Full text of "An unknown people in an unknown land : an account of the life and customs of the Lengua Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco, with adventures and experiences met with during twenty years' pioneering and exploration amongst them"

LAND

IACO

HBRQOKE GRUBB

AN UNKNOWN PEOPLE IN AN
UNKNOWN LAND

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WOMEN READY FOR THE "PUPHEK" DANCE OF THE "YANMANA" FEAST

This particular dance takes its name from the bunches of deer hoofs attached to the long
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numbering from ten to twenty, keep step.

AN UNKNOWN PEOPLE
IN AN UNKNOWN LAND

AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND CUSTOMS OF THE
LENGUA INDIANS OF THE PARAGUAYAN CHACO,
WITH ADVENTURES AND EXPERIENCES DURING
TWENTY YEARS' PIONEERING AND EXPLORATION
AMONGST THEM

\ BY

W. BARBROOKE GRUBB

"COMISARIO GENERAL DEL CHACO Y PACIFICADOR DE LOS INDIOS
PIONEER & EXPLORER OF THE CHACO

EDITED BY

H. T. MORREY JONES, M.A. (OxoN)

WITH 60 ILLUSTRATIONS fcf A MAP

SECOND EDITION

LONDON

SEELEY fcf CO. LIMITED

38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET

1911

SEP 4 :bob

,",.<*

HIM WHO GAVE
ME MY MARCHING ORDERS

THE RIGHT REV. WAITE H. STIRLING, D.D.,

First Bishop of the Falkland Isles,

IN REMEMBRANCE OF WORDS OF CHEER, SOUND ADVICE,

AND WELCOME VISITS WHEN ALONE

IN THE WILDS

PREFACE ,

IT is prophesied that during the next decade the attention of
the world will be turned to South America as markedly as it
has been directed to the Far East in this. There are un-
doubtedly substantial grounds for such a forecast. The natural
wealth of the Continent is unquestioned, and rapid develop-
ments have taken place of recent years. But with few excep-
tions in particular, that of the linking of the east and west
coasts by the completion of the Trans- Andine Railway these
developments are confined to the coast-line of the Continent.
Though some of its mighty rivers are navigable for thousands
of miles, yet much of the interior is still shrouded in mystery.
Exploring expeditions have had to encounter impassable and
malarial swamps, impenetrable forests, unnavigable rivers, and
hostile tribes of Indians, and have for the most part ended in
disaster.

Strange rumours are still current as to the nature and in-
habitants of the huge interior region known as the Chaco, which
is the subject of this volume. Its name has been interpreted
as meaning " a hiding-place," which, though a false etymology,
is nevertheless a true description of this unknown land.

In the year 1889 the Church of England South American
Missionary Society began a work in the Paraguayan Chaco,
and in the following pages the pioneer missionary and explorer
recounts his experiences and adventures, and gives the results
of studies and researches covering a period of twenty years,
during which he lived in the heart of the Indian fastnesses
among the tribe of the Lenguas. Barbrooke Grubb may be
a name little known at home, but in South America he is

vii

PREFACE

recognized as the greatest living authority on the Indians of
the Chaco.

During his last furlough he supplied me with a fund of in-
formation which I wrote down from his dictation, and, guided
by the knowledge which I had myself gained during a few years
in the Chaco, I have ventured to edit the present volume.

The following narrative deals almost exclusively with the
early years of Grubb's life among the Lenguas. His extra-
ordinary adventures and perilous experiences are fully described,
and will, I think, engage the attention of every reader. In
particular, the remarkable narrative of the attempt upon his
life, when he was left for dead, and narrowly escaped being
buried alive; and all the incidents of his subsequent rescue
show in a strange way the workings of the Indian mind and
character, as well as Grubb's courage and powers of endurance.
His recovery from his wound under such trying circumstances
was considered so extraordinary that Dr. O'Connor, the eminent
surgeon of the Buenos Aires British Hospital, who operated on
him, gave him a letter of introduction to Sir Frederick Treves,
saying, " Put your surgical ear to his chest." The letter, how-
ever, was never presented, as Grubb returned immediately to
the Chaco.

The full account here given of primitive life and customs,
Indian mythology, superstitions, and witchcraft, with all their
attendant barbarities, will convey some idea of the difficulties
encountered in the attempt to form such a people into a civilized
community and a Christian Church. Frequent reference is made
in the following pages to the most important of the older
writings on the Chaco " An Account of the Abiponi Indians,"
by Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit Father whose descriptions, although
written one hundred and fifty years ago, correspond closely with
observations made in the present day, a remarkable proof of the
stagnant condition of the Chaco tribes and of the persistence
of their customs and deep-seated superstitions.

The opening up of a large and practically unknown country,
which has been an indirect result of the Mission, will seem
important to those who watch with serious interest the gradual

viii

PREFACE

reclamation of the earth's waste places. To-day it is safe for
the white man to traverse some two hundred miles in a direct
course west of the River Paraguay, over roads cut by the
missionaries and other large areas within the Mission sphere ;
whereas formerly men who had acquired lands within the Chaco
scarcely dared even to inspect them, and carefully avoided all
footmarks or other signs of Indians. Where formerly ranchers
hesitated to stock their land, for fear of Indian raids, thousands
of cattle may be found to-day in well-fenced paddocks, tended
by Indians who have been trained in the Mission and taught
many useful crafts. The Roman Catholic Government of
Paraguay has fully recognized the value of the work of this
Protestant Mission, and has conferred on the author of this
volume the title of "Pacificator of the Indians." It has also
accepted the missionaries' geographical notes as the basis of an
official map of the region.

The reader who is in sympathy with the definite work of
Christian Missions will see the practical methods which have
been adopted in breaking down old beliefs and witchcraft, and
the ways in which medical work and certain branches of educa-
tion and training have been steps to the reception of Christianity ;
but another volume by the same author which is in preparation
will describe more fully the actual spiritual development of the
Lenguas.

Not the least formidable task in the building up of these
primitive people has been the study and reduction to writing
of their very difficult language, a task so laborious that it was
eight years before any systematic work could be undertaken.
Mr. R. J. Hunt has been almost entirely responsible for the
compiling of a large dictionary and for all the translation work,
having devoted fifteen years to the study of the peculiar and
comprehensive language of the Lenguas, and to him I am in-
debted for the account of it which appears in Appendix III.
With these valuable aids to teaching, the spiritual development
has been very marked during the last decade. The work has been
under the superintendence of the Rev. P. R. Turner in the field
and of the two first Bishops of the Falkland Isles as visitors.

PREFACE

Special mention should be made of Mr. Andrew Pride, who
has worked side by side with the author for seventeen years, and
has taken an important part in all that fell to the lot of a
pioneer. To him I am indebted for most of the photographs
which illustrate this volume, and to the Royal Anthropological
Society for the small drawings.

Professor Graham Kerr and Dr. W. E. Agar, both of Glasgow
University, who spent long periods at or near the Mission
station engaged in scientific research, have most kindly allowed
me to cull from their writings the passages on the flora and
fauna of the Chaco which appear in Appendix II.

My warmest thanks are due to others who have aided me in
editing this work, especially to my old college friend, Mr. W.
St. David Jenkins, for his valuable help in revising the manu-
script, and to the Librarian of the British Museum for the
opportunities afforded of consulting books of reference.

The author's profits from the sale of this volume will be
devoted to the support of the Society's Mission, in which it is
my earnest hope that many readers may come to take a deep

interest.

H. T. MORREY JONES

December, 1910

CONTENTS

PAOE
PREFACE vii

CHAPTER I

RUMOURS
Contrasts Indian atrocities A horned race Pigmies The Chaco 17

CHAPTER II
DANGERS OP ENTRANCE

Exploring parties massacred Captives Search for Ibareta Indian
hostility Superstitious fears Attitude to be adopted Hostility
of wizards Their powerS challenged - 22

CHAPTER III
INTO THE UNKNOWN

Riacho Fernandez Rough fare The interior First journey
Treachery of guides The first village Sign language Air of
authority The night watch Bargaining for guides - 31

CHAPTER IV
EARLY EXPERIENCES

Tour in Paraguay Tracking Indian looters Compensation paid
"Alligator stomach" Indian cunning Report of thefts Fire
at Neantamama Removal to Thlagnasinkinmith Escape from
poisoning Indian defiance Foreign liquor The Evil Eye
Witch-doctors' plans - 36

CHAPTER V
ORIGIN OF THE CHACO TRIBES

Padre Lozano Peruvian fugitives Meaning of word ( ' Chaco "
Inca connection " Cities of the dead " Hidden treasure The
Imlah - - 49

CHAPTER VI
PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

An Indian village Rude shelters Scene at sunset Swamp travel
A smallpox scene The spirit-world Nomadic life Preparations
for the night Indian dogs Insect life Methods of illumination 55

CHAPTER VII

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

Hindrances to industry Blanket-making String Preparation of
skins Feather ornaments Shells Necklaces Ear-discs
Pottery Tobacco Fire by friction Gourds Musical instru-
ments Diary sticks Weapons Gardening House-building - 65

CONTENTS

CHAFFER VIII
HUNTING

Denizens of the swamp Fishing Water-snakes Alligatoi
Dangers Stalking The jabiru The ostrich Indians as mimics
The jaguar An adventure - 80

CHAPTER IX
TRAVEL

The first bullock-cart A storm Floods A river-crossing Indian
mode of travel Procuring water during drought Tradition of
the origin of fire Thirst A pocket compass An unnatural act
A feast A dust-storm - - 89

CHAPTER X
WAR

The Paraguayan War The Lenguas and Kisapang Causes of tribal
war Preliminaries Spies Ambuscades Strategy The
wounded An Indian account - - 105

CHAPTER XI
RELIGION

Popular opinion Symbolism The Creation The Egyptian Scarabeus
Immortality of the soul The future life - 111

CHAPTER XII
SHADE-LAND

The kilyikhama Their appearance and powers The aphangak
Possession The soul An uncanny experience The scattering
of ashes Deceased ancestors Future abode of the soul Spirits
of the lower creation - 118

CHAPTER XIII
DREAMS

Interpretations A sick child Souls in dreamland Influence of
dreams Nocturnal sounds Superstition An uneasy conscience
Dangers of soul-wandering - - 127

CHAPTER XIV
SUPERSTITION

The south wind Gum-boils and fat Milk The sensitive plant
Amulets Storms The Milky Way Whirlwinds The Pleiades
"Grandfather the Devil " Mirages The Rainbow Horse
spirit Whispering in the woods Infanticide Superstition and
Christianity - 136

CHAPTER XV
WIZARDS AND WITCHCRAFT

I A wizard's office His training Hypnotism Weather prophecies

Laying ghosts Possession by kilyikhama "Blue blanket"

\ Wizards and haemorrhage Ejecting insects Fish-bones A

xii

CONTENTS

PAGE

"needles" epidemic A poisonous root Charmed guns The
witch-beetle Instantaneous pumpkin-growing Conjuring tricks
Sorceries Medical knowledge - - -145

CHAPTER XVI
BURIAL RITES

A burial scene The dying abandoned Last rites Mutilation
Formalities at the grave A perilous experience at Thlagwakhe
Purification ceremonial Mourning Execution of a murderer
Premature burial - - - 160

CHAFFER XVII
RESCUE OF A CHILD

A woman's burial Her infant rescued from burial alive An awkward
predicament The ghost of the mother An outcast Difficulties
of procuring nourishment A long journey Saved - - 171

CHAPTER XVIII

FEASTS

The Yanmana The Wairikya The Kyaiya The marriage feast
Preparations for a Kyaiya Arrival of the guests The chant
Food ceremonials Mirth and conversation Intoxication The
Mailing A sick dirge After effects Chaco etiquette - - 177

CHAPTER XIX
INDIAN SOCIALISM

A summary Thriftlessness Inadequate dwellings Laziness-
Selfishness Sociability The communal system Then and now- 188

CHAPTER XX

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Conservatism Humour Friendship Trust Patience Self-con-
trol Courage Jealousy - - - 195

CHAPTER XXI
MORALS

Drunkenness Madness Untruthfulness Scandal Guile meets
guile Honesty Reservation Generous actions Grief Un-
selfishness Politeness Marriage laws Monogamy Laxity of
morals Polygamy Polyandry - - 204

"CHAPTER XXII

SYSTEM OP DEALING WITH INDIANS

Full-grown children The missionary's task His environment
Example and precept Tests of courage A cunning device - 217

CHAPTER XX11I

TEACHER AND PUPIL

Insular conceit Sympathy First-fruits Cause and effect Independ-
ence - . - * - - 224

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXIV

INFANTICIDE AND OTHER EVILS

PAGE

Reasons for infanticide Extenuating circumstances Treatment of a
child - murderer Waikthlatingmangyalwa Deceptions An
unexpected visit Medical treatment Language difficulties The
early Church - 232

CHAPTER XXV
A MURDEROUS ATTACK

Poit An advance agent Misappropriation Thefts A start for the
West Poit as guide Search for cattle The River Monte Lindo
Manoeuvring Shot in the back - 244

CHAFFER XXVI
IN DANGER OP BURIAL ALIVE

Bathing the wound The beaten track Rescued A night of horror
Visitors A messenger Preparations for premature burial
Slow progress News of Poit Suspicions Welcome refresh-
ment Arrival of relief party Christmas Day Home Fears of
a rising An uncanny presence In hospital - 264

CHAPTER XXVII
POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

Public opinion Startling news The execution A deep sensation
A review A dream The stolen gun The jaguar story The
only flaw - - - 269

CHAPTER XXVIII
FINAL STRUGGLE OF THE WITCH-DOCTORS

Candidates for Baptism Death from snake-bite Witch-doctors' plot
Poisoning Death of Andrew Summoning of ringleaders
Punishment Philip's address - - 278

CHAPTER XXIX

TWIXT OLD AND NEW

Effects of education The transition stage Attractions of civilization

Partial degeneration - - - 289

CHAPTER XXX

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

Early conditions Remarkable changes Estancias Trade Settle-
ment Industrial training School Hospital Government
The Christian Church .r - - 293

APPENDIX

I. THE CHACO, ITS TRIBES, EXPEDITIONS AND DISCOVERIES- - 301

II. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE, CLIMATE, FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE

CHACO - ... 305

III. LANGUAGE - - , -. - 318

IV. OUTSIDE TESTIMONY - 322

INDEX - - - - * - - - 328

xiv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

WOMEN READY FOR THE " PUPHEK " DANCE - Frontispiece

A SEARCH EXPEDITION * - - -24

A LENGUA WITCH-DOCTOR - - 46
LENGUA BOYS --------52

LENGUA VILLAGES - - 56

METHOD OF CONVEYING GOODS ACROSS A SWAMP - - 68

LOCUSTS - 62

A DECORATED WOODEN WHISTLE - - 64

SECTION OF A LENGUA WOOLLEN BLANKET - - 66

BLANKET-WEAVING - - 66

LENGUA WOMAN SPINNING WOOL FOR A BLANKET - 68

LENGUA GIRLS - 70

A LENGUA POTTER - - 72

LENGUA POTTERY - 72

LENGUA POTTERY - - 74

FOUR GENERATIONS - - 74

RUBBINGS TAKEN FROM AN INDIAN'S ENGRAVINGS ON A GOURD - 76

INDIAN ENGRAVING - - 76

LENGUA POTTERY - 78

CLAY WATER BOTTLE - 79

A BOTTLE-TRUNK TREE - - 82

A LENGUA ROADWAY SIGN - 82

A RATTLE-SNAKE IN THE GRASS - 82

THK RATTLE OF THE RATTLE-SNAKE - - 82

A LENGUA CANOE - - 84

INDIAN STALKER DISGUISED AS A CLUMP OF FOLIAGE - 86

AN INDIAN EXTRACTING HONEY FROM A HOLE IN A TREE - 96

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAOK

PROCURING FIRE BY FRICTION - - - 98

A GROUP OP LENGUAS - ... 192

SUHIN PIPE OF CARVED WOOD - . - - 117

A LENGUA WITCH-DOCTOR ----.. 132

IN THE FOREST - - - . . . - 132

LENGUA METHOD OF PRODUCING FIRE .... 135

ARROWS ---.._ 170

A "WAINKYA" FEAST - - 178

THE "SOWALACH" - 18Q

WRESTLING CONTESTS - . ' . . IQQ

WOMEN DANCERS AT A ' ' YANMANA " - - . - 182

PREPARING FOR A " KYAIYA " FEAST - ' - . 134

SUHIN PIPE OF CARVED WOOD - .... 194

TOOTHLI CLAY VESSEL ..... 203

AN OLD WOMAN OF THE NORTH-WEST CLAN - . - - 206

LENGUA WOMEN - . . . ... 214

LENGUA FISH-TRAP - .... 231

A BIRD'S NEST - 238

A SECRET STILL - 238

W. BARBROOKE GRUBB - .... 246

POIT '- - 250

MECHI . . . _ 250

KYAMAPSITHYO - . _ .. . 62

A LENGUA DOLL . 268

ONE- STRINGED FIDDLE . 288
A TYPICAL " PALMAR" SCENE - - ...

xvi

AN UNKNOWN PEOPLE IN AN
UNKNOWN LAND

CHAPTER I

RUMOURS

THE countries lying on the opposite banks of the great River
Paraguay for some fourteen hundred miles of its course, running
between the regions of Paraguay proper on the east and the
Chaco on the west, present a contrast which it would be difficult
to equal anywhere in the world.

At night on the Chaco bank may be seen the half-naked
forms of Indians as they move to and fro in the flickering light
of their camp-fires which but dimly illuminate their rude
shelters, standing in a clearing in the dark forest which forms a
background. The painted faces and plumed heads of these
savages enhance the weirdness of the scene. The sounds which
greet the ear are equally barbarous. A low droning chant
may be heard, accompanied by the rattle of gourds, and broken
only too often by a shrill cry of pain when a child, perhaps,
has been cruelly murdered, and the women's voices are raised
in lamentation. Yet from this bank at the same moment may
be plainly heard the loud shriek of the siren of a large Brazilian
passenger steamer as she nears the port of a Paraguayan town
just across the river, with the bright rays of her electric light
streaming from her saloons and decks, and the twinkling lights
of the town dotted along the opposite bank easily distinguish-
able in the distance.

For hundreds of miles to the west reaching to Bolivia, to

17 B

RUMOURS

the north as far as Brazil, and southwards to the settled
provinces of the Argentine Repuhlic, there stretches a vast
region almost wholly Driven over to harbarism. As it was when
Juan de Solss sailed up the River Plate four centuries ago, so it
was when I first entered the land of this unknown people, and
so it is in great part to this very day. Dreadful crimes are
daily enacted in this hidden land of the Chaco, atrocities which
are seldom brought to the knowledge of those who are near
neighbours.

On the eastern bank of the River Paraguay we find large
modern cities with a civilization, in many cases, far in advance of
some of our European towns. It is strange indeed that, with
only a few miles dividing them, you see on the one bank
primitive man as he was centuries ago, and on the other the
highly cultivated European, both equally ignorant of the life of
the other. It seems almost incredible that, for nearly four
generations, civilization and Christianity have sat facing bar-
barism and heathenism, and yet have stood wholly apart. No
great and impassable barrier has divided the two ; on the con-
trary, the crossing from one bank to the other is simple, and, even
under the most unfavourable circumstances, a matter of only a
few hours. One of the finest lines of river steamers has been
plying far up the course of the River Paraguay for many years,
and ever since the power of Spain was planted in South America
communication has been regularly maintained between Europe
and these regions.

But the contrast between civilization and barbarism is not the
only one that presents itself. The two sides of the river are
physically quite as different. On the west lies an almost dead-
level plain, covering an area of some two hundred thousand
square miles, while on the east hilly and undulating country
predominates. The great western plain is of quite a different
geological formation from that of the eastern lands, consisting
of alluvial mud swept down in past ages from the foot-hills of
the Andes. Not a pebble or stone can be found, and it is often
in flood -time almost converted into a great shallow lake ; whereas
the eastern region is in most parts an interesting country, with

RUMOURS

hill and dale and clear running streams. It looks as if this low-
lying land had been, at some remote period, the bed of a great
inland sea, the shores of which were the higher coasts of Para-
guay proper, with Brazil on the east, and the Bolivian uplands
on the west.

It was to this strange land that I was sent by the South
American Missionary Society in the year 1889. A small
Mission had already been begun by Adolpho Henricksen among
the Lengua Indians frequenting the Chaco bank of the River
Paraguay, and on his death I was appointed at the age of twenty-
three to succeed him. For the last twenty years I have lived
in the interior of the Chaco region, at first alone with the
Indians, being afterwards joined by helpers sent out by the
Society ; but the contents of this work will deal mainly with
the events and experiences of the early years of my life among
some of the Chaco tribes, and among the Lenguas in particular.

Long before I arrived I had heard, in conversation with
South Americans in the River Plate, numberless rumours of
the barbarous peoples inhabiting the Chaco, and curious reports
of the land itself. The very name "Chaco" was mentioned
by many whom I met in accents of dread and horror. Some
reports said that the Indians numbered hundreds of thousands,
that they were fierce and warlike, given to cannibalism, and
exceptionally cruel in the treatment of their prisoners.

It is well known that during the early Spanish times the
Chaco Indians were more numerous than now, and that they
presented an almost unconquerable front to the Spanish invaders,
not so much, I suppose, from their superiority in fighting as
from the impracticable nature of their country. Previous to
the Spanish occupation they had waged war for generations
with the Guarani Indians of Paraguay, and as the population
of Paraguay is the result of intermixture between the Spanish
and Guarani peoples, this may account in some measure for the
uncomfortable memories that the latter still retain of the Chaco
Indians.

An Englishman whom I met in Uruguay, and who had
travelled widely in many parts of South America, honestly did

RUMOURS

his best to dissuade me from ever thinking of going among the
Chaco tribes, assuring me that these treacherous savages had
been known to haunt the steps of the adventurous explorer, and,
taking advantage of him while he slept, to creep up and crush
his head with a stone. This gentleman was not romancing, but
seriously believed what he said. Where the Indians found the
stone he did not explain, and it is quite clear he was not aware
even of the formation of the country, stones being unobtainable
there. The tribes were reported to use the skulls of their
enemies as drinking-cups, and with these to catch the warm
blood that flowed from the wounds of their victims. It was
also told that they were in the habit of burning the soles of
their captives 1 feet in order to prevent them from escaping.

The accounts of the various tortures which they were supposed
to practise upon their prisoners were many and barbarous in
the extreme. It was said that they made incisions under the
two great pectoral muscles, and, passing a rope through the
wounds, mounted their horses and dragged their captive behind
them. At other times, cutting open the breast, they tore out
the still beating heart of their victim. But to recount the
many tales of Indian atrocities would only nauseate the reader,
and what I have already said will suffice as samples of the
cruelties they were reported to practise.

A firm belief existed that the Indians bitterly hated any
foreigner, and anyone who ventured into their fastnesses without
a strongly armed band would have been regarded as a maniac
and a suicide, no white man's life being considered worth more
than a few hours' purchase.

There was reported to be a large and populous Indian town
in the interior, and this was the general belief among most of
the Paraguayans. Even the more intelligent and critical
believed in the existence of large villages, inhabited by
thousands of Indians. The savage inhabitants were reputed to
be void of all decency, and their social life to be little better
than that of animals. Among the more incredible tales were
legends of a horned race inhabiting the interior. A horn was
said to protrude from the top of the forehead, as in the fabled

RUMOURS

unicorn. Probably the custom of the Indians of wearing an
upright wool-bound scalp-lock gave rise to this tale. But even
more strange was the story of a people inhabiting the north
whose knee-joints were reversed, giving them the appearance of
the ostrich, so that when they knelt their feet protruded in
front of them. I afterwards learnt from the Indians that,
strange to say, they too told a similar story, with this addition
that these people had three toes, and were very fleet of foot.
There were accounts of a race of pigmies inhabiting the forests
of the west, and also of a tribe of giants.

The reports about the nature of the country were almost as
conflicting as those referring to the tribes. Some maintained
that it was a wateriest desert, and I have myself read in a
school geography book that the Chaco was supposed to be a
sandy waste. While one told me that it was a densely covered
forest region, where I might travel for days without beholding
the sun, another would say that it was a huge swamp or
inland sea.

Some imagined the Chaco to possess great mineral wealth,
saying that precious stones and gold were to be found in the
river-beds. Strange animals and huge serpents were supposed
to abound in its dark forests. "Omne ignotum pro magni-
fico est."

Most of these rumours I found to be pure fiction, and the
others greatly distorted; but the neighbouring peoples, while
perhaps not believing all they were told, undoubtedly had an
undefined dread of the Chaco and its inhabitants.

Even to-day there are comparatively few who know the truth
of this mysterious and hidden country, and of the Indian tribes
who have for centuries held it closed to the European. There^i
fore I may justly refer to this region as an unknown land, and I
with still more justice speak of its inhabitants as an unknown /
people.

CHAPTER II
DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

THE ideas entertained of the Indians being such as I have
described, it is no wonder that they were held in dread. Hen-
ricksen, the founder of the Paraguayan Chaco Mission, when
starting on his journey up river, was strongly urged by the
Paraguayans to take a military guard with him ; in fact, one
was offered, but this he firmly refused. It is true that he
never penetrated into the Indian country, but, had he been able
to do so, I am perfectly certain he would never have consented
to be accompanied by an armed force.

On my arrival in Paraguay, in 1889, I heard many more
startling rumours than those already instanced, and although
common sense naturally convinced me that some of them were
false, still, I believed a good deal more than there was any
foundation for. It took me some years to discover this, and
danger believed in is no less a nervous strain because it after-
wards proves unfounded. But apart from all exaggerations,
travelling alone in the early years amongst these savage nomads
was fraught with considerable danger, not so much on account
of their enmity as from misunderstandings on both sides, and
superstitious fears on theirs.

When we remember that Dr. Creveaux, the French explorer,
and his party were massacred in recent years by the Indians,
that some time after I had been in the country Ibareta and
nis party (with the exception of two) were annihilated, and that
Boggiani with other Europeans and South Americans have been
murdered, it is clear that the Indians did not hesitate to kill
foreigners even when in armed parties.

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

It was reported to me by a man of authority that an in-
scription had been discovered upon a tree intimating that two
Frenchmen were being held in cruel bondage by the Indians a
little southward of the scene of my travels. One Paraguayan
woman, the last remaining member of a party of prisoners taken
by the Indians years before, was liberated while I was travelling
in the country, and I discovered afterwards that I had myself
spent nights with the Indians in the near vicinity of the scene
of her captivity.

The following quotation from a letter to the President of
Paraguay by a well-known Government Land Surveyor, who was
one of the coolest and bravest men that it was ever my fortune
to meet, will show what he considered necessary precautions
while he was travelling in the Chaco : " I took with me fifteen
specially selected men, all armed with Remington rifles and
revolvers, and I never allowed anyone to go alone to seek water
or to explore our road. We always rode in company and armed,
and never went far from our encampment. At night we set
sentinels, and slept with our weapons at hand. When measuring,
if we saw smoke, we fell back on our main body, and any signs
of Indians made us advance with redoubled caution. In the
Indian village of the Chief called Mechi, near the Monte Lindo
River, our horses disappeared, and while a portion of our party
sought them, the remainder, who were in camp, were sur-
prised by a company of naked Indians, painted and adorned
with feathers, who certainly had no peaceable or friendly
intentions."

From the Indians I received an account of a strange foreigner,
evidently a straggler from some exploring party, who had arrived
one night at an Indian village about two days south of where
I was staying. He seemed worn and hungry, his clothes were in
tatters, and, approaching cautiously, he sat down by one of the
fires. The Indians spoke to him, but as he did not understand
their language, they could make nothing of him. They con-
ferred among themselves, and concluded that this man could
have no good purpose there, and might probably, if spared,
show an attacking party of foreigners the way into their country.

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

They therefore, without more ado, despatched him with their
clubs where he sat. Doubtless the poor fellow was driven by
hunger and thirst to the point of recklessness, preferring to die
by the hands of Indians rather than endure a lingering death by
starvation, and there was just the faint hope that the Indians
might treat him humanely and spare his life.

Two men alone escaped from Ibareta's expedition on the
River Pilcomayo. They travelled for weeks, subsisting as best
they could, and always carefully avoiding beaten tracks; but
on entering the sphere of the Mission influence, they were met
by an Indian who took them to his village and looked after
them carefully, informing them that English people lived to the
north, and that he would guide them to their village, which he
did. Some time after this a Spanish gentleman arrived at the
Mission station with letters of introduction, soliciting our help
in searching for the missing explorer, and endeavouring to ascer-
tain whether he were dead or alive. He informed me of his
intention of taking with him an armed party of sixty men, but
I refused all help if he did so. Eventually my friend Pride
and a companion, both of the Mission staff, were instructed to
accompany him with a few Indians, and they in due course
reached the Pilcomayo. The search, however, proved fruit-
less.

Early in 1890 the Right Rev. Dr. Stirling, first Bishop of
the Falkland Isles and Superintendent of the Society's Missions,
ordered me to penetrate into the interior and investigate fully
the numbers, location, and attitude of the various tribes, with
the view of ascertaining how best to prosecute the Mission
already begun by Henricksen. I could have availed myself of
an armed guard ; in fact, I was urged by many well-wishers to
j do so, but, as a missionary and messenger of peace, such a course
would not only have been inconsistent, but inadvisable. Had I
begun this work under armed protection, it would have incensed
the Indians against me, as they would have looked upon me as
a possible enemy, and they would also have concluded from my
coming in force that I was to some extent afraid of them.
The only course open, therefore, was to go alone, and trust

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

myself entirely in their hands. The foregoing instances of Ibareta
and others serve to show how exceedingly fraught with danger
such a course was.

There was, however, a greater source of danger, of which I
was ignorant at the time when I first entered the Chaco, and
that was not merely the hostility of the Indians to foreigners, I \J
but their superstitious fears. Had sickness, for example, broken
out in a village through which I had passed, I should in all
probability have been held responsible for it, and, if any deaths
had resulted, they would have felt justified by their laws in
putting me to death. Also their peculiar belief regarding
dreams 1 would supply the basis for any number of accusations
against me, and, being .a foreigner travelling alone, and thus a
mystery to them, I should naturally become the subject of many
of their dreams. Any foreigner would be liable to get into
trouble in like manner, but in my case the fact that the
people, for various reasons, looked upon me from the begin-
ning as a foreign wizard, and my habit of inquiring into their
customs and religious rites and beliefs, continually increased my
danger.

I was anxious, for example, to explain to the people as soon
as possible my reason for being among them, and accordingly
tried to make it clear to them that I came with a message of
peace, and sought their spiritual welfare. But, through an in-
adequate knowledge of the language, I unwittingly assured them
that I was the intimate and particular friend of the greatest of
evil spirits, and that I had come among them in order to make
them better acquainted with him. The Indian very sensibly
considered that he knew quite enough about him already, and
had no desire to make his further acquaintance, and the fact
that I professed to be his friend and servant gave them by no
means a favourable idea of my respectability, nor recommended
my presence among them.

As I learnt more of their customs, I began gradually to realize

the many dangers which I had unconsciously run the risk of

incurring. Had I met with an accident or fallen sick during my

See Chapter XIII.

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

solitary sojourn among them and swooned away, I should in
all probability have been buried, as the Indians do not dis-
tinguish very carefully between prolonged unconsciousness and
actual death, and in my case, as I was a stranger and one
regarded with suspicion and with a certain amount of fear, they
would not have used too much discrimination. To these grave
dangers I may add the risk I ran of being taken captive or of
being forsaken by the Indians with whom I travelled, and thus
having to find my way as best I could in a wilderness land.

Having previously had nearly four years' experience among
the Yaghan Indians of Tierra del Fuego, and having studied
Indian life and character from all other possible sources, I was
not altogether a novice when I entered upon my work in the
Chaco. But I afterwards found that the conditions of this new
sphere were very different from all that I had known before.
The plans which I had formed for myself, although they did not
take into account the unforeseen conditions which had to be
faced, yet worked so admirably that I was enabled to travel and
live alone among these people for some years, gaining a great
measure of influence and authority over them.

Experienced explorers, Government officials, settlers, traders,
and others, on hearing of my determination to enter the Chaco
alone and to live with the Indians, warned me of the dangers 1
was incurring, and assured me that such a step was tantamount
to committing suicide. The kind-hearted peasants and many
friends whose acquaintance I had made during my few months''
residence on the rivers bank implored me not to throw away
my life, and some, with tears in their eyes, invoked the protection
of the Virgin and Saints on my behalf when they found I would
not be dissuaded. So prevalent was the opinion that I should
assuredly lose my life that on three occasions in particular, owing
to my prolonged absence and to reports from river Indians,
the rumour of my death was readily accepted. Once it was
only by making a forced voyage all night in a canoe that I was
enabled to prevent an official announcement of my death being
sent home by the British Consul at Asuncion.

Humanly speaking, my preservation during these early years

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

was mainly due to the attitude which I had decided on in my |
own mind as the best to adopt in dealing with such a people.
That attitude was briefly this : to assume at all times and under ,
all circumstances superiority and authority, for Indians only ;
respect the strong, and have no regard whatever for a man of
weak character and wavering will. Should they once detect
any signs of fear on my part, I knew that my work among them
would prove a failure, and that they would at once assume it to
be weakness if I sought protection from their Chiefs. Again,
if I had endeavoured to curry favour with them by giving
presents, they would never have been satisfied, and would have
resorted to threats in order to extort more from me. Being a
stranger and a guest in* their country, I considered it wise to
respect, as far as possible, their customs and laws, but at the
same time I determined to show them very clearly that I did
not intend to be bound by such restrictions when they interfered
with my plans.

I knew that their witch-doctors would treat me with open
hostility, and that they would prove the greatest obstacle to
the foundation of a mission among their people. While many
of the native customs might profitably be retained, and while it
was wise that the Chiefs should maintain their authority, I
realized that it was otherwise in the case of the wizards. Their
influence was entirely evil, and if Christianity was ever to take
hold of the people, the wizards must cease to exist. Chiefs
and people alike feared the witch-doctor, and although I
knew that the experiment was dangerous, I felt that I must
declare open war against them, and treat their threats and
boasted powers with contempt. In this way I hoped to baffle
the wizards, knowing that they themselves were sceptical of
the powers which they professed to possess, and that their
superstitious ignorance was such that they believed it was quite
possible that there might be other wizards who really had powers
such as they claimed. I hoped, moreover, to convince the
Indians that I, being altogether superior to their wizards, was
well worthy of their respect, and capable of imparting to them
knowledge which their witch-doctors did not possess. I was

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

convinced that, by living in their villages, mixing freely with
them, taking part in their ordinary life, joining in their amuse-
ments, sometimes even adopting their costume, and by in every
way in my power making myself one of them, I should win a
place in their hearts.

Perhaps a few general instances given here will best illustrate
the way in which I carried out this policy.

On arriving at a village, I insisted, as far as possible, upon all
the people ministering to my personal comfort. I ordered one
to prepare my resting-place, another to make a fire, a third to
bring me water, and another to pull off my knee-boots. When
the heat was great or the flies troublesome, I made two sit by
me with fans. When on foot, and having to cross a swampy
patch, I made one of them carry me across in fact, I avoided
doing anything myself that I could persuade them to do for me.
I generally travelled with seven or eight Indian attendants,
occasionally giving them a small present for their services, and
I assumed as much pomp as the circumstances would allow. In
cases of difficulty, however, such as battling with a pampas fire,
getting refractory animals across a river, and the like, I took a
leading part myself, in order to show them that I could do such
things when necessary.

I studied their varying dispositions, and whenever I found
that they were likely to disobey an order, I refrained from
giving it, so that they might never realize that they could
disobey me, or that I really had no means of making them
carry it out. One night I had told them that I intended
resuming my journey at the rising of the morning star. After
I had lain down to sleep, I overheard them saying that they
would not go on in the morning, as they intended hunting till
mid-day. I made a note of this. On the morrow, after they
had boiled my kettle, they told me the star would soon be up,
and asked if I should be ready to start. I knew perfectly well
that there would be trouble, so I answered : " No ; I intend to
remain here till the afternoon." Presently they asked per-
mission to go hunting, and this I granted to all but one,
impressing upon them that they must be back by early after -

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

noon. This suited them perfectly, although it did not suit me,
but it enabled me to assert my authority without danger of its
being disputed, although they unknowingly had in reality gained
the mastery.

It was sometimes very difficult not to betray a sign of nervous-
ness when in a tight corner ; still, I knew that any symptom of
fear would be my undoing. On one occasion when the Indians
were very angry with me, one man actually fixed an arrow in
his bow, and, pushing the point against my chest, threatened to
drive it through me. I could clearly see that he was only
trying to intimidate me, and I managed to burst out into a fit
of, I must confess, very insincere and forced laughter. He
shrank back surprised, and, following up my advantage, I abused
him heartily, and took the first opportunity to go off with
assumed disdain, but really to avoid further danger.

The various clans are extremely jealous of each other. One
day I required the services of twelve men, and accordingly
applied to the Chief, but he refused. I then dealt directly with
the men myself. They were willing, but said that their Chief
would not allow them. " Oh, all right,' 1 I said ; " if you cannot
obey me, I will go and stay at Yithwase-yamilkit. I cannot be
thwarted in this way." I could see at once that, rather than
allow me to do this, they would comply with my wishes in spite
of their Chief. They went and consulted with him, and then
came back to tell me that they would do as I wished. I refused
their services, but after a time relented, on condition that they
nominated another Chief and deposed the present one. They
again consulted. Presently the Chief himself came to me,
assumed a very aggrieved tone, informed me that he had always
been my friend, and inquired the reason of my wrath. I told
him he was well aware of the cause, and he expressed regret,
saying that he would at once order his men to do as I wanted.
I therefore agreed to overlook the matter, but impressed upon
him that it must not occur again. To have coaxed him,
given him a present, or to have supplicated his good offices,
would have resulted in his victimizing me whenever he thought
it would suit his purpose.

DANGERS OF ENTRANCE

It was impossible, as I have said, for me to be other than
always in open opposition to the wizards, and many of my
Indian friends frequently counselled me to be more discreet in
my dealings with them, assuring me that these men had great
powers, and would some day resent my behaviour to them and
bewitch me. I was well aware that there was considerable
danger in opposing them, but it was absolutely necessary that I
should show no fear of them, in order to convince the people
that their claims were fraudulent. On one occasion, after a
great discussion upon the question of witchcraft, I challenged
the wizards to give a display of their power. I offered to sit
down twenty paces from them, and allow them to work upon
me with such enchantments as entailed no personal handling of
me. They professed to be able to do marvels at a great distance
from the person they wished to bewitch, and I told them that
they should the more easily be able to do so at so short a
distance, but they one and all declined the challenge. The
natives seemed convinced that they doubted their power over
me, and realized fully that I had no fear whatever of them.

What measure of success or failure attended the policy which
I adopted during my wanderings with the Indians the reader
will be able to estimate for himself in the following chapter,
and from other episodes recounted in this narrative.

CHAPTER III
INTO THE UNKNOWN

A FEW months previous to my arrival in Paraguay, Adolpho
Henricksen, the founder of the Mission, had died from the
effects of exposure on \he river. He had established a tem-
porary station at Riacho Fernandez, an island in the River
Paraguay, some thirty miles north of Villa Concepcidn, and
his constant journeys in a canoe to and from this town, exposed
to all weathers, proved too much for his constitution. His two
companions left the Mission soon after my arrival, and I thus
had to make my way single-handed.

I found Riacho Fernandez by no means a desirable or beautiful
spot. Mosquitos hung about all day, and at night were so
troublesome that I had early to seek the shelter of my net. In
addition to these pests, sandflies, horseflies, and fleas made life
almost intolerable. The island was sandy, and swarmed with
ants little red, stinging creatures, which got into all the food,
and swarmed so thickly on to the table during meals that it was
necessary to skim the soup. The sugar was always a mass of
ants, and the only means of getting rid of them was by putting
them with the sugar into the tea or coffee, and skimming them
off when they rose to the surface. My food consisted chiefly of
biscuits, rice, and sun-dried meat. Owing to the damp, hot
climate, this meat soon became filled with maggots, but in the
process of stewing these also rose to the surface, and were easily
got rid of.

During my short stay on this island I acquired a very limited

vocabulary of Indian words, and a still more limited pronuncia-

ion. The language had yet to be reduced to writing, and,

INTO THE UNKNOWN

owing to the lack of articulation in an Indian's speech, it was a
difficult matter to acquire even a few words ; and in order to
prevent me learning their language, they gave me the wrong
words more often than the right. However, by noting down
sounds in my note-book, which I always had at hand, I was able
to pick up a few words, which stood me in good stead on my
early expeditions.

I soon discovered that the original design of trying to win
the Indians who could be attracted to the comparatively safe
position which I held on the bank of the River Paraguay was
utterly impracticable. Few Indians frequented the bank of this
river, and those who did so had become very degenerate had
taken to drink and other bad habits through their intercourse
with the foreign settlements. The real Indian population lived
in the interior, and there, consequently, lay my goal. It was
with alacrity that I obeyed Bishop Stirling's orders to push into
the interior, with the view of establishing a Mission in the heart
of the Chaco. I fully realized that the element of personal
danger would be vastly greater there than at Riacho Fernandez,
but it was equally patent that no Indian Mission could be
established with that as its base.

Having heard of a well populated line running westward
towards the River Pilcomayo, I determined to penetrate in that
direction, with a view to examining what possibilities there
were among the Indians there.

In order not to be tedious to the reader, I shall refrain from
giving a detailed account of this and other journeys which I
made during my first four years in the interior, throughout
which period I was continually on the move from place to place,
living alone with the Indians. I shall confine myself to some of
the more interesting incidents and experiences, which will show
the effects of the policy adopted in my early acquaintance with
this unknown people.

For my first journey I selected five river Indians as guides,
but they were not very anxious to go, putting all kinds of
objections in my way. At the very outset they purposely
endeavoured to delay me by continually pretending to lose the

INTO THE UNKNOWN

track, hoping by this means to induce me to give up the
attempt in disgust. Eventually, however, we arrived at a
village called Kilmesakthlapomap (" the place of burnt pigs ").
As my guides were dawdling behind, evidently afraid of the
reception they would meet with for bringing a strange foreigner
into their fastnesses, I rode on ahead of them right up into the
midst of the village. The Indians, who were in strong force,
were holding a feast, at which apparently a plentiful supply of
native beer was being consumed. I heard afterwards that they
had had news of the possibility of my arrival among them, but
my sudden appearance seemed to fill them with astonishment.

Annoyed at the conduct of my guides, I determined to take
a high hand, and so beckoned to a young Indian standing by,
and ordered him to take my horse to water. My vocabulary
being very limited, I was compelled to make considerable use of
signs. Beckoning to a woman, I pointed to a shady tree near
by, and, sitting down upon the ground, gave her to understand
that I would camp under that tree, and, pointing to a fire, I told
her to take it and place it there for my convenience. I then
walked round the village, beating off the dogs with my whip,
and selected a piece of pumpkin here and there and a few
potatoes. These I gave to a man, and signed to him to put
them under the tree where I intended to camp. By this time
my horse had been brought back, so I unsaddled it, and then
gave the lad instructions as well as I could to let it loose and to
look after it. I then called one of the boys to me, and sent
him off with my kettle to the swamp for water, and thus the
arrangements for my comfort were complete.

I afterwards learnt from the Indians that my high-handed
behaviour, which, if shown by one of their own people, not only
would have been considered insufferably rude, but would have
been strongly resented, had filled them with surprise. They
could not understand how a defenceless stranger could act in
this way among so many people. They said it made them fear
me, as they felt I must be possessed of some occult power. But
they had determined among themselves to watch my movements
very closely, and to test me that very night.

3d c

INTO THE UNKNOWN

I knew that my safety lay in the fact that I acted without
any show of power in arms; instead of threatening a native,
I took it for granted that he would obey me. The course of
action which I followed on this occasion was deliberately thought
out. I was well aware that these Indians did not want me in
their country, that they were suspicious of me, and I knew, too,
that I had no power with which to carry my point. I was only
one among many ; I could not even have got back to the river
without their aid, and I could not possibly go forward without
their co-operation. On the other hand, I knew the Indian well
enough to be sure that if I adopted a timid and gentle attitude,
and, as it were, asked him to accommodate me as a favour,
he, mistaking that attitude for weakness, would have taken
advantage of me. It must be remembered that as far as the
Indian was concerned I was a foreigner, and therefore one of the
enemy ; and the only explanation that I can give for their
allowing me to enter their country as I did, is that they were
merely curious to know what I wanted, and as I was defenceless,
they were not much afraid of me.

But the tone of authority which I took nonplussed them. It
was not sufficient for my purposes that I should be merely
suffered in their country as a harmless creature. The Indian is
superstitious and impulsive, and if my inoffensiveness had been
my only passport, I might have fallen a victim at any moment,
and the chances of my gaining an influence over them for their
good would have been remote. But when he saw me apparently
defenceless, and yet assuming an air of authority, the Indian was
puzzled, as I intended he should be. I afterwards learnt that
they did not regard me as an ordinary foreigner, and that they
were impressed by the fact that I never threatened violence, but
simply assumed that they must submit to my wishes.

My refractory guides, who had* joined me in the village,
refused to conduct me further west, so I dismissed them and
sent them back to the River Paraguay. I was therefore entirely
at the mercy of people, knowing none and being known of
none. As night drew on I deemed it expedient to so arrange
my bed as to be able to lie on the top of most of my baggage,

INTO THE UNKNOWN

for fear of any attempt at pilfering. I was justified in taking
these precautions, for it seems that the Indians had determined
to rifle my belongings that night, in order to see what attitude
I would take. Not long after I had retired to rest under my
net, I saw two dark figures stealthily moving round, and
presently I felt a hand inserted beneath me and fumbling at my
baggage. They evidently supposed me to be asleep, but when
I suddenly put out my head and shouted at them, they dis-
appeared precipitately. I spent an anxious and watchful night,
but received no more visitors.

On the following morning I called the Chief, and did my best
to make him understand that I wanted to travel five days to the
west, to the village of their war Chief, Yahoyispuk ("Stork-
neck "), and that I required guides for the journey. Much
talking followed, but no volunteers came forward, and it was
very evident that they did not want me to go on. I offered a
pair of cotton trousers as a reward to the first man who should
volunteer to accompany me, but even they did not seem to
attract. I had another pair, evidently made out of the end of
the piece of calico, for stamped in blue ink upon one of the legs
was the British Lion and " 30 yards, Manchester." This was
too much for the witch-doctor, for he at once offered to go if I
would give him that pair. I agreed, and he was proceeding to
try them on when I stopped him, and gave him to understand
that they would not be his until he had completed his contract.
He was not too well pleased at this, but apparently agreed to
the bargain, so in due time we set off, and after many vicissi-
tudes arrived at the village of Yahoyispuk.

CHAPTER IV
EARLY EXPERIENCES

TOWARDS the end of the year 1890 I returned from the interior
to Riacho Fernandez, and as I had no companion to look after
my few belongings, I found it necessary to remove them to Villa
Concepcidn, where I rented a room for the purpose.

Early in 1891 I made an extended tour in Paraguay proper,
in order to see what opportunities there might be of reaching
the Indians on that side, but as I am confining myself in this
work to the Chaco, I shall not dwell upon the difficulties and
adventures met with on that journey.

Riacho Fernandez, which was the property of an English land
company, was now occupied by them as a wood-cutting station,
and on my return there I found that the Indians had broken
into their store, and had carried off a considerable quantity of
goods. I accordingly resolved to visit the Indians concerned, in
order to see if I could persuade them to return what they had
stolen, or at least to give compensation.

When I declared my intention of following up the thieves,
I was laughed at by the Paraguayans and the representatives
of the company. They told me that the looters had retired
many leagues into the interior for fear of reprisals, and that
they were reported to be in a very dangerous mood. Neverthe-
less, I considered it well worth my while to make the attempt.
It was clearly quite as dangerous to penetrate into the country
in any other direction, as I knew that the report of what these
Indians had done must by this time have reached the Indian
villages far and wide. If the delinquents were not punished or
brought to see the error of their ways, it was perfectly clear that

EARLY EXPERIENCES

they would behave towards me, if I established any station among
them, especially in the interior, as they had towards the English
company. Again, if I could succeed in making them pay for
all they had taken, it would be a great recommendation for
my system of dealing with them, and would tend to gain me
the support and sympathy so urgently needed in the great
undertaking contemplated.

I accordingly found my way on foot to a small Indian en-
campment near a forest, about six miles inland. There I met
an old Indian who possessed a horse. After some difficulty,
I persuaded him to take me to the village of the thieves, and,
mounting behind him on the same horse, without a saddle, I
travelled about eighteen miles, until we reached a place called
Neantamama, where I found the culprits. They were rather
defiant and insolent at first, but with the little language at
my disposal I attacked them vigorously on the subject of the
theft, explaining to them that it had been my intention to
throw in my lot with their people and make my home among
them, but that I could not think of doing so unless they took
steps to throw off this reproach on their character. On my
telling them that they would probably be attacked by the
Paraguayans, they only laughed, and said they were not afraid.
I then informed them that all along the River Paraguay they
were regarded as thieves and sneaking foxes, and that I could
never again take any of them with me to Concepci6n, because
I too should be looked upon as a thief if I consorted with
thieves. They got angry at this, and reminded me that I was
alone, while they were many. I told them that I had no fear,
and that only six months before, as they well knew, I had
journeyed alone to the village of their great war Chief, Yahoyis-
puk. Turning sharply on one of them, I reminded him how I
had acted on an occasion, some nine months previously, when
he pushed his arrow-point against my chest and threatened to
shoot me. " Which of us was most afraid then ?"" I said. At
this some of his people smiled, and he clearly showed that he
did not appreciate the reminder.

Eventually they invited me to sit down and discuss the theft

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question. The result of this conversation was that they agreed
to repay the value of what they had stolen in skins and feathers,
but only on condition that I promised to go with them to the
foreigners, and afterwards to return and live with them. To
this I agreed, but took the precaution of remaining at their
village until they got together the necessary amount of skins
and feathers.

During this period of waiting relations between us were some-
what strained. They wanted me to promise that I would con-
fine myself to their village, and become a member of their
particular clan. This I refused to do, telling them that I
intended eventually to make my headquarters in the interior of
their country, and that I would not rest till all the Indians were
my people. They told me that the clans in the interior would
kill me, and that it was absurd to expect that their people as a
whole would allow me to have a position of power among them,
whereas they, being my friends, were willing to receive me. I
knew that this was mere jealousy, and, addressing a few of them,
whom I had taken with me on my first expedition into the
interior, I taunted them with the manner in which they had
tricked me, the difficulties they had put in my way, and their
cowardly action in leaving me in the midst of their unknown
country to find my way as best I could.

In a few days the necessary amount of skins and feathers was
procured by hunting, and, accompanied by the Indians, I re-
turned to Riacho Fernandez, and paid them over to the English
company as compensation for the theft.

Cheered by the influence which I seemed to have gained, I
became hopeful of the future success of my work, and accord-
ingly returned with this party of Indians and established myself
with them at Neantamama. As I intended to remain there for
some months, and found it inconvenient to live actually in the
village, I made the Indians build a separate hut for me. It
was about eleven feet high at the ridge, and a little over six feet
to the wall-plate. The walls consisted of palm-logs and sticks,
about eighteen inches apart, and were made partly weather-
proof by a rough thatching of grass. The roof also was of

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grass thatch. There was no door to this dwelling, but as a
substitute a bush was stuck in the opening as a protection
against the entrance of dogs. My table consisted of four palm-
stumps stuck into the ground, with a deer-skin stretched over
them, and my seat was made of two half palm-stems fixed on
to two uprights. I slept on the floor, on a sheep-skin. My
possessions I placed in Indian net-bags slung from the rafters.

One day the Indians killed a cow, and I secured a quarter of
it from which to make charqui, or sun-dried meat. These
strips of meat I took in at night, and strung them up to the
rafters for security. On the following night, while asleep under
my net, I was awakened by a rustling noise outside. I listened
attentively, thinking al first it might be a dog, but the careful
way in which the grass at the foot of the wall was being gently
torn out convinced me that it was a man, and not a dog. I
accordingly waited developments, and presently a dark, shaggy
head wormed its way through the wall. Gently loosening the
folds of my mosquito-net from beneath my sheep-skin bed, which
was laid within a few feet of the wall, I shot out my hand and
caught a firm hold of the intruder's back hair, at the same time
pinning his face down to the ground. It was a most ludicrous
sight to see this naked man thus caught in a trap, lying on his
stomach, his head protruding through the thatch, wedged face
downwards, and my hand firmly gripping his hair. I then
inquired who my visitor was, and from muffled sounds I dis-
covered it was " Alligator Stomach." By way of explanation,
he coolly told me that he had heard dogs near my hut, and,
fearing for the safety of my meat, he had simply come to drive
them out. Still retaining my hold of him, I asked why he had
gone to the trouble of breaking through my wall instead of
coming through the doorway, and told him that, in my opinion,
he was the dog ; then, pushing his head roughly through the
hole, I bade him begone. He was known to me as a greedy and
worthless fellow, and yet, although caught in such a position,
he coolly professed to have been acting on my behalf.

This was not the first occasion on which the Indians had in
this way shown their consideration for me. While at Riacho

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Fernandez, the old Chief and some of his people repeatedly
brought me presents of vegetables, and refused to receive any
payment for them. But, being rather softened by such generosity,
I insisted upon giving them a present in return, which consisted
of rice and biscuits. This went on for several days ; but, happily,
one night I slept badly, and, feeling irritable, I got up from my
bed. Quite contrary to my custom, I took a walk in the
direction of my garden, just as the first streak of dawn was
appearing. In the dim light I could discern dark shadows
moving about in my potato-patch, and, on approaching nearer,
I discovered the secret of the Indians' generosity. There was
the old Chief, with two others, busily digging up my potatoes,
undoubtedly intending to bring them to me an hour or so later
as a present, and in return, of course, to receive a gift of grati-
tude from me. But the game was up, much to their disgust
and greatly to my satisfaction. I gave them the benefit of my
limited vocabulary, and made a mental note of the discovery for
future use.

Many of the neighbouring Indians had joined the party with
which I originally settled at Neantamama, and I had been
urging upon them for some time the advisability of combining
to form one large permanent village, and of giving up their
nomadic habits. My efforts met with some measure of success ;
and having in the course of hunting expeditions with the natives
discovered a place called Thlagnasinkinmith (" the place of the
garapata, or ticks'"), I decided on this site, and the Indians
expressed their willingness to accompany me thither.

Before making this move I thought it wise to visit Concepcidn
to settle some of my business matters, because, once the new
venture was in hand, I might not be able to get away for many
months. I accordingly packed my things together, and, after
giving them in charge of a few selected and influential Indians,
I left for Concepcidn.

I was delayed much longer than I anticipated, and on my
way up river it was reported to me that the Indians to whom I
had entrusted my property had stolen it and decamped. Those
foreigners who gave me this information exulted in the fact,

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and added bitterness to my disappointment by saying tbat they
had always told me it was no good trusting an Indian, that they
were treacherous and vicious, and that the only good Indian
was a dead one.

On arrival at my port of disembarkation I met an Indian,
who informed me that my stuff had not been stolen, but had
been left safely in my hut, adding that my Indians, who were
encamped near a forest some eight miles inland, did not want
to associate any further with me. On hearing this I proceeded
at once to their camp, and upbraided them bitterly for their
desertion. They entered into no excuses, but simply maintained
that they wanted to have nothing more to do with me. I tried
to prevail upon them at least to help me to bring my belongings
to the River Paraguay, but they would not even do this.

I was thoroughly dispirited and cast down, and began to
think that I should never be able to form a Mission among
them. The Jesuits, generations before, had endeavoured to
reach other Chaco tribes, but had failed to establish any lasting
work among them ; and I could not help thinking that, if they
had failed, with advantages on their side greater than mine,
how could I possibly hope to succeed ?

Just as I was contemplating a return to the river, four men
were espied coming in from the west. I hastened out to meet
them, anxious to have an interview with them before they could
communicate with the people in the camp. My main object
was to ascertain from them whether they had seen my goods,
and thus to assure myself of the guilt or innocence of the
others, for I began to fear that the report of their theft which
I had heard at the river might after all be correct. On meeting
the visitors, I recognized them at once. One was Yokseyi, the
Chief of a village I touched at on my first long expedition into
the interior ; and one of his companions was also a celebrated
Chief. Another was the witch-doctor who accompanied me as
guide, and whom I rewarded with the pair of trousers bearing
the Lion and Manchester mark. The remaining one was the
man who had tried to steal my goods on which I was lying
during the first night that I spent in the interior.

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I was delighted to see them, and explained to them my
plight, and the attitude of the people in the village behind me.
They informed me that they had seen my things in my hut, and
that they were then on their way to the river to barter their
feathers and skins. The pipe was passed round, and we smoked
for a few minutes in silence. I ventured to ask them if they
* ^ J would return with me and help me with my goods, and, greatly
to my surprise, they at once agreed.

We then proceeded to join the others in the camp, and on
my approach I could see clearly that a sharp discussion had
been going on. As soon as the visitors were received this
discussion was renewed. My four companions informed the
people that they were going back with me to my hut. Angry
words then ensued, but presently the second Chief of the camp,
Pinse-apawa, and some of the people with him, rose and informed
me that they, too, were prepared to go. We accordingly lost
little time in setting out on the journey inland, where I found
my goods intact.

This incident is remarkable, because, humanly speaking, had

it not been for my meeting with these four men, I should have

had to abandon, at least for some time, perhaps for ever, my

attempt to settle among this people. The witch-doctor and

I Yokseyi eventually became sincere Christians and the other

two fast friends. Through them I was led in the end to

1 establish the Mission in the far interior, and from their clan the

\ first adherents to the Christian Church were won. Pinse-apawa

and his people, although they continued with me for a time,

eventually left me, and from none of these river-people have we

yet succeeded in winning a convert.

I was doomed to lose my property after all, for, while making
preparations at Neantamama for our move to Thlagnasinkinmith,
my hut caught fire. The season being a very dry one, and
my hut being built of the inflammable material already men-
tioned, the evening breeze quickly fanned the flames, with the
result that we could save very little owing to the fierce heat and
blinding smoke. While gazing at the destruction, I suddenly
remembered a small case containing about nine pounds of

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powder, which was lying in the hut. I shouted to the people
to stand clear, but to my surprise, and before anyone could
prevent her, an old woman rushed forward. In some marvellous
manner she got possession of the case, which was lying near one
of the walls, and, fighting her way through the smoke and
flames, she placed it triumphantly at a safe distance. Some
loose tins of powder which still remained in the hut presently
exploded, greatly to the consternation of the Indians, and in a
few minutes the hut fell in, and all was over.

As all my property was consumed clothes, boots, watch,
and other important belongings I was compelled to adopt the
costume of the Indians for a time, until the order which I
had sent to Concepcion for more clothes could be carried out.
Therefore, on this migration to Thlagnasinkinmith, I travelled
in Indian fashion, with only a blanket. The Indians, being
thoroughly delighted with my appearance, decorated me with
some necklaces and an ostrich-feather head-dress, and honoured
me with an additional name, " Tathnawu-lamum " (a dandy).
Although I may have looked very picturesque to them in this
costume, I suffered considerably from the bare parts of my body
being attacked by the insects, but I experienced still greater
pain from the want of boots. One of the Indians, however, made
me some sheep-skin sandals, which were a great protection to my
cut and blistered feet. It was about a month before I received
a fresh and welcome supply of European clothing.

A site was soon cleared at Thlagnasinkinmith, and buildings
were erected in native style, but greatly superior to their
ordinary shelters. I built two palm huts for myself, and we
laid out and planted gardens. But although success had been
thus far achieved, yet I felt that there was still a certain element
of distrust and fear of me in the minds of the natives. Some
months before our settling at Thlagnasinkinmith an old woman
became very ill with fever. I took the case in hand, and although
the Indians thought she was going to die, yet within an hour or
two after my treatment she was apparently much better. This
gave me great prestige among the people, but unfortunately a
few weeks afterwards the Chiefs infant child fell sick. When

EARLY EXPERIENCES

I was called to attend it, I found it was suffering from acute
bronchial pneumonia, and past any possible hope of recovery.
The child died, and the father evidently believed that I could
have saved it if I had wished, and insinuated as much by
referring to the case of the old woman.

^ This unfortunate incident had probably much to do with
a later attempt to poison me. I was always careful to clean
and fill my kettle, which served as teapot, and one day, after
doing so, I placed it on the fire, and went away till it should
boil. On my return I found it boiling, and, quite contrary to
my usual custom I do not know why I raised the lid and
looked inside, and there, to my surprise, 1 saw the leaves of
some plant floating on the surface. On further examination I
found quite a handful of these strange leaves inside, so I im-
mediately questioned the Indians. They all pretended to be
surprised and to know nothing about it, saying that they did
not even know what plant it was. I had my suspicions, but
could do nothing, and so, cleaning and refilling my kettle, I
stood by until my tea was made.

After having been about a month at Thlagnasinkinmith, I
found it necessary to send to the river for provisions. At this
time I had the one horse that I rode myself; I possessed no
bullock-waggon or pack-animals, and anything I required to
bring out from the river had to be carried on the backs of the
Indians. When acting thus as porters, they generally carried a
load of from 50 to 60 pounds, and travelled fully thirty-five
miles in the day. Finding it necessary, therefore, to send in men,
I selected a few, and they all cheerfully and instantly obeyed
with the exception of one Kyitkuk-paisiam ("the black boy' 1 ).
He not only seemed disinclined to go, but became insolent. He
asked me what I intended to give him if he went, and I told
him that I always gave what was just and proper, but that I
could not allow him to argue the point with me. To this he
gave a defiant answer, and I soon saw that there was likely to
be trouble. I therefore changed my manner. I looked him up
and down before the people, and asked him why he objected to
go. He said the road was long, the burdens would be heavy,

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and his feet would become sore. "Oh! what a mistake I
have made !" I replied. " I thought I was speaking to one of
the men, but I see it is one of the girls. Go away and weave
blankets, my girl," I said. " Of course, no one could expect you
to go all the way to the river and carry heavy burdens." Look-
ing very angry, he went off' sulking. His Chief, who was stand-
ing near, said to me : " Why don't you beat him ?" I told him
that unless his people would obey me willingly, I would go else-
where, as it was not my object to use force among them. " I
will speak to him," he said, and, calling him up, he told him
before all the people that if ever he spoke to me again as he had 1 ^
just done, he would be/it him with a stick. I afterwards learnt
that this Chief was one of the few who still asserted the right to ^..,
inflict corporal punishment upon his people. The whole nation,
shortly before my arrival, from some cause which I have never
been able to discover, had evidently become disorganized, and
at the present day, even among the remoter villages which are
uninfluenced by the outside world and hardly touched by the
Mission, the process of disintegration and the dying out of all
authority are plainly visible. From everything that I have
been able to learn, the people were at one time completely under
subjection to their Chiefs, and were much more organized than
at any time of my acquaintance with them.

Shortly after this threat on the part of the Chief, the young
man came to me, fully armed, and looking very defiant and
insolent. " Are you angry ?" he asked, in a tone as if he would
like to pick a quarrel. " I am very angry !" I replied curtly,
and turned away, affecting to ignore him. He, to my surprise,
said in a perfectly changed voice : " I am just going to follow
the men you have sent to the river and bring out your things."
The Indian is often defiant enough so long as he thinks he
can get the better of the matter, but he generally submits with
a good grace when he finds that he is opposed by a stronger
will. The educated Indian, however, rapidly acquires a much
stronger will-power. He is also better able to judge the real
measure of the strength opposed to him, and therefore becomes
more difficult to manage, while, on the other hand, he is less

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petulant, less fickle, more reasonable, and much more trust-
worthy. It therefore requires a stronger will to govern the
educated Indian than is necessary to control him in his wild
state.

I had from the very first made a strong stand against the people
taking to the use of foreign liquor, for, in the first place, it was
bad liquor, and, secondly, very much stronger and more injurious
than their own intoxicants. My efforts in this direction had met
with a considerable amount of success, which was partly due to
the fact that I strictly avoided it myself. But one day an
Indian thought he had caught me in the act. I was in my hut
pouring into a glass a small dose of a quinine mixture, which
certainly did contain a very small percentage of alcohol. It was
art exceedingly bitter and nauseous concoction, which had been
recommended to me as a preventive against malarial fever.
While I was drinking this dose, Pinse-apawa happened to come
in, and, looking suspicious, he took up the bottle and smelt the
contents. " Ah !" he said, " this smells like foreign liquor."
I at once motioned to him to be silent, for he had a knowing
look on his face, as much as to say, " These things are not good
for us, but you can take them." I told him that if he would
promise me to say nothing about it to the rest, I would give
him some.

His eyes sparkled with delight as I poured him out a good
dose ; he instantly gulped it down, but almost as quickly threw
most of it up again, and with a look of intense disgust upon his
face, said : " That is not foreign liquor."" He never again
expressed any desire to taste my patent beverages, and I believe
he kept his promise of secrecy.

My line of action during the early years caused the Indians to
form many and various impressions regarding my presence among
them. At first some of them were inclined to believe that I was
an ordinary foreigner come to exploit their country for timber or
anything else of value. Others, owing to my evident desire to
be friendly with them, to live as one of them, and to learn their
language, held that I must be some great criminal who had been
cast out of his tribe. Others, however, owing to the fact that,

PINSE-TAWA, A LENGUA WITCH-DOCTOR

A good type of a Lengua witch-doctor's face. Age about 55. Pockmarks and the absence of
eyebrows, eyelashes, and all hair on the face is noticeable. The Indian considers himself
superior to dogs, horses, and other hairy animals, and gives this as his reason for the painful
operation of pulling out all hair on his body, the top of the head excepted.

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instead of being apologetic, I assumed rather a tone of authority,
and that I had some strange customs which they could not
understand, believed that I was a powerful witch-doctor ; but
whether my presence would prove a benefit to them or other-
wise they were rather doubtful. This latter opinion is unfor-
tunately still held by the more remote tribes, and in the early
years it placed me in many difficulties and no little danger.

The most marvellous powers have been attributed to me. I
have been supposed to be able to hypnotize men and animals, to
bring up the storms and south winds at will, to drive off sick-
ness when I felt so inclined, and to be capable of any amount of
endurance on account of the wonderful concoctions which I
possessed. They believeS that I had the power of the Evil Eye,
and knowledge of the future ; that I was able to discover all
secrets, and to know the movements of people in different parts
of the country.

I was supposed to be able, by my magic, to drive off the game
from any particular part of the country, and to speak with the
dead ; in a word, to be on the most intimate and friendly terms
with the powers of darkness. Even some of the lower and more
ignorant Paraguayans have had some misgivings about my
relationship with the powers of evil.

The witch-doctors naturally regarded me as their greatest
opponent, but the common people rather welcomed me than
otherwise, feeling that my presence among them added to their
strength, and gave them a position superior to that of the
neighbouring tribes and clans. When my resolve to make a
cart-road from the River Paraguay into the interior was made
known to the witch-doctors, they were more determined than
ever to get rid of me, for they realized that the accomplishment
of this feat would make my position permanent in their country.
They accordingly (so I was afterwards told) for three months
worked steadily for my overthrow. It seems that they decided
not to resort to open violence, for fear lest my disembodied
spirit might be more dangerous and troublesome to them than I
was when in the body. At any rate, they concluded that my
power of rapid movement would be infinitely increased thereby.

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But die I must if not by violence, then by their magic. My
friend Pinse-apawa, who knew of this plot, kindly warned me
of my danger, and earnestly endeavoured to dissuade me from
attempting to take a bullock-cart into the interior.

In spite of his warning, I proceeded to carry out my design,
and the difficulties of this journey, though great, were eventually
overcome.

CHAPTER V
ORIGIN OF THE CHACO TRIBES

PADRE LOZANO, one of the early historians of Paraguay, informs
us that the Gran Chaco was so named from the wholesale flight
of the Peruvians into it fastnesses.

There are various theories advanced as to the origin of the
name " Chaco." By some it is held to be a Quichua word, the
Quichuas being the chief Indian people of Peru and Bolivia, and
their ancestors having formed the main bulk of the population
under the sway of the Incas. This word " Chaco," or " Chacu,"
is supposed to have signified a drive of wild animals, or a hunting
ground. There is no doubt whatever that the Chaco was at
least known to the Incas, if not actually dominated by them, for
the influence and power of that ancient Indian Empire is well
known to have been widespread. Among the various nations
inhabiting the Chaco, considerable degrees of intelligence are to
be met with, as well as very marked physical differences. The
Palu and Kisapang, for example, are of a marked low type, and
even among the other tribes the bulk of the population is
evidently of a lower type than that of the minority. Families
and groups are to be met with of lighter colour, and of finer
and more intelligent features, which strike one as being of
foreign origin. It is therefore quite possible that Padre
Lozano's statement is correct, and this seems corroborated by
the remarks of Dobrizhoflfer, 1 a Jesuit father, who writes:
" After the Spaniards had obtained dominion over Peru ... it
is credible that the Peruvians, to avoid this dreadful slavery,
stole away wherever they could, and that many of them migrated

1 "An Account of the Abiponi Indians."

49 D

ORIGIN OF THE GHACO TRIBES

into the neighbouring Tucuman, and thence, for the sake of
security, into the deserts of the Chaco."

If this was so, it is probable that the headlong flight of the
Peruvians may have given rise to the name " Chaco," for, in
hastening to its fastnesses, they might well be likened to frightened
animals chased or driven before the beaters. But it is quite as
probable, and even more likely, that this region received its name
long before the Spanish Conquest, on account of the Inca armies
invading these lands in order to chastise the inhabitants for
depredations committed on the frontier. The savages, being no
match for the trained Inca troops, would naturally fly in all
directions, many being overtaken and slain, and thus the
similitude of a hunting-drive would be even more applicable.
Some rather incline to the idea that the Chaco was so named
because the Peruvians resorted thither for hunting purposes ; but
when we consider the distances, the inhospitable nature of the
land, and the fact that it is a poor game country, I think this
theory carries little weight.

There are many interesting facts which seem to point to an
ancient connection between the Indians of the Chaco and the
Incas. Their methods of weaving and the patterns introduced
in their blankets are almost identical with those seen in the
relics of ancient Peru. This similarity is also very marked in
the case of the string bags which they make and use at the
present day, and there is some slight resemblance in their
pottery. The Lengua Indians of the Chaco wear a woven band
of wool round the head, and especially prize those ornamented
with the feathers of a comparatively rare bird. They also
practise the boring of the ears and the distending of the lobe to
an enormous size, in order to insert ear-discs of light wood. On
some maps the Indians in the neighbourhood of the Lenguas
are designated " Orejones," on account of this custom of wearing
wooden ear-discs. Both these ornaments were highly prized by
the Peruvians.

Among the superstitions of the Chaco Indians, I mention
three which seem to point to a Peruvian origin. They appeal
to the moon in matters of marriage, and the moon was held by

ORIGIN OF THE CHACO TRIBES

the Peruvians to be the sister-wife of the sun. Secondly, the
Indians greatly fear the rainbow when seen in the West, and the
armorial ensign of the Incas was the rainbow. In the third place,
referring to their superstitions connected with the Pleiades,
Dobrizhoffer writes : " They [the Peruvians] may have taught the
inhabitants [of the Chaco] a religious observance of the Pleiades."

The Indians assert that many years ago one of their large
tribes was ruled by a woman, the last of her family, and that
this family originally came from far beyond the mountains in the
North- West. It appears that she was treated with great respect,
and that she rode on a chestnut horse, led by two men on foot.
I have never heard of any other case in the least similar to this
that is, of any of their Chiefs ever assuming such regal state,
or of ruling over more than one clan of a tribe, except in the
case of a war-chief in time of war. Among the Lenguas there
is a distinct trace of a superior people running in a north-
westerly direction towards Peru, of fairer skin, finer features,
greater intelligence, and of more self-reliant and aggressive
character. The result of inquiries into the family connections
of the people along this north-westerly line is that they all
originated from the same stock, and among them I have found
traditions and beliefs which do not seem to be generally held by
the tribes. It was from this people that I first won true and
loyal friends, and from them we obtained our first converts to
Christianity. We found, too, that the recruits we gained from
them were much the ablest and most vigorous teachers of that
religion.

Among the general mass of the Indians there is no clearly
defined idea as to the future abode of their dead, but I have
been told by representatives of the more intelligent people to
whom I have just referred, that the souls of their departed pass
over in a west-north-westerly direction, to what they term the
" cities of the dead."" These cities they describe as being of con-
siderable size, the houses being of solid material (they think of
brick), and formed into streets of great regularity. Now the >
Indian has had no means of realizing what a permanently built ;
town is, except what he has seen in Paraguay proper, but I have

ORIGIN OF THE CHACO TRIBES

never heard of the remotest idea being prevalent that deceased
Indians had any connection with Eastern peoples or cities. The
Lengua has been a nomad for generations, and there is no sign in
their country of their ever having built any permanent dwelling.
The Indians belief is that the souls of the deceased continue to
live in the spirit-world much the same life as they did when in
the body. How comes it, then, that he should imagine that
the soul should adopt in the after-life a mode of living of
which he has had no experience in this life ? But just as he
holds firmly to the clan and tribal life, and avoids all connection
with peoples differing from himself in language and blood, so
he believes that the souls naturally seek out their friends and
ancestors, and thus continue, as it were, the national life in
shade-land. For the soul, therefore, to seek a home so utterly
different from that of the deceased can only be accounted for by the
fact that his ancestors must have lived at one time in such cities.
The soul of the Lengua Indian, in order to reach these cities, must
perforce pass over many intervening tribes quite distinct from
his own, and regarded by him as potential enemies. How,
therefore, can we account for this belief, unless we assume that
these Indians were at some remote period connected with the
ancient cities of Peru and Bolivia, and that they have an indis-
tinct tradition of the land from which they originally came?
It may possibly be that these particular Lenguas are the de-
scendants of Inca troops which had been stationed on the Chaco
frontier, or perhaps Peruvians who had fled from the Spaniards,
and entered the Chaco from that direction.

The formation of the Chaco is such that no mines of any
description could be found there ; but these Lenguas have a
distinct tradition that away on the frontier, far distant from
their own country, and in a land occupied by a tribe unknown
to them, there exists a passage cut in the rocks which penetrates
some distance into the hillside, and in which some valuable
treasure lies hidden. They have described minutely to me the
characteristics of the country around this excavation, and also
the height and breadth of the passage, and the manner in
which it was made. It appears that within living memory some

A NORTH-WEST TYPE OF LENGUA

The angular features and more intellectual face
point to the probable Inca origin of the north-
west clans.

A SOUTHERN TYPE OF LENGUA

Showing the more degraded features, distinct
from those of the north-west. The feather head-
dressthe most valuable Lengua ornament is
supposed to act as a charm, when fishing, against
the swamp " Kilyikhama."

LENGUA BOYS

At the "wainkya" feast, when a boy is initiated to manhood and becomes a warrior, his state is hence-
forth indicated by the binding of the forelock with red wool, after the manner of a stiff paint-brush, into
which a feather ornament is inserted. The shell necklace of mother-of-pearl appearance is formed from the
swamp mussel shell. Bead ornaments are extensively worn by youths.

ORIGIN OF THE CHAGO TRIBES

Indians penetrated to that place, and that three entered the
secret passage, but never returned. The Indians told me that
they were killed by spirits guarding the treasure, and that since
then none of them have ventured to repeat the experiment.
They maintain great secrecy upon this subject, and I have been
the only one to whom they have disclosed it ; but even to me
they have not indicated the road or the exact position. In all
probability the three adventurers were suffocated by the pent-up
gases.

The interesting point, however, in this story is not the question
of a hidden treasure, but that these Indians, who have lived in a
low swampy region for many generations, and who never travel
far from their own district for fear of their enemies, should retain
such a vivid and clear account of a gallery cut by hand in a
rocky region several hundred miles from their home. This ex-
cavation does not appear to have been so much a mine as a place
tunnelled out for the reception of treasure, and we know that
the Peruvians at the time of the Conquest carried off* and secreted
their treasure wherever possible, in order that they should not
fall into the hands of the rapacious Spaniards. Unless some
of these Indians had at one time been acquainted with the
Peruvians, and had perhaps formed part of those who fled to
the Chaco fastnesses at the time of the Conquest, how is it
possible to account for these Indians having this tradition at the
present day ?

A Peruvian legend says that white and bearded men, coming
from Lake Titicaca at a remote period, ruled over and civilized
the natives of the land. A similar tradition existed among the
Aztecs of Mexico, which said that Quetzalcoatl came from the
East, bringing like blessings to the inhabitants, and becoming
their deity. Among the Chaco Indians there are also traditions f
of a strange and wonderful people yet to come. A Lengua named
J*oit, who had travelled widely, and who was considered by us
to be the most intelligent of the Indians, communicated to me
a version which he said he had received from a very old wizard
in the far West when he was dying. The latter had heard of
our arrival and doings among the Eastern Lenguas, and he

ORIGIN OF THE GHACO TRIBES

closely questioned Poit about us, telling him that there was a
tradition of their people which said that in the days to come a
few strange foreigners would arrive among them, not Indians,
but yet speaking their language; that they would reveal to
them the mysteries of the spirit world, and make them a great
'people. But he added that if any harm should befall these
foreigners at the hands of the Indians, dire calamity would
ensue, and the Indian tribes would cease to exist. He called
the expected foreigners the Imlah, which is certainly not a
Lengua word, but is evidently of foreign origin.

Can it be that our early successes with the Lenguas may be
somewhat attributable to the influence of this tradition ? The
Indians, however, are very reticent on this subject, and, when
questioned, profess to know nothing at all about it. It is quite
clear that we must appear to the Indian to fulfil very nearly
this old prophecy, and it is equally clear that if they accepted
it they would be bound, according to its statements, to obey us
in all things. This, of course, would interfere with their natural
pleasures and inclinations, the power of their witch-doctors
would be destroyed, and they would be forced to adopt new and
unwelcome habits and customs. It is remarkable that, before
we were able to impart Christian teaching to them, numbers
actually respected and obeyed us, and the attitude of the whole
people towards us was quite different from that shown to the
ordinary foreigner. Since Christianity has taken a hold on them,
they naturally set aside these old wives 1 fables, and look upon
everything from a higher standpoint. But. that the heathen
should attempt to cloud over this old tradition is very reason-
able, for the acceptance of it, as has been shown, would not be
agreeable to them.

Naturally, the whole subject of the origin of these peoples
is based on very slight foundations of tradition, and, as the
people possess no written records, no monuments, ruins, rock-
paintings, or quipus to refer to, any theory must necessarily
I depend largely on supposition. My own opinion is that we have
sufficient reasonable evidence to warrant us in believing that
there is a decided strain of Peruvian blood in the Chaco peoples.

CHAPTER VI
PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

IN order to understand Indian life, it is first of all necessary to
form an idea of the kind of country which these people inhabit
and the climatic conditions under which they live. This does
not necessitate a knowledge of the actual geographical bound-
aries, geological formation, and other natural features ; but when
we read of forests and vast palmy plains, of the rivers and park-
like country of the western portion, we must not be led away
by the common delusion that all is beautiful, romantic, and
delightful, and that, in the words of the hymn, " Every prospect
pleases, and only man is vile." The fact is that in the Chaco
Boreal almost every prospect displeases, and the only really
interesting and bearable thing in the country is man, savage,
wild, primitive, and heathen as he is.

The Indian is perfectly suited to his environment ; even his
picturesque costume and the ornamental painting with which
he adorns his body is in perfect harmony with his surroundings.
The colours blend so beautifully that there is no doubt what-
ever that the Indian has, in a very great degree, the idea of
fitness and harmony. In order, therefore, to depict the country
in which he lives, let us take one or two localities as illustrations,
and try, by means of a few word-pictures, to present some typical
scenes to the reader's eye.

The first is an Indian village, situated on a piece of open
land. At a little distance to the north flows a sluggish river,
the current so slight as to be almost imperceptible. The banks
are thickly covered with weeds, bulrush and papyrus rising
high above the rest, and dense masses of floating water-lilies

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

spread out at the roots of the trees. Dark tree-trunks which
have drifted down in flood-time rise here and there out of the
water like huge, ugly reptiles. The stream, which is in reality
about 50 feet wide, can only be recognized by a little clear
water free from weeds in the centre. Close to the bank is a
fringe of palm-trees, which rear their tall branchless stems
40 feet or more into the air, crowned by a single head of green,
fan-like leaves. The remains of last season's brilliant green
crowns droop below in a cluster of dead leaves. A few shady
trees are dotted here and there, which form a welcome contrast
to some headless palms and dead stumps killed by the de-
structive palm-beetle. On these gaunt stems lazy water-fowl
are perched, calmly viewing the scene around them. In the
water an occasional splash is heard as a sluggish fish jumps at
a water-insect or seeks to escape from a fierce foe beneath. Here
and there what seems a dead black log is visible, but what in
reality is an alligator asleep, or slowly moving among the reeds.

To the south, about a mile from the village, stretches a line
of dense, dark forest, with small clumps of trees and copses lying
between. To the east lies a long stretch of low, damp, grass-
covered ground, thickly studded with fan-leaf palms. The
grass, unlike that of an English meadow, is tall and rank, and
winding among the palm-trees can be seen a single track worn
by the feet of men. To the west stretches an immense ant-hill
plain, covering fifteen thousand acres or more of very low land,
with two or three inches of water lying upon it, a few palms,
and only an occasional clump of trees. A dreary waste is this,
thickly studded with ant-hills, three, four, and even five, feet in
height, of great hardness, and inhabited by teeming millions of
industrious ants. A clear blue sky, without a cloud, spreads as
a canopy above this scene, and a blazing sun pours down its
fiery rays, while the air resounds with the croak of frogs, the
screech of water-fowl, and the buzz of myriads of insects.

The Indian village close at hand consists of two lines of the
most primitive dwellings imaginable, constructed simply of
boughs of trees fixed into the ground, which are interlaced
together, and covered with grass and palm -leaves loosely thrown

LKNGUA VILLAGES

Two distinct types of shelter are hastily erected. The dome-shaped " Toldo" of branches, grass,
and palm-leaves is roughly thatched to the ground on the south side the stormy quarter. The
reed-matting " Toldo" is so regulated as a protection either from the sun or storms.

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

on. This rude shelter keeps out the torrid rays of the sun, and
to some extent the tropical rains. Little space is allowed to
the family sheltering beneath. The furniture consists of a few
household utensils of the most primitive description, and skins,
which serve as seats by day and beds by night. The simple
weapons of the savage rest near, or are stuck into the grass roof
above. The household fires of wood smoulder a yard or so in
front of each shelter. Women sit here and there gently swinging
a baby in its string hammock or industriously spinning. One
is to be seen seated at a loom, made of four branches of a tree,
weaving a blanket for^the master of the house. The other
women sit in little groups, passing round the pipe, and gossiping
over the news of the day.

There is nothing sad or dull in this little assembly ; with
bright, cheerful faces they are enjoying their simple life perhaps
more keenly for the moment than their more highly-cultivated
and civilized sisters. Two or three old men are about ; one of
extreme age is sitting cross-legged on his mat, apparently
thinking of nothing. Troublesome stinging flies are buzzing
round his naked body, which he occasionally flicks off with a
piece of hide fastened to the end of a thin stick, which enables
him to reach those which try to settle on remote parts of his
back. A few children very few, it must be admitted disport
themselves around the booths in Nature's garb. As it is mid-
day, the few sheep and goats are resting here and there in the
shade lazily chewing the cud. The men and lads are out hunting,
some in the forest for the honey, of which the people are so
fond, and which they collect in skin bags comb, larva?, young
bees, and all. Others are out on the great ant-hill plain in
pursuit of the ostrich or the deer, while the rest are to be seen
in the distance by the river-bank with hook and line, the hand-
net or the fish-trap, and some even with bow and arrow, seeking
for the large fish that play in the shallow waters.

Now let us watch them after the sun has set. The scene has
entirely changed. The flies, the pest of the daytime, have dis-
appeared, but their place has been taken by thick swarms of
mosquitos, which make life intolerable even to Indians, though

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

they are somewhat kept in check by the clouds of smoke rising
from the fires placed to windward. All are now busy cooking
or eating, for they have partaken of little food throughout the
day. The fires are fed anew, and throw a glare around, which
lights up the forms of these strangely attired and painted
savages, with their white ostrich-feathers gracefully waving to
and fro. The dense forest in the background, with the stately
heads of the palms silhouetted against the clear tropical sky,
brilliant with stars, completes the picture, which words are
inadequate to describe.

How different a few weeks hence ! A visitor to this village
will find it abandoned, only the charred skeletons of the booths
remaining to tell the tale that a death has taken place, and that,
for fear of the spirit of the departed, the people have fled to a
less uncanny spot, where they will be free from ghostly visitants.

The scene is changed to a great swamp, with little islands
dotted about, and on one of these stands a similar Indian
village. But here the surroundings are very different from those
described in the last picture. The village is near the edge of
the swamp, which is fully twenty miles in length and from one
to four miles in width. The water on the average is waist-deep,
but in places the traveller is forced to swim, and this with great
difficulty, owing to the matted and tangled vegetation. The
bulrush and papyrus are found everywhere, and dozens of other
water-plants are interlaced in an impenetrable mass, some of
which are thorny and lacerate the flesh. Progress is impossible
in this swamp, except along the narrow paths which have been
made by the natives. Once off the high ground and in the
swamp, the tall reeds, towering on all sides high above one's
head, make it utterly impossible to see anything but the sky,
and here the uninitiated would soon lose their way. Neither is
travel in such a wilderness altogether free from danger. Large
water snakes, and not infrequently alligators, are to be found,
and occasionally even venomous snakes are met with, coiled up
on the matted undergrowth, their forms, owing to the similarity
of the colours, being hardly distinguishable from the vegetation.

The island is quite unlike the mainland no open grass plain,

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

no dense forest, but thick undergrowth and scrubby trees, with
a fringe of palms encircling the whole. Here, after making a
clearing, the Indians find it profitable to plant their gardens, for
it is one of the few spots possessing a rich soil, and the vicinity
of the swamp supplies them with an abundance of fish and
waterfowl. Nor are they averse from dining upon the large water-
snakes. Naturally, from the position of this village, the insect
pests are infinitely worse than in the one last described, but the
facility of obtaining food is a great consideration. Such a place
is dreary in the extreme, and especially on cold, cloudy, and wet
days, when the poor inhabitants huddle together or crouch for
warmth over their fires, seemingly bereft of all life and energy.

My last picture is that of a country covered with dense forest,
where there are few open spaces, and these of small extent. A
village, similar to the two already mentioned, is situated in one
of these small open plots. A tragedy is being enacted here, for
smallpox of a very virulent type has seized upon this little
isolated party of our fellow-creatures. One by one they are
stricken down, and can be seen lying helpless on the ground
where they have fallen, and on the surrounding trees are perched
the heralds of death, clusters of grim-looking vultures, only
biding their time, and adding terror to the sufferers below. A
death takes place, and is followed by the cruel customs attendant
upon heathenism. Grief, deep and real, lies in the hearts of the
bereaved relatives. Those whom they have loved and they can
love have been taken from them. One by one they see them
laid away out of sight in the dark forest, till few are left behind.
To them there is no hope of a happy future in the hereafter, no
idea of the resurrection of the body. The only future that they
do believe in is that of a shade-land, dark, mysterious and for-
bidding. It is a heart-rending scene to witness four Indians,
already stricken with the fell disease, and in a weak state,
tottering under the burden of a dead comrade whom they are
bearing to the forest for burial. First one, then another, falls
down exhausted, only to return to his burden to fall again, and
this for the last time. Still more heart-rending is it to see one
of the few lingering survivors, a mother, lying prostrate in the

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

last stages of the disease. A few yards away is the dead un-
buried body of her infant child, surrounded by vultures fighting
for their prey, while she, having in desperation roused herself,
is feebly and in vain throwing at them any missile within her
reach.

How often do we hear even travellers asserting that it is a
pity to attempt to alter the lives of these happy children of
Nature, who know no care, no anxiety, and who, if left to them-
selves, would lead a happy butterfly existence. To the casual
observer they may appear to lead a careless, simple and thought-
less life ; but to the few, the very few, who have actually for
years lived their life with them in all its phases, and understand
it in its inmost intricacies, to them only is the real state of
things known.

To the Indian this world is no Utopia, and he requires the
hope of a better life as much as the most wretched, degraded,
and hopeless of our submerged populations in Europe. I
frequently wonder how men who only pay a flying visit to such
a people, and who never stop to study the tribes, their language,
or their condition, can write and talk with calm authority upon
a subject which demands from anyone who would form a true
estimate and opinion almost a life-time of patient research.
The wild animals of the forest, the evil, slimy denizens of the
swamps and rivers, are little or nothing to these children of
Nature. The terror that haunts them by day and night is that
of the spiritual, the powers of demons, the dread of the future.
The Indian is, above all things, reticent about his views of the
spirit-world, but in reality it is an all-absorbing subject to him.
It is only when his confidence has been won that he will discuss
with you the question of the after-life.

But now, after this digression, let us return to the present
life. The Indian is a nomad, unable to remain long in any one
place, for he is driven by resistless forces from one part of the
country to another. The seasons are never certain ; for nearly
two years at a stretch I have known vast regions almost water-
less. Consequently the game are compelled to seek in distant
parts for the little water that is left, and the Indian perforce

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

must follow it. Gardens cease to produce harvests, the swamps
and rivers are dry, and fish are unobtainable. Various kinds
bury themselves deep in the mud at the approach of drought.
Eggs are deposited, and not till much-wished-for rains fall do
they once more spring into life, multiply rapidly, and teem as
formerly.

But it is not only the necessity of obtaining a livelihood that
forces the Indian to wander. He is driven, as it were, by a
restless spirit, the result of generations of hard and peculiar
circumstances fixing a habit upon him which becomes second
nature, and he finds it impossible, even when not impelled by
necessity, to remain long in any one place. And a power as
great as the necessity of providing for his physical needs is the
dread of ghosts and spirits. As soon as a place becomes haunted
he must move. He is, however, not altogether morose, or prone
to despondency and sadness. On the contrary, he is extremely
sociable, and as the sons of Job the Patriarch went to and fro
feasting in each other's houses, so the Indian, when opportunity
occurs and food is obtainable, delights to move from clan to
clan, feasting and making merry. The children, the few there
are, enjoy life as all children do, and in their games they closely
resemble the little ones at home. The feelings and instincts of
the Indian are thoroughly human, with this advantage, that he
is more simple, has no veneer, and is probably on the whole less
hypocritical than his more cultured brethren in other lands.

Unless something stirring is on in the village, such as a feast
or a ghost scare, or visitors or sickness, the Indian generally
retires to rest between 9 and 10 p.m. His preparations are of
the simplest. He makes up the fire, pulls his skin mat towards
it, and, joining three or four mats together with a palm-log at
one end for a pillow, he lies down without any change of
garment or other preparations ; and if the night is cold or the
mosquitos particularly bad, he tucks his feet up under his
blanket, covers his face with it also, and in a few minutes is
sound asleep.

Unless it is raining, they invariably sleep out in the open,
with nothing but the blue vault of heaven above them. They

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

do not, however, slumber steadily the whole night through, as
we do, but rise at intervals, sit up at the fire, light a pipe, and
have a chat, and then retire to sleep again. The necessity for
keeping the fires constantly going requires that someone should
be about. They also feel the need during the night of some
refreshment a pound or so of meat, or a couple of boiled fish.

Another reason for this restlessness is undoubtedly the neces-
sity of being continually on guard against danger. Although I
have for years from preference journeyed by night to avoid the
hot sun, I have never yet succeeded in entering a village when no
one was about. The dogs, of course, oftentimes numbering three
to every Indian, give instant alarm ; but, as all night through
they are fighting with each other, rushing off" and barking at some
passing fox or wolf, or howling when they hear the distant roar
of a jaguar, they are not to be depended upon as discreet watch-
dogs ; the Indian could never be warned of the approach of
man from the alarm of dogs alone. These animals are certainly
very useful at night in keeping off foxes, tiger-cats, and such
creatures. They also give the alarm by making a peculiar noise
when they scent either the jaguar or the puma, the only two
animals which they really fear. They are the friends of man,
indeed, but the Indian is certainly not particularly their friend.
They generally have to struggle for their own existence, and are
so perpetually hungry that you dare not leave your saddle gear,
boots, or belt within their reach. The only notice taken of
them by their masters is a blow, a kick, or a piece of fire-brand
hurled at them. The Indian, however, will never kill his dogs,
out of respect for their spirits. The Chaco dog is of no par-
ticular breed ; you find them of all sizes, colours, and descrip-
tions, but all are thin, and more than half-starved, savage, and
very treacherous.

Having found, then, that the dogs prove unreliable sentinels,
the natives themselves feel bound to keep a watch upon their
own safety. An attacking party has to exercise the greatest
possible caution and craft in approaching an Indian encampment.
Beyond the ordinary disturbances to the peace of the village,
dreams perhaps play the most prominent part in disturbing

(a)

(c)

LOCUSTS

(a) Locusts in the hopping stage, before the development of wings.

a () Hoppers as a carpet on the ground, and winged locusts clustering in bunches on a tree,
giving the appearance of foliage.

(c) Trees without foliage, showing the devastation of a flight of locusts. Fallen palm trunks
and the foreground are covered with hoppers.

The Gran Chaco is the breeding-ground of these pests, which are equally destructive in either
stage of their development. A flight of locusts seen on the horizon gives the appearance of a
storm-cloud of a brick-red hue.

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

the quiet of night. In the dead silence suddenly up starts
a man with a cry, and, proceeding to rattle his gourd and
chant a dismal tune, he seeks to scare off the spirit which has
disturbed his slumbers. Nocturnal life, therefore, in an
Indian village, although it seems so picturesque, strange, and
romantic, must not be regarded as without its drawbacks.
Occasionally a venomous snake will intrude its unwelcome
presence among the sleepers, and sometimes Indians have died
from the bite of such visitants. A wolf, the great solitary
irwned wolf of the Chaco, will, in spite of the dogs, venture so
close as to cause a start to the freshly awakened sleeper, who
sees its gaunt form in the dim light, perhaps not more than
twenty yards off.

But the discomforts of an Indian " toldo " (hut), especially at
night, do not lie so much in the greater dangers as in the smaller
pests. Fleas especially swarm at seasons, and little rest is then
obtained. The traveller turns restlessly from side to side, and
one can quite imagine the discomfort when his share of these
troublesome insects is perhaps not less than one hundred and
fifty for the night. This is no exaggeration, because actual
observation has been made, and I am perfectly sure that I am
putting it at the lowest computation. Not only are the
mosquitos in themselves more than a sufficient plague, but
the Indian is also afflicted by the garapata or tick, which
frequently causes a painful sore lasting for months. The sand-
flies, too, some of them so small as hardly to be perceptible with
the naked eye, are exceedingly irritating. Only mosquito-nets
of calico will keep out these minute insects ; an ordinary open-
mesh net would be useless.

The reader can perhaps realize what it is to endeavour to sleep
in such a climate, with the thermometer as high as 90 Fahr.
even at night, under a low net of material as thick and close as
an ordinary handkerctu'ef. And this net, perhaps the greater of
two evils, the Indian in his primitive life does not possess.
I have often been aroused by a sort of stampede of the sheep
and goats, who, being irritated by the insects, or alarmed by the
fighting of the dogs, were rushing in and out among the booths,

PRIMITIVE INDIAN LIFE

and more than once I have been awakened by my net being
charged, to see the head of an old billy-goat looking into my
face and the mosquitos entering in swarms at the gap he had
made.

When there is no moon, the Indians depend almost entirely
on the glow of their fires for light, but they also make torches
of palm-leaves, which give a bright light for the short time they
last. Occasionally they improvise rough candles of wax, which
give but a faint and flickering light. The polo santo tree,
which is to be found in some parts of the country, contains a
large amount of resin, and a piece of it put upon the fire will
burn up with a bright flame, and give a more lasting light ;
neither does it require fanning or other attention.

It may be gathered from this brief and cursory glance at the
Indians 1 primitive existence that it is by no means " the simple
life " he is often credited with living. Many more of its phases
are dealt with in subsequent chapters, but I do not propose to
exhaust the subject in this book, for there is much that for
obvious reasons cannot possibly be published.

A DECORATED WOODEN WHISTLE WORN ROUND THE NECK.

CHAPTER VII
ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

THE conditions and circumstances under which the Chaco
Indian lives are somewhat peculiar, and do not tend to make an
industrious people. The climate is in many ways trying and
enervating ; flood and drought alternate with but few intervals
of normal weather ; the insect pests make life at times almost
intolerable ; the country produces practically nothing of work-
able value ; for hundreds of miles to the north, south, and west
stretch tracts of undeveloped country in the hands of tribes
quite as primitive as the Lenguas, and the road to civilization
on the east is closed by the River Paraguay, which has been for
centuries a line of demarcation between the Chaco tribes and the
Paraguayans, mutual fear or distrust perhaps more than hostility
preventing communication between the two. These hindrances,
together with the Indians'* nomadic habits, their Socialism, and
many other characteristics, are sufficient to account for the
paucity of Chaco industries on any large scale.

It must not be thought from these remarks that the Indians
are a lazy people. Judging them from their own standpoint
and the primitive life they lead, with its proportionately few
demands and its many difficulties, I feel justified in saying that
they are an industrious race. Time is certainly no object with
them, and little system is observed in their daily routine, but
from their lack of resources, and the crude tools and implements
at their disposal, much time is necessarily spent, and great
patience has to be exercised, in providing for their few daily
wants.

Therefore, in forming a fair estimate of their work, the trying

66 K

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

conditions under which they labour must be taken into account.
Hunting, for example, which is the chief occupation of the men,
is by no means a pastime or recreation, but a serious, onerous,
and often dangerous undertaking. It is indeed a great task of
endurance, for they have to spend hours in search of game,
exposed to a tropical sun and myriads of poisonous insects, at
one time wading in swamps, their flesh cut and torn by the long,
spiny and razor-edged grass, at another cutting their way
through dense and thorny undergrowth in the forests.

The women are by no means drudges, as is so often the case
amongst aborigines, although they might appear so to the super-
ficial observer ; in reality, the men do their fair share of the
work, but it is not seen to such advantage as that of the
women.

In describing the various processes employed in their indus-
tries, I will confine myself to the most important, and those
likely to be interesting to the reader.

The longest and most tedious work which falls to the lot of
an Indian woman is that of producing a blanket for her husband,
which constitutes his only garment, and is made entirely of
wool. Sheep are scarce and of poor quality, owing to the flat
and swampy nature of the country, and as the Indian is not
given to thrift, he often falls back on his small flock to supply
any shortage of rations.

Shearing is done in a crude manner with an ordinary knife.
The process of washing the wool is very simple : the fleeces are
placed upon platforms of palms or upon bushes, where they are
left until sufficiently cleansed by the rain and bleached by the
sun. The women are careful to pick out all knots and other
irregularities before spinning. When this is accomplished, they
spread the fleece out on reed matting, and sit down tail or- wise
to their work. First the wool is teased out into a long hank,
which is wound round the right wrist and passed over the fore-
finger. A portion is regulated to a certain thickness, and then
attached by a knot to a spindle, consisting of a thin, straight
piece of hard wood, the pointed end of which is passed through
a small gourd. The strand of wool between the forefinger and

IBHHHBMI

SKCTION OF A LKNGUA WOOLLEN BLANKET

The only male attire. The whole process of manufacture is the work of the women,
and the result is remarkable considering the primitive materials at their disposal.
Various designs are introduced denoting snakes' skins, palms, cross-roads, etc., and
in some cases there is a striking resemblance to Inca designs pointing to the possible
origin of the Lenguas.

BLANKET WEAVING

The most primitive loom in the world. Two forked uprights and two horizontal
branches. Upon this crude frame woollen blankets of very even and fine texture are
woven.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

the knot is spun by giving the spindle a sharp twist, and
allowing it to turn in the air or on a smooth pigskin, the
woman meanwhile removing all irregularities until an even
thickness is obtained. She repeats the process until her spindle
is full, occasionally rubbing her fingers with wood ashes. After
the spun thread has been wound into a ball for convenience, two
or more strands are respun to the required thickness.

They dye their wool in order to introduce patterns into their
weaving. Black and white are obtained from the natural wool.
Reds are procured from the cochineal insect and from the bulb
of a small crocus-like flower, which yields a deep ruby colour.
Various barks afford yellows and browns, but greens and blues
are not found.

The loom is of a most primitive description, formed by placing
two forked branches in the ground in an upright position. A
cross-pole is fixed in the forks above, and another is tied below
near the ground, barely sufficient space being allowed for the
ball of yarn to pass between indeed, a hole is usually scooped
in the ground for this purpose. As the woman sits on the
ground, she can just reach to drop the ball of wool over the top
pole and catch it as it falls ; she then passes it underneath the
lower one, and repeats the operation till the warp is finished.
The threads are placed closely side by side, much care being
taken in forming regular lines of coloured wool to produce the
chosen pattern. By an ingenious contrivance of loops of wool,
which pass across the entire face of the warp in a continuous
line and pick up each alternate strand, the weaver is able to
separate them, and pass a fine cane between the divided threads.
The shuttle is the ball of wool, which is passed between the
warp threads as far as can be conveniently reached. The woof
thread is then battened down into place with a short, smooth-
pointed stick. This is done in sections of about twelve inches
at a time, until the whole face of the web has been traversed.
On this crude loom a web 7 feet 6 inches x 6 feet 6 inches can
be produced.

Various patterns are introduced into the coloured warp, such
as checks, circles, angles, the legs of the jabiru, and designs

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

in imitation of snakes' skins. Considering the poorness of the
Indians arithmetical capabilities, these devices are very regu-
larly carried out. Districts have their distinctive patterns or
colour, and it is easy to recognize the locality from which a
visitor comes by his blanket.

Woollen waist-belts, satchels, head-bands, bracelets, and, in
an adjoining tribe, sleeveless shirts are woven on a smaller loom.
The Suhin and Tddthli tribes, in the Western Chaco, are noted
for the fine texture of their blankets, which are difficult to
procure, a mare or a gun being generally asked in exchange
for one.

Cotton is seldom used by the Lenguas as a substitute for
wool, but it is more largely found among the tribes further
west and north.

String, which is obtained from the fibres of the cwaguata
plant, is made up into satchels, large net-bags, waist-bags, and
hammocks. Two species of the plant are resorted to, some
preferring the long fibres of one variety, others those of a
shorter one. The fibre is separated by being tightly run to and
fro through a loop of string, which takes off the outer sheathing
of the leaves, and afterwards it is tied in bunches and dried in
the sun.

The spinning is done on the naked thigh, the number of
strands varying according to the purpose of the thread. The
fine string used in netting and satchel-making consists of only
two strands. For stronger articles three strands are rolled
together, each of which is made of three smaller ones.

The string is dyed in many colours, and the patterns intro-
duced are various and intricate. The best specimens are to be
found in the sleeveless shirts worn in the West, which serve as
armour in tribal wars. The texture is very close considering
the nature of the material, and, being of a raised and ribbed
formation, it offers a fair resistance to a slanting arrow-head.

Bone and hard-wood needles are used in bag-making; but
netting is accomplished without the aid of a mesh- stick, the
finger and thumb taking its place.

Both sexes employ themselves in making the string but the

LENGUA WOMAN SPINNING WOOL FOR A BLANKET

The thin spindle-stick of hard wood with a small gourd at the base is the only
instrument employed in the process.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

manufacture of the articles is, like blanket-making, exclusively
the women's work.

The only garment worn by a woman is a skin petticoat,
except in the very cold weather, when she wraps her whole body
in a large mantle, made by sewing together a number of skins,
either of the nutria (a species of otter), sheep, small deer, or
fox, wearing it with the hairy side next to the body. The
petticoat is sufficiently large to reach one and a half times
round the hips, and falls to a little below the knees. The
double fold runs down the front, and a woollen belt serves
to fasten it. In the rough conditions of Indian life, these
skirts, being washable, are particularly serviceable garments, and
wear for many years. They are made from the skins of goats,
sheep, or the smaller deer, and the longer they are worn the
softer they become.

They are not tanned, and the process of manufacture is a
tedious one, owing to the primitive nature of Indian appliances.
After the hair has been scraped off with a pointed stick, the
softening is produced by bending the skin over, and pressing
the fold firmly down with a sharp snail-shell. The bends are
made at distances of about half an inch from each other, in
a diagonal pattern across the whole length of the skin, after
which the surfaces are rubbed together, and a mixture of wood-
ashes and water is applied. Both surfaces of the skin are treated
in this way. Two or three hides are then sewn together to
form the skirt, and the ends are fringed with patterns worked
in red paint.

The whole process is done exclusively by the women, who
bestow much time and care in making their own, their husbands'
and children's garments, a large blanket often taking four
months to complete. What with their many other duties, such
as making pottery and fans, cooking, procuring palm -cabbages,
roots, and other food supplies, together with the work entailed
in constantly moving from place to place, their day is fully
occupied.

The man's blanket is a cumbersome garment, and he often
discards it in warm weather when sitting in the village or when

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

engaged in felling a tree, hunting, and other exercises which
require freedom of limb. At other times he adjusts his blanket
according to his occupation and the temperature. If it is hot,
he allows it to fall in a double fold from his waist, where it is
either fastened by a belt or by tucking the folds of one corner
into the other, the whole falling gracefully to below the knees
in the formation of a double skirt. In colder or wet weather
the over-skirt is raised to cover the shoulders, and sometimes the
head. A belt is often dispensed with, and the blanket wrapped
round the body, leaving one shoulder naked, and kept in place
by hitching one corner over the other.

Often the only coverings worn by men when hunting is a
girdle made from the raw hide of a deer or cow. The band is
deep, and cut into a broad fringe which hangs down the loins.

Sandals and leggings are roughly made from raw hide, and
are worn by the men when hunting and by the women when
gathering fuel in the forest, as a protection against the thorny
undergrowth. The heat of the ground is often so great that
these sandals are worn when travelling over dry stretches of
country.

Raw hides are used extensively as mats, and the softer skins
serve as saddles for the women. The skin of the rhea's stomach
is made up into large bags for carrying honey, and the neck
of the ostrich, jabiru, and alligator is often converted into a
tobacco-pouch by sewing up one end and closing up the other
by means of a small wooden ring, which is slipped down over
the folds. The base is ornamented with woollen tassels or by
painting red scorings.

The making of the personal ornaments of the Lenguas may
well rank among their industries. Both sexes adorn themselves,
but the men far more so than the women. The work is divided
between them, the men perhaps doing the larger share.

The feathers used as head omaments are sometimes strung
together and sometimes worn singly, and are often cut into
elaborate shapes. The most valued and expensive article of
head-dress is a broad red woollen band, to which are sewn
diagonal lines, squares or circles of small buttons, cut out from

L Jl

LENGUA GIRLS. AGK 13-16

ihowing facial paint adornments. The colouring matter is red or black, procured from fruit and vege-
tables. A section of hard paint is moistened by the tongue and lips, and the face and body scored with
Carious designs. Tattooing is little resorted to by the Lenguas. Notice the absence of eyebrows and

Clashes, each hair being individually pulled out. The comb in the hair of the girl in bottom right-
narui corner is made out of a single piece of horn, and worn thus for convenience, not for ornament. The
waist-belt is always worn very tight.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

snails'* shells. The top is fringed with bright scarlet feathers
taken from the spoon-bill, or flamingo. Some have a woollen
chin-strap attached and beaded woollen tassels hanging over the
ears. This head-dress is regarded as a charm by the wearer,
especially against the evil spirit of the swamps. They are much
prized in consequence, and are worn chiefly when visiting,
feasting, or during courtship.

The small buttons referred to are of the size of an ordinary
shirt-button, with a hole drilled in the centre, and of a very
smooth surface, considering that they are fashioned only with a
knife, which is as a rule none too sharp, and the whole process
done by using the ball of the naked heel as a table. Men can
be seen seated cross-legged on the ground, spending hours at a
time in this tedious performance.

A necklace is frequently worn, consisting of about six yards
of these buttons strung closely together, and certainly contain-
ing some hundreds of them a proof of the patience and per-
severance of the maker. These strings of buttons are the money
of the people. A necklace such as the above would represent
the value of one sheep.

Seeds are sometimes strung into necklaces. One of peculiar
formation, made only by the northern Lenguas, is composed of
pieces of bone, the legs of a water-fowl, with a few seeds of a
water-plant strung between every two bones.

There are various other kinds of necklaces, but two only are
worthy of mention. One consists of oblong pieces of fresh-water
mussel shells, about an inch in length, with either straight or
concave cut edges. Two holes are drilled at one end of each
section, to attach it to the neck-string, and half-drilled holes
are made at the other end, to form an ornamentation. The
surface, when complete, is very similar in appearance to that of
mother-of-pearl, and affords a very pleasing effect thrown into
relief by the reddish-brown skin of the wearer. The same
tedious process is followed by the men in making these orna-
ments. The women usually wear a necklace made by stringing
together a number of sheep's teeth, interspersed with beads. A
hole is bored in the fang through which to pass the string.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

Wooden ear-discs are worn as ornaments, chiefly by the men.
The piercing of the ears, to receive the discs, takes place at no
fixed period of a child's life. Some are bored very early, some
at a later period. The usual method employed is to pierce the
lobes with a sharp thorn or bone needle, afterwards inserting a
piece of grass or thin stick, to prevent the wound from closing.
As age advances the discs are enlarged ; one and a half inches
in diameter is the average size, but I have known them in the case
of an old man as large as three and a quarter inches in diameter.
These discs are worn in the lobe of the ear ; the distended skin
keeps them in position, and, when taken out, the lobe hangs
nearly to the shoulder. The gap is often filled by a coiled strip
of palm -leaf, and sometimes the long hair is passed through and
tied. The discs are usually made from willow wood, which is
very light, and affords a smooth surface. They are without
ornamentation, except in the case of the witch-doctors, who
decorate them with pieces of polished tin in the shape of stars
or crosses, some going as far as to cut pieces of imported mirror
to fit them, by means of which they profess to be able to see
the shadow of the spirit passing out from or entering into the
person on whom they are operating.

Armlets are made out of strips of lamb's skin with the wool
on, which are wound round the biceps, their place being some-
times taken by coils of yellow palm-leaf.

No Indian looks fully dressed without the feather anklets.
These are made from the wing feathers of a rhea, bound together
on a string, and often dyed a pale pink. They are not only
worn as an ornament, but are considered a safeguard against
snake-bite, as the reptile, in striking at the ankle, may chance
to miss the flesh and expend the poison on the feathers. The
binding, cutting, and stringing together of ostrich plumes is
entirely the work of the men.

The Indians' household utensils and domestic appliances are
few and of a very primitive description. Pottery, in the shape
of water-jars, cooking-pots, and shallow dishes, is made by the
women. Particular attention is paid to the class of clay
employed, and in preparing it they use a mixture of old pottery

A LENGUA POTTER

No wheel is used. Sitting in this peculiar posture, the woman builds
up her pot by adding layer of clay to layer, and smoothing them out with
a shell dipped in water, to prevent sticking.

LENGUA POTTERY

The peculiar-shaped centre-piece is rare, and serves as an ornament. The corded piece is used
for carrying water, and the large-mouthed vessels are for cooking and general use.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

pounded up. The vessel is formed by the addition of thin rolls
of clay to a prepared base, which rests on a bed of skins made
slightly concave, and is gently turned round as the operator
proceeds. After moistening the edge of the base with water,
the clay is rolled out between the hands and laid on the edge,
each roll as it is added being smoothed out with the shell of a
fresh-water mussel dipped in water to enable it to run smoothly.

When complete the vessel is dried in the sun, and then fired
for about an hour by placing it on the ground and piling the
fuel round it. No glazing is done, but the vessels are marked
with rude and irregular designs while they are still hot, by using
birds' quills, chips of holy- wood (pah santo\ and gums. A few
pieces of pottery are ornamented with designs of raised clay, but
these are exceedingly rare and of a peculiar shape. Broken
pieces of old pottery have been found bearing scorings, as if
made by the pressure of the thumb, and are said to be the work
of spirits.

Clay pipes are sometimes used, and it seems probable that
pipes were originally made of clay, as the word for " earth " and
" pipe " is the same. The bowls are, however, generally made
of wood, and their forms vary greatly, ranging from the ordinary
smooth round piece of wood with a hole bored by means of a
pointed knife, to elaborately carved bowls in the form of figures
and faces of men, birds, and animals. Sometimes the complete
figure is carved out, but generally the head only. The stems
are made from the core of a certain cactus, and when the supply
of tobacco runs short, the Indians chop up the pipe-stems
saturated with nicotine, and smoke them as a substitute.

Tobacco is grown in small quantities in garden patches. The
leaves are picked, and while still green are stripped by women
from the central rib, and pounded in a hollowed-out palm-
stump. The pulp is then made into small round cakes,
moistened with saliva and pressed between the hands. They
are allowed to bake in the sun until quite hard. A hole is made
in the centre of each cake, and several are strung together for
convenience. Chewing tobacco is unknown amongst the Len-
guas, but nearly all smoke, even the women and children. They

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

are not heavy smokers, however, as each takes only a few draws
before passing it on to his neighbour, and seldom is a pipe
smoked throughout by one person.

If a fire is handy, a brand is used to light the pipe, generally
by a woman, who takes the first few draws and then passes it to
the owner. At other times a light is obtained by friction with
two sticks, and occasionally from a flint and steel. The fire-
sticks are cut from a tree they call the hapin, one peculiarity
of which is that from October to March, in a normal season, it
flowers every fourteen days. Two sticks are selected, a short
one in which notches are cut, and the other longer, with one
end sharpened and rounded to serve as a drill. The notched
stick is placed upon the blade of a knife or iron arrow-head, and
held in position by the operator's foot. The rounded end of
the longer stick is then placed in one of the notches, and is
worked sharply between the palms of the hands with a down-
ward pressure ; the friction causes the soft wood to ignite, and
it drops out in a smouldering powder on to the knife. This is
immediately dropped into the pipe, or on a prepared tinder of
fibre of palm, kept in a horn and covered with a cap cut out of
a piece of gourd.

Gourds grow in great abundance in the Chaco, and often to
a large size. The natives put them to many uses, chiefly as a
substitute for pottery. By cutting them lengthwise in two, and
hollowing them out, they are converted into vessels for holding
water and food, the half stem forming a ready-made handle.
Gourds of a round shape are used as receptacles for fish-hooks,
tobacco, needles, beads, and other little belongings. A round
section, with a zig-zagged edge, is cut out to make an opening,
and on being replaced it acts as a close-fitting lid, being kept in
position by a sliding string loop.

Gourds of a certain shape are selected as suitable for the
rattles which are used at feasts, and by witch-doctors when
exorcising evil spirits and performing other rites connected with
their craft. They are hollowed out through a small opening in
the tapering stem, and then filled with dry seeds, small shells,
beads, or anything that will cause a rattling sound. Some are

LENGUA POTTERY

Water bottle, food vessel, and drinking cup.

FOUR GENERATIONS

Three sets of parents with the great-grandchild. The oldest parents are seated
in front.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

made to produce a more musical sound by driving a number of
needles to the butt-end through the bulbous sides, which are
thus fixed in a rigid position, and produce different notes as
they are struck by the seeds when swung to and fro.

The Indian displays his artistic powers by engraving the
smooth polished sides of gourds. The figures are, for the most
part, those of natural objects and animals, while some are
attempts to express his idea of evil spirits. Topographical
scenes are also elaborately depicted, roads, by-paths, trees of
various kinds, rivers, and villages being introduced.

The Lengua musical instruments are few in number, and are
for the most part similar to those used by the neighbouring
tribes. They include a small bamboo flute, a whistle made from
bones, and a flat wooden whistle worn round the neck as an
ornament. This latter is cleverly made, being hollowed out
through three small holes which produce the notes. Drums are
made by stretching wet skins over cooking pots, and are beaten
with thin wooden sticks. The only instrument which produces
anything approaching musical sounds is a kind of fiddle. It is
of a very crude formation. A palm-log is chopped down to form
a wide hollow base with a long arm. The one string consists of
a long twist of horse-hair, which is tied to the base and adjusted
by a wedge of wood passed through a hole at the top of the arm.
A piece of caraguata leaf is placed over the mouth of the
hollow base, and upon this rests a flat piece of wood for a bridge.
The sounds are produced (all in a minor key) by rubbing a small
horse-hair bow across the string, and at the same time fingering
with the left hand near the top of the arm. Saliva is freely
applied to the bow-string to give resonance, and all seem to play
the same tune.

Rough spoons are fashioned from goats 1 horns, the oldest men
having the largest. Comparatively few of these are made, small
half-gourds or shells being more often used as a substitute.

Before knives of foreign manufacture were introduced, a
sharpened bamboo was used, and even to-day a knife made from
hard wood is preferred for cutting vegetables.

Combs were originally made by inserting the spines of apalm-

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

tree into a small piece of split bamboo, the distance between the
teeth being regulated by the string binding the sides together.
Now, imported combs are imitated, made from cows' horns, the
teeth being cut with an old knife converted into a saw.

No images are made, except a few wax representations of
animals, which are supposed to act as charms when hunting.

Certain intoxicating liquors are brewed from the algaroba
bean, honey, maize, and pumpkins, but not in large quanti-
ties.

The Indians have no knowledge of writing, but keep a diary
by means of a stick about the size of a pencil, closely notched
all round. When on the march, each day is marked off by a
notch, and in recent years some Indians have been known to
paint the Sunday notch in red. Certain marks are made along-
side to represent incidents of travel. On producing a diary-stick
from his bag, an Indian can retail the events of the past few
weeks with accuracy.

Certain roadway signs are met with to inform travellers of
any interesting events. At an abandoned village, a sign is often
left : a piece of bamboo or a stick is fixed in the ground and
inclined in the direction the villagers have taken. A long or
short hollow scooped out behind the stick indicates the distance
travelled, and if they have gone to a feast a small gourd is placed
on the top of the stick, or a bunch of feathers tied to it. A cob
of maize and a hank of wool placed on a smaller stick have been
known to imply that a sheep would be killed, and maize eaten
at the feast. In reading such signs as these, the Indian shows
remarkably acute perception.

The natives living on the banks of the River Paraguay make
dug-out canoes, but those living inland are content with digging
out a bottle-trunk tree when they wish to pass over the swollen
swamps and streams. The process in each case is a very tedious
one. The only instruments used are a clumsy hard-wood digger
and fire-brands.

The principal weapons, both of the chase and of war, are
bows, arrows, and a heavy hard-wood club. The bow is generally
made from the heart- wood of a certain tree, though a few other

(") (f)

RUBBINGS TAKEN FROM ENGRAVINGS ON AN INDIAN'S GOURD

(a) His idea of the forest " Kilyikhama," the most dreaded of all spirits a long, thin, many-
limbed form with flaming eyes. Indians lost in a forest have been known to go mad through
fear of encountering such apparitions. *

i (b) The Creation Beetle, with three men mounted on a horse inside. The meaning of this is
obscure. The Lengua theory of the beetle as the symbol of the Creator has a significant
resemblance to the mythology of the ancient Egyptians.

INDIAN ENGRAVING

A good specimen of the Indian's talent of engraving on a gourd. A spirit, armadillos, pigs,
an ostrich, beetles, a tortoise, snake-skins, and palm trees are crudely carved put with a bone
lancet and smeared with a burnt stick. These engraved gourds constitute diaries of journeys,
indicating the various animals, spirits, and types of country seen en route.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

woods are sometimes employed. Among the Lenguas, bending
is done by fire, or by chopping into shape with an axe. The
ends are cut so as to fall inwards, and when reduced to the
required size, the surface is scraped and smoothed by means of a
knife. The Lengua bow is round, but those used by tribes to
the south-west are flat in shape. The average length is five feet.

The bow-string is made from twisted strips of deer- hide, and
is long enough to reach the full length and half-way back again,
the end with the extra half being always held at the bottom
when shooting.

The arrow-shaft is of cane, from the cana castilla, and is
three-eighths of an inch in diameter and two feet long. The
heads are made from varfous hard woods, and are round, with
long, tapering points. Four barbs are cut on one side only.
The arrow, when complete, is three feet long. Thin strips of
a vegetable binder are wound round the cane shaft over the
socket in which the head is inserted. Two feathers are attached
to the arrow in a slightly spiral manner, waxed thread being
used to bind them on. The butt-end is also bound, to strengthen
the notch. Iron-headed arrows are used by preference, and are
made from hoop-iron, which is chipped into shape with the
back of a knife, and afterwards filed to produce an edge and
point. The head is bound into a wooden holder, and this is
inserted into the cane socket. The average length is four and a
half inches.

The bow is held vertically, and the string drawn to the right
cheek. The shooter holds the butt-end of the arrow between
the first and second fingers of his right hand, training the shaft
along the forefinger of his left hand. No quiver is used, but
the arrows are stuck into the belt. Weapons are exclusively
made by the men.

Gardening in a small way is the only form of agriculture in
vogue among the Indians, and this has many drawbacks. Suitable
soil is only found in small patches here and there, and consequently
a man has to walk long distances to his scattered garden-plots.
Their principal crops are pumpkins, sweet potatoes, tobacco,
maize, and mandioca. The last is a starchy root, which

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

forms the staple food of the Paraguayans. It is eaten boiled
or roasted, or is ground into flour for making into cakes.

There is little to encourage gardening on a large scale in the
Chaco, for the extremes of drought and flood are detrimental to
large crops, and in the event of a good supply the birds, myriads
of ants, locusts, and even rats, often destroy the whole of an
Indian's hard-earned produce.

The only garden implement employed is a native hoe, re-
sembling in shape a small paddle, with a sharp-pointed blade
not more than three inches across. It is made of very hard
wood, and is of varying length.

The only other industry worthy of mention is house-building,
and this is not a very serious undertaking with the Indian.
Two distinct methods are employed, and neither gives a water-
proof or weather-proof abode. As they are constantly moving
from one hunting-ground to another, or abandoning their
villages through sickness, death, or superstition, they naturally
do not attempt to build any substantial or permanent dwellings.

One class of shelter is built in a circular form by placing
sticks in the ground, and bringing together the upper ends in
the shape of a dome. On the top of this the women pile
rushes, grass, and palm-leaves, which form a rough thatch
covering the structure half-way down. A man cannot stand
upright in such an erection, but they are chiefly used as a
protection from the sun and storms, and not as living-rooms.

The huts of the Suhin are much higher than those of the
Lenguas, and are more regularly thatched. They are covered
right down to the ground, a small opening being left for a door,
through which a man has to enter on all fours.

The second class of Lengua shelter consists of reed matting,
tied on to a long framework of sticks. The mats are stretched
along both sides, and meet at the ridge. In fine weather the
ridged-roof form is kept, but should the day prove very hot one
side is raised level with the ridge. In the case of wet or windy
weather, the roof is dropped down on the weather side to shut
off the storm. In villages so built, the mat-houses are arranged
in one or more long lines.

ARTS AND INDUSTRIES

When the Indians remove to a new site the grass-house is
abandoned or more often burnt, but the reed matting is carefully
taken down, rolled up, and carried by the women on the top of
the bundles comprising all their earthly possessions.

Many of the Chaco industries are slowly dying out as the
Indians get more in touch with civilization, and to-day goods of
British manufacture are to be found in most Indian villages,
even far into the interior.

CLAY WATER-BOTTLE.

CHAPTER VIII
HUNTING

THE Chaco being an inland country, it may seem rather a
strange assertion that fishing forms one of the chief means
of subsistence of the Indians, even among those remote from
large rivers. The Chaco is a land of contradictions. I have
known it almost impossible to obtain water, except from wells,
when at any distance from a permanent river, and that, too, for
periods of nearly two years at a stretch. It is not uncommon
to ride for miles at a quick trot, and sometimes even at a gallop,
over what appears at the time to be prairie-land, but in reality
is a swamp bed; and a few months after the rainy season has set
in this same land has become a vast swamp, with water in places
even five feet deep, the whole covered with reeds and a tangled
mass of water plants. This swamp now teems with fish, eels,
the famous mud-fish (Lepidosiren, see Appendix), and some-
times alligators, while numbers of water-fowl frequent its
waters.

The eels and mud-fish have been in hiding throughout the
drought a few feet below the surface of the ground. The fish,
of which there are many varieties, are bred probably from eggs
deposited in the mud before the drought sets in, although
some, I believe, like the eels, have the power of surviving
the drought. This extraordinary change of conditions must
necessarily puzzle the reader who is unacquainted with such
possibilities ; but the Indian, knowing from experience what he
may expect, hastens to pitch his camp in the vicinity of such
swamps on the break-up of the dry season, being certain that
he will find ready at hand an inexhaustible supply of food

HUNTING

until the next drought sets in, which may not be for some
years.

His methods of obtaining this fish-supply are many, and he
varies them according to the conditions. In the overgrown parts
of the swamp he uses the fishhook, with a very short line, either
sitting in a canoe or standing in the water. His hooks are
made of bone or wood, although he now often transforms old
nails into very serviceable hooks when he is not able to obtain
those of European make. In open water, which is never of
very great extent, he uses a net. This is home-made, generally
three to four feet long, being kept open by two sticks.
Stooping down, and holding the lower stick close to the bottom,
he draws the net slowly atong, and by closing the mouth of the
net with the two sticks he secures the fish, transferring them to
a net-bag slung on his shoulders.

Running into these swamps are many small streams, which
they dam when the swamp begins to fall, and they are able
to capture a great quantity of fish with the hands. In larger
streams they set fish-traps, made of wicker-work, very similar
to a lobster-pot. The bottom is pressed into the mud,
allowing the water to be well above the top of the trap, and the
fish, having entered, are unable to escape owing to the peculiar
formation of the trap. In deeper water, where it is clear, they
frequently shoot the larger fish with bow and arrow. For very
large fish a longer arrow is used, the point being detachable
from the shaft, to which it is fixed by means of string. The
floating shaft thus enables them to recover the fish when tired
out. They kill the smaller kind, up to the size of a mackerel,
by biting the head.

Quite a different method is employed in catching the eel and
mud-fish. These they pursue with a thin pointed spear, which
can be used only in shallow water. Walking slowly along, they
prod the roots of the reeds, and keep a sharp lookout for any
slight quiver in the water. This they follow, and, making a
thrust from time to time, frequently succeed in spearing one. A
good hunter will capture from ten to twelve of these mud-fish
in a day, and as each weighs several pounds, he is well rewarded

81 F

HUNTING

for his labour, especially as the Indians are very fond of the
flesh, and revel in the rich fat.

When the water dries up they search for their holes, and dig
out their prey, catching them with their hands. To aid them in
this they wear bands of small bones upon the palms, thus enabling
them the better to hold the slippery creatures. Occasionally
they succeed in capturing a large water-snake (averaging about
nine feet in length), and when caught they tie it by the head to
their waist-belt, and allow it to drag behind them until they
leave the swamp. The flesh is coarse, but the bulk makes up
for the lack of quality.

It is generally only in the larger streams that they hunt the
alligator, the matted vegetation making it difficult in the
swamps. They endeavour to surprise him when basking on the
bank, but sometimes they move cautiously along in a canoe,
looking out for any that may happen to be asleep among the
weeds, killing them with a spear, and lashing them to the canoe
in order to bring them to the bank. When alligators are
plentiful the Indians enter the water, forming a line across the
stream, while a few higher up endeavour to drive them down.
This is generally a very successful way of hunting, but extremely
dangerous.

On one occasion I had gone out in a canoe to cut poles with
which to repair a bullock -cart. These poles were about four inches
in diameter. I had secured a few, and was drifting down stream
looking for another suitable tree, and on discovering one began
to work the canoe through the weeds towards the bank. As I
was about to land I was confronted by a large alligator coming
down the bank towards me. These creatures generally make
for the water, and, seeing no reason to molest him, I threw a
handful of weed at him to hasten his movements, when, to my
surprise, he showed no inclination to avoid me, but, on the
contrary, showed fight, advancing towards me with open jaws.
Having no firearm, I thrust the blade of the paddle into his
mouth, but this he crushed as if it were matchwood. Seeing
how much he enjoyed the paddle, I thought I would give him
something more substantial, so, taking up one of the poles,

A BOTTLE-TRUNK TREK

The bark is very hard and thorny, but the heart is
soft and pithy eminently suited for hollowing out to
serve as a dug-out canoe. The tree produces a beauti-
ful lily flower, and the seed-pods contain a quantity of
silk-like substance.

A LENGUA ROADWAY SIGN

The stick denotes that a party of Indians have gone
in the direction it leans towards, which is further
emphasised by grooves cut in the ground. They have
gone to a feast, indicated by the bunch of feathers.
The smaller stick with a fleece of white wool and a
cob of maize shows that a sheep will be killed and
eaten, together with maize.

A RATTLE-SNAKE IN THE GRASS

Photographed alive in the act of striking. The bite
is very poisonous, and the dancer to the naked feet
and legs of the Indian travelling through the long
gra* is evident.

THE RATTLE OF THE RATTLE-SNAKE

The end of the tail the continuation of the back-
bone is sheathed with loose ring-shaped sections of a
horny substance. The wagging of the tail produces
the rattling sound. This snake is supposed to acquire
a new ring to its rattle each year it lives.

HUNTING

and awaiting my opportunity, I thrust it with all my force into
his gaping throat. He was now powerless ; but not wishing to
leave him thus to suffer, I hammered it further into his body
with another pole, until it passed through him. He was now
safe to land, and, having collected the timber I wanted, I fixed
the painter behind the fore-feet of the alligator, and towed it
to my camp. The Indians were greatly amused at my novel
way of capturing this reptile, but heartily welcomed this addition
to their larder.

Fishing is not altogether void of risk, the unseen dangers
being really much more formidable than any encounter with an
alligator or large water-snake. The sting-ray fish, for example,
lies hidden in the mud of the swamps, and especially of the
larger streams. When trodden upon by the fisher, it retaliates
by thrusting its powerful sting (rising as a fin from the back)
into his foot, sometimes penetrating from the sole right through
the instep. This causes not only intense suffering, but has been
known to result in serious complications, and even death. A
less dangerous but more common foe is a small fish with very
sharp teeth, capable of biting through thin wire. It frequently
attacks the fisher, taking away a piece of his flesh.

In the swamps, lying upon the tangled vegetation, poisonous
snakes are sometimes to be found whose bite in some instances
proves fatal to the natives. The danger is increased by their
not being easily distinguished from the surrounding vegetation.
I myself have had several very narrow escapes. On one occasion,
when I was clearing a passage through a swamp, and bending
down to cut at the roots of the undergrowth, one of these snakes
struck at me, but an Indian standing by dealt it a blow just in
time with his bush-knife.

During the. wet season, when birds abound in the swamps, the
natives obtain a welcome change of food. They resort to many
devices in bird-catching, the most interesting of which are those
they employ in capturing the young which are unable to fly or
birds roosting in trees, and in catching a species of large stork
the jabiru. Towards evening, arming themselves with bundles
of short sticks, the Indians enter the swamp, and, encircling a

HUNTING

number of young birds swimming or fluttering over the surface
of the water, kill them by blows from the sticks. Sometimes
the hunters will hide in a clump of weed, and, moving it with
them, will cautiously advance upon the unsuspecting birds, and,
occasionally diving underneath them, catch them by the legs.
When a tree has been noted in which the birds roost at night,
the hunters sally forth after dark armed with sticks, and, creep-
ing up cautiously, surround the tree. The sleepy birds fall easy
victims to their deadly aim.

The jabiru, being a bird standing five feet high, affords an
easier target and a more substantial meal. On noting their
feeding-ground and the course they take in flying to their sleep-
ing quarters, the Indians take up their positions at intervals
along the course. At sunset the birds, one by one, fly off to their
distant sleeping-ground, and at a height of some forty feet their
long bodies afford a fairly easy target to the practised eye of the
Indian, who is an adept at throwing a stick when the bird is
immediately above him.

But they are able to secure larger numbers at night, when
they attack the whole flock. Waiting until the moon sets, the
Indians start out in the darkness, armed not only with sticks,
but each carrying a palm-leaf torch. The unsuspecting birds,
perched on ant-hills, are surrounded, and at a given signal each
Indian lights his torch and rushes on the bird he has singled
out. In the general commotion they fall an easy prey, being
too confused in their drowsy state with the glare from the
torches to show fight, as they are quite capable of doing at
other times.

Riding early one morning along the edge of a swamp, accom-
panied by an Indian, I noticed a large stork close by. My
companion dismounted, and with his gun succeeded in wounding
it, but not severely. On riding up to secure it, I was attacked
by the bird, but managed to keep it off with my whip, and,
awaiting my opportunity, threw my lasso. I did not succeed in
looping it, but the rope twisted round its neck. The bird again
savagely attacked me, but the Indian came to my assistance, and

HUNTING

succeeded in getting hold of the other end of the rope, by
which means we strangled it.

Perhaps the most valuable game of the Chaco, and the most
sought after, is the rhea, not only on account of its flesh, which
is considered a delicacy, but also for its feathers, which the
Indians largely use for personal ornament, and which they barter
at the foreign stores.

The ostrich is a very shy but foolish bird, and their methods
of hunting it are planned accordingly. If the hunting-ground
should happen to be in a palm forest, the hunter binds the
leaves of a palm tree together, and places them on his head and
shoulders in order to resemble a young tree. With no other
concealment than this, he is enabled to get within easy range
of his bird. But should he be hunting in ant-hill country, he
uses a bunch of creeper instead, such as crowns the head of
every ant-hill. In open scrub country another device is occa-
sionally adopted. The hunters block up the openings between
the various copses with brushwood, and other Indians, lying in
wait at given points, drive the birds towards them. Although
the ostrich could easily jump over the obstacles, he foolishly
follows the line of scrub, looking for an opening, and is thus
easily shot. In clear and open country, suitable for hunting on
horseback, the Indians, riding bare- back, run them down, taking
advantage of the zig-zag course of the birds, and in many cases
they use the bold, a weapon made of plaited strips of hide,
weighted at the ends, which twine round the legs, and trip up
the victim when thrown in a similar way to the lasso.

Indians are clever mimics, and use this power to great advan-
tage in imitating the cries of certain birds and animals. It is
wonderful to see the effect of this on an ostrich. The Indian,
secreted in the grass or bushes, imitates the cry of the male
bird, and this at once arrests the attention of the ostrich, and
if a male, he instantly puffs out his feathers, showing every sign
of fight as he advances cautiously in the direction of the sound.
On one occasion when I was travelling with Indians, we espied a
fox on a bare patch of ground some three hundred yards in

HUNTING

front. One of my companions signalled to us to lie down in the
long grass. He then imitated the cry of a wounded bird.
Instantly we noticed the fox look up inquiringly. The cry was
repeated, and he came towards us. Another cry, and the fox
quickened his pace. The Indian continued the imitation until
the fox broke into a quick trot, actually coming to within
twenty feet of us before he discovered the deception.

When hunting the deer, of which there are three kinds in the
Chaco, they use similar disguises to those employed in approach-
ing ostriches. Sometimes these fleet creatures are seen bounding
along through the tall thick grass, and a peculiar low, prolonged
whistle will frequently arrest their attention and cause them to
slacken their pace or stop altogether. A bright red head-dress
has also the effect of attracting a deer's attention. Frequently,
however, the Indians hunt the deer without any disguise, trust-
ing to their expertness in stalking to get near their quarry.
The colour and clothing of the Indian harmonize perfectly with
his surroundings, thus enabling him to approach his game with
much greater ease than could a European. Whilst stalking
game they appear in the distance remarkably like deer, so much
so that on two or three occasions I have actually taken aim at
an Indian in mistake for a deer, and have only been prevented
in the nick of time by my sharper-sighted Indian companions.
I once saw two Indians even deceived in the same way into
allowing my companion to stalk for a considerable distance
what appeared to all of us to be a deer, and the truth dawned
upon them only just in time for them to shout as he was raising
his rifle.

Wild pigs are found in two varieties in the Chaco, the smaller
and larger " peccare," the former being by far the more formid-
able. Frequently Indians in hunting these animals are forced
to take refuge in a tree. The pigs move about in herds, some-
times thirty or forty in number, and the natives assert that they
sometimes surround a jaguar which has been tracking them.

One of the most peculiar animals found in the Chaco is the
ant-eater, of which there are also two kinds. The great ant-
eater measures about seven feet from snout to tail, and is said

INDIAN STALKER, DISGUISED AS A CLUMP OF FOLIAGE

The inset clearly shows how the hunter may be mistaken for an ant-hill covered with
vegetation, the bow and arrow being barely distinguishable. The stalker runs for some
yards, and then stops dead at any warning of his approach, moving on by stages till within
bow-shot. The raw hide belt is usually the only hunting dress.

HUNTING

by the Indians to succeed sometimes in killing the jaguar. I
have often found natives making wax models of the ant-eater
with its young on its back, which they say is their mode of
carrying them.

In addition to the beasts already mentioned, there are the
tapir, maned wolf, fox, armadillo, tiger-cat, carpincho (river-
pig), nutria, otter, iguana, and a number of smaller animals,
none of which call for any special comment in the methods of
hunting them.

The puma and the jaguar are the two largest carnivora, but
the former is not feared by the natives. The jaguar, however,
they hold in great respect, and with good reason, for man-
eaters are occasionally . met with. Not long ago one of the
mission Indians, while honey-hunting in the forest, was killed
and devoured by one. The natives say, however, that it is only
when the jaguar becomes old and his teeth are worn that he
ventures to attack man, being then unable to pursue fleeter
game, or to tear the tougher covering of some of his prey.
Starvation drives him to the desperate expedient of attacking
man, of whom he is otherwise afraid. But when the jaguar is
hunted he shows fight, especially when cornered, or with cubs,
as is instanced by the many scars that Indians carry who engage
in this dangerous sport, in which some not unfrequently lose
their lives. In these hunts they generally lose a large number
of their dogs, the jaguar ripping up with a single blow any that
come within reach.

They are skilful in trapping, but I need only describe the
jaguar- trap in particular. Selecting a path in the forest along
which they have noticed spoor, they fell a tree, thus blocking
the way; at one side they dig a pit across it in which they
suspend a looped lasso with the end tied to a stout branch of
a neighbouring tree. The lasso is so arranged that when the
jaguar falls into the pit, it tightens around his body in such a
manner as to prevent him biting it through and escaping. The
Indians say that the blocking up of its accustomed path greatly
puzzles the animal, and he is so occupied in looking for an exit,
which has been designedly arranged for in the direction of the

HUNTING

pit, that he fails to notice the mouth of the trap, which is
covered over to make it look as natural as possible.

A rather serio-comic adventure of an Indian with a jaguar
took place near one of our stations. Several hunters had gone
into the forest and had become scattered in searching for honey.
One, having observed a hollow in a tree, climbed it in order to
extract the much-sought-after dainty. While busily occupied
in this, he was horrified to see a huge jaguar coming in his
direction. It took its stand beneath the tree, occasionally
looking up at him, while it mauled his hide sandals, which he
had left at the root together with his weapons. Fearing lest it
should climb after him, he went up higher to the smaller
branches, where the jaguar could not reach him on account of
its weight and the difficulty of getting a good grip with its claws.
To his disgust, close above him was a wasps 1 nest, and in order
to protect himself he had to cover his body as best he could
with his blanket, but not sufficiently to prevent his exposed
parts receiving many stings. He proceeded to shout lustily for
help, and his companions in time came to his rescue. Perceiving
the cause of the alarm, they quickly took shelter behind the
larger trees, and from their cover shot at the jaguar. It
sprang at one, who dodged behind the trunk, but the others
poured in a few more arrows and killed it. The released
prisoner speedily descended from his uncomfortable position, and
helped his rescuers to take off the valuable skin, which, together
with the fat, they carried off in triumph to the village. The
danger being passed, they sat round the fires eating the fat and
indulging in merry jokes at their companion's expense.

While the Indians fully enjoy the excitement of sport,
hunting is nevertheless an important matter to them, for it is
chiefly by the chase that they are enabled to satisfy the hunger
from which they are seldom free.

CHAPTER IX
TRAVEL

IT is only during the last ten years that the Mission has been
enabled to found perpanent stations, and to carry on a regular
and organized work among the Lenguas. In order to win any
influence over a people of wild and roving disposition, forced by
circumstances to be continually moving from place to place in
search of a precarious subsistence, it is necessary for one who
undertakes such a task to take part in every phase of their
strange life ; in fact, he must become an Indian, until such time
as his purpose has been accomplished. Had I not taken this
course, it is extremely questionable whether these people could
ever have been satisfactorily or adequately reached. It was
absolutely essential to acquire a knowledge of their strange
language, and to become acquainted with their character and all
phases of their life.

My early years were therefore spent in moving about from
village to village, and in living in the closest intimacy with
these children of nature ; and as it was my object to get into
touch with as many clans and tribes as possible, I spent these
years in various parts of the country, continually coming into
contact with new people, who, although in the main alike,
varied somewhat in characteristics, customs, and habits, and
among whom I found a considerable variety of traditions and
religious opinions.

Instead of wearying the reader with a bald and dry enumera-
tion of the native laws, customs, and modes of living, I shall
leave him to gather these for himself as they are incidentally

TRAVEL

unfolded in the following narrative of some of my journeys, and
elsewhere in this work.

Little more than eighteen months had elapsed since I had
begun my travels in the interior, when I succeeded in establish-
ing temporary headquarters at Thlagnasinkinmith, where a
considerable number of Indians had gathered round me. The
Venerable Archdeacon Shimield, of the South American
Missionary Society, joined me there for a time, to estimate
for himself the possibilities of forming a Mission in this
country. In order to give him a hearty welcome, I arranged
with the Indians that we should hold a great feast on his
arrival. Preparations were accordingly made, messengers were
sent out to invite the neighbouring villagers, and over four
hundred and fifty people gathered to welcome him.

Just before his arrival I hired a bullock-cart from a wood-
cutter on the river- bank, and endeavoured to take it inland.
The difficulties were considerable, and they were aggravated by
the bad weather that set in. However, the cart arrived safely at
the settlement, greatly to the surprise and delight of the natives.
The attempt proved so far successful that I purchased a cart
and bullocks, which greatly facilitated further operations.

While the Archdeacon was with me, our provisions ran
extremely low, and we were reduced for ten days to a diet of
small black beans. The Archdeacon dryly remarked that he had
frequently heard the expression, " I will give you beans/ 1 but
that he had never realized its full import till now. Another of
his hardships on this visit was that he could never enjoy a
smoke until the villagers had gone to sleep. This was on
account of the Indian custom of courteously exchanging pipes
whenever they met, and of passing the pipe round from mouth
to mouth when in company. This is considered to be the
height of friendliness, and it is a great breach of etiquette on
the part of a foreigner not to comply with the formalities.
Having adopted in great part the Indian customs, and having
by this time spent more than five years among Indians, I was
not at all inconvenienced by it, but he naturally was, and witlw
some justification, for it is rather unpleasant to take the pipe

TRAVEL

from the mouth of a not over-clean savage, who has perhaps
been eating the flesh of a savoury rattle-snake, and, without
wiping the mouth-piece (which would be the height of dis-
courtesy), to put it in one's own mouth and proceed to smoke.
But I had found it expedient in non-essentials to enter into all
the ways of the Indian, that I might thereby the more easily win
his confidence.

As business required that both the Archdeacon and myself
should leave the settlement for a time and visit Concepcidn, I
left the little property that we had in charge of the chief men
of the village. In about a fortnight we returned, bringing with
us the cart and provisions and a few Indians who had accompanied
us to the river. Aboyt halfway out to the settlement a violent
storm broke upon us, and it was necessary for the cart to
remain there till the morning. The Archdeacon and myself,
with an Indian, resolved to push on in spite of the darkness, in
order to try and reach the village, which was quite eighteen
miles away. I will quote the Archdeacon's own words in his
report to the Society of his experiences :

" We covered up the stores in the cart as well as we could,
and by that time the storm had burst in all its fury. The
thunder and lightning were terrific, and the rain came down in
sheets. We were quickly drenched to the skin, and the camp
was soon turned into a lake. It was impossible for the bullocks
to go on in such a storm ; several large swamps lay between us
and the toldo (Indian village), and the animals were already
tired. The cart must wait till morning, but the prospect of
standing or sitting all night in water a foot deep was one which
made me determine to try to reach the toldo.

" Leaving the cart in charge of the assistant and the Indians,
Mr. Grubb and I mounted our horses, and, accompanied by an
Indian, we pushed on through the storm. The lightning darted
round us like arrows of fire ; we were almost blinded by its
brilliance, and bewildered by the tropical rain driving in our
faces. The camp was covered with water nearly to the horses 1
knees, and the darkness between the flashes of lightning was
intense. No one, I believe, but an Indian could have found the

TRAVEL

way. We reached the toldo at midnight soaked with water,
and with worn-out horses.

" We hoped that then our troubles would be over, but were
disappointed, for we found our huts flooded with water. Going
into the largest of them, we had to seize what dry clothes we
could and beat a hasty retreat, for a colony of ants had taken
possession during our absence, and as we entered they swarmed
over us from head to foot, stinging us so severely that we were
speedily routed. The smaller hut was half full of water, and we
had to mount the table to change our things, and pick off the
ants from our bodies.

"The rain continued for a week. There was no chance of
drying our wet clothes and baggage ; the boots we took off
were green with mildew in the morning ; and, to add to our
discomfort, the stores which arrived in the cart next day were
nearly all spoiled by the wet. So the Indians, as well as our-
selves, had to be content with very short commons for a
week. 1 '

On my arrival at the station I was surprised to find no
Indians there. I confess I had some misgivings at first, but
my Indian companion soon called my attention to fires near the
forest some distance away, and on closer examination we came
to the conclusion that the people for some reason must have
removed thither and camped. I sent him off to get firing and
to inquire the reason. He returned presently, accompanied by
a few Indians bringing live fire-brands. While waiting for the
kettle to boil, we managed to get rid of the ants, and changed
our clothes. Water was lying on the ground everywhere, and
there must have been a seven-inch fall of rain that night.

After a meagre supper we settled down to sleep as best we
could, the storm raging without. But before the Indians re-
tired I gathered that a man had died during my absence, and
that they had burnt their booths and retreated to the forest
through fear of his spirit. Had it not been for our huts and
possessions, they would have removed much further off; but
they wanted to remain in the vicinity, expecting my return.
They strongly urged us to sleep at their village that night, but

TRAVEL

we assured them we much preferred to stay where we were, as
we had no fear of any ghost of the dead.

Finding remonstrance vain, they at last departed ; but early
in the morning I heard Pinse-apawa outside, cautiously calling
to me. He received no answer at first, so he called again, but,
as we wanted to be rid of him and sleep a little longer, I
shouted to him to go and boil my kettle. I think he was sur-
prised to find us unharmed by the spirit ; but when, after
further questioning, I declared that we had slept well, he
seemed still more surprised. The very idea of our being able
to sleep when we knew that a man had just died in the vicinity,
and that his ghost must be prowling about, was more than the
Indian could comprehend.

Shortly after this the Archdeacon left me. I accompanied
him to the river on an Indian horse, riding bareback the thirty
odd miles, as it would not allow itself to be saddled. This
would have been a heavy strain on a man unaccustomed to it,
but during my sojourn with the Indians I had often joined
them in breaking in their wild horses, always riding bareback,
as their habit is, with only string for a bit and a plaited deer-
hide bridle. Many of my readers may be aware that the usual
custom in South America differs from that in vogue in England.
There the horses are trained to answer the bridle by pressure on
the side of the neck.

On my return from escorting the Archdeacon, I was accom-
panied on horseback by an old witch-doctor from the north and
his son. All went well until we reached the head waters of the
River Fernandez. I was leading, and made straight for the
usual crossing, which was very wide and rather deep ; but the
witch-doctor called to me, and said that there was a better ford
farther down. We travelled on in the pitch-darkness for some
time, and then attempted the crossing, but only floundered in
the soft mud. We tried again at another place, with the same
result. I then angrily insisted on going back to the original
ford. v After a "time they consented. I had two dogs with me,
and, contrary to their usual custom, they refused to follow me
into the water. I told the witch-doctor to go on ahead while

TRAVEL

I tried to coax the dogs into the stream ; but before I was half-
way across, my companions, who had already reached the other
bank, whipped up their horses and dashed into the forest,
through which the path lay. I followed them for a time,
although it was pitch-dark, but eventually could not tell where
I was. I accordingly stood still and shouted. After repeating
this for some time, I heard a faint call in the distance. I
shouted again at intervals, and waited.

It was about 1.30 a.m. when, my companions eventually
rejoined me, and I was by no means in a pleasant humour, being
wet, cold, mud-bespattered, and much worried by mosquitos.
I upbraided them for their conduct, but the witch-doctor
assured me that there was a devil at the crossing, that the dogs
had seen it, and that was the reason why they would not enter,
adding that it was a wonder we had got through at all. This
incident was annoying, but was only what one must expect
amongst people in their condition.

My anger increased later on, when I returned to the settle-
ment, for I found that the old wizard had given the Indians
quite a false account of the matter. His version was that while
I was crossing the river, the devil had caught me by the leg, and
had nearly succeeded in pulling me off my horse, and that in our
headlong flight I had lost my way in the forest, and, being in
dreadful fear, I had called piteously to him to come to my
protection. I promptly proceeded to explain matters to the
Indians, but I am quite sure that for many years they accepted
the witch-doctor's story.

As the planting season had arrived, the people who had
joined me from far distant villages now began to return to their
own districts. My scope for usefulness at Thlagnasinkinmith
had therefore become, for the time being, so restricted that I
took an early opportunity to move further inland, and spend a
few months in visiting various Indian centres. I accordingly
decided to join a small party who were the last to leave. We
had hoped to start soon after dawn, but so many preparations
had to be made that it was late in the morning before we got
away. My own preparations were quite simple. All that 1

TRAVEL

required was carried with me on my horse. The women were
busy from the first light packing up their household goods and
filling water-bottles, while the men searched for the horses.

When all was ready, the women with the children were
mounted on the horses. As the Indians do not use saddles,
they fix all their belongings to their own persons, having nothing
else to tie them to. Lashed upon each side of the women were
two large reed mats, with which they easily form a temporary
shelter when camping. Tied round their waists, and resting
behind and in front, large string-woven bags were carried
containing their goods, and water-jars and cooking-pots hung
from their necks and shoulders.

Two children were perched on the bundles, the elder in each
case being seated behind, taking firm hold of the woman, while
she held the younger one in front of her. As there were few
mounts, the other women followed behind in Indian file, bending
under heavy burdens of similar household property, packed in
net-bags, suspended from their foreheads, and resting on their
backs. A few old men led the way, carrying only their weapons.
The other men of the party had set off a little earlier, in order
to hunt on the way to the first encampment. I brought up the
rear of this strange cavalcade.

After pushing steadily on over perfectly dry but rough paths,
sometimes over open plains, with a hot sun pouring down upon us,
at other times working our way through long tangled grass which
reached to the shoulders, and occasionally entering the welcome
shade of a forest path, we eventually reached the mid -day camp-
ing place. There we found one of the hunters resting under a
tree. My friends were cheered to hear from him that the
hunting-party had shot a large deer and an ostrich.

When they had relieved themselves of their burdens, and
tethered the horses, they rested for a little while, and then
proceeded to light fires and procure water, the little they had
brought with them being quite insufficient. As there had been
a prolonged spell of dry weather, the only procurable water was
that found in the caraguata 1 plant, which is the salvation of

1 See Appendix Fauna and Flora.
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TRAVEL

Chaco travellers in the dry season. Its long channelled leaves
collect the dew and rain, and thus a supply of water is preserved
for some months. I accompanied the women to the forest near
the place where this valuable plant was to be found, carrying
with us all available pots and jars.

The caraguata, which in shape resembles a large aloe, is
armed with innumerable sharp thorns, which prevent animals
from drinking its water, and at the same time make it very
difficult for man to handle it. The sharp spiky leaves we first
lopped off with a knife, and then, cutting the plants out at the
roots, we held them over one of the clay pots, and, stabbing them
from below, allowed the water to run out. Each plant gave us
a good cupful of water. As soon as one vessel was full, we
strained the water into another through a bunch of grass, in
order to free it from the innumerable spiders and other insects,
as well as vegetable matter, which collect in these plants.

On returning to the camp with our supply, we found the
hunters had arrived, and cooking had already begun. A large
portion of the freshly- killed meat was spitted on sticks at the
side of the fires, as there was no time to sun- dry any of it, and
meat soon goes bad in this hot climate. The rest was placed
in the pots to boil. While this was cooking, the people threw
smaller pieces on the embers to toast and eat in the interval.

In the late afternoon we resumed our journey, taking with us
the cooked meat left over, and at sunset we camped for the
night near the dry bed of a stream, in the hope of finding a
little pool of water. As there is hardly any twilight in this
country, it was soon too dark to look for " caraguata "; so we
followed the bed of the stream in search of a water-hole, which
we were not long in finding, but which contained very little water,
and that covered with a green, slimy scum, which gave forth
a very unpleasant smell, partly owing to a few dead fish that
we found in it. As there was no alternative, we filled our pots
and returned to the camp.

It was a beautifully clear night, and as we sat round the fires,
chatting, and eating the meat we had brought with us, I learnt
from my companions that a girl with whom I was acquainted

AN INDIAN EXTRACTING HONEY FROM A HOLE IN A TREE

Smoke is often used as a protection. Young bees are eaten as a delicacy with the honey.
The picture clearly shows the dense tropical undergrowth and luxuriant creepers. Air plants
hang from the main branch, and the thorny leaves of the caraguata (or water plant) make
progress difficult and painful to the naked feet and legs.

TRAVEL

was soon to be married at the village we were travelling to, and
that the father had already received payment for her, in the
shape of a few fish-hooks and two iron hoes bought from the
Paraguayans. I was informed that the marriage was not going
to take place until the algaroba bean harvest began, in order
that they might have a supply of beer for the accompanying
feast. I inquired who the husband was to be, but could not
recognize him by his name, although they assured me that I
knew him well. It turned out that he was an old friend of
mine called " Mitaimang-itakthla," who had lost his wife some
time before. I had not heard that he had had a child, and that,
according to Indian custom, he had changed his name, being
now called " Simpehe-abyabam^ after the name of his child-
that is to say, " the father of Simpehe." This is a very curious
and awkward custom, the parents always changing their own
name on the birth of a child, and being afterwards known as
"the father or mother of So-and-so," a new name being
assumed after every child born.

The women and children feeling drowsy, a general movement
was made to prepare for the night's rest. As the mosquitos
were few, it was unnecessary to prepare smoky fires to keep
them off. The men brought in three long palm -trunks, and
placed them on different sides of the fire, and about ten feet
away ; the women spread their skin-mats in rows on the side
of the logs next to the fire. They then arranged them-
selves according to their families, using the palms as a common
pillow. One of the logs was reserved for me and the young
men, and a few families preferred to camp round little fires of
their own.

As I was not sleepy, I sat up with a few of the men, chatting
round the fire. One of the older men was busily engaged in
making fire-sticks, by rubbing which together they obtain their
fire, and in the course of conversation he recounted to me their
tradition of its origin. In early times, being unable to produce
fire, they were compelled to eat their food in the raw state.
One day an Indian was out hunting, but had been unsuccessful
all the morning, so towards midday, in order to satisfy the

97 a

TRAVEL

pangs of hunger, he repaired to the vicinity of a swamp to
gather some snails.

While he was eating these, his attention was attracted to a
bird coming out from the swamp with a snail in its bill. This
it seemed to deposit near a large tree some little way off. It
then returned to the swamp and brought up another snail, and
repeated this manoeuvre several times. The Indian noticed that
from the spot where the bird placed the snails there arose, as
it were, a thin column of vapour. His curiosity was at once
aroused.

After a time the bird again flew away, and, determined to
unravel this mystery, he cautiously proceeded to the place where
the bird had risen. There he observed a number of sticks,
placed point to point, the ends quite red and giving forth heat.
Approaching timorously, he saw some snails placed close to
these sticks. As he observed no signs of the bird's return, and
being still hungry, he resolved to partake of some of this food.
Putting forth his hand, he took up a snail, which he instantly
dropped, for it caused him acute pain. But he was so hungry
that he made another attempt, and, picking it up more cautiously,
tasted it. He found it delicious, and better than anything he
had ever tasted before. He took another and another, and so
keenly enjoyed them that he made up his mind he would never
again eat raw snails.

He was somewhat afraid of this bird, but as it had not
returned he seized several of the sticks and ran off with them
to his village, where he told his friends of his find. They
immediately got a supply of dry wood from the forest in order
to keep alive this invaluable acquisition, which they henceforth
called tathla, or fire. That night they cooked their meat
and vegetables for the first time, and gradually found new uses
for their discovery.

When the bird, on returning to the place where it had left
the snails, discovered the loss of its fire, it was filled with rage,
and determined to be revenged on the thief. Its anger was
increased by the fact that it could not produce more fire. Soar-
ing up into the sky, it circled about in search of the thief, and,

PROCURING FIRE BY FRICTION

A stick of the Hapin tree is used as a drill, which is worked between the palms of the hands
in a prepared notch of another stick. The tinder-horn, filled with soft dry fibre, is kept handy,
into which the ignited dust is smartly tipped and coaxed by gentle blowing. An arrow-shaft
is fixedjto the perpendicular stick in order to give additional purchase.

TRAVEL

to its amazement, saw the people of the village sitting around
the stolen treasure, enjoying its warmth and cooking their food
by it. Filled with thoughts of vengeance, it retired to the
forest, where it created a thunderstorm, accompanied by terrible
lightning, which did much damage and terrified the people.

The old man told me that, when it thunders, it is an indica-
tion that the thunder-bird is angry, and is seeking to punish
them by fire from the sky, for ever since the bird lost its fire it
has had to eat its food raw.

It is curious that the Indians should believe such a fable as
this, since they themselves produce fire by friction ; nor are they
particularly careful to keep a fire alight when not required.
Neither are they afraid *>f either thunder or lightning.

After the conclusion of this interesting story we stretched
ourselves out by the fire, with our palm-log for a pillow, and
were soon asleep.

Early next morning we resumed our way, but as our destina-
tion was still about two days 1 journey off, I left the party
that afternoon with one Indian guide, and struck off north-
wards, with the intention of visiting a hunting-camp of which
I was told, hoping to reach it that night. I explained to the
party that as we could travel much faster than they, we should
probably arrive at their village as soon as they did, if not
before.

We journeyed on till midday through open country and
palm forest, and being very thirsty, we looked out for woods in
which we might find caraguata, but we met with nothing but
small copses, and the few plants they contained were dry. We
pushed on in spite of the intense heat, but about four o'clock
our horses became so exhausted that we were compelled to walk
and lead them. We were now suffering so much from thirst,
after having gone for ten hours without drinking, that conver-
sation became painful. There was no alternative but to press
on, and about seven o'clock, when it was quite dark, we crossed
the dry bed of a swamp stream. Midway, among the tall reeds,
my guide discovered a small hole containing water. He knelt
down, and greedily took a few mouthfuls, but immediately

TRAVEL

vomited. In spite of this, forced by intolerable thirst, I drank
a little of it, but with the same result. The horses would not
touch it, and we had to be content with rinsing our parched
mouths, for on examination we found that it was putrid with
dead fish. Weary, feverish, and sick, we pushed on through
the night, still leading our horses.

It was evident from the tracks which we found that the
hunters had moved their camp. About two o'clock in the
morning we entered a large swamp, and, after having gone
about half a mile, we were rejoiced to find ourselves walking in
mud. We hastened our steps, and found the mud became more
liquid, till at last we reached water. Instantly the horses began
to drink, and, stooping down to taste, we found it tolerably
drinkable. How we enjoyed that thick, muddy water, and how
long and deep were the draughts we took ! We felt much
refreshed, and soon reached the other side. Here, without
troubling to light a fire, we tethered our horses, and lay down
to sleep, having eaten nothing all that day.

When the sun rose we sought for the tracks of the hunters,
and were not long in finding them and in reaching the camp.
Food was placed before us, and we soon forgot the sufferings of
our journey.

I was anxious to make a sketch-map of the district, and inquired
of the people the situation of the surrounding villages. Pulling
out my pocket- compass, which they had never before seen, I
began to take my bearings. I was soon the centre of a curious
crowd, and some of them asked me what the thing was, and why
I used it. I explained to them that the little blue hand always
pointed to the north wherever I happened to be, but they
looked incredulous. One old man took it from me and examined
it carefully. He noticed that, whichever way he turned, the
little hand, as I had explained, always pointed north. The
Indians never make any mistake about the cardinal points ; in
fact, they rarely use such expressions as " the right hand " or
" the left hand," preferring to say " on the north side " or " on
the south side," as the case may be. The behaviour of this
little pointer puzzled the old man. Presently a fresh thought

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occurred to him, and he ^put the compass under his blanket.
After turning it about and upside down, he peeped underneath
and watched the needle settle, but he was surprised beyond
measure to find it still pointing to the north, and a lively
discussion ensued.

They knew that my country was far distant in the north, and,
after a great deal of talking, the old man declared it to be his
firm opinion that, before I had left my own land, I had caught
a little blue devil and had secured it in this case, and that
it was continually pointing out my road homewards with its
finger.

After enjoying a rest and, what was more necessary, a good
sleep, we started on our journey to rejoin my companions by a
new route, as we had no desire to repeat our experiences of the
night before. On arrival at the village some time after night-
fall, we found that our party had already reached it.

That day news had come in of the death of an old resident in
a village to the south. It appears that he had been very ill for
a long time, and had been suffering intense pain. He was very
old and frail, and could not possibly have lived much longer.
His relatives grieved to see him suffering, and, realizing that
there was no possible hope for him, agreed to hasten his death.
His brother and son-in-law took an early opportunity to carry
this resolve into effect. Taking the old man unawares, the son-
in-law suddenly wrapped a blanket round his head, while the
brother at the same time sat upon his chest, and so he was
suffocated.

I was much shocked at hearing this gruesome story, and yet
I had to admit that, in the case of these heathen, it was not
what we should regard as cruelty. Their unnatural act was
really prompted by kindness, and by a desire to adopt extreme
measures, rather than let the sick man suffer.

I stayed some weeks at this village, occasionally paying visits
to neighbouring encampments. Hearing of a large feast some
days' journey to the west, I set out in that direction with an
Indian guide. On arriving at the village, I found over one
hundred and seventy people gathered together for the occasion.

101

TRAVEL

Most of the men were very intoxicated, and I received rather a
doubtful welcome. While some appeared delighted to see me,
and expressed their pleasure that I had arrived in time to join
in their festivities, the Chief and some others, almost at the same
moment, accused me of having, by witchcraft, killed one of their
horses, as they had found it dead the day before my arrival. I
argued the matter with them, and suggested that death was
probably due to snake-bite, or perhaps lightning; but they
would accept none of my explanations, and did not conceal their
anger. Although I spent some time in the village, I did not
take part in the feast, and deemed it advisable to make my
camp under some trees a little way off.

My guide, as might be expected, was taking his full part in
the merry-making, so, being alone, I retired to rest. Several
times during the early part of the night natives visited me, and
urged me to come out from under my mosquito-net and join
them in the dances ; but I refused all their invitations. About
midnight, as I was feeling thirsty, and had no water by me, I
called out for some to be brought to me. The Indian word for
water is yingmin, and for beer anmin. One old man, mistaking
my call, and being himself in rather a muddled condition,
thought I had shouted for anmin, and presently arrived with
a calabash full of beer. This I refused, and told him I wanted
water. He evidently felt amused, and, calling to a girl to fetch
water, he himself drank the beer as he sat by me, but for the
rest of that night he never seemed to have got rid of the idea
that I wanted beer, and kept on visiting me with further
supplies, greatly to my annoyance. On two occasions, finding
me asleep, he lifted up my net, letting in swarms of mosquitos,
and, stumbling forward, drenched me with the beer, for his
calabash held at least two quarts. What with the insects and
the discomfort of my beer-soaked bed and garments, I enjoyed
little sleep that night.

In the morning, as I had no further desire to remain, I
determined to visit a village about half a day^s journey off.
My guide wished to linger at the feast, so I applied to the
Chief, Mechi, for another. He told me that he would procure

102

TRAVEL

me one, but after waiting some time I became impatient, and
called him up again. He was very intoxicated, and said he
could induce no one to accompany me. I then insisted on his
acting as my guide. After a few hot words he consented, and
his horse was brought. But it was soon evident that he could
not keep his balance on it, as he fell to the ground at each
attempt to mount. At last a happy thought came to him, and
he commandeered a young lad, who was made to get up behind
and hold him on. With this strange escort I commenced my
journey. My new guide gradually became sober, although he
kept up a confused conversation the whole way, the main drift
of which seemed to be that native beer was very good, and that
it really had very few ^ad effects.

On arriving at my destination, I found that a feast was also
contemplated there, on the conclusion of the one I had just left,
and that preparations had already begun, the women being
busily engaged in making flour from the bean of the algaroba
tree, which is fairly common in the drier parts of the Chaco.
It produces a plentiful supply of a very nourishing bean, which
forms a large proportion of the Indian food while it is in
season, being not only pounded into flour for cakes, but largely
used for brewing a native beer.

I had no wish to be present at this second feast, and deter-
mined to make my way back again to Thlagnasinkinmith, as I
wanted to avoid being overtaken by the heavy rains, which were
shortly expected. I arranged with three Indian lads to accom-
pany me, and, all being ready for a start in the early afternoon,
I began to take my leave of the people. My three companions
were indulging in a game of hockey, which is indigenous among
these people, but in a very primitive form, and I had great
difficulty in persuading them to make a start.

All went well until the evening of the second day, when the
gathering darkness compelled us to camp under a few trees in
an open plain. We had previously observed that heavy banks
of clouds were gathering in the west and south, but the Indians
were of opinion that the threatened storm would not break till
the following morning. I therefore looked forward to a com-

103

TRAVEL

fortable night's rest, but I was sadly disappointed. About
seven o'clock it began to thunder, and forked lightning shot
across the sky in all directions. Still, it did not rain, and I soon
got under my net. I had been asleep only a short time when
my Indians awoke me, informing me that the storm was about
to burst.

I hastily arose in order to secure my more perishable
belongings, and, gathering together my saddle-gear and bedding,
I covered them up as well as I could at the root of a tree. I
had hardly done so when the roar of the wind was heard in the
south, and a great black cloud stretched itself across the horizon
close to the ground. It was evident that a dust-storm was upon
us, and, together with the Indians, I crouched down and covered
my mouth and nose. In a few minutes we were smothered with
dust and nearly choked. Shortly afterwards great drops of rain
began to fall. The thunder was terrific and the lightning
exceptionally vivid. The torrential downpour soon put out our
fire and chilled us to the bone. We all huddled together for
warmth, but were very soon actually sitting in water, and in
this miserable condition we were forced to pass the night.

When morning dawned it was still raining, but we made
preparations to move on. The lower-lying land was entirely
covered with some inches of water, and the previously dry
stream-beds and swamps were already almost half-full. About
midday we reached a deserted hut, and, making a fire, we were
able partially to dry our clothes.

The rest of the journey was hard for both man and beast.
Often the horses were tethered in water over their fetlocks.
Frequently we had to cross gullies, where the water nearly
covered my saddle, and our horses were at times momentarily
off their feet. On arriving at the larger streams we had to
make rafts to transport our belongings, and across the smaller
we swam with our goods, in instalments, tied upon our heads.

After six days' journeying under these miserable conditions
we were glad indeed to arrive at Thlagnasinkinmith.

104

CHAPTER X
WAR

LONG before the Spanish Conquest, the Indians of the Chaco
waged constant war against the Guarani Indians on the eastern
bank of the River Paraguay, and after the Conquest they still
remained the terror of the Spanish settlements. It is the proud
boast of these Chaco peoples, who are practically independent to
the present day, that they have never been conquered. The
inaccessible nature of their country, and the fact that it lacks
such natural riches as would rouse the cupidity of the foreigner,
account for their independence not having been seriously
menaced. During the last forty years, the Chaco tribes have
caused little trouble to the European, and only some few un-
important skirmishes have taken place. Their wars, during my
residence in the country, have been confined to the western and
northern frontiers, so that I have not been an actual eye-witness
of any of their engagements, and can only speak on the subject
of war from the reports given me by the Indians.

There are many accounts of their wars in past generations,
but it is difficult to discriminate between fact and fiction.
About the time of the great Paraguayan War, however, their
warlike adventures come within the scope of history. It is an
acknowledged fact that many of them joined with other
northern tribes in making incursions into Paraguay proper,
after that country had become enfeebled by its five years'
struggle against the united forces of the Argentine and
Uruguayan Republics, and the then -existing Empire of Brazil.
The Indians had sacked several settlements and some small
towns in Paraguay, and had taken thence several captives to

105

WAR

their fastnesses, some of whom remained in the hands of the
tribes up to my own time.

An Indian recounted to me the following story concerning
one of their encounters with the Paraguayan troops, and seemed
very proud of it, holding that it proved the heroism of his
people. The Indians were attacked in the Chaco by a body
of cavalry, and although his tribesmen were vastly superior
in numbers, yet, owing to the inferiority of their weapons,
they found resistance impossible. Some of them, therefore,
determined to sacrifice their lives for the common good, and
throwing themselves in a mass upon the cavalry, clung to the
men and horses, and, in spite of numbers of them being cut
down, they succeeded in hampering the movements of the
troop, and thus enabled their comrades to close in upon the
enemy. Many of the horsemen were dragged from their horses
and clubbed on the ground. The loss of the Indians was heavy,
but they found plenty of compensation in having killed a con-
siderable number of the hated foreigners.

During the past generation, several rather important wars
have been waged against the Matacos in the south-west, and
the Kilmikpiyim in the north-north-west, with the result that
many women and children were taken prisoners on both sides,
and to the present day it is not exceptional to find among those
tribes some who understand both languages.

The only important war carried on in the immediate vicinity
of our Mission was that between the Lenguas and the Kisapang,
a short time before my arrival among them. This encounter
left a very bitter feeling between the two tribes, and even yet it
has not quite died out, although the spread of Christianity is
rapidly leading to a more friendly and better understanding
between them. The Lengua conquerors, among whom the
Mission has chiefly worked, took the initiative in offering the
hand of friendship to their former enemies, and it is not an
infrequent occurrence now to see Kisapang and Lenguas mixing
and working together on friendly terms at the Mission stations.

The main causes leading to inter-tribal war are many, the
most frequent being the supposed evil wrought by the witch-

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WAR

doctors of one tribe against another. The greed for acquiring
the flocks and herds of another tribe, on which covetous eyes
have been set, prompts them to wage a selfish war rather than
to negotiate for them by the usual means of barter, common to
all the tribes. Another cause, and the only other worth
mentioning, is the desire to possess themselves of a supply of
women. This is the more strange because the practice of
infanticide is mainly directed towards keeping down the female
population, and, as only a few tribes are polygamous, the only
explanation I can give is the natural desire to maintain the
vitality of their people, which, owing to their custom of con-
tinual intermarriage, is seriously affected.

It is, perhaps, superfluous to state that they have no such
thing as a regular army, but every able-bodied man is expected
to bear his part in time of war. When hostilities have been
decided upon by the leaders of the people, the various clans
are summoned by means of red arrows, signifying blood. These
are carried from village to village by messengers, who tell the
people the place of rendezvous. Steps are immediately taken
to place the aged, the women, children, and the flocks in posi-
tions of safety, a certain number of men remaining to protect
them. The rest hasten off to the appointed meeting-place.
Once there, a war-chief is chosen, and then the plan of campaign
is agreed upon.

Many people imagine that a barbarous race such as this must
act in war like a disorganized mob, every man fighting for himself,
but the truth is that they work on carefully-planned lines. The
first step taken is to establish an excellent intelligence depart-
ment. Their best men are sent out as spies, with the object of
getting as close as possible to the enemy. At stated intervals
messengers are posted, and through them communication is kept
up between the spies and headquarters. When the favourable
moment for attack has arrived, the men, divided into bands, are
instructed to advance upon the enemy from certain positions.
A supporting force is arranged for, and ambuscades are planned.
The forces advance under cover of night, and the attack is
invariably made at about the rising of the morning star, an

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WAR

hour or so before dawn. In case of defeat a rallying-point is
fixed upon, but should victory result, every man has his duty
prearranged. Some guard the captives, others drive off the
flocks, some attend to the plunder, while others are deputed to
bury the dead and to care for the wounded.

The Indians, in their wars, exercise the greatest prudence, and
never expose themselves in large numbers to be shot at. They
are great strategists, and take every advantage of cover, a
practice to which their hunting life so well accustoms them. As
they procure their food as best they can, obtaining roots from
the forests, robbing gardens, and hunting what game they can
find en route, they naturally form a very mobile force. Every
man is supposed to look after himself ; he knows the country as
well by night as by day, and is therefore a complete unit in
himself.

The Indians rarely fight in a body, as their one object is to
overthrow their enemy with as little loss of life to themselves as
possible. This method makes it extremely difficult for trained
troops to fight successfully against them. Disciplined soldiers
are dependent upon each other, and of necessity are compelled
to form camps, and keep more or less together. They rarely
succeed in surrounding a body of Indians, or in forcing them
into the open, whereas the Indian sniper with his bow and
arrow gains a decided advantage in spite of the inferiority of
his weapons. His arrow makes no noise, and he is thus able to
pick off sentinels without alarming the enemy's outposts, and as
in such a country as this the invading force has to pasture its
horses, the Indian frequently succeeds in capturing, or at least
stampeding them.

When attacking an Indian village, it is their custom first to
discharge a flight or two of arrows, and then rush in with their
clubs. They kill all grown men and women who do not succeed
in escaping, and spare only the younger women and children.
This is done for obvious reasons. The younger women they
marry, and all soon settle down to the care of their families.
The children readily amalgamate with the tribe, the more so as
captives are generally well treated, and admitted to equal

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privileges with their conquerors. With the older people, how-
ever, the hostile feeling never dies out ; they are constantly
seeking to escape, and were they to save any number of grown
men, they would revolt upon any favourable opportunity.
Wounded men receive no quarter, but are killed on the spot, as
the Indian asserts that, if spared, they would take the first
opportunity to revenge themselves.

The reasons given for invariably selecting the hour before
dawn for making the attack are, that the enemy, if unaware of
the presence of an attacking force, sleep most heavily at that
hour, and that the few who might happen to be awake, do not
move far from the village fires owing to the chill of the morning.

An account given jne by an Indian of an attack upon a
Kisapang village during the war already referred to is interest-
ing, as it describes their tactics. The village in question was
situated on the southern side of a large forest. To the east and
south flowed a sluggish swamp stream, and on the western bank
nearest to the village there were some dug-out canoes, used by
the Kisapang for crossing. To the south-west lay a stretch of
open country covered with ant-hills, and to the north-west a
number of small woods, with spaces between, leading out into
the open country beyond.

The attacking force, having been previously informed of the
location and surroundings of the village by the spies, advanced
under cover of night and took up the following positions. The
main body occupied the spaces on the north-west, while a reserve
force remained some distance in the rear. In the open ant-hill
plain, a small body of good marksmen were located, hiding
themselves behind the ant-hills, and another body took up a
position in a small wood opposite the place where the canoes
lay. Swimming across the river, they brought them over to
their own side. The main body, when the moment was con-
sidered favourable, made a rush upon the village, their shouts
being the signal to the others. Those in the ant-hill plain
remained under cover in order to cut off any fugitives who might
attempt to escape that way, while half the force on the east
crossed over in the canoes, and, just as the villagers were closing

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with the invaders from the north-west, rushed up and attacked
from behind.

Taken unawares, and in the dim light, the villagers, after
fighting stubbornly for a time in order to cover the retreat of
their women and children, who had mostly escaped into the
forest behind them, scattered in all directions. Some rushed
for the plain, and were shot down by those in hiding behind the
ant-hills ; the others tried to escape by the canoes, but were
intercepted by the other half of the force left on the east for
that very purpose.

Had the Lenguas devoted less attention to securing the few
women who had not succeeded in escaping, they might have
been able to overtake those who had fled into the forest. As it
was, not knowing the intricate forest-paths, it was soon too late
for them to pursue the enemy in that direction.

Although many of the Kisapang men succeeded in eluding
their pursuers, the Lenguas, nevertheless, with comparatively
small loss to themselves, killed many of the enemy, and captured
all their flocks and most of their personal belongings, but the
booty in women and children was small.

Sometimes these tribal wars continue for many months, the
belligerents on both sides allowing hostilities to cease while they
attend to planting their gardens and other necessary works. A
war is no sooner over than the vanquished, gathering strength,
seek to revenge themselves, and thus on the frontiers a desultory
warfare is being continually carried on. The loss of life in
these wars is not nearly so great as might be imagined, and
cruelty is not practised to anything like the extent that is
generally believed.

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CHAPTER XI
RELIGION

THE treatment of this subject is exceedingly difficult. The
reader must understand that we are dealing with the religion
and superstitions of a people who have no written language, of
whose origin practically nothing definite is known, and who
cannot in any way have had their views influenced by any
European or Asiatic people. The only possible contact that
they could ever have had with a higher civilization that might
have affected their religious ideas must have dated back at
least four or five centuries, when it is highly probable that they
were either under the influence of the ancient Peruvian Empire,
or that they were actually of Inca origin.

Generally speaking, these people, since the discovery of
South America by the Spaniards, have remained unchanged
a race of savages, a nomadic people, who have left no permanent
remains behind them, no cities, temples, or even burial mounds.

The popular opinion is that they have no religious ideas at
all, that they are as the beasts of the field, without even a
tradition of the Creation ; that they have no morality, and live
only according to their instincts. Some people, animated no
doubt by the best intentions, are apt to view with too much
favour the nobler and better characteristics of heathen races;
others, with an undoubted bias against Christianity, endeavour
to make out a good case for heathenism, in order to depreciate
the mighty and elevating power of Christianity. They pride
themselves on being broad and liberal minded, and assert that,
although Christianity may suit our particular race, other forms
of religion admirably suit the special needs of various heathen

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RELIGION

nations. My own experience is that the man who knows most
is the most reluctant to make sweeping statements.

The Indian is by nature very reticent, while his general
character and modes of thought differ widely from ours in
many respects. In conversation much is only hinted at, and
not explicitly affirmed or denied ; his tone and manner are
often the only guides that one has as to the sincerity of his
statements. He is very prone to acquiescing in, or uttering
anything that he thinks will please ; he is quick at perceiving
what your ready-made opinions are, and sees no harm in grati-
fying you by endorsing them, however erroneous they may be.

It is admitted to be very difficult really to know the inmost
mind of a man, for man, wherever he is found, is not generally
given to turning himself inside out for his fellows to gaze at.
He will sometimes be frank and open about himself, so far as it
suits his purpose, but his deeper feelings he does not so readily
expose.

The Indian, although friendly and sociable, does not spon-
taneously give his confidence to anyone. Therefore on this
subject of religion I can only repeat what I have heard from
the people at different times, contradictory as some of it un-
doubtedly is, and endeavour as far as possible to suggest the
probable connecting-links, and, by comparing their statements
with facts and incidents in their actual life, throw what light I
can upon the religious tenets of this strange people.

The contents of this and of succeeding chapters may be of
some little value to those who study the primitive beliefs of
man, and may enable them, by comparing my statements with
the researches of others in various parts of the world, to trace
some connection between them, though they may also possibly
find some error in the conclusions at which I have arrived.

The symbolism with which the Indians 1 ideas of higher things
are clothed appears to us strange and childish, having more of
the nature of a fairy-tale than anything else ; but that is just
because we do not probe deep enough beneath the surface. We
ourselves talk of beautiful harps and streets of gold, and it
sounds to us very refined and poetic. In their case the harps

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RELIGION

would be gourds, as representing their musical instruments ;
their streets of gold would be paths without thorns, and
unfrequented by treacherous snakes. In both cases the idea is
to picture a state of things vastly superior to anything on earth,
and the Indian mind accomplishes this just as fully as the
Christian.

When the Indian is questioned on any mythological subject,
his whole attitude is entirely against giving any clear exposition
or explanation of the theories which he holds. He either avoids
answering and turns the question to something else, or professes
complete ignorance ; at the best he will only make one or two
admissions. He does not grasp our system of question and
answer, and even to tfye present day this inability on his part
is found to be a great hindrance to educational work by oral
examination.

Again, the Indian has not been accustomed to think out and
formulate his ideas on any subject in logical sequence, and he
has for so long simply accepted these traditions as articles of
faith that he has never troubled himself to arrive at any solution
of the problem ; but when a probable solution is proposed to
him he becomes intensely interested, and employs his best
reasoning faculties in weighing the force of the suggestions
made to him. While so doing, he very often himself recalls
incidents bearing on the subject which he had hitherto over-
looked.

A little instance will serve to illustrate this. The Indian
was acquainted when I first met him with three distinct types
of men the white man, the negro, and himself. The differences
of colour he simply accepted. When asked if he could explain
why the one race was white and the other brown, like themselves,
he looked bewildered, and replied " Kyahas !" as much as to say,
" Who knows ? We have never thought about it." But when
I drew attention to the contrast between my sunburnt face and
neck (almost exactly the colour of their own skin), and the
whiteness of my chest, reminding them that when I first arrived
among them my face and neck had not their present dark hue,
and when I explained to them that the change was entirely

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RELIGION

owing to the action of the powerful sun, they at once grasped
the solution.

Some may remark that Indians in the colder parts of the
New World have the same tinge of colour, and ask why the sun
should produce a black hue in some cases and a yellow tinge in
others. I could not go into the full explanation of this question
with the Indian ; I was only teaching him to draw conclusions
from given data. Essentially I was correct in attributing the
above change to the effect of the sun. It is an established fact
that the dampness or dryness of the atmosphere through which
the light passes materially alters the hue. Any who are
interested in this subject must study the question elsewhere,
but it was sufficient for my purpose that I succeeded in causing
the Indian to think.

Not only is the Indian reticent, but he will only communicate
with the few who are fortunate enough to win his entire con-
fidence. I think I may safely say that I have gained that
confidence to a very great extent ; and, furthermore, I had this
advantage that, being the first white man to live with them,
and that, too, before the ideas of Christianity had been sprung
upon them, I was in a position to obtain more information than
others. The fact also of their regarding me in the early years
as one who for some reason had cast off his own people, and
desired to be incorporated among them, made them the more
anxious and willing to instruct me in their mysteries, such as
they were. They looked upon me as a witch-doctor of some
distant tribe, who knew many things they did not, but who at
the same time was willing to learn from them, and thoroughly
appreciated and respected their theories.

Their whole mythology is founded upon their idea of the
Creation, of which we know only the bare outlines. The Creator
of all things, spiritual and material, is symbolized by a beetle.
It seems that the Indian idea is that the material universe was
first made. The Creator, in the guise of the beetle, then sent
forth from its hole in the earth a race of powerful beings
according to many in an embodied state who for a time appear
to have ruled the universe.

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Afterwards the beetle formed man and woman from the clay
which it threw up from its hole. These were sent forth on the
earth, joined together like the Siamese twins. They met with
persecution from their powerful predecessors, and accordingly
appealed to the creating beetle to free them from their dis-
advantageous formation. He therefore separated them, and
gave them power to propagate their species, so that they might
become numerous enough to withstand their enemies. It then
appears that some time after this, or at this time, the powerful
beings first created became disembodied, as they never appear
again in the tradition of the Indians in material form. The
beetle then ceased to take any active part or interest in the
governance of the wqrld, but committed its fortunes to these
two races, which have been antagonistic ever since.

It is rather remarkable, when we consider that they have no
written records, and no system of carefully transmitted tradi-
tion, that they should retain a belief in an original Creator,
in the immortality of the soul, and in the existence of these
powerful and numerous evil personifications, which they call
kilyikhama.

That the Indian should regard the beetle as the symbol of
creative power is, perhaps, the most remarkable feature in their
mythology, for it closely resembles the Egyptian Scarabaeus and
the ideas associated with it. To explain this statement, I will
quote Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible": "Out of the mud
which the Nile left in its flooding men saw myriad forms of life
issue. That of the Scarabaeus was the most conspicuous. It
seemed to them self -generated, called into being by the light,
the child only of the Sun. It became at once the emblem
of Ra, the Sun, and its creative power (Clem. Alex. ; Euseb. ;
Brugsch., 'Liber Metempsychoseos'; Wilkinson, 'Ancient
Egyptians '). It also came out of the dark earth after the flood
of waters, and was therefore the symbol of life rising out of
death in new forms (Brugsch., ^Egypt. Alterth/). So it was
that, not in Egypt only, but in Etruria and Syria and other
countries, the same strange emblems appeared (Dennis, ' Cities
and Sepulchres of Etruria'; Layard, 'Nineveh') and that

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RELIGION

semi -Christian Scarabaei are found with the sacred words Jao,
Sabaoth, or the names of angels engraved on them (Bellerman).
In older Egypt it was, at any rate, connected with the thought
of Divine illumination, found in frequent union with the sym-
bolic eye, the emblem of the providence of God." Furthermore,
representations of the beetle, and figures of Idtyikhama asso-
ciated with it, are the most common mythological drawings
found on Lengua gourds, the articles which they find most
convenient for engraving on, which are also the only musical
instrument used in any of their ceremonies.

The Indian's idea, therefore, is briefly this that there was an
original First Cause, a Creator who planned and made every-
thing, but that He now takes no part in the governance of the
universe, and, therefore, neither rewards nor punishes.

The Indian appears to be a believer in simple and natural laws
only. He believes that a man prospers and is happy in this life
and the next in so far as he abides by these natural laws, and
that he suffers and is punished when he infringes them. To a
certain extent this is very true heaven and hell are of man's
own making. The Indian, of course, has no idea of a fall from
primitive purity or of an atonement for sin that is, an atone-
ment made by some perfect being on behalf of the imperfect
and no idea of a resurrection of the body.

He regards the soul as immortal ; in fact, he cannot conceive
the possibility of man's personality ceasing to exist. The after-
life is to him simply a continuation of the present, only in a
disembodied condition. He does not regard the future life as
a greater, happier, and better existence, nor has he any know-
ledge of a future state of punishment following on an evil life
led in the body. He regards the body as the only means by
which the soul can really enjoy itself, and he has little, if any,
idea of intellectual or spiritual enjoyment. He accordingly
does not view the life after death with any real pleasure, for to
him in the disembodied state life will be dull and void. But, on
the other hand, as suffering to the Indian means practically
only physical suffering, so in the after-life, although he will be
debarred from pleasure, yet he will also escape from much, if

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RELIGION

not all, of the pain, sorrow, and trouble which attend him in the
present.

He seems, however, to believe that pleasure and pain do exist
to some small extent in the hereafter ; but the pleasure amounts
to so little that the future life has no attraction for him, and
rather repels him. The one thing to be coveted is life ; the one
thing to be feared, death.

Holding as he does that the Creator takes no interest in the
affairs of man, he naturally renders him no worship ; in fact, he
worships nothing, and his efforts are confined to avoiding the
consequences of evil-doing on earth and to warding off the
malignant kttyikhama, who, he holds, are continually seeking to
mar his happiness. ft

The Indian, like men of other races, possesses the ordinary
natural instincts love for his friends, parents and children,
sympathy with others in distress and in trouble, and the likp.
Beyond this, his object in life is to gratify his desires as far as
possible without getting himself into trouble.

8UHIN PIPE OF CARVED WOOD.

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CHAPTER XII
SHADE-LAND

IN order the more effectively to deal with this subject, I shall
treat it under the three following divisions : The kilyikhama ;
the aphangak, or departed souls of men ; and the departed
souls of the lower creation.

The kilyikhama are confined to no particular place.
Time and distance do not seem to affect them in the least.
They are held in great awe by the Indian, and whithersoever he
turns, whether by day or night, but particularly at night, he is
subject to their malign influences. They are as varied in their
characteristics as the races of men. There is one which frequents
the swamps, rivers, and lakes, although he is not confined to
them only. This is a white kilyikhama, and is supposed to
be seen sailing over the waters. He is considered one of the
most malignant known to the people, and at night he can be
heard whistling shrilly in his little craft among the reeds. In
order to protect themselves against this water-spirit, the Indians
wear a special head-dress made from the feathers of a rare bird,
and this they prize very highly as an all-powerful charm. It is,
perhaps, the most costly ornament that they possess, for even
when they barter it among themselves it has a considerable
value, and a European could buy practically the whole
ornamental outfit of an Indian for less than he would have to
give for this one charm. I have known them give the equivalent
often Paraguayan dollars for one, at that time equal to quite 10s.

Another Idlyikhama is supposed to be in appearance like
a boy of about twelve years of age, with two bright shining

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SHADE-LAND

lights at each side of his head. He appears to be regarded by
them more with respectful awe than with actual dread.

There is a thieving kilyikhama for whom they exhibit
almost feelings of contempt; and when they lose anything,
even through their own carelessness, they attribute the loss to
him. There is one whose help they invoke to assist them in
their hunting, and another who is supposed to be able to render
them help in gardening, especially in the sowing of pumpkins.
I might go on giving a long list of the various kilyikhama
in which they believe, but I must conclude by mentioning only
the greatest and most terrible of all. He is met with chiefly in
the vicinity of forests, and is believed to be of immense height,
extremely thin, and w,ith eyes flaming like balls of fire. To
meet him is supposed to herald instant death.

Although all Indians believe firmly in the existence of these
spirits, and although they hold that they can be seen by man,
yet I have never met an Indian who, on being closely questioned,
has seriously professed to have seen one. But it is quite common
to hear them assert that they have heard them, and felt that
they were near. They live in constant dread of these super-
natural beings, and if nothing else contributed to make their
life miserable, this ever-present dread of the kilyikhama
would be in itself quite sufficient to rob it of most of its joy.
Some of these spirits, however, are believed to work hand in
hand with the witch-doctors, who at least frequently assert that
among the kilyikhama they have some who render them aid in
their sorceries.

The Indian's theory that the kilyikhama were at one time
embodied seems to be supported by the belief that their great
desire is to gain possession of a human body, whether by direct
entrance or during sleep, by taking the place of the soul, which
is supposed to wander from the body when a man dreams.

That these kilyikliama are not the deified souls of men
seems clear from the fact that there is no veneration shown
them, but whether the Indian idea was originally that they were
a distinct spiritual creation, or simply the souls of a prehistoric
race, is not clear. The Creation story seems to suggest that

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SHADE-LAND

they were altogether a distinct species from man, and there is
no trace in Indian mythology of these ktiyikhama having a
special country, or living in tribes or clans, as their theories
with regard to the soul of man imply.

We have thought it right to accept partially their belief in
the kilyikhama as corresponding in a slight degree with
our belief in fallen angels ; in fact, we have adopted the word
Tcilyikhama as a name for them.

The unseen world in its relation to man is naturally much
more clearly defined by the Indian. He holds that the aphan-
gak or departed souls of men in the shade world (pischischi,
shadows), merely continue their present life, only of course in a
disembodied state. The souls of the departed are supposed, in
the ethereal state, to correspond exactly in form and character-
istics with the bodies they have left. A tall man and a short
man remain tall and short as spirits ; a deformed man remains
deformed. A kindly-natured man continues so in shade-land.
A witch-doctor, or a great Chief, feared and respected in the
body, is feared and respected in the spirit-world. Those who
were related in this world associate with each other in the next.
Departed spirits continue the same tribal and clan life as when
in the body. The spirit of a child remains a child and does not
develop, and for this reason is not feared. Infanticide is not
regarded as murder in the same degree as the murder of an
adult. No punishment follows the murderer of an infant, nor
is its murder attended by the ordinary superstitious fears. A
murderer that is, according to the Indian idea, a man who kills
one of his own tribe is not only executed for the crime, but his
body is burnt, and the ashes scattered to the four winds. The
Indian believes that after such treatment his spirit cannot take
human form, and remains in the after- world shapeless and
unrecognizable, and therefore unable to mingle with its kindred
spirits, or to enjoy such social intercourse as exists.

The aphangak is supposed to hunt, travel, garden, and
carry on more or less his old life, but of course in spirit form,
and pursuing only spiritual essences. The spirits of the dead
appear to take no interest in the living, nor, beyond causing

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uncanny feelings when supposed to be hovering about, do they
seem in the least to influence those left behind. Their very
names are not mentioned, and every effort is made by the living
to forget them.

While the kity'Mama appear to be continually endeavour-
ing in some form or other, such as that of an insect or some
small animal, to obtain possession of a body, the aphangak,
on the contrary, have never been supposed to attempt to enter
the bodies of the living, with the exception that an indistinct
idea seems to prevail that they sometimes seek reincarnation
as a new-born child. This theory, however, is by no means
analogous to that of the transmigration of the soul, of which the
Indian knows nothing, tyit presupposes an occasional attempt,
sometimes successful, to oust the spirit that would naturally
belong to the child at birth.

An Indian professes to be able to recognize an aphangak,
because it retains the same appearance as it had when in the
body. It has already been mentioned that the Indian's mind is
not trained to think out and formulate his theories in methodical
fashion. His theories can only be deduced by carefully sifting
and examining a chaotic mass of ideas and traditions, and by
comparing them with native customs and superstitions.

For example, an Indian one day informed me that he had
heard an aphangak coughing as he passed by a little wood in the
dark. Observe that he did not say he had seen, but that he had
heard the spirit. Being always on the alert for any possible
opportunity of studying the native beliefs, I asked him if the
spirit was a short one. It may seem strange that I should have
questioned him about its appearance when he distinctly said he
had only heard it, but in order to elicit information from an
Indian, the questioner must understand his mind and habit.

His reply was that it was tall. " A young one ?" I suggested.
'' No, old," he replied. Nothing more was said, but I under-
stood at once that the spirit he professed to have heard was
that of a man, known to us both, who had recently died. Had
I asked him straight out if he had seen it, he would have
answered truthfully, "No," and I should have obtained no

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SHADE-LAND

further information. Had I said, " Was it so-and-so ?" he
would have replied, " I don't know." My policy was to find
out what was passing through his mind at the time. I had a
very shrewd suspicion what it was, but I wanted to see if he
would confirm my impression. I knew that the deceased was a
tall old man, but if I had asked " Was he tall and old ?" I
should have received the same reply, " I don't know." That
would have meant coming too directly to the point for an
Indian; but when I asked whether the spirit was short and
young, he concluded that I was thinking of someone else, and
his natural turn of mind, imagining that I was in error, forced
him to contradict me. In this way I discovered what was in
his mind.

If an Indian kills a foreigner or one of another distinct tribe,
he is not regarded as a murderer, and he has no fear at all of
the spirit of his victim, should they meet in the after-life ; the
reason given being that he would then be in the midst of his
own people, and would thus have no more reason to fear that
spirit than when in the body. This tallies with the Indian's
idea that the clan and tribal life continue after death.

The soul on leaving the body is supposed to be astonished,
and not to realize quite what has happened. It hovers about
the village and neighbourhood for a time, generally estimated
at one month, after which period the mourning feast takes
place. The natives then suppose themselves to be no longer
haunted by the deceased's spirit, which they imagine to have
left the neighbourhood for good and to have passed to the
realms of the dead. They should then cease to be haunted by
it, but as many have only a very vague belief in this theory,
anything which recalls the departed to their memory produces
(under certain circumstances) a fear of its ghost, and therefore
they may continue to have uncanny feelings for a long time
afterwards.

The personal belongings and animals of the deceased are
destroyed at his death, evidently with the idea that they may
prove useful to him in the after-life. The reason given by the
Indian for doing this is that the ghost would otherwise haunt

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SHADE-LAND

the relatives. Now, if the ghost had no interest in these things,
why should it do so ?

An experience which I had at Riacho Fernandez will illustrate
their idea that the dead hover about for a time after dissolution.
I was staying one night in an abandoned hut with five Indian
companions, remote from any neighbours. In the middle of the
night they awakened me, and in accents of fear called my atten-
tion to a noise outside. The fire at which we had cooked our
meal had been made some twenty feet or so from the hut in
which we were sleeping, but it had practically gone out before
we retired, and must by this time have been quite dead. The
night was pitch dark and there was no wind to speak of, yet I
distinctly heard the familiar sound as of an Indian with a palm-
leaf fan blowing up the embers of a fire. It seemed so real
and sounded so much as though someone had arrived, and was
endeavouring to revive the fire, that I was on the point of going
out to see what it was, when the Indians pulled me back, and
in awestruck whispers told me that it was an aphangak. A
few days previously I had brought up in my canoe with these
same men the greater part of the skeleton of an Indian who had
been killed lower down the river by some of the Paraguayan
soldiers. He had escaped, mortally wounded, and had evidently
died unattended in the place where I found his bones. These I
had buried under a castor-oil tree about one hundred yards from
the hut in which we were camping, and the Indians evidently
associated the blowing up of the fire with his ghost. They were
too terrified for me to get any information from them that
night. After conversing with them for a short time in whispers,
I told them that I was going out to satisfy myself, as the sound
of the fanning still continued, and, in spite of their remonstrances,
I did so. Finding nothing except that the fire was quite dead,
I returned and slept till morning. My companions, however,
huddled together, spent, I am afraid, a miserable night.

On the morrow I made further investigation into the cause
of the previous night's alarms, and the only possible solution I
can give is that it may have been caused by the rubbing together
of two boughs. But during the day I elicited much interesting

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information from the Indians, which I was afterwards enabled
to verify. The souls of the departed are supposed frequently
to return to the village where their death has occurred. This
appears to take place invariably towards early morning, and the
soul, feeling chilly, endeavours to resuscitate the embers of a
fire, should it find one. But in the event of the fire being quite
dead, it becomes greatly enraged, and scatters the ashes in all
directions ; and should any unwary Indian afterwards tread
upon them, dire calamity would follow. Hence the custom of
burying the ashes (see Chapter XVI.). But this appears to follow
only if the fire happens to be one belonging to the spirit's im-
mediate connections. They seem to recognize that they have
no cause for resentment should the fire belong to others.

That the Indian in his most advanced state believes that the
spirit eventually seeks to consort with the main body of its
people who have departed this life is made clear from the follow-
ing incident : I was for many years regarded by the people as a
powerful witch-doctor, and I have been informed by them that
at one time they seriously came to the conclusion that my
presence among them was no longer desirable. They therefore
concocted the following plan, which, fortunately for me, they
did not carry out, probably because they felt doubtful of their
ability to do so successfully. They intended to surround my
hut with dry brushwood after they were sure that I was asleep.
At a given moment they were to fire this fuel, and then, know-
ing that I should be blinded by the smoke and confused by the
sudden danger, they intended to kill me as I rushed from the
flames. But before carrying out this part of the scheme, their
plan was to build little huts at suitable distances along the
route I usually took to the River Paraguay in the east. They
knew that when travelling I always made them prepare a rough
shelter to protect me from the sun and weather, whenever time
permitted. They concluded that my spirit, wandering about
the neighbourhood, would be attracted by these huts, and thus
be induced to take the road to the east, their great desire being
that my spirit should leave their country. They believed that
my own country was in the east, and for this reason they

124

SHADE-LAND

selected this route. Had they thought I had come originally
from any other quarter, they would have prepared the road
accordingly. This proves that they thought that my deceased
ancestors were located in the east.

It is significant that after the Indians had become attached
to me, and had received me as one of their own people, they
did not even suggest trying to entice my spirit to leave their
country. I refer to the time when I lay in a dying condition,
as I supposed, in one of their villages, after the attempt to
murder me (see Chapter XXVI.).

They have a similar idea with regard to the souls of the
Paraguayan Guarani Indians, who, according to tradition,
entered Paraguay from ^Brazil, at some remote period. The
Chaco Indians believe that the souls of these Guaranis retire to
the forest country around the great Falls of La Guayra on the
Alto Parana, in Brazil, seeking to consort with the souls of their
ancestors.

Speaking generally, three ideas seem to prevail regarding the
future abode of the soul. The lower type of Indian holds that
the aphangak continues to wander disconsolately about the
country in company with its kindred spirits, while the more in-
telligent are of opinion that it moves over to the west, to the cities
of the dead, already referred to in dealing with their origin. A
few, however, hold a view similar to that prevailing among the
Southern tribes namely, that the dead inhabit a world beneath
the earth.

The lower creation, with the exception of fish and serpents,
are supposed to share immortality with men. Birds, cattle, and
the carnivora, especially of the leading types, figure largely in
their beliefs of the shade-world, as also the dog, jaguar, horse,
ostrich, arid the thunder-bird.

An Indian, in his primitive and heathen condition, will not on
any account kill either his dog or his horse, even if from any
cause they are in such a condition that it would be a merciful
act to do so ; and the only time when he will deprive them of
life is after the death of the owner.

The chase of the ostrich is one of their favourite pursuits,

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SHADE-LAND

but they rub their arrow-points with a particular herb before
hunting it, either to propitiate the spirit of the bird, or to give
them success in shooting it; and when they are bringing the
carcass home they take the precaution to pluck feathers from its
breast as they go along, and at certain points throw them aside
from the path, in order to deceive the spirit of the ostrich, which
they believe pursues the body after its first consternation has
passed. Finding the feathers on the wayside, it stops to con-
sider whether that is all of it or not. Then after a zigzag
course, as is its custom, it finds the next bunch of feathers, and
again pauses to consider. By these delays the hunter is enabled
to reach the village without being overtaken by the spirit, and,
being a timid bird, it is afraid to enter.

On one occasion I was compelled to shoot a chestnut horse of
mine, although the Indians strongly remonstrated. As part of
the hide was badly wanted for the repair of my saddle, I was
about to set off in the moonlight to skin it, when some of the
old women tried to deter me, assuring me that the spirit of the
horse would probably meet me on the way and kick me to death.

These few observations will illustrate clearly the Indian's
belief in the after-existence of most of the leading species of the
lower creation.

The three views as to the location of the departed, together
with the rest of their mythological beliefs, prove that the Indian
does think and speculate on the question of the future life.
There is nothing that he is more interested in than the subject
of spiritual beings and the problematic state of the dead.

I have been able to gather only this bare and fragmentary
knowledge of their mythology, but that it really represents
their theory of the spirit- world I have every reason to believe.
At the same time I feel sure that there are many more beliefs
held by them, which remain undiscovered.

126

CHARTER XIII

DREAMS

DREAMS play a very important part in the life of an Indian,
and to some extent govern many of his actions. His idea is
that during sleep his soul detaches itself from his body, passing
out through the chest, and actually does the things that he
dreams about. The kilyikhama are supposed to be con-
tinually hovering round, watching for an opportunity to enter
the body during the absence of the soul ; and in some cases
they co-operate, one seizing the soul, while another takes
possession of the body. Dreaming is, therefore, in the opinion
of the Indian, an adventurous journeying of the soul, attended
by much danger. While the soul wanders, being ethereal, it is
able to gratify its desires more freely than if it were in the
body. The satisfaction which it derives in doing so, however,
being incorporeal, is trifling in comparison with that which it
enjoys when in the body.

As the Indian looks upon the body only as a house, or an
instrument in the hands of the soul, he considers that what he
dreams about is in reality a declaration of the will of the soul ;
and therefore, whenever possible, that will must be gratified
through the body. A man is likely to dream about that which
occupies his mind most. Dreams are often a mere confusion of
many various impressions which have been made upon the mind
at different times. As a man thinks, so he is.

The thoughts of an Indian are chiefly centred on the gratifi-
cation of his physical desires, and he firmly believes that his
dreams are to be looked upon generally as warnings and guides
to his conduct, or intimations as to what particular course of

127

DREAMS

action he should pursue. In dreamland, souls are supposed to
meet with each other and enact in the spirit what they would
in all probability do in the body, if given the opportunity. It
is clear that a race holding such theories must be exceedingly
difficult of comprehension by Europeans, their actions very apt
to be misconstrued and their attitude misinterpreted.

Perhaps I shall best bring home to the reader the attitude of
the Indian mind towards dreams by giving illustrations of the
various ways in which he is influenced by them. The Indian is
by no means a truthful person, but even in a heathen state he
usually stands by any compact which he makes, and this I have
had abundant opportunity of proving. When he fails to keep
his contract, it is as often the fault of the European as his.
But there is another element unknown to most, which has great
weight with the Indian. The following example will serve to
show how easily he may be misunderstood by the inexperienced
foreigner :

In the early years of my sojourn in the Chaco I contracted
with an Indian to remain with me and serve me for six con-
secutive months. In return for his services he was to receive a
horse. He acted very well for six weeks, but one morning he
was missing, and on inquiry I found that he had gone off at
early dawn to his own village, four days' journey away. I had
frequently heard Paraguayans and others say that you could
never rely upon an Indian and that it was quite useless attempt-
ing to make any contract with him. My own thoughts at this
time were that the man had become tired of staying with me or
dissatisfied with the work given him. Not only did I resent
his leaving without the least warning, but I was also much dis-
appointed at his breaking the contract at all.

Anxious to discover whether I had unwittingly given him
cause for offence, and thus been myself perhaps partly to
blame, I closely questioned the other Indians. I was told in a
matter-of-fact way that the man had gone off because his child
was sick, and they seemed surprised at my resentment. On
asking them why he had not spoken to me about it, they re-
plied : " He knew very well you would not let him go."" I

128

DREAMS

thought over the matter carefully, and could not make out how
he had come to know that his child was sick. No one had
arrived who could possibly have brought such news, so I con-
cluded that his fellows had, in giving this excuse for him, tried
to deceive me. Some two weeks afterwards a visitor arrived
from this man's village. I inquired of him about the child,
and he informed me that there was nothing wrong. This
convinced me that my surmises were correct.

About a month afterwards, however, the man returned,
apparently in perfect good-humour, and proceeded quite as a
matter of course to resume his duties. I challenged him about
his late conduct. He had heard that I had been angry about
his leaving, but his attitude was that of a man who had been
unjustly accused. He told me that he did not want to leave
me, that he had promised to work for me for six months, and
that he never intended to break his word. When questioned
about his child, he admitted that he left because he had thought
the child was ill, but it was not. He had felt tired after his
journey, and found it necessary to do some gardening, but he
had now returned to complete his contract. Apparently he did
not in the least realize that he had done anything wrong. It
was not until long after that I learnt he had made this journey
because he had dreamed that his child was sick.

To illustrate the native belief that souls meet with each other
in dreamland, and the theory of intention connected therewith,
I give an account of an interview I once had with an Indian.
This man arrived at my village from a place about one hundred
and fifty miles off'. He asked me for compensation for some
pumpkins which I had recently stolen from his garden. I was
thoroughly surprised, and told him I had not been near his
village for a very long time, and so could not possibly have stolen
his pumpkins. At first I thought he was joking, but I soon
perceived that he was quite serious. It was a novel experience
for me to be accused by an Indian of theft. On my expostu-
lating with him, he admitted quite frankly that I had not
taken the pumpkins. When he said this I was more bewildered
still. I should have lost patience with him had he not been

129 i

DREAMS

evidently in real earnest, and I became deeply interested
instead.

Eventually I discovered that he had dreamed he was out in
his garden one night, and saw me, from behind some tall plants,
break off and carry away three pumpkins, and it was payment
for these that he wanted. " Yes," I said, "but you have just
admitted that I did not take them." He again assented, but
replied immediately, " If you had been there, you would have
taken them," thus showing that he regarded the act of my soul,
which he supposed had met his in the garden, to be really my
will, and what I should actually have done had I been there in
the body.

The theory that the act of the soul, perceived through dreams,
would actually be the intention of the person in the body is
exemplified very fully in the motives which prompted an Indian
named Poit to attempt my murder (see Chapter XXV.).

This doctrine of intention has been found very useful indeed
in teaching Christianity, the more so because the Indian holds
to exactly the same doctrine even when unconnected with dreams,
and this idea is forcibly brought out in the execution of Poit.
The Indian executes for murder ; I was not murdered, but the
Indians, on being questioned as to the extreme measures they
took, justified their act on the ground that it was by mere
chance that Poit had not killed me. The fact that I escaped
did not in the least mitigate his act, for his intention was clearly
to compass my death.

As an illustration of the way in which dreams influence them
in the pursuit of their physical desires, I will give one of the
many instances which occur frequently in Indian life. While
sleeping in an Indian village, one morning I awoke long before
the first light, and noticed a number of men sitting round a
fire engaged in animated conversation. Joining the party, I
found that they were laying plans for a hunting expedition.
The night before I had heard nothing of such a project. I
found that they were proposing to sally forth to some open
plains some distance to the north, where they expected to find
ostriches. While listening to the conversation, I gathered that

130

DREAMS

one of the men had just had a dream, and in it had seen
ostriches in that district. The reader has been told how
particularly fond of ostrich flesh the Indian is, and how the
feathers are coveted as a personal ornament, as well as for their
value as barter, so he will not be surprised that the dreamer had
a keen and interested audience. So firmly were they convinced
that they would find this game that they were then arranging
for the hunt as soon as day dawned, and were so excited over it
that further sleep was out of the question.

Witchcraft would almost cease to exist were it not for their
superstitions, supported by their dreams. A few examples will
suffice to explain this statement, but it is necessary first to
remark upon their habks at night. In all my experiences I
have never yet spent a night in an Indian village when all the
occupants were asleep at the same time. For this there are
many reasons, which are given elsewhere. The point which I
want to bring out is that during the sleeping hours conversation
between a few sitting round the fires is carried on in an ordinary
tone of voice. Nocturnal sounds, such as wolves howling, the
cry of birds, the rustling of the wind, and the hundred and one
strange noises of the tropical night in a primeval land, as well
as ordinary actions, such as the sharpening of arrow-points,
chopping wood, pouring out water, all serve to act as suggestions
to the sleepers, and doubtless in many cases give rise to dreams
connected with such things. It is well known that the mere
whispering of a few words in a sleeper's ear may induce a dream
corresponding with their import.

The Indians suffer from rheumatism and other complaints,
consequent upon their exposed life ; and their habit of eating
chiefly in the evening, because the game which they hunt down
is not brought home until the close of day, gives rise not only
to frequent nightmare, but also, it must be admitted, to the
pains of indigestion. We can quite understand how a pain
which would scarcely be felt in the full activity of the body by
a man while engaged in the day's pursuits, may produce an
acute sensation in the brain during the hours of sleep. A feeling,
for example, of a sharp rheumatic pain in the leg or arm,

131

DREAMS

coupled with the fact that the Indian's mind is steeped in
superstition, might very possibly occasion a dream such as the
following, which was recounted to me by an Indian.

A spirit appeared in the form of a horned beetle, and, flying
round the sleeper several times, eventually entered his body in
the vicinity of the knee. The pain of its entrance was distinctly
felt. The sleeper, awakening, noticed no mark or other sign of
injury. The pain, however, was still slightly felt. What
explanation could there be, according to the Indian's way of
thinking, except that an actual beetle had entered, possessed by
a spirit ? The fact that no opening was to be seen was attri-
buted to the power of the spirit. The aid of the witch-doctor
was at once called in, and he extracted the beetle by means of
suction, and actually showed it to the sufferer and others.
That no wound was caused in the extraction was explained by
the doctor's power of sorcery. Thus the Indian's belief in
dreams is strengthened, and his superstitions gain force as well.

On another occasion an Indian dreamt that he was eating a
kala (water-fowl), and said that on waking he had heard the
screeching of these birds in the swamp near by. In the morning
he informed his neighbours that his young child, which was
with its mother at another village, had been awake most of the
night. A superstition prevails that a man who has a young
child should not eat this bird, because, if he does, his child will
be sleepless during the succeeding night. In this case it is
evident that the cry of these water-fowls in the night had
given rise to his dream, and, holding this superstition, he con-
cluded that, as in spirit he had eaten of it, so his child that
night had suffered for his rash act.

One more instance will suffice to show how their dreams work
in conjunction with their superstitions. An Indian dreamed
that, feeling thirsty, he went to a well near by to get some
water in the night, and had seen coming towards him the ghost
of an aunt of his, leaning upon a stick, and with her otter-skin
cloak wrapped tightly round her shoulders. He awoke in terror,
and communicated his dream to some of the others. The whole
village was soon awake, and, filled with superstitious dread, they

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crowded together, being afraid to sleep again that night. One
of the old men, with gourd and chant, endeavoured to scare off
the ghost. The suggestion for the dream, in this case, may not
be far to seek. The memory of his aunt's death was fresh with
him. It is possible that while he slept, some of his fellows, as
they sat round a fire conversing, may have referred to the place
where she died, or to some other circumstance which reminded
him of her. His going to the well for water may have been
prompted by a feeling of thirst, or the sound of someone pouring
out water from a jar, or even by someone asking if there was
water to be had. It will be observed that not only the man
himself believed in his dream, but that all the people with him
were convinced that the ghost must have been in the vicinity,
else he would not have dreamed of it.

The uneasy conscience of the Indian adds fear to his dreams,
as is shown by the following incident : I was travelling with
seven men in the direction of the Kyoinamyip clans, but on
arriving at the River Verde we found it so swollen, and the
neighbouring country so flooded, that progress was difficult. I
therefore decided not to continue my journey, but to content
myself with visiting a large village about fifteen miles farther
on, where a feast was being held. I arranged to leave five men
at the river, and to proceed with the other two. After selecting
these two, I was surprised to find that one refused to go. On
inquiring the reason, the others informed me that two men at
the village intended to kill this man, and that therefore it was
unsafe for him to proceed. I accordingly chose another in his
place. The people, although many of them were intoxicated,
gave me a hearty welcome, and pressed me to stay with them.
But I told them that I had left some of my party behind, and
being curious to discover whether there was any truth in the
report that they wished to kill the man in question, I mentioned
the names of those left behind. As far as I could see, there
appeared to be no sign of ill-will, and far less of any contem-
plated violence.

Some days later I learnt that the statement had been made
to me on the strength of a dream, and I sought a favourable

133

DREAMS

opportunity to elicit further particulars. I eventually found out
that the man whose life was supposed to be threatened had got
into grave trouble about a year previously over a marriage
question. Having heard during the evening that I intended
going to that same village, and had selected him as one of my
companions, he evidently recalled the evil he had done the year
before, and, realizing that it merited punishment, was visited by
a dream naturally connected with that subject.

Only one point of any importance in the matter of dreams
remains to be illustrated, and this is the danger to which the
soul is supposed to be liable when it wanders from the body.
The following dream was related to me by one of our most
intelligent Indians. A man of his acquaintance woke up with a
great start, and was so terrified that for a time he could not
explain the reason of his fear. Eventually it transpired that as
he dreamed, his spirit had moved only a little way from the
village, when it was seized by a gigantic kilyikhama. He
saw several of them near, and he noticed that one (a smaller
one) ran quickly to where he had left his body. He that is,
his soul was carried for some distance, but finally, on the edge
of a forest, he managed to escape, and, trembling with fear,
rushed back to the village. What happened subsequently he
could not tell, as at this juncture he awoke.

It is believed that sometimes a kilyikhama actually does
enter the body, the soul having been carried to a distance by a
co-operating kilyikhama, where it is left. Fearing that the
other evil spirit has taken possession of its body, it dare not
return, and has to await the signal from the witch-doctor, in
the form of a particular chant, announcing that the usurping
kilyikhama has been cast out, and that it is therefore safe to
return. It must be remembered that, according to the Indian,
the absence of the soul from the body during a dream does not
imply that the body is lifeless ; on the contrary, physical and
mental life still continue. Apparently, therefore, he holds that
he is composed of a threefold combination body, mind, and
spirit although he is not able to explain the phenomenon.
And how the body, when taken possession of by a kilyikhama,

134

DREAMS

is able to give notice of the fact to the witch-doctor, I have
never been able to ascertain. It seems to be contradictory, and
the very idea is ludicrous a man sitting up in full strength and
vigour, apparently in doubt as to whether he is himself or not,
and asserting that his soul is at a distance.

Occasionally it would seem that no sooner does the soul
emerge from the chest (why the chest I am not able to explain),
than it is at once seized upon by a kilyikhama. I have
myself seen an Indian graphically imitate the manner in which
the kilyikhama are supposed to hover over the sleeping form,
and wait for the soul to issue from the chest of the sleeper, as it
goes forth seeking adventures. Such dreams as this, I suppose,
are the result of a strong imagination, influenced by deep-seated
superstitious belief.

This account will enable the reader to realize that the life of
an Indian is not, after all, the free, thoughtless, unburdened
and happy existence which he is often supposed to lead ; and
further, that his religious views, if I may so call them, are not,
even for him, the most suitable and best. The fair-minded
reader will, with very little effort, be able to understand what an
inexpressible relief it must be to an Indian to have his mind
enlightened to such an extent that he no longer lives in a state
of constant supernatural dread. This relief, among others, it
has been one of the Mission's privileges to bring to him.

LENGUA METHOD OF PRODUCING FIRE.

135

CHAPTER XIV
SUPERSTITION

MOST of the Indians' superstitions have an underlying stratum
of fact, although they do not perceive it, and simply give them
credence without inquiring further. For example, when the
south wind blows they take off their blankets and shake them,
doing this, they say, in order to shake out the sickness which
they think it brings. The Indian does not understand the
connection between the south wind and sickness, and yet in
reality the facts tally with what he believes. North and south
are the most prevalent winds in this region. To the north is
the practically unpeopled waste of Matto Grosso, and the
equally sparsely populated northern Chaco. There are, there-
fore, in this direction, no centres of population where diseases
such as measles, small-pox and influenza could originate. The
settlements of any consequence in which they are propagated lie
to the south-east.

Although disease germs may not be carried a great distance
by the wind, nevertheless the Southern Indians and those along
the river to the south-east contract these diseases from the
whites ; they spread among these tribes, and eventually reach the
Indians in the Paraguayan Chaco. Thus these diseases, whether
by direct contact or through germs carried by the wind, have
really reached them from the south. Furthermore, the south
wind is cold, and striking upon their indifferently-protected
bodies, subjected for long periods to tropical heat, it produces
the various complications following upon chill.

The Indian suffers also very frequently from gumboils. He
attributes their origin to the eating of fat, of which he is

136

SUPERSTITION

inordinately fond. There is some truth in this. The eating of
fat upsets their digestive organs, and this in turn acts harmfully
upon any weak spot in their teeth.

They have a habit of rubbing the knees and ankles of their
children with the grease of the ant-bear and the ring-tailed bear.
This they do in order to make their legs strong, and un-
doubtedly the rubbing, not to mention the grease, may have
some good effects.

At various periods they make paint marks upon their bodies,
unconnected with mere ornamentation. These marks have
reference to physical conditions.

Mothers are forbidden to eat vegetables of a certain crude
shape, as they are supposed to have a bad effect. Also they are
not allowed to partake of soup made from the heads of animals,
and young children are forbidden to eat of young meat such
as veal.

Milk, whether of the cow, goat, sheep, or mare, is never
drunk. The older people seem to consider it unfit for them,
and children are forbidden it because it is supposed that the
milk upon which they are nourished will influence them
physically as well as in character, and the Indians have no
desire that their children should in any way acquire the natures
of such animals.

The sensitive plant, if secreted in the food, is believed to have
the remarkable power of producing love of home. If you want
a man to be attached to you and always to remain with you,
try and induce him wittingly to eat of this plant. If he does,
you can rest assured you have accomplished your object.

I remember that one day the Indians were discussing the
probability of my leaving them after a time, and returning to
my own country for good. This they were very much averse
to, and pressed me very hard to eat some of the sensitive plant.
I took a little just to please them, and they then triumphantly
informed me that we should always be comrades, and that if I
went away at any time with a view to living in my own country,
I should grieve so much after them that I should be forced to
return and dwell with them.

]37

SUPERSTITION

Occasionally an Indian falls out with his companions and
goes off in a huff, intending to travel to some distant village.
Should they not desire this, one of them will follow the man,
and, on finding a certain plant by the wayside, will pick it
and throw it over his shoulder. Having done this, he returns
firmly convinced that the man will stop and turn back. In
the case of the sensitive plant, its peculiarity of seeming to
have a power of feeling probably caused them to adopt it as
a charm.

They have many other amulets, some of which I know
slightly, but it would be tedious to describe them all. Two or
three, however, may be worth mentioning. Manuscripts and
printed paper, when obtainable, are preserved in order that
they may make charms relating to us, writing being in their
eyes our special symbol. In hunting they use various plants as
charms, which they either carry on their persons or rub on
their weapons. They sprinkle the blood of a duck in order to
procure rain. They wear a red head-covering for hunting the
deer, as it arouses the curiosity of that animal and facilitates
stalking. Wax images of animals they also use as charms in
hunting.

When a man expresses a desire for rain or for a cool south
wind, his neighbours, if they do not share the desire, protest
strongly, and implore him not to persist in his wish. They
always considered that I had particular power in influencing the
south wind, and believed that by whistling or hissing I could
bring it up at will. This probably was owing to the fact that
Europeans welcome this wind as a pleasant change from the
exhausting heat. When a sudden rain-storm rises, they wait
until it has almost ceased, and then, as it were, pushing it away
with their hands, they cry out vigorously, " Whay ! whay !" It
is very common to hear a woman cry out to a man, " Iwatikap !"
(Blow it away !) . On a cloudy day, when the sun has been
obscured for some time, an old man is sometimes seen to take a
firebrand and hold it up to the sun, apparently with the inten-
tion of encouraging the luminary to show his face again. This
is perhaps connected with the idea of the Peruvian Indians,

138

SUPERSTITION

who, when the sun is obscured, think that he is angry, and is
turning away his face from them.

The Milky Way is supposed to be the path of the
kilyikhama.. There some of them, in the form of large
white birds, are believed to wait their opportunity to descend
upon and enter into the bodies of men. To the Milky Way
also pass the stones used in burial rites (see Chapter XVI.).

Whirlwinds are believed to be the passing of spirits, and the
Indian throws sticks at them in order to drive the spirit away.
Dobrizhoffer remarks that the Abipones threw ashes in the
path of the whirlwind, that it might be satisfied with food.

The sun and moon, when they set, are supposed to have gone
in search of food. *

Some hold thai when the moon is red, it has seen a crime of
blood, and takes that hue in order to rebuke the perpetrators.
Years after the massacre in Tierra del Fuego of Captain Fell,
of the South American Missionary Society, and his party, the
Yaghan Indians related how, shortly after the crime, the moon
appeared of a blood-red colour, and they connected this pheno-
menon with the deed they had committed.

The moon is also supposed to be associated with marriage,
the young girls addressing the new moon with the appeal,
" Moon, moon, I want to get married."

The solar halo is believed to indicate that a battle is in
progress on the frontiers, and that much blood is being shed.

The Pleiades are known by two names apasmamaap
(holders together), and lantebiam (mounting in the south).
Their rising is connected with the beginning of spring, and
feasts are held at this time, generally of a markedly immoral
character. Dobrizhoffer, in writing of the Abipones of the
Southern Chaco, says : " After long and frequent consideration,
it appears most probable to my mind that the savages derived
the knowledge and the worship of the Pleiades from the
ancient Peruvians, who are said to have adored . . . the
Pleiades, whom they called Colca." He goes on to say that
they regarded "the Pleiades as the representation of their
grandfather the devil."

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This Jesuit had spent seven years among these Indians, but
as I have spent twenty, continually associating with them on
the most intimate terms, I shall take the liberty of making a
few remarks upon this assertion. The term " grandfather " is
often used amongst the Indians, generally as applying to a
distant ancestor. In this particular part of the Chaco it is
quite as common to address a person of distinct race and of
superior standing as aksak. We missionaries are so addressed
by them. But they only apply the term to those with whom
power and authority are supposed to rest. Evil spirits are
referred to also as aksak. But, what is most important of all,
they term the creator beetle aksak. It almost amounts to
this : aksak, although literally " a thing," can be used as the
title of a person, and when so used it implies something beyond
us which we do not quite grasp and understand. I have never
known the Indians refer to the Paraguayans in this way, nor to
traders, surveyors, or ordinary settlers. It connotes something
special. Aksak wanam, which is literally " the old thing,"
is also a term used for something great and particular, and I
have heard it used to signify someone great and ancient. It is
possible, therefore, that the Indians, in referring to their " grand-
father the devil/ 1 were in reality thinking of some powerful but
little understood personality belonging to a remote period ;
and, as they consider that the Pleiades represented him, they
doubtless conceived him as a being of great antiquity. They
must have observed the Pleiades for centuries, and their likening
their grandfather to such an object implies that they revered
him as a being of great might and power. In my own opinion,
the statement of Dobrizhoffer that the Abipones looked upon
themselves as the descendants, or, it may be, the creation, of
their " grandfather the devil," is nothing more nor less than the
widespread tradition that man was created by the beetle, and
therefore their originator, instead of being a devil, was rather a
creating god.

I have heard from a few Indians a remarkable theory that
among the stars there are countries similar to their own, with
forests and lakes. The Indian has no idea of astronomy, and

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I can think of only two possible explanations of this theory. One
that they have a childlike notion that the sky is solid, and is,
as it were, a continuation of the earth ; the other, which is
much more probable, that these Indians either had traditions,
or had received a detailed account from other Indians of some
wonderful mirages in remote countries. Mirages are certainly
to be seen in the Chaco, but not of a kind which would give
rise to such an idea as this.

The rainbow is held by some to be symbolic of some serpentine
monster. When seen in the west or north-west, the Indian
will not handle sharp instruments, such as a knife or axe, for
fear of being hurt. It is true he knows that the rainbow indi-
cates a break in the weather, but, generally speaking, his idea
of the rainbow is that it is a sign of calamity. It is possible
that this belief may have come down to them in connection
with the story of the Flood, but, as I have discovered no
definite tradition of the Flood, and as it is difficult to conjecture
what relation cutting instruments would have to it, I incline
rather to another more likely explanation. The standard of
the Incas of Peru was a rainbow. Everything points to the
fact that the Inca legions frequently waged war with the Chaco
tribes, and the association, therefore, of the rainbow with sharp
cutting instruments and a serpentine monster has at the least a
claim to probability. The Incas had a large, well-trained army.
Military roads, parts of which exist to the present day, were
made for their convenience. But on the frontiers of the Chaco
no such roads have ever existed. The troops would be compelled,
by the nature of the country, to travel in a long-drawn-out line,
and as these paths would, owing to physical obstacles, be of a
winding nature, the symbolism of the serpentine form, in
connection with the rainbow standard, seems natural and
appropriate.

Mention has been made of the spirit of the horse. In keep-
ing with this idea they have a superstitious dread of horse's
bones. A native does not like even to handle them. One
Sunday morning, while walking with our first Indian convert,
Philip, I was conversing with him about their superstitions, and

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endeavouring to ascertain how far his acceptance of Christianity
had overcome his superstitious fears. After a short time he
left my side suddenly, and stood a little way from the path.
His manner struck me as strange, and on joining him I found
him standing on a heap of horse's bones. He neither shook nor
seemed inclined to move, until I asked him for an explanation.
Pointing to the bones beneath his feet, he said : " I no longer
fear that which my people fear." In this way, by alluding to
one superstition, he signified that he had ceased to be influenced
by any of them.

~^n a wild region like the Chaco, it is not surprising that
I strange and weird sounds are heard, especially at night, some,
I too, being quite inexplicable. One in particular is the sound
I as of people whispering in the woods. This has been heard by
Europeans and Indians alike. According to their description, it
is exactly as if a group of men were in hiding and concocting
some plot in low whispers. All agree that the sounds are
remarkably human. The Indians' theory of this is that the
travelling spirits of the Spaniards enter the woods, when they
meet with Indians, and remain there taking observation of them,
whispering so as not to attract attention. The Indians in such
circumstances admit to feeling eerie, which I can quite believe.
But they are not actually afraid, and do not deem it necessary,
on account of these sounds, to move their camp, as they
certainly would if they thought they were the spirits of their
own people. I

Infanticlcleis referred to elsewhere, but as many of the causes
leading up to it are based on superstition, I shall touch upon
them here. Twins they consider unlucky. Generally, if not
invariably, both are put to death. I have remarked that many
of their superstitions have a stratum of fact underlying them,
and in some cases the superstition appears to have been invented
by some astute person, in order to give, as it were, sanction to
acts which, from their unnatural character, would otherwise be
repugnant to the Indian. In this case it is a natural conclusion
that twins would not have the same chance of developing into
strong men and women, and it is easy to understand how great

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a burden twins would be to an Indian woman leading a pre-
carious and nomadic life. The mother, however, if left to
herself, would from natural instinct desire to keep her children
even at the risk of being put to inconvenience. In order that
the clan may be freed from such a burden, this superstition has
evidently been invented to give sanction to infanticide.

An Indian woman, now a Christian and being trained as a
nurse in the Mission hospital, gave birth to twins some nine
years ago. Although she was favourably inclined to Christianity,
her mother was a woman of strong heathen prejudices, and some
of the Christian natives at that time had to exercise great
precautions lest the grandmother should murder the children,
as she certainly would ha^ve done if a suitable opportunity had
presented itself.

There are two general reasons for infanticide, superstitious
support never being lacking. One is that owing to the kind of
life the Indians lead, a large infantile population would be a
serious hindrance to them, on account of the difficulty of
travelling and of procuring suitable food for them. Moreover,
it is the custom of the Indian women to suckle their children
for three or four years, a custom which was also prevalent in
the eighteenth century among the Abipones.

The other reason is that infanticide is mainly perpetrated on
female infants and by the old women, who, knowing that their
comfort, influence and power depend upon there not being too
many of them, make use of this means to limit the number of
their own sex. The result is that every girl has a wide selection
of partners, and consequently many men have to remain un-
married. If the man of her choice does not treat her well, she
simply divorces herself, and has no need to remain long without
a husband. The men resent this artificial means of destroying
the balance of the sexes, but superstition is strong, and they are
powerless to alter matters. A young Indian once said to me :
" The women in my country are few, and when there is one to
be married, many desire to have her, and we are like vultures
disputing over the prey."

It is truly said that " superstition dies hard,"" and to break

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free from it requires a strong effort on the part of the Indian
advancing from heathenism to Christianity. But that they
succeed in doing so shows that there is latent in them a power
capable of development, and it is remarkable how quickly they
escape from the thraldom of ages, when once they take the first
few steps towards enlightenment. Dreams and ghost- stories
and the tricks of the witch-doctors are now topics of good-
humoured and mirth-provoking conversation around the fires of
those who have become the adherents of the Mission.

One little incident will illustrate the attitude of the Indian
Christian's mind towards superstition. A young man, pre-
paratory to concluding the marriage contract with an Indian
girl, wished to have some proof of her Christianity. The points
he considered essential were that she must cease to use obscene
language, must learn to pray, and must no longer be afraid of
ghosts. After the lapse of a certain period he put her to the
test. From inquiries he found that her language had been
faultless ; and after hearing her pray, he was satisfied on that
point. But the ghost-test was severe. He sent her on a dark
night alone to draw water from a swamp, about half a mile
away, which she successfully accomplished. When it is con-
sidered that a woman seldom, if ever, leaves the village after
dark, and, should there be occasion to fetch water at night, she
is invariably accompanied by one of the men, it will be seen that
this girl's action was courageous.

Had she failed to pass this examination, he would have
refused her, although he knew full well that it might be many
years before he would have another opportunity of marrying, as
any one of his heathen companions would have been only too
glad to step into his place.

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CHAPTER XV
WIZARDS AND WITCHCRAFT

A WIZARD is one who is endowed above his fellows with natural
acuteness, knowledge of. the phenomena of nature, insight into
character, and with an abnormally developed capacity for
roguery.

A Jesuit Father, writing in the eighteenth century about the
Indian wizards, says : " There is not one of the savages who
does not believe that it is in the power of these conjurors to
inflict disease and death, to cure all disorders, to make known
distant and future events, to cause rain, hail, and tempests . . .
and to handle any kind of serpent without danger . . . credu-
lous savages, who account every new thing which they have
never seen before a prodigy, and so attribute it to magic. . . .
This simplicity of an ignorant people the crafty j ugglers know
well how to turn to their own advantage."

Every village has its witch-doctor, whose duty it is to
protect his own people from supernatural evil, and by means
of his sorceries to avenge them when wronged.

The office of a wizard is not necessarily hereditary, although
it does sometimes run in families. Their secrets are jealously
guarded, but the greater part of their art is pure deception.
Yet they are to a considerable extent the victims of self-decep-
tion themselves. They believe that there are other wizards
who really possess some powers which they themselves only
profess.

Although there are many who claim to be witch-doctors,
yet those who really have attained to some distinction in the

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profession are not very numerous, and I have only met a few
really clever wizards. There is every reason to believe, however,
from statements of their own and of others, that at one
time the witch-doctors possessed more knowledge than they
have now.

The training necessary to qualify an Indian to become a
witch-doctor consists, in the first place, in severe fastings, and
especially in abstention from fluid. They carry this fasting to
such an excess as to affect the nervous system and brain. Certain
herbs are eaten to hasten this stage. They pass days in solitude,
and, when thoroughly worked up to an hysterical condition, they
see spirits and ghosts, and have strange visions. It is necessary,
furthermore, that they should eat a few live toads and some
kinds of snakes. Certain little birds are plucked alive and then
devoured, their power of whistling being supposed to be thus
communicated to the witch-doctor. There are other features
in the preliminary training which need not be mentioned, and
when the initiatory stage has been satisfactorily passed, they
are instructed in the mysteries under pledge of secrecy. After
that their future depends upon themselves.

It is unquestionable that a few of these wizards understand
to a slight degree the power of hypnotism. They appear at
times to throw themselves into a hypnotic state by sitting in a
strained position for hours, fixing their gaze upon some distant
object. In this condition they are believed to be able to throw
their souls out that is, in order to make them wander. It
seems that occasionally, when in this state, they see visions
which are quite the opposite of those they had desired. At
other times they content themselves with concentrating their
attention for a while upon one of their charms, and I have no
doubt that occasionally they are sincere in desiring to solve
some perplexing problems.

One of the chief duties of the wizard is to arrange the weather
to suit his clansmen. If they want rain, it is to him they apply.
His sorceries are of such a kind that they may be extended over
a long period. He is never lacking in excuses, and so, while
apparently busy in combating the opposing forces which are

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hindering the rain, he gains time to study weather signs. He
will never or rarely venture an opinion as to the expected change
until he is nearly certain of a satisfactory result. Any other
Indian could foretell rain were he to observe signs as closely as
does the wizard. The killing of a certain kind of duck, and the
sprinkling of its blood upwards, is his chief charm. When he
is able to procure this bird he is sure that rain cannot be far off,
because these ducks do not migrate southwards until they know
that there is going to be water in the swamps. These swamps
are filled by the overflowing of the rivers as much as by the
local rainfalls, and the presence of water in the rivers and
swamps soon attracts rain-clouds.

The wizards also obse'rve plants and animals, study the sky,
and take note of other phenomena, and by these means can
arrive at fairly safe conclusions. They are supposed to be able
to foretell events, and to a certain extent they succeed so
far as these events concern local interests. By judicious ques-
tioning and observation the astute wizard is able to judge with
some amount of exactitude how certain matters are likely to
turn out.

After we had introduced bullock-carts into their country, the
people were naturally interested in the return of the carts from
their periodical journeys to the river. When the wizards had
calculated carefully the watering-places, and had taken into
consideration the state of the roads, the character of the drivers,
and the condition and number of the bullocks, all that they
then required to know was the weight of the loads, and the day
on which it was expected that the carts would leave the river
on their return journey. The lost two items they had to obtain
from us. When they had these data, by a simple calculation
they could make a very shrewd guess, not only at the time when
they might be expected to arrive at the village, but also at
what particular part of the road they might happen to be on
any given day. A great impression was made upon the simple
people by this exhibition of power, but when we discovered
what they were doing, we withheld the information, or only
gave them part, with the result that their prophecies either

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failed ignominiously or proved very erroneous. Their reputation
accordingly began to wane.

These sorcerers are held to have the power of raising storms.
One man was reported to have been the author of very disas-
trous rains, and some Indians were recounting to me his wonder-
ful powers. I asked them if they thought that it was really
he who brought about the torrential rains, and they un-
hesitatingly answered in the affirmative. I then remarked that
it was strange that this very witch-doctor had suffered serious
inconvenience in his own hut from this rain, and that further-
more his garden was practically ruined. " Now,"" I said, " when
he engineered that storm, why did he not arrange that it should
not afflict him ?" The Indians looked surprised, as my remark
seemed reasonable, and they replied, " Nokso " (True). " We
never saw it in that light.""

The wizards appear to be authorities on agricultural matters,
and when application to the garden spirit has failed, the witch-
doctor is called in. He examines the crop, and if he thinks it
is likely to be a poor one, he says it is being blighted by an
evil spirit, but that he will use what sorceries he can to preserve
it. If, on the other hand, he has reason to believe that the
crop will be a good one, he spits upon it here and there, and
then assures the people that now they may expect a good harvest.

Some of the chief duties of the witch-doctor consist in laying
ghosts, driving off spirits, exorcising ~kilyikhama in cases of
possession, assisting wandering souls back to their bodies, and
generally in the recognizing of spirits. When a ghost is sup-
posed to haunt a village, the wizard and his assistants have
sometimes an hour's arduous chanting, in order to induce the
restless one to leave. When he considers that he has accom-
plished this, he assures the people that it is done, and this
quiets their fears. Evil spirits frequenting a neighbourhood
have also to be driven off by somewhat similar chanting.

Persons, when supposed to be possessed by kilyikhama, some-
times give the witch-doctor really serious work to do, and in
these cases he is as full of fear as the rest of the people. I have
never seen a case of possession, such as the Indians believe in,

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or one at all resembling the supposed cases of possession, which
are said to be met with in China ; but I will quote an ordinary
case with which I had to deal. One day I heard a great uproar
in the village. On inquiring the cause, I was informed that a
woman was possessed by Idlyikhama. I went to the scene of
the disorder, and found her stretched on the ground, throwing
herself about violently. Four men were holding her down by
the limbs, while the wizard was bending over her, trying to
drive out the spirits. I at once saw it was simply a case of
hysteria. Bidding the wizard desist from his performances, and
telling the people that I had a potent drug which would very
soon restore the patient, I returned to my hut, and brought
back with me some strong liquid ammonia. As soon as I
applied a liberal dose to her nose on a handkerchief, the effect
was instantaneous, much to the astonishment of the people.

A short time afterwards the wizard sought me out privately
and asked me to give him some of that wonderful medicine. I
gave him a sniff of the bottle with the cork right out, and the
effect was almost more marked than in the case of the woman.
He was nearly overbalanced from the shock. I asked him if he
would like to take some with him, but, as soon as he could
speak, he emphatically declined. I think he ceased to wonder
why the spirits left the woman so quickly.

Dreamers also frequently require the wizard's help, especially
when the wanderings of their souls have been interrupted by
unfriendly spirits. Having to deal so much with ghosts and
spirits, he is supposed to be able to recognize their presence at
all times, and to distinguish and describe them by the aid of the
bright metal ear-discs which he wears, as he is thought to be
able to see the shadows in these mirrors as they pass.

On my return from my first furlough, I brought out a few
hideous masks with which to amuse the younger boys. At first
they eyed them with suspicion, but soon took to them, realizing
what an amount of fun they could get out of them. Shortly
after this a very famous wizard paid a visit to the village. The
lads, who had attended school for some time, and had lost a
good deal of their natural fear of the witch-doctors, desired to

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play a prank on the distinguished visitor. Dressing themselves
up, and wearing the masks, they hid in the vicinity of our
house. Then one of their number, in ordinary attire, went to
the village and informed the wizard that I wished to speak to
him. He came down unsuspectingly, and suddenly encountered
five weird masked figures. For one moment he was paralyzed
with fear, but almost in the next he was back in the village.
Great was the mirth of the boys, and they roguishly remarked
how strange it was that the wizard, " Blue Blanket," an expert
at recognizing spirits, should be so terrified when he met
them.

At Thlagnasinkinmith I built a high palm fence round part
of my hut in order to keep out the dogs while I was sun-drying
meat. I was sitting inside this enclosure at a fire with a
number of men conversing on diverse topics, and chanced to
have my alarum-clock with me. A young witch-doctor, having
some chanting to do, coolly came and stood up against my
fence and began his dismal task. I told him to move farther
off, as it interrupted our conversation, but he paid no attention.
I therefore decided to remove him by other means, and, setting
the alarum a few minutes ahead, I slipped it unnoticed behind
the fence. His chant waxed louder and more vigorous, when
suddenly off went the alarum. He dropped his gourd, and
with a cry of fear ran off to the village.

Some of the methods practised by the wizards are gruesome
and revolting. The treatment of the dead will be dealt with
in the following chapter, but there are many other occasions
on which they resort to practices of an exceedingly repulsive
kind.

In certain cases of sickness, sucking is the recognized cure.
By long practice they develop a power of suction which is
quite surprising in fact, it amounts to much the same as
cupping. If an Indian spits blood owing to overstraining him-
self or through some internal injury, he is always in fear that it
may result in death. For want of skilful medical treatment
such cases sometimes end fatally, but they attribute this entirely
to the haemorrhage, of which they have an inherent dread.

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The wizards make capital out of this, and, when angry, threaten
the people that they will cause them to die from internal
bleeding. To prove his power, he shows how he can produce
this bleeding in himself at will without any harmful effect, but
pictures the terrible consequences that will ensue if he produces
it in them.

He strikes his head and breast several times, and, looking
diabolically fierce, he throws up apparently a mouthful of blood,
which he catches in his hand and rubs upon his naked chest.
The native is filled with terror at the sight, not knowing that it
is but a simple trick. The witch-doctor has previously secreted
in his mouth certain forest seeds, and, after having delivered his
oration, as if exhausted by it, he calls for a drink of water,
taking care to retain in his capacious mouth a fair quantity.
This is coloured by the seeds, and the contents, when spat out,
very closely resemble frothy blood.

In skin eruptions, such as small-pox, measles, and the like,
they open the pustules with a sharp-pointed instrument, not
infrequently a knife. They then wipe it on their bare arm or
leg, and have no scruple in using the same instrument imme-
diately afterwards in cutting their food. Is it any wonder that
such diseases spread so rapidly among them ?

They have many other revolting practices, but decency for-
bids the mention of them. It is utterly impossible to give an
exhaustive account of these primitive people, as so many of
their customs are unfit for discussion.

Much of their witchcraft is pure trickery ; a few of them
have the rudiments of the conjuror's art, although, as a rule,
their deceptions are very clumsily worked. The people are so
credulous and unsuspicious that the wizards do not find it
necessary to acquire any great skill.

I was once told by the Indians that a very celebrated wizard
had arrived. They recounted many of his wonderful deeds, one
of which was that he could, by striking his head, produce a
number of small creeping things, such as live slugs, caterpillars,
and beetles. When I doubted their statements, they solemnly
assured me that they had seen it done. I said : " Well, go to

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the village and tell him to come to me, and if he can do as you
say I will give him a handsome present." Jealous for the
reputation of their wizard, and fully believing that he could do
what they had described, they hastened off.

I was somewhat surprised to see him appear. I asked him,
before the crowd which had eagerly gathered round to witness
the overthrow of my scepticism, if he could perform this wonderful
feat. Without hesitation he replied in the affirmative, and I
bade him proceed. Striking an attitude, he smote his head
two or three times with one hand, with the other compressing
his stomach And working upwards. He then put his hand to
his mouth, ejected quite openly several live things into his
palm, and held them out for us to see. There lay the creeping,
wriggling insects, and a look of triumph was clearly distin-
guishable upon his face. The onlookers were filled with mixed
feelings of pleasure, satisfaction, and fear. All looked expec-
tantly at me. Rising, I clapped him on the back, told him he
was a clever fellow, and gave him the present I had promised.
He was delighted.

I then insisted on his sharing some of my food, which he did
not seem too keen to do ; but I persisted, and in the midst of
the admiring throng he had no alternative but to consent. He
took a large mouthful, and while he was endeavouring to
masticate the food, looking at him straight in the face, I said
presently: "That was a clever thing you did just now; you
must really show me it again ;" but he only turned on his heel
and went away. It was plain that he had some more live
insects in his mouth, and they had evidently become mixed
with the food. He would have had to swallow it, or otherwise
have been discourteous to me. Swallowing the food would
have meant swallowing the insects and slugs as well, so he
assumed offended dignity and strode away.

This reminds me of an interview I had with another wizard.
Curious to know how they actually did their tricks, I feigned
having a pain in my arm, and sent for old "Red head."
Believing me to be in earnest, he proceeded to spit upon and
then suck my arm. After a time he produced three small fish-

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bones, and, showing them to me and those around, asserted that
these were the cause of my trouble, adding that they had been
caused to enter there by some unfriendly wizard who disliked
me. " They are not nice people in the west," he said. " Quite
different from us, who love you and are your friends." He
then asked for a handful of beads as his fee. Taking him rather
unawares, I examined his mouth. He did not seem to realize
at first what I was after ; but as I pulled out a few more fish-
bones, his face lowered, and began to wear a threatening look.
I simply showed the bones to the onlookers, and this, with a
look, conveyed all that was required ; but that witch-doctor
hated me for several years afterwards.

We find many specialists in the profession. One witch-
doctor of my acquaintance practised as his speciality the extrac-
tion of small needles from afflicted Indians. This, of course,
was the result of contact with foreigners, and shows that Indian
witchcraft is not too rigidly conservative, but advances with the
times. This adaptability, however, to changed circumstances
often gives rise to serious difficulties. Foreign bodies are
extracted by the wizards, but when, for purposes of their own,
they desire to afflict their victims with the presence in their
bodies of such things as beetles, fish-bones, etc., they can only
do so through the aid of the kilyikhama. The insertion of
needles (made in England) was quite a new development of
wizardry, and the question which naturally arose was how this
wizard prevailed upon the kilyikhama. to adopt such a new
method of inflicting suffering. I don't suppose, however, that
he troubled much about the matter, and his credulous fellow-
countrymen evidently raised no critical questions. They
suffered pain ; he extracted needles. The cause and effect
were plain. What need was there for further argument or
speculation ?

We had remarked for some time that this particular wizard
frequently requested us, as a personal favour, to obtain for
him several packets of the smallest needles obtainable. He
was an ingenious fellow to have invented this new line of
business, but our suspicions were aroused. What possible use

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could an Indian have for such very small needles ? These
suspicions were strengthened when, shortly afterwards, a new
epidemic, as it were, broke out among the people. " Needles "
became the fashionable disease. But we determined to stamp
it out. The supply of needles was cut off, and, as no more
were obtainable, the malady ceased, and the wizard's lucrative
occupation with it.

As witchcraft had such a hold upon the people, and as its
influence was unmistakably evil, we set ourselves to oppose it.
Mere theoretical opposition to this evil had no effect ; it required
practical exposure, and this I accomplished whenever an oppor-
tunity occurred, but I must confess that my experiments were
not always a success.

There is a root, about the size of a large apple, found in the
forests, which is supposed by the natives to be a virulent poison,
and to cause almost instant death. But the wizards are credited
with the faculty of eating it with impunity. Old " Red head "
was one of those reputed to be able to eat this deadly root, so I
demanded proof of his power. The root was brought and
handed to me. I passed it round to the Indians present and
requested them to eat a bit, but no one would do so. Further-
more, they scoffed at me for imagining that they would be so
foolish as to try. I then handed it to " Red head." He
instantly took a large bite without a qualm, chewed, and
swallowed it, the Indians looking on with interested awe. I
then took it from him, and, after reasoning with myself, came
to the conclusion that what he could eat with impunity I could
eat also. However, there was just the possibility that it might
be poisonous, and that he possessed an antidote. I therefore
scanned his face keenly while I prepared to take a bite also.
Had he thought that it was really deadly, he would have shown
signs of alarm, for I knew full well at that time that it was not
convenient to the Indians that I should die under such circum-
stances. But I saw no such sign, nor even a trace of jealous
apprehension. I therefore ate a piece. No evil effects followed,
beyond the disagreeable flavour of the root, and no sign of
annoyance even was evinced by the wizard, such as he certainly

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would have shown had he feared that my action would damage
his reputation.

I was surprised at this, but later, in the presence of a number
of Indians, I referred to the incident, and said : " You have all
feared this root, and have believed that only a witch-doctor
could eat of it, and not die ; but you saw me eat it, and no
harm has come of it." I thought I had scored a great point,
but old " Red head," who was present, quietly said : " We were
not surprised, because you yourself are a witch-doctor." I had
always refused to be considered as such, but, unfortunately, my
good intention had simply confirmed the popular belief. I con-
fess that I was chagrined, so I made up my mind to take the first
opportunity to aim a telling blow at witchcraft.

About this time there was a rumour of trouble being likely to
arise between the Indians and the Paraguayans, but a witch-
doctor had given out that his people need not be afraid, as he
had power to charm the guns of the Paraguayans, so that their
bullets could not wound. I warned them that this statement
was not to be relied upon, and that if they came into collision
with the Paraguayans, they would certainly find that their
bullets would kill. But they seemed to have implicit faith in
their wizard's statement.

In order to prevent them from being led foolishly into danger,
and still smarting under my late defeat, I told them that I
should like to test the witch-doctor's assertion for myself. He
came and assured me that his charm would prove quite efficacious.
I then turned to the Indians and said, " He believes in his power :
let him prove it. Make him stand over yonder, and I will fire
at him three times with my Winchester. He can charm bullets,
and therefore can come to no harm, and you then will be assured
that when you meet the Paraguayans, you will be safe." But
my wizard would have none of it, and the people on this
occasion were sensible enough to consider prudence the better
part of valour.

On another occasion, at the same village, while we were sitting
round a fire in a hut with a number of Indians, a witch-beetle
came humming in. These witch-beetles are supposed to be sent

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by the witch-doctors to enter those whom they desire to destroy.
These particular creatures are about an inch and a half in length,
black, and horned. In this case it was believed to be either
intending to enter one of this party or on its way in search of
a victim farther off. A hush fell upon the company, and fear
possessed them all. After some difficulty I captured it. Holding
it in my hand, to the horror of all, I placed it alive in my mouth,
and closed my lips upon it. After a time I took it out and
threw it away, triumphantly assuring the people that if it really
had the power attributed to it, I had supplied it with a ready-
made opening by which to enter.

But they would not be satisfied. They made two objections.
The first was, of course, that I was a witch-doctor, and therefore
knew how to charm it. The second was that it probably did
not want to enter me, its objective being another person
altogether. When told that even if such had been the case,
the power of the witch-doctor and his associate kityikhama
could at least have saved it from this indignity, they seemed
unwilling to admit this, one remarking that it might be that
their kilyikhama had no power over me.

This reminds me of an incident at Waikthlatingmangyalwa,
our first Mission-station. A party of visitors arrived late at
night, and, it being the dry season, they were extremely thirsty.
They asked me to give them water, but I told them that I had
only sufficient for my own use in the house, so I offered them a
bucket and told them where they could get water some little
distance off. They demurred, and told me they could not go,
as it was known that at night spirits frequented that spot. I
offered to go with them. My reputation as a spirit-scarer by
this time was considerable, and they gladly accompanied me.
We obtained the water and returned, of course without seeing
any sign of a spirit. Anxious to improve the opportunity, I
remarked upon the groundlessness of their fears, but they
replied, " With you it is different, and you must not think that
because the 'kilyikhama in your country are tame, that here they
are so also. Our spirits are fierce and dangerous. " Again I
failed to score an advantage.

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Some considerable time after this I heard from the lads a
story to the effect that their wizards could, in the presence of a
crowd of people, spit pumpkin seeds out of their mouths to a
distance, and immediately full-grown ripe pumpkins could be
picked up. I did not attempt at this time to explain the trick,
but endeavoured to make them think for themselves by putting
the following questions : " Why is it that your people, who
often suffer from hunger, do not insist upon your witch-doctors
providing for your immediate needs in the way you have just
described ; and still more, how is it that they themselves suffer
equally with you the pinch of hunger, when they could so easily
improvise a substantial meal ? Does it not appear to be power
misused, merely to work this miracle now and again to prove
what they could do if they would ?" This remark, being
thoroughly practical, and affecting them on a very tender
subject, made considerable impression upon them.

The trick is of the simplest. The witch-doctor's assistants
have a few pumpkins secreted beneath their blankets. The
attention of the crowd is, of course, fixed upon the performing
wizard, and when he spits out the seeds, which of course are
never seen again, being lost in the dirt and refuse which is
always to be found in abundance in the vicinity of their shelters,
the crowd at once begin to look on the ground for the expected
pumpkins, which are presently discovered, having been dropped
by the confederates, who had intermingled with the people.

I thought one day that if I did a little simple jugglery
myself, and then explained to the people how it was done, and
could induce some of them to do these tricks themselves, it
might bring home to them more clearly than by any other
means the way in which they were being duped. Getting
together a good audience, I performed for their benefit a number
of conjuring tricks, most of them being imitations of those of
their own wizards. But the one which seemed to impress them
most was the extraction from a dog's tail of a piece of paper
after he had eaten it. Wrapping up a piece of fat in a bit of
paper, I gave it to a dog, which eagerly devoured it, paper and
all, and then, working with my hand along his stomach, I sucked

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the paper out of the tip of his tail, and showed it to them.
" A-po-pdi !" cried the onlookers in chorus, unable to restrain
their astonishment. The trick was an easy one, which I after-
wards explained to them. Tearing out two leaves of cigarette
paper, I secreted one in my mouth, wrapping the fat in the other.

Adolpho Henricksen, the founder of this Anglican Chaco
Mission, died from the consequences of exposure on the River
Paraguay, but I was informed once by the Indians, when they
were incensed against me, that I had better be careful, because
their witch-doctors had killed him by their sorceries. Taking
them at their word, I demanded and obtained compensation all
round for the injury done to my tribesman. For a long time
afterwards they still maintained that he had been killed by
witchcraft, but, not caring to be again fined, the witch-doctors
ingeniously denied having done this themselves, and attributed
the deed to the wizards of the Caingua, a tribe in the north of
Paraguay proper, thus maintaining the reputation of witchcraft
and at the same time guarding themselves against further
punishment.

About the time when we first succeeded in taking a bullock-
cart into the interior, the witch-doctors, it appears, had decided
to get rid of me. According to my informants, they feared to
lay violent hands upon me, judging that the presence of my
enraged spirit in their country would be more troublesome to
them than I actually was in the body. Their plan, therefore,
was to put me to death by a slow, painful illness, which would
cause me to grow thinner and thinner, and for this purpose they
had been engaged with their sorceries, so I was told, for fully
two months. Old Pinse-apawa was my informant, and he urged
me not to risk my life by going inland with the cart. However,
when he found that I was determined to go, he said : " Do not
tell the witch-doctors that I informed you of what they are
doing, but say that a spirit warned you."

I arrived safely with the cart, after encountering many
difficulties, I did not deem it wise to make any reference to
what I had heard, but could not resist the temptation of making
a few remarks which I knew would be exceedingly irritating and

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discouraging to my would-be murderers. So, shortly after my
arrival, I laid myself out to expatiate upon the great advantages
that we should derive now that we had proved the practicability
of bringing in provisions by bullock-cart. My colleague,
Andrew Pride, and myself, had often been very short of food,
and on account of this we were thinner than we cared to be.
" But now," I said triumphantly, " you will soon see in what
fine condition we shall be." I heard afterwards that the wizards
did not enjoy this and other such remarks.

In spite of all the superstition and trickery connected with
witchcraft, the wizards possess a certain amount of practical
knowledge, and really make use of it. They know of many
herbs which they employ* as medicines. Unfortunately, some of
them are utilized for improper purposes, but others are used
advisedly to relieve suffering. The bitter bark of a tree is
known to allay fever. The malva, or mallow plant, is used in
cleansing wounds, and so are other herbs. They have also a
plant which relieves toothache, and others of less or greater
efficacy are used in specific diseases. Snake-bite they often
succeed in curing, chiefly by suction and by tying a ligature
between the wound and the heart. They also have some idea
of inoculation for snake-bite, using the fangs very carefully in
scratching parts of their bodies. They practise massage with
considerable success. Saliva is freely used on wounds, and to
stop bleeding they apply clay or earth. They are very accurate
in calculating the probabilities of recovery or death, judging
principally from the appearance of the eyes.

There is no doubt that these witch-doctors have much more
medical knowledge than they are generally credited with, and
this incredulity as to their knowledge is owing, I think, to the
fact that it is so mixed up with superstition. But it would
require a medical man to study their methods, in order to
estimate the real extent of their knowledge.

15y

CHAPTER XVI
BURIAL RITES

UNDOUBTEDLY the most gruesome of all Indian customs are those
connected with the burial of their dead.

The foreigner when he finds himself alone amongst these
Indian tribes, naturally braces himself up in the face of imminent
peril ; but it is quite another matter when he happens to have
the doubtful privilege of witnessing an Indian funeral, with all
the horrible rites and weird circumstances that invest it.

A death has taken place; the sun is fast sinking on the
horizon. The village, which at noon was stirring with life and
energy, is now desolate, save for six or seven solemn and awe-
struck Indians, who have been deputed to carry out the last
dismal rites. The body lies just outside one of the huts, covered
with a reed mat. Presently two men approach, and, removing
the matting, they hastily wrap the body in a native blanket.
Then, laying it face downwards, they lash a pole along the back,
tying it at the neck and heels. Raising their gruesome burden
upon their shoulders, in strange procession they wend their way
to the forest in the fast fading light.

A grave is hastily dug with wooden diggers, and the body,
loosened from the pole, is forced into a sitting posture inside.
Haste is necessary, for the sun has already disappeared, and,
according to their laws, the funeral ceremony must be concluded
before the red glow has died out of the sky, and they have still
the last rites to perform.

A scene, weird and revolting as this, I have witnessed on
several occasions, but it is not easy to describe to the reader the
uncanny feelings which it awakens.

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Death is invariably supposed by the Indian to result from
the direct influence of the kttyikhama, either proceeding from
their own desire to injure, or induced through the medium of
a witch-doctor. He, of course, never injures, or, at least, is
believed never to injure any one of his own party, his business
being, on the contrary, to secure them from evil. Anything,
therefore, in the nature of sickness or death occurring in his
own district is held to be either the direct act of the Tcilyikhama
or of some unfriendly wizard from a distance.

The various ways in which sickness and death are supposed
to be caused have been already described under the head of
witchcraft. When death ensues, the business of the wizard is
simply to decide in what part of the body the cause of death is
located, and this determines the special rites to be carried out at
burial. As long as there is hope of recovery, the wizard and the
friends show great kindness to the sufferer, and do all that they
can for him, and I have frequently noticed instances of very
careful and tender nursing as far as their limited knowledge
went. But when once the hope of life has been extinguished,
both sufferer, wizard, and friends give up the struggle. The
patient is then to a great extent regarded as practically dead,
and little further attention is paid to him.

When death seems imminent, the dying person is removed
from the village and laid outside, with a mat thrown over him,
although he may be quite conscious. They think nothing of
his discomfort at this time. The hot noonday sun may be
pouring down upon him, aggravating his suffering, or tropical
rain may be falling, or perhaps the cold south wind of winter
chilling him, but it matters not. Quite close to him prepara-
tions are being made for a hasty departure. He sees them, and
very often hears the discussions as to how they intend to treat
him. This state of consciousness continues sometimes up to
actual burial. Can the reader imagine what must be the feelings
of this poor deserted creature ? No kindly word is spoken to
him, no friendly hand holds his, though he is still living, still
conscious. Oftentimes he suffers the agonies of thirst, but no
one attends to his needs. And yet these Indians are not

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unkindly ; they grieve for their dying friend ; they will miss him
and mourn his loss, but their cruel belief overcomes all natural
feelings. This has been their system for generations, and no
one has cared to teach them a better way.

When the village has been abandoned, those appointed to
attend to the funeral rites wait till the last possible moment
that is, about half an hour before sunset -unless the sufferer has
actually died sooner. But whether he is dead or not, if there
is no possible hope of his living through the night, his funeral
begins, in order that it may be completed before darkness
sets in.

The rites to be performed alter according to the circum-
stances of death, but there is never any variation in the purifi-
cation ceremony, the words at the graveside, the plants laid
thereon, and the position of the body in the grave. The burn-
ing of the village and the destruction of the property of the
deceased are always customary.

In some cases the only peculiar rite is the placing of hot
embers beneath the feet of the corpse and on the head. If,
however, the seat of trouble has been in the head, after the body
has been placed in the grave they batter the skull with clubs ;
if in the region of the heart, arrows are shot into it, and some-
times a stake is driven through the shoulder and slanting out
below the ribs, thus pinning the body to the side of the grave.
In the case of dropsy, the body is shot at, and a bunch of
herbs is held by the man conducting the burial. This is
afterwards burnt, and each of the party swallows some of the
smoke.

The meaning of these and many more rites which are used
I do not fully comprehend, and I have had opportunities of
witnessing only some of them. A very common rite, however,
is the cutting open of the side, and the insertion into the wound
thus made of heated stones, an armadillo"^ claw, some dog's
bones, and occasionally red ants. The wound is then closed. In
cases where haste is necessary, as it always is if the funeral takes
place towards sunset, the sick person is not always dead when
this operation is performed. In any case, to be efficacious, it

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must be performed, if not before actual death, certainly im-
mediately afterwards, and before the spirit is supposed to have
left the vicinity of the body.

The stones are thought to have knowledge communicated to
them by the soul of the dying or dead person, who, being freed
from the limitations of the body, is able to recognize more
clearly the originator of his trouble. They are supposed to
ascend into the Milky Way, and there remain until they find an
opportunity to descend on the author of the evil in the form of
shooting stars. Consequently, the Indians are very frightened
when they see a falling star. They have all been guilty in their
time, or are supposed to have been guilty, of causing some
evil to others, and they are never sure when vengeance in this
form may be wreaked on them from some distant quarter.
Dobrizhoffer, writing of the Abipones, says : " Whenever they
see a fiery meteor, or hear it thunder three or four times, they
believe that one of their j ugglers is dead, and that this thunder
and lightning are his funeral obsequies. 1 ' In all probability
the idea of the Abipones was identical with that of the Lenguas
of the present day. The armadillo's claw is supposed to burrow
under the ground until it finds the culpable wizard, then to
enter into and destroy him. Thus he is believed to be attacked
at the same time from above and below. The particular parts
played by the dog's bones and the red ants I cannot interpret.

These rites having been performed, the body is placed in the
grave in a sitting posture, with the face towards the west.
Probably this has some connection with their idea that the
future home of their people lies towards the West, in the cities
of their dead a fact which has already been touched on in
dealing with their possible origin. This custom seems to give
weight to their traditional idea of the Western abode of their
dead, just as Christians generally place their dead facing the
East, as symbolizing the quarter from which they look for their
Hope to come. When the grave has been filled with earth,
certain plants, some being of the aloe species, are placed above
it, and then those who are officiating stand round the grave.
The leader points with his finger to each one, and apparently

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asks a question, and the others reply ; but I was never able to
catch what was said, nor could I ever get an explanation.

The only incident tending to throw light on the subject, and
which seems to have any reference to this ceremony, concerned
an Indian who had been present at the burial of a woman.
Some time afterwards, having a quarrel with her relations, he is
reported to have said that he had seen their sister, and for this
they killed him ; nor was it accounted as murder. I could get
no clear explanation from the bearers of this story why this
man's remark should have given so much offence, and brought
him to such a tragic end. All that I could gather was that the
man, who knew the woman was dead, and had been present at
her funeral, was thought, by making this statement, to throw
doubt upon her death and burial, and, from other hints which
I have received, the incident seems to have been connected with
the form of words used at the grave. The leader of the burial
party, I think, takes a statement from each of those present
that the funeral has been conducted properly, that all the rites
have been duly performed, and that they are direct witnesses that
every detail that their customs demand has been fully carried
out. Any tampering, therefore, with their laws on these matters
was followed by condign punishment, as in the case of this man,
who had probably insinuated that the native rites had not been
fully complied with.

The following perilous experience, which I met with in the
year 1894, while alone amongst the Indians in the interior of
the Chaco, at the village of Thlagwakhe, may perhaps throw
some light upon this oath-taking, or whatever it may be, at the
graveside. An old man, Ataiwanam, had been dying for some
days, and eventually expired one afternoon. By this time I had
gained considerable authority among the people, as events will
show. It was just a few months after I had been successful in
saving a child from being buried alive. The Indians invited me
to form one of the burial party at the old man's funeral an
invitation denoting great confidence and respect which I
accepted. The funeral was carried out in the ordinary way,
without any peculiar atrocities ; but I was permitted to have

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my way in respect to the size of the grave, which I insisted
upon their making larger than usual, in order to avoid such
unseemliness as crushing forward the head of the corpse and
breaking the neck. They furthermore requested me to say
some words. They neither expected nor wanted a Christian
address or prayer, but they had an idea that I had a powerful
influence with spirits, and a word-charm from me might, they
thought, add weight and efficacy to their own ceremonies.
Being anxious to take every possible opportunity of introducing
Christian ideas among them, I readily agreed. My Lengua
was far from clear, as my knowledge of their language was at
that time very rudimentary. Being in an excited condition,
and the light rapidly fading, they were in great haste to be off,
and therefore were in no fit frame of mind to follow my remarks.

So all went well for the time, and we returned to the village.
I had already extorted a promise from them that they would
not destroy and vacate this village, as was their wont, and had
assured them that no harm would come to them. Further-
more, I had dissuaded them from killing the four goats belonging
to the old man, although they destroyed his other property.
The plan by which I had contrived to save the goats was by
offering to exchange them for four of my own. His niece
therefore received four goats from me; and I assured them that,
if the spirit of the dead man should resent this liberty that we
had taken with his property, the trouble would fall upon me,
and not on them.

The people had built their shelters on the forest side of my
hut, but, although they had promised not to destroy the village
nor vacate it, they had taken the precaution to pull down their
booths and re-erect them on the farther side of my hut, so
that, whatever happened, I, at any rate, should be between
them and the ghost, and therefore be the first to suffer.

The witch-doctor, the most intelligent man of the party, had,
a week or two previously, under strong persuasion from me,
erected for himself quite a superior kind of hut, with a small
opening for a door. His wife and family, however, although
they did not remove the hut, made very considerable alterations

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to it, the chief of which was that they securely blocked up the
doorway, making it appear like a part of the wall, and opened
a small gap on the opposite side instead. As the old wizard
afterwards explained to me, this was done on purpose to puzzle
the ghost. He, while in the body, knew the house well, but the
alterations were so considerable that it was supposed his ghost
would not recognize it, and would be especially nonplussed when
it made for the entrance to find it a solid wall.

The village was particularly quiet that night. This was the
first time in their history that they had ventured to remain in
the same place after a death had occurred, and they naturally
felt intensely nervous in fact, they hardly dared to speak
above a whisper. I remained up till about ten o'clock, but,
finding things rather dull, I then retired to rest.

It must have been an hour or so after midnight, when I was
awakened by a terrible hubbub amongst the people. The few
guns they had were being fired off, arrows were whizzing through
the air, women were shrieking and beating on the ground with
sticks, children crying, dogs barking, and goats and sheep run-
ning hither and thither. I wondered what could be the matter,
and felt sure that we must have been attacked by enemies.
I hastily lit a home-made wax candle, and got from under my
net. I had hardly done so before three men rushed into my
hut, exclaiming that I was trying to destroy them. For some
time I could make nothing of their accusations. They were
terribly excited, evidently full of rage, and in a dangerous mood.
Eventually they went outside, and I followed.

At the door I met two or three of the younger men, who had
been much attached to me for some time. They were calmer,
but very serious, and informed me that the ghost of the old
man had been seen to enter my hut, and remain there for some
time, and then disappear to the north ; but who had seen him
I could not gather. They moreover informed me that it was
believed that when I spoke at the grave, I had communicated
with the dead person, and urged him to have an interview with
me. This, of course, if true, was a breach of custom, and, in
my case, of honour also. My informants further told me that

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BURIAL RITES

the people were greatly incensed, and purposed killing me. I
could see that they were loath that I should meet with such a
tragic end, but it was plain that they also believed I had been
juggling with the ghost.

I realized that the moment was extremely critical. It was
no good arguing with them in their present excited state, and
I saw that my safety lay in keeping as quiet as possible. To
attempt flight would have been folly, but I felt that I should
be much safer if I could get out of the way for a time. They
have a dread of going near a grave in the night, and even their
witch-doctors will not do this. So I decided to try the follow-
ing experiment. I explained to the few more reasonable ones
that the accusation of the people was false and unjust, and that
I was so convinced that there was no spirit about that I would,
if they liked, walk over to the grave, in order to show them
that I had implicit faith in my assertion. The few near me
seemed to think that this was reasonable, and, not wishing to
give them time to reconsider, I began at once to put my offer
into execution. I knew that, if I could once get in the vicinity
of the grave, I could remain undisturbed for the rest of that
night, and probably by the morning their excitement and
hostility might have died down. I had not gone far, however,
before they brought me back. A strong discussion seemed to
follow. Some were evidently taking my part, but I overheard
one old man observe that it was quite easy for me to offer to
walk in that direction, as I had just had an interview with the
ghost, and therefore could not possibly be afraid to meet it
again, adding some other remarks about my powers as a wizard.

Finding nothing further could be done, I tried to appear
quite indifferent, and retired again under my net. Doubtless
they thought that I had gone to sleep, and perhaps remarked
on my coolness and bravery. But in reality I remained quite
as wide awake as any of them for the remainder of that night.

I heard afterwards that the cause of all the uproar was an
old woman's dream, in which she saw the ghost. As the people
had been in an exceptionally excited and anxious state of
mind that night, owing to the fact that they had adopted

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this innovation of remaining in a place after a death, their
excitement was easily fanned to a flame when this old woman,
suddenly awaking, recounted her dream. Nevertheless, my
predicament was awkward and unpleasant enough, and I do not
suppose I shall ever know exactly in what imminent danger I
was at the time.

This incident shows that the Indian strongly resents, and is
prepared to punish with the greatest possible severity, any
attempt to have dealings with the ghosts of the departed. In
my case, I had been a party to the burial, and had therefore
been supposed, together with the others, to have done all that I
could by rites and ceremonies to prevent the spirit from having
any occasion to revenge itself upon its people, and the accusa-
tion of the Indians was that, in opposition to the whole object
of the funeral rites, I had called up the ghost. The fact also
that I had urged them to remain in the same village and abstain
from some of their customs made any breach of honour on my
part the more culpable, as it placed me under the suspicion of
having laid special traps to bring about their ruin.

In the case before mentioned the man had distinctly said that
he had seen the woman after her burial. Now this could not
possibly have meant that he had seen the ghost, because all
Indians are supposed to see the ghosts of the dead, and their
funeral rites aim mainly at exorcising such apparitions. His
statement meant, so I gathered from the Indians, either that
the woman had not been actually buried, or that the rites had
not been adequately performed, with the result that her appari-
tion had been hovering about. Now as he happened to be one
of the funeral party, he was responsible with the others for any
evil that might ensue, and because, in order evidently to annoy
the others, he had boasted that things had not been done
satisfactorily, he was put to death.

To return now to my account of the burial rite, an interesting
ceremonial is that of the purification of the funeral party on
their return to the village. Several clay pots containing water
stand on the fires. After drinking some of the hot water, they
wash themselves all over. Palo santo wood is then burnt

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and carried round the village. A hole is dug to receive the ashes
of the village fires, which are carefully collected and buried, for
reasons already given in a previous chapter. The property of
the deceased is then burnt, and if he possessed animals they are
generally killed before the main party vacate the village that is,
prior to the actual burial. The final act is the destruction of
their booths, which they burn to the ground, and the funeral
party proceed with all haste to join the rest, frequently looking
behind them in nervous fear in the darkness of night, and fail-
ing to make such rapid progress as they would wish, owing to
the thorns and other obstacles in their path.

Next day the near relatives go into mourning, although, if
time allows, they do this on the day of the death. This consists
in painting the face black, generally with charcoal, streaks being
made to represent tear courses. The hair is cropped short, and
a covering is placed over the head. The wailing for the dead is
carried on during the first night. The near relatives, as they
enter the new village, are closely muffled up, and they live apart
for the space of a month, taking their food alone, and never
sharing in the common pot. They are looked upon as unclean
until the expiration of the days of mourning, when they undergo
a purification with hot water, and it is not till then that the
funeral feast begins. The bereaved stand outside their hut and
wail, a fire is made, and they are joined by their friends, who
stand round and sing. All then circle round the fire, singing
as they go. Boys are dressed up to represent dragon-flies, and
by their antics and their inimitable representation of these
insects cause much merriment. The purification is then com-
plete, the mourning is over, and the bereaved are allowed to
enter once more into the common village life.

In the case of death from snake-bite, only the ordinary rites
are observed. In cases of infanticide, the child is simply buried,
there are no rites connected with it, and no mourning attached
to it beyond the death-wail from the mother.

A murderer, when executed, is not mourned for, the ashes of
the funeral pyre are scattered to the four winds, and the instru-
ments used at his execution are first shown to the relatives of

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BURIAL RITES

the murdered man, still stained with blood, in order to prove
that vengeance has been fully carried out. They are then
buried, as they can never be used again for any purpose.

The name of a dead person is never mentioned, and should it
be necessary to refer to him, he is only spoken of as " he who
was." The great object is to forget their lost relatives as soon
as possible.

The Indian is loath to bury if there is any possibility of the
patient surviving the night, and should death occur too late to
bury that night, as sometimes, though seldom, does happen,
owing to an error of judgment on the part of the wizard, their
peculiar rites, if considered necessary, are at once performed and
the body carried out and placed at a considerable distance
from the village. In such a case the funeral takes place the
next day.

A typical instance will illustrate this. An old woman un-
expectedly showed signs of final collapse about nine o'clock one
night. In her particular case, the stone rite was considered
imperative. She was carried by her people to a spot some
distance from the village, where the rite was performed, and
there left for the night. In the moming she was found several
yards from where they had laid her, the ground being torn up
all around her, and her finger-tips much lacerated. It is quite
evident that she could not have been dead when the mutilation
rites were carried out, and she must have spent the greater part
of the night in dreadful agony of body and mind. The reader
can realize for himself the terrible experience this woman
must have undergone, left thus alone in the darkness of night,
to die a lingering death, tortured with pain and harassed by
supernatural fears.

170

CHAPTER XVII
RESCUE OF A CHILD

A PERSONAL experience of my own which occurred while I was
alone in the Chaco, only a few months before my perilous
adventure at Thlagwakhe, will convey to the reader some idea
of one of the most horrible and revolting of Indian customs.

The scene of this occurrence was about two miles west of
Thlagwakhe. A severe epidemic of influenza had visited the
whole village, and one woman in particular had been in a very
weak state for some time. Her condition ultimately became
critical. During the previous week I had arranged to remove
the village to Thlagwakhe, which was a much better situation,
and a number of young men were employed in building huts
there.

About midday there were such clear signs that the woman's
end could not be far off that the people packed up their belong-
ings, and, driving off their animals, migrated to the new site.
Leaving about eight men behind, I went over with the main
party to superintend the removal of my own property, but left
word that I was to be notified as soon as the death took
place.

About five o'clock a messenger arrived with the news, and I
hastened back with him. I found the woman lying outside the
village covered with reed matting, and preparations were being
vigorously made for her burial. The water-pots for purifica-
tion purposes were already on the fire. Knowing their customs,
I insisted upon examining the woman, and, in spite of the
protests of the Indians, I removed the matting. Her pleading
eyes met my gaze, and in a faint voice she implored me to give

171

RESCUE OF A CHILD

her a drink of water. This I procured for her, greatly to the
annoyance of the rest.

Presently two men drew near, bringing a pole with them, and
announcing that the grave was ready. It was now about six
o'clock, and the sun was fast setting. There then ensued a
heated altercation between myself and the men, I protesting
against her burial, since she was still alive, and they eager to
hasten it, her own husband being one of the party. Eventually
they agreed to wait until the last possible moment, which was
not long in coming. I examined her again. She appeared to
be quite unconscious, but was still breathing. Life, however,
could not last much longer. In spite of my further pleading,
they carried her off, burying her without mutilation, and only
placing fire in the grave.

I did not wait at the grave-side more than a few minutes, but
hurried back to the village in order to soothe her three-months-
old child, which had been left in a hammock. I had never even
heard of their horrible custom of burying an infant thus left,
with its mother, and I quite concluded that the father intended
taking it with him when the rites were completed. What was
my horror, therefore, when the father and another man appeared
and prepared to carry the child off!

" You surely will not kill the infant F I said.

" Oh no," he replied ; " the mother would be angry ; our
custom is to place it in the grave with the mother."

"What! alive F I asked.

" Yes, such is our way," he replied, and he appeared very
angry at the mere suggestion on my part of any further inter-
ference with their customs.

However, I made a bold stand against such a proceeding.

Presently the other men arrived to inquire the reason of the
delay, on learning which their anger knew no bounds, especially
when I persisted in my opposition. Matters were becoming very
serious, for they assumed a threatening attitude. I could not,
despite the risk involved, stand by and be a party to such a
brutal deed. In turn, I threatened them with the wrath of
Higher Powers, of which, however, they knew little at that time.

172

RESCUE OF A CHILD

I vowed that I would leave their country, and would refuse any
longer to associate with men capable of perpetrating such a cruel
murder. They retorted as hotly that I was a stranger, and had
no right to interfere with them. The young Chief, however, and
two young men, to my great surprise, took my part, and told
the others that it was well known that I had powers unknown
to their people, and that probably in my case I could rear the
child, and ward off the wrath of the mother. It was a struggle
for righteousness and humanity, in which I might feel sure of
Divine support.

The argument had been so long, and their excitement so
intense, that the flight of time had been unnoticed, and darkness
had almost settled down upon us. Greatly to my relief and joy,
they allowed me to take the child, and fearing the possibility of
a change of mind on their part, I left them to finish the funeral
rites themselves, and hastened off with the child in my arms,
feeling sure that on my arrival at the village, I should without
any difficulty find some suitable woman to nurse the child for
me. To my disgust and surprise, however, I was met with fierce
abuse from men and women alike. I appealed to the child's
sister, a girl of about eighteen, feeling sure that her natural
affection would induce her to give me all the help she could, but
she was, if anything, more abusive to me than the rest. As the
child must have had practically no nourishment that day, I
placed it in my hut, but when I called to some of the people to
assist me in catching a goat in order that I might get some
milk, they flatly refused, and even forbade me to get milk
myself.

The people were profoundly stirred with excitement and rage,
and the arrival at this juncture of the burial party unfortunately
made matters worse. I did the best I could under the circum-
stances, and, after preparing some rice-water, managed to give
the child a little nourishment with a spoon. Shortly after this
I was informed that I should not be allowed to remain that
night in the village. The ghost of the mother, they said, would
shortly arrive looking for her child, and as I had been mad
enough to run such risks I must face them alone. I was com-

173

RESCUE OF A CHILD

pelled, therefore, to camp away from the village, and to take
the baby with me.

As there was nothing else for it, I pulled some long grass, and,
fixing up my mosquito-net, improvised as comfortable a bed as
I could. Having washed the child, and wrapped it in a piece of
one of my spare shirts, I placed it under the net, and then, after
making a fire, sat down to think out my plans for the immediate
future. My own stock of provisions was exceedingly limited,
and quite unsuitable to feed an infant on. It occurred to me
that I might keep it alive with rice-water and a thin gruel made
of flour, together with an egg, if I could procure one ; possibly
also, by watching my opportunity, I might be able to capture a
goat and use its milk for the child, and thus keep it alive until
I could reach the River Paraguay, about one hundred miles off.

It was imperative that I should proceed thither at once, start-
ing on the morrow if possible. I had also to contrive some
better method of administering this food, and I thought of all
sorts of devices. Preparing some more rice-water for use in the
night and following morning, I then joined the little one under
my net, and spent a fairly comfortable night, in spite of the
disturbance prevailing in the village near by.

On the morrow I declared my intention of leaving immediately
for the river, and called for guides to accompany me.

At that time it was extremely hazardous to make such a long
journey alone, the nature of the country being such that unless
one was thoroughly acquainted with the tracks, it was the easiest
matter to lose oneself, and with my infant charge I could not
afford to lose a day by straying from the track.

To my surprise and disappointment, they one and all posi-
tively refused to move. I had concluded that they would have
been only too glad to get rid of me, and I was filled with mis-
giving at the attitude which they adopted. Should they imagine
that they saw the ghost of the woman, it might lead to very
serious consequences to myself, and they would almost certainly
kill the child in order to propitiate the mother.

As things turned out, I was delayed ten days, and during this
time I went through a terrible period of anxiety and constant

174

RESCUE OF A CHILD

dread. My greatest difficulty was in providing for the child,
and such straits was I in that I even resorted to theft. I watched
my opportunity, and stole every egg I could find. On several
occasions I was fortunate enough to waylay a goat as it wandered
some little distance from the village, and thus secured a cupful
of milk. I tried to improvise a feeding-bottle, but it was not a
success ; so I hit upon the expedient of feeding it by gently
squirting the fluid from my mouth into the mouth of the child.
But my chief standby was a piece of rag, soaked in milk and
egg, and then placed in its mouth, and I resorted to the former
method only when I thought it was not taking sufficient nourish-
ment. I afterwards learnt that, far from underfeeding it, I had
erred on the side of ovtrfeeding.

Eventually five men, including the father, consented to
accompany me. One would have been quite sufficient, but they
were evidently convinced that safety lay in numbers. It was
late in the day before we set out. Fortunately we were all
mounted on horseback, but at sunset they insisted on camping
for the night. As we had covered such a short distance, I
thought the proposal unreasonable, and again feared trickery.
The next day, however, we advanced, resting frequently in order
to feed the horses. That night I insisted upon continuing our
journey, and to my relief they agreed. Our route lay a great
deal through forest country, and my companions evidently passed
a more anxious night than I did. They were in terror of the
ghost. Sometimes they would stop, hearing noises, and make
me lead the way. Of a sudden they would insist upon my bring-
ing up the rear, as the danger seemed to lie in that direction.

We reached the river just at dawn. I was tired from the
long ride and from having to carry the child which I did in
a prepared sheepskin bag but I was greatly relieved at being
at last secure and within reach of proper treatment for my
young charge. Suitable food was at once obtained. As no
evil influences followed my action, the demeanour of the natives
rapidly changed, and they soon, especially the father, began to
take an interest in the child. Shortly after, I placed it in the
care of the wife of a missionary resident in Concepcion, and

175

RESCUE OF A CHILD

returned again into the interior. The child's sister soon became
interested, and actually pleaded with me to bring the child back
and place it in her charge.

Unfortunately, the little one died about six months after-
wards, and as I considered it the special property of the Mission,
and had determined to bring it up as a Christian, the lady's
husband baptized it just before death by the name of Hope, and
she was buried in the Chaco, on the banks of the Paraguay.

I greatly regretted the death of this little child. Had she lived,
it might have been possible to save many others from the fate
which she so narrowly escaped. As it was, the Indians concluded
that, as we had failed to rear her, any similar attempt would
be equally futile, and only became more convinced that theirs
was the best and only method of disposing of such motherless
children.

ARROWS BLUNT HEAD, IRON HEAD, AND BARBED- WOOD HEAD.

176

CHAPTER XVIII

FEASTS

ONE interesting feature of Chaco Indian life is the holding of
periodic feasts. In this they are no exception to the rest of
mankind. Their life bn the whole is dull in the extreme, and
these gatherings are looked forward to by them as among the
great events of their lives, in bringing the people together and
widening their friendships. Although feasts are connected in
great measure with their religion, such as it is, they also partake
very largely of the social element. They are invariably held on
special occasions, with the exception of the impromptu feasts
organized as a welcome to unexpected visitors.

The Indian feasts are seven in number, and may be sum-
marized as follows :

The Yanmana, connected with the coming of age of a girl ;
and the Wainkya^ to commemorate the coming of age of a boy.

The Kyaiya, held to welcome the spring, the summer solstice,
and the autumn equinox.

A feast held preparatory to war one on the occasion of
a marriage, another to welcome visitors, and the funeral feast.

The principal feature of the Yanmana is that the girl sits in
a specially constructed booth with one or two girl companions.
She is gaily ornamented, and for the first time adopts the longer
skirt of the woman. She ceases at this feast to be a child.
The women dance by themselves, each holding a long cane with
a bunch of deer's hoofs tied at the top. These they strike on
the ground, producing a loud jangling sound, marking time to
a chant. Forming themselves into a ring, they keep a regular
step as they circle round. An old woman in the centre rattles

177 *

FEASTS

her cane, and keeps the same step as the others, chanting with
them, but in a louder tone. She goes through many strange
contortions of the body, at times pretending to tear out her own
hair. The men also form into circles, each holding a gourd
filled with seeds and small shells, which they rattle with a
uniform swinging motion, keeping time to a chant. The boys,
dressed in ostrich plumes, wear masks to represent evil spirits,
and, running one behind the other, they move in and out among
the crowd jingling bunches of hoofs, and from time to time
uttering prolonged shrill cries. When they circle round near
the girl, the women drive them off.

The Wainkya takes its name from the drums which are
beaten day and night without intermission by relays of men.
These drums are made by stretching wet deer-hide over clay
pots containing a varying amount of water in order to produce
different sounds. Wrestling is one of the features of this feast.
Both the Yanmana and the Wainkya frequently last six or
seven weeks. If they take place during the summer months
intoxicants are largely used. Vice is prevalent at both such
gatherings, which makes it impossible to give any adequate
description of them.

The Kyaiya is a feast at which the men alone dance, and
various games are indulged in. I believe it had originally to do
with the seasons, as a man in the centre of the circle of dancers
keeps pointing to the four cardinal points. If held in the
spring, the rejoicing is in anticipation of the new food-supplies ;
if in the summer, it takes the form of a thanksgiving for the
algaroba, bean harvest ; and if in the autumn, it celebrates
the gathering in of the main garden crops.

The marriage feast is similar to the Kyaiya, with this ex-
ception, that the principal feature of it is the pretended stealing
of the bride by the bridegroom. At a given time he runs off
with his bride, and, after going a little way from the village,
they hide. He is pursued by a company of young men, who,
however, fail to capture him. On their return, being supposed
to be exhausted by their pursuit, they are surrounded by the
women, who pour water upon them to cool them.

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FEASTS

The funeral feast takes place after a month's mourning, and
is held with the object of cheering up the bereaved. It would
appear by the words of encouragement which are spoken to the
mourners that the ghost of the departed, which is supposed to
have been hovering round for the previous month, will now
leave the district for good.

The war feast has as its principal feature certain trials of
strength and skill, the object being to rouse the feelings of the
people, and work them up to courageous deeds.

On the arrival of guests, or after a successful hunt, or on any
other occasion of rejoicing, a feast is held. These last five
feasts mentioned vary in duration from a day to a week, seldom
longer, the average being about three days. Their duration
naturally depends largely on the supply of food. During the
day detachments of women collect roots, vegetables, and fruits,
while parties of men are engaged in hunting and fishing in
order to supply the larder.

Except in the case of the first two, feasts are held only during
the night, beginning at sunset and ending promptly at sunrise,
and in all cases the night is the most festal time. In the
absence of a moon, light is obtained by large fires and palm-leaf
torches. All are gaily painted and covered with ornaments, their
head-dresses of feathers being especially striking. Apart from the
evils attending these feasts, they have a peculiar savage charm.

It is quite clear that before our arrival in the country a
change had come over the people, which has already been
referred to. This change must also have affected their feasts
and the customs connected with them. For example, the
marriage feast has become, as far as we know, extinct among
the Lenguas. I myself have only witnessed one, and there are
numbers of young men of twenty-five years and under who
have never seen or even heard of one in their time. The
funeral feast, too, seems to have practically died out ; and, from
all I have heard, there appears to have been a considerable
modification in all the other feasts. These changes have not
been brought about through outside influence, but I can form
no idea of the causes that have led to them.

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FEASTS

It is. worthy of note that night is always selected for these
celebrations. One cause, of course, is reasonable, and that is
the excessive heat of the days, although this does not entirely
explain the matter. There is no doubt that a large amount of
licentiousness prevails, and night forms a fitting cover ; but as
their witchcraft is also practised chiefly after sunset, night is
selected because of the religious character of their feasts. The
Indian, furthermore, has a keen eye to artistic fitness ; his dress
always harmonizes with his surroundings, and undoubtedly the
artistic setting of a feast is much enhanced by the dark shades
of night, the bright glow of the camp-fires, and the light of
the moon. Certainly the weird spectacle of an Indian feast
would lose half its charm from a picturesque point of view were
it held by day. Perhaps the best way in which I can convey to
the reader a clear idea of what an Indian feast is really like will
be to describe one of scores in which I have taken part. For
this purpose I shall select a Kyaiya which was held one Chaco
midsummer December, 1892 at the village of Kilmesakthla-
pomaap, distant about one hundred miles by road from the River
Paraguay, and from the nearest point of civilization.

The village was situated on a clear open space, beneath the
shade of large algaroba trees. The encampment faced the north,
and to the south was the broad swampy stream, with little
woods and tall waving palm trees all around. I was staying at
the village as the guest of the witch-doctor, Waitkyaingwahik
(" Cow-nose "). This implied that I had a deer-skin to lie upon
in his booth, a piece of palm-log for a pillow, and my own blanket
and mosquito-net. My host supplied me with such food as he
had, but I eked out this fare with frequent kettles of tea and with
flour mixed with water and fried in fat for bread. This was all
I had in addition to Indian food, which was plentiful enough,
but I confined myself chiefly to sweet potatoes and pumpkins
roasted on the embers, with an occasional piece of sheep or deer
flesh spitted on a stick over the fire.

I passed the first few days of my stay in visiting the gardens,
bathing with the lads in an open pool in the swamp-stream,
and studying their language and habits. At night we generally

180

THE " SOWALACH "

A dance of the " Yanmana" feast, performed by a troop of lads, who issue from the forest,
feathered and masked, a square string bag being so arranged that one of the corners projects
from the nose. On their near approach moving in a serpentine formation the women protect
the girl in whose honour the feast is held by dancing round her, chanting loudly, and often by
douching the lads with gourds of water.

WRESTLING CONTESTS

Throwing is chiefly done by a clever manipulation of the legs and feet. The men often
adopt a peculiar form some twenty-five form a line, each gripping the belt of the one in
front. Twenty-five others, standing separately, challenge, and attempt to break the line.

FEASTS

sat round the fire, smoking and talking till the early morning
hours, hearing adventures and folklore, or discussing incidents of
the chase.

One night the question was brought up of the advisability
of holding a Kyaiya. The algaroba bean was plentiful in the
neighbourhood, and the swamp-stream was well stocked with
fish. Palm-cabbages could be easily procured in large quanti-
ties, and deer had been reported in the vicinity. Circumstances
were therefore favourable for holding such a feast, the abun-
dance of provisions being sufficient to entertain a large number
of guests. That night there was great excitement in the village.
The young lads immediately began practising for the dance on
the open space in front* and the girls made the night merry
with their laughter. The men and a few of the older women
sat in groups, engaged in the more serious and important busi-
ness of discussing the details. Every now and then one of them,
in a loud peculiar tone, would make some joking remark to
another at the far end of the encampment, and this joke would
be bandied round for a few minutes, and then the business in
hand would proceed.

I joined myself to the business committee. It was arranged
that some of the women should begin on the morrow to collect
the algaroba bean for the purpose of brewing a native beer and
also for pounding into flour, while the others should collect
large quantities of the palm-cabbage, the tender shoots to be
eaten uncooked, the harder parts to be boiled or roasted, and
some dried, grated, and made into flour for cakes. The older
men were to go off fishing not that the fish would keep in such
a climate, but in order to boil them down for the fat, which
they consider such a luxury, and also to dry, grind up, and
make into fish-flour. The younger men were to scour the
country for game.

Presently one of the committee turned to me and said :
" What will you hunt, Yiphenabanyetik ?" I replied that I
should be most willing to bear my part, and as the choice had
been given me, I would go out and kill the sheep. This was
taken as a huge joke, and was at once circulated round the

181

FEASTS

encampment. Various jokes were made in return at my expense.
One old fellow croaked out: "Take care, Yiphenabanyetik ; the
sheep are very savage. You had better climb a tree before you
shoot." Another recommended me to see that my saddle-girths
were tight and my spurs sharp, so that I might, when pressed,
escape by flight. A third warned me that sheep could bite. I
retorted that anyway there would be more fat on the game that
I brought in than on the deer that they were likely to get, and
that, furthermore, I was sure of killing something, while it was
a question whether they would. This frivolity wasted quite a
quarter of an hour of the committee's valuable time.

Two men, my host being one, were deputed to cut down and
prepare two large bottle-trunk trees, to serve, when hollowed
out, as vats for brewing purposes. Five young men were told
off to carry invitations to the villages around. It was after mid-
night before we retired to rest, but early next morning, as " the
red was breaking in the sky," the hunters set off, the fishers and
the women following shortly afterwards. Towards evening the
various parties began to return, staggering under their burdens.

Next day, and the next, the same process was repeated, until
a large supply of food had been collected. About noon on the
third day the first guests arrived. There was great excitement,
and at every succeeding arrival the women and girls would run
out to meet them, relieve them of their arms, and, laughing and
giggling, accompany them towards the camp, where the chief
and head men formally met and received them. During the late
hours of the afternoon all were busy decorating and painting
themselves.

I received special attention from some of the more gifted
artists. My sunburnt skin on the exposed parts of my body
was not unlike the tint of the Indian, and when I had adopted
a blanket, feathers, anklets, and an Indian shirt, all that was
wanting was the painting of my face, neck, and arms, and the
decoration of my head. Two women took me in hand, and with
sticks of red paint made from the seeds of the urucu plant, they
drew the most wonderful markings upon me. My head-dress
was more troublesome to adjust, owing to my short hair, but

182

o = ^

FEASTS

eventually they turned me out evidently to their full satisfac-
tion, and, bringing me a piece of a broken looking-glass, bade
me examine and admire myself. I was soon the centre of an
admiring crowd, and it must be confessed that the transforma-
tion in my appearance was such that wherever I had happened
to appear, I should assuredly have attracted a crowd.

Just as the sun set they began to rattle the gourds, beating
time to a low minor chant, and thus the Kyaiya commenced.
Fifteen men composed the circle of singers, keeping step with
their feet, and gracefully swaying their bodies to the rattle of
their gourds and the chant. There are various chants con-
nected with the Kyiaya, but all without words, with one rare
exception, although the "Indians assert that in ancient times all
their chants were connected with various subjects, expressed in
words, which, however, have been lost for some generations, the
tunes alone surviving.

About an hour after sunset the chief meal of the day was
ready. Skins were placed upon the ground in the open space
in front of the booths, and on them the food was spread. The
circle of singers had in the meantime been enlarged to about
thirty men, and the witch-doctor, with an assistant, stood in
the centre. With gourds in their left hands, and a bunch of
ostrich plumes held in the right, these two (keeping step the
whole time to the chant) performed a dance which resembled,
if anything, two cocks fighting.

When this dance was concluded, at a signal from the witch-
doctor the circle formed into two lines, resembling a " V,"" with
the wizard at the apex. In this form they circled round the
food-mats, keeping perfect step and time to their own chant,
the formation never being broken. The witch-doctor next
jumped over the food, followed by the two lines of dancers.
They then circled round a second time, and the jumping was
repeated, but this time from an opposite direction, as apparently
their custom is to jump first from east to west, and then from
north to south. They concluded with a flourish of the gourds,
this being the signal for the meal to commence. Ten of the
dancers, however, immediately formed a ring and resumed the

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FEASTS

chanting, for one of the essentials of a feast is that the song
must not cease till the sun rises. In order that this might be
maintained the chanters relieved each other in relays. When
the food had b een apportioned out by the leading man, mirth
and conversation became general.

After the meal the elder men sat in a circle on the ground,
and beer was handed to them in gourds by the women. They
all drank with great solemnity, copious draughts following one
another in quick succession ; but when the beer took effect they
began to talk volubly, and kept leaning over towards each
other, making violent gesticulations, as if they were engaged in
a serious altercation. In reality each man was telling his own
story, without paying the least attention to his neighbour.
One was recounting a tiger adventure to his vis-d-vis, who,
instead of listening, was intent on telling his experiences of the
Kisapang War ; his neighbour appeared to be contradicting
him flatly, but in reality he was excitedly narrating how he
exchanged some sheep for a horse.

It may be well to remind the reader that only the men drink,
the women and youths not being allowed intoxicants.

As serious quarrels are liable to arise at such festive times, a
small number of men were told off each day and night to remain
perfectly sober, in order to act as police in case of necessity ;
and when trouble arose the women at once secreted all dangerous
weapons. It is seldom, however, that an Indian becomes hope-
lessly intoxicated, as all are supposed to take part in the
dancing, and it is considered very bad behaviour to be incapable
of this. In their turn, therefore, the drinkers took their places in
the dance circle. The result was ludicrous to a degree. They
were somewhat unsteady and drowsy with beer, and each one,
struggling bravely to avoid the disgrace of falling asleep, kept
a very mechanical and faulty step to a chant which was sadly
out of tune. This gave rise to peals of laughter from the
onlookers, and the comical figure of a Chief with only one eye,
which he found most difficult to keep open, was made a butt
for the taunts and jeers of the rest.

During the night, refreshments consisting of food, water, and

184

FEASTS

pipes of tobacco, were periodically served to the dancers by the
women. The food was cut into small pieces, and held in a
corner of their skin skirts. Walking round the circle, each
stopped behind the man she chose, and, taking a piece of food,
placed it in his mouth. Another gave him a drink of water,
and another held a pipe to his mouth, and so each was served
without the dance being interrupted. Frequently I saw tricks
played by the girls upon young men against whom they had a
grudge. When one man opened his mouth for a savoury
morsel, he received a lump of clay instead, which he spat out,
but took no further notice of it, while the onlookers burst into
fits of laughter. The water-jar was sometimes tipped up sud-
denly, with the result that the water was spilt down the drinker's
chest, and somewhat spoiled his ornamentation. But these
tricks were borne good-naturedly by all.

Some of the young men engaged in wrestling contests and
other dances, in addition to the Kyaiya, which, however, was
kept steadily going. One of these was called the Maning, or
circle. The dancers formed a circle, with their arms interlaced
round each other's waists, and the girls joined in, holding on
behind to the waist-belt of each man. The step, though
quicker than that of the Kyaiya^ is very regular and graceful.
The chant accompanying it at first begins slowly, then gradually
becomes faster and faster, till the dancers are out of breath.
The Lengua chant sung at the Maning dance is composed of a
series of words which apparently have no meaning, with the
exception of one, hiuerlda, which is the Suhin word for " moon ":

" He-e-ui,
He-a-haui-ya,
He-a-hani-ya,
He-a-i-ni
He-a-hani-ya,
He-a-hani-hiuerkla,
He-a-hani-h^-i-a
H e-a-hani-he- i-a. ' '

Repeat " He'-e-ni, He-a-hani-ya " ad lib.

The chant has its musical intervals, but they are too vague and
irregular to be reproduced in notation.

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FEASTS

Another dance in which they indulged at this Kyaiya was
very similar to one that I had seen among the Yaghan Indians
of Tierra del Fuego the Kawasheut. Two lines of dancers
faced each other, with their arms resting on each other's
shoulders, and, keeping step to their chant, they advanced and,
then reversing the step, retreated. At first the step was
slow, but gradually quickened, until the dancers ceased from
exhaustion.

At one juncture of this feast the harmony was somewhat
spoilt by a woman becoming sick and requiring the assistance
of the witch-doctor ; but the proceedings were not allowed to be
interrupted, the wizard and a few companions alone attending
on the sick woman. The effect of this solemn sick dirge
mingling at the dead of night with the more lively chant of the
dance and other sounds of merriment, coupled with the whole
weird setting of the scene, illuminated as it was by the light of
many fires, which were being constantly replenished, caused an
impression not easily forgotten.

As soon as the sun rose the gourds were held aloft and
rattled vigorously to signify that the festivities were at an end
until the following evening. Everyone was tired, sleepy, and
husky, and most of the party lost no time in selecting shady
spots where they might sleep. The scene then was almost as
strange as that of the past night. Under every suitable tree in
the vicinity lay prostrate forms, with their blankets wrapped
over their heads in spite of the heat. If a traveller had come
suddenly upon the encampment he might have thought that
some disaster had befallen it, and that the covered bodies were
those of the dead.

It was not till the afternoon that any appearance of life
showed itself. Then the people began to bestir themselves,
and painting and decorating recommenced. Parties went off to
the forest to get firewood ; women were to be seen in long lines
carrying jars of water from the neighbouring swamp, and a few
old men went off fishing.

As the sun was setting the dancers took up their positions,
and with rattle and chant the feast was resumed, and continued

186

FEASTS

for six days and nights. As soon as it was over, Chaco etiquette
demanded that the visitors should at once leave. Tired out as
they were, they only travelled a short distance, and then,
selecting a shady spot, they lay down and slept until sufficiently
refreshed to continue their journey.

During my first few years amongst these people I mixed
freely in their feasts, as by this means I was enabled to study
them to greater advantage ; it also pleased the people, and won
me a place in their affections. I found it very tiresome, how-
ever, after the first novelty wore off; even if I had wanted to
sleep at night, the din would have made it impossible, and
I should have lost weight with them had I given way to this
weakness.

We even encouraged feasts for a time with a view of drawing
the people together, and we ourselves contributed to the food-
supply. Even after we were in a position to begin mission-
work amongst them we found it necessary to continue our
sanction to this their chief form of amusement, for they would
not have remained with us had we prohibited feasts altogether ;
but we enforced certain restrictions. At an early stage we
refused to allow native beer, we limited their duration, and
insisted upon moral conduct as far as possible. Since Indian
etiquette required that all visitors should leave the moment the
feast was over, we stipulated that visitors must arrive a con-
siderable time before the proposed feast was to be held. This
enabled us to mix freely with them and exert some little
influence over them for good, which was quite impossible during
the excitement of the festivities.

Among the more trained and Christian natives a higher view
of life now prevails, and we have noticed a growing and spon-
taneous disinclination for their old diversions, and a stronger
desire for more refined and intellectual amusements.

187

CHAPTER XIX
INDIAN SOCIALISM

FROM the little I have been able to gather of their history,
I have every reason to believe that the Chaco Indians were at
one time a vastly superior race better off in many respects
than they are now, and that their degeneration is due to their
social system, for in their free native state they are thoroughly
socialistic. Before going into the question fully, it may be
profitable to summarize the features of this system as it exists
amongst them.

The land belongs to the people generally, and no Indian, not
even a Chief, has any direct claim to any part of it over his
fellows. No Indian is encouraged to have more possessions
than his neighbour. Their flocks feed on the common pasture,
and they only lay claim to their gardens while actually
cultivating them.

The natural products of the country, such as game, honey,
wild fruits, fish, and firewood, are the common property of all,
and native law enjoins the widest hospitality.

Every man is supposed to hunt ; there is no such thing as a
leisured class, not even among Chiefs.

There are really no social distinctions, the Chiefs only holding
rule when it is for the common good, such as in time of war.

There is no law of inheritance. The clan is to a great extent
as responsible for the children as the parents themselves ; and
the education and maintenance of children are tribal matters
rather than parental. Children are supposed to have as much
liberty as possible.

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INDIAN SOCIALISM

As far as native law goes, there is very little restriction in
marriage.

The aged must be kept at the expense of the community, as
also the sick or disabled.

Competition in the way of one man striving to rise superior
to his fellow-men, to rule over others, or to better himself at
their expense, is strongly discouraged, and almost non-existent.

Those who have been travelling, and therefore not able to
produce crops, or those who for any other reason have no
means of subsistence for the time being, have a claim on the
community.

Passing from this summary to fuller details, I will endeavour
to show how at least* four centuries of their peculiar social
system have affected the Chaco Indians. There is among them
as much diversity of ability, strength, and energy as amongst
other people, but the able agriculturist who could, if he would,
acquire a large and productive plantation by his own efforts,
who by thrift and industry could maintain his own family and
dependents comfortably, refuses, in obedience to the socialistic
law, to work for the support of others of whom he does not
approve. Accordingly he produces no more than is absolutely
necessary for present needs. He never saves anything against
the day of adversity, because others are not doing the same, and
therefore, if he had a store in reserve, the thriftless would step
in and share it with him. The clever hunter can bring in
abundance of game, but he sees no use in unduly fatiguing him-
self, and is content with supplying his own immediate needs
and the wants of those whom he desires to help. The natural
result is that the Indian, in course of generations, has become
thriftless, lazy, and selfish, and has lost, to a great extent, all
kind feelings for those outside his own immediate circle.

Some examples of Indian life will serve to illustrate these
statements. I once urged a strong and capable Indian to use
the land which he had under cultivation to better advantage.
He agreed that the soil was good, and that with comparatively
little more effort he could treble the amount of produce. He
also admitted that he understood well how to preserve his maize

189

INDIAN SOCIALISM

;nd other products, and thereby secure himself against hunger,
nd even against the short rations which cause the Indian much
suffering for a considerable part of the year. But he argued
that it would not benefit him if he were to do so. He
mentioned several of his clansmen, and bade me look at their
tiny gardens, saying : " If I grew large crops, these men would
grow still less, and, according to our custom, they would become
my uninvited guests, and the surplus over and above what I now
have would go to them instead of to my family. Were I to
garner my crops and keep them for a time of scarcity, these
men would not exercise equal thrift, and knowing that I had a
stock they would call upon me."

On another occasion, when I was out hunting with Indians, we
found an ostrich's nest containing many eggs, all of which they
immediately took. I remonstrated, and said : " Why not leave
some, so that the stock of ostriches may be maintained ?" They
only laughed, and said, " The wolf, if he finds it, will consume
what we leave, or if an Indian comes along he will take them.'"
So they sat down and proceeded to gorge themselves, eating an
altogether unnecessary amount, and only took away a few for
their families. This struck me as an example of the most un-
mitigated greed and selfishness, but on arriving that night at
their village, the hunters were speedily surrounded by a number
of people whom I knew to be exceptionally lazy, and who had
not that day made any effort to obtain food. They at once
inquired of the hunters what they had found, and the reply was,
" Ostrich eggs." With sparkling eyes they asked, " How
many ?" " Only a few," was the reply ; " we have been able to
carry barely sufficient for a meal for our own families." This
was, to a great extent, untrue, and I told them so. Their reply

was that some of their people would never seek for food if they
could possibly get it from others, and that they could not
appreciate the virtue of denying themselves and carrying a
heavy burden through the heat in order to save these men, who

were as capable as themselves, from exertion on their own

behaltj

The Indians build miserable dwellings, small, cramped, and

190

INDIAN SOCIALISM

affording very insufficient shelter, and yet when employed by
us to build a hut on native lines for ourselves, they can speedily
make a very satisfactory one. When I rebuked them for not
making better shelters for themselves, they replied : " If we
built a large and roomy hut, others would claim our hospitality
in bad weather. Why, therefore, should we exert ourselves to
save others the trouble ?"

A native will frequently keep a secret hoard of food or honey,
and even allow it to waste, simply because he objects to sharing
it with others whom he does not like.

This Socialism has dwarfed and stunted every characteristic of
the people. A man who insisted upon keeping for himself and
his family the possessions which he had gained by his own
efforts would be hated and terrorized by the others. A man
will not even keep two blankets, the second for a change, because
a man without sheep, or wedded to a lazy wife who will not
weave, will pester him to lend his spare blanket, and this would
generally end in the borrower keeping it. He therefore prefers
to sell it, as soon as an opportunity occurs, for something with
which he can gratify a temporary pleasure.

The Indian is generally very fond of his children, and supplies
their needs lavishly. He is kind to his immediate relatives and
friends ; and the casual visitor, watching the people sharing their
food, apparently with great generosity, might think that they
were exceptionally liberal and kind-hearted. But this apparent
hospitality is given grudgingly, though ostensibly with a good
grace. They are compelled to share by native law. This
system leads not only to poverty and thriftlessness, but even to
crime. The old are often neglected, not so much from intention
as on account of the extreme poverty into which the people have
fallen, and of the selfishness of many who insist upon sharing
the food instead of exerting themselves to increase the supply.

Socialism with the Indian is not a matter of choice, but has
been forced upon him by his circumstances. The nature of the
country, owing to the want of appliances to improve it, is such
that he is forced to lead a nomadic life, and therefore there has
been, up to the present, no necessity to claim rights in land.

191

INDIAN SOCIALISM

Again, the history of the people proves that they have drifted
into this inhospitable plain through forces over which they had
no control, the chief being the pressure of stronger nations
behind them. Pressed from behind, and met by opposition
from those already occupying the lower lands, they were com-
pelled to fight for their very existence. Every man counted in
war, even if lazy and thriftless in peace. It was impossible to
live apart from the clan life of little communities. Life would
be unbearable in such a land without society and companionship.
It would be impossible for the Indian to live the life of the lonely
settler in the Colonies, for he is essentially a sociable being, and
delights in the company of his fellows. Friction and unpleasant-
ness in a small community would be unbearable, and having
begun the common life in the early times of danger, when it was
necessary for all to share, they found it difficult afterwards to
make changes which might have led to disintegration.

We found it absolutely necessary, if we were ever going to
raise the people above the low level in which we found them, to
oppose this social system, and, knowing the innate conservatism
of the Indians, we were surprised to find how readily they
welcomed the alteration. In fact, before we reached the country,
the people, having become settled in the land, and to a great
extent freed from the dangers of war, had already begun to
break up into smaller parties than formerly. New clans had
been formed, chiefly composed of immediate relatives, and had
already acquired property. We also found that they had, to a
slight extent, begun to make things uncomfortable for loafers
and non-producers, and that in marriage they strongly opposed
any alliance between their women and men who were known to
be indolent.

Since man will not gather, if what he gathers is to be taken
from him, we set to work to urge upon them the need of securing
the rights of those who honestly acquired property. We met
with instant and cordial support, and in these few years a great
change has come over the people. The communal system is
rapidly dying out, and as rapidly are the people rising in the
social scale and emerging from barbarism. We have impressed

192

INDIAN SOCIALISM

Upon them the absolute necessity of relatives supporting relatives,
and of parents providing entirely for their children before seeking
help from the community.

Our aim has been to make them a sturdy, independent race,
not a nation of paupers. To the credit of the Indian, be it
said, that after four centuries of this degenerating system of
dependence upon others, he has much in his character of genuine
generosity and kindness, and that, given a fair opportunity, he
has still a good deal of hardy independence and self-reliance.
Since a complete social revolution has taken place amongst this
people within the last twenty years, we find them no longer
communists, but self-reliant workers, accumulating property by
their own efforts, and responding cheerfully and heartily to the
claims which a Christian civilization makes upon them.

With the small means at present at their disposal, they
contribute to the cost of their school and hospital, and to the
maintenance of the sick and poor who have no relatives to
support them. They still administer their own laws that is
rule themselves though under our guidance, but no help of any
description is given indiscriminately by them or by us wherever
it should be avoided.

To take, for instance, one small community of some two
hundred people. Fifteen years ago the only property they
possessed were their weapons, some miserable household chattels,
and a few sheep, goats, and horses ; whereas to-day that com-
munity is in possession of aggregate wealth amounting to close
upon =?!, 000, in flocks and herds, goods, houses, and permanent
gardens, not to mention a considerable sum of money in a
savings 1 bank of their own. Three natives possess their own
trading stores, whilst many others are itinerant traders. Their
church they maintain almost entirely, and have already con-
tributed a very large sum towards the building of it. The
principle that we have taught, and which they have accepted, is
that every man and woman must fight their own battle in life,
but that they must also devote something to generous and
voluntary charity, supplying their own needs first, and then out
of their surplus helping others as they can. But, fortunately,

193 N

INDIAN SOCIALISM

there is no very great need of charity, for their country is such
that it can easily be made to maintain them if they will only
exert themselves. It is sufficient that the broad principles of
self-support and independence of character have been implanted
in them, and that they must now rely principally on themselves
to work out their own destiny.

SUHIN PIPE OF CARVED WOOD.

104

CHAPTER XX
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

THE general opinion that the average Englishman seems to hold
with regard to the Indian of the New World is that he is a
stern, morose, and stoical being, capable of the cruellest deeds,
and lacking in natural affection. This is not to be wondered at
when we remember that very few Europeans have, during the
present generation, come into close and intimate contact with
the primitive red man, especially in South America.

The fact is that there is a great diversity of disposition
among the Indian races, and it is no more possible to regard
the American aborigines as alike in character than it would be
to assume similarity of disposition among the various European
races. I think, however, that I am justified in saying that
there are two timrkfd characteristics common to all Indians, one . ? . .
of which is their Inversion' from exhibiting their feelings before j
strangers, the other their suspiciousness of all foreigners.
Confidence is a plant of slow growth, and tRe Indian does not
readily confide in anyone.

As this work treats only of those Indians of the Chaco with
whom I have lived, and to the study of whose character I have
devoted myself for twenty years, I shall endeavour to deal as
exhaustively as possible with the topic which is the subject of
this chapter. It must be fully recognized that there is as much
individual variety among them as among ourselves. But, re-
garded as a whole, their main characteristics are strong
conservatism, lightheartedness, amiability, humour of a certain
type, and a capacity for forming staunch friendships. They^
exhibit to a remarkable degree the power of self-control and

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

patience. They are emotional, but only under great provocation
TFo they give way to outbursts of temper and become fanatical.

They undoubtedly possess physical courage. While they are
by no means quarrelsome, they are intensely jealous. ._ With this
glance at their characteristics as a whole, I will now deal with
this subject in detail.

As might naturally be expected among a heathen people,
many of their customs are unquestionably evil, but there are a
great number which, although they may appear to us childish
and ridiculous, are after all perfectly innocent. They hold to
their customs with great tenacity, and when urged to adopt a
better and more practical way, they simply shrug their shoulders
and say with a superior air, " Ikhawe mintime inningkoo " (That
is not our custom). Although they recognize some of the ad-
vantages of European clothing, especially when engaged in
certain kinds of work, they nevertheless discard it and adopt
their native costume when mixing with their own people. Even
the civilized Indians are conservative, and show little inclination
to adopt foreign ways and customs, although they acknowledge
that some of our ways are better and more seemly.

For example, an Indian considers it incorrect, on returning
to his village after a prolonged absence, to take any notice of
his nearest and dearest, such as his wife and children, or his
mother and father. It is not because they lack affection, for
after a little time they exhibit undisguised pleasure at meeting
again. This custom is still maintained, in spite of the fact that
for many years they have had ample opportunities of seeing how
foreigners greet one another, and that we do not artificially stifle
our real feelings as they do.

Their conservatism is also very marked in respect of their
language, and incidentally entails much inconvenience. They
strongly object to adopting foreign words, and when of necessity
something is introduced for which they have no name, such as a
kettle, rice, or a churn, they at once proceed to coin a compound
word for it, which, as the reader will easily see, is most cumber-
some and awkward, not only for us, but also for themselves.
Their equivalents for these articles are respectively : Methling-

196

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

chischama-yingmm (the thing that causes water to be boiled),
ho-elyowea-apkatkuk-apuk (like the eggs of the ant which has
a big head), eltikthlik-thlama-waitkya-namanhuk-engniimlc (the
beater of the juice of the udder of the cow). Conservatism has
undoubted advantages, but when it stands in the way of better
methods, as in the above instances, devotion to the past becomes
ridiculous.

In spite of the many drawbacks of their conservatism in this
and other phases of their life, it has many decided advantages.
One is that when once they adopt a new idea, they holH fjn^y
to it. Another is that, not being readily influenced, they are
not led to accept a new system such as Christianity without first
carefully considering the* step they are about to take, and there-
fore, when once won over, they are not given to change.

They are an exceedingly light-hearted and amiable people,
delighting in the company of their fellows, and much given to
feasting and merry-making. In their villages, the sound of
laughter is the rule and not the exception, and this with old
and young alike. They are not quick to take offence ; even
under the most trying conditions, exposed as they constantly
are to the elements, and suffering frequently from both hunger
and thirst, they seldom lose their good-humour.

In their wild nomadic life they often incur serious losses, as,
for instance, a man may lose his only horse from snake-bite, or
their flocks may suffer severely from the ravages of the jaguar
and puma. Frequently their gardens are completely destroyed
by a flight of locusts. But all these calamities they bear cheer-
fully, and they are of such a buoyant nature that they soon get
over their troubles and difficulties. It is providential that it is
so, otherwise their existence, miserable as it is in many other
respects, would be sad to contemplate. They are remarkable
people for making the best of their circumstances under all con-
ditions and for extracting all the pleasure they can from a life
which to many of us would be little better than a living death.

Their humour is of a peculiar kind, but I cannot say that it
is of a very high order in fact, it is rather childish. They
break into peals of laughter over the slightest misfortune that

197

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

befalls their fellows, such as stumbling over a palm-stump, being
thrown from a horse, slipping in a mud-hole, or any other trivial
accident. But if anyone is hurt, their countenances immediately
change, and they are full of sympathy and kindness.

Unlike the Spaniards of South America, who are extremely
polite to the foreigner when he makes mistakes in speaking their
language, the Indians roar with laughter when a wrong expres-
sion is used. In conversation, they are always on the alert to
observe anything funny, and that not only with the foreigner,
but also among themselves.

Their field of thought being very limited, they are continually
seeking to draw comparisons between any remark made and
some object in Nature. For example, when describing the ap-
pearance of some foreigner to them, I remarked that he was
very tall and thin. They instantly laughed, and two or three
exclaimed : " Just like a palm-tree !" I then said that he had
a long flowing beard. There was another roar of laughter, and
one cried out : " Just like a billy-goat !" On one occasion I was
telling them about a comet, and they at once joked about its
tail being long, like that of a monkey.

They are quick to observe anything peculiar in the dress or
person of an individual, and most of their nicknames are based
upon such peculiarities. They excel in story-telling, mostly of a
humorous nature, and accompanied by much theatrical gesture.

While it is very difficult to win their confidence, yet when
once you have acquired it, they trust you implicitly, and prove
loyal and true. The popular idea seems to be that an Indian is
a treacherous fellow, on whom no reliance can be placed, and
who, although he may appear a friend for a time, is only so for
his own sake, and will sooner or later turn against you.

My own experience, and that of my colleagues, has been that
as a people they are no more treacherous than any other race.
Firmly, but justly, dealt with, they have proved themselves well
worthy of our trust. So firm is their reliance in us, and so strong
is their belief that we seek their good, that for many years past
they have clung to us through all our vicissitudes. Many times
we have found it necessary to make them abandon their villages,

198

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

which they had built on improved methods under our instruc-
tion, and which had entailed some years of arduous work ; yet,
in spite of the fact that they had settled down comfortably
and were quite content, they cheerfully left everything behind,
and moved to other localities which we thought more suitable
situations for them to develop in.

They unhesitatingly accepted the foundation of their co-
operative society and savings bank, the real benefit of which they
did not experience for some time after, and not only handed over
to our care what animals they possessed, but also the savings
which had cost them much self-denial to accumulate.

When complications have arisen between the Indians and
foreigners, I have always found them to have originated in the
Indian's lack of confidence in the foreigner. This distrust arises
from various causes. For example, if a foreigner acts insincerely or
appears to break a compact, the Indian feels justified in acting
in a like manner towards him. The white man at once regards
this as treachery, failing to realize that he himself is really to
blame. The foreigner may not wilfully intend to deceive the
Indian or act inconsistently, but from his want of knowledge of
Indian character, he is not able to explain his actions, and thus
his motives are misconstrued.

The life of an Indian would be almost intolerable in such a
country as the Chaco were it not for his characteristic patience
and self-control in the face of the most adverse circumstances.
The conditions of their country and climate are so unfavourable,
they have so few resources, and their life is so primitive, that it
is only by the most patient labour and calm endurance of
suffering they are enabled to live.

Travelling and hunting in the Chaco are experiences of the
most trying nature. The greater part of the day is often spent
by these Indians wading in the swamps in search of fish, a
burning tropical sun overhead, and myriads of poisonous insects
continually harassing them. They have to spend days on the
banks of a river, while with their rude instruments they fashion
a dug-out canoe by which to cross. Their agriculture is carried
on with the most primitive wooden diggers, which have taken

199

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

them days to manufacture. Even their ornaments entail
laborious and patient toil.

They are exposed to all the vicissitudes of weather the
burning sun by day and often drenching showers of tropical
rain by night. They frequently suffer from fever and chills,
and for nights in succession are unable to sleep owing to the
insect pests. It is a by no means uncommon sight to see a poor
woman, seated all night long on the wet ground in pouring rain,
nursing her dying child, powerless to relieve its sufferings or
save its life. Under such and many other miserable conditions
I have never known them to show signs of impatience, and
seldom do they lose their habitual good-humour. It contrasts
strangely with the want of endurance which we sometimes
exhibit under similar conditions, and the Indian is very quick
to remark on our poor-spirited behaviour. An instance in my
own experience will illustrate this. One day, when travelling
with a party of Indians, we camped during the mid-day heat
near a forest. The mosquitos and sand-flies were unbearable,
and I could not control my irritation. This greatly amused
the Indians, and they asked me why I was angry. I told them
that the reason was very obvious. On this they asked me if I
knew the language of the mosquito. " Because if you do,"
they said, "it would be wise to speak hard words to them."
This was to illustrate the wise maxim which the Indian fulfils
in his daily life " What cannot be cured must be endured."
These same characteristics were observed by Dobrizhoffer in the
Southern Indians nearly two centuries ago, and he aptly
remarks : " What we denominate patience is nature with
them unlike Europeans, who at the smallest inconvenience
get out of humour, grow angry, and, since they cannot bend
heaven to their will, call upon hell."

It is generally supposed that Indians are very taciturn and
unemotional. The exact contrary, however, is the case. It is
true that they endeavour to hide their feelings," because it is
good manners to do so, but deep, strong emotion is there
nevertheless. To anyone thoroughly acquainted with the
Indian, there is no mistaking the dancing joy in the eye when

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friend meets friend, or the genuine smothered sobs when they
stand by the grave-side of a beloved relative or companion ; in
fact, I have known men unable to attend a funeral, owing to the
poignancy of their grief. At the sight of suffering I have seen
strong men, in spite of themselves, burst into tears. On one
occasion, while cutting a road through a palm-forest, an Indian
let a tall palm-tree accidentally fall upon one of the party,
breaking his leg. The man who cut down the tree, on realizing
what had happened, stood over his friend and wept bitterly.

The Indian character is particularly difficult to understand,
for it is full of contradictions kindness and cruelty, gentleness
and harshness, unselfishness and greed, courage and timidity,
strong affection and callousness, emotion and stoicism, being
often found strongly marked side by side in the same individual.
This very man, for instance, who wept over his injured friend,
himself, on a previous occasion, when badly burnt by the ex-
plosion of a can of powder, coolly remarked, while looking at
his injuries, "Oh, how is this?" and, in spite of his suffering, he
did not even utter a moan.

We have to be very careful indeed, when appealing to their
religious feelings, to avoid sensationalism, for they are easily
worked upon, and the result would be a superficial rather than
a permanent gain.

In some phases of his life the Indian appeal's to exhibit con-
siderable courage, while in others he shows just as marked a
timidity. In reality he is brave in facing a danger which he
thoroughly understands, but his lack of intelligence, training
and education, his superstitions and his desire to stand well
with his neighbours, frequently urge him on to cowardly acts. I
have seen an Indian very much upset by a trivial wound, simply
because there was much bleeding from it, and the whole look of
it was alarming. On the other hand, a really dangerous injury,
which, however, was not unsightly to the eye, the sufferer took
quite calmly. A grave injury is very often accompanied by a
severe shock, and, the nerves being dulled, little or no pain is felt.
In such a case, the Indian onlookers treat it lightly, whereas
a less serious injury, attended by great pain, they imagine to

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be very severe indeed. This, of course, is the result of in-
adequate knowledge.

In the hunt, however, even in the case of the more dangerous
animals, they display calmness and courage, because they
thoroughly understand the difficulties which have to be faced.
They will readily oppose themselves in combat with hostile
tribes when they fully understand their enemies, but shrink
from facing an unknown danger. When armed with only bows
and arrows, they fear to engage with a force armed with inferior
muzzle-loading guns, whereas in reality the latter are a greater
danger to those who use them than to those against whom they
are directed, and the former in the hands of Indians are really
very efficient and deadly weapons.

In the question of moral courage they are decidedly weak,
but we have every reason to believe that in the course of time,
with adequate training, they will acquire moral force. Instances
of moral courage have been known among them, which leads us
to be hopeful of the future. To give only one illustration :
I was once robbed of some grease, and appealed to the Chief of
the village to assist in discovering the thief. After a time he
returned, and said that several of the women had seen a dog in
my hut, and that when they chased it out, it had grease upon
its mouth. The Chiefs son was standing by, and he boldly
said : " It is a lie ; my father is the dog."" I had committed
the care of my hut to this young fellow, and he therefore felt
morally bound to defend my interests, though he knew that he
would incur the enmity of his people for making this statement.
It must be remembered that the superstitious fears of these
people have such a strong hold over them as not only to affect
their judgment, but even to undermine the very manhood of
the race.

As a people they are excessively jealous, so much so that they
avoid all rivalry and competition among themselves, and even
in their games this is very noticeable. If one excels another,
whether in games, the chase, apparel, or even in forming friend-
ships, instead of the vanquished trying to regain his lost ground,
he is content to give way to brooding jealousy. We have, there-

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fore, to be very careful not to encourage this by any act of our
own, and to abstain from making favourites. In dealing generally
with the people, we treat heathen and Christian alike as far as
possible, in order chiefly to avoid giving any encouragement to
an Indian to accept Christianity for the sake of temporal
advantage.

T66THLI CLAY VESSEL, PAINTED.

:!03

CHAPTER XXI

MORALS

IT is no exaggeration to say that the name " Indian " generally
suggests to the European mind three shortcomings of which he
is supposed to be guilty drunkenness, deceitfulness, and dis-
honesty. It is this threefold attribute which in popular opinion
seems to put him outside the pale of ordinary intercourse with
society. In dealing with this subject I wish to write without
any bias, and shall state my opinions here, as elsewhere, purely
from the standpoint of my many years of close association with
every phase of Indian life, during which ample opportunity has
been given me of making more than a superficial examination
of the underlying facts.

Drunkenness is not one of their vices. Although various
intoxicating liquors are manufactured by the Chaco tribes, and
although the materials are so abundant that they could, if they
desired, indulge in these drinks all the year round, they never-
theless confine the use of them to festive occasions only. The
male adults alone are permitted to partake ; the women and
lads are not only debarred, but never even have the desire to
taste intoxicants. They admit that their only reason for
becoming intoxicated is to excite and stimulate themselves, with
a view to promoting sociability. The only occasion when drink
is used other than at a feast is in the very rare event of an
execution. They then, out of kindness, always make the victim
drunk before proceeding to kill him.

For the last ten years, in particular, these Indians have come
into frequent and intimate contact with the foreigners on the
River Paraguay, and the latter have for the sake of gain

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endeavoured to induce them to take to the use of the cheap rum
of the country, yet only a small proportion have given way to
the temptation. They realize that this foreign rum is highly
injurious, and admit its evil effects, although they speak well of
their own manufacture. It is only fair to say that their native
beer, although intoxicating, is comparatively harmless.

An amusing incident will show their opinion of the foreign
beverage. An old Chief living near the River Paraguay had
given way very greatly to the ram craving. He came in one
day to my hut in a drunken condition. When he kindly
asked me how I was, I replied that I was suffering from a very
severe headache. " Ah," said he, " I told you that Paraguayan
rum was no good, but you won't drink our stuff." He spoke
feelingly, and evidently thought that my headache had the
same origin as many of his own.

A peculiar form of madness is occasionally to be met with
among the Indians. It does not seem to be hereditary, nor is
it the result of drink or vice. As far as I have been able to
learn it is attributable to four causes fright, brain fever, the
sun, and the secret administration of poison by the witch-doctors
to those whom they desire to injure.

Sufferers from this malady evince a strong desire to be alone,
and when the attack is severe they rush away into the woods.
They eat and drink little, and seem to take hardly any rest or
sleep. They appear to lose all fear of evil spirits, and do not
hesitate to frequent haunted places, nor do they seem to fear
wild animals. When in this state they frequently violate all
Indian ideas of decency, one man having been reported to have
dug up the bones of his father and to have gnawed them like a
dog.

They not infrequently develop homicidal tendencies, and are
consequently held in great fear by the people, especially as at
night in particular they are in the habit of frequenting the
villages, through which they have been known to rush in a
naked and maniacal state.

One curious story was told me the truth of which, however,
I cannot vouch for of a woman who was supposed to have

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escaped from her grave, but was never seen again. Her foot-
prints were observed erratically diverging from the path, some-
times entering a wood and sometimes apparently running in
the open country. It is just possible that this story may be
true, for granted that the severer rites of burial had not been
performed, and that the woman had sufficient strength, it would
be no difficult matter for her to free herself from the shallow,
lightly-filled grave. From what we know of the Indians, it is
not at all unlikely that a person might be buried alive ; and in
the event of this woman escaping from her grave, it is highly
probable that madness would result, and that, as in the case of
many similarly afflicted, she would fall a victim to the wild
beasts of the forest.

As a people they are certainly not truthful; in fact, one
hesitates to believe what a heathen Indian says. The only
method of arriving at the truth is to cross-question, calculate,
and weigh his statement, and to try to probe his motives.
Nevertheless, they always regard lying with contempt, and one
of their most bitter retorts is " You are a liar," or in their
language, " Wanchik amyaa," which means " able . . . news,"
implying able to exaggerate, distort, or falsify the news. The
tone they use when referring to a man as a liar is one of disgust
and impatience, as much as to say, " It is no good paying any
attention to what he says." Perhaps it is not strange that they
despise lying, because even among ourselves we find the rule
that men hate in others the very sin of which they are them-
selves guilty.

This national untruthfulness of the Indian is not practised
simply for the sake of telling lies, because they quite appreciate
the awkwardness of never being able to accept unquestionably
the word of another, and they greatly admire the foreigner, who
insists on his yea being yea and his nay, nay. They know at once
where they stand with regard to him, and they like it rather
than resent it.

One reason why the Indian lies is, again, because of his con-
stitutional desire to be agreeable. He hesitates to tell the
truth because he dislikes giving offence when he knows the truth

206

AN OLD WOMAN OF THE NORTH-WEST CLAN KNOWN AS THE
"WHITE PARTRIDGES" (MOPAI-SENHIK)

Her probable age is between 80 and 90 years.

MORALS

would be unpleasant. Then again he lies because his neighbour
lies, and so he lies in self-defence. Another reason is that he
is very fond of conversation, and delights in sensational news ;
but Indian life is so monotonous and uneventful that in order
to raise an interesting conversation, it is necessary for him to
exaggerate wildly. It is quite understood that no one believes
what he says. Still, his exaggerations please, and while away
an hour. They find also a great pleasure in trying to cap the
lie in turn. The fact is that this form of news-telling takes the
place among these people of " penny dreadfuls,*" trashy novels,
and sensational newspaper articles.

As life among them is lived in accordance with socialistic
principles, the Indian finds it unprofitable to tell the truth
under certain circumstances, such as this : A party of visitors
arrive at a village hungry and tired. They inquire feelingly
after the welfare of the gardens in that locality, and exhibit a
significant interest in the game-supply, and express the hope
that their friends live a happy and comfortable life, and do not
suffer from shortness of rations, as they do in their part of the
country. If the villagers were to acknowledge the truth that
they are well supplied, it would be most comforting news to the
visitors, because by native law they would have to entertain
them accordingly. They know only too well that if they con-
fessed to abundant supplies, the visitors would prolong their
stay until such time as the food was exhausted, for their rules of
etiquette forbid them to speed even the unwelcome guest.

They know, too, that their visitors have not told the truth in
their humble statement that their part of the country is poor
and unproductive; so they in turn are quick to assure them
that their crops that year have proved a failure ; that game,
owing to the evil action of the spirits, is practically non-
existent ; and that they themselves are on the verge of starva-
tion. They constantly go out of their way to say how deeply
they regret that they are in such miserable circumstances, and
that they are therefore unable to offer more than a meagre
entertainment to their much-loved and welcome guests. The
visitors are perfectly aware that there is not a word of truth in

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all this, but politeness makes it impossible for them to contra-
dict their hosts. They have, therefore, to be content with what
little they get, and push on next day, greatly to the relief of
the villagers.

The Indians have a great propensity for scandal, but this is
common in all small communities, and perhaps there is really
no more backbiting and tale-bearing among them than in some
civilized circles. The Indian, though essentially a religious being,
would, I fear, not take kindly to the confessional. He has no
objection whatever to confess the sins of his companions, whether
genuine or invented, but his pride so proverbial in the savage
restrains him very powerfully from confessing his own shortcom-
ings. So well is this tale-bearing understood that, although it
causes heart-burning, no one who knows the people would ever
think of judging an Indian by the scandal in circulation about
him.

Scandal about each other is not circulated with the same
object as their exaggeration of news leads to namely, to make
their conversation entertaining. Mere exaggeration irritates no
one, but scandal does, and when the Indian gives way to it, it is
with a purpose. He does so either from revenge or to gain his
own ends. A native, for example, has stolen something. He
knows that, if discovered, he will get into serious trouble, so
in course of conversation he expresses his grief at having to
insinuate such a charge, but he has grave suspicions that So-
and-so has been guilty of the theft. In this way he tries to
ward off suspicion from himself.

Sometimes this desire to save himself at the expense of an-
other ends rather awkwardly and ludicrously for the culprit.
On one occasion a very plausible, oily-mannered savage of my
acquaintance was employed by me as cook. I had a quantity
of charqui drying in the sun on a line. During my siesta this
man was ordered to keep a strict watch upon the meat, in case
of any thieving. After my rest, he came smilingly towards me,
remarking that it had been a great effort for him to keep awake
during the hot midday hours, but that his fidelity and love for
me, and his interest in my meat, had been so great that he had

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MORALS

succeeded in overcoming his drowsiness, and it was well that he
had, because a large dog had come along while he was absent for
a few moments, and had walked off with some of the meat, and
he showed me the empty space on the line. In his hand he held
a few strips of dirt-bedraggled meat, and told me that it was all
he had been able to rescue from the dog.

I had my suspicions, and accordingly met guile with guile.
I thanked him warmly for his interest, telling him that he was
a good fellow, and in friendly Indian style I embraced him
round the waist, at the same time feeling in the folds of his
blanket. I then exclaimed : " Hulloa ! what is this ?" and pulled
out, much to his confusion, a handful of the meat which the dog
was accused of stealing*. Though these instances may reflect
rather seriously on the Indian character, yet it may be said in
extenuation that for a real friend he would often willingly bear
blame, and would not shrink from lying to defend him.

The Indian is peculiar in some of his traits of character. If
you doubt his word when he denies having committed some
offence, he will repeat his denial two or three times ; if you still
doubt him, he will admit to having told a falsehood, and will
even exaggerate the offence, and will say that he has been
guilty not only of this, but of many others, although in reality
he has not committed any of them. It amounts to this : " If
you will not believe me," he says, " when I speak the truth, and
will only be satisfied with lies, I will lie as much as you like, to
please you." There is a great deal of truth in the Irishman's
statement, that " a lie ceases to be a lie, if it is a big enough
one." A lie is essentially intended to deceive, and the sin of
lying is in the evil that results from deceit. It is not essentially
a lie when a man says " it is raining cats and dogs," for no one
but a child would misunderstand the figure of speech. There-
fore when an Indian really tells the truth, but on being doubted
and pressed, admits to having committed an impossible amount
of crime, he is simply working on the logical system of reducing
the thing to an absurdity. The Indian argues it in this way :
"It is evident it is not the truth you want, but falsehood, and
as this is so, you shall have as much as you want."" The instances

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MORALS

given above may be classed as polite lying to visitors, lying to
screen from blame, and sarcastic lying.

Although the Indian has much practice in telling falsehoods,
he is not an adept at it, for when once you thoroughly know
him, he tells the truth by his face and manner, when lying with
his lips. It is certainly folly to try and worm the truth out of
an Indian by persistent cross-questioning, and doubting him.
A great deal of his lying disposition is the result of weak
character and want of individual independence, the result of old
social conditions. Now that they are becoming a Christian and
self-reliant people, they are proportionately more truthful.

As far as dishonesty is concerned, the worst enemy of the
Lenguas could not accuse them of being a thieving nation.
Among themselves they are fairly honest, and any attempt at
pilfering is severely censured. I have even heard of one case
in which an habitual thief was put to death, when all means of
curing him failed.

We have lived among them for twenty years, and our houses
are of such a nature that they could easily be entered, and even
our lock-fasts would offer a poor resistance to any native
desirous of breaking into them, and yet we have had very little
reason to complain of stealing on the part of the Indians.
When such a thing has occurred, I must confess that it has
been chiefly due to our own carelessness in putting unnecessary
temptation in their way.

Our animals sheep, goats, horses, and cattle have never
been wilfully interfered with, although they roam over a large
extent of wild country. Only on one or two occasions have the
natives appropriated our animals, and that unwittingly, and in
every case that I can remember except one, we have received
compensation. In times of drought, some of our animals have
wandered to such great distances that we have never recovered
them. Naturally we cannot say definitely what became of
them, as they may have become mixed up with the cattle of
the Paraguayans at the river, or killed by wild beasts, or possibly
by hungry parties of Indians, who were unacquainted with our
stock. They have, during recent years, killed cattle belonging

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MORALS

to the Paraguayans, but in many cases this has been done to
settle old scores, and this the Indian would not regard as
stealing.

We have always found them exact in paying a debt, and
oftentimes an Indian has arrived at our stations, and presented
payment for something he had received from us years before,
and which we had altogether forgotten.

Among themselves they have a system of reservation. If a
native sees a tree containing honey, or a bottle-trunk tree suit-
able for a canoe, a fruit-tree, a patch of garden-ground, a
collection of fire-wood, a nest, a patch of fibre-plants or the
like, he notifies his people that he has appropriated it, and they
all respect such ear- marking.

Travelling through the country, we frequently pass by a
village, deserted for a time by its inhabitants, who may be on a
hunting expedition, or at a neighbouring feast. In this village,
lying about within sight of any passers-by, we often find a
number of household goods, weapons, implements, and even the
products of the chase, which they intend eventually to barter,
and which they have left behind for convenience. Rarely do we
hear of an Indian missing any of such property. This surely
speaks volumes for the common honesty of the people.

It is perhaps natural that these so called savages should be
generally regarded as a cruel and stern people, and possessed of
a hard nature, but this is by no means the case. The Indian is
undoubtedly undemonstrative in manner, with an austere
bearing, but a close and intimate acquaintance with him reveals
a great amount of fine feeling and kindness of heart, deep
though this may be beneath the surface. I have had ample
opportunity of noting many generous actions done, not only
between themselves, but also for us, whom they have learnt to
trust and regard as their friends.

I once knew an Indian Chief who lost his wife, and as he
could no longer bear to remain in the same place bereft of her
company, he travelled east to the River Paraguay, to get away
from the old associations, taking with him his daughter and
some of his followers. In this, he was not simply carrying out

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MORALS

the Indian rule of at once abandoning a place where a death has
taken place, impelled by his superstitious fears, but there was a
deeper feeling of grief behind it. Misfortune dogged him to
his new encampment, for he had only been there a few weeks,
when his daughter died. She was about twenty- four years of
age, and his only child. This loss so upset him that he at once
began the return journey to the west. He only travelled about
thirty-five miles, to a place called Sohoyamathla. On arrival
there his grief completely overcame him. He sought out a
venomous snake and allowed it to bite him in several places, and,
refusing all help, he shortly afterwards died in great agony.

I was much touched by the thoughtfulness and unselfishness
of an Indian who once visited my camp. He was a man from a
far-distant village, and had remained with me for a few weeks.
As he had been helpful in many ways, I gave him a few luxuries
to eat when he came to say good-bye. These consisted of a
few lumps of sugar and four hard biscuits. He ate one of the
latter, and putting the other three into his waist-bag, he said
he would take them to his mother and his wife. I told him to
eat the sugar, as it was sweet like honey, and that he would
enjoy it. He ate one lump rather suspiciously, but was
delighted with the taste, and I expected him to eat the
remainder, but he put them also into his bag, saying, " How
pleased my little child will be with these !" Although this man
must have been often hungry on his long tramp of quite one
hundred and fifty miles to the west, yet he kept these few
luxuries for those whom he loved.

In the event of an Indian being bitten by a snake, although
he was a stranger and at a village thirty or forty miles away, I
have known natives hurry off to render assistance, and sit up
quite cheerfully for one or two nights, doing all that their
scant knowledge afforded to relieve him and if possible save
his life. And this they will do without any personal gain
whatever to themselves, but out of pure disinterested human
kindness.

I have myself experienced many gracious and thoughtful
actions from Indians. Once, when at Thlagnasinkinmith, I was

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soaked to the skin, and sat shivering in the cold south wind.
My Indian companions were in no better case, but a Chief, who
was crouching over the fire, took off a kind of shirt which he
wore, and which was fairly dry, and insisted upon my putting
it on.

On another occasion I was sleeping with some Indians on the
wet sodden banks of a stream. I was lying near the camp-fire,
but the little covering I had was not sufficient to keep me
warm, and I could only get fitful sleep. An Indian who was
lying near me, not knowing that I was awake at the time, rose
up and took off his own blanket, and, after stealthily spreading
it over me, he brought the fire nearer to where I was lying.
He was content to lie Sown near the fire, naked as he was and
exposed to the cold, damp night air, and settled down to pass
the night as best he could with such warmth only as the fire
afforded. I watched him for a little while, but could not submit
to deprive him of his only covering; so, pretending to wake
up and to discover what had taken place, I offered to give it
back, but he would not accept it. I then insisted on his lying
down with me and sharing it, which he eventually did.

The Indian is essentially polite in his own peculiar way, and
his is no superficial politeness. When Bishop Stirling and his
wife visited me at Riacho Fernandez, the Indians realized that
he was a great Chief, and were careful to treat their visitors
accordingly. In crossing to the island in a dug-out canoe, when
we approached the land, the Indian in the bow jumped ashore,
and was about to offer his hands to Mrs. Stirling to help her
out, when he suddenly remembered that they were covered with
dirt and the fat of some fish which he had just been eating.
He told her to wait a moment, and spat on his hands, after-
wards wiping them with a by no means clean coloured
handkerchief which he wore round his neck. Taking off this
dirty handkerchief, he spread it over his hand and then proffered
his help, which was accepted, without his realizing that he had
made matters no better than before. He had good intentions,
however, and would have resented a refusal of his help, for
Indians always look for politeness in return.

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MORALS

The moral condition of the Indians in many phases of their
life, and especially in the relation of the sexes, cannot be in any
true sense compared with that of civilized Christian nations,
owing to their different circumstances and environment. But,
judged from their heathen standpoint, they cannot be termed
vicious, but perfectly natural.

To take marriage as the leading example, the Indian man or
woman is free to make his or her own choice of a partner. It
is true that their choice is influenced by their parents and
friends. The capability of the woman in weaving, pottery-
making, and general usefulness is also taken into account. As
native law requires that the man must leave his own people,
and join those of his wife, he is influenced by the conditions of
her country, such as its fertility, its richness in game, its dryness
and altitude, and comparative freedom from mosquitos, and
also its good water and abundance of fish. The social life of
her village is inquired into, such as the frequency of feasts, and
whether the disposition of her clansmen is friendly and sociable.
The woman, whose main object in life is to feed well, and to
have as little drudgery as possible, seeks a husband of a mild
and kind disposition, who will, as far as possible, be subservient
to her rule, and who has the reputation of being a good hunter
and gardener. If she belongs to a border-clan, and her people
are frequently at war, she also considers the question of her
husband's physical strength and capability as a warrior, so that
she may feel safe under his protection.

A wedding, as we should call it, does not take place; and
there is only a marriage on approval, corresponding to our
engagement, although the couple live together. No marriage
is considered binding by native law until a child is born, and if
this does not take place within a reasonable time they are
justified in separating, if they so wish. But when once a child
is born to them, even should the child die or be put to death,
they are considered to be bound to each other for life.

Indians are monogamists. Polygamy and polyandry do exist,
but for necessary reasons which will be explained later. There
is no such thing as a spinster known amongst them, nor have they

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even a word expressing such a condition. Not only in theory,
but also in actual fact, every marriageable woman is married.
She may become a widow and then remain single, but this is
rare, except in the case of old widows. But to be single
altogether is unknown and inconceivable. The reason for this
is very clear. Women are rather fewer in number than men,
owing to the custom of infanticide ; therefore a woman has no
need to remain unmarried for the lack of a partner. Their
mode of life and state of society are such that every marriageable
girl must have a recognized protector.

There is undoubtedly considerable laxity of morals amongst
them, viewed from the Christian standpoint, yet when unfaith-
fulness occurs on the. part of the husband or the wife it is
invariably because the marriage has been one of convenience and
not of love. If the Indian could be brought to marry purely
from affection (and he certainly possesses this), unfaithfulness
would be almost unknown among them. I think I am perfectly
justified in saying that, in the few cases where marriage has been
the result of affection, the couple have trusted each other, and
this trust has rarely been misplaced. One reason for the lack
of marriages based on affection is that in the primitive state of
the people they mix in a very small circle, and meet with no
partner with whom they could mate, except those whom they
have played with from childhood. Little choice, therefore, is
left them, and there is not that novelty of a fresh face and
character which tends to become captivating, and eventually
leads to love.

Polygamy is not the natural instinct of the Indian. It is
only found to exist among tribes where, owing to devastating
ware, the men have been so reduced in number that the women
largely outnumber them, and the tribe would be in danger of
extinction if monogamy were insisted upon. This prospect,
coupled with the fact that their conditions of life require that
every woman should be married, forces them to adopt polygamy,
but it gradually ceases as the balance of the sexes is restored.

For an opposite reason, although to a much smaller extent,
polyandry is sometimes met with on the frontiers. The tribes

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MORALS

practising polygamy lie on the south-west frontier, and are
strong and powerful, with warlike instincts. They are strong
enough to resist invasion, and the wars are carried on chiefly
in the neutral zone between the hostile nations. The males
naturally suffer the most, whereas on the north frontier the
tribes are weaker and less warlike, and are opposed by superior
forces, which invade their country and carry off their women,
who are sold in considerable numbers for immoral purposes in
the foreign settlements. An Indian would not under any
circumstances deal in this way with his own tribes worn en, but
stimulated by the hatred of tribe and race, they go so far as to
dispose thus of their captives to foreigners. The blame lies at
the door of the foreign race which encourages such a traffic.
For this reason, the men of these northern tribes far outnumber
the women, and consequently the only alternative left them is
for several men to have a common wife. To this the woman
does not object, because she is freed from all irksome labour,
and is well cared for by her husbands.

I know of only one instance of polyandry that ever existed
among the Lenguas, and that was in the case of a woman
exceedingly capable and intelligent, but of an exceptionally
wayward disposition. She had two husbands living in different
parts of the country. Her conduct was strongly condemned,
especially by the women of her tribe, and she was eventually
forced to content herself with the senior husband.

There is much more that could be written on this subject,
which is of intense interest from an anthropological or scientific
point of view, and which lies at the bottom of many social evils
in the Chaco and in our own country too. These evils cause us
great difficulty in our social as well as Christian work among
this people. Some of these characteristics, however, although
a source of much evil, have much that is good in them, and
indicate a very high degree of advancement. Even the most
scientific thinkers would rejoice if Europeans could attain to it.
Obviously, from their very nature, I cannot deal with them in
this work.

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ITH INDIANS

THE Indian is essentially a child, only he is a full-grown one,
and, living a free and unrestrained life, he is apt to prove at
times a dangerous child.

His view of life ; his religious speculations ; his humours ;
his seriousness over trifles and incapacity to weigh matters ; his
love of stories ; his desire to be taken notice of and petted ; his
simple pride which makes him resent being ignored ; his desire
to imitate his seniors in knowledge, culture, and manners, and
his keen sense of justice are all characteristics which he possesses
in common with the ordinary child. Firmness, sympathy,
patience, justice, and kindness are therefore essential qualifi-
cations in anybody who would dominate the Indian for his
good.

It is frequently alleged that many races such as these are void
of a moral or religious sense. The Tierra del Fuegian natives
have been classed in this category. Even Dobrizhoffer said of
the Abiponi Indians : " Reasoning is a process, troublesome,
and almost unknown to them ; it is therefore no wonder that the
contemplation of terrestrial or celestial objects should inspire
them with no idea of the creative Deity .^ But the Indian, in
reality, does reason, does wonder about the mysteries of heaven
and earth, the present, the past, and the future ; as, however, his
reasoning faculties have not been developed, he thinks and draws
conclusions as a child does.

When it is borne in mind that we had to deal with a people
speaking a strange and hitherto unknown language, whose
thoughts, ideas, and expressions were utterly different from

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SYSTEM OF DEALING WITH INDIANS

those of any known people, it will be seen that the task of
tutoring them was attended with gigantic difficulties.

I found them a people without any central government, with
very little attempt at government of any kind, controlled only
by a somewhat lax public sentiment, with crude religious ideas
and customs, which in the course of numberless generations had
lost much of their primary significance.

Their industries were few and of comparatively small impor-
tance. They had little or no idea of private property. They
had lost all cohesion and desire to improve themselves, being
content in a great measure to exist only for the present moment.
They were a slowly dying race without hope in this life or in the
life to come. The various tribes were at enmity with one
another, and waging wars of extermination.

Our task was first of all to make ourselves acquainted with
the language, political constitution (such as it was), history,
habits, customs, religious beliefs, and the possible capacity of the
people ; to arrest the decline and decay of the race ; to bind the
various tribes together ; to give them a system of government ;
to raise them to the level of property-holders ; to induce them
to adopt an industrious, settled, and regular life ; to instil into
them a higher moral sense ; to awaken a desire for culture and
progress ; to fit them to receive the offer of the Paraguayan
Government of citizenship in that Republic; to make them
useful members of society, a people who could bear their part
in the development of their own land ; and to qualify them in
every way to take their due place as a unit in the growing
population of a great continent.

We realized that the only way in which we could succeed in
doing so was by implanting in them a pure, living form of
Christianity, which would become the basis of their political,
social, and moral constitution. Therefore we determined at the
outset to lead, as far as our frail natures would allow, a simple,
pure, and practical Christian life among these people whom we
desired to convert, realizing from past experience that they
would watch and criticize our every action with lynxlike eyes.
We were to these primitive people if one may say so their

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SYSTEM OF DEALING WITH INDIANS

Bible, their rule of faith ; and if through any inconsistency on
our part we failed to give them a true example, we knew our work
must prove an utter failure.

It is difficult for those at home to realize the intense strain
which this meant, and the reader who would do us justice must
consider our position and circumstances. We were cut off for
years from our fellows, with a heathen atmosphere around us,
and deprived of intercourse with higher and nobler souls. We
were young men with little experience of life, who had to fight
for the mastery over ourselves, without the many aids which
those in the home country possess. Our supply of literature
was exceedingly limited, and our opportunities for mental im-
provement still more restricted. We were surrounded by strong
temptations, poorly fed, miserably housed often for months not
housed at all debilitated in nerve and physique by the climate,
our stamina reduced by fever and hardship, and continually
irritated by the perpetual insect plagues. We were subjected
to strain through anxiety for the success of our work, and
through the continual restraint which we required to exercise
over ourselves, and added to this was the constant possibility
of personal danger.

It is one thing to be brave, courageous and dashing in the
company of hundreds of our fellows, cheered on by an admiring
nation, and constantly under the public eye; but it is quite
another thing when one is alone in a strange land, among a
hostile and superstitious people, with little communication even
with our few friends at home, and utterly forgotten and ignored
by the world at large.

Just as children rely upon the man who is strong, resolute
and brave, so do these Indians. Weakness may be pitied by
them, but it is not respected. Physically weak men, unless
backed by the two qualities of firmness and courage, are apt to
be trifled with by them. The Indians are quick to test and
find out what a new-comer is made of, and it is necessary to
take a firm stand with them from the beginning in order to
avoid falling into the traps they so skilfully lay.

It is a difficult matter to win the love and confidence of the

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SYSTEM OF DEALING WITH INDIANS

r
Indian, but since these were absolutely necessary to the success

of our work, we at once laid ourselves out to gain them by
endeavouring to show our love for them and confidence in them .

In the early years we took pains to manifest our good-will
towards them in every way possible, and were cheered by finding
it returned. Frequently, for instance, when travelling, if we
perceived an old woman or a frail man suffering from fatigue,
we would dismount from our horses and make them take our
places, an act which the Indians would readily appreciate.
While camping in the forest on a stormy night, we have shared
our blankets with the most needy, and by many such little acts
of kindness, sought to convince them of our brotherliness. In
numerous cases the Indians have proved that they were quite as
willing to display kindness to us, as I have instanced in the
previous chapter.

But while we desired to evince our love for the Indian and
treat him as a brother, we recognized the necessity of not being
governed by mere sentiment, but of exercising practical love.
" Love worketh no evil," and if we, through mistaken benevolence,
weakened the Indian's character, we should be doing him harm
instead of good. To give a lazy, idle man food, when he ought
to work, is not a kindness, but a wrong. " If a man will not
work, neither shall he eat, 11 and therefore we always sought to
blend love with strictness and justice.

On one occasion I was travelling with a party of Indians,
some of the younger men, including myself, being mounted.
On coming to a difficult swamp, which had to be crossed, I at
once dismounted, and perceiving an opportunity of teaching a
lesson, I explained that I was considerate enough to let some
woman with young children ride my horse while 1 walked. The
Indians greatly approved of this, and, accordingly, a woman with
two children mounted my steed. But my young companions
exhibited no inclination to follow my example. On perceiving
this, I insisted upon their dismounting and giving place to the
weaker, informing them that as they were the relatives and
friends of these women and children, it was their duty rather
than mine to dismount, and that, even if I had not done so

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SYSTEM OF DEALING WITH INDIANS

myself, I should have insisted upon their doing it. They obeyed,
but not with a very good grace ; nevertheless, the whole party
thoroughly approved of the step I had taken. It was not a course
which they would have thought of taking of their own accord.
To be kind and considerate in this way was new to them, but
the moral was not lost upon them.

On another occasion, after I had lived two or three years
amongst them, I happened to be employing a number of men
from a western village, and had agreed to supply them with
food in return for their work. The young Chief of their party,
however, a vain, conceited, and idle fellow, declined to work.
When midday came, the men were told they might sit round
the pot and eat, and tke young Chief presented himself with the
rest. I had frequently impressed upon the natives the necessity
of all able-bodied men honestly earning their living in some way
or other, and had told them that wilful loafers had no claim on
the charity of others. I now remonstrated with the Chief to
this effect, but he insisted upon sharing the food. To have
given way would have implied to the Indians one of two things,
either that I was afraid of their Chief, or else that I was not
very anxious about insisting upon what I had so often taught
them. In either case the effect upon them would have been bad,
and therefore to ignore the incident would have meant weakness
on my part. So I ordered the Chief to leave the pot, and, as he
failed to obey me, I forcibly removed him. There was some
opposition, and as the men seemed disinclined to eat without
him, I upset the pot and its contents on the ground. I antici-
pated further trouble, but in the afternoon they again began
work, and sat quietly down to their evening meal when it was
ready. The young Chief, however, was absent, having gone off
in a huff.

The Indians quite acknowledged that the arrangement I had
made with them, on the basis of " so much work so much food, 11
was just, and that I was warranted in refusing their Chief the
right to eat. They had not expected me to take such a strong
hand in the matter, but I never had any further trouble on this
score.

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SYSTEM OF DEALING WITH INDIANS

The Indian is a great admirer of courage, and is courageous
himself in certain ways. One of their favourite tests was to
come to me in the middle of the night, when we happened to be
camped near some great forest. While sound asleep beneath my
mosquito-net, they would roughly awaken me, exclaiming that
a large jaguar was close at hand, and that I had better see to
my safety. They behaved as naturally as they could, but they
rather overacted, and, knowing them well enough to detect an
absence of earnestness in their tone, I was convinced it was only
a hoax, and so bade them begone and leave me to sleep. After
playing this and similar tricks several times upon me, they
eventually concluded that I was neither of a timid disposition,
nor was I to be easily deceived.

Again, children have a strong sense of justice; and the Indian
likewise respects justice, even when he is the loser. Let me
illustrate this by an experience in which I was to some extent
the sufferer.

There were rumours current in the village in which I was then
located that we were in imminent danger of an attack from the
Northern Kisapang Tribe. One day a Chief came to me in
breathless alarm saying that he had just found a Kisapang scout
in the act of walking off with my horse, leading it by an Indian
belt, which he had tied round its neck ; but that he had rescued
it just in time, and had brought back the horse with the belt
still round its neck. There were signs, he said, of a party of
Kisapang in the vicinity of the village, and that in all probability
they had taken some of the other horses. The women and
children showed great alarm, and, together with some of the
leading Indians, he begged me to give them powder and shot for
their guns, asserting that, if the Kisapang once knew that they
were well armed, they would be afraid to attack the village.

Knowing how terrible would be the consequences if an attack
actually took place, I agreed to their request, but on condition
that they should not go farther than the near vicinity of the
village, and on no account provoke an encounter, but merely
remain on the defensive; and, further, that they were to return
to me all the powder and shot not used.

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SYSTEM OF DEALING WITH INDIANS

They seemed much relieved. But I thought it strange that,
wandering about as they continually were in search of game,
they had not before detected signs of the Kisapang in the
neighbourhood, and that visitors who had recently arrived from
the north had brought no news of any hostile movement
among them.

That day my Indians sent out a scouting-party, and a few
shots were fired by way of warning that the village was well
armed. The next day they again went out, and did not return
till night; but when they did arrive they brought in three
large thlenach (deer), saying they had seen no signs of the
Kisapang.

My suspicions were aroused, so on the following day I recom-
mended them to go out again, as probably the Kisapang were
still in the neighbourhood ; but they declared that they were
quite satisfied that their enemies had gone.

Presently I summoned the men to my hut, and ordered them
to hand back the powder and shot left over. They readily did
so ; but I informed them, greatly to their discomfiture, that the
amount was short of what it should be. When they declared
that that was all they had left, I replied that I had always
understood they had only one name for the Kisapang, but I had
since discovered they had another name for them. "Oh no!' 1
they said ; "there is only one name.*" "Not at all,"" I replied ;
" you also call them thlenach" They looked surprised ; but I
informed them that I had counted the shots they had fired, and
that I had also observed the deer which they had brought in ;
therefore I demanded the hides of the deer shot in compensation
for the ammunition that was short. They were at first very
angry and disappointed, seeing that the price demanded was
far in excess of the value of the powder and shot, but recognizing
that their stratagem had failed, they admitted the justice of
my claim.

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CHAPTER XXIII
TEACHER AND PUPIL

THE first thing that the white man requires to do in order to
become a successful mentor to an alien people is not, as many
would suppose, to study the language and begin to teach,
but to get rid of his inborn feeling of superiority and self-
righteousness, for his great difficulty in dealing with such a
people is to see anything from their point of view. Unless he
can clearly perceive their position and enter into their feelings ;
unless he can realize their difficulties, and appreciate the efforts
that they make to combat them ; unless, again, he can see, not
only the weak, but also the good points in their character,
there can be no sympathy between him and them. And without
a genuine feeling of sympathy he will never be successful in
imparting higher ideals to others.

Many, besides missionaries, have felt keenly the attitude
frequently taken by the new-comer, who looks around him with
a conscious air of superiority and of power, and fancies he sees
at a glance the weak points and secrets of failure. How often
we find some traveller devoting a few months to a flying visit
to some centres of a great and populous country, and then
writing and lecturing upon it with the greatest possible
assurance ; and, strange to say, people at home pay an absurd
amount of attention to his observations. He himself is possibly
quite sincere, and, in his ignorance, implicitly believes that he
has grasped all the salient points.

In the heathen world we find much that is good, much that
is essentially true, much that is worth possessing which we
ourselves do not possess ; and the wise teacher, with a proper

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humility of mind, accepts, appreciates, and uses what is good,
however little it may be ; and with a like humility he is ready
to admit that we ourselves are by no means perfect, and have
little to boast of in spite of our advantages over the heathen.

On more than one occasion I have been reminded of the
example of that great missionary St. Paul, when he said, " Sirs,
why do ye these things ? We also are men of like passions
with you."" On New Year's Day, 1894, for example, seeing
a favourable opportunity to have a serious and pertinent talk
with Keamapsithyo (Philip), the first Indian who had shown
any really marked interest in Christianity, I walked out with
him some distance from the village, and sat down on the bank
of a stream.

After a long conversation, I told him that, although his
knowledge was exceedingly rudimentary, chiefly owing to my
inadequate command of his language, and consequent inability
to put the truths of the Gospel clearly before him, yet he had
been able to comprehend sufficiently to warrant him in de-
ciding there and then to abandon heathenism once and for all,
and follow Christ as his Chief. He replied that it was as I
had said, only that I had not seemed to understand how sinful
his past life had been ; he knew that, to follow Christ, he
would have to give up that life of sin, but, as it had such
a hold upon him, he felt that he could not; furthermore,
his sins had been so many that he felt sure the Christ about
whom he had been taught could not possibly go so far as to
forgive him. He added that, of course, in my case it was
different, because I was a good man, as all the Indians knew,
and doubtless Christ had been quite pleased to receive me,
seeing that I had never committed such and such sins. In his
own case, however, it must be otherwise.

I went over with him in detail the particular sins which
he had instanced, and assured him that many of them I had
myself committed innumerable times ; that others, although not
committed in act, I had committed in intention ; and that he
knew, according to the theories of his own people, as well as
from the teaching of Christ Himself, that the sin of the will was

TEACHER AND PUPIL

as much a sin as the deed itself. I tried to convince him that
I was really in no way a better man than himself, in spite of his
opinion of me and that of his people, who had only judged me
superficially, yet Christ had accepted me, and therefore would
accept him. I showed him that I still had the same tempta-
tions as he had, only the difference was that my will was to do
good and abstain from evil ; that this was not a natural, but a
changed will, given me by God ; and although I certainly did
things of which I did not approve, yet it grieved me when I
did, and that I was continually striving to overcome these
failings. I then expounded the doctrine that, in such a case,
will-power would be given to overcome evil in proportion as the
desire to overcome was strong. I pointed out that, by his own
confession, he desired to lead a good life, and that, as I had
already made it clear, his past guilt could be atoned for.
Although he would continue to stumble for long after taking
this step, I explained how he would be given strength to subdue
his natural weakness ; how, as his knowledge increased, and his
experience ripened, and his desire tended unswervingly in the
right direction, so he would in time come to realize the
happiness of doing right, and discover that strength to do it
would be imparted to him. After this, without giving any
decision one way or another, he broke off the conversation and
left me.

It was not until four years and a half afterwards that I learnt
the immediate result of our talk. He was preaching to his
countrymen, and in the course of his address stated distinctly
and unhesitatingly that it was on that day that he definitely
resolved sincerely to endeavour to carry out what I had advised.
He remarked that it was only the perception that suddenly
dawned on him of the similarity of my own condition with his
that encouraged him to make the effort.

This was Christian sympathy, and through it the first convert,
Philip, was won for Christ.

It is a great mistake to think that all heathen peoples are
without any moral code, and void of any striving after higher
things. As St. Paul says : " For when the Gentiles, which have

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TEACHER AND PUPIL

not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, they
are a law unto themselves, their conscience also bearing witness,
and their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one
another." The Indians of the Chaco distinctly possess a moral
code of laws. I have never yet, during my twenty years of
sojourn among them, met with any Indian who regarded theft,
murder, adultery, false- witness, and covetousness as anything
but sin ; and, furthermore, they not only hold the act as sin,
but the intention or desire to commit the act also as sin.

There is no subject which interests the Indian so much as
that concerning the spiritual world, and the very lowest of
the heathen are intensely interested in any questions connected
with the origin of the universe, or with man and his probable
destiny. They have much in their religious belief upon which
we can build in inculcating Christianity, and it is necessary that
the Christian teacher should thoroughly understand the religious
theories of the people to whom he preaches. He is wise who,
in bringing to them the true light of the Gospel, appeals to their
own groping in the darkness after something they cannot grasp.
St. Paul, on Mars Hill, referred to the altar dedicated to the
unknown God. The Athenians realized that there was some-
thing lacking which they did not know, so Paul at once took
advantage of this in introducing his subject, for he said : " Him
declare I unto you." We had to begin by declaring the existence
of the Creator ; then, we went on to utilize the Indian theory
already referred to, that all things were created by some great
power symbolized by a beetle. We explained that orginally man
knew the truth concerning this Creator, but that, from certain
causes which we dwelt upon, he had either forgotten or had
acquired erroneous ideas about Him. We made it clear that
all mankind would have been sunk in error to the present day
had it not been that the Creator, in His kindness, had revealed
the truth afresh, and that we had obtained this revelation from
an ancient people to whom it had been given.

Their theory that a race of powerful beings had preceded
man tallied, we said, in the main with our own, and we accepted
their belief in powerful and numerous spiritual hosts, with this

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difference : that whereas they seemingly believed that such were
only evil, we, on the contrary, through revelation, knew that there
were both good and evil spirits, and that, though according to
their tenets the Creating Spirit had ceased to exercise any
governance over that which He created, yet we knew that He
did govern in the heavens above and in the earth beneath.
We explained how His governance was beneficial ; but His laws
were so modelled that evil naturally brought its own punish-
ment, and we brought many illustrations from their own life
and surroundings to bear upon these subjects. A man, for
example, planted a small seed, and in due time that seed, with-
out any intervention on his part, became in a way which he
could not explain a large edible fruit. Now, whether the
Creator, by a special act, either by Himself or through His
agents, produced this result, or whether in the beginning He
implanted in the seed the capacity to develop in the soil that
received it, under certain given conditions, into the fruit, the
cause was the same. And as that fruit was of service to both
man and beast, it indicated kindness and thoughtfulness on the
part of the original Creator.

Mosquitos were also, according to their own theories and
also ours, the work of the same Creator, though they held
the mosquito to be altogether evil. But the problem whether
this insect was really altogether a pest, or played some neces-
sary part in Nature, was due to a want of knowledge on their
part. They could not say that the mosquito was not useful ;
they could say that, as far as they were concerned and aware,
the mosquito was injurious. But they all knew that if they
cleared a certain space around their villages, and selected a site
far enough removed from swamp and forest, the mosquitos
tended to disappear in that part. One thing they did not know
was that the Creator intended man to be master to a great
extent of his circumstances. The Creator had given him intelli-
gence and power to combat difficulties, and by taking certain
measures they could to a great extent minimize the evil which
the mosquito wrought.

In numerous other ways we sought to train the Indian mind

TEACHER AND PUPIL

to connect cause and effect, and to induce him to use to the
utmost those means which the Almighty had put within his
power of elevating himself and improving his position. From
the very beginning we were quick to realize that we were deal-
ing with a people in its infancy. Whether they had been at
some remote time an organized and civilized nation or not
mattered little. The fact remained that when we found them
they were in the condition of primitive savages.

There were two courses open to us. One was to look upon
them as a moribund race, and to endeavour to bring them
speedily to a knowledge of the Gospel before they should become
extinct. A human soul, whether of the higher races or of the
savage, is of such incalculable value that no expense or effort
can be too great to spend on its redemption. But while fully
comprehending this, we also grasped the fact that there were
hundreds of millions in this world who were continually being
replenished by new generations, and requiring direction and
help towards the higher life as much as this scattered people in
the Chaco. It was therefore a question of calculating how best
we could utilize the limited means at our disposal in the uplift-
ing of the human race. After careful consideration, we came
to the conclusion that this people need not inevitably become
extinct, and that, furthermore, there was every possibility of
their increasing, developing, and eventually occupying a useful
position in the world.

Having settled this in our own minds, the second question
was how best we could accomplish our object. All who under-
stand anything about the financial condition of Missions know
well that the means at our disposal are so limited that every
farthing is of the utmost importance. We felt, therefore, that
we could not honestly contemplate devoting the time of a
number of men, and even the continued limited amount of
money necessary for such a work, to ministration among such a
small section of the heathen world. Our policy was, therefore,
from the first to aim at making this Mission as soon as possible
self-supporting and self-expanding. We were entirely opposed
to any attempt at encouraging these Chaco heathen to accept

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TEACHER AND PUPIL

Christianity through the hope of material gain. We impressed
upon them that if they followed our teaching it would ultimately
lead to their material improvement, but we unhesitatingly gave
them to understand that such improvement could only be
attained by their own efforts. We were willing to instruct
them so far as was necessary, and to lead and direct them until
such time as they should be able to fend for themselves, but we
made it clear that their destiny depended upon themselves. We
therefore determined to give away nothing, and to insist upon
their contributing towards the expenses of the work instead of
depending on assistance from us.

This great Chaco region would require a small army of Euro-
peans to evangelize, and the pressing needs elsewhere are so
great that such an attempt would be unwarranted. We there-
fore urged upon our first converts the necessity of themselves
bearing the responsibility of evangelizing their countrymen.

Of course, there are many who object to such a people having
the reins of government put into their hands until they are
perfectly fitted to exercise it. We agree that it is necessary for
many years to come to keep a controlling hand upon this young
nation and Church, but we contend that the only way in which
they will learn to act for themselves is by experience. Doubt-
less there will be many failures and disappointments, but only
by falls and bruises can the battle of life be won. The Jesuit
^Fathers built up a marvellous work amongst the Indians of
I Paraguay, but when they were expelled by the Government the
\ fabric soon fell to pieces. The reason, I believe, was this : The
\ priests ruled and the people had to obey ; they were not taught
^to think and act for themselves.

The socialistic system of ancient Peru was the cause of its
downfall; the people had lost independence, self-reliance, and
initiative. We have worked, and are still working, towards
making this Chaco people a thinking, independent, and self-
reliant Church and nation. Doubtless it would be easier for us
to keep them in a state of childhood, implicitly obeying and
never questioning the rule of their foster-fathers ; and the people,
being naturally weak in character, could be easily induced to

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remain so. But we are not there for our own comfort and
glorification ; it is the present and ultimate benefit of the people /
that we seek, and this is only to be accomplished by making
them learn to depend upon their own efforts instead of by
perpetually keeping them in leading-strings.

LENGUA FISH-TRAP.

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CHAPTER XXIV
INFANTICIDE AND OTHER EVILS

IT is only natural to expect that the beliefs of the Lengua
Indians, erroneous as they are, should produce in this primitive
people actions corresponding to them. Opinions sincerely held
make the man, and as our object was to make them good men,
it is evident that we first had to study their moral standpoint.
We could only do this by entering fully into their ordinary life,
and acquiring by tactful sympathy a knowledge of their
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs, which such a people do not
readily divulge to the casual stranger. It is not surprising,
therefore, that this preliminary work occupied us close upon
seven years.

The chief events dealt with in this chapter took place after
we had gained this experience, and after we had begun to gain
a certain measure of moral influence over the people. The
vices and crimes practised by them in their heathen state could
doubtless have been overcome had we been in a position to
plant a strong governing power among them. An army can
quell a revolution, but cannot change the feeling of discontent
into one of loyal obedience. In every case where the evil
tendencies of man are curbed by physical force alone, reaction
immediately sets in the moment that controlling force is
removed. It is a truism that education, moral training, and
spiritual power can alone mould the character of man satis-
factorily and permanently.

I must put it on record that our early successes with this
people, and the diminution of the dangers which we had to
encounter, were, humanly speaking, due to the policy which we

232

INFANTICIDE

pursued. Any explorer or trader could have succeeded as well
had he adopted similar methods and shown courage and tact.
But it was moral power that we aimed to win, in order to
benefit the people, and not simply to make our own course
easy. Moral influence grows slowly, as it can only advance in
proportion as those affected respond to it.

As is usually the case, moral awakening tends to produce
a feeling of timidity and shame. Those influenced by it do not
at once give way to the new ideas ; their old life retains a great
attraction, and a conflict ensues between their higher and lower
natures. Consciousness of shame induces them to hide, as far
as possible, the evil-doing which they are inclined to overcome,
but to which they feel they must succumb. We were not
surprised, therefore, to discover continual attempts to deceive
us, and we still have to encounter such difficulties even among
those who show a desire to accept Christianity.

The most prominent evil which we found prevalent among
the Lenguas was that of a carefully-planned system of racial
suicide, by the practice of infanticide by abortion, and other
methods, which, although they show that the Indian has con-
siderable knowledge, are of such a nature that I dare not make
them public. Against infanticide proper we took a firm stand,
and the humane feelings and natural instincts of the people
caused them to respond readily to our appeals. They are
urged to this crime by superstitious fears, the custom of cen-
turies, and, paradoxical as it may appear, by feelings of
humanity. There is certainly from their point of view, when we
remember that they are heathen, a certain justification under-
lying this crime, on account of their difficult life and their
inability to supply sufficient and suitable nourishment for a
number of young children.

Their superstitious beliefs impel them to kill all children
whose circumstances of birth, according to their religious code,
entail the forfeiture of their young lives. We have mentioned
before that twins are never allowed to live, as the theory is held
that they can never be healthy and strong. The first child, if a
female, is invariably put to death, probably because they con-

INFANTICIDE

sider that she will bring ill-luck. They object to a child being
of a dark skin at the time of its birth, and also consider certain
unpropitious dreams as justifying the destruction of the infant.
The Indian mother is fond of her children, and when she
consents to the murder of her infant it is not infrequently an
agonizing pang to her. But she acquiesces because she realizes
the difficulty of maintaining it, and prefers to suffer the lesser
pain of losing it at birth than to watch its sufferings as it
lingers on for perhaps a year or two, and then dies after she has
become warmly attached to it. In the event of her being
deserted by her husband, her relatives, knowing what the weight
of her burden would be, with no one to maintain her, bring
pressure to bear on her to consent to the destruction of the
child.

While none feel more keenly than we do the wickedness of
this crime, yet, in justice to the Indian, and considering his
position and condition of life, we must admit that there are
extenuating circumstances.

At the present moment I have in my mind an Indian
Christian family of six children, the eldest being about ten
years of age. How could this family possibly exist if they had
to lead a nomadic and heathen life in such a country as the
Chaco ? The Christian population is rapidly increasing, and
why ? Because we have not only led them on to higher ideals,
but have enabled them to lead a settled and regular life ; the
maintenance of a large family under these changed conditions
becomes practicable, apart from being a Christian duty.

The first real struggle which we had against infanticide
occurred in the year 1895. We had determined to remove our
station from Thlagwakhe to Waikthlatingmangyalwa, but, before
we finally made this move, we built a few rough huts on the
new site. Some few months before our contemplated removal a
young Indian had sought to marry one of our village girls.
The parents and near relatives strongly opposed this union, but
did not succeed in preventing the marriage. She was expecting
the birth of a child, and, as we feared the outcome, we extorted
a promise from the girl's father that its life would be spared.

234

INFANTICIDE

Shortly after this the villagers made matters so uncomfort-
able for the husband that he left the station and went off to
the West. The native law is that, if a woman is deserted by
her husband, the child is killed as soon as it is born. We
heard many reports in the village that the man had deserted
the girl of his own accord, and on the strength of these rumours
we thought it advisable to call the chief people together to
warn them that we should be very angry if the child was
destroyed. They assured us that its life would be spared, and
we foolishly trusted them.

On the evening of the first day that we occupied the new site
the child was born, but as no immediate steps were taken by
the people to kill it, w^ believed that they intended to adhere
to their promise, so we retired to rest as usual.

Early next morning, as I was boiling my coffee, a little boy
about six years of age came to warm himself at my fire. With
childish simplicity he asked me if I had heard the news. I
asked him, " What news ?" He replied by saying that when
the people were assured that we were asleep, they persuaded a
visiting witch-doctor from the West to kill the child, shortly
after midnight, by knocking it on the back of the neck with his
club, and that he had received a sheep and a string of beads for
his services. The child went on to say that before the morning
star arose, the grandfather of the child had taken the body
away and had buried it beneath a bottle-trunk tree in the
vicinity. The little fellow evidently noticed a change in my
countenance, for he seemed to realize quickly that he ought not
to have spoken.

Apparently the people had not been aware that the child had
seen or heard anything, or they would certainly have prevented
him speaking to me ; and as they are very cautious in keeping a
secret, and in endeavouring to avoid trouble, no one would ever
be likely to hear the subject spoken of again. It is quite clear
that he never said anything about his conversation with me, for
to the present day the Indians have no idea how the crime was
discovered.

Shortly after breakfast we made inquiries about the baby,

INFANTICIDE

and were calmly informed that it had died naturally, and had
been buried. We accused them of having killed it, and raised
as big a commotion about the matter as possible. We were
not in a position to punish those who were implicated, but our
object was to impress upon all the gravity of the crime, and our
strong disapproval of it. We therefore agreed among ourselves
to boycot the grandfather in particular, and decided that we
would not employ him nor hold friendly intercourse with him
for several months, in order to bring home to him our repug-
nance at the crime.

The witch doctor had left early that morning, and the others,
evidently feeling ashamed of the part they had played, kept
very much to themselves. When we questioned the girl, she
cried bitterly, and said that she had not desired the murder.
Later in the day I met the grandfather, and on approaching me
he offered to shake hands (a custom they had acquired from us),
but I looked at his hand, and shrank back, saying it was red.
He looked at it himself in surprise, and then, in a confused way,
blurted out that he was innocent, saying that it was " Blue-
blanket," the witch-doctor, who had done the deed. Greatly to
his discomfiture, I reminded him that he had paid " Blue-
blanket " to do it, and named the exact payment made. It was
easily to be seen from his face that my statement was correct.

They evidently thought that by employing an outsider they
would to a great extent avoid our anger, as they could, by
shifting the blame on him, shield themselves; so they were
very disappointed when they found that their scheme was
detected and had failed. We gave the grandfather little peace for
the next few months. Sometimes I would meet him, and would
casually remark, "Saptaha namuk ?" (What says the bottle-
trunk tree ?), or would pick up a club in his presence, and, look-
ing at it intently for a minute or two, would drop it suddenly,
as in disgust. These little reminders had the desired effect,
and he learned to know the haunting power of sin, and that the
way of transgressors is far from pleasant.

Some years afterwards, Keamapsithyo, our leading Indian,
was addressing the people, in our presence, about the final

INFANTICIDE

judgment, and in referring to this and other cases of infanticide,
he pictured in his simple Indian fashion the confusion to which
such sinners would be brought when they faced the great Judge.
He imagined Christ upon the Throne, and the Indians standing
before Him. Presently a man was called up, whom he men-
tioned by name, and the first question asked was, " How many
children have you ?" The answer was, " Two." " Have you
had any more ?" asked Christ. " Yes, three more," he replied.
"What happened to them?" said Christ. "They died," was
the reply. " Have you killed any ?" " No," the man replied.
Then there was a pause, and presently an angel came forward,
leading three children with their necks broken and their heads
hanging. Immediate^ the children ran to the man, and, clasp-
ing him round the knees, they cried out, " Tata ! Tata !"
(Father ! Father !) The Judge looked sternly at the man who
stood thus convicted, and the latter, full of confusion, hung his
head before the Throne, condemned.

Keamapsithyo's address, although we cannot but take excep-
tion to some parts of it, was eminently suited to bring vividly
before his people the enormity of their sin.

This case of infanticide, although we failed to prevent it,
stirred us to make more earnest efforts to bring about the
abolition of similar outrages. We spoke strongly and frequently,
not only against infanticide proper, but also against its allied
evils. As time went on, the effect of our teaching began to
show marked results, in spite of the fact that the wizards
strongly opposed our efforts to alter customs which they had
observed for ages. Only by moral influence could we possibly
have succeeded, because we realized that fear of detection and
its consequences alone would never bring the people to a higher
view of life. We wanted to convince them that what we taught
was right, just, and profitable. The old adage, "A man
convinced against his will is of the same opinion still,"" taught
us that unless they willed of their own accord to alter their
former evil life no other consideration whatever would compel
them to do so.

For a long time we were occupied in founding the new village

237

GROWING INFLUENCE

at Waikthlatingmangyalwa. All previous attempts to establish
a permanent settlement had failed, but now the Indians showed
a decided inclination to take to a settled life. Regular hours of
work were instituted, and a few simple rules introduced, in order
to maintain system and order in this new community. A bell
rang at fixed hours, summoning the people to work, the
children to school, and to the informal services which we
presently began to hold ; but we interfered as little as possible
with the ordinary Indian life, knowing that changes are better
wrought slowly than suddenly. We also had to remember that
we were dealing with a primitive and roving race, to whom all
civilized restrictions were irksome.

Their native feasts we restricted to three days, and we made
a compact with the people that there should be no intoxicating
drink manufactured or consumed in the vicinity. We also laid
gentle restraints upon the prevalence of vice, and required to
be notified in the event of approaching death. Our transport
service was now in a well-organized condition, and natives
accompanying the carts to the River Paraguay were bound to
abide by certain rules. There were many who evinced a dis-
position to accept our Christian teaching, but we showed no
favouritism to them over and above their heathen companions.

We were fully conscious of the fact that, although the Indians
on the station, and those in the vicinity, adhered to the rules
we had laid down, and willingly enough followed the new
system introduced, they nevertheless still hankered after their
old habits of life. They never openly objected to conform to
the new manners, and were evidently unwilling to offend us
who were their friends and benefactors. Therefore, as is
frequently the Indian way, being torn between a desire to avoid
unpleasantness, and yet at the same time to gratify themselves,
they cast about for some excuse to leave our neighbourhood.
At one time it would be a hunting expedition, at another an
invitation to a feast which they could not very well refuse ; and
once away from our influence, they returned for the time being
to their old habits. They were frequently detected, however, in
these deceptions, because we ourselves had been infected to some

238

A BIRD'S NEST

Composed of selected twigs built on to a trailer
from a tree. The entrance is below.

A SECRET STILL

Hidden in the forest. The beer, made either from beans, honey, or pumpkins, is placed
in pots resting on a platform, with a covering of branches and grass to promote
fermentation.

DRUNKENNESS

extent with their erratic customs, and would often, without any
warning, set off on a wandering tour. During such itineraries
we frequently came unawares upon those who had left us.

On one of these occasions I arrived unexpectedly in the
neighbourhood of a village to the West. On entering a cutting
in the forest I met two girls who happened to be well known
to me. Under ordinary circumstances they would have come
forward with great pleasure to greet me, but on this occasion, as
soon as they caught sight of me, they ran away in the direction
of their village. I expressed my surprise to my two Indian
companions, but one of them said, " Be quite still and listen. 11 "
I obeyed, and presently heard unmistakable sounds of a commo-
tion, and occasionally 'snatches of a drunken chant. My com-
panions looked at me significantly, but said nothing. We
broke into a trot, and were soon at the village. The people,
however, having been warned by the girls, had been given time
to prepare for our arrival.

We found only a few women and girls, the chief, Mechi, and
two men. Although they greeted me in a friendly enough
spirit, it was quite dear that I was not too welcome. I asked
Mechi where his people were, and he replied that they were
away fishing. He wanted to know where I was going, so I told
him that I was on my way to Namuk-amyip. As it was then
early in the afternoon, he urged me to push on to a village
conveniently situated for the night's halt, adding that he hoped
that I would stay a few days with him on my return. I informed
him, much to his dismay, that I thought I would stay with him
until the evening, so that I might see his people when they
returned. On hearing this he continued to discuss the advisa-
bility of my going on at once, in a manner quite contrary to the
usual Indian courtesy and hospitality.

During this conversation I could hear smothered sounds pro-
ceeding intermittently from the forest near by. Mechi was
unaware that I suspected the origin of these sounds, or that I
was purposely delaying my departure in order to substantiate
my suspicions. He was visibly becoming more nervous as the
time went by, but, regardless of his feelings, we quietly seated

DRUNKENNESS

ourselves in his hut, and he was, much against his will, compelled
to go and get us some refreshments. While he was away I
whispered to one of my Indian companions, who was courting
one of the girls at this village, to go at once and find out certain
particulars. While we were eating, he returned, and by a
sign notified me that he had obtained the desired information.
Shortly afterwards, to Mechi's unfeigned delight, we proceeded
on our journey, but halted under cover a short distance off.
Nor had we long to wait, for soon the signs of revelry broke out
unrestrained.

On my return in a week or so, I spent a few days at Mechi's
village. When I arrived I inquired after the health of all his
followers, and pointedly expressed the hope that none of them
were suffering from headache. They did not at first grasp my
meaning, but they soon did when I added the remark that on my
departure I had heard the fishing-party singing a peculiar chant
while returning from the swamp. They looked very confused
when once they gleaned how much I knew, and they saw there
was no longer room for concealment.

It appears that when the girls notified Mechi of my approach,
the women and sober men had hastily removed the drink ing-
vessels to the wood, and had then carried oft' the intoxicated
men, smothering their drunken cries by covering their mouths
with their blankets, and that they had had great difficulty in con-
cealing the real state of matters during my halt at their village.

Drunkenness is perhaps one of the easiest vices which it has
been our lot to combat. The people have abandoned this
debasing habit with only a slight struggle wherever our influence
has been strongly exerted, and the Government of Paraguay
has to a certain extent co-operated with us in endeavouring to
save the aborigines from this destructive curse.

Our task was not so easy in dealing with cases of sickness,
where witchcraft was all-powerful. Force had sometimes to be
used, as in the case of an old woman who was reported to be at
the point of death. On going to her hut with one of my colleagues
we found that she had already been put outside, and that the
people were preparing for her burial. We examined her, and

240

SICKNESS

felt that there was a possibility of at least prolonging her life,
so we had her removed to our own house, and prepared to give
her some suitable nourishment. This, however, she stoutly
refused, maintaining that any attempt to revive her was useless,
and that she wanted to die. Without more ado we forced her
to take the food, and after a few days of careful nursing she was
able to move about, and soon recovered. She survived for
twelve years, and this is one case among many which serve to
show how Indian life is often prematurely cut short from the
want of a little care.

In their heathen state it is really impossible to do much for
any sick Indians, as they have such a deep-rooted aversion for
any methods contrary* to those which they themselves have
practised for ages. I remember living in a village when nearly
all the people were reduced to helplessness from an epidemic of
influenza. My colleagues and I procured some sheep and goats,
and made nourishing soup for them, but few of them would
touch it, as they believe it is bad for sick people. Even when
we tried to administer medicine they would not be satisfied
unless we also took it ; and although we were prepared to do
all we could for them, there was a limit to our capacity in this
direction. They have now, however, an exaggerated belief in
our remedies, and are apt to apply to us for medicine for the
slightest ailments. I have on several occasions received credit
for curing a headache or other slight disorder by the simple
remedy of a concoction of salt and coffee !

It is comparatively easy, when once a beginning has been
made, to acquire the Indian language sufficiently to deal with
ordinary subjects, but when it comes to imparting religious
truth and its abstract ideas, considerable difficulty arises, which
is accentuated in talking to a people such as these, who are
prone to take everything literally. We found no suitable word
in their language by which to express the idea of the Deity, and
this caused us much difficulty. Nor could we express sin in its
concrete form, but had to use a roundabout phrase, implying
evil thought, evil words, and evil actions. Their ideas of time
were also very crude, and when referring to persons in Old

241 Q

LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES

Testament history, such as Abraham, we were frequently asked
if he was a tribesman of ours, and if we had met him.

A peculiarity of their language is that when you do not
speak from your own knowledge that is, in reported speech
you have continually to use phrases such as : " I have heard just
now " ; "I have heard recently " ; " I heard a long time ago " ;
" It was said that a long time ago " ; and " It is said that
So-and-so said a long time ago." So much are these and like
expressions worked into the structure of their language, that
they resent any interference with their rules of speech, of which
they are very proud.

They have also one form of speech when addressing men and
another when speaking to women, and in preaching to a mixed
audience the Indians considered it necessary that we should
address a statement first to the men and then to the women.
So cumbersome and time-wasting were these peculiarities that,
a sermon which need only have taken half an hour, occupied
an hour, and we found it advisable, at a later date, to ignore
their prejudices somewhat, and to abbreviate these tedious and
complex phrases.

We have to be very careful in teaching an Indian, since he
accepts everything literally. On one occasion I was exhibiting
some lantern slides, one of which happened to be a group
of the Twelve Apostles, and my audience at once insisted on
being told which was which. As it was impossible to explain
to them that this was only an imaginary group, I had to venture
to name them individually. Unfortunately, at a later date, a
colleague altered the order of their names, and the natives con-
cluded that he was not by any means acquainted with his subject.
They are keen observers of nature, and on seeing a picture
of an angel, they evidently puzzled over it for a long time, and
eventually remarked that they could not understand how he
could use his wings, since they sprang from the backbone,
instead of from the shoulder. It was a hard task to make it
clear that angelic wings were only symbolical.

After two years of teaching in the huts and in the open, we
urged the people to assist us in erecting a suitable building in

242

IRREVERENCE

which they could meet for instruction, as the first step to a
church ; and we impressed upon them that they must behave in
an orderly and respectful manner. To their credit, be it said,
we found little difficulty, as they are by nature a reverent
people. But on one occasion an elderly man, now a sincere
Christian, evidently finding the discourse long and tedious,
thought that there would be no harm in having a smoke, and
he accordingly lighted his pipe. One of the more advanced
natives went to inform him that such a proceeding was most
unseemly. He at once extinguished his pipe, and sat listening
for a little while. Then, apparently feeling sleepy, he, quite in
the Indian way, covered his head with his blanket, and pre-
sumably composed himself for a nap. Presently, what was my
surprise to see smoke rising through his blanket ! He was again
cautioned, but simply replied, " I did not think the Spirit would
see me,"" affording another instance of how an Indian tries to get
his own way, without giving offence.

As the station Indians came into constant contact with us,
they gradually acquired a few of our expressions, without making
any attempt to learn our language. They frequently visited us
in our huts when we were busy, and kept on asking us many
questions. When we had borne with them for a time, we would
gently try to get rid of them by shaking hands, moving towards
the door, and politely wishing them " Good-night,"" irrespective
of the time of day. The Indian soon realized that this was
equivalent to saying : " I have finished talking to you ; you may
go/* 1 We had taught them to say " Amen " at the close of a
prayer, and with the exception of the old Indian just referred
to, they all used this word ; but he, with a fine conceit of his
wider knowledge, persisted for a long time in saying at the end
of his prayer " Good-night " instead of " Amen.""

243

CHAPTER XXV

A MURDEROUS ATTACK

As the years passed by, and our influence over the Indians grew
in proportion to the gradual increase in the Mission staff, our
work became sufficiently consolidated to enable me in 1896 to
leave on my first furlough to England. But before my departure
from the Chaco I had determined, after careful preliminary pre-
parations, to establish a Mission in the West-south-west Chaco,
on the borders of the Lengua, Suhin, and Toothli tribes. The
people of this district, who had been informed of our new
move in their direction, seemed pleased at the prospect, but at
the same time doubtful whether we should fulfil our promise
to them. I had, however, already cut a rough cart-track
to their country, and had taken a bullock-cart half-way to
Mechfs village, and built a hut there to serve as a half-way
house.

After serious consideration, I decided to authorize an Indian
named Poit to carry out some preparatory movements on the
frontier during my absence in England. He was at that time
our most hopeful and capable adherent, and it was for this
reason that I chose him. I gave him seventeen head of cattle
and other goods for barter, with definite instructions that he
was to establish himself and his clan at a certain place, make a
garden, barter the goods for sheep and goats, and the cattle
also as opportunity offered. He was to do what he could to
persuade the people to gather round us as soon as we could
send out men to begin the work, and to impress upon them the
conditions of our residence among them. First, that no native
beer should be brewed or consumed on the station. Secondly,

244

A MURDEROUS ATTACK

that feasts must not continue longer than three days. Thirdly,
that no infanticide would be allowed. Fourthly, that the people
must work when called upon. Fifthly, that they must be
prepared to carry mails to the River Paraguay, and bring out
goods when required. Sixthly, that they must keep the cart-
track clear, and that the peace which had already been estab-
lished between the three tribes must be maintained.

When we first contemplated the foundation of a new station
at Waikthlatingmangyalwa, and sub-stations in other parts, we
made similar compacts with the natives. Up to this time we
had every reason to be satisfied with the way in which they kept
their word. From the year 1893 to the present day no Indian
has attempted to mak or traffic in intoxicating liquor on our
stations ; and animals, such as sheep, goats, cattle, and horses, left
in their charge had always up to this time been scrupulously
tended. When we first introduced cattle among them (they
had had cattle previously, but from one cause and another had
practically lost all), we stipulated that they should not kill any,
even when the animals belonged to themselves, without our
permission. This was in order that the cattle might have every
opportunity to multiply, until the herds were sufficiently large
to admit of butchering for consumption.

Only on two occasions was this rule broken, and, strange to
say, on both with tragic results to the men implicated. The
first man, while cleaning his gun after killing the animal,
somehow or other ignited his powder-flask, with the result that
he was severely scorched. Not until this incident had been
almost forgotten, was another Indian found bold enough to
attempt to break the rule. His act was followed by more
disastrous consequences. His gun burst and he lost the greater
portion of one hand. These two cases had such an effect upon
the Indians, that when one of the staff during my absence
ordered a native to kill one of the Mission cattle for food, he
point-blank refused until he was assured that I had actually
given instructions to that effect.

We had suffered very little from ordinary stealing, and only
one case of infanticide had been committed actually on our

245

A MURDEROUS ATTACK

station. When the Indians desired to perpetrate this crime,
they removed to some distance off in order to keep the fact
secret.

Very little difficulty had been experienced in obtaining work-
men when required ; in fact, we had gained such an ascendancy
over the people that we felt quite justified in making this new
venture with Poit.

Several men who had been on the staff had left the Mission,
owing to breakdowns in health and other causes, but I was the
first who had left the field for any length of time with the
intention of returning to it. The Indians did not grasp the
idea of a man going on furlough, and when I left for England,
many of them doubted whether I should ever come back. If
they expected me at all, they guessed it would be in the course
of two or three months, having no idea of the distance I had
to travel.

Poit, as the summer passed by, was evidently convinced that
I had gone for good. To the Indian, the Mission party merely
comprised a few men related to each othercousins, brothers,
uncles, and so on, and it seemed reasonable that I should be the
Chief, as I had been the first to come among them. They had
no idea of our being the representatives of a greater company in
another land, and that the cattle and goods which I had handed
over to Poit were really the property of the Mission and not my
own. Poit, therefore, concluding that I should not return, con-
sidered himself the owner of the property I had left. It is true
that I had assured him of my ultimate return, with a warning
that he would certainly get into trouble if he acted disloyally,
but as everything from the Indian aspect pointed the other way,
he took the risk, and appropriated the property left in his
charge for his own purposes.

In their autumn when I returned, Poit was naturally alarmed,
and at once took steps to keep me in ignorance of what he had
done, and as far as possible to make good what was short. The
staff, having been reinforced by two men whom I brought out
from England, set to work vigorously to enlarge the Mission's
sphere. As the horse disease had killed off our horses, and it was

246

W. BARBROOKE GRUBB

The photograph was taken shortly after Poit's attempt to murder him.

A MURDEROUS ATTACK

dangerous to import more until the possibility of contagion had
passed, we had to make our journeys on foot. During the last
eight months of the year following upon my return, I had
travelled on foot over one thousand seven hundred miles under
very trying conditions, and by the middle of December I was
feeling rather exhausted. Privations, fatigue, and exposure had
begun to tell upon me.

During the previous few months we had been somewhat
annoyed by thefts taking place on the station. While I was
absent on one journey to the River Paraguay, twenty -eight
dollars were stolen from the store. This money was eventually
recovered, but in such a roundabout way, that we could not
discover the thief. Reports also reached me that Poit had
killed some of the cows and sheep left in his charge. A gun
was also stolen about this time from a cart which was bringing
in goods belonging to Professor Graham Kerr, of Glasgow
University, who was then engaged in scientific research on our
station. The thief was bound to know that the weapon belonged
to him, as eventually the gun was found by an Indian hidden
near a forest. The circumstances were such as to show that
the discovery had been prearranged, and many incidents con-
spired to attach suspicion to Poit.

About the beginning of December some Toothli arrived, and
asked when we intended to begin work among their people.
The season was intensely hot and I was hardly fit for another
journey, but the need was so pressing that it was forced upon
me. It was necessary to sift thoroughly the whole question of
Poit's supposed dishonesty, and at the same time to reassure the
people in the south-west that we fully intended to carry out our
promise to them. The Mission Indians were unsettled and
restless, and matters had to be cleared up without delay. Any
vacillation or weakness on our part at this crisis might have so
affected the Indians that graver difficulties would certainly have
arisen.

I accordingly prepared, on December 13, to leave for the
west on foot, with six Indians, of whom Poit was one.

One or two coincidences happened which did not strike me at

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the time, but which became rather curious in the light of later
events. Several Indians, for instance, strongly urged me not to
go, owing to the length of the road, the scarcity of water, the
great heat, and my exhausted condition. One woman came
forward just before I left, and in a sad tone told me that if
I went I would "leave my bones whitening on the road." I
only laughed at her and told her I was strong. One of my
companions, who overheard this, called out jokingly as I went
away, " Remember, if you don't come back, I am to have this
thing," and another shouted, " I am to have that."

Poit, as usual, acted as headman, and gave the orders about
camping and the track to be followed. As was my custom, we
travelled chiefly at night in order to avoid the hot sun.

All went well till I passed Mechi's village. I had gone ahead
with Poit, making for a suitable camping-place for the midday
halt. I frequently noticed that my Indians, who were carrying
all my provisions and kit, were not in sight, but I did not pay
much attention to this, thinking that they had lagged behind
gathering wild fruit. I therefore rested beneath a tree, and sent
Poit back to hurry them up.

A long time elapsed before he returned alone, bringing with
him my kettle, tea, biscuits, net, and a few other goods. He
told me that one of the men had run a long thorn into his foot,
and consequently was unable to walk. He added that the others
were trying to extract it, and that they hoped to overtake me
by the evening, so he had brought with him sufficient food for
that day. I afterwards learned that he had told them I had
sent him back with strict orders that they were to return to the
village we had left that morning, and there to await my return,
which might not be for some weeks. I also found out later, that,
in addition to the kit which he brought me, he took from them
some bandages and medicines which I earned for emergencies.
These he hid in a clump of bushes at the roadside, and they were
afterwards found and restored to me, but long after I returned
to the Mission station. It appears that he instructed them to
take care of the remainder of my provisions and kit against my
return. The Indians admitted afterwards that they were very

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much surprised at this order, but that, as they believed Poit to
be telling the truth, they obeyed.

We rested that midday, and as the Indian carriers had not
come up with us, we advanced towards our camping-place for
the night. It was on this night that I noticed for the first time
that Poit seemed preoccupied and strange in his manner, and
not his usual self. Still, I paid no particular attention to this,
as the Indians are subject to fits of tristezza, and concluded that
probably he had had some altercation with the village folk, or
that he was tired and liverish.

As my carriers did not arrive that night, I was inclined to
wait for them in the morning, but Poit suggested that they had
probably concluded we'had travelled as far as the village of
Makthlatimes, and that they had therefore taken the south
track, expecting to meet us there. This seemed likely, so we
set out for this village, arid arrived there about midday, only to
find that there was no sign or even word of our porters.

Poit expressed great surprise and indignation at this, and,
after talking over the whole matter with me, agreed that there
could be no reason why they should not have caught up with us,
for, even supposing they had taken back the man with the
wounded foot to Paisiamyalwa, yet they could have made good
the delay, as we had been travelling very slowly. He said,
however, that on our journey out, and also at Paisiamyalwa,
he had just caught a few words expressing disapproval of my
trip to the Toothli country. The Lenguas were not on the
best of terms with the Toothli at that time, and he suggested
that it was just possible that the Indians anticipated trouble for
me and themselves, and that they had perhaps decided to give
me the slip, fearing that if anything happened to me, they would
be held responsible by the English. I agreed with him that this
was possible. I still had no suspicions that he was playing me
false, not giving him credit for such astuteness and power of
invention ; in fact, in my disappointment at the conduct of
my carriers, I felt all the more pleased with Poit for sticking so
closely to me. I was determined not to be defeated in my plans
by their desertion, although the loss of trained men and my

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valuables was a serious one. I therefore ordered Poit to recruit
six men from this village, which was one of his own clan, and to
procure a sufficient supply of sweet potatoes, mandioca, and any
other provisions he could get together, to enable me to pursue
my journey.

The only clothes I had were those which I stood up in a thin
cotton shirt and cotton trousers, a hat, no socks, and only a pair
of rather worn alpargatas (canvas slippers with rope soles).
Considering the nature of the country I had to travel through,
it was highly probable that these poor garments would be worn
out in the course of two or three weeks, but, should the worst
come to the worst, I knew I could fall back on an Indian blanket,
to which I had often had recourse before.

The six men and provisions were procured, and that night we
pushed on to a village where Poif s family lived. He had by
this time recovered his good spirits, and I received a hearty
welcome at his village. I inquired here into the cattle question
and other matters, not only from Poit, but (without his over-
hearing me) from other people of the village, receiving prompt
and frank replies to my questions. The replies seemed at the
time to be entirely reassuring, but as they eventually proved to
be false, they became conclusive evidence that all Poit's people
were in league with him. Knowing the Indian character some-
what, I took the precaution of telling them that on the next day
they must send out their men and collect all the cattle, that I
might convince myself of the truth of their statements with my
own eyes. They complied with my wish, and long before dawn
sent out men in all directions.

It must be understood that these people do not use milk in
their native state, and that they have no such thing as fenced
paddocks. The cattle are allowed to roam where they please,
and are only occasionally rounded up. Even now, on our own
stations, it is not unusual for cattle to stray thirty or forty
miles away, especially in time of drought. The natives are
perfectly honest in the matter of live-stock, and any villagers
meeting with stray cattle, will round them up with their own
stock. I was not therefore altogether surprised when, on the

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A MURDEROUS ATTACK

return of the men, they informed me that they had only brought
up about two-thirds of the number, but that they had heard
from natives they had met that the others had mixed with the
cattle of villages too far distant for them to visit. Not caring
to waste time, I ordered them to have all the cattle collected
and kept near the village by my return in a few weeks' time,
which they readily agreed to do. I afterwards discovered that
they had lied to me, and that the missing cattle were at the
very time in the village, but transformed into men, women, and
children ; in other words, they had eaten them.

Next day I proceeded on my journey, and on Saturday night
camped at the last frontier Lengua village. Sunday was
pleasantly spent with* the people, and Poit was extremely
gracious and kind. Nothing could have been pleasanter. On
Sunday night I had an attack of malaria, and felt rather weak
on Monday morning. A heavy dew had fallen, and as the route
lay for a considerable way through tall and soaking wet grass,
Poit, together with many of the people, urged me to delay my
departure until the sun had risen sufficiently to dry the grass.

It was midsummer, and I had intended starting in spite of
the fever when the morning star arose that is, about 3.30 a.m.
in order to cover the twenty miles to the next village before
the sun became too oppressive. Feeling rather ill, however, I
yielded to the entreaty of the natives, and consented to defer
my setting out till about 6.30 a.m., which gave the sun an hour
and a quarter to absorb the dew. When it is remembered that
the heat at that period of the year averages 106 F. in the
shade, its drying power can be readily realized.

Poit recommended me to send the men on ahead with my kit,
in order to prepare the Toothli for my arrival. He said he
knew a short cut through the forest, and that in every way it
would be better for me to act as he suggested. I accordingly
sent them on in advance. He made my breakfast, and was very
solicitous as to my health. While I was eating, he said that he
thought it advisable to borrow some better weapons from his
friends at the village. He was only armed with wooden-pointed
barbed arrows and a club, and he wished to borrow iron-headed

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A MURDEROUS ATTACK

arrows instead, as jaguars had been reported in the neighbour-
hood, and as I was unarmed he would be better equipped in
case of accidents. He accordingly went to the village, and
returned with the necessary iron-headed arrows. He then
borrowed from me a small triangular file, and sat down beside
me conversing and sharpening the blades, and now and then
waited on me with tea. The scraping so irritated me in my
malarial condition that I ordered him to complete the operation
at a distance. I little thought at the time that his desire to
put a keen edge on the blades was on my own special account.

Eventually we proceeded on our journey. After a time we
left the beaten track, and he confessed that he was uncertain
about the best course to take. We crossed the River Monte
Lindo four times, as it winds very much in this locality ; but it
was fortunately rather low at the time, so only once had we to
swim a few strokes.

I became very angry with him for having asserted that he
knew a good track, and then landing me in this difficulty in my
weak condition. He appeared very sorry. Just before crossing
the river for the fourth time we encountered the fresh spoor of
a jaguar, which must have passed early that morning. A few
minutes after this we saw an Indian out hunting on the opposite
bank of the river, and Poit enlarged to him upon the jaguar
tracks we had just passed. The man an elderly one appeared
by no means too well pleased at the news, and signified his
intention of moving off to the open country, evidently not
caring to risk an encounter.

Presently we entered the forest, but soon came to a dead
stop. The bush was seemingly impenetrable. Poit left me,
and said he would reconnoitre. After a while I heard just
ahead of me, at a distance of apparently only some twenty-five
yards, the crackling of branches, such as would be caused by the
progress of a man or animal. I immediately thought of the
jaguar, and halloed for Poit, at the same time shouting to scare
the beast if such it should be. Shortly afterwards I saw Poit
peering through the trees, with a strange look on his face as of
excitement and fear combined. I particularly remarked this, as

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A MURDEROUS ATTACK

it was a look I had never before seen on an Indian's face. I did
not think much of it, however, beyond imagining that probably
he, too, was scared at the prospect of seeing a jaguar.

I asked him how he managed to get round there, and he
replied, u With difficulty " ; but that from where he was the
way was fairly clear, and that I should try and work through to
him from where I was. He presently said : " You are not able
to do it. Wait, and I will join you." In a few minutes he was
by my side. We were in a very small open space, not larger
than a moderate-sized room, with dense undergrowth all around,
and the river close behind us. I ordered him to go ahead and
break a way through. He replied : " Wait a minute ; I have
forgotten the kettle ;"* and went off to fetch it, telling me to
open a passage as much as I could to save time. I did not
realize that when I saw him ahead of me he had actually been
manoeuvring to get a fair shot at me, and that the strange
expression I had seen on his face was the result of acute tension
and fear of discovery.

I was bending down, trying to cleave a way, when suddenly
I felt a sharp blow in my back, just below the right shoulder-
blade, close to the spine. I rose up and saw Poit, about four
or five paces off, with a look of horror on his face. My first
thought was of the jaguar that he had shot at it, and in his
excitement hit me instead. I told him to come to my assistance,
but he cried out : " O Mr. Grubb ! O Mr. Grubb P (a most
unusual expression, the Indians always addressing me by my
Indian name, Yiphenabanyetik). Then with a sharp cry of pain
and terror, " Ak-kai ! Ak-kai !" he rushed off towards the river,
and was lost to sight.

INDIAN CLAY PIPE-BOWL

253

CHAPTER XXVI
IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

IT is well known that in times of danger the brain works with
remarkable rapidity and clearness. It was so with me on this
occasion. I was perfectly calm and clear-headed, and Poit's
real intent, with the whole series of his villainous devices and
inventions, passed vividly through my mind. I felt no pain,
which was quite natural, for a sudden shock such as this was
tends to deaden the nerves.

Blood was spouting from my back, and soon from my mouth
too. The iron arrow-head (seven inches long by one inch wide)
had penetrated so far that I could only get three of my fingers
on the protruding part of the blade, the shaft (a cane one)
being completely shivered. I realized in an instant the proba-
bility that I should swoon, and so made for the river in order to
refresh myself by plunging into the water. Before doing so,
however, I took out my watch one borrowed from a colleague,
Richard Hunt and laid it on the bank.

The water revived me somewhat, and I then proceeded to
extract the arrow. This caused me great difficulty owing to its
awkward position, and having to work it backwards and for-
wards, up and down, in order to free it from its wedged position
in the ribs. The arrow-head had entered perpendicularly and in
an oblique direction, and thus had met with the resistance of the
ribs. Had it entered horizontally, with no such obstacle, the
injury to the lungs would have been far more serious. On
extracting it, I found that the point was bent and twisted^
which partly accounted for the difficulty I had in pulling it out.

I then returned to the forest, picked up the watch, my kettle,

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

and the few things left me by Poit, and entered the water,
walking along the river-edge in order to hide my tracks, in case
Poit, on discovering that he had not killed me outright, should
return to complete his work. My object was to endeavour to
strike the track we had followed that morning, and I succeeded
in crossing the river three times, but at the fourth crossing I
nearly sank in mid-stream. I was exhausted from the exertion
of this and my previous attempts, and had grown so weak from
the loss of so much blood, that I was forced to climb the
opposite bank on all -fours ; but before leaving the river I, for
the second time, wrung out the blood from my shirt.

Bleeding at the mouth still continued at intervals, and I felt
convinced, from what little knowledge I possessed, that I could
not live much longer than an hour, if as long. My great desire,
therefore, was, if possible, to reach the beaten track before I
died, so that some passing Indian might discover my body, and
that the fact and manner of my death might through him reach
my friends. I was in every way desirous of saving my com-
panions and relatives as much anxiety as possible as to my
actual fate, for otherwise they might have surmised that I had
been taken captive, as it was well known that Indians had kept
foreigners prisoners for years.

I succeeded in reaching the path I was looking for, and lay
down under a spreading algaroba tree to die, first placing the
arrow beside me to tell the tale. I had not been in this position
more than a few minutes, when, to my joy, I saw an Indian
coming towards me. He was horrified to find me in such a con-
dition ; but I was only able to say that Poit had shot me, being
too weak to give him any details.

He at once raised me, and, telling me I was close to his
village, he assisted me towards it with tender care.

On my arrival, astonishment and horror fell upon the village.
They laid me down in one of their huts, and gave me, when I
asked for it, a drink of water. After resting a time I felt very
weak and shaken, being overspent with the nervous strain.

The touch of the blood-soaked shirt and trousers, and still
tnore the sight of them, revolted me, so I told a woman to take

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

off my shirt and wash it, for it was saturated and clotted with
blood. She tenderly removed the shirt, and proceeded to rinse
it in a half-gourd. I began to feel dizzy, and my sight grew
dim. I could distinguish nothing but blurred forms, and I
feared I was about to swoon. I again asked for water, and a
gourd was placed near me; but it happened that the one in
which my shirt had been washed was also close by. Being
dazed, I had not been able to follow all that had happened,
but managed to seize a gourd, and had already drunk some
mouthful s when a woman sprang forward and took it from
me. I was afterwards informed by them that I had actually
been drinking the blood washed from my shirt.

Towards evening I began to suffer great pain, and was so
weak that I could not move without help. Just before sunset
the people came frequently to look at me, and I could some-
times catch words of reference to my approaching death. This
terrified me not the fear of death itself (which I felt sure could
not be very far distant, even if not from the actual wound itself,
at least from the complications which I felt would inevitably
ensue), but because of my knowledge of the barbarous burial
customs practised by these people in accordance with their
religious tenets.

That night was to me a night of horror and discomfort, and,
to add to my pain, a roving goat landed squarely upon my
chest. Having no net, I also suffered much from the swarms of
mosquitos, but not so much as I should have under ordinary
circumstances, owing to the dulled state of my nerves.

Next morning (Tuesday, December 21 ) I was still alive, but
barely. The people were very kind to me, doing all they could
to tempt me with food, of which I managed to take a little.
Unfortunately I could understand all that the people said, for
my brain was clearer, although to talk to them was too great an
effort.

The news of the attempt on my life was soon sent round the
country, and people came in from the neighbouring villages to
see me, among others some of the Toothli, and with them the
men who had been sent on ahead on the previous morning.

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

They brought back my mosquito-net, some tea and sugar, and
a few biscuits, thus placing me in a better position than on the
previous day and night.

I now became very anxious to send news of my plight to the
Mission station at Waikthlatingmangyalwa, which I knew would
bring me prompt assistance. I therefore asked for a messenger
to carry the news to the next village, and the man who found
me under the tree, Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa by name, volun-
teered to go, but I had no guarantee that he would take the
message. There was some doubt in my mind as to the attitude
of the people generally. Naturally I did not know them as
well then as I do now, but I was sufficiently acquainted with
their character to be aware that in some ways they were re-
markably deep and subtle, especially in the light of recent
events. Their solicitude for me might, therefore, I thought,
be not un mingled with other motives. But the main question
was, Would they risk carrying the news, and thus bringing
their countryman into trouble ? However, it was just as well
to try the experiment of getting news through. As it after-
wards turned out, the natives were sincere in their kindness to
me, and genuinely indignant with their countryman : so the
message was hurried forward by relays from village to village,
and soon reached the station.

After sending off Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa with the news, I
received the various visitors who had come in to see me, as far
as my weak condition would permit. They were all very kind
and sympathetic, and avowed their great resentment against
Poit. They asserted that he would certainly be killed ; but this,
of course, I did not believe, regarding it only as an expression
of courtesy on their part.

On leaving me, they all, without exception, imparted the
pleasing information that I could not possibly live. Their
experience in warfare, they told me, was that they never knew
a man so injured to survive. They informed me, however, that
they, would treat me with the greatest possible consideration,
and that they had selected an exceptionally good site for my
last resting-place under a shady tree, where I should not be

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

annoyed by the rays either of the moon or of the sun. They
knew my strong objection to sleeping in the moonlight, and
said that they therefore hoped that when dead I would bear
them no ill-will. They had always been friends, had always
obeyed me, and they trusted I would not forget it. They con-
cluded by saying: "Friend, the sun is about to set ; make
yourself strong, and do not die till to-morrow."

Just as the shades of night began to gather, the women and
even some of the bigger children kept coming over to me, and
saying: "It's getting dark are you strong? Make yourself
strong. Don't die to-night ; we are sleeping here. Wait until
to-morrow to die."

Their anxiety about my death was to a great extent due to
fear lest I should die in the night, which would fill them with
terror of my spirit. Knowing, therefore, that their custom
was to bury a person alive before the sun set if there was
any great likelihood of his death occurring in the night, I
felt not only particularly uncomfortable, but was compelled,
much against my inclination, to make a supreme effort to prove
to them as forcibly as possible, that I had still a very consider-
able amount of life left in me. I invariably kept assuring them
that I had no intention whatever of dying that night, and
although I doubted my assertion, I gave them to understand
that it would be from no lack of effort on my part. But
although they partly accepted the first statement, they shook
their heads and looked incredulous at the last, as much as to
say, "You might possibly live through the night, but you
certainly can't last long." I frequently overheard snatches of
conversation during the day and night, which were hardly calcu-
lated to cheer or encourage a dying man.

I firmly believe that it was only by a constant effort of will,
sustained by the power of God, that I was enabled at times to
resist swooning. The Indian regards swooning and dying as
more or less identical, and the word for both is the same, so
that had I swooned for even a comparatively short space of time,
they undoubtedly would have had no hesitation at all in burying
me ; in fact, I was aware from snatches of conversation I had

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

overheard that they had already made most of the necessary
preparations for the ceremony.

They were kind enough this night to put up my mosquito-
net, and to erect a rude fence of boughs round me to keep off
the dogs and goats. Within the net, which was of thickish
calico, I could not be seen, and they themselves had that night
retired to the farther end of the village, evidently anticipating
that my death was imminent, and not wishing to encounter my
spirit. This enabled me to have a much better night's rest, but
before they left me I was again questioned about my strength,
of which, in spite of my stout assurances, they again evidently
had misgivings. However, I was left in peace the whole of that
night.

On the morrow I felt a little stronger, and, as may be
imagined, I was very anxious to work my way eastwards towards
the station. If I could once cover seventy miles of country, I
should then be within the actual sphere of the Mission's influence,
and could feel comparatively safe. Accordingly, with the
assistance of the natives, although they remonstrated with me,
I determined to make an effort to travel, however slowly. But
I was so weak that it only ended in my staggering and falling
when left to myself. 1 was therefore compelled for the time to
give up the attempt.

On regaining my shelter, the people kindly made a rest for
my back by rigging up some sticks, thus enabling me to sit up.
Towards midday, with the help of the Indians, I attempted
to start eastward, and contrived this time to make some
progress.

After stumbling along for two miles, I met Wischi-apkyitkya-
aptawa returning from delivering my message at the next
village. He was painted in mourning, for the report had
reached the place that I was dead. He told me the news of
Poit's movements, that, after leaving me for dead, he had deter-
mined to go straight to the Mission station to carry the report
of my death to my companions, and that he had reached a
village about half-way there, intending to go on as soon as he
had rested awhile. The story Poit concocted was that we had

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

met a jaguar in the wood, which had attacked me, and that he,
shooting at it in my defence, had missed his mark and struck
me instead. Strange to say, this story tallied almost exactly
with the impression that flashed across my mind when I was
shot. He further told me that on hearing Poit's account of my
death, two of the Indians at this half-way village signified their
intention of leaving at once with the news, as he was worn out.

But just as they were starting, a man was seen approaching
with marks of mourning on his body. He turned out to be the
relay messenger sent on from the next village by Wischi-
apkyitkya-aptawa. Poit no sooner saw his signs of mourning
and warlike attitude than it instantly dawned upon him that
someone had discovered my body and realized that there had
been foul play. They could not, of course, have known even
then that Poit had wilfully shot me, but his guilty conscience
evidently affected him so much that without a word he ran off
at full speed to the forest, and was not again seen for about a
fortnight.

The man bearing my message explained to the people the real
state of affairs, and they in turn sent on a message to Waikth-
latingmangyalwa, with the true account instead of Poit's fabri-
cated story.

After telling me all this news, Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa
drew six arrows from his belt, and flourishing them above his
head, solemnly declared that he would put every one of them
through PoiVs body if he ever found him, and then broke down
crying.

When he saw the slow progress I was making, he offered to
carry me on his back, but this was not practicable. He, how-
ever, turned back with me and the two men who were helping
me along.

After much difficulty, and suffering great pain, I arrived at
Poit's village, having travelled for three and a half hours. They
received me very kindly, and at once killed a sheep, and made
me some strong broth of it. I was in much need of some
strengthening nourishment, and it revived me greatly. The old
women displayed great grief at my pitiable condition, while the

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

men stood by sadly sympathizing. I overheard the ChieFs wife
saying in a solemn tone to her companions, " Just look at him
now, and only a few days ago he came in here so strong and
cheerful, and singing our songs ! And," she added, " he said to
me when he came in, ' Auntie, have you any potatoes ?' And
now look at him all covered with blood and about to die!""
Then some of them burst out crying. I stayed here only to
drink the soup, and in the afternoon reached another village,
where I spent the night. The wound occasionally broke out
bleeding slightly, and from time to time small quantities of
blood came from my mouth, owing, no doubt, to the exertion
and the jars experienced when I stumbled.

The next day fair progress was made with the same help.
About midday the Indians took me to the shade of a small
wood in an open plain, and told me they must leave me for a
while and go off hunting. I was too exhausted to move about
much by myself, so I settled down to sleep. The insects were
an intense worry, but I did manage to sleep a little, how long I
cannot exactly say. I awoke with a start, and distinctly heard
someone moving on the outskirts of the wood on the far side.
I knew it was a man from certain peculiar noises other than the
tread, and my suspicions were at once aroused, for, in spite of
the kindness of the people, I still felt very distrustful of them,
and would have tried to evade them and endeavour to find my
own way eastward had I felt equal to the task.

It now flashed across my mind that either these men had left
me on purpose to notify Poit, who might even then be lurking
near in order to complete his foul deed, and that the story of
Wischi-apkyitkya-aptawa was false, or that they themselves
intended to kill me while slumbering alone in the open country
and away from their villages. By so doing they would destroy
any possible clue, and prevent any revenge being taken by my
companions, who might call in the aid of the foreigner. I knew
they were afraid of vengeance being wreaked upon them by the
Paraguayan soldiery, for they had frequently asked me if it was
my intention to hand them over to the authorities. They were
barely reassured by my saying that such would never be the

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

case, for they still thought that although the vengeance might
not come through any act of mine, yet my companions would
insist upon it. It is a strange coincidence that at one and the
same time the Indians feared vengeance from the foreigners and
the missionaries feared an attack from the Indians in fact, so
imminent did this seem that, as I afterwards learnt, my colleagues
had instructed the station Indians to intercept any news or
signs of a rising.

This digression is necessary in order to show the reader what
extreme tension there was on both sides at the time, and to
account for my suspicions of further foul play, for knowing to
some extent the thoughts that were running in the Indians 1
minds, I felt convinced that the stealthy sounds I had heard
near me as I lay in the wood boded no good. I at once resolved,
therefore, to try and escape, and succeeded in getting clear of
the wood. I managed to travel on for part of the afternoon
without any help, frequently and purposely diverging from the
beaten track.

In course of time, however, the Indians overtook me, and
were as much upset as I was. They told me that on returning
to the wood, they were filled with alarm at not finding me there,
and immediately spread out in order to track me. They brought
with them some honey, which they said was to be reserved
entirely for my use. I was so touched by this kindness and
thoughtfulness that I could not bring myself to confess my
recent suspicions of them, and I realized more fully than before
that without their aid and kind .tendance I could never have
got thus far.

I was in such a state that nearly all food was repulsive to me,
and I subsisted chiefly on the algaroba bean. The few biscuits
I had saved, and which I could have enjoyed, had been taken
from me by a kindly-disposed Toothli at the first village, who
assured me quite frankly that, as I certainly could not live, and
therefore would not require them, he would very much like to
take the remaining three to his children, which he forthwith
did. There was no real unkindness in this, for he was firmly
convinced that I would never need another biscuit, and as he

262

KEAMAPSITHYO, AFTERWARDS CALLED PHILIP

The first photograph of a Lengua taken with his consent

When nailed up in Mr. Grubb's hut it was promptly torn down by super-
stitious Indians, who regarded it as the soul of Philip which he had stolen,
thus explaining the influence he had over him.

The show ot ornaments is typical of an Indian dandy ; but the feather
anklets are worn chiefly as a protection from snake-bite

IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

and others had made a special visit to me from their country,
he thought he might just as well take them as leave them to be
eaten by the Lenguas. The honey, therefore, was most welcome.
It had healing as well as nutritive properties, and the natives
assured me that it would heal the wound from the inside.
Fortunately for me, the wound, according to the Indians, showed
no signs of suppurating.

That night we slept in the open country. In the morning
(Friday), instead of feeling stronger, I was much weaker, but
nevertheless made a very early start. The Indians, however,
soon realized that I could not go much farther in my weak con-
dition, so one of them went on ahead to the nearest village to
secure a horse. I could* have obtained a horse before, but I felt
unable to ride, as the Indians use no saddles, and the jarring
would have been too great. Before long he returned with one,
and there was no other help for it but to mount. They tenderly
placed me on its back, but had to hold me on. In a short time
we arrived at the village. There I met one of Poifs aunts, and
although all the people received me graciously, she insisted on
sitting by me, and by continually fanning gave me relief from
the insects and the heat.

Not long after my arrival I was glad to see two of the
Mission party riding towards me with two Indians, Keamapsithyo
and his brother Manuel. On the arrival of this party I seemed
to break down altogether. The nervous strain was relaxed, and
physical weakness had its way. They told me that they had
gone right on to Poifs village, but finding there that they had
missed me, had ridden back, and had very nearly lost me a
second time. The cause of this was that when I went off on my
own account, I had diverged to the south from the main track.

We rested all that day, and remained the night. My wound
was dressed, and they had brought with them suitable food,
restoratives and medicine. Keamapsithyo slept with me under
my net that night in order to be at hand to attend to me, and
he behaved as well as the best trained nurse could have done.
When I required to turn, he gently assisted me ; when I wished
to cough, he tenderly raised me; he brought me water and

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IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

restoratives when wanted, and fanned me most of the night
because of the heat.

The next day, mounting me on a horse they had specially
selected for the purpose, and with a suitable saddle, they pro-
ceeded towards Mechi's village (Paisiamyalwa), but I was so
weak that I had to be held on and plied constantly with
stimulants. Frequently they had to take me off and lay me on
the ground. I had collapsed so much that it was only by
the help of brandy and strong ammonia that they managed to
get me along, and just before arriving at Mechfs I broke out
crying and sobbing through sheer weakness.

On my arrival the people, although they were under direct
Mission influence, showed, strange to say, a remarkably changed
attitude. The welcome was not so effusive, nor did they crowd
round as before. They appeared shy and frightened, although
not so much as they afterwards became. The fact of the matter
was the people had had time to think, and reports had been
circulated and had reached them that I had actually died, but
that in some mysterious way I had been resuscitated. This was
a possibility of which they had no precedent, and could only be
accounted for in their minds from the fact that I belonged to a
class to which they attributed abnormal powers, and with whom
some at least associated the Imlah tradition previously alluded
to. This tradition had been first communicated to me by Poit
himself. But more than this, the doubt had arisen as to whether
the being inhabiting my body was really mine or that of another.
Many for a time doubted my real identity, and attributed the
marvellous way in which, in my critical condition, I had managed
to cover the sixty miles between the scene of the attack and
their village, to the probability that the soul animating my
body was other than human.

I noticed that the Chief, Mechi, and some of his men retired
to a distance under a tree. After a time he came near, and
informed me that they hadjlecided^to destroy Poit. They were
urged not to do so, but the Indians said something about the
throwing of the stone ; and what this custom is I still do not
know.

264

IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

In the evening I managed to accomplish a three hours' journey
on the road, and slept that night at the village of " The Father
of Cats," and the next day December 29 late in the after-
noon, I succeeded in reaching Waikthlatingmangyalwa, the
Mission station, having in eight days covered one hundred and
ten miles from the scene of Poifs attack.

As to the events of this and the next six weeks, being in too
exhausted a condition to understand what happened before and
after my arrival at the station, and also at the time being pur-
posely kept in the dark as to the attitude of the natives, I must
depend on what I was told afterwards by members of the staff.

It seems that when the messenger brought in the news from
the west, my young 'friend Philip (Keamapsithyo) and his
brother, the troublesome witch-doctor Manuel, immediately
procured two horses. Although it was late at night, and in
spite of the fact that the animals were in poor condition, yet
they trusted to being able to cover at least part of the journey
with them. They had little hope of finding me alive, but made
a start with all haste, both being exceedingly angry and fully
bent on killing Poit. It seems that everywhere on the way they
found their people greatly incensed at the crime that had been
committed.

It was on Christmas Day, the hottest day of the year, that
they found me as already described, and I was afterwards told
that the thermometer on that day registered 110 Fahrenheit
in the shade. 1

On my arrival at the station I am told that the people burst
into tears, and that a hush fell upon the whole village. I quote
the words Hunt wrote in a letter to headquarters : " For some
days the people were very quiet, and would come and inquire
in an awestruck manner about his health, their eyes glistening
with moisture. There was no laughing or shouting, and even at
night, when they must have been greatly troubled by dreams,
they refrained from exorcism with chant and rattle. They

1 The Mission, as the authorized agent of the Argentine Government
Observatory at Cordoba, is paid for its services and supplied with the
instruments direct from the Ooservatory.

265

IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

searched in the forest for honey for him, and were willing to do
anything to help. Still, there was a something we could not
account for. We heard reports from one visitor and another.
It was evident that Grubb was regarded with superstition, as
one that had risen from the dead.' 1

It was feared that a possible rising might take place, the
whole body of people, as far as the missionaries could see, being
in an excitable and strange condition. My companions felt sure
that in a short time a strong opinion would be formed, either
against us, or for us and our religion. It appears, however, that
their fears of impending trouble were groundless, and that, on
the contrary, the Indians were entirely with us.

But as I grew stronger, and was able to form a clearer view
of the general situation, I had ample and detailed proof of the
superstitious attitude of the people towards me, and their un-
certainty as to my identity. I was sitting one day, to quote an
instance, resting in a deck-chair in the shade, and as the position
of the sun changed, it was necessary for me to move farther
into the shade. I was far too weak to carry the chair myself,
although strong enough to raise myself up and crawl a few
paces, so I beckoned to a girl Pinsetawa-apkyitkya to come
and move the chair for me. She had known me for many years,
and was, moreover, somewhat of a pet of mine, yet she ap-
proached with evident caution, and, keeping at a respectful
distance from me, she caught hold of the chair, placed it
hurriedly in the shade, and then, with an unmistakable look of
fear, ran off to the village.

On another occasion a man to whom I was well known
inquired, at a safe distance, after my health. He then said :
" What is your name ?" " Yiphenabanyetik, of course," I
replied. But he, with an incredulous look, said ; " I know it
was Yiphenabanyetik ; but who are you now ?"

The people seemed assured of the identity of my body, but
the puzzle to them was, who was inside ?

One day, when sitting in the same spot in the shade, I saw
a party of Kisapang approaching. They had arrived in the
village on a visit of courtesy to me, and were now being formally

266

IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

conducted into my presence by Esoabyabam, one of the Lenguas,
who led them to within about twelve paces of me. Waving his
hand in my direction, he turned to the Kisapang, and intro-
duced me by saying in a very solemn voice : " There sits the
BODY of Yiphenabanyetik." My visitors respectfully stood at a
safe distance, and, after conversing in whispers for a few minutes,
retired, evidently glad to leave my uncanny presence.

These incidents afford evidence that the Indians believed I
had actually died, but doubted whether or not I was the living
embodiment of my former self. Some years after, the Chief,
Mechi, actually assured one of us that although he knew I was
still the same Yiphenabanyetik, nevertheless he was convinced
that I had died. It was this very idea of the resuscitation of
my body, or at least of my miraculous preservation, that gave
the first real impetus to the acceptance of the Gospel.

During the subsequent weeks, and up to the middle of
February, I remained at the station, and made slow progress
towards recovery. The only set-back I experienced was shortly
after my arrival, when lying asleep in my hut. A tame tiger-
cat had also gone to sleep on one of the beams overhead. What
really happened to it I do not know. At any rate, it lost its
balance and fell down from the beam, unfortunately right on
my chest, and I woke up with a great fright, to find it spitting
viciously in my face. In my weak and nervous condition I
sustained a great shock, and the cat was made to pay the penalty
of death for its unintentional fall, the owner being afraid it
might again annoy me.

Fearing that complications might set in, I was advised to
seek medical treatment. I had been suffering much from a
certain irritation, and from peculiar watery bladders breaking
out all over my body, which may have been caused by some
poisonous substance on the arrow, but this I could not be sure
of, as it is an open question whether or not Poit poisoned the
arrow with which he shot me.

The nearest medical aid was nearly four hundred miles away,
at Asuncion, whither I was taken in February to consult
Dr. William Stewart, formerly Surgeon -General of the Para-

267

IN DANGER OF BURIAL ALIVE

guayan Army during the war of 1865-70. He considered it
necessary that I should go into the British Hospital at Buenos
Ayres, which meant another journey of some nine hundred miles
down river. There I was operated upon by Dr. O'Connor,
surgeon of the British Hospital, and was frequently visited by
Bishop Stirling, of the Falkland Isles. After recuperating in
the hills of Cordoba, where I was attended by Dr. Schmidt, I
felt sufficiently recovered to return to the Chaco, which I did in
June.

I received a warm welcome, but many of the Indians were
still sceptical of me; some even touched me to see if I was
really flesh and blood. Shortly after my return several natives
expressed a definite desire to become Christians. There was no
doubt that the whole tribe had been strongly affected, and that
the action of Poit had directly paved the way to the acceptance
of the Gospel. Although we move in such matters as the
offering of natives for baptism with the greatest care, yet the
sincerity and earnestness of two, Keamapsithyo and another,
were so genuine that we felt thoroughly justified, some fifteen
months after, in presenting them. They were baptized Philip
and James respectively, in June, 1899, by the Right Rev.
Bishop Stirling, of the Falkland Isles, and thus was laid the
foundation of the Lengua Indian Church.

LENGUA DOLL.

(Knuckle-bone, wrapped in rag.)

268

CHAPTER XXVII
POITS DEFENCE AND FATE

THERE is no record within the memory of any inhabitant of
this region telling of an Indian being slain by his own tribesmen
for the murder of a white man, far less for an attempted murder.
Before the attempt on my life, many foreigners had been killed
by Indians within the recollection of natives still living, and
similar murders have occurred since ; yet no punishment was
meted out to the criminals. On the contrary, an Indian who
killed a foreigner was looked upon by his people as a hero, and
worthy of all respect. Yet in the face of this record, Poit was
executed in a cold-blooded and formal manner by his own
tribesmen, and with their unanimous consent, for the attempted
murder of a white man, who without doubt was regarded with
suspicion and dislike by many.

That Poit had to die the death of a murderer seems to
have been their general verdict. Exactly by what means and
methods they managed so speedily to get the opinion of the bulk
of the people, scattered as they were over a large area, with only
scanty communications, I am not in a position to judge. But
one thing is quite clear, that the Indians far and wide were
evidently unanimous, as is proved by the following facts.

Firstly, the Indians never take a very important step, especi-
ally such an unusual one as this, without feeling sure that
public opinion is at their back. For one or two villages to have
carried out this execution of their own accord, without the
general approval of their countrymen, would have resulted in
serious complications to them.

Secondly, the whole incident was so closely interwoven with

269

POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

their superstitious and religious beliefs that the witch-doctors
must have been consulted about it.

Thirdly, there is the fact that before my departure for
medical treatment in Buenos Ayres, and after my return,
natives from all parts came in to sympathize with and to
congratulate me.

Fourthly, the fact that our teaching was afterwards welcomed
in a degree which it had never been before, and that our
influence over the people advanced by leaps and bounds. All
this seems to point to unanimity in the condemnation and
execution of Poit, which was carried out entirely without my
knowledge or that of any of the staff; in fact, I was not told
of it for some weeks after, lest it should upset me.

When the news, both of the attempted murder and of the
execution of the criminal reached Paraguay proper, it caused
great surprise and evoked much comment, because the people
there had many opportunities of forming an opinion upon the
attitude of Indians to foreigners; and so firm was the belief
that an Indian would never take the part of a white man
against his own people that for some years many doubted that
Poit's execution had really taken place. Even the Mission
party, who thoroughly understood the Indian character, would
not for some time accept the statement of the Lenguas. It was
not until the whole matter had been thoroughly sifted, carefully
investigated and demonstrated, that they would believe it, in
spite of the fact that the Indians produced at the station, and
handed to the missionaries, the actual weapons with which they
had killed Poit, and pointed out the place of execution.

For the account of the manner in which he was done to death
I must depend entirely on the statement of the Indians.
According to them, Poit, after his flight from the village upon
encountering the bearer of my message to the station, made for
the woods. He evidently became to some extent distraught.
It is reported that when he killed an animal for his food, he
tore it to pieces and devoured it raw. This no sane Indian ever
does, but it is a peculiarity of native madness. When we con-
sider the dread that Indians have of living alone, through their

270

POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

particular fear of the spirits of the forest, and the state of terror
he must have been in on account of his deed, it is highly
probable that he became mad, at any rate for the time being.

Not having waited to hear what the messenger had to say, he
could not have known the course of events subsequent to the
time when he shot me. He could only have assumed that I had
been found, and to some extent had communicated with his
people ; but the likelihood of encountering my vengeful spirit,
the haunted conscience of the murderer, and the constant fear
of being pursued perhaps by his own people, must have had a
terrible effect upon him, and his life in the woods for the
fourteen days or so before the people found him is horrible to
contemplate.

How and where they caught him I know not. Suffice it to
say that he was brought to a place where a feast was being
held, to the south-west of Mechi's village. It transpired that
when accused of the crime he did not deny it, but pleaded,
" You surely will not kill me, since I am one of your own
people ?" He was told that he knew they all considered me as
one of their own people, a Chief, and one who was much loved
by many. But at this he appears to have remonstrated, saying
that I was a comparative stranger, and had only recently come
to their country, while he was an Indian, a near relative of
theirs, and had played with them as a child. He did not want
to die, he said, for he was young. Having heard that I was not
really dead, he made a strong defence of that, but was simply
told that it was not his fault, and that he had left me for dead.
Besides, they were not quite sure whether I was actually dead or
not, although they had seen me, and knew that I had arrived
at the station.

When they had tried him in this manner, and had decided
that he must die, a pyre was prepared near to him. They then
gave him an intoxicating drink probably beer mixed with the
seed of a grass which acts as a strong opiate. A short time
was allowed to elapse, and then the two chosen executioners
drew near. One, a tall Indian named Kilpaisiamakselyakye,
smote him several times on the head with a machete (a long

271

POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

cleaver knife), while the other stabbed him repeatedly in the
abdomen. His body was then placed upon the pyre and burned
to ashes. When all was consumed, the ashes were taken up
and scattered to the winds.

Although these particulars have been obtained solely from
the various and not too distinct accounts furnished by the
Indians, yet they all agree on the main points, and the whole
proceedings tally with the customary rites attendant on the
execution of a murderer.

They had intended killing, not only Poit, but in this case his
family also ; and the successful efforts we exerted to save the
lives of his near connections, as well as our attempts on his own
behalf, unavailing though they proved, made a very strong
impression on the Indian mind. But what surprised them most
was that we made no attempt whatever to call in the authorities
in Paraguay to interfere in the matter. This abstention from
any kind of vengeance, and refusal even to receive the com-
pensation offered for the injury done, convinced the Indians of
our disinterested and genuine friendship for them. Many of
them, at least, expected that the Mission party would leave
their country in disgust, and would never incur the risk of
another venture ; but the fact that I returned so shortly after-
wards to their country albeit against the best advice demon-
strated to them that we were void of fear, were by no means
discouraged, and that we intended at all costs to prosecute our
Mission. This conviction encouraged those who were inclined
to adopt our teaching, and greatly disconcerted those who
feared lest their ancient customs should be interfered with by
our influence, because they at last saw that we were evidently
determined not to yield until we had achieved our object.

Instead of procuring more arms, and adopting other pre-
cautions for our safety, we quietly observed our ordinary
routine, and the Indians thus appreciated the fact that we still
regarded them as our trusted friends.

It must also be remembered that, prior to this event, we had
imparted to the Indians a considerable amount of Christian
instruction. Being in reality very little different from our-

272

POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

selves, although in outward appearance wild and strange, they,
in common with the rest of mankind, are not satisfied with
mere religious theory, but demand practical proof of its reality ;
or, in the words of Scripture, they make the demand : " Show
me thy faith by thy works." We had endeavoured from the
very beginning of our Mission to act up to the Christian life
rather than merely to enjoin it ; and the circumstances con-
nected with this ,event in the Mission's history seemed, as it
were, to serve as the keystone to the arch, and to enable the
remaining part of the fabric to be built up. This incident also
caused a deep sensation amongst the surrounding tribes, and the
account of it spread far and wide ; thus it served to open new
districts to our influence; and attracted many from remote parts
to visit our station, where we were in a position to deal with
them with more advantage.

Speaking generally, it had two direct and important results.
Firstly, it proved that the Mission party had been accepted by
the Indians as different from any other foreigners ; in other
words, that we had been received as a part of their own people,
and thus it broke down one great barrier to the acceptance of
our teaching. And, secondly, it opened out to us a wide field
of knowledge concerning their religion, customs, and laws, as
well as a deeper insight than we had ever had before into their
inner character, which is so strikingly portrayed in Poit's
conduct, and in his motives for perpetrating such a crime.
The whole affair was the result of superstition. That Poit was
unprincipled and cold-blooded there is no gainsaying, but it
somewhat mitigates the enormity of his crime when we realize
that he was led to commit it through being overpowered by his
ancestral belief.

In order that the reader may the more clearly grasp Poifs
motives, and the inspiration which impelled him to such a deed,
I shall sum up the whole matter in consecutive form, for from
beginning to end it is an example of the closely-reasoning mind
of the Indian.

Poit had been left in charge of property belonging to
me, but he did not understand that it was property common

273

POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

to our party. To him it was a private matter between us
both.

Several Englishmen had been connected with the Mission,
either directly or indirectly, before this event, and had left the
country, never to return. Up to this time no furlough had
been granted by the society, consequently the Indians had no
idea of any one of us leaving for a protracted period and then
returning to carry on our work. This happened to have been
my first furlough since I left England early in 1886, and the
Indians had come to regard me as a permanency in their
country, looking upon me as a Chief, not in title, but in power.
That I should leave the country and remain away for an indefi-
nite time was to them conclusive proof that I had either tired
of their country or become homesick for my own ; many there-
fore assumed that it was very improbable that I should ever
return.

Poit certainly never expected me to come back, and the
pleasure and influence over his people that he would gain by
claiming my wealth placed in his charge doubtless encouraged
him to form this opinion. At any rate, he went so far as
to kill some of the cows in his charge, and to dispose of some
of the goods committed to his care, evidently with a view of
impressing his people and thereby of obtaining the position of
a Chief among them.

My arrival from furlough naturally filled him with dismay.
He knew he would have to give an account of his stewardship,
and was at his wits' end to know how to do it. One sin leads to
another, and he was eventually proved to be the thief who had
stolen the Indian money from the Mission store and Professor
Graham Kerr's gun. It is also suspected that he stole various
things from his own people. These thefts were committed
undoubtedly in order that he might balance his accounts, and
because he preferred to run the risk of detection in theft rather
than that of being brought to task by me.

Finding his efforts to square his accounts futile, he became
filled with still greater anxiety and fear, and accordingly it is
not difficult to conjecture to what an extent he was disturbed

274

POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

by dreams bearing on the subject, and to understand that they
prompted him to take the steps he did.

It must be borne in mind that the Indian has implicit belief
in dreams, and allows them to control his actions. Poit, accord-
ing to Indian accounts, was greatly impressed by a dream which
he had related to some Indians many weeks before he attempted
my life, the gist of which was that I met him in an open space
in a forest, accused him of misappropriating my property, and
with a gun shot him. This dream he took as a clear warning of
what would happen, and from the Indian point of view, if he
could not otherwise avoid the catastrophe, he had perforce to
endeavour to turn the tables upon me, and as far as possible
deal with me as he dreamt I dealt with him.

An Indian must never use, for any other purpose, a weapon
employed in certain rites connected with witchcraft, or in taking
the life of a man. It was for this reason that he stole the gun
referred to. He could easily have borrowed one from his own
people, and I am almost certain that at that time he possessed
one of his own. But he certainly would not utilize his for such
a purpose, as it would have debarred him from using it again,
and if he had borrowed one from a fellow Indian, he would have
had to return it. But, if the lender had discovered for what
purpose it had been borrowed, the gun would have been useless,
and therefore he would have had to make it good. With regard
to the Professor's gun, he evidently thought otherwise. In the
Indian's eyes he was a man of great wealth, and was known to
have brought it into the country solely in order to reward some
Indian who could collect valuable specimens for his scientific
work. Poit therefore must have thought that he was best
able to put up with the loss.

Such a hue and cry was raised over the loss of the gun that
Poit found it expedient to abandon it. Had it been found in
his possession, we should have been convinced of the truth of
the rumours that he had misused my property. His object was
to impress me with a sense of his unaltered friendship and
fidelity, so that he might lure me unwittingly to the doom,
which he considered was my just due, for it had been revealed

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POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

to him in the dream that I would assuredly take his life. But
he knew that he would suffer when once I became suspicious of
him, and that I should escape. He accordingly placed the gun
in a spot where any Indian could find it in his search for game,
as afterwards really happened.

Had the carriers with whom I started on the trip remained
with me, he could not have taken my life. Evidently, as
subsequent events prove, he had no fear of his own people
wreaking vengeance upon him if he did kill me, but he was wise
enough to know that a secret is best kept by one person,
and that, if imparted to more, it was liable to leak out. My
friends would then discover all, and he knew not what punish-
ment might follow. It was therefore necessary to separate
me from these carriers, as well as from those that I obtained
later.

He also had implicit faith in the potency of the remedies
which I usually carried with me, and for this reason he hid by
the roadside my few medical stores. Had I had these with me
at the time when he desired to attack me, he could not tell what
power I might have derived from them.

At the village where we spent the last night together he
exchanged his wooden-headed arrows for iron ones, as the reader
will remember. I have been given to understand that, accord-
ing to Indian superstition, if you cannot procure the proper
article, which in the dream was a gun, you must get the
nearest thing approaching to it, which in this case was an iron-
headed arrow.

His story of the jaguar having attacked me was evidently
carefully thought out beforehand. In selecting his road that
morning, he purposely lured me to a similar place to that in
which he had met me in his dream. It had, moreover, the
great advantage of being a jaguar quarter, and a most unlikely
spot to be visited by any wandering Indian. Therefore his
made-up story could not have been better calculated for his
purpose. If I had been attacked by the jaguar, and he had
shot at it in my defence, and I had been killed, as he alleged, it
is quite clear to anyone who knows the conditions of that

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POIT'S DEFENCE AND FATE

country that, in the course of a few days, the birds and beasts
of prey would have left nothing but bones.

Poit, carefully avoiding the neighbouring villages, pressed on
towards the Mission station with the assumed and laudable
intention of imparting the sad tidings to my friends. This was
calculated to cause a delay of several days before any search
could be made, because the carrying of news by one man would
be a slower process than by relays. If a search had been made
and my remains found, everything would have helped to corrob-
orate Poit's statement. Footprints of animals would have
been numerous in such a place, and the arrow would have been
found near my skeleton.

Poit, by expressing great grief at my death, would have
disarmed suspicion, and my companions would have been so
upset at the tragedy that further inquiry into the rumours
connected with him would have probably ceased.

The only flaw in the whole consecutive course of his cleverly-
thought-out and cunning strategem was that he shot at me and
then fled. Why did he not stay to make sure of his victim ? I
believe that the Indian custom is that when killing a man they
complete the deed by battering the head with clubs. An
Indian report reached me that Poit was frightened by some-
thing at the time, and that he was not only overcome with
horror at the deed he had committed, but that some super-
natural fear impelled him to instant flight. He is supposed to
have related this at the time of his execution. Whatever was
the cause, it still remains a strange fact that he did not make
perfectly sure of my death before leaving me, after all his careful
preparations to compass it.

277

CHAPTER XXVIII
FINAL STRUGGLE OF THE WITCH-DOCTORS

DURING the three years subsequent to Poit's death, two forces
were at work struggling for the mastery. The witch-doctors
saw that our teaching was getting a firm hold of one section of
the people, and that Christianity threatened to rob them of
their influence, and to deprive them of the gains derived from
their craft. We were still living in a heathen village, and the
rule of heathenism was as yet the established power in the land,
yet we had made such progress that we considered we could no
longer deny baptism to three well-approved and thoroughly
tested young men. They were baptized on October 14,
1900, at Waikthlatingmangyalwa, by the Rev. E. P. Cache-
maille, the clerical secretary of the South American Missionary
Society, who was then visiting our stations.

This advance on our part, together with the knowledge that
several other Lenguas were candidates for baptism, greatly
incensed the heathen party, and especially the witch-doctors.
Their anger, too, was aggravated by the fact that a few days
previously the Chief of the station had died of snake-bite, and
they held us responsible for his death. He had been attended
by Dr. Lindsay, and had succumbed, not through the doctors
want of skill, but from his own obstinacy and that of his
friends.

The witch-doctors had evidently resolved to take the first
favourable opportunity to attempt to end the progress of
Christianity once and for all. They waited until some members
of the staff, including myself, and some of our staunches! Indian

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

adherents, had left the station to escort Mr. Cachemaille to
Paraguay on his return after the baptisms.

We had no sooner started than signs of unrest were noticed,
but as I was absent, I will quote Hunt's words describing the
rebellion, in his report to headquarters :

" Soon after they left, the boy Andrew complained of a pain
in his right groin, but said he did not feel ' sick inside.' Then
John became ill also, but in two days was much better, and able
to go on with his work. The third boy, Thomas, had been very
ill before his baptism. We had our suspicions aroused, thinking,
not unnaturally, that some of the witch-doctors had been giving
these three recently baptized lads something to make them ill.

"Andrew grew worse*; he could scarcely walk, staggering as
he went, and one morning he fell to the ground when attempting
to take a few steps. However, he was very cheerful, and even
asked for the looking-glass to arrange his head-gear. It was
thought best to remove him to one of our houses, so that we
might attend to him. He had developed a high fever, and was
very seriously ill.

" On the previous day, a messenger had come in from the
west, accompanied by two men from one of the worst centres of
witchcraft, one of them being a kind of Chief of the wizards.
He had, when here on a former occasion, done wonderful things
with his craft, taking three cats from a boy's stomach, for which
extraordinary performance we gave him the name of ' The Father
of Cats.' Some of his friends from an adjacent village were here
(Waikthlatingmangyalwa) at the time, and gave him all the
news, especially the death of the Chief from snake-bite and the
departure of the party for the River Paraguay. As I enter-
tained the visitors, I heard a full account of the news.

" Most of the best Indians were away at the river, and, with
the exception of the boys, we were left without supporters.
Philip and his brother Manuel, our two strongest Indian helpers,
were away. Quite a number of witch-doctors and their assistants
were here, and could carry out any evil design without opposi-
tion from their own people.

" Andrew had a bad night on the Saturday, and before

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

service on the Sunday there were mutterings of the coming
storm. They blamed us for keeping the lad, and quietly said
that they thought it would be well for him to be taken to their
huts, to treat him after their own style. He had had no sleep,
and the fever did not abate.

" As I was leaving for the service, a man was coming in to
look at the boy, but I checked him, and he turned and came out
with me with a decidedly ugly look on his face. As we parted
I spoke hopefully of the boy's recovery, whereupon he glared at
me, saying, ' He won't recover, he will die. You are killing
him. You want to kill all our friends, as you killed the old
Chief the other day. He will not get better. 1 He then walked
away to the village.

" It was my turn to address the Lengua congregation, and I
felt impelled to speak. I said that I had been much hurt at
what I had heard, and I brought forth proof enough from the
past to show that we had been their friends. I also explained
again our object in coming out to them. The words were
thoroughly understood, and went home.

" A few minutes after, I was sent for to come at once. I
found in the sick-room a formal deputation of ten bad characters,
who had come with the intention of taking the sick boy by
force. We suggested to them to come outside and discuss the
matter away from the sick-room. They were ten strong men ;
we were four and three boys. Their party consisted of the Wit,
the Orator, the Chief Wizard, the Pessimist (as we had nick-
named them), and six assistants.

" I began by offering them a smoke. Then the Orator ex-
plained that they wanted to take the boy to the village. We
refused to allow him to be taken, whereupon they turned nasty.
They argued, first, that we killed the old Chief by giving him
rice and bread when he was snake-bitten ; secondly, that we
desired to kill this lad, and generally to kill off their friends with
our treatment ; thirdly, that unless we let the boy go, the father,
who had been sent for, would come with a big party, that they
would be very angry, and would make it very unpleasant for us,
practically hinting that we should be in danger of our lives.

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

" Though we did not expect personal violence, yet the situa-
tion was by no means pleasant. I asked what they would do if
they took the boy. At this vacillation on our part they
jumped up with fiendish glee, and promised that there should
be no singing and no witchcraft, but that they only wished to
watch over him. I then spoke to their Chief, and informed him
that he was a witch-doctor. He denied it, but I reminded him
of the kittens, and that quieted him. I then went to the two
Christian boys, and asked them what they thought. They said
the witch-doctors meant to perform the usual evil practices,
and advised that the boy should remain where he was. I said
we were few, and could not possibly resist them, supposing they
used force. I suggested that they should bring up all the boys
and friends, and very soon after they came trooping up a good
round number, small and sleepy. Nevertheless, it nonplussed
the enemy.

"They talked, they sneered, they threatened, and the Wit
remarked that he had been outside the church, and had heard
all that I had said that evening. The Chief then desired to see
the boy, and when I had taken him in, he spoke to him, asking
if he were all right and if he recognized him, receiving a reply
in the affirmative. The Chief then asked me to pray, which I
did ; whereupon he said : ' Now you see I am not a witch-doctor ;
say you were deceiving. 1 I replied that I would not take back
the words I had said. They went off muttering and scowling,
and in an angry mood, not even wishing us good-night.

" We expected and prepared for their return. The boys kept
watch at the door, and the other premises were protected, but
nothing occurred during the night.

" Early next morning we sent off a messenger for Mr. Grubb,
Dr. Lindsay, and Philip. We still hoped that the boy would
recover, and that the doctor would be able to do something for
him. We wanted Philip to find out exactly the mood of the
people, and we wished Mr. Grubb to be here in case of an
uproar, which seemed very probable. The despatching of that
messenger undoubtedly spoiled any well-laid plans. They now
turned completely round, and tried to get into favour again,

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

and to make out that we were their friends. This made us
more suspicious than ever, and we looked forward with dread to
the coming night.

" In the afternoon the father of the sick boy arrived. The
people met him, and tried to persuade him to get his son con-
veyed to the village. At first he desired it, but when he had
seen the boy, he only asked to sit up with him. The people
were angry, but the father was deeply moved at the sight of
his son, and remained with him. The lad grew worse, and at
3.30 a.m. he breathed his last. The father and other watchers
rushed from the room, being afraid of the boy's spirit. We
delayed the funeral, in the hope that Mr. Grubb would arrive,
but at 9 o'clock the sad ceremony was performed. ,

" Everything seemed to be in a state of disquietude through-
out the day. We were completely unstrung by the loss of the
boy Andrew, and exhausted with the watching. At night ghosts
were seen by the people, portions of the roof were thrown off,
figures were seen behind houses, and next day whispered con-
versations were going on in many parts of the village. How
thankful we were to see Mr. Grubb and his party arrive !"

There is no doubt, from what I have been able to gather,
that the witch-doctors had poisoned the recently baptized men.
Paisiam-amaak (Andrew) had evidently received the biggest
dose, and this poison may probably have set up inflammation.
The doctor, from what he was told of the symptoms, considered
that it might have been appendicitis. The natives do use
poison, and not long before this a man had died of poisoning,
but whether by accident or not I cannot say. Some of our
Indian adherents informed me that in their opinion the lads
had been poisoned, and it is certainly significant that all three
should suffer at the same time, and with the same symptoms,
while no one else in the village showed any such signs.

I can quite sympathize with the unpleasant and, I must
confess, somewhat dangerous position in which I found my
companions placed. The only mistake that they seem to have
made was in not taking a high enough hand with the witch-
doctors from the beginning. I have always found that in deal-

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

ing with Indians it is fatal, in a crisis, to give way to them in
the least. They are masters of bluff, and can only be overcome
by the irresistible force of stronger will-power, or of more
successful bluff than their own.

Finding the village in a very unsettled and still rebellious
state, it was necessary for us, with the least possible delay, to
take prudent steps to get the upper hand. On arriving at the
village, many of the people among them most of the ring-
leaders of the trouble came out with apparent pleasure to
welcome me, but I absolutely refused to take any notice of
them. The Indian is very proud and sensitive, and they resented
this act, as I intended they should. I then took the first oppor-
tunity of gathering all possible information from my com-
panions. Once armed with this, I retired to my room with my
powerful ally, Philip. I instructed him to go up to the village
to his own hut, but on no account to show an aggressive atti-
tude to mix freely with the people, learn all he could, and
then to communicate with me privately. The result was highly
satisfactory.

The first man to be tackled was one of the leading witch-
doctors, Pinsetawa, Philip's own father-in-law. Philip had
somehow or other found out that he had been the chief ghost
referred to, and that he had produced fear among the ordinary
people by surreptitiously, during the night, pushing off the
palm-logs from the roof of Philip's house with a long pole. I
therefore sent a boy to tell him that he was wanted. He at
once came to my room, and entered with a most affable manner.
I told him I had heard that during the previous night many
ghosts had been about, and also some devils. He assured me
quite seriously that such had been the case, and that he and the
people were very much alarmed, adding that they were very
glad that I had returned, as they knew I was very strong, and
not afraid of such visitors. I admitted this, and said that I had
learnt that many tiles had been knocked off the roof by them,
but that I was particularly angry because they had specially
selected my friend Philip's house for their pranks.

I assured him that I could not possibly allow the spirits

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

to repeat this behaviour another night, and, taking him to one
of my windows, I showed him that it commanded a good view
of Philip's house. I then pointed to my Winchester rifle and
the eleven cartridges which it contained, and told him that as
soon as I heard the first palm -tile fall I should fire straight in
that direction, to warn the spirits off. I then bade him adieu.
Needless to add, there was no destruction to property that night.

The next man to be interviewed was no less a personage than
an old friend of mine, Cacique Antonio, the Chief of a little
neighbouring village. He, I had learnt, had prowled about at
night, making noises near the staffs quarters, with a view to
intimidate them, and had also been overheard saying that the
English were " shaking in their insides," that they were not
strong, and that the people need not be afraid of them ; also
that they were few in number, while the Indians were
many.

I adopted a different tone with Antonio, and took care to
meet him with a goodly number of Indians near. I then went
up to him and shook hands with him affectionately. "Antonio,"
I said, " you are my friend ; you have always been my friend ;
you would not, I am sure, let anyone hurt me. Now, the
witch-doctors here " (some were present, and I looked sideways
at them) " are very angry, and I am much afraid of them, but
you will see that they do not hurt me. Look at my arms,
Antonio ; they are very thin, and I have no muscle, and ' my
stomach is shaking with fear.' If any of these men were to
wrestle with me, they would put me on the ground as if I were
a small boy. But you will protect me, won't you ?"

The witch-doctors in question scowled darkly, but said
nothing ; they understood the sarcasm. Then, retreating a few
steps, I scanned him and some of the others up and down, and
turning to the people, I laughingly said, in a changed voice,
" Just look at them ; who do you think could possibly be afraid
of them ? Why " (addressing the Orator, the worst character of
the party), " you, my friend, are not very far from the grave ;
before long your friends will be preparing it for you." This
was too much for him, and he disappeared. He did not like

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

this remark coming from me ; I believe he thought there was
more behind it than scarcasm.

Addressing " The Father of Cats," I told him it was notorious
that he was not brave, and if he liked I could refer to some
incidents in his previous history, and that instead of talking
about what he could do with the English, he had better go and
produce some more kittens. I then walked away.

Next day I interviewed the witch-doctor of the village,
Keamap-apanko-yakye-abayabam, and the Chiefs son, both of
whom had been absent, and had therefore not taken part in the
disturbance. They were quite pleased with themselves, and
assured me they had had nothing to do with the disturbance.
" Oh yes," I said, " thai is quite true, but you knew all about it,
and only wanted to save yourselves getting into trouble. You
profess to be our people, and yet you slip away and leave us
alone when strangers come into your village and make things
unpleasant. You are just like snakes slipping away through
the grass when you feel a ' camp ' fire coming. You are a poor
specimen to be the Chief of the village."

Shortly after the Orator came to me. He had unfortunately,
or fortunately, inflammation of the eyes that day, and in the
mildest manner asked for medicine. I told him I knew nothing
about medicine, and that my companions were ignorant, too,
and that such medicines as we had were bad remedies, reminding
him how the other day the Chief had died under our hands.
" Why," I said, " we are not your friends ; we only came here
to kill your people. But you are a witch-doctor ; you surely
know how to cure sore eyes, for you can do wonderful things !
There are many of you here ; go and ask your companions for
medicine." Later in the day, however, his eyes were attended
to by one of the staff.

That evening I called some of the Indians together, and
decided on the punishment we should inflict upon the disturbers
of the peace. It was determined that those who were able to
should give two sheep each as compensation for the annoyance
they had caused, and those who could not should work two days
for us with the hoe, not only morning and evening, but also

FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

throughout the heat of the day, without rest or pay. The
decision was communicated to the culprits, and all agreed quietly
and without demur. " The Father of Cats " set off the next day,
so we understood, to bring in his sheep from his village, but about
midday a messenger arrived from him with the following com-
munication for me : " Tell Yiphenabanyetik that he may be a
great Chief, but that I also am a great Chief, and I refuse to
give him two sheep. 1 ' I immediately despatched a messenger
to say I was very sorry I had overlooked the fact that " The
Father of Cats " was so great a Chief ; that I could not think
of asking him for two sheep, but that so great a Chief must
bring three. Eventually we obtained them. We decided to
sell the sheep and to devote the proceeds to the purchase of a
large lamp for the church.

The people did not hear the end of this disturbance for a
long time. The Indians have long memories, and it is quite a
common thing for a man, when he wants some favour from you,
or when you are upbraiding him, to recall all the kind actions
he has done for you for years back. Again, when it suits their
purpose, they will bring up against you anything they can
possibly recollect to your detriment since they made your
acquaintance. We have often found it very useful to adopt
this native custom, and for a long time afterwards we did
not forget to remind them frequently of their unfriendly and
reprehensible conduct on this occasion.

We had passed through a very important crisis, and realized
clearly that, if not the last, it was one of the great duels between
heathenism and Christianity. . Providentially we had got the
better of them. But the Indian, when it suits him, easily
forgets what he does not like to remember, and his disposition
is such that he makes a strong effort to obliterate any unpleasant
memories affecting himself, and tries as much as possible to
prevent them influencing his life.

We had, for the time being, the upper hand of the witch-
doctors, and we were determined to maintain it as far as lay in
our power. We accordingly took every opportunity in private
conversation and public teaching to expose their errors. In

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

this we were ably supported by the native converts and those
who were candidates for baptism.

Philip, when addressing the people in church the day on
which the new lamp was hung, did not mince matters in his
attack on witchcraft. The gist of his address was : " Before
these people came amongst us we were in darkness, just as we
should be in this church were there no lamp at all ; but after
they came we soon had a little light, and we began to under-
stand some things, but only a little. We are anxious to know
more ; we shall not be satisfied till we know all. You witch-
doctors, influenced by the evil spirits, endeavoured to extinguish
the little light that we had. You are as we were, and the evil
spirits urged you on ; but the Chief of heaven is very great,
and see what He has done. We have now, instead of a small
lamp giving a dim light, a beautiful and brilliant light, as is
seen in the trading-houses of the Paraguayan town of Con-
cepcion.

" Through obeying the devil you have had to pay for this
better light. You are the devil's followers, we are God's
followers. You have paid for the light for us to worship God
by, and to make it more easy for us to teach you about the
True Light. You witch-doctors will no longer wield power ; in
fact, I think that there will soon be no witch-doctors. This
has not been a village of God's people, but now it will be ; and
those who do not agree with our works had better go and live
on the other side of the River Monte Lindo."

Philip, although a Christian, had a comparatively weak grasp
of Christian principles. His face was earnestly set in the right
direction, and he was full of zeal, but he had at this time very
little idea of Christian liberty. He had somewhat of the spirit
of the early disciples, being filled with righteous indignation
and anger, and desiring to bring down the fire of Heaven upon
the stubborn.

His address, however, had a very salutary effect, although we
could not approve of the last clause, and it was, furthermore,
somewhat prophetic in character. Very few years passed before
Waikthlatingmangyalwa had become in reality a Christian

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FINAL STRUGGLE OF WITCH-DOCTORS

village. Of the ringleaders in this rebellion, many have since
become sincere and earnest Christians ; and it would be difficult
to-day to find an Indian within the Mission sphere of influence
so bold as to admit that he had anything whatever to do with
witchcraft.

The Church in less than ten years has grown and developed
to an extent such as Philip, in his most enthusiastic moments,
could not have conceived possible.

HATHPANG-LENGUA ONE-STRINGED PIDDLE, WITH BOW.

(String of horse-hair ; body of palm., hollowed out.)

CHAPTER XXIX
TWIXT OLD AND NEW

MOST people look for far too great and rapid results from
Missions ; in fact, there seems to be a wrong conception of the
office of the Christian Qiurch abroad at the present day. Men
cannot be compelled to become Christians; men cannot be
forced to be good. The ordinary man is naturally sinful, and
all we can do is to try to influence him to such an extent that
he will " cease to do evil and learn to do good.*" We some-
times find heathen quite interested in and favourably inclined
towards Christianity when it is put before them, while others
hate and strongly oppose it.

A very common idea is that, if missionaries were numerous
enough and consecrated enough, the whole heathen world would
become Christian. It might become nominally so, but we have
no reason to look for genuine Christianity among heathens in
any greater proportion than we find it amongst ourselves, highly
privileged though we have been.

The effect of a Mission among a heathen people is varied and
widespread. The teaching of the missionaries opens up a new
line of thought to the natives. Education, which forms part of
the work of most Missions, gradually enlightens and widens the
view of those who come under its influence. They begin to
take a different view of life, their old fears and prejudices are
shaken, they begin to realize that they are as other men, and
that their former awe and dread of the white man was to a
great extent unwarranted. Their uncultivated imaginations
conceived of him as a powerful being, all- knowing, and almost
supernatural, whereas in reality the gulf between them was a

289 T

'TWIXT OLD AND NEW

very narrow one. The result of this change of view is that
the heathen becomes more venturesome, more presuming, and
less respectful to the white man ; and if during this transitory
period the European fails to handle the native wisely, kindly,
justly, and firmly, the consequences may prove disastrous both
to the coloured man and to the white.

We all know that sudden changes from one social or religious
state to another are almost invariably attended with evil con-
sequences ; but surely no reasoning man would ever assert that
it is better to keep a people in ignorance and slavery than to
allow them to endeavour to attain to a higher and nobler life,
simply because during the transition period irregularities and
disorders are liable to result.

Such strivings after what is better, although they may result
disastrously to some, are surely to be encouraged rather than
repressed, because that which is aimed at is a step nearer to
perfection.

It is unfortunate, although I do not see how it is to be avoided,
that during the struggle after something better, whether it be
religious or social, a great many people, while they do not attain
to nor share in the higher development, yet are shaken in their
old beliefs and unsettled in their social condition. They are in
a worse state than before, and are like derelict vessels abandoned
by their crews, and drifting about aimlessly, a danger to them-
selves and all others around them.

The history of the Chaco Mission, and of its effect upon the
natives, illustrates in some measure the truth of these remarks.
The Indian was to a very large extent governed and kept in
order by the force of customs and public opinion which had
existed for generations. These customs were for the most part
either evil, unpractical, or absurd ; and their public opinion was
such that it fettered and weakened rather than stimulated and
strengthened them. The teaching and influence of the Mission
was necessarily such as to impress the whole people with a sense
of the weakness of their position. While many have followed
the better and wiser course which has been shown them, the
greater number are either halting dubiously between the two

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TWIXT OLD AND NEW

opinions, or, having lost all faith and respect for their former
ideas, have drifted into carelessness, recklessness, and indifference.

We were the first white people with whom they had close and
intimate acquaintance. Our manner of life among them was
such as to impress them with our superiority ; they therefore
respected us, and yielded in great measure to our authority.
But since the further development of the country has set in,
they have unfortunately come in contact with many whose lives
are such as to produce in them a sense of contempt rather than
of respect. It is a rude shock to an Indian to meet with one of
a race of whom formerly he had only an indistinct idea, but
whom, nevertheless, he considered his superior, and suddenly to
find that in moral life, courage, honesty, and sense of justice, he
is no better, but rather inferior to himself. And it must be
clear to all that the unavoidable intercourse of the Indian with
such white men is a greater obstacle to the work of the missionary
than the opposition of heathenism itself. The result is that the
partially enlightened Indian has lost his fear of, and trust in
such Europeans. Nevertheless, having had a taste of the greater
attractions of civilization, he naturally seeks intercourse with
foreigners whose moral life is more on his own level, rather than
with those at the Mission stations, where the discipline is such
as to prove irksome to all who do not really value a purer and
higher life.

It is true that the first enlightenment of the savage has come
through his intercourse with us, but, finding our system uncon-
genial to him, he naturally drifts to the settlements, where his
thirst for change and variety may be gratified without the
restraining influence of Christianity. Such Indians soon become
worse than the heathen. These cannot with any justice be called
Mission Indians, yet they are very often popularly put down as
such, and their bad behaviour is entirely attributed to the teach-
ing they have received from the missionaries.

It cannot surprise anyone if some Indians trained on a Mission
station, and even recognized as Christians, should turn out
failures. We have too many of such failures among our own
people to be able to throw stones at recent converts from

291

TWIXT OLD AND NEW

heathenism who fall. For the good of the Indian race as a
whole, and the peaceful development of the country, it is a pity
that the white men interested therein do not co-operate more
heartily and loyally with missionaries, who undoubtedly have
great influence over the natives. Advantage to all would, in
time, accrue from such friendly co-operation. In our case, how-
ever, there is much to encourage us. We have had little to
complain of up to the present on the part of the white men, and
from out of heathenism we have gathered a fairly substantial
and satisfactory following, which the next chapter will deal with
pointedly but briefly.

We are at present in the transition stage. There are large
numbers of Indians in doubt as to what course to pursue. Their
natural instincts are averse to a high and pure life, but they
have realized that there is little or no truth in that which they
have hitherto believed in and cherished. From out of this
restless, dissatisfied, and questioning mass we hope yet to win a
large proportion, chiefly through the example of practical
Christianity, which is now lived daily before them by some of
their own people.

Numbers will undoubtedly prefer rather to follow their own
evil inclinations, and must inevitably degenerate still further,
and eventually disappear, for they have not the new virility, and
yet have discarded their former wild simplicity. Thus they will
prove unable to hold their own, either with their untouched
heathen compatriots, or with the Europeans, or with their own
Christian brethren. There is no doubt that in the long run
righteousness and true manliness must win the day; the un-
principled, vicious, and self-seeking, by their own actions, are
inevitably preparing the way for their own downfall.

292

CHAPTER XXX
CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

THE Chaco Mission has attained its majority. Twenty-one
years ago Adolpho Henricksen and his two companions arrived
in this practically unknown land, and came amongst its still
less known people. They had to contend with the physical
difficulties of a primeval tropical country. To the west, north,
and south barbarism reigned supreme, extending over ten
degrees of latitude and about five of longitude, and then again
(with unimportant intervals) northward to the great Amazon.
Only a few foreign settlements clung to the banks of the River
Paraguay.

The people were disorganized and nomadic savages, possess-
ing nothing that might be termed property, thriftless, and never
having a store of food. The missionaries were therefore com-
pelled to provide for themselves. The natives had few laws,
and made very little attempt at government, no trades, and no
ambition to rise above the level on which they stood.

Their country was under the dominion of the Republics of
Paraguay, Argentina, and Bolivia. In that part dominated
by Paraguay, where the Mission began its work, no police or
military force was maintained to give security in the interior.
The Indians were entirely heathen, and had never come under
the influence of Christianity.

That there was great danger in entering their country, and
much more in attempting to settle among them, has, I think,
been made clear. But the South American Missionary Society
gave instructions to their men, not only to enter into and dwell
in their land, whatever the risk, but to attempt no less a task

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

than that of opening up this unknown land, of revolutionizing
the native customs, habits, mode of life, and laws, and of
ameliorating the condition of the people by winning them over
as Christian disciples.

During these twenty-one years the average Mission staff has
not numbered five men actually on the field. Only four men
have exceeded ten years' service, and yet, in spite of small
numbers and limited means, and the immense and varied diffi-
culties which had to be overcome, I leave the reader to judge,
from the results which I give, whether or not we have laboured
in vain, whether we were justified in our belief that this degraded
people could be elevated and developed ; and (most important
of all in our eyes) whether the Lenguas are not only capable of
receiving Christianity, but of forming a Church which shall be
self-supporting, and, in its turn, missionary.

Where formerly it was dangerous for a white man to go
without an armed party, anyone can now wander alone and
unarmed, so far as any risk from the Indians may be appre-
hended, over a district rather larger than Ireland. In a country
where fifteen years ago there were no tracks other than Indian
footpaths resembling sheep-tracks at home, now about four
hundred and fifty miles of cart-track have been made in order
that the Mission bullock-carts might readily traverse the
country. Where formerly tribal war was common, peace has
reigned for many years over a district as large as Ireland and
Scotland combined.

Only ten years ago it would have been impossible for anyone
to establish an estancia (cattle-ranch) in the interior. The wire
fences would have been cut and the cattle stolen and killed,
and it is highly probable that those tending them would also
have run great personal risk. Through the direct instrumen-
tality of the Mission a large English Company, with its head-
quarters in London, has now been established at a point more
than ten leagues in the interior, where they possess two hundred
and fifty thousand acres of land, and employ Indians, together
with Paraguayans, as cowboys, and in fencing and transport
work.

294

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

Another large South American Company, founded by one of
the leading merchants of Paraguay, has also been located in our
vicinity. The founder acknowledged, in the newspapers of the
Republic, that had it not been for the civilizing influence of
the Anglican Mission, he could not possibly have ventured upon
such an undertaking. This gentleman is not a member of our
Church, but a Paraguayan professing the Roman faith. The
company possesses over two hundred thousand acres of land,
and runs some thirty thousand head of cattle. It is worthy of
note that the best progress made by Europeans into the interior
has been along the Mission routes. An Argentine estanciero
remarked to me one day that he had no fear of establishing
himself in the interior o long as he had a Mission station in
the vicinity.

When I arrived in the country, trade with the Indians was
practically non-existent ; but at the present time, directly and
indirectly, it has attained to very large dimensions. Nor does
this newly-opened trade only benefit the world at large; but
the Indians employed by Europeans spend their wages in the
purchase of imported goods. I remember the time when a
knife, an axe, a pair of scissors, a hoe, an iron pot or a kettle
were so seldom possessed by an Indian that they created deep
interest, and formed the subject of earnest conversation. But
now these articles are in the hands of almost every Indian
far and wide, and most of them bear English trade-marks.
Mosquito-nets of calico, coloured handkerchiefs, and clothing
were unknown ; whereas now, wherever the Mission influence
has spread, an Indian considers himself badly off if he does not
at least own a mosquito-net. The Manchester trade-marks are
now familiar to these people. Yet how often we hear the
remark that money cannot be spared for such a Mission as this,
since there is so much poverty at home; and here we find a
handful of men opening up a new field to English enterprise,
and providing employment for the Mother Country.

In addition to this, I might quote the indirect increase of
trade and wealth (in which England largely participates),
through the enhanced value of land, the augmented trade in

295

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

hides, and the importation of goods for the use of the workmen,
not to mention the demand for vast quantities of wire for
fencing in the large ranches. I myself could have purchased
land twenty years ago for twenty or thirty pounds a square
league (a Paraguayan league is a little under three miles), which
quite recently has changed hands at twelve to fifteen times these
figures. The small sum of money, therefore, which has been
expended on this Mission, as the reader will be able to see, has
been well worth the outlay on material grounds alone.

A people who have led a nomadic life for generations are not
easily weaned from it. We have, however, succeeded in inducing
about three hundred Indians to adopt a settled and industrious
life. The majority of these can be found to-day permanently
established on the Garden Colony of Enmakthlawaia. There
each Indian family possesses its own house, which is an infinitely
superior structure to their former frail booths. Each has its
allotted portion of land for cultivation. Their herd of cattle
they own under a scheme of co-operation which consists of fifty
shareholders, the largest holder possessing fifteen hundred
dollars. 1 In addition to this, the people work whenever they
can find employment, the more intelligent learning trades, chiefly
carpentry, under the instruction of Mr. W. Sanderson. A few-
have recently established trading stores of their own.

This progress could not possibly have been achieved unless
the people had been prepared by education. The school has
been a marked success. Not only are many Indians able to read
the literature now existing in their own language, but some can
correspond by letter with missionaries on furlough. But space
will not allow me to deal in detail with the scholastic work.

The training of the young is the making of a nation. The
people are not yet sufficiently advanced to deal in accounts, and
for this reason the Indian Savings Bank is under the manage-
ment of one of the staff, at present Mr. G. R. Farrow, who is
the headmaster of the school, and who manages their invest-
ments, amounting in all to over twenty thousand dollars. In

1 The Paraguayan dollar varies considerably, but has ranged during the
last twelve years from threepence to ninepence.

296

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

addition to this, the natives possess sheep, goats, horses, etc.,
and the aggregate wealth from all sources of this particular
settlement now exceeds one thousand pounds.

Our policy from the very beginning has been to combine
theoretical education with practical industrial training. We
realize that a people suddenly raised to a higher level than that
which they have occupied for generations are very apt to
become unduly inflated. The Indian is a conceited person, and
ignorance and conceit go hand in hand. He is a wise man who
knows his own deficiencies. The Indian, for the next generation
or so, must be content to earn his living by manual labour, but
in order thoroughly to fit him for the task, and to develop his
higher nature in the process, a certain amount of theoretical
training is necessary.

While we impress upon him that we regard him as a fellow-
man and brother, we at the same time leave him under no
misapprehension as to his place in the world being a humble
one until such time as, in the course of evolution, he is qualified
for a higher plane. The educated scoundrel is the worst of his
type. Mere civilization cannot be considered an altogether
unmixed blessing, unless it is invested with moral character,
which is best developed through the teaching of pure Chris-
tianity. The moral and spiritual instruction of the people,
therefore, has always been our primary endeavour. Our aim and
desire are that the race may become a self-reliant, self-respecting,
honest, intelligent, industrious, and Christian community, thus
fitted to take their proper part in life.

We realize that man values that for which he has had to
struggle. To pauperize is to ruin a people. Our ambition is
to see this people grow up like the sturdy oak, deep-rooted and
able to stand alone, and not luxuriate like the parasitic creepers
in their forests. We have therefore insisted, whenever possible,
that an Indian shall pay for everything he requires, and in order
to pay, that he should " labour, working with his hands the
thing which is good." We therefore charge parents a small fee
for the education of their children. It is true that this fee is
by no means commensurate with the cost, but it is the founda-

297

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

tion of a good principle, and moreover has the advantage that
it makes the parent all the more anxious that his child should
reap the full benefit of what he pays for.

The reader will have gathered from the chapter on witch-
craft that the introduction of scientific medical treatment was
very necessary, but it was many years before the people
appreciated it. Now, however, we have a small hospital, which
has cost only one hundred pounds, generously contributed by
friends in Ireland. Mr. E. G. Bernau, who has made a special
study of the diseases common to the Chaco, is in charge of it,
and has under him two Indians a man and wife whom he is
training with much success. The Indians take out tickets
yearly, for which they pay, and which entitle them to medical
treatment.

No community can exist, as the world is at present consti-
tuted, without law and order. The Paraguayan Government
have, for nearly eighteen years, officially recognized us as their
representatives among the Indians, and have granted us all
necessary powers. We have therefore been endeavouring gradu-
ally to educate the Indian in municipal government. A small
Indian police force, approved by the Government, is being
trained in the duties required of them. Strict discipline is
maintained on the station, and Indian observance of law and
order is being rapidly consolidated.

Civil crimes practically do not exist, or are of a very trifling
character. Infanticide has not only died out within our imme-
diate sphere of influence, but is greatly on the decline even
among those more remote from us. Thus, a race which at one
time showed signs of becoming extinct is beginning to take on
a new lease of life and vigour, the birth-rate of late years com-
paring favourably with that of England. Epidemics, too, such
as small-pox and measles, which were formerly so deadly, have
ceased to inspire serious alarm, thanks to medical care and the
intelligent and willing co-operation of the people in and around
the settlement. As soon as we are able to extend our work,
such beneficial results as those above mentioned will be propor-
tionately increased.

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

Lastly, I come to the Christian Church as the crowning
effort of all our work. From out of a chaotic mass of savage
heathenism we have now, by the aid of the Divine power, the
satisfaction of having admitted by baptism into the Church of
Christ one hundred and forty-nine Lenguas, and of this number
there are no fewer than thirty-eight communicants. There are,
in addition, at least an equal number of probationers, or
inquirers. But these figures do not represent the total extent
of Christian progress. Over a large area the whole tone of the
people has been changed for the better ; the Gospel message has
been clearly delivered, and we can afford to wait in patience
until the Spirit of God moves them, as He has done others.
Our business is to plant and water diligently and faithfully ; it
is God who gives the increase. The Church of England Prayer-
Book, almost complete, together with the four Gospels, portions
of the Epistles and Genesis, have been translated and printed in
Lengua, and also a small Hymnal set to familiar tunes.

The duty of Christian giving is not omitted in our services.
Collections for the sick and poor, Church expenses, and the
building of the new church are taken up regularly by the
Indian churchwardens. Occasionally we direct their attention
to other needs outside of themselves, in order that they may
develop a broad and generous Christian spirit. For example, a
small sum was contributed to the Indian Famine Fund, which,
when explained, naturally appealed to their sympathies. Surely
it seems a miracle of grace when one contemplates those people,
who a few years ago were barbarians, are now reverently receiving
the rite of baptism, joining Sunday by Sunday in the same
worship as ourselves, and from time to time kneeling devoutly
in Holy Communion. Nor let it be thought that these Indians
are lightly admitted to the privileges of Christian fellowship.
Their probation is long and severe ; more is asked of them
than is generally required of Christians at home. It is true
that they are sometimes weak, but let us remember the slough
from which they have been dragged. If strict scrutiny were
made of home congregations, and the weak ones weeded out,

how bare some pews would be !

299

CHRISTIANITY VERSUS HEATHENISM

It is absolutely necessary that for many years to come this
young Christian Church should have supervision and instruction ;
but from the time that we admitted our first two converts in
1899 we have impressed upon the Christians that it is their
duty, and must be their ambition, to administer as far as
possible their own Church, which they do even now to some
extent. Several are capable of addressing their congregations ;
they read the Lessons in Church, act as churchwardens, and are
consulted in the admission of probationers to Baptism, and as
to the fitness of the baptized for Confirmation. They also have
been used (under supervision) for many years as itinerating
evangelists ; and lately a school of instruction has been estab-
lished for the training of future evangelists.

Our hope is that this young Church will become an earnest
missionary body, and that thus the Indian will be converted by
men of his own people.

In the foregoing pages I have endeavoured to present a
picture of these strange Indians of the Chaco, and to trace their
history from obscure early times down to the period when I
first knew them, and made my long sojourn amongst them.
And now it is my earnest desire that many of my readers may
be interested in the future of this hitherto unknown people. If
we think of the savagery and barbarism in which they were
found, and of the efforts to raise and develop them so per-
severingly made during the last twenty years, in the face of
their deep-rooted adherence to witchcraft and its attendant
enormities ; if we think of the amelioration of their lot which,
under God^s blessing, has followed, should not the further
advancement of this people and of their Church be recognized
as a noble object of Christian ambition ?

300

APPENDIX I
THE CHACO, ITS TRIBES, EXPEDITIONS AND DISCOVERIES

THAT great, low-lying, alluvial plain known as the Gran Chaco is
situated in the interior of South America, and is bounded on the
east by the Rivers Parana and Paraguay, and on the south and west
by the Argentine Provinces and the Republic of Bolivia. It extends
roughly over ten degrees of latitude and five of longitude, com-
prising an area of approximately two hundred thousand square
miles.

Politically it is under the domination of the Republics of Argen-
tina, Paraguay, and Bolivia, but with the exception of a fringe of
settlements near the boundaries, the interior is entirely in the hands
of Indians. The principal tribes are the Mataccos, Chiriguanas,
Tobas, Lenguas, Suhin, Kisapang, Chamacocos, and the Bororu.
The total population is estimated at one hundred and thirty-five
thousand, but it is impossible to speak with accuracy owing to their
nomadic habits and the difficulty of obtaining anything like a census.

The average height of the Lengua men is five feet seven inches,
and of the women five feet four inches. Both sexes are well
proportioned, and their powers of endurance are strongly marked.
Their skin is soft and of a reddish chocolate colour, but a variety of
shades is seen even in the same tribe.

The history of the many attempts to explore the Chaco is
concisely given by Professor J. Graham Kerr, of Glasgow Uni-
versity, who formed one of an expedition under Captain John Page,
in 1889, which ended disastrously to its leader and many followers.
In a paper read before the Scottish Geographical Society in 1892,
he said, " Chaco exploration is a sad record in many respects, show-
ing an enormous expenditure of human life, with but very slight
resulting gain to our knowledge.

"Exploration in southern South America may be said to have
commenced in 1 506, when Juan de Solis discovered the estuary of

301

APPENDIX I

the La Plata, which was for some time afterwards known by his
name. Twenty years later Sebastian Cabot again entered its waters.
On its banks he found Indians with a profusion of silver ornaments,
and from this he christened the estuary in which he was the Rio de
la Plata ("the River of Silver"). At its upper end he found the
mouths of two distinct rivers, and the western of these he followed
as far as the mouth of the Bermejo. Cabot was thus the discoverer
of the Parana and Paraguay Rivers, and, we may say, of the Chaco.
He planted settlements on the Rio de la Plata, and also on the
Paraguay River, and colonization at once began. In 1537 Juan de
Ayolas navigated the River Paraguay to latitude 20 40', and was
told by the Guarani Indians that there existed to the westward a
nation possessing great stores of silver. He thereupon resolved to
march across in search of them. He penetrated far into the Chaco,
and on his return, whilst traversing a marsh, was fallen upon by the
Payaguas, and massacred, with all his men. Almost immediately
after the tragic end of Ayolas, Alvarez Nunez de Vera Cabeza de
Vaca was appointed Governor of La Plata, and he, in a military
expedition against the Guaycurus (1542), may be said to have
inaugurated that policy of Indian extermination which is carried on
to the present day.

" Twelve years later we find the Chaco attacked from its north-
west side, when the Viceroy of Peru despatched one of his officers,
Andreas Manso, at the head of an expedition to attempt the
conquest of the Chaco. He, however, merely managed to cross the
Pilcomayo into the Chaco Central, and was surprised during the
night by the Chiriguanos, losing his life with those of all his
followers. Hence this central part of the Chaco received the name
of Llanos de Manso. During the following century (the seven-
teenth) there is little to chronicle, save that the Jesuits, from their
headquarters in Paraguay, sent numerous missionaries into the
Chaco, whose efforts towards the permanent conversion of the
Indians were quite fruitless, and many of whom lost their lives in
the attempt. This and the eighteenth century were also character-
ized by several military attempts at Chaco exploration and subjuga-
tion, mostly at the instance of successive Governors of Tucuman,
such as Angelo Peredo (1670), Urizar (1710), Espinosa (1759),
Matorras (1774), and Arias (1780). These, however, I pass over
without further comment, and I shall now restrict myself, from time
considerations, to the exploration of the River Pilcomayo. We
again find the Jesuits first in the field.

302

APPENDIX I

"In 1721 Padre Patino succeeded in penetrating a long way up
the river, but was compelled ultimately to beat a rapid retreat by
an attack from the Toba Indians, in which he lost several of his
men. Twenty years later Padre Castanares made a somewhat
similar journey up the Pilcomayo, and with similar result. And in
1785 Don Felix De Azara, the celebrated traveller and naturalist,
ascended the river for a short distance.

" The expeditions of the present century have been numerous,
and I shall mention only the more important. Four of these started
from Bolivia, and attempted to descend the river. Those of
Magarinos and v. Nivel. (1843-44) were forced to return, owing to
the immense numbers of hostile Indians who menaced them on all
sides. That of Crevaux, the celebrated botanist and traveller, has
an especially sad interest Attached to it. He started from Tarija
in Bolivia early in February, 1 882, with only fourteen companions.
They encountered large numbers of Indians during the early days
of their journey, who appeared exceedingly friendly, and so in-
spired Crevaux's confidence that it is said he removed the strikers
from the locks of his men's rifles to prevent them from alarming the
Indians by firing. All went well until the afternoon of April 27,
when, as they were marching along in single file, a large number of
Indians sprang on them from an ambuscade, and clubbed them to
death, only one of their number, a boy, surviving to tell the tale.
The last of the Bolivian expeditions was that of 1883. This con-
sisted of nearly two hundred well-armed men, and was accompanied
by Dr. Thouar, a French explorer. It marched down more or less
parallel to the Pilcomayo, and reached the River Paraguay, after
undergoing great privations and a severe battle with eight hundred
Indians.

" The later expeditions of the River Pilcomayo have been those
of Thouar, of Fontana, of Feilberg, and of Storm. The three latter
have been all by steamer, and they have each succeeded in pene-
trating for a greater or less distance up the river, being eventually
brought to a halt by want of water. I shall not dwell on them
further, except to say that the last mentioned, that under Mr. Olaf
Storm, has been the most fruitful in results. It entered the
Pilcomayo on January 1 of 1890, and left it in the autumn of the
same year."

The Jesuits, full of daring and zeal, made a valiant attempt to
reduce some of the Indian tribes of the Chaco, notably that of
Dobrizhoffer and his companions (1749-67). But the first

303

APPENDIX I

Protestant missionary effort in this region was made by Captain
Allen Gardiner, R.N., in the year 1845, who was the founder of the
South American Missionary Society. His attempt to settle among
the Tobas proved futile, and it was not until forty-three years later
that the Society succeeded in establishing a Mission among the
Chaco Indians, under the leadership of Adolpho Henricksen.

In recent years Ibareta and his party, and Boggiani made explora-
tions, the former on the River Pilcomayo, and the latter in the
north of the Chaco, but in both cases they were massacred by the
Indians.

304

APPENDIX II

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE, CLIMATE, FAUNA AND FLORA
OF THE CHACO

9 PART I.

EXTRACTS FROM PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL
SOCIETY, JANUARY, 1892, BY PROFESSOR J. GRAHAM KERR, M.A.,
F.R.S., REGIUS PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY, GLASGOW UNIVERSITY.

" THE Chaco is the more northern portion of that great estuarine
plain whose southern part is so well known to us as the Pampas,
and which forms a large portion of the basin of the Rio de la Plata.
In its physical features the Chaco agrees in many points with the
Pampas ; the sharp line of demarcation between them is due rather
to their botanical characteristics. The Pampa is open, grassy, and
treeless ; the Gran Chaco, on the other hand, possesses luxuriant
forests. Its surface is almost uniformly level, broken only by almost
imperceptible undulations, and with a general slope of from eight
to ten inches per mile towards the south-east. The mean height
above sea-level of the Chaco Central may be taken as about four
hundred and fifty feet. ... In geological structure the Gran
Chaco resembles its southern continuation. Solid rock is but
rarely seen, and when it is exposed in the river-bed we find it to
consist entirely of the soft, fine-grained tertiary sandstones of the
Pampean Age. River sections show a horizontal series of these
beds topped by fine flood silt, with occasional layers of sand. The
soil is, in the inner part of the Chaco, almost entirely composed of
this extremely fine-grained silt, true vegetable mould being almost
entirely absent, and it is evidently a product of the periodic
inundations which the region undergoes. It is so exceedingly fine-
grained as to be almost impermeable to water, except under the
action of capillarity.

305 u

APPENDIX II

" Rain-water scarcely sinks through it at all ; but, during the
periods of intense dessication, capillarity causes a continuous though
imperceptible upward progress of moisture to the surface, where it
is evaporated, deposits the salts held in solution, and is replaced by
a fresh supply from below. In this way the amount of soluble
mineral matter in the upper layers of the soil goes on increasing
continually, and such is, I believe, the explanation of the saltness
of the Chaco soil ; and, as if bearing out this view, we find that
within the forests, where evaporation is so much less potent, the
soil is no longer abnormally salt.

" An interesting phenomenon frequently to be seen in this region
is that the surface layer of flood deposit in the dry season exhibits
the most perfect division into vertical pentagonal columns. This,
again, I attribute to the extremely fine-grained character of the
deposit, there being no pebbles or other obstacles to the due work-
ing of the physical laws of contraction, which consequently produce
the same result as during the gradual cooling and contraction of a
stream of basaltic lava.

"The climate of the Gran Chaco is essentially one of great
extremes. In the forest-band around its margin these extremes
are tempered off to a certain extent ; it is in the open central
portions that they are most felt. The average rainfall at Formosa
in the Central Chaco is fifty-four inches annually. In the more
central parts of the Chaco, however, it is probably much less than
this, owing to the long-continued seasons of drought. There can
scarcely be said to be a true rainy season, for though, as a rule,
most of the rainfall is restricted to the summer months October
to March yet occasionally heavy rains occur at other times of the
year. The rainfall over the Gran Chaco generally appears to be
subject to a curious cycle, the length of which is approximately
ten years, the periods of maxima being marked by universal inunda-
tion to a depth of several feet over enormous tracts of country.
During these inundations the Chaco rivers may rise to a height of
twenty feet above the normal, and continue in high flood in any
case for several months, sometimes for over a year. Succeeding
this period of rainfall, a period of dessication sets in. The overflow
waters contract their limits and become isolated lagoons ; these in
turn shrink up and give place to marshes, and the intervening
country becomes dry and parched, and saturated with salt.

" The' mean temperature of the Central Chaco we may take
about 72 F., on either side of which, however, great variati<

306

U <2i
W

JJ g

*!
||

APPENDIX II

takes place, so that on a summer's afternoon, with the north wind
blowing, the temperature in the shade may frequently go up to
110 F., while in the depth of winter, just at sunrise, it may fall
below freezing. The great fall of temperature always experienced
in the early hours of the morning is the result of intense radiation
taking place from the grass-covered plains towards the clear sky,
and, as a natural consequence of this great fall in temperature, the
nightly dews in the Chaco are extraordinarily heavy. The prevalent
winds are the north and the south. The former is the hot wind ;
it is comparable with the Sirocco. It parches up all nature, and
in animals powerfully affects the nervous system, in some cases even
producing insanity. The south wind, which fortunately blows for a
greater part of the year than the north, is, on the other hand, cold
and refreshing ; and it is to its meeting the north wind, and cooling
it rapidly, that the rains of the Chaco are due.

" The surface of the Chaco generally is covered with vegetation
characterized by its extreme sameness and monotony. This is all
the more striking when one compares it with the rich tropical
luxuriance of regions in the same latitude to the eastward. One
finds, as, in fact, in most extensive open plains, an absence of
variety and a marked preponderance of what are called social
plants.

" In the typical interior parts of the Chaco far-reaching grassy
expanses are varied by patches of forest, or monte, composed for the
most part of small and scrubby myrtaceous trees.

" The open grass-lands are frequently dotted with innumerable
Carandai fan palms (Copernicia cerifera, Mart.), and then we have
one of the most characteristic types of Chaco scenery that of the
palmar, or palm-grove. The ground is everywhere covered with a
thick growth of grass of four or five feet high, from which arise at
intervals the thick and squat stems of the Carandai palms. These
palmares are quite unique in their general effect. In the early
morning, when the air is crisp and clear, and not a breath of wind
stirs, and the tips of the palm-leaves are bathed in golden sunlight,
the scene is one of fairy-like beauty. But in the depth of winter,
when the grass has all been consumed by Indian fires, when the sky
is covered with leaden clouds, and a biting south-east wind causes
the dry and withered palm-leaves to rustle mournfully, then the
scene is one of bleak and inhospitable melancholy.

" The Palm Forest covers immense areas throughout the Chaco,
and is specially characteristic of the low-lying portions liable to

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inundation; and one may always see on the palm-trunks a dark
line some three to five feet above the ground, marking the level of
flood waters.

" The patches of forest in the interior ot the Chaco are not at all of
the kind apt to be recalled by the words ' South American Forest/
but are little more than thickets of small and scrubby trees, so
interwoven with lianas and other climbing plants, and mingled
with spiny BromeUacece and cacti, as to be quite impassable by man
or beast.

"One does find an occasional large forest tree, but these are
comparatively few in number. In the little monies one finds the
Guayacan (Cassalpinia melanocarpa, Gr.), the Quebracho Colorado
(Quebrachia Lorentzii, Gr.), and the Palo cruz (Tabebuia nodosa, Gr.),
all fine timber trees ; while in the open one encounters several
species of the genus Prosopis the Vinal (Prosopis ruscifolia, Gr.),
the Algaroba (P.juliflora), and the Nandubey (P. nandubey, Lor.) Qf
these, the Algaroba bears a long, locust-like pod containing a large
quantity of sugar, and which forms an exceedingly nourishing and
staying article of food. The Indians pound the pods up, and mix
them into a kind of paste with the fruit of the Mistol (Zizyphus
mistol, Gr.), so as to form a very palatable kind of cake.

"Other important trees occurring in the central parts of the
Chaco are the Pah santo, or holy wood (Guayacum qfficinale), so well
known both as a timber and as a drug, and the Cascaranda, of which
the heartwood forms a timber of extraordinary density, hardness,
and tenacity.

" I shall not detain you by mentioning any of the smaller plants
of the Chaco, with the exception of two. The first of these the
Uvird of the Paraguayans is a Bromeliaceous plant with long
narrow leaves, which, with a minimum of trouble, yield a fibre of
great tenacity, especially valuable for its power of resisting the
effects of moisture. At present its fibres are greatly used by the
Indians, who make from it a coarse cloth for their garments, as well
as twine and rope ; but it yet remains to be exploited by European
capitalists, when it will no doubt give rise to an important industry.
The other plant is the Caraguatd ii, another Bromelia, which, al-
though of little value in itself, becomes an inestimable boon to the
explorers of the salt-saturated region it inhabits, for the hollow
axils of its leaves store up the dew and other moisture, and preserve
it cold and clear, as if for the special benefit of the traveller.

" I have said that the vegetation of the Chaco is poor and mono-

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APPENDIX II

tonous on the whole, but I must qualify this statement by mention-
ing that on the borders, where the climate is more equable and
the country better drained, we find a band of luxuriant vegetation.
Towards the western border this takes the form of a continuous
strip of absolutely impenetrable forest; on the eastern, of rich
woodland, interspersed with luxuriant pasture. It is this peripheral
zone, and narrow prolongations of it along the banks of the fresh-
water streams, that I believe to be the only parts of the Chaco
destined to become of great economical value.

"Animal life in the Chaco is varied and characteristic. The
marshy regions are the haunt of the tapir (Tapirus Americanus), the
great marsh deer (Cariacus paludosus), the Carpincho or Capibara
(Hydrochcerus cabybara), the Coypu (Myopotamus coy pus), and a large
otter (Lutra paranensis). By the forest margin one encounters large
troops of peccaries (Dicotyles labiatus and D. torquatus), an occasional
great ant-eater (Myrmecophaga jubata), and numerous armadilloes ;
while here and there one comes across one of the large carnivora,
such as the jaguar (Fetis onca), the puma (F. concolor), or the
Aguard guazu, or maned wolf (Canis jubatus). Bird-life is abundant
and varied, flocks of shrill-voiced parrots fly hither and thither,
woodpeckers of all sizes and varieties are heard busily at work,
and by the margin of a lonely lagoon one may see the great jabiru
(Mycteria Americana) standing motionless on one leg, as if buried in
contemplation of the silence around him.

"It is perhaps at night that the explorer becomes most impressed
with the presence of animal life in the Chaco. If it is summer-time
the whole air is filled with the sounds of insect life high above
everything else rises the metallic hum of the mosquito and the chirp
of innumerable crickets ; while this is broken in upon every now
and then by the heavy hum of a large beetle or the shrill railway-
whistle of the Cicada. In winter time, however, the nights are
excessively cold, the insect world is still, and there reigns over all
Nature a silence deep almost to oppressiveness, broken only at
intervals by the cry of the Nacurutu owl (Bubo virginianus), or the
loud roar of the Aguara gausu, or the fearful and blood-curdling
screams of the Paca-a (Aramides ypecaha). The intense wildness and
eeriness of these night sounds of the Chaco must be heard to be
appreciated ; but the wildest and most eerie of them all is the
voice of its human inhabitants, when heard chanting at dead of
night a war-song, or a wild lament for their dead, or a night-long
incantation, to drive away the evil spirits from their sick ones."

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APPENDIX II

PART II.

EXTRACTS FROM " A ZOOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO SOUTH AMERICA,"
BY W. E. AGAR, M.A., D.Sc., FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE,

CAMBRIDGE. 1

" Of all the regions into which the world is divided by zoologists
in accordance with their faunas, by far the most interesting is that
comprising South America. The sportsman in search of big game
goes to Africa, where he meets enormous herds of that perhaps
most highly specialized and successful of all the orders of mam-
malia, the ungulates or hoofed animals, and is able to take his part
in the extermination of the antelopes, giraffes, rhinoceroses, zebras,
hippotamus, and elephants. These forms, however, so characteristic
of the African continent, for the very reason that they belong to a
highly specialized group, are of no special interest to the zoologist.
If we turn to South America we find a very different state of things.
Instead of great herds of ungulates, we find there only four families
of them represented. The pigs are represented by the peccary, the
cervidae by a few species of deer, the camels by the llama, and
finally there is the tapir ; while the beasts which we may call
characteristic of the country are such forms as the opossum, arma-
dillo, ant-eater, and sloth, all very lowly organized mammals.

"Our interest in the South American fauna is deepened, and
becomes a more intelligent one when we examine its history in
past geological ages.

" The past history of the mammals shows us that, broadly speak-
ing, most new forms arose in the North Polar regions (which we
know were much warmer then than now) and spread thence south-
wards, exterminating to a large extent the more primitive earlier
forms, and being sometimes ousted in their turn by new forms
migrating southwards. Now the primitive mammals which arose in
the Northern Hemisphere seem to have reached South America,
not across the Isthmus of Panama, for we know that the whole
south portion of North America was submerged at this period, but
probably by means of a land connection across the Atlantic with
Africa. Whatever may have been the exact nature of this con-
nection between South America and the other land masses of the
globe towards the end of the secondary geological epoch, it is
certain that it was soon broken through, and that South America

1 Read before the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, January 13,
1909.

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APPENDIX II

was completely isolated during the whole of that period in which
the most active evolution of mammalia was taking place in other
parts of the world. The few low mammals which had got into
South America before it became isolated evolved a very peculiar
mammalian fauna, including such forms as the giant sloth, or Mega-
therium, and glyptodonts like gigantic armadillos, which, however,
never reached a very high grade of development, such as the
mammals in the more desperate struggle for existence that was
going on in other parts of the world were attaining.

" During the end of the Miocene period the emergence of the
Isthmus of Panama allowed the influx of the more highly specialized
forms from the Northern Hemisphere, and completely changed the
character of the South American fauna. In fossiliferous beds after
this, though they had been conspicuously absent before, we find
lions, the sabre-toothed tiger, dogs, bears, llama, deer, horses,
tapirs, and peccaries appearing now for the first time in South
America, though they had been abundant in other parts of the
globe for ages before. These new forms established themselves
to a great extent at the expense of the old typical South American
fauna. Remains of this original fauna, however, still survive in
the opossum, armadillo, ant-eater, and sloths, while the new forms,
which are now far more abundant, both in numbers and species,
include such forms as the deer, tapir, peccary, puma, jaguar, wild-
cats, dogs, etc.

" The mammals are not the only animals which are represented
in South America by lowly forms. ... In ancient geological ages
a group of fishes called the Dipnoi were the dominant group. They
have left their fossil remains all over the world. At the present
day, as has happened in so many cases with formerly important
and cosmopolitan groups of mammals, they now survive only in the
three most southern of the mainland masses of the world. I refer
to the lung-fishes, of which one survives in Queensland, one in
Africa, and the third in South America. The South American
lung-fish, Lepidosiren, besides its interest from its position in the
animal kingdom, forming, as it does, a sort of connecting link
between fishes and terrestrial vertebrates, happens to afford prob-
ably the most favourable material of all vertebrates for deter-
mining certain problems of the microscopical structure of living
animals. . . .

" It must not be supposed, however, that the presence of these
primitive forms is the only attraction this continent has to offer

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APPENDIX II

to the naturalist. Probably nowhere in the world is there such a
profusion of strange and beautiful birds and insects.

" My goal was one of the stations of the South American Mis-
sionary Society, very near where Professor Graham Kerr obtained
the material for his well-known work on the embryology ol
Lepidosiren. . . .

" . . . The modern remnants of the original South American
mammalian fauna which flourished unchallenged before the immigra-
tion of the more pushful ungulates and carnivora which now form
the more conspicuous part of the mammalian fauna, are here in the
forest, but they are all retiring creatures, and need looking for.
Naturally, however, it is they that interest the zoologist chiefly.
Indeed, collections of embryological material of certain forms of
them have never before been obtained. The little mouse opossum
(Didelphys pusilld), one of the marsupials, is one of these animals.
It is a nocturnal creature, a size larger than a mouse, with enormous
black eyes, fan-like ears, and long prehensile tail. It lives squirrel-
like among the trees.

" Then the armadillos, relations of the gigantic extinct mega-
therium and Glyptodonts, live among the undergrowth in these
forests. They are abundant both in numbers and species, but very
difficult to see. The Indians catch them alive by following up their
tracks into their burrows. I was able to collect a fair number of
specimens belonging to three different genera.

" The other members of the ancient fauna which linger on in the
forests of the Paraguayan Chaco are the ant-eaters. These are
rarely met with, and rewards, huge in their eyes, were offered to the
Indians for specimens. Our efforts resulted in the capture of two
specimens of Myrmecophaga, the great ant-eater. Surely no living
mammal presents such a weird appearance as does this beast. It is
a large animal, fully seven feet long, counting the long tail, which
is carried horizontally and covered with a long thick mane, having
the effect of making the animal appear much larger than it really is.
The snout is enormously prolonged, ending in a very small mouth
through which the long tongue can be protruded. The claws of
the front legs are very long and strong, and the legs themselves
provided with huge muscles, for the purpose of tearing open the
ant-hills. Moreover, the beast is strongly bandy-legged, so that it
shuffles along on the sides of its fore-paws, the palms of the hands
turned inwards. In consequence of this the animal is only capable
of a very clumsy, shuffling gait, and could have no hope of escaping

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APPENDIX II

an enemy by flight. The herculean front legs, with their terrible
claws, however, are all that are required as defensive weapons, and
with these it can rip open a dog before it has a chance to get its
teeth through its bristly hair and tough skin. It is even said,
though I do not know on what evidence, that it is a match for the
jaguar. . . .

" . . . In spite of the vast areas of land completely submerged in
the rainy season, one never gets the sight of a sheet of water. In
the dry season the swamps are mere plains covered with short
grass. Directly the rains come and the water begins to stand
about, the weeds spring up with astonishing quickness, and where
three months ago there was short, parched-up grass, in the deeper
parts of the swamp there will now be perhaps four feet of water
and a growth of grasses* and papyrus matted together with con-
volvulus and other creeping plants, far higher than a man's head,
and so dense that one has difficulty in fighting one's way through it.
" These swamps are the homes of millions of wild fowl. There
are flocks of ducks of various species in such countless numbers that
the noise of them striking their wings on the water as they rise into
the air often deceives the new-comer into thinking he hears a distant
roll of thunder. Storks and herons are there in plenty, the great
chaja (Palameded), with its piercing scream, and the jacana, a bird
not unlike a veay small moor-hen, of a bright chestnut colour with
lemon-coloured underwings. It has very long toes, which enable it
to run over the surface of the floating weeds without sinking in.
They go about in small flocks, and have a beautiful habit of
suddenly raising their wings so as to expose the yellow undersurface
for a few seconds. Ibises are there in great numbers too, and many
other peculiar birds, some of great size, rise up before one with
great flapping of wings as one pushes one's way laboriously through
the tall weeds.

" Of all the denizens of the swamps, the most interesting to the
naturalist is, of course, the lungfish, or Lepidosiren. Although speci-
mens of these have always been great rarities in museums, at any
rate prior to Professor Kerr's expedition, they are extremely abundant
in the Chaco swamps in fact, they form a very important part of
the natives' food supply.

" During the wet season, when the swamps are full, the lungfish
lives like a fish in the water unlike an ordinary fish, however, in
that it has to rise to the surface to breathe now and then, for its
gills are reduced and incapable of extracting sufficient oxygen out

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APPENDIX II

of the water. In compensation for this, it possesses, as its name
implies, a pair of typical lungs, by means of which it can breathe
air. During this period the fish are captured by the Indians by
spearing.

" The thick weeds and reddish colour of the water make it quite
impossible to see the fish, but they often betray themselves by
causing a quiver in the reeds as they swim past, showing the hunter
where to strike. A full-grown female is over three feet long, and
as it is pretty thick too, it presents a fair-sized target. More often
they spear the male as it lies in its nest guarding its young.

" When the swamps dry up, the lungfish makes a burrow for itself
in the soft mud, and lies in it with its tail curled up over its head.
The burrow communicates with the air by a narrow opening. At
first the fish lies close beneath the surface, but as the upper layers
of mud dry up, it deepens its burrow, so that it is always found in a
stratum of iairly moist mud.

" In this burrow the fish has to lie till the swamps are again filled
next rainy season. As this season is in some years missed out, it
has to be prepared to last at least eighteen months without food.
It makes ready for this fast by eating much more than it requires
during the wet season, and storing up the surplus as lat, especially
in the tail. During the dry season this fat is slowly re-absorbed.
The chief food of the lungfish is a water snail, Ampullaria.

" It was curious to think, as one walked over the parched plains
which represent the swamps in the dry season, that a few feet
below that baked- up surface were thousands of living fish. And
the lungtish is not the only possessor of this interesting habit, but
a kind of eel, Symbranchus, passes the dry season in much the
same way, and I saw some Indians who were engaged in digging a
well bring out several live specimens from some feet below the
surface.

" During the dry season the Indians dig the lungfish out of the
ground with sharp wooden stakes, the little breathing hole at the
top of the burrow betraying it at once.

" Most of my efforts were directed towards finding nests of the
lunghsh, as the material required consisted mainly of breeding
males and developing eggs. The nest of the Lepidosiren consists of
a tunnel slanting obliquely downwards in the mud at the bottom
of the swamp, and roughly lined with fragments of water-weeds.
After she has laid her eggs the female swims away and takes no
more thought for the future of her progeny. Not so the male,

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APPENDIX II

however. The eggs are placed at the end of the burrow, and the
male lies in the passage leading to it, ready to defend his home with
his powerful teeth as I proved unintentionally on my own person
by putting my hand into a burrow from which I thought the male
had been driven out.

"The devotion of the male lungfish is truly admirable, for he
stays in the nest the whole time, from the moment the eggs are
laid till the young are ready to leave the nest, a period of about
seven weeks. . . .

"... Curiously enough, there is another fish in these swamps
which has very similar nesting habits to the lungfish. I refer to
the eel, mentioned before as being able to pass the dry season in
the mud like Lepidosiren. In this species the nests are also burrows
in the mud, though not lined with water-weeds, and the male keeps
guard over the developing eggs.

" The two classes of animals which force themselves most upon
the notice of a new-comer in the Chaco, be he naturalist or no, have
not yet been referred to. These are the frogs and the insects. At
home the common frog and toad exhaust the species of this class of
animal with which one is likely to meet, and one thinks of them as
retiring animals, and not often seen and seldom heard. On a wet
night in the Chaco the noise made by the frogs is deafening.
There are about four-and- twenty species of them, and each one seems
to have a distinctive cry of its own. Some of them have curious
breeding habits. One species lays its eggs immediately after a
shower of rain in quite temporary pools. These eggs go through
their development very quickly, hatching within twenty-four hours
after they are laid. Some of the climbing tree-frogs are very
handsome, and make most interesting nests, suspended from bushes
overhanging pools. In one case (Phyllomedusa sauvagu), when the
frog is about to lay its eggs, it crawls out on to a suitable branch,
and pulling a number of leaves together, proceeds to cement them
in this position by means of a plug of jelly, formed by a mass of
gelatinous egg-cases which are laid without any eggs in them. The
plug so made forms the floor of the nest, the leaves to which it is
stuck the sides ; the eggs are then laid into the chamber so formed,
and finally another jelly plug is added as a roof to the whole
structure. It such a nest is opened at the right time, it is found to
be full of a seething mass of little tadpoles, wriggling about in a
sort of soup formed by the liquefaction of the gelatinous egg-cases,
the whole held in position by the plug at the bottom. This plug

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APPENDIX II

gradually softens under the influence of the fluid above it, and if a
nest in this condition is watched, one presently sees a thick viscid
drop forming, and soon this falls off into the water of the pool
beneath, perhaps carrying with it a tadpole. Soon another drop
forms, then they come more quickly, and now the whole semi-fluid
contents of the nest are falling in a steady drip into the water, each
drop carrying with it a number of wriggling tadpoles. In one nest
in which I watched the whole process from start to finish, over
three hundred tadpoles fell out of the nest into the water beneath
in forty-five minutes.

" Of the insects, the locusts, ants, and mosquitos are perhaps
the most striking. A swarm of locusts is a marvellous sight. At
first one sees apparently a long dark cloud of a peculiar reddish
colour appearing above the horizon, and if it is one's first experience,
one thinks one is in for a storm. However, in an hour or so the
cloud is overhead, and has resolved itself into countless millions of
locusts, so that the sky is darkened with them, and the air full of
the whirring of their wings. They settle on the trees, and in a
few hours entirely strip them of leaves.

" There are many different species of ant, the most remarkable,
perhaps, being the saiiba, or leaf-cutting ant. As one goes through
the forest one will frequently come across what looks like a column
of small leaves on the march. Closer examination shows that this
appearance is caused by two columns of ants hurrying along a well-
beaten track. Every ant going in the one direction is carrying
upright in its jaws a circular piece of leaf about as large as a
sixpence, while all the ants going in the other direction are empty-
handed. If we follow up this path in the direction in which the
empty-handed ants are going, we come at last though not for
seventy or eighty yards to a tree at which it stops. At the foot
of the tree one sees a thick pile of little circular pieces of leaf such
as the ants are carrying, and it is evident that they are going back-
wards and forwards from the nest bearing off these leafy discs.
Up in the tree one sees other ants of the same species busy cutting
out new pieces of leaf, which fall in quite a continuous shower to
the ground beneath. If we follow up the ants' path in the other
direction, we see it leads into a great, low mound, the largest being
thirty or forty yards in circumference and two feet high. This
immense mound is formed entirely by minute granules of earth
brought up from the enormous system of underground passages
of the ant. Numerous other paths lead into it, the main roads

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APPENDIX II

branching out in all directions, each branch ending at last at the
foot of a tree. All the paths are trodden quite hard and smooth
by the millions of little feet, and they look like cart-wheel tracks.

" It is now known that the saiiba ant takes the fragments of
leaves which it collects in this way into its subterranean nest, and
uses them to grow a fungus on, which provides food for the ant.

" This ant seems to work by night as well as by day at least, I
have seen them by the light of a lantern several hours after sunset
just as busy as during the daytime.

"The other insects mentioned, the mosquitos, are quite in-
describable. They are, indeed, the most important of all the
circumstances which condition one's daily life in the Chaco. If
the mosquitos are quiet, life is enjoyable ; if they are bad, it is
not worth living after sjmset. Their numbers and vindictiveness
are almost incredible. Personal experience is necessary to convince
one how easily they can and do get through a flannel coat and
shirt. If one goes out anywhere after dark, or in swampy places
even in the daytime, one's shoulders are riddled with their bites,
and the same with every part of the body where one's clothes
touch ; and as to one's hands and face, who can describe the misery
of it ? Horses suffer terribly too, and at the end of the summer
there is scarcely one in ten fit to be ridden. If, when travelling at
night, one seeks to encourage one's dejected horse with a pat on
the neck, one finds one's hand covered with blood squashed out of
the bodies of gorged mosquitos packed almost as closely as there
is room for them."

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APPENDIX III
LANGUAGE

" LENQUA " is probably a Guarani nickname given to the Indians,
who were known as " Mascoy " in the eighteenth century, and
should be properly termed " Lengua- Mascoy/' or "Lengua-
Machicuy." The tribes known as Lengua, Angaite, Mascoy, Sana-
pana, Guana, according to Dr. Lafone-Quevedo, the great authority
on Chaco languages, belong to the Machicuy stock, being a branch
of the great Nu-Arwak group, which is widely spread over the centre
of South America, extending from Paraguay to the West Indies,
where they are found mixed up with the Caribbic stock. Senor
Guido Boggiani, in his monograph on the Paiyagua and Machicuy
Indians, include the Towothli and Suhin tribes with the Lengua,
but I think these will be found to belong to the Guaicurii stock.

Lengua is not used by the Indians to describe themselves, but
they call themselves by various clan terms : Kyoinawatsam (people
of the river), Kyoinathla (people of the palm-tree), Kyoinithma
(people of the forest), Paisiapto (black-food), etc.

The two most important facts of the language are : (a) That the
pronominal inflections are prefixed to the noun or verb, and (6) that
they are multiform in inflection e.g. :

e-mik = my hand,

iie-thlit = my waist,

ah-aktik = my eye.

sik-tahanama = my bed.
sel-nakta = my goods,
sey-ispo = my cigar.

ik-thlingkyi = I go.
e-wanchi = I am able,
el-anaiyi = I make,

ey-apaschi = I send.
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APPENDIX III

The verbs are inflected for modification by affixes e.g. :

yintim-kyi = to take, lead, as horse or child,

yintim akthleyi = to take there, or again,

yintim-anteyi = to lead here.

yintim-akme = to lead in this direction for first time,

yintim-aha = to lead about from place to place,

yinto-waiyi = to lead from ... to this place,

yinto-wukme = to lead to a distant place.
Etc.

A very important grammatical distinction exists, not coincident
with sex. It is difficult to trace a logical reason for this division of
words : Sun is feminine ; moon, masculine ; the generic words for
animal, bird, fish, serpent, tree, are feminine ; yet some of the
specific names are masculine e.g., the ciervo is feminine, the
Brazilian brocket and all other deer are masculine.

Coming to sex, one finds, what is common to the family group, a
special language for the women. To address or speak of a woman
different prefixes (and in some cases distinct words) have to be
used e.g. :

kato ikto = eat thy food (addressing a woman).
ito apto = eat thy food (addressing a man).

Relationship is traced on the female side ; and terms " uncle,"
"aunt/' " niece," etc., are very distinct e.g. :

apai = my mother's brother,
eha = my father's brother.

Sentences are very simple. The verb precedes the noun, whether
subject or object. With neuter verbs the subject is expressed,
with active verbs the object ; and sometimes the subject is expressed
when there is a necessity.

To make quite certain of a sentence, e.g., "The tiger killed the
man," it is necessary to say, " The man is killed [neuter verb] ;
the tiger's killing" (Abmatneyi enthlit, niptana apkyakhe). In
an ordinary narrative the tiger will have formed the subject, and
the simple statement, " (He) killed the man," would be sufficiently
clear.

Verbs are inflected to denote present, past, and future tenses.
The present tense refers to temporary action, while the past tense
indicates that which is permanent, habitual, or customary.

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APPENDIX III

An interesting inflection, denoting a kind of " middle " voice,
exists, which expresses an action done to or for another e.g. :

Iglikyik apawa = I take off my own blanket.
Iglikkischik apawa = I take off his blanket.

The language abounds in interjections, and one has to be an
adept at animals' cries to express fully a hunting story.

Some interesting idioms might be cited: The word to "kill"
expresses also overcome, bothered, or tormented with, etc. :

tiyin-inkyakhak = sleepy, killed with sleep,
etin-inkyakhak = tormented with smoke,
yiam-apkyakhak = perished with south wind, cold,
raaik-inkyakhak = killed with hunger, hungry,
him-inkyakhak = killed with sun, thirsty.

The verbs "hear " and " see " have some interesting uses :

malnaak ikpanma = I didn't hear the odour i.e., I did

not smell.

iglingangko ikmasche = I heard the pain i.e., I felt,
igwitak ningmasche = I saw the sickness i.e., I was sick,
kotak etkya = she saw no child i.e., barren.

The " wathwuk/' or inside, is the seat of emotion :

kilkyitamkyi abwathwuk = to round up the inside i.e., to

think.

paihekthleyi abwathwuk = the inside spread out i.e., pleasure,
tiyikme abwathwuk = the inside falls i.e., grief,

liowu abwathwuk = the inside loosens i.e., love, trust.

The " inkyinyik," or chest, seems to be the individuality :

lokyik inkyinyik = angry chest = to recall, return for.
thlingaikha inkyinyik = moving chest = intense agony,
gaihek inkyinyik = hard chest = to live, be courageous,
kyitsipkyik inkyinyik dead chest = to love, covet, desire.

The people are very conservative, and prefer to coin new names
rather than introduce a foreign word. Some words from the
Spanish and Guarani, however, have crept in e.g., " waitkya " and
" lawa," from Spanish " vaca," " clavo " ; " kad " is the Guarani

320

APPENDIX III

" caa." The augmentative particles " yam " and " yat " are prefixed
to nouns to form new words e.g. :

paat = grass,

nipkyesik = sheep.

yampaat = sugar-cane,
yatnipkyesik = goat.

Ho = like, is frequently used in the same manner :

athlawa = a palm-leaf. ho-athlawa = an accordian.

The language is rich touching their own life, and especially
verbs of movement coming and going as : to go away, to go
for first time, to go in a given direction, to go for a purpose,
to go part of the way, to go back, to go quickly, to go home,
to go to examine, etc. Some verbs are peculiar to the language
e.g., mangkathneyi = to go 'and ask food for a friend, to beg for
another; mangkangwaktamo = to arrive just in time. Another
verb expresses the idea of a man following in the wake of a camp
fire to pick up any salvage ; another verb expresses the idea of
a warning e.g., a hen in a fit suggests the idea that, unless you
kill the hen, you will die.

In general style the language is vivid, comprising sharp, short,
terse sentences. The speaker's voice rises and falls in rhythmic
cadence, words and sentences are carefully chosen in narrating,
and, for euphony, words are contracted and accents changed so
as to give to the whole a pleasant rhythmic sound. Nearly ten
thousand words are collected in the dictionary, which includes the
modifications of the root verbs and augmentative forms of nouns.

APPENDIX IV
OUTSIDE TESTIMONY

THE following are extracts from unsolicited letters sent to the
Buenos Ayres Standard and to the Secretary of the South American
Missionary Society by a few who have visited the Paraguayan
Chaco Mission :

" To the Editor of the Buenos Ayres ' Standard/

"June 5, 1892.

" SIR, Having to spend a few days in Villa Concepcion waiting
for the next steamer, we decided to employ our time in visiting
the station of the South American Missionary Society, in the
Paraguayan Chaco. The station is little known, I believe, and only
very few white people have ever visited it. It might therefore
be of some interest to your readers to hear something about what
we saw and heard there.

" Thlagnasinkinmith, the Indian name of the station, lies about
twelve leagues to the west of the River Paraguay, in the interior
of the Chaco and on the Rio Verde. Of recent creation, the place
has rapidly developed under the able and energetic management
of Mr. W. Grubb, and it is already widely known amongst the
Chaco Indians, who consider it one of their largest settlements. . . .

"... We found Mr. Grubb quite alone with his Indians, who
appeared rather disagreeably surprised at first, for they always fear
the intrusion of white people into their domains. However, when
they saw that Mr. Grubb received us in a most friendly manner,
they at once concluded that we were the new missionaries who are
expected from England, and received us with expressions of friend-
ship. Quite a village is rising round the station house. Mr. Grubb
informed us that as many as six to seven hundred Indians ceme to

322

APPENDIX IV

stay there sometimes, until he has to send them away, so as to
make room for others to come. . . .

" By encouraging these settlements, and showing the Indians
how to go to work, the immense deserts of the Chaco will be
studded little by little by Indian villages, and to my mind Mr.
Grubb's efforts will go much further to open and civilize the Chaco
than European colonization, as it has been undertaken until now.
They are beginning to enter into Mr. Grubb's ideas, and Thlagna-
sinkinmith is already considered by them as national property. . .

"... I may add the hope that the Anglo- Paraguay an Land Com-
pany will do more to assist the courageous efforts of Mr. Grubb's
Mission, and that he may also find support for his work from other
quarters. Thus he will be enabled to become in reality the
' Pacificador del Chaco/ a .title which was given to him with much
foresight by the Paraguayan Government.

" I am, sir,

"ARNOLD H. SCHOCH,
" Belgian Consul at Asuncion, Paraguay"

" To His Excellency the President of the Republic, Asuncion.

" VILLA CONCEPCION,

" December 30, 1893.

" Knowing the interest your Excellency takes in the welfare and
advancement of the Chaco, I venture to inform you that I have
this day returned from an expedition to its interior to survey and
measure the boundaries for a Mission station of the South American
Missionary Society, from which, in future, its missionaries will work
for the civilization and evangelisation of the Chaco Indians ; and am
surprised at the security and tranquillity with which we can now
travel among them, thanks to the effective measures taken by the
missionaries of the South American Missionary Society to Christianise
those savages. . . . To-day the spirit of hostility has entirely dis-
appeared. I have made my present survey with Indian assistance,
and have not carried a single firearm. At night we slept tranquilly,
at whatever spot our labour for the day had ceased, no watch being
set, and several times in the vicinity of strange Indians whom we
met on the road. We sought the villages instead of avoiding them
as formerly. . . .

"I remain, your Excellency's obedient servant,
(Signed) " PEDRO A. FREUND,

" Public Land Surveyor."
323

APPENDIX IV

" To the Secretary of the South American Mission.

e< ASUNCION, PARAGUAY,

" November 27, 1894.

"I had occasion to come to Paraguay on business, and being
desirous of seeing something of the interior of the Chaco, I gladly
accepted the invitation of the missionaries sent out by the South
American Mission to accompany them to the interior. Let me bear
testimony to the work these young fellows are doing. For nine
months of the year the interior of the Chaco is one vast swamp, as
far as it is known at present. During a two hundred mile ride,
including the return journey, over a track chosen by the Indians as
being the highest and driest, I can safely say that one hundred and
eighty miles lay through water, and this in the middle of Novem-
ber, with the sun almost vertical. Mr. Grubb has been an equal
distance farther west from the point I reached, and found no
variation in the camps. Through these tropical swamps your
missionaries plod steadily on, leading such a life as I have only
seen equalled by that of the hardiest pioneers, one moment
scorched by the tropical sun, the next drenched to the skin by
torrential rains, sleeping where nightfall finds them, at the edge
of a swamp, and often in soaking wet clothes. They should have
waterproof sleeping-bags in which to shelter themselves from the
rain, which here comes down like a waterspout. Even a cowboy in
North America is better protected from the elements than they.
Perpetual journeys to and from the interior, with the coast of the
Paraguay River as a base, must be undertaken, to keep the mis-
sionary staff in the bare necessaries of life, and only very small
loads can be taken. Yet I find these men driving bullock-teams
themselves, walking beside the team up to their waists in water,
and working as no colonial bullock-driver would work for one pound-
per day. At the end of a journey, which usually lasts a week, the
only shelter awaiting these men is a rough palm-log house with one
small room and a veranda nothing more and this room serves
as store and affords all the privacy available.

" Last, but not least, may I point out the never-ceasing plague
of insect life ? The tropical swamps breed these pests in opaque
clouds. Mosquitos and gadflies of many varieties, one kind of
gadfly being at least an inch long, also ticks, and a small fly about
the size of a grain of dust, with a venom which is in the inverse

324

APPENDIX IV

ratio of its size. On the dry land is found the homely insect called
the 'jigger/ which seeks a congenial resting-place in your feet, and
more particularly under the nail of your big toe.

"The Indians themselves are undoubtedly a fine race. But,
decked everywhere with feathers, painted on the face and breast,
their ears distorted with blocks of wood over an inch in diameter,
forced through the lobe of the ear until only a thin piece of skin
surrounds the wood, wearing necklaces of teeth or beads, together
with a dark copper-coloured, almost naked body, they make a
picture which represents the typical savage. These Indians were
held in terror by the Paraguayans until the advent of your mis-
sionaries, and to this day the Paraguayans will not venture more
than a few miles into the Chaco. Yet both Mr. Pride and Mr.
Grubb have lived a year at a time alone among the Indians without
a spell, cut off from all communication with the outside world,
except for the arrival of the periodical bullock-dray. But it is
invidious to mention names where all are imbued with the same
enthusiasm. I may say that I have seen Missions in many parts
of the world, including those to the North American Indians and
that of the Danes to the Esquimaux on the west coast of Green-
land, which I may take as fair samples of rough work ; yet I do
not hesitate to say that as a record of hard, patient, rough, en-
during work, this Mission to the Chaco Indians has only been
equalled by that of the Jesuit Fathers when they made their noble
effort to Christianise Paraguay. It must, however, be remembered
that even the Jesuits tried to evangelise the Chaco, but gave it up,
as the obstacles were so enormous.

" Of the religious part of the work I say nothing, because I am
not qualified to judge; but a religion which produces such men
and such self-denying work deserves to be crowned with success,
and I heartily hope the Mission may succeed.

" This testimony from a man avowedly out of all sympathy with
proselytizing effort may provide your supporters with some informa-
tion as to the real nature of the work undertaken by your missionaries
here, which appears to be little known, the more especially as they,
like the plucky young fellows they are, seem to have concealed the
real hardships they endure.

" LIVINGSTONE LEARMONTH."

326

APPENDIX IV

Extract from Bishop Every' s First Report.

" In conclusion, I may say that I have been greatly cheered and
pleased by my visit to the Chaco Mission. Coming with a perfectly
open mind and by no means predisposed to take a bright view of
the work, after careful observation and questioning I have been
convinced, alike by all that I have seen and heard, that a very real
work for God has been done, that there are no serious defects, and
that there are many signs, such as the changing of native customs
and leavening of native opinion in the vicinity of the Mission,
which point to a prosperous development in the future.

"E. F., FALKLAND ISLES.
"November 10, 1902."

Testimony from a Tourist. To the Secretary of the South American
Missionary Society.

"The outside world cannot know what a herculean effort it
must have been to establish this Mission, and what a colossal
business it is to keep it up. The missionaries have gathered
around them a village consisting of some two hundred Indians.
This does not seem big, but you must realize that the Indians' life
is hunting, and therefore they cannot live in large communities,
and, in fact, twenty to thirty is a large village. Before I arrived in
South America I knew no one connected with the Mission, and,
having nothing to do with missionary work, my criticism is abso-
lutely that of an outsider. They really do seem to be building
up and educating the Indian on such excellent lines that I firmly
believe it will prove of a permanent character, and eventually
become a self-governing body. When one thinks that but ten
years ago it was dangerous to one's life to venture into the Chaco,
whilst now there are numerous estancias on the border, and one
can now go for a hundred and more miles into the interior with
comparative safety, it shows that the missionaries have got the
' thin edge of the wedge ' well thrust in.

"I wish that this could be brought more before the public.
These men and women are working amongst the greatest hard-
ships ; I believe they all suffer from fever; the very water they
drink is swamp-water ; the houses they live in are but log huts
made of palm-trees. They are making savages into reasonable,

326

APPENDIX IV

peace-abiding people, and, what touches the commercial world
more, they are making what was once considered a piece of waste
land, the size of England and Scotland, of real commercial value.
Landowners in the Paraguayan Chaco owe all to this English
Mission, and especially to Mr. W. B. Grubb, the pioneer and back-
bone of the whole undertaking.

"J. F. J. WEISS.
" November, 1908."

Testimony from a Chaco Landowner. To the Secretary of the
South American Missionary Society.

" In spite of many reverses, and notwithstanding the difficulties
that beset him, Mr. Grubb successfully realized his undertaking.
Working from his base at the Riacho Negro opposite the town of
Villa Concepcion, he established three inland stores, where the
Chaco tribes were able to obtain clothing and other requirements
in exchange for their produce. By this and other means the
Lengua Indians have been reclaimed from their nomadic life, and
many of them are now engaged in pastoral and industrial pursuits.
This work still proceeds, and under the spiritual and educational
guidance of the Mission a young generation is springing up
on a field where they are enabled to lead a self-supporting and
domesticated life. . . .

"... I wish to avail myself of this letter to express my testi-
mony to the work of Mr. Grubb and his fellow-labourers in the
Paraguayan Chaco. They have had to undergo hardships and to
face obstacles and discouragement such as probably no material
gain would have inspired men to encounter and surmount. My
intimate connection with Mr. Grubb during the past four years,
dealing at times with matters which we were called upon to discuss
from opposed standpoints, has produced in me the most unalterable
esteem and respect for him.

" I remain, dear sir,

" Yours faithfully,

" HERBERT GIBSON.
September, 1909.'

327

INDEX

[For plants and animals, see Appendix II., Parts I. and II.]

ABIPONI, viii, 217

Agar, Dr., x, 310

Agriculture, 77

Algaroba, 103

Alligator, 82

Amulets, 138

Ancestors, Lengua, 61

Andrew, 279

Anklets, 72

Ant-eater, 86, 312

Antonio, 284

Aphangak, 118, 120, 123, 125, 130

Arrows, 251

Bank, 296
Beetle, 132, 165

creation, 114
Bernau, E. G., 298
Birds, hunting, 83
Blanket, native, 69
Boggiani, 22, 304
Buenos Ayres, 268
Burial rites, 160, 171, 256

Cachemaille, E. P., 278
Caraguata, 68, 95
Cattle, 245, 250
Chaco, 49

Characteristics, 195
Charqui, 39
Chieftainship, 45
Church, 299
Cities of dead, 51
Climate, 306
Compass, 100
Cotton, 68
Creation, 114
Creveaux, Dr./22, 303

Dances, 183, 185

Death-scenes, 160, 171

Deceit, 239

Deer, 86

Diary sticks, 76

Dobrizhoffer, viii, 49, 51, 139, 145,

163, 217
Dogs, 62

Dollar, Paraguayan, 296
Dreams, 126, 167
Drums, 75
Drunkenness, 239
Dwellings, 56
Dyes, 67

Ear discs, 72
Engravings, 75
Enmakthlawaia, 296
Estancia, 294
Etiquette, 187
Every, Bishop, 325
Expeditions, 301
Explorers, 301

Falkland Isles, Bishops of, ix, 24

Falsehood, 206

Farrow, G. R., 296

Feasts, 102, 177

Fire-sticks, 74

Fire, tradition of, 97

Fishing, 80, 83

Fish-traps, 81

Freund, P. A., 323

Gardiner, Allen, 304
Geology, 305
Gibson, H., 327
Gourds, 74

328

INDEX

Government, Paraguayan, 298
Guarani, 19, 105, 126

Henricksen, A., 18, 31
Hides, 70
Hockey, 103
Honesty, 210
Horse-spirit, 142
Hospital, British, 268
Indian, 298
House-building, 78
Humour, 197
Hunt, R. J., ix, 265, 279
Hunting, 66

Ibareta, 22, 24, 304
Imlah, 54
Incas, 50, 53, 141
Infanticide, 142, 233
Insects, 63, 309, 315
Instruments, musical, 75

Jabiru, 84
Jaguar, 87
Jesuits, 230, 303
Judgment, 237

Keamapsithyo. See Philip
Kerr, Professor Graham, x,

274, 301, 305
Kilyikhama, 115, 127, 134,

148, 153, 161
Kindness, 211
Kisapang, 222, 266
Knives, 75
Kyitkuk-paisiam, 44

Language, 196, 241, 318
Lear month, L., 324
Lepidosiren, 81, 314
Lindsay, Dr., 278
Liquors, 46, 76, 204
Lozano, Padre, 49

Machicuy, 318

Madness, 205, 270

Mandioca, 77

Manuel, 263, 265

Marriage, 97, 142, 214

Mascoy, 318

Mechi, 23, 102, 239, 264, 267

Milky Way, 139, 163

Mimics, 85

Mirages, 140

247,
139,

Monte Lindo, 252
Moon, 139
Morals, 204
Mosquito, 228, 317
Mourning, 169
Mudfish, 81, 314
Murder, 269
Mutilation, 162

Neantamama, 37, 42
Netting, 68

O'Connor, Dr., viii, 268
Orejones, 50, 72
Origin of Lenguas, 49, 141
Ornaments, 70

Pacificator, ir

Paisiamyalwa, 248, 264

Palms, 307

Palo santo, 64, 308

Paraguay, 36

Patience, 200

Philip, 141, 225, 236, 263, 265,

268, 281, 287
Pigs, 86
Pilcomayo, 302

Pinse-apawa, 42, 46, 48, 93, 158
Pinse-tawa, 283
Pipes, 73
Pleiades, 51, 139
Poison, 44

Poit, 53, 244, 246, 269
Poliandry, 214
Police, 298
Poligamy, 214
Population, 301
Pottery, 72
Pride, A., x, 24
Princess, Inca, 51
Punishment, 271

Quebracho, 308
Quichuas, 49

Ra, 115

Rainbow, 51, 141

Red Head, 152, 154

Rhea, 85, 126

Riacho Fernandez, 31, 36 123

Sanderson, W., 296
Scandal, 208
Scenery, 65 59, 307

329

INDEX

Schmidt, Dr., 268

Schoch, A. H., 322

School, 296

Sensitive plant, 137

Shimield, Archdeacon, 90

Sickness, 241

Signs, 76

Smallpox, 59

Snakes, 58, 83

Socialism, 188

Solis, 18

Songs, 185

Soul, 116. See Aphangak

South American Missionary Society,
19, 278, 293

Spinning, 66, 68

Spirits, see Kilyikharna and Aphan-
gak

Stature, 301

Stewart, Dr., 267

Stirling, Bishop, 213, 268

Storm, O., 303

Storms, 91, 104

String, 68

Suffering, 101

Suhin, 68

Superstitions, 132, 136

Theft, 210

Thlagnasinkinmith, 40, 43, 90, 150

Thlagwakhe, 164, 171

Thrift, 193

Tierra del Fuego, 26

Tohacco, 73

Toothli, 68, 244

Trade, 295

Traditions, 54

Translations, 299

Traps, 81

Treves, Sir Frederick, viii

Tribes, 301

Turner, P. R., ix

Villa Concepcion, 31
Villages, 55

Waikthlatingmangyalwa, 238, 265,

278

War, 105, 109
Weapons, 76
Weaving, 66
Weiss, J. F. J., 326
Wischi, 257

Witch-doctor. See Wizard
Wizard, 27, 30, 47, 124, 132, 145,

161, 163, 278
Woods, 308
Wool, 66, 68

Yaghans, 139, 186

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their details.

But there is a third cla^s to whom these volumes may prove of high interest
the lovers of art, who, though they produce nothing themselves, are not
content with an unintelligent enjoyment of artistic creations. No one can
be said to understand them who is ignorant of the principles on which
they are executed. The special enjoyment which an artist finds in a work of
art may be shared by the art-lover if he will take the pains to examine it in
the same way as the professional artist, and thus gain some understanding
of the purely technical means of expression employed. The cultivation of a
correct taste is thus assured the knowledge not only of what to like, but why
to like it. Appreciation is thus founded on reason.

The prices of the volumes will be lower than those of any similar publica-
tions ; at the same time, the publishers believe the series will be as complete,
thorough, and practical as any hitherto issued, and will contain many novel
features not hitherto found in kindred works. The intention has been to
meet the requirements of students and of Art Schools throughout the country,
who will at length be able to procure trustworthy and authoritative instruction
books at a modest expenditure.

VOL. I.

The Practice of Oil Painting & Drawing

By SOLOMON J. SOLOMON, R.A.

With 89 Illustrations from Mr. Solomon 's Drawing* and other sourcts. Extra, crown Svo. 6s. ntt j
" The work of an accomplished painter and experienced teacher." Scotsman.

If students were to follow his instructions, and, still more, lo heed his warnings, their painting j
would soon show a great increase in efficiency. " Manchester Guardian.

" The drilling that yon get at the cost of many fees in an art school is all to be found at a single
tilting in this book. -Illustrated London News.

LONDON : SEELEY 6T CO.. LIMITED. 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET. W.C.

THE NEW ART LIBRARY Continued.

VOL. II.

Human Anatomy for Art Students

BY
SIR ALFRED D. FRIPP, K.C.V.O., C.B., M.B., M.S.(Lond.), F.R.C.S.

Surjjeon-in-Ordintry to H.M. the King; Lecturer upon Anatomy at Guys Hospital. London

AND
RALPH THOMPSON, M.B., Gh.M., F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Senior Demonstrator of Anatomy, Gay's Hospital

And an Appendix on Comparative Anatomy, and Illustrations, by

HARRY DIXON. M.S.B.S.

Profusely Illustrated with Photographs, and by Drawings by
INNES FRIPP, A.R.C.A.

Master of Life Class. City Guilds Art School
With 151 Illustrations. Smart extra crown Soo. Is. 6d. net

"An ideal manual for the student of the most difficult and most essential branch of art study. '

Liverpool Daily Post.
"This book, with its abundant and excellent illustrations, will be a real help to knowledge."

Pall Mall Gazette.

" Excellently illustrated from the first page to the last by original drawings and photographs most
carefully taken." Westminster Gazette.

"Combines the best scientific and artistic information." Connoisseur.

"A book which we can unhesitatingly recommend to the art student, because it is written by
men who are thoroughly at home in the subject treated of, and who, moreover, have been mindful
not to encumber their exposition with unnecessary minutiae." Studio.

VOL. III.

Modelling and Sculpture

BY
ALBERT TOFT, A.R.C.A., M.S.B.S.

Profusely Illustrated with Photographs and Drawings

Square extra crown too., ts. net. With 119 Illustrations

' ' The details are very clearly set out. and the instruction throughout is of a thoroughly practical
kind." Nottingham Guardian.

"A model of clearness. A book that should be found most attractive to all art lovers, as well
as invaluable to students of the processes described therein." School Guardian.

"Will be exceedingly useful and even indispensable to all who wish to learn the art of sculpture
in its many branches. The book will also appeal to those who have no intention of learning the
art. but wuh to know something about it. Mr. Toft writes very clearly." Field.

" Written in a most interesting manner, beautifully printed on excellent paper, and illustrated as
Measrs. Seeiey know how to illustrate." Glasgow Citixen.

" Will be found an invaluable aid to the student. . . . Takes the student step by step through
the various technical processes, the text being supplemented by over a hundred excellent illustra-
tions.

LONDON : SEBLEY 9 CO., LIMITED, 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET. W.C.

AMONG INDIAN RAJAHS & RYOTS

A CIVIL SERVANT'S RECOLLECTIONS AND IMPRESSIONS OF THIRTY-SEVEN
YEARS OF WORK AND SPORT IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BENGAL

By SIR ANDREW H. L. FRASER

K.G.S.I., M.A., LL.D.

Late Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal
With 34 Illustrations and a Map. Demy 8vo. iSs. net.

FEW, if any, are better qualified to record their experiences and impres-
sions of India than Sir Andrew Eraser, whose long sojourn in the
country, his intimate association with the people from princes to
agricultural labourers, and constant observation, have equipped him
with opinions which few would attempt to confute. He has always been
in the closest sympathy with the people, and is as sure of their loyalty to
their Emperor as he is of his own. He has travelled over the greater
part of the peninsula and studied all phases of life. His opinion on the
much-discussed subject of u unrest " is enlightening. He admits that a
small body of serious agitators does exist; but he declares that the people
as a whole will have none of them, and that their power for evil is very
small.

Not the least interesting part of the book is the author's account of the
Partition of Bengal during his tenure of the high office of Lieutenant-
Governor.

AN UNKNOWN PEOPLE IN AN
UNKNOWN LAND

AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND CUSTOMS OF THE LENGUA INDIANS

OF THE PARAGUAYAN CHACO, WITH ADVENTURES AND EXPERIENCES

MET WITH DURING TWENTY YEARS' PIONEERING AND EXPLORATION

AMONGST THEM

By W. BARBROOKE GRUBB

Comisario General del Chaco y Pacificador de los Indios " ; Pioneer and Explorer of the Chaco
With 64 Illustrations and a Map. Demy 8vo. i6s. net

THE author, Mr. Grubb, may with truth be styled the Livingstone of
South America. The dangers he has encountered have been innumerable,
both from savage beasts, treacherous inhabitants, and hostile nature.
Malarial and well nigh impassable swamps had to be crossed, dense
forests to be penetrated, and dangerous rivers to be navigated. All this
tne author has done, undertaking each task with undaunted courage and
indomitable will. His tact and firmness with the natives have earned
for him from the Paraguayan Government the title of " Pacificator of
the Indians," a title which he gained at the risk of his own life a risk
which for a long time he daily, indeed hourly, ran. His own courage
stood him in better stead than an escort of armed men. His great work
among the primitive people of the Chaco, his formidible task of building
them up, and his own hardships, are given in this book with a vividness
that makes it hardly credible that a man can win through so much and
yet live.

LONDON : SEELEY 6^ CO., LIMITED, 38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET.

A Catalogue of Books on Art,
History, and General Literature
Published by Seeley, Service ftP Co
Ltd. 38 Great Russell St. London

Some of the Contents

Elzevir Library . . . . . , 5

Events of Our Own Times Series . .\ 6

Illuminated Series .... . 8

Miniature Library of Devotion . , . . 9

Miniature Portfolio Monographs .. . 10

New Art Library . . . . , i 1 1

Portfolio Monographs . . . . 12

Science of To-Day Series . . . 14

Seeley's Illustrated Pocket Library . V 14

Seeley's Standard Library . . ^ 15

"Things Seen" Series . . * . 16

The Publishers will be pleased to post their complete Catalogue

or their Illustrated Miniature Catalogue on receipt

of a post-card

CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Arranged alphabetically under the names of
Authors and Series

ABBOTT, Rev. E. A., D.D.

Hints on Home Teaching. Crown Svo, 35.

How to Parse. An English Grammar. Fcap. 8vo, 35. 6d.

How to Tell the Parts of Speech. An Introduction to English

Grammar. Fcap. 8vo, as.

How to Write Clearly. Rules and Exercises on English Composition. is.6d.

Latin Gate, The. A First Latin Translation Book. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d.

Via Latina. A First Latin Grammar. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d.
ABBOTT, Rev. E. A., and Sir J. R. SEELEY.

English Lessons for English People. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d.
ADY, Mrs. See CARTWRIGHT, JULIA.

A KEMPIS, THOMAS.

Of the Imitation of Christ With Illuminated Frontispiece and Title

Page, and Illuminated Sub-Titles to each book. In white or blut cloth, with inset minia-
tures. Gilt top ; crown 8vo, 6s. nett ; also bound in same manner in real classic vellum.
Each copy in a box. xos. 6d. nett ; Antique leather with clasps, i8s. 6d. nett.

" It may well be questioned whether the great work of Thomas a Kempis has
ever been presented to better advantage." The Guardian.

ALLDRIDGE, T. J., I.S.O., F.R.G.S.

A Transformed Colony. Sierra Leone as it was and as it is. With

Sixty-six Illustrations and a Map. Demy 8vo, i6s. nett.

ANDERSON, Prof. W.

Japanese Wood Engravings. Coloured Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo,

sewed, as. 6d. nett ; half-linen, 35. 60. nett ; also small 410, cloth, zs. nett ; lambskin, 35. nett.

ARMSTRONG, Sir WALTER.

The Art of Velazquez. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo, 35. 6d. nett.
The Life of Velazquez. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo, 35. 6d. nett.
Velazquez. A Study of his Life and Art. With Eight Copper Plates and
many minor Illustrations. Super-royal Svo, cloth, gs. nett

Thomas Gainsborough. Illustrated. Super-royal Svo, half-linen, 35. 6d.
nett. Also new edition small 410, cloth, as. nett ; leather, 3*. nett and 55. nett.

The Peel Collection and the Dutch School of Painting With Illustra-
tions in Photogravure and Half-tone. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 55. nett ; cloth, 75. nett.
W. Q. Orchardson. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 2s. 6d. ; half- linen, 35. 6d. nett.
AUGUSTINE, S.

Confessions of S. Augustine. With Illuminated pages. In white or
blue cloth, gilt top, crown 8vo, 6s. nett ; also in vellum, los. 6d. nett.

BARING GOULD, Rev. S.

Family Names and their Story. Demy Svo, 7s. 6d. nett.

Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings of Europe. With 54 Illustrations

and Diagrams. Demy Svo, us. 6d. nett.

BEDFORD, Rev. W. K. R.

Malta and the Knights Hospitallers. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 2s. 6d.

nett ; half-Unen, 3$. 6d. nett.

BENHAM, Rev. Canon D. D., F.S.A.

The Tower of London. With Four Plates in Colours and many other
Illustrations. Super-royal Bvo, sewed, 55. nett; cloth, 75. nett
Mediaeval London. With a Frontispiece in Photogravure, Four Plates
in Colour, and many other Illustrations. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 55. nett ; cloth, gilt
top, 75. nett. Also extra crown Svo, 35. 6d. nett.

Old St. Paul's Cathedral. With a Frontispiece in Photogravure, Four
Plates printed in Colour, and many other Illustrations. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 55. nett
or cloth, gilt top, 7$. nett.

Seeley, Service ftp Co Limited

BENNETT, EDWARD.

The Post Office and its Story. An interesting account of the activities

of a great Government departnent. With Twenty-five Illustrations. Extra crown 8vo,
55. nett.

BICKERSTETH, Rev. E.

Family Prayers for Six Weeks. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d.

A Companion to the Holy Communion. 32010, cloth, is.
BINYON, LAURENCE.

Thomas Girtin : His Life and Works. An Essay. With Twenty-one

Reproductions in Autotype. Imperial 410, 2, as. nett.

Dutch Etchers of the Seventeenth Century. Illustrated. Super-royal

8vo, sewed, as. 6d. ; half-linen, 3*. 6d. nett.

John Crome and John Sell Cotman. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo,

sewed, 35. 6d. nett.

BIRCH, G. H.

London on Thames in 'Bygone Days. With Four Plates printed in

Colour and many other Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 55. nett ; cloth, 75. nett

BRIDGES, Rev. C.

An Exposition of Psalm CXIX. Crown 8vo, 55.
BUTCHER, E. L.

Things Seen in Egypt. With Fifty Illustrations. Small 4to, cloth,

as. nett ; lambskin, 35. nett ; velvet leather, in box, 55. nett.

CACHEMAILLE, Rev. E. P., M.A.

XXVI Present- Day Papers on Prophecy. An explanation of the visions

of Daniel and of the Revelation, on the continuous historic system. With Maps and
Diagrams. 7 PP* 6s. nett.

CAMERON, D. Y.

Six Etchings by D. Y. CAMERON and WILLIAM STRANG. Imperial

4to, 6s. nett-

CARTWRIGHT, JULIA.

Jules Bastien-Lepage. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 2s. 6d.; cloth, 35. 6d. nett

Sacharissa. Some Account of Dorothy Sidney, Countess of Sunderland,
her Family and Friends. With Five Portraits. Demy 8vo, 75. 6d.

Raphael in Rome. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 2s. 6d. ; half-
linen, 35. 6d. nett ; also in small 410, cloth, as. nett ; leather, 35. nett and 55. nett.
The Early Work of Raphael. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo, sewed

as. 6d. ; half-linen, 35. 6d. Also new edition, revised, in small 410, in cloth, as. nett ;
leather. 35. nett.

Raphael : A Study of his Life and Work. With Eight Copper Plates and

many other Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, 7$. 6d. nett.

CESARESCO, The Countess MARTINENGO.

The Liberation of Italy. With Portraits on Copper. Crown 8vo, 55.
CHATTERTON, E. KEBLE.

Fore and Aft. The Story of the Fore and Aft Rig from the Earliest Times
to the Present Day. Sq. ex. royal 8vo. With 150 Illustrations and Coloured Frontis-
piece by C. DIXON, R.I. 16$. nett.

CHITTY, J. R.

Things Seen in China. With Fifty Illustrations. Small 410 ; cloth, 2s. ;

leather, 3*. ; velvet leather in a box, 55. nett.

Seeley, Service & Co Limited

CHORAL SERVICE-BOOK FOR PARISH CHURCHES, THE.

Compiled and Edited by J. W. ELLIOTT, Organist and Choirmaster of St. Mark's,
Hamilton Terrace, London. With some Practical Counsels taken by permission from
"Notes on the Church Service," by Bishop WALSHAM How.

A. Royal 8vo, sewed, is. ; cloth, is. 6d.

B. 1 6 mo, sewed, 6d. ; cloth, 8d.

The following portions may be had separately :

The Ferial and Festal Responses and the Litany. Arranged by

J. W. ELLIOTT. Sewed, 4 d.

The Communion Service, Kyrie, Credo, Sanctus, and Gloria in

Excelsis. Set to Music by Dr. J. NAYLOR, Organist of York Minster. Sewed, 4d.

CHURCH, Sir ARTHUR H., F.R.S.

Josiah Wedgwood, Master Potter. With many Illustrations. Super-
royal 8vo, sewed, 55. nett ; cloth, 75. nett ; also small 410, cloth, zs. nett ; leather, 33. and
55. nett.

The Chemistry of Paints and Painting. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.

CHURCH, Rev. A. J.

Nicias, and the Sicilian Expedition. Crown Svo, is. 6d.

For other books by Professor CHURCH see Complete Catalogue.

CLARK, J. W., M.A.

Cambridge. With a coloured Frontispiece and many other Illustrations
by A. BRUNET-DEBAINES and H. TOUSSAINT, <2rc. Extra crown Svo, 6s. ; also crown Svo,
cloth, 2S. nett; leather, 35. ; special leather, in box, 55. nett.

CODY, Rev. H. A.

An Apostle of the North. The Biography of the late Bishop BOMPAS,

First Bishop of Athabasca, and with an Introduction by the ARCHBISHOP of RUPBRTS-
LAND. With 42 Illustrations. Demy Svo, 75. 6d. nett.

COLVIN, Sir AUCKLAND, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G.

The Making of Modern Egypt Fourth Edition. With Portraits and

a Map. Demy Svo, i8s. nett.

CORBIN, T. W.

Engineering of To-day. With Seventy-three Illustrations and Diagrams.

Extra crown Svo. 55. nett.

Mechanical Inventions of To-Day. Ex. Crown Svo ; with Ninety-four

Illustrations, 5s. nett.

CORNISH, C. J.

Animals at Work and Play: Their Activities and Emotions. With

Twelve Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown Svo, 6s.

Animals of To-day : Their Life and Conversation. With Illustrations

from Photographs by C. REID of Wishaw. Crown Svo, 6s.

The Isle of Wight. Illustrated. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 2s. 6d. nett ;

half-linen, 35. 6d. nett ; also a new edition, small 410, cloth, 25. ; leather, 35.

Life at the Zoo. Notes and Traditions of the Regent's Park Gardens.

Illustrated from Photographs by GAMBIER BOLTON. Fifth Edition. Crown Svo, 6s.

The Naturalist on the Thames. With many Illustrations. Demy Svo,

7 s. od.

The New Forest. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 2s. 6d. nett ; half- linen, 35. 6d.
nett ; also new edition, small 4to, cloth, 2s. ; leather, 35. nett ; and special velvet leather,
each copy in a box, 55.

The New Forest and the Isle of Wight With Eight Plates and

many other Illustrations. Super-royal Svo, 75. 6d. nett.

Nights with an Old Gunner, and other Studies of Wild Life. With

Sixteen Illustrations by LANCELOT SPEED, CHARLES WHYMPER, and from Photographs.
Crown Svo, 6s.

Wild England of To-day and the Wild Life in it. With Sixteen

Illustrations from Drawings by LANCELOT SPEED, and from Photographs. Crown Svo, 6s.

Seeley, Service & Co Limited

CUST, LIONEL.

The Engravings of Albert Durer. Illustrated. Super- royal 8vo, half-
linen, 35. 6d. nett.
Paintings and Drawings of Albert Durer. Illustrated. Super-royal

8vo, sewed, 35. 6d. nett.

Albrecht Durer. A Study of his Life and Work. With Eight Copper
Plates and many other Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, 75. 6d.

DALE, J. M.

The Clergyman's Legal Handbook and Churchwarden's Guide,

Seventh Edition. Revised and brought up to date by J. S. RISLEY. 75. 6d.

DAVENPORT, CYRIL.

Cameos. With examples in Colour and many other Illustrations. Super-
royal 8vo, sewed, 55. nett ; cloth, 75. nett.
Royal English Bookbindings. With Coloured Plates and many other

Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 35. 6d. ; cloth, 45. 6d.

DAVIES, RANDALL, F^.A.

English Society of the Eighteenth Century in Contemporary Art.

With Four Coloured and many other Illustrations. Super royal 8vo, sewed, 5$. nett ;
cloth, 75. nett.

DAWSON, Rev. E. C.

The Life of Bishop Hannington. Crown 8vo, paper boards, 2s. 6d. ;

or with Map and Illustrations, cloth, 35. 6d.

DESTRfeE, O. G.

The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium. Illustrated. Super-royal

8vo, sewed, as. 6d. nett ; half-linen, 35. 6d. nett.

DOLMAGE, CECIL G., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.A.S.

Astronomy of To-Day. A popular account in non-technical language.

With Forty-six Illustrations and Diagrams. Extra crown 8vo, 55. nett.

EARDLEY, WILMOT, Rear-Admiral S.

Our Fleet To-day and its Development during the last Half Century.

With many Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 53.

ELZEVIR LIBRARY, THE.

Selections from the choicest English Writers. Exquisitely Illustrated,

with Frontispiece and Title-page in Colours by H. M. BROCK, and many other Illus-
trations. Half bound in cloth, coloured top, is. nett ; full leather, is. 6d. nett ; velvet
leather, gilt edges, in a box, zs. 6d. nett.

Volume I. Fancy &* Humour of Lamb.

II. Wit cV Imagination of Disraeli.

III. Vignettes from Oliver Goldsmith.

IV. Wit & Sagacity of Dr. Johnson.

V. Insight vV Imagination of John Ruskin.
VI. Vignettes of London Life from Dickens.
VII. XVI Ilth Century Vignettes from Thackeray.
VIII. Vignettes of Country Life from Dickens.
IX. Wisdom & Humour of Carlyle.

" Decidedly natty and original in get-np." Tht Saturday Review.

EVANS, WILMOTT, M.D.

Medical Science of To-Day. Ex. crown 8vo ; with Twenty-four

Illustrations ; 5s. nett.

Seeley i Service ftf Co Limited

EVENTS OF OUR OWN TIMES

Crown 8vo. With Illustrations, 55. each.

The War in the Crimea. By General

Sir E. HAMLEY.K.C.B.

The Indian Mutiny. By Colonel

MALLESON, C.S.I.

The Afghan Wars, 1839-42, and

1878-80. By ARCHIBALD FORBES.

Our Fleet To-Day and its Develop-
ment during the last Half - Century.
By Rear-Admiral S. EARDLEY WILMOT.

The Refounding of the German

Empire. By Colonel MALLESON, C.S.I.

The Liberation of Italy. By the

Countess MARTIN ENGO CKSARESCO.

Great Britain in Modern Africa.

By EDGAR SANDERSON, M.A.

The War in the Peninsula. By A.
INNES SHAND.

FERRAR, NICHOLAS.

The Story Books of Little Gidding: Being the Religious Dialogues

recited in the Great Rom at Little Gidding Hall, 1631-2. From the Original Manuscript
of NICHOLAS FERRAR. With several Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s.

FLETCHER, W. Y.

Bookbinding in France. Coloured Plates. Super-royal, sewed, 2s. 6d.

nett ; half-linen, 35. 6d. nett.

FORBES, ARCHIBALD.

The Afghan Wars of 1839-1842 and i87&-i88a With Four Portraits

on Copper, and Maps and Plans. Crown 8vo, 55.

FRASER, Sir ANDREW H. L.

Among Indian Rajahs and Ryots. With 34 Illustrations and a Map.

Demy 8vo f i8s. nett.

FRIPP, Sir ALFRED D., K.C.V.O., & R. THOMPSON, F.R.C.S.

Human Anatomy for Art Students. Profusely Illustrated with Photo-
graphs and Drawings by INNES FRIPP, A.R.C.A. Square extra crown 8vo, 75. 6d. nett.

FROBENIUS, LEO.

The Childhood of Man. A Popular Account of the Lives and Thoughts

of Primitive Races. Translated jy Prof. A. H. KEAKE, LL.D. With 416 Illustrations.
Demy 8vo, i6s. nett.

FRY, ROGER.

Discourses Delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy by Sir

{oshua Reynolds. With an Introduction and Notes by ROGER FRY. With Thirty-three
llustrations. Square Crown 8vo ;s. 6d. nett.

GARDNER, J. STARKIE.

Armour in England. With Eight Coloured Plates and many other

Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 35. 6d. nett.

Foreign Armour in England. With Eight Coloured Plates and many

other Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 35. 6d. nett.

Armour in England. With Sixteen Coloured Plates and many other

Illustrations. The two parts in one volume. Super-royal Svo, cloth, gilt top, os. nett.

GARNETT, R., LL.D.

Richmond on Thames. Illustrated. Super-royal Svo, sewed, 35. 6d. nett.

GI BERNE, AGNES.

Beside the Waters of Comfort Crown Svo, 33. 6d.

Seeley, Service ftP Co Limited

GIBSON, CHARLES R, F.R.S.E.

Electricity of To- Day. Its Works and Mysteries described in non-
technical language. With 30 Illustrations. Extra crown 8vo, 55. nett.

"One of the best examples of popular scientific exposition we remember
seeing." The Tribune.

Scientific Ideas of To-day. A Popular Account in non-technical lan-
guage of the Nature of Matter, Electricity, Light, Heat, <5rc., <5^c, Witk 25 Illustrations.
Extra crown 8vo, 55. nett.

How Telegraphs and Telephones Work. With many Illustrations.

Crown 8vo, is. 6d. nett.

The Autobiography of an Electron. With Eight Illustrations. Long

8vo, 35. 6d. nett.

GODLEY, A. D.

Socrates and Athenian Society in his Day. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d.
Aspects of Modern Oxford. With many Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
cloth, 25. nett ; lambskin, 35. nett ; velvet leather, in box, 55. nett.

GOLDEN RECITER. (See JAMES, Prof. CAIRNS.)

GOMES, EDWIN H., M.A.

Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo. With 40 Illus-
trations and a Map. Demy 8vo, i6s. nett.

GRAHAME, GEORGE.

Claude Lorrain. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo, 2s. 6d. nett; half-linen,

35. 6d. nett.

GRIFFITH, M. E. HUME.

Behind the Veil in Persia and Turkish Arabia. An Account of an

Englishwoman's Eight Years' Residence amongst the Women of the East. With 37
Illustrations and a Map. Demy Svo, i6s. nett.

GRINDON, LEO.

Lancashire. Brief Historical and Descriptive Notes. With many

Illustrations. Crown Svo, 6s.

GRUBB, W. BARBROOKE (Pioneer and Explorer of the Chaco).
An Unknown People in an Unknown Land. With Sixty Illustrations

and a Map. Demy Svo, i6s. nett.

HADOW, W. H.

A Croatian Composer. Notes toward the Study of Joseph Haydn.

Crown Svo, as. 6d. nett.

Studies in Modern Music. First Series. Berlioz, Schumann, Wagner.

With an Essay on Music and Musical Criticism. With Five Portraits. Crown Svo, 75. 6d.

Studies in Modern Music. Second Series. Chopin, Dvorak, Brahms.

With an Essay on Musical Form. With Fur Portraits. Crown Svo, 78. 6d.

HAMERTON, P. G.

The Etchings of Rembrandt, and Dutch Etchers of the Seventeenth

Century. By P. G. HAMBRTON and LAURENCB BINYON. With Eight Copper Plates
and many other Illustrations. Super-royal Svo, 75. 6d. nett.

The Mount. Narrative of a Visit to the Site of a Gaulish City on Mount
Beuvray. With a Description of the neighbouring City of Autun. Crown Svo, 35. 6d.

Round my House. Notes on Rural Life in Peace and War. Crown Svo,

with Illustrations, as. 6d. nett. Cheaper edition, as. nett.

Paris. Illustrated. New edition. Cloth, 2s. nett ; leather, 35. nett in

special leather, full gilt, in box, 5$. nett.

HAMLEY, Gen. Sir E.

The War in the Crimea. With Copper Plates and other Illustrations.

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TREMEARNE, Major A. J. N.

The Tailed Head- Hunters of Nigeria. Demy 8vo, with 38 Illustrations

and a Map. i6s. nett.

TURNER, CHARLES C.

Aerial Navigation of To-day. With Seventy Illustrations and Diagrams.
Extra crown 8vo, 53. nett.

WAERN, C.

John La Farge. Illustrated. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 35. 6d. nett.
WEALE, W. H. JAMES.

Gerard David, Painter and Illuminator. Illustrated. Super -royal 8vo,

sewed, 25. 6d. nett ; half-linen, 35. 6d. nett.

WELCH, C, and Canon BENHAM.

Mediaeval London. With a Frontispiece in Photogravure, Four Plates in

Colour, and many other Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, sewed, 55. nett ; cloth, gilt top
75. nett. Also extra crown 8vo, 35. 6d. nett.

WICKS, MARK.

To Mars via the Moon. An Astronomical Story. With Sixteen
Illustrations and Diagrams. Extra crown 8vo, 5*.

Grubb, Wilfrid Barbrooke
2679 An unknown people in an

.2 unknown land

UG7

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