in a few years, to get posses-
sion of their riches.

• * _

345. The bloody success of the Spaniards, how-
ever, led other European nations to embark in the
same enterprise; and, within a century, the Por-
tuguese established themselves in the Brazils,
the English in Virginia, and the French in Ca-
nada.

Soon after, the fine islands called the West
Indies, were successively colonized by dilferent
powers, for the sake of their produce in sugar,
rum, and other tropical luxuries.

346. At length, in 1776, the populous English,
colonies in North America declared themselves
independent; and, after a contest of seven years,

ns

&XfM!¥>

PHY.

they were recognized as a new empire, under the
title of the United States of America, then thir-
teen, but now nineteen in number, as follows, viz,

C&unties. Population.

New Hampshire, subdivided into
Massachusetts, *}

including Dis. C . do.

of Maine,
Vermont,

Rhode Island,
Connecticut,
New York,
New Jersey,
Pennsylvania,
Delaware,
Maryland, .
Virginia,
North Carolina,
South Carolina,
Georgia, .
Kentucky,
Tennessee,
Ohio,

Louiaianna,
Indian na,

do.'

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

dp.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

6 ..

2 ?

13

5

8
47
13
50

3
19
97

m

36
40
67
38
43
00
10

Also th^ Territories of Mississippi,

Illionois,
Michigan,
North-West^
Missouri
And the District of Columbia,

214,460

. 700,745

. 217,895

* 76,931

. 261,942

959,049
. 245,562

810,0.91
. 72,674

380,564
. 974,622

555,500
. 415,115

252,433
. 406,511

261,727

. 230,760

76 t 5S6

. 24,520

40,359

12,282

4,762

20,845
24,023

7,239,903

N. B. The above population is according to the Census
of 1810, including 1,121,564 Slaves.

347. These States, under a free, prudent, and
wise government, form now the happiest and
most nourishing countries in the world $ and are

GEOGHAPHY. „ 1*

the refuge of people driven from the various na-
tions of Europe, by ruinous wars and political
revolutions. Their head is called. a President;
he is chosen for four years, and governs acccord-
ing to laws made by two houses of legislature.
. 348. Among the chief towns are Washington,
Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Baltimore, and
Charlestown. The chief rivers, are the Dela-
ware, the Chesapeake, the Hudson, the Missis-
sippi, the Ohio, and the Missouri.

349. North and westward of the United States,
lie Upper and l-ower Canada, still subject to the #
British empire; the capitals of which are Que-
bec and York, both situated on the great river
St- Lawrence.

Obs. — This great river joins five lakes of fresh water,
the largest in the world ; and between two of them are
the grand falls of Niagara.

350. Southward of the United States, lies the
Gulf of Mexico; and the islands called the West
Indies— as Cuba, St. Dtftningo, Jamaica, Porto
Rico, Barbadoes, MartinicO,Ouadaloupe, Tobago,
St Ritts, &c.

351. By turning to the Map, it will be seen
that Norm America is joined to South America
by a long slip of land called the Isthmus of
Darien, occupied or governed by the Spaniards,
as well -as the greater part of South America it-
self, ever since the discoveries of Columbus.

352. In this great continent, the three Spanish
viceroys. of Mexico, Peru, and Buenos-Ayres,
have for three centuries governed countries each
more extensive than all Europe, and abounding
in gold and silver, and various Valuable produc-
tions* ~

130 GEOGRAPHY.

^ 35$. South America is watered by the largest
rivers in the world, as the Amazons, La Plata,
and Oronooka. In the Andes, it possesses the
highest chain of mountains, some of them four
miles high ; and among them are the most pro-
ductive sold and silver-mines in the world.

354. South of Peru is Chili ; and south of Chili
the inhospitable and frozen regions of Patagonia;
.Terra del Fuego, or the Land of Fogs, is the most
southerly region of America, and Cape Horn is
its extreme point.

355. The following is an enumeration of the
organized districts and countries of America :— -»

NORTH AMERICA.

Nation*. Capital*. Papulation.

United States, . Washington, about . 7 millions.
Spanish Dominions, Salvador, . . 6 ditto.

British Possessions, Quebec, . . . 1 ditto.
Native Tribes, . . . 2 ditto.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Spanish Dominions, Lima, . 9 ditto.

Portuguese Dominions, RW Janeiro, . • . 2 ditto.

Native Tribes, . . . ... 4 ditto.

South Sea Islands, . . . . .2 ditto.

356. The Great or Pacific Ocean contains nu-
merous clusters of islands, called the Society Isl-
ands, the Friendly Islands, .the Sandwich Islands,
Phillips's Island, &c. all discovered by the En-
glish within the last fifty years. The inhabitants
five in a savage state; and the history and anec-
dotes of their simple manners form the charm of
the voyages of Wallis, Cook, and others.

357. Maps are exact delineations of the sur-
face of die earth, viewed as from- an eminence, or
laid down 'according to a scale, in which every
part retains its exact proportion*

GEOGRAPHY. 131"

The top of a map is generally the north, the
bottom, the south, the right-hand is the east, and
the left-hand the west : except when these points
are indicated by a compass engraved on the map,
when the north is indicated by a jlmr-de-luze.

. Obs. 1.— It would be well to convey the idea of the
principle of maps to children, by shewing them a plan of
the place where they live, or a map of their county or
district, laying it in the position of the places.

. 2. — Young persons should be taught the use of maps,
by means of the Problems in Goldsmith's Royal Atlas.

358. The figures running from no^th to south,
or south to north, at the side ofa map, indicate
the latitude or distance in degrees or minutes
from the equator. The lines across are mere-
guides to the eye, to connect the •figures on each
side, and are called the parallels of latitude. If
the figures increase upward, it is north latitude f
if downward, it is south latitude.
,* 359. An imaginary line, which passes over
every place on trie earth, from the north pole to
the south pole, is called the Meridian ; and the
distance between these meridians, measured at
the equator,* is called the longitude.-

The* figures at the bottom and top df the map
indicate such distances between meridians, and
the lines which -join. them are called parallels of
longitude. . The longitude is east when the dis-
tance increase from left to right; or west, when
the figures increase from right to left.

Ob». — See the opposite map of the whole world; and
examine, study, and copy it

360. A globe is an exact resemblance of the

fearth or heavens. For the facility of working

problems, it is provided with a universal brass

m2

132 MORALS AND RELIGION.

meridian; with a universal wooden horizon; witk
nnhour circle to reduce its motion into time;
with a compass to set it due north and south; and
with a quadrant to measure distances and alti-
tudes.

361. As the $arth, which is 360 degrees round,
tiuys opposite to the Sun-in every 24 hours, of
course, 15 degrees turn to and from the Sun in
every hour, and one degree in every four mi-
nutes.

The hour of the day, therefore, at different
places, depends on then- difference in longitude;
calculated in the above proportion; all places to
the east moving under the Sun, or having their
noon sooner than those to' the west, because the
earth turns from west to east.

Obi. — Bristol is nearly 120 miles, or two degrees west
of London; it therefore passes under the. Sun eight mi-
nutes later than London arrives at the'Sun ; and of course,
When it is twelve o'clock at London, it wants eight minutes
of twelve in Bristol; or when h is twelve in Bristol, it is
eight minutes after twelve in London. In working such
problems, it is simply necessary to bear in mind, that the-
whole earth of 360 degrees turns round in twenty-four
hours; and of course, that the clocks every where vary
in proportion to the distances of their meridians, or the
difference of their longitudes.

•

XIV. Of Morals and Jkligion.

362. Man will not be well adapted to a social
state, unless his conduct be restrained by a re-
spect for others beyond what is imposed by Laws;,
that is, without he be actuated by an nabitual
sense of what is right, and by feelings of remorse
for having done what is wrong. \

MORALS AND RELIGION. 1S3

s

363. In due time he Will find, that his happi-
ness consists in restraining his own passions and
sensual propensities; in doing good to others;
and in rendering his existence useful, by creating
a reliance in others upon his labour, skill, and
kindness.

364. The perception which every man feels of
what is right ana wrong, is called the Moral
Sense; and it appears to arise from a conscious-
ness of doing, or not doing to others what we
would have them do to us, were our situations re-
versed. Doing to others, therefore, as we would
that others should do to us, is the golden rule of
social virtue.

06*.— Another rule as universal, find not less important
to the cause -of virtue, is never to do an act which you
•would be ashamed to have known.

365. The practice of virtue implies restraint, on
our own wishes, and on our respecting the rights
and happiness of others; restraint is the result of
habit, and habit is produced by education. Hence,
the necessity of education, for restraining vicious
propensities, and for producing virtuous habits,
Wi vhich depend all our happiness and pros-
perity.

Ofo.~ The golden rule of virtue is also the golden rule
of maimer 8; true politeness consisting in deference to
others, and. conceding our own wants and wishes to the
pleasure and enjoyment of others.

366. Thereare no general rules so unerring as
those, that virtue ought always to be practisea for
its own sake, as- productive of happiness 5 and
ttpt future misery is an inevitable consequence of
vicious habits.

s 367* Such were the result* of men's own et-

134 MORALS AND RELIGION.

perience in the pagan world; but at length it
pleased Almighty God to send his only Son Jesus
fchrist among his chosen people, the Jews, to
recall them, and all mankind, from their idola-
tries; and to convey to them a just knowledge
of one God, the maker of all things, and of the
immortality of the soul of man after this life of
probation.

368. The history of this divine Personage ii
met with in the writings of the four Evangelists;
in which, his precious doctrines are recorded for
the instruction of mankind.

As everlasting foundations of virtue, these
writings, those of the Apostles, and the whole
Bible, should be consulted by young and old* for
that wisdom which surpasses, finite enquiry, and
the delusive knowledge of man. '*

369. By the information of the holy scrip-
tures, and the inferences Of our reason, deduced
from the perfection of his wonderful works, we
learn that there is one God; that he is a Supreme
Being; First Cause; the Creator of the universe;
Omnipotent, or all-powerful; Omniscient, or all-
wise; Infinite, or present every where; and Eter-'
nal, or without beginning anfl without end.

In the Vast and the Minute, we see •
The unambiguous feotsteps of the God
Who gives its lustre to an insect's wing,
And wheels his throne upon the rowing worlds.

Cowper. \

370. We learn, and we perceive, that God ig
always present with its; that all our thoughts and
actions are known to him; and that* we are ac-
countable for them in a future state of immor-
tality, which will follow this transient and ephe*

MORALS AND RELIGION. 135

meral existence. Hence, we have a far more

powerful stimulus- to virtuous conduct, than mere

temporal happiness.
I read his aweful name, emblazon'd high
With golden letters on th' illumin'd sky;
Nor less, the mystic characters I see
Wrought in each flower ; inscrib'd on ev'ry tree ;
In e^ry leaf that trembles on the breeze,
I hear the voice of Goi> among the trees. Barbauu*

371. Some virtues, from their great worth, are
• called Cardinal Virtues: these are Sincerity,
Charity, Temperance, Justice, Prudence^ and
Fortitude.

a. Sincerity is that desirable virtue which
deal plainly and honestly without disguise, false-
hoed, or hypocrisy.

& Charity is that amiable virtue which leads
us to relieve the distresses, tolerate the imper-
fections, pity the sufferings, and ameliorate the
condition of all sensitive beings; and it opposes
itself to persecution, cruelty, selfishness, and
all barbarous practices towards men, animals, or
insects.

c. Temperance sets bounds to our desires, am-
bition, and passions ; opposes our self-love, va-
nity, and sensual gratifications; and leads to
contentment, health, and long life.

d. Justice is that virtue which leads us to do
to men and animals that which we would they
should do to us, were we in their situation and
they in ours; and it is the opposite of tyranny,
ana of practices towards others, founded on our

own supposed impunity.

Obs. — Tenderness to animals, and to all who cannot
help themselves, or resist our power, is. the primary
duty of all men*

136 MORALS AND RELIGION.

e. Prudence is that useful virtue which results
from experience, of what M fit or unfit for our
condition; and being possessed by the aged and
by parents, their precepts ought to have full
weight on the minds of children.

f. Fortitude is that necessary virtue, which en-
ables us to bear with the adversities and acci-
dents of social life; and which keeps us steady
in the practice of virtue*

372. In early ages, the Christian world became 9
divided into two great bodies; called the Greek*
church and the Romish church.

The Greek church wasf and is still, established
in Russia, Turkey, Asia, and Greece.

The Romish church spread its influence over
the West of Europe into Germany, France, Spain,
Sweden, Britain, &c.

37$. Soon after the invention of printing, the
abuses and palpable errors of the Romish church
led to the efforts of Luther, Calvin, Cranmer,
*nd others.

A reformed religion was, in consequence,- es-
tablished In Great Britain, Germany, Sweden,
Holland, and some other countries, called Pro
testant, from the early reformers protesting
against the proceedings of a Romish council.

374* The Protestants have subdivided them-
selves into.

Lutherans, or followers of Luther.

Calvinists, or those who prefer the doctrines of
Calvin.

Jlrmmians, who follow tfmse of Arminius.

/Bocmimts, those of Socinus.
\ Anglican, who prefer the national church of
England, and its rights and liturgy.

MORALS AND RELIGION. W

Presbyterians, who deny the authority of
bishops.

Independents, who acknowledge Ho church?
government.

Baptists, who disapprove of infant baptism*

Quakers, who have no external religious cere-
monies.

Unitarians, who deny the doctrine of thft-
Trinity.

Swedenborgians, who believe in the divinfe
mission of Emanuel Swedenborg.

And Methodists, who use the church-liturgy
but preach extemporaneously.

375. The Jews still exist as a distinct people
in all parts of the world 5 over which they are
dispersed, according to ancient prophecy, pre-
serving every where their religion and original
language*

' 376. In Turkey, and in most parts of Asia and
Africa, the religion of Mahomet, an Arabian im-
postor of the 7th century, still prevails ; and de-
scendants of Mahomet still occupy several Asia*
tic and African thrones, as sultans, emperors, &c«

377. In China, the national religion is founded
on the pure belief of one God ; and on the moral
writings of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher.

In India, many superstitions and much idolatry
prevail 5 but the effect tends to maintain subor-
dination and industry; while it teaches peace
among men, and chanty even to animals and in-
sects.

378. In other nations, Christianity is silently
working its way among the people ; and civiliza*
tion and Christianity appear happily to go hand*

laS GRAMMAR.

in-hand in Africa, in America, and among the
South-Sea islanders, the majority of whom enter-
tain the grossest superstition and idolatries*

XV. Grammar.

379. The power of communicating ideas by
speech is peculiar to man ; but it is a power on
which depends His improvement in all the arts $'
because the gradation and accumulation of im-
provements depend on co-operation and continu-
ation. •

Neither could exist, if the power were not at-
tained of describing improvements to the living,
and of transmitting them to posterity.

S80. The language of savage nations is, how-
ever, very limited : they are able to call a few
hundred things by their names ; to express some

aualities ; and name a few modes of action ; but
ley express more by gesture than by sound : few
of them can count above ten 5 and when desired
to express a higher number, they shew the hair of
their heads.

381. The most ancient languages consisted of
two or three hundred monosylables, expressing
general ideas :— -as air, sea, tree, man, Goa, house,
good, bad, &c.: and all other words, by a systema-
tic combination, were formed out of tnese ;— such
were the Welsh, Chinese, and some other lan-
guages.

382. The first sounds used by savages, may be
supposed to have been cries of pleasure and pain ;
as Oh ! Ah ! and other such words, called inter-
jections.

They probably next named visible objects 3 as

GRAMMAR. 139

river, tree, grass, &c. ; thereby introducing a new
class of words, called nouns*

They would then derive from nouns, a class of
words to express corresponding actions 5 as walk,
talk, eat, drink, &c. called vehbs.

.383. The next class, of words describe and may
be supposed to have been the qualities of nouns
and verbs; as tall, swifts short,' faM, &c. called
<uf-N0UNS and od-vEfcBS.

Words, to describe the position of nouns in re-
gard to each other ; as to, from, above, below, &c,
were also among those necessary to a language,
and these were called'pre-posmoNS.

384. The seventh class was* a mere refinement
of speech, and consisted of words used in place of
nouns ; as he, she, it, they', &c, called fro*

NOUNS.

The eighth class was intended to give precision
to the noun ; as a man, or the man, and called

ARTICLES.

And the ninth class consisted solely of words
intended to join others together in a discourse ;
as and, because, but, yet, &c. $ and are called

CONJUNC-#OnS.

S85. Such were the origin and progress of
speech ; and such, without variation, is the gene-
ral composition of language. ' The English lan«
guage, and all others, contain nine kinds of words,
or parts of speech named as above; and the sci-
ence of grammar merely supplies general rules
for their arrangement and government.
' 386. The classification of all words into nine
kinds, enables grammarians to simplify the rules

N

140 GRAMMAR.

which direct the construction of language. Ift-
stead of a rule for every word, a few rules only
are necessary to regulate forty thousand words.

Obs. — For the details of grammar, I must refer the
student to my own Practical grammar ; or to any other .
modern grammar which is not too long and complex.

387. All name? of things, are called nouns ;
all qualities of thing are called ad-nouns, or ad-
jectives. -

All actions are expressed by verbs.

All words, which modify actions or qualities,
are called ad-verbs.

All words, which describe the position of per-
sons and things, art called prepositions. .

All words, which are used instead of nouns, or
for nouns, are called prtMioims.

All words, which are used to join sentences or
parts of sentences, are called conjunctions.

The words a or an, and the, are called articles*

The exclamatory words, which express ear-
nestness or surprise, are called interjections.

388. The first written signs of words were
probably hieroglyphics, or characters, which re-
presented the object named- by the character ;
and, of course, there were nearly as many cha-
racters as ideas. The characters now used for
the signs of the Zodiac and the Planets are spe- ,
cimens of this kind of character ; and. so is a ci+~
cle or snake, when used to signify eternity.

389. The invention of letters, by combining
which all sounds could be represented, is ascribed
to some wise man in the reign of Cadmus, kins
trf Thebes. This simple contrivance facilitated

GRAMMAR.

141

the propagation and preservation of knowledge,
by enabling us to express a million of words, if
we desire it, by the various combination of only
twenty-four, or five characters.

Oba. 1. — In the Greek Language there are twenty-
four letters; of which seven are vowels, and seventeen
consonants: —

A«-

r y f

A} -
£ f -

H» -

i* -

K* -
AA -
Up
N» -

«?-

<>• -

n ww

r» -
*p

*x
a*

. Alpha -

- Beta -

• Gemma

- Delta -

- Epsilon

- Zeta -

- Eta- -

- Theta -

- Iota

- Kappa.-

- Lambda

- Mu- -
-.Nu- -

- Xi - -

- Omicron

- Pi - -

- Rho -

- Sigma -

- Tau -

• Upsilon
-Phi - -

- Chi- -

- Psi- -

• Omega

- *A*$* -

- Bar*
. Ttipfi* -
. AfArfc -

- 'E4*A0»

- Z?r*

- T H T| * -

- Btirm -

- \mrm

- Kdmra

- A«ftC£»

- M» - -

- N» * -

- I# - -

- *Ofcs*£ f

- n« - •

- **£ - -

" Xiyp* -

- Tm» -

- •y^iAJf
■ 01 - -

- X* - -

- ir$ - -

■ - b

i

- - %

short

The vowels are «, t, *, <, »,- *, #•

- e long
th

•

i

kc

1

m

n

x

o small

P
r

s

t

u

ph

ch
ps

o great

M2

GRAMMAR.

2.— The following is the ancient Hkbbew Alphas*

of twenty-two letters, of wliich five are vowels, and th

rest are consonants: —

• • •

Name.

Form.

English Sound.

Aleph - - -

«

a broad, as in war.

Beth ...

3-

b %

Gimel - -

J

g hard, as in give, get*

Daleth - -

1 '

d

He - - -

n

e, as in where*

V*U - - r

i

u, as oo, w before a vowei.

Zain - * -

r

z

Heth or Cheth

n

h hard aspirate*

Teth - - -

B

th

Yod - , -

. *

ilikee?.

Caph - - .-

§.

k or c hard, as come.

Lamed - -

I

Mem - - -

D

in.

Nun - - -

i

n .

Samech - -

D

sh

Oin ...

y

o long, as whole.

Pe- - - .

V

P

Jaddi - - -

D

j soft, as s in treasure.

Koph - - -

■K.

qor qu

Resch - - -

r

Shin or Sin -

V

s

Tau - - -

1 n

t

The vowels are ft HI 1 V '

390. The English language consists of about
40,000 words; and is derived from the Celtic,
Gothic, and Latin ; successively incorporated by
the Welsh, Romans, Saxons, Danes, and Nor*
mans; and by the terms used in the sciences, de-

GRAMMAR, iti

rived from the Greek, French, Italian, and Ger-
man languages.

391. Grammar, in a limited sense, is the art
which teaches the construction of phrases and
sentences ; but, in an extended sense, it embraced
the whole science of language.

• The study of language is properly divided into
the seven following branches :— Orthoepy, Ortho*
graphy, Accidence, Syntax, Prosody, Rhetoric,
and Composition

392. Orthoepy consists of rules for pronoun*
cine; letters and syllables according to the esta-
blished usage.

Orthography is the art of writing words with
Ihe jproper ana necessary letters.

Tne Accidence treats of the modification of the
different kinds of words, called parts of speech.

Syntax furnishes the rules for the proper con-
struction and just, disposition of words in a sen-
tence.

393. Prosody teaches the right accentuation of
syllables ; and the different measures of verses.

Rhetoric enables us to affect or convince those
whom we address in speaking or in writing.

. Composition is the art of arranging our thoughts
with precision and elegance ; and is,' consequent-
ly, the object and end of the study of language*

394. Ine nine kinds of words, or nine parts of
speech, compose all languages $ and there are in
tne English language about 20,500 nouns, 40 pro-
nouns, 9,260 adnouns, or adjectives, 8,©00 verbs,
2,660 adverbs, 69 prepositions, 19 conjunctions^
68 interjections, and 2 articles $-r-in all about for-
ty thousand words.

* 2

144 GRAMMAR.

395. After having acquired a stock of words
by reading and copying the best authors, and mix-
ing in good company, we should learn to arrange
and combine them in a sentence with elegance;
and in such manner, as exactly to express the
sense we intend to convey, and no other than
that sense; — a power of writing which is called
perspicuity.

S96. The great rule for the attainment of the
art of composition, is to conceive, ourselves, that
sentiment, which we purpose to convey to others,
by previously reflecting upon it ; as it is impossi-
ble to express clearly, to others, what we do not
well understand ourselves.

397. We should never desire to express toq
many ideas in one sentence; but dispatch them
one after another in their proper order 5 and conr
fine ourselves to simple and short sentences till
we have acquired facility in the management of
them.

0d*.— The best exercise in writing and speaking is to
read a short story ; and then write or speak it, in our
own phraseology. Such an exercise continued every
day for two years, one day writing, and the other
speaking', would teach the arts of spelling, writing, and
speaking, at the same instant.

398. We should avoid all quaint phrases, cant
words, vulgar proverbs, and foreign idioms 5 and
make our choice from the phraseology of the Old
or New Testaments, or the works ot Addison or
Shakspeare; and avoid the latinized phraseology
of Johnson, and the Gallic phraseology of some
other modern writers.

06*.— Happily, the translation of the Scriptures has
sirred to preserve our language ; or it would have been
Mt amidst the barters affectations of Johnson and his

LOGIC. 145

followers. We have no where such variety of beautiful
and affecting language, as in the Old and New Testa-
ments. These will; I hope, preserve our language from
the comiptioYis and innovations daily making in it, by
those- who prefer sound to sense.

399. To speak or write our ideas in an able
and persuasive manner, we ought to possess our-
selves -of various knowledge; to read the best
books on ail subjects ; to suffer no hour to pass,
without making some improvement ; and think,
talk, and write ourselves on subjects, on which
we have perused the opinion of others.
. 400. We should commit to memory the terms
and leading facts of the various Arts and Sci-
ences ; and frequently reduce to writing, strik-
ing facts or important sentiments which we meet
with in reading. We should compare one author
with another on the same subject 5 and frequent-
ly converse with others, on any points in which
authors do not satisfy our curiosity.

Obs. — Dr. Irving's Elements of Composition is a library
for young persons; and the study of it should follow that
of every grammar. Adair's Questions render it practi-
cal, for schools.

XVI. Loj*ic.

401. Logic, (which notwithstanding its impor-
tance, is too much neglected,) is the science of
correct thinking.- Logicians give five general
rules, by which to assist their views in thinking,
writing, and speaking on all subjects.

As these rules are of great and constant use, I have
copied them from my own English Grammar: —

a. Conceive of tilings clearly and distinctly,
in their own natures.

Obs. — That is, we should acquire a clear and distinct
conception of things as they aje, in their own nature ;

146 LOGIC.

and not be content with obscure and confused ideas,
when clearer are to be obtained

b. Conceive of dungs completely, in all their
parts.

G6*.— There is a metaphysical, or ideal whole, a ma-
thematical, or integral whole, and a -physical, or essen-
tial whole.

c. Conceive of 'things comprehensiwly> 'in all
their properties and relations.

x Obs. — That is, we must consider ' them in all their
modes, attributes, properties, and relations ; in order to
attain a comprehensive view of their essential -modes or
attributes, and of their various occasional properties, ac-
cidental modes, and relations. * -

tk Conceive of things extensively, in all their
kinds.

G6t.~-.That is, we must search out the various species*
or special natures, which are contained .under the subject
as a genus or general nature.: as, if we would know the
nature of an animal perfectly, we must take cognizance
of beasts, birds, fishes, and insects*, as well as' men ; aH
which are contained under the general nature and name
of animal.

e. Conceive of things in order, or in a proper
- method. v

Obs. — That is, we should rank and place our ideas in

aproper method and just order. We must not conceive

of things in a confused heap ; but dispose of our ideas in

some method, whieh may be easy and useful for the un-

. dei-standing- and memory. .

v 402. Method is analytical or synthetical.
Analytical method resolves the compound into its
principles, and the whole into its parts. Syn-
w theticai begins with the parts ana leads to m
whole, or it puts together the principles and
forms a compound.

403. Arguments are either metaphysical, phy-
sical, political^ moral, mechanical, or theological,

LOGIC. 147

according to the science or subject from which
they are drawn. The following deserve notice :

•a. The Argumentum ad judicium, is an appeal to the
common sense of mankind.

b. The Argumentum adjidem, is an appeal to the fa ith.

c. The Argumentum ad hominem, is an appeal to the
practices, or professed principles of the adversary.

d The Argumentum ad poptdum, is an appeal to the
people.

e. The Argumentum ex concetto, is when something is
proved by means of some proposition previously con-
ceded.

•/ The Argumentum ad pasnones, is. an appeal to the
passions.

.. g. Tfte Argumentum a fortiori, proves the conclusion,
by proving a less probable proposition on which the
conclusion depends.

A.. The Argumentum ad ignorantiam, is founded upon
insufficient principles, which th* opponent has not skill
to refute.

i. Argumentum adverecundiam, is drawn from authority
we are ashamed to dispute.

k. A direct argument, is that which immediately proves
the proposition in question.

/. An indirect argument, proves the conclusion; by
proviftg or disproving some proposition upon which the
conclusion depends.

404. Certainty or Truth is of several kinds :
there is a mathematical certainty, which admits of
demonstration 5 si moral certainty, which is de-
rived from testimony 5 a physical certainty, de-
rived from the evidence of the senses and the
course of nature; and a theological certainty,
founded dh the doctrines of the Scriptures.
% 405.- Evidence* is of different kinds 5 as the
evidence of sense, founded on the perceptions of
eur senses.

The evidence of intuition 9 founded on self-eri-

148 LOGIC.

dent axioms ; as that the whole i9 greater than a
part,, or, every effect is produced by some cause.

The evidence of reason, founded on clear and
indubitable deductions from well-founded pre-
mises and doctrines. '

And the evidence ofjaithy deduced from the
testimony of others.

406/ Demonstrations are a succession of con-
nected Propositions, beginning with self-evident
truths and advancing to remoter ones.

A Demonstration a priori, is when the effect
is proved by referring to the cause.

A Demonstration 6 posteriori, is when th£
cause is inferred from the effects.

Obt.—CoroUarie* are self-evident inferences from es-
tablished propositions. '

407. Sophistry is false reasoning* founded on
false premises, or on ambiguity of terms.

Obs. — As most of the evils which exist in society grow
out of sophistry, no art is more important than that
which enames us to detect or expose it The crimes of
courts and wicked ministers usually escape punishment,
from the effect of sophistry ; and there would be^w or
no wars, if sophistry did not triumph in the statements
of the parties.

A Sophism of composition, is when we infer
that of any thing in an aggregate or compounded
sense, which is true only in a divided sense.

A Sophism of division, is when we infer any
thing in a divided sense, which is true only in a
compounded sense. . * « .

. A Sophism of equivocation. As when we use
words of an ambiguous or double sense, and draw
inferences in one sense, of which the proposition
is capable only in the other.

408. A petitio principii, or begging the

, LOGIC. 149

question, is the supposition of what is not grant-
ed, or a supposed proof, by stating the question
in other words.

The reductio ad absurdum, is when the truth of
a proposition is proved by shewing the absurdity
of a contrary supposition.

'409. Induction consists in distributing a gene-
ral idea into its species, and ascribing to the whole
the property found in the species. m

A false induction 19 when general deductions
are made from too- limited a number of experi-
ments or facts. •

Thefallacia accideniis, is when we draw infe-
rences in regard to the nature of a thing, from cir-
cumstances only temporary or accidental.

The ignorantia elenchi, is a. mistake of the
question* or when one thing is proved instead of
another.

Analogy is an argument in which, from corres-
ponding causes,are deduced corresponding effects.

Q&*.— The sources of error* are, (1.) The want of dili-
gence in investigation. (2.) Judging of things by their
external appearances only. (3.) Not separating the
good and bad qualities that pervade the same thing, but
Forming a hasty judgment. (4.) Comparing things with
our own situation in life ; or as they happen to affect us.
(5.) Associating an idea with something disagreeable, or
the contrary. (6.) Prejudices formed in our infancy.
(7.) Giving credit to the assertions or misrepresentations
of others, without enquiring into their motives, as in
news-writers and reviewers; and (8.) Submitting to the
force and influence of custom andfasnion.

410. 4 Syllogism is a sentence made up of
three propositions, so disposed, as that the last is
necessarily inferred from those that precede it.

Every syllogism contains two premises and a

150 RHETORIC.

conclusion; or a major and minor proposition
and a consequence.

. Example of a Syllogism:
• Major. - - Our Creator ought to be worshipped.
Minor, - - God Is our creator;
Consequence. Therefore God ought to be worshipped.

411. An Argument is a series of syllogisms;
and, although arguments do not retain their s jl^
logistic form in ordinary discourse, yet all argu-
ments may be reduced to. syllogisms; and errors
or sophisms may thus be detected,

412. Formerly, Logic, or the art of reasoning,
was almost the sole business of a university-edu-
cation ; but it is now in some degree superseded)
by the practice of reasoning in the study of ma-
thematics, by the various branches of philosophy,

and by the perusal of the classic authors.

06*.— The great master of philosophy, Aristotle, di-
vided all science into Theorems formed of Syllogisms,
which Syllogisms were composed of Propositions,
which Propositions ' were formed of Terms ; which
Terms were Words or .Sieirs of our Ideas of Things.
He then considered all Things with reference to their
ten categories, or Predicaments s as Substance, Quality^
Quantity, Relation, Action, Passiveness, When* Where^
Position, m& Habit.

XVII. Rhetoric. .

413. Rhetoric teaches us to affect the passions
by suitable illustrations and imagery; and to
arrange our arguments to the. best advantage, so
as to make the deepest impression on the feelings!
and judgment of those we addr&s. •

414. Hie following are the chief figures of
speech.

a. Simile, or comparison, is that figure by

RHETORIC. 151

which we compare one thing with another for the
sake of illustration.

b. Metaphor, is a comparison expressed with-
out the signs of comparison; as, when we say of
a minister, that he is the pillar of the state, we
speak in metaphor; and when we say, that
Charles the twelfth was the lion of the north, we

Sj>eak metaphorically.

c. Allegory, is a continuation of several meta-
phors, so connected as to form a kind of parable
or fable ; as, in describing the people of Israel
under the image of a vine.

d. Irony, is a figure in which we urge one thing,
and mean the contrary, in order to give effect to
our meaning; as, in describing a notorious cheat,
we say, ironically, A mighty honest man, truly!

e. Hyperbole, gives us the highest idea of an
object, and magnifies it beyond its natural dimen-
sions; as, Achules was swifter than a stag.

f. Antithesis, is the contrast or opposition of
two objects in a sentence; as, If you seek to moke
a man rich, study not so much to increase his
stores, as to diminish his desires.

g. Climax, or Gradation, is a figure by which
we rise from one circumstance to another, till
our idea is raised to the highest. '

h. Personification, is a figure by which we attri-
bute life and the use of reason to inanimate ob-
jects and irrational creatures.

i. Apostrophe, is a figure by which we address
absent persons, or inanimate objects which we
personify.

k. Interrogation, is a figure which, by asking a

152, RHETORIC.

question, gives ardour and energy to «ur dis-
course.

/. Exclamation, is a figure that expresses some
strong emotion of the mind, and is generally fol-
lowed by a note of admiration. •

415. Rhetorical disposition or arrangement is
the placing of the arguments, or the partB of a
discourse, oration, or composition, in the most
suitable and impressive order.

The parts of a discourse are sometimes five,
and sometimes eix; viz. the Exordium, the Nar-
ration, the Proposition, the Confirmation, the
Refutation, and the Peroration.

a. In the Exordium, or beginning of a dis-
course, the writer or speaker gives some intima-
tion of his subject, and solicits favour and atten-
tion.

k The Narration is a brief recital of the facts
connected with the case from the beginning to
the end.

c. In the Proposition, is given the true state of
the question; specifying the points maintained,
and those in which the writer or speaker differs
from the adversary.

d. The Confirmation assembles all the proofs
and arguments which can be adduced.

e. In the Refutation, the writer or speaker an-
swers the arguments and objections of his oppo-
nent.

/. In the Peroration, he sums up the strong
and principal arguments, and endeavours to ex-
cite the passions m his favour.

416. A distinct and audible delivery is essen-
tial to a good orator.

OF VEGETABLE NATURE. 153

The first rule is, to open the mouth sufficiently,
and not to mumble or mutter the words.

The second is. to pronounce distinctly every
letter and syllable without hurry. •

And the thitd is, to fill the room with the
voice, so that the most distant part of the audi-
tory may hear.

417. In regard to gesture, that v which is natu-
ral is the best, provided it is not awkward and
offensive.

The head should be held up, and the speaker
should look those he is addressing in the face.

His action should be easy, and should keep pace
with his voice and the nature of his discourse.

He should also avoid contortions and vulgar
grimaces; ease in delivery, being the chief grace
of Oratory.

XVHL Of Vegetable Nature.

418. Every substance known to man is divisi-
ble into three kingdoms, the Mineral, Vegetable,
And Animal. Linnaeus thus distinguishes these
kingdoms: " Stones grow /—vegetables grow and
iit?e/— and animals grow, live, and feel."

Obs. — For the Mineral Kingdom, see chapter XX.

419. The existence of all vegetables may be
regarded as mechanical, . or as similar to that of
an animal when asleep, during which time his
functions proceed without consciousness. The
Mechanism of plants is, however, most wonder-
ful ; and bespeaks the contrivance of an all-wise
and all-powerful Creator.

420. A seed, which is thrown into the earth by
the husbandman, is similar in its construction to -

154 OF VEGETABLE NATURE.

the egg of an animal. The earth acts upon it, inr
means as inexplicable to man, as that; by which
the sitting of an hen on an egg converts it into a
chicken.

421. In a few days, the seed opens, and there
issues a green plant, with, a number of fibrous
threads.

Whatever was the position of the seed, the
green sprout struggles through the soil upward
into the air; and the fibrous shoots strike down*
ward into the ground; and there imbibe, trans-
mit, or pump up, the moisture, as nourishment to
the plant.

422. Nothing is more wonderful than the means
of nature for the preservation of seeds ; and the
contrivances by which they are distributed.

Some seeds are provided with downy wings, as
the dandelion, and are impelled by the winds;
others are swallowed by animalsrana voided again
in distant places, being preserved by their cover-
ings, till excited into germination, by the heat of
the sun's Ways in the tallowing spring.

423. Linnseus divided all plants into 24 classes,
and 121 orders; and these into genera, and
species, with varieties of the species without
number.

Each has its peculiar habitation; and each
adapts the nutriment derived from the same earth,
so differently, that, by an unknown agency, are
produced all the degrees of flavour, odour, poi-
son, and nutriment, which we find in various
plants.

Each tree, each plant, from all its branching roots,
Amid the glebe small hollow fibres shoots ;
Wlych drink with thirsty mouths the vital juice)

OF VEGETABLE NATURE. 155

And to the limbs and leaves their food diffuse ;

Peculiar pores peculiar juice receive ;

To this, deny, to that, admittance give. — Blackmore.

Oft*. l«-^Of the different distinctions of leaves only, ac-
cording to their position and form, above one hundred
are enumerated. In all of them, one of the offices, is, to
subtilize the abundance of nourishing sap, and to convey
it to the little buds. There are two orders of veins and
Berves in leaves, one belonging to each surface ; and it
has been generally observed, that the lower lamina, or
under side of the leaf, has the ramifications larger, and
is capable of admitting a liquid to pass through them,
which those of the* upper surface will not. The lower
lamina is supposed to be intended for die receiving, pre-
paring, and conveying the moisture imbibed from the
rising vapours of the earth, by which trees and plants are
greatly nourished ; so that one principal use of leaves is
to perform, in some measure, the same office for the sup-
port of vegetable life, as the lungs of animals do for the
subsistence of animal life.

2. — Another of the great functions for which the leaves
of trees and plants are designed, is that of their foot-stalks
nourishing and preparing the buds of the future shoots,
which are always formed at the base of these foot-stalks.
ILeaves, moreover, are designed to shade the buds for fu-
ture shoots from thje sun ; which would otherwise exhale
and dry np all their moisture. Air evidently passes in at
the leaves, and goes through the whole plant, and out
again at the roots. If the leaves have no air, the whole
plant will die. This has been proved by experiments
with the air-pump. And plants not only draw through
their leaves some part of their nourishment from the air,
but the leaves also perform the necessary work of alter-
ing the water received in at the roots into the nature and
juices of the plant ; and hence it is, that the life.of the
plant depends so immediately on their leaves.

424. Every plant consists of a root, buds, a
trunk or stem, of leaves, of props or arms, of the
inflorescence ; and of the parts of fructification.

o 2

150 OF VEGETABLE NATURE.

i-

425. In regard to their bulk, plants are. divided
into trees, shrubs, under-shrubs, and herbs*

According to their respective durations, they
are annual, lasting one year, and reproduced
from their seed ; or biennial, when they are pro-
duced in one year and flower the next ; perennial,
when they last many years.

426. Plants, in regard to the roots, are bulbous,
as in onions or tulips ; tuberose, as in turnips or
potatoes; mdjibrotts, as in grasses.

They are deciduous, when their leaves fall in
autumn; and ever-green, when they are. con-
stantly renewed, as in all resinous trees.

They are said to sleep, when they change the
appearance of their leaves or flowers at night.

They are indigenous, er native ; and exotic or
foreign.

427. The parts of fructification consist of the
calyx, or cup, which is usually the outer green
covering of a flower.

The corolla are the delicate leaves or petals of
the flower generally coloured, and are trie parts
which constitute its beauty.

The nectary, or nectarium, is a part in some
flowers, supposed to secrete honey, but not easily
defined.

428. The calyx and corolla are fine expansions
of the outer and inner bark or rind of the plant;
and their evident purpose is, to protect certain
delicate extensions of the pith and wood, which
grow witliin the corolla, and are called the pistil
and the stamen, by the peculiar organization of
which the seed is produced.

429. The pistil is provided at its head with a
gummy matter, and the stamen with a fine dusfr

OF VEGETABLE NATtfoE. 1ST

called pollen ; and when the dust falls on the head
of the pistil, it is there absorbed and carried down
the style of the pistil to the germen or seed-ves-
sel in the centre of the flower; where the seed is,
in consequence, produced within a pericarp, af-
terwards called fruit.

430. Fruits, which afford us so many luxuries,
are, in fact, nothing more than the covering,
which protects the seed of plants, and called by
botanists Pericarps*

Some pericarps are pulpy, as apples, pears,
nectarines, &c. ; some are hard, as nuts : and
some scaly, as the cones of fir-trees

Your contemplation further yet, pursue ;
The wondrous world of vegetables view !
Bee various trees, their various fruits, produce,
Some for delightful taste, and some for use.
See sprouting plants enrich the plain and wood,
For physic some, and some designed for food.
See fragrant flowers, with different colours dy'd,
Gn smiling meads unfold their gaudy pride.

Blackmobe,

431. It must not then be forgotten, that the
design of the beautiful flowers which cover the
earth' is to create the seed of future trees ; that
the leaves or corolla of the flowers are merely
protections of the delicate pistil, stamen, and ger-
men ; that in this last are produced the seeds ; and
that for their protection is provided the pericarp,

which we call the fruit '•

Go, mark the matchless workings of the Power,
That shuts within the seed the future flower ;
Bids these, in elegance of form excel,
Jn colour these, and those delight the smell ;
Sends Nature forth, the daughter of the Skies,
Te dance on earth, and charm all human eyes.

Cowpwu

158 OF VEGETABLE NATURE.

432. Linneeus seized on the variations in the num-
ber of the stamens, as a means of classing the vege-
table kingdom into twenty-four denominations.

Those flowers having but one stamen, he called
mon-andria ; those of two stamens he called du
andria; three, tri-andria; so on up to twenty
stamens, and above twenty, poly-anaria.

When he found stamens, in one flower, and pis-
tils in another, on die same plant, he called them
monmcia ; and on different plants, duBcia,
When altogether invisible, cryptogamia.

433. Nothing can be more easy than to remem-
ber the names of these 24 classes ; they are,

1. Monandria, one stamen.

2. Diandria, two stamens.

3. Triafcdria, three stamens.

4. Tetrandria, four stamens, equal in length.
. 5. Vmtnndrw, five stamens.

6. Hexandria y six stamens, all of equal length,

7. Heptandria, seven stamens.

8. Octandria, eight stamens.

9. Enneandria, nine stamens.

10. Deeandria^ten stamens, filaments separate.

11. Dodecandria, twelve stamens to nineteen,,
inserted on the receptacle.

12. Icosandria, twenty or .more stamens, in-
serted upon the calyx or corolla.

13. Polycmdria, many stamens, inserted on the
receptacle.

14; Didynamia, four stamens, two long, two
short.

15. Tetradynamia, six stamens, four long, two
short.

16. Monadelphia, filaments united at bottom,
Iwrt separate at top.

OF VEGETABLE NATURE. 159

17. Diadelphia, filaments united in two sets.

18. Folyadelphia, filaments united in three or
more sets.

19. Syngenesia, five stamens united above in
the form of a cylinder.

20. Gynandria, stamens inserted on the pistil,
or on a pillar elevating the pistil.

21. MoncBcia, stamens and pistils in separate
corollas, upon the same plant.

. 22. JMcecia, stamens and pistils in distinct co-
rollas, upon different plants.

23. Polygamia, various situations; stamens
only, or pistils only on one plant, and stamens and
pistils on another plant.

24. Cryptogamia, stamens and pistils incon-
spicuous.

Obs. — I have introduced beneath, a representation of
the pistils and gtamens of a* few of die first classes; and
the pupil will, doubtless, be led to observe them within,
any flowers which may fall in his way.

i. . «■«• o. 4. &•

434. The class Triandria contains chiefly the
natural tribe of grasses; Hexandriathe lillies.

The Icosandria contains the edible fruit; Po-
lyandria, has many poisonous plants*

The Tetradynamia contains the natural tribe
rfflotcers, which are antiscorbutic.

The Monadelphia is composed chiefly of the
mallow tribe*

160 OP VEGETABLE NATURE.

Diadelphia consists of the pea-frife, Which pro-
duce edible seeds.

Syngenesis .possesses the compound flowers.

And the Cryptogamia contains the natural
tribes of ferns, mosses, sea-weeds, and mushrooms*

- Obs. — The first order of the fourteenth class, denomi-
nated " Didynamia Gymnoepermia ". are all innocent or
wholesome : those of the other order, are foetid, narco-
tic, and dangerous; being allied to a large part of. the
Pentandria Monogvnia, known to be poisonous, as con-
taining henbane, night-shade, and tobacco. The whole
class Tetradynamia is wholesome. Whenever the «t»-
mens are found to grow out of the calyx, they indicate
the pulpy fruits of such plants to be wholesome. The
papilionaceous plants are wholesome, except the seeds
of the laburnum } which, if eaten unripe, are violently
emetic and dangerous. Milky plants are generally to be
suspected. Umbelliferous plants, which grow in dry
or elevated situations, are aromatic, safe, and often whole*
some ; while those that inhabit low and watery places,
are among the most deadly poisons. I

435. Other distinctions in each class produce ft *
division of the classes, called Orders. A further
division of the orders, founded on distinctions in

the flower and fruit, lead to the Genera.

Other divisions of the genera, in regard to the
root, trunk, leaves, fee. lead to Species: and casual
differences in species are called Varieties.

436. The useful substances found in vegetables
are, sugar in the sugar-cane, beet, carrots, &c ;
gum, or mucilage, which oozes from many trees;
jelly, procured from many fruits ; bitters, from
hops and quassia; and the narcotic principle
from the milk of poppies, lettuce, Sec.

437. The vegetables of the greatest value to
man, are those which produce gluten and starch ;
as wheat, potatoes, barley, beans, &c. 0£/sar*

OP VEGETABLE NATGK Hi

produced by pressing the seeds or kernels of ve-
getables ; as olives, almonds, linseed, &c. Vo-
latile oils are distilled from peppermint, lavender,
&c. Wax is collected from all flowers by bees.

438. Resins exude like gum from furs and other
trees ; and are known as balsams, varnishes, tur-

$entine, tar, pitch, &c. Of this class, too, is
ndian rubber ; which exudes from certain trees
in South America.

Iron mixes with the substance of most vegeta-
bles ; and is the cause of the beautiful colours of
flowers. Pot-ash is obtained from the ashes of

burnt vegetables.

Ob*. — The classes Moneecia and Dioecia, containing"
the pistil and stamens in different flowers, have the pistil
fructified by the bees and other insects, which enter the
corolla to extract the honey from the nectarium. The
pollen in those flowers which have stamens only, falls on
their bodies, and is carried by them to the flowers which
have pistils only, And here the wisdom of the Divine
Architect of nature it conspicuous, that when the pistil
is shorter than the stamens, the flowers grow upright,
that the pollen may fall from the anthers of the sta-
mens on the stigma of the pistils; but when the pistil
is longer than the stamen, the flower hangs downward,
that the pollen, in falling, may be received by the stig-
ma of the pistil.

OF VEGETABLE NATURE.

Four remarkable Exotics.

OF VEGETABLE NATURE,

164 OF VEGETABLE NATURE.

439. The chemical or elementary principles of
vegetables, are carbon, wjater, and air; or hydro-"
gen (15,) and oxygen (85,) for the constituent
parts of (100) water; and azote or nitrogen (72,)
and oxygen (28,) as the constituent parts of (100)

atmospheric air; and carbon* ,

06s. 1. — Wood burnt in* close vessel till it has neither
smell nor taste, will produce the basis of all vegetable
matter called charcoal;' or, when purified, called carbon,
which is the hardest and moat indestructible substance
in nature.

2. — It is found, that water is'nothing but a mixture of
two airs or gases, one the inflammable aright gas called
hydrogen, and the other the vital gas called oxygen; and
water may be made by combining these ; or, it may also
be separated jAto these : one hundred parts of water are
combined ofjtfteen of hydrogen, and eighty-five of oxygen.

3. — In like manner, the air or fluid in which we live, is
found to be composed of 28 parts of oxygen, or pure vital-
air; afcd 72 parts of nitrogen, or air in which animals
will not live ; but the due mixture of both, forms the salu-
tary fluid or atmospheric air in which we breathe.

4. — I have explained the meaning of these easy terms
in this place, in order to illustrate the beautiful provi-
sions of vegetables which follow. There is no mystery
in them; and -they may be understood now as well as
when I treat of Chemistry.

440. Vegetables generate, or give out oxygen
or vital air, in the light or sunshine, by a natural
process of their own.

Air, which has been breathed by animals, is
deprived of its 28 parts of oxygen, and will no
longer sustain life.

^ In like manner, a body, while burning, deprives
air of its 28 parts of oxygen, and the flame will
go out. *

An animal would die, or a flame go out, when
put into air so deprived of its oxygen 5 but a ve*

OF VEGETABLE NATURE. 165

getable will then thrive in it, and will restore it to
its original power of sustaining animal life.

Obe. — Hence, the oxygen of the whole atmosphere
would, in due time, be consumed by the breathing of
animals and by flame, but for this provision of nature.
The leaves of vegetables create oxygen in the day-time,
and keep up the due proportion which is necessary to
the support of animal lire ; the leaves of aquatic and
herbaceous plants produce it, however, in the greatest
quantity.

44 1. The saccharine and oily productions of
vegetables are parts of their sap or juices; but
the turpentine, the bitter* and the acid principles,
are considered as the effect of preparation or
secretion.

The green colour of vegetables arises from the
oil they contain; the ray3 of the sun* extracting
the oxygen from the outer surface, and leaving the
carbon and hydrogen, which are known to be the
constituent parts of oil.

442. Healthy vegetables perspire water by the
under part of their leaves, equal to one-third of
their weight every twenty-four hours; by which
part they also give out oxygen.

^ 44& Nor do they derive tneir substance in a prin-
cipal degree from the matter of the soil in which
they grow ; but they are created by a vital princi-
ple of their own, out of eat and water, and of the
imperceptible matters combined with air and wa-
ter, from which all their distinctions of smell,
taste, and substance, are derived !

Hail, Source of Being! Universal Soul
Of heaven and earth! Essential Presence, hail!
By thek, the various vegetative tribes,
Wrapt in a filmy net, and clad with leaves,
Draw the live ether, and imbibe the dew :
By thee, disposed into congenial soil?,

166 ANIMATED NATURE.

Stands each attractive plant, and sucjcs and swells

The juicy tide, a twining 1 mass of tubes :

At thy command, the vernal sun awakes

The torpid sap, detruded to the root

By wintry winds; that now in fluent dance,

And lively fermentation, mounting, spreads

All this innumerous-colour'd scene of things.

Thovsov.

444. Some plants exhibit signs of great sensi-
bility, besides the effects in nearly all arising
from the presence or absence of the rays of the
tun : these are the sensitive plant; whose leaves
drop* on being touched by the hand; and Venus's
fly-trap, which closes on any insect that goes
into it, and stings it to death.

Ob*.— ^Throughout universal nature, a jrradation of
beings may be traced; and yet their particular differ-
ences elude the observation, like the various colours of
the rainbow, blending and mixing with each other.
Where vegetation ceases, or seems to cease, perception
begins; and we trace some of* the first rudiments, or
sparks of it, in the actinia,' or sea-anemone, the oyster,
and the snail. The polypus ranks as the first of plants,
and the last of animals; if its propagation, as some natu-
ralists affirm, can be effected by cuttings, similar to the
multiplication of plants Iby slips and suckers. Then, it
ascends through various gradations of beings; distin-
guished by more enlarged and active faculties, more
perfect and more numerous organs, to those creatures
which approach to the nature of man. We behold the
distant resemblance of his sagacity in the elephant; of
his social attachments in the bee and the beaver; and the
rude traces of his form in the ourang-outang.

XIX. Of Animated Nature.

445. Animals are a class of beings organized
differently from vegetables; because they have
different destinations) different habits, and the

Animated nature. i#

'power of moving from place to place,, called the
faculty of loco-motion*

See, thro' this air, this ocean, and this earth,
. All matter quick, and bursting into birth.
Above, how high progressive, life may go!
Around, how wide! how deep, extend below!
Vast chain of being! which froiri God began,
Natures ethereal, human, angel, man,
Beast, bird, fish, insect,* what no eye can see,
No glass can reach ; from Infinite to thee,
Prom thee to nothing. Pope.

Obs. — The principal object of the study of natural
history, is to teach us the characteristics, or distinctive
marks of each individual natural object called classifica-
tion. To distinguish a species from all others that exist
in" nature, it is necessary to express in its characters
almost the whole of its properties. A number of species
brought together, constitutes zgeiuis or tribe. Those pro.,
perties which are common to all genera, compose a cha-
racter that distinguishes this assemblage or group from
til other groups. Such an assemblage is called an order.
By bringing together such orders as .are more nearly
allied, we form a more general assemblage, called a
class; and by the union of several classes, we obtain a
higher division, to which naturalists have given the name
of kingdom.

446. When the all-wise Creator determined on
making beings which should be able to move from
place to place, he contrived for them an organiza-
tion different from that of beings which were fixed.

As moveable beings could not have their roots
in the ground, he provided them with the cavity
of the stomach, in which they were to carry
about what should be equivalent to the soil for
plants 5 and the suckers of their nutriment Center-
ing into that cavity, were destined to act like the
roots of plants in the soil.

p 2 ' -

16ft ANIMATED NATURE.

447* Hence, in all animals, exists the necessity
of eating frequently, to fill the cavity of the
stomach; hence the folly and mischief of filling
it with heterogeneous' and unnatural substances;
it being the object of nature simply to extract
from the matter in the stomach a homogenioua
milky substance called chyle; no other juice but
chyle being admitted into the animal system, the
rest being rejected and expelled.

448. As animals were intended to move about,
the perfect are therefore provided with eyes, to
see objects which might endanger their safety,
with ears to hear, for a similar reason ; with a
voice to warn others, or to obtain assistance in
danger.

Hence, also, they were provided with senses of
smelling and tasting, to discriminate the food
which was proper for the stomach; and with the
sense of feelings to secure their identities, and
excite them to action.

And though things sensible be numberless,
But only five the senses' organs be;

And in those five, all things their forms express.
Which we can touch, taste, smell, or hear, or see.

449. The organs of sense and the powers of
volition proceed from the head and brain, by the
nerves, which direct the muscles and tendons;
but the functions of animal life are sustained by
a simple, jet wonderful arrangement, in the sto-
mach and cavities of the body.

The heart is the centre of a thousand tubes,
called arteries; and bv its never-ceasing con-
tractions, it carries the Wood through them, to all
"parts of the frame, diffusing every where warmth
and Ufe*

ANIMATED NATURE. 169

450. The blood of a man, thus driven by the
contraction of the heart (a force like that by
which water is driven out of a syringe or blad-
der,) weighs 30 pounds; and, as this is the stock
of the precious fluid possessed by each of us, and
our lives depend on its constant circulation, it is
not allowed to remain at the extremity of the
arteries, but is there taken up by another set of
tubes called veins, and by them brought back
again to the heart

451. Thus, there is a constant circulation,
outward and inward, of this same blood, at the
rate of an ounce to each contraction, from the
heart through the arteries, and back to the heart
by the veins. To warm, revive, nourish it, and
keep up its quantity, there are various other won-
derful, but very simple contrivances.

Were once the energy of air deny'd,
The heart would cease to pour its purple tide ;
The purple tide forget its wonted play,
Nor back again pursue its curious way.

452. The heart consists of four cavities* from
one of which, called the left ventricle, the blood is
driven into the arteries through the body; by
another, called the right auricle, it is received
back again by the veins : it then passes into the
right ventricle, whence it is. forced into the lungs.

tfaving there been revivified by coming into
contact with the air, it is carried back by a set o^
veins into the left auricle, and, from thence, into
the left ventricle, where it began its course: it is
then again forced into the arteries, brought back
by the veins, &c, till the end of life.

453. The lungs are a large spongy substance,
filling nearly the whole cavity oi the chest, which

170 ANIMATED NATURE.

rises as they fill, and falls as thev empty, in re-
Spiring air through the mouth ana nostrils.

The act of respiration is performed about'SO
times in a minute; and about 40 cubic inches of
air are respired every time ; of which 2 inches of
oxygen are absorbed by the blood in the lungs,
producing, at the same instant, 98 degrees of
vital heat, and restoring to the veinous blood its

bright red colour,

Ob*. — The Lights as they are called^re the lungs of sheep
or oxen, and are exactly similar to the lungs of man. On
inspection, they will be found to be wonderfully adapted
to their design of bringing the air into contact with the
blood. Any rupture in their tender fabric, or defect in
their action, leads to that fatal disease, called Consumption.

454, Four thousand times in every hour, 'each
cavity of the heart is called into action/ and all
the blood in the body passes through the heart 14
times during that space. *

The arteries, into which it is forced, branch in
every direction through the body, like the roots,
branches, and leaves of a tree, running through
the substance of the bones, and every part of the
animal substance, till they are lost in such fine
tubes as to be wholly invisible.

455. In this manner, they distribute nourish-
ment; supply perspiration 5 and renew all the
waste of trie system; and, by passing through
glands in every part of the body, all the various
animal secretions are elaborated.

In the parts where the arteries are lost to the
sight, the veins take their rise, and in their com-
mencement are also imperceptible. The blood is
then of a dark colour; and, as it returns to the
heart with a less impetus, there is always more
blood in the veins than in the arteries.

ANIMATED NATURE. 171

456. As the blood, in this discoloured state, has
lost some of its vital power, it is driven through
the lungs, and its colour is restored; but on its
passage back to the heart, it also receives a supply
of a new fluid extracted from the food of the ani-
mal in the stomach and intestines*

The loss of weight in a human body by per-
spiration in 24 hours is about four pounds; and
what is gained by the inspiration of air into the
lungs, is lost by the expulsion of moisture, and of
gas generated in the lungs.

457. The motion of the lungs is preserved by
that of the -chest containing them; that of the
heart, may be felt on the left breast; and, the
circulation of the blood, from the action of the

{raise in -various parts of the body, and particu-
arly at the wrist. ,

In children, the pulse gives 120 strokes in a
minute; at 20 years, about 75$ at SO, about 70;
and in old age, 60 or. 65.

• 458. For the purpose of renewing and nourish-
ing the blood, food is taken in at the mouth, mace-
rated by the teeth, and mixed with the saliva : it
is then carried into the stomach, a bag like a high-
land bag-pipe ; where it is dissolved into a soft
pap by apowerful liquid called the gastric juice.

459. This pap is then forced from the stomach
into the intestines; where it is separated into a
white milky liquid called chyle, and into the
excrement.

The chyle is taken up, or absorbed, by myriads
of fine tubes called the lacteals, which carry it to
a main-pipe called the thoracic duct. This pipe
ascends to the throat, where it empties the chyle

\72 ANIMATED NATURE.

into a large vein, and being mixed with the blood,
is conveyed to the heart.

460. Of such subtle and wonderful contrivance
is the organization of roan ! Similar, also, is the
construction of the whole of animated nature,
from the greatest to the smallest

Within the package of the skin, and essential
to life and comfort, are numerous bones for
strength; Hundreds of muscles and tendons for
action 5 nerves spread every where for sensation:
hundreds of arteries, to carry out the blood 5
hundreds of veins to bring it back again ; and
hundreds of glands performing all kinds of se-
cretions $ besides an infinite number of tubes
called lacteals and lymphatics, to absorb and con-
vey nutriment to the blood.

461. Such being the complex construction of
animal bodies, is it not rather wonderful that we
last 70 or 80 years, than that we endure no
longer \ When it is considered also, that a mus-
cle or a bone out of place, a vein or an artery stopt
ib its circulation, or a nerve unduly acted upon,
creates disease, painj and misery 5 is it not won-
derful, that we enjoy so large a portion of health
and pleasure?

Should not such considerations teach us the
value of prudence and temperance?

Thick, in yon stream of light, a thousand ways,
Upward, and downward, thwarting and convolv'd,
The quivering nations sport; till, tempest-wingM,
Fierce Winter sweeps them from the face of day ;
Bv'n so, luxurious men, unheeding pass
An idle summer-life in fortune's shine —
A season's glitter! Thus they flutter on
From toy to toy, ft v # *n vanity to vice :—

ANIMATED NATURE. 173

Till, blown away by death, oblivion comes
Behind, and strikes them from the book of life.

Taoxsoir.

262. The nerves are soft white chords which
rise from the brain, the focus of sensation, and
disperse themselves in branches through all parts
of the body. Impressions are received by the
brain from the adjacent organs of sense; and thfe
brain exercises its commands over the muscles
and limbs by means of the nerves.

Thus, the body is enabled to avoid what is
hurtful, to flee from danger, and to pursue every
thing useful and agreeable.

Ob8.— The proper object of vegetable-organization,

appears to be to supply food to animated nature ; and

. the wisdom of Providence is in nothing more evident

than in the variety, wholesomeness, and abundance of

vegetable provisions.

463. The ear is placed in the most convenient
part of his body near the brain, the common seat
of all the senses, to give more speedy information.

In man it is of a form proper for the erect pos-
ture of his body ; . in birds, of a form proper for
flight, and not protuberant ; in quadrupeds, its
form is, in some, large, erect, and open ; in others,
covered ; in subterraneous quadrupeds, the ears
are short and lodged deep.

464. The structure of the ear is admirably con-
trived to collect the undulations of sound, and to
convey them to the sensory in the brain. The
first part is the auricle, or external ear, formed
to stop and collect the sonorous undulations, and
convey them to the concha, or large capacious
round cell, at the entrance of the ear. Persons,
whose ears are cut off, have a confused hearing,

174 ANIMATED NATURE.

and are obliged to form a cavity round the ear
with their hand.

In the interior is the auditory passage, curious-
ly tunnelled and turned, to give sounds an easy
passage, and prevent their too furiously assault-
ing the more tender internal parts*

465. To prevent the entrance of noxious in-
sects, this passage is secured with a bitter nau-
seous substance, called ear-wax. The next prin-
cipal part is the membrana tympani, or drum of
the ear, with its inner membrane, the four little
appendant bones, and the three Inner museles to
move them, and adjust the whole system to hear
loud or soft sounds.

The passage behind the drum of the ear, is
called the vestibulum, being the entrance to two
other cavities, called the labyrinth, and the second
cochlea, from its resemblance to a snail-shell.

466. The principal organs of the sense of
smelling are the nostrils and olfactory nerves ;
the ramifications of which are distributed through-
out the nostrilg.

Smetttng is affected by the odourous effluvia
in the air, being drawn into the nostrils by inspi-
ration, and struck with such force against the ol-
factory nerves, as to shake them, and occasion
ideas of sweet, foetid, sour, and aromatic.

467. The taste is that sensation which all
things give to the tongue; but some consider
the palate, the upper part of the roof of the mouth
to be the instrument of taste.

The Creator seems to have established a very
intimate union between the eye, the nose, and
the palate, by directing branches of the same
nerves to each of these parts, by which, means

ANIMATED NATURE. 17£

there exists all the necessary guards against per-
nicious food ; since, before it is admitted into the
stomach, it undergoes the trial of two of the senses
and the scrutiny of the eye."

468w Feeling is the sense by which we acquire
ideas of solid, hard, hot, cold, &e.

Some consider the four other senses- merely as
modifications of feeling.

The immediate organs of feeling are the py-
ramidal papillae under the skin, winch are little,
soft, medullary, nervous prominences, lodged,
every where under the outermost skin*

Feeling is the most universal of our senses;
spiders, lies, and ants, have this sense in greater
perfection than man* In blind, persons, the de-
fect of sight has been supplied by their exquisite
touch or sense of feeling.

469. From these five senses, flow all our sen-
sitive perceptions, the result of experience; and
all the various habits, qualities/ passions, and?
powers of animals.'

Certain practices called instincts, not the ap*

J>arent result of experience, appear to us to be-
ong to some animals, contrived by some unknown
means of that all-powerful Creator, whose won-
drous and incomprehensible works inspire with
rapture and devotion the being whom he has
qualified to examine and estimate them.

Obs. — To follow this wonderful scheme of creation
into all its ramifications and variations, and to trace all
its analogies, would fill hundreds of volumes, and occu-
py ages of observation; having, therefore, given th*
above general idea of animated existence in its relation
to vegetables, I shall proceed to a brief enumeration of
the Linnaean classes; referring my young students to

176 ANIMATED NATURE.

Bingley's Animal Biography, to Buffon's Natural His-
tory, and Mayor's Abridgment •

470. As a prep-work, or substantial frame to
the body, the bones are formed.

That the bones might not interfere # ith motion,
they are provided with hinges or ligaments.

That the ligaments might work* smoothly into
one another, the joints are separated by gristles
or* cartilages, ana provided with a gland for the
secretion of oil or mucus, which is constantly ex-
uding into the joints.

471. There are 348 separate bones in the hu-
man body, classed under those of the head, the
trunk, and the extremities.

The skull, or cranium, consists of eight pieces,
and serves as a vault and protection to the brain.
There are also the cheek-bones, the jaws, and 32
teeth imbedded in fliem.

The head is joined to the trunk by the verte-
brae, consisting of several short bones, to the up-
per part of which it is fastened by an hinge-joint,
and turned in the socket of the next lower one to
the right or left by suitable muscles.

472. In the front and centre of the trunk is
the breast bone, extending from the neck to the
abdomen ; and opposite to it, in the back, is the
spine or back-bone, which extends from the skull
to the bottom of the loins, and is a long chain of
separate short bones, called vertebrae.

These serve as the support of seven hoops or
ribs, which are inserted in them, and form the
Chest or thorax, in which are the heart, lungs, &c.

Beneath them, inserted in the spine only, and
extending but half way round the body, are five

ANIMATED NATUM5. tft

false ribs. The hip-bones supporting the abdo-
men are called the pelvis.

473. From the neck to the top of each arm, a
bone extends on each side, called the collar-bone,
and the blade-bones are independent supporters
of it The bone extending from the shoulder to
the elbow is called the humerus.

From the elbow to the wrists are two bones,
the outer of which is the radius

The thigh-bone is called the os femur ; the knee,
the patella ; and the leg has two bones like the
arm, the inner called the tibia, and the outer the
fibula.

474. The Animal Frame is constantly exhaust-
ed and renewed 5 so that every particle of the hu-
man body is changed in the compass of a year]

Nor is it less surprising that so many different
substances as compose every animal body, should
also be secreted by the glands from the same
blood, than that that blood may, in every in-
stance, be traced to grass for its origin.

Obs. 1. — Those functions by which aliment is assimi-
lated for the nourishment of the body, lure digestion, ab-
sorption, circulation, respiration, and secretion; and the ef-
fect of such assimilation is called nutrition.

2. — The food received into the stomach after masti-
cation by the teeth, and being mixed with saliva, is con-
verted into chyme by the gastric juice ; the chyme passes
into the intestines, where it is converted into chyle and
txcrementitious matter; which last, being separated by
means of bile, is evacuated from the body; whilst the
chyle is absorbed by the lacteals and conveyed into the
blood-vessels.

5. — The absorbent system consists of the lacteals, lym-
phatics, the thoracic duct, and the^ glands called conglo-
bate throughout the body.

4. — Glands are organic bodias consisting of blood-

178 ANIMATED NATUftE.

vessels, nerves, and absorbents, intended for the secre-
tion or alteration of particular fluids . They are divided
into four classes, simple, compound, conglooate, and con-
glomerate ; and the orifices of glands are said to be pe-
culiarly irritable.

S.—SecreHm is the process by which various fluids are
separated from the blood by means of the glands. The
secretions are divided into the saline, as sweat and urine ;
the oleaginous, as the fat, cerumen of the ear, &c. ; the
saponaceous, as bile and milk ; the mucous, as on the
surface of membranes, &c.

6.—Sen*ibi&ty is the faculty of perception by the con-
tact of an extraneous body ; and this principle is gene-
rally diffused in our corporeal organs, but in different
degrees. That modification of animal matter, in which
sensation appears peculiar to exist, is termed nervous. •
T.—jfotion is effected by the muscular fibre contract-
ing by volition; but the will can only exercise this
power, through the medium of the nerves? Irritability
is the power of contraction, inherent in our bodily or-
gans* but not liable to be influenced by the will

475. All the senses of animals, and all their
varied powers of action are exactly adapted to
their different modes of existence. What is food
to one, is poison to another $ and every one finds
provision according to its natural habits.

Eveiy thing, also, is in exact proportion ; and
every provision of nature harmonises with the
corresponding desires and wants of animals.
Nature's unnumbered family, combine
In one beneficent, one vast design ;
E'en from inanimates to breathing man,
An Heaven-conceived, Heaven-executed plan ;
Onward, from those, who soar or lowly creep,
The wholesome equipoise through all to keep ;
As faithful agents in earth, sea, and air,
The Lower World to watch with constant care :
Her due proportion wisely to conserve ; —
A wondrous trust, from which they never swerve.

\ Pbatt*s Lower World.

/ ANIMATED NATURE. 179

476. Linnaeus divides Animated Nature into,

1. Quadrupeds (Mammalia,) of which there
are already known to man about 230 species.

2. Birds, of which there are about 1000 spe-
cies.

3. Amphibious Animals of which there are
about 100 species.

4. Fishes, of which there are about 500 spe-
cies.

5. Insects, of which there are 2000 species.
And 6. Worms, of which there are 800 spe-
cies. .

477. The first class of animated beings, called
mam-malia, comprehends all those that suckle
their young ; and have warm red blood flowing in
their artenes.

Their bodies, for the most part, are covered
with hair, in quantity proportioned to the climate
they inhabit. Beneath this covering, is a skin of
'Various thicknesses, inclosing a frame or skeleton
of bones, acted upon by a system of muscles
and tendons, which ar£ put in motion by nerves
communicating with the organ of sense and will
of the animal.

They have Blood, for Life; Bones, for Strength;
Muscles, for Motion ; and Nerves, for Sensation*

478. Linneeus divides mammalious animals, or
those which suckle their ytmng, into seven orders ;
which are chiefly regulated by the number and
situation of the teeth.

a. Primates, or animals having two canine and
four-cutting teeth, und furnished with two pec-
toral teats. To this class belong man, the ape>
the maucauco, and the bat.

<*2

180 ANIMATED NATURE.

b. Bruta, or animals which have no cutting
teeth in either jaw ; as the elephant, the sloth,
the ant-eater, &c.

c. Ferce, or animals whose cutting teeth vary
from ten to two. This order includes most of the
formidable rapacious quadrupeds; as the lion,
the tiger, the bear, &c.

d. (Hires, or animals which have only two cut-
ting and no canine teeth ; as the hare-kind, the
mouse, the squirrel, &c.

e. Pec&ra, or animals which are hoofed, and
have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw, including
the camel, the deer, the sheep, the ox-kind, &c.

/. Belluce, or Quadrupeds with cutting teeth in
each jaw, as the horse, the boar, &c.

f. Cetce, or animals whose teeth greatly vary
ifferent genera* This order comprehends all
the whale-tribes; which from certain similarities
of structure, are arranged under the class of qua-
drupeds.

479. Birds, the second? class, constituting those
covered with feathers, have two wings to fly with,
a tail to direct their flight, and a hard horny bill.
Their bones are hollow and light y and they are,
in every respect, made for making their way
through the air with the least resistance. Many-
tribes migrate, at certain seasons, from one coun-
try to another, jnd no Jess than nineteen tribes
arrive in England in the spring-, and leave there in
the autumn ; and ten other arrive in autumn and
leave there in the spring.

It wins my admiration

To view the structure of that little work —

A bird's nest. Mark it well within, without ;

No tool had he that wrought ; no knife to cut ;
— No nail to fix ; no bodkin to inserts

ANIMATED KATCftE. 1S1

No glue to join ; his little beak was all;—
And yet how neatly finished! What nice hand,
With every implement and means of art,
And twenty years' apprenticeship to boot,
Cou'd make me such another? Fondly, then,
We boast of excellence, whose noblest skill
Instinctive genius foils. Humus.

480. There are six order* of birds :
1. Thf Jlccipitres, or rapacious kinds; as con-
dors, vultures, eagles, and hawks.

£. Piece, or the pye-kind ; as parrots, ravens,,
crows, &c.

3. Censores, or the duck-kind; as the swan,
goose, &c.

4. Ghrallce, or the crane-kind; as storks, fla-
mingoes, &c.

5. Gallince, or the poultry kind ; as peacocks*
turkeys, partridges, «c.

And 6. Passeres, or the sparrow-kind ; as pi-

feons, larks, blackbirds, nightingales, swallows,
cc.

But who the various nations can declare
That plough with busy wing the peopled air ?
These, cleave the crumbling bark for insect-food ;
Those, dip the crooked beak in kindred blood ;
Some, haunt the rushy moor, the lonely woods ;
Some, bathe their silver-plumage in the floods ;
Some, fly to man, his household-gods implore,
And gather round his hospitable door,
Wait the known call, and find protection there
From all the lesser tyrants of the air.
The tawny eagle seats his callow brood
High on the cliff, and feasts bis young with blood.

Barbacld.

481. The third class is constituted of Amphi-
bia. These have a naked or scaly body, pointed
teeth and no fins. .-

There are four orders :

182 ANIMATED NATURE.

1. Reptiles; as the crocodile, tortoise, lizard,
frog,&c.

£• Serpents; as the rattle-snake, boa constric-
tor, viper, &c., some of which are harmless.

3. Meantes ; as the siren.

4. Nantes ; as torpedoes, sharks, &c.

482. The fourth class of animated beings, are
fishes ; the inhabitants of a different element from
man, but not less wonderful in their organization,
nor less various in their forms and habits than the
other classes.

Many hundred species of fishes that reside in
the unfathomable depths of the ocean, are doubt-
less unknown to man ; and he knows little of the
real habits and economy even of those the most
familiar to him.

OA*.-^The eye can reach but a very short way into the
depth of the sea ; and that only when its surface is glassy
and serene. In many seas, it perceives nothing but a
bright sandy plain at bottom, extending for several hun-
dred miles, without an intervening object. But, in
others, particularly the Red Sea, it is very different ;
the whole body of this extensive bed of water ip, literally
speaking, a forest of submarine plants, and corals formed
by insects for their habitation, sometimes branching
out to a great extent Here, are seen the madrepores,
the sponges, mosses, sea-mushrooms, and other marine
productions, covering every part of the bottom. The bed
of many parts of the sea near America, presents a very
different, though a very beautiful appearance, being co-
vered with vegetables, which make it look as green as
a meadow ; and, beneath, are seen thousands of turtles,
and other sea-animals, feeding.

2. — " Were it not (says Hawkins,) for the moving of
the sea, by the force of winds, tides, and currents, it
would corrupt into life ! An experiment of this I saw,
when lying with a fleet about the islands of Azores, al-
most six months ; the greater part of which time we

ANIMATED NATURE. 183

were becalmed. Upon which, all the sea became so re-
plenished with various sorts of jellies, and forms of ser-
pents, adders, and snakes, as seemed wonderful ; some
green, some black, some yellow, some white, some of
divers Colours, and many of them had life ; and some
there were a yard and a half, and two yards long ; which,
had I not seen, I could hardly have believed. And here-
of were witnesses, all the companies of the ships which
were then present; so.thataman could hardly draw a
bucket of water clear of some corruption." Mr. Boyle
was also assured by one of his acquaintance, who had
been becalmed for about fourteen days, in the Indian
ocean, that the water for want of motion, began to stink
with life ? and that, had the calm continued much longer,
the stench would probably 4iave poisoned him. These
assertions may be supported by our knowledge that ani-
mal food left to corrupt, will engender life.

483. Fishes are divided into four orders :—

1. Jlpodes; such as have no ventrical Fins, as
eels, congers, &c.

2. Jugulares; such as have the ventral fins
placed before the pectoral, as cod, &c.

3. Thoracici ; those that inspire by the gills
only, as the perch, &c.

And 4. Jiodominales ; those having ventral fins
behind the pectoral in the abdomen, as pike,
'salmon, &c.

484. Insects, theffth class of animated beings,
are, in many respects, the most entitled to our
wonder and attention, oh account of the amazing
variety of their forms and habits.

Those animalculce, of which a thousand might
dance on the point of a needle, are as curiously,
as beautifully, and as perfectly formed, as the
largest animals in nature.

Myriads of creatures (each too nicely small
Bare sense to reach,) for thy inspection, call.

ajxumjh i wuu flAiunu.

In animalcules, germs, seeds, and flow'rs,
Live in their perfect shapes, the little pow*rs,
Vast trees lie pictured in their slend'rest grains ;
Armies one wat'ry globule contains.
Some, so minute, that* to their fine extreme,
The mite a vast leviathan will seem-
That yet, of organs, functions, sense partake,
Equal with animals of largest make ;
In curious limbs and clothing they surpass,
By far, the comliest of the bulky mass: — Thohsoic.
Obs. — Insects are small in our. eyes, but not so to the
Creator, who views infinity itself at a glance ; and, com-
pared with infinity, an emmet is as large as the, solar sys-
tem. Largeness and smaujiess are terms as relative* as
up or down.

485. Insects, viewed through a microscope,
would teach children to respect their lives and hap-
piness, and never, in wantonness, to destroy the
most apparently insigificant. The child, who
treads upon a worm, or destroys a fly in sport,
gives indication of a wicked, cruel, or thought-
less mind.

The poor beetle, that we tread upon,
In corporal suff'rance, feels as great a pang
As when the giant dies. Shaksheam.

Obs. — The influence of kind treatment on the fiercest
animals, is beautifully described by Phatt, in his
"Lower World :"
Kindness can woo the lion from his den—
(A moral lesson to the sons of men !)
His mighty heart in silken bonds can draw ;
And bend his nature to sweet pity*slaw.
Kindness can lure the eagle from her nest,
Midst sun-beams plac'd, content with man to rest :
Can make the elephant, whose bulk supplies
The warrior-tower, compassionate as wise ;
Make the fell tygress (from her chain unbound,
Herself unfed, her craving offspring round,)
Forget the force of hunger and of blood,
' Meekly receive from man her long-wish'd food ;

ANIMATED NATURE. 185

Take too, the chastisement, and (if 'tis just)

Submissive take it, crouching to the dust.

Kindness can habits, nay, the nature change,

Of all who swim the deep, or forests range :

And for the mild, domestic train, who come,

The dog — the steed — with thee to find a home ;

Gladly they serve thee ; serve thee better too,

When only happy beings meet their view :

Ah ! then, let gentler accents, gentler looks, supply

The thunders. of thy voice, the lightnings of thine eye.

486. The class of insects is divided into seven
orders, viz.

a. Coleoptera, or insects having four wings ;
the two superior ones being crustaceous, and tur-
nished with a straight Suture.

b. Hemiptera; insects smaller than the pre-
ceding, with four wings : the two superior semi-
crustaceous, and the interior edges 1 ying one upon
the other.

C Lejridoptera ; insects with four wings, all of
them imbricated with scales.

d, Neurwptera; insects having four wings in-
terwoven with the veins, like a piece of net-work,
and no sting.

e. Hymenoptera ; insects agreeing in their cha-
racteristics with the preceding, except that these
are armed with a sting.

/. Diptera; insects having two wings, and two *
elevated alteres (or balances) behind each.
g. Jkptera; insects destitute of wings.

487. Every insect is furnished with ahead, an-
tennee, or horns, and feet. All insects likewise,
have six or more feet. They respire through pores
on their sides, called spiracles. Their skin is ex-
tremely hard, and serves them instead of bones,
of which they have none.

18* ANIMATES NATURE.

' The head also, the trunk, the proboscis, the
feelers, the breast, the belly, the limbs, the tail,
and the wings, are all objects of notice to the
entomologist

See the proud giant of the beetle race !
What shining arms his polish'd limbs enchase !
Like some stem warrior, formidably bright,
His ste elly sides reflect a gleaming' tight !
On his larjire forehead, spreading horns he wears ;
And high in air, his branching antlers bears ;
O'er many an inch, extends his wide domain ;
And his rich treasury swells with hoarded grain.

" Barsauei).

488. Worms are, according to the Linneean
system, the sixth class. Some of them have only
two senses; others, no head; and most of them,
no feet.

They are divided into five orders :•—

1 . Intestinalworms $ as tape- worms, leeches, &c.

2. Molluscous worms ; chiefly inhabiting the sea,

3. Testaceous worms; as muscles, cockles,
oysters, snails, &c.

4. Zoophytes ; between animals and vegetables.
And 5. Animalcules s generally invisible to the

naked eye.

489. The Indian thread-worm eats into the
skin in the West Indies, and its extraction oc-
casions great trouble. The furia does the same
in Sweden. The common hair-worm is said to
occasion whitlows. Garden or dew-worms, are
useful to vegetation, by loosening the soil. The
heads and tails of snails* if cut'off will grow again.
The Nereis is the sea glow-worm.

Full Nature swarms with life : one .wond'rous mass

Of animals, or atoms organized,

Waiting the vital breath, when Parent-Heaven

ANIMATED NATURE. lSf

Shall bid his Spirit blow. The hoary fen,

In putrid streams, emits the living cloud

Of pestilence. Through subterraneous cells,

Where scorching sunbeams scarce can find a way,.

Earth, animated, heaves. The flowery leaf

Wants not its soft inhabitants. Secure,

Within its winding citadel, the stone

Holds multitudes. But chief, the forest-boughs,

That dance unnumbered to the playful breeze,

The downy orchard, and the melting pulp

Of mellow fruit, the nameless nations feed

Of evanescent insects. Where the pool

Stands, mantled o'er with green, invisible,

Amid the floating verdure, millions stray. — Thomson.

490. Young snails come forth with their shells
on their backs ; and the shells are enlarged with
the animal, by means of a secretion for the pur*

Cose, by which also they repair the shells when
roken. The shell so effectually preserves them,
that they have revived in water after being kept
dry in a box for twenty years; and even after
being immersed in boiling water.

Corals are shells produced by an insect within
them 5 and they grow in such quantities, and to
such heights in some seas, as to create islands
inhabited by men. The Friendly Islands, in the
Pacific Ocean, were thus raised by corals from the
depth of that sea. Ships have often been lost on
coral-rocks.

Obs. 1. — The wisdom of BEES, the harmony of their
government, their persevering industry, and wonderful
economy, have been celebrated in every age. Their
combs, or nests, are composed of cells or six-sided figures,
so finely finished, that the most expert workman would
find himself unqualified to construct a similar habitation.
By applying hexagonal cells to each other's sides, no
void spaces are left between them ; and, though the same

188 ANIMATED

end might be accomplished by other figures, yet they
would require a greater quantity of wax. A comb con-
sists of two rows of cells applied to each other's ends*
This arrangement both saves room in the hive, and gives
a double entry into the cells : the bases of the cells in one
row of a comb, serving for bases to the opposite row. It
is difficult to perceive, even with the assistance of glass-
hives, the manner in which bees operate. They are so
eager to afford mutual assistance ; and, for this purpose,
so many of them crowd together, that their individual
operations can seldom be observed. It has, however,
been discovered, that their two teeth are the instruments
they employ in modelling' and polishing the wax. The
combs are generally arranged in a direction parallel to
each other. An interval, or street, between the combs,
is always left, that the bees may have a free passage, and
an easy communication with the different combs in the
hive. These streets are sufficiently wide, to allow two
bees to pass one another. Beside these parallel streets,
to shorten their journey when working, they leave seve-
ral round cross-passages, which are always covered. The
honey-bees not only labour in common with astonishing
assiduity and art, but their whole attention and affections
seem to centre in the person of the Queen or sovereign
of the hive. When she dies by any accident, the whole
community are instantly in disorder — all their labours
cease; no new cells are constructed; and neither honey
nor wax are collected.

To their delicious task the fervent bees

In swarming millions tend; around, athwart

Through the soft air the busy nations fly,

Cling to the bud, and with inserted tube

Suck its pure essence, its ethereal soul;

And oft, with bolder wing, they soaring dare

The purple heath, or where the wild thyme grows,

And yellow load them with the luscious spoil.

Thomson.

2.— The labotrrs of WASPS, though not beneficial to
mankind, are i«ut less ingenious nor less worthy of admi-

ANIMATED NATURE. 189

ration. Wasps associate in great numbers, and construct
a common habitation with much dexterity and skill. The
cells of the wasps are formed of a kind of paper, which,
with great dexterity, is fabricated by the animals them-
selves. The hole which leads to a wasp's nest is about
an inch in diameter, and is a kind of gallery mined by
the wasps; the whole nest is of a roundish form, and
sometimes above twelve inches in diameter. This sub-
terraneous city, though small, is extremely populous;
in a middle-sized nest, there were at least 10,000 cells.
The different stories of combs are always about half an
inch high; these intervals are so spacious, in proportion
to the bulk of the animals, that they may be compared
to great halls, or broad streets. Each of the larger
combs is supported by about fifty pillars, which, at the
same time, give solidity to the fabric, and greatly orna-
ment the whole nest. Boys, and even men, are guilty
of great and undeserved cruelty to these ingenious in-
sects, who never sting, unless they are irritated and
attacked.

3. — The association of ANTS merits no less admira-
tion than those of bees and wasps. The form of their
nest, or hill, is somewhat conical; and, of course, the
water, when it rains, runs easily off, without penetrating
their abode. Under this hill, there are many galleries
or passages, which communicate with each other, and
resemble the streets of a city. They go to great dis-
tances in search of provisions; and their roads, which
are often winding and involved, all terminate in the nest.

! 491. The study of Shells is called Ctmchology.
There are more than a thousand species of shells,
and they are separated into three divisions >—
multivalves, bivalves, and univalves, accordingly
as the shells consist of many parts, of two, or of a
single part.

jfcultivalves consist of many plates or shells,
connected in some species, like the different parts
«f a coat of mail.

190 ANIMATED NATURE.

Bivalves consist of two shells, connected by a
hinge; as the muscle, oyster, &c.

And the Univalves comprehend those that have
a regular spiral, which is a numerous division,
including the snail, periwinkle, &c, and those
also without a regular spiral.

G6#.— -Pearls are found in oysters and muscles. They
are calcareous concretions, formed of the liquid of which
the inner surface of the shell is composed, and are an
effect of accidental injury to the shell. The Chinese
increase the number of pearls, by catching muscles, and
perforating the shells; and then replace the muscles in
the water. After a certain time, on opening them again,
they discover pearls attached to the part injured. The .
substance of the shells of these animals, when chemically
examined, is found to be a mild calcareous earth, depo-
sited in a mass of net-work, composed of animal matter.
The shining matter, left in the tracks of snails, is this
very substance; which, when deposited in strata above
one another, hardens and forms a shell.

2. — Many hundreds of unknown species of mineral
shells are found in the strata of the earth, the remains of
seas and shores now no more.

492. The polype is an insect, of a snail, or
jelly-like substance. It shrinks into a round
green spot, if disturbed ; but, in its. natural form*
is a long tube, and has a head and mouth, from
which eight or ten long arms are projected, to
seize worms and other insects.

The young issue from its side in a surprising
manner; but, it is the wonderful property of this
insect; that if cut into any number of pieces, am}
in any direction, each part will become a perfect
polype in itself!

It may even be turned inside out without inju>
ry 5 and the dismembered parts gf one polype wilJ

ANIMATED NATURE. 191

unite with those of another, and make one per-
fect pol jpe !

493. After man has exerted his eyes to view
the smallest insects, he will find, on applying a
microscope, others so small, that ten thousand of
them are not equal in bulk to the smallest which
he can view with his naked eye.

Lewenhoeck tells us of insects seen with a
microscope, of which %7 millions would only be .
eaual to a mite, and four millions to a single grain
ei sand.

494. Yet, each of these animal culee has an or-
ganized body, provided with a heart, lungs, mus-
cles, glands, arteries, and veins; and with blood
and other fluids passing through them!

Their vigour and powers of action are gene-
rally superior even to those of larger animals;
their length of life is also great in proportion to
their size.

The mite makes 500 steps in a second ; ani-
malcules, in a drop of water, swim about with as
much freedom as a whale in the sea ; and those
that feed on the leaves of trees resemble oxen
grazing in large pastures.

Wak'd by his warmer ray, the reptile young
Come wing'd abroad ; by the light air upborne,
Lighter, and full of soul. From every chink,
And secret corner, where they slept away
The wintry storms; or rising from their tombs,
To higher life; by myriads, forth at once,
Swarming, they pour; of all the vary'd hues,
Their beauty-beaming parent can disclose.
Ten thousand forms, ten thousand different tribes!
People the blaze. To sunny waters, some,
By fatal instinct, fly ; where on the pool, ^

R 2

192 ANIMATED NATTTTO

They, sportive, wheel; or, sailing; down the stream,
Are snatch'd immediate by the quick-eyed trout,
Or darting salmon. Through the greenwood glade
Some love to stray ; there lodg'd, amus'd, and fed,
In the fresh leaf. Luxurious, others make
The meads their choice, and visit every flower,
And every latent herb ; for the sweet task,
To propagate their kinds, and where to wrap,
In what soft beds, their young, yet undisclosed,
Employs their tender care. Some, to the house.
The fold, and dairy, hungry, bend their flight;

around the pail, or taste the curdling cheese : *
inadvertent, from the milky stream
They meet their fate ; or, weltering in the bowl,
With powerless wings, around them wrapt, expire*.

Thomsoit.

495. Animalcules are shaped like fish, reptiles,
eels, stars, hexagons, triangles, ovals, and circles;
they have horns, probosces, &c; and although
the eyes of many species are not discernible, yet
they move about with inconceivable relative velo-
city in the fluids they inhabit, without interfering
with each other.

496. Hunter divided all animated nature into
single and complicated animals. The single, are
those which possess only feeling or die powers of
muscular contraction, and the power of absorb-
ing food, as chalk absorbs moisture, and appro-
priating it to nourishment.

The hydatid, found in sheep, consists only of
a bag filled with water, and has no appearance of
animal powers; but, when excited or pricked
contracts and shews its irratibility; while this
vital power is supported by the nourishment
which it receives tnrough its coat.

497. For such simple animals, we ascend.

ANIMATED NATTTBE. tfB

through all the degrees, up to the complicated
and combined powers of body and mind, in Man !

The links are kept up, by the addition of mus-
cles for additional motions; by other senses, for
hearing, seeing, &c. ; and by various degrees of
irritability in those senses* "*

The blood for renovation circulates through the
lungs ; and for action through the muscles of the
heart ; secretions take place by the various glands ;
the contraction of the muscles move the bones ;
the nerves confvey the effect of the mental secre-
tions to the brain; and there produce the inscru-
table powers of sensation, will, and judgment.

498. Although animals, in general, are suffi-
ciently distinct from vegetables, yet the grada-
tions of nature are so minute, that many animals
are but slightly removed from vegetables, having
not more than one or two senses; and, as in some
shell-fish, have not even the power of loco-motion.

Between these and man, mere is a regular suc-
cession of that cunning and sagacity, which are
necessary to preserve and sustain life ; yet, be-
tween man and most other animals, there is, in
mental capacity, as great a difference, as between
some of those and vegetables.

Far as creation's ample range extends,
The«eale of sensual, mental powers, ascends :
Mark, bow it mounts to man's imperial race,
From the green myriads in the peopled grass :
What modes of sight, betwixt each wide extreme,
The mole's dim curtain, and the lynx's beam :
Of smell, the headlong lioness between,
And bound sagaoiou% on the tainted green:
Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood,
To that which warbles thro' the vernal wood*.

IM ANIMATED SiATUBJG.

The spider's touch, bow exquisitely fine !
Feels at each thread, and live* along the line:
In the nice bee, what sense SO subtly true !
From poisonous herbs extracting healthy dew :
How instinct varies in the groveling swine,
ComparM, half-reasoning elephant, with thine !
Twist that, and Reason, what a nice barrier!
For ever, separate, — yet, for ever, near ! Fori.

Seven remarkable Specimens of Animated Nature.

A WHITE BEAB.

ANIMATED NATURE.
A TTGBH.

1W>

ANIMATED NATURE.

AN OSTRICH.

0**.-— In Art. 127 and 128, were described the trans-
formations of insects, from theegg* to the worm; the
worm to the chrysatit and the chryaaMi to the buUerfly.

The following cut represents those four states in the
common caterpillar :

THE EGGS, CATERPILLAR, CHRYSALIS, AND BUT-
TERFLY}

[ 197]
XX. Chemistry.

499. The principal object of chemistry is to
ascertain the elementary or first principles, of
which bodies are composed.

The ancients conceived that there were but
four elements, or first principles ;— Air, Water,
Earth, and Fire : of these, and by their mutual
action, they conceived that every kind of matter
was composed.

Modern experimental philosophy has, however,
analysed three of these elements, or has discover-
ed other elements of those elements ; and until
these may have been analysed by further experi-
ments, we must consider them as elementary
bodies.

06s. — Sir Humphrey Davy, in the preliminary obser-
vations to Ms Element* of Chemistry, beautifully observes,
that "the forms and appearances of the beings and sub-
stances of the external world are almost infinitely va-
rious, and they are in a state of continued alteration."
The whole surface of the earth even undergoes modifi-
cations. Acted on by moisture and air, it affords the
food of plants ; an immense number of vegetable pro-
ductions arise from apparently the same materials; these
become the substance of animals; one species of animal
matter is converted into another ; the most perfect and
beautiful of the forms of organized life, ultimately de-
cay, and are resolved into inorganic aggregates; and the
same elementary substances, differently arranged, are
contained in the inert soil; or bloom, and emit frag-
rance in the flower ; or become in animals, the active
organs of mind and intelligence. In artificial operations,
changes of the same order occur; substances having the
characters of earth, are converted into metals; clays
and sands are united, so as to become porcelain ; earths
and alkalies are combined into glass ; acrid and com*-

198 CHEMISTRY.

sire matters are formed from tasteless substances; co-
lours are fixed upon stuffs; or changed; or made to dis-
appear ; and the productions of the mineral, vegetable,
and animal kingdoms, are converted into new forma,
and made subservient to* the purposes of civilized life.
To trace, in detail, these diversified and complicated
phenomena, to arrange them, and deduce general laws
from their analogies, is the business of Chemistry.

500. It is, now, found, that the Air which we
breathe is composed of a mixture of two distinct
elements; one called, nitrogen or Jizote; the
other Oxygen; and both are kept in their gazeou*
state by Heat, called Caloric, and that Water
Is a mixture of Oxygen with Hydrogen;— that
Earth is a mixture of many substances $— and
that Fire is composed of Heat (or Caloric,) and

Light, united to a combustible substance.

&*. — The forms of matter, are weU arranged into
four distinct classes, by Sir H. Davt. The first clas&
consists of solids ,• which compose the great, known,
part of the globe. Solid bodies, when in small masses,
retain whatever mechanical form is given to them ; their
parts are separated with difficulty, and cannot readily be
made to unite after separation ; some solid bodies yield
to pressure, and do not recover their former figure,
when the compressing force is removed, and they are
called non-elastic solids ; others, that regain this form,
are called elastic bodies. Solids differ in degrees of
hardness ; in colour ; in degrees of opacity or transpa-
rency ; in density, er in the weight afforded by equal
volumes; and when their forms are regular or crystat-
Uxea\ in the nature of these forms.

The second class consists o^ fluids ; of which there are
much fewer varieties. Fluids when in small masses, as-
sume the spherical form ; their parts possess freedom of
motion ; they differ in degrees of density and tenacity ;
in colour and degrees of opacity or transparency. They
are usually regarded a* incompressible ; at least a very

CHEMISTRY. 199

great mechanical force is reauired, to make them ck>
cupy a space perceptibly smaller.

Elastic fluids or easef, the third class, exist free in the
atmosphere; but they may be confined by solids, or by
solids and fluids, and their properties examined. Their
parts are highly moveable ; they are compressible and
expansible ; and their volumes are inversely, as the
weights compressing them. All known elastic fluids are
transparent, and present only two or three varieties of
colour; they differ materially in density.

Besides these forms of matter, which are easily sub-
mitted to experiment, and the parts of which may be
considered as in a state of apparent rest, there are other
forms of matter which are known to us only in their
states of motion when acting upon our organs of sense,
or upon other matter, and which are not susceptible of
being confined. They have been sometimes called
ethereal substances, which appears a more unexception-
able name than imponderable substances. It cannot be
doubted that there is matter in motion in the space,
between the sun, the stars and our globe; though it is a
subject of discussion, whether successions of particles
be emitted from these heavenly bodies; or motions com-
municated by them, to particles in their vicinity, and
transmitted by successive impulses to other particles.
Ethereal matter differs, either in its nature, qr m its af-
fections by motion; for it produces different effects ;—
radient heat, and different kinds of light

501. Caloric is a mere name of that element
or property, which, combined with various bodies,
produces the sensation of heat while it is passing
irom one body to another.

According to its quantity in different bodies,
it renders themflitid; or converts them into gas,
or air.

Ice is water deprived of its caloric : when the
caloric returns, the ice is again converted intt

8

2UU UJtilSJMLISTKY.

water; and a farther addition converts the water
into steam, or aqueous gas.

It has been called sensible caloric, when it
gives the sensation of heat ; and combined caloric,
when it is supposed to form an insensible part of
the substance of bodies.

Obs. 1. — By mixing sulphuric acid with water, caloric
is given out or disengaged, and the mixture becomes
heated: and by mixing snow and nitre, the combination
absorbs caloric from surrounding bodies by which they
become evolved.

2. — Different bodies change their states at very dif-
ferent temperatures. Thus mercury, which is a solid at
about 40 below Fahrenheit, boils at about 660; sulphur,
which becomes fluid at 218°, boils at 570*; either boils
at 98°. The temperatures, at which the common me-
tals become gaseous, are generally very high, and most
of them incapable of being produced by common means?
Iron, manganese, platina, and some other metals, which
can scarcely be fused in the best furnaces, are readily
melted by electricity ; and by the Voltaic apparatits, a
degree of heat is attained, in ivliich platina not only fuses
with readiness, but seems even to evaporate.

3. — Wlj^n solids are converted into fluids, or fluids
into gases, there is always a loss of heat of temperature ;
and vice versa: when gases are converted into fluids, or
.fluids into solids, there is an increase of heat of tempe-
rature ; and in tliis case, it is said, that latent, heat is ab-
sorbed, oris given out.

4. — Sir Richard Phillips has published a new Theory
of Heat and light in the Monthly Magazine, No. 239.
He considers both, as the effect of motion \-~heat t as the
motion or vjbration of the parts of solid and non-elastic
bodies, — and light, as the effect of the vibrations of the
elastic medium which fills the universe ; and the ex-
pansion of which same medium, produces also the phe-
nomena of gravitation. The change of the phenomena.

CHEMISTRY. 201

•f Heat, into the phenomena of Light, he ascribes to the
action and re-action which take place in the elastic me-
dium, during the decomposition which attends com-
bustion when heat becomes light; or, in other words,
when the motion of solids is transferred to ethereala.

502. Oxygen is an element or simple sub-
stance diffused generally through nature; and its
different combinations (for, like caloric, it does
exist by itself;) are essential to animal life and
combustion.

Some chemists consider oxygen as the basis or
substratum of all nature.

Acted upon, or combined with caloric, it be-
comes oxygen gas; which forms 28 parts of 100
of atmospheric air; and further condensed, it
. forms 85 of every 100 parts of water.

Obs. — Oxygen gas is distinguished from all other ga-
seous matter by several important properties. Inflam-
mable substances burn in it under the same circum-
stances as in common air, but with infinitely greater
vividness. If a taper, the flame of which has been ex-
tinguished, the wick only remaining ignited, be plunged
into a bottle filled with it, the flame will instantly be re-
kindled, and will be very brilliant, and accompanied by
a crackling noise. If a steel wire, or thin file, having a
sharp point, armed with a bit of wood in inflammation,
be introduced into a jar filled with the gas, the steel
will' take fire, and its combustion will continue pro*
ducing a most brilliant phenomenon. Oxygen gas is
respirable ; a small animal, confined in a jar filled with
this gas, lives four or five times as long as within an
equal quantity of common air; — hence, it. has been
called vital air.

503. During the burning of any combustible
body, the oxygen leaves the atmospheric air and
combining with the calx or residuum of said

\

202 CHEMISTttY.

body, adds to its weight, and forma what is called
an oxyde.

This process is called oxygenation; and if the
oxygen be combined with sulphur, phosphorus,
carbon, or any other substance m various degrees,
it will produce acids of strength proportioned to
the degree of oxygenation ; which are distinguish-
ed by the terminations ous and ic; as,

1. Oxide of sulphur ;
SL Sulphurous acid ;
5. Sulphuric acid.

1. Oxide of phosphorus;

2. Phosphorous acid ;.
S. Phosphoric acid.

Combined with metals in various degrees, oxy-
gen produces oxides of different colours; as grey
oxyae of lead, red oxyde of lead, &c. *

504. Hydrogen is one of the most abundant
principles in nature ; and 15 parts of it combined
with 85 of oxygen, form water.

It is only to be met with in the gaseous form $
and then it is 12 times lighter than atmospheric
air ; and is employed to fill balloons.

It is also inflammable, and is the gas called the
fire-damp, so often fatal to miners ; it is the chief
constituent of oils, fats, spirits, ether, &c.

It is always produced fVom water.

Ota— The process for filling balloons, is, by mixing
nve parts of water with one or sulphuric acid ; and, by
pouring the mixture on iron filings ; the light gas, by
the decomposition of the water, will rise into the bal-
loon ; and the balloon, being 12 times lighter than the
atmospheric air, will rise through H.

CUTWSTBY.

AIR-BALLOON.

505. JVltrogftt, or azote, is a substance dif-
fused through nature, and particularly in animal
bodies.

Nitrogen is not to be found is a solid or liquid
state ; but combined with caloric, it forms azotic

fas, or mephitic' air, " in which no animal can
reathe, or any combustible burn.
Seventy-eight parts combined with 22 of oxy-
gen, form 100 parts of atmospheric air. In a
higher degree of oxygenation when an actual com-
bination between it and oxygen is effected, it pro-
duces nitrous gas j and in a still higher, nitric
acid.

Obi. 1. — As oxygen is absorbed during burning or
breathing, and us soon as the 22 parts, or nearly, of oxy-
gen are absorbed, the remainder is nitrogen, and be-

204 CHMOSTHY

comes mepfdHc or deadly, being incapable of sustaining
fife or flame.

2. — As the constitution of the atmosphere constantly
remains the same, it is evident there must be some pro-
cess in nature, by which a fresh quantity of oxygen is
produced equal to that consumed. One principal means
of the reproduction of oxygen appears in the process
of vegetation; healthy plants exposed in the sun-shine
to air, containing small quantities of carbonic acid gas,
destroy that elastic fluid, and evolve oxygen gas; so that
the two great classes of organized beings are depend-
ent upon each other. Carbonic acid gas, which is form-
ed in many processes of combustion, as well as in respi-
ration, if not removed from air, by its excess, would be
deleterious to animals ; but it is the healthy food of ve-
getables ; and these vegetables produce oxygen, so ne-
cessary to the existence of animals. This part of the
economy of nature is therefore preserved, by the very
functions to which it is subservient; and the order dis-
played in the arrangement, demonstrates the intelli-
gence by which it was designed.

506. Oxygen. Nitrogen, (or azote,) Hydrogen
and perhaps Caloric and Light, may therefore be
considered as the active and universal elements of
nature.

They constitute the bulk, basis, or substance
of atmospheric air, water, vegetables, and animals ;
and it is suspected, that gold, other metals, and all
other bodies and powers of nature, will, in due
time, be proved to arise out of their combinations
in various proportions.

We say, for the present, call them agents of
Nature; and the other simple substances may be
called patients. ^

G6*;— Chlorine, or Oxymuriatic Gas, which Sir H.
Bavy assimilates to oxygen, as an elementary substance*
is of a yellowish geeen colour; and it is this property

CHEMISTRY. 205

which suggested its name. Its odour is extremely dis-
agreeable. It is not capable of being respired, and even
when mixed in very small quantities with common air,
renders the air extremely pernicious to the lungs.
When an inflamed taper is introduced into a phial filled
with it, the light continues, but of a dull red colour, and
a dark carbonaceous smoke arises from the flame.

Many of the metals introduced into it in thin filaments,
or leaves, or powder, take fire, and burn spontaneously
at common temperatures : such, are copper, tin, arse-
nic, zinc, antimony, and the alkaline metals.

Phosphorus burns in it spontaneously, with a pale
white light, producing a white volatile powder.

Sulphur melted or sublimed in it does not burn ; but
forms with it a volatile red liquor. Chlorine has never
been found pure in nature ; but exists in many com-

Sounds ; particularly in common salt, as it may be pro-
uced from that substance.

507. Before we proceed further, we request
that it may be remembered.

1. That all fluids are combinations of heat or
motion, with some other substances ;

2. That combustion arises from the action of
heat on the parts of the combustible body; and
that the process called burning, is nothing mora
than Hie oxygen of the atmosphere uniting with
certain parts of the body ;

3. That oxygen seems to be the acic/ifying
principle; and that all acids are combinations of
Oi^gen with other substances ;

4. And tjmt ail compounded salts are combina*
lions of an acid with some other substance*

508. Acids therefore are formed from oxygenou*
combinations; and salts from acid combinations.
Weak acids are indicated by the termination e»s>

206 CHEMISTRY.

as sulphurotw, &c.; and strung ones by U, as
sulphuric, &c.

But in forming salts from acids, if those acids
ending in ous are used, the salt is terminated by
ite, as sulphite, &c«; but if from the strong acid
ending in ic, the salt ends with at; as sulphot, &c*

When there is an excess of arid, the preposi-
tion super is added ; and when an excess of the
base, then sub is prefixed.

509. The other substances which have not yet
been decompounded, and therefore called elemen-
tary, are, Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, and
two or three others, which, combined with oxy-
gen, form acids.

There are also nine earthy substances, as lime,
magnesia, silex or flint, alumine or clay, and five
others, winch, combined with acids, form nume-
rous salts.

All pure metals have, hitherto, been deemed
simple substances; as plat in a, gold, silv.er, iron,
&c. They are nearly forty in number*

510. Carbon, or diamond, orpure charcoal, is
that hard substance which is diffused through all
animal and vegetable bodies. It may be obtained
by exposing them to a red heat, which drives off
all their aqueous and foreign combinations.

Carbon combined with oxygen, of course forms
an acid, called carbonic acid, which exists in
large quantities in chalk, lime-stone, &c.

Carbonic acid cannot be obtained in a liquid
form; but its purest state is that of gas.
. The carbonic acid gas (i. e. a gas raised by
applying heat to a combination of oxygen ana*
carbon) is the choke damp of mines.

207

Combined with hydrogen, it forms fixed and
volatile oils; and with other bodies, what are
called carbonate and carburets.

511. Sulphur, or brimstone, found near volca-
noes, in coal-mines, &c., has a great tendency to
combination.

United with metals, it forms pyrites; as iron
or martial pyrites, copper-pyrites, &c.

The modern name of its combinations with
earths, metals, &c., is sulphuret; as sulphuff t of
iron, sulphuret of magnesia, &c.

Combined with qxygen, it forms sulphurotfl
and sulphuric acid.

512. Phosphorous is a simple substance, found
in a state of combination with the bones of ani-
mals, from which it is extracted.

Its tendency to unite with oxygen is so great*
that it always burns in the open air ; and bursts
into /ante, at a degree of heat a little above that
of the human body.

Its combinations with earths and metals are
called phosphurets.

06*.— Many amusing- experiments may be performed
with it ; but great care thould be taken, and a basin of
water kept at hand, for it will kindle into an (inextin-
guishable flame even by friction.

513. Chemists, by separating earths from fo«
reign matters, and from each other, have discov*
ered nine primitive earths, which are not soluble
in water or in flame: the principal are,

1. Lime, or calcareous earth, is obtained bf
applying heat to chalk, marble, lime-stone, &c.,br
which carbonic acid gas and water are expelled,
and the lime left as a product.

308 CHEMISTRY.

•

• When used as a. cement in building, water is
fused to make it plastic; and, in time, it imbibes
its carbonic acid again from the atmosphere, and
acquires its original hardness.

Lime is also used in tanning ; in making suggar
and soap ; and it forms 80 parts, combined with
80 of phosphoric acid, in 100 parts of animal
bones.

514. (2.) Magnesia, is a soft white earth, gene-
rally found in combination with other minerals.
United with sulphuric acid, it forms Epsom-salts.
It purifies putrid water, if agitated with it.

3. Silejc, or flint, is the principal ingredient of
stones, crystals, sand, &c, and cannot be melted
by. itself in any heat; but in contact with alka-
lies, as soda or potash, it forms that useful pro-
duction, called glass.

4. JUumine f argil, or pure clay, is fusible by
a great heat, when, it becomes so hard, as to

, scratch glass. It readily absorbs water, and also,
grease; and hence, its use as fuller's earth in
scouring cloths, &c.

' 515. The immense stony masses of which the
globe is composed, are found in the earth lyimg in
strata one above another; a rock of one kind
covering another. species of rock; this a third, and
so on. The arrangement is not arbitrary; but
each species occupies its regular place, from the
deepest part yet explored, to the surface.

516. Rocks are divided into five classes or.
formations; and called primitive, transitive, stra*
tified, alluvial and volcanic.

a. The primitive formations of rocks are the
lowest; and are supposed to have been chemical

CHEMISTRY.

precipitations, formed in the chaotic -state of the
earth; because thej have no trace of organized
beings or petrifactions. They are chiefly com-
posed of silicious and argillaceous earths, as
granite, slate, &c.

b. Transition-rocks are supposed to have been
formed during the transition of the earth into a
habitable state ; and differ from the primitive, in
the variety of their colours, and in containing the
remains of marine animals.

c. Stratified rocks are disposed in horizontal
strata ; and contain the remains of animals and
vegetables, and consequently were formed after
the creation of animals and vegetables.

d. Mluvial formations consist of the constitu-
ent parts of previous rocks, separated by the
action of water, air, and temperature, and depo- '
sited in bed s. These are compounded of sand, gra-
vel, loam, clay, turf, &c. ; and contain also plants,
roots, moss, bones, &c. ; likewise petrified wood,
and skeletons of quadrupeds*— tne remains of
destroyed worlds.

«. Volcanic formations are minerals thrown out
of the crater of a -volcano, consisting of pumice*
stones, lava, and basalts.

Obi. — It is maintained by a late writer,* that we are
.indebted to the agency of the weight or pressure of
masses on masses for many of the varieties of substaces
which are found under the surface of the eartbi The
pressure of one or two hundred thousand tons weight
for thousands of years, aided by varipus chemical and
other combinations, it is thought sufficient to account
for many geological phenomena.

517. It has been already explained, that oxy-
gen communicates the acid principle, and is sup-

210 CHEMISTRY.

posed to be the universal cause of acidity ; the
peculiar power of which is to turn all vegetable
hlues into reds, and give the flavour called sour.

There is also another property in nature,
called alkaline, which is distinguished from the
*cid by a burning and urinous taste \ and it has
the distinct property of converting vegetable
Hues into greens.

Hie only alkalies are potash and soda ? and
there is a volatile alkali called ammonia.

518. Alkalies and acids have the property,
when combined, of simplifying, or neutralizing
each other; and hence acids (which, it must
again be remembered, form one of the constitu-
ents of all kinds of salts 5) and when combined
'with alkalies, form what are called neutral salts.

Alkalies, mixed with fats, make soap ; and,
when melted with siUx 9 glass.

Potash is chiefly obtained by burning vegeta-
bles, and hence called pot-ashes; but Soda, the
other alkali, is obtained from sea-salt, sea-weeds,
from natron beds, and even from mines.*"

519. The principal acids obtained by the union
of oxygen with other substances, are oxygen and
sulphur, called sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol.

Uxygen and nitrogen, called nitric acid, or
aqua lords, which dissolves silver, and thence,
the art of plating with silver.

Oxygen, and an unknown base, or radical,
forms muriatic acid, or acid of sea-salt 5 — when
united to soda, called muriat of soda, it is the
common salt of the table.

Oxygenated muriatic acid, or chlorine, is used

CHEMISTRY. 211

for bleaching, cleaning paper, and taking out ink-
spots.

wVifro-nniriatic acid, or aqua regia, dissolves
gold and platina.

Oxygen, and an unknown radical obtained
from Derby shire-spar, called fluoric acid, is em-
ployed for etching on glass.

There are fifty other acids known and used in
the arts.

520. Affinity is the apparent preference which
one elementary body has for another ; and the
various degrees of this preference create most of
the chemical phenomena of nature.

Oxygen has a strong affinity for all bodies ;
therefore, to oxugmate any body, it is necessary
to weaken the affinity between its parts by heat or
motion ; and, if this be done in the open air, the
oxygen of the atmosphere will leave its azote,
and combine- with the new body, forming, ac-
cording to its degree, an oxyde or an acid.

Ofa.4£iyhen olive-oil and water are agitated together,
they refuse to act upon each other, and separate accord-
ing to the order of their densities, the oil swimming
above the water. Oil and water will not mix intimate-
ly ; they will not combine ; and they are said to have no
chemical attraction or affinity for each other. But if
oil and soap-lees, or solution of potassa in water, be
"mixed, the oil and the solution blend together, and a
species of soap will be formed, which may be procured
in a soft solid substance by evaporating a part of the
water. This is an instance of combination ; and solution
of potassa and oil are said to attract each other chemi-
cally, or to have an affinity for each other. — Davt.

521. The chemical properties of bodies arise,
in a great measure, from their varied affinities,
propensities, or preferences for one another, by

T

2U CHEMISTRY.

which they leave one, and combine with another;
and this varied power of affinity, leads to most qf
the combinations of nature, and affords to che-
' mists their powers of analyzing bodies.

In passing from a fluid to a solid state, the
substance unites into very curious and regular
'forms, called Chry state.

When bodies unite, and form a new substance,
they are said to be chemically combined; and
when they are separated again by the action of
any re-agent, they are said to be decomposed.

Od*.— Oil is almost insipid ; but the solution of potassa
is a caustic substance, which corrodes the skin, and has
a strong 1 taste.— The body resulting from their union,
differs both from the oil and the alkali in taste, smell,
colour, and in all its sensible qualities ; and it is a gene-
ral character of chemical combination, that it changes the
sensible qualities of bodies. Corrosive and pungent
substances often become mild and tasteless by their
union ; as is the case with sulphuric acid and quicklime,
which form gypsum, or sulphat of lime. Bodies pos-
sessed of little taste or smell, often gain these qualities
in a high degree by combination. Thus sulphur, when
inflamed in oxygen orin common air, dissolves and forms
an elastic fluid of a most penetrating and disagreeable
odour and peculiar flavour. The forms of bodies, or
their densities, likewise usually alter ; solids become
fluids ; and solids and fluids, gases ; and gases are often
Converted into fluids or solids. Thus, sugar, or salt, or
isinglass, dissolve in water. The consumption of char-
coal in bur fires, depends upon its uniting with a part
of the air, with which it forms an invisible elastic fluid :
mercury is rendered solid, by being heated with half its
weight of tin ; and a substance of this kind is used for
silvering mirrors. The gas produced by the combus-
tion of charcoal, is condensed by another gas procured
from quicklime and sal ammoniac, when they are mixed

CHEMI9TBY. 213

*ver mercury ; and the two invisible, elastic fluids form,
a white saline solid.

522. If salt be mixed in water, it is said to be in
solution, and the water is called the menstruum.

If no more salt will dissolve, the water is said
to be saturated.

If we would extract the salt, we must evapo-
rate the water by heat; and if the vapour from
the retort pass through a spiral tube or worn, to
the receiver, we shall have distilled water, and
the extract, or residuum of salt will remain in
the still.

523. All mineral waters are formed by the so-
lution, or mixture in them, of oxygen and nitro-
gen gases, of acids, alkalies, and neutral salts.

Sulphurous acid is found in some mineral
waters ; soda, in others ; and salts, as sulphats,
nitrats, muriate, and carbonats of soda, or lime $
and in chalybeate waters, or carbonat of iron.

Oba. l.-^The test of the presence of carbonic acid in
any mineral water is an infusion of litmus, which will be
turned red by water containing it ; and this acid also
gives the briskness of champaign into whatever it enters,
and an acidulated flavour to water. Any acid contained
in any water may be detected by its turning the infusion
of violets, red. Alkalies in water may, in like manner,
be detected, by turning the infusion of violets green. •
The infusion of dry violets, or paper stained with them,
answers best. The infusion of turmeric, or paper stained
with turmeric, is rendered brown by alkalies ; or reddish
brown, if the quantity is minute. When the change is
temporary, it is volatile alkali. Sulphur and bitumen
may be detected, by the smell and taste. Iron, in mine^
ral water, may be detected by Prussian alkali, which
will precipitate it, and tinge it blue. The solution df
galls also is an exquisite test of the presence of iron.
When there is copper in water, it will shew itself on

214 ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM.

the surface of any piece of bright iron put into it. If
arsenic, the residuum will tinge copper toMte.

2. — Chemistry is an unsettled, but interesting science ;
and new discoveries, and further decompositions of -bo-
dies, deemed elementary, are constantly taking place.

XXI. Electricity and Galvanism.

594. If a piece of glass, or sealing wax, be rub-
bed on a piece of dry woollen cloth, or silk, and
instantly neld over any small pieces of paper 4 ,
they wul be attracted towards it, raised on an
end, and otherwise put in motion.

The power thus -excited is called electric ; and
if the experiment be made in the dark, the glass
and the wax will exhibit faint signs of light ;
which light is called the electric fire or fluid.

525. If the glass be of larger dimensions, and
turned rapidly round by a wince and a wheel, in-
stead of being rubbed backward and forward with
the hand ; and be provided with a piece of silk to
rub against it during its rotation, streams and large
sparks of fluid fire will be elicited ; which will fly
round the glass, attract light bodies, and produce
a pungent sensation, if the hand be held to it.

526. This glass, its cushion of silk, wheel, &c.
axe called an electrical machine. The fluid, or
power produced by it, is one of the most wonder-
ful in nature.

It is found, that it will pass along some bodies,
and not along others ; tnat it may be received
and diffused by sharp points; that a superabun-
dance of it, in one place, acts as a repellent, in
the parts immediately adjoining; and that it has

ELECTRICITY AJTO tBLTABMB. 21

ft constant, and violent tendency to restore it
own equilibrium in all bodies.

TUB ELECTRICAL MACHINE.

Prime Conductor. Glati Cylinder.

527. The bodies, over which it passes freely,
are all animals, most animal and vegetable sub-
stances, water, 8tc. ; all which are called com/ac-
tors of electricity.

But it will not pass over glass, sulphur, char-
coal, silk, baked woods, or dry woollen sub-
stances ; nor through air, except by force in
sporfcs^to short distances.

All these bodies, therefore, are called nun-con-
ductors.

5£8. The power of exciting it, receiving it on

Joints, and confining it to bodies, aw which it
reelv passes, by placing these oiJKlies, over
which it will not pass, gives rise A all the phe-
nomena of practical electricity,

Hence a metallic conductor^ provided with
brass-points, and elevated on glass-legs, is placed .
opposite the revolving glass -cylinder, to receive j
fcy its points the electric power, which hs con-

J

216 ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM.

densed on the cylinder, but unable to escape on
account of its being surrounded only by air, and
supported by glass-legs, both which are non-con-
ductors,

529. If the hand, or a metallic knob, be held
within three or four inches from this metallic or
main conductor, a large spark will escape, which.
in the dark will be forked, and of the colour of
lightning.

There will also be a snapping noise ; 'which, in-
creased by larger quantities, would be likely to
produce the noise of thunder.

In fact, lightning and thunder are effects of
electricity in the clouds.

A flash of lightning is simply a stream of the
electric power passing from the clouds to the
earth ; from ihe earth to the clouds ; or from one
cloud to another cloud ; and thunder is the re-
port, and the echoes of the report, between the
clouds and the earth. <■

530. But the most wonderful effect of the
electric fluid, is its power of suddenly contract-
ing the muscles of animals, when it violently
passes through them, from on£ place to another^
to restore its equilibrium.

It will not pass through glass ; if, therefore, a

Elate of flftfep? in the form of a jar, or otherwise,
e coateoott both sides, with either gold, silver,
or tinfoil, and one side be brought into contact
with the main conductor, the -other side will in-
stantly part with its electricity, and the plate of
glass be said to be charged.

5S1. if one hand be put to the under or outer
side TO the said charged plate, and the other hand

ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM. 217

be brought into contact with the other, or charged
side, the equilibrium of the two sides will be
restored through the body; and a violent contrac-
tion, or blow of the muscles will be felt, produc-
ing a shock peculiar to this operation.

The severity of the shock, is proportioned to
the size of the plate or iar. Wnen many jars
are joined together, and charged in this way, tney
are called a battery; and some batteries have
been made so powerful, as to kill an ox, melt
gold, and produce all the surprising phenomena
of real lightning.

532. Philosophers amused themselves, for a
century, with experiments on the electrical ap-
paratus ; but a new mode of exciting this power,
was discovered by Galvafd ; and the experiments
made in his way, are called Galvanism.

It is found, that there are two classes of con-
ductors : — perfect, as the metals ; and imperfect,
as water and the mineral acids ;.and that if these
are laid alternately, two perfect and one imper-
fect, or two imperfect and one perfect, the two
ends or sides, will constantly produce an electric
sjiock.

Instead, therefore, of the. glass-cylinder, con-
ductor, coated jar, &c, used in electrical experi-
ments, the Voltaic pile, or trough, is now prefer-
red 5 and is so called, from Volta, its inventor.

Ob*. — The common exhibition of electrical effects, is
in attractions and repulsions, in which masses of matter
are concerned ; but there are other effects, in which, the
changes that take place, operate, in a manner, in small
spaces of time imperceptibly ; and in which, the effects
are produced upon the chemical arrangement of bodies.

If a piece of zinc and a piece of copper be brought in

ii -r— ^~ sl

.!«».

IT .£-

mm

ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM. 219

•2. — The most powerful combination that exists, in
which number of alternations is combined with extent of
surface, is that constructed by the subscriptions of a few
zealous cultivators and patrons of science, in the labora-
tory of the Royal Institution. It consists of two hun-
dred instruments, connected together in regular order,
each composed of ten double plates, arranged in cells of
porcelain, and containing in each plate thirty-two square
inches : so that the whole number of double plates is
2000 ; and the whole surface, 128,000 square inches.
This battery, when the cells were filled with 60 parts of
water mixed with one part of nitric acid, and one part
of sulphuric acid, afforded a series of brilliant and im-
pressive effects. When pieces of charcoal, about an inch
long and one-sixth of an inch in diameter, were brought
near each other (within the thirtieth or fortieth part of
an inch,) a bright spark was produced, and more than
half the volume of the charcoal became ignited to white-
ness; And by withdrawing the points from each other, a
constant discharge took place through the heated air, in
a space equal at least to four inches, producing a most
brilliant, ascending arch of light, broad and conical in
form in the middle. When any substance was introduced
into this arch, it instantly became ignited ; platina melt-
ed as readily in it as wax in the flame of a common can-
dle ; quartz, the saphire, magnesia, lime, all entered into
fusion ; fragments of diamond, and points of charcoal
and plumbago, rapidly disappeared, and seemed to eva-
porate in it. Such are the decomposing powers of elec-
tricity, that not even insoluble compounds are capable
of resisting their energy ; for even glass, sulphate of ba-
ryta, fluor spar, &c, when moistened and placed in con-
tact with electrified surfaces from the Voltaic apparatus,
are slowly acted. upon, and the alkaline, earthy, or acid
matter, carried to the poles In the common order. Not
even the most solid aggregates, nor the firmest com-
pounds, are capable of resisting this mode of attack ; its
operation is slow, but the results are certain ; and sooner
or later, by means of it, bodies are resolved into simpler
forms of matter. — Davy.

930 fcLECTRICITY AND GALVANISM.

534. It is ascertained, that during these shocks,
an oxydation of the metallic plates takes place ;
and, after their surfaces become tarnished, the
shock diminishes ; but, oh being wiped, its force
is renewed.

A combination of these troughs forms a gal-
vemie battery, the force of which nas produced the
most surprising effects ; and, by disturbing the
close affinity of the constituent parts of many
bodies, has led to the analysis of substances,
hitherto deemed simple and elementary.

Ob*. — Some fishes, as the torpedo, the gymnotus elec-
tricus, and the silarus elec^ricus, when touched, commu-
nicate shocks to the human body like those of electri-
city ; but as there is no circuit for the fluid, in these
cases, no adequate solution has yet been fiogbid of this
jtrange phenomenon.

555. Since the identity of lightning and elec-
tric matter has been ascertained, philosophers
have been led. to seek the explication of aerial
meteors in principles of electricity : and there is
no doubt, that the greater part of them, and esr
pecially the aurora boreaus, are electrical, or
gazeous phenomena.

It has been observed, that the aurora borealis
produces a very sensible fluctuation in the mag-
netic needle ; and mat the flashes have been at-
tended with various rumbling and hissing sounds.
Now black, and deep, the night begins to fall,
Drear is the state of the benighted wretch,
Who then, bewilder'd, wanders through the dark,
Perhaps, impatient as he stumbles on;
Struck from the root of slimy rushes, blue,
The wildfire scatters round, or gather'd, trails
A length of flame deceitful o'er the moss :
Whither, decoy'd by the fantastic blaze,

Ei^ECTRICITY AND GALVANISM. 221

Now lost, and now renewM, he sinks absorpt,

Rider and horse, amid the miry gulf:

At other times, gleaming on the horse's mane,

The meteor sits ; and shows the narrow path,

That winding, leads through pits of death ; or ebe, /

Instructs him how to take the dangerous ford.

Thomsoit.

536. Earthquakes, the most dreadful pheno-
mena of nature, have been ascribed, by some na-
turalists, to water, fire, steam, and electricity \
each of these powerful agents being supposed to
operate in the bowels of the earth.

Subterraneous fire, and steam generated from
it, are supposed to be the true causes of earth-
quakes. The elasticity of steam, and its expan-
sive force, are every way capable of producing
the stupendous effects attributed to earthquakes;
the force of steam being 28 times greater than

that of gunpowder.
Can the poor, brittle tenements of man
Withstand the dread convulsion ? Their dear homes,
(With shaking, tottering, crashing, bursting, fall;)
The boldest fly; and, on the open plain,
AppalTd, in agony, the moment wait,
When, with disrupture vast, the waving earth
Shall 'whelm them in her sea-disgorging womb.
Nor, less affrighted, are the bestial kind : —
The bold steed quivers in each panting vein,
And staggers, bath'd in deluges of sweat :—
The lowing herds forsake their grassy food,
And send forth frighted, woeful, hollow sounds s— *
The dog, thy trusty centinel of night,
Deserts his post assign'd and piteous howls.

Thomson.

537., The most rentarkable changes in the form

and constitution of ffie earth, since the deluge,

have probably been produced by subterraneous

222 ELECTRICITY AND GALVANISM.

fires in volcanoes and by earthquakes ; by which
plains are converted into mountains, the ocean
into islands, and dry land into pools.

Obt. — Half a pound of steel-filings, half a pound of
brimstone, and a pint of water, will, when well mixed,
acquire heat enough to make the mass take fire : and it
appears, that volcanic mountains abound in these mix-
tures ; which are ignited, no doubt, by rain falling into
their craters, or by the sea communicating with their
bases and lower cavities.

The fluid lake that works below,
Bitumen, sulphur, salt, and iron-scum,
Heaves up its boiling tide. The lab'ring mount
Is torn with agonizing throes. At once,
Fortli from its side, disparted, blazing pours
A mighty river ; burning in prone waves,
That glimmer thro* the night, to yonder plain.
Divided there, a hundred torrent streams,
Each ploughing up its bed, roll dreadful on,
Resistless. Villages, and woods, and rocks,
Fall flat, before their sweep. Mallet.

538. The eruptions of volcanoes exhibit dread-
ful phenomena, in prodigious inundations of
liquid fire, which bear inevitable destruction
with them.

The name of lava is given to these fiery
streams, consisting of a mixture of stones, sann,
earth, metallic substances, salt, &c, calcined and
vitrified.

The last great eruption of Etna, was in 1669 ;
and the progress of the lava was at the rate of a
furlong; a day : — it destroyed, in forty days, the
habitations of 27,000 persons; and of 20,000 inha-
bitants of the city of Catanea, only 3000 escaped.

The other great volcanoes in Europe, are Pe-
suvitis, and Hecla ; but there are two or three
hundred in different parts of the world.

[ 223 ]

i

4 *

XXIL Magnetism.

539. The power of certain ores of iron to at-
tract pieces of iron, was known by the Greeks ;
but accident led an Italian to discover, that if
suspended on a centre, and allowed to turn in
any direction, one end would constantly point
northward, and, oi course, the other southward.

This ore of iron was called loadstone ; and it
soon became evident, that the property of distin-
guishing the north and south, was of the highest
utility to ships at sea.

540. In the course of time, it was discovered,
that loadstone communicated its property of turn-
ing northward to all pieces of iron and steel ; and
that these fcould communicate it to others, in a
degree of strength proportioned to the number of
magnets employed in transferring Ihe property.

Natural magnets are riot therefore now used ;
but needles are first made of the most convenient
shane, And the magnetic property communicated
to ttiem, by contact with other natural, or artifi-
cial magnets.

541. The two poles or points of the magnetic
needle have different properties— the south poles
of magnets attracting the north poles of others ;
and the same poles acting repulsively towards
each other ; i. e. a north pole repels a north pole,
and a south, a south pole.

A "white heat destroys the polarity ; and so
will . stokes of the hammer. But it will be ac-
quired, by iron-bars that stand long in an upright
position, or that are heated red-hot, and left to
cool in a polar direction.

u

324 MAGNETISM.

542. If a magnet be laid on white paper, and
some steel-dust be suffered to fall gently upon it,
the dust will arrange itself on the paper in regu-
lar curves, under, the influence, of the magnetic
attraction.

If the magnetic bar be bent round into the
form of a horse-shoe, its poles in that position
will attract and operate in a higher degree than
when used separately ; and the strength of all
magnets is increased, by thus keeping their pow-
ers in action.

543. Magnets do not point exactly north and
south ; but in different parts of the world, with a
different declination eastward or westward of the
north; and different in each place,, at different
times.

In London, at this time, the needle points 24
degrees to the jvest of the north 5 or, rather more
westerly than north-north-west; and the decli-
nation has increased to the west from due-north,
for 160 years past,.

Nor do.es the needle lie parallel or flat, in any

Slace ; but the north point is turned upward or
own ward, an^ in London at this time it dips
72 degrees.

Obs. — The cause of the phenomena of magnetism ha*
hitherto, baffled the investigations of philosophers; and
the more we learn of them, the greater becomes pur
embarrassment; but some accidental discovery will
probably hereafter effect more than all reasoning ; and
till that occur, we must be content to class this, ataoog'
the many unaccountable secrets of nature.

[ 225 ]

XXlII. Mathematics.

544. Mathematics, or the mathematical sci-
ences, are divided, into—

1. Pure mathematics; containing arithmetic
' and geometry, which trefet only of number and

magnitude.

2. Mixed mathematics; which treat of the pro-
perties of quantity applied to matter* as astrono-
my* geography, &c.

3. Speculative mathematics j which contem-
plate the proportions, relations, &c., of bodies.

4. Practical mathematics, or their application
to the practical uses of life.

545. Geometry is an ancient, perfect, and
beautiful science ; which enables us to determine
the relations and proportions of superfices and
solids.

Superfices consist of figures of three sides,
called triangles ; of four sides, called quadrila-
terals, squares? parallelograms, and trapeziums ;
of five aides* called pentagons; of nx sides}
called hexagons; and of many sides* called pa*
lygpns.

superfices also are circles ; ovals, or ellipsis ;
sedtors of circles, or parts cut olit from the cen-
tre ; and segments of circles cut Off by a Strait
line, called a chord..

236

MATHEMATICS.

A PENTAGON.

The above cut represents a Pentagon or Polygon tf
five sides, inscribed within a circle.

546. Solids are cubes, regular and irregular ;
spheres ; cylinders ; cones ; pyramids ; and sphe-
roids, &c.

A cone cut obliquely to the base, forms an
ellipsis ; perpendicular, an hyperbola, ; and paral-
lel to the side, a parabola*

Jingles are the inclinations of two straight lines
meeting in a point.

A right angle is, when the lines are perpendi-
cular to each other; an acute angle is less than
a right angle; and an obtuse angle is greater than
a right angle.

EqUI-LATERAL
TRIANGLE.

RIGHT-ANGLED
TRIANGLE.

MATHEMATICS.

2*

SQUARE, AJ*D MAG0ATAL A ft. AN OCf AGON.

A

547. Parallel lines are those, which are equi-
distant; diagonals are those, which cross figures
from one angle to another.

Tangents are lines that touch a circle.

The circumference of every circle is equal to
360 degrees? the three angles of every plain tri-
angle, are equal to 180 degrees; the angles of
•very quadrilateral .figure are equal to 360 de-
grees.

548. By means of a scale ahd compasses, many
kinds of figures may be readily drawn.

Triangles contain six parts; viz. three angles,
and three sides, and any 1 of one, and 2 of the
others being given, the other three may be found
either by projection, or by logarithms.

This art is called trigonometry; and by means
of it are performed most problems in astronomy,
geography, navigation, and surveying.

It is founded on the great principle—that all
triangles which have equal angles, nave all their

u 2

328

MATHEMATICS.

sides in equal proportion* This is. the foundation
of tables tor calculating triangles.

549. In every plain triangle, the three angles
are 180 degrees; and as a right angle is 90 de-
grees, the other two angles together are, of course,
equal to 90 degrees ; all triangles may be reduced'
to right-angled triangles.

Tables, then, are calculated from the. pro-
portions of triangles; whose hypothenuse is
1,000,000,000,. for every degree and minute of
the acute angles.

Hence, if the base of a triangle be 67 yards,
and the angle 36 degrees, I can ascertain "the
length of the other sides, by making a proportion
from the tables.

Obs. — In these tables, it should be understood, that the
hypothenuse corresponds to the rodiua of 1,000,000,000;
that the base corresponds to the co-sine ; and the perpen-
dicular to the sine. Or, when the base is deemed the
radius, the perpendicular is the tangent, and the hypothe-
nuse the secant.

The elements of trigonometrical tables may be* under-
stood by attending to the following diagram:

E

•D A is the diameter; C B is the radius; B F is the sine;
CF^is the co-sine. Or, C A is the radius'; AJ& is the
tangeiti; C E is the secant.

MATHEMATICS. 229

Tables, then, are calculated for these several lines, to
every degree and minute of the quadrant from A to 6;
and as the sides of all triangles, which have equal angles,
are in «qual proportion, it is evident, that we have only
to adapt these already calculated proportions to other
triangles ; and the latter may be calculated by the sim-
ple proportion.

550. Superficial contents are ascertained by
multiplying the length by the breadth ; and solid
contents, by multiplying the superfices by the
height.

Irregular superficial figures &re to be reduced
to regular ones ; and in solids, or casks, cones,
&c, a mean or average-height' or breadth is as-
certained.

Lines are in the proportion to each other's res-
pective lengtfis ; superfices in the proportion of
their squares ; and solids of their cubes.

551. Every diameter of a circle is to its cir-
cumference, as 1 to 3,14159. " *•

The superfices of every circle is to the square
of its diameter, as 11 to 14, or as 0,7854 to 1 #
nearly.

The cube of every sphere is to the cube of its
diameter, as 0, 5236 to 1.

Every square foot contains 144 square inches.

Every cubic foot 1728 solid inches.

282 cubic inches are a gallon of ale, and 231,
of wine.

552." The length of a pendulum vibrating se-
conds at London, is 39|- inches.

The English yard is 36 inches; the mile 1760
yards ; and a degree of the earth's surface, 69£
miles nearly.

The French metre is the 10 millionth of the

230 MATHEMATICS.

distance from the equator to the north pole ; arid
is 39,383 inches English.

The English acre is 4840 square yards; and
640 acres are* a square mile.

The surveyor's chain, is 100 links, 22 yards, or
4 poles $ and 10 square chains are an acre.

06$. — As the preceding numbers are the foundation oi
all calculations relative to quantity, and are frequently
called into use in life, every young person should be
expert in the recollection and use of them.

553. The tables in which all the proportions of
triangles are calculated, which have 1,000,000,000
for one of the sides, are called tables of sines and
tangents, and are to be found in various books of
mathematics.

The numbers are reduced to logarithms for
% greater ease in working the proportions ; addition*
in working logarithms, being a substitute for mul-
. tiplication, and subtraction for division.

554. Trigonometry also calculates the sides of
triangles, whose sides are parts of the circles of

* the earth and heavens : hence, it is highly useful
to the astronomer and navigator. It enables us
to calculate the heights of buildings and moun-
tains, and the distance of celestial bodies.

The projection of spherical triangles, as part
of the earth or heavens, and of maps on a globu-
lar principle, is a beautiful branch of practical
geometry and astronomy.

555. Logarithms are numbers in arithmetical
progression ; which, set with others in a geometri-
cal progression, express their ratios or proportions
to one another, as in the two following series, viz.,

^ Logarithms, 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Arith, Prog,
^umbers, 1. 2. 4* 8. 16.52.64. Geom. Pro&*

MATHEMATICS. 231

556. It is the peculiar and useful property of
Logarithms, that for every addition and subtract
Hon of one series, there corresponds to it in the
other, a multiplication and division of the num-
ber to which they belong.

Thus, by adding 2 and 4 in the logarithmic se-
ries you nave 6, which is the logarithm of the
number in the lower series 64, the product of 4
times 16 ; and the contrary for division.

By dividing a logarithm, you find the logarithm
of the root of its number $ sp 6, ike logarithm of
64, divided by 2, gives 3, the logarithm of 8, which
is the square root of 64 ; or divide 6 by 3, it gives
% the logarithm of four, the cube root of 64 ; and
80 of others.

Oba. — After having completed a table of logarithms
lor all large numbers, the tedious labour of multiplica-
tion, division, and extraction of roots, is saved by the
addition* subtraction, and division of logarithms.

^ 557. Perspective is that part of the mathema-
tics, which gives rules for delineating objects on
a plain superfices, just as they would appear to
the sight, if seen through a transparent plane, a
pane'of glass; or window.

In the representation of solid bodies, buildings,
&c., there are three divisions :—

J. Ichnography, which shews the plan or
ground-work 0* the building.

2. (tonography, which exhibits the front or
parts in a direct view.

3. Scenosraphy, which is the perspective view
of the whole building, fronts, sides, and height.
—See Drawing, &c.

. 06*. 1. — Sciagraphy, or dialling, is the art of making
dials on all kinds of planes ; as horizontal, erect, or de-

234 OPTICS.

23+3
and by restoring a and ft, it will stand —= y, or

26 2

— 13, Eliza's age, and Emily's being 13 — 3 will,
2
of course, be 10.

2. A child, to whom the first four rules of arithmetic
and the characters are known, may be made to under-
stand this; and I advise no female or young person to
pass it as a difficulty. A course of Algebra may be
undertaken, after a youth is master of vulgar and deci-
mal fractions.

561. Fluxions are the different velocities
whereby any quantities, in a flowing state, in-
crease or decrease, according to the ratio of the
velocities.

Quantities and their fluxions are, (as in algebra)
represented by letters ; known quantities, by the
first letters, a, 6, c, d 9 &c; and the fluents, by
the last, as v t x 9 y, z; and their fluxions, by the

same with a point over them, as v, x, y, z.

Obs. — As the ratios of velocities, in many cases, are
perpetually altering, as in the motion of falling bodies,
these fluxions vary every moment, and produce fluxions

of fluxions, or second fluxions, thus marked, v, x, y f z;

and the fluxions of these are third fluxions, as, v, x, y, x.

XXV. Optics.

562. This science is founded on the properties
of Light, which derives its chief source from the
Sun, and is also ^generated or decomposed by
bodies in a state of combustion.

We ascertain Hie utility of light, by the intro-

OPTICS, 235

•

duction of a candle or ray of sun-shine into a
dark room. This, in an instant, renders every
thing visible, by the emission of innumerable
rays, or particles proceeding from the candle or
ray, to the objects, and from them to the eye,
producing therein a figure of the objects; and a
corresponding sensation in the brain.

Fairest of beings! first created Light!
Prime cause of beauty! for, from thee, alone,
The sparkling gem,— -the vegetable race,—
The nobler worlds that live and breathe, their charms,
The lovely hues peculiar to each tribe,—
From thy unfading source of splendour, draw!
In thy pure rays, with transport, I survey
This firmament, and those her rolling worlds ;—
Their magnitudes and motions. Mallet.

Oba. — TVo hypotheses have been invented to account
lor the principal operations of light. In the first, it is
supposed, that the universe contains a highly rare elastic
substance, which when put into a state of undulation,
produces those effects on our organs of sight, which con-
stitute the sensations of vision, and the other phenomena
* occasioned by solar and terrestrial rays. In the second,
it is conceived, that particles are endued, or sent off, from
luminous or heat-making bodies with great velocity, and
that they produce their effects by communicating their
motions to substances, or by entering into them, and
changing their composition. The first of these suppo-
sitions, was adopted by Hook, Huygens, and Euler; the
second, by Newton, — and the philosophers of the New-'
tonian School. Most of the phenomena may be ac-
counted for, by either hypotheses ; but the Newtonian
doctrine applies more happily, to some of the facts dis-
covered, respecting the modifications of light by double
refraction and reflection.

563. By observing the regular eclipses of Jupi-
ter's moons in different parte of the earth's orbit,
it is found, that rays, or vibrations of light, travel

236* OPTICS.

twelve millions of mites in a minute ; vet they da
not affect the eye in passing into it? and they
could never be found to produce the slightest im-
pression on the most delicate balance.

It requires 12 rays or pulsations of light to fall
on the eve in every second, to produce a constant
perception of the object, .whence the rays or pul-
sations proceed. •

Hence, rays or pulsations of light, in passing
from distant bodies to the eye, may be 16,000
miles behind each other, and yet produce con-
stant vision.

Obs. — The eclipses of Jupiter's moons are calculated
for a mean distance of the earth ; but they happen sooner
or later, as the earth is nearer, or more distant from Ju-
piter. The number of rays necessary to procrace vision,,
is ascertained, by turning a piece of burning wood in a
Circle till the circle is wholly illuminated. The twink-
ling of the stars, doubtless, arises from paucity of rays*.

564. Pulsations of light pa99 freely through air,
water, glass, the coats and humours of the eye,
and other transparent mediums. At the back of
the eye, is spread a net of nerves^ called the optic
nerve; to receive their impression, and communi-
cate their effect to the brain.

The rays pass through the pupil, and form, on
the optic nerve, a beautiful and perfect picture of
the objects before the eye. A camera obscura
acts on the principle of the eye: and a common
spectacle-glass will shew the same effect, held at
a proper distance, from a wall.

$65. But though effects of light pass ki straight
lines through any medium when in it 5 they are
turned out of their course, as they pass obliquely

OPTICS. 23f

out of one transparent body into another 3 and
this effect is called refraction*.

If a stone be thrown obliquely into water, it
will be evident, that when it strikes the water, it
will fall to the bottom in a direction more perpen-
dicular than before it came into contact with the
water* Such, too, is the effect of refraction on
rays of light ; which, on passing into water, or
any heavier transparent oody, are bent down-*
ward.

06s. — To verify and understand this principle, put a
halfpenny into an empty basin, and stand at such distance
that the coin may not be visible ; then, let another per-
son pour water into the basin, and the halfpenny will
become visible: this arises from the bending of the rays
in their passage into air at the surface of the water.

566, Hence, when the rays of light coming
from the celestial bodies, arrive at our atmosphere,
they are bent downward ; and those bodies ap-
pear*, when in the horizon, higher than they are.

Many rays of light are reflected at the surface
of a new transparent medium, in an angle equal
to that in which they fall on the surface, and on
this principle all mirrors are constructed.

567. Advantage is taken by man of the pro-
perty of refraction, to construct new mediums of
such shape, as that all rays that fall on them may,
on coming out of them, converge in one point
instead of going straight forward*

The construction of surface which produces
this effect is the convex; and all rays of light
which fall on a circular surface of glass, &c, are
conversed on the other side into a series of cor-
responding points, representing the objects
whence the light proceeded.

238 OPTICS.

Such are spectacle-glasses, called lenses*

568. The eye consists of a transparent horny
coat on its outside, called the cornea; within it,
is a pure liquid called the aqueous humour; and
within the aqueous humour, is a lens, like a spec-
tacle-glass, called the crystalline humour.

Beyond that, is a jelly-like humour, called the
vitreous humour, filling the ball of the eye; and
at the back of the eye, is spread the optic nerve,
retina, or fine net-work, to receive tne impres-
sions of the rays of light.

The horny coat, the lens called the chrystal-
line humour, and the other .transparent humours,
answer the general purpose of one spectacle-glass,
with nice and wonderful powers of adaptation.

THE EYE.

The Ctfrcferepresents the ball of the eye ; and the arrow
ABC, any object to be seen by the eye. Rays proceed
from all points of the arrow; but some of those from
ABC only, are represented, to avoid confusion. These
flow from A B C in straight lines as represented. They
fall on the cornea at £ F, pass through the aqueous hu-
mour to the iris or pupil/ thence, through the convex
lens or ckrystaUine humour, shaded dark; and thence, into
the ball of the eye, filled with the vitreous humour, re-
converging' and producing a perfect picture of the arrow

OPTICS. 239

At the back of the eye at c, b 9 o, where is spread the fine
net-work, or retina of the optic nerve. The tube at the
corner, is the optic nerve going to the brain.-— -such is
the simple, but wonderful economy of vision!

06*.— To comprehend the effect on the lens of the
eye in producing vision in the different ways in which
the rays may fall upon it, holdVa €peetacle+glads,by means
of a- rule or stick, at unequal distances from a wall; which
wall may be supposed to represent? the back of the eye.
Then place a candle at such distance, or adapt the lens
to that distance, and a beautiful picture of the candle
■reversed will be seen upon the wall. Keep the lens fixed,
and move the candle nearer to it, mid the image will be
Jess distinct, and quite Vanish, as it approaches; then
carry the candle backward, to a greater distance than
the first distance, and, in like manner, the image will
again become indistinct. In thefh'st instance, the rays
Tall with such a degree of obliquity, as, when operated
upon by the refraction of the glass, occasion the whole
of them to converge, and reproduce, in opposite and
cross-directions, an image of every part of the candle ;
but when carried nearer, the refracting power of the
glass was unequal to the great degree of convergency
required, and either the image would be produced at a
greater distance, that is, beyond the wall, or the rays
would go out parallel; or even diverge or spread, if the
candle were carried still nearer. Hence, vision depends
on the parallelism or obliquity of the rays proceeding
from an object, and. on the power of the eye to accom-
modate itself to that obliquity; and when that is greater
than the power, art is necessary to diminish or increase
the obliquity of the rays, so as to accommodate them to
the powers of the eye. Aged people require spectacles
to increase the convergency; because in these, all the
humours diminish,, and the chrystalline lens of the eye
becomes flatter, and^the cornea itself less convex : hence,
the power of convergency is diminished, and the images
of objects fall beyond or behind the optic nerves. This
can be illustrated by having two lenses of different con-

x 3

240 OPTICS.

verities held at the same distance from the wall; and it
will be proved, that when the more convex, or youthful-
lens, produces a distinct picture, the flatter, or aged one,
produces a confused image.

569. The different distances, at which lenses •
produce on a wall the representation of objects,
is called their focal distance; and it is the centre
of the circle, of wjiich the surface of the common
double lens is a part.

The concave lens has the opposite effect; it
diverges or spreads the rajs, instead of converg-
ing them to a focus. '

Hence, when the eye is too flat in old age, the
convex lens helps its converging powers:

And when it is too convex, as in short-sighted
people, the concave lens counteracts the con-
vexity of the eye, spreads the rays, and renders
vision distinct.

Ob*. 1. — The next circle represents the ball of an aged
eye ; in which, owing to the decay of the humours, the
cornea is not convex enough to converge the rays on the
retina, but only a little beyond it The object Will,
therefore, appear with a burr around it, or contused. If,
then, a convex lens or spectacle-glass be interposed, as
a, 6, this will give a converging direction to the rays be-
fore they reach the eye; and, of course, its converging
power will then be sufficient to produce the figure exact-
ly on the optic nerve,

THE COHVXX I.S1T8 JOB AOED PERSONS. ,•

OPTICS. 241

Obs. 2. — In this figure, the cornea is supposed to be
too convex, as in short-sighted persons ; and the rays are
converged before they reach the back of the eye or retina.
The eve, in this case, performs too much ; and more is
given it to perform, by interposing a concave lens, so that
the rays, instead of falling parallel on the eye, may ac-
tually fall divergent

THE CONCAVE .LENS FOB SHORT-SIGHTED PEHSONS.

570. But besides the useful invention of spec*
tacles, arising from this power of converging rays
of light in convex lenses, a very important use
arises from their combination in microscopes and
telescopes, the principle of which is exceedingly
simple.

Every Visible object is of a visible size, propor-
tioned to the angle which it makes to the eye ;
and that angle is also always in the inverse pro-
portion * of the distance, which the eye is from
the object.

Obs. — To prove this, try a simple microscope without
any glass, and it will enable you to see an object clearly
at the di*yice of an inch ; which, with the naked eye,

* The term inverse. signifies something like a contrary.
Thus the size is not as the distance ; because, as the dis-
tance is greater, the size is less ; the proportion is, there-
fore, not direct, but opposite, contrary, or inverse.

242 OlPTlCS.

could not be weH seein at less than eight inches ; and die
Object, suppose a grain of sand, will apparently be eight
'times larger in diameter, 64 times m surface, and 512
times larger in bulk ! This simple microscope is nothing
more, than* small hole pricked with a fine needle through
apiece of blacked card. The hole, by limiting the -num-
ber of rays from the object, will enable you to see the
object as above, and prove that the size is as the angle,
or inversely as the distance. Every object in length or
breadth, is in size, in the inverse proportion of its dis-
tance ; because the angle* which its size subtends to the
eye, is t)f a size inversely proportioned to the distance.
Thus, a man at 100 yards distant, isbut half the apparent,
height that he is at the distance of 50 yards, and only a
tenth of his size at ten yards distance. He is magnified,
therefore, ten times, by any contrivance which enables
us to view him under the same angle at 100 yards distant
as we should see him with the naked eye at 10 yards.

571. The object, then, of all arrangements of
glasses, or lens, in microscopes, and telescopes,
is first to produce an image of the object, and
ihen to dispose of the rays proceeding or diverg-
ing from the image, in such manner, as that it
may produce distinct vision in the eye.

The sole use of the object-glass is so to dispose
the rays anew, as that they may produce vision
by the approximation of an eye-glass ; and the
magnifying power will depend on the closeness
with which the eye-glass enables the eye to see
the image produced by the object-glass j or, on
the convexity of the eye-glass.

Or, in other words, the magnifying f wer will
be in the ratio of the focal distance of tne object-
glass to that of the eye-glass.

Obs. 1. — If a tree, at the distance of 400 yards', subtend
-an angle of one degree to the naked eye, and an image
of it is produced by the object-glass of a telescope, and

OPTICS. 243

I am enabled by the convexity of an eye-glass to view
that image so closely, as that the visual angle is increased
to 40 degrees, the effect is the same as if I had advanced
: within 10 yards of the tree, when its angle would, to the
naked eye, have been increased to 40 degrees. The tree
is consequently magnified by the eye-glass 40 times in
height and breadth.

2. — In a microscope, as the object itself can be brought
so near, as to serve the purpose of the image in the te-
lescope, the single microscope is but one lens, but the
compound microscope is an arrangement of eye-glasses ;
which, in some of them, enables the eye to view the image
within the 50th part of an inch; thereby enlarging the
object in comparison with the natural vision, at six inches
distance, 300 times in length and breadth, or 9000 times

in surface.

■

the TBxvsdbrs.

t

B

A D is the Object-Glass, or glass nearest the object

E Y is the eye-glass.

K is the eye of the observer. f

O B is the object or scene to be viewed.

O C B is the angle under which the remote object is
seen by the naked eye.

I C M is the angle of the optical image produced by
the object-glass, and is equal to the angle OCB, being
produced by the crossing of the same lines.

The glass E Y enables the eye to see the image I M
under the angle £ K Y, which is the same as £ P Y.

Those angles are, however, in the inverse ratio of the
distances C P and PG; or, in other words, as the focal
distances of the object and eye-glasses, and such, there-
fore, is the power of the telescope generally.

In such a glass, the image will be reversed to the eye,
but by adding two other eye-glasses, it is set straight
again. In Gallileos, however, only one eye-glass is need-

244 OPTICS.

fill In viewing the heavenly bodies, the reversal is of
Ho consequence.

572. As the image is reversed by a single lens,
owing to the crossing of the rays in the centre of.
the lens, the magnified image is reversed when
viewed with one eye-glass ; two other glasses are
therefore added ; one for the purpose of restoring
the image to its natural position ; and the other
for the purpose of viewing it as at first.

The fens within the eye, reverses objects ; but
the mind contemplates the top of the optic nerve,
as corresponding with the bottom of trie object 5
and the mental effect, is the result of habit, or of
learning to see in infancy, or after the eyes have
been couched in manjioou.

573. Telescopes are refractors, when the ef-
fect is produced solely by refraction through
transparent lenses ; or reflectors, when the image
is produced by the converging rays of a concave
mirror ; but the principle of the magnifying power
is the same in all.

% They are called Gallileos when the eye-glass
is concave, after Qallileo, the inventor of tele-
scopes, who made most of hi9 discoveries in astro-
nomy by a small telescope, which magnified but It
times ; whereas Herschel's great telescope mag*
nifies 6000 times !

574. Of course, without light, the world would
be involved in total darkness ; and without the
mechanism of eyes, and optic nerves to convey
the varied sensations of light to the brain, all the
beauties of nature derived from its diversity of
colouring, all the interesting relations of day and
night, and half the pleasures of existence, would
Se totally lost.

OPTICS, 345

The cause of the various colours which adorn

the creation is, of course, an object of interesting
inquiry ; and this discovery was the greatest of
those made by Newton.

The beams of light had been, in vain, display'd,
Had not the eye been fit, for vision made ;
In vain, the Author had the eye prepar'd,
\Vith so much skill, had not the light appealed

Blackvobs.

575. Every one observes the beautiful colours
produced by the pendant drops of cut-glass hang-
ing to lustres and chandeliers, whether derived
from candle-light or sunshine.

It is observed too, that drops of rain are co-
loured in like manner, when the sun shines upon
them ; and the regular form of the colours in the
rainbow, ted Newton to conclude, that these co-
lours, as well as* colours in general, were pro-
duced by some property in rays of light.

576. Newton made a beam of sunshine pass
through a hole in a window-shutter, and fall on a
glass prism or wedge, so as to be refracted out o/
its course towards the ground, and thrown up- '
wards on the opposite wall.

He then found, that the circular beam of right
was rendered oblong and regularly coloured ; that
the uppermost part, or the rays most refracted,
were violet, their next division indigo, the next
bhte, then green, yellow, orange, and at bottom
red, being the seven colours of the rainbow.

Of parent colours, first, the flaming red
Sprung vivid forth ; the tawny orange, next ;
And next, delicious yellow ,• by whose side,
Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing,g r ree»/
Then the pure blue, that swells autumnal skies,

346

OPTICS.

Ethereal playM ; and then of sadder hue,
Emerged the deepen'd indigo, a* when
The heavy skirted evening droops with frost ;
While the last gleamings of refracted light
SyM, in the fainting violet., away. — Blackmoee.

TBB FBI8M iKD ITS COLOURS.

Violet

Indigo

Blue

Green

Yellow

Orange

Red

E represents the shutter of a room.

D a hole in the shutter.

S rays of light proceeding from the sun passing through
the hole, and falling on the jjlass prism B A C ; on meeting
which at B C, instead of going straight on, it is refracted,
and leaves the prism at A C.

T is its figure on the opposite wall, spread from a cir-
cle to an oblong, and presenting the colours of the re-
fracted rays in succession as marked.

577. A beam of white light is, therefore, found
to consist of rays of all the colours ; and it is evi-
dent, that the various colours of all the bodies in
nature, depend solely on the power of the sur-
faces to absorb some rays, and reflect others.

It appears, too, that white is a due mixture of
the seven primary colours wholly reflected ; that
black objects absorb all the rays, reflecting none ;
and that black is an effect of negation.

OPTICS. 24f

Colours are but the phantoms of the day ;—

With that they're born, with that they fade away ;

Like beauty's charms, they but amuse the sight,

Dark in themselves, till, by reflection bright,

With the sun's aid, to rival him they boast ;

But light withdrawn, in their own shades they're lost.

Hurasf.

578. HenCe, white bodies in the sun are cool,
and black ones hot ; because white surfaces re-
flect all the light, and black ones absorb it : hence
also, as red rays are the least refracted, they are
supposed to be the largest, and are therefore,
painful to the eye $ and hence, the most refrangi-
ble rays, as the smallest, are the most grateful.

06*.— When similar thermometers are placed in the
different parts of the solar beam, separated by the prism,
it is found, that different effects are produced in the dif-
ferent coloured rays. The greatest heat is exhibited in
the red rays : the least in the violet rays ; and in a space
beyond the red rays, where there was no visible lights the
increase of temperature is greatest of all This important
discovery was made by Dr. Herschei He estimates the
power of heating in the red rays, to be to that of the
green rays as 55 to 26 ; and to that of the violet rays as
55 to 16. A thermometer, in the full red rays, indicated
an increase of temperature of 7° Fahrenheit, in ten mi-
nutes beyond the red rays, in an equal time, the increase
was 9 P Fahrenheit From these facts, it is evident, that
matter set in motion by the sun, has the power of pro-
ducing heat without light, and that its rays are less re-
frangible than the visible rays. Rays capable of produc-
ing heat with and without light, proceed from bodies at
the surface of the globe under peculiar agencies or
changes, as well as from the sun ; and the phenomena,
that are usually called the phenomena of the radiation of
terrestrial heat, are of great extent and importance, and
well worthy of being studied. There is another fact, stUl
more extraordinary, which has been caUed ttetadtotitnvqp*

248 OPTICS.

fid, first observed by the Italian philosophers, and after-
wards by Pictet. If in the arrangement of the two paral-
lel mirrors, a piece of ice be introduced into the lower
focus, the thermometer in the upj/er focus will indicate
a diminution of temperature.

579. Rainbows arise from the rajs of the sun
which fail on drops of water being reflected and
refracted to the eye of the spectator; and, of
course, all those drops which are situated at V e
same angle all round from the eye, will present
the same colour.

And, as different colours will arise at different
angles ; a bow composed of regular circles is a
necessary consequence of showers of rain, while
the sun shines.

It will, however, only be risible opposite to the
sun ; and the line from the sun through the eye
of the spectator must be its centre.

580. As rays will reach the eye from drops of
rain, owing to two different causes ; so there will
generally be two rainbows, one fainter, however,
than the other.

The strongest, or lowermost rainbow, is occa-
sioned by the light feeing reflected from the upper
part of the back of the drops of rain ; and the
other, or upper bow, is occasioned by the light
being twite reflected within the drop from the
lower part to the upper, and thence, refracted to
the eye.

581. The breadth of a rainbow is about two de-
>es ; and, of course, no two spectators can see

te same rays; but every eye will be the centre
of its own bow.

iliAU circles round the sun and moon, arise in
Ij^e manner, from the peculiar modifications of

the rajs passing through the vapours of the at-
e in peculiar states.

i

\

Obi. 1. — The rajs of light are shewn ss^aasbig from

the sun to the drops of water, and thence ti^^beye of the
spectator E ; and all the rays at the same angle from the
eye or centre P, necessarily produce the same colour*.

2.— The spectator stands, of course, with his back to
the sun, and his eye is necessarily the centre of the bowa,
each drop of the same colour having an equal angle from
the eye. Rainbows, of course, are more or less vivid, is
the sun shines more or less bright on the ujiptwite rain ;
and they are more or less perfect, as the rain is more or
less diffused. An artificial bow may be made with a
fountain; and glass chandelier* reflect colour* on exactly
the same principles.

3. — In the inner Bow, the colour* are red at top, then
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; and, in
the upper Bow, the contrary. The upper Bow make*

slug from the Sun, through the eye of the spectator. —

3J0 OPTICA

5&£» A magic l&ntkom is founded on the prin-
ciple of placing the image within the focus of the
lens ; so that the rays diverse and produce a figure
as much larger as is desired on a wall ; and Than-
tasmagoria are produced by magic lanthorns ; in
which all the parts of the sliders, except the fi-
gures, are painted black and opake.
# The camera ob&ura, for drawing landscapes,
-consists merely of one lens, with a mirror to re-
flect the images on the rough glass placed to draw
upon with a pencil.

j0&8. 1.— Before I leave this subject, 1 must recommend
the tutor of student to dissect a bullock's or sheep's eye.
By taking oflf the back delicately, he will see the land-
scape before the eye beautifully painted on the optic
nerve • he will find in front, the' cbrnea ; beneath it, the
aqueom kum&ur ; then the iris, so called from its various
colours; the pupil or hole, which opens and shuts to the
light; and the thvyttalHne hfomopr, or lens. Then, the
vitreous humour ; and then, the optic nerve or net-work;
—a curiotlifctad wonderful arrangement!

2.— The instantaneous motion of light h^as given rise to
the Telegraph, a modern invention of the greatest social
importance, at present limited to purposes of govern-
ments ; but capable of the highest uses to the community
at large.

The telegraph consists of a large frame, in which are
placed And worked six shutters, marked a, b; c, d, e, f,
by means of ropes pulled in the manner of -bell-ropes.
By the various combinations of these shutters, 63 distinct
signals may be produced, sufficient to represent the 24
letters of the alphabet, the ten digits, and various leading
words. Such telegraphs are men set up on eminences at
the distance of 8, 10, or 12 miles ; and a Mne of them, by
repeating each other's signals, conveys a message from
the first station to the last, at the rate of a hundred
miles in about fire minutes !

THE TELEGRAPH.

[ 2*3 ]

XXVI. Meteorology.

583. Every 100 parts of the atmosphere, is
composed of 28 parts of oxygen, and 72 of azote
or nitrogen, kept in a gazeous state by caloric or
heat.

Atmospheric air is found to weigh in propor-
tion to rain water, as 12 to 10,000; it is to oxy-
gen gas, as 5 to 6; and to hydrogen, as 15 to 1 $
a cubic foot of it, weighing 525 grains; or one
ounce and a quarter, nearly.

584. The atmosphere is found to be very
elastic; and, in consequence, to press on every
side, equal to a weight of 33 feet ot water, or 29 i
inches of mercury; and this elasticity is found to
decrease, as we ascend higher and higher, so as to
render the barometer a means of ascertaining
heights.

Oba. 1.— This elasticity is equally powerful in a cubic
inch of the atmosphere, as in the whole mass; and an
inch will raise the mercury in the barometer, as much
as the whole atmosphere. One cannot, therefore, but
wonder at the quackery, or inconsiderateness of authors,
who copy, one after another, the idle nonsense about
the atmosphere pressing a man with a weight of
30,000 lbs. ; when, in fact, he is not pressed to the amount
of an ounce; all the vesicles of his body being filled
with air, which presses outward, at least as much as the
atmosphere presses inward, and also upward as well as
downward. In fact, in regard to animal and vegetable
bodies, the slight gravity of the air is destroyed by its
elasticity.

585. Comparing the atmosphere to fleeces of
wool laid upon one another, it will be lighter or
rarer as we ascend in it; or, in other words, its
elasticity will be diminished.

METEOROLOGY. 3J3

Wero it all of anrfeim density, like water, it
would be about five miles high ; but the reflection
of the sun's rays appears to be affected by it at
the height of 44 miles ; where it is calculated to
be 4000 less elastic than on the surface of the
earth.

The blue colour of the atmosphere is its natural
colour. Its power of reflection produces the uni-
versal diffusion of light.

OS». — On the elasticity of air, Is founded the intention
of the Divino Bill; by means of which, U1 operator de-
scends to any depth in water, and remains there for
hours tog-ether, Weights are placed at the bottom to
prevent it from turning; and a forcing pipe sends in
fresh air, to supply the waste of vital air from the rcepL
ration of the operator.

586. By means of the air-pump, all the air may
be drawn out of a large glass-vessel, and a vacuity
or vacuum produced; in which, a great number of
curious experiments may be performed, shewing
at once the properties and usefulness of air.

The figure represents an air-pump on the best modem
construction. The glass-receiver, as it is called, iaplaced
at. top ; where there is a hole, to let out the air by the
action of the pistons seen below.

58". In the serial vacuum, a feather and a
guinea will fall with equal velocity, owing to
there being no resistance of air.

If a bladder, apparently empty, be tied at the
neck and left in it, the small quantity of air in
the bladder will swell it, and presently burst it.

A bell will cease to sound in vacuo. .

METEOROLOGY. 255

The smoke of a candle, having no air to float
in, will fall to the bottom by its own weight.

No animal will live, or any light burn, in
vacuo.

Obt.—A bladder, tied in the same manner, wit! swell
and burst, if laid before a fire ; thereby proving the
power of beat to rarefy air.

588. Common air may also be compressed, by
cold or by mechanical means, into forty thou-
sand times its ordinary sjJace, and still maintain
its elasticity; and on this principle is founded
the invention of the air-gun. It nas a constant
disposition to maintain its equilibrium, level, or
equal diffusion, like water.

Hence, if a bladder, filled with rarefied air,
burst, an explosion takes place, from die rushing
of the surrounding air to fill the space.

The same principle is the cause of all wind,
which mav be traced to some local expansion or
compression of air by heat and cold ; thus, also,
smoke is carried up chimneys.

068. — It is evident, that the density of bodies must fee
diminished by expansion; and in the case of fluids and
gases, the parts of which are mobile, many important
phenomena depend upon this' circumstance. If heat be
applied to fluids or to gases, the heated parts change

• their places and rise; and the colder parts descend and
occupy their places. Currents are constantly produced
in the ocean and in great bodies of water, in consequence
of this effect The heated water rises to the surface in
the tropical climates, and flows towards colder ones;
thus the warmth of the Gulf stream is felt a thousand
miles from its source; and deep currents pass from the
colder to the warmer parts of the sea: and the general

■ tendency of these changes, is to equalize the temperature
of the globe.

250 METEOROLOGY

589. One of the principal foreign bodies mixed
with, or dissolved in the atmosphere, is the vapour
of water which is constantly rising at every de-
gree of heat, provided the force of the vapour
already in the atmosphere is not greater than that
of vapour at the existing temperature.

By this perspiration of the globe, 36 inches of
water per annum are raised from the surface of
all seas or rivers ; and, at least, 30 inches from
all land.

In December and January, it is 1 J inches per
month; and in July and August, more than 5
inehes.

590. By this constant process of evaporation^
100,000 cubic miles of water are, every year
raised into the atmosphere; the greater part of
which, at a certain height, parts with its heat,
and is condensed into clouds.

These are carried by the winds over the land,
broken and precipitated by the action of moun-
tains and trees ; and thus rendered the means of
watering the soil.

It then returns to the sea in the currents of
rivers ; so that there .is a constant circuit of the
waters ! They are chiefly raised from the sea, are
carried by the winds, over the land; fall in rain ;
and then return again to the sea in rivers !

The streams, their beds forsaking, upward move,
And form again, in wand'ring clouds above :
Hence, rich descending showers; hence, balmy dews,
Their plenteous sweets o'er bright'ning fields diffuse ;
Hence , shoots the • grass; the garden smiles with flowers ;
And sportive gales steal fragrance from the bower*,

$

METEOROLOGY. 25J

Od*.— Inthe process of evaporation the salt of the sea

As not taken up : the water from the clouds is therefore
fresh and pure.

591. The quantity* of rain which falls in Great
Britain is about 24 inches per annum in the
eastern counties, and 36 in the western ; because
these receive the first clouds as they are brought
from the Atlantic by the westerly winds.

In the West Indies, 120 inches fall annually;
and, in the East Indies, from W to 100.

As mountains are conductors of heat and elec-
tricity, and precipitate clouds, so it constantly
rains in the Andes, and seldom rains in Siberia
and Tartary : the clouds generally falling before
they reach those countries in their passage from
the oceans.

Ob s. 1. — This principle of the effect of high conduc-
tors on clouds, led to a public proposal by Sir Richard
Phillips, in 1793, for the erection or artificial conductors
in Great Britain, and other civilized countries, by which
the descent of rain might in various degrees be regu-
lated.

2. — Of course, as much rain falls as is evaporated ; and
it may be supposed, from the causes above-named, that at
least 75,000 solid miles of water fall every year on the
land only, and the rest in the sea.

592. Springs, rivers, &c, are attributed to
rain. Rain oozes down by the crannies of the
stones, and enters the caverns of the hills.

These being filled, the overplus water runs
orer by the lowest place, and breaking out by
the sides of the hills, forms springs.

These running down the vallies, between the
ridges of the hills, and uniting, form little rivulets
or Drooks; and these, meeting in one common

258 METEOROLOGY.

▼alley, become ft river, which rims into the sea ? ~

the common level.
I see the rivers in their infant-beds!
Deep, deep I hear them, iab'ring to get free ;
I see the leaning strata, artful rang'd :
The fissures gapingto receive the rains,
The melting snows, and ever dripping fogs.
Strew'd bibulous above, I see the sands;
The pebbly gravel next, the layers then
Of mingled moulds, of more retentive earths ;
The gutterM rocfcs, and mazy-running clefts,
In pure effusion flour. •United, thus,
Th* exalting sun, the vapour-burden'd air,
The gelid mountains, that to rain condens'd
These vapours in continual current draw,
And send them, o'er the fair-divided earthy
In bounteous riven to the deep again ;
A social commerce holding firm support.

Thoxsoxt.

593. The instruments for making observations
onihe atmosphere, are the barometer ; which as-
certains the elasticity of the air, and varies in
height between 30$ and 28$ inches*

The Thermometer; which ascertains the de-
gree of heat by the expansion or contraction of
a fluid in the bulb, which sensibly affects the
quantity in a small connected tube.

Thirty-two degrees are called the freezing
point; and 212° is the heat of boiling water, u
is hot weather at 70; but it has been in England
as high as 95 ; and is, in winter, sometime* 50
degrees below the freezing point, or 18 degree*
below O or zero. At 40 below O, mercury freezes.

<M*. — Mr. Wedgewood's clay-thermometer measures
variations of heat, as high as 32,000 degrees!

METEOROLOGY.

THE THBRMO METES.

At A, there is a bulb or ball filled with quicksilver or
spirits ; which, distending- or shrinking with heat Or cold,

nusesorfaUs the thre»dofthe same liquid, contained in
the connected tube ; and the scale and figure* at the
ade, indicate the relative degrees of heat and cold.

For the purpose of' acquiring a scale, the bulb is first
plunged into melting ice, and the place where the liquid
stands, is marked ; the bulb is afterwards plunged into
boiling water, and the same operation repeated. On
/fcfewiAe&'» scale, this (pace is divided into 180 equal
parts ; and similar parts are taken above and below, for
extending the scale ; and the freezing point of water is
placed at32°, and the boiling point at 213° — 1.8 degrees
of Fahrenheit are equal to one degree of the Centigrade
thermometer; and 2.25 to one degree of Reaumur.

METEOROLOGY.

THE BAROMETM.

This consist! of abaain of mercury at the bottom, into
which a. tube, closed at top, and open at bottom, deprived
of its air, U plunged; the eiternal atmosphere pressing
then by its elasticity on the surface of the basin, raises
the mercery in the tube to a height equal to the elastic
force of the air; varying between 28 and 31 inches, and
Indicated by an accurate scale at the top.

594. Besides the above, there are hygrometers,
to measure the moisture of the air; rain-gauges,
to take the depth of Tain ; electro meters, to mea-
sure the electricity ; and anemometers, to measure
the velocity of the wind.

By these last, it appears, that wind is just
perceptible when it moves two miles in an hour ;
that it is brisk, at 15 miles; high, at 35 miles;
blows a storm, at 50 miles; and a hurricane, at

METEOROLOGY. 261

100 miles an hour : tearing up trees, and carrying
away buildings.

In England, the wind blows twice, or nearly
thrice as much from the west, as from the east ;
and the wind from the south is to that from the
north, in the proportion of 3 to 2.

Of what important use to human kind,

To what great ends subservient is the wind ?

Where'er th' aerial, active vapour flies,

It drives the clouds, and ventulates the skies ;

Sweeps from the earth infection's noxious train ;

And swells to wholesome rage the sluggish main.

595. The primary cause of all vrindjs the heat
of the sun % which, during the diurnal rotation of
the earth, passes over some parallel between the
tropics, from east to west, every 24 hours.

Hence, as the air which is beneath the sun, is
every where rarefied, there is a regular wind fol-
lowing the sun in the tropical parts of the world ;
which, in some parts, is^ so regular and so un-
ruffled, particularly in the great Pacific Ocean, that
the inhabitants have no idea of a change of wind, or
of a storm.

Obt, — It is remarked, that the cause of all winds begins
at the part towards which they flow or follow.

596. The variation of the parallel over which
the sun passes vertical, from 23 i north to. 23}
south, necessarily affects the winds at each pole;
the heights of mountains, and local causes of heat
in particular situations, also generate constant
changes in the wind, in some northern and mid*
die latitudes.

In other situations, where mountains aid the lo-
cal influence of the sun, regular winds are pro-

262 METEOROLOGY.

duced; which flow one-half the year in one
tion, and one-half in another.

These are called monsoons ; they prevail in most
parts of India, and their changes are attended by
nurrioanes, calms* and great rains.

Ob: — In the atmosphere, heated air is constantly
rising, and colder air rushes in to supply its place; and this
event is the principal cause of winds : the air that flows
from the poles towards the equator, in consequence of the
rotation of the earth, has less motion than the atmosphere
into which it passes, and occasions an easterly current 5
the air passing from the equator towards the poles hav-
ing more motion, occasions a westerly current ; and by
these changes, the different parts of the atmosphere are
mixed together ; cold is subdued by heat; moist air, from
the sea, is mixed with dry air from the land; and the
great mass of elastic fluid surrounding the globe, pie-
served in a state, fitted for the purposes of vegetable and
animal life.

597. In the northern hemisphere, January is
every where the coldest month; and its average
temperature in Great Britain is 40° ; and July and
August are the hotest months ; the average tem-
perature being in Great Britain 62*. hi the south-
ern hemisphere, the periods vary by six months.

The average temperature of the tropics is 80;
and of the equator 84.

The temperature diminishes also according to
the height above the sea ; 800 feet ill Great Bri-
tain, making a difference of three degrees ; and
three miles on the Andes, a difference of 54 de-
grees.

In Great Britain, there would be perpetual
snow at H mile high ; and there is always snow
at the equator, at three miles up, on the Andes.

598. Terrestrial heat is occasioned, less by the

METEOROLOGY. 263

direct insulated rajs of the sun, than by their re-
flections from all surrounding objects at the earth's
surface ; and by the heat generated by the action
of the rays on the surface of bodies.

In some other respects, the earth has been com-
pared to a vast electrical machine; and the action
of the. sun's rays, the winds, water, the ascent of
vapour, the pressunTof gravity, &c, are continu-
ally generating the electrical fluid.

The air being a non-conductor, the clouds be-
come variously electrified; and, from various
causes, discharge their electricity either between
each other, or to the earth s producing shafts of
lightning, accompanied by explosions and the
echoes of explosions, callea thunder.

Oba. — Certain changes in the forms of substances, are
always connected with electrical effects. Thus, when
vapour is formed or condensed, the bodies in contact with
the vapour, become electrical. If for instance, a plate
of metal, strongly heated, be placed upon an electrome-
ter, and a drop of water be poured upon the plate, at the
moment the water rises in vapour, the gold leaves of the
"electrometer diverge with negative electricity. Sulphur,
when melted, becomes strongly electrical during the time
of congelation ; and the case seems to be anatepus, with
respect to non-conducting substances in general, when
they change their forms. As electricity appears to result
'from the general powers or agencies of matter, it is ob-
vious, that it must be continually exhibited in nature, and
that a number of important phenomena must depend
upon its operation. When aqueous vapour is condensed, •
the clouds formed are usually more or less electrical j and
the earth below them being brought into an opposite
state by induction, a discharge takes place when the
clouds approach within a certain distance, .constituting
Ughtmng ; and the undulation of the air, produced by the
discharge, is the cause of thunder; which is more or less

z 2

364 METEOROLOGY.

intense, rod of longer or shorter dnnftion» according to>
the quantity of air acted upon, and the distance of the
place where the report is heard from the point of the dis-
charge. It may not be uninteresting to give a further
illustration of this idea:— electrical effects take place in
no sensible time ; it has been found, that a discharge,
through a circuit of four miles, is instantaneous ;* Mt
sound amoves at the rate of about twehre miles in a mi-
nute.— Now, supposing the lightning to pass through a
space of some miles, the explosion will be first heard
from the point of the air agitated, nearest to the specta-
tor ; it will gradually come from the more distant parts
of the course of the electricity ; and, last of all, will be
heard from the remote extremity ; and the different de-
grees of the agitation of the air, and likewise the differ-
ence of the distance, wiH account for the differentinten-
shies of the sound, and its apparent reverberations and
changes. — Davy.

599. Rain, snow, and hail, are formed in the
clouds, by any sudden change in the atmosphere.

Snow j by the cloud becoming frozen before its
particles have collapsed into water.

Hail 9 by the freezing of the drops after they
have begun to fall as rain. J

Dew j or haze, is the falling of the vapours of
the d*ja#when they part with their heat in the
cool oniie evening.

600. The form of the clouds is found to be regu-
lar and systematic ; and, within these few years^
they have been classed into different kinds, worthy
of being understood and remembered.

a. The Cirrus, those of the greatest elevation
and least density, parallel, and beginning with a
few threads : these are accompanied or followed
by steady high winds

bi The Cumulus, convex or conical masses, of
dense structure, formed in the lower atmosphere

METEOROLOGY. 265

and the cloud of the day, but increasing about

sun-set : these threaten thunder.
Sometime, we see a cloud that's dragonish ;
A vapour, sometime, like a bear or lion ;
A toweled citadel ; a pendent rock ;
A forked mountain ; a blue promontory,
With trees upon 't that nod unto the world,

And mock our eyes with air.

That which is now ahorse, even with a thought,

The rack dislimns, and makes it indistinct,

As water is in water. Sbaxsnuto.

c. The Stratus, a widely extended horizontal
sheet, often touching the earth or water, and pro-
perly a cloud of the night, being in the morning
converted into the cumulus.

d. The Nimbus., or rain-cloud, a horizontal
. sheet ; above which the cirrus spreads, and the

cumulus enters its side and forms beneath ; neither
of the former appearing to rain by themselves.

601. Fiery meteors sometimes appear: and
shooting stars' are very frequent. Stones, also,
have been often known to fall to the earth.

Northern lights, or aurora borealiq. are fre-
quently very interesting 5 and the ignis fatuuSj
or will-o-the-wisp, affords matter of inveJQgation.

Respecting meteors, falling stars, and northern
lights, nothing certain is known of their origin or
cause.

Shooting stars are supposed to be electrical
phenomena ; and the igms fahms is ascribed to
nydrogen gas set on fire by phosphoric matter.

Oba. — The lights seen in ruins, which often terrify the
ignorant, are nothing more than hydrogen gas in a
state of combustion. The cause of candles burning blue
in cellars, arises, in like manner, from azotic gas. Doubt-
less, also, the noises and explosions which take place em

r

266 ACOUSTICS AND MUSIC.

opening rooms long: closed, or in Vhich fruit has been
suffered to decay, arise from the combustion and combi-
nation of various gases. Of the fall of stones from the
chwds, there is now no doubt ; and it is rationally con-
cluded, that they arise from the explosion of meteors,
and the co-mixture of gases ; but in what way these are
generated, must long remain a question.

602. The discovery of hydrogen gas, which is
15 times lighter than atmospheric air, suggested
the plan of filling a silken balloon with it: and
of its ascent in air, with an aeronaut appended to
it, provided the whole did not exceed tne weight
of an equal bulk of atmospheric air.

Accordingly, balloons have beep filled with
hydrogen gas, created by mixing iron-filings,
Water, ana sulphuric acid; which have earned
through the atmosphere two, three, and four per-
sons at a time.

Obs. — This is one of the most splendid discoveries of
modern philosophy; but hitherto unattended by corres-
ponding utility, owing to the difficulty of steering the
machine. Mons. Blanchard made more than fifty voy-
ages in all parts of Europe: Mons. Garnerin has made
nearly as£lany; and Mr. Sadler 30. — See paragraph 504r.

XXVII.' Acoustics and Music.

603. Sound is an effect of vibration, and is
produced by diverging waves of the air. This
is evident, from the vibration of stringed instru-
ments; and from the eftect on water in musical
glasses.

Sound, like heat, appears to depend on the
reflection of the surrounding bodies, and also on
the density of the air.

MUSIC. 267

Aeronauts tan scarcely hear each other speak,
when high in the atmosphere $ and the discharge'
of a pistol from an air-balloon, produces scarcely
any report, for want of reflecting bodies.

06*.— That bodies move, or tremble, when they pro-
duce sound, is evident in drums, bells, and other instru-
ments, whose vibrations are distinctly perceptible ; and
it is equally clear, that a similar vibration is excited in
the air; because bells, glasses, basins, and musical
strings, will sound, merely by the action propagated from
other sounding bodies, and will not sound in a vacuum.

604. The vibrations that produce sound, have
been aptly compared to the circles produced by
throwing a stone into the water ; but judging by
their effect on the water in a musical glass, the
undulations are more pungent and decided.

A bell rung under water, gives the same tone as
in air; and water is known in other respects to
be a conductor of sound. Wood and the earth
appear, also, to be conductors of sound.

605. Sounds, or their undulations, are found
to travel at the rate of 1142 feet in a second, or
about thirteen miles in a minute.

^ Hence, as any corresponding light is cmnpara*
tively instantaneous in its progress, the distance
of the report of thunder, or of a piece of cannon,
maybe exactly calculated.

sounds also are reflected like light; and hence
we have echoes, which are like plain mirrors, and
whispering galleries, and repeating caves, like so
many concave mirrors.

©&«.— Every building standing alone, is an echo, when
addressed at a proper distance ; but, if there are trees or
other objects to the right or left, the various echoes
destroy each other.

268 MUSIC.

606. Speaking trumpets confine and give &
limited direction to sound, independently of the
mechanical effects of their reflection.

The human voice is produced by the expulsion
of air from the lungs, and by the vibrations ex-
cited in that air, by a very small membrane called
the glottis, in its passage through the trachia or
windpipe; and by the subtle modifications of the
moutn, tongue, and lips.

Singing is performed by a very delicate en-
largement or contraction of the glottis, aided
likewise by the mouth and tongue for articula-
tion.

60r. The natural music of birds, and the power
of singing or producing agreeable notes by the
human voice, led, in the course of ages, to the
contrivance of stringed instruments, as the harp,
lyre, &c.; and to the invention of wind-instru-
ments, as the pipe, &c.

In stringed instruments, the air is struck by
ihe string, and the vibrations of the air produce
a corresponding sound in the ear; but, in pipes,
the air is forced against the sides by the breath,
and its vibrations or* tones are produced by the
re-action of the sides.

608. Sound is varied by the rapidity and mo-
mentum of the vibrating body; and this depends
on the length, tension, and size of the string.

A short string vibrates quicker than a Ions
one, and therefore produces the sharpest and
highest tones : and a short and small pipe, from a
like cause, produces sharp notes; and large pipes,
grave and deep ones.

Savages discovered this; and they made, artd

MUSIC. 2®

jstill make, instruments which please themselves
and their wild companions ; but art and science
go further; they ascertain the causes of their
pleasure, and direct them so as toancrease it.
' 609. Hence, it was long since* found, that if
two strings of a harp were of equal lengths, they
produced the same tone, or vibrated together, or
in unison.

They produce the same number of vibrations
exactly in the same time; their vibrations, if
struck together, accord; hence, they produce the
same sound to the ear.

610. It was, afterwards, found, that if one of
these strings were equally divided, the vibrations
became half the length of the vibrations of the
whole, and the note twice as acute ; but as every
other vibration of the half-string corresponds with
every vibration of the whole one, there is a con-
stant unison or concordance between them : they
harmonize or vibrate together for once in the long
string, or twice in the short one.

Hence, there is no jarring or discord; but they
are said to be in concord; and, in regard to
intervening subdivisions, have been called oc-
taves.

611. But as a harp, composed of strings of
only two lengths, would produce little variety
of sound, it was justly considered, that if. other
strings could be contnved, whose vibrations cor-
responded even with less frequency than the oc-
tave, the compass and variety would be increased
without discord.

Hence, as the number of vibrations of a string
are 1, while that of its octave is 2; the next best

2T0 MUSIC.

division would be, to produce a string, which,
while the original vibrated 2, the next should vi-
brate 3; this was done; and this note, which is
two-thirds of the original, is called a fifth.

06#.— If, then,*the original string was 120 parts, the
oetaue woulA.be 60, andthejS/Ww 80, or two-thirds.

612. In like manner, another string might be
divided,, so as to correspond with every fourth
vibration of the original ; and this would be of
thru-fourths of its length, or 90 parts of 120, and
is called a fourth.

So on with others, whose vibrations accord 5
for every 4, and 6 for every 5; also 5 for every 3,
and 5 for every 8, till seven melodious or accord-
ing vibrations are made of the original chord.

A harp, constructed of strings, divided in this
manner, produces an agreeable melody; the vi-
brations according and agreeing with one another
at equal intervals, although the tones are dif-
ferent

613. If a string consist of 120 parts (inches, or
barley-corns,) the octave will be 2 vibrations to 1,
or 60 parts of 120.

The fifth, 3 vibrations to 2, or 80 parts.

The fourth, 4 vibrations to 3, or 90 parts.

The major third, 5 vibrations to 4, or 96 parts.

The minor third, 6 vibrations to 5, or 100
parts.*

The major sixth, 10 vibrations to 6 (or 5 to 3,}
or 72 parts.

Ana the minor sixth, 16 vibrations to 10 (or 8
to 5,) or 75 parts.

Ob8. — These divisions of a string, constitute the Ma-
tmti* scale/ the sole and simple object of which, is to

MUSIC $»

produce the greatest variety of tones with unisons of
vibration, or an exact recurrence of vibrations after the
nearest intervals.

614. The strings of a pianoforte, harp, or
violin, are brought into accordance or successive
octaves, or recurring tones, by the accuracy of the
ear.

In the harp, &c, their lengihs are exactly pro-
portioned to the scale by the maker , but as the
strings vary in their tension, owing to the weather
and other causes ; and as they cannot all have
the same precise bulk, it is necessary, from time
to time, to tone them; ivhicfy means nothing more,
than making each perform its proper number of
vibrations in relation to the other strings.

615. These seven notes, then, are the basis of
all music;. and, with the addition of five half
tones, are the alphabet of music, %a$ fill all the
concordant intervals of one octave.

Octaves may, however, rise upon each other Jn
successive ratios or degrees, a& in the piano-forte,
which has 5 and even 7 octaves ; or 5 sets of na-
tural notes as above, and 5 semi-tones, or flats
and sharps to each octave.

616. For the purpose of obtaining further va-
riety in composing tunes or melodies, these seve-
ral tones may be played shorter or longer ; and,
in this respect, are divided as under*— •

2 minums make 1 semi-breve;
2 crochets make 1 minum t
£ quavers make 1 crochet;
2 semi-quavers make 1 quaver;
2 demi-semi-quavers make 1 semi-quaver;

a. a

272 PHYSICS.

32 demi-semi-quavers are to be played in the
time of one semi-breve*

Again, in regard to the tune itself, there are
also two sorts of time, slow and quick, as common
time and treble time.

617. When an agreeable succession of simple
notes, having a perfect beginning and ending, is
played or sung, it is called a tune, an air, or me-
lody; as a song, hymn, dance, or march, 'accord-
ins to its several purposes.

W hen these notes, forming an air, are combined
with corresponding notes, in different octaves, or
on other instruments, and the whole is scientifi-
cally made to produce a concordant and agreeable
effect, it is called Harmony.

The bass and treble of a piano-forte played at
the same lime with the left and right hand, con-
stitute the most common practice of harmony. •

Some of Handel's pieces have been played by
1000 instruments and voices, all sounding har-
moniously together.

Obs. — The human soul may be moved in all its pas-
sions by music: and as a soother of the mind, and a
source of exquisite pleasure, the practice on some instru-
ment cannot be too Wrongly recommended as a branch
of liberal education to children of both sexes.

XXVIII. Of Fhysics; or, the General Proper-
ties of Matter.

618. All existence is, what it appears to be to
the powers of our senses; and is, therefore, rela-
tive, or comparative, to those powers.

PHYSICS. 273

Thus, there is no intrinsic sweetness in sugar;
but the quality of sweetness is in the sense of the
palate.

< In a violet, there is no inherent colour; but
the sense of colour, called violet, is in our optic
nerve ; and the sense of sweetness produced by
the same flower, is in the olfactory nerve.

So, there is no sound in a vibrating string; but
the sound, so called, is the vibrating effect pro-
duced on our auditory nerves.

And the sense of hardness, or substance in a
stone, arises from its being harder than our fin-
gers, which have not power to pass through it

Obs. — It has been a favourite notion of ancient and
modern philosophers, that the substratum or basis of all
matter is the same; and that all the varieties exhibited
to our senses, are only so many modifications, capable of
producing their respective sensible effects.

619. A person, born blind, has no sense or
conception of colours: he can feel the hardness,
the roughness, and the length and breadth of
surfaces; but he can have no perception of their
various colours*

• > So, one born deaf, sees the motion of a bow on
a violin, or the sticks on a drum ; but has no idea
of their sound.

. In like manner, all food is aiike^ in flavour,
to those who have lost their sense of taste and
smell.

620. The sensations produced by things out of
ourselves, are called our perceptions; and the
property or power of bodies to excite or create
particular perceptions, is, in common language,
considered as the perception itself; and the body

m PHYSICS.

h considered as possessing the sensation itself,
Which it only cteates in us.

Thus, we call vinegar sour, oil smooth, and fire
hot; though the sense of sourness, smoothness,
and heat, is in us, not in the bodies which create
those perceptions.

So, likewise, in common language, we talk of
the motion of the sun and stars 5 though it is onlj
our earth that moves.

621. Every collection, then, of properties*
capable of affecting our senses, is called material,
or matter; and it possesses extension, or bulk;
soUdUy, or the power of maintaining its space ;
iimslmlity, or the capability of being divided into
infinitely small parts ; and a power, or disposition
to coalesce or unite with Other matters.

Without external force, such matter is inert or
dead; but it may be put in motion by powers
Sufficient to overcome ite inertness, or its disposi-
tion to unite with larger masses.

So, also, motion, once acquired, would continue*
far ever, if riot checked by opposing powers, or bjj
friction.

The' disposition of alt matter to rush or fall to-
gether, is usually called attraction; and is sup-
posed, by Sir Isaac Newton and others, to arise
from effluvia etftitted from the respective bodies.

Ofa .— This idea has been combated by Sir Richard
Phillips, in the Monthly Mag. Oct. 1, 1811. He asks*
how any effluvia can take hold of distant bodies; and
what connection can exist between such effluvia, and the
body whence Jhey flowed, to occasion them to solicit
another body, to return with them back to it? He then
suggests, that all spate is filled with an etherial, elastic
medium, except in the points occupied by matter, as the

PHYSICS. 2r5

Stin, Stan, and Planets; that this medium solicits to enter
the foreign substances of matter, in degrees proportioned
to their density and peculiar construction; that these
forces act in right lines infinitely extended from the
substance ; that the phenomenon of attraction arises from
the interception of those infinite lines by other bodies;
that the forces must then be finite in the direction of
any two substances, but infinite in other directions ;
and that, of course, all bodies must fall towards each
other in the line which joins their centres; because they
are pressed finitelt in that direction, but infinitely in
every other. Thus, bodies are pressed to the earth, by
forces infinitely extended in their zenith; but the action
of those forces in their nadir is taken off, by the interpo-
sition of the mass of the earth. So, likewise, the pressure
on the earth is always diminished on the side immediately
next the sun; while it is infinite on every other side;
and that pressure necessarily produces the phenomena
called attraction.

622. Extension is infinite ; at least the human
mind can set no bounds to it, but can add millions
to millions of miles in every direction.

Such matter as affects our senses, is, however,
not visible every where; but the spaces between
the stars and planets are supposed to be filled
with a rare, elastic medium.

Solidity is a relative idea; and is measured by
us, in the ratio of the attraction to the earth called
weight,

A cubic foot of platina weighs as much as 92
cubic feet of cork, or as 230,000 cubic feet of
hydrogen gas; yet the platina itself may be light
compared with other bodies unknown, and the
cork and the gas be heavy in regard to others.

G6*.~-The whole earth, m solid matter, might, per-
haps, be compressed into the compass of an orange ; just
as* 1000 cubic feet of elastic steam can be re-compressed

Aa 2

576 PHYSICS.

into its original foot of water. To suppose any void 1n
creation, is blasphemy against the omnipresent Creator.

623. The property of infinite divisibility will
be evident, from the consideration that every
particle of matter* however small, must have an
upper and an wider side.

The power of mutual attraction, or rather, of
universal pressure^ is proved by the falling of all
loose bodies to the ground, in a perpendicular
direction, towards the centre of the earth; by the
motions of the planetary bodies round the sun ;
by the combined or curved direction of projected
bodies; and by the continually accelerating mo-
tion of falling bodies.

Obs. 1. — The infinite divisibility of matter is evident,
in the formation of animalcule, already treated of, and
of the malleability of gold. Scents are equally subtile;
and it is computed, that the millionth part of a grain of
musk, divides itself into seven quadrillions of parts*, in
scenting a room. So, also, the light generated by a
single grain of tallow, diffuses itself over a space two
miles round.

2. — Accelerated motion, in falling bodies, is created
by new impulses of attraction, or pressure, acting on a
body already possessed of a given motion, and which
acts at every instant, as though no motion were already
acquired. The motion is, as the square of the times
employed in falling. Thus, —

Seconds of time, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Sec.

Their squares, • 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c.

Feet of motion, 20, 80, 180, 320, 500, &c.

3.— Attraction, or pressure, is always in proportion to
the quantity of matter in bodies; and it decreases by
the same law as surfaces increase, i. e. according to the
squares of the distances of the bodies from each other:

4. — Light and heat observe the same law ; and decrease
according to the square of the distance of the luminous

PHYSICS. ' Iff

body : because, as light and heat diverge from a centre,
their density on every surface presented to them, will
necessarily be as the square of the distance, or radii of
the diverging influences or rays.

5. — Kepler ascertained, and Sir Isaac Newton demon-
strated, that from the combined forces of attraction and
rectilinear motion, the squares of the periodical times or
revolutions of the planets are, as the cubes of their dis-
tances. Hence, the distance of the earth from the sun
being ascertained, and the times of all the planetary re-
volutions being # known from observation, their several
distances are ascertained by a simple rule of proportion.

S. — The following are the conclusions of Sir Richard
Phillips, relative to the laws of the planetary motions:—

The rotatory motion of a planetary body subject to a
uniform external pressure, from a uniformly diffused
medium, is a necessary consequence of a peculiar and
nicely adjusted disposition of the component parts in re-
gard to their density.

A rotory and centrifugal motion, is a consequence of
the lighter parts being* fluid, and producing oscillations
against the denser parts of corresponding and competent
force, varying, at the same time, the centre of motion.

A motion of that centre in a circular orbit, is a conse-
quence of the cqmbiued force of the oscillations, with the
diminished pressure of the near or inner side of the
body in regard to a larger or centrical body, as in the
earth and sun.

An elliptical orbit inclined to the plane of the equator
of the moving body, is, then, a consequent of the ar-
rangement of an excess of the oscillating fluid in one of
the hemispheres, — as in our southern hemisphere.

No peculiar numerical laws of pressure in the univer-
sal medium, nor any given centrifugal force, are required
to effect the motions of the planetary bodies. It is sim-
ply necessary , that the powers should be uniform, uni-
versal, and in a degree calculated to balance each other
under the existing circumstances. Such an accommoda-
tion of powers evidently exists, in a peculiar manner, in

278 • PHYSICS.

an oscillating fluid, as applied to counteract the uniform
pressure of an universal medium. Its centrifugal impe-
tus would mechanically be increased from a pound, avoir-
dupois, to millions of tons, as the inverse ratio of the
squares of the distances might require.

But no violence, or extraordinary force, belongs to the
motions of nature. It is probable, that the pressure
towards the sun in the earth, for example, is little more
than is requisite, slightly to destroy its inertia. This
pressure is easily counteracted, by the oscillations of the
waters (and as nature does nothing abruptly, may we not
add, that of the atmosphere also,) so tfiat the progression
in the orbit between the poised forces, is serene, quiet,
and grand; not dissimilar, perhaps, to that of a balloon
on a calm day.

A centripetal impulse arising, therefore, from the
pressure of the elastic fluid, or subtle medium, filling
all space, inclines the planetary bodies mechanically
towards each other, on their near sides, by a very slight
and finely diminished force ; which is counteracted by a
centrifugal force, created by a jpotative motion; which
again is itself a consequence,, of such an arrangement
of the integral parts of the masses, with respect to
density and fluidity, as constantly varies their centre of
motion.

The result of the combined forces, is a progressive mo-
tion of all the systems of bodies round their common
centres of motion ; such as we observe in the solar sys-
tem; and such as doubtless exists in every system in the
universe; whether of separate bodies — of planet and
satellites— of sun, comets, and planets— of suns amongst
themselves— or of systems of suns in regard to each
other.

-*t ..

[3T91

XXIX. Of Chronology and Htet&ry.

624. Chronology is the art which enables us to
measure and regulate time past, and time future:
and History records, classes, and recounts events
which have happened in past ages; and is, conse-
quently, a register of the experience of mankind;
and a source of practical wisdom, for kings, go-
vernors, and persons in authority.

625. Nature divides time into days, nights,
and seasons. Savage nations added tne division;
of moons, which are about 29i days. Civilized
nations have agreed to reckon the period of the
rotation of the earth round the sun, and call it *
year; and they again subdivide this into its 12
moons, (inoonths, or months,)

But 12 equal moons make but 354 days, and
the earth is 565 i days going round the sun ; Julius
Caesar, therefore, varied the months as we now
have them, so as to make 365 days.

Ofo.— The Hebrews and Greeks added an extra month
every third or fourth vearj but as the revolution of the
earth was a quarter of a day longer than §65. Caesar
directed the oth of March to be counted twice in every
4th year, so as to keep the reckoning of mankind equal
with that of the heavenly bodies. This, however, was
not correct; for the actual revolution of the earth is not
quite a quarter of a day more than 365, but only 5 hours,
48 minutes, and 97 seconds; consequently 11 minutes
3 seconds, are gained every year, or a whole day in 131
years.

626. In 1752, this gain of 11 minutes, 3 se-
conds, per annum, had carried the reckoning 11
days before its proper time; the style of reckon-
ing, therefore, was altered, and 11 days dropt!,

280 CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY.

by act of parliament; the day after the 1st of
September being called the 12th.

ft was settled also, that in every 400 years,
three leap-years in three centuries should be
dropt ; so that, in future, the annual recurring
year will keep pace with time, within two or three
seconds per annum. -

627. The year is also, divided into 52 weeks,
and one day over ; the weeks into seven days, or
rotations of the earth on its own axis ; those rota-
tions into £4 flours ; each hour into 60 minutes ;
and each minute into 60 seconds, or periods, in
which a pendulum that is 39,2. inches long, wilL
vibrate.

The vibration of such a pendulum, or a second,
is therefore the first measure of time ; but a pen-
dulum of a fourth the length, will vibrate half
seconds ; seconds are also, in calculations, divided
into 60 thirds, fourths, &c.

628. The names of the days of the week are de-
rived from the names of certain Saxon objects of
worship :—

As Sunday, or the first day, from the Sun.

Monday, from the Moon.

Tuesday, from Tuisco, a German hero ; whence
they call themselves Tuitschen, or Dutchmen.

Wednesday, from Woden, their god of battle.

Thursday, from Thor, the god of winds and
weather.

Friday, from Friga, the goddess of peace and
plenty.

And Saturday, the seventh day, from Seator,
the god of freedom,

(Mi.— The Romans called the days after the planets : —

CHRONOLOGY AMD HISTWY.

as Solis, Sun ; Lunae, Moon ; Martis, Mars ; Metcprii,
Mercury ; Jovis, Jupiter ; Veneris, Venus ; and Saturni,
Saturn.

629. The names of the 12 moons, or months,
are derived from the Lajtin, as under :

January, from Janus, the god of new-born infants.

February, from Februa, the mother of Mars*

March, from Mars, the god of war, the first month of
the Roman year.

April, from Aperio, signifying to open the year, or the
blossoms. *

May, from Maia, the mother of Mercury.

June, from Juno, the wife of Jupiter.

July, from Julius Caesar, the Roman emperor.

August, from Augustus Caesar, -the Roman emperor.

September, from Septem, the seventh month of the
Roman year, which began in March-
October, from Octo? the eighth month of the Roman
year.

November, from JWoem, the ninth month of the Ro-
man year.

December, from Decern, the tenth month of the Roman
year.

630. It will be readily supposed, that owing to
the various lengths of years, and the different
modes of calculation practised by different na-
tions, great differences of opinion nave existed in
regard to the date of past events.

The great difficulty was, to fix the period of
certain great event, as a sort of land-marks, from
which to ascertain and correct others: these

Before Christ. Years.

The Creation . . . . . 4004

The Deluge . ..... 234 8

* According to Caesar, the mother of Mars was Juno,
and Februa was a feast of atonement, held in the month
of February, which, thence, received its name.

The Cafl of Abraham 1921

The departure from Egypt 1491

The taking of Troy by the Greeks . 1185

The BvLitowg of Solomon's Temple . 1013

The Building of Rome 753

The Heath of Cyrus 526

The Battle of Marathon .... 490

The Death of Socrates 396

The Death of Alexander . . * . . 323

The Destruction of Carthage .... 146

The Death. of Julius Cxsar 4£

After Christ. Years.

The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 70

The Eastern Empire began at Constantinople ' . 339

The Death of King Arthur .... 514

The Flight of Mahomet from Mecca . 622

The Death of Charlemagne .... 820

The Death of Alfred 890

The Landing of William 1 1066

The Death of Edward ID. ..... 1377

The Death of Tamerlane .... 1410

The Discovery of Printing . ... 1450

The taking of Constantinople by the Turks . 1453

The Death of Richard the Third . . 1485

The Discovery of America ... * . 1492

The Reformation begun . 1590

The Spanish Armada Defeated ... 1588

The beheading of Charles I. . . 1649

The English Revolution .... 16Q8

The Battle of Blenheim ..... 1704

The American Declaration of Independence . 1776

The French Revolution .... 1789

The Bank of England stopt Payment 1797

The Battle of Marengo ..... 1800

.Napoleon crowned Emperor .of France . 1804

The Battle of Trafidgar 1805

The Battle of Austtirlitz .... 1805

The Battle of Jena 1806

The Peace of Tilsit . . 1807

Moscow burnt by the Russians . * . 1812

»

CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY. 283

All the Kings and Potentates in Europe subsidized

by England against Napoleon . . . 1813

Napoleon, abdicated . . s. 1814

■ ■ . ■ , restored and abdicated ... 1815

Obs. — The preceding dates should be accurately re-
membered by every one, who would talk and reason on
historical facts. But there is an art of short memory,
worthy of being known ; by which, all numbers and dates
may be converted into syllables, and added to the word
to which the date belongs. For this purpose, a set of
vowels and diphthongs, and a set of consonants, are as-
signed to every one of the digits ; and in forming a date
into a syllable, either vowels or consonants may be taken
at pleasure; thus,

aeiouaueueiouy
123456 7 8 9 10
bdtfls pknz

In the vowel-line, the {xve first digits are represented
by the five vowels, and 6, 7, and 9, are diphthongs, form-
ed from combining vowels that make up their numbers.
Ei are the two first letters of the word eighty and y for 10,
b the occasional vowel.

In the consonant-line* b is the first consonant, and t, f,
s, and n a are the first letters, of their respective digits; d
is the first letter of duo, two; 1 stands for 5 or 50; p -
stands for 7, from its full sound in septem, seven; andz
is the last letter in the alphabet.

As the year of the Creation can never be forgotten by
the lowest intellect, I shall begin with the Deluge, and
' dropping uge> affix a syllable to Eel, corresponding with
2, 3, 4, 8. Looking to the table, and taking d for 2, i for
3, f for 4, and k for 8, 1 make the syllable difk, which
added to del, makes deldifh. Or, to vary the example, I
can make a different termination by taking e for 2, t tor 3,
o for 4, and k for 8, which added to del, make deletofc,
either of which may be easily rememjbered; but the for-
mer is to be preferred, because only one syllable.

It is, therefore, an easy task for the student to make
syllabic terminations to all the preceding dates; and then w

Bb

384 CHRONOLOGY AND &STOBY.

commit the whole to memory. He may, also, extend
the art to other dates, distances, and numbers, and 2 or
300 such, will easily be recollected through life.

631. History is one of the most agreeable
studies; but unhappily, there are few authentic
histories*

The causes of political events are often un-
known ; and the real characters of those who di-
rect the affairs of mankind, are generally pervert-
ed by prejudice, falsehood, or flattery.

It will, however, be useful in many respects,
to be acquainted with the revolutions of empires ;
and for this object, recourse must be had to gene-
ral and particular histories. — See Robinson's
Grammar of History ; and also his Jtncient
and Modern History.

6S£. It has been already observed, that the
first families, or tribes, were shepherds or hunt-
ers. The quarrels of these led to ware 5 wars to
conquest ; and conquest to increased dominion,
and to empire.

The first conqueror, according to holy writ, was
Nimrod, a powerful hunter 5 who built Babylon,
and laid the foundation of the Assyrian Mon-
archy.

He was succeeded by his son Minus; who
built Nineveh, and extended his dominions all
over Asia, from India to the Mediterranean.

633. Ninus was succeeded by his wife Semira-
mis ; whp for a length of time, wore a man's habit,
and extended her empire over Egypt, Ethiopia,
and other countries 01 Africa.

Her son JYinias succeeded her ; and he had
thirty successors, during a period of 1300 years,

CHRONOLOGY AND HJSTORY. 285

when Sardanapalus burnt himself in his palace
at Nineveh ; and the Assyrian monarchy was di-
vided into the Chaldean and Persian empires.

634. These empires continued separate, about
200 years ; when both were united by Cyrus,
(Cy4es) who established the second universal em-
pire, called the Persian empire, 'which lasted
more than 200 years. It was. then conquered by
Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, who in
his own person established, for a fewfears, the
third universal empire, called the Macedonian
'empire; which included Greece, Asia from the
Mediterranean to the Indies, and Egypt in Af-
rica.

635. On the death of Alexander, which took
place at Babylon in the 33d year of his age, owing
to a fever brought on bv intoxication, his vast
dominions were divided by his generals, who
desolated the world by their mutual wars fof
many years afterwards. •

During these ages, civilization was confined to
a few countries ofAsia and Africa, and to Greece :
the rest of the world was in a state of barbarism ;
and nothing is known of its history.

636. Soon after the death of Alexander the
Great, in 323, (Alexan-fetf) a new power arose
more to the west, the ambition of which in time,
spread its dominions over barbarous, as well as
civilized nations.

This was the Roman empire ; which commenced
from the city of Rome, built by Romulus, in 753
(Rom-put) before Christ. By degrees it spread
itself over Italy 5 thence to Greece and Africa $
afterwards over the civilized parts of Asia (ex-

286 CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY.

cept China and India ;) and finally over all Eu-
rope, even to Scotland, and became the fourth
great monarchy.

637. Greece, in its greatest extent, included
Hellas, Thessaly, Macedonia, Thracia, Pelopon-
nesus, and some colonies in Asia.

The most remarkable events, which took place
in Grecian history, were, the invasion of Greece
by Xerxes, 480 $ the Peloponnesian war ; and the
reduction and subjugation of Greece, by Philip
ofMacedon.

The most celebrated political and military
characters in that country, were Miltiades, The-
mistocles, Aristides, Pericles, Cimon, Lysander,
Alcibiades, Thrasymihis, Cdnon, Epamwondas,
Agesilaus, Phocion, and Xenophon.

638. The Roman empire, in the time of Au-
gustus, was bounded on the west, by the Atlantic
and Northern Ocean ; on the north, by the Rhine
and the Danube $ on the east, by the Euphrates ;
and on the south, by the sandy deserts of Arabia
and Africa.

It extended above two thousand miles in
breadth, and more than three thousand in length,
of chiefly fertile and well-cultivated land.

639. Among the most celebrated characters of '
Rome, may be reckoned Junius Brutus, Camillus,
the two Scipios, Marius, Sylla, Pompey, Julius
Csesar, the two Catos, Cicero, Brutus, Cassius :
all of whom flourished in the time of the Republic.

The most remarkable events of Roman history
were,
The invasion of Italy by the Gauls under

CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY. W

Brennus, who plundered and burnt the city of
Rome;

The subjugation of the Samnites, after a war
of thirty years 5

The invasion of Italy by Hannibal, the Cartha-
ginian;

The reduction of Macedon and Greece j

The fall and destruction of the fine city of
Carthage, after the third Punic war 5

The division of the empire into east and west,
by Gonsfantine ;

And the annihilation of the Roman power, by the
Goths, Vandals, and Turks.

640. The extensive empire of Germany, the
head of which was, till lately, called the Roman
emperor, subsisted in its late form, from 912 till
1808.

The most remarkable events which took place
in Germany, were

The contentions between the emperors and the
popes;

' The rise and progress of the reformation ;

And the union of the German empire and the
kingdom of Spain, in the person of Charles V. ;
who was thfrmost celebrated emperor of the house
of Austria.

641. The French monarchy commenced 481.
The most remarkable events which have taken
place in France, were

• The subduing of the greatest part of Europe,
by Charlemagne ;

The conquest of the greater part of France by
the English, under Edward III. and Henry V*

The successes and defeats of Louis XIV. ;

* »b2

28ft CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY.

And the late revolution in 1789.

The victories and conquests of Napoleon le
Grand, 1795 to 1814.

The most celebrated sovereigns of France, were
Charlemagne* Henry IV., Louis XIV., and Napo-
leon, crowned emperor in 1804.

642. The Eiigkph monarchy includes England,
Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The Saxon hep-
tarchy was united in 827 5 and thus was laid the
foundation of the kingdom of England. The most
remarkable events in English history Have been
. The invasion of the Romans ;

. The subjugation by the Saxons ;

The accession of the Danish prince Canute 5

The conquest of England by the Normans ;

The contests between the nouses of York and
Lancaster in the fifteenth century 5

The beheading of Charles I. %.

The revolution in 1688 5

And the separation of America.

The most celebrated sovereigns of England*
have been Alfred the Great, Edward I., Edward
III., Henry V., Elizabeth, and William III.

643. In ancient times, the names, as well as
the divisions of countries, were different from
what they are at present : their correspondence
is given beneath:

Ancient Latin Name*. Modern Name*,

Scandinavia, Scandia, vel

Baltia .... Norway and Sweden.

Scritofinni . . . Lapland and West Bo thnia *

Suiones .... Sweden proper.

Gutx et Hilleviones Gothland.

Finningia . . Finland.

Cherfloaceus Cimbrica . Jutland*

CHRONOLOGY AND HISTORY.

299

Sarmatia Rurops . Russia in Europe.

Him et JEstii vel Ostiones Livonia and JSsthonia.

Gallia .....
Celts
Aquitani

Allobroges, Centrones
Lingones, JEdui, Sequani

Lutetia Parisiorum

Prisii

Batavi ....

Belgx, &c. •
Manapti, Tungrii
Toxandri

Nationes Germanicae .
Saxones
Rhxtia ^
Vindelicia
Boiohaemium
Germano Sarmatac .
Hispania, vel Iberia
Gallxcia . •
Tarraconenais •

Lusitania
Helvetia.
Ambrones
Tigurini
Italia

GalUa CUalpina .
Narbonensis

-Togata

France.

Normandy, Brittany.
Gaacoigme and Giiienne, Sec.
Dauphine and Savoy.
Burgundy and Franche*

compte.
Paris.

Holland and Friezlarid.
Utrecht and the islands of

the Rhine.
Netherlands.

Dutch and AuatrianBrabant.
Antwerp.
Germany.

Upper, Lower Saxony, &c.
Bavaria.
Swabia.
Bohemia.
Poland.
Spain.

Gallicia, Astoria, and Biscay.
Navarre, and Catalonia. ,
Portugal.
Switzerland.
Bern, Friburg, Basle.
Schaffhausen, Zurich, &c.
Italy.

Piedmont, Milan, Venice*
Languedoc.
Lombardy.

Samniuai, Apulia, Campa

Marsi . Kingdom of Naples.

Latium, Umbria, Picenum,

&c. ... The Popedom.

Sicilia, Sfcania, vel Trina-

cria . Sicily.

$ardo, vel Sardinia Sardinia.

Cyrnus, vel Corsica . Corsica.

290 CHRONOLOGY AND fflSTO^Y

Mefita

Malta.

Dacia

. Transylvania.

Pannonia

Sclavonic.

Myricum

. Croatia.

Epirus
Tnracia .

Albania.

. Romania.

Peloponnesus

Morea.

Corey ra

. Corfu.

Cephalonia .

Cephalonia.

Creta

. Candia.

Eubaea

Negropont

Britannia

. England, Scotland, & Wales.

Vecturiones

Edinburgh.

Picti

. Lanark, Dumbarton.

8coti . '

Ross.

Dummmu

. Cornwall and Devonshire.

Regni

Surry, Sussex.

Simeni vel Iceni

. Norfolk and Sugblk.

Coritani

Lincolnshire, Nottingham-

shire, Derbyshire, &c.

Ottadeni .

. Northumberland & Durham.

Brigantes

Westmoreland,Cumberlsnd.

Mona Insula .

. • Anglesey.

Ordovices

Flintshire, Montgomery, &c

Silures

. Radnorshire, Brecknock-

•

shire, & Glamorganshire.

Hibernia, vel Ieme

Ireland.

Blanii

. Dublin and Kildare.

Coriondi

King and Queen's County.

Thule

Shetland and Orkneys. .

EbudeB Insulz

Western Isles of Scotland
. Isle of Man. ' '

Monsda vel Mona

Asia Minor

NatoHa.

Babylonia, Chaldsea

. Irak.

Mesopotamia

Diarbeck.

Armenia . •

. Armenia.

Armenia Major .

Turcoman!* and Georgia.

Persia

. Persia.

Iberia, Colchis, et Alba

oia Georgia, Ganges, and Da*

-

gestan.

MYTHOLOGY. 391

Bactriana . BaIk,Sablustan,&Candahar.

Susiana . J . Chusestan.

Parthia . IrakAgem.

Sarmatia Asiatica . Astracan.

Slnac .... Chinese Tartary.

Mauritania Tinigitana . Morocco.

Mauritania Caesariensis Algiers. *

Numidia* Africa propria Tunis.

Tripolitana . Tripoli.

Cyrenaica, Libya Superior Barea.

JEgyptus . Egypt

Lybia Inferior, Gactulia Bilidulgerid.

Solitudines . Zaara, or the Desert.

Antololes Negroland.

JEthiopix, et Lybiae pars Upper Ethiopia.

^Ethiopia; pars . . Lower Ethiopia.

N. B. For other particulars, consult Dr. Robinson's
Grammar of History, and his Ancient and Modern His-
tories.

XXX, Mythology.

644. Mythology, Fable, or Fiction, is the
creature of the imagination, and derives its origin
fipm a love of the marvellous and wonderful; a
passion, of which legislators and teachers, in early

ages of society, took advantage.
. Obt. — These tales of ignorance, barbarism, and super-
stition, fill a large portion of many books of education;
but I think these few pages quite enough on so obsolete
and useless a subject.

645. As a means of civilizing the world, the
priest and the poet, among ancient nations, made
use of the same means to convey their maxims
and instructions to die vulgar.

It was often, also, a mode of honouring what-
ever was useful or honourable in nations: the

*

292 MYTHOLOGY.

Chinese having their Fohi; the Hindoos, their
' Brahma; the Greeks and Romans, their Jupiter;
and the Scandinavians, their Woden.

646. Mythology was first reduced to a system
by the Hindoos ; and afterwards, by priests of
Egypt, who were the depositories of Eastern
learning, as well as religion, and who monopo-
lized all the arts and sciences.

647. Fables are the tales of former times,
when there existed neither records nor chrono-
logy.

By the Chinese mythology, Fo or Fohi, pro-
bably (the Noah of holy writ,; the founder of tneir
empire, was born in a supernatural manner, and
was inspired by heaven with knowledge which
qualified him to teach all arts and sciences, and
compose their laws.

Of their Confucius, they believe, that he was
not born as other men; but able to reason. pro-
foundly from his childhood.

648. The mythology of the Hindoos is much
connected with their casts or tribes; into which,
the Indian nations are divided. *

Some of their fables relate to the creation, the
general deluge, and to Vishnu or Brahma ; who,
they say, was miraculously born; (in Sweta, the
White Island, or Britain!) and that at thirty, he
began to promulgate his doctrines, which have
since spread all over India, and a great part of
Asia.

His principal dogma, was that of the transmi-
gration of souls, after death, into the bodies of
other animals ; — a doctrine which gave rise to idols,
in the shape of monsters, quadrupeds, &c.

MYTHOLOGY. 293

649* The Persians supposed the world to have
been repeatedly destroyed; but re-peopled by
creatures of different formation, who had been
successively annihilated for disobeying the Su-
preme Being. . *

Their mythology related to the exploits of
Tahmuras, one oftheir ancient kings, who attack-
ed and vanquished the daemon that opposed the
happiness of the country; and also to the labours
and adventures of Rostan, another Persian chief,
similar in character to the Hercules of Greece Aid
Rome.

650. In the Egyptian mythology, the revolu-
tions of the' heavenly bodies, are referred to the
reigns of their early monarchs.

Hence, the number of years, included in the
reigns of the superior gods who filled the Egyptian
throne; and to these, they say, succeeded twelve
demigods.

The imaginary exploits and absurd adventures
of the gods and demigods, furnished an inexhaus-
tible fund of mythological romance.

651. The adventures and exploits, of Osiris,
Oris, Typhon, and Isis, and the transformation
of the gods into various animals, are the foun-
dations of the Egyptian mythology. Objects
animate and inanimate were, at first, created as
emblems of the deities, and were worshipped as
deities.

Thus, Jupiter Amnion was«worshipped under
the figure of a ram ; Apis, as a cow; Osiris, as a
bull; ran, as a goat; Thoth, or Mercury, as an
. ibis, &c.

652. Thoth, or Mercury Trismegistu^, was

294 MYTHOLOGY.

also represented as the inventor of letters, geo-
metry, astronomy, music, architecture, and all
the branches of science and philosophy, in which
there is no doubt, the Egyptians greatly excelled.

653. The mythology of Greece is partly found-
ed on that of Egypt; and is furnished chiefly by
the adventures of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Nep-
tune, Venus, Mars, Vulcan, Vesta, Apollo, Diana,
Ceres, and Mercury.

Besides these twelve deities, called the supe-
rior gods, there were second and third classes of
gods, and a multitude of others, of inferior dig-
nity, but connected with them.

654. Jupiter, or the Thunderer, was esteemed
the most powerful of the Grecian gods, and was
son of Saturn and Rhea. After delivering his
father from the tyranny of the Titans, he became
master of the universe, which he divided with his
brothers; reserving heaven for himself, giving the
sea to Neptune, and the infernal regions to
Pluto.

Having overcome his enemies, he gave himself
over to all kinds of pleasure ; but notwithstanding
obtained universal homage and worship.

He was the king and father of gods and men;
his power extended over all the deities, and every
thing but the Fates was subservient to him.

He was the* Vishnu of the Hindoos, the Osiris
of Egypt, the Ammon of Ethiopia, and the Belus
of Babylon. •

655. Juno, the sister and wife of Jupiter, was
famous for her jealousy, her implacable revenge,
and her quarrels with Jupiter. She presided
over empires and riches ; and was worshipped

MYTHOIiOGT. 295

with solemnity, as* the protectress of married
women.

She had three children, viz. Hebe, Mars, and
Vulcan. Iris, the rainbow, was her chief attend-
ant.

656. Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, sprung
from the head of Jupiter; she was the patron of
the arts, and an emblem of wisdom and prudence.
The cock and the owl are emblems of her valour
and wisdom.

657. Neptune was worshipped as the god of
the ocean. He was ruler of the seas, and held
dominion over all maritime affairs. Polyphemus,
one of the Cyclops, was his child, and a giant
who devoured all who fell into his hands.

658. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty,
said to have sprung from the froth of the sea;
on the surface of which, she was wafted in a shell
to the island of Cythera. On the sea, she was
surrounded by Cupids, Nereids, and Dolphins ;
and in the heavens, her chariot was drawn by
doves, and swans.

659. Mars was represented as a warrior riding
in a chariot drawn by horses, driven by a Fury:
Discord preceded them, and Distraction, Rage,
Fear, ana Terror, attended his progress.

The dog for his vigilance, the wolf for his fierce*
nesfc, the raven for feasting on the bodies of the
slain, and the cock for his watchfulness, were de-
dicated to this god of war. Bellona was his sister.

660. Vulcan was the god of fire and of workers
of metals, and the inventor of the art of fabricat-
ing arms and utensils from metals. Temples
were erected to him at Athens, Rome, &c. ; and

o c

?96 MYTHOLOGY.

at Memphis, a magnificent one wad dedicated ta
him, before which stood, his statue seventy feci
Ugh.

He was said to forge the armour of the gods,
and the thunder of Jupiter. He was the sod of
Jupiter, the husband of Venus, and the father of
Cupid.

661. Vesta was the daughter of Saturn, and

the goddess of fire : an altar was raised to her;

and virgins, called Vestal Virgins, were employed

in maintaining the sacred fire which burned in the

temples in honour of the goddess.

0d9. — The temple of Vesta at Rome, was supposed t*
contain, besides the sacred tire, the household gods,
which JEneas saved from the destruction of Troy.

662. Apollo, the son of Jupiter and Latona,
presided over the fine arts, and was skilled in the
practice of music ; he is represented with his lyre,
and crown of laurel.

Diana, the sister of Apollo, was goddess of
chastity, of the chace, and of the woods. She
was adored as Luna in heaven, as Diana on earth,
and as Hecate in the infernal regions ; and was
generally attended by Cupid, Hymen, and the
Hqurs.

663. Ceres, the goddess of production and fer-
tility* said to have taught the art of tilling the
earth, sowing corn, and making bread : she had
a daughter named Proserpine.

664. Mercury , the messenger of the gods, was
the inventor of letters, and of the arts and sci-
ences ; also the reformer of language, and deno-
minated Hermes, for his eloquence. He is repre-
sented with wings fixed to his cap and sandals f

MYTHOLOGY. 29fr

and in his hand, a cadnceus or wand, round
which, are entwined serpents.

€65. There were also numerous other divine
personages, who had inferior parts assigned them ;

Saturn, the father of Jupiter, and son of
Heaven and Earth. His wife was Rhea, or Cy-
bele.

Pluto, the son of Saturn and Ops, king of the
infernal regions, and ruler of the dead ; so called
from his teaching the rites of burial.

Bacchus, who presided over the grape, and the
god of wine.

Hebe, the goddess of youth, &c.
* 666. The three Graces were daughters of Jupi-
ter, by Eurynome $ and the nine Muses, by Mne*
mosyne. He was also the father of Apollo and
Diana, by Latona 5 and of Mercury, by Maia. —
Minos, Ahadamanthus, and JEcus, were inexora-
ble judges, who examined the dead.

Tisiphone, Aiecto, and Megaera, were the
gaolers and executioners of Tartarus, or hell,
armed with snakes and lighted torches.

Charon, conducted the souls of the dead across
the Styx, where they drank the waters of Lethe,
or oblivion.

667. The Elysian Fields were the paradise of
the good. The Fates were dotfio, who held the
distaff; Lacheris, who spun the thread of destiny ;
and dtropos, who, with his scissars, cut it asun-
der. •

Hercules, or Alcides, the virtuous hero of an-
tiquity, was the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and
performed twelve famous labours, among which,

298 • MYTHOLOGY.

were the killing of the Nanuean lion : and the
cleansing the stable of 3000 oxen of king Augeus
in one day, which had not been cleansed for
thirty years.

JmphUrUe, was the mother of the Nereids, who
with syrens and tritons, attended Neptune.

Somnm, was the cod of sleep ; Morpheus, of
dreams ; Erebus, of darkness ; JVfer, the goddess
of night; Plutus, the god of riches 5 mdMamus
of folly.

668. In the mythology of the northern nations,
Odin or Woden was the chief divinity.

His exploits and adventures furnisn the princi-
pal part of their mythological tales. He is sup-
posed to have come from the east 5 and is repre-
sented as the god of battles, and as killing thou-
sands at a blow.

^ His palace, called ValhaUa, was situated in the
city ot JNRdgard, where the souls of heroes who
bravely fell m battle enjoyed supreme felicity,
and spent the day in hunting matches or com-
bats ; and at night, assembled in the palace of
Valhally where they feasted on the most delicious
provisions, and solaced themselves with mead,
the Scandinavian nectar, out of the skulls of
their enemies.

669. Sleepner was the horse of Odin. * From
Hela, their nell, comes our word hell; and from
Sinna, the wife of the evil genius, comes our
word Sin.

r lhey had giants also, called Weynar, Far*
hauler i Bilupher, and HeUunda $ and a prophet
called Fold, whence comes our word/00/.

BfeAWING, PAINTING, he. 299

Their Folaspa, or book of prophecies, contained
the history of the world, the fairies, &c.

XXXI. Drawing, Painting, $a

670. Drawing is that art of polished society,
which teaches us to represent and preserve the
likenesses of men and things. It is a source of
pleasure ; because it enables us to familiarize
ourselves with* the most beautiful and graceful
objects ; and it is, at all times, an agreeable re-
creation.

It is practised on paper with chalk, "black-lead,
crayons, Indian ink; and water colours ; and on
board and canvass, with oil colours.

%* See Hamilton's Practical Elements of Drawing,
with its numerous engravings, as excercises to copy
from.

671. In learning to form the hand, the student
should begin with circles, ovals, cones, cylinders,
and globes ; and these latter he should shadow, so
as to give the effect of solidity.

He may then proceed to inanimate objects, as
lowers, fruits, trees, and houses, giving each its
proper light and shade ; thence, to animals ; and
finally, to the human figure, at first naked, and
then clothed.

672. To draw a landscape or groupe of figures,
a knowledge of perspective is required; and this
is nothing more, than the art of representing
every object in its proper bearing, ana under its
proper angle, which angle is always in propor-
tion to the distance of the object from the eye.

^ oc2

300 DRAWING, PAINTING, &c.

Just conceptions should also be formed of light
and shade; the foundation of which, is the ob-
vious principle — that the light always proceeds
from one point; and, consequently, that all
shadows fall one way. The true disposition of
light and shade, is called relief.

06*.— To give effect to particular objects, the student
must copy the subjects from Hamilton : and after doing
this for some time, if he have genius or taste, he wiS
begin to copy nature, and afterwards, contrive for him-
self, and design originally.

673. The art of drawing in perspective, pur-
poses to represent every object in its proper place
and relative size and figure, as it is seen from
the spot Where the view is taken.

The eye of the draughtsman is supposed to be
fixed; and he is to pourtray every object, as
though he saw it on a pane of glass, the size of
his paper or canvass.

The general principles are not difficult, pro-
vided two or three technical terms are well un-
dirstood.

674. The ground-plane, is the plane or level,
on which both the spectator, and the objects that
are to be drawn, stand.

The perspective-plane, is a supposed plane
standing perpendicularly upon the ground-plane ;
and on this plane, as on a pane of glass, the
images of objects are supposed to be intercepted ;
so that their perspective appearance, when drawn,
is the appearance they would have on this plane.

The ground-line, is the line, on which tne per-
spective plane is supposed to rest.

675. The voint of sight, is that point in the
perspective plane which is nearest or opposite the

DRAWING, PAINTIHG, &c. 301

eye ; and is at the same proportional distance
from the ground-line, as the height of the eye is
above the ground-plane.

The horizontal line, is a Hue upon the per-
spective plane, dnuK&through the point of sight,
and parallel to the ground-line.

The perpendicular, is a line on the perspective
plane, drawn through the point of sight, perpen-
dicularly to the ground-line, and to the horizon-
tal line.,

o

A

Horizon

4)

tal Lane.

. Ground-Line.

The point A, where the perpendicular and horizontal
cross, is the point of sight, or vanishing point, of %31
lines perpendicular to the perspective plane.

676. Points of distance are points on the per-
spective plane set off from the point of sight;
sometimes on the horizontal line, sometimes on
the perpendicular;— <at the same proportional
distance from the point of sight, as the eye itself
is from the objects.

Measuring points are points, from which any
lines in the perspective plane are measured, by
laying a ruler from them to the divisions laid
down upon the ground-line.

Vanishing points are points, on the perspec-

, PAINTING, &c.

\

thre plane, in wfckh parallel lines seem to met
or vanish.

677. The rules for drawing are,

1. That all lines perpendicular to the ground*
plane, should be perpendicular to the ground-]
line; and all lines parallel to the perspective
plane, must be drawn parallel to each other.

2. That all parallel lines meet, or have vanish-
ing points, in some part of the perspective plane.

3. If the lines lie upon the ground-plane, they
will vanish somewhere in the . horizontal line;
which is, therefore, called the vanishing line of
the ground-plane.

4. If parallel lines be perpendicular to the
ground-line, they will vanish in the point of sight.

5. If they be oblique to the ground-line, or
iiave a declination from such perpendicular, then
the angle of this obliquity or declination must be
set oft'.

678. All the measures of lines upon the ground*
plane, are to be laid down upon the ground-line,
and the measuring point of all lines parallel to
the ground -line, is either of the points of distance
on the horizontal line, or the point ot sight.

. The measuring point of any line, perpendicu-
lar to the ground-line, is in the point of distance
on the horizontal line; and the measuring point
of a line oblique to the ground-line, is found by
extending the compasses from the vanishing
point of that line to the point of distance on the
perpendicular, and setting it off on the horizontal
fine.

Obs. — The above rules committed well to memory,
wjfl* with some practical instructions from a master, or

DRAWING, PAINTING, &c. 303

by .practice only, enable the student in drawing, to place
all his objects in due perspective.

679. The art of painting in oil-colours is the
most deservedly admired of scientific arts, when
carried to perfection. The requisites of a great
painter are,

Correct drawing, without which, all other art
is lost.

Just perceptions of grace and beauty.

Invention 9 which implies a perfect Knowledge
ef his subject in all its relations, and a choice of
the subject adapted to his art.

Composition, or the agreeable distribution, and
effective grouping, of his figures and objects, in
his rough, preparatory design.

Colouring, or the imitation of nature in her
happiest moods; and this branch of art avoids
all violent transitions and unnatural glares, and
renders distant objects less distinct than near
ones.

680. Paintings, in regard to their subjects, are
called historical, landscape, or portrait : and to
the painters, they are divided into schools or
countries;

As the Italian school,
The German school,
ff he Flemish school,
The Dutch school,
• The French school,
And the English school.

Each of these schools has treated the practice
of painting in its peculiar manner, and each, with

exquisite beauty and admirable effect.

Ufa. — Nothing can be more unlike, than an historical
painting of the Italian and Dutch schools} nor than a

304 DRAWING, PAINTING, &c.

portrait of the German and English schools ; yet, each
has its admirers, and distinctive merits.

681. The great masters of the Italian school,
were Michael Angelo, Raflfaelle or Raphael, Ti-
tian, CoiTegio, the three Carraccis, Carlo Maratti,
Carlo Dolci, Guido, del Sarto, Pannegiano, Sal-
vator Rosa, Romana, Caravaggio, Paul Veronese,
and Guercino : besides a hundred others, some
original, and some copiers of the great masters.

The great painters of the German schools
Were Albert Durer, Holbein, Jtneller, and
^lengs.

682. Of the Dutch school, were Rembrandt,
Gerard Dow, Mieris, Ostade, Polemberg, J3er*
ghem, and Wouvermans.

Of the Flemish school, were Reubens, Teniers,
Jordaens, and Varulyck.

The admired painters of the French school, are
Claude, Poussin, Le Brun, Le Sueur, Vien, and
David.

The Spaniards also have had their Murillo, and
Velasquez.

683. The eminent jpainters of the English
school, are Hogarth, Wright, Reynolds, Wilson,
West, Northcote, Gainsborough, Morland, Barry,
Copley, Westall, Devis, Smirke, Tresham, Wil-
kie, Daniel, Turner, Garrard, Lawrence, Pocock,
Bone, Opie, and many others still living, whose
works may be seen in the annual exhibitions of
the Royal Academy.

( 305 1

XXXlI. Heraldry.

684. During the Holy Wars, and the age*
when close armour was worn, the warriors em-
blazoned or painted their shields, and wore crests
in their helmets, to distinguish them in the, field
of battle.

These were, in subsequent periods, borne as
trophies by their families; and the methods of
adorning a shield were reduced to a science; still
generally used, and, therefore, of consequence
to be understood.

685. Heraldry is the art of blazoning or dis*
playing coats of arms, in proper colours and me-
tals, on the shield or escutcheqn.

The points of an escutcheon are nine;

Three on the upper part; of wbilh, the middle is
called the chief; that in the right corner, the dexter chief;
and that in the left Corner, the sinister chief.

Three perpendicularly in the middle part of the shield:
the first called the honour-point; the second, the fess*
point; the third, the naveUpoint.

Three points horizontally, at the bottom : the middle
one called the base-point the other two, the dexter and
sinister base points.

686. Tinctures are armorial colours; as, or,
gold; and argent, silver; azure, gules, sable,
vert, and purpure; and ermine, and vair.

Obs. — These colours are represented on copper-plate
prints as follow : 1. Qr f is known by small pricks or
points. 2. Argent^ by the natural whiteness of the pam-
per, without any strokes or points. 3. Azure, by hatcjies
or strokes across the - shield from side to side. . 4.
Gules, by lines from top to bottom. 5. Sable, by hatches
crossing each other. 6. Vert, by hatches from dex-
ter chief to sinister base. 7. Pvrptere, by hatches froM
sinister chief to dexter base. 8. T*/w^ by cross hatches

306 HERALDRY.

from right to left, and from left to right 9. Sk u u f w i,
by hatches from right to left, and others from aide to
tide.

687. Of the nine honourable charges,
The cron signifies afflictions for religion ;

The chief denotes that the first bearer was a person
in authority;

The pale imports him skilled in mining' ;

The bend shews him to have been valiant in war $

The f ess denotes a worthy general ;

The inetcutcheon shews him to have been one who dis-
armed his enemy;

The chevron declares him to have been the head of his
family;

The •alder, implies he behaved honorably at some
siege;

And the bar shews him to have been serviceable in
raising fortifications.

688. The lines which compose or bound these
charges, are esteemed additional notes of distinc-
tion; as, inverted, ingrailed, waved, nebulee, in>
battled, raguled, indented, &c. They are always
mentioned in blazoning; as, a chief invected, a
pale ingrailed, a fess indented, &c.

689. The field of the escutcheon, is generally
divided into two. or more equal parts, bylines
across the same; which partition must be men-
tioned in blazoning.

Thus, if a line perpendicular to the horizon divide
the shield equally, it is said to be parted, per pale; if the
line be paraUel to the horizon, it is parted, per fess,- if
from right to left, it is parted, per bend} and so of any
other.

690. Common charges are those figures which
*re painted within the field of the escutcheon;
and they are taken from every kind of beings,
natural and artificial.

HERALDRY. 307

a. Angels, cherubim, &c, denote celerity in business,
messengers of peace, &c.

b. Men are honourable ensigns, as saints shew that
the first bearer was some bishop, &c. Heads shew him
to have done service against Saracens, Turks, &c. Hands
or arms signify strength and fortitude. Eyes denote his
judgment Legs Midfeet indicate his swiftness : and the
heart knowledge and understanding.

c. Beastsmfi prey are more honourable than beasts of
chace. The male is more honourable than the female.
The whole is nobler than any of the parts; the natural
or proper colour is better than any other. The free and
regular posture, than the irregular and constrained.

d. Of birds, the female is more honourable than the
male, except the cock. Their native colours are better
than artificial; and birds of prey, as eagles, falcons, 8cc,
are most honourable.

e. Of fishes, the dolphin is the principal; and the most
honourable bearing offish, is nayant, or swimming; the
next, springing; and men hauriant, or in an erect posture.

f. Insects are rarely borne in arms ; but the. Ant de-
notes industry ; and the Bee, a laborious and beneficent
person. • '

691. The postures are of great account; as,
couckant, lying down; passant, walking; com-
batowt, fighting; rampant, reared on his right legs
to fight; saliant, leaping at; guardant, looking
towards you; regardant, looking back or behind:
dormant, > sleeping; seiant, sitting with the fore-
feet straight; endorsed, two in a rampant pos-
ture, with their backs towards each other.

692. The chiefs, or heads of families, or houses,
bear two sorts of charges : a label of three points ;
and border, which are either plain, compound,
indented, &c. For consanguinity, or kinsmen,
the differences are according to the branch of a
family from which they originally descended.

d d

308

flint son "
Second son

Third son

Fourth son

Fifth son

Sixth son

HERALDRY.

"A label with three points
A crescent

SSt

Hi

03

A mullet
A martlet
An annulet .

A fleur-de-lU

693. Since these are the bearings of distinc- «
tion, for persons of the first house ; those of the
second house, which is the family of the second
son, have their distinctions a^ follow :

rEldest son 1
Second son
Third son
Fourth son
Fifth son

JSixth son

4

ffl

fA label
A crescent
A mullet
A mar let
An annulet
A fleur-de-lis

>» upon it.

i

J

In like maimer, the sons of the third house
bear those differences respectively on a mullet;
the fourth, on a martlet ; the fifth, on an annulet ;
and the sons of the sixth house bear them on a
fleur-de-lis ; and though there be differences for
every son, vet there are none for daughters, as
they are all deemed equal in point of honour.

694. Of hatchments, or funeral achievements,
the following things are observable.

1. When a bachelor* dies, his arms may be depicted
single or quartered, but never impaled} and on the
hatchment he may bear a crest, and the ground without
the escutcheon, most be all black.

LITEBATimE. 309

2. If a maid dies, her arms must be placed in a lozenge
or rhombus, single or quartered, with the ground all.
black ; and the, hatchment must have a shell over it in-
stead of a crest.

3. When a married man dies, his wife's arms are im-
paled with his own, with the ground black on his side
of the hatchment, and white on his wife's side.

4. When the wife dies, the arms are with the ground
on her side black, but on her husband's white ; instead of
a crest* her hatchment must have a shell over it.

5. If a widower dies, his arms are impaled with those
of his wife, with a crest, &c, and the ground is all black.

6. If it be a widow, her arms with her husband's are
impaled, within a lozenge shield, with a shell over it, in-
stead of a crest, and the ground all black. L

7. When the deceased is the last of a family, then,
instead of a crest or shell, there is placed on the hatch-
ment a death's head. Little shields, that draw hearses
at pompous funerals, are called chapertrnnes

XXXIII. Literature.

695. After the invention of letters, the genius
of man taking different directions, some of them
excelled in poetical, and some in prosaic compo-
sitions. These again assumed different charac-
ters, according to the subjects treated of.

Hence, we Save in Verse, epic poems, descrip-
tive poems, and elegiac, dramatic, and satirical
poems:

And in Prose-wriHng, we have historical, de-
scriptive, didactic, and epistolary compositions of
an almost infinite variety of kinds ana qualities.

696. Poetry is the glowing language of impas-
sioned feeling, generally found in measured lines,
and often in rhyme.

m\

310 LITERATURE.

Most ancient people have had their poets ; and
among the Hebrews they were called prophets.
David was an inspired poet of the Hebrews :
Homer, one of the earliest poets of the Greeks :
Ossian, an ancient poet of the Scots :
Taliesen, an ancient poet of the Welsh a—
And Odin, an early poet of the Scandinavians.

697. The Greeks were the fathers of poetry,
literature, philosophy, and arts. Homer was the
first and the prince of poets ; and he celebrated
the siege of Troy in the Iliad and Odyssey, two
epic poems, which never have, ana perhaps,
never can be, surpassed.

In the same line of poetical composition, he
was followed* after 900 years, by Virgil, in the
JEneid : *

By Tasso, after another 1500 years, in the
Jerusalem Delivered :

And by Milton, about 150 years ago, in Para-
dise Lost;— the finest poem ever written after
the Iliad.

698. The Greeks, besides, boasted of their
» Pindar and Anacreon, in lyric poetry; and of

Aristophanes, Euripides, Sophocles, andEschy-
lus in dramatic poetry.

Followed by them, among the Romans, were
Ovid and Tibullus ; among dramatists, Plautus
and Terence ; of didactic and philosophic poets,
they had also Lucretius, Virgil) Horace, and
Sihus Italicus.

All these, were so many miracles of human
genius ; and their works afford so many models of
tneir respective species of composition.

Ob*. — Most of the works of the ancients have, ^vses-

LITERATURE. 311

thticnt, if not in spirit, been translated into English.
J Thus, we have Pope's and Cowper's Homer; Dryden's
I Virgil; West's Pindar; Colman's Euripiues and Sopho-
f cle* ; Garth's Ovid; Busby's and Good's Lucretius ; Fran-
| cis's Horace, and others.

699. Approaching nearer to our own times, as

| the literature of the ancients, after a long night

j of monkish superstition and darkness, was re-
vived in Italy in the 15th century, so the first ex-
ertions of modern literature were made in that
country :

I Hence, their Dante, Ariosto, Petrarch, and

I Tasso.

These were followed in France^ by Racine, Cor-
neille, Boileau, Voltaire, Fontaine, and Delille.

I And, in England, by Chaucer, Spencer, Shak-

speare, Milton, Dry den, Pope, Thomson, Young,
Collins, and Gray.
TOO. Besides these great names, there has been

r . in England, at least, twenty other poets ; whose

• works would vie with others of any age, or
country.

Thus, they have in didactic and sentimental

% poetry, Goldsmith, Cowuer, Darwin, Mason.,

I Addison, Johnson, Akenside, Armstrong, Por-
teus, Blackmore, W. Dyer, Robinson, Watts,
Cumberland, and Dermody.

I » In satirical poetry, Butler, Anstey, and

, Churchill.

, In pastoral, Shenstone, Gay, Cunningham.,
and . Ramsay.

j In lyric poetry, Cowley, Smith, and Burns.

I 0b8.—~ Among admired living poets, may be named

Wolcot, Hayley, Sheridan, Crabbe, Roscoe, Southey,
. Coleridge, Borers, Campbell, Bloomfield, Wordsworth,
' Dd2

312 LITERATURE.

Cottle, Sotheby, Colman, Shee, Taylor, Barbauld, By-
ron, Moore, Mathias, Scott, Dibdin, and some others ;
whose meritorious works will be impartially judged and
estimated by a future age ; but to which, for the present,
we can only wish due immortality.

701. Poetry is classed under the heads epic, or
heroic; dramatic, or representative 5 lyric, or
suited to music, as odes, songs, &c. ; didactic, or j
instructive ; elegiac, or sentimental and affecting;
satirical, epigrammatic, or witty and ludicrous ;
and pastoral, or descriptive of rustic life.

Versification, in the English language, depends
on the modulation of the accents, and the dispo-
sition of the pauses. It is either rhyme, or recur*
ring rhyme, alternate, or interchanging rhyme,
or in triplets of three lines ; or blank verse, in
which the metrical principle is in the pauses, the
lines flowing into each other.

702. The neroic verse consists of ten syllables ;
and its harmony depends on the regular distri-
bution of accented and unaccented syllables ; and ,
its character of solemnity or liveliness, depends
on the order of those syllables.

Thus, when the accent is on every other syl- i
lable, it is called iambic verse ; as,

A aAepherd's boy, he seeks no higher name,
Led forth his Jlock beside the wTver Thame.

703. The monotony of recurring accents, is
obviated by the varied disposition of the cesural

Eause. When this pause is on the fourth sylla-
le, the strain is smooth and airy ; as,
Soft is the strain | when zephyr gently blows,
And the smooth stream | in smoother murmur flows.

Or, it is still quicker, when placed at the
second syllable; as,

LITERATURE. 313

Not so J when swift Camilla scours the plain.
764. The following afford instances of various*
pauses, which give as many different effects to
the lines:—

O friend | may each domestic bliss be thine ; <
Be no unpleasing melancholy | mine.
Or,

Me I let the tender office long engage.
To rock the cradle | of declining age.
Or,

O cruel, beauteous, | ever lovely, | tell
Is it in heaven | a crime to love too well.

705. The anape&ic, or dactyl verse, is where
the accent falls on every third syllable $ as,

1 am monarch of all 1 survey,
My light there is none to dispute ;
From the centre all round to the sea 9
I am lord of the/ow/and the brute.

Or,

'Tis night I and the landscape is lovely no more;
I mourn ; I but ye woocflands 1 1 mourn not for you ;
For morn is approaching, your charms to restore,
Re/re«Aed with fresh/rogrance, and glitf ring with dew.

Various other kinds of verses are to be foand
in the works of the poets; but the above are the
most cpmmon.

706. The first historian among the Greeks
was Herodotus; they had also Thucydides and
Xenophon.

The orations of Demosthenes and Isocrateg,
are master-pieces of eloquence*

The moral writings of Epictetus, JEsop, and
Plato, are deservedly cherished.

In philosophy? Aristotle was a universal and
wonderful genius; and Euclid and Pythagoras
were the fathers of geometry and music.

314^ , UTERATUBE.

They also carried painting and statuary to the
highest pitch $ of the former, we have no perfect
specimens j but the statues of Phidias and Praxi-
teles are still unrivalled.

707. The Greeks were followed by die Romans
in history* by their Livy, Tacitus, Justin, PoJy-
bius,andSalIust.

In eloquence, by Cicero.

In morals, by Seneca, Pliny, and Plutarch.

In criticism* they had their Quinctilian and
Longinus ; and numerous other writers in every
branch of knowledge.

The Romans were followed by the Italia*
Guicchardini, Davila, Petrarch, Poggio, &c.

France boasts of its Montesquieu, Voltaire,
D'Alembert, and Marmontel.

Germany, of its Schiller, Kotzebue, Klopstock,
and Wieland.

And Spain, of its Cervantes and Lopez de
Vega.

708. The genius of England, favoured by po*>
fitical liberty, has proved itself little inferior to
that of ancient Greece $ it has excelled in every
branch of literature.

In historical compositions, they have had Cla-
rendon, Robertson, Hume, Gibbon, Belsham,
Roscoe, and Gillies $

In morals, Locke, Addison, Johnson, Swift,
Hawkesworth, Paley, and Blair;

In philosophy, Bacon, Hervey, Newton, Boyle,
Clarke, Priestley, Halley, Franklin, Hunter,
Berkeley, andJenner;

In legislation, Coke, Blackstone, and Mans-
field.

UTERATUHE. . 315

' In mathematics, Briggs, Newton, Simpson,
Emerson, Waring, and Hutton ;

In chemistry, Black, Priestley, and Davy $

In agriculture, Young;

In romance, Richardson, Fielding, Defoe,
Smollett, Sterne, and Burney.

709. To concentrate and give effect to indi-
vidual labours, societies have, latterly, been
formed in all parts of the world : and on these
now depend, in a great degree, the further im-
provement of man.

Thus, in England, there is the Royal Society,
the Antiquarian Society, the Royal Academy,
the Society of Arts,. and the Board of Agricul-
ture.

In France, there is the Imperial or Royal In-
stitute ; and at Berlin, Madrid, and Petersburg,
royal societies like those of London.

America likewise has its societies ; and there
are others in India :— all labouring for the pro-
motion and propagation of knowledge.

Ob». — Effect has Been given to study ; and improve-
ments have been accelerated, in every branch of know-
ledge, by means of the Art of Printing. In England,
alone, this art is the means of producing 800 new publi-
cations per annum; besides 70 magazines, journals, and
reviews; and 250 several newspapers. Of the Monthly
Magazine, esteemed the best in Europe, nearly 5000 are
regularly sold; and of all the monthly works, at least,
100,000 per month. Of the newspapers throughout the
United Kingdom, above half a million are sold per
week. — Such a vast engine, is the press, for the diffu-
sion of knowledge, and for the promotion of truth, vir-
tue, and happiness ! It must not, however, be concealed,
that it is an instrument capable of being perverted, by
power and wealth, to the worst purposes j that it may

916 LITERATURE.

l)t {he mean? of making the worse appear the better
cause; and may be made to aid and abet the. bad. pas-
dons and base views of wicked rulers and unprincipled
ministers. The good use of the press is a great, social
blessing ; bat the abuse of it may be the greatest of na-
tional curse*. Against such abuse, young persons should
be on their guard ; and before they believe all they see
printed, relative to passing events, they should examine

Stothe character and motives of the writers ; and, above
I, fhfuld constantly think fir themselves.

THE END,

CONTENTS

OF THIS VOLUME,

Introductory Particulars j

Of the Simple Arts of Savage life ... 3

Of Farming or Agriculture . . . .6

Metallurgy > . is

Of Building 22

.Architecture 25

The Art of Clothing . . . . .28

Of Government and Laws . . , . » 35

Of the Mechanical Powers 50

Trade and Commerce 60

The Art of Navigation 70

Geography and Astronomy .... T6

Of Morals and Religion 133

Grammar 138

Logic , 145

Rhetoric 150

Of Vegetable Nature 153

Of Animated Nature t . % 166

Chemistry ♦ 197

Electricity and Galvanism .... 214

Magnetism 523

Mathematics , , * . . . 225

CONTENTS.

Algebra, or Abstract Arithmetic

Optics

Meteorology .....

Acoustics and Music

Of Physics, or the General Properties

Of Chronology and History

Mythology

Drawing, Painting, &c.

Heraldry

Jbiterafure ....

of Matter

P*ge

234
252
266
272
279
291
299
305
309

N.B. The Solar System should face the Title; and
the Map of the World, the Article Geography, at Page
107.

I