Vanaspati

DAMAGE BOOK

TIGHT BINDING BOOK

64392 >

OUP-2273-19-11-79L-10.000 Copies.

Gall No. || 2 ^ Accession No

AtA^f

I

Title

This boak should be returned on or before the date last marked below,

VANASPATI

VANASPATt

PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE AS IN INDIAN
TREATISES AND TRADITIONS

[Griffith Memorial Prise Essay for

BY
t PBASANNA .MAJUMPAR. M.So. . B.L

PROFESSOU OF BOTANY, PRESIDENCY COLLEGE, CALCUTTA

PUBLISHED BY THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA
1927

To
My Mother

PREFACE

My thesis on Plants and Plant-life as in
Indian treatises and traditions, submitted and
finally approved for the Griffith Memorial Prize
for 1925, is being presented at last in the follow-
ing pages to the reading public. I must humbly
mention that this thesis is rather a result of cer-
tain specific inquiries, undertaken by me in 1923,
to satisfy a curiosity as to what wealth of inform-
ation on the subject of Plants and Plant-life
might yet be gathered from Indian literature
which is a continuous record of many centuries
and a vast store-house of human experiences,
fancies and speculations. It was not an easy
task for me to face the difficulties of exploiting
the various sources of information, specially
where these remained concealed in Sanskrit and
other Indian works not accessible to me in
English translations. It is happy to recall to my
mind that when I had proceeded with the task
the prospect was far from being bright, but to
my great astonishment, within a month I was
able to collect numerous passages having bearings

PREFACE viii

upon the subject, and enabling me to conceive a
much wider plan of treatment than one restricted
to the requirements of the Science of Botany.
This is to say, that in this thesis the plan has
only been partially carried out. I have little
doubt that a vivid account of how much human
civilisation has derived from Plants and
Plant-life in its progress, on the basis of the
materials collected by me, will read like a
romance which may be calculated not only to
fascinate but also to instruct.

The plan and method of treatment which I
have followed in working out the present thesis
are intended to meet the demands of a modern
student of Botany like myself. The masses of
information collected by me have been classified
and systematically arranged for the convenience
of reference. It will be seen that the chapter-
headings are taken from Botanical treatises, and
expedience is my only excuse, for, in the absence
of any Indian Botanical text there is no other
alternative than utilizing a scheme which is
available, in order to render the treatment of the
subject really systematic. But I think I have
not failed to indicate the three different lines
upon which the contemplations of the Ancients
on Plants and Plant-life had proceeded in India.
As a matter of fact the titles of the three Books :
Book I Botany and Philosophic Speculations ;
II Botany and Science of Medicine ;

PREFACE ix

Book III Botany and Science of Agriculture
have been conceived on the basis of three diffe-
rent lines that I was able to make out.

In the Introduction I have tried to suggest
what reply can reasonably be given to the
enquiry whether there was at all anything like a
Science of Botany in India. It has been suggested
that there are not only reference to such
individual Sciences as the Krishitantra, Friksha-
yurveda and Bheshajavidya, but clear quotations
from such individual authors as Kasyapa, Para-
frira and Saraswata, And yet I have not gone so
far as to maintain that there was any single an-
cient Indian treatise coinciding with any of the
modern treatises of Botany. I have been con-
cerned to emphasise the fact that the ideas of
plants and plant-life in India are traced to a
stage when Botanical discipline had not obtained
an independent position, for much of the know-
ledge which might be relegated to the Science
of Botany appears to have been either subser-
vient to Philosophy, or to the Science of Medi-
cine, or to the Science of Agriculture.

In each Book, and in each of its sections I
have dealt with a particular topic, and the in-
formation supplied in different heads will, I
hope, sufficiently show that though much of the
knowledge is common place, there is abundance
of scientific observations, classifications, genera-
lisationsj theories and applications. While I

x PKEFACE

leave the following pages to speak for them-
selves, I must say that in my opinion the
supreme value of such a study as mine is rather
historical. When I say this I think I have said
much. An acquaintance with the accumulated
experiences of those who have gone before us,
and attempts to grapple with the problems
suggested by the phenomena which confronted
them, is sure to serve as an inspiration and
strengthen us in our belief that the patient
investigations which the modern students
are carrying out in the field of Botany are
of paramount importance for the progress of
human knowledge and increase of human
comforts.

Among the works consulted I must acknow-
ledge my immense debt to Dr, B. N. Seal's IC The
Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus." I have
freely utilised the translations of the Vedic
hymns, the Charaka and Susruta-samhitas, and
other original texts rendered by authors whose
names have been mentioned at proper places. I
regret that from want of time I have not been able
to verify all the Latin synonyms of the plants
mentioned in the work, and in some cases the
Latin equivalents have not been given at all.
This is an omission which I hope to rectify
should a second edition of the work be called
for. I have no pretension to Oriental Scholarship,
nor am I a Sanskritist, I cannot perhaps claim

PBEFACE xi

that I have been able to give the subject a full
treatment it deserves. I am aware of my short-
comings, but if the account of Plant-life serves
to awaken a genuine interest in the study of
this subject I shall regard my labour as amply
rewarded.

I am very grateful to Dr. B. M. Barua,
I). Lit. (London), of the Calcutta University, who
gave me his best guidance in formulating the
scheme of the work, and I am sure nothing will
please him more than the continuation of the
present work so as to give completeness to my
accounts of Plants and Plant-life as in Indian
treatises and traditions. I am also grateful to
Mr. R. C. Adhikary, a great lover of ancient
civilisation and things Indian, who has never
failed to cheer me up with his valued friendship
and helped me materially with suggestions and
sound criticisms from time to time but for
which my work would have been substantially
poorer. My thanks are also due to the staff of
the Calcutta University Press who have always
been patient, courteous and helpful to me a
novice in the matter of publication. I should
not conclude this preface without mentioning
that my wife has all along associated herself
with this humble pursuit of mine, specially in
seeing the book through the press and prepar-
ing its contents together with the list of the
plants mentioned in the text.

xii PKEFACE

A.S the proofs had to be seen in haste, and
that by a hand not at all expert in the business,
many ugly errors have crept in. and for these I
offer my sincere apologies.

BOTANICAL LABORATORY,
Presidency College,
Calcutta.

G. P. MAJUMDAR

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PAGE

Was there a Science of Botany in Ancient India;
the term Vrikshaynrveda in Agnipurana and
Brihatsamhita, and Gulma- Vrikshayurveda in
ArthaSastra ; the object of the three authors in
using these terms ; the interdependence of the
Ancient Botanical Science and the Ancient Art of
Agriculture ; the term Krishitantra its meaning;
Kri&himParasara a treatise on Agriculture ;
Ancient Botanical Science and the Ancient Indian
Science of Medicine ; Rig-veda, Atharvaveda and
Charaka ; the use of the significant term
Bheshajavidya in Dhanvantar! Nighantu ; the
division of the thesis into 3 Books ... 1-10

Book I
BOTANY AND PHILOSOPHIC SPECULATIONS

SEC. I GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
Subject-matter dealt with in this Book ... lb-14

SEC, UGERMINATION

Its Sanskrit equivalent ; its conditions ; seed-
ling ; its Sanskrit equivalent ; stages of germina*
tion ... ... ... ... 15-17

xiv CONTENDS

PAGE
SEC. Ill EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY

General description of plants; as in Rigveda,
VrihadSranyaka Upanishad and Vishnupurana;
Eoofc and Shoot ; Eoot ; different kinds of roots;
Shoot ; general consideration ; Stem ; its descrip-
tion ; Leaf ; simple and compound leaf ; Flowers ;
Inflorescence ; Fruits ; their classification ; Seed ;
Endosperm ; Cotyledons with Sanskrit equiva-
lents in all cases ... ... ... 18-26

SEC. IV INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY

Twach (skin) ; Sakara (soft tissue next to skin) ;
Kinata (fibres in Sakara) ; Darn or Sara (wood) ;
Majja (pith) ; healing up of wounds ... 27-29

SEC. V PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Nourishment general ; Absorption ; Trans-
port; Transpiration; Assimilation of food;
Planting ; essential preliminaries of plantation ;
methods ; graftings ; cuttings ; final directions
of planting ; Manuring ; Rotation of crops ;
Treatment of plants, general ; signs of the
diseased condition ; Treatment prophylactic ; cura-
tive ; application of drugs ; Respiration; Movement
of plants ; their capacity for sleep ; their sensitive-
ness to touch, heat, wind, noise, etc. ; movements
towards favourable and avoiding what is unfavour-
able ; Growth ; its stages ; the conditions to be
satisfied ; Age and death ; Consciousness in plants ;
different views held by different authors ; existence
of the gift of touch, gift of hearing, sight, power
of sense and organ of taste in plants as discussed

xv CONTENTS

PAGE

in the MahSbharata ; Sexuality; Reproduction;
six methods of reproduction Vijarulia, mulaja,
skandhaja, graftings, jparnayoni and Saunarudhaja 30-65

SEC. VI ECOLOGY

Division of lands into three regions Jahgala
(dry wilderness), Anupa (watery, swampy) and
Sadharana (ordinary) : Jangala its topography ;
its characteristic flora ; Anupa its topography ;
its characteristic flora; Sadharana its topography ;
its characteristic flora ; Alpine flora ; Plant Asso-
ciation ; illustrations ... ... ... 66-70

SEC. VII TAXONOMY

Nomenclature : Sir W. Jones* observation on
Indian method of naming ; Principles adopted in
naming ; Special association ; Special property
medicinal; Special property domestic utility;
Special characteristic features ; Special morpho-
logical features according to the number of
leaflets in the compound leaf ; according to the
nature or shape of the leaf; according to the
sha pe and colour of flowers ; miscellaneous ; Local
association ; Environmental association ; Other
characteristics Double names for each plant one
based on a salient external feature, the other on
some prominent medicinal or other property ... 71-78

2. Classification : three distinct systems
Botanical, Medicinal and Dietic ; A. Classification
on Botanical Principles general ; different authors
Rigveda, Manu, Charaka, Chakrap&ni, Susruta,
Dalvana, Prasastapada, Sridhara, Udayanacharyya,

xvi CONTENTS

Bhagavatapuraaa, Amara; Further classification
of plants into well defined groups or genera (?) ;
into individual plants or species (1) ... 79-89

B, Classification based on Medicinal proper-
ties : according to Charaka; his 10 primary
Vargas; according to SuSruta; his 37 ganas ... 90-104

C. Classification based on Dietic value :
Charaka's division into 6 groups : all bearded
grains, all pulses, vegetables, fruits, greens,
sugarcane and oil; SuSruta's division into 15
groups; Amara's illustrations of the f$aka Varga;
Bhabaprakas combines medicinal properties and

dietic value and classifies plants into 10 Vargas... 105-127

SBC. VIII PLANTS AND EVOLUTION

Ideas of different authors Uddalaka ; Varuna ;
Yajnavalkya; Buddha distinct mention by Buddha
of the evolution of plants in themselves from the
low to the higher grade ; Ram&yana prior
appearance of plants on earth ... ...128-130

SBC. IX MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS OF THE
SCIENCE

(1) As a means of Economic Predictions
inference of the cheapness of various commodities
by looking at the abundance of the growth and
development of flowers, etc.; Signs of coming rains 131-134

(2) As a means of ascertaining the presence

of water in a dreary region ; Jataka story ... 185-139

SEC, X CONCLUDING REMARKS ,,, HO

CONTENTS xvii

PAGE
APPENDIX A HEREDITY

Transmission of specific characters ; Charaka's
enquiry ; Charaka and SuSruta's theory of ' palin-
genesis ' ; Charaka'e theory its comparison with
Darwin's c gemmules ' and Spencer's * ids ' ;
Sankara's explanation ; Acquired characters;
their inheritance; Charaka's solution after Atreya;
the parental Tlja is an organic whole independent
of the developed parental body and its organs (cf.
Wiesmann's ' germplasm ' theory) ; Atreya's
' germplasm ' theory ; transmission of acquired
characters Atreya's explanation .,, ... 141-146

Book II

BOTANY AND SCIENCE OF MEDICINE
SEC. I GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ,., 149

SEC II BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE

Genesis in Eigveda ; names of certain plants
with Soma at their head ; innumerable applications
of plants are referred to though not definitely
named ... ... ... ... 150-157

SEC. Ill DEVELOPMENT IN ATHARVAVEDA

Maladies, their classification and remedies
(1) Physical maladies, such as, leprosy, fever,
obstruction of urine, head diseases, evil of the

xviii CONTENTS

PAGB

eye, abortion and injury and diseases in
general ; (2) Supernatural maladies, such a-*,
influence of demons, Yakskas, ghosts, curse of
gods, etc. ; (3) Procreation and Protection of
children such as, to procure the conception of male
offspring, against abortion, to guard against a
pregnant woman from demons, etc.; (4) Curing
wounds, etc. such as, serious wounds, bruise,
burns, etc. ; (5) Poisoning against venom of
snakes and other insects; a distinct class of
people treating patients suffering from snake-
bites, the Kiratas; the germ of snake worship;
(6) Prosperity and Prolongation of life with
plants treatment of man not only in a state of
disease but also in a state of health. (7) Virility
and Erotic success problem of virility and
amatory success ,., ,,, ..,158-175

SEC. IV, MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS IN
ATHARVA VEDA

Utility of plants in the growth of hair;
atonement of hereditary sins ; warding off foes ;
attainment of prosperity, for a variety of material
blessings, etc. .,, ... ...176-179

SEC. V. DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL SCIENCE
IN CHARAKA AND SUSRUTA

Genesis of the Ayurveda or the Science of
Life ; division of the Science into six departments ;
their correspondence with the classification in
the Atbarvaveda; later development ... 180-184

CONTENTS xix

PAGE
Book III

BOTANY AND SCIENCE OF AGKICULTUKE

SEC, I GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
The three eternal factors in agriculture ... 186

SEC. II BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

Rigveda Agriculture, a dignified occupation ;
distribution of land by measurement ; hospitality
a holy duty religiously upheld ; Atharvaveda For
successful agriculture; for abundance of grain;
the idea of village construction with the " village
common " ; five races of men ; for good rain ;
against animal enemies of corn ; Barley, once the
staple food; for protection of cattle; praise of
kine ... ... ... ... 187-197

SEC. Ill DEVELOPMENT DURING MAHRYA
PERIOD

Arthaastra Agriculture, an important depart-
ment of State; Superintendent of Agriculture ; his
assistants ; their qualifications ; the function of
the Superintendent; Megasthenes condition of
India at his time ; his fragments of Indika ;
observations of other foreigners like Strabo;
A6oka his Edicts; Manu promulgation of law
protecting agricultural interest; the Faisyas ... 198-206

SEC. IV KRISHI-PARASARA
A treatise on Agriculture; its subject-matter,., 207-209

CONTENTS

PAGE
SEC. V KHANA'S MAXIMS

(1) General maxims governing the conduct of
the cultivators ; (2) Meteorological observations
with a view to the guidance of farmers; (8) Selec-
tion of the Soil ; (4) Ploughing ; (5) Sowing and
Planting; (6) Eeaping ... ...210-216

SEC. VI AMAHAKOSHA ON AGRICULTURE

The Agricultural class ; Classification of soils
based on fertility ; Agricultural implements ... 217-219

SEC. VII CONCLUDING EEMARKS ... 220

CONCLUSION

General for the three Books ... ... 223-225

Bibliography ... ... 226-230

General Index ... ... ...231-233

List of Plants ... ... ... 234-254

PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

INTRODUCTION

WAS THERE A SCIENCE OF BOTANY ?

Botany is a modern science which imposes its
own peculiar form oT discipline. The subject
matter of investigation which comes within its
scope falls also within the broader scope of the
Science called Biology, But Biology, too, as we
know it, is a science of modern origin. The
pride of this modern achievement cannot be
^relished by a people like the Indian conscious
,of a great historic past. At the same time it
will be too much of arrogance and self-sufficiency
on the part of the advocates of modern
sciences to neglect the whole body of ancient
treatises and the whole mass of traditions of a
great people by treating them as a tissue of
credulity and superstition. In the life of the
science of Botany, exactly as in the life of other

2 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

sciences, there were earlier processes suggesting
its possibility. This may be accepted as a
truism. Our enquiry then is was there anything
in India approaching the science of Botany ?
Were there any earlier processes which enabled
the people of this great country to gain in
the knowledge of plants and plant-life, and
the art of application of this knowledge for
the improvement of the general conditions
of life ?

In Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita* as well as
in the AgnipuratwP, there is a distinct section
dealing with the topics of Vrikshdyurveda a
term which may be literally rendered ' the
knowledge of tree-life." The very same term
with the additional Oulma preceding it
(Gulma-Vrikshdyurveda} occurs in the Kautilya
Arthasastra in the section 3 enumerating the
functions of the officer in charge of Agriculture,
and his assistants. Whether the term has
additional word gulma (bushes shrubs and
herbs) or not, the meaning is the same, the
word 'tree' where it occurs alone standing for
the whole of plant-life in the kingdom of plants ;
even in the Vedic hymns the term Vanam>
Vriksha, being used almost as synonyms. 4 Of

1 Chap. 54, Vol.11, pp.743, etc.

a Bibliotheca Indica, Vol.11, 1876, Chap. 281, pp. 43-44.

3 Chap. XXIV, p. 115 (Sanskrit original).

* Bigveda, X. 81. 4.

INTRODUCTION 3

the three works in which this significant term is
used and a complete section has been devoted
to the subject, the first, the Agnipurana, is
nothing but a popular encyclopaedia of all kinds
of knowledge and practices ; the second, the
Btihatsamhita, is a manual containing directions
for the applications of the knowledge of
astronomy and astrology in practice ; the third,
the Arthascistra, is also a handbook discussing
matters relating to royal polity and the art of
government. Thus all of them are non-
Botanical treatises; all are intended not so
much to acquaint the students with theories as
with practices. In each of the three works we
come across a section 1 dealing with the subjects
of Vrikshdyurveda. The matters dealt with in
these sections are of the same character. All of
these agree in giving us the impression that the
subjects within the scope of the ancient science
of plant-life consisted of collection and selection
of seeds, germination, grafting, cutting, sowing,
planting and nursing, selection of soil, manu-
ring and cultivation of soil under favour-
able meteorological conditions, and the location
of plants for improving the aesthetic and
hygienic surroundings of the homestead, There
are certain points of difference which are of
paramount importance in the absence of any

1 See supra, p. 2. footnote.

4 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

ancient Indian treatises or manuals of Frikshd-
yurveda coming down to us. The section of
the Arthasastra leaves out of account the
central point doing 'justice to the title of the
ancient science Vrikshdyurveda, namely, the
'treatment of plant-diseases and prescriptions
for remedies.' This point comes out prominently
in the Brihatsamhita and the Agnipurana. On
the other hand, the section of the Arthasastra
is not without a special importance not only for
its antiquity but also for a clear statement in
which the ancient science of plant-life appears
to be treated as a sub-head of Krishitantra, a
term obviously signifying a treatise on Agricul-
ture. The statement is quoted below 1 :

By this the officer in charge of Agriculture
and his assistants are supposed to be conversant
with the treatise of Agriculture (Krishitantra}
and knowledge of the life of Bushes and Trees,
and well trained in the art of utilisation of their
knowledge. Dr. Shama Shastri in his translation
has represented Krishitantra as a science or
scientific treatise dealing with Gulma-Friksha-
yurveda and he cannot but do so in regard to

1 For English Translationsee Shaina Shastri, Chap. XXTV, p 138.

INTRODUCTION 5

the matters dealt with in this particular section.
Bat from the construction of the sentence it is
clear that Krishitantra and the Guima-Vrikshd-
yurvedi are two separate terms used to denote
the two departments of knowledge. If in a
particular context one has been treated as a sub-
section of the other, necessarily, the implication
is riot (hat the departments of knowledge signified
by thorn were not independent ; the point
which is cloar from the drthasastra is the
interdependence of the two. A treatise of Agricul-
ture will be incomplete without a chapter dealing
with the application of Botanical knowledge to
the art of plantation, cultivation, manuring and
the rest. In the other two references the term
Frifohdyuroeda looms large and the Krishitantra
does not ftnd any mention. But here, too, the
purpose is just to show the application of the
knowledge relating to ancient science of plant-
life Tor agricultural, horticultural, irrigational
aud economic purposes.

The question is did the authors of the three
treatises really intend cataloguing some useful
prescriptions for utilisation of this knowledge to
exhaust the contents of the science contemplated
by the term Vrikshdyurveda ? The answer
must be in the negative. If the sections in
the three non- Botanical treatises mean any-
thing, it must be that there was in existence an
independent treatise or treatises upon which the

6 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

prescriptions contained in them were based.
They may be taken also to mean, no doubt, that
the Ancient Botanical Science was developing
at first along with the Art of Agriculture before
it gained an independent foothold of its own.

Are we to suppose that the knowledge of
plant-life developed along with the Science of
Agriculture alone ? First, let us enquire if
there were any separate treatises devoted to the
tvv r o sciences, one relating to agriculture, and the
other to the knowledge of plant-life. Varaha-
rnihira's commentator Bhat-topala in explain-
ing the prescriptions in the section on Prikshd-
yurveda, has elucidated the points by certain
quotations from three ancient authors, namely,
Kasyapa, Parasara and Sarasvata. It seems
probable that the treatises ascribed to these
authors were primarily concerned with Krishi
the art of cultivation, Krishi- Parasara being the
traditional title of a treatise associated with one
of these authors. There is no reference as yet
found out where Krishitantra and Vrikshdyur*
veda have been exchanged one for the other.
If it stands out from the sections in the Brikal~
samhita and Agnlpurana that the treatment of
plant-diseases and their remedies was one of the
subjects of investigation falling within the sc je
of the Botanical science, it may be supposed to
have formed, so far as this point is concerned,
also a subhead for the ancient Indian science of

INTRODUCTION 7

Medicine. So far as the recorded evidence goes,
the reference indicating the close association of
the knowledge of plants and plant-life with the art
of healing are much earlier and plentiful. We
shall briefly examine below two Vedic hymns
one in the Rigveda and the other in the
Atharva Veda, and see what light they throw
on this point :

In the hymn of the Rigveda 1 the poet speaks
of L07 applications of plants to make people
free from diseases, the plants bearing flowers
and fruits, etc. There is not a single utterance
in the whole hymn referring to applications of
the knowledge of plants for agricultural and
other purposes.

In the hymn of the Atharva Veda 2 the
different herbs and plants are named, classified
and praised only for their medicinal properties.
There is not a word about the connection of the
knowledge of plants with agriculture, irrigation,
and the rest. And this is just the typical
of several other hymns that corroborate the
point.

The popular Indian word ausadha denoting
medicine is derived from or connected with
0$adhi signifying the annual herbs. Even at
the present day, in some parts of India, the word
daru or tree is used to denote medicine, and in

1 Rigveda, X, 97.

8 Atharva Veda, VIII, 7 (pp, 498-500, Whitney).

M PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

some parts to denote the alcoholic substance, i.e.,
the Soma. The moon bears the designation of
Osadhinatha the lord of herbs, here Osadhi
being a synonym of * Soma 3 which, according to
the above hymns of the Vedas, was the king of
the herbs and plants. The word bheshaja from
which bhishak denoting physician is derived,
etymologically means " vegetable drugs/'

In an expressed opinion in the Charaka-
samhita 1 it is only the man well acquainted with
the names, and external features of plants, and
able to use them properly according to theii
properties is to be called an expert physician.

The Dhanvantari Nighantu^ which is more
explicit on this point says, <c Sometimes several

1 Sutrasthana, Chap. I. Venes ol-53
2 ^f 5 ^ TIT

W

/, Preface to the Raja Nighanta of Narahari where ho anys : -

Also Rasaratnasamuchchaya Ohap. VII, 32 " Such herbalists as
are nofc deceitful and are well-versed in the knowledge of the drugs

INTRODUCTION 9

healing vegetables (bheshajas) bear one name,
sometimes one vegetable bears various names
according to its class, external feature, colour,
potency, function (rasa)> effects, properties and
the rest/'

" The physician does well to master Bheshaja-
Vidya by acquainting himself with the various
names of plants in Sanskrit and Prakrit, consult-
ing all classes of men, by personal observations,
by a careful handling, as well as, by a careful
consideration of its specific characters and
sexuality.' 5

In this quotation we find the use of a
technical term Bheshaja- Vidya signifying a
distinct study of the plants and plant-life
with special reference to medical properties
and use.

Here, too, the same question is apt to arise,
does this study complete the contents of the
ancient Botanical science ? We must say, No.
Throughout Indian literature we find the theo-
ries about the evolution of plants, about the

and plant*, and in the language of many countries should be
employed." (PC. Roy's History of Hindu Chemistry, Vol. I, p. 65,
Calcutta, 1902.) Also the final test to which Bhikshu itreya,
the celebrated teacher of medicine in the University of Taxi la,
put his equally celebrated pupil Jivaka, afterwards the physician of
Bimbisara, in collecting, identifying and describing the properties of
plants to be found within four Yojanas of the University town.
(Vijayratma Sen Preface to Viraja Charan Sen Gupta's Vanaushadhi-
Darpana, Vol. I, 1908).

2

10 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

nature of plant-life, the position of plants in the
whole scheme of nature and the like, developed
along with the various philosophical speculations.
Even for a brief survey of the entire field
of Indian Botanical Science we must trace its
developments in these three different lines ;

(1) As under the Philosophic Speculations.

(2) As under the Science of Medicine.

(3) As under the Science of Agriculture.

Accordingly the thesis is divided into three
books bearing the following titles :

Book I. Botany and Philosophic Specula-
tions.

Book II. Botany and Science of Medicine.
Book III. Botany and Science of Agricul-
ture.

BOOK I
BOTANY AND PHILOSOPHIC SPECULATIONS

SECTION I
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

The daring philosophic speculations and
fanciful popular notions are always in advance
of science. The hymns of the Vedas, the texts
of the Upanishads, the Epics and Puraijas,
the Buddhist and Jaina canonical works and
commentaries, the medical treatises of Charaka
and Susruta, the lexicon of Amara and such
other works yield us plenty of materials indicat-
ing how the knowledge of plants and plant-life
came into clear recognition, and the Botanical
science developed on various lines. The informa-
tion culled from these sources can be considered
under the following heads :

I. Germination of seeds.
II. Morphology External, i.e., general

description of Plants.

III. Morphology Internal or Histology.
IV. Physiology.

1. Nourishment.

2. Absorption, Transport, Transpiration

and Assimilation of food.

3. Planting.

4. Manuring.

13

14 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

5. Treatment of Plants.

6. Respiration (Breathing).

7. Movement Irritability.

8. Growth.

9. Age and Death.

10. Consciousness in Plants.

11. Sexuality.

12. Reproduction.

13. Heredity. (Appendix A.)

V. Ecology Study of Plants in their
natural surroundings (homes),

VI. Taxonomy.

1. Nomenclature or the naming of

Plants,

2, Classification or the grouping of

Plants hased on

(a) Botanical principles.
(&) Medicinal properties.
(<?) Dietic value.

VII. Plants and Evolutioij.

VIII. Miscellaneous application of the Study
of the Science of Plant-life

1. As a means of Economic predictions.

2. As a means of ascertaining the

presence of water in a dreary
region.

SECTION II

GERMINATION

The process of germination is technically
called ank^lr6dbheda 9 a term which means
sprouting, i.e., the awakening of life latent in
the seed under certain given conditions. And
the conditions -ire supply of air, water and
warmth. We read in the Susruta 1 :

^tau^qtami

*\ v*

" Just as the proper season (ritu)^ good soil
(kshetra), water (ambu), and vigorous seeds
(vlja\ together with proper care, help the
germination of strong and undiseased sprouts..." 2

Again in Gunaratna's Commentary on the
Saddarsana-samuchchaya ;

: H

" The seeds of Fata (Eicus Indica), Pippala
(Ficus Religiosa), Nimva (Melia azadirachta) and

1 gueruta, &rirastbana. ii, 33.

2 Vol. II, p. 129, English Translation by Kunjalal Visagratna,
1911.

15

16 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

the rest, sprout during the rainy season under
the influence of dew and air (when sown)." 1

The following aphorisms of Khana also
contain the following direction of aerating the
soil, for different plants :

11 For the successful cultivation of cotton one
has to plough the land 16 times, for radish 8
times, for paddy 4 times and for betel nil." 2

The soundness of the directions becomes at
once manifest when one takes into consideration
that cotton plant has an elaborate root-system,
radish is a herb, paddy is a surface feeder, and
betel is a climber that produces numerous
adventitious aerial roots.

From the above we see that the factors of
air, water and warmth (proper season) are re-
garded as necessary for successful germination
of seeds.

The seedling is called ankura, avinavodvid,
which etymologically means that the plant
becomes visible for the first time by it. Scienti-
fically this term is more accurate than its
English synonym " seedling ".

Although the ancients laid down the condi-
tions of germination arrived at by practical
experience, they have not, so far as our knowledge

1 Gnnaratna'a Commentary, Sloka 49, p 157. Sa^darsana-samu-
choliaya, Bibliobheca Indioa, new series 1151, 1907.

GEEMINATION 17

goes, cared to state the stages of germination as
is done in the modern treatises on the subject.
Yet the Sanskrit word uttanapada taken
from the vegetable world is significant. Daring
germination it is the Radicle (mulct, pada), the
primary root, that comes out first, even in
whatever position the seed is placed. The
words nttanapada, urddhvamula mean " the
root foremost." Thus it is not inconceiva-
ble that they did not fail to notice the first stage
in germination.

SECTION III

.THE GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS

The rudiments of morphology may be traced
as early as in a hymn of the Atharva Veda 1
where we get a rough description of the ex-
ternal features of plants :

" The spreading, the bushy, the one-spathed,
the extending herbs do I address, those rich in
shoots, jointed, that have spreading branches ;
I call for thee the plants that belong to all the
gods, formidable, giving life to men." (t.)

" Rich in sweets the root, rich in sweets the
tip of them, rich in sweets was the middle of
the plants, rich in sweets the leaf, rich in sweets
the flowers of them, etc." (12.)

" Ilich in flowers, rich in shoots, rich in
fruits, also those lacking fruits like joint
mothers, etc." (27.)

A more systematic statement in brief occurs
in the Vrihat Aranyaka Upanishad 2 where we
get an accurate description of the life history of
a plant. Thus :

* c * * * the essence of water is embodied
in plants such as grasses, creepers and the rest,
flowers represent the essence of plants, and the

1 Atharva Veda VIII, 7. Whitney Ed,
9 V. A. Upanighad, 4.6.1.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS 19

essence of (lowers are fruits, such as paddy,
wheat and the rest.']

We again read in the Vishnupuram^ a des-
cription of the parts of a complete plant. The
type given is that of paddy. Thus :

" O the greatest of sages, just as there are
embryo (ankur), root (mula\ stem (nala), leaf
(patra), flower (pushpa), milky sap (kshtira),
husks (glumes tusha\ seed-vessel (kosha,
vija kosha), seed (tandnla, rice) and endosperm
in seeds (kctna) in the paddy, and they become
manifest only under suitable conditions such as
soil, water, etc. 5 '

The quoted passages contain terms and
expressions covering the whole of the external
feature of plants which we now call External
Morphology. The points that are to be noted,
according to these passages, comprise root, stem,
leaf, flower, fruit, seed, etc.

All plants are divided broadly into two
parts : A subterranean called the Hoot (Mula,
Pada), and a sub-aerial called the Shoot (Vis-
taro). Let us now consider what the Ancient
Botanical Science has got to teach us on all
these points taken one by one.

1. Root. The" Sanskrit equivalent of this
organ is significantly expressive at once of its
function and location. It is called mula, i.e.,
by its means the plant is fixed to the soil. The

1 7th Chapter, glokas 37-39, JBangabaei Edition, p, 121.

20 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

plant is called padapa, i.e.> by its padas (mulas),
the plant drinks (absorbs) water (rasa watery
solution) from the soil. Adventitious roots are
called sakha sipha (fibrous roots springing
from the branches). Fibrous roots are called
sipha, jata. Adventitious roots hanging from
spreading branches (prop roots of Picus indica,
also of Tinospora cordifolia) are called abaroha,
i.e., that which goes down, hangs. We also
learn from Arthasastra, 1 Charaka, Upanishads,
etc., that people used to take it as food and in
this connection we find mention of ' bulbous
roots ' as distinguished from typical ones.

2. Shoot* The shoot is divided into stem
and leaves, The main stem (trunk) is called
pra/canda, i.e., it is that part which is between
the main root and the place from which bran-
ches originate. It is also called skandha as it
bears the head or crown. The stem may bo
weak or strong and so are the plants having
them. Strong stemmed plants are called vanas-
pati, vanaspatya, etc., they stand erect. The
weak stemmed plants cannot support themselves,
and according to their habit they are distin-
guished into a creeper and a trailer. A creeper
is called valll, vratatl, or lata. The creeper
includes both a twiner and a climber. Lata
means that which embraces, twines. It also
means a weak plant that goes from the root to

1 Arthasastra, Section 24, p. 138, Shama Shastri's Edition, 1932,

GENEEAL. DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS 21

the top of a tree (mulachchagm yatan lata).
By the term lata is meant the whole range of
lianes. (q$\ tssffi ^f $anti Parva).

The other kind (trailer) is called protanino,
spreading one, that which spreads on the
ground. This includes both the procumbent and
the decumbent.

3. Stem : The stem may be plain or jointed
(sat a parva). Each joint or node is called a
parva or granthi. Leaves spring from the

joint (^i*ir 5^1 a^rrffat 3rr^H*r^ftO- Plants

may be with stems or stemless. Stemmed
plants are called sakanda, and stemless plants
are distinguished as aprakanda, stamba. Plants
having short or stunted roots and branches are
called kshupa (<gp; ^PSJfTOT fspf?:)- The pri-
mary branches are called skandasakha, and secon-
dary and tertiary ones are known as prafakha
Tl) ; pratisakha and anusakha (qf^n^I and
are a ^ so ^sed. a The branches generally
are known as sakha, as the plant (sakhina)
spreads by them. Branchless stems are called
sthanu or sanku. Apex of the tree, i.e., the
tree-top is called fscRST, agra, sikhara, i.e.,
where one cannot climb, or which cannot be
reached.

Trees, shrubs and herbs used to be distin-
guished by the long or short, hard and strong

3rd part, 4th Chap, Sloka 25.

22 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

or less strong and succulent stems. Plants
growing on other plants O^irli; f^r) are known
&$ pargachlia (iTCTW ?f?T *3JT*T). These include
both Parasites and Epiphytes. Parasites are
called vrikshadanl (cascuta irgi^rt l^[5Rt% 3j;),
that which (guest) eats (^*f sucks food from)
another tree (host). Epiphytes are called
vriksha-ruha (l^TT fir ftw1% ^f?f), i.e-, that
which simply lives on another tree without draw-
ing nourishment from the latter. One of the
examples given is Gwjuchi (Tinospora cordi-
folia) it is called chhinnaruha (flg^^WT fl^Tfa
f^ff?f SfTCRT 3T.) "it grows and lives eten when
torn." Another example Vanda Roxburghii
Br., i.e., Orchid (Rasnd) is known (Colebrook),
but its habitat is not described. (See infra,
classification). Lower plants such as Mosses
and green Algae are noticed but not described
(such as si^R^ TJ iNrraffl Amara). Sapropky-
tic plants, such as Mush-rooms (plants with no
fruits and flowers), are correctly described with
their habitats, but not separately classified.
Mush-room is thus described : it is called
Chhatra ($31) l as its shape is exactly like that
of an umbrella. " It is generally found to
grow on stalks of straw (palala\ or is seen vege-
tating on the stems of bamboo (venu) or sugar-
cane, or as sprouting up from beneath the surface

1 Mushroom, Colebrook, p. 125 (Amarkosha).

GENEKAL DESCRIPTION OP PLANTS 23

of the ground (udbhida), or growing on a heap
of decomposed cowdung (karisha)." 1

Underground stems and such roots as Radish
(hypocotyl modified) are called kanda. These
are described as ' like roots, but not roots,
serve as a means of propagation' (3TO5R3 sfM ^r
3T^;). As examples are mentioned :

Ol (Corm), 6 kinds of Potato (Tuber', Mulaka
(Radish), Gajar (Carrot), Plantain (Rhizome),
Mankachu (Arum- Rhizome), Palandu (Onion-
Bulb) and Maha kanda (Garlic).

4. Leaf : The leaf is called patra, because
it falls soon, it is also called parna because of
its green colour. The stalk of the leaf when
present is called brinln> and the petiolate leaf
is called sa-brinta. New leaves are called
pallava, kishalaya. Branches with undeveloped
leaves (pallava) are called vistaro as the plant
spreads by it. It is synonymous with modern
* bud.' Leaves may be simple when it is called
eka-patra one-leaved. Compound leaves are
described by the number of leaflets they contain,
e.g., dvi-patra (Bauhinia?), tri-patra (^Egle),
sapta-parna -(Echites scholaris). Leaves are
also described by their shapes such as a&oa-
parnaka (Shorea robusta) as the leaves resemble
the ear of a horse ; mushika-parm (salvinia)
as the leaves resemble the ear of a mice ;

1 gusruta, Sutrasthana, Chap. XLVI., p. 522, English Trans, K, L T
Vishagratna,

24 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(Achyranthes aspera) monkey-ear-
shaped leaves, and so on.

5. Flower : The flower is called sumanasa
that which pleases mind, it is called
pushpa because it opens ; it is called prasuna
because it is born (from plants). Unopened
flower bud is called kalika, koraka, i.e.,
that which produces (fruits, etc.). Opening
flower bud is called kutmala, mukula. Euli
blown flowers are called vikacha, sphutdh

Bunch of flowers, i.e., Inflorescence, is called
stabaka, guchchhaka.

A compound pedicel is called vallarl, manjari ;
Helicoid cyme is called srihastinl (resembling
the trunk of an elephant). The inflorscence of
umbelliferous plants is called chhatm.

is umbel. Mower stalks (pedicels) are
called prasava-bandhana, i.e., that which binds
flowers and fruits with the mother plant. Shape
of the flowers in some cases is also noticed, e.g.,
papilionaceous flowers are called vakra pushpa
(Sesbania). Petals are called pushpadala, and
sometimes number of petals are counted such as
satadala, sahasradala. Stamens are known as
kesara ; kinjalka is the hairy part (^jpra^ ^r*r)
within flowers ; pollen grains are called kesvra-
renu (stamen dusts), they are also called
paraga (tncro), as they go fast (q?T) being very
light and carried by air. They are also called

GENEKAL DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS 25

dust in flowers. Ear or spike of a
corn is called kinasham, sasyamanjam.

6. Fruit: The fruit is known as phala,
i.e., the result of a previous process. Green
fruits are called salatu, dry fruits are called
vana, and fleshy fruits, such as gourd and the
like, are called hsharaka, jalaka. A legume or
pod is called saml, simba, and the seeds in it
sami dhanya. 1

Classification of fruits : Was not based on
any scientific principle. Their classification was
rather governed by etymological consideration,
i.e., names used to be given in allusion to trees,
their origin etc., e.g.,

Amra (^TET) or mango, fruit of mango tree.

Jambn (spsr ) or black-berry, fruit of Eugenia
jambolana.

Aingud (W?)? fruit of Ingudi (Balanites
Roxburghii).

Plaksha (jrre) fru it of Plaksha ("Pious
infectoria).

Taitiaba (^^ra), fruit of Venn (Kamboo).

Varhata (ofTfr?), fruit of Vrihati (Solanam
indicum).

Naiyctgrodhn (^?7N) 9 fruit of Banyan, and
so on.

7. Seed: The seed is called vijam (arfaro),
that out of which something grows. Seeds are

1 Amarakosha, Colebrook's Edition, p 226.

26 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

enclosed in a vessel called vtjakosha or seed-
vessel. Seed- vess sis are sometimes identified
with integuments (seed coats) and sometimes
with pericarp (ovarian wall). The kernel is
called sasya (endosperm) and the cotyledon
is called mjapatram

SECTION IV

MORPHOLOGY INTERNAL OR HISTOLOGY

The Ancients broadly differentiated the stem
into two parts an outer called the tvach,
valkala (rind, skin) ; and an inner the wood or
essence the sara (^K) 5 i-e-t that which lasts till
the end of time (*Mlfl<R{ia) enclosing the
majja (the pith). The outer part included the
modern bast and the inner part the wood with
pith as usual. Thus the stem is internally
differentiated into

(a) an outer rind,

(6) the wood on which the softer parts are
fixed, and

(c) the pith enclosed within the wood as
marrow by the bone.

A more elaborate attempt is seen in the
Vrihat Aranyaka Upanishad, 1 where the inner
structure of plants is described after the analogy
of the human anatomy.

Thus:

" The body of the plant is exactly like the
body of man ; the hairs of man corresponding
to the leaves of plants and his skin

1 Chap. III. 9th Brahmatia, Lotus Library Edition, pp. 1004-5.

28 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

corresponding to the dry exterior bark of the
plants" (231-28-1).

" The flesh of the human body answers to
the Sahara (soft tissue next to skin) of plants :
his nerves standing for the liinata (fibrous
tissues in sakara as in jute, etc.) of plants, both
being equally strong. Just as the bones of man
lie behind his flesh, so also wood, daru 9 lies
behind the sakara (and occupying che centre)
of plants and the marrow (pith) is alike in
both" (236-30-3).

Thus the internal structure of plants is
evidently divided into an outer skin (epidermis
and dry bark) and the inner wood between
which stands a softer tissue (bast) with strong
fibres (bast fibres) corresponding to human flesh
with nerves. The wood encloses a soft pith.
This division is not altogether fanciful, as it
contains an essential broad truth which has not
been made obsolete by the elaborate scientific
modern researches.

A curious advance in the knowledge of plant
life is displayed in Sankara Misra's Upaskara
where he notes (irf^raWf ^JffaF& ^f) the
growth of organs (or tissues) by natural recu-
peration after wound or laceration. 1 Also " the
closing up of fracture (in plants) are manifest
means of fruition." 2

1 Upaskara on Vaiseshika Philosophy 4 2-5 the Sacred Book of
the Hindus Series, Vol. VI, Panini Office, pp. 159-00.

2 Cf. also Gough's Trans., Benares, 1873, pp. 147-148.

MOKPHOLOGY INTERNAL OR HISTOLOGY 29

In Gunaratna's commentary 1 also we notice
a reference of healing up of wounds in plants.
Thus:

Bibhothoca Indica, Now Series, 1151 (1907),

SECTION V
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

1 . Nourishment General. Gunaratna in
his commentary on the Saddarsana-samuch-
chaya * very aptly describes the influence of soil
and food upon the vegetable system in producing
health and disease :

I rWT,

" Just as the human body receives sustenance
through the assimilation of the mother's milk,
dishes, etc., so also the vegetables assimilate
food according to the nature of the earth (soil),
water, etc."

" Just as the human system is at ease and
is diseased according as it takes wholesome or
unwholesome food so also plants grow or decay
by assimilation of suitable and unsuitable
food."

Thus connected with the nourishment of
plants the most important factor is the soil v

1 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, H51 (1907).

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 31

the principal source of sustenance. It is roughly
divided into urbbara (4)4*1 fjll^TT fertile with
every crop), and ushara 1 (barren or sterile on
which nothing can grow). The fertile soil heing
that which is capable of supplying the plants
with their necessary food materials while the
sterile soil is that which does not possess this
capacity.

2. Absorption, Transport, Transpiration
and Assimilation of food. Plants draw food
materials from the soil through the help of the
roots which constitute exactly what is mouth to
man, another name for tree being qr^cn, i.e.,
that which drinks through roots. It is common
knowledge that the food materials from the
soil enter plant organism in the shape of liquid
and not solid, and the ancient etymologv
evidently anticipated the accuracv
modern scientists.

The elaborate process bv

absorb, transport anu T

described in the folio

MahSbharata. 2

"Just as water may L

the lotus petiole applied to

plants (with roots) drink (a*

solution) with the help of ar

\ ^

p. 701, Bangabasi Ed. 1316 B.S.

4 Santi Parva, Chap, 184 p. 855 (Baeumat

32 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

The comparison is evidently significant. In
drawing water through the lotus petiole a force
a sucking force in the mouth which draws
in, is pre-supposed, as also uninterrupted pas-
sages in the petiole through which the water
is to go up. The one end of the petiole is
dipped in water and the drawing force is applied
to the other. The similie does not stand on all
fours because water stands for the liquid food
materials from the soil, the uninterrupted passa-
ges stand for similar passages in the stem, but
the drawing force is wanting. We clearly
see that food materials are drawn up in the
case of the plant as water is drawn in the case
of the man in whose mouth there is the sucking
force. But we do not see which draws up the
*~~ 1 materials in the case of plants ? Rational-
* e one case as in the other there must
' without which the action cannot

- 18

- f * ot *fc only

-ae knowlede

#

he

noB . t

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 33

(suction force in leaves) is greatly accelerated
by air.

After the food materials in solution are
brought into the leaves the process of assimila-
tion (sfr) commences, which is thus well-
described :

" Agni (energy) and air (CO 2 ?) help in the
digestion (assimilation) of the water (watery
food materials) which is absorbed through the
roots of the trees (and conveyed to the leaves).
And it is on account of the assimilation of
this watery solution that the vegetable
kingdom undergoes development and becc
graceful."

Thus a thorough 1
tion and assimilat*
the depende r
upon the f

in the a^

mean ' fire f ^

which plays a v* ^^

sustenance of life, befc. t

processes; and 'air 5 wJ

searchers have discoveret

of the carbon in the form

cated as an essential fac

and digestion of f^ 4

the Indian think

lucky way understo

essential knowledge?
6

34 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

We have so long hypothetically assumed
the existence of the leaf as the centre of sucking
force, and practically the kitchen where the
food of plants is prepared. What warrants us
in the assumption ? Besides the full-fledged
development of the scientific knowledge of
nutrition, we have in some of the provincial
proverbs attributed to the mythical Khana, the
depository of the wisdom of ages, a distinct
knowledge of the function of leaves in the
maintenance of plant-life pre-supposed. A
Droverb 1 runs :

'After you have planted the plantain trees,
wes, and this will bring

. 5>

^ is fully made
is seen to be

.uns 2 :

. *,_j world that paddy
Jbetel under shade."
, t ^ is that during rainy
j available solar energy
will be the production and
ie paddy. But, for betel
1 the leaves and the
ye know that the

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 35

shade-loving plants have larger leave?, and
even when a sun -plant with narrow leaves is
transferred to a shady place it tends to develop
larger leaves. The cause of the pungency is also
due to the absence of sun-light, and the reason
is that the destructive metabolism cannot reach
its final stage and consequently more acid and
other astringent bye-products are formed. The
other proverb is 1 :

" The paddy develops day by day owing to
sunshine by day and water by night."

The modern scientific explanation of the
fact would be that during day time with the
sunshine food is prepared, assimilated and stored
and during night time the growth of the .organ-
ism takes place, and for this a supply of water
is needed. The Ancients broadly knew the
utility of these two factors, although they by
no means seem to be acquainted with the scien-
tific details.

That water besides going up to the leaves
also circulates all over the trees, and this cir-
culation is not due to sun's rays, etc., is also
noticed by Kanada in his Vaiseshika Philosophy. 2
And SankaraMisra in his Upaskara 3 has tried
more elaborately to answer how water circulates
in trees. Thus :

TO i

5 Kanada. 5-2-7. "l*TFwfafa*IV*rf*!J l"
S. B. H. Vol, VI. p. 177 (Panim Office).

36 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

" TJie circulation (of water) in trees is caused
by adrishtam 1 (destiny)."

Upaskara commenting on the above aphorism
explains : <c Water poured at the roots goes up
in all directions through the interior of a tree.
Neither impulse, nor impact, nor the sun's rays
prevail there. How then is it caused ? The
action by which waters rise, and cause the
growth of the tree results from conjunction of
destiny with the souls of those in whose souls
pleasure and pain is effected by the growth of
the leaves, stem, fruit, flowers etc., as its non-
coherent cause ; from destiny as its efficient
cause, and in water as its co-inherent cause." 2

That water rises up in trees is also mentioned
in the Bhayabatapurana 3 as one of the funda-
mental properties of plants.

3. Planting. The Science of planting is a
very ancient science in India, and the origin of
it is lost in obscurity, but a full-fledged devel-
opment of it is mentioned in the Arthasastra*
where a particular officer is referred to as the

1 Adrishta (lit. unseen) stands for " unknown cause, " or " unex-
plained Nature." Seal, page 133. (1915).

a GongVs Translation, p. 166.

3 3rd Skanda, Chap. X. 20. Srimat Sridhar Swami Kritt
Bhabarthadipika Tika, Sametam. Calcutta, 1294 B.S.

( *ll WK OTlft H
See Sec. 24, p. 138 (Shama tfastri).

I'LAKT PHYSIOLOGY 37

Superintendent of Agriculture who must be
" possessed of the knowledge of the science of
agriculture dealing with the plantation of
bushes and trees, or assisted by those who are
trained in such sciences."

A typically nice description is contained in
the following verses from Brihat-samhita 1 :

" Let us first of all talk of the trees that
should be planted in a garden or in the
house itself : Arishta (Melia azadirachta)
Asoka (Saraca indica), Punnaga (Calophyllum
inophyllum), $irls& (Mimosa sirissa) with
Priyangu (Aglaia Roxburghiana) should be
planted in the garden or in the house as pre-
eminently conducive to the welfare (WjpWP,) of
the house. " 3

Kasyapa adds in addition Ghawpaka (Micha-
lia champaca), Udumbara (Ficus glomerata) and
Parijataka (Erythrina indica), and they should
be planted in "^orrent rRrten^ ^f ^R% ^ l".

The following verses from Agnipurana 2 give
us similar instructions with fuller details :

"It becomes conducive to the welfare of the
house if Plaksha is planted towards the north
of it, Banyan in the east, Mango in the south
and Aswattha in the west." 1

"Thorny bushes (<*<!<* s^n) towards the
south near the house are also good." 2

1 VrikshaymvedSdbyaya, Chap. 54. Vol. II, p. 743.

4 Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. II, 1876, Chap. 281, pp. 42, 43.

38 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

"Arishtasoka, Punnayn, Sirisa, Priyaiigu,
Asolw, Kadali (Plantain), Jambu (Blackberry),
Vakula, (Mimusops) and Dadima (Pomegranate)
are to be planted in the garden adjoining one's
house." 7

The following are the essential preliminaries
of plantation :

In Brihat-samhita 1 :

"One should plant the tree after oneself
being pure and after worshipping the tree with
a bath and anointment, and the result will be
that the tree will be graced with luxuriant
growth of leaves." 8

"Uttara, Rohini, Anuradha, Ghitra, Mriga-
sira, Revati, Mula, Visfikha, Tishya, Sravantl,
AsvTini and the Hasta these are the stars under
the influence of which a tree when planted will
flourish." 31

In Agnipurana" there are verses of similar
import. Thus:

"One should take or plant the tree after wor-
shipping the moon and Brahmin, and make sure
to propitiate the five stars Vayavya, Hasta,
Prajesha, Vaishiiava and Mula." 3 & 4.

"One should perform the work (of planta-
tion) after worshipping Varuna, Vishnu and
Parjjanya, the rain God," 6

See Chap. 54, Vol. II.
See S^pra, p. 37

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 39

Next comes the question whether all parts,
or different parts of a plant are to be planted in
different seasons of a year ? Varahamihira in
the Erihat-samhita 1 directs :

"In the months of Magli and Falyoon (fgjfaji)
the trees whose branches and leaves are not
developed (^Trr*n^FT ^SfTrf ^m^Pf
in the n.onths of Agrahai/an and Pons ('
the plants with just-developed branches

; in the months of tiraoan and Bhacfra
plants with well-developed branches
). 5 ' Kasyapa is more clear on the above
directions :

" Plant in &uira those trees with un-
developed branches, in Henaida those with
developed branches according to prescribed
rules (f^nWrt:) and those that are provided with
well-developed branches (^sFTOT:) during the

raitis"

Methods of plantations by cuttings and
graftings :

In addition to the ordinary method of pro-
pagation by seeds the methods of propagation
by cuttings and graftings were known from
time immemorial, so much so, that the plants
to which these methods can be applied are
definitely named.

1 See Supra, p. 37,

40 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

The following verses from Brihat-samhita 3
distinctly name the plants and these methods :

"Kanthal (Jack fruit tree), Aso/ca, KadctU
(plantain), Janibu, Lakoocha, Dadima, Drakshya,
Palibata, Fljapura (Matulanga), Atimuktaka
these are the plants to be propagated by means
of cuttings besmeared with cowdung (TJ^ 5^1:

4 & 5

" Better than this method is the method of
propagation by graftings. This can be done
in two ways the cuttings of one plant is either
inserted on the root of another plant, or on the
stem of another plant (*j^^%SW^^fta'Cl*n:

irt HIT.)." 6

"Grafts should be smeared with cowdung.

For transplanting (^F5n& ^31 ttaSfflfSra:) the
plants should be smeared from root to the top
with ghee (clarified butter),

sesame oil, the honey of the Khudra variety of
the bee of the Ushira (Andropogon Laniger or
Andropogon Citrarum), the Vidanga (Embelica
ribes) milk and cowdung." 7

What should be the soil for such plantation ?
The same author says :

"The most suitable ground to plant in is
soft soil that has been sown with Sesnmum

1 Brihat-sathhita, Chap. 54, Vol. II, p. 743.

N-B All the glokas are from the same Chapter 54 of the Bri
hat-samhita,

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 41

indicum and dug up and trodden with sesame

in flower/' 2.

Kasyapa is more elaborate on the point :

The final direction of planting is :

According to the same author

" It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20
cubits, next at 10, and 12 cubits' interval is the
minimum that can be prescribed. " 12.

Agnipuvana 1 has the same thing :

"It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20
cubits, an interval of 16 cubits is next, and worst
is the interval of 12 cubits. Closely planted
trees become fruitless (barren)." 8 & 9.

" The trees that are not at first planted after
the Sastric injunctions are destined to be fruit-
less."

And why this minimum limit? The answer is
given in Sloka 13 of the same chapter of Brihat-
samhita. Thus: C8 the roots thereby becoming
mingled together will interfere with each other's
function and will become ill at work, and fruits
will not be produced (fMNNw f Tff^T WTO^'piri

^fipn: )."

After the trees are planted in the manner
aforesaid "one should water them in the morning

Agnipurana, Chapter 2K1, glok-'is 8- ( .).

i'2 PLANTS AND I'LANT-LIFK

and evening in summer, at the end of the day in
winter, and during the rainy season only when
the earth is dried." l

4*. Manuring. The ancients had a pretty
sure knowledge of the fact that the plants derive
their food materials from the soil, and they had
an excellent knowledge of the science of
manuring. This is more elaborately dealt with
in the Book of Agriculture.

The origin of manuring the soil can be traced
as early as to a verse of the Atharva Veda/ 2 The
verse runs :

" With the straw of the brown, whitish, jointed
barley for thee, with the sesame, stalk of sesame
let the, etc., etc.' 1

A more elaborate instruction in manuring is
found in the Brihat Samhita 3 and Agnipurana, 4
in each of which a whole chapter is devoted to
the purpose known as Vrikshciyurveda. Thus
in Brihat Samhita:

"To promote inflorescence and fructification,
a mixture of one adhaka (6t palas) of sesame,
two adhakas (128 palas) of excreta of goats or
sheep, one prastba (16 palas) of barley powder,
one tula (100 palas) of beef, thrown into one

(Brihat Saihhita, Sloka 9, Chap. 54.

M

(.Agnipurana, &loka 7, Chap. 281.
9 A. V. II. 8.3.
3 Chap. LIV.
* Chap. 281.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 43

drona (256 palas) of water, and standing over
for 7 nights, should be poured round the roots
of the plant. The measures given are for
one plant. " J This measure is for all kinds

of plants (,.. girera; i 3wt*p3F5r?rr 5 ri ^

17 & 18.

Agnipurana has almost precisely the same
thing :

" To increase thy production of flowers and
fruits one should sprinkle ghee with cold milk,
also a mixture of sesame, excreta of goats and
sheep, barley powder and beef, thrown into water,
and standing over for 7 nights should be poured
round the roots of the plant. "

, etc.) 11 & 12.

Brihat Samhita :

" To ensure inflorescence, etc. (^pR^ra?) the
seed before being sown should be treated as
follows : The seeds should be taken up in the
palm greased with ghee and thrown into milk ;
on the day following the seeds should be taken
out of the milk with greased fingers and the
mass separated into single seeds. This process
is to be repeated on 10 successive days. Then
the seeds are to be carefully rubbed with cow-
dung, and afterwards steamed in a vessel con-
taining the flesh of hogs or deer. Then the
seeds are to be sown with the flesh, with the

1 Translation of these Blokas of the Brihat Sanihita are quoted from
I->i. Deal's Positive Sciecce of the Hindus.

44 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

fat of the hogs added in a soil previously pre-
pared by being sown with sesame and dug up or
trodden down" and then to be sprinkled daily
with water mixed with kshlra (*Hfo) 19 & 20.
"To ensure the growth of Ballans (i.e.>
sprouting and the growth of luxuriant stems and
foliage)," Yarahamihira directs, u the seeds
should be properly soaked in an infusion of
powdered paddy, Masha (Bean), Sesame and
barley mixed with decomposing flesh, and then
steamed with Haridra (turmeric). 'Phis process
will succeed even with the Tintidi (Tamarindus
iudica). For the Kapiltha (Feronia elephantum)
the seeds should be soaked for about 2 minutes
(literally such length of time as it would take one
to make a hundred rhythmic claps with the palms
( flTOV^; ) in a decoction of eight roots : Asphota
(Jasmine), Amain kl (Phyllanthus embellicus),
Dhaba (Grislea tomentosa), Vasika (Justica gua-
derussa), Vetula (Calamus rotung), Stiryyavalll
(Gynandropsis pentaphyla), Shyama (Echites
frutescens) and Atimuktaka (Aganosma caryop-
hyllata) boiled in milk. The seeds then should
be dried in the sun. This process should be
repeated for 30 days. A circular hole should be
dug in the ground, a cubit in diameter, and 2
cubits deep, and this should be filled with the
milky decoction. When the hole dries up it
should be burnt with fire and then pasted over
with ashes mixed with ghee and honey. Three

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 45

inches of soil should now be thrown in, then the
powder of bean, sesame and barley, then again
three inches of soil. Finally washings of fish
should be sprinkled and the mud should be
beaten and reduced to a thick consistency, then
the seed previously prepared should be placed
in the hole under three inches of the soil and fish
washings (with fish) poured. This will lead to
luxuriant ramification and foliage which will
excite wonder." 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 & 26.

The Agnipurana 1 adds that the mango is
specially benefited by cold fish washings (fl?refir
^3fa ilHw ^TOW ttar *W?* ). One can see this
process is still resorted to in many mango gar-
dens of Bengal.

Agnipurana ~ also prescribes pouring of fish-
washing .as a general measure for luxuriant

growth of trees

The same idea of pouring fish-washings as a
means of helping development of fruits is con-
veyed in one of the aphorisms of Khana 3 which
runs thus :

" Gourds flourish under the influence of
fish washings."

Chakradatta in his Chikitsa-samgraha, 4 un-
der section gT?TOTfa-f3f%WT (Treatment of

1 Chap, 194, pp. 305 and 306 (Bengali Translation).
1 Chap 281. 13.
* *TtC? 5CT 5ft$ *tEv5, etc.

4 Sloka 86, pp 293, 294, edited by Pyarimohan Sengupfca, 129, {
B.S.

46 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Rheumatism), gives a long recipe for the pre-
paration of an oil, where it is said that when
a dry barren tree is sprinkled with this oil
(at the root) it becomes full of flowers and
fruits, graceful and strong (.

In the next Sloka l he gives another recipe
where he says that " if this oil be poured at the
root of a dry tree it will sprout and bear flowers
and fruits."

" Thus it will be seen that these elaborate
recipes are empirical contrivances for supplying
the plant with the requisite nitrogen compounds,
phosphates, etc., those being potentially contain-
ed in the mixtures and infusions prescribed/ 3
(Seal).

As to the rotation of crops in the.same field
two crops were used to be grown rice in summer
and pulses in winter. Rotation of crops was
thus known, and " to India Dr. Roxburgh
believes the Western world to be indebted for
this system." *

5. Treatment of plants. The science of the
treatment of plants (Vrlkshayuroeda) which

1 Sloka 87 .

i: u

- Mrs. 8pier,Life in Ancient India, Chap. VII, p. 151, London
1856 Cf. also Fragment XT Fragments of Indika of Megasthenes,
Bonn, 184,6.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 47

does not yet technically exist in the West is
represented by a regular section of the monu-
mental work of Varahamihir l as well as one in
Agnipurana. 2 The chapter entitled the " Vriksha-
yurveda " or the science of treatment of plants
in disease denotes elaborate care.

Gunaratna in his commentary :J writes
'* Just as the human body is subject to jaundice,
dropsy, shofa (?), emaciation and defects
(dwarfness) of finger, nose, etc., etc., so also
plants suffer from similar diseases such as
inception of disease, displacement or dislocation
of flower, fruit, leaves, bark."

" And just as by the application of the ap-
propriate remedies unnatural growth, deteriora-
tion, wounds, fructures, etc., can be cured, so
also in plants by application of proper drugs as
prescribed in Vrikshayurveda"

Ankara Mis'ra 4 also in his Upaskara notices
* application of drugs ' in plants (H^fwfta).

Varahamihir 5 gives the following signs of
the diseased condition of plants

" Cold climate (low temperature), wind
(dryness) and sun (high temperature) are the

1 Brihat-samhita, Chap. fvl.

* \gnipuislna, Chap. 281.

3 Bibliothera IiKlioa, New Seiios, 1151 (1907).

* On Vaiseshika Philosophy, 4-2-5
5 Chap. 54, Vol, II.

48 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

causes of disease. ("When the plant is diseased)
the leaves become yellow (etiolated), buds
(WT5TTTi ) do not develop or their growth
arrested, branches become dry and the sap
(rasa} exudes. ?; 14.

Kasyapa says " those plants that have
yellow leaves (trrairc; iriNl), that are fruitless
and denuded of leaves arid those caused by
coldness, excessive heat, too much rain, dry
wind and by the intermingling of roots of
different plants are to be known as diseased,
and are to be treated accordingly."

Treatment. Remedies are prescribed both
preventive and curative.

As a general prophylactic Varahamihir says :

" As a sort of general prophylactic mud
kneaded with ghee and Virlanga should be ap-
plied to the roots, after which milk diluted with
water should be poured.'* 15.

In the Agnipurana remedies arc given almost
to the same effect : " Vidanga mixed with
rice, fish and flesh all these mixed together con-
stitute a remedy invigorating to the plants and
curative of their diseases." 13.

Turning to curative : A cure is prescribed
for that most incurable of diseases barrenness.
Varahamihir prescribes " As a remedy against
barrenness a hot decoction should be made of
Knlattha (Dolichos biflorus), Masha (Phaseolus
mungo var Roxburghii), Mudya (Ph. radiatus),

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 49

Tila (Sesamum indicum) and Yava (Barley)
which when cooled should be poured round the
roots." 1 6 & 20.

Almost an identical recipe occurs in the
Agnipuraija " Vidanya and ghee kneaded with
mud and sprinkled with cold water together
with Kulattha, Masha, Mungo, Yava and Tila
should be used in a case of barrenness
(W*T$)." 10.

6. Respiration. Inspiration iii plants in
the modern sense was perhaps unknown to the
ancient Indians. But the injurious effects of
carbon dioxide (a gas given out by the plants
during respiration) seems to be not unknown
to them, a fact which is evident from an injunc-
tion of Manu. 1 Thus :

" One should not stay (sleep) during night
hours under a tree, nor pass under it."

7. Movements. Irritability. The pheno-
mena of the movements of plants, their capacity
for sleep, their sensitiveness to touch (contact),
heat, wind, noise (thunder), etc., were noticed
long ago.

In the Mahabharata, Santiparva, 2 we get
an account of the sensitiveness of plants to
touch, heat, thunder, etc.

The Buddhist Scholiast Dharmottara in his
Nyayavindu Tika 8 notices the phenomenon of

1 ManusamhitS. IV, 73.

2 Chap. 184.

3 Bibliotheca Indica, Chap. II, 23, edited by P. Peterson, 1889,

50 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

sleep contraction of leaves in the night
TTcft trawfa:) in certain plants

Udayana in his Kiranavali, 3 in a chapter
named ll^l^f^^U^ifl (Prithivlnirupanani), noti-
ces in plants " the phenomena of life, death,
sleep, waking, disease, drugging, transmission of
specific characters by means of ova, movements
towards what is favourable and avoidin what
is unfavourable.' 5

Gunaratna in his commentary 2 enumerates
the following characteristics of plant life :
Various kinds of movements or actions connect-
ed with sleep, waking, expansion, and contrac-
tion in response to touch, also movements to-
wards a support or prop.

Guiiaratna also gives a list of plants that
exhibit the phenomena of Sleep and Waking.
He also notices the sensitiveness to touch of
plants like the Mimosa pudica (^fWR^t hence
the name) which show a manifest reaction in
the form of contraction.

He also notices that Nelumbium speciosum
(lotus) opens with the sunrise ; Ghoshataki
(Luffa amara or acutangula) and others in the

1 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1342 (1912), Fasc. Ill, pp.
238.244.

> Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907), Slokn 49, p. 157,

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 51

evening and Lily with the rise of moon.

Saftkara Misra in his Upaskara l also notices
plants as characterised by " approaching the
agreeable and avoiding the disagreeable, etc.

t "

In this connexion we might mention that the
name ' Suryyamukhl * (Sunflower) for the
particular plant a flower which always faces
the rising sun is significant.

8. Growth. The stages of growth in plant
life are very briefly but comprehensively noted
by Gunaratna in his commentary. Thus :

(1) Stages of infancy, youth and age.

(2) Regular growth " Just as man experi-
ences the stages of infancy, adolescence, youth
and old age thereby demonstrating full con-
sciousness, so also do trees." " And just as the
human system undergoes constant growth
through the stages of infancy, adolescence,
youth, etc., likewise a tree undergoes growth
through stages of sprouting, seedling with new
leaves, branching and so forth."

The conditions of growth seem to be not
unknown to the ancient Indians. Thus :

1 S. B. H., Vol. IV, and Gough's Translation and Edition, 4, 2, 5

52 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(1) Food The same Commentator mentions
growth or decay by assimilation of suitable or
unsuitable food.

(2) Water (*J5MT3ITWTC, etc.). The neces-
sity of water as a condition of growth (^) of
plants is emphasized by the mythical prophet-
ess Khana "Light by day and water by
night these two lead to the growth of strength
to plants."

(3) Light as a factor for healthy growth
is also mentioned. Light as a general rule
retards growth, absence of light or shade accele-
rates it. The following aphorism of Khana l
very tersely puts the truth :

" Ol (Amorphophallus campanulatus) grown
in a shady place, i.e., in the absence of direct
sunlight causes irritation in the mouth, but it
is not to be regretted/' for what is lost in qua-
lity is gained in quantity, i.e., Ol grows in vol-
ume in shade which is economically the more
important.

" Betel leaf in shade and paddy in sunlight " a
also testifies the same truth.

But for healthy growth light is necessary
is clear from the aphorism already quoted under
factor * water.'

9. Age and Death. The marvellous longe-
vity attained by plants is also referred to by

itft 5" i

fLANT PHYSIOLOGY 53

Gunaratna, in his commentary l to the extent
of a maximum of ten thousand years

: ).

He also mentions the causes of death, such
as assimilation of suitable and unsuitable .(^T-
f^TTirT^HTHT ) food, also disease.

Udayana also notices in his Kiranavali 2 death,
disease, drugging, etc., in plants.

irwiwfrr, etc.)

So also in Upaskara 3 (

10. Consciousness in Plants. The pheno-
menon of consciousness in plants was well
known to the ancient Hindus, and throughout
the whole of their literature we find scattered
references unmistakably bearing testimony to
this knowledge. In popular superstition as well
as in profound speculation we meet with this
testimony. The popular notion of Vriksha-
Devata or presiding deities of trees corresponding
to the Dryads of the Greeks is a matter of
common knowledge. Some of the Jatakas
which are systematised popular stories relating
to Buddha, mention the Bodhi-Sattwa born as
Tree-spirit for 33 times. And the grammatical
treatise like Kalapa referred to this prevalent

1 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907), pp. 157, 158.

2 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1342 (1912), Fasc. Ill, pp. 238,
239, etc.

3 Sacred Book of the Hindus Series, Vol. VI, pp. 159-60. (Panini
office.) Also A. E. Gough's translation, Benares, 1873, pp. 14:7-148.

54 PLANTS ANT) PLANT-LIFE

popular belief as to the trees being animated by
spirits.

Coming from popular belief to profound
speculation wo meet with precisely the same
thing. A verse in the Rigveda 1 is addressed to
the plants evidently referring to their possession
of the gift of hearing. Ihe practice is repeated
both in the Big and the Atharva 2 Vedas.

Mahidas Aitareya ;j includes the herbs and
trees along with animals in the organic world.
According to him plants belong to the last of
the four classes of beings, i.e., propagated from
germs. In his theory of the gradual develop-
ment of the soul he says, " In herbs and trees,
for example, Sap (life) only is seen, but thought
(Chitta) in the widest sense is in the higher
forms of life." ^ In another place of his Book
(I. 2. 4 11) he says, " all forms of life eat and
drink. All lower animals propagate the species.
Even the plants when they are grown up, bear
fruits."

Uddalaka says that " the living principle is
the potentiality of living bodies the real seed
of things. It is, for example, that potentiality

Rigveda, X, 97.21

Atharva Veda, XI, 6 10. " In obedience to the thundering
voice of the vital breath (piaim) that t.h plants are fecundated, that
they conceive and multiply." Dr. Kama's History of Pre-Buddhistic
Indian Philosophy, I, p 2. 1 }, 1921.

3 Aitareya Aranyaka, 1, f>. 1. i). ; II. 6. 1. 5. Barua, IV, pp.
57, 68.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 55

or vitality in an infinitesimally small seed from
which a large Banyan tree springs into existence.
It is the spirit which animates all the parts of
a living being. When this spirit leaves any
branch of a tree, that withers, i.e., ceases to
be an integral part of the living whole, when
it leaves another branch, that too withers. And
when in this way it leaves finally the whole tree
withers and perishes. But the living principle
never dies." 1

The Manu Sarbhita 2 distinctly states that
the trees are trees on account of their being
under the influence of tamdguna (cWltJ^O?
but they " possess a sort of dormant or latent
consciousness, and are capable of pleasure and

pain."

According to Maskarin Gosala 3 "the plant
life or vegetable kingdom, like the elemental
life, is possessed of only one sense, the sense of
touch. But Gosala admits that plants in general
stand higher in the scale than elemental lives."

There is a lengthy, philosophical or rather an
analytical exposition of the theme of conscious-
ness in plants in the Mahabharata, Santiparva. 4

f Chhftndoprya Upanishad, VI. 12. 1 2 Barua, ibnl, VI II,
pp, 136-137.

2 Manu, 1. 49.

3 Barua, ibid, XXI, p. 308.

4 gSntiparva, 184th Chapter, p. 855. Kflliprasanna Singha's
Translation, Basurnati Edition.

56 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

" Brahman," interrogated Bharadwnj, "if
bodies both moving and unmoving, are made up
of five elements, why do we not then perceive
their existence in the immovables? Plants and
creepers, can neither hear, nor see or smell,
taste or touch. Nor are there in them liquids
like blood, the elements of fire (energy), earth
represented by bone and marrow, the element
of air represented by activity, and the sky
(ether) represented by empty space (pore).
How then, can they be regarded as constituted
of five elements ?"

"Brahman," replied Bhrigu, " we cannot
indeed perceive the existence of Ether in them
through the naked eye because they are solid
( ^Rfajcf ), but when we ponder over the fact
how they constantly produce fruits and flowers
this existence becomes manifest to us. How
can we doubt the existence of their gift of touch
seeing that their leaves, bark, fruit and flowers
wither under the influence of heat ? We must
infer the gift of hearing in them seeing that
their fruits and flowers dry up under the influ-
ence of wind, fire and the sound of thunder.
Eyeless creatures can never go their way of
themselves, and as creepers approach and wind
round the trees and move at will, we must
admit the existence of sight in them. And as
they can be healed of their diseases by the
application of odour both pleasant and unpleasant

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 57

and also by frankincense of various types,
it is sure that they possess the power of sense.
The organ of taste in them must be inferred
from the fact that they are capable of drinking
water through the root. As we suck up water
through a lotus stalk applied to the mouth so
do plants with the help of air drink up water
through their roots. Thus as they are found to
be sensitive to pleasure and pain, and as they
are seen to undergo regeneration after muti-
lation, we must admit the existence of life in
them. Fire (energy) and air (CO 2 ) help in the
assimilation of the water that unmoving beings
like trees take up (from the soil) through the
roots/'

Udayana 1 also notes " that plants have a

dormant unmanifested consciousness which is
extremely dull " faf^R^TOt^facWT, etc).

Gunaratna 2 in his commentary refers distinct-
ly to the consciousness of plants as a point of
similarity between plants and man ( JRJ; jj^q-
sqrkg^Icsaq *%c|^t s^rofaftfa)- He then
elaborates his remarks.

Upaskara 3 commenting on Kanada's aphor-
ism (4.2.5) refers to plants as being the " ground
of experience of the consequences of acts."
Thus " Trees and the like also are no doubt

1 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1342 (1912), Pasc. Ill, pp. 238-244.

2 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).
s 8.B.H., Vol. VI, Panini Office,

8

58 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

so many kinds of bodies, being the seat of expe-
rience (i.<?, 5 the field wherein particular souls
reap the consequences of their acts in previous
births). For without the characteristic of being
the seat of experience, life, death, sleep,
waking, use of medicine, propagation of the
seed, approaching agreeable, avoiding the dis-
agreeable, etc., would be impossible/'

The Bhagabat Puraiia 1 very definitely
points out the following peculiarities of plants

)

(1) their process of taking of food
from below upwards

(2) dormant consciousness (?m;in9T

%fl*n:), and

(3) the possession of the sensation of touch

"Chakrapaiji notes in the Bhanumati that
the consciousness of plants is a sort of stupefied
(darkened or comatose) consciousness

11. Sexuality* The idea of sexuality in
plants as entertained by the ancients in
India is highly quaint but vague and inaccurate,
being the result not of scientific observation
but of pure poetic speculation from start to
finish. The general idea of the division of the

1 3rd Skanda, 10th Chap,, Slokas 19, 20, p. 30, with Sridhar Swami's
Commentary, Calcutta, 1294 B.8.
* pr. Seal, Positive Science, p. 175.

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 59

plant kingdom into male and female based 011
human analogy was formed. Thus Hftrita
Samhita 1 records possibly the earliest fanciful
division :

" Harlta asks :

6 Why, O sage, is there no conception
without the union ? Or, why are there no floorers
and fruits produced without the union (of- the
sexes) ? Why is the same kind of fruition not
to he perceived in women as in the plants ?*

Atreya said :

' The seed, O son, is produr co

operation of different sexes ar in'

and the fixed plants, its qualit^
to the sperm (wg).

" No two opinions exist
my son, among the fixed p 1
ed with siva and sakf

1 gSrirasthSna, Chap. I, p. 344,
gakabda 1807.

T '*n*)i ft*

60 PLANTS AND tLANT-LM

the female procreative energies, know this. That
which has static (fSf^tsf^) property is to
be known as siva, the male, and that which
has dynamic property (^rrffwfw) is to be
known, the great-souled one, as sakti, the
female. The functions of the male and the
female arise from their combination. The
niai^o flowers, fruits and stones (embryo within)
likewise are endowed with sukra, the genera-
ting po ~er."

Ghara-'a 1 is more clear, though not at

all mr ^ntific than Harlta on this point.

In c ^e description of properties, etc.,

of V * 'hena antidysenterica) Charaka

"^ * the Vatsaka which bears

* fruits, and tender (f%PW;)

\e category of males ; and

1 and yellow flowers and

ilk and whose colour is

<2jory of females,

idu knowledge in this

urther, as we get in

assification of plants

neuter based on the

as slenderness or

Bengali Edition of D. N.

English Translation

JPLANT PHYSIOLOGY 61

stoutness, softness or hardness, length or short-
ness, simplicity or complexity of the character
of the stem and flowers.

The famous lexicon of Amara 1 represents
observation as going a bit further, but he gives
us the very reverse of scientific truth. He
confounds the pollens of flowers as correspond-
ing to the female menstruum.

Pliny, 2 the foreign observer, mentions
" The Indians tell us that in these plants (Indian
Heeds perhaps Palmyra or Date-palm is
meant) also the distinction of male and female
obtains, the body of the male being more compact,
and that of the female of greater amplitude."

Curiously enough in one case 3 we get the
differentiation of sexes in plants based on actual
observation. This is the instance of Ketakl
(Pandanus odoratissimus). This plant is always
mentioned as a couple ( %35ffe31 ) ; the
male one being designated as Sitaketakl and the
female one as Svarnaketakl. That the former
is a male is emphasised by the author of Bhaba-
prakas by calling it Eetaka ( %?ran ). Rajani-
ghantu describes Sitaketakl (male) as Biphala
not producing fruits ; Dhulipushpika having
flowers with dusts, i.e. } with only pollen grains
(microspores). Dhanvantarl Nighaijtu has

1 Vanaushadhi Varga. 60.
6 McCrindle, Ancient India, Sec. V, 1901.
Vanaushadhi Darpana, Vol. I, pp. 222-223, Calcutta, 1908.

>2 PLANTS A1SD PLANT-LIFE

lescribed Svarnaketalti (female) as Kanaka-
vrasava yielding a golden harvest, Sngandhinl
^sweet-scented), etc.

12. Reproduction. Various methods of
propagation of plants such as by fruits and seeds
[vijaruha), by roots (mulaja), by cuttings
skandhaja), by graftings (^p ^q^i) 5 by
igravlja (apical portions), by parnayoni (leaves)
ind saHnarudhaja (?) are mentioned in ancient
reatises.

Propagation by seeds ( Vijaruha) is a very
jommon method which has been known to the
lindus from the very earliest times. The
.ligveda refers to it, the Atharva Veda mentions
t in various places. Manu 1 has also mentioned
fc. " Some of these plants grow from seeds and
ome from planted cuttings."

Propagation by bulbous roots and under-
;round stems (Kandavljam] has been an equally
ommon method. A distinct mention of the
lethod is found in the Arthasastra 2 where the
ollowing rule is laid down: "Seeds of bulbous
oots (Kandavija] with honey and clarified
tutter are to be smeared with before plantin^."

Cutting (Skandhaoljam) is another method
esorted to for the purpose of propagation.
tanu 1 mentions it. The process is very
fell described in the Arthasastra 2 and

1 Manu, I, 46, 48.

* Arthasftatra, Chap, 24, p. 141. gharaa Saatn 'a English Translation

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 63

Brihat-sarhhita 1 of Varahamihir. The former
prescribes that the "seeds of sugarcane and the
like are (to be) plastered at the cut end with the
mixture of honey, clarified butter, the fat of
hogs, and cow dung" before being planted.

Brihat-samhita enjoins that KantJial (Jack
fruit), Asoka (Saraca indica), Kadall (Plantain),
Jambu (Blackberry), Lakncha (Artocarpus lacoo-
cha), Dudima (Pomegranate), Draksha (Vine),
Palibata, Vljapura (Lemon tree) and Atimiiktaka
all these are to be planted by means of
cuttings (^rrafffcn: ) The cuttings are to be
besmeared with cowdung and then planted.

4&5.

Maskarin Gosala 2 mentions " sugarcane,
bamboo, reeds, etc,, propagate from joints."

Better (UT) than cuttings is the process of
grafting as recommended by the author of Bri-
hat-samhita. There are two methods: one con-
sisting in inserting the cutting from one plant
into the root of another severed from its trunk.
And the second method consists in inserting the
cutting of one tree into the stem of another
the cutting is called the scion and the parent
plant is called the stock. 5.

Another method is mentioned as Agravija %
i.e., plants whose apices are only planted as a
means of propagation Betel is propagated in

1 Brihat-samhita, Chap. 54, Vol. II, p. 743.
* Barua, XXI, p, 306.

64 PLANTS AND, PLANT-LIFE

this way. This may also mean propagation from
"buddings" (see below).

Then there is the method known as Parna-
yonit i.e.> leaves serving as a means of multipli-
cation. The present common example of this
method of propagation is found in BryophylJum
calycinum and in Begonias.

Lastly, a method the method of self-
layering is described by Onesikritos l thus "...
there are some large trees from which branches
grow out to the length even of 12 cubits.
These branches then grow downwards, as if
they had been bent until they touch the
ground. They next penetrate into the soil and
take root like shoots that have been planted.
Then they spring upwards and forms a trunk. 33
Pliny 2 also mentions this kind of propagation
with regard to the Indian Pig tree.

That these various methods of propagation
of plants were a common knowledge in India
will also appear from a dialogue of the Buddha'
in which the following remarks occur:

"Whereas some recluses and Brahmans,
while living on food provided by the faithful,
continue addicted to the injury of seedlings and
growing plants whether propagated from roots,

1 McCrindle, Ancient India, Sec. 21 (1901).
Book XII. 0. (11).

3 Dialogues of the Buddha, Part I, Brahma Jala Sutta 11.
Sacred Books of the Buddhists Series, Vol. II, pp. 6, 7 (Rhys Davids).

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 65

or cuttings or joints or buddings or seeds
G&tama the recluse holds aloof from such
injury to seedlings and growing plants. 3 '

Buddha Ghosha 1 in his comment upon the
passage gives us illustrations of the methods of
propagation mentioned above. Thus:

Mida-bijam (root-seeds) Haliddim (Tur-
meric), Singiveram (Zingiber),
Tacam (Acorus calamus), AH-
msam (Aconitum heterophyl-
lum), Katukarohini (Picror-
rhiza kurroa), Usiram (Andro-
pogon muricatus), etc.

Khanda*bijam (cuttings) Assattho (Ficus re-
ligiosa), Kacckako (Cedrela
toona), Nigrodha (Ficus benga-
lensis), Pilakkho (Ficus infec-
toria), Udumbaro (F. glomerata),
Kapitthano (Feronia elephant-
urn), etc.

Phalu-btjam (joints) as in Reed.
Agga-bijam (buddings) the plant Samirana,
Ajjukam (Ocimum basilicum),
Hiriveram (Andropogon cynan-
thus), etc.

Bija-bljam (seeds) Pubbannaw, (7 dhanyas
paddy), Apparannam (Pulses,
Cucurbita, etc.).

1 The Samaftgla-VilSsini Buddha Ghosha 's commentary on the
Dlghanikfiya. Edited "V Rhys Davids and Carpenter, P.T.S., Part 1,
p, 81. D.I. 1 11.
9

SEC 1 ION VI

ECOLOGY: OR STUDY OF PLANTS IN THEIR
NATURAL HOMES.

Chamka 1 divides land into different regions
according to the nature of the soil (edaphic con-
ditions) and climate (climatic conditions) that
determine the characteristic vegetation, and also
mentions some of the plants characteristic of
each region. Thus he divides land into :

(1) Jangala region (literally, dry wilder-
ness-deserts ; plants Xerophytes}.

(2) Anupa region (literally, abounding in
water ; plants aquatic (Hydrophytes) and
marshy (Hyyrophytes).

(3) Sadharana region (ordinary ; plants
Mesophytes}.

1. Jangala region. " The region called Jan-
gala is full o unobstructed open spaces, where
a steady and dry wind blows, pervaded with
expansive mirages ; rivers and rivulets scarce,
abounding in well (scarcity of water) also abound-
ing with dry and rough sands and big sandy
particles (kankur*)." l 6 & 7.

1 Cbaraka, Kalpasthffna T. Madanaphala Kalpa, 6, 7 and 8
(verses). For English Translation, see Fasc. LXl, Kalpasthftna, L*B80P
I, pp. 1917, 1918 (English Translation).

ECOLOGY 67

Susruta l describes this region as : "the
country which presents a flat surface, and whose
dull monotony is enlivened here and there by
scanty growths of thorny shrubs, and tops of a
few isolated hills and knolls, and in which the
waters from springs and wells, accumulated
during the rains, become nearly drained, and
strong <?ales of warm wind blow (during the
greater part of the year;." 35.

According to Chamka the following are the
plants that grow in this region : Khadira
(Acacia catechu), A sew a (Pentaptera tomentosa),
ASvalwrna (a variety of Shorea robusta), Dhava
(Conocarpus latifolia), Tinisha (Dalbergia oojei-
nensis), iSallakl (Boswellia serrata), Sala (Shorea
robusta), Somavalka (Acacia arabica), Vadarl
(Zizyphus jujuba), Tiuduka (T)iospyros glutinosa),
Aswattha (Ficus religiosa), Vata (F. bengalensis)
and Amlaki (Phyllanthus emblica). The pre-
dominant types of trees are: Sami (Mimcsa
sumo), Arjima (Pentaptera arjuna) and tiimsapa
(Dalbergia sisoo) these are all xerophytic.

6&7.

2. An up a region. (Marshy or swampy and
watery.)

Swampy " mostly abounding in rivers and
bordered by seas, swept by cold wind, i.e ,
charged with abundant moisture. The country

1 Sutrasthano, Chap. 35, verses 34-42. For English Translation,
see Vol. IT, pp. 325.26.

68 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

is interspersed with rivers, banks of which are
decked with Vanjula (Calamus rotung) and
Vunira (Calamus Roxburghii of the aquatic
variety). Mountains are absent from this region.
The region is thickly overgrown with forests,
bowers and trees in flowers encircled by verdant
trees and tender creepers.

The land is covered with dense forests of
Rintala (Phouiix paludosa), Tala (Borasus flabel-
liformis), Tamala (Cinnamomurn tamala), Ndri-
kela (Cocos nucifera) and Kadali (Musa sapien-
turn). Char aha. 8,

Sutruta describes this region as the country
"that contains a large number of pools, and is
wooded and undulated with chains of lofty hills
traversing its area, and which is impassable
owing to its networks of rivers and sheets of
accumulated rain water rippling before the cur-
rents of the gentle, humid air." 34.

Varahamihir 1 mentions the following trees as
growing in Anupa region : Jambu (Eugenia
jarabolana\ Fetasa (Calamus rotung), V&nira,
(Calamus sp.), Kadam'ia (Anthocephalus cadam-
ba), Udumb*ra (Ficus glomerata), Arjuna (Ter-
minalia arjuna), Vijapuraka (Citrus medica),
Drak&ha (Vines), Lakucha (Artocarpus lakoocha),
Dqdima (Pomegranate), Vahjula (Calamus sp.),
Naktamala (Caesalpinia bonducella)^ Tilaka
(Sesame), Panasa (Jack fruit), Timira (?),

1 Chap. 54, Vol. II, p. 745.

ECOLOGY 69

Amrataka (Spondias mangifera), these '16
kinds of trees are the predominant species of
this region." 10 & 11.

Aquatic plants ( Hydrophytes]

Amara 1 mentions the following plants as
growing exclusively in water :
Saugandhika, Kalhara ... White water-lily.
Ilallaka, Raktasandftyaka Red variety.
Utpala, Kubalaya ... Any other water-lily.

Indfvara ... A blue one.

Kumuda ... Nympha>a lotus

(esculent white sort)-
Padma, Kawala ... Nelumbium specio-

sum (lotus).

Ptittdarika, Sitambhoja ... A white lotus.
Kokanada, Ba/ctotpnla .. A red lotus.
Variparni ... Pistia stratiotes.

Mushdkarm ... Azolla, Salvinia.

JalanlM, Saivala ... Vnllisnaria, and the

green algae.

3. Sadharana or the ordinary. Charaka
says " That region which is endued with
creepers, and plants and trees of both the
classes, i.e., the Vanaspati and Vanaspatya, is
called Sadharana. ' 9.

According to Snsruta a country which
exhibited features common to both the aforesaid
classes is called Sadharana or ordinary." 36.

1 Amarakosha, Patftlavarga 50-56. Cf. Colebrooke's Edition (1807),
Book I, Chap 2, Section 3, Aquatic Plants, 36-42,

70 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

In the Sicaryavanja of Amamkosha the
following trees Mandara. Parijataka, Sant&na,
Kalpavrikslia and Harichandana are mentioned
as five celestial ones ; and they seem to be alpine
(mountainous) trees, as according to Hindu
mythology Heaven or the abode of gods, is
situated at the top of the Himalayas.

Plant Association. In some places plants of
a particular species predominate over others,
and the place is given the name of the species
dominating there to the exclusion of others.
Such as ! :

Kumudrat'i, Kumudini the place where
white water-lilies predominate ; place abounding
in lotus is called Pndmini, Xalim ; where reeds
abound it is called Xadcat^Xadrala ; one abound-
ing in ratans is called Vctaswun, in green
grasses Sadcala (in^f;).

Even rivers abounding in particular species
are known by the species dominating such as
Saracati abounding in sara (reeds) and Vetravati
abounding in Vetra (ratans).

The names Kudadiripa, Plakshadictpa, $31 malt-
dwipa, etc., for the different islands in the Pura-
nas, may be indicative of "places where these
particular plants Kusa (Poa cynosuroides),
Plaksha (Eicus infectoria), SalmaU (Bombax
malabaricum), etc,, predominated.

1 Amarj, Pvtala and Bhumi Vurgas (9 and 10).

SECTION VII
TAXONOMY

1. Nomenclature. The naming of plants
constitutes a highly interesting topic, full of
historical and cultural significance, showing
us at once a good deal of the accurate know-
ledge of the geography of India, and throwing
an interesting sidelight upon the brisk inter-
course among the different parts of India,
and giving us unmistakable proofs of the power
of scientific observation.

In the second volume ' of his " Botanical
Observation on Select Indian Plants " Sir William
Jones, the President-Pounder of the Asiatic
Society, Bengal, writes

" I am very solicitous to give Indian plants
their true Indian appellations, because I am
fully persuaded that Linnaeus himself would
have adopted them had he known the learned
and ancient language of this country, etc."

The plants 2 have been named according to
A . Special association :

(i) Bodhi-druma (Ficus religiosa) so call-
ed after Buddha's attaining nirvana
under it.

1 A Review, XXXIII.

2 Only a few examples under each are given as illustration,

72 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(ii) ASoka (Saraca indica) so called after
legendary association with Asoka
forest in which Sita, that pink of
chastity, was confined.

(Hi) tSiraSekhara (Datura) as the flower
is associated with Siva, the Indian
god of destruction.

(iv) Yayiiadnmnra (F. glomerata) associ-
ated with sacrifice Hoina.

B. Special property:

(a) Medicinal :

(i) Dadruyhna (Cassia fistula) that which

cures ring- worm.
(ii) Arsoyhna (Amorphophallus campanu-

latus) that which destroys piles.
(iii) Sothaghna (Boerhavia repens) that

which destroys dropsy oedema.
(iv) Abyatha (Myrobalan haritaklj that

which takes away pain.
(v) Kusthanasim (Somaraji) that which

cures leprosy (skin disease).
(vi) Lodhra (Symphlocos racemosa) that

which stops ocular discharge.

(6) Domestic utility :

(i) Vanira (Cane) it is desired for mak-
ing houses.

(ii) Dantadhabana (Acacia catechu) re-
quired for cleansing the teeth,

TAXONOMY 73

(Hi) Karpasa (Cotton) that out of which

clothes are weaved.
(/*?) Dhanudrnma (Bamhusa) that out of

which bows are made.
(/) Lckhana (Heed) from which lekhani

(pens) are made.
(vi) Aynimantha (Premna spinosa or serra-

tifolia) gathered for kindling fire.

C. Special characteristic features :

(/") Phcnila (Soap berry) its seeds give
lather or foam with water.

(ii) Bahupada (Ficus bengalensis) many
legged with prop or pendent roots
serving as so many legs.

(Hi) Sltisam (Diospiros sp. a sort of
ebony) black is its wood.

(iv) Atmagupta (Dolichos pruriens) self-
protected fruits having been pro-
vided with spiny hairs, also highly
poisonous.

(#) Charmin (Bhojapatra) with wide
charma (bark).

D. Special morphological features:

(a) According to the number of leaflets in
the compound leaf:

(i) Divipatra (Bauhinia) evidently wrong.
(ii) Tripatra (Wood apple) with three
leaflets.

10

74 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(Hi) Saptaparna (Echites scholaris) with
seven leaflets.

(&) Nature or shape of leaf:

(i) Dirghapatraka (Cane-ratan) with very

long leaves.
(ii) Kfaaparm (Achyranthes sp.) leaves

having the shape of the ear of a

monkey.
(Hi) Mufiknparni (Salvinia) whose leaves

resemble the shape of the ear of a mice.
(iv) Asvaparnaka (a variety of Shorea

robusta) leaves resemble the shape

of the ear of a horse.
(v) Pauchangula (Ricinus) with palmate

and five-ribbed leaves.

(vi) Kuntakapatrika (Brinjal) having
prickly leaves.

(fl) Shape and colour of flowers :

(i) Vakrapuspa (Sesbania grandiflora )

with papilionaceous flowers.
(ii) Ilentapuspa (Michelia champaca)
flowers having the colour of gold.
(d) Miscellaneous :

(i) Satamull (Asparagus) with hun-
dred roots (many).

(ii) Sataparvika (Grasses) hundred
(many) joints (parva) in its stem.
(in) Tivaksara (Bamboo) with hard
(woody) skin f

TAXONOMY 75

(iv) Drumotpala (Pterospermum aceri-
folium) lotus-like flowers on
wood.

(v) Apnspaplialada (Jack-fruit) fruit
without (apparent) flowers.

E. Local association:

(i} SauMra (Zizyphus jujube) indi-
genous of Saubir (Sourashtra).
(ii) Champeya (Michelia sp.) indigen-
ous of Champa, Bhagalpur.
(iib) Magadhi (Jasmine or Piper lori-
gum) indigenous of Magadha
North Behar.

(iv) Odrapuspa (China rose) indigen-
ous of Odra Orissa or China ?

(v) Vaidehi (Pepper) indigenous of
Videha Mithila North Behar.

(vi) DrarMaka (Pita sathi) indigen-
ous of Dravid the Deccan.

F. Environmental association :

(i) Nadisarjja (Arjun Terminalia

arjuna) grows on the banks of

rivers.
(it) Jalaja (Hijal Barringtonia acutan-

gula) grows in water.
(iii) Vanaprastha (Bassia latifolia)

grows in woodlands.

(iv) Pankeruha (Lotus) grows in mud.
(v) Mar^tvaka (Ocimum sp.) grows in

deserts.

76 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(vi) TIemavati (Myrobalan) grows on

cold mountain.

(vii) Kutaja (Holarrhena antidysente-
rica) grows on mountain peaks.

G. Other characteristics:

(i) Tabula (Mimusops) often cited by

poets.
(ii) SitabMru (Jasmine) dies in (afraid

of) winter.
(ill) Maghya (Kunda) flowers in MiigJia

(February).

(iv) Saradi (Jussieua repens or white
lotus) flowers during Autumn
(Sarat).
(v) Tishyaphala (Phyllanthus) fruits

in Pous (December- January).
(vi) Bhutahasa (Bay eda)~~ ghosts haunt

these plants.

It may be noticed that the Hindu nomencla-
ture of plants went further in this direction,
being not satisfied with giving them deno-
minations after particular features. It gave
most of the plants double names one based on
a salient external feature (qfrqq^ifqcRT ?9TffT),
and the other on some prominent medicinal or
other properties (g^q^TTf^J^T WS\)- Thus :

1. The plant Sesbania grandiflora is known as
Takrapushpa (curved flowers), i.e , with
papilionaceous flowers, and also Vranari

TAXONOMY 77

(the foe of boil) on account of its preven-
tive property against that malady.

2. llicinus communis is known as Chitravija

(having painted seeds), Triputiphala (with
trilobed fruits), and also Vat art (the enemy
of rheumatism).

3. Balanites Roxburghii is known as Tlkshna*

kantaUa (having sharp thorns), Tailaphala
(having oily seeds), and also tiuluri (des-
troyer of pains).

4>. Achyranthes aspera is known as Khara-
mafijari (having long and rough spikes),
and Kin) hi (killer of itches, boils, etc.).

5. Linum usitatissimum is known as Nila-

pushplka (blue-flowered), and Pichchhila
(having slippery, i.e. mucilaginous seeds).

6. Calotropis gigantia is known as Kshim-

l;andal\& (having stems with milk), Tula-
pliala (having wooly fruits), and Kharjju*
ffhna (ringworm-killer).

7. Cassia fistula is known as Swafnapushpa

(with golden flowers), Dfoghaphala (long
fruits lament urn), and Kushthasudana
(curer of leprosy).

8. Datura alba is known as Kantaphala (having

spiny fruits), Ghantapushpa (having bell-
shaped flowers), and Mahamohi (great
intoxicator).

9. Indigofera tinctoria is known as Ntlapushpi

(blue-flowered), and Ranjani (dyer).

78 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

10. Butea frondosa is known as Triparna (tri-

foliate), and Kshara-sreshtha (chief of al-
kalies).

11. Acacia arabica is known as Yugmakanta (with

two spines), Malaphala (having beaded
fruits) and Kaphantaka (ender of cough).

TAXONOMY 79

2. Classification of Plants. The Hindu
classification of plants was based upon three
distinct principles, namely :

A. UDBHLDA BOTANICAL,

B. VlRECHANADI MEDICINAL,

C. ANN APAN \DI DIETIC.

A. Classification on Botanical Principles.

A broad classification of plants, probably
based on stature, into Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and
Creepers is to be found as early as in the texts
of the Bigveda. 1 Plants were further classified
into those that bore fruits and flowers and those
that did not.

Manu's classification' 1 of plants is distinctly
clear. According to him :

(1) Those that bear abundant flowers and
fruits, and wither after fructification are called
Oskadhis, e.g., Rice and Wheat (annuals).

(2) Those that bear fruits without evident
flowers are called Vanaspatis.

(3) Both those which produce flowers only
and those which produce fruits only may be
classed as Vrikshas.

(4) Bushy herbs of various types may be
classed as Gruchchha, e.g., Jasminum (Mallika
and the like).

1 Rigveda X, 97. 15.

* Manu-samhita I, 46, 47, 48

80 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(5) Succulent shrubs of various types are
known as Gulmas.

(6) Grasses of different kinds are called
Trinas.

(7) Creepers with stems spreading on the
ground (procumbent and decumbent) are called
Pratanas.

(8) Lastly there are those which twine
round or climb a tree or a support called
PalUs.

Charaka l classifies plants into four orders :

Vanaspatis, Virudhs^ Vanaspatyas and Osha-
dhis.

(1) Vanaspatis are trees that bear fruits
without flowers.

(2) Vanaspatyas are trees that bear first
flowers and then fruits.

(3) OshadhisWQ those herbs that wither
after fructification.

(4) Vtrudhs are herbs with spreading stem,
e.g., creepers and gulmas. (g?iT*JsrTf^: )

Chakrapani, as Dr. Seal points out, notes in
his Commentary on Charaka Vfrudhs com-
prise two classes. (1) Latas creepers, and (2)
Gulmas herbs with succulent or cactaceous
stems and shrubs. The Oshadhis are subdivided
into (1) annuals or perennials, bearing fruit, and
(2) plants that wither away after maturing and

1 Sutrasthana I, 36, 37.

TAXONOMY 81

with out fructification, e.g., grasses like the Durva
(Cynodbn dactylon).

' Susruta 1 lays down almost an identical classi-
fication of plants. Thus "the immobile Oshadhis
(plants in general) in their turn admit of being
grouped under four sub-heads, such as the
Vanaspatis, tho Vrikshas, the Vfoudhs and the
Oshadhis proper.

" Those trees which bear fruit without blos-
soming are called Vanaspatis ; those that bear
both fruits and flowers are called the Vrikshas.
Shrubs and creepers that trail on the ground are
called Vvrudhs, whereas those plants which die
with the ripening of their fruits are called
Oshadhis proper."

The commentator Dalvana* as summarised
by Dr. Seal, gives us some details, i.e., illustra-
tions of each class. "The Plnksha (Ficus infee-
toria) and the Udumbara (Ficus glomerata) are
given as instances of trees bearing fruits without
flowers (Vanaspafis). It appears that plants
with naked and incomplete flowers (achlamy-
deous flowers) were considered as flowerless, as
also trees whose flowers, like those of the fi<?,
are placed on the internal walls of a common
receptacle (hypanthodium). Of the Vrikshas,
flower and fruit-bearing trees, the mango tree,
the Jambu tree (Eugenia jambolana), etc., are

1 Sutrasthana, I, 23, also cf. Eng. Trans., Vol. I, p. 12.

2 Seal, Positive Science, p. 170.
11

82 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

given as examples. The Virudhs are of two
classes (I) creepers with stems spreading on
the ground OKITHTO:), and (2) herbs with
succulent or (cactaceous) stems (<gf*WU; or

. Oshadhis are

those that wither away after fructification, .0.,
wheat, barley, etc. (tR*|crraif*reT ^WHT^BT:). Some
divide Oshadhis into t\vo classes :

(1) those that wither after bearing fruits,
e.g., paddy, linseed, pulses, etc., and

. (2) plants that wither after maturity, and
bear neither flowers nor fruits, <?.#., the mush-
room, etc."

! The Vaiseshika commentator Prasastapada 1
gives us a nicer classification of plants under
six heads. Thus plants are divided into Trinas,
Oshadhis, Vrikshas, Latas, Avatanas and
Vanaspatis. fcntRT ^^trftn^T4QPITOqR|ir:
t[f?I }. Trinas are grasses. Oshadhis are herbs
that wither after fructification. Vrikshas are
trees bearing flowers and fruits. Latas are
spreading and creeping herbs. Avalfinas are
arboraceous plants and shrubs. And Vanaspatis
are trees bearing fruits without flowers.

Sridhara 2 in his Nyaya Kandali gives us
illustrations of each of the above classes : Thus

Ulapa (Imperata arundinacea) as an example of

Trivia^ wheat as an exam pie of Oshadh^ Kovidara

The Vizianagram Sanskrit Series, Vol. IV, p. 28. Benares, 1895,
The Vizianagram Sanskrit Series, Vol. IV, p, 28. Benares, 1895,

TAXONOMY 83

(Bauhinia) as an example of Triksha, Lata is
too well known to need any illustration, Ketaki
(Pandanus odoratissimus) and Tijapuraka
(Citrus medica) as examples of Avatanas (Vita-
pas arboraceous plants, Seal) and the Udum-
bara (Eicus glomerata) as an example of Tanas-
pati.

Udayanacharyya in his Kiraii&vatt l gives
illustrations of these classes which are almost
identical with the preceding. Thus these are
the plants :

(1) Vrikshas are plants that bear flowers
and fruits and have trunks and branches,

(2) Trinas are Ulapas and plants of that
type.

(3) Oshadhisare plants that wither after
fructification, such as Kalama (a speciefc of
paddy).

(4) Gulmas are plants like Bhathas
(W3TI ?).

(5) Lat&a are plants such as Kushmftnda
(a species of Cucurbita) and the like.

(6) Avatanas are Ketakls and plants of
the type.

(7) Vanaspatis are trees that bear fruits
without flowers.

1 Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, No, 1342 (1912), Fuse. II J,
p. 256.

84 PLANTS AND PLAJST-L1FK

The same authority in his selection of
articles erroneously mentions palm as a further
illustration of Trinas (&$W%^*m cITfT^r, ), and
sesamum and paddy of Oshadhis

The classification given in the Bhayavata*
puranam 1 is almost the same. It, too, classifies
them under six heads

(1) Vanaspatis those that bear fruits with-
out flowers.

(2) Oshadhis those that wither after
fructification.

(3) Latas those that climb on others.

(4) Twal'saras those that have hard bark
(toleF ) like bamboos.

(5) Virudhs - bushy shrubs.

(6) Drumas those that bear both flowers
and fruits.

Amara's classification of plants is very inter-
esting being full of details showing a further
advance in knowledge, and we cannot here do
better than fully utilise the masterly sum-
mary done by so great a writer as Dr. B. N.
Seal:-

1 3rd Skanda, 10th Chap., 19th Verse, with Srldhara Swami's
Commentary.

4 Seal, Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, pp, 171-173

TAXONOMY 85

(1) The trees (the flowering Vrikshas and
flowerless Vanaspatis) are fruit-bearing

and possess woody stems ^rre^T^ or hunks

(n^Ti^-w^T^t m**\ w*ran?i warfare: ).

(2) Arboraceous plants and Shrubs (^Cf,
f^sn^Tfaqr: )hearing flowers as well as fruits.

(3) The La tan are next noticed, flowering
plants with herbaceous stems, some of them
creeping on the ground (lirnfa?t ) 3 others succu-
lent (g^ff^t ), others twining or voluble

*rar, s^nfa^ ^m) Cf. Susruta

(1) Next the Osltadhis (in the narrower
sense), herbaceous plants bearing fruits with or
"without flowers and dying or withering away
after fructification. Some instances of Kanda,-
&aka (tubers, rhizomes, corms) are noticed,
e.g. PalfiHtlu (the onion, qgfi^^ ^sr.^qr;),' the
Lasittia (garlic, *TTfT3T^: ) e ^c. But the grami-
naceae enumerated in the Vai&ijacanja are
the chief instances of the Oxliadhix plants that
.die after fructification. These are cultivated
Oshadhis but their affinities with the next
class, the grasses (Trinus) are also noted (e.g.

i ^r*5 g^^^n^T^ i

etc.).
Next are enumerated

(5) the Trinus, grasses of which the charac-
teristic is the formation of yulmas (culms of
grasses with annular knots from which leaves

86 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

spring ^t g^T s^ifamsiTOf ug^ft; ). It

is worthy of note that, in the enumeration of
the grasses, the bamboo is considered as a sort
of giant grass ( s^P33T, ) The reeds
are also placed among the grasses

i

(6) Finally, the Palmaceae (including the
cocoanut, date, areca, and other palms) are
classed as Tree-grasses, probably because, like
the grasses they are endogens characterised by
spikes and parallel veins (a*5?tr;).

<; I (Seal) may add that Amctra places para-
sitical plants among the Latas (

T, etc.). They climb trees and feed upon
them (Cascuta), These are to be distinguished
from climbing plants, like the Guduchi (Tinos-
pora cordifolia), which have separate roots of
their own. They arc also to be distinguished
from the adventitious roots descending from the
branches of trees, like the Ficus religiosa, which
are usually termed Alarohas ( 'SfSTtter: ).

The Hindu Materia Medica mentions Akdsa-
valU, literally sky-creeper, a name which seems
to have been originally intended for some or-
chids ; also Plava (lit. floating), weeds that
float in stagnant ponds, and Saivala, mosses and
lichens (?) (#.</. , f^fi*faJ3W*NTr> etc., Chakrapa-
ni-samgrdhf*>) also Shaba Praka&v). These are
not classified, but like the mushrooms must
come under the Pcikanishtha aushadhis

TAXONOMY 87

'Aushadhis that die after maturing, without
bringing forth flowers or fruits/ i.e. cryp-
togams,

We have so far discussed the classification
of plants accord ; ng to their stature and some
salient vital features which represents just the
first step in the scientific classification. In the
next step the individual plants are sought to be
arranged into certain well-defined groups, genera
or classes according to resemblances in their
essential characteristics. The individual plants
coming under such a group, genus or class, in
their turn are differentiated by certain specific
features, primarily, the colours of their flowers,
Thus :

1. The genus Komddra (Bauhinia) includes
the ftwetapushpa Kovidara (flowers white),
the PUapmhpa Kovidara (flowers yellow B.
tomentosa) and the Haktapushpa Kovidara (B,
purpurea) which resemble in almost all their
essential characteristics but differ in the colours
of the flowers. The Swetapushpa Kovidara is
again differentiated into ftwetakovidara nir*
ffandha (B. acuminata), and Sivetakovidara
surabhikusuma (B. variegata) according as
the flowers are not scented or scented.

2. Similarly the genus Said (Sida) includes
4 species ( ^TT ^JOT^) Said (Sida cordifolia),
Atibala (S, rhombifolia), Mahabala (8. rhom-
boidea) and Nagabala (S. spinosa).

88 PLANTS ANT) PLANT-LIFE

3. The genus Jlnnti (Barleria) includes
4 species (f^f^?^g^T^ ) Saireyaho (flowers
white B. longiflora or B. cristata var. dicho-
toma), ' Dasee (flowers blue B. cristata, or
B. strigosa), Knmntaka (flowers yellow B.
prionitis), Knravaka (flowers purple B.
ciliata).

4. The genus tiigrn (Moringa), includes 3
species ( f*l^RW s ) tftcela-signt (flowers white
Moringa pterygosperma). Rakta- or Madhu-
sigru (flowers red) and tiovaujanfi (flowers blue).

5. The genus Sarapwilchn (Tephrosia) in-
cludes 3 species (j^^j^^)llakta'S(irapun^
A/id (flowers red T. purpurea), Sita-sarapun-
khd (flowers white T. villosa) and KantapwikJia
(T. spinosa).

0. The genus iSafik/iapns/ipi (Canscora)
includes 3 species SuklapnsJtpt (C. decussata),
Raktaptishpi (C. diffusa) and NllapmJipi (?).

7. The genus Bhringaraja (Eclipta) includes
3 species ( ^irnftrf^^g^H^T^ SRft HfTWT: ^f%)
Sweta (flowers white E alba), Pita (flowers
yellow (?)) and Nila (flowers blue (?)).

8. The genus Putald (Stereospermum)
includes Tdtnra-pushpa Patald (S. suaveolens),
P'lta-pushpa Pdtala (B. chelonoides) and Sit a
Patald (Schrebera swietenioides).

9. The genus Chandana includes
chandana (Santalum album ?i^j?;T5f,

5 Rakta-chrmdana (Pterocarpus

TAXONOMY 89

santalinus fl^ra^^, TW^TTT^), Kuchnndana
(Adenantbera pavonia ^W^IS*?, qfT^I^ ),
KaUyaka (? tf^rf^TSfl, ^TTl^'nfw^R), Barbarika
(? ^irlfl fM^) and Harichandana

10. The genus Kosatak'i (Lutfa) includes
KosCitakl (L. echinata), Kshitdraphala (L. bin-
dfial), Briliatphala (L. graveolens), Rajakosa-
takl (L. amara) and DJiartikosatakl (L. acutan-
ula), etc., etc.

90 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

H. Classification of Plants based on
Medicinal Properties. Charaka* ulassifies plants
primarily into two divisions Purgatives
( f%t^*T: ) and the Astringents ( qnETTO: ) And
the Purgatives are six hundred and the
Astringents are five hundred in number. The
number of pre-eminently astringent groups
are fifty which might again be sub- grouped
under ten heads or Vargas, thus :

1. First Yarga:

(1) Jivanlya (Prolonging life) e.g., Jlvaka
(Celtis orientalis), Mudgaparni (Phaseolus radia-
tus), Mashaparna (Terarnnus debilis), Jwanfi
(Dendrobium sp.), rest not identified. 6.

(2) Vrinighaniya (Nutritive and promoting
corpulency) c.f/., Eajaksharaka (Asclepias
rosea), Bala (Sida cordifoiia), Bharadioajl
(Hibiscus vitifolius), etc. 8.

(3) Lekhanwja (Thinning the tissues or
reducing corpulency) e.g., Must a (Cyperus
rotandus), Kushtha (Aplotaxis auriculata) Hari-
dra (Curcuma longa), Daruharidra (Berberis
asiatica), etc. 9.

(4) Bhedaniya (Promoting excretion) e.g.,
Arka (Asclepias gigantia), Chitra (Eubia

' Charaka SamhitS, Sufcrasthana, IV, pp. 25-29 (Bengali Edition).
Cf. also Eng. Trans., Fasc. II, Lesson IV^, pp 27-47

TAXONOMY 91

manjishtha), Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica),
Swarnakshlrini (Polanisia felina). 10.

(5) Sandhaniya (Promoting the union of
fractured parts) e.g., Liquorice, Madhuparni
(Tinospora cordifolia), Lodhra (Symplocos
racemosa), Priyangu (/Yglaia Roxburghiana),
Katphala (Myrica sapida), etc 11.

(6) Dipaniya (Promoting appetite and di-
gestion) fi.y., Pippatt (Piper longum), Chavya
(Piper chava), 3ringavera (dry ginger), Marioha
(Piper nigrum), Ajdmoda (Apium involucrata),

(Semecarpus anacardium), etc. 12.

2. Second Yarga:

(1) Valya (Increasing strength) Rishavi
(Mucana pruriens), Atirasa (Asparagus racemo-
sus), Payasya (Convolvulus paniculutus),
Aswagandha (Physalis flexuosa), Sthira (Des-
modium garigeticum), Rohvn (Picrorrhiza
kurroa). 13.

(2) Varnya (Improving the complexion)
Chandand (Pterocarpus santalinus), Tung a
(Calophyllura inophyllum), Manjishtha (Rubia
cordifolia), Sariva (Hemidesmus indicus), etc.

U.

(3) Kanthya (Improving voice and curing
hoarseness) Ikshumula (Saccharum officinarum),
Draksha (Uvoe passae), Vidart (Convolvulus pani-
culatus), HamsapacU (Hydrocotyle asiatica), etc.

15.

92 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(4) Hridya (Promoting cheerfulness or
relish) Amra (mango), Amrataka (Spondius
mangifera), Nikucha (Artocarpus lakucha),
Hatulnnga (Citrus medica), etc. 16.

3, Third Yarga:

(1) Kaphtighna (Removing phlegm that
causes a sensation of satiety) Vidanga (Embeli-
ca glandulifera), Murva (Sauseviera zeylanica),
Guduchl (Tinospora cordifolia), Patdla, etc. 17.

(2) Arfrtghna (Curing piles) Kutaja (Holar-
rhena antidysenterica), Vilva (Aegle marmelos),
AtivisJia (Aconitum heterophyllura), Abhaya
(Terminalia chobula), etc. 18.

(3) Kusthaghna (Curing skin-diseases)
Khadira (Acacia catechu), Saptaparna (Eclutes
scholaris), Aragvadha (Cassia fistula), Kararira
(Nerium odoruin), etc. 19.

(4) Kandnghna (Curing prurites)-- Chan-
dana (Tied sandal), Nalada (Nardostachys
jatamansi), Naktamala (Galedupa indica),
Nimva (Melia azarlirachfa), etc. 20.

(5) Krimighna (Anthelmentic or Vermi-
fuge) Akhird (Moringa pterysjosperma), Kcvuka
(Costus speciosus), Nirguntht (Vitex nirgundo),
Kinihi (Achyranthes aspera), etc. 21.

(6) Vishaghna (Neutralising poison)
Suvaha (Vanda Roxburghii), Paliydi (Ichno-
carpus frutescens) 3 Kataka (Strychnos pota-
torum), Sirisha (Mimosa sirisa), etc, 22,

TAXONOMY 93

4. Fourth Varga :

(1) Stanyajanana (Galactiphorous) Tirana
(Andropogon muricatum), Soli (paddy), Shash-
tika (paddy), Darbha (Saccharum cylindricum),
Kusa (Poa cynosuroides), etc. 23.

(2) Stanyasodhana (Improving the quality
of milk) PCitlid (Stephania hernandifolia), Sura-
darn (Cedrus deodara), Musia (Oyperus rotan-
dus), Kir&latikta (Agathotes chirayata), etc. 24.

(3) tSnkrajanana (Increasing the secretion of
semen) Jivuka (Celtis orientalis), Vriddharuha
(Asparagus racemosus), Jatila (Phyllanthus
niruri), Kulinya (Rhus acuminata), etc. 25.

(4) Snkrasodhana (Purifying the semen)
Kushfhd (Saussurea auriculafa), Kadamba (Nau-
clea cadamba), Ikshu (Sugarcane), Kdndeksha
(lluellia longifolia), Vasuka (Sesbania grandi-
flora), etc. 26.

5. Fifth Yarga :

(1) SnehopcHja (Emollients) Mridvlka (liai-
sin), Viduri (Convolvulus paniculata), Jiimnti
(Coelogjne ovalis), Salaparnl (Iledysarum gange-
ticsuni), etc. 27.

(2) Swcdopaya (Diaphoretics) $obhanjana
(Moringa pterygosperma), Ekaranda (Pticinus
communis), Vrischira (Boerhavia diflfusa var,
white), Punarnava (red variety), etc 28.

(3) Vamanopaga (Emetic) Kovidara (Bau-
hinia variegata), Karvudara (B. acuminata), Ntpa

94 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(Nuclea), Vidula (Calamus fasciculatus), Vimbi
(Coccinea indica), Sanapushpl (Crotalaria verru-
cosa), etc. 29.

(4) Virechanopaga (Purgative) Kachmdrya
(Gmelina arborea), Paru shako, (Grewia asiatica).
Abhaya (Terra inalia chebula), Pllu (Salvadora
indica), etc. 30.

(5) Asthapanopaga (Enemata) Trivrit (Con-
volvulus turpethum), Pippali (Piper Jongum),
Mustard, Vacha (Acorus calamus\ Madanaphala
(llandia dumetorum), etc. 31.

(6) Anuvasanopaga (Oily enomata) Rasna
(Vanda Jloxburghii), tialapnshpa (Pucedanum
sowa), Aswadumyshtnl (Tribulus terrestris),
Agnimantha (Premna spinosa), etc. 32,

(7) tfirovirechanopaga (Errhines) Jyotish-
mott (Cardospermum halicacabum), Kshavaka
(Myriogyne lanuginosus), fireta (Clitorea ternata)
white and red variety, etc. 33.

6. Sixth Varga:

(1) Ghhardinigrahana (Relieving vomiting)
Jambu (Eugenia jambolana), Amra (mango),
Matulnnya (Citrus medica), Amla-radara (a variety
of Zizyphus), etc. 34.

(2) Trishnanigrahana (Relieving thirst)
Nagara (Cyperus partenuis), Dhanwa-yavasaka
(Hedysarum alhagi), Parppataka (Oldenlandia
biflora), Patola (Trichosanthes dioica), etc. 35.

(3) Hicca-nigrahana (Relieving hiccup)

TAXONOMY 95

Sathi (Circumazerumbet), Kaytakarika (Sobmum
jacquinii), Vrihatl (Solanum indicum), Vriksha-
ruha (orchid), etc. 36.

7. Seventh Yarga :

(1) Pnrisha-samgrahaniya (Rendering the
faeces consistent) Katwanya (Colosanthes indi-
ca), Mocharasa (Bombax malabaricum), Sam&na-
ga (Mimosa pudica), Dhatakl pushpa (Grislea
tomentosa), etc. 37.

(2) Purfalia-cirajanhja (Altering the colour
of the faeces) Sallaki (Boswellia serrata),
Srlpeshtaka (Pinus longifolia), PayasyH (Batatas
paniculatus), Utpala (Nymphaea stellata),
etc. 38.

(8) Mutra-samyrahaniya (Reducing secre-
tion of the urine) Plaksha (Eicus infectoria),
Kapitdna (Spondias mangifera), ASwattha (Eicus
religiosa), fihallataka (Semecarpus anacardium),
etc. 39.

(4) Mutra-virechanfya (Promoting secretion
of urine) Vrikshadant (Cascuta), Aswadam-
gshtrd (Tribulus terrestris), Vasira (Cleome
viscosa), Pashanabheda (Bryophyllum calyci-
num), etc. 40.

(5) Mutra-virajaniya (Altering the colour
of the urine) Padma (Nelumbium speciosum),
Utpala (Nymphaea stellata, blue), Nalina (Nym-
phaea, white), Knmuda (Nymphaea, red),
SaugandlJlka (Nymphaea, lotus), Pundanka

96 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(Nelumbium sp.), Satapatra (Nelumbium sp),
etc. 41.

8. Eighth Yarga :

(1) Kasahara (Curing cough} Duralalha
(Hedysarum alhagi), tiringl (Rhus acuminata),
Drnksha, Abhaya, Amalakl, Pippall, Kantalarika,
etc. 42.

(2) 8irdfiah(tra (Curing difficult breathing
or Asthma) Sathi (Circuma zerumbet), Carda-
moms, Amlavctasa (Ilumex vesicarius). Hinyu
(Ferula assafoeticla) , Aytmi (Aquilaria agal-
locha), Hurasa (Oseimum sanctum), G hand a
(Andropogon acicularis), etc. 43.

(3) Sotlia-hara (Curing anasarca or drop-
sical swellings) Pat ala (Bignonia suaveolens),
Prixhnipanil (Doodia lagopodioides), Gokshiira-
ha (Tribulus lanuginosus), etc. 44.

(4) Jwarahara (Febrifuge) Sariva (Ascle-
pias pseudosarsa), Pallid (Stephania hernandi-
folia), Pilu (Salvadora indica), Abhaya, Amalal\a^
Vibhltaka, etc. 45.

(5) Sramahara (Removing fatiguej Dra-
ksha, Kharjura (Phoenix sylvestrix), Piyala
(Bucbanania latifolia), Vadara 9 Plialgu (Picus
glomerata), Ikshu 9 Yava, Shaslitika, etc. 46,

9. Ninth Yarga:

(1) Ddhaprasamana (Relieving heat of the
body or burning of the skin) Laja (Paddy, fried),

TAXONOMY 97

Chandana (Santalum album), Nllotpala (blue
lotus), Hrivera (Pavonia odorata), etc. 47.

(2) Sltaprasamana (Relieving sensation of
coldness) Tagara (Bignonia chelonoides), Dhan-
yaJi'a (Coriandrum sativum), Sringavera (Zingi-
ber officinarum), Bhutika (Ptychotis ajowan),
etc. 48.

(3) Udarddapraaamana (Curing urticaria)
Tinduka (Diospyroa melanoxylon), Piyala, Asana
(Terminalia tomentosa), Arimeda (Acacia
farnesiana), etc. 49

(4) Angamarddaprasamana ( Relieving pain in
the limbs) Vidariyandha (Desmodium), Vrihati
Kantakari, Kairanda (Ricinus), Chandana, Car-
damoms (large), etc. 50.

(5) Sulaprasamana (Curing pain in the
bowels) Maric.ha (Piper nigrum), Ajamoda
(Apium involucratum), Ajagandha (Cnidium
di(fusum), Ajdjl (Cuminum cyminum), etc. 51.

10. Tenth Yarga:

(1) Sonitasthapana (Styptics) Rudhira
(Saffron, Crocus sativus), Mel, Liquorice, Mocha
(Plantain), etc. 52.

(2) Vcdanasthapana (Anodynes) Sala (Sho-
rea robusta), Katphala (Myrica sapida), Tunga
(Calophyllum inophyllum), Asoka (Saraca
indica), etc. 53.

(3) Samjnasthapana (Restoring conscious-
ness) Kaitaryya (Melia sempervirens), Vayastha,

13

98 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(Gratiola mormieria), Golomi (Corydalis
goyaniana), etc. 54.

(4) Pmjasthapana (Curing sterility)
Alndri (Karivia umbellata), Satavlryya (Cy~
nodon dactylon), Abhyatha ? (Musa sapientum),
Vdtyapushpl (Sida cordifolia), etc. 55.

(5) Vayasthapana (Preventing the effects
of age) Amrita (Tinospora cordifolia), Dhdttri
(Phyllanthus emblica), Mandiilwparrfl (Hydro-
cotyle asiatica), Punarnara (Boerhavia diffusa),
etc. 56.

Classification according to Susruta 1 -

Snsrnta classifies plants (drugs) under thirty-
seven sections or (jaiius. They are as follows :

1. The Yidarigandhadi Group. Plants of
this group have the virtue o? subduing the
action of deranged Vayn and Pitta (bile) and
prove beneficial in Soslia (phthisis), Gulma,
Urddha&wattha (asthma) and cough.

Plants are Pidarigandlut, Sahadeva, Sata-
vari, Vrihatl, Jivafw, Kantakarl, etc.

A _

2. The Aragvadhadi Group. These have
the effect of destroying deranged phlegm, the
effects of poison and Meha (morbid discharges
from the urethra), Knstha (skin disease), fever,
vomitting and itching of the body, etc., etc.

1 Sutrasthana, Chap. XXXVIII. Goiieral classification of drugs
according to their therapeutical properties, pp. 342-356, Eng,
Translation.

TAXONOMY 99

Plants are Mad ana, Jragvadha, Kutaja,
Pallia, Pala a, Saptaparna, Nima, Patdla.
(ruduchi, etc.

3. The Yarunadi Group. These are effica-
cious in cases of cephalaogia, gulma and inter-
nal abscesses, etc.

Plants are Varnna, Putikci, Agnimantha^
Vasnka, Vilva, AjasriHc/l, Darbha, etc.

't. The Yiratarvadi Group. The plants
have the property of curing all urinary troubles.

"Plants are 1/iratani, Guudra, Nala> Knsa^
Kfisa, Ashinabhedct/ca, etc.

5. The Salasaradi Group. These have the
effect of destroying the germ of K^lslltha, proves
beneficial in case of Pdndaroga (Chlorosis or
Jaundice).

Plants are Salasara, Ajakarna, Khadira,
x, Bharjjct, Uleshasringl, Tinisha,

-*, etc.

6, The Rodhradi Group. " The group is
antidotal to the deranged Kapham, etc., astrin-
gent in its properties, removes vaginal and
uterine disorder, etc.

Plants are Rodhra, Paldsa, Asoka, Kat-
phala, Kadamba, Sala and Kadall.

7. The Arkadi Group. Acts as a vermi-
fuge, and a specific asceptic agent amongst
other properties.

100 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Plants are Arka* Karanja, Nagadantl,
Itasna, Indrapushpl) etc.

8. The Surasadi Group. Acts as above,
besides proving beneficial in "catarrh, non-
relish for food, asthma and cough."

Plants are Surasa, Bhustrina, tiugandhaka,

Vidanga, Kakamachi, Nirgundl, etc.

9. The Mushkakadi Group. Has the eft'ect
of " removing the defects of semen/ 5 efficacious
in Melia, piles, jaundice, chlorosis, gravels, and
urinary calculi in the bladder, etc.

Plants are Mushliaka, Palasa, Dhava,
Ghitraka, Madana, Simsapa, Tnphaln.

10. The Pippalyadi Group Acts as a
good appetiser, and is an absorbent of
intestinal mucous and uimssirnilated lymph
chyle.

Plants are Pippall, GJiaoya, Maricha, Ela,
Sarshapa> Hingu, Ativisha, Vacha, etc.

11. The Eladi Group. It is a cosmetic,
and arrests the eruption of pimples, etc.

Plants are Eld, Tagara, Priyangu, A guru,
Ushira } Punndga, Kesara, etc.

12. The Yachadi and Haridradi Groups.

\re purifiers of breast milk, and curative of
mucous dysentery (Amatisara).

Plants are Vacha, Musta, Abhaya, Bhadra-
daru, &agake8ara> Haridra, Daruharidrd,
Kutaja, etc.

TAXONOMY 101

13. The Syamadi Group. It cures abdo-
minal glands and acts as an anti-toxic and
is one of the most reliable purgatives in cases
of obstinate constipation of bowels with sup-
pression of urine, etc.

Plants are Syama, Trivrit, Danti, Rfija-
vriksha, Suvarnakshlri, Karanja, Gavdkshl,
etc.

14. The Yrihatyadi Group. Is a good
digestant or assimilator of the deranged humours ;
proves efficacious in " nausea, water-brash,
dysuria," etc.

Plants are f r nhatl 9 Kantaharika, Madhuka.

15. The Patoladi Group. Is febrifuge, etc.,
restores appetite, etc.

Plants are Patola, Chandana, Murva,
Katurohinl, etc.

10. The Kakolyadi Group. Increases the
quantity of milk in the breast. It is a restora-
tive, and an elixir, and is endued with the thera-
peutic virtue of augmenting the virile potency
of a man.

Plants are Kakoli, Kshlra-kaholi, Mudga-
parnl, Meda, Mahamedii, Chhinnaruha, Padmaha,
Riddhi, Vriddhi, etc.

17. The Usakadi Group. Cures gulma, uri-
nary calculii, etc.

Plants are Hingu, Kasisa and Tittthaka.

102 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

IS. The Sarivadi Group. Allays thirst,
cures haemoptysis, removes burning sensation
(dahd) of the body.

Plants are Sarica, Madhiifca, Ghandana,
Kashmariphala, Ushira, etc,

19. The ASjanadi Group, Anti- toxic,
allays internal daha, and cures haemoptysis.

Plants are Anjana, Nagapushpa, Priyangu,
Nilotpala, Nalada, Nalina, etc.

20. The Parushakadi Group. Acts as a cor-
dial, increases appetite, etc.

Plants weParushaka, Drakshd, Katphala,
Darfima, Rajadana, Katakaphala, etc.

21. The Priyangvadi Group. Consists of

Priyanyu, Dhataki, Mocharasa, Rasanjana,
etc.

22. The Amvashthadi Group. Favours the
healing of ulcers, bring about the adhesion of
fractured bones, and dysentery (pakvatisara).

Plants are Amvashfha, Rodlira, Nandi-
vriksha, Katvanga, etc.

2\ The Nyagrodhadi Group Proves bene-
ficial in cases of ulcers, disorders of uterus arid
vagina, favours the adhesion of fractured bones,
cures haemoptysis, etc.

Hants are Nyagrodha, TJdnwbara, Asva-
ttha } Plaksha,Madhnka, Kapitana, Amra, Jambu,
> Vadarl, Tindnka, Bhallataka, etc.

TAXONOMY 103

24. The Guduchyadi Group. Is a good

appetiser, and acts as a general febrifuge, etc.

Plants are Guduchi, Nimva, Kustumvnru,
Cha 'dana and Padmaka.

25. The Utpaladi Group. Allays thirst and
proves curative in cases of vomiting, Hridroga
(Angina pectoris), in syncope, in haemoptysis,
and in cases of poisoning too.

Plants are Utpala, Raktotpala, Saugan-
cthika, Kuvalaya, Pundarika.

26. The Mustadi Group. Cures uterine
and vaginal disorders, purifies mother's milk,

acts as a good digestant.

Plants are Mitsfa, Haridra, Haritakl, Ama-
lakl, FibJritaka, Ha'tmavatl, Dnivicji, Bhallataka,
etc.

27. The Triphala Group. Is a good appe-
tiser, improves the eyesight and proves benefi-
cial in chronic intermittent fever (vishama-
jvara).

Plants are Haritaki, Amalakl and Fibhltaka.

28. The Trikatu Group. Destroys fat and
Kapha, Meha, cures abdominal glands, catarrh,
dullness of the appetite and indigestion.

Plants are Pippall, Maricha and Sringavera.

A ^

29. The Amalakyadi Group. Acts as a
general febrifuge ; it is also an aphrodisiac, and
acts as a general tonic or restorative and
appetiser.

104 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Plants arsJ.malakl, Haritakl, Pippall, and
Chitraka.

30. The Trapvadi Group. (all metals).

31. The Lakshadi Group. Acts as a verrni
fuge, aseptic agent in cases of bad, malignant
or indolent ulcers.

Plants are -Laks/ia, Arcvata, Rutaja, Asva-
mara, Nimva, Saptachchhada> Malatl.

32. The Svalpa Panehamula Group. It is

a tonic, and aphrodisiac. Roots of : Trikantaka,
Vrihatl (two species), Prithakaparnl and Vidari-
gandha.

33. The Mahat Panchamula Group. It

is appetising. Roots of : Filva, Agnimantha,
Tunfnka, Pat alii and Kasmari.

34. The Dasamula Group. It proves bene-
ficial in cases of Asthma and difficult respira-
tion. The preceding Mulas combined.

35. The Yalli Panchamula Group. Roots
of five medicinal creepers : Vidarl^ Sarivu,
Rajani, Guduchl and Ajasringl.

t!6. The Pancha-kantaka Group. Five me-
dicinal thorny shrubs : Karamardda, Trikantaka,
Sdirlyaka, $atavari and Jjrridhranakhi.

37. The Paiicha-trina Group. Pive medi-
cinal herbs (of the grass species), known as,
, Kasa, Nala, Darbha, Kandekshuka.

TAXONOMY 105

G. Classification of Plants based on Dietic
Value. Charaka l classifies plants also on the
basis of dietic value under the following vargas
(groups)*:

(1) Suka-dhanya varga, (2) tiaml-dhanya
varya, (3) tSakavarga, (4) Phafa varga, (5) Harita
varga, (7) Ikshu vary a and (6) Aharayogl vary a
(oil).

1. Suka-dhanya varga (all bearded grains),
i.e., those paddies that are provided with husks
(glumes). " This group is subdivided into
the following classes according to their tastes,
potency and assimilation."

(1) Sail. They are cooling in their potency ;
in taste and assimilation they are sweet, capable
of exciting the wind, a little constipating, oily,
nutritive, and increasing semen and urine. 8-10.
The group includes the red Sail, the Mahasali
(grown in Behar-Magadha), Kalama, (grown
in Kashmir), Sakunahrita (grown in Sravanti),
Churnaka, Dlrghasuka, Gaura, Paqduka,
Laiigula, SugandhiUa, etc., etc. Vapya (is a
species that grows in deep water), Naishadhaka
(grows in the country of Nishadhas), etc.

1 Sutrasthffna, Lessons XXVII, pp. 329-334 and 344 (Faso. XI),
pp. 345-362, 371-374 (Fasc. XII), and pp. 380-381 (Faso. XIII),
English translation.

106 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(2) Shashtika " It is cooling, oily, heavy,
agreeable, destructive of all the three faults,
and invigorates the body, and makes it hard/ 5
The group includes two species which are
white and dark. 14.

(3) Baraka, Uddalaka, China, tfarada,
Gandhala, Kuruvinda, Ujjivala and Darddura
are like (2). 15.

(4) Vrlhi This variety is sweet, sour in
assimilation, provocative of the bile and heavy.

16.

(5) Patala (Asu-dhanya gathered in the
month of Aswin) increases faeces, and urine,
enhances the heat of the body and provokes all
the three faults. 17.

(6) Shyfimaka (Panicum frumentaceum)
is astringent, sweet and light. 18.

(7) Nlvara, Toyaparni> Gavedhuka, etc., etc.,
all resemble Shyaniaka in their virtues (many
of them are not paddy proper). 19-20.

(8) Yava (Hordeum hexastichon) or barley
is dry, cooling, heavy, agreeable, etc. 21.

(9) Venuyava a variety of the above. 22.

(10) Godhuma (wheat : Triticum vulgare)
unites fractures, cooling, prolongs life, promotes
nutrition, enhances the semen, etc. 23.

(11) Nandlmukhl Und Madhull Varieties
of wheat. 24.

Thus Dhanya includes grains of almost
every species.

TAXONOMY 107

It will be noticed that all the above come

under the modern family Graminaceae.

/ _ -
2. Sami-dhanya Yarga. It includes

(1) Mndga (Phaseolus mungo) astringent,
sweet in taste, etc. It is the foremost of all
things whose soup or boiled juice is taken. 25.

(2) Mdsha (Ph. radiatus) -increases the
semen, etc. (26). Varieties of Mdsha are Raja-
masha (Dolichos sinensis), Kulattha (Dolichos
bitiorus). 27 & 28.

(3) Makushtaliu (Phaseolus sublobatus) is
beneficial in haemorrhages, fevers, etc. 29.

(4) Chnnaka (Cicer arietinum).

(5) Masara (Cicer lens).

(6) Khamlika (Pisurn sativum) and other
kinds of pulses and peas are light, cooling,
etc. They are beneficial in affections of bilious
phlegm. 30-31.

(7) The different variety of beans when
oilitied, are fit to be eaten by men endued with
strength. 33.

(8) Adhakl (Cajanus indicus).

(9) Nishpava (Vigna catjang).

(10) Atma-ffupta (Mucana pruriens).

(11) Uma (Atasl Linum usitatissimum,
Linn.).

(12) JEiagaja (Cassia tora).

All the above 12 kinds belong to the Family
Leguminoseae (Pea family).

108 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

It is curious to note that Tila (Sesamum
indicum, Tiliaceae) and Avalguja (Vernonia
anthelmintica, Compositeae) are included in this
group.

3. Saka Yarga (Pot-herbs) Group of
Vegetables parts used are leaves, stems and
fruits (include also bulbous roots).

(1) Pafha (Stephania hernandifoiia), Susha
(Cassia sophora), Sathi (Circuma zerumbet),
F'astuka (Chenopodium alburn)^ ftunishanna/ca
(Marsilea quadrifoliata) these are astringents
which dry the fluids of the body. 89.

(2) Kakamachl (Solanum nigrum) increases
the vital seed, it also cures leprosy. 90.

(3) Rajaksharaka ( Asclepias rosea) is speci-
ally applauded in diseases of the Grahanl and
Piles. 91.

(4) Amrul &ak (Oxalis corniculata) pro-
vokes the digestive fire, destroys the effects
of poison and dropsical swellings.

(5) Kalasaka (Corchoras capsularis), Mandu-
kaparnl (Hydrocotyleasiatica), Vetiigra (Calamus
rotang), Karkkotalia (Momordica mixta), Patola
(Trichosanthes dioica), Somarajl (Vernonia sp.),
Vrishapiishpa (Justicia adhatoda), Sarngashtha
(Abrus precatorus), Kevnka (Costus speciosus),
Punarnavft (Boerhavia diffusa), Kaluya (Pisum
sativum), Gojihva (Elephantopus scaber),
Varttakn (Solanum melongana), Tilaparnika
(Cleome pentaphyla), Kulaka (Momordica

TAXONOMY 109

charantia), Nimva (Melia azadirachta), Parp-
pataka (Oldenlandia biflora) all alleviate ex-
citements of phlegm and bile. 95-96.

(6) All kinds of kitchen vegetables, such as
mungo, cicer, phaseolus, etc,, Chlerodendron
siphonanthus, a variety of Chenopodium album,
Phlomis zeylanica, Diosoorea globosa, Ocimum
sanctum, flovvers of Crotalaria juncea and
Bombax malabaricum, Bauhinia acuminata,
Linum usitatissimum, Vigna catjung, Bauhinia
variegata, Achanthes triandra, Beta bengalensis,
Amarantus oleraceus, Convolvulus repens,
Hibiscus canabinus, llumex visicarius, Cucur-

bita pepo, etc these are heavy and dry.

They are sweet in taste, cooling in energy, and
(after digestion) purge the intestines of their
contents without producing watery motions.

97-103.

(7) The flowers of Sana, Banhinia, Bombax,
etc., are inspissant and are much applauded in
cases of bilious haemorrhage in especial. 101.

(8) The leaves of Ficus bengalensis, F.
glomerata, F. religiosa, F. infectoria, Nelum-
bium speciosum and others are astringent
in taste, operate as stam&hanas, are cooling,
etc.

(9) Tinospora, plumbago, Fothos officinalis,
Aegle marrnelos, Asparagus racemosus, Sida
cordifolia, Caelogyne ovalis are capable of alle-
viating both wind and bile. 106-107.

110 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

(10) Gloriosa superba (Langidika) and
Ricinus are purgatives.

(11) Sesamum, Calamus rotang also pur-
gative.

(12) tfaka of Kausambha (safflower) alle-
viates*phlegm and enhances bile. 108-109.

(13) Cucumis sativus, C. melo, Cucurbita
lagenaria purgative. 110-112.

(14) Nauclea cadamba possesses inspissant
qualities. 113.

(15) Nymphaea stellata is astringent and
alleviates bilious haemorrhage.

(16) Kharjjura and T&la-sasya are allevia-
tive of bilious haemorrhage in Phthisis. 115.

(17) The stalk, flowers and fruits of both
KiMnuda, Utpala, Nymphaea lotus, Scirpus
kaysoor, Trapa bispinosa, etc., are cooling, etc.

116.

(18) The bulbous roots of Convolvulus pani-
culatus (Vidari) prolong life. 120.

4. Phala Yarga (The Group about Fruits).
The fourth order includes the following
fruits :

Mridvika (Vitis vinifera) it enhances the
vital seed, its use is various and important.

124-125,

KJtar/jura (Phconix Ttylvestris) beneficial in
phthisis, etc. 126.

Phalgtt (Ficus hispida) promotes nutrition,
etc.

TAXONOMY 111

Parusliaka and Madhuka (Grewia asiatica
and Bassia latifolia) are applauded in cases
of wind and bile. 127.

Amrataka (Spondias mangifera) it operates
as a tonic by increasing strength. 128.

Tala (Borassus flabelliformis) its kernel,
and Nankeki (Cocos nucifera) its fruit, operate
as tonic for increasing the strength. 129.

Bhavya (Dillenia speciosa) corrects the taste
of mouth. 130.

Vadara (Zizyphus jujuba), Aruka (not
identified), Karkandhu ( Zizyphus anoplia),
Lcikucha (Artocarpus lakoocha) provoke bile
and phlegm. 131.

Paravata (Anona reticulata according to
Wilson) is of two varieties. 133.

Kdsmdnja (Gambharl Gmelina arborea)
and Tuda (Morus indica). 134.

Tanka (a variety of wood apple of Kash-
mir), Kapittha (Feronia elephantum) destruc-
tive of poison, etc. 135-136.

Vilva (Aegle marmelos) both ripe and un-
ripe. 137.

Amra (Mangifera indica) unripe and ripe.
When ripe subdues the wind, and conduces to
flesh, vital-seed, and strength. 138.

Tamvava (Eugenia jambolana), iSimvltika
(Pulses), Gangeruka (Hedysarum lagopodioides),
Karira (Capparis aphylla), Vimbl (Coccinep,

112 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

indica), Todana (Grewia asiatica), Dhanvana
(another variety of Grewia), Ripe Panasa
(Artocarpus integrifolia), Mocha (Plantain),
Rajadanl (Mimusops indica), Lav all (Anona
reticulata), Nlpa (Nauclea cadamba), Satahraka
(Aruthum sowa), Plln (Solvadora indica),
Trinasnnya (Pandanus odoratissimus), Vikantaka
(Flacourtia sapida), Prachlnamalaka (Flacourtia
cataphracta), Ingudi (Ximenia aegyptiaca), Tin-
duka (Diospyros glutinosa), Amalaka (Phyllan-
thus emblica), Vibhltaka (Terminalia belerica),
Datfima (Punica granatum), Amlika (Tamarin-
dus indica), Amlavetasa (Bumex vesicarius),
Miitulwfiya (Citrus medica), Nayaranga (Citrus
auranticum), BatCnna (Amygdalus communis),
Abhishuka (Pesta), Akshota (Juglans regia),
Mukulaka (Croton polyandrum), Piyalu (Bucha-
nania latifolia), Sleshmataka (Cordia myxa),
Ankola (Alangium Lamarkii), 3aml (Acacia
suma), Kara&ja (Pongamia glabra), Vartaka
(Solanum melongana), Parka tl (Ficus infecto-
ria), Akshiki (Dalbergia oajeinensis), Aswattha
(F. religiosa), Udumbara(F. glomerata), Plaksha
(Ficus infectoria), Nyagrodha (F. bengalensis),
Bhallataka (Semercarpus anacardium), the in-
dividual properties of all the above fruits, their
parts to be used, are described. 139-164.

It will be seen that the above is almost the
exhaustive list of fruits that are used by the
present inhabitants of India,

TAXONOMY 113

5. Harita Yarga (The Group of Greens).
Ardraka (Zingiber officinale), Jamvlra (Citrus
sp.) promote the appetite. Mulaka (Raphanus
sativus) is destructive of all the faults.
Surasa (Ocimum sanctum), Yamani (Ptychotis
ajowan), 8'ujru (Moringa pterygosperma), Saleyd
(Cicer arietinum), Vrlshtaka (Sinapis ramosa),
Jalapippall (Commeljna salicifolia), Gandira
(Kidney bean), Tumliiru (Zanthoxylum alatura),
Bhustrina (Andropogon schoenanthus), Dhunyaka
(Coriandrum sativum), Grinjanaka (Turnips,
also a variety of Garlic). Pdandu (Onion)
and Lasuna (Garlic Alliura cepa and Allium
sativum). 165-176.

Properties of each and every one of them
are described.

A

6. Aharayogi Yarga (The Oil Group).
The oil of Sesame is sweet, capable of pene-
trating even the minute nerves of the body and
hot. It is the foremost of all things that are
destructive of wind. If improved by admixture
with other articles the oil of sesame is regarded
as capable of alleviating all diseases. It is a
tonic, it improves the skin, memory and intelli-
gence and the digestive fire.

The oils of Eranda (Ricinus communis),
Mustard seeds, the oil of Piyala seeds (Bucha^
nania latifolia), the oils of Atasl (Linum usi-
tatissimum), Kusumbha (Carthamus tinctorius)
these oils are described with properties. 294,
15

114 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Su6ruta 9 s l classification is more systematic
and elaborate.

1. Sail Dhanya includes several species,
such as Lohitaka, &cili, Kalama, Pandiika, $ita-
bhiruka, etc. They are sweet in taste, cooling in
potency, light of digestion and impart strength
to those who use them. They are diuretic,
spermatopoietic, refrigerent, eye-invigorating,
cosmetic, tonic arid pleasant. The properties
of S&li rice grown on burnt land, in a janyala
country, in kaidcira or marshy country, once
transplanted (ropy a) or those transplanted
several times in succession (atiropya) are
described. 4-7 ; 15-19.

2. Shashtika Group includes several

species of Shashtika, Kanyiika, Peetaka, Churria-
fea, Kuraka and the Kedaraka, etc. They are
sweet in taste and digestive, pacify the Fayu
and Kapham. They are constructive, tonic and
spermatopoietic. The Shashtika especially is
light, mild, demulcent and imparts strength
and firmness to the body. 8-11.

3. Yrihi Dhany as include several species
such as Krishna Vrihi, 3alamukha, Jatumukha,
Nandimukha, etc. They are sweet and astrin-
gent in taste, hot in their potencies. 12-14.

4. Kudhanya Yarga. The several varieties

are : Koradushaka, Syamaka, Nivara, Uddalaka,

1 Stitrasthana, Chap. XLVI, Vol, I, pp. 469-526 (Englsh Tran
Ration which treats of food and drink Annapana Vidhimadhffya).

1'AXONOMY 116

Venn Yava, etc. They generate heat, and have
a sweet and astringent taste. They include
four varieties (black, red, yellow and white)
of Priyangus. (Panicum italicum.) 21-26.

5. Vaidala (Several varieties of pulses)
known ssMudya, Vana-mudya, Kalaya,
Makushtha, Masura, Manyalya, Chanaka, Satina,
Triputaka, Harenu, Adhakt, Mdsha.etc. They are
generally cool and pungent of digestion, and
have a sweet and astringent taste. Then he
describes the properties of each of the above-
mentioned pulses. Atmayupta is included in
this group. 27.

6. Tila and its varieties (Sesatmim and its
varieties) the black variety is the best in
respect of efficacy, the white species occupies a
middle position, while the remaining species aie
inferior. 39*40.

7. Yava (Barley) is cooling, sweet ; Godhuma
(wheat) is sweet, heavy, tonic, rejuvieient,
spermatopoietic and improves the relish foi
food. 41-44.

8. The Simva (Bean) with its four varie-
ties are heat- making. They are antitoxic, dis-
cutient, and reduce the Kapham and the power
of sight. The four varieties are white, black, the
yellow, and the red.

Kusumva, Linseed (Atasi) and white mus-
tard are mentioned with their properties.

45, etc.

116 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

9. Phala Yarga (The Emit Group)
includes Dtidima, Amalaka, Kapittha, Vadara,
Kola, Karkandhu, Sauvira, Simvitikaphala,
M Stalling a, Amra, Amrataka, Karamardda, Piyala,
Lakucha, Bh&cya, P&ravata, Vetraphala, Pra-
chinamalaka, Tintiiika, Ntpa, Koshamra,
Amlika, Naranga, Jamvlra, etc.

They are acid in taste, and heavy of diges-
tion, heat-making in their potency, (expectorant)
of Kapham, generate Pit tarn and subdue the
Vayu.

Two varieties of Jamrlra are mentioned
such as Airavata and Dantasatha.

The fruit (of such trees as the Astoattha,
the Plaksha, the Udumbara, etc., which pass by
the general name) of Kshlra-Vrikshas, as well
as those which are known as Jamvu,
Rajadana, Todana, Tinduka, Vakula, Dhanvana,
Afmantaka, Asvakariia, Phalgu, Parushaka,
Gangeruka, Pushkara, Varti, Viloa, Vimvi, etc.,
are cooling and astringent in their effect.

The fruits, such as, Tola, Narikcla, Panasa,
and Maucha, etc., are sweet in taste and of
digestion and subdue the Vayu and Pitt am.

The fruits, such as, Drakshas, K&shmaryas,
Madhukas, Kharjjuras, etc., have a^sweet taste,
are heavy of digestion and prove curative in
cases of haemoptysis.

The fruits such as Vatama, Akshoda, Abhi-
shuka, Nichula, Pichu, Nikochaka, Urumana,

TAXONOMY 117

etc., are demulcent, heat-making in their
potency, constructive, tonic, sweet in taste.

The fruits known as Airarata and Danta-
salha, Lavall (aromatic and refreshing to the
whole system), Vasirai,$llapakyani, Bhallataka,
Ainyudam, Sleshmantaka are described with
their properties.

Fruits such as Karira, Akshaka, Pllu, Trina-
sunya have a sweet, bitter and pungent taste
and heat-making in their potency. The A rush"
kara, Tauvaruka; the Kctranja Kimiuka and
Arishtaphalani (Nimra), curative in cases of
leprosy, gulma (internal tumour), ascites, piles
and prameha.

The Vitfanga, the Abhayti (Chebulic myro-
balans), the Aksham, Pugu ; the fruits and
vegetables, such as, the Jatikosha, Jatiphalani,
Kutakaphalam, Kakkolakam, Lavanga and the
Karpura are described with their extensive
properties.

The LatH-kasturl, the Piyala, Vibhitaki,
Kola, Amalaka, Vljapuraka, Shamp&ka and
Kosh&'inra are sweet in taste, digestion, appetis-
ing, demulcent, etc.

The Vilvas, both green and ripe, with their
properties are described and recommended.

139-210.

10. Saka Yarga (The Group of Pot herbs).
The fruit of such creepers as Pushpaphala,
Alabn . and K&lindaka. Of the Alabus, two

118 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

varieties are described. Tender Kushniandas are
recommended.

The fruits such as the Trapusha, Ervaruka>
Karkaru, and 3lrna-vrinta are described. A
green and tender cucumber is distinguished from
one which is of a pale yellow colour.

The spices and herbs include the Pippall,
Maricha, Sringaverat Ardraka, Hinyu, Jlraka,
Kustumvuru, Jamviraka, Sumukha, Surasd,
Arjaka, Bhustrina, S'tgandhaka, Kasamardda,
Kdlomdla, Kuiheraka, Kshavaktt, Kharapushpa,
Madhu siyru, Phanijhyaka, ^ arshapa^
, Kulahala, Venn, Gandira, Tilapdrnika.
Varshabhu, Chitraka, Mulaka, Potika, Lasuna,
Paldndu and Kalaya, etc. Their properties,
individual and several, are described.

The leaves of plants and trees known as the
ii) Juthika, Tarnnl, Jloant'i^ Vimvitika^
l, Bhallataka, Chhajfttlantrl, Vrikshddani,
I*fiatiji, ftdlwal'i, tfelu, Vmnaspati-prasava,
Sana, Karvndara, Koviddra, etc., the leaves of
Punarnavd, Varuna, Ttirkari, Uruvaka, Vatsa-
dam, VllvaWQ described.

The pot-herbs such as Tanduliyaka, Vpodikd
Asvabala, Chilli, Palankya, Pdstu/ca, etc., are
mentioned with properties.

j The pot-herbs (leaves of edible plants) such
as the Mandakaparnl, Saptula. Sunishannaka,
Suvarchald, Brahma-sucarchala, Pippafi, Qurfuchi,
(jfojihvd, Kdkamdchl, Prapunndda, Avalguja,

TAXONOMY 119

Satina, Vrihatl-phala, Kantakarikaphala, Patdla,
Va'taku, Karavellaka, Kafukika, Kevnka, Uru-
vuka, Parpataka, Kiratatikta, Karkatoka, Arishta,
Tfoshatakly Vetra^ Karira, Atantsaka, Arka-
pushpl) etc., are light and palatable, and prove
curative in haemoptysis, Knshtha, Meha, Fever,
Dyspnoea, Cough, and create a relish for food,

211-280.

11. Pushpa Yarga (The Flower Group).
The flowers of such trees as the Kovidara,
Sana and Saint all, prove curative in cases
of haemoptysis. The flowers of Vrisha and
Agastya alleviate phthisis (wasting cough).
The flowers of Madhu-sigru, Karira, Rakta-
vriksha, Nimna 9 Mushkaka, Arka> Asana, and
Kutaja trees subdue Pitt am, and prove curative
in skin diseases (Kushtham).

The Padma, Kumuda, its two varieties Knva-
laya and the Utpala, the Sindhuvara, the
Mallika, Malati, the Vakulas, the Patala, the
Naga, the Kumkuma, the Champaka> Kimsuka,
Kurantaka their properties are observed and
recommended. 281-289.

12. Udbhida Yarga (As sprouting up from
beneath the surface of the ground Udbhida).
Only one plant Mushroom is described
under this head its properties according to
its place of origin, such as, stacks of straw
(Palalam), on Bamboo (Fenvjam), Sugar-
cane (Ikshujam), Cowdung (Karlsham) and

120 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Bhumijam, etc., are minutely observed and
recommended. 290-293.

13. Kanda Yarga (The Bulb-groupedible
bulbous plants or herbs). The bulbs of plants
and creepers, such as the Vidankanda,
Saiavari, Visa (bulbs of the lotus plants),
Mrinala (stalk of the lotus leaf), Sringataka,
Kaseruka, Pindahika, Madhvaluka, Hastyaluka,
Kasthaluka, tfankhaluka, Raktaluka, Indlvara,
Utpala, etc., alleviate haemoptysis, tend to
increase the semen in large quantities and
augment the quantity of milk in the breast
of a human mother. 298-312.

The bulbs (kanda) known as Sthula-kanda,
Suranakanda and Manaka tend to produce a
state of dryness in the organism. The top-
piths of such trees as Tala, Narikela, Kharjjura,
etc., are also included in this group.

14. Taila Yarga 1 (The Oil Group).
Sesamum oil, Castor oil, oils obtained from the
seeds of Nimva, Atasl, Mulaka, Jimutaka,
Prikshaka> Kritavedhana, Arka, Kampillaka>
Hastikarna, Prilhvika, Plh 9 Karanja, Ingudi,
Sigru, Sarshapa, Suvarchala, Vidanga.

The oils obtained from Kirata-tiktaka, Atimu-
ktaka, Vibhltaka, Narikela, Kola, Akshoda,

1 Sutrasthftna, Chap. XLV, Vol. I, pp. 444-449, English Trant
elation,

TAXONOMY 131

Jwantl, Piyala, Karvudaru, Surjavaltt, Trapusd,
JSrvaruka, Karkaru and Kwhm&nda seeds.

The oils of the Madhuka, Kashmarya,
Palasa seeds, of the Tuvaraka and Bhallataka.

The oils obtained from the piths (sara) oif
such trees as Sarala, J)evadaru, Gandira,
Simsapa and Agurn ; and various other oilfc
with their sources are described and noted.
Even oil from mango seeds are : mentioned.

112-131.

15. The Sugarcane Group : 1

i: 11

r;, etc., etc., etc.

Amara 2 in his Vanaushadhi Varga and Vai6ya
Varga enumerates many varieties of grains,
pulses, spices, etc., as objects of food and articles
of commerce. Thus in Vaisya Varga we get the
following grains and pulses :

The following kitchen articles, condiments
)> arelUso mentioned : ^

1 Sutrasthana, Chap. XLV., 150.

9 With Raghunath Chakravartty's commentaries, Chandra Mohan
Tarkaratna Edition 1886, Calcutta.

16

122 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

H * f?r

Tintidaka (Tamarind), Bellaja (Pepper),
Jjraka (Cumin), sNr <J ^fr% (Nigella
indica), Ardraka (Ginger), Chatra, Dhanyaka
(Coriander), Hingu (Assafoetida), Haridra (Tur-
meric) .

But his enumeration of the Pot-herbs 1
(Saka STRFT^ *rag*n%:) is more systematic
and complete.

Raghunath Chakravartty in his commentary
on the above Sloka, " classifies $dka into ten
groups, such as "^RSW^TTflT, Ur^l* 1^1

is, ten kinds of fiakas are roots, tips,
leaves, sprouting (karira), fruits, rhizomes
(bulbs), pith, bark, flowers and mushrooms.
They are illustrated thus :

(1) Mulam (roots) Mulakadeh (Radish

and the like).

(2) Patram (leaves) Patoladeh (Trieho-

santhes dioica and others).

(3) Kariram (anknra) Vamsadeh (Sprouts

of Bamboo and others).

(4) A gram (tips, apices) VetradeJi (Cala-

mus rotung and others),

(5) Phalam (fruits) Kushmdndadefa (Cu-

cumber, Gourd, etc.).

1 Vanaiujhadhi Varga, Sloka 135, p. 287.

TAXONOMY 123

(6) Kandam (stalk) Kadatyadefy (Plan-

tain rhizome, etc.).

(7) Adhirudhakam (pith) at the head of

Palmyra and Date palm.

(8) TwaU (bark) Matulunga (Citrus medi-

caj, Red Bauhinia, etc.

(9) Pushpam (flowers) Bauhinia, Ses-

bania, Gourd, etc.
(10) Kabakam (coming out of ground)

Mushroom.

jBhcivaprakdSa combines both the methods of
classification of Charaka and Susruta at one (i.e.,
medicinal properties and dietic value). Thus :

1. Haritakyadi Varga (The Myrobalan
Group) :

Under this group there are about 75 plants,
only a few are noted below :

Haritakl (Terminalia chebula) with its 7
varieties, such as, Vijaya, Rohini, Putana,
Amrita, Abhaya, Jluanti and Chetakl, Bayedd>
(Terminalia bellerica), Amalaki (Phyllanthus
emblica), Ginger, Pepper, Cumin, Assafoetida,
Fennel, Coriander, etc., etc.

2. Karpuradi Yarga (The Camphor Group):
This group includes about 4*9 species.

Thus: Camphor, Musk, Mallow, Sant&lum
(with 2 varieties), Sappan wood, A guru, Cedrus
deodara, Pinus, Nutmeg, Cloves, Cardamom and
such like fragrant spices and others. Spikenard,
Saffron, etc.

124 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

3, Guduchyadi Yarga (Tinospora Group) :

Undpr this group are mentioned about 125
species. Thus : Guduchi (Tinospora cordi-
folia), Tambul (Piper bettle), Vilva (Aegle mar-
melos), Gambhari (Gmelina arborea), Salaparni
(Desmodium gangeticum), Vdrttaki (Solanum
indicum), Mudgaparnl (Phaseolus trilobus),
Patala (Stereospurmum suaveolens), Ganlkarika
(Premna serratifolia), Eranda (Ricinus corn-
munis), Karavira (Nerium odoratum), Datura,
Vasaka (Justicia adhatoda), Bauhinia, Melia,
Calamus, Gossypium, Sida with 4 varieties
Andropogon, Asparagus, Vitis,

Indigofera, Aloe, Boerhavia, Lycopodium
(^jcrlt), Maidenhair fern (^q^t), Salvinia,
Cleome, Lippia, etc.

4. Pushpa Yarga (The Flower Group) :
This group includes about 33 species al-
most all the known flowers used by the Hindus
thus; && lotus (Nelumbium speciosum)
with six varieties tiveta (white), Rakta (red),
Nila (blue), Pundarik, Kokanada ; Hibiscus
mutabilis, Nymphaea lotus, Kalhar, Pistia
stratiotes, Cerratophyllum, Jasminum with
many species, e.g., J. zambac, J. savibac, J.
graudiflorum, J. auriculatum, etc., Michelia
champaca, Mimusops, Sesbania, Nauclea,
MfldhaUata, Pandanus, Saraca, Pterospermum,
China rose, Ocimum, Artemisia, etc.

TAXONOMY 125

5. Yatadi Yarga (The Banyan Group) :
This group includes about 42 species. Some

of them are : the Banyan, Eicus religiosa^
F. glomerata, E. oppositifolia, E. vagans,
Acacia, Shorea, Terminalia, Mimosa (Sponge
tree), Tecoma, Soap-nut, Putranjwa^ Imgudl,
Cedrela toona, Betula bhojapatra, Butea,
Bombax, Dalbergia, etc., etc.

6. Amradi Phalavarga('l he Mango Group):
This group includes about 57 species. Thus :

Mango, Spondias (Hog-plum), Artocarpus,
Plantain, Cocoanut, Cucumber, Melon, Areca
catechu, Palmyra, Palm, Aegle marmelos,
Feronia elephantum, Citrus (orange), Ebony,
Strychnos, Eugenia, Jujuba, Bassia latifolia,
Morus indica, Punica granatum, Grape, Apple
(Sheu), Date-palm, Walnut, Lemon, etc., etc.

7. Dhanya Yarga (The Paddy Group) :
This group includes about 34 species, divided

into 6 sub-groups: $ali> Vrihi> 3hashtika, $a/ca,
Simbl and Rshudra.

(1) Soli B;ed variety, Kalama, Pdnduka
and 12 others grown all over India.

(2) Vrlhi Black variety, PataJa, Kukkutan-
taka, etc.

(3) Shashtika Shashtika, S atapmhpa, Pro-
modaka, etc.

(4s) Suka (with beards, awns) Barley,
Yava (wheat) with 3 varieties-
Madhull and Dirghagodhwna.

126 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFK

(5) 3imbl (pulses grains in legumes or
pods), such as, Mudga, Masha, Barbati (Dolichos
sinensis), Cicer lens, Cajanus, Gram, Pisum,
Lathyrus, Doliohos biflorus, Sesamum, Linum,
Mustard,

(6) Kahudra Panicum italicum, Millet,
Panicum frumentaceum, Paspalum scrobicula-
tum, Deodhan, Nivara, Andropogon saccharatus,
etc,

8. Saka Yarga (The Pot-herb Group) :
This group is divided under six heads, and
includes about 70 species. The six divisions
are Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Stem, Stalk,
Moisture-born.

(1) Leaf vegetables This sub-group in-
cludes about 27 species. Some of them are :
Chenopodium, Amaranthus, Rumex, Corchorus,
Ipomoea repens (Kalambi), Portuloca, Wood
sorrel, Enhydra flactuans, Marsilea, Tricho-
santhes (Patol), Pisum sativum, Gram, Mustard,
Cassia, etc.

(2) Flower Sesbania, Plantain, Moringa,
Bombax, Pumpkin, etc.

(3) Fruit vegetables Pumpkin, Cucurbita
lagenaria, Bottle gourd, Cucumis, Trichosanthes,
Momordica, Solanum melongana, and about 15
others.

(*) Stalk (Nat) vegetables Mustard.
(5) Randa (underground stalk) about 15
species Amorphophallus campanulatus, six

TAXONOMY 127

varieties of Potato, e.g., Kasthalu, $ankhalu>

Hastyalu, Pindalu, Madhvalu (honeyed) and

Rahtaluk ; Mulaka (Radish), Carrot, Plantain

rhizome, Dioscorea, Scirpus keysoor, bulbs of

Nymphoea lotus, Nelumbium, etc., etc.

(6) Samsvedaja (Moisture-born) Mushroom,
only the white variety is recommended as
vegetable, the rest are poisonous.

9. Taila Yarga (The Oil Group) about 14
kinds of oils are described :

Tila, Mustard, Linseed, Castor, Almond,
Cocoanut, etc.

10. Ikshu Yarga (The Sugar-cane Group)
13 varieties are described. They are Pound-
raka, Vlruka, Vamsaka, SataporaUd, Kantara,
Tapasekshu, Kandekshu, Suchipatraka, Naipala,
Dlrghapatra, Nilapora, Monogupta and Kosaka.

SECTION VIII
PLANTS AND EVOLUTION

The ancients in India believed that plants
had preceded animals, particularly man in the
scale of creation, a fact confirmed by the
evidences of modern Geology.

The first writer who gives a definite pro-
nouncement upon the point is Udda/aka l whtf
holds :

" The earth is the source (rasa) of all these
elements ( TJ$\ ^Tfl^ ) ; water is the source of
the earth ; again the essence of water is
embodied in plants (aushadhaye of herbs), and
man represents the essence of plants and so
forth."

Next comes Farnna 2 according to whom the
elements are five Ether, Air, Fire, Water and
Earth. " Of these, in order of time Ether
(akasa) springs from Brahman ; Air from
Ether ; Fire from Air ; Water from Fire ; Earth
from Water ; herbs from Earth: food from
herbs ; seed from food ; and man from seed 5>
such is the evolution from the Supreme Brahman
to Man.

1 Chhftndogya Upaniflhad, Adhyftya I, Khanda I, 2.
* Taittirlya Upanishad, II, 1; Barua, IX, p. 145,

PLANTS AND EVOLUTION 129

Ydjfiavalkya * maintains the above view in
more details. Thus :

" Earth is the source of this creation
movable and immovable, for it supplies them
with the constituents of their body ; and water
again is the root cause of earth for earth is
begotten of water ; the essence of water is
embodied in plants such as grasses, creepers
and the rest, flowers represent the essence of
plants, and the essence of flowers are fruits,
such as paddy, wheat and the rest."

An astonishingly modern idea of Evolution
occurs in the following dialogue of Buddha :

" There come a time when the visible
universe passes away, and consequently beings
are reborn elsewhere in the nebular sphere.
This is duly succeeded by a time when the world
begins to develop anew. All is then water,
and enveloped in darkness, a darkness that
blinds. Those beings, falling from radiant worlds
are reborn within the formed universe, made of
consciousness, sustained by joy, floating in space,
and shining in glory. The formed universe,
the juicy earth (rasa pathavi) 'emerges from
the waters like a scum of milk or ghee, odorous
and sweet.' Having come in contact with it,
feasting thereon, those beings become solidified,
and lose thereby part of their luminance. Thus
the Sun, the Moon and the Stars and Planets

1 Brihadara^yaka Upanishad, 4.6.1,

17

130 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

appear once more, and the natural seasons come
into existence. Meanwhile the cooling process
goes on. As the juicy earth gradually becomes
hardened, it loses its flavour and sweet taste, but
vegetation first of low, then higher grade evolves.
Man descends at length from his heavenly ances-
tors from the vital Sun or the reflective Moon/ 5

In this quotation * we notice a distinct mention
of the evolution of plants in themselves from
the low to the higher grade.

Let us sum up the chapter with an interest-
ing anecdote from the Ramayana* which very
powerfully bears upon the precedence of plants
to animals. The story is summarised below :

Once an owl and a vulture quarrelled over
the possession of a nest in a certain tree each
laying an equally emphatic claim to its owner-
ship. Unable to settle the dispute themselves
they preferred an /Appeal to Rama. On being
asked how long they had been there the vulture
replied that he had been there since man began
to inhabit the earth ftRpt; trft<Tta?T). The owl
replied that he had been there since the earth
became decorated with plants

In consultation with his ministers Rama decided
in favour of the owl on the score of the prior
appearance of plants on earth.

1 Barua, History of the Pre- Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, XIV,
pp. 217, 218

* Bamftyaga, Uttarakft^da, Canto 72, pp. 1393-1395, Bangabasi
Edition,

SECTION IX

MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATION OF THE SCIENCE
1. As a means of Economic Predictions.

A chapter ' in the Brihat Samhitd is devoted
towards the subject :

" One can infer- the cheapness (^TOc35R) of com-
modities by me ins of looking at the abundance
of the growth and development of flowers and
fruits in certain trees." 1.

One can infer the cheapness (^Wc5U()

"Of Kalama Sail (paddy) from the abundant
growth of flowers and fruits of Sala (Shorea
robusta), of red 3ali from red Asoka (Saraca
indica), of Panduka (a variety of $ali paddy)
from Dtigdhika (Asclepias sp.) and of Sukaruka
(paddy) from blue Asoka (^teliaft%?! )." 2.

g4 Of Yavak't (a variety of 8ali) from Nyagrodha
(Ficus bengalensis), of tikatthtiku from Tinduka
(Diospyros melanoxylon), and of all Cereals
from Aiwaitha (Ficusreligiosa)." 3.

1 Here translated for the first time by the author. Chap.
Vol. I, pages 422-426.

132 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

" Of Tilam (Sesamum indicum) and Masha
(Phaseolus mungo var. Roxburghii) from Jambu
(Eugenia jambolana) ; of Priyangu (Panick)
from Sirlsha (Mimosa sirisa), of Wheat from
Madhuka (Bassia latifolia), and Barley from
Saptaparna (Echites scholaris)." 4.

" Of Gotsypiwn (zitf(m\) from the abundance
of Atimuktaka (Aganosma caryophyllata) and
Kunda (Jasminum sp.) ; of Sarshapa (mustard)
from Asana (Terminalia tomentosa) ; Kulattha
(Dolichos biflorus) from Vadarl (Zizyphus
jujuba); and Mud (/a (Phaseolus radiatus) from
Karanja (Galedupa arborea or liobinia mistis)."

5.

"Atasi (linseed) from the flowers of Vetasa
(Calamus rotung) ; Kodrava (Paspalum frumen-
taceum) from the flowers of Paldsa (Butea
frondosa) ; iSankha (Mother pearl), Mukta
(pearl) and Silver from the Tilaka (Sesamum
indicum) and Sana (?) from liigudl (Balanites
Eoxburghii)." 6.

<c Elephants from Hastlkarna (llicinus com-
munis) and Horses from Asvakarna (a variety of
Shorea robusta) ; Kine from Patala (Bignonia)
and Goats and Lambs from Plantain'' 7.

" Gold from the flowers of Champaka
(Michelia champaka), cheapness (WTc[) of
liidruma (coral) from Bandhujlva (Pentapetes
phoenicea or Ixora coccinea) ; Bajram (a kind
of gem) from the overgrowth (gut) of KuruvaUa

APPLICATION OF THE SCIENCE 133

(Barleria cristata, purple variety) and Vai-
duryyam from Nandikavartta (Tabernaemontana
coronaria)." 8.

c< One can infer the cheapness of Mouktika
(pearls) from the Sindhuvara (Vitex trifolia) ;
(longevity and prosperity) of Artists (qn^wrr)
from the Kushumbha (Safflower) ; and those of
the Raja (king) from the red lotus and of
Minister from the blue lotus." 9.

" (Prosperity of) a tireshthi (trader) is to be
inferred from the Suvarnapushpa (Cassia fistula),
of the Brahmanas from the lotus ; of the Purohita
(king's spiritual preceptor) from the Nymphaea
alba (white lily) ; of the Senapati (commander-
in-chief) from the Saugandhika ( a variety of
the lotus), and increase of gold (wealth) from
the Arka (Calotropis gigantea)." 10.

" (General) well-being is indicated by the
Mango ; danger (fear) by tha JBhallataka (Seme-
carpus anacardiurn) ; recovery (from illness) by
the Pllu (Salvadora indica or persica) ; famine
by the overgrowth of Khadira (Acacia catechu),
and&i#u (Mimosa suma) ; and good (ajtofl) rain
by the Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna)." 11.

"Abundance of crop (^;fki?() by the flowers
of Pichumanda (Melia a/adirachta) and Naga-
kusuma (Mesua ferrea), good air (climate) by
Kapittham (Feronia elephantum); fear of draught
by Nichula (Eugenia acutangula), and

134 PLANTS AND PLANT-Lltffi

epidemic (fear of disease) by Kutaja (Holarrhena
antidysenterica) ." 12.

" Ikshu (sugarcane) by the flowers of Durva
(Agrostis linearis) and Kusa (Darva Poa cyno-
suroides) ; fear of fire by TCovidara (Bauhinia
acuminata) ; and the increase of prostitutes by
the overgrowth of Syama-latii (Ichnocarpus
frutesceas)." 13.

Signs of coining rains (grfe^rawi) :
"When Prikxhas (trees), Gulmas (shrubs
and herbs) and Latas (creepers), become full of
snigdha (graceful) and mshohchhidra (entire,
untorn) leaves, (it is sure) that rains are coming ;
and when the plants (trees, etc,), bear leaves
that are dry, ungraceful (^figf;), torn with many
holes (fa?^:), it predicts scarcity of water, i.e.,
of coming drought." 14-

ftcj^H f^nfwm: 11"

We have in Bengal a common saying J of a
similar import :

" Abundance of mango forebodes an abun-
dance of paddy crop ; and Tamarind flood/ 5

ntf

APPLICATION OF THE SCIENCE 135

2. As a means of ascertaining the presence
of water in a dreary region :

This chapter only gives a brief representation
of the art through some select verses quoted
from Brihat Samhita where an elaborate chapter 1
containing some 115 slokas, is devoted to the

topic. Thus :

Just as there are veins and arteries in the human
system (carrying blood) up and down, so there
are passages (fsptT:) within the bowels of the
earth at different depths carrying water." ... 1.

" If one finds a Vetasa plant (Calamus rotung)
in a waterless tract, one is sure to find water by
digging the ground at a distance of 3 cubits to
the west of it half a purusha below the earth."
(one purusha is equal to 120 angulas about
7 ft.). 6.

"If you find a Jambu (Blackberry) tree in
such a land dig a hole 2 purushas deep, 3 cubits
to the north of it, and you will find water running
in a vein eastward/' 8.

" If there be ant-hills close by to the east of
the said Jamlu tree you will surely find sweet
water in a pit dug 2 purushas deep, 3 cubits to
the south of it." 9.

1 Translated for the first time by the author. Chap. 53, Vol. II,
pp. 706-742.

136 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

" If a Udumbara (Ficus glomerata) tree is
seen you are sure to find sweet water flowing in
a vein, in a pit dug 2^ purushas dnep, 3 cubits
to the west of it." 11.

" If an ant-hill is found to the north of an
Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna) tree, water will be
found there 3^ purushas under the earth, at a
distance of 3 cubits to the west of that tree." 12.

" If Nirgundl (Vitex trifolia) tree is found
with an ant-hill, one will find tasteful water in
a pit 2 purushas deep, 3 cubits towards the
south." 14.

" If a Vadarl (^izyphus jujuba) and a Palasa-
tree (Butea frondosa) are found together you will
find good water, 3 purushas under the earth,
3 cubits towards the west of the former." 17.

"When a Vilva (Aegle marmelos) and an
Udumbara (Ficus glomerata) tree are found
growing together, you will get water 3^ purushas
under the surface of the earth at a distance of
3 cubits from the trees." 18.

" Where to the north-east of a Kovidara
(Bauhinia acuminata) tree is found a white
ant-hill with Darva (grass) over it, water will be
found between them 5| pnrushas under the
ground." 27.

" If a frog is detected living beneath a tree
one will surely get water 4^ pumshas under the
ground towards the north of that tree," 31.

APPLICATION OF THE SCIENCE 137

" If an ant-hill inhabited by a serpent is
found to the north of a Madhuka (Bassia lati-
folia) tree, you will get water at a distance of
5 cubits from the tree, 7^ purushas under the
ground." 35.

" If you find a Palmyra tree or a Cocoanut
tree with ant-hills, you will have a vein of good
water flowing at a distance of 6 cubits to the
west of either of the above trees 4 purushas
under the ground. 55 40.

" There is water by the trees that are sappy,
have long branches, or very dwarfish, or very
spreading. And there will be no water near the
trees that are sickly, have unhealthy leaves, and
vapid. 55 49.

'" Water will be found 4^ purmhas below
the ground at a distance of three cubits to the
north of, the following trees surrounded by ant-
hills: Tilaka, Amrataka, Varunaka, Hhallataka,
Vilva, Tindufca, Ankola, Pindara, Sirlsa, Arjiina,
Parushaka> Vanjula and Atibala" 50 & 51.

" If a thorny tree (e.g. Khadira) is found in
the midst or thornless ones (like Pala6a) % or a
thornless tree is found in the midst of thorny
oues, water will be found 3 purushas under the
ground at a distance of 3 cubits to the west of
such a tree.' 5 53.

"If a Kantafcarika (Solanum sp.) plant is
found without thorns and with white flowers,
18

138 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

water will surely be found under it at a depth
of 3^ purushas" 57.

" The region where trees, shrubs and creepers
are graceful possessing leaves that are untorn
(entire) there are veins of water 3 pyrnshas
below the ground. Or where there
padma{T)Gokshura> * f XJsirai ^Kula w
Kas^'KuSat^Nalik o?^<Nala (all grasses); or
where there &Yefif)Kharjjura,r^jJambu 9 foArjuna,
Vetasa* or trees., shrubs or herbs witn milky
]uice> ot'Chhatra* Sastikarndl^agakes^mf^adma^
N$pa,Naktamala with^tfindhubara orvibhttaka,
Madayantilca, there will be found water 3
purushas below, even if it be on the mountain
upon another mountain, i.e., on a very high
ground." ; 100, 101 & 102.

" Where there are 3aka, ASwakarna, Arjuna,
Vilvasarjja^ Sriparnl, Arishta, Dhaba? Simsapa
with leaves torn (i.e., unhealthy), and where
the trees, shrubs and creepers look ungraceful,
water is to be inferred to be off from that
locality." 105.

The art of ascertaining the presence of water
through its vegetable accessories reached a great
perfection in India. It became a matter of
common knowledge as it would be evident from
the following anecdote summarised from a
Jataka story. 1

No, 2, Vaiinnpatha Jfita^a, Vol f I, Cambridge Ed., X895,

APPLICATION OF THE SCIENCE 139

Once upon a time the Bodhisattva born as a
merchant, set out on a mercantile adventure.
While passing through a wilderness he lost his
wood and water. In his eager search for water
he " ranged to and fro, while it was still early
and cool until he came on a clump of KuSa
grass. " This grass," thought he, " can only have
grown up here, thanks to the presence of water
underneath." He caused a hole to be dug and
" up rose the water in the hole till it was as
high as a palm tree."

SECTION X
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Thus the result of our enquiry is that
various observations of plant-life which are of
scientific value, are contained in different
Indian works and traditions. We cannot but
appreciate the keenness of spirit shown.
Unfortunately this spirit was not rigorously
separated from fanciful superstitions and myth-
making, with the result that the science of
plant and plant-life could not make any further
advance as a science. It degenerated into an
art, and from art into an artifice. The soul
fled and only the body remains.

APPENDIX A
HEREDITY

The principle of Heredity plays an import-
ant part in modern Biology. Darwin with his
theory of Pangenesis, and Wiesmann with his
theory of Germ-plasm and the neo-Darwinians
and the neo-Wiesmannians with their improve-
ments have not yet been able to come to any
all-round satisfactory solution of the problem.
And it is interesting to see what the ancient
Biologists, coming at least two thousand years
before Darwin and Wiesmann thought about this
important problem. As plant life constitutes one
of* the principal themes of Biology we insert be-
low Dr. Seal's Chapter 1 on Heredity in its entirety
with full references of the text from which he
derives his information :

"Transmission of specific characters what
parental characters are transmitted to offspring.
The question is raised in Charaka 2 (and earlier
still in the Brahmanas) how specific characters
are transmitted why the offspring is of the same
species as the parental organism, say, the human
or bovine species, the equine species, or the

1 Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, Section 9, pp. 233-
239 (1916).

Charaka, 3&riraathana, III, 22, p. 448 (Bengali Edition).

142 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Aswattha species (Ficus religiosa) $ankara>
Brihadaninyalta-bhashya. Species ( sffasn ) niay
be compared to so many moulds, as it were,
into which the ovum is cast, even as molten
metals are cast in moulds. This is of course
only an illustrative analogy ; the cause has to
be investigated.

Now Charaka and Susruta 1 following
Dhanvantari hold that the foetus, or rather the
fertilised ovum, develops by ' palingenesis '
(instead of epigenesis) ; in other words, all the
organs are potentially present therein at the
same time and unfold in a certain order. As the
sprouting bamboo seed contains in miniature the
entire structure of the bamboo, as the mango -
blossom contains the stone, pulp, the fibres, which
appear separated and distinct in the ripe fruit,
though from their excessive minuteness they
are undistinguishable in the blossom, even such
is the case with the fertilised ovum.

The inheritance of specific characters is
explained in accordance with this view.
Gharaka' 2 assumes that the sperm-cell of the
male parent contains minute elements derived
from each of its organs and tissues. (Gf.
Darwin's ** gemmule " and Spencer's " ids.")

1 Susruta, Sarirasthana, III, 18, p. 318, Yasodanandan Sen
Edition of English Translation, Vol. II, p. 141.

8 Charaka, SSrirasthana, Chap. Ill, p. 449. Bengali Edition.
For English Translation see Fasc. XXIV, Section 29, p. 733.

APPENDIX 143

$ankara l similarly states that the sperm-cell
(or the seed in the case of a plant) represents
in miniature every organ of the parent organism,
and contains in potentia the whole organism
that is developed out of it (sr^TUlco(T<*IT

But if this is so, why are not congenital
deformities of the parent, or constitutional
diseases contracted in later life, invariably
inherited ? Congenital blindness, deafness,
dumbness, stammering, lameness, or deformity
of the spinal column or of the bony framework,
or dwarfish stature, or constitutional diseases
like madness, leprosy, or skin diseases in the
parent, do not necessarily produce corresponding
deformities or infirmities in the offspring. It
cannot therefore be that the fertilised ovum
represents in miniature every organ or tissue
of the parental organism. The solution of
this difficulty Charaka 2 ascribes to Atreya. The
fertilised ovum, it is true, is composed of elements
which arise from the whole parental organism

), but it is not the

1 gankara on Brihadaranyaka.

2 Charaka, arlrastbana, III, 22-26; Enghsh Translation, Fasc.
23, p. 730; Fasc. 2<i, Sec. 29, p. 733.

11 Verily, in the seed from which the body springs, there are parti-
cular portions from which particular limbs grow. When a particular
portion of the seed, therefore, is burnt up or consumed, the particular
limb which would have grown out of it becomes deformed. No
deformities again, occur if no portion of the seed becomes burnt up
or consumed." Abinas Ch, Kaviratna's translation of the_text f

L44 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

developed organs of the parents, with their
idiosyncracies or acquired characters, that deter-
mine or contribute the elements of the sperm-cell
(or seed). The parental Vija (seed, germ-plasm),
contains the whole parental organism in minia-
ture (or in potential but it is independent
of the parents' developed organs, and is not
necessarily affected by their idiosyncracies or
deformities. In fact, the parental Vija (seed,
germ-plasm) is an organic whole independent of
the developed parental body and its organs.
In the parental Vija, an element representing
a particular organ or tissue may happen
(for this is accidental, \^) to be defective
or undeveloped, or other wise abnormally charac-
terised, and in this case the correspondjpg
organ or tissue of the offspring will be similarly
characterised. When constitutional diseases,
acquired in later life, are found to be inherited,
Atreya would suppose that the Vija of the parent
has been affected, and this would explain the fact
of the inheritance. In the case of leprosy, for
example, it is transmitted to the offspring only
when the germ-plasm (the Vija or the fertilised
ovum) is infected with the virus of the disease
by reason of the leprosy of the parent.

N. B. The seventh tissue (the Sukradhara
kala* sperm-bearing or reproductive) contains

* SnSrnta, Sarlrastlilnn, IV, 20, 21, 22, 23, English Translation,
Vol. II, p. 147.

APPENDIX 145

the parental PyX which is a minute organism
) Deriving its elements from the

parental organs, but distinct from the latter, and
independent of their peculiarities, and it is the
combination and characters of these constituent
elements of the parental Pija in the reproduc-
tive tissue that determine the physiological
characters and predisposition of the offspring.
We may call this Atrey a? s germ -plasm theory,
for it is an advance on the conception of
" gemmules " and " ids," but in Atreya's version
the '* germ-plasm " is not only representative of
the " somatic tissues, 5 ' but also generates and is
generated by the latter. This mutual interaction
of the " germ-plasm " and the " somatic tissues "
is a distinctive feature of Atreya's hypothesis,
the value of which will be differently estimated
by different schools of biologists.

I may also add that the continued identity
of the " germ-plasm " ( srfa ) from generation to
generation, though it follows as a corollary from
this doctrine of a distinct reproductive tissue,
even when conceived to be affected by somatic
processes, as Atreya and Charaka conceive it

"Sukradhara" kala extends throughout the entire body of all living
creatures." 20.

"The physician should know that like fat (Sarpi) in the milk, or
sugar in the expressed juice of sugar cane, tho (seat of semen) is co-
extensive with the whole organism of a man (or animal) .... The
semen under exhileration comes down from all parts of his body owing
to the extreme excitement." 121-23.

19

146 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

to be, is nowhere expressly deduced. On the
other hand, Atreya and Charaka emphasise
the influence of abundant or defective nutrition
(see English translation 16, 17, pp. 774, 725),
and of the constituents of the food, etc., on the
characters of the Vlja in the reproductive tissue,
especially as regards the sexual character, the
stature, and the colour-pigment ( w ) of the
offspring. But though the influence of nutrition
on the Vlja is thus freely admitted in a general
way, it is expressly stated that the peculiar
characters or idiosyncracies of the elements that
combine to form the Vlja must be regarded as a
matter of chance ( f 3 ), in other words, the
truly congenital variations are accidental. 5 *

BOOK II
15OTANY AND SCIENCE OP MEDICINE

SECTION 1
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

The connection between the study of plant-
life and the science of medicine has been intimate
throughout the whole course of the genesis,
development, and the culmination of the latter
in India from its genesis traced in the verses
of the Rig Veda down to its culmination in the
monumental treatises of Charaka and Snsruta,
The application of plants as medicines as recorded
in both these works are minute, exhaustive and
extensive, and it is needless to reproduce the
thing in detail. Here the study of the individual
properties of plants, their application in diseases
as means of cure, the collection of plants, the
selections of plants, the preparation of drugs out
of them, the selection of soils for plants to grow
upon are excellently prescribed. No fewer than
26 forms of medicine derived from plants are
mentioned. Instead of wasting space over what
is common knowledge we turn to the more
interesting task of tracing the historical develop-
ment of the science qf Medicine in Ancient
India beginning from the earliest times down to
its virtual stagnation.

SECTION II
BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE

The Vedic texts reveal to us the science in its
rudimentary stage, while CharaUa and Susruta
exhibit it in its full-fledged development, its
practical consummation. We have no materials
sufficient to show us in detail the processes
through which the transition from the rudimen-
tary stage of the science of which we get a
picture in the Atharva Veda to the stage of its
final development which we see in the GharaUa
and Susruta took place, and we are left to vagije
conjectures and inferences. Only a hypothetical
attempt based on warrantable evidences, can be
made. Whatever may be the stages of its deve-
lopment, it is clear beyond all doubt that this
useful science has not undergone any further
progress since the time of Gharaka and Susruta.
The later contribution on the subject, rich as it
is in quantity, does not represent any improve-
ment in quality, nor a single step of advance in
the theoretical aspect of the science as science,
and our attempt will necessarily be confined to
a description of the direction taken by the
science from its inception to its fullest develop-
ment.

BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE 151

The first medical utterance of man is to be
found in a text of the Kig Veda namely, in the
Aushadhi Sukta of the 10th Mandala which gives
us a description in detail of the variety of the
use to which plants used to be put. One
hundred and seven applications are mentioned,
but the number must not be taken literally but
as a poetic statement of plurality. Here is the
Sukta. 1

" Medicinal plants and herbs 2 Bhisaj the
physician, son of Atharva.

1. I think of the hundred and seven appli-
cations of the brown-tinted plants, which are
ancient, being generated for the gods before the
three ages.

2. Mother (of mankind) a hundred are your
applications, a thousandfold is your growth ; to
you who fulfil a hundred functions make this
my people free from disease.

3. Rejoice, plants, bearing abundant flowers
and fruits triumphing together (over disease) like
(victorious) horses, sprouting forth, bearing
(men safe) beyond disease.

4. "Plants"! thus I hail you, the divine
mother (of mankind). I will give to thee, Oh
physician, a horse, a cow, a garment yea,
even myself.

1 All the translations are quoted from Wilson.
* Sufcta VII (97) ? Vol. VI, p. 276, etc., Wilson

152 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

5. Your abode is in the Aswattha, your
dwelling is established in the Palasa, you are
assuredly the distributors of cattle, inasmuch as
you bestow them on the physician [Mahldhara
says (Xll, 79) the vessels in which the offerings
are presented are made of the wood of these
two].

6. Where, plants, you are congregated like
princes (assembled) in battle, there the sasre is
designated a physician, these the destroyer of
evil spirits, the extirpator of disease.

7. The Asvavatl, the Somavati, the tfrjayanii
the Udojasa (are the four principal plants)
all these plants I praise for the purpose of over-
coming this disease.

8. The virtues of the plants which are
desirous of bestowing wealth issue from them,
man, (towards) the body like cattle from the pen.

9. Verily Ishkriti is your mother, therefore
are you (also) Nishikritis; you are flying
streams ; if a (man) is ill you cure him.

10. The universal all-pervading plants as-
sail (diseases) as a thief (attacks) a cowshed ;
they drive out whatever infirmity of body there
may be.

11. As soon as I take these plants in my
hand making (the sick man) strong, the soul of
the malady perishes before (their application)
as (life is driven away from the presence) of
the seizer of life.

BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE 153

12. Prom him, Oh plants, in whom you
creep from limb to limb, from joint to joint,
you drive away diseases like a mighty (prince)
stationed in the midst of his host.

13. Fly forth, sickness, with the jay, with the
blue jay, with the velocity of the wind, perish
along with the iguana.

14. Let each of you, plants, sfo to the
other, approach the one (to the vicinity) of the
other ; thus being all mutually joined together,
attend to this my speech.

15. Whether bearing fruit or barren, whe-
ther flowering or flowerless, may they, the
progeny of Brihaspati, liberate us from sin.

16. May they liberate us from the sin pro-
duced by curse, from the sin cursed by Varuna^
from the fetters of Yama, from all guilts caused
by the gods.

17. The plants, falling from heaven, said,
'The man, whom living we pervade, will not
perish/

18. The plants which have the Soma for
their king, and are numerous and all-seeing, of
them thou (Oh ! Soma-pl&nt) art the best ; be
very bountiful to the affectionate heart.

19. Plants, which have the Soma for your
king, and who are scattered over the earth, the
offspring of Brihaspati, give vigour to this
(infirm body).

20. Let not the digger hurt you, nor (the
20

154 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

sick person) for whom I dig you up ; may all my
bipeds and quadrupeds be free from diseases.

21. Both the plants that hear (this prayer),
and those which are removed far off, all coming
together, give vigour to the (infirm body).

22. All the plants together with Soma
their king, declare, ' We save him, O king, to
whom the Brahman administers us/

23. Thou (Soma} art the best of the plants,
to thee (all) trees are prostrate ; may he be pros-
trate to us, who attacks us."

This hymn together with the one following
it, namely, the hymn l addressed to a plant used
against a rival wife, and the Sukta XVI II of
Mandala VII constitutes practically speaking
the whole of the science or art, or both science
and art, of Medicine as revealed in the 'Rig
Veda. Here is the hymn to the plant against
a rival wife :

"I.I dig up the most potent medicinal creeper
by which (a wife) destroys a rival wife, by
which she secures to herself her husband.

2. O (plant), with upturned leaves (the
creeper referred to in the hymn is the Patha)
auspicious, sent by the gods, powerful, remove
my rival and make my husband my alone.

3. Excellent (plant), may I too be excellent
amongst the excellent, and may she who is my
rival, be vile amongst the viles.

1 Sukta 146, Mandala (10).

BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE 155

4. I will not even utter her name, no
(woman) takes pleasure in that person, may we
remove the other rival wife to a distance.

5. I am triumphing, thou art triumphant,
we too being powerful will triumph over my
rival.

6. I make the triumphant (herb) my pillow, I
support thee with that more triumphant (pillow),
let thy mind hasten to me as a cow to her calf,
let it speed on its way like water.' 5

And thus runs the verse of Snkta 18, Mandala
VII:

" 2. May the brilliant Agni counteract that
poison which is generated in manifold knots
(of trees and the like).

3. The poison that is in Salmall tree
(Bombax malabaricum), in rivers, or which is
generated from plants, may the Universal gods
remove from hence ; let not the tortuous (snake)
recognise me by the sound of my footsteps."

These three hymns taken together give us
in a nutshell a world of ideas a whole science
in a few words. We get here the names of
certain plants with Soma, the king of plants, at
their head, and Aswavntl, Somavatl, Urjayantl
and Udojasha, and possibly also Aswattha
(Picus religiosa) and Palasa (Butea frondosa)
as powerful agencies of cure against diseases.
Innumerable applications of plants are referred
to though not definitely named. We are told

156 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

that plants used to be applied as medicines, both
individually and collectively, against diseases
natural and supernatural, against bodily infirmi-
ties as well as against curses and the like. We
also come to learn that plants could be used by
themselves as well as in association with incanta-
tions and prayers. The genesis of the whole
body of medicine is given as Divine, and
the nature of the cure is clearly characterised
as radical, permanent and comprehensive* We
are given in brief either the condensation, a
scientifically nice epitome, or the germ of the
Science of Medicine, of the art of cure, of demo-
nology and classification of plants or Botany at
once. Behind the wealth of poetry we get some
solid facts of scientific importance. The whole
thing has the air of a summary distinctly pre-
supposing more elaborate statements, a know-
ledge of details. There is no vagueness, but
freshness of the original revealed to us in an
unmistakable language. Where are the details
gone ? They are either, to all intents and purposes,
lost or they existed in popular memory and were
handed down by tradition from generation to
generation till at last they came to be synoptically
recorded in some treatise ; and the Vedic texts
quoted may be the synopsis of a synopsis.

But we have a harvest of details bearing
on the subject of medicinal plants, their utilities,
their classifications, the diseases against which

BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE 157

they were applied, the association in which they
were to be applied and the rest, in the text of the
Atharva Veda.

These details seern to be an elaboration of
what we get in a synoptical form in the three
hymns of the Rig Veda just quoted. There are
points of similarity between the two ; nay, there
is essential identity. The latter seems to be an
only elaborate edition, a popular commentary of
the former. How are we to explain this ?
Either the details of the Atharva Veda must be
a development from and a lengthy explanation
of the things we get in the Rik, or the Rife
hymns give us a summary of the things so uni-
versally known.

SECTION III

MALADIES THEIK CLASSIFICATIONS
AND REMEDIES

In the Rig Vedic hymn already quoted the
medicinal use of plants together with men-
tion of some plants by name are given,
classifications of plants are indicated, and the
diseases, supernatural and natural, are referred
to as being within the province of perfect and
radical cure through the application of plants
as drugs. For the sake of convenience and
nicety, we new classify the medicinal plants of

the Atharva Veda under the following heads :

<

1. Those that cure physical maladies brought

about by purely physical
agencies (Kayachikitsa).

2. ,, supernatural maladies

brought about by super-
natural agencies (Bhuta-
vidya).

3. help in the procreation and

protection of children
(Kaumaravritya) .

4 ,, are used for curing minor
and serious wounds, etc,
(Salyavidya).

MALADIES THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS 159

5. Those that are used against the venom of

snakes, and other
insects ( Tishavidya).

6. ,, ,, ,, for securing the pros-

perity and prolonga-
tion of life ( Rasat/ana).

7. 5 , ,, for virility and erotic

success (Vajlkarana).

8. Miscellaneous.

/. Physical Maladies.

The medicinal plants that were used as
drugs against diseases brought about by physical
agencies are mentioned in the following hymns
of the Atharva Veda : l

Bk. I. 2 against injury and diseases.

,, 3 obstruction of urine.

23 and 24 against white leprosy.
Bk. II. 25 against abortion.
Bk. V. 4 against fever and other maladies.
Bk. XIX. 39 against disease takmav (fever).

The physical maladies against which cure is
provided are leprosy, fever, obstruction of urine,
head-disease, evil of the eye, abortion and injury
and diseases in general. Some of the several
medicinal plants that are mentioned in the text
have been identified with their modern represen-
tatives, These are Reeds, Haridra, Knshtha,

1 Translations are quoted from Whitney's.

160 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Chitraparni, etc. The genesis of the diseases in
some cases are given and the method of the
application of the drugs is nicely described.
From the hymns containing cure against natural
diseases, it is clear beyond all doubt, that the
Science of medicine as revealed in the Atharva
Vedic texts is far from being in a state of infancy.
It presupposes a good deal of experiments and
observation, and seems to be based on a wide
generalisation.

(< "We know the reed's father, Parjjanya the
much-nourishing; and we know well its mother,
the earth of many aspects/ 5 Plant identified
is reed. (I. 2. 1.)

"Night-born art thou, O herb, O dark,
black, dusky one ; O colourer, do thou colour this
leprous spot and what is pale." (I. 23. 1.)

"Of the bone-born leprous spot, and of
the body-born that is in the skin, of that made by
the spoiler by incantation have I made the white
mark disappear/ 5 (I. 23. 4.)

" The ^*nra- woman first made this remedy
for leprous spot, this effacer of leprous spot ; it
has made the leprous spot disappear, has made
this skin uniform." (I. 24. 2.)

Plant identified is Haridra Circuma longa.

" The blood-drinking wizard, and whoso
wants to take away fatness, the embryo-eating
kanva do thou make disappear, O spotted leaf
and overpower/* (II. 25. 3.)

MALADIES THEIE CLASSIFICATIONS 161

Plants identified are :

1. Mashaparnl Glycine debilis.

2. Lakshman Having upon its leaves
red spots.

Putrajanl Bhabapraka$a, I. 208.
Putrakanda Rajanighaittu, VII. 114.
Putrada a bulbous plant.

3. It is a leguminous plant identified by
U. C. Duta as Uraria lagopodioides. Dec.

" On an eagle-bearing mountain, born from
the snowy one; they go to it with riches, having
heard of it, for they know the effacer of fever."
(V. 4. 2.)

" The Aswattha, the seat of the gods in the
third heaven from here ; there the gods won
the Kushtha, the sight of immortality." (V. 4. 3.)

'* Born in the north from the snowy mountain,
thou art conducted to people in the eastern
quarter ; there they have shared out the highest
names of the Kusliflia" (V. 4. 8.)

" Head-diseases, attack, evil of the eyes, of
the body all that may Kushtha relieve, verily
a divine virility." (V. 4. 10.)

Plant identified is Kushtha Costus spe-
ciosus or arabicus.

2. Supernatural Maladies.

Supernatural maladies, brought about by
supernatural agencies, are mentioned in the
following hymns of the Atharva Veda ;
21

162 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Bk. II. 7 against curses and cursers.

Bk. IV. 17 against various evils.

18 against witchcraft.

20 to discover sorcerers.

37 against various superhuman
foes (against possession by
evil spirits).

Bk. V, 14 against witchcraft
15 against exorcism.

VI. 85 for relief from Yaksa.
V11I. 5. 2 against witchcraft, etc.

}1 7 to the plants for some
one's restoration to
health,

As the title indicates remedies of superna-
tural diseases were exclusively directed against
supernatural agencies, such as demons, Yakshas,
ghosts, curse of gods or the like, i lants used
as drugs were sometimes applied by themselves,
and sometimes in association with incantations,
invocations, and magical formulae. A pronounced
characteristic of the Eastern system of medicine
is that it provides for the cure against the
diseases of the spirit, which the West has left
to the region of incurability, where in the
language of Macbeth's Physician " the patient
must administer to himself." Of all the superna-
tural diseases witchcraft seems to be the most

MALADIES THEIK CLASSIFICATIONS 163

prevalent one. and a very large number of
plants are prescribed as remedies against it.
While giving remedies against this disease in
detail, the hymns of the Atkarva Veda coming
under this head throw a lurid light upon the
contemporary state of customs and beliefs a
state of civilisation characterised by ferocity,
superstition, envy and malice. Besides witch-
craft may be mentioned obsession by Yaksha,
Demon, Apsara, Gandharva, sorcery, curses,
ghost, etc. All the plants prescribed are not,
unfortunately, named ; only a few and a very
few have been identified with their modern
representatives.

The application of the supernatural remedies
in association with natural ones is a prominent
feature of the ancient Medical Science, and the
following quotations cursorily taken from the
hymns will suffice to illustrate our remark :

" Let the curse go to the cursers ; our [part] is
along with him that is friendly ; of the eye-con-
jurer, the unfriendly, we crush in the ribs. 5 *
(II. 7. 5.)

Plant identified is Durva (Panicum dacty-
Ion).

" The truly-conquering, the curse-repelling,
the overcoming, the reverted one all the herbs
have I called together saying may they save
us from this." (IV. 17. 2.)

" Death by thirst, death by hunger, likewise

164 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

defeat at dice through thee, O off-wiper, we
wipe off all that. (IV. 17.7.)

Plants are Sahadevi (Sida cordifolia and
rhombifolia) ; and Apamarga (Achyranthes as-
pera).

" O thou of thousand abodes, do thou make
them lie cresiless, neckless; take back the
witchcraft to him that made it, like a sweet-
heart to a lover." (IV. 18. 4.)

"I, with this herb, have spoiled all witch
crafts what one they have made in the field, what
in the kine, or what in thy men. 53 (IV. 18. 5.).

" Whichever flies through the atmosphere,
and whichever creeps across the sky; which-
ever thinks the earth a refuge that Pisacha do
thou shew forth. 55 (IV. 20. 9.)

Plant is Sadampushpa ever-flowering.

11 By thee do we expel the Apsarases, the
Gandharvas; goat-horned one, drive the
demon; make all disappear by thy smell."
(IV. 37. 2.)

" Where are the Awatthas> the Nyagrodhas,
great trees, with crests thither go away, ye
Apsarases; you have been recognised." (Popular
belief is still prevalent that these plants are
haunted by ghosts, etc.), (IV. 37. 4.)

" Hither hath come this rniyhty one of the
herbs, of the plants; let the goat-horned ara-
the sharp-horned, push out." (IV. 37.6.)

Plant is Ajatringl Odina pinna ta.

MAL.ADIP1S THEIK CLASSIFICATIONS 165

"The avaka-e&ting Gandharvas " Avaka is
Blyxa octandra (a grass-like marsh plant). (IV.
37. 8 &9.).

" An eagle discovered thee ; a hog dug thee
with his snout ; seek thou to injure, herb,
him that seeks to injure ; smite down the witch-
craft-maker/' (V. 14. 1.)

"Be the witchcrafts for the witchcraft-
maker, the curse for him that curses ; like an easy
chariot let the witchcraft roll back to the
witchcraft-maker/' (V. 14. 5.)

" The Parana, this divine forest-tree, shall
ward off the Yaksha, that has entered this man
that have the gods warded off/' (VI. 85. 1.)

Plant is Varana Crataiva Roxburghii.

" Thou art the chief of herbs, as the ox of
mbving creatures, as the tiger of wild beasts ;
whom we sought, him have we found, a watcher
near at hand." (VIII. 5. 11.)

" Those that are brown, and that are bright,
the red and the spotted, the swarthy, the black
herbs all do we address.' ' (VIII. 7. 1.)

u Food of fire embryo of the waters, they
tha grow up renewed, fixed, thousand-named
be they remedial (when) brought." (VIII. 7. 8.)

" Wrapped in Avakti> water-nurtured, let the
herbs, sharp-horned, thrust away difficulty."
(VIII. 7. 9)

(An amulet made of splinters of ten kinds
of trees against all diseases,)

166 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

3. Plants that Help in the Procreation and
Protection of Children.

Here we are to examine the art of pro-
creation and preservation of children by means
of plants. Side by side with procreation had to
be considered the hindrances, natural and super-
natural, and consequently the requisite reme-
dies. Plants constitute a substantial section of
the remedies used for the purpose.

The plants used for these purposes are men-
tioned in the following hymns :

Bk. II. 25 against abortion with a plant.
Bk. III. 23 for fecundity "to procure the
conception of male offspring."

Bk. VIII. 6 To guard a pregnant woman
from demons.

The following quotations cursorily taken
from the text will suffice to show both the na-
ture of the remedy and the conception of the
disease, both being comprehensive, radical and
thorough :

" The blood-drinking wizard, and whose
wants to take away fatness, the embryo-eating
kanva do thou make disappear, spotted -leaf,
and overpower." (II. 25. 3.).

<f The plants of which heaven has been the
father, earth the mother, ocean the root let
those herbs of the gods favour thee, in order to
acquisition of a son." - (III. 23. 6.).

MALADIES THEIK CLASSIFICATION 16?

"The two spouse-finders which thy mother
rubbed up for thee when born for them let

not the ill-named one be greedy, the alinSa
nor the vatsapa" (VIII. 6. 1.)

" Whoever makes this woman one having a
dead child, or a miscarriage, him, O herb, do thou
make disappear, lustful for her, slippery."
(VIII. 6. 9.)

(An amulet of white and yellow mustard
plants.)

4. Plants used for curing Wounds, etc.

It is abundantly evident from the hymns
of the Atharva Veda dealing with medicines for
wounds, etc., that the surgical treatment, too, was
considerably developed in Ancient India. The
hymns are very few in number, but they are
enough to show us that the first surgeons of
India, for so we must call them, knew a good
deal of anatomy, displayed a good deal of skill,
in accurately examining the nature of the cases
and in prescribing radical remedies against
them. They also appear to be acquainted with
a process of classification of plants. The
following quotations typically selected will illus-
trate our remark.

To heal serious Wounds with a herb :
"What of thee is torn, what of thee is
inflamed, is crushed in thyself may Dhatar

168 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

excellently put that together again, joint with
joint " (boiled Laksha water perhaps it is a pro-
duct of Arundhatl plant). (IV. 12. 2.)

" Let thy marrow come together with mar-
row, and thy joint together with joint ; together
let what of thy flesh has fallen apart, together
let thy bone grow over." (IV. 12. 3.)

"Let marrow be put together with marrow;
let skin grow with skin ; let thy blood, bone
grow ; let flesh grow with flesh." (IV. 12. 4.)

" If by a staff, if by an arrow, or if by
flame a sore is made, of that thou art relief ;
relieve thou this man." (V. 5. 4>.)

"Out of the excellent Plaksha (Hcus infecto-
ria) thou arisest, out of the Aswattha (Ficus
religiosa), the Khadira (Acacia catechu), the
Dhava (Anogeissus latifolia), the excellent
Nyagrodha (Ficus bengalensis), the Parna (Butea
frondosa) ; do thou come to us, O Arundhatl "
(a climber, Silacl by name). (V. 5. 5.)

Of these plants it may be a product.

"The berry, remedy for what is bruised,
remedy for what is pierced that did the gods
prepare ; that is sufficient for life." (VI. 109. 1.)
The plant is Pippall Piper longum.

5. Plants used against the Venom of Snakes and
other Insects.

It is the proud distinction of the Indian
system of medicine that it has provided for the

MALADIES THEIB CLASSIFICATIONS 169

treatment against poison of snakes and other
insects a provision which is absent in some of
the most advanced systems of medicine to-day.
Even in this rudimentary state of the medicinal
science with which we come across in the Atharva
Veda we find that the poison of snakes has
received attention in detail. The kind of snakes
from which men were in constant apprehension
of danger are distinctly mentioned.

The hymns dealing with medicine for veno-
mous bite yields a harvest of historical results
giving us the important truths that there was
a distinct class of people treating patients
suffering from snake-bites, that the Kiratas^
perhaps a billy tribe, were discoverers of these
rerpedies.

The very interesting thing in this connection
is that the cure is not only all-comprehensive
and radical but also vindictive, the agent of the
mischief, the snake, being compelled by virtue
of the remedy to take the poison of its own

bite thus the devil being hoisted with its own

petard. This process might be regarded as an
ancient anticipation of the modern process of
auto-vaccination both being based on precisely
the same principle of vishasya inshamamha-
dham poison is the antidote against poison.
This wonderfully useful but academically
unrecognised Science of Cure against snake-bite
is successfully practised by illiterate but skilful

170 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

exorcists in obscure corners of this country.
The germ of snake worship as represented by
the modern Vastu and Manasa Puja may be
traced in one of the verses.

" With sight I smite thy sight ; with poison
I smite thy poison ; die, O snake, do not live ; let
thy poison go back against thee." (V. 13. 4.)

" The eared-hedgehog said this, coming down
from the mountain ; whichsoever of these are
produced by digging, of them the poison is
most sapless/ 5 (V. 13. !>.).

"From thecrosslined [snake], from the black
snake, from the adder [what is] gathered that
poison of the heron- jointed one hath this plant
made to disappear/' (VII. 56. 1.)

The plant intended is " Madhuka " whicji is
the name of various trees and herbs Bassia
latifolia.

" The little girl of the Kiratas, she the little
one, digs a remedy, with golden shovels, upon
the ridges of the mountains." (X. 4. 14.)

"Hither hath come the young physician,
slayer of the spotted ones, unconquered ; he verily
is a grinder-up of both the constrictor and the
stinger." (X. 4. 15.)

" Whichever of the snakes [are] fire-born,
herb-born, whichever came hither [as] water-
born lightnings ; those of which the kinds are
variously great to those serpents would we pay
worship with reverence." (X. 4. 23.)

MALADIES THUlR CLASSIFICATIONS 171

" Remove thou it from every limb ; make (it)
avoid the heart ; then, what keenness the poison
has, let that go downward for thee." (X. 4. 25.)-

6. For securing Prosperity and Prolongation
of Life with Plants.

The Indian science of medicine deals
with remedies both positive and negative, both
preventive and curative. It takes into account
man, not only in a state of disease but also in a
shite of health. It aims both at security and
the prolongation of life. And in some of the
hymns of the Atharva, we find mention of
plants which either by themselves or in associa-
tion with incantations lead to longevity. Most
important of these plants are Apnrajita> Parna,
Palasa, Aswattfw, Talisa and Sirii&apa. Pros-
perity is sought to be brought about by the
defeat of foes too, which, curious as it might
seem, could be brought about by the use of
plants possessing supernatural properties. The
plant Aparajita (Clitoria ternata) is, as its ety-
mology shows, born to grant invincibility, and
the practice prevalent in Bengal of using it
round one's upper arm on the great Bijoya day
is a revival of the past practice. The dead past
is still living in the living present. Quotations
made below bear on the above remarks :

" Indra put thee (Apardiita) on his arm, in
order to lay low the Asuras\ smite the dispute

172 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

of (my) counter-disputant ; make them sapless,
herb." (II. 27. 3.)

" Indra consumed the patha, in order to lay
low the Asuras, etc." (II. 27. 4.).

The plant is Patha (Clypea hernandi-
folia).

"The Parna (Butea frondosa), Soma's formi-
dable power, hath come, given by Indra,
governed by Varuna ; may I, shining greatly,
wear it in order to length of life for a hundred
autumns." (III. 5. 4.)

"As thou, O Aswattha (Ficus religiosa) didst
break out the Khactira (Acacia catechu) within
the great sea, so do thou break out all those
whom I hate, and who hate me." (III. 6. 3.)

"Thou art the highest of herbs (Talisa-
plant) ; of thee the trees are subjects; lethim'be
our subjects who assails us." (VI. 15. 1.)

The plant is Tdlisa Flacourtia cataphracta.

" If with eye, with mind, and if with speech
we have offended waking, if sleeping, let Soma
purify those things for us with Svadha"

(VI. 96. 3.)

"Me with a portion of &im$apa, together
with Indra as ally, I make myself portioned ;
let the niggards run away." (VI. 129. 1.)

The plant is Dalbergia sisu.

7. Plants used for virility and Erotic Success :
The vital importance of the problem of

MALADIES THElii CLASSIFICATIONS 173

virility was recognised by the Ancients in India
and their medical science, even in its infancy,
attacked it, and found out remedies both for
increasing man's virility on the one hand and
for destroying it on the other. In harmony
with the spirit of the time the aid of medicinal
plants used to be called for in impairing the
virility of the opponents a fact characteris-
tically symptomatic of the then state of civilisa-
tion and culture. Very allied to the problem
of virility is the problem of amatory success and
we find a large number of plants mentioned in
the Atharvanic hymns applied for the purpose,
of course with supernatural aid in the shape of
invocations and incantations. The following
hymns deal with these topics :

Book I, 34. A love spell with a sweet herb
used in a ceremony for supe-
riority in disputation.

Book III, 18. Against a rival wife with a

plant.
Book IV, 4. For recovery of virility,

Book VI, 72. For virile power.

3) J9 i-UJ. ,, 5, , 9

138 To make a certain man

impotent.

139 To compel a woman's love.
Book VII, 38 To win and fix a man's love
with a plant.

174 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

The quotations made below will illustrate the
general spirit and tenor of these hymns :

"About thee with an encompassing sugar-
cane have I gone, in order to absence of mutual
hatred ; that thou mayest be one loving me, that
thou mayest be one not going away from me/'

(1.31.5)

Tho plant is Uladhukn Bassia latifolia or
YasthimadliM Glycyrrhiza ejlabra.

"I dig this herb, of plants the strongest, with
which one drives off her rival; with which one
wins completely her husband. " (IIE. ]8.1)

( V hymn exactly parallel to this is found in
Rig Veda.)

The plant is Pat/id or Vannpctrni Clypeaher-
nandifolia.

" Of the horse, of the mule, of the he-goat And
of the ram, also of the bull what vigours there
are them do thou put in him, self-controller."
(IV. 4. 8)

The plant used is identilied with Kajntthuha
(Eeronia elephantum.)

"As the black snake spreads himself at
pleasure, making \voadrous forms, by the Asura's
magic, so let this Arka suddenly make thy
member altogether correspondent, limb with
limb/ 3 (VI. 72.1.)

The plant is identified with the Arka plant
Calotropis gigantea,

' Wherewith they invigorate one who is lean,

MALADIES THEJU CLASSIFICATIONS 175

wherewith they incite one who is ill with that,
O Brahmanaspati, make thou his member taut
like a bow." (VI. 101.2.)

(The amulet of Arkct wood.)

" Thou art listened to, O herb, as the most
best of plants ; make thou now this man for me
impotent, opasa -weaving" (VI. 138.1.)

" A conciliator, a love-awakener, do thou, O
brown, beauteous one; push together both yon
woman and me; make our heart the same/ 5
(VI. 130.3.)

The plant is Andropogon aciculatus.

" If thou art e ither beyond people, or if
beyond streams, may this herb, having as it were
bound (thee), conduct thee in hither to me."
(VII. S8.5).

The plant is Sankhapushpikci or hemp.

SECTION IV

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS
1. Utility of Plants in the Growth of Hair.

Over and above the branches dealt with in
previous sections of the paper, the verses of
Atharva Veda contain a variety of uses to which
plants used to be put. We place this under the
head " Miscellaneous uses of plants. 5 ' One of
these topics is " the growth of hair." It is the
outstanding merit of medical science in India
that even in its infancy it took a due note of
the vital relation of the body and the soul as also
of the vital importance of considering its aesthe-
tic aspects, and hence cosmatic consideration
plays a part therein. Some hymns of the
Atharva Veda mention plants used for contri-
buting to the preservation, growth, development
and nicety of hairs. The following extracts
will give us an idea of the thing.

" thou of great leaves, blessed one, rain-
increased, righteous ! as a mother to her sons,
be thou gracious to the hair, O Srrml" (VI, 80.3.)

(Prosopis spicigera and Mimosa suma).

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS 177

" Fix thou the old ones, generate those un-
born, and make longer those born." (VI. 136.2.)

" What hair of thine falls down, and what
one is hewn off with its root, upon it I now
pour with the all-healing plant/ 5 (VI. 136.3.)

" Fix thou the root, stretch the end, make the
middle stretch out, O herb; let the black hairs
grow out of tby head like reeds/ 5 (VI. 137.3.)

2. Hk. X. 3- With an amulet of } 7 nrana
(Crataiva Ttoxburghii} .

This hymn of the Atbarva Veda gives us
the use of a plant employed for manifold
purposes : the prevention of injury, atone-
ment for hereditary sins, warding off foes, and
the attainment of prosperity. The following
quotations will amply bear us out :

" This Varana is my rival-destroying, virile
amulet; with it do thou take hold of thy foes,
slaughter thy injurers," 1.

"From the niggard, from perdition,
from sorcery, also from fear, from the more
violent deadly weapon of death, the Parana
shall shield thee." 7.

" What sin my mother, what my father, and

what my own brothers, what we ourselves have

done, from that shall this divine forest-tree

shield us/' 8<

23

178 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

" I bear this Varana being long-lived, one of
a hundred autumn* ; may it assign to me hoth
kingdom and authority, to me cattle and
force." 12-

3 . Bit. XIX. For various . leavings with an
amulet of Datblia (Poa cynosnroides).

The hymns 28, fe9, 30, 32, 33, give us
the variety of uses to which Darbha could
be put for the purpose of the prolongation
of life, for protection, for warding off enemies
and for a variety of material blessings. The
plant Darbfia seems to be identical with modern
KaSa and Kuia which is still used for sacrifi-
cial purposes.

4. Bk. XIX. 31. For various blessings
with an amulet of Udumbara (Ficns
glomerata)

This hymn contains the multiplicity of
blessings that the plant Udumbara (Ficus
glomerata) yields the blessings of pro-
geny, material prosperity, protection against
enemy and lordship over men and other animals.
The quotations below will illustrate our remark :

"Let me be the over-ruler of cattle; let the
lord of prosperity assign to me prosperity ; let
the amulet of Udumbara confirm to me posses-
sions/' 6 t

MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS 179

" Unto me the amulet of Udnmbara, with
both progeny and riches: the amulet quickened
by Indra hath come to me together with splen-
dour/ 3 7.

The plants Jangida in hymns 3i, 35 ;
Satav&ra (Asparagus recemosus) in 36; &nd
Guggula (Balsamodendron mukul) in 38,
are mentioned as remedies against diseases
and for protection against witchcraft and various
other blessings.

SECTION V

DKVRLOPMENT OF MEDICAL SCIENCE

Technically, the scientific treatise dealing
with medical problems is the Ayurveda or the
Science of life. JjYom the statement in the
Gharaka, Snsruta and other medical treatises,
it is clear beyond all possibility of doubt that
there must have existed a monumental treatise
of the name marking the intermediate period of
transition between the Rig and Atharva Vedas
on the one hand and the Charaka and Susruta
on the other. Without the hypothesis of the
existence of such a work, a hypothesis which is
very valid, the unbridgable gulf a gulf of pro-
bably a thousand years or more according to
Dr. P. C. Roy l separating the rudimentary
science of Medicine painfully gleaned out of the
Vedic texts and the fully developed and scienti-

1 " Where the humoral pathology is fully developed, the diagnosis
and prognosis of diseases described at length, and elaborate mode of
classification adopted." Roy, History of Hindu Chemistry, Vol. I, p,
viii (1902).

DKVELOPMIWT OF MEDICAL SCIENCE 18i

fieally accurate works of Charaka and Sus-
ruta cannot be explained. Some of the ancient
authorities traced the origin of the lost work to
the Atharva Veda and some to the Big Veda,
but the following statement occurring in the
Charaka, 1 seems to be decisive on the point.

" If anybody enquires from which of the four
Vedas Rik, Sama, Yaju and Atharva, Aynrveda,
i.e., the Veda of life emanates ? What is life ?
Why the treatise is called the Science of life ?
Is it transient or permanent ? What are the
sub divisions of the Science of life, to whom it is
open for study and why ? A physician when
thus interrogated, of all the four Vedas should
mention the Atharva Veda emphatically as the
Veda of life, i.e., should point out the Ayurveda
as a part of the Atharva Veda for this reason
that the Atharva Veda has prescribed treatment
by gift, expiation, sacrifice, atonement and fast,
as well as incantations, and has prescribed treat-
ment solely as conducive to the welfare of life,
etc."

" It is called the Ayurveda or the Science of
life because it enables us to understand what Ayu
or life is. If asked how it explains life, the
answer is this : it is called Ayurveda because it
brings home to us the nat re of Ayu by charac-
terisation, by happiness, by misery, by good and
evil, and by positive and negative proofs,"

1 Charaka I, Chap. XXX, 8 and 9,

182 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

The tiusnita i coming after Charaka precisely
agrees with it in describing the Sc^me genesis of
Ayurvfda.

Those who hold to the Rig-Vedic 2 origin of
the Science of life pointed out to the repeated
mention of Rudra as the father of the Science
of Medicine in the Rig Vedic texts (II. 7. 16),
This view is echoed by later mythological litera-
ture, and the traditional association of Rudra
with the healing science has been systematically
maintained. Whatever that may be, the Athar-
vanic origin of the Science of life, the tracing of
the genesis of the Oharaka and Susruta to the
Atharva Veda seems to be warranted by facts.
The divisions of the Science of Medicine as
occurring in the Charaka and Susruta 3 are as
follows :

(1) Sulyatantm (Major Surgery) ;

(2) Salakyatantm (Minor ) ;

(3) Kayachikitsa (Medicine) ;

(4) Uhutaridya (Demonology) ;

(5; Kaumaravidya or the Science of
Paediatrics ;

'6) Ayadatantra or Toxicology ;

1 SuRruta 1. 1 3.

a " Rtgvedasyfiurredd upacedd" Caranavyuha by Vyasa.
AyurvedaPutiika Ayurvoder multatwa, 131 ( .) B. 8., Vol. I. Gf. also
Dovipura^arn, Chapter 107, p. 297, Bangabasi edition.

1 Charaka I. XXX. 15; Susruta f 2, 3.

DEVELOPMENT OP MEDICAL SCIENCE 183

(7) Rasayana or the Science that treats of
prolonging life ; and

(8) Vdjikaranatantra or the Science of
Aphrodisiacs, i.e., treatment to stimulate the
sexual power.

And these precisely correspond to the
divisions of this science in its rudimentary
stage as we have deduced in a previous section of
this paper from the verses of the Atharva Veda.

The further story of the science of Medicine

V

in India can be very briefly told. It is the story
of monotony and stagnation no development,
no progress, no practical addition ; rather, the
spirit of enquiry, the desire of explanation, a han-
kering after the solution of each problem, the
motive of searching analysis and scrutiny are
all gone. In the Hindu Science of Medicine,
Mythology with its vast array of gods and
goddesses intrudes ; and although the Science
has been practised, and it is being practised still
with wonderful efficacy, the progress has been
arrested for good and all. The wonder of
wonders is that the Indian Science of Medicine
which was developed centuries before the
modern Science of Medicine came into being,
has stood so long the wear and tear of time, of
revolutions and conquests and in all essentials
is still as perfect as ' the most developed Euro-
pean system to-day ' and, considered from the
point of utility, it is peculiarly useful

184 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

efficacious to the people of the land of its origin.
The glory of it is that it can still cope with any
other system of medicine and the misfortune
and shame of it is that it has not received
adequate attention and has not consequently
undergone any improvement.

BOOK III

BOTANY AND SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE

SECTION I
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

The ancient Botanical Science and the
ancient Science of Agriculture are so closely
connected and interwoven with each other in
Indian thought and practice, at any rate in the
period of its infancy, that they cannot be well
separated. In the present book we shall attempt
a study of the historical development of the
ancient Science of Agriculture with the object
of incidentally illustrating the corresponding
development of an aspect of the Botanical
Science.

Agriculture requires the agency of three
factors: the soil to be cultivated, the cultivator
and the objects to be cultivated. All these
three requisites are eternal and unchangeable
in all ages and under all circumstances.

SECTION II

BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

The earliest mention of Agriculture occurs
in a hymn 1 of the Rigveda which definitely
shows us that India was peculiarly fit for Agri-
culture which was then the staple industry of
the country, the sole source of the supply of
food and the universal occupation of the people*.
The northern India being very fortunate in
supply of water owing to the existence of a net
work of rivers, yielded crops with ease and in
abundance ; and the cream of the population,
the highest section of the race, namely, the
Brahmin Rishis, regarded agriculture as a holy
and dignified occupation.

The following hymn from the Kigveda shows
that agriculture constituted a theme of inspired
speculation :

" With the master of the field, our friend, we
triumph : may he bestow upon us cattle, horse,
nourishment, for by such (gifts) he makes us

happy. " 1.

" Lord of the field, bestow upon us sweet,
abundant (water), as the milch cow (yields her)
milk, dropping like honey, bland as butter: may
the lord of water make us happy/ 5 2.

1 Eigveda, IV. XII (L VI I) Wilson. Vol. Ill, pp. 224, 225 (1657).

AG RICULTUBAL SCIENCE : BEGINNINGS 198

" May the herbs (of the field) be sweet for us
may the heavens, the waters, the firmament, be
kind to us; may the lord of the field be gracious
to us : let us, undeterred (by foes), have recourse
to him." 3.

" May the oxen (draw happily), the men
(labour) happily ; the plough furrow happily ;
may the traces bind happily ; wield the goad
happily." 4.

"Sana and Sira be pleased by this our praise,
and consequently sprinkle this (earth) with the
water which you have created in heaven." 5.

<; Auspicious Slta (furrow) be present, we
glorify thee : that thou mayest be propitious to us,
that thou may yield us abundant fruit." 6.

" May Indra take hold of Slta, may Pushan
guide her ; may she, well stored with water, yield
it as milk, year after year." 7.

" May the ploughshares break up our land
happily ; may the ploughman go happily with the
oxen ; may Parjanya (water the earth), with
sweet showers happily : grant, Suna and Sira,
prosperity to us." 8.

This shows us very clearly that the Aryans
by the time when the hymn was composed were
settled in the fertile soil of North India and
realised the vital importance of Agriculture as
a staple and national industry for which they
took a good deal of care and for which the Divine
was invoked. They seem to acquire also a

190 PLANTS AND PLANT-LM

sound knowledge of the science as it exists
to-day, aprt a nice handling of the instruments
of Agriculture, such as plough, etc.

From another hymn l quoted below it will
appear that they had recourse to artificial water
supply when necessary, and, as in modern
Europe, used to employ horses as well as cattle
in agricultural operations.

"Awake, friends, being all agreed ; many in
number, abiding in one dwelling, kindle Agni. I
invoke you, Dadhikara, Agni, and the divine
Ushas, who are associated with Indra, for our
protection." 1.

" Harness the ploughs, fit on the yokes, now
that the womb of earth is ready sow the seed
therein, and through our praise may there be
abundant food ; may (the grain) fall ripe
towards the sickle." 3.

"The wise (priests) harness the ploughs, they
lay the yokes apart, firmly devoted through the
desire of happiness." 4.

41 Set up the cattle-troughs, bind the straps to
it ; let us pour out (the water of) the well, which
is full of water, fit to be poured out, and not
easily exhausted." 5.

"I pour out (the water of) the well, whose
cattle-troughs are prepared, well fitted with
straps, fit to be poured out, full of water,
inexhaustible." 6.

1 Eigveda, X. 01. (Wilson, Vol. VI, pp. '28^1 (1888).

AGBICULTUBAL SCIENCE : BEGINNINGS 191

" Satisfy the horses, accomplish the goo d
ivork (of ploughing), equip a car laden with good
fortune, pour out (the water of) the well, having
wooden cattle-troughs, having a stone rim,
having a receptacle like armour, fit for the
irinking of men." 7.

" Construct the cow-stall, for that is the
drinking-place of your leaders (the gods), fabri-
cate armour, manifold and ample; make cities of
iron and impregnable ; let not the ladle leak,
make it strong." 8.

41 The beast of burden pressed within the
two wagon-poles, moves as if on the womb of
sacrifice having two wives. Place the chariot in
the wood, without digging store up the juice." 11.

The following quotation l goes to show that
laiids used to be distributed among cultivators
by measurement, a fact which is full of meaning.
" Measure the land with a rod. 1 '

This noble pursuit was so well conducted
and the agricultural products so plenty that
hospitality came to be regarded as a holy duty
religiously enjoined an ideal which is upheld
in India even to-day. The following quotations 2
powerfully bear on the following points :

"The gods have not assigned hunger as (the
cause of death), for deaths approach the man
who has eaten ; the riches of one who gives do

1 Bigveda, Vol. I, p. 56 (Wilson).

s fttgveda, X, 117 (Wilson) ; Vol. VT, pp. 326, 329 t

192 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

not diminish, he who gives not finds no
consoler." 1.

" He who, possessed of food, hardens his heart
against the feeble man craving the nourishment,
against the sufferer coming to him (for help),
and pursues (his own enjoyment even) before
him, that man finds no consoler." 2.

" He is liberal who gives to the suppliant
desiring food, wandering about distressed; to
him there is an ample (recompense), and he
contracts friendship with his adversaries." 3.

" He is not a friend who gives not food to a
friend, to an associate, to a companion ; let him
turn away from him, that is not a (fitting)
dwelling ; let him seek another more liberal
lord." 4.

" Let the very rich man satisfy his suitor,
let him look forward to a more protracted route,
for riches revolve from one man to another as
the wheels of a chariot turn round." 5.

" The inhospitable man acquires food in
vain. I speak the truth it verily is his death.
He cherishes not Aryaman, nor a friend ; he who
eats alone is nothing but a sinner." 6.

" The ploughshare furrowing (the field)
provides food (for the ploughman)... (so) let the
man who gives become a kinsman to the man
who gives not." 7.

The art of Agriculture as it can
be gleaned from the verses of the

'AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE : BEGINNINGS 193

Veda 1 is practically a reproduction of what we
get in the Rik. Thus :

HYMN 17 : For Successful Agriculture. 2
This hymn begins by asking the poets to
11 harness the ploughs " and <( to extend severally
the yokes/' and " scatter the seed in prepared
womb," and so forth a fact showing us unmis-
takably that poets in their fine frenzy of a
joyous vision, and wise men in their meditative
quest after truth, at least occasionally made
time to hold the plough and to cultivate the
land as a means of earning the livelihood food
without which no poetry, however excellent, and
no philosophy, however grand, is possible. The
picture of the art of cultivation as we get in
this hymn does not differ a bit materially from
the same art practised by the peasants in India
to-day. There is the same mode of ploughing the
land, preparing the womb of the earth, cutting
the corn with the same sickles when they are ripe
only with this distinction that the profession was
then sanctified with a hallow of divinity.

HYMN 24 : For Abundance of Grain?

The hymn is addressed to the god of plenty
so that he might favour his worshippers with
an abundance of grain.

1 All the hymns of the Atharva Veda referred to in this thenis are
from Whitney (1905).

Atharva Veda, Book III, p. 114.
8 Atharva Veda, Book III, p. 1?9.

85

194 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

The 5th verse supplemented by the 7th gives
us an idea of the village life based on communal
principle. It does not seem to be improbable
that the villagers used a plot of land in common,
where they used to graze their cattle, and culti-
vate the land, and so\v and reap the corn collec-
tively. The five races of men referred to may
be the five bodies of men namely, the plough-
men, the sower, Ihe reaper, the gatherer and
the brin<;er and the distributor. All these were
engaged in the common work of cultivation in
the most comprehensive sense of Ihe word. The
theory of the division of labour seems to have been
understood, realised and thoroughly practised
by the Ancients. At the very early stage of
society a race of invading immigrants, just settled
in groups in an unreclaimed land, could not do
better than fall upon the method of organisa-
tion on communal basis one headman with his
band of followers, supervising, controlling and
distributing the produce of the common land
amongst his followers much after the fashion of
a father in a family.

Reading the verses between tbu lines we can
get a clear idea of the village construction with
the " village common " in the centre surrounded
by habitations on all sides, whence people used
to come when necessary to carry on the work.

"These five directions that there (village) are,
the five races (ploughman, etc.) descended

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE : BEGINNINGS 106

Manu may they bring fatness (contribute to
the production of abundant grain) together here,
as streams drift when it has rained. " 5.

HYMN 15. 1

This hymn conveys a beautiful tribute to rain
which is a vitally necessary agency in the
luxurious development of herbs and plants.
The connection between rain and the growth
of corn is gratefully and poetically acknow-
ledged. The condition of Agriculture in India
is precisely the same now as it was in the days
of the Atharva, and the following invocation of
rain might well be put in the mouth of a devout
peasant to-day : c< let the mighty liberal ones
cause to behold together ; let the juices of the
waters attach themselves to the herbs; let
gushes of rain gUdden the earth, let herbs of

all forms be born here and there; let the

herbs become full of delight with the coming
of the rainy season. 51

HYMN 50. 2

This hymn enumerates the animal enemies
of corn and invokes the divine aid for their
destruction. The locust, the rat, the devourers
of corn, and the borers figuring in this hymn are
precisely the animals that we meet to-day,

Veda, Book IV, p. 172.
n VI, p. 317.

196 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

After all, from verses like these it is clear that
the agricultural condition of India, like other
conditions, is not materially different from what
existed in the days of old.

HYMN 142. 1

This hymn distinctly shows that at one time
barley happened to be the staple food of the
Indians to the extent of being regarded as a fit
object for invocation. A.nd this hymn indicates
a note of jubilation at the abundance of the
growth of this corn.

HYMN 59 2 : For Protection of Cattle.

This hymn and the one following show how
cattle used to be held as precious :

" To the draft-oxen [do thou] first, to the
milch kine [do thou], O Arundhatl (the commen-
tator identifies it with Sahadevl), to the non-
milch cow, in order to vigour, to the four-
footed creatures do thou yield protection/' 1.

HYMN 21 s ; Praise of the Kine.

"They shall not be lost; no thief shall harm
(them); no hostile (person) shall dare attack
their track : with whom he both sacrifices to the
gods and gives, long verily with them does the
kiue-lord go in company." 8.

1 Atharva Veda, Book VI, p. 387.
4 >, VI, 825.

' it > IV, 187.

AGRICULTUKAL SCIENCE : BEGINNINGS 197

" No dust-raising horseman reaches them ;
nor unto the slaughter-house do they go, etc." 4.

" Rich in progeny, shining in good pasture,
drinking clear waters at a good watering-
place let not the thief master you, nor the evil
plotter ; let Rudra's weapon avoid you." 7.

SECTION III
DEVELOPMENT DURING MAURYA PERIOD

By the 4th century B. C. the art of Agricul-
ture received a consummate perfection. It
became an important department l of the
Government, a special officer, called the Super-
intendent of Agriculture, being appointed for
the management and supervision of the import-
ant industry. This dignitary was to be a man
of accurate and scientific knowledge of the
subject, or " assisted by those who are trained in
such sciences."

The duty of the Superintendent was a very
extensive one. He was to " collect the seeds of
all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables,
bulbous roots, roots, creepers, fibre-producing
plants, and cotton." Ho was to see that the
cultivation of the crown land should suffer on
no account and enforce laws governing the
proper cultivation of the soil.

1 Chapter XXIV, Sections 117, 118, pp. 138.142.
(Dr. Shnma Sastri's translation^ and edition, 1923.)
For original Sanskrit text see Artbasistra of Kantilya edited by
R. Shama Sastri, Mysore Oriental Library publications Sanskrit
, #o. 64, 1919, pp. 116.118,

DEVELOPMENT DURING MAURYA PERIOD 199

" The work of these men (slaves, labourers
and prisoners) shall not suffer on account of
any want in ploughs (karshanaynntra) and other
necessary instruments or of bullocks. Nor
shall there be any delay in procuring to them
the assistance of blacksmiths, carpenters, borers
(medaka), rope-makers, as well as those who
catch snakes and similar persons.

"Any loss due to the above persons
shall be punished with a fine equal to the
loss."

The meteorological observations conducted in
connection with and in the interest of Agricul-
ture over the whole of India seem to be simply
marvellous for that age.

" The quantity of rain that falls in the
country of Jangala (in the desert countries
com.) is 10 drones ; half as much more in moist
countries (anupanam) ; as to the countries which
are fit for agriculture (desavapanatti) 13^ droijas
in the country of Asmakas (the countries of
Maharashtra com.) ; 23 drona* in Avanti, and an
immense quantity in Western countries (aparan*
tanam the countries of Konkana), the borders
of the Himalayas, and the other countries
where water channels are made use of in agri-
culture (kulyavapanam).

" When one-third of the requisite quantity
of rain falls both during the commencement
closing months of the rainy season (months

200 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

of Sravana and KMika com.) then the rainfall
is (considered) very even (sushamarupam).

" A forecast of such rainfall can be made by
observing the position, motion and pregnancy
(garbhddbana) of Jupiter (Brhaspati), the rise,
set and motion of Venus, and the natural and
the unnatural aspect of the sun.

" From the sun, the sprouting of the seeds
can be inferred ; from (the position of) Jupiter,
the formation of grains (stambakarita) can be
inferred and from the movement of Venus,
rainfall can be inferred.

" Three are the clouds that continuously rain
for seven days ; eighty are they that pour
minute drops ; and sixty are they that appear
with the sunshine this is termed rainfall.
Where rain free from wind and unmingled with
sunshine falls so as to render three turns of
ploughing possible, there the reaping of a good
harvest is certain.

" Hence, i.e., according as the rainfall is more
or less, the Superintendent shall sow seeds which
require either more or less water" (p. 139).

The Superintendent was also to see that
seeds of crops are properly sown and reared in
their proper seasons, in proper fields and under
circumstances and conditions favourable to the
growth. Thus :

14 The Superintendent shall grow wet crops
(kedara), winter crops (haimana), or summer

I >EVELOPMENT DUE1NG MAUEYA PEEIOD 201

crops (graishmika) according to the supply of
workmen and water.

''Lands that are beaten by foam (phenaghatah,
i.o., banks of rivers, etc.), are suitable for grow-
ing Valliphala (pumpkin, gourd, and the like) ;
lands that are frequently overflown by water
(panvahanta) for long pepper, grapes (mrdvika),
and sugarcane ; the vicinity of wells for vege-
tables and roots, low grounds (haraniparyantah
moist beds of lakes com.) for green crops ; and
marginal furrows between any two rows of
crops are suitable for the plantation of fragrant
plants, medicinal herbs, khuskhus roots (uslra\
bira (?), beraka (?) and pindaluka (lac) and the
like.

9 " The seeds of grains are to be exposed to
mist and heat (tusharapayanamiishnam cha) for
seven nights ; the seeds of Kosl (such as mudga
and masha, etc. com.) are treated similarly
for three nights; the seeds of sugarcane and the
like (kdndalljanam) are plastered at the cut
end with the mixture of honey, clarified butter,
the fat of hogs, and cowdung ; the seeds of
bulbous roots (kandct) with honey and clarified
butter, cotton seeds (asthiblja) with cowdung;
and water pits at the roots of trees are to be
burnt and manured with the bones and dung of
cows on proper occasions.

" The sprouts of seeds, when grown, are to be
manured with a fresh haul of minute fishes and

202 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

irrigated with the milk of Snuhi (Euphorbia
antiquorum).

" Soli (a kind of rice), Frlhi (rice), Kodrava
(Paspalum scrobiculatum), Tila (sesamum),
Priyangu (panic seeds), Ddraka (?) and Varaka
(Phaseolus trilobus) are to be sown at the
commencement (purvavapah) of the rainy
seasons. Mudga (Phaseolus mungo), Masha
(Ph. radiatus) and Saivya (?) are to be sown
in the middle of the season. Rmumbha
(Safflower), Masura (Ervum hirsutum), Kulattha
(Dolichos biflorus), Yava (Barley), Godhuma
(wheat) , Kalayn (Leguminous seeds), Atasl
(linseed), and Sarshapa (mustard) are to be
sown last." 1

The Greek ambassador at the Court of
Chandra Gupta Megasthenes a contemporary
of the author of Arthasastra, pays 2 an eloquent
tribute to the abundance of crops in India, to
the fertility of the soil, to the absence of famine
and the peculiar respect in which agriculture
and the agriculturists were held. Even at
the time of war the combatants used to leave
the agriculturists undisturbed as a matter of
duty.

1 All the quotations are from Dr. Shama Sastri's English edition,
sec swpra, p. 198.

2 Fragments of Indika of tMeffasthenes, Bonn 1846. (Dr. E. A
Schwanbeok.)

DEVELOPMENT DURING MAUBYA PEEIOD 203
Thus he says in :

I

u India has many huge mountains which
abound in fruit trees of every kind, and many
vast plains of great fertility. The greater part
of the soil, moreover, is under irrigation and
consequently bears two crops in the course of
the year." 35.

"In addition to the cereals theie grows
throughout India much millet ......... and much

pulse of different sorts and rice also, and what
is called Bosmorum, as well as many other plants
useful for food of which most grow spont-
aneously. 36 (9).

"It is accordingly affirmed that famine has
naver visited India and that there has never
been a general scarcity in the supply of
nourishing food. 36 (10).

" But, further, there are usages observed
by the Indians which contribute to prevent
the occurrence of famine among them, for,
whereas among other nations in the contests
of war to ravage the soil and thus to reduce
it to an uncultivated waste is the practice,
among the Indians on the contrary by whom
husbandmen are regarded as a class that is sacred
and inviolable, the tillers of the soil, even when
battle is raging in their neighbourhood, are
undisturbed by any sense of danger for the

204 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

combatants on either side in waging the conflict
make carnage of each other hut allow those
engaged in husbandry to remain quite unmolest-
ed. Besides, they neither ravage an enemy's
land with fire nor cut down its trees.' 31 36

1 Cf. also Aiyangar, Ancient India, p. 18 (1911).

FRAGMENT XT
On the fertility of India

" During the rains flax is sown, and millet,
also sesamum, rice and bosmorum, and in the
winter time wheat, barley, pulse and other
esculent fruits unknown to us." *

The grandson of Chandragupta, Asoka, as
it is clear from one of his edicts 2 looked upon
the encouragement of agriculture not only as
a political duty (as Chandragupta did) but also
as a moral duty.

1 Other foreign observers also dwell upon the perfection of
agriculture and the fertility of the soil in India. Thus Strabo, coming
long a^fter Megasthenes, remarks:

" During tho rainy season flax and millet as well as bosmorum
are sown and in the winter season wheat, barley, pulses and other
esculents with which we are unacquainted " 13.

"They (Ne.irchos and Aristoboulos) add that the land while but
still half dried is sown, and though scratched into furrows by any
common labourer, it nevertheless brings what is planted to perfection
and makes the fruit of good quality. Rice according to Aristoboulos
stands in water, and is sown in beds. The plant is 4 cubits in height,
has many ears and yields a large produce. Megillos says that rice
is sown before the rains, etc." 18.

Strabo, Ancient India. McCrindle (1901), Sees. II-IV, Bk. XV,
13, 18.

2 (< Everywhere in the dominions of His Sacred and Gracious
Majesty the King, as well as among his frontagers, the Cholas, the
Pandyas, the Satyaputra, the Ketalaputra as far as the T5mbaparl f
Antioohos, the Greek king or even the kings, the neighbours of that
Antiochos everywhere have been made the healing arrangements
of His Sacred and Gracious Majesty in two kinds, (namely) healing

206 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

By the time of Manu the duty of looking to
the agricultural interest of the country became
codified l into a law, and a special class of people
versed in the knowledge of correct measurement
and weight, as also good and bad qualities of the
soil, sprang up known as Faifyaa. Thus :

" If the land be injured by the fault of the
farmer himself, as if he fails to sow it in due
time, he shall be fined ten times as much as the
King's share of the crops that might otherwise
have been raised. 5 ' Code \ III, 243.

" Again a Taisya must be skilled in seeds,
and in the bad or good qualities of land and
the correct modes of measuring and weighing/'

Code IX, 330.

arrangements for men and healing arrangements for beasts. Medi-
cinal herbs also, both medicinal herbs for men and medicinal herbs
for beasts, wheresoever lacking have been everywhere both imported
and planted. Roots also, and fruits wheresoever lacking have been
everywhere imported and planted. On the roads too wells have been
dug and trees planted for enjoyment of men and beasts."
Tablet II, Edict II (of Asoka)

(a) Vincent Smith, Asoka, p. 160, 3rd Ed.

(6) Dr. Bhandarkar and S. N. Majumdar, The Inscriptions
of Asoka, pp. 4-6 (1920).

1 Mrs. Spier, Life in Ancient India, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 151
(1856, Londun).

SECTION IV
KMSHI-PARASARA

A very valued treatise called Krishi-ParaSara
of uncertain date, but composed certainly not
later than the 5th century A.D., devoted princi-
pally to the plantation of paddy and secondarily
to other things concerning agriculture, throw a
flood of light upon the perfection attained by
the Art of Agriculture in India. It deals with
such topics as meteorological observations lead-
ing to the prediction of the scarcity, drought
and ab.undance of rain ; superintendence of the
field and its produce ; tending of the herd needed
for cultivation ; preparation and application of
manure ; the construction of agricultural imple-
ments, collection of seeds ; sowing ; harvesting,
etc., etc. This treatise is all-comprehensive
being full of a large number of pregnant
aphorisms relating to the minutest particulars
of agricultural processes.

A verse 1 concerning the ploughing of land
runs :

"By ploughing the land in autumn one gets
the goodliest of harvests (golden) and by

208 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

ploughing it in spring one gets the next best
(copper and silver), by ploughing in summer
one gets simple paddy (i.e., of the chird order),
and ploughing in the rainy season one gets
absolute dearth."

There is another l relating to the sowing of
paddy :

" The month of BaisaJch is the best time for
sowing seeds of paddy, the next is Jaishtha,
Ashar is bad for the purpose and gravan is
the worst."

Here is another 2 telling us how to manure the
land.

" After sunning the manures and grinding
thorn in the month of Magh one should bury
them in the fields in the month of Falgoon and
then on the eve of sowing should apply them
to the soil, else the yields of crops will not

increase."

Of. also "

^i^^t
2 " 3

Kfif

KRISHT-PARASARA 209

Let us quote last a verse from Krishi-Paraiara
concerning the construction of the plough :

: ii

H"

27

SECTION V
KIT ANA'S MAXIMS

The striking resemblance between some of
the aphorisms of Khana relating to agriculture
and some of the verses in KrisJii-ParaSara on the
same subject may warrant us in the supposition
that the authentic treatise in Sanskrit might
have a good deal to do with the mythical author
of the aphorisms of Khana who has carried the
lessons contained in the Krishi- P arasara
to particular applications in minute details.

Tho aphorisms of Khana bearing on agricul-
ture may be classified under the following
heads ;

1. General maxims governing the conduct
of the cultivators. 2. Meteorological observa-
tions with a view to the guidance of the farmers.
3. Selection of tho soil. 4. Ploughing. 5.
Sowing and planting. 6. Reaping and
harvesting, etc. The number of maxims under
each of these h<*ads is too large to be given
except in typical selections :

1. General Maxims governing the Conduct
of tlie Cultivators.

" The master who gets the soil cultivated
either by himself or in co-operation with others

KHANA'S MAXIMS 211

reaps the full harvest, and next the man who
gets the same done by others, himself standing
with umbrella spread over his head (i.e., Avithout
taking part himself), and the man who sits at
home and takes care of his soils thence (i.e., who
takes only a theoretical care of his soil) is fated
to a life of penury."

" The cultivation should be conducted in
co-operation of the father with the son, and
failing that of a brother with a brother."

The whole drift is that the cultivation should
be done by men themselves directly interested
in the prosperity of the harvest.

2. Predictions as to the Influence of Timely
and Untimely Shoiors iipvu the Crops.

" If it rains in the month of Ayrahayan
the very king is driven to hedging ; and if in
Pous the husks are sold in their weight in
gold ; and if in the month of Jilayh 9 the country
might be regarded as blessed and the sovereign
might be congratulated thereon ; and if in
Falgoon,, China and Kaon (grains) will grow
very plentifully."

" The year in which it rains cats and dogs
on the ninth day of the full moon in the month
of Ashar, the crane will walk over the very
bottom of the sea (i.e., absolute drought will
visit the land) ; O ! Edther-in-law, you need not
bother yourself about the further calculation in
this matter. If it drizzles on that day it

212 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

will be followed by a heavy shower of rain
throughout the whole year to the extent of
making the fish inhabit the tops of mountains
(i.e., whole country will be over-flooded). If it
rains now and then throughout the year the
very earth will not be able to bear the weight of
the harvest. If the sky remains clear at the
setting of the Sun the farmer will have to sell
his bullocks in the market, i.e., the corns will
not grow at all."

" Drought in Jaishtha and shower in Ashar
lead to the growth of corn too plentiful for the
earth to bear."

" If wind blows from the north-east at the
beginning of the year it is sure to have a
good shower according to Khana."

" Khana says this to the cultivator that if
fleecy cloud be followed by wind in the full moon
in the month of Kartik the winter crops will grow
too plentiful for the earth and if there be both
cloud and rain at night it is altogether useless
to go to the field, i.e., the crops will not grow."

3. Selection of the Soil.

As the Soil of Bengal is unusually fertile,
being tit for all kinds of crops, the maxims of
Khana which have almost solely Bengal in view
are too few under this head.

" "You worthy cultivator, your aim will be
fulfilled if you grow Patdl (Trichosanthes
dioica) in the sandy alluvial soil."

KHAN f S MAXIMS 213

" The sandy soil is fit for the cultivation
of Aus paddy and clayey soil for that of
Jute."

" If you grow Arum on the bank of a river
it will grow to the height of three cubits, i.e.,
it will flourish well/'

4. Ploughing the Land for Crops.

Elaborate attention is given to the methods
of ploughing, thus :

" One should plough the soil sixteen times
(i.e., many times) for radishes ; half the
number of times for cotton ; and half of that
for paddy and none at all for betel/'

" One should cultivate the soil for radishes
making it as soft as cotton, i.e., to the extremity
of softness and for sugar-cane plough it to the
dust."

" Khana directs, cultivators, begin the
ploughing from the east and surely all your
aims shall be fulfilled."

" The man who sets his hands to the plough
either on the days of the full moon or the new
moon, will be fated to suffer sorrows throughout
the whole life. His bullocks will suffer from gout
(i.e., remain inactive), and he will suffer from
eternal lack of peace. He who violates this
injunction of Khana will do so at his peril."

214 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

5. Sowing and Planting.

The treatment under this head is both ex-
haustive and elaborate.

" By sowing paddy in the month of Ashar
one gets a full harvest, in Sravan only leaves
and no fruits, in Bhadra only husks and in
Aswin nothing.' 3

" Sow paddy to your heart's content through-
out the whole of gravan and the first 12 days
of Bhadra:'

" During the last four days of Bhadra and
the first four days of Aswin sow Kalai (Pha-
seolus var. radiatus) as much as you can (*.#.,
best time)."

" One should sow Peas after the first 19 days
of Aswin and within the first 19 days of Kartik.'*

^Khanfi directs, good cultivator, sow mustard
towards the end of Autumn."

" The cultivator who does not plant either
in the month of Bhadra or Aswin and idles
away his time and then too late in the month
of Karlik and Agrahayan plants grown-up things
in the field, is fated to see them perish from an
attack of mildew and his barns empty."

"Sow turmeric in Baisakh and Jaishtha,
bidding adieu to your chess-playing, weed out
your soil in Ashar and Sravan so as to make
it perfectly fit in Bhadra, otherwise no harvest
will follow/'

KHANA'S MAXIMS 215

" This is the direction of Varaha's son
Mihir : Excepting Chaitra and Baisakh plant
brinjals very cheerily throughout the other
ten months. Apply ashes, if the plants are
attacked by worms as the only remedy, pour
water in case the ground is dry, and you will
get fruits all the year round.

"Plant betel in Sravan and the produce will
be too much to be chewed up even by Havana."

"Patois will doubly grow if planted in
Falgoon.

" Plant plantains in holes one cubit deep
each at intervals of 8 cubits, and do not cut off
the leaves and it will yield you both bread and
clothes."

6. Reaping.

The following maxims selected from among
the rest contain directions for reaping the
harvest.

" Corns ripen within 20 days after the first
appearance of the ear, and one should cut and
thresh the corn in 10 days more. 55

"The corn ripens 30 days after the first
appearance of the spike, 20 days after the first
appearance of flowers and 12 days after the ears
are down after the appearance of a horse's head.
Remember this, father-in-law ! while making,
buying and selling corns,"

216 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

" During the last 8 days of Palgoon and first
8 days of Chaitra one should reap the ripe

sesamums."

" Cut the hemp plant (for the fibre) as soon
as it flowers ; the jute when it is mature ; and
autumn paddy if reaped during the month of
Pous proves profitable."

SECTION VI
AMARAKOSHA ON AGRICULTURE

The last comprehensive glimpse of the Art of
Agriculture we get in the Lexicon of Amara
which gives us an all-comprehensive information
about the subject in the chapters called JBhumi-
varga, Vanaushadhivarga and Taisyavarga.

In the Vaisyavarga he deals with the class
of people one of whose professions was agricul-
ture. In the hierarchy of castes the Paisyas, the
third in order, have come by this time to be
exclusively professional cultivators of the lands,
one of their names being Bhumisprisah (*jfcR&*H ) 5
i.e., who touches (cultivates) the land, the hus-
bandman being called Kshetrajivah ( %?n^tsr; ).

Next, in the Bhumivarga, he gives us a
general classification of the soils based on ferti-
lity. The soil is called Mrttika ( ?jf%3TT ) ; and
excellent soil Mrtsa ( ^jcj^TT ) ; a fertile soil with
every crop Urvvara ( ^ocftT ) or Sarvasasyadhya
a salt ground KsJiara mrttikci (^T*-
) ; a spot with such soil Ushavanushara
) ; barren soil Anurvvara ( ^TifoGr^T) ;
a region devoid of water Maru ( ^ ) ; untilled
or waste land Aprahate, Khile (^TlTi?^, f%%) ; the
soil watered by a river Nadl-matrika (Tt

and that watered by rain Deva-matrika

This is a nomenclature which is at once
suggestive, exhaustive and sound, displaying a

OQ

218 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

perfect mastery over the fundamentals of agri-
culture so far as the soil is concerned.

Then he gives us, in the Vatiyavarga, again
different names for the different kinds of soils
peculiarly fit for the cultivation of different
kinds of crops a fact from which we can inci-
dentally gather a knowledge of the staple agri-
cultural products of India which is not substan-
tially different from those that we see to-day.
Thus he calls the field fit for cultivating corn
and rice, Kshetram vraiheya saleyam ( ^??f ll^sr-
f ) ; that fit for barley as Yaw/am, Yavakyam
F335' ) ; that for Sesamum as Tilam,
Taillnam ( fcR, ^fa*j) ; that fit for other grains,
pulses, such as, mungo, lentil, gram, etc., as
Maudginam, Raudroblna (shsfa*, ^ft^ifaT), etc.
A field is called Baprah (w,), Kedara ( %^TT: ) 5
Kshetram ( 4fo'); a multitude of fields Kaida-
rakavi (s|^K3W) ; land twice ploughed is called
Dwigunaltritam ( fe^pnTBRW ) ; thrice ploughed
Trihalyam ( f^i^ ), Trisityam ( fMrtei ) ; and
anyhow ploughed or tilled Sttyam OitenO, Krish-
tam ( -QKZ ) ; a field sown with certain measure
of seeds Drounikadhakika ( <ftfrign<?fgi3fT ) and
land ploughed after sowing Vljakritam (tu)
Pmkrishtam

1 In this connection might be added the following directions from
the Matsyn Pura^am as to the selection of soils favourable to the
growth of different types of coins

" The cultivator should sow some seeds of the type of corn he
ishes to grow in a portion of the particular soil deaigaad for the

AMAKAKOSHA ON AGEICULTUEE 219

Next he enumerates the agricultural imple-
ments :

A harrow is called Kautisam
i?^T:) ; a goad, Prajanam, Todanam
a spade or hoe, Khanitram ( ?fa0f) ; a sickle,
Datram, Lalitram ( ^*r*, ^feeW) ; the tie of the
yoke (with which the ox is yoked to the
plough, or, with which the yoke is fastened
to the plough), Tot ram (sffaj) ; the body of
the plough (the wood exclusive of the pole
and share), Nirisham, Kuthakam (fo^tf,
the plough-share, Phala, Krishika
the plough, Langalam, Halam
; the pin of yoke, Yugakllakah
the pole or shaft of the
plough, Langal-daniah (^ITIP^W.) 5 a furrow,
Slta ( ^?IT) ; the post of the threshing floor
(round which cattle turn to tread out the grain),
Medhih (%fa:); a pestle for clearing rice,
Ay Off ram, Musalah (^Rffah ^^r:) ; a mortar,
tJdukhalam ( ^|W5f^) ; a winnowing basket,
Surppa, Prasphotanam (^f, !WFt3^) ; sieve
or cribble, Chalanl, Titabhah (^M^t, f?|rW: ) ;
a sack, Syutah, Praseva (^rf!, JflN ) ; threshed
out and winnowed grain Putam (tjff) and a
granary Kavidala (^TTWra).

purpose, and if the seeds planted sprout in three nights he will regard
the soil as of the first order ; and if in five nights as of the second
order; and if in seven nights as of the last order. The soil which takes
a longer time than this must be abandoned for good and all.*'
(Matsyapurftnam - Bangabasi Ed., 1316 B.R., Chap. 253, Slokas 17, 18,
p. 880.)

SECTION VII
CONCLUDING REMARKS

Our survey of the genesis and development
of ancient Science of Agriculture shows that
after it has reached a certain state of perfection
there has been no further improvement in the
method of cultivation, no accurate observation
and no useful experiment. The scientific prin-
ciples underlying the Art under unfavourable
political circumstances came to be forgotten and
agriculture instead of being a concern of the
State, a matter of expert knowledge, came to be
the occupation of the lowest strata of the popu-
lation with the result that the fertile India noted
by Megasthenes and others for its absolute
absence of famine became repeated scenes of
dearth and famine during the Mohamedan rules
again and again, and many times during the
British rule too.

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

The thesis submitted is but a part of a larger
work which is to follow. It is intended 'to serve
as a mere sample of the kind of work which can
be produced with the materials that can yet be
gathered from the unexplored field of Indian
literature and current traditions. The indebted-
ness of human civilisatian to plants and the
study of plant-life is indeed very great. There
is hardly any department of human culture, or
any phase of human civilisation, whether it be
pure poetry or pure philosophy or pure religion,
science, art, language, dress and ornament, trade
or agriculture, where plants and the study of
plant-life have not played an important part.

Our thesis contains, we hope, sufficient
evidence to show that the knowledge of Botany
developed on three different lines, first, in and
through various philosophical speculations ;
secondly, as Bheshaja Vidya, in and through
the Science of Medicine ; and thirdly, as Vrik-
shayurveda, in and through the Science of Agri-
culture. There are quotations from sources
referring to some independent treatises, or
manuals of the Science of the medicinal proper-
ties of plants, those of the Science of Agriculture,
as well as works dealing with the treatment X)f

224 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

plants and other topics falling within the pro-
vince of Botany. We have only glimpses of
these manuals and works through the summaries
and incidental references in other treatises which
are non-Botanical. Even that which survives
or remains, clearly indicates that the division
of knowledge by water-tight compartments was
yet unknown.

The inter-relation among the sciences was
universally recognised, and the sciences and
arts developed together. The obstacle in the
path of development of the Botanical Science as
a full-fledged science, was that scientific cognition
and results of observations were not kept suffi-
ciently distinct from the popular notions, guesses
and superstitions.

Our study tends to prove that the Science of
Plants and Plant-life in India is one of the
earliest, if not the earliest one. With it develop-
ed such collateral sciences as those of Medicine
and Agriculture. We know a good deal more of
the Science of Medicine than of the . Science of
Agriculture, its sister, and of the Science of Plant
and Plant-life, its mother. Our survey, however,
shows that all these shared the same fate of a
brilliant beginning, a marked progress to a
certain stage, and a tragic stagnation.

The field is vast, our survey is brief but
enough, we think, to hoM out the prospects of
a rich harvest that can be reaped by the modern

CONCLUSION 225

inquirer. The value of the work is primarily
historical no doubt, enabling one, as it does,
to be acquainted with the circumstances and
the difficulties through which human knowledge
and art grew up, but its value also consists in
discovering different systems of nomenclature
and classification, suggestive of different trends
of human thought and national culture.

29

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Agnipurana Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. II, 1876.
Translated into Bengali by Chan-

dra Nath Bose, Calcutta, 1293 B.S.

Amarakosha Edited by Colebrooke, Calcutta,
1891.

Amarakosha With llaghunath Chakravartty's
annotations. Edited by Chandra Mohan
Tarkaratna, Calcutta, 3886.

Ancient India Translated by McCrindle, 1901.

Ancient India S. K. Aiyanger, 1911.

Arthasastra Mysore Oriental Publication, Sans-
krit Series No. 54, 1919.

Arthasastra English translation by Shama
Sastri, 2nd edition, 1923.

Asoka, Edicts of, Vincent Smith, 3rd edition.
, Inscriptions of, Bhandarkar and Majum-
dar.

Atharva Veda English translation by Whitney,
Harvard Oriental Series, Vols. 7 and 8.

Ayurveda Patrika Vol. I, Calcutta, 1319 B.S.

Bengal Plants David Prain, 2 vols., Calcutta,
1903.

Bhabaprakasa Bengali translation with texts.

Bhagavatapurana With Sridhar Swami's com-
mentary, Bangabasi edition, Calcutta, 1294
B.S.

BIBLIOGEAPHY 22?

Brihat-samhita 2 vols. The Vizianagram Sans-
krit Series, Vol. X, Benares, 1895-97.
Chakradatta-sarhgraha Edited by Sivadas Sen,

Calcutta, 1295 B.S.
Charaka Translated into Bengali by U. N. Sen

and D. N. Sen, Calcutta, 1316 B.S.
Charaka English translation by Abinash Ch.

Kaviratna, Pases. II, XI, XII, XIII, XXIII,

XXIV and LXL
Chhandogya Upanishad Bengali translation,

Basumati edition.
Chikitsa-sarhgraha Edited by Pyari Mohan Sen

Gupta, Calcutta, 1295 B S.
Devlpurana Bengali translation, Bangabasi

edition, Calcutta.

Dialogues of Buddha Part I, Sacred Books of
6 the Buddhists Series, Vol. II (Rhys

Davids).
Dictionary of the Economic Products of India

George Watts, London, 1908.
ilora Indica Roxburgh, Calcutta, 1874.
Fragments of Indika of Megasthenes Edited

by E. A. Schwanbeck, Bonn, 1846.
Harita-samhita Edited by Kalish Chandra Sen,

Kaviraj, Sakabda 1807.
History of Hindu Chemistry P. C. Ray, 2 vols.,

Calcutta, 1902.
History of Indian Medicine ,G. N. Mukherjee,

Calcutta University Publication.
History of Pre-Buddhistic Philosophy of

228 BIBL10GEAPHY

India B. M. Barua, Calcutta University

Publication.

Indigenous Drugs of India K. L. Dey.
Jataka Stories English translation, Cambridge

edition, Vol. I, 1895.
Khanar Vachana (Bengali) Vatatala edition,

Calcutta.
Kiranavali of Udayana Bibliotheea Indica,

New Series, 1342. Fasc. Ill, 1912.
Krishi Siksha (Bengali) Ghatak, Calcutta.
Life in Ancient India Mrs. Spier, London,

1856.
Mahabharata (Bengali translation) Basumati

edition, 2 vols.
Manu-sarhhita (Bengali translation) Bangabasi

edition, 1294 B.S.

Materia Medica of the Hindoos U. C. Dutta.
Matsyapurana (Bengal i) Bangabasi edition,

Calcutta, 1816 B.S.
Medicinal Plants of India Kirtikar and Bose, 2

vols. Allahabad.
Natural History of Pliny Translated by P.

Holland, 2 Vols., London, 1634.
Nyaya Kandali of Sridhara The Vizianagram

Sanskrit Series, Vol. IV, Benares, 1895.

Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara Bibliotheea
Indica, edited, by P. Peterson, 1889.

Panjika (Bengali) P. M. Bagchee, Calcutta,
1331 B.S.

JBIBLIOGKAPHY 229

Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus JB. N.

Seal, London, 1915.
Prakritibad Abhidhana, 2 vols. Earn Kamal

Vidyaratna, Calcutta, 1322 B.S.
Prasastapada The Vizianagram Sanskrit Series,

Vol. IV, Benares, 1895.
Ramayana (Bengali translation with texts)

Bangabasi edition, Calcutta.
Review Sir W. Jones The Asiatic Society

of Bengal.

Rigveda English translation by Wilson.
Saddarshana-samuchchaya with Gunaratna's

commentary Bibliotheca Indica, New

Series, 1151 (1 ( J07).

Sumangala Vilasinl Buddha Ghosha's commen-
tary. Edited by Rhys Davids and Carpen-
ter, P. T. S., Part I.
Susruta Edited by Jadavji Trikumji Acharya,

Bombay, 1915.
Susruta (Bengali translation) Yasodanandan

Sen, 2 vols.
Susruta (English translation) K. L. Vishag-

ratna, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1911.
Travels of Marco Polo English translation by

W. Marsden, London.
Vaiseshika aphorisms of Kanada Gough's

Edition, Benares, 1873.
Vaiseshika aphorisms of Kanada S. B. H.,

Vol. 6, Panini Office, Allahabad.
Vanaushadhi Darpana Viraja Charan Sen

Gupta, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1908.

230 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vedic India Ragozin, Story of Nations Series.

Vishnupurana (Bengali translation) By Cham
Banerjee, Prabasi edition, Calcutta.

Vrihadaranyaka Upanishad English transla-
tion, S. B. H., Vol. 14. Panini Office,
Allahabad.

Vrihadaranyaka Upanishad (Bengali translation
with texts) Lotus Library edition, 1322-
1327 B.8.

GENEEAL INDEX

BOOK I

Absorption of soil water, 31

Age and death, 52, 53

Applications of the Science, 131-139

as a means of ascertaining fche presence of water in a dreary

region, 135-139

as a means of economic predictions, 131-134

Assimilation of food materials, 33-35
Circulation of water, 35-36
Classification, 75-127

principles of, 79

on Botanical principles, 79-89 ; Amara, 84; Bhabaprakftsh, 86;

Bhagavatapnrana, 84; Chakrapanj, 80, 86; Charaka, 80;
Dalvana, 81; Mann, 79; Prasastapffda, 82; Rigveda, 79;
Udayanacharyya, 83; gridhara, 82; Susruta, 81; farther
classification into definite groups or genera (?) and individual
plants or species (?), 87-89

on Medicinal properties, 90-104; according to Charaka, 90-98;

Susruta, 98-104

on Dietic value, 105-127; Amara's illustrations, 121-123;

according to Bbabaprakash (combining both dietic and medi.
oinal values), 123-127 ; Charaka, 105-113; SuSruta, 114-121
Concluding remarks, 130
Consciousness in plants, 53.58

as in Bhagavatapurana, 58; Chakrapanj, 58 ; Gu^aratna, 57;

MahSbharata, 55; Mahidas Aitareya, 54; Manusamhita, 55 ;
Maskarin Gosala, 65 r ; Udayana, 57; Uddalaka, 64; Upaskara,
57 ; Vedas, 54

Ecology, 66-70 ; three regions, 66 ; Anupa region (watery and marshy),
66, 67 ; its topography and flora, 68-69 ; Jangala region (dry
wilderness), 66 ; its topography and flora, 67 ; Sadhfcrana region
(ordinary), 66, 69 ; its topography and flora, 69, 70J

232 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Evolution and Plants, 128-130

according to Buddha, 129; RSmayana, 130; Uddalaka, 128 ;

Varnna, 128; Yfijfiavalkya, 129

General observations, 13

description of plants ; external morphology, 18-26 ; Flower, 24 ;

Fruit, 25 ; its classification, 25; Leaf, 23; Root, 19; Seed, 25 ;
Shoot, 20 j Stem, 21

Germination, of Seeds, 15-17

Growth, 51-52 ; its conditions, 52 ; Stages, 51

Healing up of wounds, 28, 29

Heredity, 141-146

Histology, Internal morphology, 27-29; description of internal struc-
ture, 27-28

Manuring, 42-46

Movements, Irritability, 49-51

Nomenclature, 71-78; double name for each plant, 76-78; Principles
followed in naming : Environmental association, 75 ; Local
association, 75; Other characteristics, 76; Special associntion
71, 72 ; Special characteristic features, 73 ; Special morpholo-
gical features, according to the (a) number of leaflets in the
compound leaf, 73; (b) nature and shape of leaf, 74; (c) shape
and colour of flowers, 74; (d) miscellaneous, 74; Special pro-
perty, (a) medicinal, 72 ; (b) domestic utility, 72

Nourishment, general, 30

Planting, general, 36-42; cuttings and graftings, 39-40; essential pre-
liminaries of plantation, 38, 39 ; final direction, 41, 42 j name of
plants that should be planted in the homestead garden, 37

Plant Association, 70

Taxonomy, 71-127

Transport of soil water in plants, 32

Treatment of plants, 46-49; application of drugs, 47, curative, 48;
prophylactic, 48; signs of diseased condition, 47

Reproduction, 62,65; by apical pieces (buddinge), 63,65; bulbous
roots and underground stems, 62, 65 ; cuttings and joints, 62,
63, b'5; graftings, 63 ; layerings, 64 ; leaves, 64 j seeds, 62,65

Respiration, 49

Rotation of crops, 46

Sexuality, ideas of , 58-62 ; as in Amarakosha, 61; Bh&baprakash, 61 V ;
Charaka, 60; Dhanvantari nighantu, 61; E&rita SamhiU, 59;
Pliny, 61 J R&janighan{u, 60, 61

GENEKAL INDEX 233

BOOK II

General observation, 149
Medical Science,

its begininga in Kigveda, 151-157

its development in Atharvaveda : Classification of maladies, 168-

159; Miscellaneous uses of plants, 176-179: Physical maladies,
169-161 ; Procreation and protection of childien, 166-167'; Pros-
perity and prolongation of life, 171-172 ; Supernatural mala-
dies, 161-165 ; Venom of snakes and other insects, 168-171';
Virility and erotic success, 172-175 ; Wounds, burns, etc., 167-
168

its further development in Charaka and Susruta, 180-183 ;
their divisions of the Science, 182, 183

itsjlater development, 183-184

BOOK III

Agricultural Science,

its beginnings, 188-197 i in Atharvaveda, 192-197; in Rig-

veda, 188-192

k its development during Maurya period, 198-206 ; Arthasastra,

198-202 ; ASoka, his edicts, 206; Manu, 206; Megasthenes,
his fragments of Indika, 202-205

Amarakosha on Agriculture, 217-219; apparatus and implements, 219;
soil, 217, 218

Concluding remarks, 220

General observation, 187

Khana's maxims, 210-216

general maxims governing the conduct of the cultivators, 210,
211; ploughing the land for crops, 213; predictions as to the
influence of timely and untimely showers upon the crops, 211,
212 ; selection of the soil, 212, 213 ; sowing and planting, 214-
216 ; reaping, 215-216

Krii-Paragara, a treatise on Agriculture, 207-209

General conclusion for three books, 223-226

80

LIST OF PLANTS

Abhaya (Terminalia chebula), 94, 96, 100, 117, 123

Abhisuka, 112, 116

Abyatha (Myrabolana cbebula), 72, 92

Adhaki (Cajanus indicus), 107, 115

Agastya (Scsbaoia grandiflora), 119

Agnimantha (Premna spinosa), 73, 94, 99, 104

Aguru (Aquilaria agallocbum), 96, 100, 121

Aindri (Karivia umbellata), 98

Ainguda (Colopbyllum inopbyllum), 117

Airavata (Citrus sp. ; orange), 116, 117

Ajagandha (Cnidium diffusum or Ocimum ep.) 97

Ajafi (Curaimim cyminum), 97

Ajakarna (Shorea ep.), 99

Ajamoda (Apium involucrata), 91, 97

fyasringi (Odina pinnata), 99, 104, 164

Ajjukam (Ocimum basilicum), 65

Akshaka (Elseocarpus sp.), 117

Aksham (Elaeocarpus gamtrus), 117

Akshiki (Dalbergia oujeinensis), 112

Akshira (Morioga pterygospenuum), 92

Akshoda, 116, 120

Akshota (Juglens regia), 112

Alabu (Cucurbita maxima), 117

^ma/afca(Pbyllantbusemblica), 44, 67, 96, 103, 104, 112,116,117,

123

Amlavetasa (Rumex vesicarius), 94, 112
Amlik& (Tamarindusindica), 112, 116
Amra (Mangifera indica), 25, 92, 94, 102, 111, 116
Amrataka (SpoDdias mangifera), 69, 92, 111, 116, 137
Amra-Vadara (Zizypbus spj, 94
Amrita (Terminalia sp.), 123
Amrul iaka (Oxalis corniculata), 108
Ankola (Alapgium Lamarkii), 112, 137
/Apamarga (Achyranthes aspera), 164
Aparajita (Clitoria ternatea), 171

LIST OF PLANTS 235

Apparannam (Cucurbita sp.)t 65

Apushpaplialada (Jack fruit), 75

Aragvada (Cassia fistula), 92, 99

Ardraka (Ziogiber officinale), 113, 118, 122

Arimeda (Acacia farnesiana), 97

Arishta (Melia azadiiacbta), 37, 138

Arishtaphalam (Soap berry), 117, 119

Arishtatoka, 38

Arivata, 104 v _^^-

Arjaka (Ocimum sp.), 118

Arjuna (Terniioalia ar;una), 67, 68, 133, 136, 137, 138

Arka (Calotropis gigantea), 90, 119, 120, 133, 174, 175

Arkapuslipi (Gycandropsis pentaphylla), 119

Arsoghna (Amorphophallus campanulatus), 74

Aruka, 111

Arundhati, 168, 196

Aruslikara (Semecarpus anacardium), 117

Asana (Terminaha tomentosa), 67, 119

Asmabhedaka (Bryophyllum calyciioum), 99

Asmantaka (Oxalis sp.), 116

Asoka (Saraca indica), 37, 38, 40, 63, 72, 97, 99, 131

Asphota (Jasmiuum sp ), 44

Asvam'ira (Nerium odorum), 104

Asvavala (Saccbarum cylmdricum), 118

Aswadangshtra (Tribulus terrestris), 94, 95

Aswagandha (Pbysalis flexuosa), 91

Aswakarna (Shorea robusta), 67, 116, 132, 138

Aswaparnaka (Sborea sp.), 23, 74

Aswattlia (Ficus religiosa), 37, 65, 67, 95, 102. 104, 112, 116, 131, 152,

155, 161, 164, 168, 172
Aswavatl, 152, 155
Atarusaka (Justicia sp.), 119

Atasi (Linum usitatissimum), 113, 115, 120, 132, 202
Atibala (Sida rbombifolia), 87, 137

Atimuktaka (Aganosma caryopbyllata), 40, 44, 63, 120, 132
Atirasa (Asparagus racemosus), 91
AtiviQam (Aconitum heteropbyllum), 65, 92, 100
Atmagupta (Mucuoa pruriens), 73, 107, 115
Aus (a variety of paddy), 213
Avalguja (Vernonia antbelmintica), 108, 118
Avaka (Blyxa octandra), 165

236 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

B

Bahupdda (Ficus bengalensis), 73

Bald (Sida cordifoha), 87, 90

Bandhufiva (Pentapetes phoenicea or Ixora coccinea), 132

Baraka (Paddy, a variety), 100

Barbankd, 89

Barbati (Dolichos sinensis), 126

Banparni (Pistia stratiotes), 69

Bdtama (Amygdalus communis), 112

Bayed'i (Terminalia belerica), 123

Bellaja (Pepper), 121

Bhabya (Dillenia speciosa), 111, 116

Bhadraddru (Pinus devdara), 100

Bhalldtaka (Semecarpus anacardium), 91, 95, 102, 103, 112, 117, 118,

121, 133, 137

Bharadwdji (Hibiscus vitifolius), 90
Bharjja (Betula bho]patra), 99
Bhtthd, 83

Bhnngardja (Eclipta sp.), 88

Bhustnna (Andropogon schoenanthes), 100, 113, 118
Bhutdbdsa (Terminalia belerica), 76
Bhutikd (Ptychotis ajowan), 97
Bodhidruma (Ficus religiosa), 70
Brahma- sitv archald (Sunflower), 118
Brihatphala (Luffa graveolens), 89

Champaka (Michalia champaca), 32, 119, 132
Chdmpeya (Michalia sp.), 75
Chanaka (Cicer arietinum), 107, 115
Chandd (Andropogon acicularis), 96

Chandana (Sweta Santalum album), 88, 91, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103
Charmin (Betula bhojpatra) , 73
Chair a (Fennel), 122
Chavya (Piper chava), 91, 100
Chetaki (Terminalia chebula, a variety), 123
Chhagalantri, 118

Chhatra (Mushroom or Bubia cordifolia), 138
Chhinnaruha (Tinospora cordifolia), 101
, 118

LIST OF PLANTS 237

China (Paddy, a variety), 106, 211

Chitra (Rubia cordifolia), 91

Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica), 91, 100, 104, 118

Chitraparni, 160

Chitravlja (Ricinus communis), 77

Chuchchu (Marsilea quadnfoliata), 118

Churnaka (Paddy, a variety), 105, 114

Dddima (Punica granatum), 38, 40, 63, 68, 102, 112, 114

Dadrughna (Cassia fistula), 112

Dantadhdbana (Acacia catechu,), 72, 92

Dantasatha (Feronia elephantum, or Citrus sp.), 116

Dantl (Bahospermum axillare), 101

Darddura (Butea frondosa), 106

Ddruhandrd (Curcuma sp.), 100

Darva (Poa cynosuroides) , 93, 99, 101, 134, 136, 178

Ddraka, 202

Ddsee (Barleria cristata), 88

Datura (Datura stramonium), 124

Deodhdn (Andropogon sorghum), 126

Deyaddru (Pinus devadara), 121

Dhaba (Grislea tomentosa), 44

Shanudruma (Bainbusa sp.) 73

Dhanvana (Grewia sp.), 112, 116

Dhdnya (Oryza sativa), 106, 125

Dhdnyaka (Conandrurn sativum), 97, 113, 122

Dhdnya-yavasdka (Hadysaruin alhagi), 94

Dhdrd-kosdtaki (Luffa acutangula), 89

Dhdtakipushpa (Grislea tomentosa), 95, 102

Dhdttri (Phyllanthua embhca), 98

Dhava (Anogeissus latifolia), 138, 168

Dhava (Conocarpus latifolia), 67, 100

Dlrgha-godhuma (Wheat, a variety), 125

Dirghapatra (Calamus rotang), 74, 127

Dirghaphala (Cassia fistula), 77

Dirghawka (Paddy, a variety), 105

Drdkshd ("Vine"), 40, 63, 68^91, 96, 102, 116

Drdvidaka (Curcuma zerumbet), 75, 103

Drumotpala (Pterospermum acenf olium) , 75

238 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Dugdlnkd (Paddy), 131
Durdlabha (Hedyairum alhagi), 96
Durvd (Oynodon dactylon), 81, 134, 1G3
Dwipatra (Bauhmia acuminata), 23, 73

Eddgaja (Cassia tora), 107

Eld (Alpinia cardamomurn), 100

Ekdranda, 93

Eranda (Ricinus coramnpis), 113, 124

Ervdruka (Cucumis sp.), 116, 121

Gdmbhdri (Gmclina arborea), 124

Gandhala (Paederia foetida), 106

Oandira (Kidney bean), 113, 118, 121

Gangeruka (Hedysarura lagopodioides), 111, 116

Gomhdrilcd (Premna serratifolia), 124

Gaura, 105

Gaidkshi (Streblus aspera), 101

Govedhuka (Paddy, a variety), 106

Gdjar (Carrot), 23

Ghantdpushpa (Datura alba), 77

Ghosataki (Luffa sp.), 50

Godhuma (Wheat), 106, 113, 202

Gojihvd (Elepbantopus scaba), 108, 118

Golshura (Tribulus lanugmoaus), 96, 138

Golami (Corydalis govaniana), 98

GndhranaKhi (Hygrophila spinosa), 104

Grmjanala (Turnips, or Garlic), 113

Gitdnchi (Tinoaponi cordifolia), 22, 83, ?2, 93, 103, 104, 11B, 124

Guggula (Balsamodendron mukul), 179

Gundra (Saccharum sara), 99, Hi8

H

Hdliddim (Turmeric), 65
Hallaka (Lily, red variety), 69
Haihsapadi (Hydrocotyle asiatica), 91
Harenu, 116

LIST OF PLANTS 239

Hanchandana (Sandal, yellow), 70, 89

Haridrd (Curcuma longa), 44, 90, 100, 103, 122, 159, 160

Har'itakl (Terminalia chebula), 104, 123

Hastaluka, 120, 127

Hasttkarna (Ricmus communis), 120, 132, 138

Hemapushpa (Michalia champaka), 74

Hemavatl (Terminalia chebula, a variety), 76, 103

HIIKJU (Ferrula assafoetida), 96, 100, 101, 118

H\ntala (Phoenix paludosn), 68

Hinveram (Aaidropogon cynanthus), 65

Hrivera (Pavonia odorata), 97

I

Ikshu (Sugarcane), 93, 96, 134

Iksliumiila (Sacchaium gp ), 91

Indwara (Waterlily, blue) 69, 97, 102, 120, 124

Indrapushpl (Holarrhena antidysentenca), 100

Ingud* (Ximema tegyptiaca), 112, 120, 125, 133

Jalaja (Barringtonia acutangula), 75

JalanMi (Valhsucria, green algse), 69

Jalapippall (Commelina sahcifolia), 113

Jamvira (Citrus sp.), 113, 116, 118

Jamvu (Eugenia jambolana), 25, 38, 40, 63, 68, 94, 102, 116, 132, 135,

133

Jangida, 173

Ja\hila (Phyllanthua niruri), 93
JatikosJia (Seabania sepyptiaca var. bicolor), 117
Jatiphalam (Croton t'glium), 117
Jatumukha, 114
J/imfi (Barleria sp.), 88
Jimutaka, 120

Jlraka (Nigella indica), 118, 122
Jlvaka (Celtia orientalis), 90, 93, 98
Jlvanti (Dendrobium sp.), 90, 93, 118, 121, 123
Jyotishmati (Cardiospermum halicacabum), 94

240 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

K

KacchaJco (Oedrela toona), 65

Kadali (Musa sapientum), 38, 40, 63, 68, 99, 123

Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), 68, 93, 99, 102

Kaidara (Paddy, a variety), 114

Kairanda (Ricinus sp.), 97

Kaitdryya (Melia sempervirens), 97

Kakamuchi (Solanum mgruin), 100, 108, 118

Kakkolakam, 117, 119

Kdkoli, 101

Kalama (Paddy, a variety), 105

Kdlamdla (Ocimum sp.), 118

Kalambi (Ipomea repens), 126

Kdlasaka (Corchorus capsularis), 108

Kalamaadli (Paddy, a variety), 83. 114, 125, 131

Kalai (Phaseolus var. radiatus), 214

Kalaya (Pisum sativum), 108, 115, 118, 202

Kdlindaka (Phyllanthus emblica), 117

Kdliyaka (Curcuma sp.), 89

Kalpavriksha, 70

Kamala (Nelumbium sp.) 69

Kamptllaka, 120

Kdndekshu (Ruellia longifolia), 93, 104, 127

Kanguka (Paddy, a variety), 114

Kantakapatrikd (Brinjal), 74

Kantakdnka (Solanum jaquinii), 95, 96, 97, 98, 101

Kantakdnkaphala (Solanum sp.), 119, 137

Kantaphala (Datura alba), 77

Kantapunkha (Tephrosia spinosa), 88

Kdntdra (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Kdntlidl (Artocarpus mtegrifolia), 40, 63, 68

Kaon (Paddy, a variety), 211

Kaphdntaka (Acacia arabica), 78

Kapitdna (Spondias mangifera), 95, 102

Kapittha (Feronia elephantum), 44, 65, 111, 117, 133, 174

Karamardda (Pongamia glabra), 104, 116

Karanja (Galedupa arborea), 100, 101, 112, 117, 120, 132

Kdravellaka (Momordica sp.), 119

Karavira (Nerium odoratum), 92, 124

Kama (Capparis aphylla), 111, 117, 119

LIST OF PLANTS 241

Karkandhu (Zizyphus anoplia), 111, 116

Karkara, 118

Karkdm (Cucurbita sp.), 121

Karkkotaka (Momordica mixta),108, 119

Karpdsam (Gossypium herbaceum), 73, 182

Karpura (Cinnamomum camphora), 117

Karvuddra (Bauhinia acuminata), 93, 118, 121

Kdsa (Saccharum cylindricum), 99, 104, 138, 178

Kaseruka (Scirpus grossus var. kysoor), 120

K<i$hamardda (Cassia sp.) 118

Kdshmdri, 104

Kdsisa, 101

Kdvmdrya (Gmelina arborea), 94, 111, 116, 121

Kdsmdriphala (Gmelina arborea), 102

Kdsthdluka (Dioscorea alata), 120, 127

Kataka (Strychnos potatorum), 92

Katakaphala, 102, 117

Katavaftga (Zinger), 102

Katphala (Myrica sapida), 91, 97, 99, 102

Katukarohini (Picrorrhiza kurrua), 65

Katukika (Piper betle), 119

Katurohinl (Lagenaria sp.) 101

Katryhga (Colosanthes indica), 95

Keddraka (Paddy, a variety), 104

Kesara (Mimusops elengi), 100

Ketakl (Pandanus odoratissimus), 61, 83

Kevuka (Costus speciosiis), 92, 108, 119

Khadira (Acacia catechu), 67, 99, 133, 137, 168, 172

Khandika (Pisum sativum), 107

Kharapushpa (Ocimum sp. or Date palm), 118

Kharjjura (Phoenix sylvestris), 96, 110, 116, 120, 138

Kharjjughna (Calotropis gigantea), 77]

Ktfosuka (Butea frondosa), 117, 119

Kimhi (Achyranthes aspera), 77, 92

Kirdtatiktaka (Agathoteschirayata), 93, 119, 120

Kisaparnl (Achyranthes aspera), 24, 74

Kodrava (Paspalum frumentaceum), 132, 202

Kokanada (Lotus, red), 69, 103

Kola (Piper longum), 117, 120

Koradushaka (Paddy, a variety), 114

Koiaka (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

31

242 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Kosamra (Olive), 116, 117

Koaataki (Luffa echinata), 89, 119

Ko*i (Phaseolus mungo), 117, 201

Koviddra (Bauhmia acuminata), 83, 86, 93, 118, 119, 134, 136

Krishna-vrihi (Paddy, a variety), 114

Kntavedana, 120

Ktharamaniari (Achyranthes aspera), 77, 92

Ksharaireshtha (Butea frondosa), 78

Kshavaka (Myriogyne lanugmosus), 94, 118

Kshwakakon, 101

Kshlrakandaka (Calotropis gigantea), 77

Kshtravriktha (Ficus bengalensis), 116

Kshudradhdnya (Paddy, a variety), 125

Kshudraphala (Luffa bindaal), 89

Kuchandana (Sandal, a variety), 88

Kudhanya (Paddy, a variety), 114

Kukkutantaka, 125

Kula (Zizyphus sp.), 138

Kulahala, 118

Kulaka (Momordica charantia), 108

Kulattha (Dolicho3 biflorus), 48, 49, 107, 132, 202

Kulinga (Rhus acuminata), 93

Kumkuma (Saffron), 119

Kumuda (Nymphtea lotus), 69, 95, 110, 119, 125

Kunda (Jasminum sp.), 132

Kuraka, 114

Kurantaka (Barleria prionites), 88, 119

Kuruvaka (Barleria cristata), 88, 133

Kuruvinda (Phaseolua mungo var. Roxburghii), 105

Kusa (Poa cynosuroides), 70, 93, 98, 99, 104, 134, 138, 139, 178

Kushmanda (Cucurbit a pepo), 83, 118, 121, 122

Kushtha (Costus speciosus or arabicua), 90, 93, 159, 161

Kushthanaairii (Cassia sp.), 72

Kushthasudana (Cassia fistula), 77

Kustumvuru (Coriandrum sativum), 103, 118

Kutaja (Holarrhena antidysenterica), 76, 92, 99, 100, 104, 119, 134

Kutheraka (Ociinum basilicum), 118

Kushumbha (Carthamus tinctorius), 113, 115, 133, 202

Kuvalaya (Nymphoea stellata), 69, 119

LIST OF PLANTS 243

Ldja (Paddy, fried), 96

Lajjdvati (Mimosa pudica), 50

Ldksha (Butea frondosa), 104

Lakshman, 161

LaJcucha (Artocarpus lakucha), 40, 63, 68, 111, 116

Languid (Borassus flabellifer), 105

Ldngulika (Gloriosa superba), 110

Lasuna (Allium sativurn), 86, 113, 118

Latdkasturi, 117

Lavali (Anona reticulata), 112, 117

Lavanga (Clove), 117

Lekhana (Keed), 78

Lodhra (Symplocos racemosa), 72, 91

Lohitaka (Paddy, a variety), 114

M

Madana (Mimusops elengi), 99, 100

Madanaphala (Randia dumetorium), 94

Madhuka (Bassia latifolia), 101, 102, 110, 111, 121, 132, 137, 170, 174

Mtfhul! (Barley), 106, 125

Madhuparnl (Tinospora cordffolia), 91

Madhusigru (Moringa sp.) 118, 119

Madhvdluka (Dioscorea fasciculata var. spinosa), 120, 127

Mdgadhi (Piper longum), 75

Mdghya (Jasminum sp.), 76

Mahdbald (Sida rhombifolia), 87

Mahdgodhuma (Wheat, a variety), 125

Mahdmedd, 101

Mahdmohi (Datura alba), 77

Mahasdh (Paddy, a variety), 105

Makushtaka (Phaeeolus sublobatus), 107

Mdldphala (Acacia arabica), 88

Mdlatl (Aganosma caryophyllata), 104

Malhkd (Jasminum sambac), 119

Manddra (Eryt.hrina indica), 70

Man^ukaparnl (Hydrocotyle asiatica), 98, 108, 118

Mdiigalya (Cocos nucifera), 115

Maftjishthd (Bubia cordifolia), 91

244 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Mdnkachu (Alocasia indica), 23

Manogupta (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Maricha (Piper nigrum), 91, 97, 100, 103, 118

Maruvaka (Ocimum sp.), 75

Mdsha (Phaseolus radiatus), 44, 48, 107, 115, 116, 126, 132, 202

Mdshaparnl (Glycine debilis), 90, 161

Masura (Cicer lens), 107, 115, 202

Matulunga (Citrus inedica), 92, 94, 112, 116, 123

Maucha (Bombax malabaricum), 116

Medd, 101

Mel, 97

Meshaaringl, 99

Mocha (Plantain), 112

Mocharasa (Bombax malabaricum), 95, 102

Mridvika (Vitis vmifera), 93, 110

Mnnal (Lotus), 120

Mudga (Phaseolus mungo), 41, 107, 115, 126, 132, 202

Mudgaparni (Phaseolus trilobus), 90, 101, 125

Mukulaka (Croton polyandrum), 112

Mulaka (Raphanus sativus), 23, 113, 118, 120, 122, 127

Mungo (Phaseolus mungo), 49

Mushkaka (Butea frondosa), 100, 119

Mushikaparm (Salvinia), 23, 69, 74

Musta (Cyperus rotandus), 90, 93, 100, 103

N

Nadtsarjja (Terminaha arjuna,), 75

Naga (Oalophylluin inophyllum), 119

Nagabala (Sida spinosa), 87

Ndgadantl (Fleurya mterrupta), 100

Nagakesara (Mesua ferrea), 100, 138

Ndgakusuma (Mesua ferrea), 133

Nagapushpa (Michelia champaka), 102

Ndgaranga (Citrus auranticum), 112

N agora (Cyperus partenuis), 84

Naipdla (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Naishadhaka, 105

Naktamdla (CaBsalpioia bonducella), 68, 92, 138

Nala (Phraginites karka), 104, 138

Na/a, 99

LIST OF PLANTS 245

Nalada (Nardostachis jatamanshi), 92, 102

Nalika (Grasses), 138

Nahna (Water lily), 102

Nand* (Ficus bengalensis), 118

Nandikavarta (Taberneemontana coronaria), 133

Nandimukh't, 106, 114

Nandlvriksha (Ficus rehgioaa), 102

Naranga (Citrus sp.), 116

Ndnkela (Cocoa nuciiera), 68, 111, 116, 120

Nichola (Eugenia acutangula), 116, 133

Ntkochaka, 116

Nikucha (Artocarpus lakucha), 92

Nilapora (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Nilapushpi (Licum usitatissimum), 77, 88

Nilotpala (Lotus, blue), 102

Nllavringaraja (Eclipta, blue), 88

Nimva (Meha azadirachta), 15, 37, 92, 99, 103, 104, 109, 119, 120

Njga (Nauclea cadamba), 93, 112, 116, 138

Nirgundi (Vitex tnfoha), 100, 136

Nirgunthi (Vitex nirgundo), 92, 100

Nishpava (Vigoa catjang), 107

Nivara (Paddy, a variety), 106, 114, 126

Nyagrodha (Ficus bengalenais), 25, 65, 102, 112, 113, 164, 168

Odrapushpa (China rose), 75

01 (Amorphophallus carnpanulatus), 23, 52

Padtna (Neluinbiuoi speciosuin), 69, 95, 101, 103, 119, 124, 138

Paldla (Grass), 119

Palan^u (Onion), 23, 85, 113, 118

Palankya (Beta vulgaris), 118

Palata (Butea frondosa), 99, 100, 121, 132, 136, 137, 152, 154

Pahbata, 40, 63

Palindl (Ichnocarpus frutescens), 92

Pan (Betel leaf), 52

Panasa (Artocarpus integnfolia), 40, 63, 68, 106, 112

Panchangula (Kicinus), 74

Paqduka (Paddy, a variety), 105, 116, 125, 131

246 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Pankeruha (Lotus), 76

Paravata (Anona reticulata), 111, 116

Panjataka (Brythrina indica), 37, 70

Parjjanya (Beed), 160

Parkafi (Ficus infectoria), 112

Parna (Butea frondosa), 168, 172

Parppataka (Oldenlandia biflora), 94, 109, 119

Parushaka (Grewia asiatica), 94, 102, 111, 116, 137

Pashanabheda (Bryophyllum calycmum), 95

Patald (Stereospnrmum suaveolens), 88, 96, 99, 104, 106, 119, 124, 125,

132
Pa^ha (Stephania or Clypea hernandifoha), 93, 96, 99, 108, 154, 172,

174

Patola (Trichosanthes dioica), 92, 94, 99, 101, 108, 119, 120, 212, 215
Payashyd (Batatus paniculatus), 95
Payashya (Convolvulus pamculatus), 91
Peetaka (Saraca indica), 114
Phalgu (Ficus hispida or glomerata), 96, 110, 116
Phanijhyaka (Ocimiun sp.), 118
Phanjji (Clerodendron siphonanthus), 118
Phemla (Soap-berry), 73
Pichchhila (Linum usitatissimum), 77
Pichu (Gossypmm sp.), 116
Pichumanda (Melia azadirachta), 133
Pilakkho (Ficus infectoria), 65
Ptlu (Salvadora mdica), 94, 96, 112, 137, 120, 133
Pinddluka (Dioscorea alata var. globosa), 120, 127
Pindar a , 137

Pippala (Ficus rehgiosa) , 15

Pippall (Piper loDgum), 91, 94, 96, 100, 103, 104, 118, 168
Pitapushpa Kovidara (Bauhmia totnentosa), 87
Pitapushpa Patald (Stereospermum cbelonoides), 88
Pita-vnngaraja (Eclipta sp.), 88

Piydla (Buchanania latifolia), 96, 97, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120
Plaksha (Ficus infectoria), 25, 37, 70, 81, 95, 302, 112, 168
Potikd (Basella rubra), 118
Poundraka (Sugarcane, a variety), 127
Prachlndmalaka (Flacourtia catapbracta), 112, 116
Pnyangu (Aglaia Roxburghiana), 37, 38, 91, 100
Priyango (Setaria italica), 115, 202
Prilhnka, 120

LIST OF PLANTS 247

Prishmparni (Doodia logopodioides), 96

Prithakaparni, 104

Promodaka (Paddy, a variety), 125

Pubbannam (7 varieties of Paddy), 05

Pugu (Areca catechu), 107

Punarnava (Boerhaavia diffusa), 93, 98, 108, 118

Pundanka (White lily), 69, 95, 103, 124

Punnaga (Calophyllum inophyllnra), 37, 38, 100

Pushkara (Lotus), 116

Pushpaphala (Cucurbita sp,), 117

Putana (Terrninaha chebula), 123

Putika (Basella sp.), 56

Putrada (Dillenia pentagyna), 161

Putrajam, 161

Putrakanda (Uraria lagopodioides), 161

Putranjiva (Putranjiva Roxburghn), 125

Rajadani (Mimusops mdica), 102, 112, 116
Rajakosdtaki (Luffa amara), 89
Rdjaksharaka (Asclepiaa rosea), 90, 108
Rdjamasha (Dohchos smensis), 107
Rajani (Indigofera tinctona), 104
Rdjika (Brassica juncea), 118
Rdja-vriksha (Buchanania latifolia), 101
Rcktachandana (Pterocarpus aantalinus), 8S, 92
Rakta.iigru (Monnga sp., flowers red), 88
Raktdluka (Dioscorea spmosa), 120, 127
Raktapushpa-Kovtdara (Bauhima purpurea), 87
Raktapushpl (Canscora diffuaa) , 88
Raktasandhyaka (Bed lily), 69
Raktasarapunkhd (Tephrosia purpurea), 88
Ranjanl (Indigofera tinctona), 77
Rasanjana t 102

Rasnd (Vanda Roxburghii), 94
Riddhi (Cannabis sativa), 101
Rishav* (Mucana pruriens), 91
Rodhra (Syinplocos racemosa), 99, 102
Rohim (Picorrhiza kurroa), 91
Rudhira (Crocus aativua), 97

248 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

s

Sadampushpa (Cocoa nucifera), 164

Sahadeva (Canscora decussata), 98

Sahadevt (Sida cordifolia or rhombifolia), 164, 196

Saireyaka (Barleria longifolia), 88, 104

tfaivala (Vallisneria), 69, 86

Saivya, 202

dka (Garuga pinnata), 125, 138

Sakunarhtta, 105

Sdla (Shorearobusta), 99, 131

Salamukha, 114

Salaparn* (Desmodium gangeticum), 93, 124, 132

Sdlapushpa (Pucidenum sowa), 94

Salasdra (Assafcetida), 09

Sdleya (Cicer arientmum), 113

Salman (Bombax malabaricum), 70, 118, 119, 155

Sali (Paddy, a variety), 93, 104, 105, 114, 125, 131, 202

Sdllaki (Boswellia serraU), 67, 95

Samanaga (Mimosa pudica), 95

Sami (Mimosa sum a and Prosopis spicigera), 105, 112, 133, 176

Samirana (Mimosa suma), 65

Sampaka, 117

&ana (Crotalaria jnncea), 118, 119, 132

Sanapushpi (Crotalaria verucosa), 118, 119, 132

tidnkhalu (Dolicbos bulbosus), 120, 127

iSankhapuahp* (Canscora or hemp), 88, 175

Santana (Polyalthia sp.), 70

Saptachchhada (Alstonia scholaris), 104

Saptald (Stereospurmum auaveolena) , 118

Raptapt^ra or parna (Echitea scholaris), 23, 74, 92

Sarada (Paddy, a variety), 106

Sdradl (Jussieua repens or white lotas), 76

Sarala (Pinus sp.) 121

Sarapunkhd (Tephrosia sp.)> 88

Sariva (Hemidesmus indicus), 91, 102

Sariva (Asclepias pseudosarsa), 96, 104

j$arnagashtha (Abras precatorus), 108

Sarthapa (Mustard), 100, 118, 120, 132, 202

Satahvaka (Aruthura sowa), 112

Satamuli (Asparagus racemosus), 74

LIST OF PLANTS 249

ataparvik& (Grasses), 74

Sataparna or patra (Nelumbium speciosum), 95, 99

Sataporaka (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

tiatavari (Asparagus sp.), 98, 104, 120, 179

Satapushpa (Peucedanum sowa), 127

iSataviryya (Cynodon dactylon), 98

Sathi (Circuma zerumbet), 95, 96, 108

Satina (Bnmboo), 119

Sauvira (Zizyphus jujuba), 76, 116

&*lu (Dilleniaindica), 118

Shasthtka (Paddy, a variety), 93, 96, 196, 114, 125, 131

hyamd (Echites frutescens), 44, 101

hydma latd (Icbnocarpus frutescens), 134

Shydmaka (Paddy, a variety), 106, 114

igru (Moringa pterygosperma), 88, 113, 120

&mbi (Pulses), 125

gaUflgo^ (Dalbergjajisoo) . 67, 100, 121, 138, 172

Stmva (Dolichos notundifolins), 115

Simvitaka (Pulses), 111

Simvittkaphala, 116

Sindhuvara (Vitex trifolia), 119, 133, 128

Singivera (Zingiber), 65

AWMo (Mimosa sjnsa). 37, 31, 92, 132, 137

Sirnavrinta (Cucurbita citrullus), 11

fiitabhiruka (Jasminum sp ), 76, 114

Sitaketakl (Pandanus sp.). 61

Sitdmbhoja (White water lily), 69

Sitapakkam, 117

Sitapdtala (Schrebara swieteoioides), 83

SHisdra (Diospyros sp.)> 73

$ivasekhara (Datura sp.), 108

iSleshmdntaka (Oordia mixta), 112, 117

Soma, 153, 154

Somardji (Veronia sp.) 108

Somavalkya (Acacia arabica), 67

Somavafi, 152, 155

jSovanjana (Moringa pterygosperma), 88, 98

Sringdtaka (Trapa bispinosa), 120

tiring i (Bhus acuminata), 98

Sringivera (Zingiber officinale), 91, 97, 103, 118

jSriparni, 138

32

250 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Sriveshtaka (Pinus longifolia), 95

Sthalapadma (Hibiscus mutabilis), 138

Sthira (Desmodium gangeticum), 91

Subaha (Vanda sp.), 94, 100

Suchipatraka (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Sugandhaka (Sandal), 106

Sugandhika (Lotus), 69, 95, 103, 105, 118, 133

Sugandhint (Pandanus sp.), 62

ukadhdnya (Bearded grains), 105, 125

Sukaruka (Paddy, a variety), 131

iSuklapushpi (Canscora decussata), 88

Sumukha, 118

Sunishannaka (Marsilea quadrifoliata), 108, 118

Suradaru (Cedrus deodara), 93

Surasd (Ocimum sanctum), 96, 100, 113, 118

Suryyamukhi (Sunflower), 51

Suryyavalli (Gynandropsis pentaphylla), 44, 121

Sushd (Cassia sophora), 108

Suvarchala (Crotalaria sp.), 118, 120

Suvarnaketaki (Pandanus sp.), 61

Suvarnapushpa (Cassia fistula), 132

Swarnakshlnyi (Polanasia felina), 91, 101

Swarnapushpa (Cassia sp.), 77

Sweta (Clitorea sp). 94

Sweta Koviddra-surabhtkusuma (Bauhinia variegata), 87

Swetapushpa-Kovid&ra (Bauhinia sp.), 87

Swetapushpa-Kovidara nirgandha (Bauhinia acuminata), 87

Sweta-aigru (Moringa pterygosperma), 88

Sweta-vnhgaraja (Eclipta alba), 88

Syama lata (Echnocarpus frutescens) , 134

Tagara (Bignonia chelonoides) , 97, 100

Tailaphala (Calopbyllum inophyllum), 77

Tdla (Borassus flabelliformis), 68, 111, 116, 120

Talasasya, 110

Talisa (Flacourtia cataphracta), 172

Tamdla (Cinnamomum tamala), 68

Tdmrapushpa Pd^ald (Stereospermum suaveolens) , 88

Tamvaba (Eugenia jambolana), 111

LIST OP PLANTS 281

Tanka (Wood apple of Kashmir a), 111

Tanduhyaka (Paddy, a variety), 118

Tdpasekshu (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Tarkari, 118

Tarunl (Aloe perfoliata), 118

Tauvaraka (Cajanus indicas), 117

Tikshnakantaka (Balanites Roxburghii), 77

Tila (Sesamum indicum), 49, 68, 108, 115, 132, 137, 202

Tilaparnikd (Cleome pentaphylla), 108, 118

Timira, 68

Tinisha (Dalbergia oojeinensis), 67, 99

Tintidaka (Tamarindus indica), 44, 122

finduka (Piospyros glutmosa). 67, 97, 102, 112, 116, 131, 137

Tishyaphala (Pbyllanthus), 76

Todana (Grewia asiatica), 112, 117

Toyaparnl, 106

Trapusha (Cucumis sativus), 118,121

Trikantaka (Euphorbia sp.)< 104

Trinasunya (Pandanus odoratissimus), 112, 117

Tripatra (^gle, wood apple ; Butea frondosa), 23, 73, 78

Trtphald (Pbyllanthus sp.K 100

Triputaka (Lathyrus sativus), 115

Trvputiphala (Ricinus communis), 77

Trivrit (Convolvulus turpethuni), 94, 101

Tuda (Morus indica;, ill

Tuldphala (Calotropis gigantea), 77

Tumbhuru (Zanthoxyluin alatum), 113

Tunga (Calophyllum inophyllum), 91, 97

Tuntuka, 104

Tutthaka (Tndigofera sp.), 101

Tuvaraka (Zea mays), 121

Twaksdra (Bomboo), 74

U

Udddlaka (Dillenia indica), 106, 114

Udojasd, 152, 155

Udumbara (Ficus glomerata), 37, 65, 68, 81, 83, 102, 112, 136, 170

Ujjala, 106

Ulapa (Imperata arundmacea), 82

Umd (Linuin usitatissimum), 107

Upodhikd (Basella rubra), 118

252 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Urjayanfi 152, 155

Urumana, 116

Uruvaka (Bicinus communis), 118, 119

Ushira (Andropogon citrarum), 40, 65, 100, 102, 138, 201

Utpala (Nyrnphsea stellata), 69, 95, 103, 110, 119, 120

Vacam (Acorus calamus), 65

Vacha (Acorua calamus), 94, 100

Vadara (Zizyphus jujuba), 111, H6 t 132, 136

Vaidala (Pulses), 115

Vaidehi (Pepper), 75

Vainava (Bamboo), 25

Vakrapushpa (Sesbania grandiflora), 24, 74, 76

Vakula (Mimusops elengi), 116, 119

Valliphala (Pumpkin), 201

Varksa (Bambusa arundinacea), 122

Vamiaka (Sugarcane), 127

Vanamudga (Phaseolus sp.)> 115

Vanaparni (Clypea hernandifolia), 174

Vdnaprastha (Bassia latifolia) , 75

Vanaspatiprasava, 118

Vanira (Calamus Eoxburghii), 68, 72

Va^jul^ljC^^UQroi^ng), 68, 137

Varaka (Phaseolus trilobus), 202
Vara^a (Crataiva^Roxburghii) , 165, 177
Vdrhata (Solanum indicum), 25
Varshabhu (Boerhaavia sp.), 118
Varttftka (Solanum melongana), 112
Vdrttakl (Solanum indicum), 124
Vdrltdku (Solanum melongana), 112
Vartfi, 116

Vdsaka (Justicia adhatoda), 124
Vdsika (Adhatoda vasica), 44
Vasiram (Cleome viscosa), 95, 117
Vastuka (Chenopodium album), 108, 118
Vdsuka (Sesbania grandiflora), 93, 99
Vata (Ficus bengalensis), 15, 67
Vdtdma (Citrus decuman a), 116
V atari (Eicinug communis), 77

LIST OF PLANTS 253

Vatsadani (Tinospora cordifolia), 118

Vatsaka (Holarrhena antidysenterica), 60

Vatsapushpi (Sida cordifolia), 08

Vayastha (Gratiola monniera), 97

Venu (Bambusa arundinacea), 115, 118, 119

Venuyava (Bambasa sp.), 103

Vetdgra (CalamuB rotang), 108

Vetasa (Calamus viminalis), 68, 132, 135, 138

Vetra (Calamus sp.), H9, 122

Vetraphala (Calamus sp.), 116

Vetula (Calamus sp.). 44

Vibhitaka (Terminalia belerica), 96, 112, 117, 120, 138

Vidanga (Embelia ribes), 40, 48, 49, 2, 100, 120

Vidan (Convolvulus paniculatus), 67, 91, 93, 96, 102, 104

Viddrigandha (Desmodium gyrens), 92, 97, 99, 104

Viddnkanda (Ipomoaa paniculata), 120

Vidula (Calamus fasciculatus), 94

Vl^apuraka (Citrus medica), 40, 63, 68, 83, 117

Vijaya (Termmalia chebula, a variety), 123

Vilva (Aegle marmelos), 104, 111, 116, 117, 124,136, 137

Vilvasarjja, 138

Vimbi (Coccinea indica) , 94, 111, 116

Vimvitika (Cephalandra indica), 118

Virana (Andropogon muncatum), 93

Virataru (Terminalia arjuna), 99

Vtruka (Sugarcane, a variety), 127

Visa (Lotus), 120

Vranari (Sesbania grandiflora), 76

VriddharuUa (Asparagus racemosus) , 93

Vriddhi, 101

Vrihatl (Solanum indicum), 95, 97, 98, 101, 104

Vrihatiphala (Solanum sp.), 119

Vrihi (Paddy, a variety), 106, 114, 125, 202

Vrikshaka, 120

Vnkshadarii (Cascuta sp.), 95, 118

Vriksharuha (Orchid), 95

Vnschira (Boerhaavia diffusa), 93

Vnshapushpa (Justicia adhatoda), 108, 119

Vnsh\aka (Sinapis ramosa), 113

254 PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE

Yafnadumura (Ficus glomerata), 72
Yamarii (Ptychotis ajowan), 113
Yashtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra), 174
Yava (Barley), 49, 96, 106, 115, 125, 131, 202
Yugmakanta (Acacia arabica), 78

OPINION.

I have gone through the essay on " Plant-
life, etc.," submitted for the Griffith Memorial
Prize for 1925.

The author has evidently ransacked all the
available sources of old Sanskrit literature from
the Eik and Atharva Vedas down to the period
when the decline of Arts arid Science took place
in India. Even the aphorisms of Khana a
repository of worldly wisdom and experience
have been laid under contribution, and an
admirable capacity for research has been dis-
played. As the author is conversant with the
modern science of Botany, he has been able to
do ample justice to his theme. The collection
of technical terms alone constitutes a valuable
contribution. In my opinion the author richly
deserves the Prize. I would also suggest that
the essay be published by the University as a
valuable monograph in a practically unexplored
field.

P. 0. RAT.

ii OPINION

I have examined the thesis entitled " Plants
and Plant-life as in Indian Treatises and Tradi-
tions" submitted for the Griffith Memorial
Prize for 1925.

The author has explored a vast field of
Sanskrit literature (including English reviews
and commentaries on early Sanskrit works)
and collected a mine of information replete with
gems of botanical facts and aphorisms. The
essay embodies not merely a collection of frag-
ments of early speculation on plant-life but a
critical survey of the botanical knowledge of
the Hindus and its application to Medicine and
Agriculture, in the searchlight of modern
Science. The author has, with the grasp of a
trained botanist, succeeded in marshalling evi-
dence to show clear indications of possession hy
the ancient Hindus of such knowledge of plant-
life as prognosticate the dawn of science.

The thesis is a most creditable specimen of
work in a field of research of great promise,
and I consider the author as highly deserving

of the prize.

S. C. MAHALANOBIS.