EXCHANGE
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MONTHLY BULLETIN
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OF THE STATE COLLEGE OF/ WASHINGTON
•«•«•« PULLMAN, WASHINGTON •»•«•«
VOLUME IV DECEMBER, 1921 NUMBER/^
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The Use of Ropesx^
and Tackle
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By H. J. DANA
Specialist in Experimental Engineering
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and
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W. A. PEARL
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Instructor in Mechanical Engineering
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ENGINEERING BULLETIN NO. 8
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Engineering Experiment Station
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H. V. CARPENTER, Director
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1922
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Entered as second-class matter September 5, 1919, at the
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postoffice at Pullman, Wash., under Act of Aug. 24, 1912
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The ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION of the State Col-
lege of Washington was established on the authority of the act passed
by the first Legislature of the State of Washington, March 28th, 1890,
which established a "State Agricultural College and School of Sci-
ence," and instructed its commission " to further the application of
the principles of physical science to industrial pursuits." The spirit
of this act has been followed out for many years by the Engineering
Staff, which has carried on experimental investigations and published
the results in the form of bulletins. The first adoption of a definite
program in Engineering research, with an appropriation for its main-
tenance, was made 'by the Board of Regents, June 21st, 1911. This
was followed by later appropriations. In April, 1919, this depart-
ment was officially designated, Engineering Experiment Station.
The scope of the Engineering Experiment Station covers research
in engineering problems of general interest to the citizens of the
State of Washington. The work of the station is made available to
the public through technical reports, popular bulletins, and public
service. The last named includes tests and analyses of coal, tests
and analyses of road materials, testing of commercial steam pipe
coverings, calibration of electrical instruments, testing of strength
of materials, efficiency studies in power plants, testing of hydraulic
machinery, testing of small engines and motors, consultation with re-
gard to theory and design of experimental apparatus, preliminary
advice to inventors, etc.
Requests for copies of the engineering bulletins and inquiries
for information on engineering and industrial problems should be
addressed to Director, The Engineering Experiment Station, State
College of Washington, Pullman, Washington.
The Control of the Engineering Experiment Station is vested in
the Board of Regents of the State College of Washington.
BOARD OF REGENTS
Hon. Louis F. Hart, Governor of the State, Olympia
R. C. McCroskey Garfield
Adam Duncan Dunn, Wapato
Edwin A. Ritz, Walla Walla
A. W. Davis, Spokane
J. H. Hulbert, Mt. Vernon
E. O. Holland, Secretary Ex-Officio, President State College Pullman
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF
Director, H. V. Carpenter, B. S., M. S.
Experimental Engineering, Homer J. Dana, B. S., M. S., M. E.
Electrical Applications, Philip S. Biegler, B. S., M. S., E. E.
Electrical Standardizations, Harry F. Lickey, B. S.
Automotive Engineering Aschel C. Abell, B. S.
Steam Engineering, A. R. Nottingham, M. M. E.
Mechanical Design, E. B. Parker, B. S.
Engineering Materials, G. Everett Thorton, B. S.
Gas Power, William A. Pearl, B. S.
Steam Power Robert L. Rhoads, M. S.
Mining Engineering, Louis O. Howard, A. B., M. E.
Metallurgical Engineering Chester G. Warfel, M. E.
Economic Geology, Olaf P. Jenkins, A. B., A. M.
Irrigation and Structures, Osmar L. Waller, Ph. B., Ph. M.
Municipal Engineering Morris K. Snyder, B S.
Highway Engineering, Howard E. Phelps, B. S., C. E.
Topographical Engineering, Frederic W. Welch, B. S., C. E.
Architectural Engineering, Rudolph Weaver, B. S.
Agricultural Engineering, L. J. Smith, B. S.
Physics, Brenton L. Steele, B. A., M. A.
Chemical Engineering, Clare Chrisman Todd, B. S., Ph. D.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 5
SOURCES OF MATERIAL 7
INTRODUCTION 8
KNOTS 9
SPLICES 25
HITCHES 28
LASHINGS 43
TACKLE SETS 45
HOISTS 53
TRANSMISSION CABLES 55
TEXTILE ROPE DATA 57
WIRE ROPE DATA 58
SPLICING TRANSMISSION CABLES 62
POWER TRANSMISSION TABLES 66
LIST OF ENGINEERING BULLETINS . . .68
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fastening Knots
1. Over-hand knot.
2. Double knot.
3. Figure 8 knot.
4. Double Figure 8 knot.
5. Square knot.
6. Reef knot.
7. Sq. served or whipped knot.
8. Slipped Square knot.
9. Open-hand knot.
10. Granny knot.
11. Fisherman's knot.
12. Ordinary knot.
13. Ordinary knot whipped.
14. Weaver's knot.
15. Hawser knot, or Sheet Bend.
16. Double Sheet Bend.
17. Garrick Bend knot.
39. Sheepshank.
40. Sheepshank for free end rope.
41. Sheepshank with toggle.
42. Sheepshank ends whipped.
43. Bow Shortening.
Splices
44. Short Splice.
45. Eye Splice.
46. Long Splice.
47. Chain Splice.
48. Cut Splice.
Hitches
V49. Half hitch.
50. Timber hitch.
51. Clove or Builder's hitch.
52. Rolling Hitch (A).
53. Rolling Hitch (B).
54. Snubbing hitch.
18. Half-hitch and whipping kno^., 55. Timber hitch and half-hitch.
19. Slip knot. 56.
20. Bowline knot. 57.
21. Running Bowline knot. 58.
22. Loop knot. 59.
23. Tom-fool knot. 60.
24. Boat knot. 61.
25. Surgeon's knot. 62.
26. Bowline on the bight. 63.
27. Spanish Bowline. 64.
28. Flemish Bowline. u~£{>.
29. Hawser knot with toggle. 66.
Ending Knots. 67.
30. Whipping. 68.
31. Single Crown Tucked. 69.
32. Wall knot Tucked. 70.
33. Matthew Walker. 71.
34 Double Wall or Crown knot. i^3-2.
35. Stevedore. 73.
36. Chain knot. 74.
Shortening "Knots. 75.
37. Whipped Shortening. 76.
38. Three fold shortening. 77.
Chain hitch.
Twist hitch.
Twist and bow hitch.
Blackwall hitch.
Lark's head with toggle.
Round turn and half-hitch.
Fisherman's hitch.
Gat's paw hitch.
Slippery hitch.
Double Blackwall.
Slip knot and half-hich.
Fisherman's bend.
Taut line hitch.
Jam hitch.
Scaffold hitch.
Studding sail bend.
Midshipman's hitch.
Bale sling.
Hamburger hitch.
Sling a cask head up.
Well pipe hitch.
Hackamore hitch.
78. Halter tie.
79. Horse hitch or tie.
80. Manger Tie.
8-1. Figure 8 Manger tie.
82. Harness hitch.
83. Strap hitch or line.
84. Clevis hitch.
85. Two-man Diamond hitch.
86. Two-man Diamond hitch.
87. Two-man Diamond hitch.
88. Packer's knot.
89. One-man Diamond hitch.
90. One-man Diamond hitch.
91. One-man Diamond hitch.
92. Two-man Diamond hitch.
93. Spar and Transom lashing.
94. Tripod lashing.
Tackle Sets and Hoists
95. Single Whip.
96. Running Tackle.
97. Gun Tackle (A).
98. Gun Tackle (B).
99. Whip on Whip.
100. Luff.
101. Port Tackle.
102. Double Luff.
103. Single Burton (A).
104. Single Burton (B).
105. Three Fold Purchase.
106. Four Fold Purchase.
107. Double Burton (A).
108. Double Burton (B).
109. Double Burton (C).
110. Double Burton (D).
111. Luff on Luff.
112. Double Burton (E).
113. Geared Chain Hoist.
11.4. Differential Chain hoist.
115. Chinese hoist or Capstan.
116. Snatch Block on Hay Rope.
Transmission Cables.
117. Cable splice.
118. Cable Splice.
119. Cable Splice.
120. Cable Splice.
121. Cable Splice.
122. Splicing Tools.
123. Splicing Tools.
SOURCES OF MATERIAL
In the compilation of this bulletin free use was made of the
material given in the following books, bulletins, catalogs, etc.
Knotting and Splicing Ropes and Cordage,
Paul M. Hashuk — Cassel & Co., New York.
Knots, A. F. Aldridge, The Rudder Pub. Co., New York.
Knots, Splices, and Rope Work, A. Hyatt Verril, — Norman W. Henly
Pub. Co., New York.
Rope and its Use on the Farm, J. B. Frior — Ag. Exp. Sta. Bui. No.
136, Univ. of Minn.
Knots, Hitches and Splices, Howard W. Riley, Cornell Reading
Courses, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New
York.
Story of Rope, Plymouth Cordage Co., North Plymouth, Mass.
Rope Knots and Hitches, MacGreggor Smith, College of Agriculture,
Univ. of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
Problems in Physics, War Department Committee on Education and
Special Training, Washington, D. C.
Kent's Mechanical Engineers Hand Book, John Wiley & Sons, New
York.
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Rope and Its Uses, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts.
American Wire Rope, American Steel and Wire Company.
Boy Scout Manual.
Engineer Field Manual, Fifth Edition, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C.
Rope Work, L. M. Roehl, The Bruce Publishing Co., Milwaukee, Wis.
R. O. T. C. Engineer.
Columbia Knots and Splices, Columbia Rope Co., AuOtmrn, New York.
American Boy Magazine — July 1917.
INTRODUCTION
Each year, old industries keep expanding and new ones are
created. In many of these, the use of hoists, tackle, rope trans-
missions, etc. is ever increasing in extent and importance. Informa-
tion on the selection and use of ropes and tackles and the tying of
knots is very scattering and incomplete. The purpose of this bulletin
is to collect information from all the different sources possible and
assemble it under one cover, in the hope that it may be valuable to
people in many different fields of activity. It is not meant to be an
advanced treatise for those who consider themselves already pro-
ficient in the use of lope and tackle but is designed as an aid and
reference to those less skilled in the art.
A variety of knots and splices are shown with occasional sug-
gestions as to their use and application. Some knots tie easily and
are very secure but are not so easy to untie; others are easily and
quickly tied- — are secure and yet are not difficult to untie. Some
knots are suitable for small cords only, and others are adapted to
large ship's hawsers. For these and other reasons, it is desirable to
select the right knot for the job in hand.
Nearly every individual at some time or other has gone camping.
If he chanced to select a remote or inaccessible mountain side for a
vacation trip, he probably had one ©r more pack animals to take in
the supplies and camp outfit. How many could use the famous
Diamond hitch to fasten the pack on the horse's back so that it will
not shift or fall off in transit?
The desirability of correct selection with reference to the work
to be done is also true of tackle sets. One type of tackle will give
great mechanical advantage, but requires an excessive amount of
rope or requires frequent overhauling to complete the job, while
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another type, using the same equipment, will not give such great
mechanical advantage but . does not require overhauling so often
during the progress of the load.
Rope is coming more and more into favor for the transmission
of power — replacing gears and heavy leather belts. It is important
that the proper sized sheave wheel be used with a rope of given
diameter in order to secure the longest service from the transmission.
It is also important that speed be considered in the calculation for
necessary strength to transmit a certain amount of power. It is
evident from these two instances alone that it is desirable that the
selection of a rope transmission should be governed by the use of
complete sets of data on the subject.
Some of the knots, splices, etc. shown in this bulletin were found
to have more than one name, or were called by different names by
different authors. In such case only the most commonly used term
was selected.
KNOTS
A knowledge of knots has saved many a life in storm and wreck,
and if everyone knew how to tie a knot quickly and securely there
would be fewer casualties in hotel and similar fires where a false
knot in the fire escape rope has slipped at the critical moment and
plunged the victim to the ground. Many an accident has occurred
through a knot or splice being improperly formed. Even in tying
or roping a trunk, few people tie a knot that is secure and quickly
made and yet readily undone. How many can tie a tow rope to a
car so it will be secure and yet is easily untied after the car has been
hauled out of the mud? Or suppose a rope wa.> under strain holding
a large timber in midair and a strand in the derrick guy rope shows
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signs of parting. How many could attach a rope each side of the
weak spot to take the strain?
The principle of a knot is that no two parts which lie adjacent
shall travel in the same direction if the knot should slip. Knots are
employed for several purposes, such as, to attach two rope ends to
gether, to form an enlarged end on a rope, to shorten a rope with-
out cutting it, or to attach a rope to another rope or object. Desir-
able features of knots are that they may be quickly tied, easily un-
tied and will not slip under a strain. In a number of cases a toggle
is used either to aid in making the knot or make it easier to untie
after a strain has been applied.
A number of terms are commonly used in tying knots. The
"standing" part is the principal portion, or longest part of the rope.
The "bight" is the part curved, looped or bent, while working or
handling the rope in making a knot, and the "end" is that part used
in forming the knot or hitch. The loose, or free end, of a rope should
be knotted or whipped to prevent it from raveling while in use.
Strength of Knots.
If a knot or hitch of any kind is tied in a rope it's failure under
stress is sure to oecur at that, place. Each fiber in the straight part
of the rope takes its proper share of the load, but in all knots the
rope is cramped or has a short bend, which throws an overload on
those fibers that are on the outside of the bend and one fiber after
another breaks until the rope is torn apart. The shorter the bend
in the standing rope the weaker the knot. The approximate strength
o»f several types of knots in percent, of full strength of a rope is given
in the table below, as an average of four tests.
1. Full strength of dry rope 100%
2. Eye splice over an iron thimble 90%
3. Short splice in rope 80 %
4. Timber hitch, round turn and half hitch 65%
5. Bowline, slip knot, clove hitch . . 60%
6. Square knot, weaver's knot, sheet bend 50%
7. Flemish loop, overhand knot . . . 1 . . . .' 45%
'10 t V, '* '
Fastening Knots
Fig. 1. The overhand knot is the simplest of all kn~ts to make.
It is made by passing the lose end of the rope over the standing part
and back through the loop.
Fig. 2. The Double knot is made by passing the free end of the
rope through the loop twice instead of but once as in making an over-
hand knot. This is used for shortening or for a stop on a rope, and
is more easily untied than the over-hand knot. It is also known as
a blood knot, from its use on whip lashes by slave drivers, etc.
Fig. 3. The Figure Eight knot is similar to the over-hand knot
except that the loose end of the rope is passed through the loop from
the opposite side. It is commonly used to prevent a rope running
through an eye or ring or tackle block. It is also used as the basis
for ornamental knots, etc.
Fig. 4. The Double Figure Eight knot is made by forming a
regular figure eight and then following around with the end of the
other rope as shown.
Fig. 5. The Square knot is probably the commonest and most
useful of all knots. It is strong and does not "become jammed when
being strained. Take the ends of the two ropes and pass the left end
over and under the right end, then the right end over and under the
left. Beware of the granny knot which is often mistaken for the
square knot but is sure to slip under strain.
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Fig. 6. The Reef knot is a slight modification of the square
knot. It consists merely of using the bight of the left or right end
instead of the end itself, and is tied exactly as is the square knot.
This makes the knot easy to untie by pulling the free end of the bight
or loop.
Fig. 7. If the Square or reef knot is used to join two ropes of
unequal diameter, the knot is apt to slip unless the ends of the ropp
are whipped as shown.
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Fig. 8. A Square knot joining two ropes of unequal size is apt
to slip with a result similar to that shown.
Fig. 9. The Open-hand knot is made by tying an over-hand
knot with two rope ends lying parallel. It is better than a square
knot for joining two ropes of unequal diameter. Grain binders use
this knot.
Fig. 10. The Granny knot is often mistaken for a square knot
and its use should by all means be avoided as it is almost sure to slip
when a strain is applied, unless the ends are whipped. For large
rope, a granny knot with ends whipped will hold securely and is easy
to untie.
Fig. 11. The Fisherman's knot is a simple type of knot formed
by two simple over-hand knots slipped over the standing parts of the
two ropes, and drawn tight. It is valuable for anglers as the two
lines may be drawn apart by merely pulling on the loose ends of the
rope.
Fig. 12. The Ordinary knot is used for fastening two heavy
ropes together and is made by forming a simple knot with the end of
one rope and then interlacing the other rope around it, as shown.
Fig. 13. Whipping the two ends of an Ordinary knot makes it
more secure.
Fig. 14. The Weaver's knot is used to join small lines or
threads and is made by forming a bight in one rope, passing the end
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of the second rope around the bight, back over itself and through the
bight. Weavers use this knot in tying broken threads. When pulled
tight, both ends point backward, and do not catch when pulled
thru the loom.
Fig. 15. The Hawser knot or sheet bend is used for joining stiff
or heavy ropes and is not to be confused with the weaver's knot. It
resembles the bowline, and is easily untied.
Fig. 16. The Double Sheet Bend is similar to the Hawser knot
and is useful for the same purposes.
Fig. 17. The Garrick bend is commonly used for joining two
heavy hawsers which are too stiff to bend easily.
Fig. 18. Another method of joining stiff hawsers is to use the
Half-hitch and whipping. This is a satisfactory method of making a
joint to be used for a considerable time.
Fig. 19. The Slip knot as shown is a knot with many uses.
Fig. 20. The Bowline knot is useful for forming a loop on the
end of a rope. It is used frequently by stockmen to tie a horse or
cow so that they will not choke themselves. It is always secure and
easily untied. Use this knot in tying a tow rope to a car.
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Fig. 21. The Running Bowline is used for the same purposes
as the slip knot in Fig. 19, but is much more secure. It will always
run freely on the standing part of the rope, and is easily untied.
Fig. 22. A Loop knot is useful for making fast to the middle
of a rope where the ends are not free. It will pull tight under strain,
and is not easily untied.
Fig. 23. The Tom-fool knot is formed in the middle of a rope
and may be used for the same purpose as the loop knot, except in
this case either standing part of the rope may be strained without
the knot failing, or slipping. It can be used for hold'ng hogs. Place
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one loop over the hog's snout and hold onto one rope. Release by
pulling other rope. Can also be used from the ground for releasing
hoisting tackle which has been used on a flag pole or other tall
object.
Fig. 24. The Boat knot is formed by the aid of a toggle on a
rope whose ends are not free, and is used for shortening or for
stopping a ring on a taut line.
Fig. 25. The Surgeon's knot is a modified form of the square
knot, and if used with smooth cord, as in tying bundles, it holds very
securely. The object of the double twist is to make the knot easy
to tie without holding with the end of tlie finger.
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Fig. 26. Bowline on the bight is easily made on the looped part
of a rope which is double. It is used where a loop is desired which
will not pull tight or choke and is easily untied. May be used for
casting harness for horses.
Fig. 27. The Spanish Bowline is a knot which may be made in
the middle of a long rope or in a bight at the end, and gives two
single loops that may be thrown over two separate posts or both
thrown over one. Either loop will hold without slipping and is easily
untied.
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Fig. 28.
The Flemish loop is similar to the Fisherman's knot,
Fig. 11, except that it is used for
forming a loop on the end of a rope
instead of joining two ropes. The
loop or eye will not close up when
strained.
jiH*titet
Fig. 29. The Hawser knot with
toggle is formed exactly the same
as the regular Hawser knot except
that the toggle is inserted for the
purpose of making it easy to loosen
the knot after a strain has been
-_^___^— — — — — ~~ applied.
Ending Knots
A group of knots somewhat different from those already de-
scribed, are those used for ending ropes. Ending knots not only serve
the purpose of giving a large end on the rope, but also take the place
of whipping, in that they prevent the rope from unraveling. Some-
times an ending knot is also used for its ornamental value.
Fig. 30. A Whipping applied as shown is employed for keeping
loose ends from fraying or
unraveling, where the use to
which the rope is to be put will
not permit of a knot on the end.
Strong cord is used for wh,ip-
ping. In splicing ropes, the
whipping is removed before the
splice may be considered com-
plete
Fig. 31. The Single Crown, tucked, makes the rope end but
slightly larger than the standing part, and serves to prevent the
strands from unraveling. This gives a neat appearing end. To
make this type of knot, leave the ends long enought so they can be
brought down and tucked under the strands of the standing part.
After tucking them under the first strand, as shown, halve each
strand and tuck it again under the next strand of the standing part
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and continue this until the ends are completely tucked the whole
length, thus giving a gradual taper to the end of the rope and also
giving a knot that will stand by itself. The single crown not tucked,
is not a good ending for a rope.
Fig. 32. The Wall knot is frequently used as an ending knot
to prevent unraveling. It is very satisfactory where the rope does
not need to pass through a block or hole which is but slightly larger
than itself. The Wall knot may be tucked similar to the Crown and
makes a very secure ending for a rope. For small ropes unlay the
strands back, each three inches, and on larger ropes in proportion.
Hold the rope in the left hand with the loose strands upward. With
the right hand take the end of strand number one and bring it across
the loose end in position with the thumb of the left hand, then take
the rope, forming a loop and allowing the end to hang free. Hold
strand number two and pass it under strand number one and hold it
against the rope with the thumb of the left hand. Again with the
right hand take strand number three and pass it under strand num-
ber two and up through the first loop formed. Then draw each of
the strands gradually until the knot is tightened.
Fig. 33. The Matthew Walker knot or Stopper knot is similar
to the Wall knot except the ends are inserted through two loops
instead of one as in the Wall knot. It can readily be made by loosely
constructing the Wall knot as explained before and continuing as
follows: pass the end number one through the loop with two, then
end number two through the loop with three, and number three
through the loop with one, then gradually tighten the knot by draw-
ing in a little at a time on each strand.
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Fig. 34. The Double Wall or Crown knot is made exactly the
same as the Single Crown or Wall knot, 'but instead of trimming
off or tucking the ends in, they are carried around a second time,
following the lay of the first as shown, and then the knot is pulled
tight. When completed, the ends may be tucked in as was done in
the Single Crown, or they may be trimmed off.
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Fig. 35. The Stevedore knot is similar to the Over-hand knot
shown in Fig. 1, except that the end of the rope is served around the
standing part two and half times before it is tucked through the
bight. It is used where a knot is desired to keep the rope from run-
ning through a block or hole.
Shortening Knots
A third type of knots are those which are used where a rope is
too long and where it is awkward to have the free ends hanging loose
or where the ends are in use and the slack must be taken up in the
middle of the rope. These are known as shortening knots. They are
also sometimes used merely for ornament.
Fig. 36. The Chain knot is frequently used for shortening and
is made by forming a running loop, then drawing a bight of the rope
through the loop, and a second bight through the first and so on
until the rope has been shortened sufficiently. The free end should
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then be fastened by passing a toggle or the end of the rope through
this last loop. To undo this shortening is very simple as all that is
necessary is to either remove the toggle from the last loop or remove
the end of the rope if it were used, and then pull on the free end
until the knot is completely unraveled.
Fig. 37. The Whipped Shortening or Bend Shortening is one
of the most easily made and is well adapted to heavy ropes where
a shortening must be made quickly and where it is not to withstand
a heavy strain.
Fig. 38. Three-fold Shortening is started by making an Over-
hand knot and continuing to tuck the end through the loop three
more times, and drawing tight.
Fig. 39. The Sheep-shank or Dog-shank as it is sometimes
called, is one of the most widely used of all shortenings. It is made'
in several forms but the first form shown, while adaptable to fairly
stiff ropes, will not withstand much strain. It is used for shortening
electric light cords.
Fig. 40. Sheep-shank for free end rope is similar to the plain
Sheep-shank except the free end of the rope is passed through the
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n'a
loop. This makes a secure shortening, but it can not be used where
the ends of the rope are not free.
Fig. 41. A Sheep-shank with toggle, is a plain Sheep-shank with
the toggle inserted as shown, and makes the shortening as secure as
that shown in Fig. 38. It is also easily untied.
23
r
/v'y. -fit
Fig. 42. Sheep-shank with ends whipped is the same as in a
plain Sheep-shank except the loop is whipped to the standing part of
the rope. This makes the shortening as secure as those shown in
Fig. 3$, and Fig. 39.
Fig. 43. Bow-shortening is an ordinary knot in the middle of
a rope in which a double bend has previously been made. It is not
adapted 10 heavy ropes nor will it stand a heavy strain successfully.
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SPLICES
In the use of ropes, occasion arises, many times, where it is-neces
sary to join two ends together in such a way that the union is as
strong as the rest of the rope and still not too large or irregular to
pass through a hole or pulley block. Knots are unsuitable in that
they will not pass through a block; they are unsightly, and usually
are not as strong as the rest of the rope. The method of joining
ropes to meet the above requirements is called splicing. There are
two general types of rope splices known as the short splice and the
long splice. Other applications of the former are made in the eye
splice and the cut splice. The long splice is almost always used in
splicing wire rope which runs through a block or over a sheave.
Fig. 44. The Short-splice is made as follows: the two ends to
be joined are untwisted for a few inches and the rope is whipped
temporarily to prevent further unwinding. The end of each strand
is also whipped temporarily to prevent unraveling. The strands may
then be waxed if desired. The two rope ends are then locked to-
gether or "married" so that the strands from one end pass alter-
nately between those from the other end. The strands from opposite
sides are now in pairs. Take two strands from opposite sides as
strands A and 1 , tie a simple over-hand knot in its right hand form.
Similarly with a right hand knot tie together the strands forming
each of the pairs B and 2 and C and 3. Draw the knots tight, then
25
pass each strand of the rope over the strand adjacent to it and under
the next, coming out between two strands as at first. Repeat until
the ends of the strands have been reached — leaving from half an inch
to an inch and a half of ends hanging free so that when the rope is
put under repeated strain for the first few days, the stretching of the
splice will not pull the ends from under the last strand under which
they were tucked. After a few days service the free ends may be safe-
ly trimmed even with the face of the rope. After the splice has been
completed by tucking the ends as above, remove whipping on strands
and lay the splice on the floor and roll it under the foot, or in the
case of a large rope, pound it with a mallet to make it round and
smooth. The appearance of the splice is improved if the strands are
divided in half just before the last tuck is made, and one-half is cut
off while the other half is used to complete the splice. This splice
may also be made by simply laying the ropes together and then
tucking them as above without first tying the simple Over-hand
knots. A skilled workman frequently dispenses with the whipping
in making a splice.
Fig. 45. An Eye-splice is so much smaller and neater than r
knotted eye in the end of a rope that it is much to be preferred to
the latter. The Eye-splice is made similar to the short-splice except
that the strands on the end of the rope are unlaid for the full length
of the splice. The ends are tucked under, over and under, etc., the
strands of the standing part of the rope. Stretch well and cut off
the loose ends of the strands.
Fig. 46. Long splice. If it is desired to unite two rope ends
so that the splices will pass through a pulley as readily and smoothly
as the rope itself, what is known as a Long splice is used. This is
best suited as it does not cause an enlargement in the rope at the
point where the splice is made. To make it, unlay the ends of two
ropes to the length of at least five and a half times the circumference
of the rope. Interlace the strands as for the Short splice. Unlay
one strand and fill up the vacant space which it leaves with the strand
next to it from the other rope end. Then turn the rope over and lay
hold of the two next strands that will come opposite their respective
lays. Unlay one, filling up the vacant space as before, with the
other. Take one third out -of each strand, knot the opposite one-
26
thirds together and heave them well in place. Tuck all six ends once
under adjacent strands and having stretched the splice well, cut off
the ends. The ending of successive pairs should occur at intervals
in the splice as shown, and not at the two ends as "in the Short splice.
Fig. 47. A Chain splice is used for splicing a rope into a chain
end which is required to travel through a block or small opening.
It is also sometimes used for making an ordinary eye in the end of
a rope. Four or six strand rope lends itself more readily to this type
27
of splice than does a three strand rope. To make a chain splice, un-
lay the strands more than for an eye splice, then unlay a little further
one strand in a three strand rope, and two strands in a four strand
rope. Bend the two parts together and tie an Over-hand knot so
that the divided strands will lay together again. Continue to lay
the ends in by passing them through the eye. When the eye has been
completely laid up, the remaining ends should be tucked in the stand-
ing part of the rope as in a very short splice. This makes an eye
which will not pull out even if the ends of the strands are only whip-
ped without first tucking. It is especially valuable in forming smooth
eyes in steel cable, without the use of clamps. In this case, however,
the eye must be made considerably longer than in the case of hemp
rope.
Fig. 48. The Cut splice is formed similar to the Eye splice, ex-
cept that the two rope ends are extended past each other and joined
into the standing part of the ropes. This type of splice is frequently
used to hold the rings in rope ladders. It can also be used where it
is desired to attach a spar or rod to the middle of a line.
HITCHES
The knots so far described are used mainly for fastening rope
ends together or for ending a rope. A quite different class of knots
is that used for fastening a rope to a stationary or solid object. This
type of knots is known as hitches.
Hitches as well as other types of knots should be easily made,
should not slip under strains and should be easily untied. If all
ropes were the same size and stiffness it would be possible to select
two or three knots which would meet all requirements. But, since
this is not true and since a knot suitable for a silken fish line will
not be satisfactory for a ship's hawser, we find a great variety of
knots, each of which is designed to meet some special requirements
of service. The following illustrations show a variety of the most
typical and useful knots used on fiber or manila rope.
Fig. 49. The Half-hitch is good only for temporary fastenings
where pull is continuous. It is usually used as part of a more elabo-
rate hitch.
Fig. 50. The Timber-hitch is very similar to the Half-hitch but
is much more permanent and secure. Instead of the end being passed
under the standing part once it is wound around the standing part
three or four times as shown.
Fig. 51. The Clove, or Builder's-hitch, is more secure than
either of the above hitches. It will hold fast on a smooth timber and
is used extensively by builders for fastening the staging to upright
posts. It will hold without slipping on wet timber. It is also used
to make the scaffold hitch.
Fig. 52. The Rolling-hitch is made by wrapping the rope three
or four times around the object to which it is to be fastened and
29
then making two half-hitches around the standing part of the rope.
It is then drawn tight. This hitch is easily and quickly made and is
very secure.
Fig. 53. This illustrates another type of Rolling-hitch very
similar to the above but which is not as secure under a heavy strain.
_
Fig. 54. The Snubbing-hitch is made by passing the rope around
the object to which it is desired to fasten it, and then making what
is known as a Taut-line hitch, Figure 68, about the standing part of
the rope.
Fig. 55. Timber-hitch and Half-
hitch is a combination of the two
separate hitches shown in Fig. 49
and Fig 50. It is more secure than
either used alone.
Fig. 56. The Chain-hitch is a
combination of the above hitch
and two or more half-hitches. It
is used for hauling in a larger rope
or cable with a tow line, etc.
Fig. 57. The Twist-hitch is more secure than the Half-hitch
and it is suitable only where the strain is continuous.
30
I
Fig. 58. Twist-and bow-hitch is similar to the Simple Twist-
hitch but is easier to untie.
Fig. 59. The Blackwall -hitch is widely used as illustrated. The
greater the strain the more securely it holds, but it is unreliable if
the rope is slack. This hitch can be used with chain as well as rope.
31
Fig. 60. The Lark's-head with toggle is easily made and is
used as a rule where it is desired to have a type of hitch which is
easily and quickly released.
Fig. 61. Round-turn-and-half-hitch is suitable for a more or
less permanent method of attaching a rope to a ring. Whipping the
end to the standing part of the rope makes it quite permanent.
Fig. 62. The Fisherman's hitch is used for fastening large ropes
or lines to rings and is very simi-lar to the hitch shown in Fig. 61.
It is improved by whipping the free end to the standing part.
Fig. 63. The Cat's-paw-hitch is suitable for attaching a hook
to the middle part of a rope where the ends are not free. Strain may
be taken on either or both ends. It is easily released.
Fig. 64. The Slippery-hitch is easily made, but has the objection
that it draws very tight under strain, making it hard to untie.
32
Fig. 65. The Double Blackwall is similar to the Single Black-
wall and is used for the same purpose.
Fig. 66. The Slip Knot and Half Hitch constitute a combina-
tion that is used for the same purpose as the Flemish loop. It is
made by first tying a slip knot so that it will run on the short end of
the rope. Then complete by tying a half hitch with the short end*
as shown.
Fig. 67. The Fisherman's-bend is similar to the Fisherman's-
hitch except that the half hitches are replaced with whipping.
Fig. 68. A Taut-line-hitch is used for attaching a rope to another
rope already under strain, where no slack is available for making any
other hitch. It is not secure unless pulled very tight. A few threads
of hemp or marlin served about the taut line for the knot to pull
against will improve the hitch.
33
Fig. 69. The Jam Hitch is used in tying up light packages, such
as bundles of lath, small boxes, rolls of paper, and the like. It is a
hitch that will slide along a cord in one direction, but will jam and
hold against moving the other way and will be found exceedingly
convenient. The Jam Hitch will answer the requirements provided
the cord is large enough and of not too hard a 'body nor too smooth
a surface.
Fig. 70. The Scaffold-hitch is very useful for slinging a scaf-
fold so that it will not turn in the sling. It is started by making a
Clove hitch with the two free ends of the rope below the scaffold.
Then draw each rope back on itself and up over opposite sides of the
board, where the short end is joined to the other with a bowline.
Plenty of slack in the Clove will make it possible to draw the bight
of each end out to the edge of the scaffold as shown in the left of the
figure. The two illustrations at the right of the figure show another
method of making a Scaffold hitch. Wrap the rope around the scaf-
fold plank so that it crosses the top of the plank three times. Pull
the middle loop as shown by the arrow and fold it down over the
end of the plank, resulting as shown in the illustration immediately
to the left of the arrow. This is completed by attaching the free end
to the standing part with a bowline. Both hitches are equally good.
Fig. 71. The Studding-sail-bend is frequently employed on ship-
board for attaching a rope or line to a spar.
34
Fig. 72. The Mid-shipinan's-hitch is somewhat similar to the
Snubbing hitch shown in Figure 54, but is perhaps a little easier to
make if the rope is under a strain while being tied.
Fig. 73. A Bale-sling as shown is useful where it is necessary
to hoist an object to which it is difficult to attach the hoisting
tackle. It may be used on bales, sacks, kegs, etc.
Fig. 74. The Hamburger hitch is useful in connection with
a bale sling which is too long for the object it is carrying. It is also
used to balance the load where two slings are used. The sling is
placed around the load as in Fig. 73. Then with the loop end of the
sling form a second loop as shown. Where the two ropes cross start
to tie a square or Reef knot. Draw up the loops as shown, resulting
in the Hamburger hitch. This may be adjusted by running the knot
up or down the rope while slack, but it will not slip under strain.
Fig. 75. Sling for a cask, head up, is very useful where it is
desired to hoist an open barrel of water or lime or other material.
Tie an ordinary knot over the barrel lengthwise. Then separate the
two ropes in the middle of the twisted part and drop them over the
head of the cask or 'barrel. Fasten the two rope ends together above
the barrel as shown with a bowline.
35
Fig. 76. A Weil Pipe Hitch is used in hoisting pipe, where no
special clamp is available for attaching the hoisting tackle to the
pipe. The hitch shown will pull tighter, the harder the strain, and
is also easy to untie. Pull up all slack possible in the coils when
forming the hitch, in order to prevent slipping when the strain is
first applied.
Fig. 77. The Hackamore hitch is commonly known and used as
an emergency rope bridle or halter, in the western part of the United
States. Among sailors it is known as a running turk's head, and it
may be used in carrying a jug or other vessel of similar shape. When
used for a halter about twenty feet will be required. The knot is
started by forming a bight in the center of the rope. Proceed as in-
dicated in the successive illustrations shown. The result will be a
running turk's head. Draw together the two center ropes forming a
bridle complete with bit, nose piece, head piece and reins. Such a
bridle is not suitable for continuous use, to be sure, but it will be
found useful in an emergency.
Fig. 78. The Halter Tie is a knot preferred by some persons
for use in hitching or in tying the halter rope in the stall. If pro-
perly set, it is secure and may be used in some cases in place of the
underhand bow-line knot. The halter tie should never be used
around a horse's neck, because if the tie is not set up correctly it
forms a slip knot and its use might result in strangulation of the
animal. In completing the tie draw the end through and set the knot
by pulling first on the short end. This is important. If the long
36
rope is pulled first and the kinks in it are straightened out, the tie
forms a slip knot, being simply two half hitches around the rope.
Fig. 79. Horse-hitch or tie is commonly used by farmers and
stockmen to tie a horse or cow with a rope, so it will not choke itself.
Tie an overhand knot in the standing part of the rope and leave open.
Tie another overhand knot or a Stevedore knot in the end of the
rope. Loop the rope around the animal's neck and insert the knotted
end through the open Over-hand knot. This hitch will not slip and
choke the animal.
Fig. 80. The Manger tie is used for tying a horse or other
animal to a manger or stanchion or hitching rack. The end of the
halter rope is first passed through the hole in the manger with a
bight or loop on the free end of the rope, tie a 'slip knot on the stand-
ing part. Stick the free end of the rope through the loop or bow as
shown. This knot is easily and quickly tied, but under great strain
will pull tight, making it hard to untie.
Fig. 81. The Figure Eight Manger Tie is superior to the ordin-
ary Manger Tie in that it will not pull tight under heavy strain such
as would occur if the animal became frightened and attempted to
break away. Pass the free end of the rope through the hole in the
manger or around the hitching rack. Form a bight or loop with the
free end of the rope and hold the loop along the standing part. With
the free end form another loop and serve around both the first loop
and the standing part. Complete the tie by inserting the second loop
37
through the first loop and secure by inserting the free end of the rope
through the second loop as shown. This is easily untied by first with-
drawing the free end from the loop and then pulling on same until
knot is untied.
Fig. 82. The Harness hitch is employed for forming a loop on
a rope in such a way that strain may be applied to both ends and to
the loop without slipping. Start to tie an Over-hand knot as shown.
Reach through between the two twisted parts and draw the opposite
side of the loop through, following the arrow. The completed har-
ness hitch appears as shown.
,. o3. The Strap hilch or Line knot is used to join the free
ends of iwo leather driving lines on a team. It may be employed as
an e ergency tie for a broken line or strap but is not to be recom-
mended as a permanent repair.
Fi~. 84. The Clevis hitch is used for forming a loop on the end
of a ro] hich is both secure under strain and easily untied.
38
The Diamond Hitch
The present age of high speed transportation both on land and
water, and in the air as well, has served to crowd pack animal trans-
portation back into the hills and into those few regions where rail
and sail have not yet penetrated. As a consequence, pack trains are
fast becoming unknown, and the skill of the packer is fast be ng for-
gotten. The skill of the experienced packer is little short of marvel-
ous, where he can catch a more or less wild pack animal and attach
from 100 to 400 or 500 pounds of stuff to his back so securely that
it will ride all day without coming off. Different types of freighting,
of course, gave rise to different methods of binding on the load, but
the more widely used was, no doubt, some form of the famous
Diamond Hitch. The early trappers of the Hudson's Bay Company are
credited with introducing the Diamond Hitch among the Northwest
Indians, and old trappers of the period of 1849, engaged in freight-
ing to California, claim that the Mexicans used it at that time.
Different packers have modified and used the Diamond Hitch
to suit their needs. As an example, in rough country where there is
frequent trouble with pack animals falling with their load, some
packers tie the Diamond Hitch so that the final knot is on top of the
animal's back where it can be easily reached and loosened with the
animal down. Under more favorable conditions, other packers use a
Diamond Hitch in which the final tie is made on the side of the ani-
mal near the cinch hook. In fact, out of a group of old packers
from different localities, the probability is that no two would tie the
Diamond Hitch alike in every particular.
The following illustrations of the Diamond Hitch are shown only
as types actually in use by different men in the packing business.
Other packers may have different methods of tying it more suited to
the type of load they are handling. The cuts shown represent the
appearance of the Diamond Hitch if the cinch were cut under the
animal's belly and the pack were flattened out and laid on the floor
with the ropes undisturbed. This method clearly shows in one pic-
ture all the different parts of the hitch, so that those interested may
follow it in making the hitch for themselves. The Government uses
a Spanish packsaddle, or what is known as an aparejo — pronounced,
ap-pa-ray-ho, but civilian packers often use the cross tree saddle.
39
It consists of a padded board resting on each side of the animal's
backbone. These two padded boards are usually fastened together
with two cross trees resembling a saw buck. There are different
methods of placing the load on the saddle preparatory to lashing it
fast with the Diamond Hitch. No attempt will be made to give com-
plete instructions in packing. The hitches shown are given with the
hope they will serve the prospective camper on his vacation to a re-
treat in the hills, or perhaps satisfy the interest of those who have
heard of the Diamond Hitch but have never seen it tied.
The Two Man Diamond Hitch
Fig. 85. The Two Man Diamond Hitch is started by laying the
middle of the rope lengthwise over the pack from head to tail with
the free end of the rope at the head of the animal. Then the cinch
hook is thrown under the animal's belly and caught by the off packer.
The near packer throws a 'bight over the pack and the off packer
catches it in the cinch hook. The near packer pulls up on the rope,
making it tight over the pack.
Fig. 86. The two ropes over the pack are then twisted one and
a half times and a loop pulled through as shown. In this case the
loop first formed between the rope lying lengthwise and the part
crossing the pack is lowered over the near side of the pack.
40
Fig. 87. The hitch is then completed by the off packer, as
shown. The difference between the one-man hitch and the two-man
hitch is that they finish up on different sides of the animal. In the
two Diamond Hitches shown, the final tightening pull is taken to-
ward the head of the animal. Many packers tie the Diamond Hitch
so that the final pull is taken to rearward of the animal. This can
be done by laying the middle of the rope lengthwise of the pack with
the end to the rear instead of toward the front of the animal.
Fig. 88. The packer's knot as shown consists of a clove hitch
made around a standing rope. The second half hitch is made with
a 'bight instead of the end of the rope. One or more half hitches are
then thrown over this loop to make it secure . This knot, if pulled
tight in making, will hold very securely, without slipping, and is
easily untied by loosening the half hitches, and pulling on the free
end of the rope.
The One Man Diamond Hitch
Fig. 89. The one man Diamond Hitch is employed by one
packer working alone and requires that he make two trips around
the animal in tying it. The rope is braided into a ring on one end
of the cinch. The other end of the cinch carries a hook. Standing 01...
the near side of the animal at its shoulder he first lays the middle
41
of the rope across the pack from forward to back with the free end
of the rope forward. He then throws the cinch over the pack and
catches the hook under the animal's belly. A loop of the rope is
then caught under the cinch hook and pulled tight. Some packers,
in using the one man Diamond Hitch, find it helps to hold the hitch
tight if they take a double turn around the hook in making the first
tightening.
Fig. 90. Proceeding with the hitch, the two ropes over the pack
crosswise are then twisted, lifting the forward strand up and back
and pulling the rear strand forward and under. Two turns are made
and then a loop of the rope lying forward and back over the top of
the pack is drawn up between the two twisted ropes as shown. The
loop formed on the off side between the part crosswise of the pack
and the part of the rope crossing lengthwise of the pack, is formed
over both corners of the off side of the pack. Then the loop drawn
up between the two twisted ropes is lowered over the corners of the
near side of the pack.
Fig. 91. The final strain is taken on the free end of the rope
passing along the neck of the animal and tied at the forward point of
the diamond with a packer's knot. If the animal should fall on
either side, the knot is easily reached and untied. The free end of
42
the rope is tucked under some part of the hitch or looped over the
pack or otherwise disposed of. In making the Diamond Hitch, at no
time is the end of the rope pulled through anywhere. This makes it
easy to take off without becoming snarled.
Fig. 92. The Diamond Hitch as mentioned above is frequently
tied so that the knot occurs on the side of the animal opposite the
cinch hook instead of on top. This hitch is tied so that the first loop
is lowered over the rear corner only of the off side of the pack. In
the two other hitches described above, the first loop included both
corners of the pack, and finished with a knot on top. The Diamond
Hitch shown is thrown by two packers.
LASHEVGS
Fig. 93. To lash a Transom to an upright Spar with the tran-
som in front of the upright. A clove hitch is made around the upright
a few inches below the transom. The lashing is brought under the
transom, up in front of it, horizontally behind the upright, down in
front of the transom, and back behind the upright at the level of the
bottom of the transom and above the clove hitch. The following
turns are kept outside the previous ones on one spar and inside on
the other, not riding over the turns already made. Four turns or
more are required. A couple of frapping turns are then taken be-
43
tween the spar and transom, around the lashing, and the lashing is
finished off either around one of the spars or any part of the lashing
through which the rope can be passed. The final clove hitch should
never be made around the spar on the side toward which the stress
is to come, as it may jam and be difficult to remove. The lashing
must be well beaten with handspike or pick handle to tighten it up.
This is called a square lashing.
Fig. 94. To lash three spars together as for a Gin or Tripod.
Mark on each spar the distance from the butt to the center of the
lashing. Lay two of the spars parallel to each other with an interval
a little greater than the diameter. Rest their tips on a skid and lay
the third spar between them with its butt in the opposite direction
so that the marks on the three spars will be in line. Make a clove
hitch on one of the outer spars below the lashing and take eight or
nine loose turns around the three, as shown in Figure 94. Take a
couple of trapping turns between each pair of spars in succession and
finish with a clove hitch on the central spar above the lashing. Pass
a sling over the lashing and the tripod is ready for raising.
44
TACKLE SETS
The use of block and tackle affords at least two advantages to
the user. One is the advantage of position. The user may stand on
the ground and pull downward — the most easy and natural way of
exerting force, while the resulting forces may be developed upward
as in the case of a hoist. The other advantage is mechanical. By
the use of a combination of lines and sheaves, force applied by the
user can be multiplied many times before it is transferred to act
upon the body. But where there is gain in pounds force applied, there
is always a counteracting loss due to an increase in the distance re-
quired to apply the force compared with the distance the weight or
load will travel; as in Figure 96, a force of 100 Ibs. on the free end
of the rope will give a resultant on the object of 200 Ibs. (neglecting
loss by friction in rope and pulley) but distance travelled by the
user will be two feet to one foot travelled by the o'bject.
The illustrations are shown in each case with an arbitrary force
of 100 Ibs. applied to the free end of the rope. The resulting force
(neglecting or disregarding friction) is
then shown in all parts of the set. In
actual practice the friction of the sheave
and the resistance of the rope to bending
gives rise to a loss of about 5 % of the
force applied to the rope passing through
each sheave. For example in Fig. 95 the
force applied on the barrel would be
95% of that applied to the free end of
the rope or 95 Ibs. In Fig. 96 the re-
sultant force would be 100 + (10 0-5) =
195 Ibs. and in Fig. 97, the lift on the
armature would be 185% Ibs. instead of
200 as shown.
The ropes are also separated in the
illustrations in order to show each part
clearly. The ropes are assumed to pull
parallel to each other and the figures
represent the pounds resulting in dif-
ferent parts of the set under those conditions. The illustrations show
45
. 95
some of the most typical applications of block and tackle for mechani-
cal advantage or advantage of position or both.
Fig. 95. The Single Whip affords only advantage of position
commonly used on a crane or derrick or perhaps for hauling an object
up to a wall or to the water's edge. Theoretical advantage 1 : 1.
Fig. 96. The Running tackle is similar to the Single Whip ex-
cept that the object to be moved is attached at a different place. This
gives a theoretical advantage of 2 : 1.
Fig. 97. The Gun tackle A affords an advantage of position
since the user stands on the ground and pulls down and the resultant
force is applied to the object vertically upward. Theoretical advant-
age 2 : 1.
Fig. 98. The gun tackle B is the same as gun tackle A except
that its application is different, giving a theoretical advantage of
3 : 1.
Fig. 99. Whip-on-whip multiplies the mechanical advantage by
two, where applied as shown. If inverted and the top block applied
to the load with the loop snubbed the mechanical advantage would
be 4 : 1. In both cases two single blocks are used.
Fig. 100. The Luff tackle has many applications aside from
the one shown. Ordinarily consisting of one single and one double
block and a single rope, it gives a theoretical mechanical advantage
of 4 : 1 in the case shown.
46
Fig. 101. The Port tackle, consisting of Single Whip and a Luff
tackle may be applied when the level of operations changes from time
to time and it is undesirable to apply the amount of rope necessary
to make the Luff part of the set long enough to serve for all levels.
A bale sling is also shown in use.
Fig. 102. A Double Luff tackle has a four part line instead of
a three part line as in the Single Luff.
Fig. 103. A Single Spanish Burton (A) using two single blocks
and one rope gives a greater mechanical advantage than the same
equipment used as in Figure 81, the Gun Tackle. This is useful in
shifting cargo, etc, where the distance hoisted in not great.
Fig. 104. A Single Spanish Burton (B) using three single
blocks and two ropes, gives the same hoisting range as the Type A
Burton, but a greater mechanical advantage.
Fig. 105. Three Fold Purchase using a six part line, gives a
theoretical mechanical advantage of 6 : 1 and and an actual advant-
age of 5.03:1, assuming a loss of 5% of the force on the rope passing
over each sheave.
48
49
Fig. 106. Four Fold purchase using two four-sheave blocks, is
commonly used in derricks and hoists. The illustration shows the
possibility of using four two-sheave blocks, where the larger sizes
are not available.
Fig. 107. The Double Burton A, for one rope and two single
blocks and one double block, gives a limited hoisting range which is
desirable in shifting heavy weights when it is necessary to lift them
but a small distance.
Fig. 108. The Double Burton B, while using exactly the same
equipment as is used in Fig. 91, shows the large differences in me-
chanical advantage 'between different methods of threading up the
set. The illustration also shows a box sling in use.
Fig. 109. Double Burton C, is a further application of the prin-
ciple of the Spanish Burton, using two ropes.
50
•Hi
Fig. 110. Double Burton D, using but one rope, illustrates
the possiblity of using it to greater mechanical advantage
than would be possible in a six
fold purchase. However, in this
case the hoisting range is less
than would be possible in a six
fold purchase.
Fig. 111. Luff on Luff illus-
trates a common application of
tackle to secure mechanical ad-
vantage. It will readily be rec-
ognized that the major tackle
must be four times as strong as
the other set if both are to be
used anywhere near to capacity.
Fig. 112. Another Double
Burton which also illustrates
the possibility of combining two
blocks in place of one, with the
required number of sheaves.
52
Fig. 112
CHAIX HOISTS
Frequent use is made in garages, machine shops and other
places, of a special device for hoisting heavy machine parts. The
apparatus referred to is known as a chain hoist. These are built to
use chain instead of rope and are designed to operate slowly, but with
great mechanical advantage. Different types embody different design
of movements, some being merely a train of gears attached to a
sheave wheel and driven by a worm gear. Others employ the dif-
ferential principle in which the hoisting chain is double, one end run-
ning over a small pulley and the other end running in the opposite
direction over a larger pulley on the same shaft. As the small pulley
unwinds one end of the chain slowly, the other pulley winds up the
other end faster — thus raising the lower end of the chain loop. Chain
hoists are made for various capacities, and can foe built to raise the
load any desired distance, merely by supplying chain long enough.
A chain-hoist attached to a travelling crane makes a very satisfactory
equipment for a shop where heavy parts are to be lifted and trans-
ferred and should be used wherever there is enough such work to
warrant the greater first cost.
Fig. 113. A Geared-chain-hoist showing a 1-ton hoist manu-
factured by the Wright Mfg. Co., of Lisbon, Ohio, using two chains,
one for lifting and the other for operating.
Fig. 114. A Differential Chain hoist using a single continuous
chain running through a pulley at the bottom and over two different
53
sized wheels fastened on the same shaft at the top. As one unwinds
the other winds up and the difference in diameter causes one to wind
up faster than the other unwinds.
Fig. 115. A Chinese hoist or Chinese capstan, in which the dif-
ferential principle is used. The illustration shows the possibility of
quickly applying the principle to the hoisting of a well-casing. It
has the merit of being cheap and easy to construct and very efficient
in developing a large mechani-
cal advantage. The necessary
materials car* frequently be
found around almost any farm
or construction camp.
Fig. 116. A Snatch Block is
used frequently in connection
with hay handling equipment
on the farm. Hoisting hay
from a loaded wagon to the
track located in the peak
of the barn, requires much
54
•HK I
t
more force than is required to move the load along the track.
From then on, the snatch block pulls away from the knot causing
the load to travel on the carrier track twice as fast as the team. The
object is to utilize the direct pull of the team while elevating the
load and increase the speed of the load and decrease the distance
travelled by the team after the load has been elevated and is to be
transferred.
TRANSMISSION CABLES
Hemp and Manila
Ropes and cables have many uses and applications both in in-
dustry and pleasure. Haulage, hoisting and the transmission of
power are three of the most modern applications to which ropes and
cables have been put, which require an intimate knowledge of their
strength and life in service, in order to secure satisfactory service.
For instance, a certain kind and size of rope is suitable for guy lines
but would not be able to compete with a different type of rope in
service on a rapid hoist. Similarly, a certain size of rope is "being
used on a rope drive, but the power load is increasing to such a point
it is necessary to increase the size of. transmission rope. If the
sheaves are not increased in diameter suitable to the increased size
of rope, the acute bending of the larger rope on the old sheave wheel
will shorten its life materially.
Following are tables of strength for a few different kinds and
sizes of ropes. It is not the purpose to make these tables complete
and exhaustive in scope, but rather to give a general conception of
the strength to be expected of different kinds and sizes of ropes in
more common use. Those interested in more complete information
on this subject should refer to the catalogs put out by manufacturers
of ropes.
No accurate rule can be given for calculating the strength of
rope and any table giving the strength will only be approximately
correct. Four-strand rope has about 16% more strength than three-
• strand rope. Tarring rope decreases the strength by about 25% be-
cause the high temperature of the tar injures the fibers. The
strength of a rope is decreased by age, exposure and wear.
55
The breaking strength of a rope is the weight or pull that will
break it. The safe load is the weight you may put on a rope without
danger of breaking it. The safe load must be very much less than
the breaking strength, in order that life and property may not
be endangered when heavy objects are to be moved or lifted. The
safe load is usually regarded as 1-6 of the breaking strength. The
breaking strength and safe load for all ropes must be largely a matter
of good judgment and experience.
Calculation of Strength
For new manila rope the breaking strength in pounds may be
found approximately by the following rule: Square the diameter,
measured in inches, and multiply this product by 7200. Result ob-
tained from this rule may vary as much as 15% from actual tests.
The safe load can be found by dividing the breaking strength by 6.
Hemp rope is approximately % as strong as manila so that we
use the following rule for it: The breaking strength of hemp rope
in pounds is 5400 times the square of the diameter in inches. The
safe load is found by dividing the breaking strength 'by 6 as we did
for the manila rope.
Care of Rope
Keep rope in a dry place, do not leave it out in the rain. If
a rope gets wet, stretch it out straight to dry. Do not let the ends
become untwisted but fix them in some way to prevent it as soon as
the rope is obtained. A stiff and hard rope may be made very soft
and flexible by boiling for a time in pure water. This will of course
remove some of the tar or other preservative. Cowboys treat their
lasso ropes in this way.
Uncoiling Rope
1. Start with the end found in the center of the coil.
2. Pull this end out and the rope should uncoil in a direction
opposite to the direction of motion of the hands of a clock.
3. If it uncoils in the wrong direction, turn the coil over and
pull this same end through the center of the coil and out on the other
side.
4. If these directions are followed, the rope will come out of
the coil with very few kinks or snarls.
56
SIZE AM) STRENGTH OF TEXTILE ROPES
Oiam. of Rope
Inches
Ultimate Strength, Lb.
Working Strength, Lbs.
Cotton
Manila Hemp
Cotton
Manila Hemp
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/4
11/2
1 3/4
2
1,150
1,800
2,600
3,500'
4,600
7,200 '
10.400
14,000
18,400
1,900
2,900
4,100
5,500
7,100
10,900
15,000
19,800
25,100
50
78
112
153
200
312
450
612
800
50
78
112
153
200
312
450
612
800
STRENGTH OF MANILA ROPE
Diam. of Rope
in Inches
Average Quality New \ Diameter in Average Quality New
Manila Rope Inches Manila Rope
2 3/4
26 7/8
3 1/4
2 1 2
21 1/2
3/4
2 1/4
2 1/4
18 1/2
5/8
2
2
15
9/16
1 1/2
1 3/4
12 1/2 1/2
1 1/5
1 5/8
10
7/16
3/4
1 1/2
- 8 1/2
3/8
1/2
1 3/8
7 1/2
5/16
3/8
1 1/4
6 1/4
9/32
3/10
1 1/8 5 1/4
1/4
1/4
1 1 4
i
STEEL, CABLES
The modern demands of industry for speed and large capacity
have called for strengths exceeding that possible to attain from hemp
or manila ropes, which are not excessive in size or cost. As a result,
steel ropes and cables have 'been developed and perfected to a high
degree of strength and dependability. The majority of hoists and
cranes use steel rope. Logging industries depend for most part on
steel cables. Cable cars use special steel cables which in many cases
are several miles long. Long tramways use light steel cables, for
long spans where manila rope would scarcely maintain its own
weight. High speed passenger elevators maintain safe and depend-
able service day after day only through the strength of the perfected
flexible steel cable. However, as stated above, each particular type
of service calls for some special type of cable. The following tables
are not complete but will serve to indicate the scope of the field
covered by this su'bject.
57
CAST STEEL ROPE
Composed of 6 strands and a hemp center, 7 wires to the strand
Diameter in
Inches
Approximate
Circumference
in Inches
Approx. Break-
ing Strain in
Tons of 2000 Ibs.
Proper Working
Load in Tons
of 2000 Lbs.
Minimum Size of
Drum or Sheave
in Ft.
1 1/2
4 3/4
63
12.6 11
1 3/8
4 1/4
53
10.6 1 10
1 1/4
4
46
9.2
9
1 1/8
3 1/2
37
• 7.4
8
1
3
31
6.2
7
7/8
2 3/4
24
4.8 6
3/4
2 1/4
18.6
3.7 5
11/16
2 1/8
15.4
3.1
4 3/4
5/8
2 '
13
2.6
4 1/2
9/16
1 3/4 ! 10
2
4
1/2
1 1/2
7.7 .
1.54
3 1/2
7/16
1 1/4
5.5
1.10
3
3/8
1 1/8
4.6
.92
2 3/4
5/16
1
3.5
.70
2 1/4
9/32
7/8
2.5
.50 | 1 3/4
CAST STEEL ROPE
Composed of 6 strands and a hemp center, 19 wires to the strand
Diam. of
Rope in
Inches
Approximate
Circu m f erence
in Inches
Approx. Break-
ing Strain in
Tons of 2000 Ibs.
Proper Working
Load in Tons of
2000 Ibs.
Minimum Size
sf Drum or Sheave
in Feet
2 3/4
8 5/8
211
42.2
11
2 1/2
7 7/8
170
34
10
2 1/4
7 1/8
133
26.6
9
2
6 1/4
106
21.2
8
1 7/8
5 3/4
96
19
8
13/4
5 1/2 1 85
17
7
1 5/8
5
72
14.4
6 1/2
1 1/2
4 3/4
64
12.8
6
1 3/8
4 1/4
56
11.2
5 1/2
1 1/4
4
47
9.4
5
1 1/8
3 1/2
38
7.6
4 1/2
1
3
30
6
4
7/8
2 3/4
23
4.6
3 1/2
3/4
2 1/4
17.5
3.5
3
5/8
2
12.5
2.5
2 1/2
9/16
1 3/4
10
2
2 1/4
1/2
1 1/2
8.4
1.68
2
7/16
1 1/4
6.5
1.30
1 3/4
3/8
1 1/8
4.8
.96
1 1/2
5/16
1
3.1
.62
1 1/4
1/4
3/4
2.2
.44
1
58
CAST STEEL ROPE
Composed of 6 strands and a hemp center, 37 wires to the strand
Diameter in Approximate
lnches C.rcumference
Approx. Break-
ing Strain in
Tons of 2000 Ibs.
Proper Working Minimum Size of
Load in Tons of Drum or Sheave
2000 Ibs. in Feet
2 3/4
8 5/8 200
40
2 1/2
7 7/8
160
32
2 1/4
71/8
125
25
2
6 1/4
105
21
1 3/4
5 1/2
84
17
1 5/8
5
71
14
1 1/2
4 3/4
63
12
3 3/4
1 3/8
4 1/4
55
11
3 1/2
1 1/4
4
45
9
3 1/4
1 1/8 3 1/2
34
6.8
2 3/4
1 3
29
5.8
2 1/2
7/8 23/4
23
4.6
2 1/4
3/4
2 1/4
17.5
3.5
1 3/4
5/8
2
11.2
2.2
1 3/4
9/16
1 3/4
9.5
1.9
1 1/2
1/2
1 1/2
7.25
1.45
1 1/4
7/16
1 1/4
5.50
1.10
1 1/4
3/8
1 1/8
4.20
.84
1
CAST STEEL ROPES FOR INCLINES
Six strands of 7 wires each — hemp center
Diam of Diameter of Sheaves or Drums in Feet, Showing Percentage of Life
Rope in for Various Diameters
1 1/2
16
14
12
11
9
7
4.75
1 3/8
14
12
10
8.5
7
6
4.5
1 1/4
12
10
8
7.25
6
5.5
4.25
1 1/8
10
8.5
7.75
7
6
5
4
1
8.5
7.75
6.75
6
5
4.5
3.75
7/8
7.75 j 7
6.25
5.75
4.5
3.75
3.2
3/4
7 6.25
5.5
5
4.25
3.5
2.75
5/8
6 ] 5.25
4.5
4
3.25
3
2.5
1/2
5
4.5
4
3.5
2.75
2
1.75
CAST STEEL HOISTING ROPES
6 strands of 19 wires each — hemp center
Diameter
of Rope in
Inches
Diameter of Sheaves or Drums in Feet, Showing Percentage of Life
for Various Diameters
100%
90*
80*
75*
60*
50%
25%
1 1/2 ] 14
12
10
8.5
7
6
4.5
1 3/8
12
10
8
7
6
5.25
4.25
1 1/4
10
8.5
7.5
6.75
5.5
5
4
1 1/8
9
7.5
6.5
5.5
5
4.5
3.75
1
8
7
6
5.5
4.5
4
3.50
7/8
7.5
6.75
5.75
5
4.25
3.5
3
3/4
5.5
4.5
4
3.75
3.25
3
2.25
5/8
4.5
4
3.75
3.25
3
2.5
2
1/2
4
3
3
2.75
2.25
2
1.5
3/8
3 '
2
1.5
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SPLICING TRANSMISSION CABLES
Wherever wire rope transmissions are used it is necessary to
splice the rope or cable so that it will run smoothly over the sheave
wheels. For this purpose a long splice is invariably used. (Taken
from "American Wire Rope" published by American Steel and Wire
Company). "The tools required are a small marlin-spike, nipping
cutters, and either clamps or a small hemp rope sling with which to
wrap around and untwist the rope. If a bench vise is accessible, it
will be found very convenient for holding the- rope.
"In splicing a rope, a certain length is used up in making the
splice. An allowance of not less than 16 feet for ^ inch rope, and
proportionately longer for larger sizes, must be added to the length
of an endless rope, in ordering. The length of splice relation to the
diameter of the rope is approximately 50 : 1."
This extra length is equal to the distance EE' in Fig. 117.
The additional length recommended for making a splice in different
sizes of wire rope is as follows:
Diam. of Rope
in Inches
Extra Length Allowed for Diam. of Rope Extra Length Allowed
the Splice, Feet in Inches for the Splice, Feet
V8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
16
16
20
24
28
1
1 1/8
1 1/4
1 1/2
32
36
40
44
Fig. 117. Having measured carefully the length the rope should
be after splicing and marked the points M and M', unlay the strands
from each end E and E', to M and M', and cut off the hemp center
at M and M'.
Fig. 118. First. Interlock the six unlaid strands of each end
alternately, cutting off the hemp centers at M and M', and draw wire
strands together, so that the points M and M' meet, as shown.
62
Fig. 119. Second. Unlay a strand from one end, and following
the unlay closely, lay into the seam or groove it opens, the strand
opposite it belonging to the other end of the rope, until there remains
a length of stand equal in inches to the length of splice EE' in feet,
e. g., the straight end of unlaid strand A on one-half inch rope
equal 16 inches for 16 foot splice. Then cut the other strand to
about the same length from the point of meeting, as shown at A.
Fig. 119. Third. Unlay the adjacent strand in the opposite
direction, and following the unlay closely, lay in its place the corr^>-
63
spending opposite strand, cutting the ends as described before at B.
The four strands are now laid in place terminating at A and B,
with eight remaining at M and M', as shown in Fig. 119.
It will be well after laying each pair of strands to tie them tem-
porarily at the points A and B.
Fig, 120. Pursue the same course with the remaining four pairs
of opposite strands, stopping each pair of strands so as to divide the
space between A and B into five equal parts, and cutting the ends as
before.
All the strands are now laid in their proper places with their
respective ends passing each other.
All methods of rope splicing are identical up to this point; their
variety consists in the method of securing the ends.
Fig. 121. The completed splice with ends secured results in a
cable with scarcely any enlargement at that point. A few days' use
will make it difficult to discover at all.
Th final part of the splice is made as follows:
"Clamp the rope either in a vise or with a hand clamp at a point
to the left of A (Fig. 119), and by a hand clamp applied near the
64
right of A open up the rope by untwisting sufficiently to cut the hemp
core at A, and seizing it with nippers, let your assistant draw it out
slowly. Then insert a marlin spike under the two nearest strands to
•pen up the rope and starting the loose strand into the space left
vacant by the hemp center, rotate the marlin spike so as to run the
strand into the center. Cut the hemp core where the strand ends,
and push the end of hemp back into its place. Remove the clamps
and let the rope close together around it. Draw out the hemp core in
the opposite direction and lay the other strand in the center of the
rope in the same manner. Repeat the operation at the five remain-
ing points, and hammer the rope lightly at the points where the ends
pass each other at A', B', etc., with small wooden mallets, and the
splice is complete, as shown in Fig. 121.
A rope spliced as above will be nearly as strong as the original
rope, and smooth everywhere. After running a few days, the splice,
if well made, cannot be pointed out except by the close examination
of an expert.
Fig. 122. If a clamp and vice are not obtainable, two rope slings
and short wooden levers may "be used to untwist and open up the
rope.
Fig. 123. A marlin spike is absolutely necessary in order to
separate the strands in making a splice in steel cable.
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as
ENGINEERING BULLETINS PUBLISHED BY THE STATE COL-
LEGE OF WASHINGTON ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT
STATION.
1. Sewage Disposal for the Country Home.
Septic tanks and underground distribution systems.
By O. L. Waller and M. K. Snyder. Mar. 1914, July 1916.
2. How to Measure Water.
Construction of weirs and tables for same.
By O. L. Waller. Oct. 1915.
3. Water Supply for the Country Home.
Water Sources, pumps, filters, storage tanks and -cost data.
By M. K. Snyder . Jan. 1916 (out of print).
4. Construction and Maintenance of Earth Roads.
Grades and grading, drainage and dragging.
By L. V. Edwards. April 1916.
5. Cost of Pumping for Irrigation.
Cost of equipment and operation of same, with tables of
efficency.
By O. L. Waller. Aug. 1916 (out of print).
6. Fuel Economy in Domestic Heating and Cooking.
Fuel Tables, heating equipment and care of same.
By B. L. Steele. Dec. 1917.
7. Thawing Frozen Water Pipes Electrically.
Method of Thawing and list of equipment needed.
By H. J. Dana. Oct. 1921.
8. The Use of Ropes and Tackle.
Illustrations of application to different jobs.
By H. J. Dana and W. A. Pearl. Mar. 1922.
9. Well and Spring Protection.
By M. K. Snyder. (In preparation)
10. Water Purification for the Country Home.
By M. K. Snyder. (In preparation)
11. Farm Water Systems.
By M. K. Snyder and H. J. Dana. (In preparation).
12. Commercial and Economic Efficiency of Commercial Pipe
Coverings.
By H. J. Dana. (Iii preparation).
68
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