Vedic grammar

A VEDIC GRAMMAR
FOR STUDENTS

BY

AETHUR ANTHONY MACDONELL

M.A., PH.D.

BODEN PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

FELLOW OF BALLIOL COLLEGE; FELLOW OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY;
FELLOW OF THE ROYAL DANISH ACADEMY

INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON SYNTAX AND THREE
APPENDIXES: LIST OF VERBS, METRE, ACCENT

OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

1916

ERSITY PRESS

FRGH GLASGOW NEW YORK
TORONTO MELBOURNE BOMBAY

HUMPHREY MILFORD

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY

PK

M3

PREFACE

A PRACTICAL Vedic grammar has long been a desideratum.
It is one of the chief aids to the study of the hymns of the
Veda called for forty-three years ago in the preface to his
edition of the Kigveda by Max Miiller, who adds, ' I doubt
not that the time will come when no one in India will call
himself a Sanskrit scholar who cannot construe the hymns
of the ancient Rishis of his country'. It is mainly due
to the lack of such a work that the study of Vedic literature,
despite its great linguistic and religious importance, has
never taken its proper place by the side of the study of
Classical Sanskrit either in England or India. Whitney's
excellent Sanskrit Grammar, indeed, treats the earlier lan-
guage in its historical connexion with the later, but for this
very reason students are, as I have often been assured,
unable to acquire from it a clear knowledge of either the
one or the other, because beginners cannot keep the two
dialects apart in the process of learning. Till the publica-
tion of my large Vedic Grammar in 1910, no single work
comprehensively presented the early language by itself.
That work is, however, too extensive and detailed for the
needs of the student, being intended rather as a book of
reference for the scholar. Hence I have often been urged
to bring out a short practical grammar which would do for
the Vedic language what my Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners
does for the Classical language. In the second edition
(1911) of the latter work I therefore pledged myself to

iv PREFACE

meet this demand as soon as I could. The present volume
redeems that pledge.

When planning the book I resolved, after much reflection,
to make it correspond paragraph by paragraph to the
Sanskrit Grammar' this being the best way to enable students
to compare and contrast every phenomenon of the earlier
and the later language. To this extent the present book
presupposes the other ; but it can quite well be used inde-
pendently. The experience of many years' teaching, however,
leads me to dissuade beginners from starting the study of
Sanskrit by means of the present grammar. Students
should, in my opinion, always commence with classical
Sanskrit, which is more regular and definite, as well as
much more restricted in the number of its inflexional forms.
A good working knowledge of the later language should
therefore be acquired before taking up Vedic grammar,
which can then be rapidly learned.

In carrying out the parallelism of this grammar \vith
the other I have experienced a good deal of difficulty in
numbering the corresponding paragraphs satisfactorily,
because certain groups of matter are found exclusively in
the Vedic language, as the numerous subjunctive forms, or
much more fully, as the dozen types of infinitive compared
with only one in Sanskrit ; while some Sanskrit formations,
as the periphrastic . future, are non-existent in the earlier
language. Nevertheless, I have, I think, succeeded in
arranging the figures in such a way that the corresponding
paragraphs of the two grammars can always be easily
compared. The only exception is the first chapter, con-
sisting of fifteen paragraphs, which in the Sanskrit Grammar
deals with the Nagarl alphabet. As the present work
throughout uses transliteration only, it seemed superfluous
to repeat the description of the letters given in the earlier
work. I have accordingly substituted a general phonetic

PREFACE v

survey of Vedic sounds as enabling the student to understand
clearly the linguistic history of Sanskrit. The employment
of transliteration has been necessary because by this means
alone could analysis by hyphens and accentuation be
adequately indicated. Duplication with Nagarl characters,
as in the Sanskrit Grammar, would have increased the size
and the cost of the book without any compensating advan-
tage. An account of the accent, as of vital importance in
Vedic grammar, would naturally have found a place in the
body of the book, but owing to the entire absence of this
subject in the Sanskrit Grammar and to the fulness which
its treatment requires, its introduction there was impossible.
The accent is accordingly dealt with in Appendix III as
a substitute for the ' Chief Peculiarities of Vedic Grammar '
appearing at the end of the Sanskrit Grammar.

The term Vedic is here used to comprehend not only the
metrical language of the hymns, but also the prose of
the Brahmanas and of the Bi ahmana-like portions of the
Atharvaveda and of various recensions of the Yajurveda.
The grammatical material from the later period is mainly
given in small type, and is in any case regularly indicated
by the addition of the letter B (for Brahmana). Otherwise
the phase of the earlier language presented is that of the
Rigveda, as being both the oldest and furnishing the most
abundant material. But forms from the other Vedas are
often also supplied without any distinguishing mark as long
as they conform to the standard of the Rigveda. If, how-
ever, such forms are in any way abnormal, or if it seemed
advisable to point out that they do not come from the
Rigveda, this is indicated by an added abbreviation in
brackets, as * (AV.) ' for ' (Atharvaveda).' On the other hand
* (RV.) ' is sometimes added in order to indicate, for some
reason or other, that a form is restricted to the Rigveda.
It is. of course, impossible to go much into detail thus in

vi PREFACE

a practical work ; but the exact source of any particular
form can always be ascertained by reference to the large
Vcdic Grammar. The grammatical usage of the other Vedas,
when it differs from that of the Rigveda, is regularly ex-
plained. The reference is given with precise figures when
syntactical examples are taken from the Rigveda, but with
abbreviations only (as TS. for Taittiriya Samhita or SB. for
Satapatha Brahmana) when they come from elsewhere.
Syntactical citations are not always metrically intact because
words that are unnecessary to illustrate the usage in question
are often omitted. The accent in verbal forms that happen
to occur in Vedic texts without it, is nevertheless given
if its position is undoubted, but when there is any uncer-
tainty it is left out. In the list of verbs (Appendix I) the
third person singular is often given as the typical form even
when only other persons actually occur. Otherwise only
forms that have been positively noted are enumerated.

I ought to mention that in inflected words final s, r, and d
of endings are given in their historical form, not according
to the law of allowable finals (§ 27) ; e.g. dutas, not dutah ;
tasmad, not tasmat ; pitiir, not pituh. ; but when used
syntactically they appear in accordance with the rules of
Sandhi ; e. g. devanam dutah ; vrtrasya vadhat.

The present book is to a great extent based 011 my large
Vedic Grammar. It is, however, by no means simply an
abridgement of that work. For besides being differently
arranged, so as to agree with the scheme of the Sanskrit
Grammar, it contains much matter excluded from the Vedic
Grammar by the limitations imposed on the latter work' as
one of the volumes of Btihler's Encyclopaedia of Indo- Aryan
Research. Thus it adds a full treatment of Vedic Syntax
and an account of the Vedic metres. Appendix I, moreover,
contains a list of Vedic verbs (similar to that in the Sanskrit
Grammar), which though all their forms appear in their

PKEFACE vii

appropriate place within the body of the Vedic Grammar, are
not again presented there in the form of an alphabetical list,
as is done here for the benefit of the learner. Having
subjected all the verbal forms to a revision, I have classified
some doubtful or ambiguous ones more satisfactorily, and
added some others which were inadvertently omitted in the
large work. Moreover, a full alphabetical list of conjunctive
and adverbial particles embracing forty pages and describing
the syntactical uses of these words has been added in order
to correspond to § 180 of the Sanskrit Grammar. The
present work therefore constitutes a supplement to, as well
as an abridgement of, the Vedic Grammar, thus in reality
setting forth the subject with more completeness as a whole,
though in a comparatively brief form, than the larger work.
I may add that this grammar is shortly to be followed by
a Vedic Header consisting of selected hymns of the Rigveda
and supplying microscopic explanations of every point on
which the elementary learner requires information. These
two books will, I hope, enable him in a short time to become
an independent student of the sacred literature of ancient
India.

For the purposes of this book I have chiefly exploited
my own Vedic Grammar (1910), but I have also utilized
Delbriick's Altindische Syntax (1888) for syntactical material,
and Whitney's Roots (1885) for the verbal forms of the
Brahmana literature. In describing the metres (Appen-
dix II) I have found Oldenberg's Die Hymnen des Rigveda
(1888), and Arnold's Vedic Metre (1905) very useful.

I am indebted to Dr. James Morison and to my former
pupil, Professor A. B. Keith, for reading all the first proofs
with great care, and thus saving me from many misprints
that would have escaped my own notice. Professor Keith
has also suggested important modifications of some of my
grammatical statements. Lastly, I must congratulate

viii PREFACE

Mr. J. C. Pembrey, Hon. M.A., Oriental Reader at the
Clarendon Press, on having completed the task of reading
the final proofs of this grammar, now all but seventy years
after correcting Professor H. H. Wilson's Sanskrit Grammar
in 1847. This is a record in the history of Oriental, and
most probably of any. professional proof reading for the
press.

A. A. MACDONELL.

6 CHADLINQTON ROAD, OXFORD.
March 30, 1916.

CONTENTS

PAGES

PREFACE iii-viii

LIST or ABBREVIATIONS • . xi

CORRECTIONS xii

CHAPTER I: PHONETIC INTRODUCTION

Kelation of Vedic to Sanskrit— Oral tradition and
Writing— Sounds of the Vedic Language — The Vowels-^
Vowel Gradation — The Consonants — Ancient Pronuncia-
tion 1-19

CHAPTER II: EUPHONIC COMBINATION

«

External Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of Con-
sonants—Internal Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of
Consonants 20-47

CHAPTER III: DECLENSION

Nouns : Consonant Stems— unchangeable— changeable :
with Two Stems; with Three Stems— Vowel Stems —
Degrees of Comparison— Numerals : Cardinals ; Ordinals ;
Numeral Derivatives— Pronouns: Personal — Demonstra-
tive — Interrogative — Relative — Reflexive — Possessive —
Compound — Derivative — Indefinite — Pronominal Adjec-
tives 47-117

CHAPTER IV: CONJUGATION

Introductory— The Present System— First Conjugation
— Second Conjugation— The Augment — Reduplication—
Terminations —Paradigms — Irregularities — The Perfect
—The Pluperfect- The Aorist : First Aorist; Second
Aorist— Benedictive— The Future: Simple; Periphrastic

viii PREFACE

Mr. J. C. Pembrey, Hon. M.A., Oriental Reader at the
Clarendon Press, on having completed the task of reading
the final proofs of this grammar, now all but seventy years
after correcting Professor H. H. Wilson's Sanskrit Grammar
in 1847. This is a record in the history of Oriental, and
most probably of any. professional proof reading for the
press.

A. A. MACDONELL.

6 CHADLINGTON ROAD, OXFORD.
March 30, 1916.

CONTENTS

PAGES

PREFACE iii-viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS • . xi

CORRECTIONS xii

CHAPTER I: PHONETIC INTRODUCTION

Kelation of Vedic to Sanskrit— Oral tradition and
Writing— Sounds of the Vedic Language — The Vowels — *
Vowel Gradation —The Consonants— Ancient Pronuncia-
tion 1-19

CHAPTER II: EUPHONIC COMBINATION

•

External Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of Con-
sonants—Internal Sandhi : Combination of Vowels and of
Consonants 20-47

CHAPTER III: DECLENSION

Nouns : Consonant Stems— unchangeable— changeable :
with Two Stems; with Three Stems— Vowel Stems —
Degrees of Comparison— Numerals : Cardinals ; Ordinals ;
Numeral Derivatives— Pronouns: Personal — Demonstra-
tive — Interrogative — Relative — Reflexive — Possessive —
Compound— Derivative — Indefinite — Pronominal Adjec-
tives 47-117

CHAPTER IV: CONJUGATION

Introductory— The Present System— First Conjugation
— Second Conjugation— The Augment — Reduplication-
Terminations — Paradigms — Irregularities — The Perfect
—The Pluperfect- The Aorist : First Aorist; Second
Aorist— Benedictive— The Future: Simple; Periphrastic

x CONTENTS

PAGE

— Conditional— The Passive — Participles — Gerund — In-
finitive — Derivative Verbs : Causative — Desiderative—
Intensive — Denominative 117-207

CHAPTER V: INDECLINABLE WORDS

Prepositions — Adverbial Case-forms— Adverbs formed
with Suffixes— Conjunctive and Adverbial Particles— In-
terjections 208-253

CHAPTER VI: NOMINAL STEM FORMATION
AND COMPOUNDS

Primary Suffixes — Secondary Suffixes — Gender — Verbal
Compounds — Nominal Compounds: Co-ordinatives— Deter-
minatives : Dependent and Descriptive — Possessives —
Governing Compounds— Syntactical Compounds — Itera-
tive Compounds ......... 254-282

CHAPTER VII: SYNTAX

Introductory— Order of Words— Number — Concord —
Pronouns — Use of the Cases — Locative and Genitive
Absolute — Participles — Gerund — Infinitive — Use of the
Tenses— Use of the Moods: Imperative — Injunctive— Sub-
junctive— Optative — Precative — Conditional . . . 283-368

APPENDIX I. List of Verbs . . . . . .369-435

APPENDIX II. Vedic Metre ' 436-447

APPENDIX III. The Vedic Accent 448-469

VEDIC INDEX 471-498

GENERAL INDEX . 499-508

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A. = accusative case.

A. = Atmanepada, middle voice.
A A. — Aitareya Aranyaka.

AB. «= Aitareya Brahmana.
Ab. = ablative case,
act. = active voice.
AV. = Atharvaveda.
Av. = Avesta.

B. = Brahmana.

C. = Classical Sanskrit.

D. = dative case,
du. = dual number,
f. = feminine.

G. = genitive case.

Gk. = Greek.

I. = instrumental case.

IE. = Indo-European.

I-Ir. = Indo-Iranian.

ind. = indicative mood.

K. = Kathaka Samhita.

KB. = Kausltaki Brahmana.

L. = locative case.

Lat. = Latin.

m. = masculine.

mid. = middle voice.

MS. = Maitrayam Samhita.

N. = nominative case.

P. = Parasmaipada, active voice.

PB. = Pancavims'a (= Tandya) Brahmana.

pi. = plural number.

RV. = Rigveda.

&B. = ^atapatha Brahmana.

s. = singular number.

SV. = Samaveda.

TA. = Taittirlya Aranyaka.

TB. = Taittirlya Brahmana.

TS. = Taittirlya Samhita.

V. = Vedic (in the narrow sense as opposed to B. ••= Brahmana).

VS. = Vajasaneyi Samhita.

YV. = Yajurveda.

N.B. — Other abbreviations will be found at the beginning of
Appendix I and of the Vedic Index.

CORRECTIONS

P. 25, line 24, for ami iti read ami iti.

P. 27, line 29, last word, read a-srat.

P. 133, line 5, for bibhrmdhe read bibhrmahe.

P. 144, line 31, for stride read strike.

P. 156, lines 6 and 10, for ci-ket-a-t and ci-ket-a-thas read oi-ket-a-t

and ci-ket-a-th.as.

P. 158, line 21, for (vas desire) read (va£ bellow}.
P. 174, lines 30 and 31, delete cucyuvlmahi and cucyavirata (cp.

p. 382 under cyu).

P. 188, footnote, for 'gerundive' read 'gerund'.
P. 200, line 6, for < f yaj ' read < of yaj Y
P. 215, line 32, for tavan read tavam ; similarly, pp. 220, line 15,

221, line 4, 222, line 4, 238, line 9, 242, line 30, for n read m.
P. 273, footnote, last line but one, for < briefly ' read ' chiefly '.
P. 286, line 15, for < follows ' read 'precedes'.
P. 340, line 17, for tani read tyani.
P. 347, at the end of line 10, add (i. 815).
,, ,, line 17, for va read va.
„ ,, line 21, for duscarma read dusc&rma.
P. 348, line 28, for vettu read vettu.
P. 350, line 20, after icisdom add (i. 427).
P. 351, line 28, for abhi read abhi.

• 352, line 31, for vayum read vaytim.
„ „ line 34, for (v. 69l) read (vi. 591).

CHAPTER I

PHONETIC INTRODUCTION

1. Vedic, or the Language of the literature of the Vedas,
is represented by two main linguistic strata, in each of
which, again, earlier and later phases may be distinguished.
The older period is that of the Mantras, the hymns and
spells addressed to the gods, which are contained in the
various Samhitas. Of these the Kigveda, which is the most
important, represents the earliest stage. The later period
is that of the prose theological treatises called Brahmanas.
Linguistically even the oldest of them are posterior to most
of the latest parts of the Samhitas, approximating to the
stage of Classical Sanskrit. But they still retain the use
of the subjunctive and employ many different types of the
infinitive, while Sanskrit has lost the former and preserves
only one single type of the latter. The prose of these
works, however, to some extent represents better than the
language of the Mantras the normal features of Vedic
syntax, which in the latter is somewhat interfered with by
the exigences of metre.

The language of the works forming appendices to the
Brahmanas, that is, of the Aranyakas and Upanisads, forms
a transition to that of the Sutras, which is practically
identical with Classical Sanskrit!

The linguistic material of the Kigveda, being more ancient,
extensive, and authentic than that of the other Samhitas, all
of which borrow largely from it, is taken as the basis of
this grammar. It is, however, considerably supplemented
from the other Samhitas. The grammatical forms of the
BiTihmanas, where they differ from those of Classical
Sanskrit, have been indicated in notes, while their syntax

1819 B

2 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [1-3

is fully dealt with, because it illustrates the construction of
sentences better than the metrical hymns of the Vedas.

2. The hymns of the Vedas were composed many centuries
before the introduction of writing into India, which can
hardly have taken place much earlier than 600 B. c. They
were handed down till probably long after that event by
oral tradition, which has lasted down to the present day.
Apart from such tradition, the text of the Samhitas has
been preserved in manuscripts, the earliest of which, owing
to the adverse climatic conditions of India, are scarcely five
centuries old. How soon they were first committed to
writing, and whether the hymns of the Rigveda were edited
in the form of the Samhita and Pada texts with the aid of
writing, there seems insufficient evidence to decide ; but it
is almost inconceivable that voluminous prose works such
as the Brahmanas, in particular the Satapatha Brahmana,
could have been composed and preserved without such
aid.1

3. The sounds of the Vedic language. There are
altogether fifty-two sounds, thirteen of which are vocalic
and thirty-nine consonantal. They are the following : —

a. Nine simple vowels: aaiiuurfl; four diphthongs :
e o ai au.

I. Twenty-two mutes divided into five classes, each of
which has its nasal, making a group of twenty-seven :

(a) five gutturals (velars) : k kh g gh n ;

(0) five palatals : c ch j jh 2 n ;

1 The text of the Vedas, with the exception of Aufrecht's and
Weber's transliterated editions of the RV. and theTS., is always printed
in the Devanagaii character. The latter having been fully described
in my Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners (§§ 4-14), it is unnecessary to
repeat what is there stated. It will suffice here to give a summary
account of all the sounds of the Vedic language.

2 This sound is very rare, occurring only once in the RV. and not
at all in the AV.

3-4] THE VOWELS 3

(y) seven cerebrals j : t th, d and I,2 dh. and lh,2 n ;
(8) five dentals : t th d dh n ;
(e) five labials : p ph. b bh m ;

c. Four semivowels : y (palatal), r (cerebral), 1 (dental),
v (labial) ;

d. Three sibilants : s (palatal), s (cerebral), s (dental) ;

e. One aspiration : h ;

f. One pure nasal : m (m) called Anusvara (after-sound).

g. Three voiceless spirants: h (Visarjanlya), h (Jihva-
m ally a), h (Upadhrnaniya).

4. a. The simple vowels :

a ordinarily represents an original short vowel (IE. a e 6) ;
but it also often replaces an original sonant nasal, represent-
ing the reduced form of the unaccented syllables an and
am, as sat-a beside sant-am being ; ga-ta gone beside
a-gam-at has gone.

a represents both a simple long vowel (IE. a e 6) and
a contraction ; e. g. matar (Lat. mater) mother ; asam =
a-as-am I was. It frequently also represents the unaccented
syllable an ; e. g. kha-ta dug from khan dig.

i is ordinarily an original vowel ; e. g. div-i (Gk. Sift)
in heaven. It is also frequently the low grade of e and ya ;
e. g. vid-ma (iSpev) tve know beside v6d-a (o!8a) I know ;
nav-istha newest beside nav-yas newer. It also represents the
low grade of radical a ; e. g. sis-ta taught beside sas-ti teaches.

I is an original vowel ; e. g. jiv-a living. But it also often
represents the low grade of ya ; e. g. as-i-mahi we would
attain beside as-yam I would attain ; or a contraction ; e. g.
isiir they have sped (= i-is-ur 3. pi. pf. of is) ; mati by
thought (= matia).

1 This is much the rarest class of mutes, being scarcely half as
common as even the palatals.

2 These two sounds take the place of d dh respectively between
vowels in the RV. texts ; e. g. lie (but idya), mllhuse (but midhvan).

E2

4 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [4

u is an original vowel ; e. g. madhu (Gk. /j.£6v) honey.
It is also the low grade of o and va ; e. g. yug-a n. yoke
beside y6g-a m. yoking ; sup-ta asleep beside svap-na m.
sleep.

u is an original vowel ; e. g. bhru (6-(ppv-s) f. brotv. It is
also the low grade of au and va ; e. g. dhu-ta shaken beside
dhau-tari f. shaking ; sud sweeten beside svad enjoy •
and often represents a contraction; e.g. uc-ur = u -uc-iir
they have spoken (3. pi. pf. of vac) ; bahu the two arms —
bahu-a.

r is a vocalic r, being the low grade of ar and ra ; e. g.
kr-ta done beside ca-kar-a I have done-, grbh-i-ta seized
beside grabh-a m. seizure.

r occurs only in the ace. and gen. pi. m. and f. of ar stems
(in which it is the lengthened low grade) ; e. g. pitrn,
matfh; pitrnam, svasrnam.

1 is a vocalic 1, being the low grade of al, occurring only
in a few forms or derivatives of the verb kip (kalp) be in
order : caklpre* 3. pi. pf. ; ciklpati 3. s. aor. subj. ; klpti
(VS.) f. arrangement beside kalpasva 2. s. impv. mid.,
kalp-a m. pious work.

1). The diphthongs.

e and 6 stand for the original genuine diphthongs ai au.
They represent (1) the high grade corresponding to the
weak grade vowels i and u ; e. g. se'e-ati pours beside
sik-ta poured ; bh6j-am beside bhuj-am aor. of bhuj enjoy •
(2) the result of the coalescence of a with i and u in external
and internal Saridhi ; e. g. e"ndra = a indra ; 6 cit = a u cit ;
pade" = pada I du. n. tivo steps ; bhaveta = bhava Ita 3. s.
opt. might be ; maghtfn (= magha un) weak stem of
maghavan bountiful ; I S ) e = az in a few words before
d, dh, h ; e.g. e-dhi be 2. s. impv. of as beside as-ti ; o = az
before bh of case-endings, and before y and v of secondary
suffixes ; e. g. dve"so-bhis inst. pi. of dve~sas n. hatred ;

4-5] VOWEL GRADATION 5

duvo-yu wishing to give (beside duvas-yu) ; saho-van
mighty beside sahas-vant.

ai and au etymologically represent ai and au, as is
indicated by the fact that they become ay and av in Sandhi ;
e. g. gav-as cows beside gau-s ; and that the Sandhi of a
with e (= ai) and o (= au) is ai and au respectively.

5. Vowel gradation. Simple vowels are found to inter-
change in derivation as well as in verbal and nominal in-
flexion with fuller syllables, or if short also with long vowels.
This change is dependent on shift of accent : the fuller or
long syllable remains unchanged while it bears the accent,
but is reduced to a simple or short vowel when left by the
accent. This interchange is termed vowel gradation. Five
different series of such gradation may be distinguished.

a. The Guna series. Here the accented high grade
syllables e, o, ar, al, constituting the fundamental stage
and called Guna (cp. 17 a) by the native grammarians, inter-
change with the unaccented low grade syllables i, u, r, 1
respectively. Beside the Guna syllables appear, but much
less frequently, the syllables ai, au, ar (al does not occur),
which are called Vrddhi by the same authorities and may be
regarded as a lengthened variety of the Guna syllables.
Examples are : did6s-a has pointed out : dis-ta pointed out ;
6-mi I go : i-mas we go ; ap-no-mi I obtain : ap-nu-mas we
obtain; vardhaya to further: vrdhaya, id.

a. The low grade of both Guna and Vrddhi may be i, u, !r, ur ; as
bibhay-a / have feared and bibhay-a has feared : bhl-ta frightened ; juhav-a
has invoked : hu-td invoked ; tatar-a has crossed : tir-ate crosses and tir-nd
crossed.

J). The Samprasarana series. Here the accented high
grade syllables ya, va, ra (corresponding to the Guna stage
e, o, ar) interchange with the unaccented low grade vowels
i, u, r; e.g. i-yaj-a I have sacrificed : is-ta sacrificed; vas-ti
desires : us-masi we desire ; ja-grah-a I have seized : ja-grh-iir
they have seized.

6 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [5

a. Similarly the long syllables y a, va, ra are reduced to I, u, Ir ; e. g.
jya f. might : jl-yd-te is overcome ; bru-ya-t would say : bruv-I-ta id. ;
svad-u sweet : sud-aya-ti sweetens ; dragh-iyas longer : dirgh-a' long.

c. The a series.

1. In its low grade stage a would normally disappear, but
as a rule it remains because its loss would in most cases
lead to unpronounceable or obscure forms ; e. g. as-ti is :
s-anti they are ; ja-gam-a I have gone : ja-gm-iir they have
gone ; pad-ya4e goes : pi-bd-ana standing firm ; han-ti slays :
ghn-anti they slay.

2. The low grade of the Vrddhi vowel a is either a or
total loss ; e. g. pad m. foot : pad-a tvith the foot ; dadha-ti
puts : dadh-masi we put ; pu-na-ti purifies : pu-n-anti they
purify ; da-da-ti gives : deva-t-ta given l>y the gods.

3. When a represents the Guna stage its low grade is
normally i ; e. g. stha-s thou hast stood : sthi-ta stood.

a. Sometimes it is I owing to analogy ; e. g. pu-na-ti purifies :
pu-ni-hi purify. Sometimes, especially when the low grade syllable
has a secondary accent, it is a ; e. g. gah-ate plunges : g&h-ana n. depth.

d. The ai and au series.

The low grade of ai (which appears as ay before vowels
and a before consonants) is i ; e. g. gay-ati sings, ga-tha m.
song : gi-ta sung.

The low grade of au (which is parallel to va : 5 & a) is u ;
e. g. dhav-ati washes : dhu-ta washed ; dhau-tari f. shaking :
dhu-ti m. shabcr, dhu-ma m. smoke.

e. Secondary shortening of I, u, f. The low grade
syllables I, u, ir and ur (= r) are further reduced to i, u, r,
owing to shift of accent from its normal position in a word
to its beginning, in compounds, reduplicated forms, and
vocatives; e. g. a-huti f. invocationi-huticatt', &idi-vi shining:
di-paya "kindle ; car-kr-se thou commemoratest : kir-ti f.
praise (from root kr) ; pi-pr-tam 3. du. : pur-ta full (root
pf) ; d6vi voc. : devi nom. goddess ; svasru voc. : sva-sru-s
nom. mother-in-law.

6-7] THE CONSONANTS 7

The Consonants.

6. The guttural mutes represent the Indo-European
velars (that is, q-sounds). In the combination k-s the
guttural is the regular phonetic modification of a palatal
before s ; e. g. drs see : aor. adrk-sata ; vac speak : fut.
vak-syati.

7. The palatals form two series, the earlier and the later.
a. Original palatals are represented by ch and s, and to

some extent by j and h.

1. The aspirate ch is derived from an IE. double sound,
s+ aspirated palatal mute; e. g. chid cut off=Gk. ax1^-
But in the inchoative suffix cha it seems to represent s +
unaspirated palatal mute ; e. g. gacha-mi = Gk. fid&KO).

2. The sibilant s represents an IE. palatal (which seems
to have been pronounced dialectically either as a spirant or
a mute) ; e. g. satam 100 = Lat. centum, Gk. l-Karov.

3. The old palatal j (originally the media of s = I-Ir. z,
French j) is recognizable by appearing as a cerebral when
final or before mutes ; e. g. yaj-ati sacrifices beside aor.
a-yat has sacrificed, yas-tr sacrificer, is-td sacrificed.

4. The breathing h represents the old palatal aspirate
I-Ir. zh. It is recognizable as an old palatal when, either as
final or before t, it is replaced by a cerebral ; e. g. vah-ati
carries beside a-vat has carried.

1). The new palatals are c and to some extent j and h.
They are derived from gutturals (velars), being interchange-
able, in most roots and formatives, with gutturals ; e. g.
s6c-ati shines beside sok-a m. flame, suk-van flaming, suk-ra
brilliant ; yuj-e I yoke beside yug-a n. yoke, y<5g-a m. yoking,
yuk-ta yoked, -yiig-van yoking-, du-droh-a has injured
beside dr6gh-a injurious.

a. The original gutturals were changed to palatals by the palatal
sounds i, I, y immediately following ; e. g. eit-t£ noticed beside ke"t-a
m. will from cit perceive ; 6j-iyas stronger beside ug-rd strong ; druh-yu, a
proper name, beside dr6gh-a injurious.

8 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [8-10

8. The cerebrals are entirely secondary, being a specifically
Indian product and unknown in the Indo-Iranian period.
They are probably due to aboriginal, especially Dravidian,
influence. They are still rare in the EV., where they never
occur initially, but only medially and finally. They have
as a rule arisen from dentals immediately following the
cerebral s (= original s, s, j, h) or r-sounds (r, r, r) ; e. g.
dus-tara (= dus-tara) invincible-, vas-ti (= vas-ti) wishes ;
mrs-ta (= mrj-ta) cleansed] mda (= nizda) T nest ; du-dhi
(= duz-dhi) ill-disposed] drdha 2 (= drh-ta) firm ; nr-nam
(= nr-nam) of men.

Final cerebral mutes represent the old palatals j, s, h ;
e. g. rat (= raj) m. ruler nom. s. ; vipat (= vi-pas) f. a river ;
sat (= sah) overcoming ; a- vat (= a-vah-t) lias conveyed
(3. s. aor. of vah).

9. a. The dentals are original sounds, representing the
corresponding IE. dentals. The mutes t and d, however,
sometimes take the place of original s before s and bh
respectively ; e. g. a- vat-sis (AV.) aor. of vas dwell ]
mad-bhis inst. pi. of mas month.

1). The labials as a rule represent the corresponding IE.
sounds. But b is very rarely inherited ; the number of
words containing this sound has, however, been greatly
increased in various ways. Thus it often replaces p or bh
in Sandhi and bh in reduplication ; e. g. pi-bd-ana firm
beside pad-a n. place ; rab-dha taken beside rabhante tJiey
take ] ba-bhuva lias been from bhu "be. There are also many
words containing b which seem to have a foreign origin.

10. The nasals. Of the five nasals belonging to the
corresponding five classes of mutes, only the dental n and
the labial m appear independently and in any part of a word,

1 z ( = s or old palatal zh), the soft form of s, has always disappeared
after cerebralizing d or dh and lengthening the preceding vowel.

2 Though written as a short vowel the r is prosodically long.

10] NASALS 9

initially, medially, and finally ; e. g. matr f. mother, naman
n. name. The remaining three are always dependent on
a contiguous sound. The guttural n, the palatal n, and the
cerebral n are never initial, and the last two are never final.
The guttural n appears finally only when a following k or g
has been dropped, as in stems ending in nc or nj and in
those compounded with drs ; e. g. pratyan nom. s. of
pratyanc facing ; ki-drn nom. s. of ki-drs of what kind?

a. Medially n appears regularly only before gutturals ;

e. g. anka m. hooJc ; ankhaya embrace ; anga n. limb ; jangha

f. leg. Before other consonants it appears only when k or g
has been dropped ; e.g. yun-dhi for yung-dhi (=yunj-dhi)

2. s. impv. of yuj join.

b. The palatal nasal occurs only before or after c or j, and
before ch ; e. g. panca five ; yaj-na m. sacrifice ; vanchantu
let them desire.

c. The cerebral n appears within a word only, either
before cerebral mutes or replacing dental n after r, r, or s
(either immediately preceding or separated from it by certain
intervening letters); e.g. danda m. staff; nr-nam of men;
varna m. colour ; usna hot ; kramana n. step.

d. The dental n is the commonest of the nasals ; it is
more frequent than m, and about three times as frequent as
the other three taken together. As a rule it represents
IE. n ; but it also appears in place of the dental d or t, and
of labial m before certain suffixes. It is substituted for d
before the suffix -na ; and for d or t before the m of
secondary suffixes ; e. g. an-na n. food (from ad eat) ;
vidyiin-mant gleaming (vidyiit f. lightning) ; mrn-maya
earthen (mrd f. earth). It is substituted for m before t ;
before suffixal m or v ; and before suffixal s or t that have
been dropped as final ; e. g. yan-tra n. rein (yam restrain) ;
a-gan-ma, gan-vahi (aor. of gam go) ; a-gan (= a-gam-s,
a-gam-t) 2. 3. s. aor. of gam go-, a-yan (— a-yam-s-t)

3. s. aor. of yam restrain ; dan gen. of dam house (— dam-s).

10 PHONETIC INTEODUCTION [10-11

e. The labial m as a rule represents IE. m ; e. g. naman,
Lat. nomen. It is by far the commonest labial sound, being
more frequent than the four labial mutes taken together.

/. The pure nasal. Distinct from the five class nasals is
the pure nasal, variously called Anusvara and Anunasika,
which always follows a vowel and is formed by the breath
passing through the nose unmodified by the influence of any
consonant. The former is usually written with a dot before
consonants, the latter as ^ before vowels. The proper use
of Anusvara is not before mutes, but before sibilants and h
(which have no class nasal). When final, Anusvara usually
represents m, sometimes n (66 A 2). Medially Anusvara
regularly appears before sibilants and h ; e. g. vamsa m.
reed ; havimsi offerings ; mamsa n. flesh ; simha m. lion.
It usually appears before s, where it always represents
m or n ; e. g. mamsate 3. s. subj. aor. of man think ;
pimsanti beside pinasti from pis crush ; kramsyate fut. of
kram stride. When Anusvara appears before s or h (= IE.
guttural or palatal) it represents the corresponding class
nasal.

11. The semivowels. The semivowels y, r, 1, v are
peculiar in having each a vowel corresponding to it, viz.
i, r, 1, u respectively. They are called anta(h)stha in the
Pratisakhyas, or ' intermediate ', as standing midway between
vowels and consonants.

a. The semivowel y is constantly written for i before
other vowels within the Veda itself. It also sometimes
appears without etymological justification, especially after
roots in -a, before vowel suffixes ; e. g. da-y-i 3. s. aor. pass,
of da give. Otherwise it is based either on IE. i (= Gk.
spiritus asper) or voiced palatal spirant y (= Gk. f) ; e. g.
ya-s who (Gk. o-y), yaj sacrifice (Gk. ay-Los) ; but yas loil
(Gk. £eo>), yuj yoke (Gk. £wy-). It is probably due to this
difference of origin that yas boil and yam restrain reduplicate
with ya in the perfect, but yaj sacrifice with i.

11] SEMIVOWELS 11

&. The semivowel v is constantly written for u before
other vowels within the Veda itself. Otherwise it seems
always to be based on IE. u, that is, on a v interchangeable
with u, but never on an IE. spirant v not interchangeable
with u.

c. The semivowel r generally corresponds to IE. r, but
also often to IE. 1. As Old Iranian invariably has r for
both, it seems as if there had been a tendency to rhotacism
in the Indo-Iranian period. In order to account for the
Vedic relation of r to 1, it appears necessary to assume
a mixture of three dialects: one in which the IE. r and 1
were kept apart ; another in which IE. 1 became r (the
Vedic dialect) ; and a third in which IE. r became 1
throughout (the later Magadhi).

r is secondary when it takes the place of phonetic d (= z)
as the final of stems in is and us before endings beginning
with bh ; e. g. havir-bhis and vapur-bhis. This substitution
is due to the influence of external Sandhi, where is and us
would become ir and ur.

a. Metathesis of r takes place when ar would be followed by s or h
-f consonant. It appears in forms of drs see and srj send forth; e.g.
drastum to see, sdmsrastr one ivho engages in battle ; also in brahmdn m.
t, brahman n. devotion beside barhis n. sacrificial litter (from brh or
>arh make big) ; and in a few other words.

d. The semivowel 1 represents IE. 1 and in a few instances
r. It is rarer than in any cognate language except Old

rauian, in which it does not occur at all. It is much rarer
than r, which is seven times as frequent. A gradual increase
)f 1 is apparent in the RV. ; thus in the tenth book are
found the verbs mluc and labh, and the nouns Ionian,
lohita, which in the earlier books appear as mruc sink,
rabh seize, rdman n. hair, rohita red. This letter occurs
eight times as often in the latest parts of the RV. as in the
oldest ; and it is seven times as common in the AV. as in
the RV. It seems likely that the recorded Vedic dialect

12 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [11-12

was descended from an Indo-Iraman one in which rhotacism
had removed every 1 ; but that there must have been another
Vedic dialect in which IE. r and 1 were kept distinct, and
a third in which IE. r became 1 throughout ; from the
latter two 1 must have found its way into the literary
language to an increasing extent. In the oldest parts of the
RV. there are no verbal forms preserving IE. 1, and only a few
nouns : (u)loka m. free space, sloka m. call, and -misla mixed.

a. In the later Samhitas 1 occasionally occurs both medially and
finally for d ; e. g. lie (VS. Kanva) = ide ^RV, lie) ; bal iti (AV.), cf.
RV. bal itthsi. In a good many words 1 is probably of foreign origin.

12. The sibilants are all voiceless, but there are various
traces of the earlier existence of voiced sibilants (cp. 7 a 3 ;
8 ; 15, 2 &). There is a considerable interchange between
the sibilants, chiefly as a result of assimilation.

a. The palatal sibilant s represents an IE. palatal (mute
or spirant). Besides being the regular substitute for dental s
in external Sand hi before voiceless palatals (e. g. indras ca),
it occasionally represents that sibilant within words by
assimilation ; e. g. svasura (Lat. socer) father-in-law ; sasa
(IE. Jcasd) m. hare. Sometimes this substitution takes place,
without assimilation, under the influence of allied words, as
in k6sa m. hair beside ke*sara (Lat. caesaries). It is also to
some extent confused with the other two sibilants in the
Samhitas, but here it interchanges much oftener with s
than with s. Before s the palatal s becomes k, regularly
when medial, sometimes when final ; e. g. drk-s-a-se 2. s. aor.
subj. mid., and -drk[s] nom. s. from drs see.

&. The cerebral s is, like the cerebral mutes, altogether
secondary, always representing either an original palatal or
an original dental sibilant. Medially it represents the
palatals s (= I-Ir. s) and j (— I-Ir. z) and the combination ks
before the cerebral tenues t th (themselves produced from
dental tenues by this s) ; e. g. nas-ta from nas be lost ;
mrs-ta 3. s. impf., from mrj wipe ; tas-ta from taks hew.

12-14] BREATHING H— SPIRANTS 13

Medially it is regularly, and initially very frequently,
substituted for dental s after vowels other than a and after
the consonants k, r, s ; e. g. tisthati from stha stand ;
su-sup-ur 3. pi. pf. from svap sleep; rsabha m. bull;
uksan m. ox ; varsa n. rain • havis-su in oblations ; anu
stuvanti they praise ; go-sani winning cattle ; divi san being
in heaven.

Occasionally s represents dental s as a result of assimila-
tion ; e. g. sas six (Lat. sex) ; sat victorious nom. s. from
sah overcoming.

c. The dental s as a rule represents IE. s ; e. g. asva-s
horse, Lat. equo-s ; as-ti, Gk. ecr-n. In Sandhi it is often
replaced by the palatal s and still oftener by the cere-
bral s.

13. The breathing h is a secondary sound representing
as a rule the second half of an original guttural or palatal
aspirate, but occasionally of the dental dh and the labial bh.
It usually stands for palatalized gh, this origin being
recognizable by the appearance of the guttural in cognate
forms ; e. g. han-ti strikes beside ghn-anti, jaghana ; dudrdha
has injured beside drdgha injurious. It sometimes represents
an old palatal aspirate (— I-Ir. zh), as is recognizable by its
being replaced as final or before t by a cerebral ; e. g. vah-ati
carries beside a-vat has carried, iidha (= uz-dha) for vah-ta.
It stands for dh e. g. in gab-ate plunges beside gadha n.
ford ; hi-ta placed beside dhi-ta from dha put. It represents
bh in the verb grab seize beside grabh. The various origins
of h led to a certain amount of confusion in the groups of
forms from roots containing that sound. Thus beside
mugdha, the phonetic past participle of muh be confused,
appears mudha (AV.) beivildered.

14. Voiceless spirants. There are three such represent-
ing original final s or r. Visarjanlya has its proper place in
pausa. Jihvamuliya (formed at the root of the tongue) is the
guttural spirant and is appropriate before initial voiceless

14 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [14-15

gutturals (k, kh). Upadhmaniya (on-breathing) is the bi-labial
spirant f and appears before voiceless labials (p, ph).
Visarjamya may take the place of the latter two, and always
does so in the printed texts of the Samhitas.

15. Ancient pronunciation. As regards the pronuncia-
tion prevailing about 500 B.C. we have a sufficiently exact
knowledge derived from the transcription of Sanskrit words
in foreign languages, especially Greek ; from the information
contained in the old grammarians, Panini and his school ; and
especially from the detailed statements of the Pratisakhyas,
the ancient phonetic works dealing with the Samhitas.
The internal evidence supplied by the phonetic changes
occurring in the language of the texts themselves and the
external evidence of comparative philology justify us in
concluding that the pronunciation in the period of the
Samhitas was practically the same as in Panini's time.
The only possible exceptions are a very few doubtful points.
The following few remarks will therefore suffice on the
subject of pronunciation :

1. a. The vowels. The simple vowels i, u and a were
pronounced as in Italian. But a in the time of the
Pratisakhyas was already sounded as a very short close
neutral vowel like the u in English 'but. It is, however,
probable from the fact that the metre hardly ever admits
of a being elided after e and o in the RV., though the
written text drops it in about 75 per cent, of the occurrences,
that at the time when the hymns were composed the
pronunciation of a was still open, but that, at the time
when the Samhita text was constituted, the close pronun-
ciation was already becoming general.

The vowel r, now usually sounded as ri (an early pro-
nunciation as shown by the confusion of r and ri in ancient
inscriptions and MSS.), was in the Samhitas pronounced as
a vocalic r, somewhat like the sound in the final syllable of
the French chambre. It is described in the RV. Pratisakhya

15] PRONUNCIATION 15

as containing an r in the middle. This agrees with ere,
the equivalent of r in Old Iranian.

The very rare vowel 1, now usually pronounced as Iri, was
in the Samhitas a vocalic 1, described in the RV. Pratisakhya
as corresponding to 1 representing an original r.

b. The diphthongs e and o were already pronounced as
the simple long vowels e and 6 in the time of thePratisakhyas ;
and that this was even the case in the Samhitas is shown by
the fact that their Sandhi before a was no longer ay and av,
and that the a was beginning to be elided after e and o.
But that they represent the original genuine diphthongs ai
and au is shown by the fact that they are produced in
Sandhi by the coalescence of a with i and u.

The diphthongs ai and au are at the present day pro-
nounced as ai and au, and were so pronounced even at the
time of the Pratisakhyas. But that they etymologically
represent ai and au is shown by their Sandhi.

c. Lengthened vowels. The vowels i and u were often
pronounced long before suffixal y ; e. g. su-ya-te is pressed
(\/su) ; jam-yant desiring a wife (jani) ; also before r when
a consonant follows ; e. g. gir-bhis (but gir-as) ; a, i, u
often become long before v; e.g. a-vidh-yat he wounded
(a is augment) ; ji-gi-vams having conquered ( Vji) ; rta-van
observing order (rta) ; ya-vant lioiv great • as compensation
for the loss of a following consonant ; e. g. gu-dha for guh-ta
(15, 2 Jc) ; they are also often pronounced long for metrical
reasons ; e. g. srudhi havam hear our prayer.

d. Svarabhakti.1 When a consonant is in conjunction
with r or a nasal, the metre shows that a very short vowel 2
must often be pronounced between them ; e. g. indra =
indara ; yajna = yajana sacrifice ; gna = gnna woman.

1 A term used in the PratiSakhyas and meaning ' vowel-part '.

2 Described by the PratiSakhyas as equal to |-, £, or | mora in length
and generally as equivalent to a in sound.

16 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [15

e. Loss of vowels. With very few exceptions the only
vowel lost is initial a which, in one per cent, of its occurrences
in the RV. and about 20 per cent, in the AV. and the metrical
portions of the YV., is dropped in Sandhi after e and o.
In a few words the disappearance of initial a is prehistoric ;
e. g. vi bird (Lat. avi-s) ; santi they are (Lat. sunt).

f. Hiatus. In the written text of the Samhitas hiatus,
though as a rule tolerated in diphthongs only, appears in
Sandhi when a final s, y, v has been dropped before
a following vowel ; when final I, u, e of dual endings are
followed by vowels ; and when a remains after final e
and o.

Though not written, hiatus is common elsewhere also in
the Samhitas : y and v must often be pronounced as i and u,
and a long vowel or diphthong as two vowels, the original
vowels of contractions having often to be restored both
within a word and in Sandhi; e.g. jy^stha mightiest as
jya-istha (= jya-istha from jya be miglity).

2. Consonants, a. The aspirates were double sounds,
consisting of mutes followed by a breathing ; thus k-h is
pronounced as in ' ink-horn ' ; t-h as in ' pot-house ' ; p-h as
in * top-heavy ' ; g-h. as in ' log-house ' ; d-h as in ' mad-house ';
b-h as in ' Hob-house '.

1}. The gutturals were no doubt velars or sounds pro-
duced by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.
They are described by the Pratisakhyas as formed at the
' root of the tongue ' and at the ' root of the jaw '.

c. The palatals c, j, ch. are pronounced like ch in ' church ',
j in 'join', and ch in the second part of .' Churchill'.

d. The cerebrals were pronounced somewhat like the
so-called dentals t, d, n in English, but with the tip of
the tongue turned farther back against the roof of the
mouth. They include the cerebral 1 and Ih which in
Rigvedic texts take the place of d and dh between vowels.
The latter occurs medially only ; the former finally also.

15] PRONUNCIATION 17

Examples are: ila refreshment; tura-sal abhi-bhutyojah. ;
a-salha invincible.

e. The dentals in the time of the Pratisakhyas were
post-dentals, being produced by the tongue, according to
their description, at the ' root of the teeth ' (danta-mula).

/. The class nasals are produced with organs of speech
in the same position as for the formation of the correspond-
ing mutes while the breath passes through the nose.
The pure nasal, when called Anunasika, combines with the
preceding vowel to form a single sound, a nasalized vowel,
as in the French 'bon'; when called Anusvara (after-
sound), it forms in combination with the preceding vowel
two successive sounds, a pure vowel immediately followed
by the pure nasal, though seeming to form a single sound,
as in the English 'ba-ng' (where, however, the nasal is
guttural, not pure).

g. The semivowel y is the voiced palatal spirant produced
in the same place as the palatal vowel i. The semivowel v
is described by the Pratisakhyas as a voiced labio-dental
spirant. It is like the English v or the German w. The
semivowel r must originally have been a cerebral, as is
shown by its phonetic effect on a following dental n. By
the time of the Pratisakhyas it was pronounced in other
positions also. Thus the RV. Pratisakhya speaks of it as
either post-dental or produced farther back (but not as
cerebral).

The semivowel 1 is described in the Pratisakhyas as
pronounced in the same position as the dentals, which
means that it was a post-dental.

h. The sibilants are all voiceless. The dental s sounds
like s in ' sin ' ; the cerebral s like sh in ' shun ' (but with
the tip of the tongue farther back) ; while the palatal is
produced midway between the two, being the sibilant pro-
nounced in the same place as the spirant in the German
ich. Though the voiced sibilants z, z (palatal = French j),

18 PHONETIC INTRODUCTION [15

z, zh (cerebral) have entirely disappeared, they have generally
left traces of their former existence in the phonetic changes
they have produced.

i. The sound h was undoubtedly pronounced as a voiced
breathing in the Samhitas. The Pratisakhyas describe it as
voiced and as identical with the second element of voiced
aspirates (g-h, d-h, b-h). This is corroborated by the
spelling ^ 1-h (= dh) beside 35 1 (= d).

j. There are three voiceless spirants appearing only as
finals. The usual one, called Visarjanlya in the Pratisakhyas,
is according to the Taittirlya Pratisakhya articulated in the
same place as the end of the preceding vowels. Its place
may be taken by Jihvamullya before the voiceless initial
gutturals k, kh ; and by Upadhmanlya before the voiceless
initial labials p, ph. These two are regarded by the RV.
Pratisakhya as forming the second half of the voiceless
aspirates kh and ph respectively (just as h forms the second
half of gh, bh, &c.). They are therefore the guttural spirant
(Greek) x an<^ the bilabial spirant f respectively.

k. Loss of consonants. This is almost entirely confined
to groups of consonants. When the group is final, all but
the first element, as a rule, is dropped in pausa and in
Sandhi (28). In initial consonant groups a sibilant is often
lost before a mute ; e. g. candra shining beside s*candra ;
stanayitmi m. beside tanayitmi thunder-, tayu m. beside
stayii thief; if beside str m. star ; pdsyati sees beside spas
m. spy, -spas-ta seen. In a medial group the sibilants s
and s regularly disappear between mutes ; e. g. a-bhak-ta,
3. s. aor. for a-bhak-s-ta beside a-bhak-s-i. A mute may
disappear between a nasal and a mute ; e. g. yun-dhi for
yung-dhi.

a. Medially, voiced sibilants, the dental z, the cerebral z,
and the palatal z, have disappeared before the voiced dentals
d, dh, and h, but nearly always leaving a trace of their
former existence. Only in the two roots containing a,

15] PKONOTCIATION 19

as sit, sas order, the sibilant has disappeared without a trace :
a-dhvam, sa-sa-dhi. But when a preceded the z the loss
of the sibilant is indicated by e taking the place of az ;
e. g. e-dhi (for az-dhi) from as be ; sed, perfect stem of sad
sit for sazd ; similarly in de-hi give (for daz-dhi) beside
dad-dhi. When other vowels than a preceded, the z was
cerebralized and disappeared after cerebralizing the follow-
ing dental and lengthening the preceding vowel ; thus
a-stodhvam (= a-stoz-dhvam for a-sto-s-dhvam) 2. pi.
aor. beside a-sto-s-ta ; similarly midha n. reward (Gk.
/xio-tfo'-s). Similarly the old voiced palatal z disappeared after
cerebralizing a following d or dh and lengthening the
preceding vowel ; e. g. ta-dhi for taz-dhi (= tak-s-dhi) from
taks fashion ; so-dha for sas-dha (= sak-s-dha) beside
sas-tha sixth. Still commoner is the loss of the old aspirated
palatal zh represented by h, which was dropped after
cerebralizing and aspirating a following t and lengthening
the preceding vowel ; e. g. sa-dhr for sah-tr conqueror from
sah ; gudha concealed for guh-ta (from guzh-ta).

I. Haplology. When two identical or similar syllables
are in juxtaposition, one of them is sometimes dropped ;
e. g. tuvi-ra[va]-van roaring mightily beside tuvi-rava ;
ir[adh]adhyai inf. of iradh seek to win ; ma-dugha m.
a plant yielding honey, beside madhu-dugha shedding sweet-
ness ; sirsa-[sa]kti f. headache.

20

CHAPTER II

EULES OF SANDHI OR EUPHONIC COMBINATION
OF SOUNDS

16. Though the sentence is naturally the unit of speech,
which forms an unbroken chain of syllables euphonically
combined, it is strictly so only in the prose portions of the
AV. and the YV. But as the great bulk of the Vedas is
metrical, the editors of the Samhita text treat the hemistich
(generally consisting of two Padas or verses) as the euphonic
unit, being specially strict in applying the rules of Sandhi
between the verses forming the hemistich. But the evidence
of metre supported by that of accent shows that the Pada is
the true euphonic unit. The form which the final of a word
shows varies according as it appears in pausa at the end of
a Pada, or in combination with a following word within the
Pada. With the former is concerned the law of finals in
pausa, with the latter the rules of Sandhi. Avoidance
of hiatus and assimilation are the leading principles on
which the rules of Sandhi are based.

Though both are in general founded on the same phonetic
laws, it is necessary, owing to certain differences, to dis-
tinguish external Sandhi, which determines the changes
of final and initial letters of words, from internal Sandhi,
which applies to the final letters of verbal roots and
nominal stems when followed by certain suffixes and
terminations.

a. The rules of external Sandhi apply with few exceptions
(which are survivals from an earlier stage of external Sandhi)
to words forming compounds, and to final letters of nominal
stems before the case-endings beginning with consonants
(-bhyam -bhis, -bhyas, -su) or before secondary (182, 2)
suffixes beginning with any consonant except y.

17-18] EXTEKNAL SANDHI 21

A. External Sandhi.
Classification of Vowels.

17. Vowels are divided into

A. 1. Simple vowels :aa;ii;uu;rf; 1.

2. Guna vowels : a a ; e o ar al.

3. Vrddhi vowels: a ; ai ; au ; ar.1

a. Guna (secondary quality) has the appearance of being
the simple vowel strengthened by combination with a pre-
ceding a according to the rule (19 a) of external Sandhi
(except that a itself remains unchanged) ; Vrddhi (increase),
of being the Guna vowel strengthened by combination with
another a.2

B. 1. Vowels liable to be changed into semivowels : i, I ;
u, u ; r3 and the diphthongs e, ai, o, au (the latter half of
which is i or u) : consonantal vowels.

2. Vowels not liable to be changed into semivowels (and
only capable of coalescence) : a, a : unconsonantal vowels.

Combination of Final and Initial Vowels.

18. If the same simple vowel (short or long) occurs at
the end of one word and the beginning of the next,
contraction resulting in the long vowel4 is the rule in the
written text of the Samhitas. Thus ihasti = iha asti ;
indra = indra a ; tvagne = tva agne ; vidam = vi idam ;
suktam = su uktam.

1 The Vrddhi form of 1 (which would be al) does not occur.

2 In this vowel gradation, as Comparative Philology shows, the
Guna vowel represents the normal stage, from which the simple
vowel was reduced by loss of accent, while Vrddhi is a lengthened
variety of Guna (5 a). The reduction of the syllables ya, va, ra (which
are parallel with the Guna stage) to the corresponding vowels i, u, r
(5 6) is termed Samprasarana (distraction).

3 r never appears under conditions rendering it liable to be changed
into r (cp. 4 a, p. 4).

4 r does not occur because r r never meet in the Samhitas, and final
r does not even occur in the RV.

22 EXTEKNAL VOWEL SANDHI [18-19

a. The contraction of a + a and of u. + u occasionally does
not take place, even in the written text of the KV., both
between the Padas of a hemistich and within a Pada ; thus
manisa I agnih ; mamsa abhi ; vilu uta ; sti urdhvah ;
and in a compound, su-utayah.

1). On the other hand, the metre requires the contracted
vowels of the written text to be restored in pronunciation.
In such cases the restored initial is long by nature or
position, while the preceding final, if long, must be shortened.1
Thus casat is pronounced as ca asat ; carcata as ca arcata ;
map&h as ma ap6h. (for ma ap6h) ; mrlatidrs'e as mrlati
idrse ; yantmdavah as yanti indavah ; bhavantuksanah.
as bhavantu uksanah.. When the first word is a mono-
syllable (especially vi or hi), the written contractions I and
u are usually to be pronounced with hiatus ; thus hlndra as
hi indra.

19. a and a

a. coalesce with the simple vowels i 2 and u to the Guna
vowels e and o 3 respectively ; e. g. ih6ha = iha iha ;
pit6va = pita iva ; 6m = a im ; 6bha — a ubha.4 They
are never contracted to ar in the written text of the EV. or
VS. ; 5 but the metre shows that the combination is sometimes
to be pronounced as ar, for instance in the compound
sapta-rsayah tlie seven seers = saptarsayah.

1 Because of the prosodical rule that a long vowel is always
shortened before another vowel. Of. note 5.

2 Occasionally a + i remain uncontracted in the written text of
the RV., as jya iyam, piba imam, ranaya ih&.

3 This contraction is a survival because e and 6 are simple long
vowels, but they were originally = ai, au.

4 But in many instances where the contraction is written, the
original simple vowels must be restored with hiatus ; thus subhagosah
= subhaga usah.

5 a is always shortened or nasalized before r in the written text ;
e. g. tatha rtuh. (for tatha) ; vipanyam rtdsya (for vipanya).

19-21] EXTEKNAL VOWEL SANDHI 23

6. coalesce with Guna vowels to Vrddhi ; e. g. aibhih
= a ebhih.1

c. are absorbed by Vrddhi vowels ; e. g. s6masyausijah
= s6masya ausijah.

20. The simple consonantal vowels i and u before dis-
similar vowels or before diphthongs are regularly changed
to the semivowels y and v respectively in the written text
of the Samhitas ; e. g. praty ay am = prati ay am ; janitry
ajijanat = janitri ajijanat ; a tv e*ta = a frii e"ta. But the
evidence of the metre shows that this y or v nearly always
has the syllabic value of 1 or ii.2 Thus vy usah must be
read as vi usah. ; vidathesv anjan as vidathesu anjan.

a. Final r (which does not occur in the KV.) becomes r
before a dissimilar vowel ; an example is vijnatr etat =
vijnatf etat (SB.).

21. The Guna vowels e and o

a. remain unchanged before a,3 which is generally 4 elided
in the written text of the Samhitas, but according to the
evidence of the metre, must almost invariably in the RV.,
and generally in the AV. and YV., be pronounced,5 whether
written or not.6 In devaso aptiirah (i. 38) the a is both

1 a instead of contracting with e is sometimes nasalized before it :
aminantam eVaih (for a e) ; upastham e"k a (for a e). Again a is
sometimes elided before e and o ; as up'esatu (for a e), y&th'ohise
(for a o).

2 Because i and u are prosodically shortened before a following
vowel (p. 22, note 1).

3 The exceptional treatment of e in stdtava ambyam for stotave
ambyam is a survival showing that the Sandhi of e and o before a
was originally the same as before other vowels.

4 In the EV. it is elided in about 75 per cent., in the AV. in about
66 per cent, of its occurrences.

5 In the RV. it must be pronounced in 99 per cent., in the AV. and
the metrical parts of the YV. in about 80 per cent, of its occurrences.

6 The frequent elision of the a in the written text compared with
its almost invariable retention in the original text of the RV., indicates
a period of transition between the latter and the total elision of the
post-Vedic period.

24 EXTERNAL VOWEL SANDHI [21-23

written and pronounced ; in sunav6 'gne (i. I9) it must be
restored as sunave I agne.

fc. before every other vowel (or diphthong) would naturally1
become ay and av (the form they assume within a word),
but the former drops the semivowel throughout, while the
latter does so only before u ; e. g. agna iha (for agnay) ;
vaya ukthdbhih (for vayav) ; but vayav a yahi.

22. The Vrddhi vowels ai and au are treated before
every vowel (including a) or diphthong exactly in the same
way as e and o before vowels other than a. Thus ai
becomes a (through ay) throughout, but au only before u 2
(through av) ; e. g. tasma aksi (for tasmay), tasma indraya ;
sujihva upa (for sujihvav), but tav a, tav indragm.

a. The (secondary) hiatus caused by the dropping of y
and v in the above cases (21 1) and 22) as a rule remains.
But further contraction is sometimes actually written in the
Samhitas ; e. g. sartavajau for sartava ajau (through
sartavay for sartavai) ; vasau for va asau (through vay
for vai). Sometimes, again, the contraction, though not
written, is required by the metre. Thus ta indra must be
pronounced as tendra, and gostha upa (AV.) for gosthe' upa
(through gosthay) as gosthopa.

Irregular Vowel Sandhi.

23. Vrddhi instead of Guna results from the contraction of
a. the preposition a (in the AV. and VS.) with initial r

in arti = a rti and in archatu = a rchatu. In the case of
the latter verb, the TS. extends this contraction to prepositions
ending in a : uparchati = upa rchati and avarchati =
ava rchati.

1 Because e and o were originally = ai and au.

2 This is also the Sandhi of the AB. and KB.

23-25] ABSENCE OF VOWEL SANDHI 25

&. The preposition pra (in the KV.) with initial i in
praisayiir = pra isayur.

c. The augment a with the initial vowels i, u, r j1 e. g.
aichas 2. s. impf. of is ivisli ; aunat 3. s. impf. of ud wet ;
arta 3. s. aor. of r go.

Absence of Vowel Sandhi.

24. The particle u is unchangeable'2 in pronunciation
before vowels, though as a rule written as v after a con-
sonant ;3 e. g. bha u amsave, but av6d v indra. When it
combines with the final a of a particle to o, in 6 = a
u, atho = atha u, ut6 = uta u, mo = ma u, it remains
unchanged even in the written text ; e. g. atho indraya.

25. a. The I and u of the dual (nom. ace.) never change
to y and v. This dual I is never to be pronounced short,
but the u sometimes is ; e. g. hari (w -) rtasya, but sadhu
(- w) asmai. This I may remain before i, as in hari iva,
but in several instances the contraction is written, as in
rodasim6 = rodasi im6, while in several others, though
not written, it must be pronounced.

6. The rare locatives singular in I and u are also regularly
written unchanged in the KV.,4 but they seem always to be
treated as prosodically short.

c. The I of the nom. plur. m. (of the pronoun asau) ami
is always given as unchangeable in the Pada text (ami iti),
but it never happens to occur before a vowel in the RV.

1 This is perhaps a survival of a prehistoric contraction of a (the
original form of the augment) with i, u, r to ai, au, ar.

2 The term applied by the native phoneticians to unchangeable
vowels is pragrhya separated. Such vowels are indicated in the Pada
text by an appended iti. u is always there written in its lengthened
and nasalized form as um iti.

3 It is occasionally written unchanged in its lengthened form even
after a consonant, as tarn u akrnvan.

4 Except vedy asyam, to be pronounced vedl asyam.

26 CONSONANT SANDHI [25-27

a. The I of the nom. s. in prthivi, prthu-jrdyi, samrajnl rarely, of
the instr. sus"aml once, and of the instr. uti often, remains unchanged
before vowels ; l e. g. samrajm &dhi, susami abhuvan.

26. The diphthong e is unchangeable in various nominal
and verbal forms.

a. The e of the nom. ace. dual (— a-f-I), fern, and neut.
of a stems, is not liable to Sandhi ; 2 e. g. rodasi ubh6
rghayamanam.

&. The verbal dual e 3 of the 2. 3. pres. and perf. mid.
never combines, though it is nearly always prosodically
shortened ; e. g. parimanmathe asman.

c. The e of the locative of the pronominal forms tv6
in thee, asm6 4 in us, yusm6 in you are unchangeable ; 5
e. g. tv6 it ; asm6 ayuh ; yusm6 ittha.

Combination of Final and Initial Consonants.

27. The external Sandhi of consonants is primarily and
almost exclusively concerned with the assimilation of a final
to a following initial sound. Since the Sandhi of final
consonants generally speaking starts from the form they
assume in pausa,6 it is necessary to state the law of allowable
finals at the outset. That law may be formulated as follows :
only unaspirated hard mutes, nasals, and Visarjanlya are
tolerated, and palatals are excluded, as finals. By this law
the thirty-nine consonants classified in § 3 are reduced to

1 The unchangeableness of the vowel here being only occasional is
not indicated with iti in the Pada text.

2 Except dhisnyeme' for dhisnye line", as it is also probably to be
pronounced.

3 Under the influence of the nominal dual e ; for there was origin-
ally no difference between this dual e and any other e in middle
forms, such as the dual vane, sing, te, and the plur. ante.

4 Also used as dat. in the EV.

5 They are always written with iti in the Pada text.

6 Final n and r are, however, to a considerable extent treated not
on the basis of their pausal form, but of etymology.

27-28] EXTEKNAL SANDHI OF CONSONANTS 27

the following eight as permissible in pausa : — k, n ; t ; t, n ;
p, m ; Visarjanlya.

The aspirate and soft mutes (3 &) are eliminated, leaving
only hard unaspirated mutes to represent them. The palatals
(3 & /8), including s (3 d), and h (3 e), are replaced by k or t
(n by n).

s (3 d) is replaced by t, s (3 d) and r (3 c) by Visarjanlya.
The nasal n (3 & y) and the three semivowels y, 1, v (3 c)
do not occur.

28. The rule is that only a single consonant may be
final. Hence all but the first of a group of consonants
must be dropped ; e. g. abhavan 3. pi. impf. were (for
abhavant) ; tan ace. pi. those (for tans) ; tudan striking
(for tudants) ; pran fonvard (through prank for pranc-s) ;
achan 3. s. aor. lias pleased (for achantst).

a. k, t, or t, when they follow an r and belong to the
root, are allowed to remain ; l e. g. vark 3. s. aor. of vrj
bend (for vark-t) ; urk nom. s. of urj strength ; a-mart
3. s. impf. of mrj wipe ; a-vart 3. s. aor. of vrt turn ; su-hart
nom. s. of suhard friend.

a. There are seven instances in the Samhitas in which a suffixal s or
t is retained instead of the preceding radical consonant. (1) s thus
appears in the following four nominatives sing. : sadha-mas beside
sadha-mat (for sadha-mad-s) companion of the feast', ava-yas (for ava-
yaj-s) f. sacrificial share ; avayas (for avayaj-s) m. a kind of priest ;
puro-das sacrificial cake (for puro-das-s). 2 (2) s or t similarly appears in
the following four singular verbal preterite forms : a-ya-s (for £-yaj-s)
beside a-yat 2 s. aor. of yaj sacrifice ; a-sras (for a-sraj-s) 2. s. aor. of srj
emit • a-bhanas (for a-bhanak-s) 2. s. impf. of bhanj break ; and a-sra^
(for a-sras-t) 3 3. s. aor. of srasfall.

1 The only instance of a suffix remaining after r is in dar-t 3. s. aor.
of dr cleave beside a-dar 2. s. (for d-dar-s).

- The s is probably due to the analogy of nominatives, like mas moon,
dravino-da-s wealth-giver, &c.

3 The appearance of s or t here is due to the beginnings of the

28 EXTEKNAL CONSONANT SANDHI [29

Classification of Consonants.

29. The assimilation, of which the application of the
rules of consonant Sandhi consists, is of two kinds. It is
concerned either with a shift of the phonetic position in
which a consonant is articulated, or with a change of the
quality of the consonant. Hence it is necessary to understand
fully the classification of consonants from these two aspects.
In § 3 1) c d (cp. 15, 2b-h) an arrangement according to the
place of articulation is given of all the consonants except
four, the breathing h and the three voiceless spirants, which
are phonetically described in § 15, 2 i j.

a. Contact of the tongue with the throat produces the
gutturals, with the palate the palatals, with the roof of
the mouth the cerebrals, with the teeth the dentals, while
contact between the lips produces the labials.

6. In forming the nasals of the five classes, the breath
partially passes through the nose while the tongue or the
lips are in the position for articulating the corresponding
tenuis. The real Anusvara is formed in the nose only,
while the tongue is in the position for forming the particular
vowel which the Anusvara accompanies.

c. The semivowels y, r, 1, v are palatal, cerebral, dental,
and labial respectively, pronounced in the same position as
the corresponding vowels i, r, 1, u, the tongue being in
partial contact with the place of articulation in the first
three, and the lips in partial contact in the fourth.

d. The three sibilants are hard spirants produced by
partial contact of the tongue with the palate, roof, and teeth
respectively. There are no corresponding soft sibilants
(English z, French j), but their prehistoric existence may be
inferred from various phenomena of Sandhi (cp. 15, 2 ka).

tendency to normalize the terminations so as to have s in the 2. s. and
t in the 3. s. Some half-dozen examples of this have been found in
the Brahmanas ; e. g. a-ves 2. s. irnpf. (= a-ved-s) from vid know.

29-32] EXTEKNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 29

e. h and h are respectively soft and hard spirants produced
without any contact, and articulated in the position of the
vowel that precedes or follows, h occurs only before soft
letters, h only after vowels and before certain hard letters.

30. Quality of consonants.
Consonants are

1. either hard (surd, voiceless) : k kh, c ch, t th, t th,
p ph ; fi s s ; h h h (3) ;

or soft (sonant, voiced) : all the rest (3) (besides all the
vowels and diphthongs).

2. either aspirated : kh gh, ch jh, th dh Ih, th dh,
ph bh, h h h h, s s s ;

or unaspirated : all the rest.

Hence the change of c to k is a change of the position of
articulation (palatal to guttural), and that of c to j is a
change of quality (hard to soft) ; while the change of c to g
(hard palatal to soft guttural) or of t to j (hard dental to soft
palatal) is one of both position and quality.

31. It is essential to remember that consonant Sandhi
cannot be applied till finals have been reduced to one of the
eight allowable sounds (27). The latter are then modified
without reference to their etymological value (except partially
in the case of n and Visarjanlya). Only six of these
allowable finals occur at all frequently, viz. k, t, n, p, m,
and Visarjanlya, while the cerebral t and the guttural n
are rare.

I. Changes of Quality.

32. A final consonant (that is, a mute or Visarjanlya) is
assimilated in quality to the following initial, becoming soft
before soft initials, and remaining hard before hard initials
(consonants).

Hence final k, t, t, p before vowels and soft consonants
become g, d, d, b respectively ; e. g. arvag radhah. (through
arvak for arvac) ; havyavad juhvasyah (through -vat for
-van) ; sal urvih (through sat for sas : cp. 3 & y) ; gamad

80 EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI [32-37

vajebhih (for gamat) ; agnid rtayatah (through agnit for
agnidh) ; tristiib gayatri (through tristiip for tristubh) ;
abja (for ap-ja).

33. Final k, t, t, p before n or m may, and in practice
regularly do, become the nasal of their own class ; e. g.
pranan martyasya (through pranag for pranak) ; viran
mitravarunayoh (through virad for virat) ; san-navati (TS.)
(through sat-) for sas-navati ; asm n6 (through asid for
asit) ; tan mitrasya (for tad) ; trikakum nivartat (through
trikakiib for trikakiip from trikakiibh).

34. Final t becomes 1 through d ; e. g. angal 16nmah
(for angat).

35. Since the nasals have no corresponding hard sounds,
they remain unchanged in quality before initial hard sounds.
The guttural n,1 which is rare, remains otherwise unmodified
also (cp. 52) ; but it may before sibilants insert a transitional
k, e. g. pratyank sa beside pratyan sa. Final m is liable to
change of position before all consonants (42). Final dental
n is liable to change before vowels (42, 52), palatals, dentals,
the semivowel 1, and sometimes p (40).

36. The dental nasal n remains unchanged before (1) the
gutturals k, kh, g, gh; (2) the labials p,2 ph, b, bh, m ; (3) the
soft dentals d, dh, n ; generally also before t (40, 2) ; (4) the
semivowels y, r, v, and the breathing h ; (5) the cerebral
and the dental sibilants s and s.

a. Before s and s a transitional t may be inserted,
e.g. ahan-t s alias a ; tan-t sam.

II. Changes of Position.

37. The only four final consonants (27) liable to change of
position are the dental t and n, the labial m, and Visar-
janiya.

1 The palatal and cerebral nasals, as has already been stated, do not
occur as finals.

2 Before p it sometimes becomes mh ; cp. 40, 5.

37-40] EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 31

a. The two dentals become palatal before palatals.1
ft. Visarjaniya and m adapt themselves to the phonetic
position of the following consonant.

1. Final t.

38. Final t before palatals (c, j, ch, s) is changed to a
palatal (c or j) ; e. g. tac caksuh for tat caksuh. ; yatayaj-
jana for yatayat-jana ; rohic chyava for r oh.it syava.'2

2. Final n.

39. Final n before vowels is changed, after a long vowel,
to Anusvara : if the preceding vowel is a, to m, if it is i, u,
f, to mr ;3 e.g. sargam iva for sargan ; vidvam agne for
vidvan ; paridhimr ati for paridhm ; abhisumr iva for
abhisun ; nrmr4 abhi for nrn.

40. 1. Final n before all palatals that occur becomes
palatal n; e.g. tirdhvan carathaya for urdhvan ; tafi
jusetham for tan; vajrin snathihi for vajrin; but since
before s a transitional t may be inserted, vajrnt snathihi
may (through vajrinc 5 snathihi) become vajrn chnathihi.6

a. Before c the palatal sibilant is sometimes inserted7 in
the RV., the preceding n then becoming Anusvara. This

1 Final dentals never come into contact with initial cerebrals in
the Samhitas. No initial cerebral mutes occur in the KV., and even
the cerebral sibilant s occurs only in s&s six and its compounds, and
once in sat for sat from sah.

2 On the change of s to ch after c see 53.

3 Both m and mr here represent original ns through mh, the Sandhi
of h being here the same as that of ah ih uh fh before vowels, an In
un remain unchanged at the end of a Pada (as being in pausa) before
a vowel ; e. g. devayanan'atandrah (i. 727).

4 fmr occurs only once, otherwise remaining unchanged as fn,
because two r sounds are avoided in the same syllable (cf. Vedic
Grammar, § 79).

6 That is, t before s becomes c (38).

6 That is, after c initial s may become ch (53).

7 There are no examples of the inserted sibilant before ch in the
Samhitas.

32 EXTEENAL CONSONANT SANDHI [40-41

insertion takes place, only when the sibilant is etymologically
justified,1 almost exclusively (though not without exception
even here 2) before ca and cid ; e. g. anuyajams ca,
amenams cit. In the later Samhitas the inserted sibilant
becomes commoner, occurring even where not etymologi-
cally justified.3

2. Final n usually remains unchanged before dental t,4
e.g. tvavan tmana; but the dental sibilant is sometimes
inserted in the RV., the preceding n then becoming
Anusvara. This insertion takes place, only when the
sibilant is historically justified ; 1 e. g. avadams tvam (for
avadan). In the later Samhitas the inserted sibilant
becomes commoner, occurring even where not etymo-
logically justified.3

3. Final n before initial 1 always becomes nazalized 1;

j^f
e. g. jigival laksam.

4. Though final n generally remains unchanged before
y, r, v, h (36, 4), an, in, un sometimes become am, imr, umr
as before vowels (39) ; e. g. devan havamahe ; but svavam
yatu (for svavan) ; dadvam va (for dadvan) ; pivo-annam
rayivrdhah (for annan) ; panimr hatam (for panin) ; das-
yumr yonau. (for dasyun).

5. Final n when etymologically representing ns sometimes
becomes mh before p (36, 2) ; thus nfmh pahi (for nrn) ;
nrmh patram ; svatavamh payiih (for svatavan).

3. Final m.

41. Final m remains unchanged before vowels ; e.g.
agnim lie I praise Agni.

1 That is, in the nom. s. and ace. pi. m., which originally ended
in ns.

2 E.g. paSufi ca sthatrfi car&tham (i. 726).

3 As in the 3. pi. impf., e. g. dbhavan (originally abhavan-t) and the
voc. and loc. of n stems, e. g. rajan (which never ended in s).

4 No initial th occurs in the RV.

41-42] EXTEKNAL CONSONANT SANDHI » 33

a. In a very few instances the m is dropped and the vowels there-
upon contract. This Sandhi is mostly indicated by the metre only :
thus rastram ihd must be pronounced rastre"ha. It is very rarely
written, as in durgahait&t for durgaham etat. The Pada text, however,
neither here (durg&ha etat) nor elsewhere analyses a contraction in
this way.

42. Final m before consonants is changed

1. before the semivowel r, the three sibilants s, s, s
and the breathing h to Anusvara ; e. g. hotaram ratnadha-
tamam (for hotaram) ; vardhamanam sv6 (for vardha-
manam) ; mitram huve (for mitram).1

2. before y, 1, v it becomes nasalized y, 1, v ; but the
printed texts regularly use Anusvara 2 instead ; e. g. sam
yudhi ; yajnam vastu.3

3. before mutes it becomes the class nasal,4 and n before
n 5 ; e.g. bhadran karisyasi ; tyan eamasam ; navan
tvastuh. ; bhadran nah. Most MSS. and the printed texts,
however, represent this assimilated m by Anusvara 6 ; e. g.
bhadram karisyasi; tyam camasam; navam tvastuh;
bhadram nah.

a. This Sandhi is identical with that of n before the palatals c,j, ch
(40) and the soft dentals d, dh, n (36, 3), and of t before n (33).

1 Anusvara seems to have been used originally before the sibilants
andh only. Compounds like saru-raj show that m originally remained
unchanged before r (49 &).

2 The Taittiriya Prati^akhya allows the optional use of Anusvara
before these semivowels.

3 Forms with internal m like yam-ydmana and apa-nilukta show
that m originally remained unchanged in external Sandhi before y
and 1 ; and forms like jagan-van (from gam go) point to its having
at one time become n before v in Sandhi.

4 Before labials it of course remains.

5 This assimilation before n being identical with that of d, led to
ambiguity in some instances and consequent wrong analysis by the
Padapatha.

6 Max Miiller in his editions prints Anusvara throughout, even
before labials; Aufrecht has Anusvara except before labials, where
he retains m.

1819 D

84 EXTEKNAL CONSONANT SANDHI [43

4. Final Visarjaniya.

43. Visarjamya is the spirant to which the hard s and
the corresponding soft r are reduced in pausa. If followed
by a hard sound,

1. a palatal (c, ch) or a dental (t) mute, it becomes the
corresponding sibilant ; e. g. devas cakrma (through devah
for devas) ; pus ca (through pub. ca for pur ca.) ; l yds te
(for yah) ; anvlbhis tana (for -bhih).

a. Visarjanlya, if preceded by i and u, before dental t often becomes
cerebral s, which cerebralizes the following initial t to t. In the RV.
this occurs chiefly, and in the later Vedas only, before pronouns ;
e. g. agnis te ; kr&tus tarn ; also nakis tanusu. In compounds this
change takes place in all the Samhitas ; e. g. dus-tara hard to pass.2

2. a guttural (k, kh) or labial (p, ph) mute, it either
remains or becomes Jihvamuliya (h) before the gutturals
and Upadhmanlya (h) before the labials ; e. g. visnoh.
karmani (for visnos) ; indrah. panca (for indras) ; punah-
punah. (for punar) ; dyauh prthivi.

a. After a it often, in the RV., becomes s, and s after I, u, f ;3 e. g. divds
pari ; patnivatas krdhi ; dydus pita. In compounds this change
takes place regularly in all the Samhitas; e.g. paras-pa far-protecting ;
havis-pa drinking the offering ; dus-kft evil-doing, dus-pad evil-footed.

3. a simple sibilant, it either remains or is assimilated ;
e. g. vah sivatamah or vas sivatamah ; deVih. sat or d^vis
sat ; nah. sapatnah or nas sapatnah ; piinah sam or punas
sam.4 Assimilation is undoubtedly the original Sandhi ;

1 This combination (in which Visarjanlya represents original r) is
contrary to etymology, but is universal in sentence Sandhi and is
subject to only two exceptions in compounds : svar-caksas and svar-
canas.

2 The only exception in the EV. is catus- trims at thirty-four.

3 This treatment before gutturals and labials corresponds to that
before t (1 a), and was doubtless the original one in sentence Sandhi.

4 This combination (in which Visarjanlya represents original r),
though contrary to etymology, is universal in external Sandhi ; but

43-46] EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 35

but the MSS. usually employ Visarjanlya and European
editions regularly do so.

a. Before a sibilant immediately followed by a hard mute, a final
Visarjanlya is dropped ; e. g. mandibhi stomebhih (through mandi-
bhih for mandibhis) ; du-stutf f. ill-praise (for dus-stuti). The dropping
is prescribed by the Prati&ikhyas of the KV., the VS., and the TS.,
and is applied by Aufrecht in his edition of the RV.

6. Before a sibilant immediately followed by a nasal or semivowel,
a final Visarjanlya is optionally dropped ; e. g. krta sravah (for krtah) ;
ni-svaram (through mh- for r»is-).

44. Visarjanlya (except after a or a) before a soft sound
(vowel or consonant) is changed to r; e.g. rsibhir idyah.
(through rsibhih for fsibhis) ; agnir h6ta (through agnih
for agnis) ; paribhur asi (through -bhuh for -bhus).

45. 1. The final syllable ah (= as) drops its Visarjanlya
before vowels or soft consonants; e.g. suta im6 (through
sutah for sutas) ; visva vi (through visvah for visvas).

2. The final syllable ah (= as)

a. drops its Visarjanlya before vowels except a ; e. g.
khya a (through khyah for khyas).

&. before soft consonants and before a, is changed to o,
after which a may be elided (21 a) ; e. g. indavo vam
(through indavah for indavas) ; no ati (through nah for
nas) or n6 'ti.

46. The final syllables ah (= ar) and ah (= ar), in the
comparatively few instances L in which the Visarjaniya
represents an etymological r, do not form an exception (45)
to the general rule (44) ; e. g. pratar agnih. ; piinar nah ;
svar druhah ; var avayati.

in compounds the original r frequently remains ; e. g. vanar-sdd,
dhur-s&d, &c. This survival shows that r originally remained before
sibilants in sentence Sandhi.

1 r is original in dvar door, var protector, var water ; ahar day, us&r
dawn, udhar udder, vadhar weapon, v&nar wood, svar light ; ant&r within,
av^r down, punar again, pratdr early ; the voc. of r stems, e. g. bhratar ;
the 2. 3. s. of past tentes from roots in r, e. g. avar, from vr cover.

D2

36 EXTEKNAL CONSONANT SANDHI [47-49

47. r followed by r is always dropped, a preceding short
vowel being lengthened ; e. g. puna rupani for punar.1

48. The three pronouns (nom. m. s.) sah that, syah that,
esah. this, drop the Visarjamya before all consonants ; 2 e. g.
sa vanani, sya dutah, esa tarn. The Visarjaniya is here
otherwise treated regularly ; 3 at the end of a Pada, e. g.
padista sah. I cakra esah I , and before vowels, e. g. s6 apah,
es6 asura, es6 'mandan (for amandan); sd dsadhih, esd
indrah.

a. sd, however, generally combines in the EV. with a following
vowel ; e. g. sasmai for sd asmai ; sed for sd id ; sdusadhih for sa
osadhih.

Sandhi in Compounds.

49. The euphonic combination at the junction of the
members of compounds is on the whole subject to the rules
prevailing in external Sandhi. Thus the evidence of metre
shows that contracted vowels are often to be pronounced
with hiatus when the initial vowel of the second member is
prosodically long (cp. 18 1) : e. g. yukta-asva (for yuktasva)
having yoked horses, deva-iddha kindled ly tlie gods (for
dev^dclha), acha-ukti (for achokti) invitation.

Compounds have, however, preserved many archaisms of
Sandhi which have disappeared from Sandhi in the sentence.

a. In vis-pati lord of the house and vis-pdtni mistress of the house s
remains instead of the t 4 required by external Sandhi.

b. In sam-raj sovereign ruler m appears instead of the Anusvara
required before r (42, 1), as in sam-rajantam.

1 In a few instances o appears instead of a ( = ar) under the influence
of ah as the pausal form of neuters in as ; e. g. udho romas&m (for
udha = udhar) ; also in the compound aho-ratra for aha-.

2 s£h, however, twice retains it in the RV. ; s&h palikiiih (v. 24)
and sds tava (viii. 3316) for sah.

3 sydh never occurs in the RV. before a vowel or at the end of
a Pada.

4 vis-p&li has in post-Vedic Sanskrit become vitpati.

49-50] EXTEKNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 37

c. A group of compounds formed with clus ill as first member com-
bine that adverb with a following d and n to du-d ( = duz-d) and du-n
( = duz-n) instead of dur-d and dur-n r1 du-d&bha (for dus-d&bha) hard
to deceive, du-das not worshipping (for dus-das), du-dhi malevolent (for
dus-dhi); du-nasa hard to attain (for dur-n&sa), du-nasa (for dus-nasa)
hard to attain and hard to destroy.

d. Final (etymological) r in the first member is preserved in the
RV. before hard sounds where the rules of external Sandhi require
Visarjamya or a sibilant (43): var-kary£ producing water ; svar-caksas
brilliant as light ; pur-pati lord of the stronghold, svar-pati lord of heaven ;
vanar-sad and vanar-s&d sitting in the wood, dhur-sad being on the yoke ;
svar-sa winning light ; svar-sati acquisition of light.2 The VS. also has
ahar-pati lord of day, and dhur-sah. bearing the yoke.3

e. Radical stems in ir, ur mostly lengthen their vowel before con
sonants (as they do within the simple word);2 e.g. dhur-sad being on
the yoke, pur-yana leading to the fort.4

50. Compounds further often contain archaisms which
though still existing in external Sandhi are obsolescent and
disappear entirely in later periods of the language.

a. In six compounds scandra bright retains its old initial
sibilant in the second member ; e. g. asva-scandra brilliant
•with horses, puru-scandra very brilliant. As an independent
word it is, excepting three occurrences in the RV., invariably
candra.5

b. A final s of the first member or an initial s of the
second member is cerebralized ; e. g. dus-tara hard to cross,
dub-Sana hard to resist.6

1 But dur- the form required by the later external Sandhi is
already commoner in the RV. ; e. g. dur-dfslka, dur-naman.

2 Nouns ending in radical r retain the r before the ending su of the
loc. pi. ; glr-sii, dhur-sii, pur-su.

3 External Sandhi gradually encroaches here in the later Samhitas ;
e. g. svah-pati in the SV.

4 But gir retains its short vowel in gir-vanas fond of praise and gfr-
vahas praised in song.

5 How nearly extinct 6candr& is as an independent word is indicated
by the fact that in the analysis of its six compounds it always appears
as candra in the Padapatha.

6 In post-Vedic Sanskrit only dustara, duhsaha.

38 EXTEENAL CONSONANT SANDHI [50-51

c. A dental n in the second member is cerebralized after
r, r, s in the first member :

a. almost invariably, whether initial, medial, or final in a root, when
a verbal derivative is compounded with a preposition that contains r ;
e. g. nir-nlj f. bright garment, p&ri-hnuta denied, pran-d m. breath ; and
even in suffixes, as pra-yana n. advance (from ya go\

&. predominantly in other compounds when the second member is
a verbal noun ; e.g. grama-ni chief of a village, dur-gani dangers, pitr-
yana trodden by the fathers, rakso-hdn demon-slaying ; but puro-yavan
beside pratar-yavan going out early. Cerebralization never takes place
in -ghn the weak form of -han killing ; nor in aksa-nah tied to the axle,
kravya-vahana conveying corpses, carma-mna tanner, yusma-nlta led

7. less regularly when the second member is an ordinary (non-
verbal) noun ; e. g. uru-nasa broad-nosed, prd-napat great-grandson ; but
candrd-nirnij having a brilliant garment, punar-nava again renewed.

d. The final vowel of the first member is often lengthened,
especially before v ; e. g. anna-vrdh prospering ~by food.
This is often due to an old rhythmical tendency (also
appearing in the sentence) to lengthen a vowel before
a single consonant between two short syllables ; e. g.
ratha-sah able to draw the car.

e. Final a or I of the first member is often shortened
before a group of consonants or a long syllable ; e. g. urna-
mradas soft as ivool (urna) ; prthivi-stha standing on the
earth (prthlvi) ; amiva-catana driving away disease (amiva).

Doubling of Consonants.

51. The palatal ch etymologically represents a double
sound and metrically lengthens a preceding short vowel.
For the latter reason the EV. Pratisakhya prescribes the
doubling of ch (in the form of con) after a short vowel, and,
as regards long vowels, after a only, when a vowel follows.1
This rule is followed by Max Muller in his editions of the
EV. ; e. g. uta cchadih, a-cchad-vidhana, but me chantsat.

1 The Vedic MSS. almost invariably write the simple ch, and this
practice is followed by Aufrecht in his edition of the Rigveda and
L. v. Schroeder in his edition of the MS. It is also followed in the
present work.

52-56] EXTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 39

52. Before vowels final n and n, if preceded by a short
vowel, are doubled ; e. g. kidrnn indrah ; ahann indrah.
Though the nasal is always written double, the metre shows
that this rule is only partially applied as regards pronun-
ciation in the RV.

a. The compound vrsan-asv& with stallions as steeds (n = n) is an
exception.

Initial Aspiration.

53. After a final c, initial s regularly becomes ch ; e. g.
yac chaknavama for yad saknavama.

a. The same change occasionally takes place after t ; thus
vipat chutudri (for sutudri) ; turasat chusmi (for susmi).

54. Initial h, after softening a preceding k, t, t, p, is
changed to the soft aspirate of that mute ; e. g. sadhryag
ghita for hita ; avad dhavyani for avat havyani ; stdad
dh6ta for sidat hota.

55. If gh, dh, bh, or h are at the end of a (radical)
syllable beginning with g, d, or b, and lose their aspiration
as final or otherwise, the initial consonants are aspirated by
way of compensation ; * e. g. from dagh reach the 3. s.
injunctive is dhak (for dagh-t) ; -budh leaking becomes
-bhut ; duh milking becomes dhiik.

B. Internal Sandhi.

56. The rules of internal Sandhi apply to the finals of
roots and nominal and verbal stems before all endings of de-
clension (except those beginning with consonants of the
middle stem : 73 a) and conjugation, before primary suffixes
(182, 1) and before secondary suffixes (182, 2) beginning
with a vowel or y. Many of these rules agree with those
of external Sandhi. The most important of those which
differ from external Sandhi are the following :

1 This is not really compensation but the survival of the original
initial aspiration of such roots, which was lost owing to the avoidance
of an aspirate at the beginning and end of the same syllable. Hence
when the final aspirate disappeared, the initial returned.

40 INTERNAL SANDHI [57-61

Final Vowels.

57. In many cases before a vowel I is changed to iy;
u and u to uv ; e. g. dhl + e = dhiy-6 dat. s. for thought ;
bhu + i = bhuv-i on earth ; yu-yuv-e has joined (Vyn).

58. Final r before y becomes ri (154, 3) ; e. g. kr maJce :
kri-yate 3. s. pres. pass, is done. Final r before consonant
terminations is changed to ir, after labials to ur ; e. g. gf
swallow : gir-yate is swallowed, gir-na swallowed ; pr Jill :
pur-yate is filled, pur -na filled.

59. e, ai, o, an are changed before suffixes beginning
with vowels or y to ay, ay, av, av respectively ; e. g.
se + u = say-u lying ; rai + e = ray-6 for wealth ; go + e —
gav-e for a cow ; nau + i = nav-i in a l)oat ; go + ya =
gav-ya relating to coivs.

Final Consonants.

60. The most notable divergence from external Sandhi is
the unchangeableness of the final consonants (cp. 32) of
roots and verbal or nominal stems before suffixes and
terminations beginning with vowels, semivowels and nasals
(while before other letters they usually follow the rules of
external Sandhi); e.g. vac-ya to be spoken, duras-yu
worshipping, yasas-vat glorious ; vac-mi I speak (but vakti
speaks) ; voc-am I will speak, paprc-yat would mix ; pranc-
ah nom. pi. forward.

a. Before the primary suffix na, d is assimilated ; e. g. dn-na n. food
(for ad-na), ch.in-n& cut off (for chid-na); and before the secondary
suffixes mant and maya, t and d; e.g. vidyu,n-mant accompanied by
lightning (vidyut) and mrn-ni£ya consisting q/cto?/(mrd). In the nominal
case-form san-nam (for sat-rtam) of six (s&s) the final t is assimilated.

61. Nominal or verbal stems ending in consonants and
followed by terminations consisting of a single consonant,
drop the termination altogether, two consonants not being
tolerated at the end of a word (28). The final consonant
that remains is then treated according to the rules of external

61-63] INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI 41

Sandhi. Thus pranc + s nom. s. forward becomes pran
(the s being first dropped, the palatals being changed to
gutturals by 27, and the k being then dropped by 28) ;
similarly a-doh + 1 = a-dhok he milked (55).

62. Aspirates followed by any sounds except vowels,
semivowels or nasals (60) lose their aspiration ; e. g. randh +
dhi — rand-dhi * 2. s. aor. impv. subject ; labh + sya-te =
lap-syate (B.) 3. s. fut. will take ; but yudh-i in battle ;
a-rabh-ya seizing.

a. A lost soft aspirate is, if possible, thrown back before
dhv, bh, s (55) ; e. g. ind-dhvam 2. pi. impv. of indh
Mndle ; bhud-bhis inst. pi., bhut-sii loc. pi. But before s
this rule applies only partially ; thus from dabh harm : des.
dip-sa-ti desires to injure, dip-sii intending to hurt ; bhas
clieiv : baps-a-ti chctvs ; guh hide : des. ju-guk-sa-tas beside
aghuksat ; dah burn : part, daksat beside dhaksant ; duh
milk : aor. a-duksat beside a-dhuksat.

b. But it is thrown forward on a following t and th,2
which are softened ; e. g. rabh + ta = rab-dha seised ;
runadh -f ti = runad-dhi ; rundh + tarn = rund-dham 3. s.
impv. let him obstruct.

63. Palatals, a. While c regularly becomes guttural
before consonants (cf. 61 ; 27 ; 7 &), j in some cases (the
majority) becomes guttural (k, g),3 in others cerebral (t, d, s) ;

1 For the Vedic language tolerates two aspirates neither at the
beginning and the end of the same syllable, nor at the end of one and
the beginning of the next. On the other hand, there is no loss of
aspiration in the root if an aspirate (after a vowel) which belongs to a
suffix or a second member of a compound follows ; e. g. vibhu-bhis
with the Vibhus ; garbha-dhi m. breeding-place. (The two imperatives bo-
dhi be for bho-dhi, and ja-hl strike for jha-hi, follow the general rule.)

2 Except in the case of the root dha place, the weak stem of which
dadb. (following the analogy of 62 a) becomes dhat before t and th
(cf. 134 B 6).

3 j always becomes k before a conjugational s (cp. 144, 4) ; e. g. mrk-
sva 2. s. impv. of mrj wipe.

42 INTEENAL CONSONANT SANDHI [63-65

e. g. uk-ta spoken (Vvae) ; yuk-ta joined (\/yuj) ; rug-na
broken (A/PUJ: cp. 65); but rat nom. s. king (for raj + s);
mrd-dhi 2. s. impv. wipe (for mrj-dhi) ; ras-tra kingdom (for
raj-tra: cp. 64).

&. The palatal s before bh (73 a) normally becomes d ; l
k before s ; 2 always s before t and th (cp. 64) ; e. g. pad-
bhis with looks (pas), vid-bhis with tribes (vis) ; vek-syasi
fut. of vis enter ; vik-sii loc. pi. (vis) ; dik nom. s. of dis
direction ; nak nom. s. of nas night ; vis-ta entered (\/vis).

c. G and j (not s) palatalize a following n ; e. g. yaj + na =
yaj-na sacrifice, but pras-na question.

d. The ch. of the root prach ask is treated like s:
a-prak-sit 3. s. sis- aor., a-prat 3. s. s- aor. (= a-prach-s-t) ;
prs-ta asked, pras-tum inf. to ask.

64. Cerebrals change following dentals to cerebrals (39);
e. g. is + ta = is-ta ; av-is + dhi = avid-dhi 2. s. impv. is-
aor. of av; san + nam (for sat-nam) = san-nam (cp. 33, 60 a).

a. While the cerebral sibilant s seems always3 to be-
come a cerebral mute (t or d) in declension and becomes
d in conjugation, it regularly becomes k before s in conju-
gation (cp. 63 1) and 67) ; e. g. dvis + s = dvit nom. s. hating,
vi-priis + s = vi-priit drop, vi-prud-bhis inst. pi. ; av-is +
dhi = avid-dhi 2. s.impv. is- aor. of SLY favour • dvis -I- sa-t =
dvik-sat 3. s. inj. sa- aor. of dvis hate.

65. Change of dental n to cerebral n.

A preceding cerebral r, f, r, s (even though vowels, gut-
tural or labial mutes or nasals, y, v, or h intervene) changes
a dental n (followed by a vowel or n, m, y, v) to cerebral n ;
e. g. nr + nam = nrnam of men ; pitr + nam = pitrnam of
fathers ; var + na = varna m. colours, us + na = usna hot ;

1 g in cases of dis and drs : dig-bhyas, drg-bhis.

2 But in the nom. vit (vtt), vi-pat (vi-pas) and spdt spy (spas) the
cerebral has taken the place of the phonetic k owing to the influence
of other forms in which the cerebral is phonetic.

8 No example occurs of this sound before the su of the loc. plur.

65] CEREBRALIZATION OF DENTAL N 43

kramana n. step (vowels and labial nasal intervene), ark6na
(guttural and vowel) ; grbhnati seizes (labial mute) ; brah-
manya devotion (vowel, h, labial nasal, vowel ; n followed
by y).1

This rule is followed throughout within a word even when
a s which it contains is produced by Sandhi; e.g. usuvanah.
(for u suvanah).

a. The cerebral ization of n takes place almost as regularly in verbs
compounded with the prepositions pra before, para away, pari round,
nir (for nis) out, as well as in nominal derivatives of these combina-
tions ; e. g. para- nude (mid. thrust), pra-netf guide (m lead}-, pari-hnuta
denied ; praniti breathes ( \/aii) ; nir hanyat (ban strike'), but not in forms
with ghn (e.g. abhi-pra-ghnanti) ; pra hinomi, but pari-hin6mi
(hi impel} .

b. In nominal compounds n is usually cerebralized when it is the
initial of the second member in the RV. ; e.g. dur-naman ill-named,
pra-napat great-grandson ; but tri-nakd n. third heaven. It is less fre-
quent medially ; e. g. purvahn&/omzoon, vrsa-manas manly -spirited, but
rsi-manas of far-seeing mind ; nr-pana giving drink to men, but pari-pana
n. drink (cp. 50 c 0).

c. Cerebralization is even extended to external Sandhi in a closely
connected following word, most often initially in the enclitic nas us,
rarely in other monosyllables such as nu now, n& like, occasionally in
other words also ; 2 e. g. saho su nah. ; pari neta . . . visat. It some-
times occurs medially, oftenest in the enclitic pronoun ena this ; e. g.
indra enam. It occasionally appears in accented words also after
final r ; e. g. gor ohena.

Table showing when n changes to n.

r

in spite of intervening vowels,

change

if followed

V

gutturals (including h.),

n

by vowels,

r

labials (including v),

to

n, m, y, v.

s

and y

n

1 There are two exceptions to this rule in the RV., the gen. plur.
ustranam and rastranam.

2 After the final cerebral t of sdt (for sas six), assimilated to the
following n (33), initial dental n is cerebralized in san-navati ninety-six
(TS.) and in «an niramimita (B.).

44 INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI [66

66 A. The dental n

1. remains unchanged before y and v ; e.g. han-yate is
slain • tan-v-ana stretching, indhan-van possessed of fuel
(indhana), asan-vant having a mouth.

2. as final of a root becomes Anusvara before s; e.g. ji-
gham-sa-ti wishes to Mil (\/han) ; also when it is inserted
before final s or s in the neuter plural (71 c; 83); e.g.
6nams-i n. pi. of 6nas sin : havims-i n. pi. of havis
oblation (83).

B. The dental s

1. becomes dental t as the final of roots or nominal
stems

a. before the s of verbal suffixes (future, aorist, desiderative)
in the three verbs vas dwell, vas shine, and ghas eat ; thus
a- vat-sis thou hast divelt ; vat-syati will shine ; ji-ghat-sati
tvishes to cat (171, 5) and jighat-su hungry.1

&. before case-endings with initial bh in the reduplicated
perf. participle and in four other words: thus jagrvad-bhis
inst. pi. having awakened ; usad-bhis from usas f. dawn ;
mad-bhis, mad-bhyas from mas m.month; svatavad-bhyas
from sva-tavas self-strong. This change was extended
without phonetic justification 2 to the nom. ace. s. n. in the
RV., as tatan-vat extending far.

2. disappears

a. between mutes ; e. g. a-bhak-ta 3. s. s- aor., for
a-bhak-s-ta beside a-bhak-s-i, of bhaj share-, cas-te for
caks-te (= original cas-s-te) 3. s. pres. of caks speak ;
a-gdha uneaten for a-ghs-ta from ghas eat.

A similar loss occurs in verbal compounds formed with

1 The change of s to t before the t of the 3. s. of a past tense, as in
vy-avat has shone forth from vi-vas, is probably not a phonetic change,
but is rather due to the influence of the 3. s. of other preterites with t ;
*&-vas-t having thus become d-vat instead of *&vas.

2 There having been no case-ending s here. No example occurs in
the R V. and AV. of a loc. pi. in vat-su.

66-67] CEREBEALIZATION OF S 45

the preposition ud and the roots stha stand and stambh
support ; e. g. ut-thita and lit-tabhita raised up.

I), before dh ; e. g. sa-dhi for sas-dhi 2. s. impv. of sas
order- a-dhvam 2 pi. mid. impv. of as sit; also after
becoming s and cerebralizing the following dental ; e. g.
a-sto-dhvam (for a-sto-s-dhvam) 2. pi. ao-r. of stu praise.

67. Change of dental s to cerebral s.

A preceding vowel except a (even though Anusvara1
intervenes) as well as k, r, s change dental s (followed by
a vowel, s, t, th, n, m, y, v) to cerebral s ;2 e. g. from havis
oblation: havis-a inst. s., havims-i nom. pi. ; caksus n.
eye: caksus-a inst. s., caksums-i nom. pi.; havis-su loc.
pi. ; sraj f. ^vreath : srak-sii loc. pi. ; gir f. song : glr-su
loc. pi. ; ti-sthati stands from stha stand ; caksus-mant
possessing eyes ; bhavi-syati will lie from bhii lie ; su-svapa
has slept from svap sleep. But sarpih (final) ; manas-a
(a precedes) ; us-ra 3 matutinal.

a. The cerebralization of s regularly takes place in the RV. initially
in verbal compounds after prepositions ending in i and u, as well as in
nominal derivatives from such compound verbs ; also after the preposi-
tion nis out', e. g. ni slda sit down, dnu stuvanti they praise ; nih-s&ha-
manah conquering.4

b. In nominal compounds, s is more usually cerebralized than not,
when the initial s of the second member is preceded by vowels other
than a ; e. g. su-soma having abundant Soma. But s is often retained in
the RV., not only when r or r follows, as in hrdi-spfji touching the heart,
rsi-svara sung by seers, but also when there is no such cause to prevent

1 The s, however, remains in forms of hims injure, nims kiss, and
pums man, probably under the influence of the strong forms hinasti,
pumamsam, &c.

2 Words in which s otherwise follows r or any vowel but I must be
of foreign origin, as bfsaya a demon, bfsa n. root fibre, bus& n. vapour.

3 s remains when immediately followed by r or r, e. g. tisrds, tisf-
bhis, tisfnam f. of tri three ; usrds gen., usrf and usram loc., beside
usar voc. dawn.

4 The s remains unchanged when followed by r (even when t in-
tervenes) or r (even though a intervenes, with additional m or v in
smai- remember and svar sound}.

46

INTERNAL CONSONANT SANDHI [67-69

the change ;• e. g. go-sakhi beside go-sakhi possessing cattle. After r the
s becomes s in svar-sa light winning, svar-sati f. obtainment of light.

c. Cerebralization is even extended to external Sandhi in initial
s after a final i and u in the RV. when the two words are syntactically
closely connected. This change chiefly takes place in monosyllabic
pronouns and particles, such as sa, sya, sim, sma, svid, and particu-
larly sii ; e. g. u su. It also occurs in numerous verbal forms and
participles ; e. g. yuyam hi stha/or ye are, divf s&n being in heaven. In
other words the change is rare ; e. g. tri sadh&stha.1 In the later
Samhitas this form of external Sandhi is very rare except in the
combination u sii.

Table showing when s changes to s.

Vowels except a

change

if followed

(in spite of inter-

s

by vowels,

vening Anusvara),

to

t, th, n,

k, r, s

s

m, y, v.

68. The labial m remains unchanged before y, r, 1 (cp.
60 and 42 B 1) ; e. g. yam-yamana being guided, vam-ra m.
ant, apa-mlukta concealed. But before suffixes beginning
with v it becomes n; e.g. jagan-van having gone (from
gam go).

69. a. The breathing h becomes k in all roots before s ;
e. g. dhak-si 2. s. pres. from dan burn ; sak-si 2. s. pres.
from sah prevail. .

b. In roots beginning with d it is treated like gh befoi
t, th, dh ; e. g. dah + ta = dag-dha burnt (62 &), duh + -

= dug-dham 3. du. pres. Similarly treated is the oldest
form of the perf. pass, participle of the root muh : mug-dhj
bewildered.

c. h in all other roots is treated like an aspirate cerebral,
which after changing a following t, th, dh to dh an<

1 In the RV. occurs the Sandhi y&juh skanndm (for skann&m) with-
out cerebralization of the nn (cp. 65).

69-70] DECLENSION 47

lengthening a preceding short vowel, is dropped ; e. g.
sah + ta = sa-dha * overcome ; rih + ta = ri-dha licked ;
muh + ta = nm-dha (AV.) bewildered ; vah-f-ta = u-dha ;2
vah + dhvam = vo-dhvam (VS.).3

d. An exception to c is the root nan bind, in which h is
treated as dh : nad-dha bound. An exception to both b
and c is the root drh : dr-dha firm (begins with d and has
a short vowel).4

CHAPTER III
DECLENSION

70. Declension, or the inflexion of nominal stems by
means of endings that express the various syntactical rela-
tions represented by the cases, is most conveniently treated,
owing to characteristic difference of form, meaning, and use,
under (1) nouns (including adjectives) ; (2) numerals; (3) pro-
nouns.

In Vedic there are

a. three genders : masculine, feminine, and neuter ;

b. three numbers : singular, dual, and plural ;

c. eight cases : nominative, vocative, accusative, instru-

mental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative.5

1 In all these past participles the dh is in the RV. written as Ih.

2 With Samprasarana.

3 Through vazh-dhvam : azh here becoming o just as original as
(through az) becomes o (cp. 45 &).

4 Before this dh the vowel r never appears lengthened, but it is
prosodically long (cp. 8, note 2).

B This is the order of the cases in the Hindu Sanskrit grammarians,
excepting the vocative, which is not regarded by them as a case. It
is convenient as the only arrangement by which such cases as are
identical in form, either in the singular, the dual, or the plural, may
be grouped together.

48 DECLENSION [71-72

71. The normal case-endings added to the stem are the
following : —

SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

M. F. N. M. F. N. M. F. N.

N. s — 1>

V. — a I au I • as ic

A. am — ]

I. a )

D. e bhyam

Ab.)
G. I as am

L. i J su

a. The vocative is the same (apart from the accent) as
the nominative in all numbers except the masc. and fcm.
sing, of vowel stems generally and the masc. sing, of con-
sonant stems in -an, -man, -van ; -mant, -vant ; -in ; -as ;
-yams, -vams; -tar.

&. The nom. ace. sing, has the bare stem excepting the
words in -a, which add m.

c. The nom. voc. ace. plur. neut. before the ending i
insert n after a vowel stem and before a single final mute
or sibilant of a consonant stem (modifying the n according
to the character of the consonant : cp. 66 A 2).

72. An important distinction in declension is that between
the strong and the weak stem. It is fully developed only
in derivative consonant stems formed with the suffixes -anc,
-an, -man, -van ; -ant, -mant, -vant ; -tar ; -yams, -vams.
In the first four and in the last the weak stem is further
reduced before vowel endings. The stem here has three
forms, which may be distinguished as strong, middle, and
weakest.

a. Shift of accent was the cause of the distinction. The
stem, having been accented in the strong cases, here naturally
preserved its full form ; but it was shortened in the weak
cases by the accent falling on the endings. For a similar
reason the last vowel of the strong stem, if long, is regularly

72-74] DECLENSION 49

shortened in the vocative, because the accent always shifts
to the first syllable in that case.

73. The strong stem appears in the following cases :

Nom. voc. ace. sing. ]

Nom. voc. ace. dual rof masc. nouns.1

Nom. voc. (not ace.) plur. J

Nom voc. ace. plural only of neuters.

a. When the stem has three forms, the middle stem
appears before terminations beginning with a consonant2
(bhyam, bhis, bhyas, su) ; the weakest before terminations
beginning with a vowel in the remaining weak cases ;
e. g. pratyanc-au nom. du. ; pratyag-bhis inst. pi. ;
pratic-6s gen. du. (93).

I. In neuters with three stems, the nom. voc. ace. sing,
are middle, the nom. voc. ace. du. weakest ; e. g. pratyak
sing. ; pratic-t du. ; pratyanc-i pi. (93). The other cases
are as in the masc.

NOUNS.

74. Nominal stems are, owing to divergences of inflexion,
best classified under the main divisions of consonant and
vowel declension.

I. Stems ending in consonants 3 may be subdivided into

A. unchangeable ; B. changeable.

II. Stems ending in vowels into those in A. a and a ; B. i

and u ; C. I and u.

1 Excepting names of relationship in -tar (101), nearly all nouns
with changeable stems form their feminine with the suffix -I (100).

2 Changeable stems are named in this grammar in their strong and
original form, though the middle form would be more practical, inas-
much as that is the form in which changeable stems appear as prior
member in compounds.

3 Some Sanskrit grammars begin with the vowel declension in a
(II. A) since this contains the majority of all the declined stems in
the language. But it appears preferable to begin with the consonant
declension which adds the normal endings (71) without modification.

1819 E

50 DECLENSION [75-77

I. A. Unchangeable Stems.

75. These stems are for the most part primary or radical,
but also include some secondary or derivative words. They
end in consonants of all classes except gutturals (these having
always become palatals, which however revert to the original
sound in certain cases). They are liable to such changes only
as are required by the rules of Sandhi before the consonant
terminations (cp. 16 a). Masculines and feminines ending
in the same consonant are inflected exactly alike ; and the
neuters differ only in the ace. s. and nom. voc. ace. du. and pi.

76. The final consonants of the stem retain their original
sound before vowel terminations (71) ; but when there is no
ending (i.e. in the nom. sing., in which the s of the m. and
f. is dropped), and before the ending su of the loc. pi., they
must be reduced to one of the letters k, t, t, p or Visarjaniya
(27) which respectively become g, d, d, b or r before the
terminations beginning with bh.

a. The voc. sing. m. f. is the same as the nom. except in
stems in (derivative) as (83).

6. Forms of the nom. voc. ace. pi. n. seem not to occur
in the Samhitas ! except in the derivative as, is, us stems,
where they are common ; e. g. apamsi, arcimsi, caksumsi.

Stems in Dentals.

77. Paradigm tri-vrt m. f. n. threefold.

SING. DUAL. PLUR.

N. m. f. trxvft n. trivrt N.A.) f trivrt-a, N. m. f. trivrt-as

A. m. f. trivrt-am n. trivrfc m.f. ) Itrivrt-au A. m. f. trivrt-as
I. trivrt-a I.

D.

trivrt-e

Ab. I

u*

iXL . |^"

uii^eiaj

Ab.

G.

trivrt-as

G.

[trivrt-os]

G.

trivrt-am

L.

trivrt-i

L.

trivrt-os

L.

trivrt-su

m.

f.V.

trivrt-as.

1 But in the Brahmanas are found from -bhrt bearing, -vrt turning,
-hu-t sacrificing the N. pi. n. forms -bhfnti, -vrnti, -hunti.

77] STEMS IN DENTALS 51

1. Of the stems in t most are radical, nearly thirty of
them being formed with a determinative t added to roots
ending in the short vowels i, u, r; e.g. ji-t conquering,
srii-t hearing, kr-t making. Nearly all of them, however,
appear as the last member of compounds, except cit f. thought ;
dyu-t f. brilliance ; nrt f. dancing ; vf -t f. host. From sarva-
hu-t offering completely occurs in N. pi. n. the form sarva-
hunti in the AB. There are also a few derivative stems
formed with the suffixes -vat, -tat, -it, -ut, and secondary
-t ; e. g. pra-vat f. height, deva-tat f. divine service ; sar-it
f. stream ; mar-ut m. storm-god ; yakr-t n. liver, Sakr-t n.
excrement.

2. There are only three stems in th : kaprth, n. penis,
path in. path, abhi-snath adj. piercing.

3. a. About 100 stems end in radical d, all but a few
being roots used as the final member of compounds ; e. g.
nom. adri-bhid mountain-cleaving. Only eight occur as
monosyllabic substantives : nid f. contempt, bhid f. destroyer,
vid f. knowledge, ud f. wave, mud f. joy, mrd f. clay, hrd n.
heart (used in weak cases only) ; and pad m. foot. The
latter lengthens its vowel in the strong cases :

Sing. N. pat. A. pad-am. I. pad-a. D. pad-e\ Ab.G.

pad-as. L. pad-i.

Du. N.A. pad-a. I. Ab. pad-bhyam. G.L. pad-6s.
PL N. pad-as. A. pad-as. I. pad-bhis. D. pad-bhyas.

G. pad-am. L. pat-sii.

I). There are also six stems formed with derivative d
(suffixal -ad -ud), seemingly all feminine : drs-ad and dhrs-ad
nether millstone, bhas-ad hind quarters, van-ad longing, sar-ad
autumn, kak-ud summit, kak-iid palate.

4. There are about fifty radical stems in dh, simple or
compound. They are almost restricted to m. and f., no
distinctively n. forms (N. A. du. pi.) occurring and only four
forms being used as n. in the G. L. s. Seven stems appear

E2

52 DECLENSION [77-78

as monosyllabic nouns : vrdh strengthening as a masc. adj .,
the rest as fern, substantives : nadh bond ; sridh foe ; ksudh
hunger ; yudh fight ; mrdh conflict ; vrdh prosperity ; spf dh
battle.

5. Kadical stems in n are formed from half a dozen roots.
Four of these are monosyllabic substantives : tan f. succession ;
ran m. joy ; van m. wood ; svan adj. sounding.1 There are
also the compound adjectives tuvi-svan roaring aloud and
go-san winning cows. Han slaying occurs as the final
member of at least thirty -five compounds, but as it follows
for the most part the analogy of the an stems, it will be
treated under these (92).

Stems in Labials.

78. These stems, which end in p, bh, and m only, are not
numerous. No neuters occur in the first two and only one
or two in the last.

1. All the monosyllabic stems in p are fern, substantives.
They are: ap water, ktfp beauty, ksap night, ksip finger,
rip deceit, rup earth, vip rod. There are also about a dozen
compounds, all adjectives except vi-stap f. summit. Three
of the adjectives occur as f., the rest as m. ; e. g. pasu-tfp
m. delighting in cattle.

a. Q>p lengthens the stem in the N.V. pi. ap-as, a form
sometimes used for the A. also. The forms occurring are :
Sing. I. ap-a. Ab.G. ap-as. Du.N. ap-a. PL N.V. ap-as. A.
ap-as. I. ad-bhis. D.Ab. ad-bhyas. G. ap-am. L. ap-sii.

2. The six uncompounded stems in bh are all f. substan-
tives : ksubh push, grbh sewing, nabh destroyer, subh
splendour, atubh praise (also adj. praising), and kaktibh^eaft.
There are also more than a dozen compounds : the substan-
tives are all f., the rest being m. or f. adjectives ; there are

1 The accent, of these stems is irregular in remaining on the radical
syllable (App. III. 11, 1), except tana (beside t&na) and vanam.

78-79] STEMS IN PALATALS 53

no neuters. The cases of tri-stubh f. triple praise (a metre)
are : Sing. N. tristup. A. tristu.bh.-am. I. tristubh-a. D.
tristubh-e. Ab. tristiibh-as. L. tristiibh-i ; PI. A.
tristiibh-as.

a. nabh lengthens its vowel in the N. pi. nabh-as.
A. nabh-as.

3. There are five or six monosyllabic stems in m, and
one compound : sam n. happiness, dam n. (?) house, ksam,
gam, jam f. earth, him m. (?) cold ; sam-nam f. favour.

a. Gam and jam syncopate in the s. I.Ab.G. : gm-a, jrn-a ;
gm-as, jm-as ; ksam syncopates in the Ab. G. s. and
lengthens its vowel in N. du. pi. : ksm-as ; ksam-a ; ksam-as.
Dam has the G. s. dan (for dam-s) in the expressions patir
dan and pati dan = dam-patis and dam-pati lord of the
house and lord and lady of the house.

Stems in Palatals.

79. The palatals (c, j, s) undergo a change of organ when
final and before consonant terminations (cp. 63). c always
becomes guttural (k or g), j and s nearly always become
guttural, but sometimes cerebral (t or d).

1. The unchangeable stems in c l when uncompounded
are monosyllabic and almost exclusively f. substantives.
Tvac shin, however, twice occurs as a m., and krunc curlew
is m. Compounds, as adjectives, are often m., but only one
form occurs as a n., in the adv. a-prk in a mixed manner.
Vac speech would be declined as follows :

Sing. N.V. vak. A. vac-am (Lat. voc-em). I. vac-a.

D. vac-e\ Ab.G. vac-as. L. vac-i.
Dual. N.A.V. vac-a, vac-au. I. vag-bhyam.
Plur. N.V. vac-as. A. vac-as (rarely vac-as). I. vag-bhis.

D.Ab. vag-bhyas. G. vac-am.

1 Stems in derivative anc are changeable (93).

54 DECLENSION [79

Similarly declined are :— tvac skin1; sic hem-, rue lustre,
siic flame, sruc ladle ; re stanza, mrc mjtm/ ; ni-mruc
swwsef and other compounds. Kruno forms its N. s. krun,
du. kriincau.

2. There is only one stem in eh, formed from the root
prch ask : N. du. m. bandhu-prch-a asking after kinsmen ;
also the D. and A. infinitive forms prch-6 to ask, sam-prch-e
to greet ; vi-prch-am and sam-prch-am to ask.

3. a. Uncompounded radical stems in j are mostly f.
substantives ; but aj driver, vij stake at play are m., and
yiij,2 raj, bhraj are m. as well as f. Neut. forms occur in
compound adjectives, but never the distinctively n. endings
of the N. A. V, du. and pi.3

When the j is derived from a guttural, it becomes a
guttural in the N. s. and before consonant endings ; when
derived from an old palatal, it becomes a cerebral in the
N. s.4 and before consonants, but k before the su of
the L. pi.

Thus in the N. urk (urj) vigour ; nir-nik (nir-nij) 'bright
garment-, but bhrat m. shining (bhraj), rat m. king, f.
mistress ; L. pi. srak-su garlands (sraj), pra-yak-su offerings
(pra-yaj).

a. The N. of ava-yaj f. share of the sacrificial oblation and of avayaj m.
priest who offers the oblation is anomalous in dropping the j and adding
the s of the nom. : ava-yas, avayas (cp. 28 a).

I). There are seven m. and f. adj. or subst. formed with
the suffixes -aj and -ij : a-svapn-aj sleepless, trsn-aj thirsty,

1 From vyac extend occurs the strong form uru-vyancam/ar extend-
ing, and from sac accompany only the strong forms A. -sac-am, and N. pi.
-sac-as.

2 This word meaning companion also has a nasalized form in
N.A. s. du. : yiin (for yiink), yianj-am, yiinj-a.

3 But in a Brahmana -bhaj sharing forms the N. pi. n. form -bhanji.

4 Except in rtv-ik from rtu-ij m. sacrificing in due season, priest (from
yaj sacrifice).

79] STEMS TN PALATALS AND 3 55

dhrs-aj bold, san-aj old ; us"-ij desiring, bhur-ij f. arm, van-ij
m. trader. There is also the n. asrj 1 blood.
usij m.f. would be declined as follows :

Sing. N. usik. A. usij-am. I. usij-a. D. usij-e.

G. usij -as.

Du.N. usij-a. G.L. usij-os.
Pl.N. usij-as. A. usij-as. I. usig-bhis. D. usig-bhyas.

G. usij-am.

4. There are about sixty monosyllabic and compound
stems in s formed from about a dozen roots. Nine mono-
syllabic stems are f. : das worship, dis direction, drs look,
nas night, pas sight, pis ornament, pras dispute, vis settlement,
vris finger. Two are m. : is lord and spas spy. All the
rest are compounds (about twenty of them formed from
-drs). Some half-dozen cases of the latter are used as
neuter, but no distinctively n. forms (N.A. du. pi.) occur.

The s, as it represents an old palatal, normally becomes
cerebral d before bh, but in dis and drs a guttural. Before
the su of the L. pi. it phonetically and regularly becomes k.
It usually also becomes k in the N. s. (which originally
ended in s), as dik, nak ; but cerebral t in spas and vi-spas
spy, vis and vi-pa£ a river.

The normal forms, if made from vis settlement, would be :
N.V. vit. A. vis-am. I. vis-a. D. vis-e". Ab.G. vis-as.

L. vis-i.

Du. N.A. vis-a, vis-au.

PI. N.A. vis-as. I. vid-bhis. D. vid-bhyas. G. vis-am.
L. vik-su.

o. The N. of some compounds of drs is nasalized, as kl-drri (for
ki-dfnk) ofiohat kind1?, but ta-dfk such.

The N. s irregularly represents the final palatal (28 a) in purodafs
m. sacrificial cake : N. purodas, A. purodasam.

1 This word is of obscure origin, but the j probably represents a
reduced suffix.

56 DECLENSION [80-81

Stems in Cerebrals.

80. The only cerebral stems that occur end in d and s.
Of the former there are only two : id f. praise (only found
in s. I. id-a) and id f. refreshment (only in s. I. id-a and
G. id-as).'

There are a number of stems from about a dozen roots
ending in s preceded by i, u, r, or k. Seven of these are
uncompounded : is f. refreshment, tvis f. excitement, dvis f.
hatred, ris f. injury ', us f. daion ; prks f. satiation ; dadhrs
bold. The rest are compounds of the above or of mis winJc,
sris lean, uks sprinkle, mus steal, prus drip, dhrs dare,
vrs rain ; aks eye. The s becomes t in the N., and d before
bh, but is of course dropped when k precedes ; e. g. N. dvit,
vi-priit f. drop, an-ak eyeless, Uind ; I. pi. vi-prud-bhis.

a. The final becomes k in the adverbial neuter form dadhfk boldly.

Stems in h.

81. There are some eighty stems formed from about
a dozen roots. All three genders are found in their inflexion,
but the neuter is rare, occurring in two stems only, and
never in the plural. Of monosyllabic steins nih destroyer,
mih mist, gun hiding-place, ruh sprout are f.,. druh fiend is m.
or f., sah conqueror is m., man great, m. and n. All the
rest are compounds, more than fifty being formed from the
three roots druh hate, vah carry, sah overcome ; over thirty
of them from the last.1 The two stems usnih f. a metre,
and sarah bee are obscure in origin.

a. As h represents both the old guttural gh and the old
palatal jh it should phonetically become g or d before bh,
but the cerebral represents both in the only two forms that
occur with a bh ending. In the only L. pi. that occurs,

1 upa-n&h f. shoe occurs only in the L. s. upa-nah-i. Judging by
the inflexion of the word in classical Sanskrit the h would become a
dental in the N. s. and before consonant endings.

81-82] STEMS IN H AND E 57

anadiit-su (from anad-vah), the h unphonetically became t,
which has been dissimilated to t. In the N. the phonetic k
appears in the six forms -dhak, -dhuk, -dhruk, -ruk,
-sprk, usnik, and the imphonetic t in the three forms -vat,
sat, sarat.

1). Stems formed from vah l and sah lengthen the radical
vowel in the strong cases, the former always, the latter
generally.

The forms actually occurring if made from sah victorious
would be :

Sing. N.V. m. f. sat.2 A. m. f. sah-am. I. sah-a. D. sah-6.

Ab.G. sah-as. L. sah-i.

Du. N.A.V. m. f. sah-a and sah-au. N.A. n. sah-i.
PI. N.A.V. m. f. sah-as. A. m. sah-as and sah-as;

f. sah-as. D. sad-bhyas. G. m. sah-am. L. m.

sat-su.

Stems in r.3

82. There are over fifty stems in radical r.4 The preceding
vowel is nearly always i or u, only two stems containing
a and three a. Twelve stems are monosyllabic (seven f.,5
three m.,6 two n.7), the rest being compounds. The r
remains before the su of the L. pi., and the radical vowel

1 anad-vah being a changeable stem with three forms is treated
under the irregular changeable stems (96).

2 When h becomes t the initial s is cerebralized.

3 There are no stems in 1 ; while the five which may be regarded
as ending in the semivowels y or v are treated below (102) as ai, o,
or au stems.

4 The stems in which the r is derivative (and preceded by a), in
the suffixes -ar and -tar, are treated below (101) as r stems.

5 gir praise, dvar door, dhur burden, pur stronghold, t&r star, psur
victuals, st£r star.

6 gir praising, var protector, mur destroyer.
1 var ivater, svar light.

58 DECLENSION

is lengthened in the N. s. and before consonant endings.
The forms occurring, if made from pur, would be :

Sing. N. pur. A. pur-am. D. pur-e". Ab.G. pur-as.

L. pur-i.

Du. N.A. pur-a, pur-au.
PI. N.V. pur-as. A. pur-as. I. pur-bhis. D. pur-bhyas.

G. pur-am. L. pur-su.

a. dvar has the weakened A. pi. form duras (also once duras and
once dvaras), the only weak case occurring.

b. tar occurs in one (strong) form only, N. pi. tar-as, and star in
one (weak) form only, I. pi. stfbhis.1

c. svar n. light has the two contracted forms D. sur-6, G. sur-as.2
It drops the case-ending in the L. s.3 suar.

Stems in s.

83. 1. The radical s stems number about forty. A dozen
are monosyllabic, five being m. : jnas relative, mas month,
vas4 abode, pums male,5 sas ruler • two f. : kas cough, nas
nose ; five n. : as face, bhas light, mas flesh, d6s arm, yos
welfare. The rest are compounds, e.g. su-das giving well,
liberal.

a. Before bh the s becomes d in the two forms I. mad-bhis and D.
mad-bhyas, and r in the only other one that occurs : dor-bhyam.

b. The A. pi. has the accentuation of weak cases in mas-as and
jnas-as.

2. The derivative stems in s are formed with the suffixes
-as, -is, -us, and are, with few exceptions, neuter substan-
tives. All of them lengthen their final vowel in the N.V. A.
pi. n., e. g. manamsi, jydtimsi, caksumsi. The m. and f.
are mostly compounds with these stems as their final
member.

a. The as stems consist almost entirely of neuters, which

1 With irregular accent. 2 With the accent of a disyllabic.

3 Like the an stems (90, 2). 4 This word might be a feminine.
5 This word will be treated later (96, 3) as an irregular changeable
stem.

83] STEMS IN AS 59

are accented on the root, as man-as mind, but these as final
members of adjective compounds may be inflected in all
three genders. There are also a few primary masculines,
which are accented on the suffix, being either substantives,
as raks-as m. demon, or adjectives (some of which occur also
in the f. as well as n.), as ap-as active ; and one primary f.,
us-as dawn.

The N. s. m. f . lengthens the vowel of the suffix : e. g.
angiras m., usas1 f., su-manas m. f. In about a dozen
compounds the long vowel appears (owing to the influence
of the m.) in the n. also ; e. g. urna-mradas soft as ivool.

Before endings with initial bh the suffix as becomes o
(45 &). The forms actually occurring, if made from ap-as,
n. (Lat. opus) icork and ap-as m. f. active would be as follows :

Sing. N. apas; apas. A. apas; apas-am. I. apas-a;

apas-a. D. apas-e ; apas-e. Ab. apas-as ; apas-as.

L. apas-i ; apas-i. V. apas.
Du. N.A.V. apas-i ; apas-a, apas-an.2 D. ap6-bhyam.

G. apas-os.
PI. apams-i ; apas-as. I. apo-bhis ; apo-bhis. D. apo

bhyas ; ap6-bhyas. G. apas-am ; apas-am. L.

apas-su; apas-su.

Similarly N. n. yasas glory, m. f. yasas glorious ; f.
apsaras nymph.

a. A number of forms have the appearance of being contractions
in the A. s. and N.A. pi. m. f . : am = asam and as = asas ; thus
maham great, vedham ordainer, usam dawn, jaram old age, medham
wisdom, vayam vigour, ^tn-agam sinless, apsaram. PI. N. m. angiras,
an-agas, na-vedas cognisant, sa-josas united; f. medhas, a-josas insati-
able, na-vedas, su-radhas bountiful. A. m. an-agas, su-medhas (?)
intelligent', f. usas.

1 The vowel of this word is optionally lengthened in the A. s.,
N. A. du., N. V. pi. : usas-am beside usas-am, &c.

2 The ending au is here very rare and occurs chiefly in the later
Samhitas.

60 DECLENSION [83

b. The is stems, numbering about a dozen, consist
primarily of neuters only. When they form final members
of compounds, they are secondarily inflected as m. ; only
one single such form, N. s. sva-socis self-radiant, occurs
as a f.

The final s becomes s before vowel-endings and the
L. pi. su, and r before bh. The inflexion of the n. differs
from that of the m. in the A. s., N.A. du. and pi. The
actual forms occurring, if made from socis glow in the n.
and from -socis m. (when it differs from the n.), would
be:

Sing. N. socis ; A. socis ; m. -socis-am. I. socis-a.

D. socis-e. Ab.G. socis-as. L. socis-i. V. s6cis.
PL N.A. socims-i, m. -socis-as. I. socir-bhis. D. socir-

bhyas. G. socis-am. L. socis-su (67).

a. asis f. prayer, which is not really an is stem, being derived from
a + sis (the reduced form of the root sas), is inflected thus : N. asis.
A. aifs- am. I. asis-a. PI. N. A. as"is-as.

c. The us stems, numbering at least sixteen exclusive
of compounds, comprise several primary masculines as well
as neuters ; three of the latter when compounded are also
inflected as f. Eleven of the us stems are n. substantives,
all but one (jamis birth) accented on the radical syllable ;
four of these (arus, caksus, tapus, vapus) are also used as
m. adjectives. Three of the exclusively m. us stems are
adjectives accented on the suffix, while two (nahus, manus)
are substantives accented on the root.

The final s becomes s before vowel endings, and r
before bh. The inflexion of the n. is the same as that of
the m. except in the A. s. and N.A. du. pi. The only
f. forms (about half a dozen) occur in the N. and A. :
e. g. N. caksus seeing, A. du. tapus- a hot.

The actual forms occurring, if made from caksus eye as n.
and seeing as m. would be :

83-85] CHANGEABLE STEMS 61

Sing. N. caksus. A. caksus ; m. caksus-am. I. caksus-a.

D. caksus-e. Ab.G. caksus-as. L. caksus-i.
Du. N. A. caksus-i ; m. caksus-a. D. caksur-bhyam.
PI. N.A. caksums-i ; m. caksus-as. I. caksur-bhis.

D. caksur-bhyas. G. caksus-am.

I. B. Changeable Stems.

84. Eegular changeable stems are found only among
derivative nouns formed with suffixes ending in the dentals
t, n, s, or the palatal c. Those in t are formed with the
suffixes -ant, -mant, -vant ; those in n with -an,
-man, -van, and -in, -min, -vin ; those in s with -yams
and -vams ; those in c with -anc (properly a root meaning
to lend). The stems in -ant (85-86), -in (87), -yams (88)
have two forms, strong and weak ; those in -an (90-92),
-vams (89), and -anc (93) have three, strong, middle, and
weakest (73).

Nouns with Two Stems.

85. Stems in -ant comprise present,1 future, and aorist
participles (156) active (m. and n.).2 The strong stem is in
-ant, the weak in -at 3 ; e. g. ad-ant and ad-at eating from
ad eat. These participles are inflected in the m. and n.
only, the f. having a special stem in I.2 The n. inflexion
differs from the m. in the N.V.A. s. du. pi. only. The
accent, if resting on the suffix, shifts in weak cases to the
endings that begin with vowels.

1 Excepting those of the reduplicating verbs and a few others that
follow their analogy (85 fr).

2 On the formation of the f. stems see 95.

3 In Latin and Greek the distinction was lost by normalization :
G. edentis,

62

SINGULAR.

DECLENSION

MASCULINE.

DUAL.

[85
PLURAL.

N. adan l (Gk. e<W) adant-a -au
V. adan adant-a -au
A. adant-am (Lat. edentem) adant-a -an

adant-as (Gk. cSovre
adantas

adat-as

I. adad-bhis
D.Ab. adad-bhyas
G. adat- am
L. adat-su

adant-i

I. adat-a
D. adat-e"
b.G. adat-as
L. adat-i

ST. A. adat

D. adad-bhyam
G. adat-6s

NEUTER.
adat-i

Other examples are : arc-ant singing, sid-ant (sad sit),
ghn-ant (ban slay), y-ant (i go), s-ant (as be) ; pasy-ant
seeing ; ich-ant wishing ; krnv-ant doing ; snnv-ant pressing ;
bhanj-ant breaking ; jan-ant knowing ; janay-ant begetting ;
yuynts-ant ivishing to fight ; fut. karisy-ant about to do ; aor.
saks-ant (sah. overcome).

a. The analogy of these participles is followed by a few
adjectives that have lost their old participial meaning:
rhant weak, prsant spotted, brhant great, rusant brilliant;
also the substantive dant2 tooth. The adj. mahant great,
also originally a participle,3 deviates from the participial
declension in lengthening the vowel of the suffix in the
strong forms :

Sing. N. m. mahan ; n. mahat. A. mahant-am. I. mahat-a.
Du. N.A. mahant-a, -au. D. mahad-bhyam.
PI. N. mahant-as. A. mahat-as. I. mahad-bhis.
L. mahat-su.

1 For original adant-s, cp. Lat. edens.

2 Probably an old participle of ad eat with prehistoric loss of the
initial a like s-ant being from as be.

3 From the root man (originally magh). Cp. Lat. mag-nu-s.

85-86] PKESENT PAETICIPLES 63

&. The participles of verbs with a reduplicating present
base, i. e. those of the third class (127, 2) and intensives
(172), do not distinguish a strong stem,1 in other words,
have at throughout ; e. g. bibhyat fearing, ghanighn-at
repeatedly killing (\/han). The analogy of these participles
is followed by a few others formed from unreduplicated
bases : das- at worshipping, sas-at instructing ; also daks-at
and dhaks-at aor. part, of dah burn. A few others, again,
originally participles, have come to be used as substantives
with a shift of accent to the suffix. Three of these are f.
and two m. : vahat,2 sravat 3 f. stream ; vehat 4 f. barren cow ;
vaghat m. sacriftcer-, sascat5 m. pursuer. Besides the first
three substantives just mentioned there are no feininines
except the adjective a-sascat unequalled G when used as a f.
Hardly any n. forms occur except from the old reduplicated
participle jag-at going, living (from ga go), used chiefly as
a substantive meaning the animate world. The inflexion of
these reduplicated stems in at is like that of the compounded
radical t stems (77), the accent never shifting to the endings.

The forms occurring if made from dadat giving (Vda)
would be :
Sing. N. m. n. dadat. A. m. dadat-am. I. dadat-a. D.

dadat- e. G. dadat- as. L. dadat-i.
Plur. N.A. dadat-as. I. dadad-bhis. G. dadat-am.

86. The adjective stems formed with the suffixes -mant
and -vant, which both mean possessing, are inflected exactly
alike and differ from the stems in -ant solely in lengthening
the vowel of the suffix in the N. s. m.7 The V. of these stems

1 Which lias been weakened because here the accent is regularly
on the reduplicative syllable.

But v&h-ant carrying as a participle.

But sr&v-ant flowing. 4 The derivation of this word is uncertain.

But s&Sc-at as a participle (from sac accompany}.

Lit. having no equal ; but d-sascant-I as the f. of the participle sfiscat.

The f. is formed with I from the weak stem : mat-I, vat-i (95) .

64 DECLENSION [86-87

is regularly l formed with mas and vas 2 ; e. g. havis-mas
from havis-mant ; bhaga-vas from bhaga-vant.
From go-mant possessed of coivs would be formed :

Sing. N. m. g6man ; n. gomat. A. m. gomant-am. L. g6-

mat-i. V. m. g6mas.
PL N. m. g6mant-as ; n. g6mant-i.3 A. m. gomat-as.

L. gomat-su.

87. Adjective stems are formed with the suffixes -in,
-min, -vin, which mean possessing. Those in -in are very
common, those in -vin number nearly twenty, but there
is only one in -min : rg-min praising. They are declined
in the m. and n. only ; 4 but the n. forms are very rare,
occurring in the s. N. I. G. only. These stems sometimes
come to be used as m. substantives ; e. g. gath-in singer.
As in all derivative stems ending in n, the vowel of the
suffix is lengthened in the N. s. m., and the n disappears in
that case (in the n. also) and before consonant endings.

The forms actually occurring, if made from hast-in having
hands, would be as follows :

Sing. m. N. hasti. A. hastin-am. I. hastin-a. D. hastin-e.

Ab.G. hastin-as. L. hastin-i. V. hastin.
Du. m. N.A. hastin-a, -an. I.D. hasti-bhyam. G.L.

hastin-os.
PI. m. N. hastin-as. I. hasti-bhis. D. hasti-bhyas. G.

hastin-am. L. hasti-su.
Sing. n. N. hasti. I. hastin-a. G. hastin-as.

1 There are sixteen in the KV. in vas and only three in the later
van (of which there are eight more in the AV.). There are six
vocatives in mas in the KV., but no example of the form in man.

2 There are also vocatives in vas from stems in van and vams
(cp. the V. in yas from stems in yams).

3 The only two forms that occur are ghrt&vanti and pasumanti.
The Padapatha reads vanti and manti in these forms, and the
lengthening of the vowel seems metrical.

4 The f . stem is formed with I : asvin possessing horses ; f. a6vin-i.

88-89] COMPARATIVE STEMS IN YAMS 65

88. 3. Comparative steins are formed with the suffix
yams, which is nearly always added with the connecting
vowel I to the accented root. Only two stems are formed
with yams exclusively : jya-yams greater and san-yams
older • six others are formed with yams as well as i-yams ;
e.g. bhu-yams and bhav-iyams more. The strong stem
is reduced in the weak cases, by dropping the nasal and
shortening the vowel, to yas. These stems are declined
in the in. and n. only.1 No forms of the du. occur, and in
the pi. only the N. A. Gr. are found. The V. s. ends in
yas.2 The forms actually occurring, if made from kan-
lyams younger, would be as follows :

MASCULINE.
SINGULAR. PLUKAL.

N. kaniyan kaniyamsas

A. kaniyams-am kaniyas-as

I. kamyas-a
D. kamyas-e

Ab. Gr. kaniyas-as G. kaniyas-am

L. kamyas-i
V. kaniyas

NEUTER.

N.A. kaniyas kaniyams-i

The I.D.Ab.G. sing, n., identical with the m., also occur.

Nouns with Three Stems.

89. 1. The stern of the perf. part, active is formed with
the suffix vams. This is reduced in the weak cases in two
ways : before consonant terminations (by dropping the nasal

1 The f. is formed by adding I to the weak stem, e.g. pr6yas-I
dearer.

2 Cp. the mant, vant (86), and the vams (89) stems,

1819

66

DECLENSION

and shortening the vowel) to vas which becomes vat l •
and before vowel terminations (by loss of the nasal accom-
panied by Samprasarana) to us which becomes us. There
are thus three stems: vams, vat, and us. The accent
always rests on the suffix in uncompounded forms. The
inflexion is restricted to the m. and n.2 The only specifically
n. form occurring is the A. s. The V. s. is regularly formed
with vas.3 The forms actually occurring, if made from
cakrvams having done, would be as follows :

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

N.
A.

cakrvan
cakrvams-am

cakrvams-a
cakrvams- a

cakrvams-as ]

1 cakrus-as

I.

TPV

cakrus-a

[

I. cakrvad-bhis

Ab.Gr. cakriis-as

G. cakriis-am

V. cakr-vas

NEUTER.

N.A. cakr-vat

a. In about a dozen of these participles the suffix vams
is preceded by i (either as a reduced form of final radical a
or as a connecting vowel) :

jajnl-van (from jna know), tasthi-van (stha stand), papi-
van (pa drink), yayi-van (ya go), rari-van (ra give) ; ly-i-van
(i go), jagm-i-van (beside jagan- van4 : gam go), papt-i-van
«/), pros-i-van (pra + vas dwell), vivis-i-van (vis enter) ;

1 On the change of s to t cp. 66 B 1 &.

2 The f. is formed with I from the weakest stem : e. g. cakriis-I.

3 Cp. the mant, vant (86), and the yams stems (88).

4 On the change of m to n see 68.

89-90] STEMS IN AN, MAN, VAN 67

ok-i-van l (uc be wont). This i is dropped before us ; e. g.
tasth-us-a, ly-us-as, jagm-iis-e.

90. 2. Nouns in an, man, van include a large number
of words, those in van being by far the commonest, those
in an the least frequent. These stems are almost restricted
to m. and n. ; 2 but some forms of adjective stems serve as f.,
and there is one specifically f. stem yos-an woman.

In the strong cases the a of the suffix is usually lengthened,
e. g. adhvan-am ; but in half a dozen an and man stems it
remains unchanged, e. g. arya-man-am. In the weak cases
the a is often syncopated before vowel endings, though
never when man and van -are preceded by a consonant,
e. g. I. s. gravna from gravan pressing stone (but as-man-a
stone), while before consonant endings the final n disappears, 3
e.g. raja-bhis. In the RV. syncopation never takes place
in the N.A. du. n., nor with one exception (sata-davni)
in the L. s.

As in all other n stems, the nasal is dropped in the N. s.,
e. g. m. adhva, n. karma. But there are two peculiarities
of inflexion which, being common to these three groups, do
not appear elsewhere in the consonant declension. The
ending of the L. s. is in the EV. dropped more often than
not ; e. g. murdhan beside murdhan-i on the head. In the
N.A. pi. n. both the final n of the stem and the termination i
are, in the RV., dropped in nineteen stems, e. g. karma ; 4
while they are retained in eighteen, e. g. karmani.

1. The an stems, which are both m. and n.,8 besides the

1 With reversion to guttural, lack of reduplication, and strengthened
radical vowel.

2 The stems in an and man form their f. with I added to their
weakest form ; those in van substitute varl.

3 That is, the a represents an original sonant nasal.

4 Seven of these appear with a in the Samhita text, but with a, like
the rest, in the Pada text. The evidence of the Avesta indicates that
the a form of the Samhita is the older.

5 Six or seven adjectival forms are used as f.

F2

68

DECLENSION

[90

one f. ydsan, are not numerous. In the strong forms
rbhu-ksan chief of the Rbhus, pus-an, a god, and y6s-an
woman retain short a ; uks-an ox and vrs-an Mil fluctuate
between a and a. In the inflexion of these stems (unlike
those in man and van) the concurrence of three consonants
is not avoided ; e. g. sirsn-a, I. of sirs-an.

a. Six stems belong etymologically to this group though seeming to
belong to one of the other two. They are : yti-v-an l m. youth, 6v-a"n l m.
dog, rji-6van2 m. a man, matari-svan2 m. a demi-god, vi-bhv-an3/ar-
reaching, p&ri-jm-an4 going round, sirs-dn n. is an extended form of
sfras head = Sir(a)s-a"n.

The normal forms, if made from raj an king, would be :

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

PLUEAL.

N. raja
A. rajan-am
V. rajan5

N.A. rajan-a, -au

N. rajan-as |

A. rajn-as

I. rajn-a
D. rajn-e
Ab.G. rajn-as
L. rajan-i
rajan

I.D. raja-bhyam
G. rajn-os

I. raja-bhis
D. raja-bhyas
G. rajn-am

L. raja-su

The n. differs in the N.A. only. No example of the s. N.A.
occurs (p. 70, n. 1). But the du. of ahan day is ahan-I, pi.
ahan-i.

2. The stems in man are about equally divided between
m. and n., the former being mostly agent^ nouns, the latter
verbal abstracts. About a dozen forms from these stems
as final members of compounds are used as feminines.6 In

1 See below, 91. 3, 4. 2 Probably from Sugrow.

3 From bhu, be. * From gam go.

5 The V. of matari-6van is matari-svas as if from a stem in van.

6 No certain examples of f. formed with I from man stems are
found in the RV., though the AV. has five such at the end of
compounds.

90] STEMS IN MAN 69

the strong forms arya-man m. a god, t-man m. self, je"-man
victorious retain the short vowel in the suffix. In the weak
forms, even when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, about
a dozen forms do not syncopate the a, e. g. bhu-man-a,
da-man-e. In the I. s. seven stems not only syncopate, but
drop either the m or the n as well : prathi-n-a, pre-n-a,
bhu-n-a, mahi-n-a, vari-n-a ; draghm-a, rasm-a.

The normal forms, if made from as-man (Gk. CCK/JLCOI/)
m. stone, would be : —

Sing. N. asma. A. asman-am. I. asman-a.1 D. asman-e.1
Ab.G. asman-as. L. asman-i and asman. V. asman.
Du. N.A.V. asman-a. L. asman-os.

Plur. N.V. asman-as. A. asman-as. I. asma-bhis. D.
asma-bhyas. G. asman-am. L. asma-su.

The n. differs in the N.A. only. These cases from
karman act are :

Sing, karma. Du. karman-i. PI. karman-i, karma,
karma.

3. The stems in van are chiefly verbal adjectives and
are almost exclusively declined in the m. Hardly a dozen
of them make n. forms, and only five or six forms are used
as f.2 In the strong cases there is only one example of
the a remaining short: anarvan-am. In the weak cases,
when the suffix is preceded by a vowel, the a is always
syncopated in the Samhita text except in the forms da-van-e,
vasu-van-e, and rta-van-i. The V. is usually formed in
van, but there are four in vas : rta-vas, eva-ya-vas,
pratar-it-vas, vi-bha-vas.3

1 When the suffix is preceded by a vofwel, the a is generally synco-
pated, as mahi-mn-a, also mahi-n-a, &c.

2 The f. of these stems is otherwise formed with I, which is, how-
ever, never added to van, but regularly to a collateral suffix vara.
Twenty-five such stems in vari are found in the RV.

3 Cp. the mant, vant, yams, vams stems.

70 DECLENSION [90-91

The normal forms occurring, if made from gra-van m.
pressing-stone, would be :
Sing. N. grava. A. gravan-am. I. gravn-a. D. gravn-e.

Ab.GL gravn-as. L. gravan-i and gravan. V. gravan.
Du. N.A.V. gravan-a, -an. I. grava-bhyam. G. gravn-os.
PI. N.V. gravan-as. A. gravn-as. I. grava-bhis. D.

grava-bhyas. G. gravn-am. L. grava-su.

The n. differs in the N.A. only. These cases (the du.
does not occur) formed from dhanvan low are: Sing.
dhanva. PI. dhanvani, dhanva, dhanva.

Irregular Stems in an.

91. 1. Panth-an m. $ath, forming the strong stem
panthan, is best treated under the irregular stems in
radical a (97 A. 2 a).

2. ah-an n. day, otherwise regular, supplements the N. s.
with ah-ar.1

3. sv-an m. dog, otherwise inflected like rajan, takes
Samprasarana in its weakest stem sun,2 which, as represent-
ing an originally disyllabic stem,3 retains the accent :

SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

N. sva (KVGW)
A. svan-am

svan-a, -au
svan-a, -au :

svan-as |

sun -as

I. siin-a I. sva-bhis

G. sun-as (KVVOS) \ D. sva-bhyas

G. sun-am

1 The normal N. in a appears to have been avoided in an stems,
collateral stems always being substituted in this case, as aksi for
aksan eye, &c.

2 So also in Greek : KVVOS — sun-as.
8 Cp. Greek KVOJV.

91-92] IRREGULAR STEMS IN AN 71

4. yii-v-an, m. youth, otherwise regular, forms its weakest
stem, yun, by Samprasarana and contraction * (yii-Tin) :

SINGULAR. DUAL. PLUEAL.

N. yuva N.A. yuvan-a N.V. yuvan-as

V. yuvan

i V. yuvan
A. yuvan-am

A. yun-as

D. yun-e2 I. yiiva-bhis

G. yun-as D. yuva-bhyas

5. magha-van 3 bountiful, an epithet of Indra, also forms
its weakest stem, maghdn, by Samprasarana and contraction
(magha-un) :

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

N. magha-va
V. magha-van
A. magha-van-am

magha-van-a

magha-van-as
magh6n-as

G. magh6n-as

niaghon-os

magh6n-am

6. udhan n. udder supplements the N. s. with udhar
and udhas ; before consonant endings, the latter stem also
occurs : pi. L. udhas-su,

92. The root han, which forms the final member of
thirty-five compounds in the KV., follows, for the most part,
the analogy of derivative stems in an. The strong stem is

1 Cp. Lat. juven-is and jun-ior.

2 The stem retains the accent because it represents a disyllable ;
cp. sv&n.

3 The supplementary stem magha-vant is also used in the following
cases : N. magh&van. PI. I. magh&vad-bhis. D. maghaVad-bhyas.
L. maghaVat-su.

72

DECLENSION

[92-93

-ban (with a long vowel in the N. s. only), the middle is -ha,
and the weakest -ghn.1 The cases that occur would in the
compound vrtra-han Vrtra-slaying be :

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

N. vrtra-ha
V. v#tra-han
A. vrtra-hanam

N.A. vrtra-han-a, -au N. vrtra-han-as

I. vrtra-ghn-a
D. vrtra-ghn-6
G. vrtra-ghn-as
L. vrtra-ghn-i

A. vrtra-ghn-as

I. vrtra-ha-bhis

3. Adjectives in anc.

93. These words, the suffix 2 of which generally expresses
the meaning of -ward, form the strong stem in anc, the
middle in Ic or uc 3 (according as ac is preceded by y or v).
About fourteen stems have a weakest form in ic, and about
six in uc, which, if they are the contractions of accented
syllables, shift the accent to the endings.4 They are inflected
in the m. and n. only, the f. being formed with I from the
weakest stem. The only cases occurring in the pi. are the
N.A. and in the du. N.A.L.

The forms actually found, if made from praty-anc turned
towards, would be :

1 Here the h reverts to the original guttural aspirate ; the n in this
combination is never cerebralized.

2 Properly the root anc bend, which has, however, practically
acquired the character of a suffix.

3 Here ya and va irregularly contract to I and u, instead of i and u.

4 This is the general rule of the RV., but not of the AV. Thus
A. pi. pratic-as RV., pratic-as AV.

ADJECTIVES IN ANC

73

SINGULAR.

MASCULINE.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

N. pratyan (61)
A. pratyanc-am

N.A. pratyanc-a, -au

N. pratyanc-as [

i A. pratic-as

I. pratic-a
D. pratic-6
Ab.G. pratioas
L. pratic-i

N.A. pratyak

L. pratic-6s

NEUTER.
pratic-i

a. Other words similarly declined are :
STRONG STEM.

ny-anc downward
sam-y-anc 2 united
tir-y-anc s transverse
ud-anc upivard
anv-anc following
visv-anc all-pervading

I. About a dozen stems, in which the anc is preceded
by a word ending in a, have no weakest form. Such are
apanc baclctvard, arvanc Mtherward, avanc downward, devanc
godivard, paranc turned aivay, pranc forward. The only

MIDDLE

WEAKEST

STEM.

STEM.

ny-ak

me1

sam-y-ak

sam-ic

tir-y-ak

tiras-c

lid-ak

lid-ic 4

anv-ak

anuc

visv-ak

visiic

1 The stem nic seems to have retained the accent ; for the f. is nic-i
(not nlc-i), and the I. nica being used adverbially probably has an
adverbial shift of accent, devadry&nc godward also retains the accent
on the suffix : I. devadrica.

2 The y is here inserted by analogy.

3 Here tiri takes the place of tiro's across, from which the weakest
stem tirase ( = tir&s + ac) is formed.

4 I, though no y precedes the a of the suffix, by analogy.

74 DECLENSION [93-95

cases occurring in the du. and pi. aie the N.A. m. The
inflexion of these words may be illustrated by apanc :
Sing. m. N. a/pan (61). A. apanc-am. I. apac-a.

L. apac-i.

Du. N.A. apanc-a, apanc-au.
PI. N. apane-as. A. apac-as.

The only distinctively n. form is N.A. s. prak.1 The f. is
formed from the weak stem with i : prac-i.

94. The points to be noted about changeable stems are :

1. The vowel of the suffix is lengthened in the N. s. m.
except in ant and anc stems : g6-man, agni-van ; kaniyan ;
cakr-van; raja; asma, grava, yiiv-a; hasti, rg-mi,
taras-vi ; but ad-an, pratyan.

2. The N. sing, ends in a nasal in all changeable stems
except those in n, which drop it.

3. All changeable stems that lengthen the vowel in the
N. s. m. shorten it in the V. Those that drop the n in
the N., retain it in the V., while those that have n (after a)
in the N. drop it in the V., and add s :

thus rajan (N. raja),2 asman (N. asma), gravan (N.
grava), yuvan (N. yiiva);3 hastin (N. hasti) ; havismas
(N. havisman), marutvas4 (N. mariitvan) ; kaniyas (N.
kaniyan) ; cakrvas (N. cakrvan).

a. The only changeable stems in which the V. does not differ in form
(though it does in accent) from the N. are the ant and anc stems :
ddan (N. adfin) ; pr&tyan (N. pratyan).

95. The feminines of nouns with changeable stems are

1 In B. some half-dozen N.A. plur. n. forms occur : pranci, praty-
anci, arvafici, samydnoi, sadhryanci, anvanci.

2 One an stem has a V. in as : matari-sv-as (p. 68, n. 5).

3 Four van stems form their V. in vas : rta-vas, eva-ya-vas, pratar-
it-vas, vi-bha-vas.

4 The RV. has three vocatives in van : arvan, 6atavan, Savasavan.
The AV. has five others, but none in vas.

95-96] FEMININES OF CHANGEABLE STEMS 75

formed by adding I to the weak stem (when there are two
stems) or the weakest (when there are three) ; e. g. adat-i
(m. adant); dhenumat-i (m. dhenumant), amavat-i (m.
amavant) ; arkin-i (m. arkin) ; navyas-i (m. naviyams) ;
jagmus-i(m.jagm-i-vams); sam-rajn-i(m.rajan), magh6n-i
(m. maghavan), -ghn-i (m. -han) ; pratic-i (m. pratyanc) ;
avitr-i (m. avitar).

a. The f. of the present participle active of the first conjugation
(125) is made from the strong m. stem in ant (cp. 156); that of
the second conjugation from the weak stem in at; e.g. bhavant-I
being, uchant-I 1 shining, pusyant-i obtaining abundantly, codayant-I
urging ; but ghnat-i (m. ghnant) slaying, plprat-I furthering (m. piprat),
krnvat-i (m. krnv&nt), yunjat-i (m. yunjant) yoking, puriat-f (m.
punant) purifying.

b. The f. of the simple future participle is formed like the present
participle of the first conjugation : su-syant-I about to bring forth, san-
isy&nt-I going to obtain.

c. Adjectives in van form their f. in var-I ; e. g. pi- van (irtW) fat,
f. pi-var-I (irietpa = -niffpia}. The f. of the irregular yti-v-an young
(91. 4) is yuva-tf.

Irregular Nouns with Changeable Stems.

96. 1. ap f. water lengthens its vowel in the strong cases
du. and pi. and substitutes t for p before bh. The forms
occurring are :

Sing. I. ap-a. Ab.G. ap-as. Du. N. apa.2 PL N.V.
ap-as. A. ap-as. I. ad-bhis. D. ad-bhyas. G. ap-am.
L. ap-sii.

2. anad-vah m. ox (lit. cart-drawer, from anas + vah) has
three stems: the last syllable is lengthened in the strong
stem anad-vah; and shortened by Samprasarana in the
weakest anad-uh and in the middle anad-ud (dissimilated

1 The weak stem appears once in sinc-at-i sprinkling beside the
regular sinc-axit-i.

2 In a compound.

76

DECLENSION

[96-97

for anad-iid). The N. is irregularly formed as if from
a stem in vant. The forms occurring are :

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

N. anad-van N. anad.-vah.-au N. anad-vah-as

A. anad-vah-am A. anad-vah-au

Gr. anad-iih-as
L. anad-uh-i

A. anad-iih-as
D. anad-ud-bhis
L. anad-iit-su

3. pu-mams 1 m. man has three forms : its a is lengthened
in the strong stem, and syncopated in the weakest to punas,
in the middle to pum.2 The forms occurring are :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

N. puman (89. 1)
V. pumas
A. pumams-am

pumams-as 1

• ii

pums-as
G. piims-am

Jb.GL pums-as
L. pums-i

L. pum-su

II. Stems ending in Vowels.

97. A. 1. The stems in derivative a (m. n.)3 and a (f.)4
constitute the most important declensions because the former
embraces more than one half of all nominal stems, and the
latter includes more feminines than any other declension.

1 Probably an old compound, with the second part of which the
Lat. mas ' male ' may be allied.

2 With necessary loss of the s between consonants : cp. 28 and 16 a.

3 N. -as, -am = Gk. -os, -ov ; Lat. -MS, -um.

4 -a -» Gk. -a, -rj ; Lat. -a.

97]

STEMS IN A AND A

These two declensions l are also the most irregular since the
endings diverge from the normal ones here more than
elsewhere. The a declension is the only one in which the
N.A. n. has an ending in the singular, and in which the
Ab. s. is distinguished from the Gr. The inflexion of the n.
differs from that of the m. in the N. A.V. s. du., and pi. only.
The forms actually occurring, if made from priya dear,
would be :

SINGULAR.
MASC. FEM.

N. priya-s priya

A. priya-m priya-m
I. f priye"na 2 j priyaya 2
1 priya3 (priya

/

PLUKAL.

MASC.

A.

N j priyas

' I priyasas
A. priyan 8
I. f priyais 9

FEM.

priyas
priyasas12
priyas
priyabhis

j j. 1/ "~ _

( priya 3 \ priya 1 pr iy 6bhis

D. priyaya priya-yai 5 D. Ab. priyabhyas priyabhyas
Ib. priyat4 ) .__£ ___5

L. priy6
V. priya

priya-yam5
priye6

Gr. priya-n-am10 priya-n-am
L. priy^su11 priyasu11
V. ( priyas priyas

I priyasas

Dual. N.A. m. priya,13 priyau ; f. priy6.
I.D.Ab. m. f. n. priyabhyam.
G.L. m.f.n. priya-y-os.

1 Certain adjectives in -as -a -am follow the pronominal declension
(110).

2 These terminations originally came from the pronominal declen-
sion (110). The final of ena is often lengthened (ena).

3 This form, made with the normal I. ending a, is rare.

4 This ending is preserved in the Lat. o for od (e.g. Gnaivod in
inscriptions) and in the Greek (Cretic) adverb rcD-Se hence.

5 The terminations yai ( = ya-e), yas (= ya-as), yam are due to
the influence of the feminines in i (originally ya), e.g. devy&i,
devyas, devyam (cp. 100).

(For notes G~13 see next page.)

78 DECLENSION [97

a. The N. A. neuter forms are : Sing, priya-m. Du. priye\
PI. priya 14 and priya-n-i.15

a. In the Brahmanas and Sutras the D. s. f. ending ai is used instead
of the Ab.G. ending as both in this declension and elsewhere (98. 3 a) ;
e. g. jirnayai tvacah. of dead skin.

2. Radical a stems, m. and f.,16 are common in the RV.,
being formed from about thirty roots. Most of them appear
only as the final member of compounds, but four are used as
monosyllables in the m. : ja child, tra protector, da giver,
stha standing ; and seven in the f. : ksa abode, kha well,
gna divine woman, ja child, jya bowstring, ma measure,
vra troop.17 The forms occurring in the oblique cases are so

6 The form amba, occurring thrice in the RV., may have a V.
meaning, 0 mother ! The VS. and TS. have the V. &mbe as from a stem
a"mba mother.

7 This form seems to consist of a double ending : as-as. The form
in as is about twice in the KV. and twenty-four times in the AV. as
frequent as that in asas.

8 That the ending was originally -ns is shown by the Sandhi (40. 2) ;
cp. Gothic -ans, Gk. inscr. -ovs.

9 This ending is preserved in such Greek datives as IWoty. It is
slightly commoner in the KV. than priygbhis, but in the AV. it is
five times as common. It is almost always used in the Brahmanas.

10 The n seems to have been due to the influence of the n stems.

11 The u of su is almost invariably to be read with hiatus, even
before u.

12 This form is rare in the RV., being probably due to the influence
of the many masculines.

13 The du. in a is more than seven times as common as that in au
in the RV.

14 The form in a is commoner in the RV. than that in ani in the
proportion of three to two. In the AV. the proportion is reversed.

15 This form is due to the influence of the an stems, which form
their n. pi. in both a and ani, e. g. nama and namani.

16 There are no distinctively n. forms, as the radical vowel in that
gender is always shortened to a, and the stem is then inflected
according to the derivative declension.

17 These stems become less common in the later Samhitas, where
they often shorten the final vowel to a, and are then inflected like
derivative a stems.

97-98] RADICAL A STEMS 79

rare that some endings, such as those of the L. s., the
G.L. du., and the G. pi. are not represented at all. The m.
always takes s in the N. s., but the f. often drops it,
doubtless owing to the influence of the derivative a stems.
The radical vowel is dropped before the endings e * and as
of the D. and G. s. The forms actually occurring, if made
from j a child m. f., would be:
Sing. N. ja-s, f. also ja. A. jam. I. ja. D. j-6. G. j-as.

V. ja-s.

Dual. N.A.V. ja and jau. I. ja-bhyam.2
Plur. N. jas. A. jas. I. ja-bhis. D. ja-bhyas. Ab.

ja-bhyas. L. ja-su.

a. Five anomalously formed m. derivative stems in a follow the
analogy of the radical a stems.

The strong stem of pathi m. path is in the RV. pantha only : Sing. N.
pantha-s. A. pa"ntha-in. PI. N. panthas. The AV. has besides the
stem panthan : Sing. N. p&ntha. A. panthanam. PI. N. panthan-as.

From the adverb tatha Urns is formed the sing, N. a-tatha-s not say-
ing lyes '.

usana m., a seer, has a N. like a f. : usana. A. usana-m. D. u^an-e.

md,ntha churning stick and maha great form the A. ma"nth.a-m and
maha-rn.

3. Radical a stems, m. n., numbering about twenty,
consist almost entirely of stems in radical a that has been
shortened to a. Excepting kha n. aperture they appear as
final members of compounds only ; e. g. prathama-ja first-
born, -ha slaying is a reduced form of han ; e. g. satru-ha
slaying enemies.

98. B. Stems in i and u (m.f.n.).

Both declensions embrace a large number of nouns of all
genders. But the i declension contains comparatively few
n. stems, and, excepting the N.A. s. and pi., n. forms are

1 Not, however, in most of the dative infinitives ; e. g. para-dai to
give up, pra-khyai to see, prati-mai imitate (cp. 167).

2 Contrary to the rule generally applicable to monosyllabic stems,
the accent remains on the radical syllable throughout.

80 DECLENSION [98

rare in it, not occurring at all in several cases. In the
u declension the masculines greatly preponderate, being
about four times as numerous as the f. and n. stems taken
together, while the neuters here greatly outnumber the
feminines. The inflexion, which is closely parallel in both
groups, is practically the same in all genders except that
the N.A. s. and pi. n. differ from the m. and f., and the
A. pi. m. and f. differ from each other. The final vowel of
the stem shows Guna in three of the weak cases of the s.
(D.Ab.G.), as well as in the V. s. and the N. pi. m. f.,
while it is abnormally strengthened in the L. s. The
normal ending as of the Ab.G. s. is reduced to s, while
that of the L. s. is always dropped in the i declension and
usually in the u declension. The inflexion of the n stems
has influenced the i declension in the I. s. only, but the
u declension in the G.Ab. and L. also. Oxytone stems,
when i and u are changed to y and v, throw the accent on
a following vowel, not as Svarita, but as Udatta, and even
on the nam of the G. pi., though the stem vowel in that
case does not lose its syllabic value.

The adjectives siic-i Wight and madh-u sweet may be used
to illustrate the forms actually occurring :
SINGULAR.

m. f.

n.

m.

f. n.

N. siici-s siici-s

siici

madhu-s

madhu-s madhu

A. suci-m siici-m

siici

madhu-m

madhu-m madhu

T (sucy-a1 fsucy-a2

( madhv-a 3

madhv-a

{ suci-n-a J siici

siici-n-a

{ madhu-n-a

madhu-n-a

[siici

1 Five stems in the KV. form their I. like sucya, but twenty-five
(under the influence of the n declension) like sucina.

2 This is the normal formation, but the contracted form in I is more
than twice as common in the KV. The latter is in the RV. further
shortened to i in about a dozen words.

3 The normally formed I. in a is made in the m. by only four stems,
but that with na by thirty in the RV. ; in the n. the na form is used
almost exclusively.

98]

DERIVATIVE STEMS IN I

AND U

81

m.

f.

n.

m.

f.

n.

). siicay-e

siicay-e 4

siicaye

madhav-e 7

madhav-e j madhav-e 10

(madhu-n-e

b. suce-s1

suce-s

[suce-s]

madho-s

madho-s

(madho-s11

( madhu-n-as

*. suce-s

suce-s 5

suce-s

( madho-s 8

madho-s

J madho-s12

1 madhv-as

1 madhu-n-as

(siica

siica G

siica

f madhav-i 9

f madhav-i13

Msiicau2

siicau

sucau

{madhau

madhau

\ madhau

(madhu-n-i

T. suce

siice

fsiicil

madho

madho

madhu

DUAL.

A.V.

D.Ab.
L.

siici3 siici siici

madhu 3
madhv-os

madhu
madhv-os

madhv-i 14
madhu-n-os13

suci-bhyam
siicy-os

1 arf m.f. devout and aVi m. sheep have ary-ds and dvy-as.

2 The form in au is more than twice as common as that in a in
m. and f.

3 The derivative i, u and I stems are the only ones that do not take
a or au in the dual.

4 utz with aid is often used as a D. The RV. has seven datives in ai,
e. g. bhrty-Si/or sustenance, following the analogy of the I declension.

5 The RV. has six forms according to the I declension, e. g. yuvaty-as.

6 The form ve"di on the altar, occurring twice, is the only L. from an
i stem with the normal ending i ( = vedi-i).

7 This type occurs from over sixty stems, the normal formation
(m&dhv-e) from only three stems in the RV.

8 The normally formed type madhv-as is followed by six stems, the
prevailing type madho-s by over seventy in the RV.

9 Seven stems follow this type, while nineteen follow m&dhau in
the RV.

10 From one stem also m£dhv-e.

11 Once also mdclhv-as.

12 Also madhv-as, v&sv-as.

13 Only in the form sanav-i.

14 The only example in RV. is urv-i the two earths. The VS. has
janu-n-I two knees.

15 The only example is janu-n-os (AV.).

1819 G

82 DECLENSION

PLURAL.

m. f. n. m. f. "•

N V sucay-as1 sucay-as3 ) siici 4 madhav-as5 madhav-as fi | madhu 7

Uuci madhu

A. suci-n2 suci-s j suci-n-i madhu-n 2 madhu-s

~~toji-bhis madhu-bhis

suci-bhyas madhu-bhyas

siici-n-am madhu-n-am

suci-su madhu-su

a. Twenty-seven i stems in the RV. show forms according to the
derivative I declension in the D.Ab.G.L. s.f. : e.g. bhrti f. sustenance :
D. bhrty-ai; bhumi f. earth: Ab.G. bhumy-as, L. bhumy-am. Such
forms in ai, as, am are much commoner in the AV. In B. ai is
regularly used instead of as (cp. 97 a a). Besides the numerous I. s.
forms in na the RV. has half a dozen i stems showing the influence
of the n declension in the incipient use of the endings ni in the
N.A.V. du. n. and ni in the N.A. pi. n.

In the u declension the RV. has only three forms following the
analogy of the derivative i declension : isu f. arrow : D. fsv-ai, G. fsv-
as, su-vastv-as of the (river") Suvdstu (all in late passages).8 There are

1 The only stem not taking Guna is arf devout which has the N. pi.
ary-ds m. f.

2 The original ending ns is in both iSucm and m&dhun preserved
in the Sandhi forms of ms or mr (39, 40).

8 About ten stems in i in the RV. have N. pi. forms according to
the derivative I declension ; e. g. avdnis streams beside av&nayas.

* The normal type s"ucl ( = suci-i) is of about the same frequency
as its shortened form sdci, both together occurring about fifty times
in the RV. The secondary type siicmi occurs about fourteen times.

5 There is only one example of the N. pi. m. without Guna : m&dhv-as
itself occurring four times.

6 There are two examples of the N. pi. f. without Guna : m£dhv-as
and satd-kratv-as having a hundred powers.

7 The type without ending is made from twelve stems, the form
with shortened vowel being nearly twice as common as that with u.
The secondary type mddJiuni is more frequent than mddhu.

8 In B. the D. s. f. ending ai is here regularly used instead of the
Ab.G. as.

98-99] IEEEGULAR I STEMS 83

also some forms following the analogy of the u declension : A. d-bhirv-
am from a'-bhmi fearless and N. du. and pi. in yuv-a and yuv-as from
several stems derived with the suffix yu. Besides the numerous I.
singulars m. and n., there are many alternative n. forms, in the
remaining cases of the s. and N. A. pi., following the n declension :
D. madhu-ne, ka6ipu-ne ; Ab. m&dhu-nas, sanu-nas ; G. caru-nas,
daru-nas, dru-nas, madhu-nas, vdsu-nas ; L. ayu-ni, sanu-ni ; daru-
ni ; KA. pi. daru-ni, &c.

b. There is no example of a V. s. n. from an i stem, and the only one
from an u stem is guggulu (AV.). This seems to indicate that the
V. s. in these stems was identical with the N.

c. Adjectives in u often use this stem for the f. also ; e. g. caru dear ;
otherwise they form the f. in u, as tanu m., tanu f. thin (Lat. tenu-is) ;
or in i, as urii m., urv-i f. wide.

d. There are about a dozen stems in which final i seems to be radical
in a secondary sense as representing a reduced form of roots ending in
a. They are mostly m. compounds formed with -dhi ; e.g. ni-dhi
treasury. There are also about eight stems formed from roots in u, all
of which except dyu day are final members of compounds ; e. g. raghu-
drti. running swiftly ; besides some twelve stems in which u is radical in
a secondary sense, as representing the shortened form of the vowel of
three roots in u ; e.g. su-pu clarifying well (from pu purify), pari-bhil
surrounding (from bhu 6e).

The inflexion of these radical i and u stems is exactly the same as
that of the derivative i and u stems given above.

Irregularities.

99. 1. pati (Gk. 7r6(n-y) m. husband is irregular in the
D.G.L. s. : paty-e, paty-ur,1 paty-au ; while the I. in this
sense has the normal form paty-a. When it means lord,
either as a simple word or as final member of a compound,
it is regular : D. patay-e, brhas-patay-e, G. pate-s, praja-
pate-s, L. go-patau ; while the I. in this sense is formed
with na: pati-na, brhas-patina. The f. is patm (Gk.
wife and lady.

1 The anomalous ending appears to be due to the influence of the
Ab.G. in the names of relationship (101) in r like pitur, G. of pitf

father.

84 DECLENSION

a. The f. j&ni wife takes the anomalous ending ur in the G. : jany-ur.1
It has the further anomaly of forming its N. jam like the derivative
I declension.

2. sakh-i m. friend, besides having irregularities like pati
in the weak cases of the s., has a strong stem formed with
Vrddhi : N. sakha, A. sakhay-am, I. sakhy-a, D. sakhy-e,
Ab.G. sakhy-ur,1 V. sakhe.2 Du. sakhay-a and sakhay-au ;
Pl.N. sakhay-as, A. sakhi-n, I. sakhi-bhis, D. sakhi-bhyas,
G. sakhi-n-am.

a. In the RV. s&khi occurs as the final member of eight compounds
in which it is inflected in the same way and is also used as a f. ; e. g.
marut-sakha N. in. f. having the Maruts as friends.

3. ari devout is irregular in forming several cases like the
radical I stems (except in accentuation): sing. A. ary-am
(beside ari-m) m., G. ary-as m. ; pi. N. ary-as m. f.,
A. ary-as m. f.

a. The VS. has also the N. s. ari-s, beside the regular arf-s of the RV.
aVi sheep (Lat. ovi-s) also takes the normal ending as in the-G. s. :
&vy-as. vi m. Urcl has in the RV. the N. s. ve"-s beside vf-s.

4. The neuters aksi eye, asthi lone, dadhi curds, sakthi
tliigli, form their weakest cases from stems in an ; e. g.
I. dadhn-a, sakthn-a ; G. aksn-as, asthn-as, dadhn-as.
Du.N. aksi-m (AV.), I. sakthi-bhyam, G. aksn-6s, but
sakthy-os (VS.). In the pi. the an stems are used in the
N.A. also : aksan-i (beside aksi-ni, AV.), asthan-i (beside
asthi-ni, AY.), sakthan-i ; I. aksa-bhis, astha-bhis ; D.
astha-bhyas.

5. dyii m. f. sky (originally diu, weak grade of dyo, 102, 3)
retains this stem before consonant terminations (taking
Vrddhi in the N.V. s.), but changes it to div before vowels :

1 Influenced, like p&tyur, by the names of relationship in r (101)

2 Formed regularly like suce from Sdci.

99-100] STEMS IN I AND 0 85

Sing. N. dyau-s (Zevs = Ajtvs). A. div-am.1 I. div-a.

D. div-e". Ab.G. div-as (Aifos). L. div-i (Aift). V.

dyau-s2 (Zev).
P1.N. div-as.1 A. m. dyun,3 f. div-as. I. dyii-bhis.3

100. C. Stems in I and u are mostly f. when substan-
tives, but a great many as final members of compounds are
adjectives used in the m. as well as f.

I. The I stems are very differently inflected according as
they are radical (a) or derivative (&). The analogy of the
primary radical group (1) is closely followed both in
inflexion and accentuation by a secondary group (2) of about
eighty polysyllabic stems which, though formed with
derivative I, are for the sake of clearness best treated as
a division of the radical group.

a. The normal endings as they appear in the inflexion of
consonant stems are taken throughout this declension. The
G. pi., however, preserves the normal ending am in one
single form only (dhiy-am), nam being otherwise always
added. The N. s. always adds s. Accentuation on the
final syllable of the stem is characteristic of this declension,
and, except in monosyllabic stems, the acute remains on
that syllable throughout. Before vowel endings the I is
split to iy in monosyllabic nouns, even when they are final
members of compounds,4 as A. dhiy-am, pi. N. nana-dhiy-as
having diverse intentions; but in roots as final members of

1 The stem div, the Samprasarana form of dyav, has made its way
into the strong cases, A. s. and N. pi., owing to the very frequent
weak cases div-ds, &c., which taken together occur more than 350 times
in the RV.

2 i.e. diau-s to be pronounced as a disyllable. The s of the N. is
retained in this form.

3 These two forms, which occur only in the RV. or passages borrowed
from it, always mean days.

4 Except accented -dhi, as a-dhiam (but su-dhi follows the general
rule, as su-clhiy-as).

86 DECLENSION [100

compounds only when two consonants precede,1 as yajna-
priy-am sacrifice-loving, but yajna-nyam (= yajna-niam)
leading ttie sacrifice. Otherwise I is always written as y,
but is invariably to be pronounced as i, as nady-am pro-
nounced nadiam 2 stream.

The monosyllabic stems belonging to the radical class are
the feminines dhi thought, 'bid fear, sri glory, and the m. vi
receiver (occurring only once in the N. s.). The compounds
of the first three, being mostly Bahuvrihis (189), and the
compounds formed from the roots kri luy, ni lead, pri love,
mi diminish, vi move, si lie, sri mix, being mostly accusative
Tatpurusas (187), are both m. and f.

The secondary group consists of more than eighty poly-
syllabic stems accented on the final syllable and probably
for this reason following the analogy of the radical com-
pounds. Excepting about half a dozen they are substantives,
nearly all f. The masculines are ahi serpent, rathi charioteer,
and about eight compounds.

6. The declension in derivative I embraces a large number
of stems formed by means of the suffix I (originally ya)
largely to supply a f. to m. words, and not normally accenting
the suffix.3 It also includes a large number of miscellaneous
f. stems of an independent character having no corresponding
m., as sac-i might. It includes seven m. stems, five of

1 In the secondary radical group (a 2, p. 87) the I is split only in
samudri and partly in cakri.

2 The resolved forms given below are spelt with i (not iy as they
may have been pronounced) so as to avoid confusion with the written
forms of the Samhita text that are spelt with iy. Again the resolved
vowel is given as i (not I) because long vowels are regularly shortened
in pronunciation before vowels (p. 22, notes 1 and 5).

3 The exceptions are mostly stems in which the preceding syllable,
having been reduced, throws the accent forward, e. g. uru, f. urv-i,
wide ; or in which, as proper names, the accent has shifted to indicate
a change of meaning, e. g. asikni a river, but asikni Uack.

100] KADICAL AND DERIVATIVE I STEMS 87

which are proper names: Tirasci, Nami, Prthi, Matali,
Sobhari, besides rastri ruler, sir! iveaver.

The inflexion of these stems1 differs from that of the
radical I stems in three respects : — (1) no s is added in
the N. s. m. or f. ; (2) the endings diverge considerably
from the normal ones, the s. A. taking m, the D. ai, the
Ab.G. as, the L. am, the pi. N.V.A. s ; (3) stems accented
on the final vowel shift the acute to the ending in the weak
cases of the s., in the G.L. du., and in the G. pi.

a. RADICAL STEMS.

1. dhi f. thought. 2. rathi m. f.

charioteer.

. DERIVATIVE STEMS.
devi f, goddess.

N. dhi-s
A. dhiy-am
I. dhiy-a
D. dhiy-6
G. dhiy-as

V.

SlNGULAK.

rathi-s

rathi-am

rathi-a

rathi-e

rathi-as

rathi

devi
devi-m
devy-a
devy-ai
Ab.G. devy-as
L. devy-am
V.

DUAL.

N.A. dhiy-a, -au

rathi-a

N.A.

devi

V.

d<§vi

I. dhi-bhyam

rathi-bhyam

D.Ab.

devi-bhyam

G.L. dhiy-6s

rathi-os

devy-6s

i In the later language the derivative group (b) absorbs the second-
ary radical group (a 2), while borrowing from the latter the N.A.V.
du. and the N.V. pi. forms.

88 DECLENSION [100

PLURAL.

N. dhiy-as rathi-as devi-s

A. dhiy-as rathi-as devi-s

I. dhi-bhis rathi-bhis devi-bhis

D. ratht-bhyas devi-bhyas

G. dhi-n-am1 G. rathi-n-am devi-n-am

L. dhi-su L. rathi-su devi-su

V. de>i-s

a. Other words belonging to the secondary radical class (a 2) are :
kumari girl (A. kumariam), tandri weariness (N. tandris), duti mes-
senger (N. dutfs), nadi stream (A. nadfam), laksmi mark (N. laksmis,
A. laksmiam), simhi lioness (N. simhis, A. simhlam).

0. stri woman, originally a disyllable, is inflected as a radical
monosyllabic stem in the sing. A. and pi. N.A.I. : strfy-am ; strfy-as,
stri-bhis (accent); but retains traces of its derivative origin in the s.
N. stri (no s), D. striy-al2 (AV.), G. striy-as, L. striy-am (AV.).

II. The u declension, which comprises both radical and
derivative stems, is much more homogeneous than the
I declension. The inflexion of these two classes corresponds
exactly to that of the two divisions of the radical 1 declension.
Practically all the stems in this declension are oxytones
(including both the compound radical and the derivative
stems).

a. In the radical class there are seven monosyllabic
stems, five of which are f. : du gift, bhu earth, bru brow,
syu thread, sru stream ; one m. and f. : su begetter and
mother ; one m. : ju speeding, steed. There are further two
reduplicated f. substantives and one adjective : juhu tongue,
juhu sacrificial spoon ; jogu singing aloud. Finally, there
are about sixty compounds, almost exclusively formed from
about eleven roots, e. g. pari-bhu surrounding.

1 dhi-n4m occurs seven times in the KV., dhiy-am only once, the
latter being the only example of the normal ending.

2 In B. this form is used for the G. ; e. g. striyai payah woman's
milk.

100] KADICAL AND DERIVATIVE U STEMS 89

&. The derivative class comprises two divisions : the one
consists of about eighteen oxytone f. substantives, several
of which correspond to m. or n. stems in u accented on the
first syllable, e. g. a-gru (m. a-gru) maid • the other and
more numerous division consists of oxytone f. adjectives
corresponding to m. oxytones, e. g. babhru (m. babhru)
broivn.

a. The normal endings as they appear in the inflexion of consonant
stems are taken throughout this declension (radical and derivative).1
The G. pi., however, takes the normal am in uncompounded radical
stems only,2 but nam in all others. The N. s. always adds s. Before
vowel endings the u is split into uv in monosyllabic nouns and
generally in compounds with roots as final member (even when pre-
ceded by a single consonant). In the minority of such compounds
(some nine in the KV.) and in all derivative stems,3 it is written as v,
but pronounced as u.4 Thus A. bhuv-am, a-bhuv-am present; but
vi-bhti-am eminent, taml-am.

The forms occurring if made from bhu earth and tanu
body would be the following :

SINGULAR.
RADICAL. DERIVATIVE.

N. bhu-s tanu-s

A. bhuv-am tanu-am

I. bhuv-a tami-a

D. tanu-e

Ab.G. bhuv-as Ab.G. tami-as

L. bhuv-i (tanii-i

L'{tanu
V. tanu

1 The derivative stems show an incipient tendency to be influenced
by the inflexion of the derivative I declension. The RV. has only one
such form : svasruam ; the AV. has at least ten such ; the VS. has
A. pumscalu-m coitrtesan, D. tanv-ai, G. tanv-as. In B. the D. s. f.
ending ai is used for as ; e. g. dhenv&i r6tah the seed of the cow.

2 Judging by the only two forms that occur, bhuvam and joguvam.

3 It is, however, split in the derivative stems a-gru, kadrd Soma
vessel, in adjectives when u is preceded by y, and in bibhatsu loathing.

4 Hence in such forms it is given below as u (short because a vowel
is shortened before another in pronunciation ; cp. p. 22, note 1).

90 DECLENSION [100-101

DUAL.

N.A. bhuv-a N.A. tami-a

I. bhu-bhyam D. tanu-bhyam

L. bhuv-6s L. tami-os

PLUEAL.

N. bhiiv-as N. tanii-as

A. bhiiv-as A. tami-as

I. tanu-bhis
G. bhuv-am D. tanu-bhyas

G. tanu-n-am

101. D. Stems in r (m. and f.), which in origin are
consonant stems in derivative ar or tar, closely resemble
an stems (90) in their declension. Derivative stems in r
consist of two groups, the one formed with the original
suffix ar, the other with tar. The former is a small group
of only eight stems, the latter a very large one of more
than 150. Both groups agree in distinguishing strong
and weak cases. The strong stem ends in ar or ar,
which in the weak forms is reduced to r before vowels and
r before consonants. Both groups further agree in dropping
the final of the stem in the N. s. m. f., which case always
ends in a. They resemble the vowel declension in adding
the ending n in the A. pi. m. and s in the A. pi. f.,1 and in
inserting n before the am of the G. pi.2 They have the
peculiar ending ur in the G. s.3

1. The stems in ar are: m. dev-r husband's brother,
nf4 man-, f. us-r dawn, nanandr husband's sister, svasr5
sister ; n. ah-ar day, udh-ar udder, vadh-ar weapon, which

1 Except usr-&s.

2 Except sv&sr-am and nar-am.
* Except n&r-as and usr-&s.

4 This word is probably derived with the suffix ar.

5 In this word the r is probably radical : svd-sar.

101] STEMS IN R AND TR 91

occur in the N.A. s. only.1 The forms that occur of the
first five stems are :

a. Sing. A. devar-am. PL N. devar-as. L. devr-su.

b. Sing. A. nar-am (a-z/ep-a). D. nar-e. G. nar-as.
L. nar-i (Ep. Gk. a-vtp-i). Du. N.A. nar-a. V. nar-a and
nar-au. PL N.V. nar-as (Ep. Gk. d-vep-es). A. nr-n.
I. nr-bhis. D.A. nr-bhyas. G. nar-am and nr-n-am.2
L. nr-su.

c. Sing. G. usr-as. L. usr-i and usr-am.3 V. lisar.
PI. A. usr-as.

d. Sing. G. nanandur. L. nanandari.

e. Sing. N. svasa. A. svasar-am. I. svasr-a. D. svasr-e.
Ab.G. svas-ur. Du. svasar-a, -an. L. svasr-os. PL N.
svasar-as. A. svasr-s. I. svasr-bhis. G. svasr-am4 and
svasr-n-am.

2. This group includes two subdivisions, the one forming
its strong stem in tar, the other in tar (Gk. -rrjp, -rcop,
Lat. -tor). The former consists of a small class of five
names of relationship : three m., pi- tar father, bhra-tar
brother, nap- tar grandson, and two f., duh-i-tar daughter
and ma-tar mother, together with the m. and f. compounds
formed from them. The second division consists of more
than 150 stems (including compounds) which are either
agent nouns accented chiefly on the suffix, or participles
accented chiefly on the root. These stems are never f., and
only four are n.

In the tr declension three stems are to be distinguished : the strong,
tar or tar ; the middle, tr ; and the weakest, tr. The names of rela-
tionship take the Guna form,5 agent nouns the Vrddhi form of the

1 ah-ar and udh-ar form their other cases from the an stems ah-an
and udh-an. Cp. 91. 6. 2 Often to be pronounced nfnam.

8 Following the analogy of the derivative I declension.

* sv&sr-am and nar-am are the only two forms of the r declension
in which am is added direct to the stem.

5 The strong stem nap-tar does not occur in the RV., napat taking
its place.

92

DECLENSION

[101

strong stem. The inflexion of the m. and f. differs in the A. pi. only.
The sing. G. is formed in ur, the L. in ari, the V. in ar ; the pi. A.
m. in tfn, f. tfs, G. in tfnam.

The inflexion of the three stems da-tf m. giver (8(o-Trip,
da-tor), pi-tf m. father (nd-rrip, pa-ter), ma-tr f. mother
, ma-ter) is as follows :

SINGULAR.

N. data
A. datar-am

pita
pitar-am

mata
i matar-am

I. datr-a
D. datr-6
Ab.G. datur
L. datar-i
V. datar (Swrep)

pitr-a

pitiir
pitar-i (Trarep-
pitar (Ju-piter

DUAL.

matr-a
matr-e"
matiir
L) matar-i
matar (fj,fJTep)

| N.A. datar-a, -au

|| pitar-a, -au

| matar-a, -au

I.D. datr-bhyam

pitf-bhyam

matr-bhyam

G.L. datr-6s

pitr-6s
PLUBAL.

matr-6s

N. datar-as

pitar-as

matar-as

A. datrn

pitfn

matf-s

I. datr-bhis
D.Ab. datr-bhyas

1 pitr-bhis
1 pitr-bhyas

matr-bhis
matr-bhyas

G. datr-n-am

pitf-n-am

matf-n-am

| L. datf-su

pitf-su

matr-su

V. datar-as

pitar-as

matar-as

101-102] STEMS IN DIPHTHONGS 93

«. ndp-tr in the EV. occurs in the weak stem only : Sing. I. n&ptr-a,
D. naptr-e, G. n&pt-ur. PI. I. naptr-bhis. It is supplemented in the
strong forms by napat (Lat. nepot-): Sing. N.V. n&pat. A. n&pat-am. —
Du. N.A. napat-a.— PI. N.V. napat-as. In the TS. occurs naptar-am
(like svdsar-am among the r stems).

&. The only n. stems occurring are dhar-tf prop, dhma-tr smithy,
stha-tf stationary, vi-dhar-tr meting out, and of these only about half a
dozen forms occur. The only oblique cases met with are the G. sthattir
and the L. dhmatari. The N.A. s. owing to its rarity seems never to
have acquired fixity in the Veda, but sthatar represents the normal
form. In B. the N.A. form in r begins to be used in an adjectival
sense : bhartr supporting, janayitf creative.

c. The f. of agent nouns in tr is formed with I from the weak stem
of the m., e. g. jardtr-i mother (inflected like devi).

102. E. Stems in ai, o, an. The only stems in
diphthongs are: rai m. and (rarely) f. wealth, g6 m. bull,
f. cow, dy6 m. f. sky, nau f. ship, glau m. f. lump. They
form a transition from the consonant to the vowel declension ;
for while they take the normal endings like the ordinary
consonant declension, they add s in the N. s. m. f. and
have a vowel before the endings with initial consonant.
There are no neuter forms.

1. rai appears as ray before vowels and ra before con-
sonants. The forms occurring are : Sing. A. ra-m (Lat.
re-m). I. ray-a. D. ray-6 (Lat. re-l). Ab.G. ray-as. —
PL N. ray-as. A. ray-as.1 G. ray-am.

2. go has as its strong form gau which appears as ga in
the A. s. and pi. The Ab.G. are irregular in adding s only
instead of as.2 The forms occurring are: Sing. N. gau-s
(/3o£-?). A. ga-m (/3o>-*>). I. gav-a. D. gav-e. Ab.G. g6-s.
L. gav-i. — Du. gav-a, -an. — PI. N. gav-as. A. ga-s.
I. go-bhis. D. go-bhyas. G. gav-am and g6-n-am.:i
L. go-su. V. gav-as.

1 Barely ray-as ; once ra-s (S V.).

2 As regards accentuation this word is not treated as a monosyllabic
stem, never shifting the accent to the endings.

8 This form, which follows the vowel declension and is much less
common than gaV-am, occurs at the end of a Pada only.

94 DECLENSION [102-103

3. dyo m. f. sky (cp. 99. 5) is declined like g6. The
forms occurring are : Sing. N. dyau-s 1 (Zevs). A. dyam
(Lat. diem). Ab.G-. dy6-s. L. dyav-i. V. dyau-s and
dyau-s2 (Zcv).— Du. N.A. dyav-a.— PI. N.V. dyav-as.

4. nau is inflected quite regularly as far as can be judged
by the few forms occurring: Sing. N. nau-s (z/au-y).
N. nav-am (vfjFa)- I- nav-a. G. nav-as (j/Tjf-oy). L. nav-i
(vrjF-i).—Pl. N. nav-as (vrjf-e^ nav-es). A. nav-as (vfjF-as).
I. nau-bhis (vav-<t>i).

5. glau occurs in two forms only: Sing. N. glau-s and
PL I. glau-bhis.3

Degrees of Comparison.

103. 1. The secondary suffixes of the comparative
tara 4 (Gk. -repo) and the superlative tama (Lat. -timo) are
regularly added to nominal stems (both simple and com-
pound), substantives as well as adjectives, generally to the
weak or middle stem ; e. g. priya-tara dearer, tavas-tara
stronger, vapus-tara more wonderful, bhagavat-tara more
bounteous ; vrtra-tara a worse Vrtra ; bhuri-davat-tara
giving more abundantly • sasvat-tama most constant ; ratna-
dha-tama best bestoiver of treasure ; hiranya-vasi-mat-tama
best wielder of the golden axe ; rathi-tama best charioteer.

a. The final n of the stem is retained before these suffixes ; e. g.
madin-tara more gladdening, vrsan-tama most manly. An n is some-
times even inserted ; e. g. surabhi'-n-tara more fragrant ; rayin-tama
very rich.

1 The same as the N. of dyu (99. 5).

2 That is, dfau-s with the proper V. accent, but with anomalous
retention of the N. s.

3 The N. pi. glav-as also occurs in the AB.

4 These secondary comparatives and superlatives are commoner than
the primary in the proportion of three to two.

103] COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 95

b. In a few instances the strong stem of a present participle is used ;
e.g. vradhan-tama being most mighty, sahan-tama most victorious; and
the weakest stem of a perfect participle : vidls-tara wiser • mlllrus-
tama most gracious.

c. These secondary suffixes are occasionally found added to the
primary comparatives and superlatives, e.g. sre"stha-tama most
beautiful.

d. They also form a comparative and superlative from the preposi-
tion tid up : tit-tara higher, ut-tama1 highest.

e. These suffixes 2 form their f. in a ; e. g. matf-tama most motherly.

2. The primary suffix of the comparative lyams (Grk. -Lav,
Lat. -ior) and that of the superlative istha (Gk. -JOTO) are
added directly to the root, which is regularly accented 3 and
gunates i and u, but leaves a unchanged apart from
nasalization in a few instances. Final radical a combines
with the initial of the suffix to e, which is, however, usually
to be read as two syllables. Examples are : te"j-Iyams
sharper, tej'-istha very sharp (tij be sharp) ; jav-iyams quicker,
jav-istha quickest (ju be stvift) ; yaj-iyams sacrificing better,
yaj -istha sacrificing best; mamh-istha most liberal (man
bestoiv abundantly) ; jyestha greatest and jyestha eldest (jya
overcome).

a. In many instances these superlatives attach themselves in mean-
ing to derivative adjectives, being formed from the root which the
latter contain ; e. g. an-iyams smaller, an-istha smallest beside an-u
minute ; dav-iyams/ar^er beside du«r&/ar ; dragh-iyams longer, dragh-
istha longest beside dirgh-& long ; lagh-iyams lighter beside lagh-ti light ;
var-iyams wider, vdr-istha widest beside ur-u wide ; 6&£-iyams more fre-
quent beside sas-vant constant ; 6s-istha very quick beside 6s-am quickly ;
b&rh-istha very lofty beside brh-dnt great ; yaV -istha youngest beside
yuv-an youth ; v^r-istha most excellent beside var-a choice ; sadh-istha
straightest beside sadh-ii straight.

1 With the accent of the ordinal suffix tam&.

2 When used as an ordinal suffix tama forms its f. in accented i
(cp. 107).

8 Except jyestha meaning eldest and kanistha meaning youngest.

96 DECLENSION [103

£. In a few examples the suffix is added to the derivative form of
the root which appears in the adjective ; thus as-istha (WK-IO-TO-S) beside
as-u (wrc-v-s) swift (from as reach} ; tiksn-iyams sharper beside tiksna
sharp (from tij be sharp) ; nav-iyams newer, nav-istha newest beside n&va
new ; svad-iyams ffiicov, sudv-ior) sweeter, svad-istha (tf5-iffTo-s) beside
svad-ti (r)8-v-s, suav-i-s) sweet (from svad be sweet).1

a. Beside the usual forms in lyams there occur about
half a dozen alternative comparatives made with the shorter
form of the suffix, yams : tav-yams (tav-iyams) stronger ;
nav-yams (nav-iyam-s) newer ; pan-yams (pan-iyams)
more wonderful, bhu-yams2 (bhav-iyams) becoming more,
greater-, rabh-yams (rabh-iyams) more violent; sah-yams
(sah-iyams) stronger. Some half-dozen more have no
alternative form beside them: jya-yams greater, older;
pr^-yams dearer, pr^-stha dearest (priya dear) ; vas-yams
better, vas-istha best (vasu good) ; sr^-yams (/c/oeiW) better,
sr^-stha best (sri be bright), san-yams (Lat. sen-ior) older
(sana old), sth^-yams most steadfast (sthi-ra firm).

b. Some comparatives and superlatives belong to their
positives in sense only ; e. g. kan-iyams 3 lesser, younger,
kan-istha smallest 4 and kan-istha youngest (alpa small) ;
ne"d-iyams (Av. nasd-yah) nearer, ne~d-istha (Av. nazd-
ista) nearest (antika near), vars-iyams higher, vars-istha5
highest (vrddha grown up).

1 From the adj. pap^, bad, the radical element of which is uncertain,
is formed direct the comparative pap-iyams in the TS.

2 Here the vowel remains unchanged. This is also the case in the
corresponding superlative bhu-y-istha, which moreover adds the suffix
with an intervening y.

3 Cp. kan-ya girl (= kania), Gk. ftaivo-s (= KOVIO-S).

4 Appears in this sense in the TS.

5 Cp. vdrs-man n., vars-m&n m. height.

104]

CARDINALS

97

NUMERALS.

104. Cardinals.

1. 6-ka.

19. nava-dasa.

2. dva (Svo, Lat. duo).

20. vimsati 8 (Lat,

3. tri (rpi, Lat. tfn).

viginti).

4. catur (Lat. quatuor).

30. trim-sat.

5. panca (Trej/re).

40. catvarim-sat.9

6. sas (e£, Lat. sea;).

50. panca-sat (7rei>-

7. sapta (cTrra).

TTJ-KOVTd).

8. asta1 (o/CT6t>, Lat. oc£o,

60. sas-ti.10

Gothic ahtau).

70. sapta-ti.

9. nava (Lat. wovem).

80. asi-ti.11

10. dasa2(<$e/ca).

90. nava-ti.

11. 6ka-dasa.3

100. satam (i-Karov,

12. dva-dasa4(5c6-5e/ca).

Lat. centum).

13. trayo-dasa.5

1,000. sahasra n.

14. catur-dasa.6

10,000. a-yiita n.

15. panca-dasa.

100,000. ni-yiitan.

16. so-dasa.7

1,000,000. pra-yiitan.

17. sapta-dasa.

10,000,000. arbuda n.

18. asta-dasa.1

100,000,000. nyarbuda n.

1 asta is an old dual form.

2 The cardinals between 10 and 20 are Dvandra compounds formed
by prefixing the accented unit to das"a ten.

3 Here 6ka stands for 6ka under the influence of dva-daSa.

4 Here the N. du. is retained instead of the stem form dva.

5 trayo, for trayas (45. 2), is the N. pi. (105).

6 catur as first member of a compound is regularly accented c&tur-.

7 For sas-da6a through saz-dasa (cp. 69 c, note 3).

8 This and the remaining cardinals are substantives. Those from
twenty to ninety are either old compounds (adj. and substantive : two
decades, &c.) or derivatives formed with -ti.

9 oatvarim for catvari, n. pi. (105), like vimSati and trim6&t.

10 Sixty to ninety are abstract f. nouns derived from the simple
cardinals (except asi-ti) meaning hexad of tens, &c.

11 as"i- is radically cognate to as-ta.

1819

II

98 DECLENSION [104-105

a. The numbers intermediate between the decades 20-100
are Dvandva compounds formed by prefixing the accented
unit to the decade ; e. g. asta-vimsati 28 ; <§ka-trimsat 31 ;
trayas-trimsat 33 ; nava-catvarimsat 49 ; nava-sasti 69 ;
navasiti 89 ; panca-navati 95, san-navati 96, asta-navati
98 ; <§ka-satam 101, catuh-satarn 104, trimsac-chatam 130.

a. Intermediate numbers may also be expressed by adding together
unit and decade with or without ca ; e.g. nava ca navatim ca ninety and
nine, navatim nava ninety-nine.

£. In the TS. the number preceding a decade is also expressed by
e"kan no" by one not = minus one ; thus 6kan no" vimSati twenty less one
= 19 ; 6kan n& catvarhnjiat 39 ; <§kan n& sasti 59 ; e"kan naSIti 79 ;
6kan na" Satam 99.

&. There are two ways of forming multiples. The larger
number in the du. or pi. may be multiplied by the smaller
used as an adjective ; e. g. dv6 sate" 200 ; sastim sahasra
60,000 ; trini sata tri sahasrani trimsac ca nava ca 3,339.
Otherwise the multiplier prefixed to the larger number
forms with it a possessive (adjective) compound accented on
the last syllable ; e. g. trayastrimsat tri-satah sat-sahasrah
6,333.

a. Multiples of numbers below 100 are sometimes formed in these two
ways ; e.g. navatir nava nine nineties = 810 ; tri-sapta" 21, tri-nava" 27.

Declension of Cardinals.

105. Only the first four cardinals, like other adjectives,
distinguish the genders. 6ka one, while inflected chiefly in
the s., forms a pi.1 also in the sense of some ; dva two is of
course inflected in the dual only.

1. 6ka is declined like the pronominal adjectives visva

1 A N. f. dn. form of 6ka in the sense of a certain appears in 6ke
yuvati (AV.) a certain pair of maidens.

105] CARDINALS 99

and sarva ' (120 6). The forms occurring in the Samhitas

are:

m. s. N. 6kas. A. 6kam. I. 6kena. G. 6kasya. L.

e*kasmin. PL N. 6ke. D. 6kebhyas.
f. s. N. (§ka. A. 6kam. I. (§kaya. G. 6kasyas. PL N.

6kas.
n. s. N. <§kam. PL N. (§ka.

2. dva to is declined quite regularly as a dual, like
priya (97 A. 1). The forms occurring are :

m. K dva,2 dvau. I. dvabhyam. G. dvayos. L. dvayos.
f. N. dve\ I. dvabhyam.
n. N. dve\ L. dvayos.

3. tri three is declined in the m. n. pi. quite regularly, like
siici (98 B). The f. stem is tisr,3 the inflexion of which
differs in the N.A. from other r stems4 by adding the
normal ending as to the unmodified stem. The forms
occurring are :

m. PL trayas. A. trm. I. tribhis. D. tribhyas. G.

trmam. L. trisu.
f. N. tisras. A. tisras. I. tisrbhis. D. tisrbhyas. G.

tisfnam.8
n. N.A. tri, trini.

4. catiir four in the m. n. has the strong stem catvar
(cp. Lat. quatuor). In the G. pi., though the stem ends in

1 The only form of the Ab. s. occurring, e"kat, follows the nominal
declension ; it is used in forming compound numerals, ekan n& trim-
sat 29, &c. (TS.) ; 6kasmat, used in the same way, occurs in a B. pas-
sage of the TS.

2 The dual form is retained in the numeral compound dva-da6a 12.
Otherwise dvi is used as the stem in compounds, as dvi-p&d biped, and
in derivation, as dvi-dha in two ways, &c.

3 Probably for tri-sf, formed like sva-sr (101. 1, note 5).

4 Except nar-as (101. 1 c).

6 Once written tisrnam, though the r is actually long metrically.

H2 '

100 DECLENSION [105-106

a consonant, n is inserted before the case-ending.1 The
f. stem is cdtasr, which is inflected exactly like tisr and
shifts its accent like panca. The forms occurring are :
m. N. catvar-as. A. catiir-as. I. catiir-bhis. D. catiir-

bhyas. G. catur-nam.2
f. N. A. catasr-as. I. catasrf-bhis. D. catasf-bhyas. G.

catasrnam.
n. N.A. catvar-i.

106. The cardinals from five to nineteen, though used
adjectivally, do not distinguish gender and take no ending
in the N.A.3 They also have in common the peculiarity
of accenting a before the consonant terminations 4 and the
final syllable in the G.

a. The forms of sas six occurring in the Samhitas are :
N.A. sat (27). I. sad-bhis. D. sad-bhyas. L. sat-sii.

&. The forms of asta eight indicate that it was an old
dual.5 The forms that occur are :
N.A. asta,6 astau. I. asta-bhis. D. asta-bhyas. L. asta-sii.

c. panca five as well as sapta seven and the cardinals
from nine to nineteen are declined like neuters in an (90. 2)
except in the G., which follows priya (97). The forms
occurring are :

N.A. panca. I. panca-bhis. D. panca-bhyas. G. pan-
canam. L. panca-su.

1 Like san-nam, the G. of sis, which, however, does not seem to
occur in any of the Samhitas.

2 With accent on the final syllable like the G. of panca, &c.

3 Except asta and ast&u which are N. A. dual forms.

4 Except asta, which accents the terminations.

6 Meaning probably the tivo tetrads (perhaps with reference to the
fingers of the two hands).

6 asta is the stem used as the first member of compounds in the
RV., but asta begins to be used in the AV.

106-107] SYNTAX OF CARDINALS. ORDINALS 101

N.A. sapta. I. sapta-bhis. D.Ab. sapta-bhyas. G.

saptanam.

N.A. nava. I. nava-bhis. D. nava-bhyas. G. navanam.
N.A. dasa. I. dasa-bhis. D. dasa-bhyas. G. dasanam.

L. dasa-su.
N.A. Skadasa. D. ekadasa-bhyas. N. dvadasa. D. dva-

dasa-bhyas. N. trayodasa. I. trayodasa-bhis. D.

trayodasa-bhyas. N. pancadasa. D. pancadasa-

bhyas. N. sodasa. D. sodasa-bhyas. N. saptadasa.

D. saptadasa-bhyas. N. astadasa. D. astadasa-bhyas.

N. navadasa. I. navadasa-bhis. D. 6kan na vim-

satyai (TS.).

d. The cardinals for the decades from twenty to ninety
with their compounds are f. substantives, nearly always
inflected in the sing, and according to the declension of the
stem final ; e. g. N. vimsati-s. A. vimsati-m. I. vim-
saty-a. N. trimsat. A. trimsat-am. I. trimsat-a. L.
trimsat-i. If the sense requires it these numerals may be
used in the pi. ; e. g. nava navatis nine nineties ; navanam
navatmam of nine nineties.

sata hundred and sahasra thousand are neuters, which
may be declined in all numbers ; e. g. dve" sate" two hundred ;
sapta satani seven hundred ; tri sahasrani three thousand.

a. In the group five to nineteen the bare stem may be used in the
oblique cases agreeing with substantives; e.g. sapta hotrbhih with
seven priests (cp. 194 B a).

Ordinals.

107. The ordinals, being all adjectives ending in a, are
declined in the m. and n. like priya. The f. is formed
with I (declined like devi) except in the first four, which
take a.

The ordinals from first to tenth are formed with various
suffixes, viz. (t)iya, tha, thama, ma. The formation

102 DECLENSION [107

of the first four is somewhat irregular. The stems of the
ordinals from eleventh to nineteenth differ from those of
the corresponding cardinals only in being accented on the
final syllable ; their inflexion differs from that of the latter
in following priya. Thus ekadasa eleventh forms the
cases : m. s. A. ekadasa-m. PI. N. ekadasasas. A. eka-
dasan. I. ekadasais.

The ordinals from twentieth to ninetieth (including their
compounds), which also end in accented a, seem to be
abbreviated forms of the corresponding cardinals ; e. g.
catvarimsa/or^e^.1

The ordinals for hundredth and thousandth are formed
with the superlative suffix tama accented on the final
syllable : sata-tama, sahasra-tama.2

1st pra-thama,3 f. a.4

2nd dvi-t-iya,5 f. a.

3rd trt-iya,6 f. a (Lat. tert-

iu-s).

tur-iya,7 f. a (for catur-
lya through k-tur-
4th -! iya).

jcatur-tha, f. i (rerap-
ro-y, Lat. quartu-s).

5th panca-ma, f. i.
6th sas-thd, (Lat. scx-tu-s).
sapta-tha.
sapta-md (Lat. septi-

mu-s).
8th asta-ma.
9th nava-ma.
10th dasa-ma (Lat. deci-
mu-s).

1 Only about three examples of this formation have been noted in
the Samhitas, and four in the Brahmanas.

2 Sahasra-tama has been noted in B. only.

3 Probably for pra-tama" /omwos£, the th being due to the influence of
catur-thd, &c.

4 Both prathama and trtiya have one case-form each according to
the pronominal declension in the AV. : G. prathamdsyas and L. trti-
yasyam.

5 From an older dvi-ta" second.

6 From an older tr-ta" third.

7 When used in the fractional sense of one-fourth accented on the
first syllable : tiiriya (AV.) ; similarly in B. ca"turtha one-fourth,
trtiya one-third.

107-109] ORDINALS. NUMERAL DERIVATIVES 103

llth eka-dasa.

21st eka-vimsa.

34th catus-trimsa (B.).

40th catvarimsa.

48th asta-catvarimsa.

52nd dva-pancasa (B.).

61st eka-sas-ta (B.).

100th sata-tama.

1000th sahasra-tama (B.).

Numeral Derivatives.

108. A number of derivatives, chiefly adverbs, are formed
from the cardinals.

a. Multiplicative adverbs : sa-kf t once (lit. one making) ;
dvi-s twice (Gk. 6Y-y, Lat. bi-s) ; tri-s thrice (Gk. rpi'-y, Lat.
tri-s) -, catus four times (for catiir-s). Others are expressed
by the cardinal and the form kf tv-as times (probably makings
A. pi. of kftu) which is used as a separate word except in
asta-krtvas (AV.) eight times ; e. g. dasa krtvas (AV.) ten
times, bhuri krtvas many times.

I. Adverbs of manner formed with the suffix dha :
dvi-dha in two ways or parts, tri-dha and tre-dha, catur-
dha, panca-dha, so-dha, sapta-dha, asta-dha, nava-dha,
sahasra-dha.

c. A few multiplicative adjectives derived with the
suffixes a, taya, vaya meaning -fold : tray-a threefold,
dvay-a twofold ; dasa-taya tenfold ; catur-vaya fourfold.

PRONOUNS

109. Pronouns differ from nouns both in origin and
declension. They are derived from a small class of roots
with a demonstrative sense, and they have several distinct
peculiarities of inflexion. These peculiarities have in
varying degrees been extended to several groups of adjec-
tives.

104 DECLENSION [109

A. Personal Pronouns.

This class displays the greatest number of peculiarities :
they are for each person derived from several roots or
combinations of roots ; they are specially irregular in
inflexion : they do not distinguish gender, nor to some
extent even number. Some resemble neuters in form ;
a few have no apparent case-ending ; in two of them the
A. pi. m. does duty as f. also.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

N. ah-am I tv-am thou vay-am we yu-y-am 7 ye

A. mam me ^ tv-omthee^* asman3w6 )yusman3«/ow
I. ma-y-a ly me j tva asma-bhis l)y }

ttva-y-a y us

D. ma-hyam1) . tu-bhyam1 to jasma-bhyam yusma-bhyam

ma-hya ) tkee I for us for you

Ab. mad from me tvad/r om thee asmad from yusmad from

us you

G. ma-ma of me tava of thee asmaka-m 4 yusmaka-m 4

of us of you

L. ma-y-i in me (tv62 . fasma-su5 in yusm.6 in you

\^ , .in thee}
(tva-y-i 4 us

(asme6

1 Cp. Lat. mihi and tibi.

a Only this, the normal form (=tv&-i), is found in the RV. The
irregular tvdyi appears in the later Samhitas.

3 asman and yusman are new formations according to the nominal
declension. The stems are compounds of the pronominal elements
a + sma and yu + sma. The VS. twice has the distinctly f. new forma-
tion yusmas.

4 asmakam and yusmakam are properly the A. n. s. of the posses-
sives asmaka our, yusmaka your.

5 asmasu is a new formation following the analogy of asmabhis.

6 asme is also used as D.

7 Changed from original yus-am by the influence of vay-dm.

v

109-110] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 105

uW-<$^- / n

Dual. N. vam J and avam (SB.) we, two. A. avam 2 (&B.) ws

few. Ab. ava-bhyam (K.) and avad (TS.)from us two.

G. avay-os (SB.) of us two.
N. yuvam ye tivo. A. yuvam you ttvo. I. yuva-bhyam

and yuva-bhyam by you two. Ab. yuvad from you

two. G. yuv-6s 3 and yuvay-os of you ttvo.

a. The following unaccented forms, inadmissible at the beginning
of a sentence, are also used : Sing. A. ma, tva. D.G. me 4 (Gk. /xot), te *
(Gk. rot). Du. A.D.G. nau (Gk. v&i), vam. PI. A.D.G. nas (Lat. nos),
vas (Lat. vos').

b. The usual stems of these pronouns used in derivation or as first
member of compounds are : ma, asma ; tva, yuva, yusma ; thus
asma-druh hating us ; tva-yata presented by thee ; yuva-yu desiring you
two ; yusma-y&nt desiring you. But the forms mad, asmad, tvad occur
a few times as first member of compounds ; thus mdt-krta done by me ;
asm&t-sakhi having us as companions ; tva"d-yoni derived from thee.

B. Demonstrative Pronouns.

110. The inflexion of these pronouns, as compared with
the nominal a declension, has the following peculiarities :

1. in the sing, d is added instead of m in the N.A. n. ;
the element sma appears between the root and the ending
in the D.Ab.L. m. n., and sya in the D.Ab.G.L. f. ; in
(instead of i) is the ending in the L. m. n. 2. in the pi.
the N. m. ends in e instead of as ; the G. has s instead of n
before the ending am.

The stem ta tliat (also lie, slw, it) may be taken as the type
for the inflexion of adjectival pronouns :

1 vam (probably abbreviated for avam), occurring once in the KV.,
seems to be the only N. du. form found in the Samhitas.

2 The N. avam (SB.) and A. avam (K. SB.) seem to have been the
normal forms judging by yuv&m and yuvam.

3 yuv-6s occurs in the RV., yuv&y-os in the TS.

4 me and te, originally L., have come to be used as D. and G.

106

DECLENSION

[no

SINGULAR.

MASC.
N. sa-s1

NEUT.

ta-d
ta-d

FEM.

j.

sa

ta-m

ta-y-a

MASC.

t<§ (rot')

PLURAL.

NEUT. FEM.

($a)) ta-s
and I
tanij ta-s

ta-bhis

D.

ta-smai 4

ta-syai 4

Ab.

ta-smad 5

ta-syas

G.

ta-sya6

ta-syas

L.

jta-smin

ta-syam

1 sa-smin 7

tan

t<§-bhis, tais

(TO??)
te"-bhyas ta-bhyas

ta-s-am 9
ta-su

t^-su

DUAL.

N.A. m. !ta, tau, f. t6, n. t6. I.Ab. m. f. ta-bhyam. G.L.
m. n. tdy-os.

a. The stem t4 is frequently used in derivation, especially that of
adverbs, as t&-tha thus ; the n. form t£d often appears as first member
of a compound ; e. g. t&d-apas accustomed to that work.

a. There are three other demonstratives derived from ta:
1. e-ta 10 this here is inflected exactly like ta. The forms
that occur are :

1 On the Sandhi of s&s cp. 48 ; s&, sa, ts£-d = Gk. 6, rjt r6 ; Gothic sa,
so, that-a (Eng. that, Lat. is-tud).

2 tfi,-m, ta-m, t^-d = Gk. r6-v, TTJ-V, TO.

3 Sometimes t€na.

4 These forms have the normal ending e : = t&sma-e, t&sya-e. In
B. tasyai is substituted for the G. tasyas.

5 The Chandogya Upanisad once has sasmad.

6 Homeric Gk. TOIO (for fo'sto).

7 s&smin occurs nine times in the RV., tasmin twenty-two times.

8 Cp. Lat. is-torum.

9 Gk. racav (for raa<uv\ cp. Lat. is-tdrum.

10 The stem used in derivation and composition is eta ; e.g. eta-vant
so great, eta-dfs such. In B. etad is sometimes thus used : etad-da
giving this, etan-maya consisting of this.

no-ill] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 107

m. Sing. N. esa-s (67, 48). A. etam. I. et<§na. D. eta-
smai. Ab. etasmad. G. etasya. — Du. N. eta, etau. —
PI. N. et6. A. etan. I. etSbhis, etais. D. etcSbhyas.

f. Sing. N. esa. A. etam. I. etaya. L. etasyam. — Du. N.
ete\ PI. etas. A. etas. I. etabhis. L. etasu.

n. Sing. N. etad. PI. N. eta, etani.

2. tya is derived from ta with the suffix ya and means
that. It is common in the RV., but rare in the later
Samhitas.1 Unlike ta it is used adjectivally only, hardly
ever occurring without its substantive. It never begins
a sentence except when followed by the particles u, cid,
mi, or su.

The forms occurring are :

m. Sing. N. sya.2 A. tyam. G. tyasya. — Du. N. tya. —

PI. N. ty<§. A. tyan. I. tyebhis.
f. Sing. N. sya. A. tyam. I. tya. G. tyasyas.— Du. N.

ty<§.— PI. N. tyas. A. tyas.
n. Sing. tyad. PI. tya, tyani.

3. A very rare derivative is ta-ka this little, which occurs
only twice in the RV. in the two A. sing, forms m. taka-m,
n. taka-d.

a. sima seems to have the sense of an emphatic demonstrative.3 The
forms occurring are: Sing. N. simas. V. sima. D. simasmai (n.)«
Ab. sim&smad. PI. sime".

111. In the inflexion of the demonstrative which in the
N. s. m. appears as ay am this liere the two pronominal

1 It is also found a few times in B.

2 See 48, note 3.

3 It is generally given the meaning of every, all, but the above is the
more probable sense.

108

DECLENSION

[ill

roots i (which nearly always has a double ending) and a1
are employed, the former in the N. (except the m. s.) and A.,
the latter in all the other cases. The A. s. m. f. starts from
i-m (the A. of i), which appears in the du. and pi. also, so
that all these cases have the appearance of being formed
from a stem ima.2

SINGULAR.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.
N. a-y-am i-d-am i-y-am
A. im-am3 i-d-am i-m-am

I.
D.
Ab.
G.
L.

e-na4

a-y-a 7

a-smai

a-syai

a-smad 5

a-syas

r fi

_>

a-sya 6

a-syas

a-smin

a-syam

MASC.

i-m-e'

PLURAL,

NEUT.

i-m-a
i-m-an ii-m-ani

e-bhis
e-bhyas

e-s-am
e-su

FEM.

i-m-as
i-m- as

a-bhis
a-bhyas

a-s-am
a-sii

N.A. m. im-a, -au.
m. G.L. a-y-6s.

DUAL.
f. im-e". n. im-e'.

m. D.Ab. a-bhyam

1 These two roots are frequently used in derivation ; e. g. a-tra here,
d-tha then ; i-da now, i-h& here, 1-tara other,

2 From this stem is formed the adverb ima'-tha thus.

3 Here i-m is the A. of i, from which is also formed the A. f. I-m
and the n. i-d, both used as particles.

4 Also twice ena. ena and the remaining oblique cases, when used
as nouns and uneniphatic, may lose their accent.

5 The Ab., according to the nominal declension, ad is used as a
conjunction.

6 Both asya and asmai may be accented &sya and dsmai when
emphatic at the beginning of a Pada. The form imdsya occurs once
in the EV. instead of asy& ; and imasmai in the AA. for asmai.

7 Instead of aya the form an&ya occurs twice in the RV. : it is the
only form from ana found in the Samhitas.

112] DEMONSTEATIVE PEONOUNS 109

112. The demonstrative corresponding to ayam employed
to express remoteness in the sense of that there, you, and
having in the N. s. the curious forms m. f. a-s-au, n. a-d-as,
uses throughout its inflexion the root a, but always in an
extended form. The fundamental stem used in every case
(except the N. s.) is a-m A. m. of a. This is extended by
the addition of the particle u to amu,1 which appears
throughout the sing, (with u in A. f.) except the N. In the
pi. amu is the f. and ami the in. stem (except the A.).

The forms occurring are :

m. Sing. N. a-sau.2 A. a-m-u-m. I. amu-n-a. D. amu-
smai. Ab. amu-smad. G. amu-sya.:i L. amu-smin. —
PI. ami. A. amun. D. ami-bhyas. G. ami-sam.

f. Sing. N. a-sau.2 A. a-m-u-m. I. amu-y-a.4 D. amu-
syai. G. amu-syas. — Du. N. amu. — PI. N. amu-s.
A. amu-s.

n. Sing. N. a-d-as.5 PI. N. amu.

a. The unaccented defective pronoun of the third person
e-na6 (he, she, it) is declined in the A. of all numbers,
besides the I. s. and the G. du.
A. sing. m. ena-m, f. ena-m, n. ena-d. — Du. m. enau,

f. ene. — PI. m. enan, f. ena-s.
I. sing, enena. G. du. en-os (EV.), enay-os (AV.).

a. Another unaccented demonstrative pronoun restricted to the RV.
(excepting one form in the AV. and the TS.) is tva meaning one, many

1 This stem is used in derivation ; e.g. amu-tas thence, amu-tra there,
amu-tha tfms (B.).

2 Here the pronominal root a seems to be compounded with sa
extended by the particle u : a-sa"-u and a-sa-u.

3 This is the only example of sya being added to any but an a stem.

4 Used adverbially, with shifted accent.

5 Here the neuter a-d of the pronominal root a is extended with
the suffix as.

0 Here we have the same e (L. of a) as in 6-ka one, e-v& thus.

110 DECLENSION [iia-m

a one, generally repeated in the sense of one another. The n. tvad
meaning partly is also found in B. The forms occurring are :

Sing. N. m. tvas, f. tva, n. tvad. A. m. tvam. I. m. tvena.
D. m. tvasmai, f. tvasyai. — PI. m. tve.

p. The pronoun ava" this occurs only in the G. du. form av6s in
combination with vam meaning of you two being such (used like sa in
sa" tv&m thou as such).

Y. The pronoun Snaa1 this occurs only once in the AV. (also in
the AB.) in the formula dmo 'ha"m asmi this am I.

C. Interrogative Pronoun.

113. The interrogative ka ^vho ? which ? what ? used as
both substantive and adjective, is inflected exactly like ta,
excepting the alternative neuter form ki-m,2 which instead
of the pronominal d has the nominal m (never elsewhere
attached to a stem in i). The forms occurring are :
m. Sing. ka-s. A. ka-m. I. ke"na. D. ka-smai. Ab.

ka-smad. G. ka-sya. L. ka-smin. — Du. N. kau. —

PL ke\ I. k(§-bhis. L. k<§-su.
f. Sing. N. ka. A. ka-m. I. ka-y-a. G. ka-syas.— PL N.

ka-s. A. ka-s. L. ka-su.
n. Sing. N.A. ka-d and ki-m.3— PL N. ka and kani.

a. In derivation the stems ki and ku as well as ka are used ; e. g.
kf-y-ant how great ? ku-ha where ? ka"-ti how many ?

As first member of a compound kad occurs twice : kat-paya" greatly
swelling, k&d-artha having what purpose ? kim is similarly used a few
times in the later Samhitas and the Brahmanas; e.g. kim-kar&
servant.

&. k£-ya, an extended form of k&, occurring in the G. only, is found
in combination with cid : k&yasya cid of whomsoever'.

1 From this pronoun are derived the I. and Ab. adverbs (with
shifted accent) ama at home and amad/row near.

a The N. s.m. is preserved as a petrified form in n£-ki-s and ma-ki-s
no one, nothing.

3 The relative frequency of k&-d and ki-m is in the RV. as two to
three.

u-116] RELATIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 111

D. Relative Pronoun.

114. The relative pronoun ya ivho, ivhicJi, tvhat is declined
exactly like ta. The forms occurring are :

m. Sing. N. ya-s. A. ya-m. I. y6na * and y6na. D. ya-

smai. Ab. ya-smad.2 G. ya-sya. L. ya-smin.
Du. N. ya, yau. D. ya-bhyam. G. ya-y-os. L. ya-y-os

and y-6s.3
PI. N. y6. A. yan. I. y6-bhis and yais. D. ye"-bhyas.

G. y6-s-am. L. y6-su.
f. Sing. N. ya. A. ya-m. I. ya-y-a. G. ya-syas.

L. ya-syam.

Du. N. ye\ G.L. ya-y-os.
PI. N. ya-s. A. ya-s. I. ya-bhis. D. ya-bhyas. G. ya-

s-am. L. ya-su.
n. N.A. Sing. ya-d. Du. y6. PI. ya, yam.

a. The stem of y& is used to form derivatives ; e. g. yd-tha as. It
also appears as first member of a compound in ya-dfs which like. The
neuter y&d is also once used thus in the KV. : y&t-kama desiring what ;
and a few times later, as yad-devatya having what deity (K.), yat-karin
doing what (SB.).

&. A form of the relative extended with the diminutive suffix ka,
ya-kd who, occurs only in the sing. N. m. ya-ki-s, f. ya-ka, and the pi.
N. m. ya-k&

B. Reflexive Pronouns.

115. a. The reflexive indeclinable substantive sva-y-am 4
self is properly used as a N. referring to all three persons.
Sometimes, however, its N. nature being forgotten, it is

1 ye"na is twice as common in the KV. as yena, but the Pada text
always reads ye"na.

2 The Ab., formed according to the nominal declension, yad is used
as a conjunction.

3 y-6s for yd-y-os like yuv-6s for yuv&-y-os (p. 105, note 3).

4 Derived from sva with suffix am and interposed y (like a-y-am
from a).

112 DECLENSION [115-116

used as an A. ; e. g. ayuji svayam dhuri I have yoked myself
to the pole ; or as agreeing in sense with another case. It
occasionally means spontaneously.

I. tanu body is used in the EV. to express self in other
cases than the N. and in all numbers. The reflexive
pronoun sva and a possessive G. may be added ; e. g.
yajasva tanvam worship thyself and yajasva tanvam tava
svam worship thine own self. The reflexive sense of tanu
has disappeared in B.

a. There are one or two instances in the RV. of the incipient use of
atm&n soul in a reflexive sense ; e. g. balam dadhana atmani putting
force mto himself. The A. atmanam is frequently thus used in the later
Samhitas (though never in the RV.) and in B.

c. sva own is a reflexive adjective referring to all three
persons and numbers. It is inflected like an ordinary
adjective (priya) in the KV. (except the two isolated
pronominal forms svasmin and svasyas). The forms
occurring are :
m. Sing. N. svas (Lat. suus). A. svam. I. sv6na and

sv6na. D. svaya. Ab. svad. G. svasya. L. sv6

and svasmin (KV.).
PI. N. svas. A. svan. I. sv^bhis and svais. D. sv6-

bhyas. G. svanam. L. sv^su.
f. Sing. N. sva (Lat. suo). A. svam. I. svaya. D.

svayai. Ab. svayas. G. svasyas (RV.). L. svayam.
PI. N. svas. A. svas. I. svabhis. L. svasu.
n. Sing. N.A. svam (Lat. suum). PL A. sva (Lat. sud).

a. As first member of compounds sv& several times appears in the
substantive (as well as the adj.) sense ; e. g. svd-yukta self-yoked.
svaydm is similarly used in the Samhitas ; e. g. svayam-ja self-lorn.

F. Possessive Pronouns.

116. Possessive pronouns are rare because the G. of the
personal pronoun is generally used to express the sense
which they convey.

116-117] PKONOMINAL COMPOUNDS 113

a. The possessives of the first person are mama-ka and
mama-ka * my and asma-ka our. The forms occurring are :
Sing. D. mamakaya. G. mamakasya.
Sing. N. m. mamaka-s. n. mamaka-m. PI. G. mamaka-

nam.
Sing. N.A. n. asmaka-m.2 I. asmakena. PL N. m.

asmakasas. I. asmake-bhis.

The n. s. asmakam, by far the commonest of these forms, is used as
the G. pi. of the personal pronoun = of us (109).

I. The possessives of the second person are tava-ka 3 thy
(only D. pi. tavak<$bhyas), tva thy (only I. pi. f. tva-bhis),
and yusma-ka your. Of the latter, three forms occur:
I. s. m. yusmakena, pi. f. yusmaka-bhis, and the N.A. n.
yusmakam used as the G. pi. of the second personal
pronoun = of you.

c. Besides being used reflexively sva is fairly often
employed as a simple possessive, generally of the third
person (like Lat. suus), Ms, her, their, but also of the second,
thy, your, and of the first, my, our. The inflexion (115 c) is
the same in both senses.

G. Pronominal Compounds and Derivatives.

117. With -drs4 in the KV. and other Samhitas, and
with -drksa in the VS. are formed the following pronominal
compounds : i-dfs, ta-drs, eta-drs such, ki-drs 5 what like ?
ya-drs 6 what like ; i-drksa, eta-drksa such.

1 Both formed from the G. of the personal pronoun mama. There
also occurs once in the RV. the derivative ma-k-ma my.

2 The VS. has once the N. s. asmak&-s our formed like mamaka beside
mamaka.

3 Formed from the G. tava.

4 In the Brahmanas (SB.) -drsa begins to appear : I-ifsa, ta-dfsa,
ya-dfsa.

5 N. s. m. kl-dfii.

0 With the very anomalous L. s. yadfsmin.

114 DECLENSION [117-119

a. With the suffix -ka, conveying a diminutive or contemptuous
meaning, very rarely used derivatives are formed from the pronouns
ta, ya, sd, and asau: ta-k£ that little (110. 3), yd-ka who, which (1U6),
sa-kfi, (only N. s. f. sa-ka), asakau N. s. f. that little (VS.).

b. With the comparative suffix -tara derivatives are formed from i,
k£, y&, and with the superlative suffix -tama from the latter two
(cp. 120) : i-tara other, ka-tard tohich of two? ya-tar& who or which of two ;
ka-tamd who or which of many ? ya-tamd who or which of many.

118. a. With ti derivatives with a numerical sense are
formed from ka, ta, and ya : ka-ti hoiv many ? (Lat. quot) ;
ta-ti so many (Lat. toti-dem) ; ya-ti as many. No inflected
forms of these words occur. They appear in the sense of
the N.A. pi. only.

b. With yant expressing the quantitative meaning of
much derivatives are formed from i and ki : i-yant so much :
n. s. N. iyat, pi. iyanti ; f. s. D. iyatyai ; ki-yant Jwtv
much ? : sing. N. n. kiyat ; f. kiyati. D. m. kiyate.
L. kiyati (for kiyati).

c. With vant are formed derivatives from personal pro-
nouns with the sense of like, attached to ; and from others in
the quantitative sense of great ; thus tva-vant like thce,
ma- vant like me, yuva-vant devoted to you two (only D.
yuvavate) ; yusma-vant belonging to you (only L. pi.
yusmavatsu) ; eta- vant and ta-vant so great ; ya-vant as
great] i-vant so great (s. N. n. ivat. D. m. n. ivate.
G. ivatas: pi. A. m. ivatas) ; ki-vant how far? (G. s.
kivatas).

Indefinite Pronouns.

119. a. The only simple pronoun which has an un-
doubtedly indefinite sense is sama (unaccented) any, every.
The six forms that occur are : m. s. A. samam. D. samas-
mai. Ab. samasmad. G. samasya. L. samasmin.
PI. N. same.

119-120] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 115

&. Compound indefinite pronouns are formed by combining
the particles ca, cana, or cid with the interrogative ka ;
thus kas ca any, any one ; kas cana any one soever, every ;
kas cid any, some ; any one, some one.

Pronominal Adjectives.

120. Several adjectives derived from or allied in mean-
ing to pronouns, follow the pronominal declension (110)
altogether or in part.

a. The adjectives that strictly adhere to the pronominal
type of inflexion are anya other and the derivatives formed
with tara and tama from ka and ya. The specifically
pronominal cases of the latter that have been met with are :
Sing. N. n. katara-d, yatara-d; katama-d, yatama-d.
D. katama-smai. G. f. katama-syas. L. f. yatama-syam.
PI. N. m. katame', yatame", yatar6 (K.). From itara occur in
the Kathaka Samhita m. D. s. itarasmai and N. pi. itare.
The forms of anya that occur are :
m. Sing. N. anya-s. A. anya-m. I. anye"na. D. anya-

smai. G. anya-sya. L. anya-smin. — PI. N. anye".

A. anyan. I. any6-bhis and anyais. D. any^-bhyas.

G. any6-sam. L. any6-su.
f. Sing. N. anya. A. anyam. I. anya-y-a. D. anya-syai.

G. anya-syas. L. anya-syam. — Du. N. any6. — PI. N.

anya-s. A. anya-s. I. anya-bhis. G. anya-sam.

L. anya-su.
n. Sing. N. anya-d. — Du. I. anya-bhyam. — PI. N. anya.

6. visva all, sarva wliole, 6ka one are partially pronom-
inal, differing only in taking m instead of d in the N.A. s. n.
Thus:
Sing. D. visvasmai.1 Ab. visvasmad.1 L. visvasmin.1

1 The RV. has the nominal forms D. vfsvaya, Ab. visvat, L. viSve,
once each.

i2

116 DECLENSION [120

PL N. visVe. G. m. visvesam. f. visvasam ; but

sing. N. n. visvam.
Sing. D. m. sarvasmai. f. sarvasyai. Ab. m. sarvasmad.

PI. m. N. sarve. G. sarvesam. f. sarvasam ; but

sing. N. n. sarvam.
Sing. G. f. e"kasyas. L. m. Skasmin.1 PI. N. m. 6ke ;

but sing. N. n. 6kam.

c. More than a dozen other adjectives, having pronominal
affinities in form or meaning, occasionally have pronominal
case-forms (but always m instead of d in the N.A. s. n.) :

1. Eight adjectives formed with the comparative suffixes
-tara and -ra, and the superlative suffix -ma : lit-tara higher,
later :

Sing. Ab. L. littarasmad and uttarasmin beside uttarad
and uttare. L. f. littarasyam. PL N. uttare. G. littare-
sam (K.).

apa-ra, ava-ra, upa-ra lower: sing. L. aparasmin (K.).
PL N. m. apare, avare, upare beside aparasas, avarasas,
uparasas and liparas.

ava-ma loivest : L. s. f. avamasyam.

upa-ma highest : L. s. f. upamasyam.

para-ma farthest: sing. f. G. paramasyas. L. para-
masyam. PL m. N. param^ (K.).

madhya-ma middlemost : sing. f. L. madhyamasyam.

2. Five other adjectives with a comparative or pronominal
sense :

para ulterior : sing. D. m. parasmai. Ab. m. parasmad.
L. m. parasmin beside pare. G. f. parasyas. PL m. N.
pare beside parasas. G. paresam.

purva prior: sing. D. purvasmai. Ab. purvasmad.
L. purvasmin (K.), f. purvasyam. PL N. m. purve (very
common) beside purvasas (very rare). G. m. purvesam,
f. purvasam.

1 The AV. once has 6ke as L. sing.

120-121] CONJUGATION 117

nema l other : sing. L. in. ne"masmin. Pl.N. m. neme, but G. nema-
nam (unaccented).

sv£ own (116c), otherwise following the nominal declension, has
once sing. Gr. f. svasyas and once L. n. svasmin.

samana similar, common has once sing. Ab. n. samanasmad beside
samanad.

3. Four adjectives, numerical in form or meaning, have
occasional pronominal endings: prathama first has the
sing. G. f. prathamasyas ; 2 trtiya third has sing. L. f.
trtiyasyam ; 2 libhaya of both kinds has pi. m. G. ubhayesam
and N. libhaye beside libhayasas and libhayas ; 3 ke>ala
exclusive has once pi. N. m. keVale.

CHAPTER IV
CONJUGATION

121. Vedic verbs are inflected in two voices, active and
middle. The middle forms may be employed in a passive
sense, except in the present system, which has a special
passive stem inflected with the middle endings. Some
verbs are conjugated in both active and middle, e. g. krno-ti
and krnu-t6 makes • others in one voice only, e. g. as-ti is ;
others partly in one, partly in the other; e.g. varta-te
turns, but perfect va-vart-a has turned.

a. The Vedic verb has in each tense and mood three
numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural, all in regular use,

1 Perhaps from nd+ima not this.

2 Cp. 107, note 4.

3 ubha both is declined in the Du. only : N.A. m. ubha, f. ubh6.
I. ubhabhyam. «>. ubhayos.

118 CONJUGATION [121-122

with three persons in each (except the imperative in which
the first persons are wanting).

122. There are five tenses in ordinary use, the present,
the imperfect, the perfect, the aorist, and the future. The
terms imperfect, perfect, aorist are here used in a purely
formal sense, that is, as corresponding in formation to the
Greek tenses bearing those names. No Vedic tense has an
imperfect meaning, while the perfect sense is generally
expressed by the aorist.

a. Besides the indicative there are four moods, the
subjunctive, the injunctive, the optative, and the imperative,
all of which are formed from the stems of the present, the
perfect, and the aorist. The imperfect has no moods ; and
the only modal form occurring in the future is the unique
subjunctive karisyas from kr make.

a. The subjunctive, very common in the RV. and the AV., is three
or four times as frequent as the optative ; the latter, comparatively
rare in the Samhitas, occurs far oftener than the former in the
Brahmanas. Both form stems with a special modal affix.

The subj. adds a to the indicative stem : when the latter distin-
guishes a strong and a weak stem, the a is attached to the former,
while it coalesces to a with the final of a stems. Thus the pr. subj.
stem of dun milk is doh-a, of yuj join yunaj-a, but of bhu le bhava.

The opt. adds ya or i, which when strong and weak stems are dis-
tinguished are attached to the latter. Stems in a take I throughout ;
others take I in the mid., ya in the act. ; thus the pr. opt. stem of bhu
is bhave ( = bhava-i) ; of dub. and yuj, act. duh-ya, yunj-ya, mid.
duh-I, yunj-I.

The inj. is identical in form Jfith an unaugmented past tense
(impf., aor., plup.). It is very common in the KV., but has almost
disappeared from the Brahmanas, except when used with the prohibi-
tive particle ma.

The impv. has no modal affix, adding its endings direct to the tense
stem ; e. g. 2. s. pr. vid-dhi know, pf. mumug-dhi release, aor. 6ru-dhf hear.
In the 2. 3. du. and 2. pi. act. and mid. (ending in tarn, tarn; atham,
atam ; ta : dhvam) it is identical with the inj.

b. Participles, active and middle, are formed from the
tense stem of the present, future, aorist, and perfect. There

122-124] THE PRESENT SYSTEM 119

are also passive participles, present, perfect, and future ;
the first being formed from the passive stem in ya, the
other two from the root.

c. There are also gerunds, which are stereotyped cases
(chiefly instrumentals) of verbal nouns and having the value
of indeclinable active participles with a prevailingly past
sense ; e. g. gatvi and gatvaya having gone.

d. There are about a dozen differently formed types of
infinitives, which are cases of verbal nouns made directly
or with a suffix from the root, and hardly ever connected
with a tense stem ; e. g. idh-am to kindle ; gan-tavai to go.

The Present System.

123. While the perfect, aorist, and future tenses add the
endings directly (or after inserting a sibilant) to the root,
the present group (that is, the present with its moods and
participles, and the imperfect) forms a special stem, which
is made in eight different ways by primary verbs.

The Eight Classes.

124. These eight classes are divided into two conjuga-
tions. In the first, which comprises the first, fourth, and
sixth classes, the present stem ends in a and remains
unchanged throughout (like the a declension). The secondary
conjugations in a (desideratives, intensives, causatives,
denominatives) as well as the future follow this conjugation
in their inflexion. The second or graded conjugation is
characterized by shift of accent between stem and ending,
accompanied by vowel gradation. It comprises the remain-
ing five classes, in which the terminations are added directly
to the final of the root or to the (graded) suffixes no or na,
and the stem is changeable, being either strong or weak.

120 CONJUGATION [1-25-127

A. First Conjugation.

125. 1. The first or Bhu class adds a to the last letter of
the root, which being accented takes Guna of a final vowel
(short or long) and of a short medial vowel followed by one
consonant ; e. g. ji conquer : jay-a ; bhu be : bhav-a ; budh
awake: b<5dh-a.

2. The sixth or Tud class adds an accented a to the root,
which being unaccented has no Guna. Before this a final f
is changed to ir.

8. The fourth or Div class adds ya to the last letter of
the root, which is accented ; l e.g. nah bind : nah-ya ; div
play : div-ya (cp. 15, 1 c).

B. Second Conjugation.

126. The strong forms are :

1 . The singular present and imperfect active ;

2. The whole subjunctive ;

3. The third person singular imperative active.

In these forms the vowel of the root or of the affix, being
accented, is strengthened ; while in the weak forms it is
reduced because the terminations are accented.

a. In the ninth class the accented form of the affix is na, the unac-
cented ni or n ; in the seventh they are respectively n& and n.

127. 1. The second or root class adds the terminations
directly to the root (in the subjunctive and optative with
the intervening modal suffix). The radical vowel in the
strong forms is accented 2 and takes Guna if possible (125, 1) ;

1 The weak form in some instances assumed by the root points to
the ya having originally been accented (cp. 183 B 1).

2 Except in the augmented (128 c) imperfect singular because the
augment is invariably accented.

127] FORMATION OP PRESENT STEM 121

e. g. from i go : sing. 1. 6-mi, 6-si, 6-ti ; dvis hate : dve"s-mi,
dv6k-si, dve"s-ti.

2. The third or reduplicating class adds the terminations
directly to the reduplicated root, which in the strong forms
takes Guna if possible. Contrary to analogy, the accent is
not, in the majority of verbs belonging to this class, on the
root in the strong forms, but on the reduplicative syllable
(which is also accented in the 3. pi. act. and mid.).1 Thus
hu sacrifice: Sing. 1. ju-ho-mi, pi. l.ju-hu-mas; bhr&ear:
Sing. 1. bi-bhar-mi, pi. 1. bibhr-mas, 3. bi-bhr-ati.2

3. The seventh or infixing nasal class adds the termina-
tions directly to the final consonant, before which na is
inserted in the strong and n in the weak forms ; e. g. yuj
join : yu-na-j-mi. yunj-mas.

4. The fifth or nu class adds in the strong forms the
accented syllable n6, which in the weak forms is reduced
to nu ; e. g. kr make : kr-no-mi, krn-mas.3

a. Four roots ending in n have the appearance of being formed with
a suffix u, but this is probably due to the an of the root being reduced
to the sonant nasal ; thus from tan stretch ta-nu (for tn-nu). In the
tenth Mandala of the RV. the anomalous weak stem kur-u appears
three times (beside the normal kr-nu) and the strong stem karo in
the AV. These stems gave rise to the eighth or u class of Sanskrit
grammar.

5. The ninth or na class adds to the root in the strong
forms the accented syllable na, which in the weak forms is
reduced to ni before consonants and n before vowels. The
root shows a tendency to be weakened. Thus grabh seize :
grbh-na-mi, pi. 1. grbh-ni-masi and grbh-ni-mas, 3. grbh-
n-anti.

1 It is doubtless as a result of this accentuation that these verbs
lose the n of the endings in these two forms : bibnr-ati, bibhr-ate.

2 The intensives conjugated in the active (172) follow this
class.

3 The u is dropped before the m of the 1. pi. ind. act. and mid.

122 CONJUGATION [128-129

The Augment.

128. The imperfect, pluperfect, aorist, and conditional
generally prefix to the stem the accented syllable a which
gives to those forms the sense of past time.

a. This augment sometimes appears lengthened before
the n, y, r, v of seven or eight roots : aor. a-nat (nas attain) ;
impf. a-yunak, aor. a-yukta, a-yuksatam (yuj join) ; impf.
a-rinak and aor. a-raik (ric leave) ; aor. a-var (vr cover) ;
impf. a-vrni (vr choose); impf. a-vrnak (vrj turn), impf.
a-vidhyat (vyadh wound).

1). The augment contracts with the initial vowels i, u, r
to the Vrddhi vowels ai, an, ar ; e. g. aichat impf. of is
wish ; aunat impf. of ud wet ; ar-ta (Gk. a>p-ro) 3. s. aor.
mid. of r go.

c. The augment is very often dropped : this is doubtless
a survival from the time when it was an independent particle
that could be dispensed with if the past sense was clear from
the context. In the KV. the unaugmented forms of past
tenses are much more than half as numerous as the augmented
ones. In sense the forms that drop the augment are either
indicative or injunctive, these being about equal in number
in the BV. About one-third of the injunctives in the KV.
are used with the prohibitive particle ma (Gk. \Lr\]. In the
AV. nearly all the unaugmented forms are injunctives, of
which four-fifths are used with ma.

Reduplication.

129. Five verbal formations take reduplication : the
present stem of the third conjugational class, the perfect
(with the pluperfect), one kind of aorist, the desiderative,
and the intensive. Each of these has certain peculiarities,
which must be treated separately under the special rules of
reduplication (130, 135, 149, 170, 173). Common to all are
the following :

129-130] REDUPLICATION 123

General Rules of Reduplication.

1. The first syllable of a root (i. e. that portion of it which
ends with a vowel) l is reduplicated ; e. g. budh perceive :
bu-budh.

2. Aspirated letters are represented by the corresponding
unaspirated ; 2 e. g. bhi fear : bi-bhi ; dha put : da-dha.

3. Gutturals are represented by the corresponding palatals,2
h by j ; e. g. gam go : ja-gam ; khan dig : ca-khan ; nan
smite: ja-ghan.

4. If the root begins with more than one consonant, the
first only is reduplicated ; e. g. kram stride : ca-kram.

5. If a root begins with a sibilant followed by a hard
consonant, the latter is reduplicated ; e. g. stha stand :
ta-stha ; skand leap : ca-skand. But svaj embrace : sa-svaj
(v is soft) ; smi smile : si-smi (m is soft).

6. If the radical vowel, whether final or medial, is long,
it is shortened in the reduplicative syllable ;3 e. g. da give:
da-da ; radh succeed : ra-radh.

Special Rule of Reduplication for the Third Class.

130. r and f are represented in reduplication by i ;
e. g. bhr bear : bi-bhar-ti ; pr fill : pi-par-ti. The root
vrt turn is the only exception : va-vart(t)-i.

a. Thirteen roots also reduplicate a with i,* while nine do so with a.

1 This is not always the case in the reduplication of intensives
(173 6).

2 There are some exceptions to this rule in the reduplication of
intensives (173, 3).

3 This rule does not apply to intensives (173), nor for the most
part to the reduplicated aorist (149, 2), and in the reduplicated perfect
it is subject to numerous exceptions (139, 9).

4 Three of these, pa drink, stha stand, han slay, have permanently
gone over to the a conjugation, while ghr&smeU is beginning to do $o.

124 CONJUGATION [131

Terminations.

131. The following table gives the terminations, which
are on the whole the same for all verbs, of the present
system. The chief difference is in the optative which is
characterized by e x in the first, and ya and 1 2 in the second
conjugation. The present indicative has the primary (mi,
si, ti, &c.), and the imperfect, the optative, and (with
some modifications) the imperative have the secondary
terminations (m, s, t, &c.), while the subjunctive fluctuates
between the two. Of the other tenses the future takes the
primary, and the pluperfect and the aorist, with the
benedictive and the conditional, take the secondary termina-
tions ; while the perfect has in the active (with many
variations) the secondary, and in the middle the primary
endings.

The following distinctions between the two conjugations
should be noted. In the first or a conjugation (as in the
a declension) the accent is never on the terminations, but
always on the same syllable of the stem (the root in the
first and fourth, the affix in the sixth class), which therefore
remains unchanged. On the other hand, in the second
conjugation (as in the declension of changeable stems) the
accent falls on the strong stem, which is reduced in the weak
forms by the shifting of the accent to the endings. In the
second conjugation therefore the endings are accented
except in the strong forms (126). The same applies to the
unaugmented imperfect (128).

1 That is, I coalescing with the final a of the stem ; e. g. bbaV-e
-=bhava-I.

2 That is, the modal affix shows vowel gradation (5 6).

131]

CONJUGATIONAL ENDINGS

125

PEESENT.

IMPERFECT.

ACTIVE.

OPTATIVE.
1st conj. 2nd conj.

SUB.T.

IMPV.

1.

mi1

(a)-m 5

lyam8

yam

ani, a

—

2.

si

s

is

yas

a-si, a-s

, t tat 9

)

~~ ~

dhi, hi

)

3.

ti

t

it

yat

a-ti, a-t

tu

1.

vas1

va1

iva

yava

a-va

—

2.

thas

tarn

itam

yatam

a-thas

tarn

3.

tas

tarn

it am

yatam

a- tas

tarn

1.

masi,2 mas l

ma1

ima

yama

a-ma

—

2.

tha, thana 3

ta, tana0

ita

yata

a-tha

ta, tana

10

3.

(a)-nti4

(a)-n, ur 7

lyur

yiir

a-n

(a)-ntu4

1 The final a of the stem in the first conjugation is lengthened before
m or v : bhava-mi, bhava-vas.

2 In the KV. masi is more than five times as common as mas, but in
the AV. mas is rather commoner than masi.

3 The only example of the ending thana in the a conjugation is
v£da- thana.

4 Reduplicated verbs and others treated as such drop the n in the
3. pi. ind. pr. and impv. act. In the whole second conj. the n is
dropped in the 3. pi. pres. impf. impv. mid.

5 m in the first (a-bhava-m), am in the second (&-dves-am).

6 There are no examples of this ending in the a conjugation.

7 The ending ur is taken by nearly all the verbs of the redupli-
cating class and by several of the root class.

8 These endings coalesce with the final a of the stem to eyam, es,
et, &c.

9 Verbs of the a conjugation have normally no ending in the
2. s. impv. ; but they not infrequently add tat, which occurs in B.
also. In the graded conjugation dhi, hi, tat are added to the weak
stem, and ana in some verbs of the ninth class : e. g. ad-dhi, s"rnu-
dhi ; srnu-hi, puni-hi ; as- ana ; vit-tat, krnu-tat.

10 Only two examples occur in the a conjugation : bhaja-tana and
nahya-tana.

126

CONJUGATION

[131

MIDDLE.

PRESENT.

1. 6

2. se

3. te

IMPF.

i2

thas

ta

OPTATIVE.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

IMPEI

iya4

ai

—

i-thas

a-se, a-sai5

sva

i-ta

a-te, a-tai6

tarn)

am )

1. vahe1

vahi1

i-vahi

a-vahai

2. ethe3(l),
athe (2)

etham3(l),
atham (2)

i-y-atham

aithe

3. ete3(l),
ate (2)

etam3(l),
atam (2)

i-y-atam

aite

1. mahe1

mahi 1

i-mahi

a-mahai)
a-mahe )

2. dhve

dhvam

i-dhvam

a-dhvai

3. nte (1),
ate (2)

nta(l),
ata (2)

i-r-an

a-ntai7|
a-nta8 )

etham 3 (;
atham

etam3(l)
atam (2)

dhvam

ntam (1)
atam (2)

1 The final a of the first conjugation is lengthened before m and v.

2 This i combines with the final a of the first conjugation to e :
bhave.

3 In these forms e takes the place of the final a of the a conjugation.

4 This modal I combines with the final a of the first conjugation to
e : bhaveya, &c.

5 The RV. has a-se only, the AV. and the Brahmanas a-sai only.

6 The form a-te is almost exclusively used in the RV., while a-tai
is the prevailing one in the AV., and the only one later.

7 The ending a-ntai occurs in B. only.

8 The form in a-nta in the a conjugation, where it is very common,
e. g. bhava-nta, is an injunctive ; but in the graded conjugation a
subj., e.g. krnav -a-nta (inj. krnvata).

132] CONJUGATIONAL ENDINGS 127

Paradigms.

132. Since the three classes of the first conjugation, as
well as all the secondary verbs the stems of which end in a,
are inflected exactly alike,1 one paradigm will suffice for all
of them. The injunctive is not given here because its forms
are identical with the unaugmented imperfect. Forms of
which no examples are found in the Samhitas are added in
square brackets.

1 All other conjugational stems ending in a, the passive (154), the
a future (151), the a (141 a), the sa (147), and the reduplicated (149)
aor. are similarly inflected.

128

CONJUGATION

[132

FIRST CONJUGATION.

First Class : bhu be

Present.

ACTIVE.

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

1. bhava-mi

2. bhava-si
3. bhava-ti

bhava-vas

bhava-thas
bhava-tas

fbhava-masi
1 bhava-mas
bhava-tha
bhava-nti

Imperfect.

1. a-bhava-m
2. a-bhava-s
3. a-bhava-t

[a-bhava-va]
a-bhava-tam
a-bhava-tam

a-bhava-ma
a-bhava-ta
a-bhava-n

Imperative.

2. bhava )
bhava-tatf
3. bhava-tu

bhava-tam
bhava-tam

bhava-ta
bhava-ntu

Subjunctive.

1. bhava-ni) ^
bhava j \9^-'\
2. bhava-si)
bhava-s )
3. ( bhava-ti
Ibhava-t

bhava-va

bhava-thas
bhava-tas

%

bhava-ma

bhava-tha
bhava-n

1. bhav-eyam

2. bhav-es

3. bhav-et.

Optative.

[bhav-eva]
| bhav-etam]
bhav-etam

Participle.

bhav-ant, f. -I

bhav-ema
[bhav-eta]
bhav-eyur

132]

FIRST CLASS

129

FIRST CONJUGATION.

Present stem bhav-a.

MIDDLE.
Present.

SINGULAR.

bhav-e

bhava-se
bhava-te

DUAL.

bhava-vahe

[bhav-ethe]
bhav-ete

PLUKAL.

bhava-mahe

bhava-dhve
bhava-nte

a-bhav-e

a-bhava-thas

a-bhava-ta

Imperfect.

[a-bhava-vahi |
a-bhav-etham
a-bhav-etam

a-bhava-mahi]

a-bhava-dhvam]

a-bhava-nta

Imperative.

bhava-sva
bhava-tam

bhav-etham
bhav-etam

bhava-dhvam
bhava-ntam

Subjunctive.

^ ^

bhav-ai
f bhava-se
(bhava-sai (AV.)
( bhava-te
1 bhava-tai

bhava-vahai
bhav-aithe
bhav-aite

bhava-mahai
[bhava-dhve]
[bhava-nte]

bhav-eya

bhav-ethas]

bhdv-eta

Optative.

bhav-evahi
[bhav-eyatham]
[bhav-eyatam]

bhav-emahi
[bhav-edhvam ]
[bhav-eran]

Participle,
bhava-mana, f. a

180

CONJUGATION

[132

SECOND CONJUGATION.

Second Class : i go : Present stem 6, i.
ACTIVE.
Present.

1.

SINGULAR. DUAL.

PLURAL.

i i-masi

6-mi [i-vas]

(i-mas

2.

6-si i-thas

ji-tha
li-thana

8.

<S-ti i-tas

y-anti

Imperfect.

1. ay- am [di-va]
2. ai-s ai-tam

8. ai-t ai-tam

di-ma
jai-ta
1 ai-tana
ay- an

Imperative.

2.
3.

c

1.

2.
3.

Ji-hi, i-tdm
U-tat

y-dntu

6-tu i-tam

ud s^^^-V Subjunctive.

1 ay-ani dy-a-va
lay-a
f ay-a-si ay-a-thas
1 dy-a-s
( ay-a-ti dy-a-tas
(ay-a-t

ay-a-ma
dy-a-tha
dy-a-n

Optative.

1. i-yam i-ya-va
2. i-ya-s i-ya-tam
3. i-ya-t i-ya-tam

i-ya-ma
i-ya-ta
i-yur

Participle.

y-ant, f. y-at-i

132]

SECOND CLASS

SECOND CONJUGATION.

bru speak : Present stem brav, bru.

MIDDLE.
Present.

DUAL.

[bru-vahe]
bruv-athe
bruv-ate

181

SINGULAR.

bruv-6

(bru-te"
I bruv-6

[a-bruv-i]
a-bru-thas

a-bru-ta

bru-sva

bru-tam

PLURAL.

bru-mahe
bru-dhv6
bruv-ate

Imperfect.

[ a-bru-vahi] [a-bru-mahi]

[a-bruv-atham] a-bru-dhvam

[a-bruv-atam]

Imperative,
[bruv-atham]

[bruv-atam]
Subjunctive.

d-bruv-ata

bru-dhvam
bruv-atam

brav-ai
brav-a-se
brav-a-te

brav-a-vahai
brav-aithe
brav-aite

brdv-a-mahai
[brav-a-dhve]
brav-a-nta

bruv-i-ya
[bruv-i-thasj
bruv-i-ta

Optative.

[bruv-i-vahi]
[bruv-i-yatham |
[bruv-i-yatam]

bruv-i-mahi
[bruv-I-dhvam]
[bruv-I-ran]

Participle.

bruv-ana, i'. a

K2

132

CONJUGATION [13-2

Third Class : bhr bear :

SINGULAK.

ACTIVE.
Present.

DUAL.

[bibhr-vas]

bibhr-thas
bibhr-tas

Imperfect.

PLUEAL.

( bibhr-masi
1 bibhr-mas
bibhf-tha
bibhr-ati

a-bibhr-ma
fa-bibhr-ta
(a-bibhr-tana
f a-bibhr-an
I a-bibhar-ur

( bibhr-ta
1 bibhr-tana

bibhr-atu

1. bibhar-mi

2. bibhar-si
3. bibhar-ti

1. a-bibhar-am
2. a-bibhar(28)

3. a-bibhar (28)

[a-bibhr-va]
a-bibhr-tam

a-bibhr-tam

2. (bibhr-hi
(bibhr-tat

Imperative,
bibhr-tam

bibhr-tam
Subjunctive.

3. bibhar-tu

1. bibhar-ani
2. bibhar-a-s
3. bibhar-a-t

[bibhar-a-va]
bibhar-a-thas
[bibhar-a-tas]

bibhar-a-ma
[bibhar-a-tha]
bibhar-a-n

1. bibhr-yam
2. bibhr-ya-s
3. bibhr-ya-t

Optative.

[bibhr-ya-va]
[bibhr-ya-tam]
bibhr-ya-tam

bibhr-ya-ma
[bibhr-ya-ta]
bibhr-yur

Participle,
bibhr-at, f. bibhr-at-I

132] THIKD CLASS

Present stem bibhar, bibhr.

MIDDLE.

Present.
DUAL.

133

SINGULAR.

bibhr-e

bibhr- se
bibhr-te"

[a-bibhr-i]
a-bibhr-thas

a-bibhr-ta

bibhr-vahe

bibhr-athe
bibhr-ate

PLURAL.
bibhr-mahe

bibhr- dhve
bibhr-ate

Imperfect.

a-bibhr-vahi] [a-bibhr-mahi]

[a-bibhr-atham] [a-bibhr-dhvam]

[a-bibhr-atam] a-bibhr-ata

bibhr- sva
bibhr-tam

Imperative,
bibhr-atham

[bibhr- atam]
Subjunctive.

bibhr-dhvam
bibhr-atam

[bibhar-ai]
bibhar-a-se
bibhar-a-te

bibhar-a-vahai
[bibhar-aithe]
[bibhar-aite]

bibhar- a-mahai
[bibhar-a-dhve]
bibhar-a-nta

Optative.

bibhr-iya [bibhr-i-vahi] bibhr-i-mahi

[bibhr-i-thas] [bibhr-i-yatham] [bibhr-i-dhvam]
bibhr-i-ta [bibhr-i-yatam] bibhr-i-ran

Participle.

bibhr-ana, f. a

134

CONJUGATION

[132

Fifth Class : kr make :

ACTIVE.

Present.

1.

o

3.'

1.
2.
3.

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

[krn-vas]

krnu-thas
krnu-tas

Imperfect.

PLURAL.

1 krn-masi
(krn-mas
krnu-tha
krnv-anti

[a-krn-ma]
a-krnu-ta
a-krnv-an

kr-n6-mi

kr-no-si
kr-n6-ti

•

a-krnav-am ! fa-krn-va]
a-krno-s a-krnu-tam
a-krno-t a-krnu-tam

Imperative.

( krnu-hi
2. kmu .
( krnu-tat
3. [krn6-tu]

krnu-tam
krnu-tam

[ krnu-ta
\ krn6-ta
( krnd-tana
krnv-antu

1.

2.

3.

Subjunctive.

( krnav-a krnav-a-va
(krnav-ani
krnav-a-s [krnav-a-thas]
krnav-a-t [krnav-a- tas]

krnav-a-ma

krnav-a-tha
krnav-a-n

Optative.

1. krnu-yam [krnu-ya-va]
2. [krnu-ya-s] [krmi-ya-tam]
3. krnu-ya-t [krnu-ya-tam]

krnu-ya-ma
[krnu-ya-ta]
[krnu-yur]

Participle.

krnv-ant, f. krnv-at-i

132] FIFTH CLASS

Present stem kr-no, kr-nu.

MIDDLE.
Present.

135

SINGULAR.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

krnv-6

[krn-vahe]

krn-mahe

krnu-s6
krnu-t6

krnv-athe
[krnv-ate]

[ krnu-dhv6 1
krnv-ate

krnv-e

[a-krnv-i]
a-kruu-thas
a-krnu-ta

krnu-sva

Imperfect.

[a-krn-vahij
[a-k rnv-atham]
[a-krnv-atam]

Imperative,
krnv-atham

a-krn-mahij

a-krnu-dhvam

a-krnv-ata

krnu-dhvam

krnu-tam

[krnv-iya]
[krnv-i-thas]
krnv-i-ta

krnv-atam!
Subjunctive.

krnv-atam

krnav-ai

krnav-a-se
krnav-a-te

krnav-a-vahai

krnav-aithe
krnav-aite

krnav-a-mahai

[krnav-a-dhve]
krnav-a-nta

Optative.

[krnv-i-vahi]

[krnv-i-yathamj

[krnv-i-yatam]

Participle.

krnv-ana, f. a

[krnv-i-mahi]

[krnv-i-dhvam]

[krnv-i-ran]

136

CONJUGATION

[132

SINGULAR.

Seventh Class: yujjom
ACTIVE.
Present.

DUAL.

PLURAL.

1.

2.
3.

yu-na-j-mi
yu-na-k-si (63, 67)
yu-na-k-ti (63)

[yunj-vas]
j yunk-thas]
[yunk-tas]

yunj-mas
[yunk-tha
yunj-anti

1.
2.
3.

[a-yunaj-am]
a-yunak (63, 61)
a-yunak (63, 61)

2. yun-dhi (10 a)

3. yunak-tu

Imperfect.

[a-ynfij-va]
a-yunk-tam
[a-yunk-tam]

Imperative.

[a-yunj-mal

[a-yunk-taj

a-yunj-an

yun-tam(10«) (yun-ta

(yunak-ta,-tana

yun-tam yunj-antu

Subjunctive.

[yunaj-ani
yunaj-a-s
yunaj-a-t

yunaj-a-va yunaj-a-ma
[yunaj-a-thas] [yunaj-a-tha]
yunaj-a-tas yunaj-a-n

Optative.

1. [yufij-yam] [yunj-ya-va] [yunj-ya-ma]

2. [yunj-ya-s] [yunj-ya-tam] [yuSj-ya-ta]

3. yunj-ya-t [yunj-ya-tam] [yunj-yur]

Participle.

yufij-ant, f. yunj-at-i

132]

SEVENTH CLASS

137

Present stem : yu-na-j, yu-n-j.

MIDDLE.
Present.

DUAL.

SINGULAR.

yunj-6

yunk-se

yunk-t6

[yunj-yahe]
yunj-athe
yunj-ate

PLURAL.

[yunj-mahe]
yung-dhv6
yunj-ate

[a-yunj-i]

[a-yunk-thas]

[a-yunk-ta]

Imperfect.

a-yunj-vahi]

a-yunj-atham]

a-yunj-atam]

[a-yunj-mahi]
[a-yung-dhvam]
a-yunj-ata

Imperative.

yunk-sva (63, 67) yunj-atham

yun-tam

[yunj-atam]

yung-dhvam
yunj-atam

Subjunctive.

[yunaj-ai]
[yunaj-a-se]
yunaj-a-te

[yunaj-a-vahai]
[yunaj-aithe]
[yunaj-aite]

yunaj-a-mahai
[yunaj-a-dhve]
[yunaj-a-nta]

Optative.

[yunj-iyaj
[yunj-i-thas]
yunj-i-ta

[yunj-I-vahi]
[yunj-i-yatham]
[yunj-i-yatam]

[yunj-i-mahi]
[yunj-i-dhvam]
[yunj-i-ran]

Participle.

yunj-ana, f. a

138

SINGULAR.

3.

2. (grbh-ni-M
1 grbh-ni-(t}at
| grbh-ana

8.

grbh-na-tu

1. grbh-n-ani

2. grbh-na-s

3. (grbh-na-t
tgrbh-na-ti

1. grbh-ni-yam

2. grbh-ni-ya-s

3. grbh-ni-ya-t

CONJUGATION [132

Ninth Class : grabh seise :
ACTIVE.
Present.

DUAL. PLURAL.

[grbh-m-vas]
grbh-ni-thas

grbh-ni-tas

Imperfect.

[a-grbh-ni-va]
a-grbh-ni-tam
[a-grbh-ni-tam]

Imperative,
grbh-ni-tam

grbh-ni-tam

Subjunctive.

[grbh-na-va]

[grbh-na-thas]

[grbh-na-tas]

grbh-m-masi
grbh-ni-naas
| grbh-ni-tha
( grbh-ni-thana
grbh-n-anti

[a-grbh-ni-ma ]
a-grbh-ni-ta
a-grbh-n-an

jgrbh-m-ta
\ grbh-ni-tana

grbh-n-antu

grbh-na-ma
grbh-na-tha
grbh-na-n

Optative.

[grbh-ni-ya-va] [grbh-ni-ya-ma]
[ grbh-m-y a- tarn] [grbh-ni-y a-ta]
[grbh-m-ya-tam] [grbh-m-y lir]

Participle.

grbh-n-ant, f. grbh-n-at-i.

132] NINTH CLASS

Present stem grbh-na, grbh-m, grbh-n.

MIDDLE.
Present.

SINGULAR. DUAL.

grbh-n-6 [grbh-ni-vahe]

grbh-ni-s6 [grbh-n-athe]

grbh-ni-t6 [grbh-n-ate]

a-grbh-n-i

Imperfect.

[a-grbh-ni-vahi]

PLURAL.
grbh-nl-mahe

[grbh-ni-dhv6]
grbh-n-ate

a-grbh-m-mahi

[a-grbh-ni-thas] La-grbh-n-atham] [a-grbh-m-dhvam
a-grbh-m-ta [a-grbh-n-atam] a-grbh-n-ata

grbh-ni-sva

Imperative,

[grbh-n- atham]

grbh-ni-dhvam

grbh-ni-tam [grbh-n- atam] grbh-n-atam

[grbh-n-ai]

[grbh-na-se]

[grbh-na-te]

[grbh-n-iya^
[grbh-n-ithas]
grbh-n-ita

Subjunctive.

grbh-na-vahai
[grbh-n-aithe]
[grbh-n-aite]

grbh-na-mahai \
[ grbh-na- dhve]
[grbh-na-nta]

Optative.

[grbh-n-i-vahi] [grbh-n-i-mahi]
[grbh-n-i-y atham] [grbh-n-i-dhvam]
grbh-n-i-yatam] [grbh-n-i-ran]

Participle.

grbh-n- ana, f. a

140 CONJUGATION [133

Irregularities of the Present Stem.
First Conjugation.

133. A. First or Bhu Class. 1. The radical vowel is
lengthened in gun hide and in kram stride (in the act. only) :
guha,1 krama-ti (but mid. krama-te) ; uh consider takes
Guna : 6h-a ; 2 krp lament does not take Guna : krp-a.s

2. gam go, yam restrain, yu separate form their present
stems with cha (Gk. ovc) : ga-cha (Gk. ftd-o-KO)), ya-cha,
yu-cha.

3. a. The four roots pa drink, stha stand, sac accompany,
sad sit form present stems that originally belonged to the
reduplicating class : piba (Lat. libo) ; tistha (tcrTrj-fju, Lat.
sisto)-, sasca4 (for sa-s(a)c-a); sida (for si-s(a)d-a ; Lat. sldo).

b. Four stems are transfers from the fifth or nu class,
being either used beside or having entirely superseded the
simpler original stems : i-nv-a-ti (from i send) beside i-n6-ti ;
ji-nv-a-ti (from ji quicken) beside ji-n6-si ; hi-nv-a-ti (from
hi impel) beside hi-no-ti ; pi-nv-a fatten, doubtless originally
pi-nu (Vpi).

4. dams bite and sanj hang lose their nasal : das-a, saj-a.

5. The ending tat (besides being regularly used in the

2. s. impv. by twelve verbs) is exceptionally used for the

3. s. in gacha-tat and smara-tat. Only one example occurs,
in this class, of the 2. pi. impv. act. ending tana: bhaja-
tana ; and one of dhva (for dhvam) in the 2. pi. mid. :
yaja-dhva.

1 Instead of taking Guna.

2 But uh remove remains unchanged (125, 1).

3 Against 125, 1.

4 A reminiscence of the reduplicative origin of this stem is the loss
of the nasal in the 3. pi. pres. sasc-ati and 3. pi. in.j. mid. sasc-ata.

133-134] IRREGULARITIES OF PRESENT SYSTEM 141

B. Fourth or Ya Class. 1. The radical syllable is
reduced in seven verbs : spas see loses its initial : pas-ya ;
vyadh pierce takes Samprasarana : vidh-ya ; a is shortened
in dha such : dha-ya ; ma exchange : ma-ya ; va weave :
va-ya ; vya envelope : vya-ya ; hva call : hva-ya.

2. Final r sometimes becomes both ir and ur : jf waste
aivay : jur-ya and jir-ya (AY.) ; tr cross : tur-ya and tir-ya ;
pr fill becomes pur-ya only (because of its initial labial).

3. sram be weary lengthens its vowel : sram-ya ; in B.
tarn faint and mad be exhilarated do the same : tam-ya,
mad-ya.

C. Sixth Class. 1. The radical vowel is nasalized in
eight verbs : krt cut : krnt-a ; trp be pleased : trmp-a ;
pis adorn : pims-a ; muc release : munc-a ; lip smear :
limp-a ; lup break : lump-a ; vidfind: vind-a ; sic sprinkle :
sinc-a. Three other roots, tud thrust, drh make firm, subh
shine have occasional nasalized forms.

2. Four roots form their present stem with the suffix cha
(cp. A 2) : is wish : i-cha ; r go : r-cha ; pras ask : pr-cha ; l
vas shine : u-cha. The root vrasc cut, which seems to be
formed with c,2 takes Samprasarana : vr&c-a.

3. Three roots in r, kr scatter, gr stvallow, tr cross, form
the present stems kir-a, gir-a, tir-a (beside tar-a).

a. Beside the normal use of the imperative suffix tat for the 2. s. in
mrdd-tat, vis&-tat, vrhd-tat, suvd-tat, it also appears for the 3. s. in
visa-tat.

134. A. Second or Boot Class.

1. The root is irregularly strengthened in the following
verbs :

a. ksnu whet, yu unite, nu and stu praise take Yrddhi
instead of Guna in the strong forms before terminations

1 With Samprasarana and loss of s. Cp. Lat. prec-or and po(rc)-sco,
and Old German /ragr-m ' ask ' and for -scon (forschen).

2 Cp. -vras-ka cutting, past participle vrk-n& cut, and vfk-a wolf.

142 CONJUGATION [134

beginning with consonants ; l e. g. stau-mi, a-stau-t, but
a-stav-am.

b. mrj wipe takes Vrddhi in the strong forms : marj-mi,
mars-ti, but mrj-mas, mrj-anti.

c. si lie mid. takes Guna and accents the radical syllable
throughout its weak forms : e. g. s. 1. 3. say-e, 2. se^se
(KeT-arat). It has the additional irregularity of inserting r
before the endings in the 3. pi. pr., impv., impf. : se~-r-ate,
se*-r-atam, a-se-r-an.

a. i go, bra speak, stu praise, han slay before the ending of the 2. pi.
impv. act. have the alternative forms e"-ta and £-tana, bravi-tana, sto-ta,
nan-tana. Bru has the same irregularity in the 2. pi. impf. abravi-ta
and &bravl-tana.

2. The root is irregularly weakened in the following
verbs :

a. vaii desire takes Samprasarana in the weak forms :
1. pi. us-masi, part, us-ana, but 1. s. vas-mi.

b. as be drops its initial a in the optative and all the weak
forms of the pr. and impv. ; e. g. opt. s-yat would be ;
pr. s-mas we are, s-anti (Lat. sunt) they are ; impv. du. 2.
s-tam, pi. 2. s-ta, 3. s-antu. The 2. s. impv. preserves the
vowel (in an altered form) in e-dhi (for az-dhi, Av. edl).
In the impf. it inserts I before the endings of the 2. 3. s. :
as-i-s, as-i-t (beside as — as-t).

c. han slay in weak forms loses its n before terminations
beginning with consonants (except m, y, v), as ha-tha, but
han-ti. In the 3. pi. pr., impv., impf., and part., the a is
syncopated and h reverts to the original guttural gh :
ghn-anti, ghn-antu, a-ghn-an; ghn-ant. The 2. s. impv.
is ja-hi (for jha-hf), with palatalized initial instead of
gha-hi.

1 In B. ru cry, su impel, sku tear, snu distil have the same peculiarity :
rau-ti, sau-ti, skan-ti, snau-ti.

134] IRREGULARITIES OF THE SECOND STEM 143

3. A vowel or semivowel is irregularly inserted in the
following verbs :

a. The roots an breathe, rud iveep, vam vomit, svas blow,
svap sleep insert i before all terminations beginning with
a consonant, except in the 2. 3. s. impf., where they insert I ;
e. g. an-i-ti, an-I-t ; a-vam-i-t ; svas-i-ti.

b. The roots Id praise and is rule add i in some forms of
the 2. s. and pi. mid.: id-i-sva; is-i-se (beside ik-se),
isi-dhve. Occasional forms (2. s. impv.) with connecting i
from other roots also occur: jan-i-sva be born, vas-i-sva
clothe, snath-i-hi pierce, stan-i-hi thunder.

c. The root bru speak inserts I in the strong forms
before terminations beginning with consonants : brav-i-mi,
a-brav-i-t ; am injure inserts I before consonants ; thus
am-i-ti, am-i-sva, am-i-t (TS.).

4. With regard to the endings :

a. The root sas order loses the n in the 3. pi. act. and
mid., and in the part. : sas-ate, sas-afru, sas-at.

b. The root dun milk is very anomalous in its endings.
The irregular forms are the following: act. impf. 3. s.
a-duh-a-t beside a-dhok, 3. pi. a-duh-ran beside a-duh-an
and duh-ur; opt. 3. s. duh-iyat (for duh-yat), 3. pi.
du.h-1-yan (for duh-yiir). Mid. pr. ind. 3. pi. duh-r6 and
duh-rate beside the regular dun-ate" ; * impv. 3. s. duh-am,2
3. pi. dun-ram and duh-ratam ; part, dugh-ana.

c. Roots ending in a take ur instead of an in the 3. pi. impf.
act. ; e.g. pa protect : a-p-ur. A few roots ending in consonants
show the same irregularity ; e. g. tvis be stirred : a-tvis-ur.

a. The verbs Is rule, duh milk, vid find, si lie frequently, and cit
observe, bru speak rarely, take e instead of te3 in the 3. s. pr. mid. : is-e,
duh-6, vid-6, s"£y-e ; cit-£, bruv-6.

P. In the AV. and B. subj. forms with a instead of a are not un-
common ; e. g. iy-a-s, &s-a-t,4 br6,v-a-thas, hto-a-tha, dd-a-n.

1 But with irregular accent, as also rih-ate" they lick.

2 In the AV. the 3. s. impv. mid. is similarly formed in s"&y-am.

3 This ii regularity occurs in B. also.

4 In B. subj. forms with primary endings are very rare.

144 CONJUGATION [134

B. Third or Reduplicating Class.

1. Boots ending in a drop the radical vowel before
terminations beginning with vowels ; e. g. ma measure :

1. s. mim-e, 3. pi. mim-ate.

a. The a of ma measure, ma "bellow, ra give, sa sharpen,
ha go away is in weak forms usually changed to I before con-
sonants (cp. 5 c) : mimi-te ; rari-thas ; x sisi-masi ; jihi-te.

&. da give, dha place, the two commonesjb verbs in this
class, use dad and dadh as their stems in all weak forms :
dad-mane, dadh-masi. When the aspiration of dadh is
lost before t, th, s it is thrown back on the initial : dhat-t6,
dhat-tha, dhat-sva. The 2. s. impv. act. is de-hi (for
daz-dhi) beside dad-dhi and dat-tat ; and dhe-hi (for
dhaz-dhi) beside dhat-tat,

2. The root vyac takes Samprasarana, e. g. 3. du. pr.
vivik-tas ; hvar be crooked makes some forms with
Samprasarana and then reduplicates with u : e.g. ju-hur-thas,

2. s. inj. mid.

3. bhas chew, sac accompany, has laugh syncopate the
radical vowel in weak forms ; thus ba-ps-ati 3 pi. ind. pr.
(but ba-bhas-a-t 3. s. subj.) ; sa-sc-ati 3. pi. ind. pr.,
sa-sc-ata 3. pi. inj. ; ja-ks-at (for ja-gh(a)s-at) pr. part.

a. The roots r go, da give, dha put, pr cross, yu separate, sa sharpen, hu
sacrifice have several forms with a strong vowel in the 2. impv. act. s.
yu-yo-dhi, s"i-s"a-dhi (beside sl-si-hf); du. yu-y6-tam (beside yu-yu-
tam); pi. i-y-ar-ta, da-da-ta and da-da-tana, da-dha-ta and da-dha-
tana, pi-par-tana, yu-yo-ta and yu-y6-tana, ju-h.6-ta and ju-ho-tana.
da, dha, ha leave, have similar strong forms in the 2. pi. impf. : &-da-
da-ta, a-dadha-ta, a-jaha-tana.

P. There are numerous transfers from this to other classes. The
roots pa drink, stha stand, nan stride form such stems according to the
a conjugation exclusively, piba, tistha, jighna (cp. 133 A. 3 a) ; while
ghra smell, bhas chew, ma bellow, ra give, sac accompany occasionally use
the a stems jighra, bapsa, mima, rara, sa^ca. The roots da give and
dha put also make some forms from their weak stems according to the

1 But 2. s. impv. act. rara-sva (AV.).

134] IRREGULARITIES OF PRESENT SYSTEM 145

a conjugation, as 3. s. pr. mid. dad-a-te, 3. pi. act. dddh-a-nti, 3. pi.
impv. da"dh-a-ntu. The former, dad, has even an incipient tendency
to become a root ; thus it forms the past part. pass. dat-t& given.

C. Fifth or Nu Class. 1. The u of the suffix is dropped
before the m of the 1. pi. ind. act. and mid., as krn-mas,
krn-mahe.

2. When nu is preceded by a consonant its u becomes iiv
before vowel ^endings ; e. g. 3. pi. pr. as-nuv-anti (but
su-nv-anti).

3. sru hear forms (by dissimilation) the stem sr-mi, and
vr cover (with interchange of vowel and semivowel) ur-nu
beside the regular vr-nu.

4. Beside the regular and very frequent present stem
kr-nu l (from kr make) there begins to appear in the tenth
Mandala of the RV. the very anomalous kuru.2 The strong
form of this stem, kar6, which has the further anomaly of
Guna in the root, first appears in the AV.3

a. The four roots ending in n, tan stretch, man think, van win, san
gain, have the appearance of forming their stem with the suffix u, as
tan-u. These (with three later roots) form a separate (eighth) class
according to the Hindu grammarians. But the a of these present
stems in reality probably represents the sonant nasal, = tn-nu. This
group was joined by kur-u, the late and anomalous present stem of
kr make (cp. C 4).

0. Five stems of this class, i-nu, r-nu, ji-nu, pi-nu, hi-nu, have
come to be used frequently as secondary roots forming present stems
according to the a conjugation : inv-a, fnv-a, jinv-a, pinv-a, hfnv-a.

7. In the 3. pi. pr. mid. six verbs of this class take the ending re 4
with connecting vowel i : iny-i-re", rnv-i-re', pinv-i-re", Srnv-i-re',
suiiv-i-r€, hinv-i-re'.

1 After the preposition pari around this stem prefixes an unoriginal
s : pari-s-krnv-dnti they adorn.

2 Twice in the 2. s. impv. kuru and once in the 1. pi. pr. ind.
kur-mas.

3 But the forms made from krnu are still six times as common in
the AV. as those from karo, kuru, which are the only stems used in B.

4 Like duh-re in the root class.

ISltl L

146 CONJUGATION [134-135

8. In the impv. the 2. s. act. has the ending hi, as srnu-hi, three
times as often in the RV. as the form without ending, as Srnu ; in the
AV. it occurs only about one-sixth as often as the latter ; in B. it has
almost disappeared. In the RV. the ending dhi also occurs in grnu-
dhf. The ending tat occurs in krnu-tat, hinu-tat, kuru-tat. In the
2. du. are found the strong forms krno-tam, hinotam ; and in the 2. pi.
krno-ta and krn6-tana, 6rn6-ta and 6rn6-tana, sun6-ta and suno-tana,
hin6-ta and hino-tana ; tan6-ti and kar6-ta.

D. Infixing Nasal Class. 1. anj anoint, bhanj break,
hims injure drop their nasal before inserting na : as
a-na-k-ti, bha-na-k-ti, hi-na-s-ti.

2. trh crush infixes n6 in the strong forms ; e. g.
tr-ne-dhi (69 c).

B. Ninth or Na Class. 1. The three roots ji overpower,
ju hasten, pu purify shorten their vowel before the affix :
ji-na-mi, ju-na-si, pu-na-ti.

2. grabh seize and its later form grab take Samprasarana :
grbh-na-mi, grh-na-mi (AV.).

3. jna "know and the four roots which in forms outside
the present system appear with a nasal, bandh bind, manth
shake, skambh make firm, stambh prop, drop their nasal :
ja-na-ti, badh-na-ti, math-na-ti, skabh-na-ti, stabh-na-ti.

4. Four roots ending in consonants, a£ eat, grab seize,
bandh "bind, stambh prop, have the peculiar ending ana in
the 2. s. impv. act. : as-ana, grh-ana, badh-ana, stabh-ana.

a. pr fill and mr crush make, beside the regular stems prna and
mrna, the transfer stems, according to the a conjugation, prn&
and mrn&, from which several forms occur.

The Perfect Tense.

135. This tense is formed by reduplication. Like the
present, it has, besides an indicative, the subjunctive,
injunctive, optative, and imperative moods, as well as
participles, and an augmented form, the pluperfect. It is
very common, being formed by nearly 300 verbs in the
Samhitas.

135-136] THE PERFECT 147

Special Rules of Reduplication.

1. r and f (= ar) and 1 (= al) always reduplicate with a
(cp. 139, 9) ; e. g. kr do : ca-kr ; tr cross : ta-tr ; kip be
adapted: ca-klp ; r go: ar (= a-ar).

2. Initial a or a becomes a ; e. g. an breathe : an ;
ap obtain : ap. The long vowels I and u remain unchanged
(= i-i and u-u) ; e.g. is move : 1. s. is-6 ; uh consider:
3. s. uh-e".

3. Roots beginning with i and u contract i-fi to I and
u + u to u except in the sing, act., where the reduplicative
syllable is separated from the strong radical syllable by its
own semivowel : e. g. i go : 2. s. i-y-6-tha ; uc be pleased :
2. s. mid. uc-i-se", but 3. s. act. u-v-6c-a.

4. Roots containing ya or va and liable to Samprasarana
in other forms (such as the past part, pass.) reduplicate
with i and u respectively. There are four such with ya :
tyaj forsake, yaj sacrifice, vyac extend, syand move on:
ti-tyaj, i-yaj, vi-vyac, si-syand ; and five with va : vac J
speak, vad speak, vap streiv, van carry, svap sleep: u-vac,
u-vad, u-vap, u-vah, su-svap. On the other hand the
three roots yam stretch, van win, vas wear have the full
reduplication ya or va throughout : ya-yam, va-van,
va-vas.

136. The singular perfect active is strong (like the sing,
pr. and impf. act.), the root being accented ; the remaining
forms are weak, the terminations being accented. The
endings are the following :

ACTIVE. MIDDLE.

SING. DUAL PLUR. SING. DUAL PLUR.

1.

2.
3.

a
tha

[va]
athur
atur

ma
a
tir

c
se
e

[yahe]
athe
ate

mahe
dhv<§
re

1 vac has two forms with the full reduplication : 3. s. act. va-vac-a
and 2. a. raid, va-vak-.se".

L2

148 CONJUGATION [136

a. Terminations beginning with initial consonants are as
a rule added directly to the stem ; mahe is invariably so
added. The endings tha, ma, se, re are nearly always
added direct to stems ending in vowels ; thus from da give :
dada-tha ; ji conquer : ji-ge~-tha ; ni lead : nine"-tha ; su
press : susu-ma ; hu call : juhu-re' ; kr make : cakar-tha,
cakr-ma, cakr-se~, but cakr-i-re".1 The same endings tha,
ma, se, re are added directly to roots ending in consonants,
if the final syllable of the stem is prosodically short, but
with connecting i2 if it is long ; 3 e. g. tatan-tha ; jagan-ma,
jagrbh-ma, yuyuj-ma ; vivit-se" ; ca-klp-re", tatas-re,
yuyuj-re", vivid-r6 ; but uv6c-i-tha, uc-i-ma, papt-i-ma ;
Ij-i-re".

6. Before terminations beginning with vowels (cp. 137, 1 a)

1. i preceded by one consonant become y, if preceded by

more than one, iy ; e. g. bhi fear : bibhy-atur ; sri resort :

2. u ordinarily become uv ; e. g. yu join : yuyuv-6 ; sru
hear : 6u6ruv-6 ; 6u swell : s*usuv-eV

3. r becomes r, f becomes ir ; e. g. kr make. : cakr-^,
cakr-d ; tf cross : titir-iir ; stf strew : tistir-6.

The Strong Stem.

1. Short vowels followed by a single consonant take Guna
throughout the singular active ; e. g. dis point : di-de^-a ;
uc be wont: uv-6c-a; krt cut: ca-kart-a ; but jinv quicken:
ji-jinv-athur.

1 Roots in r always add re with connecting i.

2 The final radical vowel a in weak forms is reduced to i, e. g. from
dha put, dadhi-dhve. This reduced vowel in the very common verbs
da and dha was probably the starting-point for the use of i as a con-
necting vowel in other verbs.

3 This is due to the rhythmic rule that the stem may not have two
prosodically short vowels in successive syllables. Cp. p. 155, note 2.

4 ButhucaZZ: juhv-e" ; bhu&e: babhuv-a; sii bring forth: sa-suv-a.

136-137] THE STKONG STEM H9

2. Final vowels take Vrddhi in the 3. s. ; * e. g. ni lead :
ni-nay-a ; sru hear : su-srav-a ; kr make : ca-kar-a.

3. Medial a followed by a single consonant takes Vrddhi
in the 3. s. ; * e. g. ban strike : ja-ghan-a, but taks fashion
ta-taks-a.

4. Koots ending in a take the anomalous ending au in
the 1. and 3. s. act. ; e. g. dha put : da-dhau. The only
exception is the root pra fill, which once forms the 3. s.
pa-pra beside the regular pa-prau.

The Weak Stein.

137. 1. In roots containing the vowels i, u, r the radical
syllable remains unchanged except by Sandhi ; e. g. yuj
join : yu-yuj-ma ; vid find : vi-vid-e" ; kr make : ca-kr-ma.

a. Before terminations beginning with vowels, i and r, if
preceded by one consonant become y and r, if by more than
one, iy and ar ; while u and r regularly become uv and ir ;
e. g. ji conquer : ji-gy-iir ; bhi fear : bi-bhy-iir ; kr make :
eakr-ur ; sri resort : si-sriy-e" ; yu join : yu-yuv-e ; sru
hear : su-sruv-e" ; su swell : su-suv-6 ; tr cross : ti-tir-iir ;
str strew : ti-stir-6.

2. In roots containing a medial a or final a the radical
syllable is weakened.

a. About a dozen roots in which a is preceded and
followed by a single consonant (e. g. pat) and which
reduplicate the initial consonant unchanged (this excludes
roots beginning with aspirates, gutturals, and for the most
part v) contract the two syllables to one containing the
diphthong e (cp. Lat. fac-io, fec-i)? They are the following :

1 The 1. sing, never takes Vrddhi in the RV. and AV. In an
Upanisad and a Sutra cakara occurs as 1. sing, and in a Sutra jigaya

2 This vowel spread from contracted forms like sa-zd (Av. hazd) weak
perfect stem of sad sit (az becoming e ; cp. 134, 2 & and 133 A 1).

150 CONJUGATION [U7

tap heat, dabh harm, nam bend, pac cook, pat Jit/, yat1
stretch, yam1 extend, rabh #rasp, labh ta/<;e, sak 6e aWe,
sap curse, sap sen?*. Examples are : pat : pet-atur ; &ak :
sek-iir.

The two roots tan stretch and mo follow join this class in
the AV.

b. Four roots with medial a but initial guttural, syncopate
their vowel: khan dig: ca-khn ; gam go : ja-gm ; ghas
eat: ja-ks; ban smite : ja-ghn.

Six other roots, though conforming to the conditions
described above (2 a), syncopate the a instead of contracting :
jan beget : ja-jn ; tan stretch : ta-tn ; pan admire : pa-pn ;
man. think: ma-mn; van wm: va-vn ; sac follow : sa-sc.

a. p&tjly both contracts and syncopates in the KV. : pet and pa-pt.

c. Eight roots containing the syllables ya, va, ra take
Samprasarana : yaj 2 sacrifice, vac and vad speak, vap strew,
vas dwell, van carry, svap sleep, grabh and gran seize-,
e. g. su-sup, ja-grbh and ja-grh. In the first six, as they
reduplicate with i or u, the result is a contraction to I and u.
Thus yaj : ij (= i-ij) ; vac : uc (= u-uc).

d. A few roots with medial a and penultimate nasal, drop
the latter : krand cry out : ca-krad j tarns shake : ta-tas ;
skambh£>rop: ca-skabh (AV.) ; stambh prop : ta-stabh.

e. Roots ending in a reduce it to i before consonants
and drop it before vowels ; e. g. dha place : dadhi-ma ;
dadh-ur.

1 In the wk. perfect of yat and yam the contraction is based on the
combination of the full reduplicative syllable and the radical syllable
with Samprasarana : yet = ya-it, yem = ya-im.

3 From yaj occurs one form according to the contracting class (2 a) :
yej-<§.

las]

PARADIGMS OF THE PERFECT

151

Paradigms of the Reduplicated Perfect.
138. 1. tud strike : strong stem tu-t6d ; weak tu-tud.

ACTIVE.
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

1. tu-t6d-a
2. tu-t6d-i-tha
3. tu-t6d-a

[tu-tud-va]
tu-tud-athur
tu-tud-atur

tu-tud-ma
tu-tud-a
tu-tud-iir

MIDDLE.

1. tu-tud-61 [tu-tud-yahe] tu-tud-mahe
2. tu-tut-se tu-tud-athe [tu-tud-dhve"] 2
3. tu-tud-6 tu-tud-ate tu-tud-r6

2. kr do: strong stem ca-kar, ca-kar ; weak cakr, cakr.
ACTIVE.

1. ca-kar-a
2. ca-kar-tha
3. ca-kar-a

[ca-kr-va]
ca-kr-athur
ca-kr-atur

MIDDLE.

[ca-kr-yahe ]
ca-kr-athe
ca-kr-ate

strong stem da- dha ;
ACTIVE.

ca-kr-ma
ca-kr-a
ca-kr-ur

ca-kr-mahe •
ca-kr-dhv6
ca-kr-i-r6

weak da-dh, da-dhi.

da-dhi-ma
da-dh-a
da-dh-ur

da-dhi-mahe
da-dhi-dhv6
da-dhi-r6

1. ca-kr-e
2. ca-kr-s^
3. ca-kr-6

3. dha place :

1. [da-dhau]
2. da-dha-tha
3. da-dh.au

[da-dhi-va]
da-dh-athur
da-dh-atur

1. da-dh-6
2. da-dhi-s6
3. da-dh-(§

MIDDLE.

[da-dhi-vahe]
da-dh-athe
da-dh-ate

1 Lat. tu-tud-i.

The only example of this form is dadhi-dhve.

152

CONJUGATION

[138

4. ni lead : strong stein ni-ne", ni-nai ; weak ni-ni.

ACTIVE.
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

1. ni-nay-a
2. ni-n6-tha
3. ni-nay-a

[ni-ni-va]
ni-ny-athur
ni-ny-atur

MIDDLE.

ni-m-ma
ni-ny-a
ni-ny-ur

1. ni-ny-6
2. ni-m-s6
3. ni-ny-6

[ni-ni-vahe j
ni-ny-athe
ni-ny-ate

ni-ni-mahe
ni.-m-dh.v6
ni-m-r6

5. stu praise

: strong stem tu-st6,

tu-stau ; weak tu-stu.

ACTIVE.

[tu-stu-va]
tu-stuv-athur
tu-stuv-atur

MIDDLE.

tu-stu-ma
tu-stuv-a
tu-stuv-ur

1. tu-stav-a
2. tu-st<5-tha
3. tu-stav-a

1. tu-stuv-6
2. tu-stu-s6
3. tu-stuv-e"

[tu-stu-vahe]
tu-stuv-athe
tu-stuv-ate

tu-stu-mahe
tu-stu-dhve
tu-stuv-i-re

6. tap heat :

strong stem ta-tap, ta-tap ; weak tep.

ACTIVE.

[tep-i-va]
tep-athur
tep-atur

MIDDLE.

tep-i-ma
tep-a
tep-iir

1. ta-tap-a
2. ta-tap-tha
3. ta-tap-a

1. tep-6
2. tep-i-s6
3. tep-6 *

[tep-i-vahe]
tep-athe
tep-ate

[tep-i-mahe]
[tep-i-dhve]
tep-i-r6

138-139] , PARADIGMS OF THE PERFECT 153

7. gain go : strong stem ja-gam, ja-gam ; weak ja-gm.

ACTIVE.
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

1.
2.
3.

ja-gam-a
ja-gan-tha
ja-gama

[ja-gan-va]
ja-gm-athur
ja-gm-atur

ja-gan-ma
ja-gm-a
ja-gm-ur

ja-gm-e"

ja-gm-i-se"

ja-gm-6

MIDDLE.

[ja-gan-vahej
ja-gm-athe
ja-gm-ate

ja-gan-mahe
ja-gm-i-dhve"
ja-gm-i-rd

8. vac speak : strong stem u-vac, u-vac ; weak uc.
ACTIVE.

1.

u-vac-a

[uc-i-va]

2.

u-vak-tha

uc-athur

B!

u-vac-a

uc-atur

uc-i-ma

uc-a

uc-ur

1.

2. uc-i-i

3. uc-6

MIDDLE.

[uc-i-vahe]
uc-athe

[uc-ate]

[uc-i-mahe]
[uc-i-dhv6J
uc-i-re

Irregularities.

139. 1. bhaj share, though beginning with an aspirate,
follows the analogy of the contracting perfects with e
(137, 2 a) ', e. g. ba-bhaj-a : bhej-6. bandh bind, after
dropping its nasal, does the same ; e. g. ba-bandh-a :
bedh-ur (AV.).

2. yam guide, van win, vas wear have the full reduplica-
tion throughout (135, 4) ; yam takes Samprasarana of the
radical syllable : ya-yama : yem-6 (— ya-im-e) ; van syn-
copates its a : va-van-a, va-vn-^ ; vas retains its radical
syllable unweakened throughout : va-vas-e (cp. 139, 9).

154 CONJUGATION [139

3. vid know forms an unreduplicated perfect with present
meaning : 1. ve"d-a / knoiv (olBa, German weiss), 2. vet-tha
(ola--0a ; tveiss-t), 3. ve"d-a (olSt ; weiss) ; pi. 1. vid-ma (t8-/ji€v;
wissen), 2. vid-a, 3. vid-ur.

a. A few isolated unreduplicated forms from about six other roots
occur: taks-a'thur; skambh-athur and skambh-ur ; cet-atur; yam-
a"tur and yam-ur ; nind-i-md ; ark-i-re.

4. The initial of ci gather, ci observe, cit perceive, ji conquer,
han kill reverts to the original guttural in the radical syllable :
3. s. act, ci-kay-a, ci-k£t-a, ji-gay-a, ja-ghan-a. bhr bear
almost invariably reduplicates with j in the RV. : ja-bhar-tha,
ja-bhara, ja-bhr-iir; ja-bhr-d, ja-bhr-i-s6, ja-bhr-i-r6 ;
but only once with b : ba-bhr-e'.

5. ah say is defective, forming only the 3. s. and pi. : ah-a
and ah-ur. The two additional forms 2. s. at-tha, 3. du.
ah-atur occur in the Brahmanas.

6. Five roots beginning with a prosodically long a re-
duplicate with an: ams attain, afij anoint, ardh thrive, arc
praise, arh deserve. Only the first two make several forms.
Here the radical nasal is repeated with the initial vowel :
s. 3. an-dms-a (Gk. ^/-ey/c-a) ; pi. 1. an-as-ma, 2. an-a6-a,
3. an-as-ur ; mid. s. 3. an-as-e" ; l s. 3. an-anja, mid. s. 1.
an-aj-6, pi. 3. an-aj-re". The analogy spread from these to
the roots which have no nasal : pi. 3. an-rc-iir, an-rdh-iir,
an-rh-iir ; mid. s. 3. an-rc-6, an-rdh-e*.

7. bhu be has the double irregularity of reduplicating
with a and retaining its u throughout (cp. Gk. Trt-fyv-acn) :
sing. 1. ba-bhu-v-a (Gk. 7re-0u-/ca). 2. ba-bhu-tha and
ba-bhu-v-i-tha. 3. ba-bhu-v-a. Du. 2. ba-bhu-v-athur.
3. ba-bhu-v-atur. PI. 1. ba-bhu-v-i-ma. 2. ba-bhu-v-a.
3. ba-bhu-v-ur.

1 In a Sutra occurs the 2. pi. mid. an-as-a-dhve.

139-140J IRREGULARITIES OF THE PERFECT 155

su briny forth has the same peculiarities l in sa-su-v-a,
the only perfect form of this root occurring.

8. cyu stir reduplicates ci-cyu (beside cu-oyu) and dyut
shine similarly di-dyut. This was due to the vocalic
pronunciation of the y : ciu, diut.

9. The reduplicative vowel is lengthened in more than
thirty perfect stems ; e. g. kan be pleased : ca-kan ; gr ivake :
ja-gr; kip be adapted: ca-klp ; dhl think: di-dhi ; tu be
strong: tu-tu; su swell: su-su.-

a. In the Mantra portion of the Samhitas there once occurs a peri-
phrastic perfect form with the reduplicated perfect of kr make govern-
ing the ace. of a fern, substantive in a derived from a secondary
(causative) verbal stem. This form is gamayam cakara (AV.) he
caused to go (lit. made a causing to go}. In the Brahniana parts of the
later Samhitas (TS., MS., K.) such periphrastic forms are occasionally
met with, and they become more frequent in the regular Brahmanas.

Moods of the Perfect.

140. Modal forms of the perfect are of rare occurrence in
the Samhitas except the RV.

1. The subjunctive is normally formed by adding a to
the strong perfect stem accented on the radical syllable.
In the active the secondary endings are the more usual ;
when the primary endings are used the reduplicative syllable
is in several forms accented.3 In about a dozen forms the
weak stem is used. Middle forms, of which only seven or

1 The root si lie also reduplicates with a in the part, sa-say-ana".
These three, bhu, su, si, are the only roots with an i or u vowel that
reduplicate with a.

2 Here the radical vowel itself is shortened. The quantitative form
of the stem is subject to the rule that it may not contain two prosodi-
cally short vowels (except in the 1. s. act.). Hence sab. reduplicates
either as sa-sah or sa-sah. (in a weak form).

3 Cp. the accentuation of the reduplicating class in the present
system.

156 CONJUGATION [140

eight occur, are almost restricted to the 3. sing. Examples
are :

Act. s. 1. an-aj-a 1 (afij anoint) ; 2. ta-tan-a-s (tan stretch),
bu-b6dh-a-s (budh waive), pi-pray-a-s (pri please) ; ju-jos-
a-si (jus enjoy) ; ci-kit-a-s (cit observe), mu-muc-a-s (muc
release). 3. ci-ket-a-t, ja-ghan-a-t (han smite), ta-tan-a-t,
tu-stav-a-t ('/stu praise), pi-pray-a-t ; di-des-a-ti (dis
point), bii-bodh-a-ti, mu-moc-a-ti ; mu-muc-a-t, vi-vid-a-t
(vid find).

Du. 2. ci-ket-a-thas, jii-jos-a-thas. PI. 1. ta-tan-a-ma.
2. ju-jos-a-tha. 3. ta-tan-a-n,

Mid. s. 3. ta-tap-a-te, ju-jos-a-te. PI. 1. an-as-a-
mahai.1

2. The injunctive 2 occurs in hardly a dozen forms, a few
in the sing, act., the rest in the 3. pi. mid. ; e.g. s. 2. sa-sas
(=sa-sas-s: sas order). 3. du-dho-t (dhu shake), su-sro-t
(sru flow) ; mid. pi. 3. ta-tan-a-nta (cp. 140, 6).

3. The optative is formed by adding the accented modal
suffix combined with the endings to the weak perfect stem.
The active forms are much commoner than the middle.
Examples are :

Act. s. 1. an-as-yam,3 ja-gam-yam, ri-ric-yam, va-
vrt-yam. 2. ba-bhu-yas, va-vrt-yas. 3. an-aj-yat,1 ja-
gam-yat, va-vrt-yat, ba-bhu-yat.

Du. 2. ja-gam-yatam. PL 1. va-vrt-ya-ma. 3. ja-gam-
yiir, va-vrt-yur.

Mid. s. 1. va-vrt-iya. 2. va-vrdh-i-thas. 3. va-vrt-i-ta.
PI. 1. va-vrt-I-mahi.

a. There also occurs one mid. precative form sa-sah-I-s-thas (sah

overcome).

1 In these three forms the a of the reduplicative syllable an is
shortened as if the indicative contained an augment.

2 Identical in form with the unaugmented pluperfect (140, 6).

3 From ams attain, with the long reduplicative vowel retained.
Cp. 139, 6.

HO] PERFECT OPTATIVE 157

4. The imperative perfect is formed like that of the
present reduplicating class, the radical syllable being weak
except in the 3. s. act., where it is strong. Nearly all the
forms occurring, which number about twenty, are active.
Examples are :

Act. s. 2. ci-kid-dhi (^/cit), di-did-dhi (v'dis), nm-
mug-dhi (Vmuc), sa-sa-dhi (Vsas).1 3. ba-bhu-tu,2
nm-mok-tu.

Du. 2. nm-muk-tam, va-vrk-tam (vrj twist). PI. 2.
di-dis-tana (v'dis), va-vrt-tana.

Mid. s. 2. va-vrt-sva. PI. 2. va-vrd-dhvam.

Participle.

5. Both active and middle forms of the perfect participle
are common. It is formed from the weak perfect stem,
with the accent on the suffix, as cakr-vams, cakr-ana.
If, in the active form, the stem is reduced to a monosyllable,
the suffix is nearly always added with the connecting vowel i,
but not when the stem is unreduplicated ; e. g. papt-i-vams
(Gk. TreTTT-coy), but vid-vams (Gk. e^-coy). Examples are :

Act. ja-gan-vams (Vgam), ja-grbh-vams (Vgrabh),
ji-gi-vams ( v/ji), ju-ju- vams3 (Vju), ta-sthi-vams (Vstha),
ba-bhu-vams (Gk. Tre-^f-co?), ri-rik-vams (\/ric), va-vrt-
vams, va-vrdh- vams,3 sa-sah- vams,3 su-sup-vams ( V svap) ;
iy-1-vams (Vi), us-i-vams (vas dwell) ; das- vams (das
worship), sah-vams (A/sah).

Mid. an-aj-ana ( Vanj), an-as-ana (v^ams), ij-ana (-/yaj),
uc-ana (V vac), ja-gm-ana (\/gam), ti-stir-ana ( Vstf), tep-
ana (V tap), pa-spas-ana (V spas), bhej-ana (\/bhaj),

1 Cp. Gk. K€-K\v-Oi, 2. pi. K€-K\v-rf (/cXv = sru hear).

2 With u unchanged as in strong forms elsewhere (139, 7).
r> With long reduplicative vowel.

158 CONJUGATION [140-141

yem-ana (Vyam), va-vrdh-ana, sa-say-ana (Vsi), sl-sriy-
ana (v'sri), si-smiy-ana (Vsmi). su-sup-ana (^/svap),
sen-ana (\/sah).

Pluperfect.

6. Corresponding to the imperfect there is an augmented
form of the perfect called the pluperfect. The strong stem
is used in the singular active, the weak elsewhere. The
secondary endings only are used ; in the 3. pi. ur always
appears in the active and Iran l in the middle. The s and t
of the 2. and 3. s. are in some forms preserved by an
interposed I. There are also several forms made with
thematic a in this tense. The augment is often dropped, as
in other past tenses. The total number of pluperfect forms
occurring is about sixty. Examples are :

Act. s. 1. a-cacaks-am, a-jagrabh-am, a-tustav-am ;
cakar-am, ciket-am (\/cit). 2. a-jagan (= a-jagam-s) ;
na-nam-a-s; a-vives-I-s('/vis). 3. a-jagan (=a-jagam-t),
a-ciket (\/cit) ; ra-ran (= raran-t : ran rejoice) ; a-ja-
grabh-i-t ; a-cikit-a-t and a-ciket-a-t ; tastambh-a-t.

Du. 2. a-mu-muk-tam ; mu-nmk-tam. 3. a-vavas-i-
tam (vas desire).

PI. 2. a-jagan-ta ; a-cucyav-i-tana. 3. a-cucyav-ur.

Mid. s. 1. a-susrav-i. 3. didis-ta (\/dis). PI. 3. a-cakr-
iran, a-jagm-iran, a-pec-iran; a-vavrt-ran, a-sasrg-ram
(-/srj).2 There are also several transfer forms as from
a stems ; e. g. a-titvis-a-nta, cakrp-d-nta, da-dhrs-a-nta.

Aorist.

141. This tense is of very common occurrence in the
Vedas, being formed from more that 450 roots. It is an

1 Two forms take ran only instead of Iran. There are also several
transfer forms in anta.

2 With reversion of the palatal to original guttural, and ending
ram for ran.

141] AORIST 159

augmented tense, taking the secondary endings and forming
moods and participles. It is distinguished from the imperfect
by having no corresponding present and by difference of
meaning. There are two types of aorist. The first or
sigmatic aorist is formed by inserting s, with or without an
added a, between the root and the endings. It is taken by
more than 200 roots. The second aorist adds the endings
to the simple or the reduplicated root either directly or with
the connecting vowel a. It is taken by over 250 roots.
There are four forms of the first Aorist, and three of the
second. Upwards of 50 roots take more than one form.
One verb, budh ivake, has forms from five varieties of this
tense.

First Aorist.

a. The stem of the first form is made by adding to the
augmented root the suffix sa. It is inflected like an imperfect
of the sixth or a class of the first conjugation, the sa being
accented in unaugmented forms. It is taken in the Samhitas
by only ten roots J containing one of the vowels i, u, r, and
ending in one of the consonants j, s, s, or h, all of which
phonetically become k before s.2 These roots are : mrj wipe,
yaj sacrifice, vrj tivist ; krus cry out, mrs and sprs touch ;
dvis hate ; gun hide, dun. milk, ruh ascend. In the indicative
no dual forms are found ; and in the mid. only the 3. s. and
pi. are met with. The only moods occurring are the
injunctive and the imperative, with altogether fewer than
a dozen forms. This form of the aorist corresponds to the
Greek First Aorist (e. g. e-^e^e, Lat. dixi-t). The augment,
as in other past tenses, is sometimes dropped.

1 In B. nine additional roots take the sa aorist : krs drag, dis point,
dih smear, drs" see, druh be hostile, pis crush, mih. mingere. vis enter, vrh
tear ; and in S. lih lick.

2 The stem of this aorist therefore always ends in ksa.

160 CONJUGATION [141-143

Indicative. Act. s. 1. avrksam. 2. adruksas (B.),
adhuksas. 3. akruksat, aghuksat, aduksat l and adhuk-
sat, amrksat (\/mrs), aruksat, asprksat. PI. 1. amrksa-
ma (v'mrj), aruksama. 8. adhuksan ; duksan1 and
dhuksan.

Mid. s. 3. adhuksata ; duksata 1 and dhuksata. PI. 3.
amrksanta (A/mrj).

In the injunctive only the following forms occur :

Act. s. 2. duksas,1 mrksas (\^mrs). 3. dviksat. PI. 2.
mrksata (^/mrs).

Mid. s. 3. duksata1 and dhuksata, dviksata. PI. 3.
dhuksanta.

In the imperative only three forms occur :

Act. dii. 2. mrksatam (Vmrj). 3. yaksatam.

Mid. s. 2. dhuksasva.

142. The other three forms of the First Aorist are made
by adding to the augmented root the suffixes s, is, s-is
respectively. They are inflected like imperfects of the
second or graded conjugation. The sis form is used in the
act. only (excepting three optative forms) and is taken by
not more than six roots. The other two are very common,
being formed from nearly 300 roots in V. and B. taken
together.

Second or s form.

143. This form of the aorist is taken by at least 135
roots in V. and B. In addition to the indicative it forms
all the moods and a participle.

Indicative.

1. The radical vowel as a rule takes Vrddhi (a being
lengthened) in the active. In the middle, excepting final i
and u (which take Guna) the radical vowel remains im-

1 On these forms without initial aspiration cp. 62 a.

143]

FIRST AORIST

161

changed. The only point in which the inflexion differs
from that of the imperfect of the graded conjugation is that
the 3. pi. act. invariably ends in ur. In the active, the
endings s and t of the 2. 3. s. disappear and the tense sign
also, unless the root ends in a vowel ; e. g. a-har = a-har-s-t,
but a-ha-s — a-ha-s-t. The AV. and TS., however, less
often than not, insert a connecting I before these endings,1
thus preserving both the latter and the s of the tense stem ;
e.g. a-naik-s-i-t (nij wash). The forms of the indicative
actually occurring would, if made from bhr bear in the
active, and from budh waJce in the middle, be as follows :

SINGULAR.

1. a-bhar-s-am
2. a-bhar '
3. a-bhar

ACTIVE.

DUAL.

[a-bhars-va]
a-bhars-tam
a-bhars-tam

PLURAL.

a-bhars-ma
a-bhars-ta
a-bhar-s-ur

SINGULAR.

1. a-bhut-s-i (62 a)

2. a-bud-dhas (62 b)

3. a-bud-dha (62 6)

MIDDLE.
DUAL.

[a-bhut-s-vahi]
a-bhut-s-atham
a-bhut-s-atam

PLURAL.

a-bhut-s-mahi
a-bhud-dhvam (62 a)
a-bhut-s-ata

The middle voice, as exemplified by a root ending in u,
stu praise, is inflected as follows :

Sing. 1. a-sto-s-i. 2. a-sto-s-thas. 3. a-sto-s-ta. Du. 1.
[a-sto-s-vahi]. 2. [a-sto-s-atham]. 3. a-sto-s-atam.
PI. 1. a-sto-s-mahi. 2. a-sto-dhvam (66 B 2 6). 3. a-sto-
s-ata.

1 The RV. and K. have no forms with the inserted I ; while in B.
the chief forms without it are adrak (drs see} and ay at (yaj sacrifice} ;
also bhais (Vbhi) = bhais-s, which while losing the s ending pre-
serves the appearance of a 2. sing.

1819 M

162 CONJUGATION [us

2. The subjunctive is common in the KV.1 in active
forms, but not in the middle. The root regularly takes
Guna throughout (active and middle). The primary endings
are frequent. The forms occurring, if made from stu praise,
would be :

Act. sing. 1. st6-s-ani. 2. sto-s-a-si, st6-s-a-s. 3. st6-
s-a-ti, sto-s-a-t. Du. 2. sto-s-a-thas. 3. st6-s-a-tas.
PL 1. st6-s-a-ma. 2. st6-s-a-tha. 3. st6-s-a-n.

Mid. sing. 1. sto-s-ai. 2. st6-s-a-se. 3. sto-s-a-te.
Du. 2. st6-s-athe (for st6-s-aithe). PI, 3. st6-s-a-nte.

3. Injunctive forms are fairly common. When normal
they are of course identical with the unaugmented indicative.
But the sing. 1. act. is irregular in never taking Vrddhi :
all the forms of it that occur either have Guna, as sto-s-am,
je-s-am (v/ji) ; or lengthen the radical vowel, as yu-s-am
(yu separate) ; or substitute e for a in roots ending in a, as
ye-s-am (ya go), ge-s-am (ga go), sthe-s-am (stha stand).
The latter irregularity also appears in pi. 1 : je-s-ma,
ge-s-ma, de-s-ma (da' give), beside the normal yau-s-ma
(yu separate).

4. The optative occurs in the middle only, the 2. 3. s.
always having the precative s (with one exception). The
forms actually occurring are.:

Sing. 1. di-s-iya 2 (da cut), bhak-s-iya (bhaj divide),
ma-s-iya3 (man think), muk-s-iya (muc release), ra-s-iya
(ra give), sak-s-iya4 (AV.), str-s-iya (str strew). 2. mam-
s-I-s-thas5 (man think). 3. dar-s-i-s-ta (dr tear), bhak-s-
ita G (SV.), mam-s-1-s-ta, mrk-s-i-s-ta (mrc injure). Du. 2.

1 Subjunctives of this aor. are very rare in B. except yaks-a-t
and vaks-a-t (Vvah).

2 With radical a reduced to i : cp. 5c. Similarly dhi-s-Iya (\/dha)
inB.

3 With an reduced to a ( = sonant nasal).

4 From sah overcome, with radical vowel lengthened.

5 Anusvara for n (66 A 2).
c Without the precative s,

143-144] MOODS OF THE S AORIST 163

tra-s-i-tham l (tra protect). PI. 1. bhak-s-i-mahi, mam-s-i-
mahi,2 vam-s-i-mahi and va-s-i-mahi 3 (van win), sak-s-i-
mahi (sac folloiv), dhuk-s-i-mahi (duh milk). 3. mam-
s'Irata.

5. Only six imperative forms occur, and four of these are
transfers (with thematic a). They are: Act. s. 2. ne-s-a
(ni lead) and par-s-a (pr take across). Mid. s. 2. sak-sva
(Vsah). 3. ra-s-a-tam. Du. 2. ra-s-atham. PI. 3.
ra-s-a-ntam.

6. Only two or three forms of the active participle
occur: dak-s-at4and dhak-s-at (dah burn), sak-s-at (Vs&h).

About a dozen stems, irregularly formed by adding s to
the root with an intermediate a and taking the regular
ending ana, may be accounted middle s aorist participles ;
e. g. mand-a-s-ana rejoicing, yam-a-s-ana being driven.

Irregularities of the s form.

144. 1. Before the suffix s, (a) final radical n (as well
as m) becomes Anusvara (66 A 2), as a-mam-s-ata (V'man),
vam-s-i-mahi (-/van) ; (fc) s becomes t in the verb vas
dwell and possibly also in vas shine : a-vat-s-i-s 5 (AY.) tlwu
hast dwelt and a- vat (= a-vas-s-t) has shone (AV.).

2. The RV. has one example of an incipient tendency to
preserve the s and t of the 2. 3. s. in 2. s. a-ya-s (=a-yaj-s-s)
beside the phonetically regular form of the 3. s. a-yat
(= a-yaj-s-t). The AV. has three or four examples of this :
s. 2. sra-s (=sraj-s-s: Vsrj); 3. a-srai-t (= a-srai-s-t:

1 For tra-s-Iyatham.

2 With Anusvara for n (66 A 2).

3 With an reduced to a (= sonant nasal).

4 Without initial aspiration : cp. 62 a and 156 a.

5 See 66 B 1. In an Upanisad the 2. du. appears as &-vas-tam, the
aor. suffix s having been lost without affecting the radical s.

x2

164 CONJUGATION [144

Vsri) ; a-hai-t (— a-hai-s-t : ^hi) ; a-va-t l (= a-vas-s-t :
vas shine). The later Samhitas here frequently preserve
these endings by inserting I before them : s. 2. a-rat-s-i-s
( -/radii), a-vat-s-i-s (vas dwell) ; 3. a-tam-s-i-t (</tan),
a-naik-s-i-t (-/nij), tap-s-i-t (V tap), baai-s-i-t (\/bM),
vak-s-i-t (V'vah), ha-s-i-t, hvar-s-i-t (-/hvar).

a. The ending dhvam (before which the s of the aor. is lost) becomes
dhvam when the s would have been cerebrali/ed (66 B 2) : a-sto-
dhvam ( = &-sto-z- dhvam) is the only example.

3. The roots da give and da cut reduce the radical vowel
to i in a-di-s-i, di-s-iya ; gam, man, van lose their nasal in
a-ga-smahi, ma-s-iya, va-s-i-mahi (beside vam-s-i-mahi) ;
while sah. lengthens its vowel in a-sak-s-i, sak-s-i ; sak-s-
ama; sak-s-iya; sak-sva.

4. The roots srj emit and prc mix take metathesis in the
act.: s. 2. sra-s (= srak). 3. a-srak; a-prak. Du. 2.
a-sras-tam.

5. The following are the forms occurring in the 3. s. ind.
act. in which (a) the ending t is lost : a-jai-s ( \/ji), a-pra-s,
a-ha-s ; (1)) both the tense-sign s and the ending t are lost : 2
a-kran (krand cry out), a-ksar (ksar flow), a-cait (cit
perceive), a-chan (chand seem), a-tan (tan stretch), a-tsar
(tsar approach stealthily), a-dyaut (dyut shine), a-dhak (dah
burn), a-prak (prc mix), a-prat (prach ask), a-bhar (bhr),
a-yat (yaj sacrifice), a-yan (yam guide), a-raut (rudh
obstruct), a- vat (vah convey), a-vat1 (vas shine), a-svait (svit
be bright), a-syan (syand move on), a-srak (srj emit), a-svar
(svar sound), a-har (hr take), a-raik (ric leave).

6. After a consonant other than n, m, r the tense sign s
is dropped before t, th, and dh ; e. g. a-bhak-ta (beside
a-bhak-s-i) ; a-muk-thas (beside a-muk-s-i).

1 But the t may in this instance represent the changed final radical
s : 144, 1 (&). There are a few additional examples in B. : ajait
(beside ajais and ajaislt : Vji); acait (</ci); nait (Vni).

2 And even the final consonant of the root when there are two (28).

145] IS AOKIST 165

Third or is form.

145. About 145 roots take this aorist in V. and B. It
differs from the s aorist merely in adding the s with the
connecting vowel i, which changes it to s (67).

Indicative.

1. The radical vowel as a rule takes Guna throughout ;
but in the active a final vowel takes Vrddhi and a medial
vowel is sometimes lengthened. The endings are the same
as those of the s aorist except that the 2. 3. s. end in is
(rr is-s) and it (= is-t). This aorist has all the moods, but
no participle. Middle forms are not common and very few
occur except in the 2. 3. sing.

The normal forms occurring, if made from kram stride,
would be :

Act. sing. 1. a-kram-is-am. 2. a-kram-is. 3. a-kram-it.
Du. 3. a-kram-is-tam. PI. 1. a-kram-is-ma. 3. a-kram-
is-ur.

Mid. sing. 1. a-kram-is-i. 2. a-kram-is-thas. 3. a-kram-
is-ta. Du. 3. a-kram-is-atam. PI. 3. a-kram-is-ata.

2. Subjunctive forms are rare except in the 2. 3. s. act.
Examples are :

Act. sing. 1. dav-is-ani. 2. av-is-a-s, kan-is-a-s. 3. kar-
is-a-t, bodh-is-a-t. PI. 3. san-is-a-n.

Mid. pi. 1. yac-is-a-mahe. 3. san-is-a-nta.

3. Injunctive are commoner than subjunctive forms.
They occur most frequently in the 2. 3. s. and plur.
Examples are :

Act. sing. 1. sams-is-am (sams praise). 2. av-is (av
favour), tar-is (tr cross), yodh-is (yudh fight), sav-is (su
generate). 3. as-it (as eat), tar-it. Du. 2. taris-tam, mardh-
is-tam (mrdh neglect). PL 1. sram-is-ma. 2. vadh-is-ta
and vadh-is-tana. 3. jar-is-ur (jr waste away).

Mid. sing. 1. radh-is-i (radh succeed). 2. mars-is-thas

166 CONJUGATION [145-146

(mrs not heed). 3. pav-is-ta fan purify). PL 1. vyath-is-
mahi (vyath waver).

4. Optative forms are rare, occurring in the middle only.
The 2. 3. s. take the precative s. Examples are :

Sing. 1. edh-is-iya (edh thrive). 2. mod-is-i-s-thas (mud
rejoice). 3. jan-is-i-s-ta. Du. 1. sah-is-i-vahi. PL tar-is-
i-mahi.

5. Imperative forms are rare, occurring in the active only.
Sing. 2. av-id-dhi. 3. av-is-tu. Du. 2. av-is-tam. 3. av-
is-tarn. PL 2. av-is-tana.

a. The radical medial a is lengthened in kan enjoy, car move, das
waste, mad exhilarate, stan thunder, svan sound, and optionally in vad
speak, ran rejoice, san gain, sah prevail ; while the radical syllable
appears in a reduced or unstrengthened form in the opt. s. 1. mid. of
gam and rue shine : gm-is-iyd and ruc-is-iyd.

6. The root grabh seize takes the connecting vowel I (as it does in
other verbal forms) instead of i, as d-grabh-is-ma.

c. In s. 1. ind. act. the ending im appears instead of is-am in the
three forms a-kram-im, a-grabh-im, and vadh-im, doubtless owing to
the analogy of the 2. 3. s. in is, It. In B. is also found a-grah-ais-am
(v'grah).

Fourth or sis form.

146. This form differs from the preceding one simply in
prefixing an additional s to the suffix. Only seven verbs
ending in a, n, or m, ga sing, jna know,1 pya fill up, ya go,
ha leave, van win, ram rejoice, take this aorist. The total
number of forms occurring is under twenty; and middle
forms are found in the optative only. The forms occurring
are :

1. Indicative. Sing. 1. a-ya-sis-am. Du. 3. a-ya-sis-
tam. PL 2. a-ya-sis-ta. 3. a-ga-sis-ur, a-ya-sis-ur.

2. Subjunctive. Sing. 3. ga-sis-a-t, ya-sis-a-t.

1 In B. also occurs dhya think, besides forms in s-it from dra sleep,
va blow, hva call.

146-147] SIS FOKM OF THE FIKST AORIST 167

3. Optative. Sing. 1. vam-sis-iya. 2. ya-sis-i-s-thas,1
PI. 1. pya-sis-i-mahi.

4. Injunctive. Sing. 1. ram-sis-am. Du. 2. ha-sis-tam.
3. ha-sis-tam. PI. 2. ha-sis-ta. 3. ha-sis-ur.

5. Imperative. Du. 2. ya-sis-tam. PL 2. ya-sis-ta.2

Second Aorist. (<* -if'**

147. This aorisfc resembles an imperfect formed directly
from the root, the terminations being added with or without
the connecting vowel a.

The first form is like an imperfect of the accented a class
(125, 2), the stem being formed by adding a to the un-
modified root.3 It corresponds to the second aorist of the
first conjugation in Greek. It is taken, in V. and B.
together, by nearly eighty roots, chiefly with a medial vowel.
Middle forms are rare.

1. Indicative. The forms actually occurring would, if
made from vid find, be as follows :

Act. sing. 1. avidam. 2. a vidas. 3. a vidat. Du. 1.
avidava, PL 1. avidama. 2. avidata. 3. avidan.

Mid. sing. 1. avide. 2. avidathas. 3. avidata. Du. 1.
avidavahi. 3. avidetam. PL 1. avidamahi. 3. avidanta.

2. The subjunctive forms from the same root would be :
Act. sing. 2. vidasi, vidas. 3. vidati, vidat. Du. 1.

vidava. 2. vidathas. 3. vidatas. PL 1. vidama. 2. vid-
atha, vidathana.

Mid. sing. 3. vidate. PL 1. vidamahe.

3. The injunctive forms from vid would be :

Act. sing. 1. vidam. 2. vidas. 3. vidat. PL 3. vidan.
Mid. sing. 3. vidat a. PL 1. vidamahi. 3. vidanta.

4. The optative is rare in V., but not infrequent in B.

1 With precative s.

2 With I for i.

8 Three roots with r, however, show forms with Guna (147 a 2 and c).

168 CONJUGATION [147-148

It is almost restricted to the active. The forms from vid
would be :

Act. sing. 1. videyam. 2. videos. 3. vide"t. PL 1.
vide"ma.

Mid. sing. 1. vid6ya. PI. 1. vide"mahi. There also occurs
one precative form, s. 3. vide"sta (AV.).

5. Imperative forms are rare and almost restricted to the
active. Those made by sad sit are :

Sing. 2. sada. 3. sadatu. Du. 2. sadatam. 3. sadatam.
PI. 2. sadata, sadatana. 3. sadantu.
Mid. pi. 2. sadadhvam. 3. sadantam.

6. Rather more than a dozen examples of the participle,
taking active and middle together, occur : e. g. trp-ant,
sucant; guhamana, sucamana.

Irregularities.

a. Several roots form transfer stems according to this instead of the
root form, chiefly by reducing the radical syllable.

1. khya see, vya envelope, hva call shorten their a to a : £-khya-t,
d-vya-t, &-hva-t; da give, dh&put, siha, stand occasionally do the same,
in the forms a-da-t ; d-dha-t (SV.) and dha-t ; a-stha-t (AV.) ; sas
order shortens a to i ; e. g. 3. s. inj. 6fsat, part, sisdnt.

2. kr make and gam go form a few transfers from the root class in
the AV., retaining the strong radical vowel : d-kar-a-t, a-gam-a-t,
a"-gam-a-n.

&. The root is reduced by the loss of its nasal in krand cry out, tams
shake, dhvams scatter, bhram6 fall, randh make subject, srams fall • e. g.
3. sing, dtasat; pi. dhvasdn ; subj. pi. 1. radhama ; inj. sing. 1.
radham ; 2. kradas ; 3. bhrasat.

c. The root takes Guna in r go, drs see, srflow ; e.g. dr-anta (unaug-
mented 3. pi. ind. mid.) ; d&rS-am (s. 1. inj., but pi. 3. inj. drs&n, opt.
1. s. drs^yam, pi. drse"ma) ; s&rat (unaugmented 3. s.).

Second Form: Root Aorist.

148. This form of the simple aorist is taken by about
100 roots in V., and about 25 others in B., the commonest
being those with medial a (about 30). It corresponds to

U8] ROOT AOEIST 169

the second aorist of the second conjugation in Greek. It is
inflected in both active and middle.

Indicative.

1. The root is strong in the sing, act., but weak elsewhere.
Roots ending in vowels, however, tend to retain the strong
vowel throughout the active except the 3. pi. Those ending
in a regularly retain that vowel throughout the ind. act.
except in 3. pi. where it is dropped before ur, which is
always the ending in these verbs. In the 3. pi. mid. the
ending ran is more than twice as common as ata ; ram as
well as ran is taken by three roots.

a. The forms occurring from roots ending in a, if made
from stha, would be :

Act. sing. 1. a-stha-m (ji-crTrj-v). 2. a-stha-s. 3. a-stha-t
(C-OTT;). Du. 2. a-stha-tam. 3. a-stha-tam. PI. 1. a-stha-ma
(e-crTr}-jj,€v). 2. a-stha-ta. 3. a-sth-ur.

Mid. sing. 2. a-sthi-thas (e-ara-tfr;?). 3. a-sthi-ta. PI. 1.
a-sthi-mahi. 3. a-sthi-ran.

&. Roots in r take Guna throughout the ind. act. except
the 3. pi. The forms from kr would be :

Act. sing. 1. a-kar-am. 2. a-kar. 3. a-kar. Du. 2.
a-kar-tam. 3. a-kar-tam. PI. 1. a-kar-ma. 2. a-kar-ta.
3. a-kr-an.

Mid. sing. 1. a-kr-i. 2. a-kr-thas. 3. a-kr-ta. Du. 1.
a-kr-vahi. 3. a-kr-tam. PI. 1. a-kr-mahi. 2. a-kr-
dhvam. 3. a-kr-ata.

c. bhu le retains its u throughout (as in the perfect),
interposing v between it and a following a :

Act. 1. a-bhuv-am.1 2. a-bhu-s. 3. a-bhu-t (e-0i/).
Du. 2. a-bhu-tam. 3. a-bhu-tam. PL 1. a-bhu-ma
(e-<t>v-fj.ei'). 2. a-bhu-ta and a-bhu-tana. 3. a-bhu-v-an.

d. The following are forms of the 2. 3. s. act. in which

1 With split u ; in the later language a-bhuv-am,

170 CONJUGATION [148

the endings a and t are lost : 2. a-kar, a-gan (= a-gam-s),
a-ghas, a-var (vr cover), a-spar (spr win) ; with lengthened
augment: a-nat1 (nas attain), a-var (vr cover), a-vas* (vas
shine). 3. a-kar, a-kran3 (kram stride), a-gan,3 a-ghas,
a-cet (cit observe), a-tan, a-dar (dr pierce), a-bhet (bhid
pierce), a-bhrat (bhraj shine), a-mok (muc release), a-myak
(myaks be situated), a-vart (vrt turn), a-star ; with lengthened
augment: a-nat,4 a-var (vr cover), a-vas2 (vas shine) ; without
augment : vark 5 (vrj twist), skan 6 (skand leap).

e. In the 3. pi. act. and mid. roots with medial a are
syncopated: a-ks- an (= a-ghas- an), a-gm-an (=a-gam-an);
a-gm-ata (=a-gam-ata), a-tn-ata (— a-tan-ata) ; but in
the 2. 3. s. mid. they lose their nasal : a-ga-thas, a-ga-ta,
a-ma-ta (but 1. du. gan-vahi, pi. a-gan-mahi).

/ Final a is in the mid. ind. reduced to i, and before m
also to I; e.g. 2. a-di-thas, a-sthi-thas. 3. a-dhi-ta
(e-0e-ro). PI. 1. a-dhi-mahi (TS.) and a-dl-mahi (VS.),
a-dhi-mahi.

g. In the 3. s. ind. ghas is reduced to g : gdha (=ghas-ta)7;
while r go takes Guna: ar-ta (unaugmented) and ar-ta
(wp-ro), 3. pi. ar-ata.

h. The forms taking ran in 3. pi. mid. are : a-krp-ran,
a-grbh-ran, a-jus-ran, a-drs-ran, a-pad-ran, a-budh-ran,
a-yuj-ran, a-vas-ran (vas shine), a- vis-ran, a-vrt-ran,
a-srg-ran,8 a-sthi-ran, a-sprdh-ran ; with ram : a-drs-ram,
a-budh-ram, a-srg-ram.8

1 For a-nas-s, the phonetic result of which should have been
a-nak (636).

2 For a-vas-s, a-vas-t. These forms have by an oversight been
omitted in § 499 of my Vedic Grammar.

8 For 6-kram-t, &-gam-t.

* For a-nas-t. 5 For varj-t. 6 For skand-t.

7 By syncopation gh-s-ta ; loss of s between consonants (66 B 2 a)
gh-ta, and loss of aspiration, which is thrown forward on the t and
renders it sonant (62 6).

8 With reversion to the original guttural.

us] MOODS OF THE ROOT AORIST 171

2. The subjunctive is common, nearly 100 forms being
met with. The forms occurring, if made from kr, would be :

Act. sing. 1. kara and kar-ani. 2. kar-a-si and kar-a-s.
3. kar-a-ti and kar-a-t.1 Du. 2. kar-a-thas. 3. kar-a-tas.
PL 1. kar-a-ma. 3. kar-anti, kar-a-n.

Mid. sing. 2. kar-a-se. 3. kar-a-te.2 PL 1. kar-a-mahe
and kar-a-mahai. 3. kar-anta.

3. The injunctive is fairly frequent, nearly sixty forms of
it being met with. Examples are :

Act. sing. 1. kar-am, dars-am,3 bhuv-am, bhoj-am.

2. je-s, bhu-s, bhe-s (bhi/ear), dhak4 (dagh reach), bhet
(bhid split), rok (ruj break). 3. bhu-t, sre-t (Vsri), nak
and nat (nas attain). PL 1. dagh-ma, bhu-ma ; ched-ma,5
ho-ma 5 (hu call). 3. bhuv-an, vr-an (vr cover) ; kram-ur,
dur (da give), dh-ur (dha put).

Mid. sing. 1. nams-i (nams = nas attain). 2. nut-thas
(nud push), mr-thas (mr die), mrs-thas (mrs neglect), rik-
thas (ric leave). 3. ar-ta (r go), as-ta (as attain), vik-ta
(vij tremble), vr-ta (vr choose). PL 1. dhi-mahi (dha put).

4. More than forty optative forms are met with. Examples
are:

Act. sing. 1. as-yam (as obtain), vrj-yam, de-yam (da
give). 2. as-yas, rdh-yas, gam-yas, jne-yas, bhu-yas.

3. bhu-yat 6 (AV.). PL 1. as-yama, rdh-yama, kri-yama,
bhu-yama, sthe-yama. 3. as-yiir (as attain), dhe-yiir.

Mid. sing. 1. as-iya. 3. ar-i-ta (r go). PL 1. as-i-mahi,
idh-i-mahi (idh Mndle), nas-i-mahi (nas reach).

The root is weak in the isolated forms fdh-a-t, bhuv-a-t, sriiv-a-t.

The weak root appears once in the form idh-a-t6. The weak root
also appears once in the 2. du. form rdh-athe.

This may, however, be an irregular a aorist : cp. 147 c.

For dagh-s.

With strong radical vowel.

6 The RV. has no forms of the 3. s. in yat, but only precatives in
yas(=yas-t).

172 CONJUGATION [143

a. There are also about thirty precative forms (made from
about twenty roots in the Samhitas), all of which except two
are active. Examples are :

Act. sing. 1. bhu-yasam. 3. as-yas (= as-yas-t), gam-
yas, dagh-yas, pe-yas (pa drink), bhu-yas. Du. 2.
bhu-yastam. PI. 1. kri-yasma. 2. bhu-yasta.

Mid. s. 3. pad-i-s-ta, muc-i-s-ta.

5. Over ninety forms of the imperative occur, all but
about twelve being active. Several forms in the 2. persons
act. have a strong root, which is then usually accented.
Examples are :

Act. s. 2. kr-dhi, ga-dhi (gam), piir-dhi (pr fill), bo-dhi,1
yo-dhi 2 (yudh fight), sag-dhi (sak be able) ; ga-hi (gam go),
ma-hi (ma measure), sa-hi (sa bind). 3. gan-tu (gam go),
dha-tu, bhu-tu, sr6-tu.

Du. 2. kr-tam and kar-tam (AV.), ga-tam and gan-tam,
da-tam, dhak-tam (dagh reach), bhu-tam, var-tam (vr
cover), vo-lham (vah carry), sru-tam. 3. gan-tam, pa-tam,
vo-lham. PI. 2. kr-ta and kar-ta, ga-ta and gan-ta, bhu-ta,
yan-ta, sru-ta and sr6-ta ; kar-tana, gan-tana, dha-tana,
bhu-tana. 3. gam-antu, dhantu, sruv-antu.

Mid. s. 2. kr-sva, dhi-sva (dha put), yuk-sva (yuj join) ;
accented on the root : mat-sva, yak-sva (yaj sacrifice), ra-sva,
vam-sva (van win), sak-sva (sac follotv). PL 2. kr-dhvam,
vo-dhvam.

6. Of the participle only seven or eight examples occur
in the active, but nearly forty in the middle. Examples are :

Act. rdh-ant, kr-ant, gm-ant, sthant.

Mid. ar-ana, idh-ana, kr-ana, drs-ana and drs-ana,
budh-ana, bhiy-ana, vr-ana (vr cover), subh-ana and
sum-bhana, suv-ana (always to be pronounced svana) and
sv-ana (SV.).

1 Formed from both bhu be (for bhu-dhi) and budh awake (for
bod-dhi instead of bud-dhi).

2 For yud-dhi (through y6d-dhi).

149] EEDUPLICATED FORM 173

Third or Reduplicated Form.

149. This aorist is formed from nearly ninety verbs in
the Samhitas and from nearly thirty more in the Brahmanas.
Though (with a few slight exceptions) unconnected in form
with the causative, it has come to be connected with the
causative in sense, having a causative meaning when the
corresponding verb in aya has that meaning. The character-
istic feature of this aorist is the almost invariable quantitative
sequence of a long reduplicative and a short radical vowel
(- w). In order to bring about this rhythm, the reduplicative
vowel (unless it becomes long by position) is lengthened, if
the radical vowel is (or is made) prosodically short. With
this view the radical vowel is shortened in vas bellow, sadh
succeed, hid be hostile and, by dropping the nasal, in krand
cry out, jambh crush, randh subject, syand flow, srams fall
The stem of the great majority of forms is made with a
thematic a. But about a dozen roots ending in vowels
(a, i, u, r) and svap sleep make occasional forms from stems
without thematic a, the inflexion then being like that of an
imperfect of the reduplicating class (127, 2). A medial
radical vowel remains unchanged or is weakened, but a final
vowel takes Guna. All the moods occur, but no participle.

Special Rules of Reduplication.

a. The vowels a, r, 1 are represented in the reduplicative
syllable by i.

b. The vowel of the reduplicative syllable, unless already
long by position, is lengthened.

1. The forms of the indicative actually occurring would,
if made from jan beget, be as follows :

Act. s. 1. ajijanam. 2. ajijanas. 8. ajijanat. Du. 2.
ajijanatam. PI. 1. ajijanama. 2. ajijanata. 3. ajijanan.

Mid. s. 3. ajijanata. PI. 2. ajijanadhvam. 3. ajljananta.

174 CONJUGATION [149

The following are examples :

Act. s. 1. aninasam (nas be lost), acikrsam (krs drag),
apiplavam (B.), apiparam (pr pass). 2. aci-krad-as,
abubhuvas; sisvapas; without thematic a: a-jigar (gr
swallow and gr waken) ; sisvap. 3. aciklpat, acucyavat (K.),
ajihidat (\/Md), adidyutat, abubudhat, avivasat (-s/vas),
avi-vrdhat, asisyadat ( \/syand) ; bibhayat, sisnathat (snath
pierce); without thematic a: a-sisre-t (V^sri), a-sisnat.
PI. 3. avivasan (\/vas), asisrasan (Vsrams), asisadan
( N/sad) ; abibhajur (B.).

Mid. s. 3. avivarata (vr cover). PI. 2. avivrdhadhvam.
3. abibhayanta, avivasanta (v/vas), asisyadanta.

2. The subjunctive is rare, only about a dozen forms
occurring, all active except one. Examples are :

Act. s. 1. raradha. 2. titapasi. 3. ciklpati, pisprsati,1
sisadhati (-/sadh). PI. 1. riramama, sisadhama.

3. Injunctive forms are fairly common, more than fifty
occurring in the active, but only five in the middle.
Examples are :

Act. s. 1. cukrudham, didharam(dhr/w/d). 2. ciksipas,
pisprsas, riradhas, sisadhas. 3. cucyavat, didharat,
mimayat (ma bellow), sisvadat (svad siveeten).

Du. 2. jihvaratam. PI. 2. riradhata. 3. riraman,
susucan (sue shine). 3. sisapanta (sap serve).

4. The optative forms number hardly a dozen, being
made from only three roots, mostly from vac speak, the rest
from cyu stir and ris hurt. They are :

Act. s. 1. voce'yam. 2. ririses, voc6s. 3. voc6t.

Du. 2. voc^tam. PI. 1. voc6ma. 3. voce'yur.

Mid. s. 1. voc^ya. PL 1. cucyuv-i-mahi,1 vocSmahi.
3. cucyav-i-rata.1 There is also the 3. s. mid. precative
form riris-i-s-ta.

1 Without thematic a.

149-150] MOODS OF THE REDUPLICATED AORIST 175

5. Hardly more than a dozen imperative forms occur, all
of them active. These are :

Sing. 2. vocatat. 3. vocatu.

Du. 2. jigrtam 1 (gr waken), didhrtam,1 vocatam. PI. 2.
jigr-ta,1 didhrta,1 paptata, vocata, susudata (AV.).
3. pupurantu (pr fill), sisrathantu.

Irregularities.

a. 1. The reduplicative syllable of dyut shine has i 2 : &-didyutat ;
that of am injure repeats the whole root 3 : am-am-at (= 6-am-am-at) ;
while it is left short in jigrtam, jigrt& (beside d-jigar), didhrtam,
didhrt& (beside 6,-didharat), and in the isolated inj. didipas for
didipas (dip shine}.

2. The radical syllable suffers contraction or syncopation (as in the
weak forms of the perfect) in the three verbs nas be lost, vac speak, and
pat/aM; thus &-nes-at (= 6-nanas-at), d-voc-at (= &-va-uc-at : cp.
Gk. 6-6t7r-o-i') and d-papt-at. Having all had the reduplicative vowel
of the perfect (while the regular aorist reduplicative I appears in
the alternative forms i-ninas-at and d-plpat-at), they were probably
pluperfects in origin. But they have come to be aorists as is shown
by their meaning and by the occurrence of modal forms (as vocatu,
&c., and paptata).

3. The initial of the suffix is retained from the causative stems
jiia-paya, stha-paya, ha-paya, bhi-saya, ar-paya, ja-paya (Vji)-
The radical vowel is reduced to i in the first four, while the redupli-
cative vowel comes after instead of before the radical vowel in the
fifth : thus a-ji-jnip-at ; &-ti-sthip-at ; jl-hip-as ; bl-bhis-as, bi-bhis-
athas ; arp-ip-am4 ; d-ji-jap-a-ta 5 (VS.).

Benedictive or Precative.

150. This is a form of the optative which adds an s
after the modal suffix and which is made almost exclusively
from aorist stems. In the RV. it occurs in the 1. 3. s. and

1 Without thematic a.

2 Cp. its perfect reduplication : 139, 8.

3 Cp. the perfect reduplication of roots with a + nasal (139, 6).

4 Here the p of the suffix is not only retained, but reduplicated.

5 The causative of ji conquer from which this aor. is formed, would
normally have been jay-aya. In B. also occurs the form 6-ji-jip-ata.

176 CONJUGATION [150-151

1. pi. active, and in the 2. 8. s. mid. The endings together
with the modal suffix are :

Act. s. 1. ya-s-am. 3. ya-s (= yas-s) ; pi. 1. ya-s-ma.

Mid. s. 2. i-s-thas. 3. i-s-ta.

a. The only perfect precative occurring is the 2. s. mid. :
sa-sah-i-s-thas.

&. Of the root aorist nearly thirty precatives are met with
in the Samhitas. They occur in the act. 1. 3. s., 2. du.,
1. 2. pi. ; mid. 3. s. (see 148, 4 a). The a aorist and the
reduplicated aor. have one precative form each in the 3. s.
mid. (147, 4 and 149, 4). In the s aorist four precative
forms occur in the 2. and 3. s. mid. (see 143, 4).

Simple Future.

151. The stem is formed by adding the suffix sya or
(rather less frequently with connecting i) i-sya to the root.
As the future sense is often expressed by the subjunctive
and sometimes also by the indicative, the future tense is not
common in the RV. , being formed from only sixteen roots,
while the AV. makes it from about thirty-two others, and
the TS. forms it from over sixty roots. In V. and B. taken
together over one hundred form the future in sya and over
eighty that in isya. The only derivative verbs that form
the future (always with isya) are causatives, of which four
stems appear, two in the RV. and two in the AV. Roots
ending in r always take isya, whereas those ending in other
vowels generally take sya.

a. Final vowels and prosodically short medial vowels take
Guna, final a and medial a remaining unchanged ; e. g.
ji conquer : je-sya ; ni lead : ne-sya ; da give : da-sya ;
mih shed water : mek-sya ; yuj join : yok-sya ; krt cut :
kart-sya ; dan lurn : dhak-sya ; bandh Und : bhant-sya ;
bhu he: bhav-isya; sr flow : sar-isya; vrt turn : vart-
isya.

151-152] SIMPLE FUTURE 177

o. Causatives, which always take isya, retain the present stem,
dropping only the final a ; thus dharay-isya" (dhr support}; vasay-isya"
(vas wear} ; dus-ay-isy& (dus spoil} ; varay-isyi (vr cover}.

b. The inflexion of the future is like that of the present of
the first conjugation (bhavami). Middle forms occur in the
sing. only. The forms met with, if made from kr do,
would be :

Act. s. 1. kar-isyami. 2. kar-isyasi. 3. kar-isyati.
Du. 2. kar-isyathas. 3. kar-isyatas. PI. 1. kar-isya-
mas, -masi. 2. kar-isyatha. 3. kar-isyanti.

Mid. s. 1. kar-isy<§. 2. kar-isyase. 3. kar-isyate.

1. Only one subjunctive, the 2. s. act. kar-isyas, has
been met with in V., and one other, 1. du. mid., not-syava-
hai (nud push) in B.

2. More than twenty participles occur, of which only four
are mid. Examples are:

Act. kar-isy-ant, dhak-sy-ant (Vdah) ; mid. yak-sya-
mana (-/yaj), stavisya-mana (Vstti).

Irregularities.

c. In su bring forth the future stem is formed with unchanged final
vowel, which is moreover accented : su-sya ; while the medial a of sah
is lengthened : sak-sya".

Periphrastic Future.

152. There is no certain example of this form of the
future in the Samhitas. But such a phrase as anv-aganta
yajnapatir vo atra (TS., VS.) the sacrificer is following after
you here may be an example of its incipient use.1

In B. this future is taken by nearly thirty roots. It is made by
using the N. s. of an agent noun in tr (180), to which the present of
the verb as be is added in the 1. 2. persons, while in the 3. persons du.
and pi. the N. du. and pi. appear. The use of this tense-form is

1 The forerunners in V. of this new tense-formation in B. are the
agent nouns in tr which, generally accented on the root, are used
participially governing an ace. and may be employed predicatively
with or without the copula ; e. g. data yo v&nita maghdm (iii. 133) wfto
gives and wins bounty.

1819 N

178 CONJUGATION [152-154

almost limited to the active, only a few isolated examples being
found in the middle. Forms occurring, if made from bhu fee, would
be: Act. sing. 1. bhavitasmi ; 3. bhavita. PI. 1. bhavitasmas ; 3.
bhavitaras. Mid. sing. 1. 2. bhavitase. PI. 1. bhavitasmahe.

Conditional.

153. This is a past tense of the future meaning would
have. Only one example occurs in the Samhitas : a-bhar-
isya-t (EV. ii. 302) was going to bear off. This form is
very rare in B. also, except in the SB. where it is found
more than fifty times.

Passive.

154. The passive, which takes the terminations of the
middle, differs from the latter only in the forms made from
the present stem and in the 3. s. aor. From the middle of
verbs of the fourth class it differs in accent only : nah-ya-te
binds : nah-ya-te is bound.

The stem is formed by adding accented ya to the root,
which appears in its weak form.

1. Final a mostly becomes I ; e. g. da give : di-ya ; but it
also remains ; e. g. jna know : jna-ya.

2. Final i and u are lengthened ; e.g. ji conquer: ji-ya-te ;
sru hear: sru-ya-te.

3. Final r becomes ri ; e. g. kr make : kri-ya-te.1

4. Final r becomes Ir ; e. g. sr crush: sir-ya-te.2

5. Eoots ending in a consonant preceded by a nasal, lose
the nasal ; e. g. anj anoint : aj-ya-te ; bandh bind : badh-
ya-te ; bhanj break : bhaj-ya-te ; vane move crookedly : vac-
ya-te ; sams praise : sas-ya-te.

1 The only two roots in which r is preceded by two consonants and
which form a passive are str strew and smr remember. Their passives do
not occur in the Samhitas, but in B are found stri-y£-te and smar-yd-te.

2 The passive of pf fill does not occur in the Samhitas, but in B. it is
pur-ya-te (the f being preceded by a labial).

154-155] PASSIVE 179

6. Koots liable to Samprasarana (17 note 1) take it ; e. g.
vac speak : uc-ya-te ; vad speak : ud-ya-te ; vah carry :
uh-ya-te ; grab seize : grh-ya-te.

a. Derivative verbs in aya (causatives) drop the suffix while retain-
ing the strong radical vowel. Only one such stem has been noted in
the Samhitas : bhaj-ya'-te is caused to share (from bhaj-dya causative of
bhaj share).

a. The forms of the present indicative passive occurring,
if made from hu call, would be :

Sing. 1. hu-ye. 2. hu-ya-se. 3. hu-ya-te. Du. 3.
hu-y6-te. PI. 1. hu-ya-mahe. 3. hu-ya-nte.

1). As regards the moods only two certain subjunctive
forms (s. 3. uh-ya-te, bhri-ya-te) and one injunctive (s. 3.
su-ya-ta : su Tiring forth) occur. No optative forms occur
in the EV. or AV.1 There are, however, nearly thirty
imperative forms occurring in the 2. 3. s. pi. These forms,
illustrated by hu call, are : s. 2. hu-ya-sva. 3. hu-ya-tam.
PI. 2. hu-ya-dhvam. 3. hu-ya-ntam.

c. Of the participle over forty examples occur ; e. g. hu-
ya-mana Icing called. Of the imperfect only about eight
forms have been noted, occurring only in the 3. s. and pi. :
a-hu-ya-ta and a-hu-yanta.

Irregularities.

d. tan stretch forms its passive from ta : ta-ya"-te2. Similarly jan
beget becomes ja-ya-te is born, which, however, in form belongs to the
radically accented fourth class, mri-ya-te dies (\/nir.) and dhri-yd-te
(\/dhr) is steadfast, while passive in form, are intransitive in sense.

Aorist Passive.

155. Outside the present system the passive has no
special finite form except in the 3. sing. aor. This is a
peculiar middle form (made from about forty-five roots in

1 But they are met with in the Brahmanas.

2 In B. kha-ya-te is formed from khan dig.

N2

180 CONJUGATION [155-156

the Samhitas) l which is used with a predominantly passive
meaning. When it is formed from verbs with a neuter sense,
like gam go, that sense remains unchanged (as in the past
passive participle). It is a 8. s. ind. in which the augmented
root takes the ending i. The characteristic feature of this
form is the strengthening of the root as compared with other
middle forms ; e. g. a-kar-i beside a-kr-i (1. s. mid.).
Prosodically short medial i, u, r take Guna, and medial a is
normally lengthened ; final i, u, r take Vrddhi, while final a
interposes a y before the ending. The accent of unaug-
mented forms is always on the root. Examples are :
a-ved-i (yidfind), a-bodh-i (budh wake), a-dars-i (drs sec),
a-vac-i (vac speak); a-sray-i (sri resort), a-stav-i (stu
praise), a-kar-i (kr do), a-dha-y-i (dha put).

More than twenty unaugmented forms are also used
injunctively ; e. g. srav-i let ~be heard.

Irregularities.

a. 1. The medial a is not lengthened in d-jan-i, the unaugmented
j&n-i (beside jan-i), and d-vah-i.

2. From the denominative stem jaraya^Za?/ the lover the unique form
jaraya-y-i let him be embraced is formed.

PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND INFINITIVE.
I. Active Participles.

156. The stem of the present (except the reduplicating
class), the future, and the aorist active participle is formed
with the suffix ant.2 The strong stem may be obtained by
dropping the i of the 3. pi. ind. act. ; e. g. bhav-ant, ksip-
ant, as-yant; dun-ant, krnv-ant, bhind-ant, pri-nant.

1 About a dozen more are found in B.

2 On the declension of participles in ant see 85 ; on the formation
of their fern, stems, 95 a.

156-157] PARTICIPLES 181

Stems of the reduplicating class do not distinguish strong
forms because they drop the n : e. g. juhv-at (3. pi.
juhv-ati).

The strong stem of the future participle may similarly be
obtained by dropping the i of the 3. pi. act. : bhavisyant,
karisyant.

The active participle is formed by the root aorist, the
a aorist, and the s aorist, from the unaugmented tense stem
in the latter two ; e. g. vida-nt, sak-s-ant (sah prevail) ; and
from the weakened or unmodified root in the former ; e. g.
rdh-ant, kr-ant (kr make), gm-ant (gam go), pant (pa
drink).

a. Irregularities. — In the pres. part, the initial a of as be and the
medial a of han slay are lost : sant (3. pi. santi), ghn-ant (3. pi. ghn-
&nti); while the n of the suffix is lost in das-at worshipping and s~as-at :
(3. pi. sas-ati). The n is also lost in the s aor. part, of dan burn :
daks-at and dh&ks-at. Whether it was also lost in saks-at, the part,
of the same aor. from sah prevail, is uncertain because it is only met
with in a weak case.

157. The reduplicated perfect participle is formed
from the weak (but uncontracted or unsyncopated) stem to
which the suffix vams is directly added. There are more
than fifty such stems. Examples are : cakr-vams, jagan-
vams (gam go), tastabh-vams (stambh prop), tasthi-vams
(stha stand), dadrs-vams, dad- vams (da give), ba-bhu-vams,
vavrt-vams, sasa-vams (san gain), susup-vams (svap
sleep).

a. Some half-dozen of these participles are formed by
adding the suffix with connecting i to the reduplicated stem
contracted to a single syllable : I-y-i-vams (i go) ; us-i-vams
(vas dwell) ; ok-i-vams 2 (uc be pleased) ; papt-i-vams (pat
fall) ; sasc-i-vams (sac follow) ; in the later Samhitas also

1 Both daS and sas belong to the root, and not the reduplicating
class.

2 With strong radical vowel and reversion to the original guttural.

182 CONJUGATION [157-158

jaks-i-vams (ghas eat).1 The only certain example of a perf.
part, adding the suffix with connecting i to the fully
reduplicated stem is vivis-i-vams (TS.).2

&. A few perfect participles are formed by attaching vams
to the unreduplicated stem : das-vams worshipping, vid-vams
knowing, sah-vams prevailing, and perhaps khid-vams3
oppressing. Similarly formed is midh-vams bountiful, though
the root does not occur in independent use. Three un-
reduplicated roots take connecting i in the later Samhitas :
das-i-vams (SV.) worshipping, vis-i-vams (AV.) entering,
varj-i-vams 4 (AV.) having twisted.

a. Irregularities. — In seven stems the palatal reverts to the original
guttural : oikit-vams (\/cit), jigi-vams (\/ji~), ririk-vams (v"ric),
ruruk-vams (>/ruc), vivik-vams (-v/vic), susuk-vams (\/suc), ok-i-
vams (Vac). The radical vowel is strong in dada-vams (AV.), ok-i*
vams, sah-vams ; while the reduplicative vowel is long in sasah-
vams and susu-vams

II. Middle and Passive Participles.

158. The participles of the future middle, of the present
passive, and the present middle of the a conjugation are
formed by adding the suffix mana to the stem (which
always ends in a); e.g. fut. mid. yaksya-mana (Vyaj);
pres. pass, kriya-mana (\/kr); pres. mid. yaja-mana.

a. Verbs of the second conjugation add the suffix ana to
the weak stem in the pres. mid. ; e.g. bruv-ana (Vbru),
jiihv-ana (\/hu), rundh-ana (-v/rudh), krnv-ana (Vkr),
pun-ana

a. There are several irregularities in the formation of the middle
participles of the root class. 1. The root as sit optionally takes the
anomalous suffix ma : as-ina beside as- and. 2. The final of the root

1 jaks syncopated for jagh(a)s.

2 In B. are also found dadrs-i-vams and ciohid-i-vams.

3 Occurring only in the voc. khidvas.

4 Presupposed by the fern, varjufi.

158-160] PERFECT PARTICIPLES 183

duh milk optionally reverts to the original guttural : dugh-ana beside
the regular dub-ana. 3. A few roots take Guna : oh-and, ( Vuh),
yodh-ana' (Vyudh), say-ana (Vsl), stav-an& (Vstu). 4. Several of
these participles optionally accent the radical syllable instead of the
final vowel of the suffix ; e. g. vid-ana beside vid-ana".

159. The Perfect Middle Participle is formed by adding
the suffix -ana to the weak form of the stem as it appears
before the ending of the 3. pi. mid. re (ire, rire). It is
common, more than eighty examples occurring. The follow-
ing are some of them : anaj-ana (Vanj), anas-ana (\/ams),
ar-ana (Vr), ij-ana (\/yaj), uc-ana (V vac), cakr-ana
(Vkr), cikit-ana (Vcit), jagm-ana (\/gam), tasth-ana
(\/stha), tistir-ana (A/stf), tep-ana (\/tap), pap-ana (pa
drink), paspas-ana (V spas), bhej-ana (\/bhaj), yem-ana
(V yam), lebh-ana (\/labh), vavas-ana (vas tvear anddwell),
sisriy-ana (\/sri), sismiy-anafA/smi), susup-ana(\/svap).

a. Irregularities. — 1. This participle of si lie has the double anomaly
of reduplicating with a and of strengthening the radical syllable : 1
s'asay-ana'. 2. The root sah prevail adds the suffix to a reduplicated as
well as to a contracted stem : sasah-an& and seh-an&. 3. The radical
vowel of kam love and sam labour is not syncopated : cakam-and and
sasam-ana. 4. Four of these participles have the intensive accent on
the reduplicative syllable: tutuj-ana2, susuj-ana, sus"uv-ana (<v/su),
and sasad-ana3

160. The Perfect Passive Participle is formed by adding,
in the great majority of instances, the suffix ta (with or
without connecting i) or, far less commonly, the suffix na
(directly) to the root.

1 Cp. a similar irregularity of si in 134, 1 &.

2 Also normally, but less frequently, accented tutuj-and,.

3 Cp. the Gk. perf. mid. part. «6«aS-/ueVo-s.

4 The first three cannot be accounted intensives because they have
not the intensive reduplicative vowel (173, 1). Though the redupli-
cative vowel of sasad-ana may be that of either perfect or intensive,
the occurrence of the perf. form Sasadur beside it favours the view
that it is a perf. participle.

184 CONJUGATIONS [160

1. na, which is taken by primary verbs only, is attached
to the (unweakened) root, which ends in a long vowel or one
of the consonants d and (rarely) c or j. Before this suffix,
I and u remain unchanged ; a remains or is reduced to I or i ;
f becomes Ir or (generally when a labial precedes) ur ; d is
assimilated to n ; c and j revert to the original guttural.
Thus li cling : li-na ; du burn : du-na ; dra sleep : dra-na ;
da divide : di-na ; ha leave : hi-na ; gf swalloiv : gir-na ;
mr crush: mur-na ; jr waste away, jur-na ; bhid split:
bhin-na ; skand leap : skan-na ; vrasc cut up : vrk-na ;
ruj break : rug-na.

a. Several roots take alternative forms in ta : uun-n& and nut-ta
(Vnud) ; vin-n& and vit-td (vid find} ; san-n& and sat-td (sad sit) ;
si-nd and sl-td (sya coagulate) ; pf fill : pur-rid and pur-ta ; sr crush :
slr-nd and sur-td ; pro mix : -prg-na and prk-ta.

b. The final palatal of pro mix, vrasc cut up and ruj break reverts tO
the guttural (cp. 160, 1).

2. When ta is added direct the root tends to appear in its
weak form : verbs liable to Samprasarana take it ; a medial
or final nasal is lost ; a is often reduced to I or i ; ya some-
times to i. Examples are : ya-ta, ji-ta, bhi-ta, stu-ta,
hu-ta, kr-ta; nas-ta (\/nas be lost), sik-ta (\/sic), yuk-ta
(Vyuj), gu-dha (^guh),1 dug-dha (\/duh), srs-t^ (^srj);
is-ta (^yaj), vid-dha (\/vyadh), uk-ta (-/vac), u-dha
(\/vah),2 sup-ta (\/svap), prs-ta (\/prach) ; ak-ta (\/anj),
ta-ta (\/tan), ga-ta (\/gam) ; pi-ta (pa drink), sthi-ta
(\/stha); vi-ta (\/vya).

a. The root dha put is doubly weakened in hi-td beside -dhi-ta.
Medial a is reduced to i in sis-ta (sas order). Syncopation and loss of
s appear in -g-dha eaten (^/ghas).3

6. Excepting the occurrence of the normal form -data in the com-
pound tva-data given by thee, da give regularly uses the weak pres.

1 With cerebralization and aspiration of the suffix, loss of the radical
final and lengthening of the radical vowel (cp. 62, 69 c).

a With the same changes as in gudh& after vah-ta has been reduced
by Samprasarana to uh-tfi. 8 Cp. p. 170, note 7.

160-161] PERFECT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE 185

stem dad in forming its past passive participle : dat-ta. The latter is
further reduced to -tta in deva-ttd given by the gods, and when com-
bined with certain prepositions : vy-a-tta opened, parl-tta given aivay,
prati-tta given back. The same syncopation appears in the compound
participle of da divide : dva-tta cut off'.

c. One root in an and three or four in am retain the nasal and
lengthen the vowel : dhvan sound : dhvan-ta ; kram stride : kran-td ;
sam be quiet : san-t& ; sram be weary : sran-ta ; dham blow has the
irregular dhma-td and dham-i-ta.

d. A few roots in an have a L : khan dig : kha-t& ; jan be born : ja-t& ;
van win : -va-ta ; san gain : sa-ta.

3. i-ta is taken by a considerable number of roots ending
not only in conjunct consonants or in single consonants
difficult to combine with t, but also in simple consonants,
especially sibilants, which present no such difficulty. The
root is not weakened (excepting four instances of Sampra-
sarana). Secondary verbs (almost without exception causa-
tives) 2 take ita exclusively (after dropping aya).3

Examples are : nind-ita, raks-ita ; grath-ita, Il-ita,
car-ita, jiv-ita ; pat-ita, pan-ita ; kup-ita, stabh-ita ;
mus-ita; arp-ita4 (arp-aya cause to go), cod-ita (cod-aya
set in motion).

a. The roots taking Samprasarana are: grabh and grab
seize : grbh-I-ta and grh-I-ta (AV.) ;5 vaks increase: uks-ita ;
vad speak : ud-ita ; srath slacken : srth-ita.

161. There is once found in the AV. a perfect passive
participle extended with the possessive suffix vant, which
gives it the sense of a perfect participle active : asita-vant
having eaten.6

1 Representing the long sonant nasal.

2 Only one perfect participle passive has been noted from a desidera-
tive : mimam-s-ita called in question, and one from a denominative :
bham-it& enraged.

3 In B. jnapaya, causative of jna knoiv, forms its part, without con-
necting i : jnap-t6.

4 Usually (and abnormally) accented arp-ita.

5 With I for i as in some other forms from this root.

6 This type of participle hardly occurs even in the Brahmanas.

186 CONJUGATION [162

162. The Future Passive Participle is in the RV. formed
with four suffixes : one with the primary suffix ya, which is
common, the rest with the secondary suffixes ay-ya, e~n-ya,
and tv-a, each of which occurs about a dozen times. In the
AV. there begin to be used two other gerundives, formed
with tavya and aniya, each occurring twice. All these
participles correspond in sense to the Lat. gerundive
in -ndus.

1. In the RV. about forty examples of the gerundive in
ya occur, and about twenty more in the AV. The suffix is
nearly always to be read as ia, which accounts for the
treatment before it of final radical vowels. The root, being
accented, appears in a strong form excepting a few examples
which have the short radical vowel i, u, or r.

a. Final a coalesces with the initial of ia to e, between which and
the following a a phonetic y is interposed : da give : d6ya ( = da-i-y-a)
to be given.

b. Final I, u, r regularly take Guna or Vrddhi, the final element
of which always appears as y, v, r, as before a vowel ; e. g. II ding :
-lay-ya ; nu praise : naV-ya ; bhu be : bhaV-ya and bhav-y& future ;
hu call : haV-ya ; vr choose : var-ya.

c. Medial i, u, r, if followed by a single consonant, may take Guna
and a may be lengthened ; e. g. dvis : dves-ya hateful ; yudh : yodh-ya
to be subdued ; rdh : ardh-ya to be accomplished ; mrj : marj-ya to be
purified - vac : vac-ya to be said ; but also giih-ya to be concealed ; -dhrs-ya
to be assailed ; -sad-ya to be seated.

d. A final short vowel sometimes remains unchanged, a t being
then interposed : f-t-ya to be gone ; sru-t-ya to be heard ; -kr-t-ya to be
made ; oarkf-t-ya to be praised,

2. The suffix ayya, nearly always to be read ayia, is
almost restricted to the RV. ; e. g. pan-ayya to be admired ;
vid-ayya to he found ; srav-ayya glorious. It is sometimes
attached to secondary stems ; to a causative : panay-ayya
admirable, sprhay-ayya desirable ; to a desiderative : di-
dhi-s-ayya to be conciliated (^dha) ; to an intensive : vi-tan-
tas-ayya to be hastened.

3. e"nya (generally to be read e"nia) is attached to the root,

162-163] GERUNDIVE 187

which remains unaltered except when it ends in a vowel :
thus dvis-6nya malignant, yudh-6nya to be combatted, drs-
enya worthy to be seen ; but var-enya uhoiceivorthy (vr choose).
It is once added to an aor. stem : yam-s-enya to ~be guided
( \/yam). Secondary verbs also take this suffix ; desideratives :
didrks-6nya icorthy to be seen, susrus-6nya deserving to be
heard-, intensives: marmrj-6nya to be glorified, vavrdh-
6nya to be glorified ; denominatives : sapar-e"nya to be
adored.

4. tv-a, almost restricted to the RV.1 and generally to be
read tua, is added to the strong form of the root, which is
accented. Thus kar-tva to be made, he'-tva to be driven on
(v/hi), s6-tva to be pressed (Vsu), vak-tva to be said; with
connecting i : san-i-tva to be won ; with connecting I :
bhav-i-tva 2 future.

5. The only two examples in V. (both occurring in AV.)
of the gerundive in tavya, which in both cases is added
with connecting i, are jan-i-tavya to be born and hims-i-
tavya to be injured.3

6. The only examples of the gerundive in amya (both
appearing in the AV.) are upa-jiv-aniya to be subsisted on
and a-mantr-aniya worthy to be addressed.4

III. Gerund or Indeclinable Participle.

163. More than 120 examples of the gerund occur in
the KV. and AV. It expresses an action which accompanies
or more often precedes that of the finite verb. It is formed
with the three suffixes tvi, tva, tvaya (all old cases of stems

1 A few examples occur in the Brahmanas : j6-tva (ji conquer),
sna-tva (sna bathe), hin-tva (han slay).

2 With I instead of i.

3 This gerundive has become not uncommon in B., where it is
formed not only from the root, but from secondary stems.

4 In B. nearly a dozen examples have been met with.

188 CONJUGATION [163

in tu which is also used to form infinitives) attached to the
simple root.

1. The form in tvi, which is almost restricted to the RV. ,l
is the commonest of the three in that Samhita, where fifteen
examples occur. It probably represents an old locative of
stems in tu. It is as a rule added directly to the root,
which has the same form as in the perf. pass, participle
in ta. Examples are : kr-tvi having made, ga-tvi having
gone, gu-dhvi having hidden, bhu-tvi having become, vrk-tvi
having overthrown (\/vrj), hi-tvi having abandoned (Vha).
There are two forms in which the suffix is added with the
connecting vowel i : jan-i-tvi having produced and skabh-i-tvi
having propped.

2. The suffix tv-a (an old inst. sing, of a verbal noun in tu)
is taken by nine roots, in the EV. and about thirty more in
the AV. The root has the same form as before the ta of the
perf. pass, participle. The forms occurring in the KV. are :
pi-tva (pa drink), bhit-tva having shattered, bhu-tva having
become, mi-tva having formed (\/ma), yuk-tva having yoJced,
vr-tva having covered, sru-tva having heard, ha-tva having
slain, hi-tva having abandoned. Some of the forms from the
AV. are: is-tva having sacrificed (\/yaj), jag-dhva Jiaving
devoured (Vjaks), tir-tva having crossed (Vtf), tr-dhva
having shattered (</ trh), dsit-tva, having given (Vd&), pak-tva
having cooked (Vpac), bad-dhva having bound (V'bandh),
bhak-tva having divided (v^bhaj), ru-dhva having ascended
(V run), vrs-tva having cut up (\/vrasc), sup-tva having
slept ( -v/svap) ; three take the connect ing vowel i : cay-i-tva
noting (\/cay), hims-i-tva having injured, grh-i-tva having
seized ; a few also are formed from secondary stems in aya
(which is retained) ; e. g. kalpay-i-tva having arranged.

3. The rarest gerund is that in tvaya, which is formed

1 This gerundive is not found in the AV., but it has not entirely
disappeared in the Brahmanas.

163-164] GERUND 189

from only eight roots in the RV.1 : ga-tvaya having gone,
jag-dhvaya having devoured, dat-tvaya having given, drs-
tvaya having seen, bhak-tvaya having attained, yuk-tvaya
having yoked, ha-tvaya having slain, hi-tvaya having aban-
doned ; three more of these gerunds appear in the Yajurveda :
kr-tvaya having done, ta-tvaya having stretched, vr-tvaya
having covered.

164. When the verb is compounded the suffix is regularly
either ya or tya. In at least two-thirds of such forms the
vowel of the suffix is long in the RV. The root is always
accented.

1. ya is added (but never with i) to the root, which has
the same form as before tva, except that final a and am
remain unchanged. Nearly forty roots in the RV. and
about thirty more in the AV. form these compound gerunds.
Examples from the RV. are : ac-ya bending (= a-ac-), abhy-
lip-ya having enveloped (\/vap), abhi-kram-ya approaching,
abhi-gur-ya graciously accepting (gr sing), sam-grbh-ya
gathering, ni-cay-ya fearing, vi-tur-ya driving forth (v'tr),
a-da-ya taking, ati-div-ya plat/ing higher, antt-drs-ya looking
along, a-rabh-ya grasping, ni-sad-ya having sat doivn ; from
a causative stem : prarp-ya setting in motion (pra-arpaya).
Examples from the AV. are: ud-uh-ya having carried up
(A/vah), sam-gir-ya sivalloiving up (V^gf), upa-ddd-ya
putting in (\/da), sam-bhu-ya combining, ut-tha-ya arising
(\/stha), sam-siv-ya having sewed; from a causative stem :
vi-bhaj-ya having apportioned (\/bhaj).

a. Three roots are found in the RV. compounded with adverbs or
substantives : punar-da-ya giving back, mitha-spfdh-ya vying together,
karna-gfh-ya seising ly the ear, pada-gfh-ya grasping by the foot, hasta-
gfh-ya grasping by the, hand.

1 This gerund occurs twice in the AV. and about half a dozen times
in B. It is once formed from a causative stem in the SB. : spaS-ay-i-
tvaya

190 CONJUGATION [165-167

165. 2. tya (nearly always with long vowel in the RV.)
is added instead of ya to compound verbs ending in a short
vowel ; l e. g. 6-tya having come (a-i), abhi-ji-tya having
conquered, a-dr-tya regarding, apa-mi-tya2 having borrowed,
upa-srii-tya having overheard ; with adverbial or nominal
prefix: aram-kr-tya having made ready, akhkhali-kr-tya
shouting, namas-kr-tya (AV.) paying homage.

a. The analogy of these verbs is followed by some roots ending in
n or m preceded by a, which drop the nasal as in the perf. pass. part. :
vi-hd-tya having driven away (Vhan), a-g£-tya having come (Vgam),
ud-yd-tya (AV.) lifting up (Vyam).

166. The accusative in am of certain verbal nouns,
though not yet construed like a gerund in the Samhitas, is
not infrequently so construed in the Brahmanas and Sutras.
Before the suffix, the root (which is almost always com-
pounded) appears in the form it assumes before the i of the
3. s. aor. pass. (155); e.g. sakham sam-a-lambh-am taking
hold of a branch (SB.)-, mahanagam abhi-sam-sar-am running
together around a great snake (SB.).

IV. Infinitive.

167. The infinitive, all the forms of which are old cases
of verbal nouns, ace., dat., abl.-gen., or loc., is very frequent,
occurring about 700 times in the RV. Only the ace. and
dat. forms are common, but the datives outnumber the ace.
in the proportion of 12 to 1 in the RV. and 3 to 1 in
the AV. It is a remarkable fact that the infinitive in turn,
the only form surviving in Sanskrit, occurs not more than
five times in the RV., while the dative infinitive, which in
the RV. is more than seven times as common as all the
rest put together, has already for the most part disappeared
in the Brahmanas.

1 Sometimes not original but reduced from a long vowel.
a Here mi is reduced from ma measure.

167] INFINITIVE 191

a. The infinitive is as a rule formed from the root, not being
connected with any tense stems or ever showing the distinctions of
voice. The forms in dhyai, dse and sam are, however, not infrequently
connected with a present stem ; that in dhyai is once formed from
a perfect stem, and is also in several instances taken by causative
stems. The forms in dhyai and tava"i are at once recognizable as
infinitives by their abnormal endings ; that in sdni, though it has an
ordinary case-ending, by its isolated stem-formation. The ace. inf.
in turn and am and the abl. gen. inf. show their infinitive character
by their power of combining with prepositions and their verbal
construction. Some infinitives, however, cannot be distinguished
from ordinary cases of verbal nouns : they are not to be regarded as
genuine infinitives unless they are isolated case forms or have a verbal
construction.

1. Dative Infinitive.

This infinitive1 ends in e, which with the final a of a root
or stem combines to ai.2 It is formed from :

a. roots, about sixty forms occurring. About a dozen are
formed from roots ending in long vowels and from one in i,
all of them (except an alternative form of bhu) being com-
pounded with prefixes ; e. g. para-dai to give up, pra-hyd
to send (Vhi) ; -miy-e to diminish (Vmi), -bhv-e" and bhuv-e"
to be ; -tir-e to cross.

The rest are from roots ending in consonants. About
a dozen are uncompounded, as mah-6 to be glad, mih-6 to
shed water, bhuj-6 to enjoy, drs-e" to see. But the compounded
forms are commoner ; e. g. -grabh-e to seize, -idh-e to kindle,
-mid-e to thrust, -prch-e 3 to ask, -vac-e 4 to speak, -vidh-e 3
to pierce, -syad-e5 to flow.6

1 The only dat. inf. in ordinary use in B. is that in tav&L. Otherwise
only five or six in e (see note 6) ; two in tave, dv-i-tave and star-
tave, and one in dhyai, sa-dhyai to conquer ( \/sah) have been noted in B.
Loc. infinitives have disappeared.

2 Except srad-dh6 to trust and pra-me" to form, which drop the a.

3 With Samprasarana.

4 With lengthened vowel.

r> With loss of nasal (v'syand).

c In B. have been noted half a dozen infinitives in e from roots

192 CONJUGATION [167

fe. verbal nouns derived with nine different suffixes.
These in the aggregate are more numerous.

1. Some twenty-five are datives of stems in as ; l e. g.
ay-as-e to go, caks-as-e to see, car-as-e to fare, pusy-as-e
to thrive, bhiy-as-e to fear, sriy-as-e to ~be resplendent.

2. Five or six datives of stems in i are found in the RV.,
and one or two in other Samhitas ; tuj-aye to breed, drs-ay-e
to see, mah-ay-e to rejoice, yudh-ay-e to fight, san-ay-e to
win : grh-aye to seize (K.), cit-aye to understand (VS.).

3. Four or five are datives of stems in ti: is-tay-e to
refresh, pi-tay-e to drink, vi-tay-e to enjoy, sa-tay-e
to win.

4. More than thirty are datives of stems in tu 2 (added to
the gunated root, sometimes with connecting i) ; e. g.
at-tav-e to eat, 6-tav-e to go, 6-tav-e to weave (\/u = va),
kar-tav-e to make, gan-tav-e to go, pa-tav-e to drink, bhar-
tav-e to bear aivay, yas-tav-e to sacrifice, vak-tav-e to speak,
vas-tav-e to shine, v6-lhav-e to convey (-v/vah) ; av-i-tav-e
to refresh, car-i-tav-e to fare, sav-i-tav-e to bring forth (\/su),
srav-i-tav-e to flow (\/sru), hav-i-tav-e to call (Vh.u) ;
jiv-a-tav-e to live, star-i-tav-e (AV.) to lay low (A/str).

5. More than a dozen are datives of stems in tava (which
is added like tu to the gunated root) and have the peculiarity
of being doubly accented ; e. g. 6-tavai to go, 6-tavai to
weave, gan-tavai to go, pa-tavai to drink, man-tavai to think,
sar-tavai to floiv ; yam-i-tavai to guide, srav-i-tavai to
flow.

ending in consonants, all but one being compounded : drs-6 (TS.) to
see, prati-dhfs-e to withstand (TS.), pra-mrad-e to crush (SB.), a-rdbh-e
to take hold (SB.), a-sSd-e to sit upon (AB.), ati-sfp-e to glide over (MS.).
All these except pra-mrad-^ occur in the RV.

1 Which is generally accented, but about half a dozen examples
accent the root.

2 The only examples of this infinitive noted in B. are dvitave and
startave.

167] DATIVE INFINITIVE 193

a. This infinitive is still in regular use in B., where the following
examples have been noted : 6tav&i and yatav&i to go, kartavfii to do,
de"dlyitavai to jly away, drogdhavai to plot, m&ntavdi to think, m£nthi-
tavai to rule, st&rtavai to lay low, ati-caritav&i to transgress, a-netav&i to
bring, nir-astavai to throw out, pai'i-staritavai to strew around, sam-
hvayitavdi to call together.

6. There is only one certain example of a dative infinitive
from a stem in tya : i-tyai to go.

7. More than thirty-five are datives (almost restricted to
the KV.) of stems in dhya, which is added to verbal stems
ending in a (generally accented) ; e. g. iya-dhyai to go (A/!),
gama-dhyai to go, cara-dhyai to fare, saya-dhyai to lie
(A/ si), stava-dhyai to praise (\/stu); piba-dhyai to drink
(\/pa), prna-dhyai to fill (A/P?), huva-dhyai to call (\/hu) j1
vavrdha-dhyai 2 to strengthen ; naSaya-dhyai 3 to cause to
disappear, vartaya-dhyai 3 to cause to turn.

a. Only one of these infinitives has been noted in B. : sadhyai to
conquer (Vsah). j;n the TS. occurs one example ending in e instead
of ai : gamd-dhye to go.

8. Five are datives of stems in man : tra-man-e to protect,
da-man-e to give (Gk. 86fj.€v-ai), dhar-man-e to support,
bhar-man-e to preserve, vid-man-e (Gk. 'iB-^v-ai) to kno^v.

9. Three are datives of stems in van : tur-van-e to over-
come (\/tr), da-van- e (Gk. Sovvai — SoFevai) to give, dhur-
van-e 4 to injure.

2. Accusative Infinitive.

This infinitive is formed in two ways.

a. One of them (of which more than a dozen examples
occur in the RV. besides several others in the AV.) is made
with am added to the weak form of the root, which nearly

1 The last three are made from regular present stems.

2 From the reduplicated perfect stem.

3 From the causative stem, from which about ten such infinitives
are formed.

4 With interchange of vowel and semivowel : ur = vr. Cp. 171, 2.

1819 O

194 CONJUGATION [ir>7

always ends in a consonant (except dha, mi, tf) ; e. g.
sam-idh-am to kindle, sam-prch-am to ask, a-rabh-am to
reach, a-riih-am to mount, subh-am to shine ; pra-tir-am
to prolong (\/tr), prati-dha-m to place upon, pra-miy-am to
neglect (\/mi).

&. The second form which is made from stems in tu
(= Lat. supine) is much less common than the datives from
the same stems. Only five examples occur in the EV. and
about as many others in the AV. ; EV. : 6-tum to iveave, da-
tum to give (Lat. da-turn), pras-tum to ask, pra-bhar-tum
to present, anu-pra-volhum to advance ; AV. : at- turn to eat,
kar-tum to make, dras-tum to see, yac-i-tum to ask,
spar dh-i- turn to contend ivith ; K., VS. : khan-i-tum to dig.

a. The ace. inf. has become nearly twice as frequent as the dat. in B.
The form in am is not unusual, while that in turn is quite common.

3. Ablative- Genitive Infinitive.

This infinitive is rare, fewer than twenty examples occur-
ring in the Samhitas. It is rather of the nature-of a verbal
noun than a genuine infinitive. Like the ace. infinitive it
is formed in two ways : from a radical (consonant) stem and
from a verbal noun in tu. It thus ends either in as or tos ;
and as each of these endings represents both the abl. and
the gen., the cases can only be distinguished syntactically.

a. The as form has the abl. sense almost exclusively.
There are six examples of it in the EV. : a-trd-as 'being
pierced, ava-pad-as falling down, sam-prc-as coming in con-
tact, abhi-sris-as binding, abhi-svas-as blowing, ati-skad-as
leaping across. There seems to be one certain example of
the gen. : ni-mis-as to wink.

1). Of the tos form the EV. has six examples in the abl.
sense : 6-tos and gan-tos going, jan-i-tos "being born,
ni-dha-tos putting down, sar-i-tos being shattered, s6-tos
pressing, nan- tos being struck. Three examples in the gen.
sense are : kar-tos doing, da-tos giving, y6-tos warding off.

a. The abl. gen. inf. lias become as common as the dat. in B.

1G7-168] LOCATIVE INFINITIVE 195

4. Locative Infinitive.

This form of the infinitive is rare ; hardly more than
a dozen examples occur even if several doubtful forms are
included.

a. Five or six are locatives of radical stems : vy-us-i at
the dawning, sam-caks-i on beholding, drs-i and sam-dfs-i
on seeing, budh-i at the tvaking. As these forms, however,
have nothing distinctive of the infinitive and govern the
genitive only, they are rather to be regarded as ordinary
locatives of verbal nouns.

b. From a stem in tar are formed dhar-tar-i to support
and vi-dhartar-i to bestow ; it is, however, doubtful whether
these forms are genuine infinitives.

c. The EV. has eight locatives from stems in san, with
a genuine infinitive sense: ne-san-i to lead, par-san-i to
pass, abhi-bhu-san-i to aid, su-san-i to swell, sak-san-i
to abide (Vsac) ; with connecting I: tar-i-san-i; from
present stems : gr-ni-sani to sing, str-ni-san-i to spread.

DERIVATIVE VERBS.
I. Causatives.

168. This is by far the commonest of the secondary
conjugations, being formed from more than two hundred
roots in the Samhitas and from about a hundred additional
ones in the Brahmanas. Of about 150 causative stems
in the RV., however, at least one-third have not a causative,
but an iterative sense. The whole formation may indeed
originally have had an iterative meaning. This perhaps
explains how an iterative formation, the reduplicated aorist,
specially attached itself to the causative. The same root
occasionally forms both the iterative and the causative, as
pat-aya-ti flies about and pat-aya-ti causes to fly beside the
simple verb pata-ti flies.

o2

196 CONJUGATION [168

The causative is formed by adding the suffix aya to the
root, which is usually strengthened.

1. Initial or medial i, u, r, 1 (if not long by position) take
Guna ; e. g. vid "know : ved-aya cause to Jmow ; krudh be
angry, krodh-aya enrage] rd dissolve (intr.): ard-aya
destroy ; trp be pleased : tarp-aya delight ; kip be adapted :
kalp-aya arrange.

a. Several roots, mostly lacking the causative meaning,
leave the radical vowel unchanged ; e. g. rue shine : ruc-aya,
id. (but roc-aya illumine).

1}. Initial or medial a (if not long by position) is lengthened
in about thirty roots; e.g. am be injurious-, am-aya suffer
injury ; nas be lost : nas-aya destroy.

a. In the following roots the a optionally remains short in the
causative : gam go, das waste away, dhvan disappear, pat fly, mad be
exhilarated, ram rest ; thus pat fly : pat- aya fly about, once cause to fly,
and pat-aya cause to fly.

0. In about twenty-five roots the a always remains short, the
causative meaning being mostly absent ; e. g. dam control : dam-aya
id. ; jan beget : jan-aya id.

c. Final i, u, r take Guna or Vrddhi ; e. g. ksi possess :
ksay-aya1 cause to dtvell securely, cyu tvaver: cyav-aya
shake ; bhu be : bhav-aya cause to become ; ghr drip : ghar-
aya cause to drip ; sru hear, jf ivaste away, and sr flow have
Guna as well as Vrddhi: srav-aya and srav-aya cause to
hear ; jar-aya and jar-aya wear out, sar-aya and sar-aya
cause to flow ; dr pierce has Guna only : dar-aya shatter.

d. Koots ending in a add paya ; 2 e. g. dha put : dha-paya
cause to put.

e. The causative retains the suffix throughout the conju-
gation even outside the present system. Its inflexion is
identical with that of the primary verbs of the first conju-

1 The only example of a causative from a root in final i (except the
irregular japaya from ji conquer and srapaya from &ri resort).

2 As to other roots taking paya see 'Irregularities', 2.

168] CAUSATIVE 197

gation(132). Subjunctive,1 imperative,1 injunctive, imperfect,
and present participle forms are common ; but the optative
is very rare in the active and does not occur at all in the
middle. Only four future forms occur in the RV. and the
AV. : dusay-isyami I shall spoil, dharay-isyati will support,
vasay-isyase thou wilt adorn thyself, varay-isyate will shield.
In the perfect only one periphrastic form (139, 9 a) occurs :
gamayam cakara:{ (AV.). Reduplicated aorist forms are
connected with only six causative stems (p. 175, a. 3). There
are also three is aorists formed from the causative stem:
vyathay-is from vyath-aya disturb ; ailay-it from il-aya
quiet down ; dhvanay-it from dhvan-aya envelope.4

f. Of nominal derivatives the following are examples :
a pres. pass. part, bhaj-ya-mana ; a few perf. pass, parti-
ciples: ghar-i-ta smeared, cod-i-ta impelled, ves-i-ta caused to
enter • a few gerundives in ayya (162, 2) : trayay-ayya to he
guarded ; panay-ayya admirable ; sprhay-ayya desirable ;
ten infinitives in dhyai : nasaya-dhyai to destroy, &c.
(p. 193, 7) ; four gerunds in the AV. : arpay-i-tva having
delivered up, kalpay-i-tva having arranged, saday-i-tva having
set down, sramsay-i-tva letting fall.

Irregularities.

1. Three causatives in the AV. shorten the a before paya : jna-paya
cause to know, sra-p&ya cook, sna-paya bathe beside sna-paya (RV.).

2. Four roots in vowels other than a, that is, in r or i, take paya ;
r go : ar-paya cause to go ; ksi dwell : kse-pdiya cause to dwell (beside

1 The only du. mid. form occurring is 3. madayaite ; and the only
mid. form in ai (except 1. du.) in the RV. is madayadhvai.

2 The 2. s. in tat occurs in both V. and B. ; and from vr cover occurs
the unique 2. pi. varaya-dhvat in K.

3 In B. such forms are still uncommon except in the SB., where
they are numerous.

4 In B. desideratives are formed from about a dozen causative
stems ; e. g. di-drapay-isa desire to cause to run.

198 CONJUGATION [168-169

ksay-dya) ; ji conquer and Sri resort substitute a for i : ja-p&ya cause to
conquer, sra-p&ya raise.1

3 The root bhl fear forms the quite anomalous causative stem
bhi-s-aya/n'g'Mew.

4. The roots pa drink and pya swell add aya with interposed y :
pay-fiya cause to drink and pyay-aya fill up. This is probably to be
explained by the assumption that the original form of these roots was
pai and pyai.

5. The vowel of grabh grasp is weakened by Samprasarana : grbh-dya
grasp ; while that of dus spoil is lengthened : dus-aya, id. The
root pfy?tf, owing to its initial labial, forms its causative with medial
u for a : pwc-&ya, fulfil.

II. Desideratives.

169. The desiderative, which is the least common of the
secondary conjugations, is formed from the root with an
accented reduplicative syllable and the suffix sa. This sa is
never added with a connecting i in the EV., nor, with the
single exception of pi-pat-i-sa, in the AV., ji-jiv-i-sa in the
VS., and ji-gam-i-sa in the TS.2 The desiderative is formed
from fewer than sixty roots in the Samhitas and from more
than thirty additional ones in B. It is inflected like verbs
of the first conjugation (132).

The accent being on the reduplicative syllable, the root as
a rule remains unchanged ; e. g. da give : di-da-sa desire to
give ; bhid cleave : bi-bhit-sa ; ni lead : ni-m-sa ; guh hide :
ju-guk-sa (62 a, 69 a) ; bhu be : bu-bhu-sa ; drs see : di-
drk-sa. But

1. final i and u are lengthened, and r becomes Ir ; e. g.
ji conquer: ji-gi-sa ; sru hear: su-sru-sa; kr make: ci-
kir-sa.

2. final a is in three roots reduced (cp. 171, 3) to I and in

1 In B. the root ruh rise, even though ending in a consonant, takes
paya after dropping its h : ro-paya raise (beside roh-dya).

2 In B. about a dozen other roots form their desiderative stem
thus ; e. g. ci-kram-i-sa, ji-grah-i-sa, vi-vid-i-sa (vid ftnow), &c.

169-171] DESIDEKATIVES 199

one to i : ga go: ji-gi-sa (SV.) ; pa drink: pi-pi-sa (beside
pi-pa-sa) ; ha go forth : ji-hi-sa ; dha put : di-dhi-sa (beside
dhit-sa).

Special Rule of Reduplication.

170. The characteristic reduplicative vowel is i, which
appears in all stems except those formed from roots contain-
ing u (which reduplicate with u) ; e. g. jya overpower :
ji-jya-sa; mis mix: mi-mik-sa; prilove: pi-pri-sa; vrtturn:
vi-vrt-sa ; but guh hide : ju-guk-sa ; bhu be : bu-bhu-sa.

Irregularities.

1*1. 1. Five roots with medial a followed by m or n lengthen the
vowel : gam go : ji-gam-sa ; han smite : ji-gham-sa (66 A 2) ; man
think lengthens the reduplicative vowel also : mi-mam-sa (66 A 2) ;
van loin and san gain drop the nasal : vi-va-sa and si-sa-sa.

2. dhvr injure, after interchange of semivowel and vowel to ur,
lengthens its u : dii-dhur-sa. Cp. p. 193, note 4.

3. Haifa dozen roots containing a or a shorten the radical syllable
by a kind of syncopation : da give and dha put lose their vowel :
di-t-sa (= df-d[a]-sa) beside df-da-sa ; dhf-t-sa ( = df-dh[a]-sa)
beside di-dhi-sa ; dabh harm, labh take, sak be able, sah prevail lose
their initial radical consonant and their vowel : di-p-sa * ( = di[da]bh-
sa), lip-sa2 (= li[la]bh-sa), sik-sa (= &[sa]k-sa), sik-sa, with
lengthened reduplicative vowel (= si[sa]k-sa).3

a. ap obtain and rdh thrive (treated as ardh) contract the redupli-
cated i with the radical initial to i: ip-sa (=i-ap-sa) and irt-sa
(=i-ardh-sa).

4. In ci note, cit perceive, ji conquer, han slay, the radical initial
reverts to the original guttural : ci-ki-sa, ci-kit-sa, ji-gi-sa, ji-
gham-sa.

1 Also dhipsa in B.

2 Also lipsa in B.

8 In B. are similarly formed dhiksa (dah burn), pitsa (pad go\
ripsa (rabh grasp).

200 CONJUGATION [171

5. ghas eat changes its final s to t (66 B 1) : ji-ghat-sa (AV.) be
hungry.

6. Three roots reduplicate with a long vowel : tur cross ( = tf) :
tu-tur-sa ; badh oppress : bi-bhat-sa ; * man think : ml-mam-sa.2 On
the other hand the reduplicative syllable is reduced in the desiderative

f yaj sacrifice and nas attain by loss of the initial consonant : i-yak-sa
(for yi-yak-sa) and f-nak-sa (for ni-nak-sa). In one form from ap
obtain the reduplication is dropped altogether : ap-santa.

a. The two roots with initial vowel as eat and edh increase form their
desiderative stem with the reduplicative vowel in the second syllable :
aS-isi-i-sa (B.) and ed-idh-i-sa (VS.).

In the inflexion of the desiderative all the moods of the
present system, besides the imperfect, are represented,
though not fully ; and of present participles more than
twenty-five examples are met with. The forms occurring,
if made from vi-va-sa desire to win, would be :

Present ind. act. sing. 1. vivasami. 2. vivasasi.
3. vivasati. Du. 2. vivasathas. 3. vivasatas. PI. 1.
vivasamas. 3. vivasanti.

Mid. sing. 1. vivase. 2. vivasase. 3. vivasate.
PI. 1. vivasamahe. 3. vivasante.

Subj. act. sing. 1. vivasani. 3. vivasat. PI. 3. vivasan.

Inj. act. sing. 3. vivasat. Mid. pi. 3. vivasanta.

Opt. act. sing. 1. vivaseyam. 3. vivaset. PI. 1. vivase-
ma. Mid. sing. 1. vivaseya.

Impv. act. sing. 2. vivasa and vivasatat. 3. vivasatu.
Du. 2. vivasatam. 3. vivasatam. PI. 2. vivasata.
3. vivasantu.

Part. act. vivasant. Mid. vivasamana.

Impf. act. sing. 2. avivasas. 3. avivasat. PL 3.
avivasan.

1 With shortening of the radical vowel.
8 With lengthening of the radical vowel

171-172] DESIDERATIVES 201

a. Outside the present system only two desiderative verbal forms l
have been met with, two is aorists in the AV. : &-cikits-Is and
irts-is.9 Three participial forms have also been noted : the perf.
pass. part. mimams-i-t&3 and the gerundives didrks-e'nya ivorthy to be
seen and s'usrus-e'nya worthy to be heard.* Finally, over a dozen verbal
adjectives formed with u from the desiderative stem occur in the RV.,
e. g. iyaks-ti ivishing to sacrifice. They have the value of a pres. part,
governing a case.

III. Intensives (Frequentatives).

172. These verbs are meant to convey intensification or
frequent repetition of the action expressed by the simple
root. They are common, being formed from over ninety
roots in the Samhitas, and about twenty-five others in the
Brahmanas. The formation is restricted to roots with
initial consonants, nor is it ever applied to derivative verbs.

The stem, of which a peculiar form of strong reduplication
is characteristic, has two forms. The primary type, which
is by far the commonest, adds the personal endings imme-
diately to the reduplicated stem (accented on the first syllable
in strong forms : App. III. 12 e). It is inflected, in both
active and middle, like a verb of the third or reduplicated
class (132) ; e. g. nij tvash : 3. sing, n^-nek-ti. The secondary
form, which is rare, adds accented ya in the same way as
the passive (154) to the reduplicated stem. It is conjugated
in the middle only, like the passive ; e. g. vij tremble :
ve-vij-ya-te trembles violently.

1 In B. periphrastic perfect forms from five or six desiderative
stems have been noted.

2 In B. is aorists from half a dozen desiderative stems occur ; e. g.
aips-it, aips-is-ma, a-jighams-is, a-mimams-is-thas. One or two
simple and periphrastic futures also occur in B., as titiks-isyate (tij
be sharp), didrks-i-taras (drs see).

3 In B. also jijyus-i-t& (jiv live}, dhiks-i-t£ (dan burn}, susrus-i-tf£
(sru hear).

* In B. also lips-i-tavya (labh take}, didhyas-i-tavya (dhya think),
jijnas-ya (jna know).

202 CONJUGATION [172-173

a. The primary intensive optionally inserts I between the
root and terminations beginning with consonants. This I
is found in the 1. 3. s. ind. act. and the 2. 3. s. impv. and
impf. act. ; e. g. ind. eakas-i-mi, cakas-i-ti ; impv. 2. cakas-
i-hi. 3. johav-i-tu ; impf. 3. a-johav-i-t.

Special Rules of Reduplication.

173. 1. Radical i and u are reduplicated with the respective
Guna vowels e and o ; e. g. dis point : de-dis ; ni lead :
ne-ni ; sue shine : So-Suc ; nu praise : no-nu ; bhu be :
bo-bhu.

2. Radical a and f are reduplicated in two ways :

a. More than a dozen roots with medial a (ending in
mutes or sibilants, and one in m) as well Nas three with
final r, reduplicate with a : kas shine : ca-kas ; pat fall :
pa-pat ; gam go : ja-gam ; gr wake : ja-gr ; dr split : da-dr ;
dhr hold : da-dhr ; also cal stir : ca-cal.

&. All other roots containing r (dr and dhr also alter-
natively) and those with medial a followed by r, 1, or a
nasal, reduplicate with ar, al, an or am ; e. g. kr com-
memorate : car-kr and car-kir ; krs drag : car-krs ; dr
split : dar-dr and dar-dir (beside da-dr) ; dhr hold : dar-dhr
(beside da-dhr) ; hrs he excited : jar-hrs • car move : car-car ;
phar scatter : par-phar ; cal stir : cal-cal (beside ca-cal) ;
gam^ro : jan-gam (beside ja-gam) ; jambh chew up : jan-jabh ;
dam^ lite : dan-das ; tan thunder : tam-stan (66 A 2).

3. Over twenty roots with final or penultimate nasal,
r or u, interpose an I (or i if the vowel would be long by
position) between the reduplicative syllable and the root ;
e. g. gam go : gan-i-gam (but gan-i-gm-at) ; han slay :
ghan-i-ghan ; krand cry out : kan-i-krand and kan-i-krad ;
skand leap : kan-i-skand and can-i-skad ; bhr bear : bhar-
i-bhr ; vrt turn : var-i-vrt ; nu praise : nav-i-nu ; dhu shake :
dav-i-dhv ; dyut shine : dav-i-dyut.

174] INTENSIVES 203

Irregularities.

174:. The radical vowel is shortened in roots with medial a : ka£
shine : ca-kas ; badh oppress : ba-badh ; vas bellow : va-vas. In a few
roots containing r or r the radical syllable varies ; thus gr swallow :
jar-gur and jal-gul ; car move : car-cur beside car-car ; tf cross : tar-
tur beside tar-tar.

a. The root r go reduplicates with al : al-ar (dissimilation) ; gab.
plunge, with a nasal: jan-gah;1 badh oppress, with its final mute:2
bad-badh (beside ba-badh) ; bhr 3 bear and bhur quiver, with a palatal :
jar-bhr, jar-bhur ; bhur and gur greet reduplicate u with a : jar-bhur,
jar-gur.

b. Roots with initial guttural, if interposing I before the root,
reduplicate with the same guttural ; thus krand cry out : kan-i-krand ;
gam go : gan-i-gam ; han (for ghaii) slay : ghan-I-ghan ; kr make has
both kar-i-kr 4 and car-i-kr ; 4 skand leap has both kan-i-skand and
can-i-skad.

A. The forms of the primary type that occur, if made
from nij ivash, would be the following :

1. Pres. ind. act. sing. 1. n6nej-mi, n^nej-i-mi. 2. n6-
nek-si. 3. ne'nek-ti, n6nej-i-ti. Du. 2. nenik-thas.5 3. ne-
nik-tas. PL 1. nenij-mas, nenij-masi. 3. n6nij-ati.

Mid. sing. 1. nenij-6. 3. nenik-te\ Du. 3. n6nij-ate,
PL 3. nenij-ate.

2. Subj. act. sing. 1. n6nij-ani.6 2. n6nij-a-s. 3. ne~nij-
a-t. Du. 1. n6nij-a-va. PL 1. n^nij-a-ma. 3. n^nij-a-n.

Mid. du. 3. nenij-aite. PL 3. n6nij-a-nta.

1 In B. also jafi-jap-ya-te (jap mutter}. Here also vah carry re-
duplicates with n (together with interposed I) though there is no
trace of a nasal in the root : van-i-vah-yate.

2 This is the only example of such reduplication.

3 This root shows the same peculiarity in the perfect (139, 4).

4 The intensive of this root occurs only in the participle karikr-at
and carikr-&t.

5 The only form occurring in this person has the interposed i and
strong radical syllable : tar-tar-i-thas.

6 The only form actually occurring in this person is janghan-aiii
(accented like the subj. of the reduplicating present).

204 CONJUGATION [174

3. Opt. No certain forms occur in the RV. and only two
active forms in other Samhitas: sing. 3. vevis-yat (AV.),
pi. 1. ja-gr-yama (VS., MR, TS.), jagri-yama (TS.). The
3. s. mid. nenij-ita occurs in K.

4. Impv. About twenty active (but no middle) l forms
occur. Made from jagr these would be: sing. 2. jagr-hi,
jagar-i-hi, jagr-tat. 3. jagar-tu, jagar-i-tu. Du. 2. jagr-
tam. 3. jagr-tam. PI. 2. jagr-ta.2

5. Of the participle over forty stems occur, about two-thirds
of them being active. Examples are: act. kanikrad-at,
c&kit-at, janghan-at, jagr-at, dardr-at, nanad-at, roruv-
at ; mid. jarbhur-ana, dandas-ana, yoyuv-ana (yu join),
sarsr-ana.

6. Impf. Fewer than thirty forms of this tense occur,
only three of them being middle. Examples of the persons
occurring are :

Act. sing. 1. a-cakas-am. 2. a-jagar. 3. a-dardar,
a-var-I-var, a-johav-i-t; dav-i-dyot, nav-i-no-t. Du. 2.
a-dardr-tam. PI. 1. marmrj-ma. 3. a-carkrs-ur, a-
dardir-ur, a-nonav-ur.

Mid. sing. 3. a-dedis-ta, a-nan-na-ta.3 PI. 3. marmrj-ata.

a. Outside the present system few intensive forms occur. There
are four act. perfect intensives with present sense : sing. 1. jagara.
3. jagar-a (typiwope"), davidliav-a (dhu shake), nonav-a (nu praise}; also
dodrav-a (dru run : TS.), yoyav-a (yu separate : MS.), lelay-a (11 l>e
unsteady : MS.). There is besides the perf. part, jagr-vams. A causa-
tive intensive appears once in the participial form var-I-varj-dyant-i
twisting about.4

1 In B. occurs the 2. s. mid. form nenik-sva (V^ij).

2 The RV. has no impv. forms with interposed I, but the AV. and
VS. have a few in the 2. 3. s., as cakas-I-hi, johav-I-tu. A few
examples occur in B. also.

8 From nam bend, with loss of nasal (a = sonant nasal), for d-nan-
nan-ta.

4 In B. also occur the causative stems from intensives jagar-aya
and dadhar-a'ya (dhr hold}.

174-175] INTENSIVES 205

B. The forms of the secondary type, which is indis-
tinguishable from a passive in form, number only about
a dozen. They occur only in the 2. 3. s. and 3. pi. ind. pres.,
besides a few participles. They are :

Pres. ind. sing. 2. co-sku-ya-se (sku tear). 3. dedis-
ya-te, ne-ni-ya-te, marmrj-ya-te, rerih-ya-te, vevrj-yate,
vevi-yate (vi enjoy). PI. 3. tartur-yante (Vtf), marmrj-
yante.

Part, carcur-ya-mana (v'car), neni-ya-mana, marmrj-
ya-mana,

IV. Denominatives.

175. These verbs, inflected like those of the a conjugation
(132), are derived, almost exclusively with the suffix ya,
from nouns, to which they express some such relation as
' be or act like ', * treat as ', ' turn into ', or l use as ', ' wish for '.
More than a hundred denominative stems occur in the RV.
and about fifty in the AV.1 The suffix is normally accented,
but a certain number of undoubted denominatives, such as
mantra-ya utter a prayer, artha-ya make an object of, desire,
have the causative accent, thus forming a connecting link
between the regular denominatives and the causatives.

A. Before the suffix ya :

1. final i 2 and u are lengthened ; 3 e. g. kavi-ya be wise
(kavi), rayi-ya desire ivealtli (rayi) : rju-ya be straight
(rjii) ; vasu-ya desire wealth (vasu) ; satru-ya play the
enemy (satru), &e hostile.

2. final a usually remains unchanged, but is often length-
ened ; it is sometimes changed to I ; and even dropped ;

1 Denominatives are less common in B. ; thus the AB. has hardly
twenty, and the SB. about a dozen.

2 Except arati-ya act like an enemy, be hostile beside arati-ya", and
jani-ya seek a wife beside janl-ya ; gatu-ya set in motion (gatii).

3 In the Pada text the I is usually, the u is always, written short.

206 CONJUGATION [175

e. g. jara-ya treat like a lover, deva-ya serve the gods, rta-ya 1
act according to sacred order; asva-ya desire horses, rta-ya
observe sacred order (beside rta-ya) , yajna-ya sacrifice ;
adhvari-ya perform the sacrifice (adhvara), putri-ya 2 desire
a son (putra), rathi-ya 2 drive in a car (ratha) ; adhvar-ya
perform sacrifice (beside adhvari-ya), tavis-ya be mighty
(tavisa : beside tavisi-ya).

3. final a remains unchanged ; e. g. gopa-ya act as herdsman,
protect, prtana-ya3 fight. Final o, in the only example
occurring, becomes av : gav-ya desire cotvs.

4. Consonant stems, the commonest being those in as,
nearly always remain unchanged; e.g. bhisaj-ya play the
physician, heal ; uksan-ya act like a bull (uksan) ; vadhar-ya
hurl a bolt (vadhar) ; su-manas-ya be gracious (su-manas) ;
tarus-ya engage in fight (tarns).

a. A few denominative forms are made without a suffix, direct
from nominal stems, but nearly always beside regular denominatives
in ya ; e. g. bhisak-ti from bhis&j act as physician beside bhisaj-y& ;
and the forms taruse-ma, tarusa-nte, tarusa-nta (from tarusa
conqueror} beside tarus-y^,.

Inflexion.

B. All the tenses, moods, and participles of the present
system are represented. If made from namas-ya pay homage
the forms occurring would be :

1. Pres. ind. act. sing. 1. namasyami. 2. namasyasi.
3. namasyati. Du. 2. namasyathas. 3. namasyatas.
PI. 1. namasya-masi, -mas. 2. namasyatha. 3. namas-
yanti.

Mid. sing. 1. namasy^. 2. namasyase. 3. namasyate.

1 With causative accent.

2 The Pada text in this and nearly every example has i-ya. Even
the Samhita text of the AV. has putri-y&.

3 The a may also be dropped : prtan«ya fight against.

175] DENOMINATIVES 207

Du. 2. namasy<Sthe. 3. namasy^te. PL 1. namasya-
mahe. 3. namasyante.

2. Subj. act. sing. 1. namasya. 2. namasyas. 3. na-
masyat. Du. 3. namasyatas. PL 3. namasyan.

Mid. sing. 2. namasyase. 3. namasyate.

3. Inj. act. sing. 2. namasyas. PL 3. namasyan.

4. Opt. act. sing. 2. namasyas. 3. namasy^t. PL 1.
narnasyema.

Mid. sing. 3. namasy^ta.

5. Impv. act. sing. 2. namasya. 3. namasyatu. Du. 2.
namasyatam. 3. namasyatam. PL 2. namasyata. 3. na-
masyantu.

Mid. sing. 2. namasyasva. PL 2. namasyadhvam.
3. namasyantam.

6. Part. act. namasyant. Mid. namasyamana.

7. Impf. act. sing. 2. anamasyas. 3. anamasyat. Du. 3.
namasyatam. PL 3. anamasyan.

Mid. sing. 3. anamasyata. Du. 2. anamasyetham. PL 3.
anamasyanta.

a. The only finite forms occurring outside the present
system are four aorists. Two are injunctives : 2. s. unay-is
(RV.) from unaya leave unfulfilled (una) ; 2. pi. papay-is-ta
(TS.) from papaya lead into evil (papa) ; and two indicatives :
3. s. asaparyait (AV.) has worshipped (an irregular form,
probably = a-sapary-it) ; 3. pi. a-vrsay-is-ata (VS.) they
have accepted.1 The TS. has also the three fut. participles
kanduy-isyant about to scratch, meghay-isyant about to be
cloudy, sikay-isyant 2 about to drip, with the corresponding
perf. pass. part, kanduyita, meghita, sikita.3

1 In B. also occurs the is aor. asuyit has murmured.

" In B. also occurs the future gopay-isyati.

3 In B. there are also a few other past pass, participles and a few

gerunds.

CHAPTER V

INDECLINABLE WOKDS
Prepositions.

176. Two classes of prepositions have to be distinguished.
The first comprises the genuine or adverbial prepositions.
These are words with a local sense which, primarily used to
modify the meaning of verbs, came to be connected inde-
pendently with the cases governed by the verbs thus
modified. They show no signs of derivation from inflexional
forms or (except tiras and puras) forms made with adverbial
suffixes. The second class has been called adnominal
prepositions because they are not compounded with verbs,
but govern cases of nouns only. They almost invariably
end in case terminations or adverbial suffixes.

1. Adverbial Prepositions.

There are fourteen or (if sam is included) fifteen genuine
prepositions which, when used independently of verbs,
define the local meaning of cases. They are almost entirely
restricted to employment with the ace., loc., and abl. As
their connexion with the abl. is only secondary, the genuine
prepositions appear to have been originally connected with
the ace. and loc. only. As a rule these prepositions follow,
but also often precede, their case.

1. The accusative is exclusively taken by acha towards,
ati beyond, anu after, abhi toivards, prati (Grk. irpori) against,
and tiras across (cp. Lat. trans).

a. pari (Gk. TTtpi) around takes the ace. primarily, but
secondarily and more frequently the abl. in the sense of
from (around).

176-177] PREPOSITIONS 209

b. upa to (with verbs of motion) takes the ace. primarily,
and less frequently the loc. in the sense of beside, upon, at.

2. The locative is exclusively taken by apt (Gk. kiri ) upon
and primarily by adhi upon, antar (Lat. inter) bettveen, a on,
in, at, to, puras before.

a. adhi takes the abl. secondarily and less commonly in the sense
of from (upon}.

b. The last three secondarily take both abl. and ace. ; pur6s does
so without change of meaning.

antar with abl. means/row (within) ; with ace., between.
a with ace. means to, expressing the goal with verbs of motion.
With the abl., if following,1 it means/row (on) ; if preceding, up to.z

3. The ablative seems to be used once or twice indepen-
dently with ava in the sense of down from.

2. Adnominal Prepositions.

177. These prepositions, being adverbs in origin, govern
oblique cases (except the dat.) independently. Several of
them govern the genitive and the instrumental, cases that
are practically never connected with the genuine prepositions
in the Samhitas. In the following list these prepositions
are grouped under the cases which they accompany :

1. Ace. : adhas belotv (also with abl. or gen.), antara
bettveen, abhi-tas around, upari above, beyond, paras beyond
(also with abl., more often inst.), pari-tas around (AV.),
sanitur apart from.3

2. Instr. : saha with, sakam with, sumad with, smad
with ; avas beloio (also abl.), paras outside (also ace. and abl.).

3. Abl. : adhas belotv (also ace. and gen.), avas down from

1 It sometimes also precedes the abl. in this sense.

2 This is almost the only use of a in B. ; in C. it means both /row
and up to.

3 In B. several adverbial instrumental expressing situation or
direction govern the ace. : dntarena between, dvarena below, p&rena
beyond ; uttarena to the north of, d£ksinena to the south of.

1819 P

210 INDECLINABLE WORDS [177-178

(also instr.), ar6 far from (also gen.), rte" without, paras apart
from (also ace. and inst.), pura before, bahir-dha from out,
sanutar far from.

4. Gen. : puras-tad in front of.1

5. Loc. : saca (in association) with, beside, at, in.

Adverbial Case-forms.

178. Many case-forms of nominal and pronominal stems,
often not otherwise in use, are employed as adverbs.
Examples of all the cases appear with adverbial function.

1. Nona. : prathama-m firstly, dvitiya-m secondly. Such
adverbs were originally used in apposition to the verbal
action.

2. Ace. : these adverbs find their explanation in various
meanings of the case. They represent (a) the cognate ace. ;
e. g. bhuyas more, and comparatives in taram added to
verbal prefixes, as vi-taram (kram) (stride) more widely,
(b) the appositional ace. ; e. g. nama by name, rupam in form,
satyam truly • (c) the ace. of direction ; e. g. agram (i) (go)
to the front of, before, astam (gam) (go) home ; (d) the ace. of
distance and time ; e. g. duram a long way off, far ; naktam
by night, sayam in the evening, nityam constantly, purvam
formerly.

a. There are also some ace. adverbs derived from obsolete nominal
stems, as ara-m sufficiently, nu-n&m now ; others from pronominal
stems, as adds there, i-dam here, now, ki-m why ?, ydd when.

3. Instr. : adverbs with the ending of this case (sometimes
pi.) are formed from substantives, adjectives, and pronouns.
They usually express manner or accompanying circumstances,
as sahas-a/om'?%, navyas-a aneiv, ena in this way ; also not

1 In B. the gen. is governed by this adverb as well as by paras-tad
after ; e. g. suktasya purastat before the hymn ; samvatsarasya paras tat
after a year.

178-179] ADVERBS 211

infrequently extension of space or time, as agrena in front,
aktu-bhis by night, div-a by day.

a. The substantive instrumental are chiefly formed from feminines
in a not otherwise used, as rtaya in the right way, naktaya by night.

b. The adjective instrumental^ are formed from stems in a and
a few in c ; e.g. ucca and ucciis on high, pasca behind, madhya in the
midst, s£nais slowly ; prao-a, forwards. There are also several anomalous
feminines from stems in u and one or two in I ; e. g. asu-y-a swiftly,
raghu-y-a rapidly, sadhu-y-a straight, urviy-a/ar.

c. The pronominal instrumentals are formed from stems in a and
one in u; e.g. ana thus, ama at home, aya thus, kaya 7*010?, ubhaya in
loth ivays ; amu-y-a in that toay.

4. Dat. : the adverbial use of the dat. is rare : aparaya
for the future (from apara later), varaya according to wish
(vara choice).

5. Abl. : these adverbs are seldom formed from substan-
tives, as arat from a distance, asat from near; or from
pronouns, amat from near, at then, tat thus, yat as far as ;
but they are fairly often formed from adjectives, as uttarat
from the north, durat from afar, pascat from behind, sanat
from of old, saksat visibly.

6. Gen. : such adverbs are very rare : akt6s ~by night,
vastos in the morning.

7. Loc. : agre in front, astam-ik6 at home, ake' near,
afar, rte ivithout, dur6 afar ; aparisu in future.

Adverbs formed with Suffixes.

179. The suffixes more or less commonly used in the
formation of adverbs may be grouped under the senses
expressed by the instr., abl., and loc. cases.

1. Instr. : tha forms adverbs of manner especially from
pronominal stems : a-tha and more commonly (with short-
ened vowel) a-tha then, i-t-tha thus, ima-tha in this manner,
ka-tha hoio ?, ta-tha thus, ya-tha in which manner, anya-tha
otherwise, visva-tha in every ivay ; urdhva-tha upwards,

p2

212 INDECLINABLE WORDS [179

purvsi-tha, formerly, pratna-tha as of old] rtu-tha regularly,
nama-tha by name ; eva-tha just as.

a. tham is similarly used in it-tham thus and ka-th&m how?

dha forms adverbs of manner from numerals or cognate
words : eka-dha singly, dvi-dha in two ways, kati-dha how
many times, puru-dha variously, bahu-dha and visva-dha
in many ways, sasva-dha again and again. It also forms
adverbs from a few nouns, adverbs, and pronouns : priya-
dha kindly, mitra-dha in a friendly way ; bahir-dha outward ;
a-dha then, a-d-dha (thus =) truly. The same suffix, with
its vowel shortened, forms sa-dha (in one ivay =) together,
which appears as the first member of several compounds,
and as an independent word assumes the form of saha with.

0. The suffix ha probably also represents original dha in i-hfi here
(Prakrit i-dha), ku-ha where ? visva-ha and visvd-ha cdicays, sama-ha
in some way or other.

va, expressing similarity of manner, forms the two adverbs
i-va like, as, and e-va (often e-va) thus, vam appears in
e-vam thus, the later form of evd.

vat forms adverbs meaning like from substantives and
adjectives ; e. g. manu-vat like Manu ; purana-vat, pur-
va-vat, pratna- vat as of old.

sas forms adverbs of manner with a distributive sense :
sata-sas ~by hundreds, sahasra-sas by thousands, sreni-sas in
roivs ; rtu-sas season by season, deva-sas to each of the gods,
parva-sas joint by joint, manma-sas each as he is minded.

s forms two or three multiplicative adverbs : dvi-s twice,
tri-s thrice. It also appears in a few other adverbs : adha-s
below, ava-s downwards; dyu-s (from dyu day) in anye-
dyii-s next day and ubhaya-dyu-s on both days.

2. Abl. : tas forms adverbs in the ablative sense from
pronouns, nouns, and prepositions ; e. g. a-tas hence, amii-tas
thence, i-tas from here, mat-tas from me ; daksina-tas from
the right, hrt-tas from the heart ; abhi-tas around, pari-tas

179-180] ADVERBS 213

round about These adverbs are sometimes equivalent to
ablatives ; e. g. ato bhuyas more than that.

tat (an old abl. of ta that) forms adverbs with an abl.
sense (sometimes merging into the loc.) ; e. g. adhas-tat
beloiv ; arat-tat/row afar ; pasca-tat/row behind ; puras-tat
in or from the front ; prak-tat from the front.

3. Loc. : as forms adverbs chiefly of a local or temporal
sense : tir-as across, par-as beyond, pur-as before ; sa-div-as
and sa-dy-as to-day, sv-as to-morrow, hy-as yesterday ; also
mith-as wrongly.

tra or tra forms adverbs with a local sense, mostly from
pronominal or cognate stems : a-tra here, anya-tra elseivhere,
visva-tra everywhere ; asma-tra among us, sa-tra in one
place, daksina-tra on the right, puru-tra in many places,
bahu-tra amongst many ; deva-tra among the gods, martya-
tra among mortals, sayu-tra on a couch.

a. These adverbs are sometimes used as equivalents of locatives,
e. g. Msta a daksinatra in the right hand.

da forms adverbs of time almost exclusively from pro-
nominal roots : i-da noiv, ka-da ivhen ? ta-da then, ya-da at
what time, sa-da and sarva-da always.

0. dam occurs beside da in sa-dam always ; and da-nim, an extended
form of da, in i-da-nlm now, ta-da-nim then, vi6va-da-mm always.

7. There are also various miscellaneous adverbs, mostly of obscure
origin, formed with other suffixes of rare occurrence ; e. g. pur-a
lefore, mith-u wrongly.

Conjunctive and Adverbial Particles.

180. anga emphasizes a preceding word (sometimes
separated from it by short particles like hi and im) in such
a way as to express that the action especially or exclusively
applies to that word, = just, only, else • e. g. yd anga just he
who ; yad anga just when, just because • tvam anga thou only ;
kim anga Imv else, ivhy else ?

214 INDECLINABLE WOKDS [180

a. In B. anga never has this meaning; but it sometimes there begins
a sentence with an adhortative sense, accentuating the verb : aiig& no
yajna'm vyac£ksva pray explain the sacrifice to r/s (MS.).

atra sometimes occurs as the correlative to yad ivlien ;
e. g. visve yad asyam ranayanta devah, pra vo »tra sum-
nam asyam when all the gods shall rejoice in it, then may I
obtain your favours.

atha, a collateral form of adha, occurs chiefly in the more
recent hymns of the BV., and entirely supplants the older
doublet in the later Vedas. Connecting sentences and
clauses it expresses a temporal or logical sequence. It may
generally be translated by (and) then, (and) so ; when there
is a contrast, especially after a negative, it is equivalent to
but. It often corresponds to a yada wlien or hi since, as, in
the antecedent clause. With very few exceptions atha begins
the sentence or clause. Examples are : mariidbhir, indra,
sakhyam te astu, athema visvah prtana jayasi befriends
with the Maruts, 0 Indra, then thou shalt win all these battles
(viii. 967) ; huve" vain, atha ma (= ma a) gatam / call you,
so come to me (viii. 105) ; yade"d adevir asahista may a,
athabhavat keValah. somo asya when he had overcome the
godless wiles, Soma became exclusively his (vii. 985) ; makir
nesan, makim risan, makim sam sari k6vate, atharista-
bhir a gahi let none be lost, let none suffer harm, none incur
fracture in a pit, but come back with them uninjured (vi. 547).
From B. : patim nu me punaryuvanam kurutam, atha
vam vaksyami make my husband young again, then I shall
tell you (SB.) ; aham durge" hanta^ity, atha kas tvam iti
Z am called the slayer in danger, but who are you ? (TS.).

a. &tha is also occasionally used after gerunds (which are equivalent
to an antecedent clause) : s&ubhagyam asyai dattvayaw&thaw&stam vi
paretana having wished her luck, then go home (x. 8533). This use is
common in B., where it also occurs after present participles and
locatives absolute.

&. &tha in the sense of also connects substantives, but this use
represents an abridged sentence ; e.g. ime" somaso &dhi turv&6e,

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 215

y&dau, ime kanvesu vam atha these Swnas are beside Turvatfa, beside
Yadu, (they are) also beside the Kanvasfor you (viii. 9U). From B. : id&m
hi pitawevawagre 'tha putro 'tha pautrah/or here first comes the father, then
the son, then the grandson (SB.).

c. In B. atha also connects the verbs of a compound relative clause :
y&sya pita pitamahah punyah syad, atha t£n n& prapnuyat whose
father and grandfather are pious, but who cannot attain to this (TS.).

atho (= atha u) generally means and also, moreover:
arvavato na a gahy atho, sakra, paravatah come to us from
near, and also, 0 mighty one, from afar (Hi. 3711). From B. :
sam inddha a nakh^bhyo »tho lomabhyah he 'kindles
himself completely up to his nails and also his hair (SB.).

a. In B. atho sometimes has the sense of but also, e.g. t£ vai dv6
bhavatah . . . dtho api trini syuh there are tivo of them, but there may also
be three (SB.).

adha occurs in the RV. only, and almost exclusively, as
compared with atha, in the earlier hymns. Like the latter
it means then, expressing both a temporal and a logical
sequence ; when there is a contrast, but. adha... adha both...
and ; adha dvita and that particularly ; adha nii just now ;
now at last ; and even • adha sma especially then. Unlike
atha it is never used with u.

api meaning also, even generally precedes the word it
emphasizes : yo gopa api tarn huve he who is the herdsman,
him too I call (x. 194) ; osadhir bapsad agnir na vayati,
piinar yan tarunir api Agni tires not of chewing plants,
returning even to the young ones (viii. 437). From B. : tad
dhaitad apy avidvamsa ahiih even those wlio do not Jcnow
say this (SB.) ; adyapi even to-day (AB.).

aram is an adverb meaning suitably, in readiness. Some-
times used like an adjective, it is construed with the dative ;
e. g. tavan ayam patave s6mo astu, aram manase yuva-
bhyam^c/i let this Soma be (for you) to drink, according to (your)
mind for you two (i. 1082) ; sasmai^aram it is ready for him.
In combination with kr it means serve, prepare (anything)

216 INDECLINABLE WOKDS [180

for, with gam, serve, with bhu, accrue (to any one) suitably or
sufficiently, always taking the dative.

a. dlam, the form in which the preceding word appears in B., is there
often similarly used ; e. g. sa nalam ahutya asa nalam bhaksaya it

was not fit for offering, nor fit for consuming (SB.).

aha in the KV. and AV. emphasizes a preceding word
whether it be verb, substantive, pronoun, adjective, adverb,
or preposition. Its sense may generally be expressed by
surely, certainly, indeed, just, or merely by stress. It also
appears after other emphasizing particles such as id, gh6d,
ut6, im. Examples of its use are : kvaha where pray ?
(x. 512) ; naha not at all (i. 1473) ; yasyaha sakrah savan-
esu ranyati in the pressings of whomsoever the mighty one
rejoices (x. 43°).

In B. this use of aha is still found. But here it generally occurs in
the first of two slightly antithetical sentences, the verb of the first
being then nearly always accented, while the antithesis in the second
sentence is either not expressed at all, or is indicated by the particles
atha, u, or tu; e.g. p&racy aha deve"bhyo yajnam vahaty arvacl
manusyan avati turned away it takes the sacrifice to the gods ; turned hither
it advances men (SB.). Sometimes (in MS. and TS.) alia is thus used
with the first of two va's ; e. g. kasya vahedam svo bhavita kasya va
this will to-morrow belong either to the one or the other (MS.).

a (otherwise a preposition) appears in V. fairly often
emphasizing, in the sense of completeness, words expressive
of number or degree, or sometimes even ordinary adjectives
and substantives ; e. g. trir a divah. three times each day
(i. 1425) ; k6 vo varsistha a, narah who is the very mightiest
of you, heroes? (i. 376) ; pra bodhaya puramdhim jara a
sasatim iva awake the wise man, just as a lover a sleeping
maiden (i. 1343).

ad (originally an abl. of the pronoun a —from or after
that) is used as an adverb expressing sequence of time =
thereupon, then, often as a correlative to yad, yada or yadi
when, sometimes to the relative when equivalent to those
conjunctions : yad£d ayukta haritah sadhasthad ad ratri

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL, PARTICLES 217

vasas tanute as soon as he has yoked his steeds from their stall,
then night spreads her garment (i. 1154) ; adha yo visva
bhiivanabhy avardhata, ad r6dasi jy6tisa vahnir atanot
now (who =) when he surpassed all beings, then the charioteer
overspread the two ivorlds with light (ii. 174).

a. It sometimes connects words and clauses in the sense of and,
moreover : asau ca ya na urvdra^ad imam tanvam rn&rna that field of ours
and this my body (viii. 916) ; ydd, indra, dhan prathamajam ahinam, an
mayinam dminah protd mayah when, 0 Indra, thou didst slay the firstborn
of the serpents and then didst bring to nought the wiles of the wily (i. 324).

b. It is sometimes used with interrogatives, when it means then,
pray : kim ad dmatram sakhyam how mighty then is the friendship ?
(iv. 236).

c. Unless used with interrogatives, ad almost invariably begins
the Pada.

d. ad is often followed by fd, when it means just then, then at once,
then more than ever.

iti thus is used with verbs of speaking and thinking,
which have sometimes to be supplied. The particle generally
concludes the speech and is followed by the verb : ya indraya
sunavamawitiwaha ivho says * we will press Soma for Indra '
(iv. 254) ; n6ndro asti^iti n6ma u tva aha * Indra does not
exist ' one and another says (viii. 100°). Less commonly the
verb precedes : jyestha aha camasa dva karawiti the eldest
said ' I will make two cups ' (iv. 335). Very rarely both iti and
the verb precede the speech: vi prchad iti mataram, ka
ugrah. lie asked his mother, ( who are the strong ones? ' (viii. 771).
The verb is occasionally omitted : tvasta duhitrS vahatum
krnoti^iti^idam visvam bhuvanam sam eti 'Tvastr prepares
a wedding for his daughter' (thinking) thus this whole world
comes together (x. 171). Thus a principal sentence as direct
speech is used with iti where in other languages a subordinate
sentence would be employed.

1. In B. the use of iti is much the same, only that iti regularly follows
and seems seldom to be omitted ; the verbs of saying and thinking,
too, with which it is employed, are more numerous : t&tha^fti deva
abruvan 'yes', said the gods (SB.).

218 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

2. There are in B. also some additional uses :

a. Very often the quotation is only an appellative that may be
expressed by inverted commas : yams tv etdd deva aditya iti^,a-c&ksate
whom they call thus : lthe divine Adityas' (SB.).

&. Sometimes iti is used at the end of an enumeration to express
that it forms a well-known aggregate : etad vai sirah samrddham
yasmin prano vak eaksuh. srotram iti that is a complete head in which
are breath, speech, eye, ear (KB.).

c. The particle is also often used in a special sense with reference
to a ritual act to indicate how it is done : iti^dgre krsati^&tha^iti^
dtha itiv_,a"thawitiwa"thav_,iti (SB.) so he first draios the furrow, then so, then
so, then so, then so (= as you see).

d. Sometimes a conjunction is introduced before the quotation
that ends with iti, but without changing the construction : s& rta"m
abravld y&tha sdrvasv eva" samavad v&saniwiti (MS.) he sioore (that)
' I will dwell with all equally* (= that he would'}.

. ittha primarily means so : ganta minam . . yatha puraw
ittha as before, so come ye now (i. 397) ; satyam ittha truly so
(viii. 3310). Secondarily it comes to mean (just so as it
should be=) truly: krn6tiwasmai varivo ya ittha^indraya
s6mam usate' sunoti he (Indra) gives case to him that truly
presses Soma for Indra ivlio desires it (iv. 246). In this sense
the word is sometimes used like an adjective : ittha sakhi-
bhyah/or (those who are truly =) true friends (iii. 3216).

id (n. of the pron. stem i, Lat. i-d) is a very common
particle in the RV., is much less frequent in the AV., and
is comparatively rare in B.1 It emphasizes preceding words
of all kinds, including the finite verb (which it accents), and
may usually be rendered by just or stress only, sometimes
by even ; e. g. tad in naktam tad id diva mahyam ahuh
this is what they tell me by night, this by day (i. 2412) ; syama
id indrasya sarmani may we be in Indra's care (i. 46) ; adha
sma no maghavan carkrtad it then especially tliink of us,
0 Bounteous One (i. 1045) ; sadrsir adyd sadfsir id u svah
alike to-day, alike even to-morrow (i. 1238). When the verb is

1 In classical Sanskrit id survives only in the compound particle
ced if = ca-id.

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 219

compound, the particle regularly follows the preposition,
not the verb itself: ulukhala-sutanam ava^id v, indra,
jalgulah. gulp eagerly doum, 0 Indra, the drops shed by the
mortar (i. 281).

a. In B. the particle is similarly used : na" ta it sadyo 'ny&smai &ti
diset he should not assign (just those = ) the same (coles') to another on the
same day ($B.) ; tatha^m nuna"m t&d asa now thus it came to pass (f-lB.).

iva is an enclitic particle with two uses :

1. It means as if, as, like in abbreviated similes in appo-
sition, never introducing a clause like yatha. It follows
the word with which comparison is made ; if the comparison
consists of several words, the particle generally follows the
first, less commonly the second. The comparison is usually
complete, but not infrequently it is only partially expressed.
This employment of iva is very common in V., but com-
paratively rare in B. Examples of this use are : dure" cit
san talid ivati rocase even though far away, thou shinest
brightly as if near at hand (i. 947) ; tat pa dam pasyanti
diviva caksur atatam they see that step like an eye fixed in
heaven (i. 2220) ; sa nah pitawiva sunave agne supayand
bhava as such be accessible to us, 0 Agni, as a father to his son
(i. I9) ; dviso no ati navawiva paraya take us across our foes
as [across the ocean] in a ship (i. 977) ; tabhi rajanam
parigrhya tisthati samudra iva bhumim with these he keeps
embracing the king, as the sea the earth (AB.).

2. It modifies a statement not intended to be understood
in its strict sense, meaning as it ivere. It chiefly follows
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions or verbs. This use of iva is
rare in V., but very common in B. Examples are : iha^iva
srnve I hear close at hand as it were (i. 373) ; tad, indra,
pra^iva viryam cakartha that heroic deed, 0 Indra, thou didst
perform (asitwere=) quite pre-eminently (i. 1037) ; yapra^iva
nasyasi who (as it ivere = ) almost losest thyself (i. 1461) ;
yadi tan na^iva haryatha if ye are not quite pleased with that
(i. 1618). From B. : tasmat sa babhruka iva hence he (is as

220 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

it were—) may be called brmvn (SB.) ; rebhati^iva he seems to
chatter (AB.) ; tan na sarva iva^abhipra padyeta not exactly
every one should have access to that (SB.) ; upari^iva vai tad
yad urdhvam nabheh above may l>e called what is higher than
the navel (SB.).

im (an old enclitic ace. of the pron. root i) occurs in V.
only, and is almost restricted to the EV.

1. It is generally employed as an ace. sing, of all genders
= him, her, it, sometimes even as an ace. du. or pi. It either
takes the place of a noun, or prepares for a following noun,
or is accompanied by other pronouns (tarn, yam, enam,
enan) ; e. g. a gachanti^im avasa they come to him with aid
(i. 8511) ; awim asum a6ave bhara bring him, the swift, to the
swift (i. 47) ; tarn im hinvanti dhitayah him devotions impel
(i. 1445); yad im enan usat6 abhy avarsit (vii. 1033)
when it has rained upon them that longed (for rain).

2. im also appears as a generalizing particle with relatives
(whoever), with yad (whenever), with interrogatives (who,
pray ?), with kim cana (nothing at all) ; e. g. ya im bhavanti
ajayah whatever conflicts take place (vii. 3217) ; ka im vyakta
narah wlio, pray, are the radiant men ? (vii. 561).

u is an enclitic particle, often written u where the metre
requires or favours a long syllable, especially in the second
syllable of a Pada, before a single consonant. It often
appears contracted to o (cp. 24) with a preceding a or a
(mostly the final of particles or prepositions, also of the
pron. esa, sometimes of verbal forms). It has two main
uses in the KV. :

1. It is employed deictically with verbs and pronouns.

a. With verbs it expresses the immediate commencement
of an action : with a present = now, already ; with a past
tense =just; with an imperative, injunctive, or optative
used in an impv. sense = at once ; sii is here very often
added, u sii being = instantly. When the verb is accom-
panied by a preposition, the particle regularly follows the

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PAKTICLES 221

latter. Examples of its use are : ud u tyam jatavedasam
devam vahanti ketavah. Us learns now bear aloft the god that
Jcnoivs all creatures (i. 501) ; abhud u bhah. the light has just
arisen (i. 4610) ; tapa^u sv agne antaran amitran burn
instantly, 0 Agni, our neighbouring foes (iii. I82).

a. This use of u with verbal forms does not seem to be found in B.

I). It emphasizes deictic pronouns, which may then be
rendered by stress, and interrogative pronouns, when it may
be translated by pray ; e. g. ayam u te, sarasvati, vasistho
dvarav rtasya subhage vy ayah this Vasistha has opened
for thec, 0 bountiful Sarasvatl, the tivo doors of sacrifice (vii. 956) ;
ka u sravat ivho, pray, will hear ? (iv. 431).

a. In B. this use is very rare with deictic pronouns, but not
infrequent with interrogatives ; e. g. idam u no bhavisyati yadi no
jesy&nti this at least will remain to us, if they conquer us (TS.) ; kim u B&
yajnena yajeta yo gam iva yajiaam n£ duhita ivhat sort of sacrifice,
pray, would he offer if he were not to milk out the sacrifice like a cow ? (MS.).

2. The particle u is used anaphorically to connect sen-
tences, when a word (usually the first) is repeated in the
second, in the sense of also ; e. g. trir naktam yathas, trir
u, asvina, diva thrice by night ye come, thrice also, 0 A£vins,
by day (i. 342) ; tvam trata tvam u no vrdhe' bhuh thou be
our protector, thou, too, be for our increase (i. 1785). The
repeated word need not always have the same form : yd no
dv6sty adharah sas padista, yam u dvismas tarn u pran6
jahatu may he who hates us fall doivnward; whom also we hate,
him too let his breath forsake (iii. 5321). The u sometimes
appears in both sentences, sometimes in the first only:
vayam u tva diva sute", vayam naktam havamahe we
call thee by day to the pressed Soma, we also by night (viii. 64°).

a. It is sometimes used without referring back definitely,
but simply adding some similar quality or activity with
reference to the same thing = and also, and ; e. g. sa devo
devan prati paprathe prthii, visve'd u ta paribhur brah-
manas patih he, the god, has extended himself widely to the gods,
and he, Lord of Prayer, embraces all this universe (ii. 2411).

222 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

1. It also, in the same sentence, expresses a contrast = on
the contrary, or, more frequently, with the demonstrative ta
corresponding to the relative ya = again, in return ; e. g.
striyah satis tan u me pumsa ahuh those who are women,
them on the contrary they speak of to me (as) men (i. 1641G) ;
yo adhvare'su h6ta . . tarn u namobhir a krnudhvam Mm
tvho is priest at sacrifices, in return bring hither zvith devotions
(i. 77*).

a. In B. the anaphoric use is common, prevailing chiefly in the
SB.; e.g. tasmad va indro 'bibhet, tasmad u tvastabibhet of that
Indra was afraid, of that also Tvastr ivas afraid (MS.).

a. The demonstrative here often refers back with u to previous
statements : uto pancavattam ev& bhavati : pankto yajfiah, panktah
pasuh, pancartavah samvatsar&sya : esawu pancavattasya sampai :
but it is also divided into five parts : the sacrifice is fivefold, cattle are fivefold,
the seasons of the year are five : this is the sum of what is divided into five
parts (SB.). Similarly used are the phrases tad u ha smaha with
reference to this he used to say, tad u hovaca with reference to this he said ;
tdd u t&tha n& kuryat that one should not do thus.

0. A slight contrast is expressed by u in the second sentence :
yadi nasnati pitrdevatyo bhavati, yady v asnati devan aty asnati
if he does not eat, he becomes a worshipper of the Manes, but if he does eat, he
eats before the gods (SB.).

7. Used in combination with kim, u expresses a climax in the
second clause = hoiv much more : manusya in nva upastirnam ich£nti,
kim u deva yesam navavasanam even men wish for something spread out,
how much more the gods whose is a new dwelling (TS.).

uta in the KV. means and, connecting two or more words
or sentences.

a. The particle commonly couples two words ; e. g. yah . .
prthivim uta dyam e"ko dadhara who alone has supported
heaven and earth (i. 1544). When there is an enumeration
of more than two objects, uta comes after the last ; e. g.
adite, mitra, varuna^uta 0 Aditi, Mitra, and Varu/ia
(ii. 2714). When a word is repeated from the beginning of
a clause, uta (like u) follows the repeated word : trih sau-
bhagatvam trir uta sravamsi nah thrice (grant) us prosperity
and thrice fame (i. 345).

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PAKTICLES 223

I. When uta connects a sentence with a preceding one, it
is placed at the beginning : ete"nagne brahmana vavrdhas-
va . . uta pra nesy abhi vasyo asman with this prayer,
0 Agni, strengthen thyself, and lead us onward to greater
fortune (i. 311S).

c. uta... uta means loth... and; uta va or; uta va...uta
va either... or; e.g. uta^idanim bhagavantah. syamawuta
prapitva uta madhye ahnam both now may ice be fortunate
and at eventide and at midday (i. 4 14) ; samudrad uta va
divas pari from the ocean or from heaven (i. 47G) ; ya apo
divya uta va sravanti khanitrmah either the ^vaters that are
celestial or that flow in channels (i. 492).

a. In B. uta does not mean a.nd, but also, even, emphasizing the
assertion generally and not (like dpi) a single notion in the sentence :
uta yadi^itasur bhavati jivaty ev& even when his breath is gone, he still
lives (TS.). Even when preceding a substantive utd seems to refer to
the whole statement : uta m&tsya ev& mdtsyam gilati it is also tfie case
that one fish devours another (SB.).

/3. With the optative ut& expresses that an action might after all
take place : uta^evam cid devan abhi bhavema after all we might thus
overcome the gods (SB.).

6. utd...uta in B. (as well as in V.) means both... and: utfi. rtaVa
uta pasava iti bruyat he should say l both the seasons and the animals ' (SB.).

7. utd, is regularly the first word in the sentence except that kim
or forms of ta or ya precede it : tasmad uta bahiir apasur bhavati
therefore even though rich he becomes cattleless (SB.).

uto (= uta u) in the EV. means and also: uto no asya
usaso jus6ta hi and may he also be pleased with us this
morning (i. 13 16).

a. In B. uto has the sense of but also or also : ahavaniye havimsi
srapayeyuh . . . uto garhapatya eva srapayanti they should cook the
oblation on the Ahavantya fire, but they also cook it on the Garhapatya (SB.).

eva has two uses in the RV. and the AV. :
1. At the beginning of sentences or clauses it means thus,
referring either to what precedes or follows ; e. g. evagnir
gotamebhir astosta thus Agni has been praised by the
Gotamas (i. 775) ; eva tarn ahur : indra 6ko vibhakta
thus they speak of him : ' Indra is the one dispenser ' (vii. 264).

224 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

It often appears as the correlative of yatha as : yatha na
pur vain aparo jdhaty, eva, dhatar, ayumsi kalpayaisam
as the later abandons not the earlier, so, Creator, arrange their
lives (x. 185). With the impv. eva = 50, then : eva vandasva
varunam brhantam (viii. 422) then praise the lofty Varuna
(who has done these great deeds).

2. As an emphasizing particle following the word on
which stress is laid, eva may be variously rendered just,
quite, alone, &c., or by stress ; e. g. tarn eva him only ;
6ka eva quite alone ; atraiva just here ; svayam eva quite
spontaneously, jata eva scarcely lorn, na^eva not at all.

a. In B. the first of the above uses has entirely disappeared (evdm
here taking the place of ev&), while the second is extremely common.
The particle follows all kinds of words requiring emphasis for any
reason ; this is especially the case when a word is repeated ; e. g.
yam &gre 'gnim hotraya pravrnata, s& pradhanvad, y&m dvitiyam
pravrnata, sa pra^eva^adhanvat the Agni whom they first chose for the
priesthood, perished; he whom they chose the second time, likewise perished
(SB.). When two notions are connected by way of contrast or other-
wise, evd may follow either the first or the second ; e. g. amum ev&
deva upayan, imam dsurah (SB.) the gods inherited that ivorld (heaven),
the Asuras this one (the earth) ; somo yusmakam, vag evasmakam (let)
Soma (be) yours, Vac ours (SB.).

evam thus occurs only once in the RV. (as correlative to
yatha as) and in the AV. not at all with yatha, but only as
an adverb with the verb vid Imoiv : ya evam vidyat he who
may possess such knowledge.

In B. evam is very common, having two uses :

1. It is correlative to y&tha as, being often accompanied by a form
of the same verb as the latter ; e. g. y&tha v&i parj&nyah suvrstim
vdrsaty, ev&m yajn6 yajamanaya varsati as Parjanya rains heavily, so
the sacrifice rains for the sacrificer (TS.). When the second verb is
omitted, y&tha...evdm is equivalent to iva ; e.g. te" deva abhy
asrjyanta ydtha vittim vetsydmana evdm the gods rushed up like those
wishing to obtain property (SB.).

2. It accompanies verbs as an adverb, especially in the very
frequent phrase yd, ev&m v£da he who possesses such knoivledge ; ut6w
evfim cin na labheran after all (hey icill thus not touch it (&B.).

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL, PARTICLES 225

kam appears both as an accented and an unaccented
particle. The former use is found in both V. and B., the
latter in the RV. only.

1. a. kam as an adv. with the full meaning well (equivalent
to the Vedic sam) appears in B. only ; e. g. kam me 'sat
may it be well with me (SB.); it also occurs in a negative
form : a-kaxn bhavati lie fares not well (TS.).

b. kam has the same meaning attenuated after datives
(generally at the end of a Pada) either of persons = for the
benefit of (dat. commodi) or of abstract nouns (final dative) ;
e. g. yuvam etam cakrathul? sindhusu plavam taugryaya
kam ye two have placed that ship in the waters for the benefit of
the son of Tugra (i. 1825) ; tvam devaso amrtaya kam
papuh thee the gods have drunk for the love of immortality
(ix. 1068) ; samanam anjy anjate subhe" kam (vii. 573) with
the same Ime they adorn themselves in order to shine (ivell).
From B. : kasmai kam agnihotram huyata iti for wJwse
benefit is the Agnihotra offered? (MS.) ; tejase kam purnama
ijyate for the sake of splendour the full moon sacrifice is
offered (MS.).

2. The unaccented kam occurs in the RV. only excepting
one independent passage of the AV. It always appears as
an enclitic following the particles mi, sii, hi. It means
willingly, gladly, indeed, but the sense is generally so attenu-
ated as to be untranslatable, mi kam appears with the inj.,
impv., subj., ind., also in relative clauses ; e.g. aso mi kam
ajaro vardhas ca be unaging and grow (x. 505), sii kam
appears with the imperative only : tistha sii kam, magha-
van, ma para gah pray stand still, bounteous god, go not
further (iii. 532). hi kam generally appears with the ind.
(occasionally omitted), sometimes with impv. or subj. :
raja hi kam bhiivananam abhisrih for he indeed is the king
who rules over beings (i. 981).

kim (n. of ki = ka) has two uses. In the first place it
means why ? e. g. kim u sre'sthah kim yavistho na ajagan

226 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

why has the best, why has the youngest come to us ? (i. 1611).
It is also a simple interrogative particle (equivalent to a
mark of interrogation) ; e. g. kim me havyam ahrnano
juseta would he, free from anger, enjoy an oblation of mine ?
(vii. 862) ; kim rajasa ena par 6 any ad asti is there anything
else beyond the welkin? (AV. v. II5).

a. In B. kim is similarly used. With following u it here adds
a climax in a second sentence = hoiv much more (see u) ; with following
ut& and the optative it means why after all • e. g. kim utd tvareran
why, after all, should they hasten? (&B.).

kila, an uncommon particle in V., meaning indeed,
certainly, strongly emphasizes (in RV. and AV.) the preceding
word (noun, pronoun, adjective, and the negative na) ; e. g.
svadiis kila^ayam (vi. 471) sweet, indeed, is this (Soma) ;
taditna satrum na kila vivitse then thou didst find no foe at
all (i. 324).

a. In B. the use is similar; e.g. ksipram kila^a strnuta (&B.)
quickly, then, spread (the barhis). But here kila usually follows other
particles, v&i or (ha) vavd : esa v&i kila haviso yamah this, indeed, is
the course of the sacrifice (&B.) ; tava ha vava kila bhagava idam Sir,
this belongs to you only (AB.).

kuvid, a pronominal interrogative particle, introduces
sentences which, though apparently independent, are treated
as dependent, since the verb (except twice in the RV.) is
regularly accented. This use seems to have arisen from the
particle's having been employed as an elliptical expression of
doubt such as might be rendered by ' I wonder (whether) ' ;
e. g. tarn, indra, madam a gahi kuvin nv asya trpnavah
come, Indra, to this carouse (to see) whether you shall enjoy it
(iii. 422) ; kuvit somasya apam iti have I, indeed, drunk
Soma (x. 1191) = (I wonder) whether I have drunk, Soma.

a. In B. kuvid is similarly used ; e. g. kuvin me putr&m dvadhit

has he actually killed my son? (&B.) : kuvit tusnim aste does he indeed sit
silent? (6B.).

ISO] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 227

khalu indeed, in truth, does not occur at all in the AV.,
and only once in the RV., where it emphasizes an imperative :
mitram krnudhvam khalu pray, conclude friendship (x. 3414).

a. In B. the particle is common. It is rarely used alone, but often
with other particles.

a. It appears alone with the impv., subj., or ind. ; e.g. &tra khalu
ramata here, pray, remain (&B.) ; rdhnaVat khalu s& yo maddevatyam
agnim ad&dhatai he indeed shall prosper who shall establish a fire conse-
crated to me (TS.); asmak£m eva^id&m khalu bhiivanam to us alone
indeed this ivorld belongs (&B.).

6. After the particles u or &tho and before or after vai, it emphasizes
the word preceding the combined particles; e.g. t&d u khalu maha-
yajflo bhavati thus, indeed, the great sacrifice arises (&B.).

a. &tho khalu is used either to express an (usually preferred)
alternative = or else, or rather, but surely rather • or to introduce an
objection ; e. g. vaisvadev&m iti bruyad, &tho khalu aindrdm fti
bruyat '/or all gods'1 one should say, or else one should say lfor Indra*
(TS.); diksitena satyam eva vaditavyam ; atho khalv ahuh : ko
'rhati manusyah sarvam satyam vaditum iti an initiated man should
speak the truth only ; noiv they make the objection : ' what man can speak the
whole truth r (AB.).

13. v&i khdlu can only be distinguished from vai alone as an
emphatic vai. But khalu v&i in the TS. and AB. has the special use
of introducing a second causal protasis after a first beginning with
simple vai, the conclusion then following with ev& ; e. g. prajapatyd
vai ptirusah ; prajapatih khalu vai t&sya veda : prajapatim evfi,
sv6na bhagadheye'na upa dhavati noio man comes from Prajdpati ; again
Prajdpati knows about him : so he approaches Prajdpati with the portion (of
the sacrifice) belonging to him (TS.). This use occasionally occurs even
though the preceding clause does not begin with vai.

gha is an enclitic particle, almost restricted to the RV.
Generally occupying the second place in the Pada, it is with
few exceptions metrically lengthened to gha. It emphasizes
the preceding word, which is nearly always either the
negative nd, or a pronoun (demonstrative or personal), or a
verbal preposition, the meaning being variously rendered by
just, only, very, or merely stress. It emphasizes a noun only
twice and a verb only once in the RV. : trtiye gha savane
at least at the third Soma libation (i. 1618) ; tu&anti gha t6
amrtasa etat those immortals desire this (x. 1C3).

228 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

ca (Gk. re, Lai. -qiie) and is an enclitic conjunction used
to connect both words and sentences. It regularly follows
an accented word, and when it adds a clause, the first word
of that clause.

1. ca connects substantives (including pronouns and
numerals) and adverbs ; e. g. mitram huve varunam ca
I invoke Mitra and Varuna (i. 27) ; maghavano vayam ca
the patrons and we (i. 738) ; Satam 6kam ca a hundred and
one (i. 11718) ; adya nunam ca to-day and now (i. 136).
In a few passages (but never in B.) the ca follows the first
word instead of the second : nakta ca . . usasa night and
morning (i. 737).

a. ca...ca are used much in the same way; e.g. gir&yas ca dyava
ca bhuma the mountains and heaven-and-earth (i. 6114) ; div&s ca gmds
ca of heaven and of earth (i. 376) ; asman ca tarns ca us and them (ii. llc) ;
n&va ca navatim ca nine and ninety (i. 3214) ; a ca p&ra ca carantam
moving hither and away (i. 16431).

Similarly in B. : devas ca^dsuras ca gods and Asuras (S" B.) ; sastfs
ca trini ca satani sixty and three hundred ; purastac cawtip&ristac ca
from before and from behind.

/3. ca...ca sometimes also express a contrast : n&kta ca cakriir usdsa
virupe : krsn&m ca vdrnam arundm ca s&m dhuh they have made
night and morning of different aspect : they have put together the black colour
and the ruddy (i. 737).

Similarly in B. : ubh&yam gramy&m ca^aranyana ca juhoti he
sacrifices both : tvhat is tame and what is wild (MS.).

a. A peculiar use of ca in the RV. is to add a second
vocative in the form of a nominative ; e. g. vayav indras
ca . . a yatam 0 Vayu and Indra, come (i. 2°).

6. Another peculiar use of ca, both in V. and B., is to
add one noun (nearly always in the nom.) to another which
has to be supplied ; e. g. a yad indras ca dadvahe when we
tivo, (I) and Indra, receive (viii. 341C) ; indras ca somam
pibatam, brhaspate do ye, (thou), 0 Brhaspati, and Indra.
drink (iv. 5010).

From B. : ta brhaspatis ca^anvavaitam they two, (he) and
Brhaspati, followed them (TS.) ; tat samjnam krsnajinaya ca

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 229

vadati so he pronounces harmony (between it) and the black
antelope skin (SB.).

a. In B. ca is used to add a single word at the end of a sentence in
the sense of and (so did} ; e. g. sramena ha sma v&i t&d deva jayanti
y&d esam j&yyam asa^fsayas ca by penance the gods were tvont to win what
was to be icon by them, and so did ths seers (SB. ).

c. ca following the interrogative ka, or the relative ya
and the interrogative ka combined, gives them an indefinite
sense: kas ca or yah kas ca any one, 'whoever (cp. 119 I).

2. ca also connects both principal sentences and relative
clauses : a deve'bhir yahi yaksi ca come witli the gods and
sacrifice (i. 141) ; ya vyusiir yas ca nunam vyuchan that
have shone forth and that shall now shine forth (i. 11310);
yd 'sman dve"sti yam ca vayam dvismah who hates us and
whom we hate (SB.).

a. ca...ca connect sentences to express a contrast by
means of parallel verbal forms which are either identical or
at least appear in the same number and person, the first
verb being then always accented : para ca yanti piinar a
ca yanti they go aivay and come again (i. 12312).

a. In B. the use of ca...oa is similar; e.g. vatsam ca^upavasrj&ty
ukham ca^adhi srayati he admits the calf and puts the pot on the fire (TS.).
The rule of accentuation applies even when the second verb is
omitted : agn&ye ca havih parid&dati guptya asyai ca prthivy&i
he delivers the oblation for protection to Fire and lo this Earth (!§B.). This
connecting use is particularly common in parallel abridged relative
sentences : s£rvan pasun ni dadhire ye ca gramya y6 cawaranyah
they laid down all animals, those that are tame and those that are ivild (SB.).

3. ca is used a few times in V. in the sense of if with the
subjunctive or the indicative: indras ca mrlayati no, na
nah pascad agham nasat if Indra be gracious to us, no
calamity will hereafter befall us (ii. 4111) ; imam ca vacam
pratiharyatha, naro, visve'd vama vo asnavat if ye
graciously accept this song, 0 heroes, it will oUain all goods
from you (i. 406).

cana. properly meaning not even, is most usually employed

230 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

after a negative ; e. g. trtiyam asya nakir a dadharsati,
vayas cana patayantah patatrinah no one dares approach
his third (step), not even the tvinged birds though they fly
(i. 1555). From its use in such supplementary clauses,
where it may also be translated by even, the latter sense
comes to be the natural or even necessary one after a negative
in a single clause sentence ; e. g. yasmad rte" na sidhyati
yajn6 vipascitas cana without whom the sacrifice does not
succeed [not] even of the wise man (i. 187) ; indram na mahna
prthivi cana prati even the earth is not equal to Indra in
greatness (i. 815). As one of the two negatives is superfluous
in a single clause sentence, cana alone occasionally does
duty for the negative: mane" cana tvam para sulkaya
deyam not even for a great reward would I give thee away
(viii. I5).

a. In a few passages, even when there is no accompanying
negative, cana throwing off its own negative sense, means
even, also : aham cana tat suribhir anasyam I too would
acquire this with the patrons (vi. 267) ; adha cana Srad
dadhati therefore also they believe (i. 555).

a. In B. can& appears only after a negative in single clause
sentences, in which nd cana means twt even ; e. g. n& hainam sapatnas
tustursamanas cand strnute no enemy fells Mm even /hough desiring io fell

him (SB.).

6. cana gives the interrogative an indefinite sense : kas
cana any one, na kas cana no one (cp. 119 b).

cid is an enclitic particle very frequently used to emphasize
the preceding word. It has two senses :

1. expressing that the statement is not to be expected
in regard to the word emphasized : even ; e. g. a drdham cid
arujo gavyam urvam even the firm cowstall thou hast broken
through (iii. 3216). This sense is, however, sometimes so
attenuated as to be capable of being rendered by stress only ;
e. g. tvam cin nah samyai bodhi svadhih le thou attentive
to our endeavour (iv. 34).

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 231

2. generalizing = any, every, all ; e. g. krtam cid e*nah
pra mumugdhy asmat (i. 249) remove from us any (every,
all) sin committed (by us). Similarly, with interrogatives =
any, with relatives = ever ; thus kas cid any one : srndti kail
cid esam any one (= every one) hears them (i. 3713) ; sun-
vadbhyo randhaya karn cid avratam subject every impious
man to those that press Soma (i. 1324); na or ma kas cid (not
any =) no one ; kada cid ever = at any time or always ; yas
cid whoever ; y ac cid if ever ; yatha cid as ever.

a. In B. the only use that survives is the generalizing sense with
interrogative pronouns = any, some ; e. g. dtha kam cid aha then he
says to some one (SB.) ; ydt te kds cid abravit ivhat any one said to

you (SB.).

ce"d (= caid) if occurs only three times in the RV., but
later becomes commoner^ In the RV. and AV. it is found
with the ind. pres. and aor. ; in the AV. it also occurs once
with the opt. Thus : vi c6d uchanty, asvina, usasah, pra
vam brahmani karavo bharante when the Dawns shine forth,
0 Asvins, the singers offer prayers to you (vii. 724) ; brahma
ced dhastam agrahit sa eva patir ekadha if a Brahman
has taken her hand, he alone is her husband (AV. v. 178) ; iti
manvita yacitah vasam c6d enam yaceyuh thus one would
think who has been requested, if they were to request a coiv of
him (AV. xii. 448).

a. In B. ce~d is used with the hid. pres., aor., fut. and with the opt. ;
e. g. atas ce"d eva naiti nasya yajno vyathate if he does not go away
from there, his sacrifice does not fail (MS.) ; sa hovaca turiyam-turiyam
ce"n mam abibhajams turlyam evfi, tarhi van niruktam vadisyatiti
he said ' if they have given me only one-fourth each time, then Vac will speak
distinctly only to the extent of one-fourth ' (SB.) ; t&m c6n me n& vivaksyasi,
murdha te vi patisyati if you cannot explain this (riddle) to me, your head
will burst (SB.) ; etam ced any&sma anubruyas t^ita eva te sir as
chindyam if you icere to tell this to another, I would strike off your head (SB.).

tatas occurs in the RV. several times adverbially in the
local sense of the ablative = thence ; e. g. tato visam pra
vavrte thence the poison has turned aivay. It also, but very

232 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

rarely, has the temporal sense of thereupon, then ; e. g.
yajnair atharva prathamah pathas tate, tatah. suryo . .
ajani with sacrifices Atharvan first extended the paths, then the
sun was born (i. 835).

a. In B., on the other hand, the temporal sense of thereupon is extremely
common. Here it also often appears at the beginning of a sentence
connected with a preceding one in the sense of therefore, consequently ;
e. g. sa yajn&m eva", yajnapatrani pr£ vivesa; t&to hainamnd s"skatur
nfrhantum it entered into the sacrifice itself, into the sacrificial vessels;
consequently those two were unable to expel it (SB.).

tatha occurs in the EV. in the sense of so, thus] e.g.
tatha rtuh such is the rule (i. 8319). It also appears as a
correlative (though less often than eva) to yatha ; e. g.
Byavasvasya sunvatas tatha srnu yathasrnor atreh listen
to the sacrificing Syava&oa as thou didst listen to Atri (viii. 367).

a. In B. the use is similar ; e. g. tdtha^m nundm tdd asa so, indeed,
it came to pass (SB.) ; as correlative (though less often than evdm) to
ydtha : na" vdi t^itha^abhud ydtha^dmamsi it has not come about as I had
thought (S"B.).

&. t^tho ( = t&tha^u) occurs in B., meaning and in the same way, but
so ; e. g. tdtho evottare ni vapet and in the same way he should assign
the last hoo (TS.) ; sa ydd daksina-pravana syat, ksipre ha ydjamano
'mum lokdm iyat, tdtho ha ydjamano jyog jivati if it (the altar) were
sloping to the south, the sacrifice)- would quickly go to yonder world, but thus
(as it is) the sacrificer lives a long time (SB.).

tad is often used adverbially in the RV. It then has three
different senses :

1. It frequently means then as correlative to yad when ;
e. g. yaj jayatha vrtrahatyaya tat prthivim aprathayah
when thou wast lorn for the Vrtra-fight. thou didst spread out
the earth (viii. 895).

2. It is also often used in the sense of thither (ace. of the
goal) ; e. g. tad it tva yukta harayo vahantu thither let the
yoked lays waft thee (iii. 534).

3. Occasionally it has the sense of therefore ; e. g. tad vo
deva abruvan, tad va agamam that the gods said to yon.

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 233

therefore I Imve come to you (i. 1612) ; pra tad vismih stavate
virydua therefore Visnu is praised for his heroism (i. 1542).

a. In B. tad/ has four different adverbial uses:

1. as a correlative to y&d (wken} inasmuch as) = thereby, and to
y&tra (tohere) = there ; e. g. ydn nv ev& rajanam abhisunv&nti, t&t t&m
ghnanti now when they press the king (soma), they kill him thereby (S"B.) ;
ydtranya dsadhayo mlayanti tad ete" modamana vardhante where
other plants wither, it (the wheat) grows merrily (SB.).

2. in the sense of thereupon, then ; e. g. atha^itithim s&mam ta"d
augh& aganta, tan ma navam upakalpyawupasasai notv in such and
such a year a flood icill then come, then having built a ship you shatt turn
to me (SB.).

3. constantly with reference to a preceding statement in the sense
of as to that, thereby, thus ; e. g. yajnam ev& tad deva upayan the gods
thus obtained the sacrifice (SB.) ; tat tad avaklptam ev& yad brahmano
'raj any dh syat so it is quite suitable that a Brahman should be ivithout
a king (&B.) ; tad ahuh as to that they say ; tad u tat now as to this (SB.).

4. before yad with reference to a preceding statement to add an
explanation, and may be rendered by that is to say, now ; e. g. t&d
yad es& et&t tapati tena esa sukrah noiv, inasmuch as he burns here,
therefore he is bright (SB.). Similarly in the phrase t&d ydt t6,tha that is
to say, why it is so (is as follows) = the reason for this is as follows (SB.).

tarhi at that time, then, occurs only once in the RV., but
several times in the AV. : na mrtyur asid amrtam na
tarhi there was not death nor immortality then (x. 1292). In
the AV. the word appears as correlative to yada 2vhen, and
in B. to yatra, yad, yada, yarhi when, and yadi ?/; e. g.
raksamsi va enam tarhy a labhante yarhi na jayate the
Eaksases then seize him ivhen (the fire) does not arise (AB.) :
yadi va rtvijo 'loka bhavanty aloka u tarhi yajamanah
if the priest is tvithout a place, the sacrificer is then also without
a place (SB.).

tasmad therefore is not found as an adverb in the RV.,
but occurs several times as such in the AV., and is constantly
so used in B. As correlative to yad because it appears once
in the AV. and is very common in B. ; e. g. yad vai tad
varunagrhitabhyah kam abhavat tasmat kayah (MS.)
because those ivho were, seized by Varunafelt well, therefore it is
called Mya (body).

234 INDECLINABLE WOKDS [iso

tu, though accented, never commences a sentence or Pada.
It has two uses :

1. It is an emphasizing particle. In the KV., where it
occurs nearly fifty times, it seems to be restricted to this
sense.

a. In about two-thirds of its occurrences tu emphasizes
an exhortation in the 2. pers. impv. (rarely the 3. pers., or
the subj. in an impv. sense) = pray, then-, e.g. a tv 6ta, ni
sidata pray come, sit you doivn (i. 51) ; na te dure" parama
cid rajamsy, a tu pra yahi haribhyam even the highest
spaces are not far to thee ; come hither, then, wth thy two bays
(iii. 302).

b. In several passages tu emphasizes assertions (generally
following the demonstrative ta) in the sense of surely, indeed ;
e. g. tat tv asya that surely is his work (iii. 3012).

2. It is an adversative particle meaning but. This is its
sense in the only passage of the AY. in which it occurs, and
is its only meaning in B. ; e.g. cakara bhadram asmabhyam
atmane tapanam tu sah he has done ivliat is good for us, but
painful to himself (AV. iv. 186) ; tad evam v6ditor na tv
evam kartavai that one should know thus, but not do thus (MS.).
With aha or mi in the preceding clause, it expresses the
sense it is true... but; e.g. tad aha t6sam vaco, 'nya tv
evatah sthitih this indeed is what they say, but the established
practice is different therefrom (SB.).

t£na occurs in B. as an adverb correlative to y&d because ; e. g. y£d
gramyasya n&w6snati t^na gramyan fi,va runddhe because he does not
eat any tame animal, therefore he gains tame animals for himself (MS.).

tvavd (compounded of tu vav&), a particle sometimes occurring
in B., does riot perceptibly differ in sense from vav& (q. v.) ; e.g.
trayo ha tvavd pas&vo 'medhyah there are just three kinds of animals
unfit for sacrifice (&B.).

tvai (compounded of tu. vfii) is sometimes found in B. meaning
but indeed.

dvita, a particle occurring about thirty times, is restricted
to the RV. There can be no doubt that it is an old instru-

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 235

mental, etymologically meaning doubly. This sense taken
either literally = in two ivays, or figuratively = emphatically,
especially, more than ever, seems to suit all the passages in
which the word occurs ; e. g. bharadvaj aya^ava dhuksata
dvita dhenum ca visvadohasam isam ca visvabhojasam
on Bharadvaja do ye (Maruts) milk down doubly, both the
all-milking cow and all-nourishing food (vi. 4813) ; raja devanam
uta martyanam dvita bhuvad rayipati raymam as king of
gods and mortals may he ~be doubly lord of riches (ix. 9724) ;
dvita yo vrtrahantamo vida indrah. satakratuh lipa no
haribhih sutam may he who above all is knotvn as the best
Vrtra-slayer, Indra Satakratu, (come) to our pressed Soma
with his bays (viii. 9332) ; gavam e"se sakhya krnuta dvita
(x. 48°) in the search for the cows he especially concluded friend'
ship (with me).

«. The word occurs several times with ddha, meaning and that too
doubly or especially, e.g. vi t&d vocer ddha dvita explain this, and (do so)
particularly (i. 132s).

na has two senses in V. (but only the first of the two
in B.) :

1. As a negative particle meaning not it denies an assertion,
appearing in principal sentences with the ind. of all tenses,
with the subj., the opt., the inj. (in the sense of a fut.), but
not with the impv. ; it is also employed in relative and
conjunctional clauses. It negatives either the assertion of
the whole sentence (when it appears as near the beginning
as possible, in V. even before the relative) or only the
assertion of the verb. It can only be used in a sentence
which contains a finite verb or in which one is to be supplied.
There seems to be no undoubted example of its negativing
any word (such as a participle or adjective) other than the
verb. The employment of this negative na is much the
same in B. as in V.

«.- A verb (such as asti is} has often to be supplied with this
negative in simple sentences, especially with the gerundive, the

236 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

infinitive, or a dative equivalent to an infinitive ; e. g. t&n n& sur-
ksyam that (is) not to be troubled about (MS.); n& yo v&raya loho (is) not
for hindering = ivho is irresistible (i. 1435). Or the verb has to be
supplied in a second sentence from the first ; e. g. ndktam upa
tisthate, n& pratdh lie ivorships at night, (he does) not (worship) in the
morning (IS.}.

6. Two negatives express a strong positive ; e. g. na hi pas&vo n&
bhunjanti/or cattle alicays eat (MS.).

2. na is used in V. (very commonly in RV., comparatively
rarely in AY., but never in B.) as a particle of comparison,
exactly like iva as, like. This meaning seems to be derived
from not as negativing the predicate of a thing to which it
properly belongs ; e. g. ' he (neighs), not a horse neighs ' =
' he, though not a horse, neighs ' = * he neighs like a horse '.
This na, being in sense closely connected with the preceding
word, never coalesces in pronunciation (though it does in the
written Sandhi) with a following vowel, whereas na not
generally does. This na always follows the word of com-
parison to which it belongs ; or if the simile consists of
several words, the na generally follows the first word, less
commonly the second ; e. g. aran na nemih pari ta babhuva
he surrounds them as the felly the spokes (i. 3215) ; pakva
sakha na like a branch with ripe fruit (i. 8*).

a. When the object compared is addressed in the voc. (which is
sometimes to be supplied), the object with which it is compared is
sometimes also put in the voc. agreeing with it by attraction ; e. g.
tiso na subhra a bhara like brilliant Dawn, (O sacrifice!-) bring (i. 57s) ;
asve na citre, arusi like a brilliant mare, 0 ruddy Dawn (i. 3021).

6. When the object compared is not expressed, n& means as it were ;
e. g. sivabhir n& smayamanabhir agat he has come with gracious smiling
women as it were (i. 792).

c. n& sometimes interchanges with iva ; «. g. ratham n& tdsteva
tdtsinaya as a carpenter (fashions) a car for him who desires it (i. 614).

na-kis1 (not any one) is found in V. only, being almost
restricted to the RV., where it frequently occurs. It properly

1 N. sing, of interrogative ki (Lat. gui-s) of which the n. kf-m is in
regular use (cp. 113).

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 237

means no one ; e. g. nakir indra tvad uttarah no one,
0 Indra, is superior to thee (iv. SO1) ; yatha ktfmmam nakir
ucchisyatai that none of the worms shall be left (AV. ii. 3 13).
Losing its N. sense,1 it comes to be used, though less often,
as a strong negative adverb meaning not at all, never ; e. g.
yasya sarman nakir deva varayante na martah. in whose
protection gods never hinder him nor mortals (iv. 1719). Cp.
makis.

na-kim 2 occurs only twice in one hymn of the RV. in the
sense of a strong negative adverb = not at all, never : nakim
indro nikartave Indra can never be subdued (viii. 785).

na-nu occurs only twice in the RV. where it has the sense
of a strong negative = by no means, never. In B. it occurs
a few times as an interrogative expecting assent (= nonne),
not?-, e.g. nami susruma have we not heard? (SB.).

na-hi, as the compounded form of na hi, occurs only in V.,
where it sometimes has the sense of for not ; e. g. nahi tva
satruh starate for no foe strikes thee down (i. 1294). More
commonly it emphatically negatives a statement as something
well known = certainly not, by no means, as appears most
clearly at the beginning of a hymn ; e. g. nahi vo asty
arbhakd, de"vasah not one of you, 0 gods, is small (viii. 301).

a. This compounded form never occurs in B., where n& hi alone is
found. On the other hand, n& hi seems never to occur in V.

nama is used adverbially in the following two senses :
1. by name ; e. g. sa ha sruta indro nama devah that god
famous as Indra by name (ii. 206) ; k6 nama^asi who art thou
byname? (VS. vii. 29). 2. namely, indeed, verily; e.g. djasro
gharmo havir asmi nama / am constant heat, namely the
oblation (iii. 267) ; mam dhur indram nama devata they
have placed me among the gods verily as Indra (x. 492).

1 Probably because the N. has no longer an independent existence
coupled with the fact that the pronoun ki has gone out of use except
in the one form ki-m.

z Probably A. n. of nfi-kis with lengthened vowel.

238 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

mi l or nu2 means 1. now ; e.g. sa nv iyate lie is noiv
implored (i. 1451) ; indrasya nu viryani pra vocam I will
now proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra (i. 32l) ; yoja nv,
indra, te hari yoke noiv (= at once), 0 Indra, thy two bays
(i. 821) ; uvasosa uchac ca mi (i. 483) Dawn lias shone (in
the past) and she shall shine now (= henceforth) ; asmabhir
u mi praticaksya^abhut to us she has just now become visible
(i. 11311). 2. still: pasyema mi suryam uccarantam we
would still see the sun rising (vi. 525) ; mahan indrah. paras
ca mi great is Indra and still more (i. 85). 3. pray with
interrogatives : kada nv antar varune bhuvani when, pray
(— at last), shall I be in (communion with) Varuna (vii. 862).
4. ever with relatives : ya mi krnavai whatever (deeds)
I shall accomplish (i. 16510). 5. ever, at all with negatives :
na^asya varta na taruta nv asti there is none at all to
obstruct, none to overcome him (vi. 668). 6. with cid it means
(a) even now, still ; e. g. nu cid dadhisva me girah even now
take to thyself my songs (i. 10°) ; dasasya no, maghavan, nu
cit favour us still, Bountiful one (viii. 4611) ; (b) never ; e. g.
nu cid dhi parimamnathe asman for never have ye despised
us (vii. 936).

a. The senses of nti found in B. are the following :
1. Now actually in affirmative sentences, often collecting a previous
statement ; e. g. nirdaso nv abhud, yajasva ma^anena now he is actually
more than ten days old : sacrifice him to me (AB.). 2. then, pray, in exhorta-
tions with the subj., the impv., or ma with the inj., e.g. ^raddhadevo
vai mfi,nur : avdm mi vedava Manu is godfearing; let us two then try him
(^B.); ma nu me pr^, harsih pray, do not strike at me (&B.). When
dtha follows such sentences, mi may be translated by first : nirdajo
nv astv, atha tva yajai let him (the victim) first be more than ten days old,
then I will sacrifice him to you (AB.). 3. pray, in questions with or without
an interrogative ; e. g. kv& nu vfsnur abhut what, pray, has become of
Vimu 1 (&B.) ; tv&m mi khalu no br&hmistho 'si are you, pray, indeed
the wisest of us? (&B.). 4. now, after Iti followed by &tha next: iti nu
purvam patalam, athottaram this now is the first section ; next follows the

1 Never begins a sentence.

2 Often begins a sentence.

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 239

second (AB.). 5. indeed, in the first of two antithetical clauses, when
the second is introduced with tu or kim u ; e. g. yo nv ev& jnat&s
t&srnai bruyad, n& tv evJ-i s&rvasma iva he may indeed tell it to him who
is known to him, but not to any and every one (SB.).

nunam now has three uses in the RV. :

1. With the ind. pres. it means now as opposed to formerly
or in future (an opposition often expressed by pura before
and aparam after) ; e. g. na nunam asti n6 svah. there is no
now and no to-morrow (i. 1701).

It is a few times used with the perfect in combination
with pura to express that an action has taken place in the
past and still takes place ; e. g. pura nunam ca stutaya
rsinam pasprdhra indre formerly and now the praises of
seers have striven to Indra (vi. 341).

2. With the subj., impv., opt., or inj., it expresses that an
action is to take place at once ; e. g. vi nunam uchat she
shall now shine forth (i. 12411); pra nunam purnavandhuras
stut6 yahi praised advance now with laden car (i. 823).

With the perfect it is a few times used in the RV. to
express that an action has just been completed ; e. g. upa
nunam yuyuje hari he IMS just yoked his two lay steeds
(viii. 411).

3. It occurs sometimes with interrogatives = pray ; e.g.
kada nunam te dasema when, pray, may we serve thee?
(vii. 298).

a. In B. none of these uses seem to survive, while the new sense of
certainly, assuredly (perhaps once already in the AV.) has appeared ;
e. g. tatha in nun am tad a,sa,just so assuredly it came to pass (SB,).

n£d (= na id and not treated as a compound by the
Padapatha) has two uses in both V. and B. : 1. sometimes
as an emphatic negative, certainty not ; e. g. any6 n&t surir
6hate bhuridavattarah. no other patron indeed is accounted
more liberal (viii. 530) ; aham vadami n6t tvam / am speak-
ing, not thou (vii. 384) ; n6d anuhutam prasnami / certainly
do not eat it before it is invoked (SB.). 2. much more commonly
as introducing a final clause in order that not with the subj.

240 INDECLINABLE WORDS [ISO

(= Lat. ne) ; e. g. vy ucha, duhitar divo, n6t tva tapati
surah shine forth, daughter of the sky, lest the sun scorch thee
(v. 799) ; n6n ma rudrd hinasat lest Eudra injure me (SB.).
In B. the verb may also be in the inj. : nMidam bahirdha
yajnad bhavat lest it be outside the sacrifice (SB.).

o. nvfii ( = nu vai as analysed by the Padapatha of the TS.) occurs not
infrequently in B. in the sense of indeed ; e.g. iti iiva et£d brahmanam
udyate such indeed is the Brahmana that is told ({§B.).

ma is the prohibitive negative (Gk. jirj) regularly used
with the injunctive. It is never used with the impv. ; with
the opt. only in the single form bhujema (RV.) ; and with
the subj. only once (SB.) ; e. g. ma no vadhih slay us not
(i. 1048) ; ma hrnitha abhy asman be not enraged against us
(viii. 219).

a. An interrogative following ma in a few cases receives an indefi-
nite sense in the RV. ; e. g. ma kdsmai dhatam abhy amitrine nah

deliver us not to any foe (i. 1208).

ma-kis (not any one, Gk. ftrj-Tis), occurring about a dozen
times in the RV., to which it is restricted, is used in pro-
hibitive sentences with the injunctive in two senses :

1. no one : makis tokasya no risat may no one of our
offspring be injured (viii. 6711).

2. more often an emphatic negative = by no means, never :
makir devanam apa bhuh be not at all away from the gods
(x. II9). Cp. na-kis.

ma-klm, used as an emphatic prohibitive particle with
the injunctive, occurs only in two passages of the RV. :
makim sam sari ke>ate let none suffer fracture in a pit
(vi. 54 7).

yatra is employed in two main senses : 1. usually as
a relative adverb, meaning ivhere, but sometimes whithei ,
e. g. yajn6 . . naro yatra devayavo madanti where pious
men rejoice in sacrifice (vii. 971) ; yatra rathena gachathah
whither ye go with your car (i. 224). The correlative is
generally tatra, sometimes atra or tad.

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 241

o. Occasionally as equivalent to the locative of the relative ; e. g.
a gha ta gachan uttara yugani ydtra jamayah. krn&vann ajaooi those
later generations will come in irhich those who are akin to-ill do ichat befits not
kinsmen (x. 1010).

2. not infrequently as a temporal conjunction, when, in
both V. and B. ; e. g. yatra pra sudasam avatam when ye
helped Sudds (vii. 836). In V. adha, atra, tad appear as
correlatives ; e. g. yatra surasas tanvo vitanvate" . . adha
sma yacha tanve tane ca chardih when thejieroes strain
themselves (in battle) . . then especially bestow protection on us
and our sons (vi. 4612). In B. tad is generally the correlative,
sometimes tatas ; e. g. tarn yatra deva aghnams, tan
mitram abruvan when the gods killed him, they said to
Mitra (SB.).

yatha has two distinct uses in both V. and B. :

1. as a relative adverb meaning as ; e. g. nunam yatha
pura now as before (i. 397) ; yatha vayam usmasi tdt krdhi
as we wish that do (x. 382) ; yatha vai purus6 jiryaty evam
agnir ahito jiryati as a man grows old, so fire when it has
been laid grows old (TS.). When there is a correlative in the
RV., it is usually eva, sometimes tatha ; in B. usually
evam, sometimes tatha.

2. as a conjunction meaning in order that, so that, intro-
ducing a posterior clause, generally with the subj., rarely
the opt. ; e. g. havis krmisva subhago yatha^asasi prepare
the oblation that thou mayest be successful (ii. 262) ; a daivya
vrniniah^ 'vamsi, yatha bhavema milhiise anagah (vii. 972)
we crave divine aids that we man appear sinless to the gracious
god ; tatha me kuru yatha waham imam senam jayani
arrange it so for me that I may conquer this army (AB.) ;
tathaiva hotavyam yatha^agnim ^vyaveyat it must be
poured so that it should divide the fire (SB.).

«. In the RV. after verbs of knowing or saying y&tha introduces an
explanation = hoiv ; e. g. k&s t&d bruyad anud6yi ydtha^dbhavat who
could tell us this, (viz.) hoiv the gift was'? (x. 135"'). Occasionally it is
used thus even without such verbs : nd praraiye savittir d&ivyasya

242 INDECLINABLE WORDS'- [iso

tdd yatha visvam bhtivaiiam dharayisyati that (power} of the divine
Savitr (is not to — ) will not decay, (viz.) that he will support the whole world
(iv. 544).

yad (n. of the relative ya) is used in four distinct senses :

1. that, expanding the meaning of a word in the preceding
principal clause ; e. g. grne" tad, indra, te savo yad dhamsi
vrtram I praise this mighty deed of thine that thou slayest
Vrtra (viii. 628); kim aga asa, varuna, jye"stham yat
stotaram jighamsasi sakhayam, what has been the chief guilt,
0 Varuna, that thou wishest to slay thy praiser (who is) thy

friend? (vii. 864). This use is not common in V.

a. yad is similarly employed in B. with reference to n preceding
t&d (often omitted) ; e. g. t&d y&t payasa srlnati : vrtro v&i soma
asit that ( = the reason why) he mixes Soma with milk (is) this: Vrtra
was Soma (&B.). This use is also found in B. after certain verbs :
6va kalpate it is suitable, ut sahate is able, ich&ti desires, yukt6 bhavati
is intent on, ve"da knows, and isvard it is possible • e. g. n& hi t&d avakdl-
pate y&d bruyat/or it is not suitable that he should say (&B.)«

2. when with the ind. pres., imp., perf., aor., fut., and
with the subj. ; e.g. yad dha yanti marutah sam ha
bruvate when the Maruts go along, they speak together (i. 3713) •
kam apa^yo yat te bhir agachat whom didst thou see when
fear came upon thee ? (i. 3214) ; indras ca yad yuyudhate
ahis ca, maghava vi jigye when Indra and the serpent fought,
the bountiful god conquered (i. 3213) ; citr6 yad abhrat bright
when he has shone forth (i. 666) ; tigma yad a^anir patati,
adha no bodhi gopah when the sharp bolt shall fly, then be
our protector (iv. 1617). It also occurs rarely in anacolutha
with the pres. part, and the past pass. part, much as in
English; e.g. pacanti te vrsabhan, atsi t6sam yan,
maghavan, huyamanah. they roast bulls for thee, thou eatest
of them, 0 bounteous one, ivhen being called (x. 283).

a. In B. y£d occurs with the sense of when with the pres., fut. , and
aor., and in the sense of whenever or while with the impf.

3. i/used with the ind. pres., the subj., or the opt. ; e. g.

ISO] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 243

yad, indra, udan nyag va huyase, a yahi tuyam if,
0 Indra, thou art called above or beloiv, come quickly (viii. 651) ;
yad urdhvas tistha dravina^iha dhattad yad va ksayah
if tliou shalt stand upright, bcstoiv treasures here, or if thou shalt
lie (iii. 8l). The opt. is used when it is assumed that the
condition will not be fulfilled ; e. g. yad, agne, syam aham
tvam, tvam va gha sya aham, syus te satya iha^asisah
if, 0 Agni, I were thou, or if thou wert J, thy prayers here
would be fulfilled (viu. 4423).

a. In B. ydd is used with the opt. as in V. (while with y&di the ful-
filment of the condition is usually assumed) and with the conditional ;
sa ydd bhidyeta^artim arched yajamanah. if it were to break, the
sacrificer would fall into misfortune (TS.) ; ydd ev&m na^&vaksyo murdha
te vy apatisyat if thou hadst not spoken thus, thy head would have fallen to
pieces (SB.).

4. in order that, in posterior clauses, with the subj., very
rarely with the opt. in V. ; e. g. a vaha devatatim sardho
yad adya divyam yajasi bring hither the host of the gods that
thou mayest adore the divine throng (iii. 194) ; yan nunam
asyam gatim, mitrasya yayam patha that I may now
obtain refuge, f would go on Mitra'spath (v. 643).

«. In B. this use of ydd is very rare, occurring only a few limes
with the subj. ; e. g. tdt praprmhi y&t te prano yatam apip^dyatai

obtain thou this, that thy breath may pass into the wind (SB.).

yada when is used in V. and B. with the ind. perf., impf.,
pres., and with the subj. ; with the aor. ind. and the inj. in
V. only ; and with the fut. and opt. in B. only. The
correlative word (when there is one) is in V. ad, atha, adha,
tad, tarhi ; in B. atha and tarhi.

1. yada is most commonly used in the RV. with the aor.
ind., when as the beginning of the action is emphasized,
the sense is as soon as ; e. g. yade"d adevir asahista maya,
atha^abhavat kdvalah s6mo asya as soon as he had overcome
the ungodly idles, then Soma became his exclusively (vii. 985) ;
abhi grnanti radho yada te marto anu bhogam anat they

R2

244 INDECLINABLE WORDS [MO

praise thy wealth as soon as the mortal has obtained thy reward
(x. 72). When the principal clause contains a historical
tense, the aor. with yada has the value of a pluperfect.

a. The injunctive is found only once with yada in the RV. : yada
mahyam dfdharo bhagam, indra, ad in maya krnavo viryani when
thou shalt have secured for me my share, 0 Indra, then thou shalt perform
heroic deeds with my help (viii. 1001).

2. a. with the impf. and perf. ; e. g. yada vismis trini
pada vicakrame, yada suryam divi . . ddharaya, ad it te
hari vavaksatuh when Visnu took his three steps, when thou
didst fix the sun in the shy, then thy two bays grew in strength
(viii. 1227-30) ; tasya yada marma^agachann atha^acestat
as soon as they touched his weak- spot, he quivered (MS.) ; sa
yada^abhyam anuvaca^atha^asya tad indrah sira6 ci-
cheda as soon as he had told them, Indra cut his head off (SB.).

b. with the pres. ind. : yada satyam krnut6 manyiim
indro, visvam drlham bhayate 6jad asmat when Indra
shows his true anger, all that is firm, trembling, is afraid of him
(iv. 1710) ; yada vai pasur nirdaso bhavaty atha sa
medhyo bhavati as soon as the victim is more than ten days
old, it becomes fit for sacrifice (AB.) ; sa yada kesasmasru
vdpaty atha snati when he Ms cut off his hair and beard, lie
bathes (SB.).

c. with the subj. (here = future perfect) : yada srtam
krnavo 'tha^im enam pra hinutat pit^bhyah when thou
shalt have made him done, then deliver him to the fathers (x. 161) ;
yada tarn ativardha, atha karsum khatva tasyam ma
bibharasi when I shall have grown too big for it, you shall,
having dug a pit, keep me in it (&B.).

8. a. with the fut. : yadaiva hota paridhasyaty atha pasan prati
moksyami when the Hoir shall have concluded, I shall tighten the cords (AB.).

&. with the opt. : s& yada samgranadm jdyed dtha^aindragnam nfr
vapet as soon as he may have icon a battle, he should sacrifice to Indra and
Agni (MS.).

yadi if (sometimes when with a past tense) is found with
perf. and impf. in V. only; with the ind. pres., aor., fut.,

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 245

and with the subj. in V. and B. ; and with the opt. in B.
only.

1. With the perf. used historically and with the impf.
yadi means -when, the verb then having the force of a
pluperfect ; e. g. lid astambhit samidha nakam agnir yadi
bhrgubhyah pari matarisva havyavaham samidhe" Agni
supported the vault with fuel 'when Matari&van from the Bhrgus
had kindled the oblation-bearer (Hi. 510) ; yadi sahasram
mahisan aghah, ad it ta indriyam mahi pra vavrdhe
when thou hadst eaten a thousand bulls, thy might greiv great
(viii. 128). But when the perf. has the pres. perf. sense,
yadi has its ordinary meaning of if: grahir jagraha yadi
vaitad enam, tasya, indragni, pra mumuktam enam or if
illness has seised him, from that release him, Indra and Agni
(x. 1611).

2. a. with the pres. : yadi manthanti bahubhir vi
rocate when they rub ivith their arms, he shines (iii. 296) ;
adya muriya yadi yatudhano asmi to-day I ivould die, if I
am a sorcerer (vii. 10415) ; yadi na asnati pitrdevatyo
bhavati if he does not eat, he becomes dedicated to the
Manes (SB.).

lj. with the aor. : yadi matur upa svasa . . asthita,
adhvaryur modate // the sister (coming) from the mother has
approached, the priest rejoices (ii. 5°) ; yady aha^enam pran-
cam acaisir, yatha paraca asmaya prsthato 'nnadyam
upaharet if you have piled it frontways, it is as if one handed
food from behind to one sitting ivith averted face (SB.).

c. with the fut. : yady eva karisyatha, sakam devair
yajniyaso bhavisyatha if ye will act thus, ye shall become
objects of -worship together with the gods (i. 1612); yadi va
imam abhimamsye kaniyo Jnnam karisye if I shall plot
against him, I shall procure less food (SB.).

d. with the subj. : yajama devan yadi saknavama ive
'will worship the gods, if we shall be able (i. 2713) ; yadi stomam
mama sravad, asmakam indram indavah . . mandantu

INDECLINABLE WOKDS [180

if lie shall hear my song of praise, lei our drops gladden Indra
(viii. I15) ; yadi tva^etat piinar bravatas, tvam brutat
if they two shall say that to thee again, do thou say (SB.).

a. With the opt. y&di is (excepting one occurrence in the SV.V
found in B. only, where this use is very common. Here a case is
usually supposed with a rule applicable to it in the principal clause ;
e. g. yadi na saknuyat, so 'gnaye purolasam nir vapet if he should not
be able to do it, f/e should offer a cake to Agni (AB.).

3. after the verb vid know, yadi is used in the sense of
whether in one passage of the RV. (x. 1297) and often in B. ;
e. g. hanta na 6ko v6ttu yadi hato va vrtro jivati va come,
let one of us find out whether Vrtra is dead or whether he is
alive (SB.).

o. y&di va is not only used after a preceding yadi in the sense of
or 'if, but also alone in the sense of or, nearly always without a verb ;
e. g. so anga veda yadi va na v6da he alone knows or he does not hnoic
(x. 1297) ; y&m vahanti sat£m dsva yddi va saptd whom a hundred
horses draw, or seven (AV. xiii. 27) ; yadi vawitaratha or conversely (S"B.).

y&rhi (at the time} ivhen occurs only in B., where it is used with the
pres. or past ind., and with the opt. It has almost invariably tarhi or
etarhi then as a correlative ; e. g. sa tdrhy eva jayate ydrhy agnim
adhatte he is born at the moment when he lays his fire (MS.) ; yarhi prajah
ksudham nigdcheyus tdrhi navaratre"na yajeta when his people should
suffer from hunger, he should sacrifice with the rite of nine nights (TS.).

y&smad does not occur as a conjunction in V., but it sometimes
appears as such in B. meaning why ; e. g. dtha yasmat samista-
yajumsi nama now (follows the reason) ichy they are called Samistayajus
(SB.).

yad (an old abl. of ya) is found in V. only. It is used
with the indicative pres. or past, and with the subj. With
the ind. it means as far as in the RV. ; e. g. arcamasi yad
eva vidma tat tva mahantam (vi. 21°) we praise thee, the
great, as far as we knotv (how to) ; it seems to mean since, in
the AV. : ya aksiyan prthivim yad ajayata who ruled the
earth since it arose (AV. xii. I57). With the subj. yad means
as long as ; e. g. ananukrtyam apunas cakara yat suryamasa
mitha uccaratal^ he has once for all done what is inimitable
as long as sun and moon aUcrnatcli/ shall rise (x. t>810).

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 247

yavat already appears in V. as an adverb meaning as far
as, as long as, an extension of its ace. use ; e. g. yavad
dyavaprthivi tavad it tat (x. 114s) as far as heaven ami earth,
so far it (extends) ; juhomi navy am yavad ise I offer
oblation as long as I am able (iii. 183) ; ajato vai tavat puruso
yavad agnim na^adhatte' man is so long unborn, as he does
not lay his fire (MS.).

va or is employed much in the same way as ca and.
It is enclitic, following the word to which it belongs ; and
it connects words, clauses, or sentences ; e. g. ata a gahi
divo va rocanad adhi come from here or from the shining
realm of heaven (i. 69) ; yasya bharya gaur va yamau
janayet whose wife or cow lears t-wins (AB.) ; prati yah
sasam invati, uktha va yo abhigrnati who promotes the law
or welcomes songs of praise (i. 54T).

a. va...va is frequently used in the same way ; e.g. g&kti va yat te
cakrma vida va that we have offered to thee according to our poioer or
knowledge (i. 3118) ; naktam va hi diva va varsati for it rains by night
or by day (TS.) ; yad va^ah&m abhidudroha yad va sepd uta^&nrtam
what evil I have plotted or what I have sworn falsely (i. 2tt22).

b. But va...va also mean either. ..or. When they contrast two
principal sentences in this sense, implying exclusive alternatives, the
verb of the first is accented even when the second is incomplete ;
e. g. ahaye va tan pradadatu soma a va dadhatu nirrter upasthe let
Soma either deliver them to the serpent or place them in the lap of dissolution
(vii. 1049) ; tad va jajnau tad va na jajnau she either agreed to it or did
not agree to it (SB.) ; tasya va tvam rndna icha s& va tava either do thou
seek his heart, or he thine (x. 1014).

vav& (doubtless a contraction of two particles) is found in B. only.
It emphasizes the preceding word in the sense of certainly, just, being
particularly frequent in the first of two correlated clauses ; e. g. esa
vavd so 'gnir ity ahuh that is certainly the same Agni, they say (TS.).

vai is an emphasizing particle meaning truly, indeed.

1. In the RV. this particle occurs only in 28 passages,
in all but three of which it follows the first word of
the sentence ; e. g. bhadram vai varam vrnate truly they
make a good choice (x. 1642) ; iti va iti me manah 50, indeed,
so is my mind (x. 1191) ; na vai strainaiii sakhyani santi

248 INDECLINABLE WOEDS [180

there are, indeed, no friendships with women (x. 9515). The
stress is laid on the whole sentence, not on any particular
word. The particle is often followed by u (va u) without
any perceptible change of meaning.

a. In the AV. the use is similar except that here the particle often
appears after a demonstrative or a relative ; e. g. tdsmad vai s& pdra-
bhavat therefore, indeed, he perished (xii. 4'19) ; yo vai ta vidyat pratyak-
sam, sd va adyd mahad vadet whoever may kno>c them plainly, he, verity,
may speak aloud to-day (xi. S3).

2. In B. vai usually occupies the same position, but often
yields the second place to ce~d, hi, khalu, and of course
always to the enclitics iva, u, ca, sma, ha. When atho
begins a sentence vai occupies the second place.

Here the use of vai in the first sentence of a narrative is
typical ; e. g. yamo va amriyata : t6 deva yamya yamam
apabruvan Yama died : the gods (then) dissuaded Yaml from
(thinking of) Yama (MS.).

«. The particle often appears in the concluding sentence in discus-
sions ; e. g. tdsmad va dp a upa sprsati that is, indeed, why he sips
water (&B.).

6. It is very often placed after the first word of a sentence that
gives the reason for the one that follows ; e. g. sraddhadevo vdi
mdnur : avam nu vedava now Manu is god-fearing : toe two will
therefore ascertain (&B.). When vai is used in this way the clause
containing it is often equivalent to a parenthetical one ; e. g. t6
vayum abruvan (ayam vdi vayur yo 'yam pavate) vayo tvdm iddm
viddhi^iti they said to Vdyu (now Vayu is he ivho blows'), l Vdytt, ascertain
this' (SB.). In this sense vdi is especially frequent in periods of
three clauses, when that with vai contains the reason, and that with
evd the conclusion ; e. g. ta etabhis tanubhih sdm abhavan ; pasdvo
vai devanam priyas tanvah : pasubhir 6va sdm abhavan they were
together with these bodies ; now animals are the bodies dear to the gods : they
were therefore together with animals (MS.).

c. The differences between the use of vai and of eva in B. are the
following : vai coming after the first word emphasizes the whole
sentence, while evd emphasizes a particular word in any part of the
sentence ; vai follows the first word of a sentence beginning a narra-
tive, ev& never does ; in a period vai is typical in the clause stating
a reason, evd in that expressing the conclusion.

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 249

sa is often used pleonastically before relatives in B. ; e. g.
sa yo no vacam vyahrtarn mithun^na na^ammikramat,
sa sarvam para jayatai lie who shall not follow the word
uttered by us with (another of) the corresponding gender, lie shall
lose everything (SB.). This use led to sa being employed in
a formulaic way not only pleonastically but also without
reference to gender or number ; e. g. tasya tani sirsani pra
cicheda. sa yat somapanam asa tatah kapinjalah sam
abhavat he struck off his heads. Now that which had f been
Soma-drinking, from that arose the francoline partridge (SB.) ;
sa yadi.na vindanti kim a driyeran now if they do not find
it, why should they mind? (SB.).

sim is an enclitic particle restricted to the RV. Originally
the ace. sing, of a pronoun, related to sa as kim to ka, it is
generally used (much like im) as an ace. of all numbers and
genders in the third person — him, her, it, them, representing
a substantive (which sometimes follows) and frequently
placed between a preposition and its verb, occasionally also
after a relative ; e. g. pari sim nayanti they lead him around
(i, 952) ; pra sim adityo asrjat the Aditya made them (the
streams) to flow (ii. 284) ; ni sim vrtrasya marmani vajram
indro apipatat Indra has caused it, his bolt, to fall on Vftra's
vital spot (viii. 1007) ; yam sim akrnvan tamase viprce,
tarn suryam whom they created to disperse the darJmess, that
sim (iv. 133).

a. sim sometimes gives the relative the sense of ever ; e. g. yat sim
iigas cakrma, sisrathas tat whatever sin ice have committed, remove that.
^v.85*). '

sii, su well, used asseveratively = thoroughly, fully, verily
arid always referring to the verb, is almost restricted as an
independent particle to the Samhitas, being common in the
RV., but rare in the others ; e. g. jusasva su no adhvaram
thoroughly enjoy our sacrifice (iii. 242) ; namah. su te homage
verily (be) to thee (VS. xii. 63) ; jar am su gacha go safely to
old age (AV. xix. 245).

250 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

a. With preceding u the particle means right toell : ima u su srudhi
girah hear these songs right well (i. 265) ; vidmo &v asya mataram we
know full well his mother (AV. i. 21).

b. With preceding ma it = by no means, not at all, never ; e. g. mo su
tva fc . . asma'n ni riraman let none by any means keep thee from us
(vii. 32l).

c. su kam is used like the simple su except that it appears with the
impv. only ; e.g. tisthata . . . su kam stand quite still (i. 1916).

sma, an enclitic, slightly emphasizing particle, has two
senses in the RV. :

1. It generally emphasizes :

a. demonstrative or personal pronouns, relatives, or nouns,
and may be rendered by just, especially, or simply by stress ;
e. g. tasya sma pravita bhava be his helper (i. 128) ; sa
srudhi yah sma prtanasu kasu cit . . . suraih svah sanita
hear thou, ivlio especially in all battles ivith heroes dost win the
light (i. 1292).

b. the verb, which or (if it is compounded) the preposition
of which it follows (generally at the beginning of the sen-
tence) ; e. g. smasi sma vayam esam tve are indeed theirs
(i. 3715) ; a sma ratham tisthasi thou mountest indeed upon
thy car (i. 5112). The verb is in the present ind. or the
impv., rarely the perf. ; it appears to have been accented
before sma judging by the only example (vi. 4418) in which
it is not the first word in the sentence (App. Ill, 19 A).

c. adverbs and particles ; e. g. uta sma and especially ; na
sma and ma sma by no means.

a. In the AV. these emphasizing uses are similar; but in B. they
have entirely disappeared.

2. In a few instances sma occurs in the R V. before pura
with the pres. ind. to express that an action has habitually
taken place in the past down to the present time ; e. g. y6
sma pura gatuyanti icho have always aided = who aids now
and formerly did so (L 1695).

a. This use is not found in the AV., but has become extremely
common in B., where sma is always preceded by ha. The meaning

180] CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVBL. PARTICLES 251

here expressed is that something habitually took place in the past
(but does not as in the R V. include the present) ; e. g. na ha sma vai
pura^agnir aparasuvrknam dahati formerly Agni used not to burn what
wets not lopped off with the axe (TS.).

b. Much more frequently, however, pura is left out and the
particles ha sma, from their frequent association with it, assume its
meaning ; e. g. te ha sma yad deva asuran j&yanti, tato ha smawevd^
enan pxinar upottisthanti as often as the gods defeated the Asuras, the
latter ahvays opposed them again (SB.). This use of ha sma is very
common with the present perfect aha ; e. g. et&d dha sma va aha
naraddh with regard to this Ndrada used to say (MS.). Other tenses than
the present with ha sma are found in the AB. where, in two or
three passages, the perf. and the impf. are used with them in the
same sense.

svid is an enclitic particle emphasizing the first word of
a sentence, usually an interrogative pronoun or adverb.
It may generally be translated by pray ; e. g. kah svid vrks6
nisthito madhye arnasah ivliat tree, prat/, teas that which
stood in the midst of the sea ? (i. 182"). In one passage of the
RV. this particle gives the interrogative an indefinite mean-
ing: mata putrasya caratah kva svit the mother of the son
that wanders trho "knows where (x. 3410). Very rarely (in
double questions) the particle appears without an inter-
rogative : asti svin nii viryam tat ta, indra, na svid asti :
tad rtutha vi vocah is this thy heroic deed, 0 Indra, or is it
not : that declare in due season (vi. 18:3).

a. In a few instances svid appears in non-interrogative sentences :
tvaya ha svid yuja vayam abhi smo vajasataye with thee as companion
ice are equipped for the obtauiment of booty (viii. 1023).

b. The employment of svid in B. is similar ; e. g. k&m u svid ato
'dhi vdram varisyamahe what boon, pray, beyond this shall we choose?
(MS.) ; tvam svin no brdhmistho 'si art thou, pray, the most learned of
us? (SB.) ; y£d angaresu juhoti tat svid agnau juhoti what he pours
on the coals, that itself he pours on the fire (MS.).

ha, an enclitic particle occurring after all words capable
of beginning a sentence, has a slightly emphasizing and
asseverative force. It is probably identical in origin with
gha, but unlike that particle hardly ever (only twice) appears

252 INDECLINABLE WORDS [180

in the RV. with its vowel lengthened. It is common in the
RV., occurring after personal, demonstrative, interrogative,
and relative pronouns, nouns, verbs, verbal prepositions, and
adverbs.

a. In B. the use of this particle varies in frequency: it is com-
paratively rare in the TS., where it generally appears with sma or
with perfects; while in the &B. it is extremely frequent. It lays
stress on the first word of sentences so as to emphasize the connexion
or to mark a new or important step in the narrative ; e. g. iti
marimrjyeta : ajarasam ha caksusman bhavati ya evam veda with
these words he should ivipe (his eyes) : so till old age he 'who knows this becomes
possessed of vision (AB.).

b. It is very often used after the first word of a story with or
without v&i. It appears predominantly with the perfect in those
parts of the SB. and the AB. that narrate with the perfect, mostly
with verbs of speaking. Thus sa ha^uvaca appears here, while so
'bravit is said elsewhere.

hanta occurs three times in the RV. as an interjection in
exhortations ; e. g. yajamahai yajniyan hanta devan come,
we will worship the adorable gods (x. 532).

a. It is similarly used in B. : hantawimam yajnam sambharama
ivett, we willprepare the sacrifice (AB.).

hi, in origin probably an emphasizing particle, is used
throughout as a subordinating conjunction which regularly
throws the accent on the verb. It nearly always follows
the first word of the sentence, or the second when the first
two are closely connected. In V. it is used in two ways :

1 . in indicative sentences (the verb having sometimes to
be supplied) to express the reason (like yap), meaning either
for, if the clause containing it follows, or became, since, if it
precedes ; e. g. balam dhehi tanusu no, tvam hi balada
asi bestoio strength on our bodies, for thou art a' giver of strength
(iii. 5318) ; smstivano hi dasiise devas, tan a vaha since
the gods give ear to the pious man, bring them hither (i. 452).

2. in exhortative sentences, mostly with the impv., as an
emphatic particle = pray, indeed', e.g. yuksva hi kesina
hari pray harness thy two long-maned bay steeds (i. 10:!).

180-181] PARTICLES. INTERJECTIONS 253

«. In B. three uses of hi may be distinguished :

1. it expresses the reason, as in the first use in V., only that the
clause containing hi always follows ( = for only), and the verb is
much oftener omitted than expressed ; e. g. t&d indro 'mucyata, dev6
hf sail from that Indra freed himself, for he, (is) a god (&B.). The particle
vai is often added to strengthen hi ; e.g. v&jro hi va apah/or water is
indeed a thunderbolt ($B.).

2. it is sometimes employed to emphasize an interrogative =» pray ;
e. g. kath&m hi karisy&si how, pray, wilt thou do it ? (S*B.).

3. it expresses assent in answers after a word repeated from
u preceding question : e. g. t£m eva tv£m pasyasi^iti ; tdm hi ' do you
see him?' Yes, (I see) him (SB.).

o. In B., when hi appears in the relative clause of a period explain-
ing a previous statement, the verb of the principal clause (to which hi
properly applies) is sometimes irregularly unaccented; e.g. idam
hi yada v&rsaty dtha^osadhayo jayante for, wlien it rains here, then the
plants spring up (SB.).

181. A certain number of words having the nature of
interjections occur in the Samhitas. They are of two kinds,
being either exclamations or imitative sounds.

a. The exclamations are : bat (RV.) truly, bata (RV.)
alas! hanta come, used exhortatively with the subjunctive
and hays' come before vocatives ; hiruk and hunik (RV.)
away ! hai (AV.) ho !

1). Interjections of the onomatopoetic type are : kikira
(RV.) used with kr = make the sound kikira = tear to tatters •
kikkita (TS.) used in invocations ; cisca (RV.) wliiz ! (of an
arrow), used with kr make a whizzing sound ; phat (AV., VS.)
crash! phal (AV.) splash! bal (AV.) dash! bhiik (AV.)
l)ang ! sdl (AV.) clap !

CHAPTER VI

NOMINAL STEM FORMATION AND COMPOUNDS
A. Nominal Stems.

182. Declinable stems, though they often consist of the
bare root (either verbal or pronominal), are chiefly formed by
means of suffixes added to roots. These suffixes are of two
kinds : primary, or those added directly to roots (which
may at the same time be compounded with verbal prefixes) ;
and secondary, or those added to stems already ending in
a suffix and to pronominal roots (which are thus treated as
primary stems).

1. Primary Derivatives as a rule show the root in its
strong form ; e.g. v6d-a m. knowledge (vid know)', sar-ana
n. running (v^r); kar-a making (\/kr); grabh-a m. seizer
(A/grabh). In meaning they may be divided into the two
classes of abstract action nouns (cognate in sense to infinitives)
and concrete agent nouns (cognate in sense to participles)
used as adjectives or substantives ; e. g. ma-ti f. thought
(man think) ; yodh-a, m. fighter (yudh fight). Other meanings
are only modifications of these two ; e. g. dana (= da^ana)
n, act of giving, then gift.

a. When the bare root is used as a declinable stem, it
usually remains unchanged ; e. g. da m. giver, bhid f.
destroyer, yuj m. companion, spas m. spy, vrdh adj. strengthen-
ing. Roots ending in i or u take a determinative t ; e. g.
mi-t f. pillar, stu-t f. praise. The root may appear in a
reduplicated form ; e. g. cikit wise, j6-gu singing aloud.

b. Several primary nominal suffixes connected with the
verbal system have already been sufficiently dealt with, viz.
those of the pres. and fut. participles : ant (85 ; 156), ana

182] PRIMARY NOMINAL STEMS 255

and mana (158) ; of the perf. act. part. : vams (89 ; 157) ;
of the perf. pass. part. : ta and na (160) ; of the gerundive:
ya, ayya, enya, tva, tavya l and aniya2 (162). The forma-
tion of stems to which the primary suffixes of the com-
parative and superlative, lyams and istha, are added has
also been explained (88 ; 103, 2). Of the rest the following
in alphabetical order are the most usual and important :

a : e. g. bhag-a m. share (v/bhaj) ; megh-a m. cloud (mih
discharge water)', cod-a m. instigator (A/ cud) ; sarg-a m.
emission (\/srj); nay-a m. leader (V'ni), priy-a pleasing
(\/pri); hav-a m. invocation (\/hu); jar-a m. lover (\7jr);
ve-vij-a quick (vij dart), cara-car-a far-extending. The sub-
stantives are almost exclusively m. ; but yug-a n. (G-k.
£vy-Q-v ; Lat. jug-u-m).

an : m. agent nouns and about a dozen defective n. stems ;

e. g. uks-an m. ox, murdh-an m. head, raj-an m. king ;
as-an n. blood, ah-an n. day, ud-an n. ivater, udh-an
n. udder.

ana: n. action nouns: bh6j-ana n. enjoyment (-/bhuj),
sad-ana n. seat (\7sad); kar-ana n. deed (\/kr); hav-ana n.
invocation (\/hu); bhuv-ana n. "being (\/bhu), vrj-ana n.
enclosure ; also m. agent nouns : e. g. kar-ana active, mad-
ana gladdening (V mad), sam-gam-ana assembling ; tur-ana
speeding.

ana : f. action nouns : jar-ana old age, yos-ana woman,
vadh-ana slaughter. This is also the f. form of adjectives in
ana ; e. g. tur-ana speeding.

ani : f. action nouns, and m. f. agent nouns ; e. g. ar-ani

f. fire-stick, vart-ani f. track ; cars-ani active ; ruruks-ani
willing to destroy (from des. stem of ruj destroy).

1 The second part, ya, of this suffix is secondary (182, 2), but the
whole is employed as a primary suffix (162, 5). The first part, tav, is
probably derived from the old infinitive ending tave (p. 192, 4).

2 The second half of this suffix, lya, is secondary, but the whole is
employed as a primary suffix (162, 6).

256 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [182

as : n. action nouns (with accented root) and agent nouns
(with accented suffix) ; e. g. ap-as n. work (Lat. op-us), ap-as
active ; raks-as n. demon, raks-as m. id.

a : f. action nouns (from roots and secondary conjugation
stems) ; e. g. nind-a blame ; ji-gi-s-a desire to win ; gam-ay-a
causing to go ; asva-y-a desire for horses.

i : action nouns (nearly always f.) ; agent nouns (adj. and
subst.) ; and a few neuters of obscure origin ; e. g. krs-i f.
tillage, aj-i m. f. contest; cakr-i active (\/kr), suc-i bright ;
pan-i m. Jiand ; aks-i n. eye, asth-i n. lone, dadh-i n. sour
milk.

is : n. action nouns (mostly with concrete sense) ; e. g.
arc-is flame, jy6t-is light, am-is raw flesh, barn-is straw.

u: agent nouns, adj. and subst. (mostly m., but several
f. and n.) ; e. g. tan-u thin (Lat. ten-u-i-s) ; bah-u m. arm
(Gk. 7rfJXmV~s)> pad-ii m. foot ; han-u f. jaw ; jan-u n. knee
(Gk. yov-v).

una : adj. and m. n. subst. ; e.g. tar-una young, dhar-una
supporting, m. n. support, mith-una forming a pair, m. couple ;
var-una m. a god, sak-una m. Urd.

us : n. action nouns and m. agent nouns ; e. g. dhan-us
n. bow ; jay -us victorious • van-iis m. assailant.

u : f., mostly corresponding to m. and n. in u ; e. g. tan-u
body ; dhan-u sandbank (n. dhan-u) ; independently formed :
cam-u dish, vadh-u bride.

ka (rare as a primary, but very common as a secondary
suffix) : adj. and m. subst. : iiis-ka dry ; at-ka m. garment,
sld-ka m. call, sto-ka m. drop ; vfsc-i-ka m. scorpion.

ta: besides ordinarily forming perf. pass, participles,
appears, in a more general sense, as the suffix of a few
adjectives and of substantives with concrete meaning ; e. g.
trs-ta rough, si-ta cold ; du-ta m. messenger, gar-ta m.
car-seat, mdr-ta m. mortal, hds-ta m. hand ; ghr-ta n. ghee,
ndk-ta n. night ; with connecting i : as-i-ta black, pal-i-td
greyt r6h-i-ta red.

132] PRIMARY NOMINAL STEMS 257

ti : chiefly f. action nouns ; e. g. is-ti desire, u-ti aid
(\/av), kir-ti praise (kr commemorate), ra-ti gift', is-ti
offering, ga-ti motion, da-til gift • didhi-ti devotion (dhi
think) ; amh-a-ti distress, am-a-ti indigence. It also forms
some twenty agent nouns used either as adjectives or as
m. substantives ; e. g. ra-ti willing to give, vas-ti eager ;
jna-ti m. relative, df-ti m. sMn, dhu-ti m. shaker, miis-ti
m. fist, sap-ti m. steed, abhi-sti m. helper (but abhi-sti
f. help) ; am-a-ti poor, ar-a-ti m. servant, vrk-a-ti m.
murderer.

tu : chiefly forms the stem of dat., abl.-gen., and ace.
infinitives ; e. g. da-tu : D. da-tave and datavai ; Ab.G.
da-tos ; A. da-turn ; also a few independent action nouns
and still fewer agent nouns : 6-tu m. iceft (va weave), tan-tu
m. thread ; ak-tii m. ray (anj anoint), r-tii m. season, jan-tii
m. creature-, vas-tu f. morning (vas shine)-, vas-tu n. abode
(vas dwell : Gk. da--rv).

tr : agent nouns, often used participially governing an ace.
(when the root is generally accented) ; e. g. gan-tr going to
(ace.), but kar-tr m. doer, yas-tr sacrificcr (\/yaj), us-tr
ploughing bull ; less commonly with connecting vowel :
cod-i-tr instigator, sav-i-tr stimulator ; a-mar-i-tr destroyer ;
tar-u-tr winning, tar-u-tr m. conqueror • var-u-tr protector-,
man-6-tr and man-o-tr inventor. This suffix also forms
several names of relationship ; e. g. pi-tf m. father, ma-tr
f. mother (101).

tnu forms more than a dozen agent nouns, mostly adj. ;
e. g. kr-tnii active ; piy-a-tnii reviling ; maday-i-tnu intoxi-
cating, stanay-i-tmi m. thunder.

tra : agent nouns, a few of them adjectives, the rest nearly
all n. substantives, expressing the instrument or means;

1 This word when the final number of a compound is reduced by
syncope to tti : bh&ga-tti f. (jiff of fortune, magha-tti f. receipt of boun/c,
v&su-tti f. rrrt'tj)/ of n-eallh.

1819 S

258 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [182

e.g. jai-tra victorious, yaj-a-tra adorable; kse"-tra n. field,
pa-tra n. cup, vas-tra n. garment; khan-i-tra n. shovel.
There are also a few masculines, as dams-tra tusk (dams
bite), man-tra prayer, mi-tra friend (but n. friendship).

tra : occurs a few times as the f. form of the preceding :
as-tra goad (as reach), ma-tra measure (Gk. pt-Tpo-v).

tha : action nouns, more often m. than n.; e.g. ga-tha m.
song, bhr-tha m. offering, ra-tha m. car, ha-tha, m. slaughter ;
ar-thal n. goal, uk-tha n. saying (\/vac), tir-tha n. ford
(\/tf cross), rik-tha n. inheritance (\/ric); with connecting
vowel : uc-a-tha n. praise, stav-a-tha m. praise.

tha : occurs a few times as the f. form of tha : kas-tha
course, ga-tha song, ni-tha trick.

na: besides ordinarily forming perf. pass, participles
(160, 1) appears as the suffix of a number of adjectives (f. na)
and substantives, the latter mostly m., a few n. ; e. g. us-na
hot, krs-na black, nag-na naked ; budh-na m. bottom, yaj-na
m. sacrifice, var-na m. colour; par-na n. wing, vas-na n. price-

na : as the f. form of na makes a few substantives : trs-na
thirst, dh6-na co?r, se-na missile, sthu-na post.

ni : m. and f. action and agent nouns (some of the latter
adj.): y6-ni m. ^receptacle, jiir-ni f. heat; prs-ni speckled,
pre-ni loving (\/pri), bhur-ni excited; ag-ni m. fire, vah-ni
m. draught animal.

nu : action and agent nouns (including some adjectives),
nearly always m. ; e. g. ksep-nu m. jerk, bha-mi m. light,
su-nu m. son ; dhe-nii f. coiv ; da-nu n. drop (m. f. demon).

ma: adj. and (almost exclusively m.) substantives; e.g.
jih-ma oblique, 6ag-ma mighty; idh-ma m. fuel, ghar-ma
m. heat, sto-ma m. praise, hi-ma m. cold; bil-ma n. chip;
hi-ma f. winter.

man : action nouns (very numerous), most of which are n.

1 drtha occurs often in the RV., but appears only three times (in
Mandala X) as a m.; in the later language it is m. only.

182] PRIMARY NOMINAL STEMS 259

accented on the root, while a good many are m. accented on
the suffix ; e. g. aj-man n. course (Lat. ag-men), na-man
n. name (Lat. no-men), bhu-man n. ivorld, sas-man n. praise
(Lat. car-men) ; jan-i-man n. birth ; var-i-man n. expanse ;
bhu-man m. abundance, vid-man m. knowledge, prath-i-man
m. breadth ; also a few rarely used m. agent nouns, mostly
accented on the suffix ; e. g. vad-man m. speaker, sad-man
m. sitter ; as-man m. stone (Gk. &K-JJLGDV) ; j6-man victorious ;
some of these differ in accent only from corresponding n.
action nouns (cp. as) : da-man m. giver : da-man n. gift ;
dhar-man m. ordainer : dhar-man n. ordinance ; bran-man
m. priest : brah-man n. worship ; sad-man m. sitter : sad-
man n. seat.

mi : adj. and m. (also one f.) subst. : ja-mi related ; ur-
mi m. wave, ras-mi m. ray ; bhu-mi f. earth.

mi : a few f. substantives : bhu-mi earth, laks-mf sign,
sur-mi tube.

yu : a few adjectives and m. substantives : yaj-yu piou-s,
sundh-yii pure, sah-yu strong ; man-yu m. anger, mrt-
yii m. death ; das-yu m. enemy, sim-yu m. enemy.

ra : many adjectives, mostly accented on the suffix ; e. g.
ug-ra mighty, pat-a-ra j%m#, aj-i-ra swift; grdh-ra greedy ;
vip-ra inspired ; also several substantives of different genders
(f. ra) ; e. g. ksu-ra m. rasor, vam-ra m. ant ; khad-i-ra m.
a tree ; aj-ra m. field (Gk. ay-po-y), vaj-ra m. thunderbolt,
su-ra m. hero ; abh-ra n. cloud, ksi-ra n. milk ; ag-ra n.
point, randh-ra n. hollmv ; sar-i-ra n. body ; dha-ra f. stream,
sii-ra f. intoxicating liquor.

ri : adj. and m. f. subst. ; e. g. bhu-ri abundant, vadh-ri
emasculated ; jas-u-ri exhausted ; angh-ri in. foot, su-ri m.
patron ; as-ri f. edge, lis-ri f. dawn ; ang-u-ri f. finger.

ru : adj. and a few n. substantives : ca-ru dear (Lat.
ca-ru-s), bhi-ru tmiid ; pat-a-ru flying ; vand-a-ru praising ;
san-6-ru obtaining ; as-ru n. tear, smas-ru n. beard.

va: adj. and (mostly m.) substantives; e.g. urdh-va

s2

260 NOMINAL STEM FOEMATION [182

(Gk. 6pO-6-s), pak-va ripe, pur-va preceding, sar-va all (Lat.
sal-vu-s); as-va m. horse (Lat. eq-uu-s), sru-va m. ladle; am-i-
va f. disease.

van: adj. and subst. (mostly m., few n.) ; e.g. rk-van
praising, krt-van active, yaj-van sacrificing ; adh-van m.
road, gra-van m. stone ; par-van n. joint.

sa : adj. and subst. (all genders) ; e. g. grt-sa adroit,
prk-sa dappled (\/prc) ; mah-i-sa mighty] rj-i-sa rushing]
ar-u-sa red ] ut-sa m. fountain, drap-sa m. drop, puru-sa
in. man ; pur-i-sa n. rubbish ; man-i-sa f. devotion.

snu : adj. (from root or caus. stem) ; e. g. ji-snii victorious ;
vadh-a-snu murderous ; car-i-snu wandering ; maday-i-snu
intoxicating.

2. Secondary nominal Suffixes.

The great majority of these form adjectives with the
general sense of relating to or connected with.

a : forms a large number of adjectives expressing the
sense of relation to or connexion with the primitive word ;
many of them have in the m. become appellatives and in
the n. abstract nouns. The first syllable in the great
majority of instances is strengthened with Vrddhi (the f.
then always takes I) ; e. g. marut-a relating to the Maruts
(rnarut) ; daiva divine (deva god); parthiva earthly (prthiv-i
earth) ; manav-a belonging to man (man-u), m. human being ;
tanv-a belonging to the body (tanu) ; dasarajn-a n. battle of
the ten Icings (dasa-rajan) ; maghon-a n. bountifulness (magha-
van bountiful) ; without Vrddhi : bhesaj-a adj. healing, n.
medicine; sakhy-a n. friendship (sakhi friend); hotr-a n. office
of priest (hotr).

a : forms the f. of adjectives which in m. and n. end in a ;
e.g. nava f., nava m. n. new ; priy-a f., priy-a in. n. dear ;
gata f., gata m. n. gone.

am : forms the f. of names of male beings in a, or f.
personifications ; e. g. indr-am wife of Indra, mudgal-ani

182J SECONDARY NOMINAL SUFFIXES 261

wife of JIudgala ; arany-ani nymph of the Forest (aranya) ;
urj-ani Strength (urj strength).

ayana : forms m. patronymics with initial Vrddhi ; e. g.
kanv-ayana descendant of Kanva.

i : forms m. patronymics, with initial Vrddhi, from
nouns in a ; e. g. paurukuts-i descendant of PuruJcutsa ;
samvaran-i descendant of Sammram. Similarly formed is
sarath-i m. charioteer (from sa-ratha driving on the same
chariot).

in : forms numerous adjectives, in the sense of possessing,
almost exclusively from stems in a ; e. g. ark-in praising
(ar-ka_pra/se); from other stems: arc-in radiant (arc-i&eaw),
var-m-in clad in armour (var-man) ; irregularly formed :
ret-in abounding in seed (r6t-as), hiran-in adorned with gold
(hiran-ya).

iya (= ya after conjunct consonants): forms adjectives of
relation ; e. g. abhr-iya derived from the clouds (abhra),
indr-iya belonging to Indra, samudr-iya oceanic.

I : forms the f. of m. stems made with suffixes ending in
consonants (95), or with tr (101 e), and often of stems in u
(98 c) or in a (always when formed with Vrddhi) ; e. g.
ad-at-I eating, av-i-tr-i protectress, prth.v-1 broad (prthu),
dev-i goddess (dev-a). Cp. 107.

ma : forms adjectives, chiefly expressive of direction,
from the weak stem of derivatives in anc ; e. g. arvac-ma
turned towards (arvanc hitherward) ; also others expressing
the general sense of relation ; e. g. visvajan-ma (AV.) con-
taining all kinds of people.

iya : forms general adjectives, chiefly in the later Samhitas ;
e.g. grhamedh-iya relating to the domestic sacrifice, parvat-
lya mountainous • ahavan-iya used for the oblation (a-havana),
as a m. sacrificial fire (AV.).

eya: forms m. patronymics as well as a few general
adjectives; e.g. adit-eya m. son of Aditi ; paurus-eya
relating to man (puriisa).

262 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [is-2

ka : forms adjectives and diminutives ; e. g. anta-ka
making an end (data), dura-ka distant, mama-ka my ; pada-
ka m. little foot, raja-ka ni. Mnglet ; with Vrddhi and con-
necting i : vasant-i-ka belonging to the spring (vasanta). The
f. of some of the diminutives is formed with ika ; e. g.
kumar-ika f. little girl (kumara-ka m. little boy}.

tana and (its syncopated form) tna : form adjectives with
a temporal sense from adverbs and prepositions ; e. g.
nu-tana and nu-tna present (nu now) ; sana-tana and
sana-tna eternal (sana from of old) ; pra-tna ancient (pra
before).

tama : forms superlatives (from nominal stems and the
prep, lid) and ordinals ; e. g. puru-tama very many ; ut-tama
Ugliest ; sata-tama hundredth.

tara : forms comparatives from adjectives, substantives,
and the prep, lid : tavas-tara stronger ; rathi-tara better
charioteer ; ut-tara higher.

ta : forms abstract f. substantives with the sense conveyed
by the English suffixes -ship and -ness ; e. g. bandhu-ta
relationship, vasii-ta ivealtliiness ; deva-ta divinity, purusa-
ta human nature.

tati and (less often) tat: form abstract f. substantives
(like ta) ; e. g. jyestha-tati superiority, sarva-tati complete
ivelfare (Lat. salu-tati-) ; deva-tat divine service, sarva-tat
completeness (Lat. salu-tat-).

tya : forms a few substantives and adjectives from adverbs
and prepositions : ama-tya m. companion (ama at home) ; apa-
tya n. of spring ; ni-tya constant, nis-tya foreign (nis out).

tva : forms n. abstract substantives (like ta) ; e. g. amrta-
tva n. immortality, maghavat-tva liberality.

tvana (= tva-na) : forms n. abstract substantives (nearly
all of them duplicates of others in tva) ; e. g. jani-tvana
wifehood, sakhi-tvana friendship.

tha : forms a few ordinals as well as adjectives (from
pronominal stems) with a general numerical sense ; e. g.

182] SECONDARY NOMINAL SUFFIXES 268

catur-tha fourth, sapta-tha seventh ; kati-tha the hoiv-
manieth ?

ni : forms the f. of pati lord and of parusa knotty, as well
as of several adjectives in ta denoting colours ; thus pat-ni
mistress (Gk. TroT-via), parus-ni a river ; 6-ni variegated (6-ta).
In a few of the colour adjectives ni is substituted for the
final a, while k takes the place of t ; e. g. asik-ni Hack
(as-i-ta).

bha : forms m. names of animals ; thus rsa-bha and
vrsa-bha bull ; garda-bha and rasa-bha ass.

ma: forms superlatives (partly from prepositions) and
a few ordinals ; e. g. ava-ma lowest ; madhya-ma middle-
most; nava-ma ninth (Lat. novi-mu-s), dasa-ma tenth (Lat.
deci-mu-s).

mant : forms adjectives in the sense of possessing from
substantives (except stems in a) ; e. g. asani-mant possessing
the thunderbolt, kratu-mant powerful ; go-mant rich in cows,
caksus-mant possessed of eyes.

maya : forms adjectives (f. I) in the sense of consisting of;
e. g. manas-niaya spiritual, mrn-maya made of clay (mrd).

mna : forms a few n. abstracts from nouns or particles :
dyu-mna brightness, su-mna welfare.

ya : forms adjectives of relation, m. patronymics and n.
abstracts. Most of the latter two classes take Vrddhi of the
first syllable, but only about one-fourth of the adjectives do
so ; e. g. pasav-ya relating to cattle (pasii) ; aditya m. son of
Aditi; taugrya m. son of Tugra, but also tiigr-ya ; adhipa-
tya n. lordship (adhipati overlord).

ra : forms comparatives (from prepositions) and ordinary
nouns, mostly adjectives ; e. g. ava-ra lower ; dhum-ra grey
(dhuma smoke) ; rath-i-ra riding in a car (ratha).

la : forms adjectives and a few m. diminutives ; e. g.
kapi-la (mon7^# '-colour -ed=) brotvn, bahu-la abundant; vraa-la
m. little man, sisu-la m. little child.

vat : forms a few f. abstract substantives, almost exclu-

NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [i82-i«3

sively from prepositions, expressing local position ; e. g.
ud-vat height, ni-vat depth.

van : forms adjectives in the sense Q£ possessing and a few
m. substantives ; e. g. magha-van bountiful, srusti-van
obedient, samad-van warlike ; athar-van in. fire-priest.

vant : forms adjectives, from every kind of nominal stem,
in the sense of possessing ; e. g. as va- vant and asva-vant
owning horses ; sakhi-vant having friends ; visnu-vant accom-
panied by Vistiu ', roman-vant hairy ; payas-vant containing
milk. Some of these derivatives, especially those formed from
pronominal stems, have the sense of resembling ; e. g.
ma- vant like me ; nr-vant manly. From this sense is derived
the use of the n. ace. as an adv. of comparison ; e. g. manus-
vat like Manus.

vin : forms adjectives from stems ending in a (which is
lengthened), a, and as ; e. g. ubhaya-vin partaldng of botli
(ubhaya), astra-vin obedient to the goad, yasas-vin glorious.
Exceptionally formed are dhrsad-vin bold (dhrsat) and
vag-vin eloquent (vac).

sa : forms adjectives and m. substantives, sometimes
without change of meaning ; e. g. eta-sa variegated (eta id.),
yuva-sa youthful (yiivan id.), roma-sa hairy (r6man hair) ;
anku-sa m. hook, kala-sa m. jar.

183. The above lists of suffixes practically supply the
rules of gender for the Vedic noun. These may be
summarized as follows :

Speaking generally, bare roots as stems, if action nouns,
are f., if agent nouns, m.

Derivative stems in a, I, u are f. ; stems in a, t, n may be
m. or n. ; stems in i and u may be of any gender.

a. Feminine are all stems formed with the suffixes a, I,1
u ; ta, tat, tati, ti,2 tra.

1 Except seven m. stems in I ; see 100, I I.

" But when stems in ti appear as agent nouns they are m., and
m. f. as adjectives.

183-184] GENDER. COMPOUNDS 265

I. Neuter are all stems formed with is, tva, tvana, and,
unless adjectives1 or agent nouns,'2 those formed with ana,
as, us.

c. Masculine are (in so far as not used adjectivally) all
stems formed with the suffixes yu, va; ayana, i,s ka,
bha, la.

d. Masc. or fern, are stems formed with the suffixes ni,
nu, mi, tr 4 ; also stems formed with the bare root/

c. Masc. or neut. are stems formed with the suffixes a,
ta, tha, na, una, ma, ya, ra, tya, tra, tu, an, man, van ;
also adjectives formed with in, vin, ma, lya, tana, tama,
tara, maya, mant, vant.

/. Masc., fern., neut. are stems formed with i or u.

B. Compounds.

184. I. Verbal Compounds are formed by combining
roots with twenty prepositions and a few adverbs. The
compound verb (which, however, in finite forms is actually
compounded only in subordinate clauses when the preposition
immediately precedes the verb) is conjugated like the simple
verb. Thus gam go combines with sam together to sam-gam
go together, unite-, 3. s. sam-gachati. The compound root
can be used to form nominal stems by means of the primary
suffixes enumerated above (182, 1) ; e. g. sam-gam-a m.
union.

a. The prepositions which are compounded with roots are
the following: acha towards, ati beyond, adhi upon, anu
after, antar between, apa away, api on, abhi against, ava
down, ac near, ud up, ni down, into, nis out, para away,

1 When they are of course m. as well as n.

2 When they are m.

3 In patronymics.

4 Stems in tr are always m. when they are agent nouns.
0 These when used as adj. are occasionally^ neuter.

G The preposition a reverses the sense of verbs of going or giving ;
e. g. a-g£m come, a-da take.

266 VERBAL COMPOUNDS [184

pari around, pra forth, prati towards, vi asunder, sam
together.

I). A few adverbs are also compounded with a limited
number of verbs :

aram at hand is combined with kr = serve (dat.), prepare
(ace.) ; with gam = serve ; with bhu = serve, conduce to
(dat).

avis openly is combined with as, bhu and kr only ; with
the two former it means become visible, appear ; e. g. avis
santi being manifest ; avir agnir abhavat Agni became
manifest] with kr it means make visible, e.g. avis karta
make manifest.

tiras aside is combined with bhu be and dha ! put only ;
e. g. ma tir6 bhut may it not disappear.

puras in front is combined with kr do and dha put only ;
e. g. krnotu ratham purah. may lie place (our) car in the
forefront.

srad, an old word meaning heart (Gk. Kap8-(a and KpaS-irj.
Lat. cord-), having acquired the character of an adverb, is
once combined with kr and often with dha, put in the sense
of put faith in, credit ( = Lat. credo for cred-do), but is nearly
always separated from the verb by other words ; e. g. srad
asmai dhatta believe in him ; srad visva varya krdhi entrust
all boons (to us).

pra-dur (before the door) begins to appear in the AV. in
combination with bhu = become manifest, appear.

c. A few substantives, after assuming an adverbial charac-
ter, appear compounded, like verbal prefixes, with participial
forms in the AV. These are: asta-m2 home with i yo:
astam-yant setting, astam-esyant about to set, astam-ita
set ; namas obeisance with the gerund of kr make : namas-
krtya doing homage.

1 In the SB. and later tir&s is also combined with kr do.

2 This word is still a substantive in the KV.

184-185] VERBAL COMPOUNDS 267

In the EV. a few substantives designating parts of the
body are compounded with the gerund of graft seize : karna-
grhya seizing by the ear, pada-grhya seising ly the foot,
hasta-grhya grasping by the hand.

d. The interjection hin is compounded with kr in the sense
of utter the sound bin, murmur ; e. g. hm-krnvati lowing.
There are also a few reduplicated interjectional words,
mostly onomatopoetic and nearly always ending in a, that
appear compounded with bhu and kr : alala-bhavant sound-
ing merrily ; janjana-bhavant sparkling ; malmala-bhavant
glittering] bharbhara-bhavat became confounded ; bibiba-
bhavant crackling ; kikira krnu tear to tatters ; masmasa
karam I have crushed; masmasa kuru and mrsmrsa kuru
crush ; akhkhali-krtya croaJclng.

a. The latter compound is the only example in the RV. of I
appearing instead of a before kr or bhu. The AV. has vati-krta
11. a disease (from vata ivind}.

II. Nominal Compounds.

185. From the Indo-European period the Vedic language
has inherited the power of combining two or more words
into one treated like a simple word as regards accent,
inflexion, and construction. Both in the frequency and in
the length of compounds the Vedic language resembles the
Greek of Homer. In the KV. and the AV. no compounds
of more than three independent members are met with, and
those in which three occur are rare, such as purva-kama-
krtvan fulfilling former wishes.

The two characteristic features of a compound are unity
of accent and employment of the uninflected stem in the
first member (or members) ; but there are exceptions to
both these rules. Occasionally tmesis of a compound occurs.1

1 Chiefly in dual compounds, as dyava ha ksama heaven and earth ;
also in a few others, as n&ra va samsam, for nara-samsam. It takes
place only when the compound is doubly accented.

268 NOMINAL COMPOUNDS [185-186

The Sandhi between the members is, moreover, sometimes
different from that between words in a sentence.

a. The gender of compounds, if they end in substantives,
is with few exceptions that of the last member ; the gender
of collectives is always neuter. The number in compounds
depends on the sense ; that in collectives is always singular.
When the word appearing as the first member has two
stems, the weak stem is used ; when it has three, the middle
stem (73 a). In substantive compounds the last member
retains, as a rule, its gender, form, and inflexion ; while in
adjectival compounds the gender and inflexion of the last
member are of course variable.

6. Classification. Vedic compounds may be divided into
three main classes according to their syntactical relations :
1. Co-ordinatives, or those in which the members are
co-ordinated ; 2. Determinatives, or those in which the
first member determines or limits the sense of the last ;
3. Possessives, or adjectives the general meaning of which
implies possession (as bahv-anna possessing much food). To
these must be added, in order to classify Vedic compounds
exhaustively, three lesser groups : 4. Governing com-
pounds, or adjectives in which the first member governs the
last in sense (as ksayad-vira ruling men) ; 5. Syntactical
compounds, or irregular formations arising from the juxta-
position of two words in a sentence ; 6. Iteratives, or
repeated words treated as compounds in the Samhitas
inasmuch as they have only one accent and a special meaning
when thus combined.

1. Co-ordinative (Dvandva) ! Compounds.

186. These consist of two substantives, far less commonly
adjectives, connected in sense with ' and '.

1 This term applied to co-ordinatives by the later Hindu gram-
marians, means pair or couple.

ISO] CO-ORDINATIVES 269

A 1. The most numerous group (about three-fourths of all
the Dvandvas) in the Rigveda comprises those compounds
(nearly always names of deities) in which each member is
dual in form and has a separate accent ; e. g. mitra-varuna
Mitra and Vanma ; matara-pitara mother and father ; dyava-
prthivi heaven and earth. In the RV. the two duals are often
separated, as in the line a nakta barhih sadatam usasa
let Night and Daivn seat themselves upon the litter. The proper
genitive of such compounds is e. g. mitrayor varunayoh.
But as these co-ordinate duals early came to be regarded as
a unit, the commonest ending of the first member, that of
the N. A., came to be retained unaltered in the other cases :
G. mitra-varunayoh, I. mitra-varunabhyam. A further
step towards unification is taken in a minority of cases in
which the first member loses its accent and the last syllable
of the final member (irrespectively of its original accent)
receives the acute, as surya-candramas-a sun and moon
(candra-mas). The last stage in the Rigveda appears in
four examples in which the first member assumes the stem-
form, e. g. indra-vayu Indra and Vayu. In the later Sam-
hitas and in B. this is the prevailing type in new formations,
e. g. daksa-kratu m. will and understanding (TB.).

2. Another type is represented by the plural Dvandvas l
which express pairs of groups. These show the stem-form
in the first member and the accent on the final syllable of
the last. The only examples in the RV. occur in Book X ;
e.g. aho-ratrani2 days and nights, ajavayas goats (aja) and
sheep (avi) ; but in the later Samhitas this type becomes
quite general, e. g. bhadra-papah (AV.), the good and the bad.*

1 Cp. Latin su-ore-iaurilia, a later type representing three groups.

2 This Dvandva shows a double irregularity : the gender of the first
member has prevailed over that of the second, and the f. stem ratri
has been changed to ratra.

3 Several of the cardinal numerals are old Dvandvas, e. g. dva-
dasa twelve (two and fen), dva being an old dual ; tr&yo-dasa thirteen
(Iliree and /en).

270 NOMINAL COMPOUNDS [186-187

3. There occur in the Samhitas a few singular Dvandvas
which express a collective sense and are always neuter,1 and
accent the final syllable ; e. g. ista-purtam 2 what lias been
offered or given ; krta^akrtam (AV.) what has been done and
not done; kesa-smasru n. hair and beard (AV.) ; bhadra-
papam (AV.) good and evil ; samista-yajus (VS.) sacrifice and
sacrificial formula.

B. Dvandvas consisting of adjectives are rare. They are
of three types :

1. The adjectives designate colours, their combination
expressing a mixture of the two, as nila-lohita dark blue
and red = dark red.

2. They express a contrast, as utkula-nikula (VS.) going
uphill and doivnhill.

3. They are used with dual substantives to express that
each is an attribute of one unit of the kind, as pad-bhyam
daksina-savyabhyam (AV.) with the two feet, the right and
the left.

a. The old dual Dvandvas (A 1) are frequently represented
by elliptical duals which put one of a pair in the dual to
express both, as dyava = heaven and earth ; mitra = Mitra
and Varuna ; pitara = father and mother ; matara — mother
and father, parents.

2. Determinatives.

187. This numerous class of compounds comprises two
groups. In the larger group (2 a) the first member has the
value of a substantive dependent, in the sense of an oblique
case, on the second, which may be either a verbal noun or
an ordinary substantive. This may be called the dependent
determinative group (named Tatpurusa by the later Hindu
grammarians). In the other group (2 b) the final member,

1 Cf. the Greek

2 Originally doubtless istapurta, dual in both members.

187] DETERMINATIVES 271

if an ordinary substantive, is described adjectivally, or, if
a verbal noun, adverbially, by the first member. This may
be called the descriptive determinative group (called Karma-
dharaya by the later Hindu grammarians).

2 a. Dependent (Tatpurusa) Determinatives.

A. The first member (substantive or pronoun) may have
the sense (and often even the form) of any oblique case.
When it has an ace., inst., abl., or loc. sense, the final
member is mostly a verbal noun;1 when it has a dat.2 or
gen.3 sense, it is always an ordinary noun.4 The compound
may be a substantive or an adjective, according as the last
member is one or the other.

1. In ace. dependents the final member is always a verbal
noun ; e.g. havir-ad eating the oblation ; go-ghna cow-slaying,
asva-haya5 urging on steeds; deva-madana exhilarating
the gods ; gara-girna (AY.) 6 having sivallowed poison ; bhuri-
davan giving much ; bhadra-vadin uttering an auspicious cry ;
vaja-sati f. act of winning booty; vrtra-hatya n. act of
slaying Vrtra.

2. Inst. : indra-patama most drunk by Indra ; agni-
dagdha burnt with fire ; deva-tta 1 given by the gods ; aritra-
parana, adj. crossing ivith oars ; tanu-subhra shining (with = )
in body ; bala-vijnaya to be recognized by his strength.

1 The subdivision ending in verbal nouns may be called ' verbal
dependents '.

2 Examples of this sense are very rare. The final member is an
ordinary adjective or substantive.

3 The final member of genitive dependents is always an ordinary
substantive.

4 The subdivision ending in ordinary substantives may be called
' nominal dependents '.

6 Cf. Greek tirir6-5a.fj.o-s horse-taming.

c An example of the rare use of a past pass. part, in a transitive
sense.

7 tta for datta (1 00, 2 &).

272 NOMINAL COMPOUNDS [187

3. Dat. : vakmaraja-satya faithful to the ordainers of
hymns ; visva-sambhu salutary for all.

4. Abl. : go-ja produced from cows ; tivra-su-t pressed
from the fermenting mass.

5. Gen. (the commonest sense) : raja-putra king's son ;
vis-pati lord of the clan-, deva-kilbisa m. of I nee against the
gods ; 1 dru-pada n. post of wood.2

6. Loc. : ahar-jata (AV.) horn in the day ; uda-pluta (AY.)
swimming in the water ; puru-bhu being in many places ;
bandhu-ksit dwelling among relatives.

a. In their first member many dependent compounds
retain the case-ending, most commonly the ace.,, often the
loc., biit the rest rarely. Sing, endings (ace. and inst.) may
express a plur. sense. Plur. endings (ace. and loc.) some-
times occur, but du. endings never in these compounds.

The ace. generally expresses the object of a transitive
verb. The form in am is, in the RY., the rule before the
verbal nouns -kara making, -caya collecting, -jaya conquer-
ing, -tara overcoming, -dara cleaving, -bhara hearing, -ruja
hreaMng, -sani winning, -saha overwhelming ; e. g. abhayam-
kara procuring security, dhanam-jaya winning booty, pur-
am-dara,3 destroying forts, sutam-bhara 4 receiving pressed
Soma ; it also occurs before other verbal nouns, not infre-
quently before such as begin with vowels ; e. g. dhiyam-dha
devout, visvam-inva all-moving, asvam-isti3 seeking horses.
An example of a cognate ace. is subham-ya moving in
brilliance, and of an adverbial ace., ugram-pasya (AY.)
looking fiercely. Examples of an ace. pi. ending are ka-cit-
kara doing all manner of things • pasva-isti "J desiring kine.

1 Ari example of an objective genitive.

2 Here the genitive expresses the material.

3 The singular ace. form with plural sense.

4 Also im in pustim-bhara Iringing prosperity and harim-bhard
bearing t?ie tawny (bolt).

187] DEPENDENT DETERMINATIVES 273

Inst. : gira-vrdh rejoicing in song ; siinesita driven by
dogs l (siina) ; vidmanapas working (apas) with wisdom
(vidmana) ; ksudha-mara (AV.) m. death by hunger ; vaca-
stena 2 thief by speech, secretly injuring ~by words.

Dat. : the only example seems to be found in the loose
syntactical compound dasyave vrka wolf to the Dasyu, used
as a proper name.

Abl. : divo-ja produced from heaven ; divo-riic shining
from the sky.

Gen. : very common before pati husband or lord, as gna-s-
pati husband of a divine woman-, ja-s-pati lord of a family;
brahmanas-pati lord of prayer.'" It also occurs in the
proper names divo-dasa servant of heaven and siinah-sepa
Dog's-tail.

Loc. : common in the EV. before agent nouns formed
from the simple root ; e. g. divi-yaj worshipping in heaven ;
rathe-stha standing on a car • also before several formed
with a ; e. g. divi-ksaya dwelling in heaven. There are also
several examples of plurals, as apsu-sad dwelling in the
waters; gosu-yudh fighting in (=for)kine; hrtsv-as piercing
the heart. The singular also occurs a few times before an
ordinary adj. or subst., as made-raghu quick in exhilaration ;
svapne-duhsvapnya (AV.) n. evil dream in sleep.

a. If a root forms the last member of a Tatpurusa, final long
vowels (a,i,u) undergo no change, while short vowels4 (i,u, r) usually
add a determinative t ; e. g. agre-pa drinking first ; yajna-ni leading the

1 Singular ending with plural sense.

2 A rare example of an insfc. with an ordinary substantive as final
member.

8 By the false analogy of these words are also formed from a stems
rta-s-pati lord of pious works and r£tha-s-p&ti lord of the car. Dam-pati
lord of the house probably = d&m-s-pati.

4 Radical a, as a shortened form of a, often appears as a final,
hciefly in the later Samhitas, as agre-g£ going in front, nama-dh& (AV.)
name-giving.

274 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [187-188

sacrifice ; raja-su king-creating ; but divi-ksi-t divelling in heaven ; soma-
su-t Soma-pressing ; jyotis-kf-t light -creating. There is, however, no t
added in vanar-gu forest-roaming.1

2 b. Descriptive (Karmadharaya) 2 Compounds.

188. This class of Determinatives is comparatively rare
in the Samhitas. The last member is generally an ordinary
substantive, but is sometimes a verbal or an ordinary
adjective. The relation of the first member to the last is
appositional, attributive, or adverbial. It is expressed in
three ways :

1. By a Substantive. If followed by a subst., it has an
attributive sense equivalent to an adj. expressing sex or
a compound nature; e.g. purusa-mrga (VS.) in. (man=)
male antelope ; ultika-yatu m. owl demon, i. e. demon in
form of an owl ; purusa-vyaghra (VS.) m. man-tiger, a kind
of demon ; vrsa-kapi m. man-ape.

If followed by a verbal adj., the preceding subst. is usually
appositional in sense ; e. g. isana-krt acting as a ruler •
stoma-tasta fashioned as a liymn of praise. But sometimes
it is adverbial ; e. g. rtv-ij sacrificing in season — regularly ;
sarga-takta speeding with a rush.

a. Before a verbal noun a substantive sometimes implies a com-
parison ; e. g. dhara-vakd sounding like a stream, syena-juta speeding like
an eagle. Similarly before an ordinary adjective : suka-babhru (VS.)
reddish like a parrot.

2. By an Adjective. If followed by an ordinary subst.,
the adj. has the usual attributive sense ; e. g. candra-mas
m. (bright) moon ; krsna-sakuni (AV.) m. raven (lit. Uack

1 Final u sometimes appears as a shortened form of u in some
Tatpurusas, as dhl-ju inspiring the mind; puru-bhii appearing in many
places.

2 This is the term applied to this class of compounds by the later
Hindu grammarians.

188] KARMADHARAYA COMPOUNDS 275

bird) ; nava-jvara m. new pain ; maha-grama ' m. great host ;
yavayat-sakha m. protecting friend.2 Sometimes the qualify-
ing adj. indicates a part of what the last member expresses ;
e. g. adhara-kantha (VS.) m. lower (part of the) neck ;
ardha-deva m. demi-god ; purvahna 3 m. forenoon ; ma-
dhyam-dina 4 m. midday.

If followed by a verbal noun, the preceding adj. is adverbial
in sense ; 5 e. g. asu-patvan 6 swift-flying, i. e. flying swiftly ;
asu-h6man swiftly -speeding ; sana-ja born of old (= sana) ;
satya-yaj sacrificing truly (= satyam), dvi-ja (AV.) born
twice? Similarly before ordinary adjectives : visva-scandra
all-glittering ; hari-scandra glittering yellow ; try-artisa 7
(AV.) ruddy in three places.

a. At the end of Karmadharayas the final n of an stems is dropped8
in eka-vrs& (AV.) m. only bull, maha-vrsfi, (AV.) m. great bull, bha-
drah&9 (AV.) n. auspicious day.

3. By an Adverb (inclusive of particles and prepositions) :
aksnaya-driih injuring ivrongly ; amutra-bhuya (AV.) n.
state of being there • evara quite (eva) ready (ara) ; piinar-
nava renewing itself ; punar-bhu arising again', puro-yavan
going before ; puro-hita placed in front ; sato-mahat equally
(sa-tas) great-, satyam-ugra truly mighty, sayam-bhava

1 As first member of Karmadharayas (and Bahuvrlhis) mahdt
appears as maha ; but the AV. has mahat-kandd great section.

2 Here sfXhi friend becomes sakha. Cf. 189, 4 d and 189 A. 2 a.

.3 Here dhan day is syncopated and extended with a ; also in apar-
ahn& (AV.) afternoon, ny-dhn-a (AV.) decline of day.

4 With case-ending retained in the first member.

5 The sense is rather appositional in purva-pa drinking (as) first,
vama'-jata born as one dear, i. e. dear by nature.

6 Cf. Gk. ujKv-TreTijs swift-flying.

7 Here the cardinals are used for the numeral adverbs dvf-s,
tr£-s.

8 This is much commoner in Bahuvrlhis (189, 4).

9 Also in sad-ahd (AV.) m. period of six days (189, 4).

T2

276 NOMINAL STEM FOEMATION [188-189

(AV.) m. becoming evening', pasca'-dosa (VS.) m. later part
of the evening- ida-vatsara1 (AV.)m. the present year • puro-
agni1 (VS.) m. fire in front ; su-da giving willingly] duh-
s^va unfavourable : a-mitra m. non-friend, enemy ; su-vasana
n. fair garment ; ati-krsna excessively dark ; pra-napat m.
great grandson ; adhi-raja m. supreme Jdng ; pra-vira m.
great hero ; sam-vatsara m. full year.

3. Possessive (Bahuvrihi) Compounds.

189. These compounds are secondary adjectives. They
are determinatives (generally Karmadharayas), ending in
substantives, which have been transformed into adjectives
agreeing in gender, number, and case with another substan-
tive expressed or understood. The transformation is accom-
panied by a shift of accent from the final member to the
first. The term ' possessive ' is probably the most appropriate
as applied to these compounds, for it expresses their general
meaning in the vast majority of cases ; in a few instances
the more comprehensive sense of * connected with ' is required
to indicate the relation between the substantive and the
Bahuvrlhi compound agreeing with it ; e. g. visva-nara
belonging to all men. Possessives are of two kinds :

1. Karmadharaya Possessives, in which the first member
is an attributive adj. (including participles), an appositional
subst., or an adverb (including particles and prepositions) :
e. g. ugra-bahu powerful-armed ; hata-matr whose mother has
been slain ; rusad-vatsa having a shining calf-, asva-parna
horse-winged, i. e. whose wings are horses ; indra-satru having
Indra as a foe ; raja-putra having kings as sons ; hiranya-
nemi whose fellies are (made of), gold; asta-pad2 eight-footed,
dvi-pad 3 two-footed ; ittha-dhi having such thought, devout-,
puro-ratha whose car is in front; vi-griva wry-necked ;

1 Here the adverbs preceding ordinary substantives are = adjectives.

2 Gk. oKTw-iroS-. 3 Lat. bi-ped-.

189] BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS 277

an-udra l waterless ; a-pad footless ; ku-yava causing a bad
harvest ; dus-pad ill-footed • su-parna beautiful- winged.

a. In some possessives based on appositional Karmadharayas a
comparison of the first with the final member is implied ; e. g. varsajya
(AV.) whose rain is (like) butter ; vrksa'-kesa whose trees are (like) hair,
tree-haired = wooded (mountain).

6. The superlatives jye'stha chief and srestha best, the comparative
bhuyas more, and p&ra higher, are used substantively as final member
of possessives : indra-jyestha having Indra as chief, yamd-srestha (AV.)
of whom Yama is best, asthi-bhuyams (AV.) having bone as its chief
part — chiefly bone, avara-s-para 2 (V S.) in ivhich the lower is higher, topsy-turvy.

2. In Tatpurusa Possessives the first member most
commonly has a gen., not infrequently a loc., but rarely an
inst. or ace. sense. The case-ending is in several instances
retained. Examples are: rayas-kama having a desire for
ivealtli ; divi-yoni having (his) origin in heaven ; bhasa-ketu
recognizable ~by light ; tvam-kama having a desire for thee.

a. In possessives based on gen. Tatpurusas, the first member often
implies a comparison, but never with a case-ending ; as agni-tejas
(AV.) having the brightness of fire, fire-bright ; fksa-griva bear-necked ;
go-vapus cow-shaped ; mano-java having the swiftness of thought^ swift as
thought ; mayura-roman having the plumes of peacocks.

b. When a loc. sense is intended, parts of the body appear as the
last member ; e. g. asru-mukha (AV.) having tears on her face, tear-
faced ; ghrta"-prstha having butter on his back, butter-backed ; patra-hasta

(AV.) having ci vessel in his hand ; mani-grivd having pearls on the neck ;
ma"dhu-jihva having honey on his tongue ; v&jra-bahu having a bolt on
his arm.

3. Bahuvrlhis come to be used substantively, when the
noun with which they agree is dropped: thus su-parna
fair-tvinged, m. lird. Of this use there are three appli-
cations :

a. These compounds very frequently appear as m., some-
times as f., proper names, the adjectival sense often not

1 Gk. dv-v5po-s.

2 Here the s of the nom. survives from the use of the two words in
syntactical juxtaposition. Cp. the later para-s-para and anyo-'nya.

278 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [189

occurring at all. Thus brhad-uktha adj. having great praise,
m. a seer ; brhad-diva adj. dwelling in high heaven, m. a seer,
f. brhad-diva a goddess ; m. as names only, Priya-medha
(to whom sacrifice is dear) and Vama-deva (to whom the gods
are dear).

b. They appear not infrequently as n. substantives with
an abstract (sometimes a collective) sense, especially when
the first member is the privative particle a- or an-, or the
adjective sarva all ; e. g. an-apatya, adj. childless (AY.),
n. childlessness ; sarva- vedasa (AV.) n. whole property ;
ni-kilbisa n. deliverance from sin] matr-bandhu (AV.) n.
maternal kinship.

c. With numerals, from dvi two upwards, as their first
member, they form sing, neuters * (always ending in ac-
cented a) with a collective sense ; e. g. tri-yuga n. period of
three lives ; dvi-raja (AV.) n. battle of two kings ; dasangula
n. length of ten fingers (4 d).

4. The final member of Bahuvrihis is liable to various
changes tending to make it end in a.

a. The n of several words in an, k&rman,2 dhaman, naman, p&rvan,
vfsan, sakth&n, is frequently dropped in ordinary Bahuvrihis, and that
of dhan in numeral collectives ; e. g. visvd-karma3 performing all work,
priyd-dhama occupying desirable places, chando-nam& (VS.) named metre,
metrical, vi-parva4 jointless, dvi-vrs& (VS.) having ttvo bulls, lomasa'-
saktha (VS.) having hairy thighs ; sad-aha (AV.) m. period of six days.

b. The suffixes a and ya are frequently added, and sometimes ka ;
e. g. catur-aks-& four-eyed, su-gav-a having fine coics, anyodar-ya born
from another womb (ud&ra), d&sa-mas-ya ten months old, madhu-hast-ya

honey-handed, try-amba-ka having three mothers, vi-manyu-ka (AV.)/ree
from anger, a-karn&-ka (TS.) earless.

c. The suffix in (possessing) is sometimes pleonastically added :
maha-hast-m having large hands, ku-nakh-fn (AV.) having bad nails,

1 Except those formed with ahd day, which are m., as sad-ahd m.
series of six days.

2 But this word retains its n in seven compounds in the RV.
8 But also vi£v&-karman.

4 But a-parv&n and vfsa-parvan.

189] BAHUVEIHI COMPOUNDS 279

yaso-bhag-in (VS.) rich in glory, sa-rath-in (VS.) riding in the same
chariot.

d. a is substituted for i in kava-sakhS,1 having a niggard for a friend,
and in dasangula" n. length of ten fingers (anguli). On the other hand,
i is substituted for a in some compounds of gandha" smell, and in
a few others: dhumd-gandhi smelling of smoke, krstd-radhi (AV.)
attaining success (radha) in agriculture, pr&ty-ardhi to whom {he half
(a"rdha) belongs.

e. In the f. of Bahuvrihis pa"ti husband or lord, instead of remaining
unchanged, takes the f. form of the subst. (palm wife) in das&-patnl
having a demon as master, deva"-patni haring a god as a husband, vfsa-
patnl ruled by a mighty one, sura-patni haring a hero as a husband.

4. Governing Compounds.

189 A. In this class, which embraces a considerable
number of compounds, the first member, being either a
preposition or a verbal noun, governs the last in sense.
They resemble Bahuvrlhis in form2 as well as in their
adjectival character.

1. In the prepositional group, in which about twenty
examples occur in the RV., the first member is a preposition
capable of governing a case ; e. g. ati-ratra 3 lasting overnight ;
ami-kama according to ivish ; a-pathi and a-pathi being on
the ivay ; paro-matra going beyond measure, excessive.

a. Like Bahuvrlhis, compounds of this type mny become substan-
tives ; e. g. upanas-a adj. being on a wagon, n. (AV.) space on a wagon.

b. The final member, when it does not end in a, adds the suffix a,
and ya sometimes even when it already ends in a; e.g. anu-path-a
going along the road, adhas-pad-a being under the feet, paro-ks-a (AV.)
away from the eye (&ks), puro-gav-a m. leader (going before the cows') ;

1 Otherwise sakhi remains unchanged in both Bahuvrlhis and
Karmadharayas (but 188, 2) in the RV. ; cp. 189, 2 a.

2 But the meaning is entirely different ; for in the prepositional
class the first member has the sense of a prep, (not an adj.), and in
the verbal class, it has a transitive (not an intransitive) sense. In
the latter class the final syllable of a part, is always accented (but
in Bahuvrihis only when that is the natural accent).

3 Here ratri night becomes ratra, as in the Dvandva ahoratra" n.
day and night.

280 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [189

adhi-gart-ya being on the car-seat (garta), antah-parsav-yd (VS.) briny
between the ribs (pdrsu), upa-mas-ya (AV.) occurring every month (masa),
tiro-ahn-ya (being beyond a day}, belonging to the day (dhan) before
yesterday.

2. Ill the verbally governing class the first member is an
agent noun or an action noun governing the last member as
an object. With a single exception l they never add a suffix.
Three types (in all of which examples of proper names
occur) may be distinguished.

a. In the commonest type, which is almost restricted to the RV.,
the first member is a participle ending in dt formed from transitive
present stems in a, d, or dya ; e. g. rdhdd-vara 2 increasing goods, tarad-
dvesas overcoming (tdrat) foes, dharaydt-kavi supporting the ivise, man-
daydt-sakha3 gladdening his friend. The following are used as proper
names: rdhdd-ray2 (increasing ivealth}, jamdd-agni4 (going to Agni),
bhardd-vaja (carrying off the prize}.

b. Only three or four examples occur of a second type, in which the
first member consists of a simple present stem (probably representing
an imperative) : rada-vasu 5 dispensing w ealth, siksa-nar-d6 helping men;
as the name of a man : trasa-dasyu (terrify the foe}.

c. Some half dozen examples occur in the EV. of a third type, in
which the first member is an action-noun in ti : dati-vara giving
treasures, vlti-radhas enjoying the oblation, vrsti-dyav earning the sky to
rain ; as the name of a man : pti.sti-gu m. (rearing kine}.

5. Syntactical Compounds.

189 B. A certain number of irregular compounds are
formed in a manner differing from that of any of the four
classes described above. They may be treated as a class,
since all of them have been produced by the same cause:
frequent syntactical juxtaposition in a sentence.

1 siksa-nar-d ; see below, note 6.

2 rdhdt aor. part, of rdh. increase.

3 sakhi friend becomes sakha in two other governing compounds:
dravaydt-sakha speeding his friend and sravaydt- sakha making his
friend famous. Cf. 188, 2, note 2.

4 jamat is a palatalized form of an aor. part, of gam go.

5 In this and the following example the a of rada and siksa is
metrically lengthened.

6 Here the stem of the final member is extended with a.

180] SYNTACTICAL COMPOUNDS 281

a. The relative adverb yad (a nominally formed abl.) in so
far as has come to be compounded with a superlative in the
adj. yac-chrestha the best possible (lit. in so far as best), and
with a gerundive in the adv. yad-radhyam as quickly as
possible (lit. in so far as attainable).

b. The initial words of a text begin to be compounded
in the later Samhitas as a substantive to designate that text.
Thus ye-yajamaha (VS.) m., used in the N. pi., means the
text beginning with the words y6 yajamahe.

c. Several subst. or adj. compounds have resulted from
phrases consisting of two words in juxtaposition. Thus
aham-uttara (AY.) n. dispute for precedence (from aham
uttarah I am higher) ; mama-satya n. dispute as to owner-
ship (from mama satyam it is certainly mine) ; mam-pasya
(AV.) designation of an aphrodisiac plant (from mam pasya
loo'k at me) ; kuvit-sa some one (from kuvit sa is it lie ?) ;
aham-sana (voc.) rapacious (from aham sana I will obtain) ;
aham-purva eager to be first (from aham purvah I should
be first)-, kim-tva (VS.) asking garrulously (from kim tvam
what are you doing?).

6. Iterative Compounds.

189 C. Substantives, adjectives, pronouns, numerals,
adverbs, and prepositions are often repeated. They are then
treated as compounds, the second member losing its accent
and the two words being written in the Pada text with the
Avagraha between them, as in other compounds. This class
resembles other compounds in having a single accent, but
differs from them in having not the stem but the fully
inflected form of nominal words in the first member.
In the KV. the iteratives number over 140, rather more
than half of them being substantives. The sense conveyed
by the repetition is frequency, or constant succession in
time, or distribution in space. Examples of the various
kinds of iteratives are the following :

282 NOMINAL STEM FORMATION [189

a. Substantives: ahar-ahar,1 div6-dive,2 dyavi-dyavi
every day, masi-masi month after month ; grhe-grhe, dame-
dame, vis6-vise 2 in every house ; angad-angat from every
limb • disd-disah. (AV.) from every quarter • yajnasya-yajna-
sya of every sacrifice ; parvani-parvani in every joint ;
agnim-agnim (duvasyata), (ivorship) Agni again and again ;
annam-annam (AV.)/ood in perpetuity.

b. Adjectives : panyam-panyam . . somam Soma who is
again and again to be praised ; pracim-pracim pradisam
each eastern direction ; uttaram-uttaram samam (AV.) each
following year.

c. Pronouns : tvam-tvam aharyathah thou didst ever
rejoice ; yad-yad yami whatever I ask ; tat- tad . . dadhe he
always bestows that.3

d. Numerals : panca-panca five each time ; sapta-sapta
(tredha three times) seven in each case (= 2 1).4

e. Adverbs:5 yatha-yatha as in each case-, adyadya
svah-svah on each to-day, on each to-morrow.

f. Prepositions : the four which are found used thus are
upa, para, pra, sam ; e. g. pra-pra . . sasyate it is ever
proclaimed.

g. The only example of a verbal form occurring as an
iterative is piba-piba drink, drink.6 Otherwise a repeated
verb is treated independently ; e. g. stuhi stuhi praise, praise.

1 dhar-divi day after day, is a kind of mixed iterative.

2 For divi-divi and visi-visi, owing to the influence of the frequent
loc. in e from a stems.

3 In the SB. such words are repeated with va : yavad va yavad va
and yatame" va yatame va.

4 Such iteratives led to the formation of regular compounds in B. :
<§ka-ekah (AV.) : ekaikah (&B.) ; dva-dva (RV.): dvan-dvam (MS.)
in twos, dvan-dv& pair (B.).

6 In a few instances repeated adverbs are not treated as compounds,
both words being accented : nu. mi now, now ; ibe'lid, (AV.) here, here,
but always ihe"ha in KV:

6 In the SB. also occurs yajasva-yajasva.

CHAPTER VII

OUTLINES OF SYNTAX

190. Having in the preceding parts of the present
grammar dealt with single words in their phonetic, their
derivative, and their inflexional aspects, we now turn to
their treatment in syntax, which regards their arrangement
and mutual meaning when they are combined to form a
sentence, which is the expression of a connected and definite
unit of thought. The parts of which the sentence may
consist are either inflected words : the noun (substantive
and adjective) and the verb, the participle which shares the
nature of both, and the pronoun ; or uninflected words :
prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions. A comparison of
the syntax of the RV. with that of classical Sanskrit shows
(1) that the use of the middle voice, the tenses, the moods,
the inflected participles, the infinitives, and the genuine
prepositions is much fuller and more living in the former,
while (2) that of the passive voice and of indeclinable par-
ticiples is much less developed, that of absolute cases and of
adverbial prepositions with case-endings is only incipient,
and that of periphrastic verbal forms is non-existent. The
later Samhitas and the Brahmanas exhibit a gradual transition
by restriction or loss in the former group and by growth in
the latter to the condition of things prevailing in classical
Sanskrit.

The Order of Words.

191. Since metrical considerations largely interfere with
the ordinary position of words in the Samhitas, the normal
order is best represented by the prose of the Brahmanas,

284 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [191

and as it there appears is, moreover, doubtless the original
one.

The general rule is that the subject begins the sentence
and the verb ends it, the remaining members coming
between.

a. The subject begins the sentence ; e. g. v.isah ksatriya-
ya balim haranti the peasants pay tribute to the prince (SB.).
It may, however, be preceded by a particle like uta or
occasionally by any other member of the sentence intended
to be strongly emphasized ; e. g. prayajair vai devah
svargam lokam ay an by means of the Praydjas the gods went
to the heavenly world (SB.).

I). The verb occasionally moves to the beginning of the
sentence when it is strongly emphasized ; e. g. yanti va apa,
6ty aditya, 6ti candrama, yanti naksatrani the waters
move, the sun moves, the moon moves, the stars move (SB.).
A predicative noun with the copula (which may be omitted)
"being equivalent to a verb, naturally occupies the same
position ; e. g. sarve ha vai deva agre sadrsa asuh all the
gods in the beginning ivere similar (SB.) ; mitro vai sivo
devanam Mitra, indeed, is the kindly one among the gods (TS.).
Nevertheless the predicative noun, being emphatic, is as a
rule the first word in the sentence ; e. g. martya ha va agre
deva asuh the gods were originally mortals (SB.) ; piiruso vai
yajnah the sacrifice (is) a man (SB.).

c. As regards the cases, the ace. is placed immediately
before the verb ; e.g. chandamsi yuktani deve~bhyo yajnam
yahanti the metres, when they are yoked, take the sacrifice to
the gods (&B.). Adverbs and indeclinable participles occupy
a similar position. Occasionally such words move to the
beginning ; e. g. divi vai soma asid, atha^iha devah in
heaven was Soma, but here the gods (SB.).

d. The apposition, including patronymics and participles,
follows the word which it explains or defines ; e. g. somo
raja Soma, the King. A participle, in its proper sense, if

191] ORDER OF WORDS 285

emphatic may be placed at the beginning ; e. g. svapantam
vai diksitam raksamsi jighamsanti it is when he sleeps that
the Eaksases seek to slay the initiated man (TS.).

e. The attribute, whether adjective or genitive, precedes
its substantive ; e. g. hiranyayena rathena with golden car
(i. 352) ; devanam hota the priest of the gods. Only when
adjectives are used in apposition, especially as epithets of
the gods, do they follow ; e. g. mitraya satyaya to Mitra,
the true (TS.). Also adjectives designating the colours of
certain animals, especially horses and cows, are found after
the subst. The subst. belonging to a gen. is placed before
the latter only when it is emphatic.

/ The preposition belonging to a verb precedes it, always
in B., generally in V., where, however, it also sometimes
follows ; e. g. jayema sam yudhi spMhah. we would conquer
our foes in battle (i. 83). The preposition as a rule imme-
diately precedes the verb, but is often also separated from it
by one or more words ; e. g. a sayakam maghava^adatta
the Bounteous One seized his missile (i. 823) ; apa tamah
papmanam hate she drives away darkness and sin (TS.).
When a compound verb is emphatic, the preposition alone
as a rule moves to the front occupying the position that the
simple verb would occupy ; e. g. pra prajaya jayeya I ivould
increase with progeny (TS.).

When used with substantives the genuine prepositions as
a rule follow their case, while the prepositional adverbs
precede it. The reason of this doubtless is that the former
supplement the sense of the case, while the latter modify
the sense much more emphatically.

(j. Multiplicative adverbs precede their genitive ; e. g.
trih samvatsarasya three times a year.

h. Enclitics cannot, of course, begin a sentence. If they
belong to a particular word they follow it ; otherwise they
tend to occupy the second position in the sentence. The
enclitic particles that follow the word with which they are

286 , OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [191

most closely connected are ca, va, iva, cid ; kam is
restricted to following nii, sii, hi in V., and sma to follow-
ing ha in B. The other unaccented particles, u, gha,
ha, svid, which refer to the statement of the whole
sentence, occupy the second (or third) position in the
sentence.

L Even accented particles for the most part cannot
begin a sentence. They either follow the word they em-
phasize in any position in the sentence : a, eva, kam ; or
they occupy the second position in the sentence, as empha-
sizing the whole statement : anga, aha, id, kila, khalu, tu,
nii, vai, hi.

The only particles that can begin the sentence are atha,
api, uta ; also na if it negatives the whole sentence, but if
it negatives the verb only, it follows that.

j. Forms of the pronoun ta tend in B. to occupy the first
position, especially sa when it anticipates a proper name in
dialogues, or tad as an ace. when famous authorities are
quoted ; e. g. sa hovaca gargyah (SB.) Gargya spoke (as
follows) ; tad u hovaca^asurih with regard to this Asuri
said (SB.). The order is similar when atha or api are used :
api hovaca yajnavalkyah. (SB.).

Jt. In relative and interrogative sentences there is nothing
peculiar except that, as these two classes of words tend to
begin the sentence, cases of them come to occupy the first
position which in ordinary sentences do not occupy it ; e. g.
kim hi sa tair grhaih kuryat what indeed should he do with
this house? (SB.).

a. The last position in the sentence is exceptionally occupied in the
following ways : 1. very often by final datives as a supplement to
the sentence ; e. g. tdt pasun eva"wasmai pdri dadati guptyai thus
lie hands the cattle over to Mm for protection (SB.) ; 2. by the subject either
when it is the name of an authority quoted or when it is equivalent
to a relative clause; e. g. sa" ha^uvaca gargyah so said Gargya ; aindr&m
cariam nir vapet pasukamah one (who is) desirous of cattle should assign
a pap for Indra (TS.).

192-193] ORDER OF WORDS 287

192. There is neither an indefinite nor a definite article
in the Vedic language. Their meaning is inherent in the
substantive much as personal pronouns are in forms of
the definite verb. Whether the one or the other is meant
is made sufficiently clear by the context ; e. g. agnim lie
purohitam I praise Agni the domestic priest (i. I1); agnim
manye pitaram Agni I deem a father (x. 73). In B. the
anaphoric use of ta is sometimes very nearly equivalent to
the definite article (cp. 195 B 36, p. 294).

Number.

193. 1. Singular words with a plural or a collective sense
are always treated strictly as singulars, being never con-
strued with a plural form of the verb (cp. 194).

2. The dual number is in regular use and, generally
speaking, in strict application. But in certain parts of the
RV. the plural is often used instead of the dual of natural
pairs ; sometimes also otherwise ; e. g. sam anjantu visve
devah, sam apo hrdayani nau let all the gods, let the waters
unite the hearts of us two (x. 8547).

a. A m. or f. du. is sometimes used to express a male and
female of the same class ; e. g. pitara = father and mother •
matara = mother and father. This type of the dual has its
widest application in naming pairs of deities by means of
one of them and is equivalent to dual compounds containing
both names ; e. g. dyava heaven and earth (= dyava-prthivi) ;
usasa Dawn and Night ( = usasa-nakta) ; mitra Mitra and
Varuna (= mitra- varuna). Sometimes the other member
of the pair is added in the N. sing. ; e. g. mitra tana na
rathya varuno yds ca sukratuh Mitra (and Varuna) and
the very wise Varuna, like two constant charioteers (viii. 252).

3. a. The plural is sometimes used (analogously to the
dual) so as to include the other two of a group of three;
e. g. dyavah the (three) heavens — heaven, air, and earth •

288 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [193-104

prtkivih the (three) earths = earth, air, and heaven.* This
inclusive plural is also found with the names of the two
other members of the group added in the N. sing. ; thus
abhi samrajo varuno grnanty, abhi mitraso aryama
sajdsah. to it the universal sovereigns Varuna, to it the Mitras
(= Mitra, Varuna, AryHman), and Aryaman, accordant, sing
(til 384).

6. The 1. pers. pi. is sometimes loosely used instead of
the sing, or du. ; thus Yama in his dialogue with Yaml says
na yat pura cakrma kad dha nunam rta vadanto anrtam
rapema how pray can ive, what we have never done before,
speaJdng of righteous things now talk of tvhat is unrighteous ?
(x. 104). The plur. of personal pronouns is also occasionally
used in a similar way ; thus in the dialogue of Yama and
Yarn! (x. 104) nas alternates with the correct nau : sa no
nabhih, paramam jami tan nau that is our bond of union,
tfiat our highest kinship. This occasional looseness is probably
due to the situation for the moment being regarded more
generally so as to include others ; we would then mean I and
those present, we ttvo and others in like circumstances. In B.
the use of the pi. for the sing, of the first pers. of the
personal pronoun is not infrequent both when the pronoun
is expressed and when it is latent in the verb ; e. g. sa haw
uvaca : namo vayam brahmisthaya kurmah he replied :
we (= I) slioiv reverence to the most learned man (SB.) ; varam
bhavate gautamaya dadmah we (= /, Jaivali) offer a boon
to his Honour Gautama (SB.).

Concord.

194. The rules of concord in case, person, gender, and
number are in general the same as in other inflexional
languages.

J To this use is probably due the conception of the three heavens
and three earths in Vedic cosmology.

194] CONCORD 289

A. 1. To the rule that the verb agrees with its sub-
stantive in person and number the exceptions are very rare.
Thus the sing, of the word tva many, having a pi. sense,
appears once with a pi. verb : jay an u tvo juhvati many a
one sacrifices for victories (MS.). On the other hand, there
are a few examples in the EV. of a neut. pi. taking a verb
in the sing. ; e. g. dhrsnave dhiyate dhana to the bold man
booty accrues (i. 813).

2. a. When two sing, subjects have one verb, the latter in
most cases is in the dual ; e. g. indras ca yad yuyudhate
ahis c&.tvhen Indra and the dragon fought (i. 3213) ; urjam
no dyaus ca prthivi ca pinvatam may heaven and earth
increase our strength (vi. 70°) ; indras ca somam pibatam
brhaspate do ye two, Indra and (thou), 0 Brhaspati, drink Soma
(iv. 5010).

When one only of two subjects is expressed, the other
having to be supplied , the verb is also in the dual ; e. g.
a yad indras ca dadvahe when (I) and Indra receive
(viii. 34l°) ; brhaspate yuvam indras ca vasvo divyasya^
isathe 0 Brhaspati, ye two, (thou) and Indra, dispose of
heavenly ivealth (vii. 9710). In B. this usage seems to be
found only when the verb is in the third person ; e. g.
prajapatih praja asrjata : ta brhaspatis ca^anvavaitam
Prajapati created beings: (he) and Brhaspati followed them (TS.).

a. In a minority of cases two sing, subjects take a sing, verb when
they are equivalent in sense to a dn. compound ; e. g. tok&m ca t&sya
tdnayam ca vardhate his offspring and family prosper (ii. 252).

/3. In B. when two sing, subjects are connected by ca the verb is
in the du. ; but if a contrast is intended, in the sing. ; e.g. t&sya
dhata cawaryama ca^ajayetam from her Dhatr and Atyaman were born
(MS.) ; but prthivya vai me'dhyam ca^amedhydm ca vyud akramat
from the earth there issued on the one hand the pure and on the other the
impure (MS.).

I). When there are more than two subjects the verb is not

necessarily in the pi., but may agree with only one of them.

1. If each of the subjects is sing, the verb is sing. ; e. g.

1819 U

290 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [194

mitras tan no varuno rodasi ca dyiibhaktam indro
aryama dadatu let Mitra, Varuna, Rodasi, Indra and
Aryaman give us this divine wealth (vii. 402).

2. If the subjects are of different numbers the verb may
agree with either one or the other ; e. g. avad indram
yamiina trtsavas ca Yamuna and the Trtsus helped Indra
(vii. 1819) ; indro vidur angirasas ca Indra and the Ahgirases
know it (x. 10810).

The du. and pi. take the du. or the pi. ; e. g. girayas ca
drlha dyava ca bhuma tujete the firm mountains and heaven
and earth trembled (i. 6 114) ; dyava ca yatra pipayann aha
ca where heaven and earth and the days have given abundance
(vii. 652).

a. In B. a sing, and a du. subject take a verb in the sing, or pi. ;
e. g. vyamamatr&u paks&u ca piicham ca bhavati loth the wings and
the tail are a fathom in length (TS.) ; tav asvinau ca s&rasvati ca^,apam
phen&m v&jram asincan the Asvins and Sarasvatt moulded the foam of the
tcaters into a bolt (SB.) ; a sing, and a pi. take the verb in the pi. ; e. g.
devas ca v&i yamds ca^asmin loke 'spardhanta the gods and Yama
fought for (the possession of) this world (TS.).

j8. In B. anyo 'ny^, one another takes the verb in the sing., du., or
pi. according as one. two, or several agents are intended ; e. g.
tabhyah. s& nfr rchad yo nah prathamo *nyo 'nyfi,smai druhyat of these
he shall be deprived ivho first of us may cheat another (TS.) ; ne"d anyo 'nydm
hina'satah lest they injure each other (oB.) ; tani srstany anyo 'nye"nao
aspardhanta being created they fought with one another (SB.).

3. When two or more subjects of different persons take a
verb in the du. or pi. the first person is preferred to the
second or third, the second to the third ; e. g. aham ca
tvam ca sam yujyava land thou will unite together (viii. 6211) ;
tarn yuyam vayam ca^asyama may you and we obtain him
(ix. 9812). Occasionally, however, the third person is pre-
ferred to the first ; e. g. ami ca y6 maghavano vayam ca
miham na suro ati nis tatanyuh may these patrons and we
pierce through as the sun the mist (i. 14113).

B. 1. An attributive adjective agrees with its substantive
in gender, number, and case. The exceptions are few

194] CONCORD 291

and unimportant, being chiefly due to the exigencies of
metre.

a. The cardinals from five to nineteen, being adjectives, show some
peculiarities of concord : in the oblique cases they appear in V. not
only in their inflected form, but often also the uninflected form of
the nom. and ace. ; e. g. saptdbhih putr&ih and sapta" hotrbhih,
pancdsu j&nesu and p&nca krstisu. In B. only the inflected forms
are used.

b. The cardinals from 20 upwards being substantives in form may
govern a G. ; e.g. sastim dsvanam sixty horses, sata"m gdnam a hundred
kine, sah&srani gavam thousands of kine. They are, however, generally
treated like adjectives ; but being collectives they take sing, endings
in concord with pi. cases ; e. g. trims&d devah thirty gods, trimsa'tam
yojanani thirty yojanas (ace.), trimsata haribhih with thirty bays, tra-
yastrimsato devanam of thirty gods (AB.). s"ata"m hundred and saha"sram
thousand are used as the nom. ace. form in agreement with plurals ;
e. g. satain piirah a hundred forts, saha'sram h&rayah a thousand bays,
sahasram pasun a thousand beasts (TS.) ; they also appear in the same
sense in the plural ; e. g. sata purah a hundred forts, sah&srany a"dhi-
rathani a thousand toagon loads (x. 989). sat&m and sahasram are also
found (but not in B.) with an inst. pi., as sata"m purbhfh icith a
hundred forts beside satena h^ribhih with a hundred bays, sahdsram rsibhih
with a thousand seers. The noun accompanying sahdsra occasionally
appears by a kind of attraction in the sing. : sunas cic che'pam
m'ditam sahdsrad yupad amuncah thou didst deliver £unahtepa, who was
bound, from a thousand posts (v. 27) : this use does not seem to occur
in B.

2. A predicative adjective used with as or bhu (often to
be supplied) agrees in gender and number with its subject.

a. The nom. of Isvar& capable used thus in B. is equivalent to
a verb = be able. The concord here is in the majority of cases normal ;
e.g. isvaro va a"svo 'yato 'pratisthitah param parava"tam g&ntoh
a horse if unbridled and unobstructed can go to an extreme distance (TS.) ;
sa^enam isvara praddhah she can burn him (TS.) ; Isvara"u va eta"u
nirddhah both of them can burn (&B. ) ; tany enam Isvarani pratiniidah
they can drive him away (MS.). Sometimes, however, the concord of
either number or gender, or of both, is neglected ; e. g. t&m Isvardm
r&ksamsi hdntoh the demons can kill him (TS.) ; ta"syawisvar&h praja
papiyasi bhdvitoh his offspring can degenerate (^B.) ; Isvar6 ha^eta
d,nagnicitam samtaptoh these (f. pi.) are liable to weigh heavily upon one
who has not built a fire altar (SB.). In the last two examples quoted

U 2

292 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [194-195

and in others the maso. sing, has become stereotyped as a nom. of all
genders and numbers.

6. The use of a predicative adjective referring to two or more
substantives differing in gender is very rare ; it then seems to agree
in gender with the subst. nearest it, or the masc. seems to have been
preferred to the neut. ; e. g. traya vfii n&irrta aksah striyah svdpnab
(MS.) dice, women, and sleep (are) the treble pernicious (things) ; eva by
asya kamya stoma ukth&m ca sdmsya thus indeed his two favourites,
stoma and uktha, are to be recited (i. 810). A predicative adj. dependent
on kr agrees with its subst. ; if there are two, the du. is used ; e. g.
ddivim ca vav£wasma etdd viSam maiiusim caw&nuvartmanau karoti
so he makes the divine and the human folk obedient to him (MS.).

3. As in Greek and Latin, a demonstrative pronoun
agrees with a predicative noun in gender and number ; e. g.
ye tusah. sa tvak what (are) the husks (that =) those (are) the
skin (AB.); yad asm samksaritam asit tani vayamsi^
abhavan what was the concentrated tear (those =) that became
the birds (SB.).

Pronouns.

195. A. Personal, a. Owing to its highly inflexional
character the Vedic language, like Latin and Greek, uses
the nominatives of personal pronouns far less frequently
than modern European languages do. Being al ready inherent
in the first and second persons of the finite verb such
pronouns are expressed separately only when they require
emphasizing.

b. The unaccented forms of aham and tvam (109 a) being
enclitic, can be used neither at the beginning of a sentence
or metrical line (Pada), nor after vocatives, nor before em-
phasizing, conjunctive or disjunctive particles.

c. Bhavan Your Honour, the polite form of tvam, which
first comes into use in B., properly takes a verb in the
3. sing. But being practically equivalent to a personal
pronoun of the 2. pers., it occasionally appears with a verb
in that person ; e. g. iti vava kila no bhavan puraw

195] PRONOUNS 293

anusistan avocah (SB.) in this sense then you have formerly
spoken of (us = ) me as instructed (cp. 194, 1).

B. Demonstrative. 1. ayam this (here) is a deictic
pronoun used adjectivally of what is in the neighbourhood,
presence, or possession of the speaker, and may often be
translated by here ; e.g. ayam ta emi tanva purastat here
I come with my body before thee (viii. 1001) ; iyam matir
mama this my hymn ; ayam vatah the wind here (on earth) ;
ayam janah the people here (vii. 555) ; idam bhuvanam this
tvorld ; ayam agnih Agni here (present). In the RV. ayam is
sometimes used even with div heaven and aditya sun as if
they were included in the environment of the speaker.

2. Opposed to ayam is asau that (there), applied to objects
remote from the speaker, as heaven and its phenomena,
immortals, persons who are not present or are at a distance ;
e. g. ami y£ deva sthana trisii^a rocane" divah. ye, 0 gods,
who are there, in the three bright realms of heaven (i. 1055) ;
ami ca ye" maghavano vayam ca those (absent) patrons and-
ive (i. 14113) ; asau ya £si virakah you who go there, a
mannikin (viii. 9 12).

a. In B. the usage is similar, only the contrast is more definite :
it is typical in referring to the earth (iyam) and the heavenly world
(as&u), and in the phrases yd 'yam pdvate he who blows here ( = Wind),
and yo *sa"u tapati he who burns there ( =Sun), and asav adity&h the sun
there. In B. as&u is besides used in a formulaic way ( = so and so)
when the actual name is to be substituted ; e. g. asa"u nama^aya'm
id&mrupah he here, having this form, is so and so by name (SB.). In
addressing a person the voc. form a"sau is also used thus : ydtha va
ida"m namagraham &sa asa iti h.va"yati as one here ( = in ordinary life)
by way of mentioning the name calls : i you there, you there ' (MS.).

3. ta, like asau, can be translated by that, but in a different
sense. It is not like asau essentially deictic and local, nor
does it imply a contrast (that there as opposed to this here) ;.
but it refers to something already known either as just
mentioned or as generally familiar.

a. A very frequent application of this meaning is its

294 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [195

reference as a correlative to what is made known by an
antecedent relative clause ; e. g. yam yajnam paribhur asi,
sa id dev6su gachati the sacrifice that thou encompassest, that
certainly goes to the gods (i. I4). Often, however, an ante-
cedent clause is lacking and must be mentally supplied in
some such form as wliom we have in mind. Then ta is
equivalent to the ivell Imoivn. This use conies out most
clearly in the first verse of a hymn ; e. g. sa pratnatha
sahasa jayamanah, sadyah kavyani bal adhatta visva
(i. 961) lie (who is in our thoughts, the famous Agni) being
engendered in the ancient way with strength, lo ! has straightivay
assumed all wisdom ; ta vam visvasya gopa yajase (viii. 251)
you two famous guardians of the universe I ivorship.

b. ta has a very frequent anaphoric use, referring back
to a noun or a pronoun of the third or second person (in B.
also of the first), and may then be translated by as such, so ;
e. g. tvam vajasya sriityasya raj asi : sa no mrla thou
rulest over glorious spoil : as such le gracious to us (i. 36' 2) ;
sa tatha^ity abravit : sa vai vo varam vrna iti she said,
yes : I as such (= in the proposed circumstances) will choose
a boon of you (AB.). This usage is a prominent and some-
what monotonous feature of the narrative style in B. ; e. g.
prajapates trayastrmsad duhitara asan, tah s6maya
rajne 'dadat, tasam r6hinim lipait, ta irsyantlh piinar
agachan Prajapati had thirty daughters ; he gave them to King
Soma ; of them he visited Eohim (only) ; they (the others),
being jealous, went back (TS.). When this ta is widely
separated from the antecedent noun to which it refers
(sometimes only indirectly) it may be translated by the
definite article ; thus the opening of the story of Urvasl :
urvasi ha^apsarah pururavasam aidam cakame an
Apsaras Urva& loved Pururavas, the son of Ida is some
sentences later referred to with : tad dha ta apsarasa
atayo bhutva pari pupluvire then the Apsarases swam about
in the form of ivater birds (SB.).

195] PKONOUNS 295

a. In its anaphoric use t& is frequently followed by personal pronouns
of all persons (regularly in their enclitic form when they have one) ;
e. g. tdm ma s&m srja varcasa unite me as such with glory (i. 2323), mam
yajnad antar agata : sa vo 'Mm eva" yajn&m amumuham ye have excluded
me from the sacrifice ; so I have thrown your sacrifice into confusion (S"B.) ;
havfsmanto vidhema te : sa" tv&m no adya" sum&na iha"wavita bhaVa
bringing oblations we would serve thee : so do thou be for us to-day a benevolent
Ldper (i. 362) ; y£di tvawetdt punar brdvatah, sa tv&m brutat (&B.)
if they (two} shall say this to you again, then do you say (to them) ; asya"
pitva ghano vrtranam abhavas . . . t&m tva vajayamah having drunk
of this thou becamest a slayer of Vrtras : so we strengthen thee (i. 4°). Similarly
used are : sing. A. tarn tvam (here exceptionally not enclitic),
D. t&smai te, G. t&sya te, t&syas te ; du. ta vam ; pi. A. tan vas,
G. tesam vas.

0. Four demonstrative pronouns are found following ta in this
way : ida"m, adds, t& itself, and oftenest of all et&d ; e. g. sa^iy&m
asme sanaja pitrya dhih this here is among us an ancient hymn of our
forefather's (iii. 392) ; t&sya valo ny asaiaji : tdm amum vato dhunoti
its tail hangs down: that the wind tosses to and fro (SB.) ; tarn haweva
na^&ti dadaha : tam ha sma tarn pura brahmana nsl taranti that
(river) he (Agni) did not burn across : that same one the Brdhmans used not
formerly to cross (SB.), bhavaty asyawanucaro ya evam veda : sa va
esa ekatithih, sa esa juhvatsu vasati he who knows this has a follower ;
that (follower) is this one guest • this same (follower, the Sun) abides
among the sacrificers (AB.).

7. The N. sing, sa" is sometimes used adverbially in B. (see 180,
p. 249).

4. eta this is used like ta but is more emphatic. It refers
to something known to the listener as present either to his
senses or his thoughts.

a. The correlative use of eta seems to be limited to B.,
the relative clause here usually following; e.g. patho va
esa praiti, yo yajne muhyati he diverges from the path who
goes ivrong in the sacrifice (AB.). It is somewhat peculiar
when the relative in the neuter sing, and without a verb is
added solely for the purpose of emphasizing a particular
word ; e. g. svargam va etena lokam upapra yanti yat
prayaniy ah. people go to the heavenly world with that which (is)
the preliminary sacrifice (AB.). In these circumstances eta
when alone always agrees in gender with the noun in the

29G OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [195

relative clause ; but when it is accompanied by a substantive,
with the latter ; e. g. pasavo va ete yad apah water is
equivalent to cattle (AB.). In this usage yad often loses its
inflexional character to such an extent that it becomes like
an explanatory particle (= that is to say), the substantive
that follows it agreeing in case with that which precedes ;
e.g. etair atra^ubhayair artho bhavati yad devais ca
brahmanais ca there is need here of both, that is, of the gods
and the Brahmans (SB.).

The use of eta without an antecedent, parallel to that of
ta, is common both in V. and B. ; e. g. eso usa vy iichati
this Dawn (whom we see before us) has shone forth (i. 46') ;
t6 ha^asura asuyanta iva^ucur: yavad evaisa visnur
abhis6te tavad vo dadma iti the Asuras said somewhat
displeased : as much as this Visnu (here present) covers lying
down, so much we give you (SB.) ; yuvam etam cakrathuh
sindhu.su plavam ye tivo have made that boat (present to our
thought) in the ocean (i. 1825) ; t6nawetam uttaram girim
ati dudrava therewith he passed over that (well known)
northern mountain (SB.) ; ta et6 may6 asrjanta suparmm
ca kadrum ca they created these tivo (well-known) miraculous
beings, Suparnl and Kadru (SB.). In the last example ete
requires the addition of the two following names to supple-
ment its sense.

a. Somewhat similarly this pronoun is sometimes followed in B.
by words or a sentence explaining it ; e. g. sa etabhir dev&tabhih
sayug bhutva marudbhir visa^agnmawdnikenawupaplayata he, united
roith these deities, the Maruts as the fighting folk and Agni as the head,
approached (MS.) ; sd ha^,etad evd dadarsa i^anasandtaya vdi ma
prajah. parii bhavanti^iti he saw this : in consequence of hunger my
creatures are perishing (SB.).

&. In its anaphoric use eta expresses identity with that
to which it refers back, more emphatically than ta does ;
e. g. apeta vita vi ca sarpata^ato : asma etam pitaro
lokam akran go away, disperse, depart from hence : this place

193] PRONOUNS 297

(on which you have been standing) the fathers have pre-
pared for him (x. 14°) ; in the final verse the expression esa
stoma indra tiibhyam (i. 173 ]) this praise is for thee, OIndra,
refers to the whole preceding hymn ; tad ubhayam sam-
bhrtya mrdam ca^apas ca^istakam akurvams : tasmad
etad ubhayam istaka bhavati mrc ca^apas ca having
brought both those together, clay and water, they made the brick :
therefore a brick consists of both these, clay and water (SB.).

5. tya occurs only in the sense of that (well known) ; e. g.
kva tyani nau sakhya babhuvuh what has become of those
friendships of us two ? (vii. 885). It often follows forms of
the demonstrative pronouns eta and idam ; e. g. et6 tye
bhanava usasa aguh here those (familiar) beams of Dawn
have come (vii. 753) ; imam u tyam atharvavad agnim
manthanti they, like Atharvan, rub forth that (famous) Agni
here (vi. 1517). The neuter tyad is sometimes used after the
relative ya, and often after. the particle ha, in an adverbial
sense ; e. g. yasya tyac chambaram made divodasaya
randhayah in the exhilaration of which (Soma) thou didst at
that time subject Sambara to Divodasa (vi. 43l).

6. The pronoun a that in its substantive sense (= he, she,
it, they), when it is unaccented, not infrequently appears as
an unemphatic correlative (while the accented form is a
deictic adjective) ; e. g. yasya devair asado barhir agne,
ahani asmai sudina bhavanti on whose litter thou, 0 Agni,
hast sat down, fair days arise for him (vii. II2) ; ya vam
satam niyiitah sacante, abhir yatam arvak the hundred
teams that accompany you, with them do ye two come hither
(vii. 91°); nakir esam nindita martyesu, y6 asmakam
pitaro gosu yodhah there is among mortals no reproacher of
them ivho, (being) our fathers, were fighters for cows (iii. 394).

298 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [196

THE CASES.
Nominative.

196. The nominative, as in other languages, is mainly
used as the subject of a sentence.

a. A second nominative is employed as a predicate
with certain verbs beside the subject, that is, with verbs
meaning be, become, seem or be accounted, think oneself; e. g.
tvam hi ratnadha asi for thou art a bestower of treasure
(i. 153) ; sivasah. santo asiva abhuvan being friendly they
have become unfriendly (v. 125) ; 6kavimsatih sam padyante
they become twenty -one (TS.);1 gokama me achadayan they
seemed to me desirous of cows (x. 10810) ; rsih ko vipra ohate
ivho counts as a seer, as a singer ? (viii. 314j ; apratir manya-
manah thinking himself irresistible (v. 323) ; s6mam manyate
papivan he believes he has drunk Soma (x. 853) ; parabhavis-
yanto manamahe we think we are about to perish (TS.).

a. In B. the predicative nom. also appears with verbs meaning tu
call oneself (bru, vac, vad in the middle) ; e. g. fndro brahmano
bruvan&h Indra calling himself a Brahman (TB.) ; h&ntavoeathah thoit
hast described thyself as a slayer (TS.).

£. With verbs of naming the predicative ace. may also be expressed
in B. by the nom. with iti ; e. g. rasabha iti hy etdm fsayo 'vadan
for the seers called him l ass' (TS.).

b. With passive verbs the predicative nom. takes the
place of the ace. object of the active verb ; e. g. tvam . .
ucyase pita thou art called a father (i. 3114).

c. Instead of the predicative nom. the voc. is sometimes
used ; e. g. yuyam hi stha, sudanavah for ye are liberal
(i. 152) ; abhtir 6ko, rayipate raymam thou alone hast been

1 In B. the phrase rupdm kr to assume a form, because it is equiva-
lent to bhu become, takes a predicative nom. ; e. g. visnu rup&m krtva
assuming the form of Visnu (TS.).

196-197] ACCUSATIVE CASE 299

the lord of riches (vi. 3 11) ; gautama bruvana tkou who callest
thyself Gautama (SB.). (Cp. 180 under na, 2 a.)

a. Since apparently two vocatives cannot be connected with ca, the
nom. often appears instead of the first or the second vocative ; e. g.
vayav indras ca cetathah 0 Vayu and Indra, ye know (i. 25) ; indras ca
somam pibatam brhaspate Indra and Brhaspati, drink the Soma(iv. 5010).
Cp. 180 under ca, 1 a, I.

Accusative.

197. A. This case is usually employed in connexion
with verbs in various ways. Besides its ordinary use of
denoting the object of transitive verbs, the ace. is employed
to express :

1. the goal with verbs of motion, chiefly gam, also i,
much less often ya, car, and sr and some others. The ace.
may be a person, a place, an activity or a condition ; e. g.
yamam ha yajno gachati to Yama goes the sacrifice (x. 1413) ;
devam id esi pathibhih sugdbhih to the gods thou goest by
paths easy to traverse (i. 1622V) ; indram stomas caranti
to Indra fare the songs of praise (x. 47 7) ; saraj jaro na
yosanain he sped like a lover to a maiden (ix. 10114) ; ma tvat
ks^trany aranani ganma may we not go from thee to strange
fields (vi. 61 u) ; sabham eti kitavah the gambler goes to the
assembly (x. 34°) ; jaritur gachatho havam ye two go to the call
of the singer (viii. 35 13) ; tava kratubhir amrtatvam ayan ~by
thy mental powers they (went to =) attained immortality (vi. 74).

a. The usage in B. is similar ; e. g. pra^apatih praja asrjata, la
vdrunam agachan Prajdpati created creatures ; they went to Varuna (TS.) ;
s& n^, divam apatat he did not fly to heaven (SB.); sriyara gacheyam
may I (go to =) attain prosperity (SB.).

2. duration of time (in origin only a special form of the
cognate ace.) ; e. g. satam jiva sarado vardhamanah live
prospering a hundred autumns (x. 1614) ; so asvatth6 sam-
vatsaram atisthat he remained in the Asvattha tree for a year

300 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [197

(TB.) ; tasmat sarvan rtun varsati therefore it rains during
all the seasons (TS.) ; samvatsaratamim ratrim a gachatat
(SB.) for the night a year hence thou shalt come (to me).

3. extension of distance (in origin only a special form
of the cognate ace.), a use rare in both V. and B. ; e. g. yad
asubhih patasi yojana puru when with the swift ones thou
fliest many leagues (ii. 16:!) ; sa bhumim visvato vrtva^aty
atisthad dasangulam lie covering the earth on all sides
extended beyond (it) a distance of ten fingers (x. 901) ; sapta-
dasa pravyadhan ajim dhavanti they run a race (a distance
of) seventeen arrow-flights (TB.).

4. the cognate object of intransitive verbs, which may
be allied to the latter etymologically or only in sense; e. g.
samanam anji^anjate they deck themselves with like adorn-
ment (vii. 573) ; yad agne yasi dutyam when, 0 Agni, thou
yoest on a message (i. 124); tvaya^adhyaksena prtana
jayema with thee as witness tve would conquer in battles
(x. 1281) ; tasmad raja samgramam jitva^udajam lid ajate
tlierefore a king, having won a battle, chooses booty for himself
(MS.) ; tisr6 ratrir vratam caret he should perform a fast for
three nights (TS.).

a. Verbs meaning to stream or to shine in V. take a cognate ace. with
a concrete sense ; e. g. rtdsya jihva pavate mddhu the tongue of the rite
(Soma) streams mead (ix. 752), t&sma apo ghrt&m arsanti for him the
waters stream ghee (i. 1255), vf ydt suryo nd rocate brhdd bh&h when,
like the sun, he beams forth lofty light (vii. 84).

5. an adverbial sense. Adverbs of this form all originated
in various uses of the ace. which have acquired an indepen-
dent character. They are formed from :

a. substantives ; e. g. naktam by night (not during the
night like the ace. of time) ; kamam at will (still rare in the
BV.), e.g. kamam tad dhota samsed yad dhotrakah
purvedyuh samseyuh the Hotr may, as he likes, recite tvhat
the assistants of the Hotr may recite the day before (AB.) ;
nama by name ; e.g. mam dhur indram nama devata

197] ACCUSATIVE 301

(x. 492) me they have placed as Indra % name (or verily) among
the gods.

b. various kinds of adjectives. They have an attributive
origin when they express the senses of quickly or slowly
(ksipram, ciram), much or greatly (bahu, balavat), ivell or
badly, boldly (dhrsnii), or direction (as nyak downward, &c.) ;
e. g. balavad vati it blows hard (SB.) ; bhadram jivantah
living happily (x. 376).

a. The ace. adverbs from ordinals seem to have been appositional
in origin ; e. g. tan va etan sampatan visvamitrah prathamam
apasyat (AB.) these same Sampdta hymns Visvamitra invented first ( = as the
first thing).

/3. Several ace. adverbs are from comparatives and superlatives in
tara and tama formed from prepositions and adverbs ; e. g. draghiya
ayuh pratardm d&dhanah obtaining longer life furthermore (i. 53U).
A good many such have a fern. ace. form in later use, but there is only
one found in the RV. : samtaram padukdu hara put your two little feet
closer together (viii. 3319).

7. A special class is formed by adverbs in vat expressing that. an
action takes place like that performed by the noun preceding the
suffix ; e. g. tvadutaso manuv£d vadema (ii. 106) having thee as our
messenger we, would speak like men ( = as men should speak : properly some-
thing that belongs to wen).

8. Another class of ace. adverbs is formed from various adjectival
compounds. A number of these are formed with the privative particle
a, being of the nature of cognate accusatives ; e. g. devas ch&ndobhir
imal lokan anapajayydm abhy djayan the gods (unconquerably =)
irrevocably conquered these icorlds by means of the metres (TS.).

e. Another group comparatively rare in V., but very common in
B., are those formed from prepositionally governing adjectival com-
pounds ; e. g. anukamdm tarpayetham satisfy yourselves according to
desire (i. 173), adhidevatdm with reference to the deity (SB.). Probably
following the analogy of some of these were formed others in which
the first member of the compound is not a preposition, but an adverb
derived from the relative y& ; e. g. yatha-kam&m nf padyate she turns
in according to her desire (x. 1465), yavaj-jlv&m (as long as =}for life (!§B.).
Some other adverbial compounds are used like gerunds in am ; e.g.
stuka-sargam srsta bhavati it is plaited like a braid of hair (&B.).

197. B. The ace. is largely used with verbal nouns.
Besides being governed by all participles, active and middle.

302 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [197

and by genuine infinitives, in V. it is used with agent
nouns formed from the root or other verbal stems by means
of about ten primary suffixes. Such nouns are made from
the simple root (when compounded with a preposition), and
with the suffixes a (when the stem is compounded with a
preposition), ani (from the aor. or desid. stem), i (generally
from the reduplicated root), lyas and istha (comparatives
and superlatives), u (from desiderative stems), uka (very
rare in V.); tar (when the root is accented), van (when com-
pounded), snu (from causative stems) ; and a few with the
secondary suffix in. Examples of the ace. with such agent
nouns are : devams tvam paribhur asi thou encompassest
the gods (v. 13°); drlha cid arujah breaking even what is
firm (iii. 452) ; tvam no visva abhimatih saksanih thou
overcomest all our adversaries (viii. 242G) ; satam puro ruruk-
sanih. ready to destroy a hundred forts (ix. 482) ; indra ha
ratnam vamna dh^stha Indra and Varuna bestow treasure
most abundantly (iv. 4 13) ; vatsams ca ghatuko vrkah (AV.
xii. 47) and the ^volf slays the calves ; data radhamsi sum-
bhati giving riehes he shines (i. 228) ; prataryavano adhvaram
coming early to the sacrifice (i. 4413) ; sthira cin namayis-
navah. 0 ye who desire to bend even wJiat is rigid (viii. 201) ;
kami hi virah sadam asya pitim for the hero always desires
a draught of it (ii, 141).

a. Some adjectives formed with anc from prepositions governing
the ace. are also used with that case. Such are praty&nc facing,
anv&nc following ; e. g. pratyaim us&sam urviya vi bhati facing the
Dawn (the fire) shines forth far and wide (v. 28l), tasmad anuci patnl
garhapatyam aste hence the wife sits behind the Gdrhapatya fire (AB.).
The ace. is found even with samydnc united ; e. g. osadhir ev&wenam
samydncam dadhati he puts him into contact ivith the plants (MS.) ; but
this adj. also takes the inst., the natural case with a compound
of sam.

£. In B. the only nouns taking the ace. seem to be the des. adjec-
tives in u and the ordinary adjectives in uka (which are very
common) and those in in ; e. g. papmanam apajighamsuh wishing
to drive away sin (AB.), sarpa enam ghatukah syuh the snakes might bite

197-198] ACCUSATIVE 303

him (MS.) ; aprativady eiiam bhratrvyo bhavati his enemy does not
contradict him (PB.).

c. The ace. is governed by more prepositions than any
other case. The genuine prepositions with which it is
exclusively connected in both V. and B. are ati beyond, ami
after, abhi towards, prati against, tiras across; and in V.
only acha towards. It is also taken secondarily by others
which primarily govern other cases (cp. 176. 1. 2). The ace.
is further taken exclusively by the ad nominal prepositions
antara between, abhitas around, upari above, sanitur apart
from ; and secondarily by some others (cp. 177. 1-3).

a. The preposition vina without, except, which first occurs in B. (and
there has only been noted once), takes the ace. ; and rte" without,
which in the RV. governs the abl. only, in B. begins to take the ace.
also (as it often does in post-Vedic Sanskrit).

/3. In B. a number of adverbs (inst. of adjectives and substantives
or formed with tas from pronouns expressive of some relation in
space) take the ace. ; such are dgrena in front of, totarena ivithin,
between, uttarena north of, daksinena to the right or the south of, parena
beyond • ubhaya-tas on both sides of.

7. In B. the ace. is taken by two interjections. One of them, e"d
lo ! behold ! (cp. Lat. en), is always preceded by a verb of motion,
which, however, has sometimes to be supplied ; e. g. e"yaya vayiir :
e"d dhat&m vrtram Vdyu came (to see) : behold, Vrtra (was) dead (&B.) ;
punar 6ma iti deva : €d agnim tirobhutam 'we are coming back', said
the gods', (they came back, and) behold! Agni (had) disappeared! (SB.).
The other interjection dhik fie /, used with the ace. of the person
only, is still very rare in B. ; e. g. dhik tva jalma^astu fie on you,
rogue! (KB.).

Double Accusative.

198. A second ace. appears in apposition with various
verbs; e.g. purusam ha vai deva agre pasum a lebhire
the gods in the beginning sacrificed a man as a victim (SB.).
It is further used :

1. predicatively with verbs of saying (bru, vac), thinking
(man), knowing (vid), hearing (sru), making (kr), ordaining
(vi-dha), choosing (vr), appointing (ni-dha) in both V.

304 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [ios

and B. ; e. g. svanam basto bodhayitaram abravit the
he-goat said (that) the dog (was) the wakener (i. 16113) ; yad
anyo 'nyam papam avadan that the one called the other
wicked (SB.) ; agnim manye pitaram Agni I think a father
(x. 73) ; marisyantam c6d yajamanam many eta if lie thinks
the sacrificer (is) going to die (SB.) ; ciram tan mene he thought
that too long (SB.) ; vidma hi tva puruvasum we know thee
(to be) possessed of much wealth (i. 8 18) ; na vai hatam vrtram
vidma na jivam we know not (whether) Vrtra (is) dead nor
(whether he is) alive (SB.) ; revantam hi tva srnomi I hear
(about) thee (that thou art) rich (viii. 211) ; srnvanty enam
agnim cikyanam (TS.) they hear (about) him having piled the
fire (altar) ; asman su jigyiisah krdhi make us thoroughly
victorious (viii. 80G) ; t6sam pusanam adhipam akarot he
made Pusan their lord (MS.) ; tasma ahutir yajnam vy
adadhuh they made (= ordained) the oblations (to be) the
sacrifice for him (MS.) ; agnim hotaram pra vrne I choose
Agni priest (iii. 191) ; ni tvam agne manur dadhe jyotir
janaya sasvate Manu has appointed thee, 0 Agni, as a light
for every man (i. 8619j.

2. to express the person as a direct object beside the
thing with verbs of addressing (vac), asking (prach), begging
(yac), approaching with prayer (I, ya), milking (dun), shaking
(dhu), sacrificing to (yaj), doing to (kr) ; e. g. agnim maham
avocama suvrktim to Agni we have addressed a great hymn
(x. 807) ; prchami tva param antam prthivyah I ask thee
about the farthest limit of the earth (i. 16434) ; yajnavalkyam
dvau prasnau praksyami / will ask Yajnavalkya two questions
(SB.) ; ap6 yacami bhesajam I leg healing from the waters
(x. 95) ; tad agnihotry agnim yacet that the Agnihotr should
beg of Agni (MS.); vasuni dasmam imahe we approach, the
wondrous one for riches (i. 4210) ; tat tva yami I approach
thee for this (i. 2411) ; duhanty udhar divyani they milk
celestial gifts from the udder (i. 645) ; imam eva sarvan
kaman duhe from her he (milks =) obtains all desires (SB.) ;

198] TWO ACCUSATIVES 305

vrksam phalam dhunuhi shake down fruit from the tree
(iii. 454) ; yaja devam rtam brhat sacrifice to the gods the
lofty rite (i. 755) ; kim ma karann abala asya s6nah ivhat
can his feeble hosts do to me ? (v. 3(T).

a. Of the above verbs vac, i and ya, dhu, yaj and kr do not seem
to be found with two ace. in B. ; on the other hand a-gam approach,
dha milk, ji win, jya wrest from are so used there ; e. g. agnir v&i
varunam brahmac&ryam a gachat Agni (approached = ) asked Varuna for
the position of a religious student (MS.) ; imal lokan adhayad yam- yam
kamam akamayata/row these worlds he extracted whatever he desired (AB.) ;
devan &sura yajndm ajayan the Asuras won the sacrifice from the gods
(MS.) ; indro marutah. sahasram ajinat Indra wrested a thousand from
the Maruts (PB.).

3. to express the agent l with causative verbs beside the
ace. which would be taken by the simple verb also ; e. g.
usan devam usatah payaya havih eager thyself cause the
eager gods to drink the libation (ii. 37°) ; ta yajamanam
vacayati he makes the sacrificer name them (TS.). With
verbs of motion the other ace. expresses the goal (which is,
however, never a person) 2 ; e. g. param eva paravatam
sapatnim gamayamasi to the extreme distance we cause the
rival wife to go (x. 1454) ; yajamanam suvargam lokam
gamayati he causes the sacrificer to reach the celestial
ivorld (TS.).

a. In B. the agent is frequently put in the inst. instead of the ace.
with various causatives, especially that of grab seize ; e. g. ta v&ru-
nena^agrahayat (MS.) he caused Varuna to seize them ( = he caused them
to be seized by Varuna).

&. In B. a second ace. expresses the goal (with ni lead} or duration
of time beside the ace. of the object ; e.g. ev&m eva\_,enam kurm&h
suvarg&m lok&m nayati thus the tortoise leads him to the celestial world
(TS.), tisro ratrir vrat&m caret he should observe a fast for three nights
(TS).

1 Which would be expressed by the nom. with the simple verb ;
e. g. deva havih pibanti the gods drink the libation.

2 When the goal is a person it is expressed by the loc. or a loc.
adverb ; e. g. agnav agnim gamayet he icould send Agni to Agni (SB.) ;
devatra\_,evd enad gamayati he sends it to the gods (SB.).

306 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [199

Instrumental.

199. A. The fundamental sense of this case is con-
comitance, which may variously be rendered by with, ~by,
through, according as it expresses accompaniment, instru-
mentality or agency, causality, motion through space or
duration of time.

1. In its sociative sense the instrumental expresses the
companion or accompaniment of the subject in any activity ;
e. g. dev6 dev^bhir a gam at may the god come with the gods
(i. I6) ; indrena yuja nir apam aubjo arnavam with Indra
as thy companion thou didst release the flood of waters (ii. 2318) ;
indro no radhasa^a gamat may Indra come to us with wealth
(iv. 5510).

o. Similarly in B. : agnir vasubhir ud akramat Indra departed with
the Vasus (AB.) ; y£na m&ntrena juhdti t&d yajuh the spell to the accom-
paniment of which he offers the oblation is the Yajus (&B.); tad asya
sahasawaditsanta they tried to take it from him by force (TS.).

2. In its instrumental sense it expresses the means
(person or thing) by which an action is accomplished ; e. g.
vayam indrena sanuyama vajam we would win booty through
Indra (i. 10111) ; ahan vrtram indro vajrena Indra smote
Vrtra with his lolt (i. 325).

a. Similarly in B. : k6na vlr^na by whom as champion (&B.) ; Slrsna
btjam haranti they carry corn (ivith =) on the head (SB.); t&smad
daksinena hd,stena^,dnnam adyate therefore food is eaten ivith the right
hand (MS.).

3. In its causal sense it expresses the reason or motive
of an action = ~by reason of, on account of, for the sake of-,
e. g. somasya pitya ... a gatam come hither for the sake of
the Soma draught (i. 4613) ; asatrur janusa sanad asi thou
art by thy nature without foes from of old (i. 1028).

«. Similarly in B. : s^, bhisa ni lilye he concealed himself through fear
(&B.). ; so namna by name.

4. In its local sense of through or over it is used with

199] INSTRUMENTAL 307

verbs of motion to express the space through or over which
an action extends ; e. g. diva yanti maruto bhumya^agnir
ayam vato antariksena yati the Maruts go along Hie sJcy,
Agni over tlie earth, the Wind here goes through the air (i. 16114) ;
antarikse pathibhih patantam flying along the paths in the
air (x. 87°).

a. In B. the inst. is constantly used in the local sense with words
meaning path or door, but rarely with others ; e. g. y&thaw£ksetrajno
'nye"na patha n&yet as if one who does not know the district were to lead ly a
wrong road (SB.) ; s&rasvatya yanti fhey go along the Scirasvafl (TS.).

5. In its temporal sense the inst. expresses the time
throughout which an action extends ; e. g. purvibhir dadas-
ima saradbhih we have worshipped throughout many autumns
(L 866). Sometimes, however, the sense of duration is not
apparent, the inst. being then used like the loc. of time ;
thus rtuna and rtiibhih mean in due season.

a. In B. the temporal meaning is rare ; e.g. sa va isumatr&m evahna
tirydnh avardhata he grew in the course of a day quite an arrow's length in
width (MS.).

6. Many instrumentals (chiefly of the sociative and local
classes) have come to be used in a purely adverbial sense.
Such are formed from either substantives or adjectives (of
which sometimes no other form occurs) ; e. g. anjasa straight-
way, mahobhih mightily, sahasa and sahobhis suddenly ;
antarena within, littarena to the north ; uccais above, nicais
below, paracais sideways, pr&c&is forwards, sanais and sanais,

a. In a number of these instrumentals the adverbial use is indicated,
not only by the sense, but by a shift of accent ; e. g. diva by day ; dak-
sina to the right ; madhya between ; naktaya by night ; svapnaya in a
dream ; aksnaya across (B.) ; anomalously formed from u stems : asuya
quickly, dhrsnuya boldly, raghuya swiftly, sadhuya straightivay, mithuya
falsely (mithya SB.), anusthuya immediately (anusthya B.); and from a
pronoun, amuya in that way.

199. B. Besides having the above general and indepen-
dent uses the inst. also appears, in special connexion with

x2

308 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [199

different classes of words by which it may be said to be
' governed ' :

1. with verbs expressing :

a. association or contention with ; in RV. : yat marshal,
yad combine, yuj join (mid.), sac accompany ; yudh fight,
sprdh strive, has race, krid^/a«/; in B. : yudh fight, vi-ji
contend victoriously (with).

b. separation from (compounds with vi) ; in RV. : vi-yu
dissever from, vi-vrt turn away from, vy-a-vrt separate (intr.)
from ; in B. : vy-a-vrt id., vi-rdh be deprived of, vi-stha be
removed from, visvann i go away from = lose.

c. enjoyment ; in RV. : kan find pleasure in, mad be
exhilarated with, uc be fond of, tus be satisfied with, mah
delight in, hrs rejoice in, bhuj enjoy ; in B. : trp be pleased
with, nand be glad of, bhuj enjoy.

d. repletion ; in RV. : pr fill (ace.) with,1 pi swell with ;
in B. : cans, of pr : piiraya fill, pass, piirya be filled with.

e. purchase for (a price) ; in V. : vi-kri bargain away for ;
in B. : nis-kri ransom for.

f. adoration or sacrifice (the victim or object offered). With
yaj sacrifice to the deity is in the ace. in both V. and B. ;
in B. the sacrificial date also is put in the (cognate) ace. ;
e. g. amavasyam yajate he celebrates the feast of new moon.

g. procedure : the verb car in both V. and B. ; e. g.
adhenva carati mayaya he acts with barren craft (x. 71 fi) ;
upamsu vaca carati he proceeds in a low tone with his voice
(AB.J.

h. ability to do : the verb kr in both V. and B. ; e. g. kim
rca karisyati what will he do with a hymn ? (i. 16439) ; kim
sa tair grhaih kuryat what could he do with that house?
(SB.). In B. the phrase artho bhavati there is business with
— there is need o/(Lat. opus est aliqua re) is similarly used :

1 Sometimes also with the gen.: the past part. pass, purnfi, with the
gen. —full of, but with the inst. filled with.

199] INSTRUMENTAL 309

e. g. yarhi vava vo mayartho bhavita // you (gen.) shall
have need of me (AB.).

». dominion: only (in V.) the verb patya be lord o/(lit.
by means of) ; e. g. ind.ro visvair viryaih patyamanah
Indra who is lord of all heroic powers (iii. 5415).

j. subsistence : only (in B.) the verb jiv live on, subsist by ;
e. g. yaya manusya jivanti (the cow) on which men subsist
(TS.).

a. With passive forms of the verb (including participles) the inst.
expresses either the means (as with the active verb) or the agent (the
nom. of the active verb) ; e. g. ghrt6na^,agnih sam ajyate Agni is
anointed ivith ghee (x. 1184) ; usa uchlnti ribhyate vasisthaih Usas when
she dawns is praised ly the Vasisthas (vii. 767). Similarly, in B. : prajapa-
tina srjyante they are created by Prajapati (MS.) ; patrair annani adyate
food is eaten with the aid of dishes (MS.).

0. Nominal forms connected with the verb, when they have a passive
sense, as gerundives and infinitives, take the same construction ; e. g.
nfbhir havyah to be invoked by men (vii. 227) ; ripuna na^avacakse not to
be observed by the enemy (iv. 585) .

2. with nouns :

a. substantives and adjectives (especially those com-
pounded with sa-) expressive of association or equality ; e. g.
nasunvata sakhyam vasti surah the hero desires not friend-
ship with him who does not press Soma (x. 424) ; asi samo
devaih thou art equal to the gods (vi. 48l!)) ; indro vai sadrn
devatabhir asit Indra was equal to the (other) deities (TS.) ;
ajyena misrah mixed with butter (SB.).

b. other adjectives, to express that by which the quality
in question is produced ; e. g. liso vajena vajini 0 Dawn
rich in booty (iii. 61 J) ; bahuh prajaya bhavisyasi thou wilt
be rich in offspring (SB.).

c. numerals accompanied by na, to express deficiency ;
e. g. ekaya na vimsatih not twenty by (lack of) one =
nineteen.

o. with prepositions : genuine prepositions are virtually
not used with the instrumental. The only exceptions in

310 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [199-200

the RV. are the employment of atihi with the inst. of snii
height ; of lipa in three passages with dyiibhis and dharma-
bhis ; and possibly of sam -with in a few passages with the
inst. But prepositional adverbs are found thus used ; in
the KV. only avas beloiv and paras above ; and in both V.
and B. saha and sakam iviih. Cp. 177, 2.

Dative.

200. The dative expresses the notion with which an
action is concerned. It is either connected with individual
words or is used more generally as a complement to the
whole statement.

A. Dative in a special sense with :

1. verbs (mostly as affecting persons) having the sense of
a. give ; in V. B. da give, yam extend, dha bestoiv, bhaj
apportion ; e. g. dadhati ratnam vidhat^ he bestows treasure
on the worshipper (iv. 123) ; in V. also many other verbs
expressing a modification of the sense of giving : dis assign,
ava-duh milk down on, f>r bestow fully, pro bestow abundantly,
rnamh give liberally, ma measure out, ra procure (for), ni-yu
bestow permanently, vid find (for), san obtain (for), su set in
motion (for), srj shed (for), and others.

&. sacrifice ; in V. a-yaj offer to (while yaj takes the ace.) ;
and in V. B. kr when = maJce an offering to ; in B. a-labh
(catch and tie up = ) offer ; e. g. agnibhyah pasun a labhate
he sacrifices the animals to the Agnis (TS.).

c. say =• announce, explain (but with ace. of person if =
address) : in V. B. ah, bru, vac, vad (in B. also a-caks) ; in
V. also arc and ga sing to, stu utter praise to, gir, rap,
sams praise anything (ace.) to. In B. also : ni-hnu apologize
to -, e. g. tad u devebhyo ni hnute thereby lie craves pardon of
the gods (SB.).

d. hear : in RV. a few times sru = listen to ; also ram
linger for = listen to.

200] DATIVE 311

c. lelicve, have confidence in : srad dha ; e. g. srad asmai
dhatta believe in him (ii. 125) ; in B. also slagh trust in.

f. help, be gracious to, pay homage to : in V. sak aid, sidh
avail; sam-nam be complaisant to; dasasya pay honour to,
saparya do anything (ace.) in honour of (a god) ; das, vidh,
sac pay homage to (a god), sam serve (a god) ; in V. and B. :
mrd be gracious to.

g. bring : ni, bhr, vah, hi, hr ; e. g. ama sat6 vahasi
bhuri vamam for him ivho is at home thou bringest much
ivealth (i. 12412) ; dev^bhyo havyam vahanti they take the
oblation to the gods (TS.) ; tarn harami pitryajnaya devam
that god I bring to the sacrifice for the Manes (x. 1610) ; visah.
ksatriyaya balim haranti the peasants bring the taxes to the
nobility (SB.). In V. only there are many other verbs, with
this general sense, that take the dative, such as r, inv, cud
set in motion for, and figurative expressions such as abhi-ksar
stream to, di and sue shine on, prus sprinkle on, abhi-va
waft to : in V. also the verb i go is used with the dat. ; e. g.
pra visnave susam etu manma let my strong hymn go forth
in honour of Visnu (i. 1543).

h. please : svad be sweet to and chand be pleasing to ; e. g.
svadasva^indraya pitaye be sweet to Indra as a draught
(ix. 74°) ; uto tad asmai madhv ic cachadyat and may that
mead be pleasing to him (x. 73°).

i. succeed : in B. rdh and kip ; e. g. na ha^eva^asmai tat
sam anrdhe he did not succeed in that (SB.) ; kalpate 'smai
he succeeds (TS.).

j. subject to : radh ; e. g. asmabhyam vrtra randhi subject
our foes to us (iv. 22°).

k. yield to-, radh succumb f nam and ni-ha bow before,
stha obey, mrad and ksam (B.) yield to, a-vrase fall a victim
to ; e. g. m6 aham dvisat^ radham may I not succumb to
my enemy (i. 5013) ; tasthuh savaya te they obey thy command
(iv. 545).

1. be angry wiih : in V. hr (hrnite) ; in V. and B. : asuya

312 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [200

and krudh; in B. also aratiya be hostile and gla l>e
averse to.

m. seek to injure : in V. and B. druh ; e. g. yad dudr6hitha
striyai pums6 ivhat mischief thou hast done to woman or man

(AV.).

n. cast at : V. srj discharge ; V. B. as thtmv ; B. pra-hr
hurl at; e.g. srjad asta didyum asmai the archer shot a
lightning shaft at him (i. 715) ; tasmai tarn isum asyati he
shoots the arrow at him (MS.) ; vajram bhratrvyaya pra
harati he hurls the bolt at the foe (TS.).

o. exist or be intended for, accrue to : as be, bhu become ;
e.g. gambhire" cid bhavati gadham asmai even in deep
water there is a ford for him (vi. 248) ; indra tubhyam id
abhuma we have become thine own, 0 Indra (TS.) ; atha ko
mahyam bhago bhavisyati then ivhat share will accrue to
me (SB.).

a. The dative is used with gerundives and infinitives to express the
agent, and with the latter also the object by attraction instead of the
ace. ; e. g. yah stotfbhyo haVyo asti who is to be invoked by singers (i. 332) ;
vi srayantam pray&i deve"bhyah let (the doors) open wide for the gods to
enter (i. 1426); indram arkair avardhayann dhaye hantava u they
strengthened Indra with hymns to slay the serpent (v. 314).

2. The dative is used with a certain number of sub-
stantives.

a. Such are words that invoke blessings, especially namas
homage (with the verbs kr do or as be, which are often to be
supplied) ; e. g. namo mahadbhyah. homage to the great
(i. 2713) ; namo 'stu brahmisthaya adoration to the greatest
Brahman (SB.). Similarly used are the sacrificial formulas
svaha, svadha, vasat hail ! blessing ! e. g. t^bhyah svaha
blessing on them (AY.).

a. The indeclinables sam in V. and kam in B. meaning welfare are
used as nom. or ace. with the dat. ; e. g. ydtha sam dsad dvipade
catuspade in order that there may be welfare for biped and quadruped
(i. 1141) ; ahutayo hy agnaye kdm/or the oblations are a joy to Agni (SB.) ;
na^asma d-kam bhavati it does not fare ill with him (TS.).

200] v DATIVE 318

£. In V. the substantives kama desire and gatii path may perhaps be
regarded as taking a dative without a verb to be supplied ; e.g. krnva-
naso amrtatvaya gatum procuring for themselves a path to immortality
(i. 729).

7. In the name D&syave vfkah WolJtotheDasyu (RV.) the dat. is to be
explained as due to its use in the sentence he is a very wolf to the Dasyu.

3. The dative is used with adjectives meaning dear, kind,
agreeable, beneficial, ivilling, obedient, ill-disposed, hostile ; e. g.
siva sakhibhya uta mahyam asit she was kind to friends
and also to me (x. 342) ; atithis carur ayave a guest dear to
man (ii. 28) ; yad vava jiv^bhyo hitam tat pitrbhyah ivhat
is good for the living is good for the Manes (SB.) ; sa ratamana
vrascanaya bhavati (SB.) he is ready for felling (the tree) ;
pratyudyaminim ha ksatraya visam kuryat lie would
make the peasantry hostile to the nobility (SB.).

a. The adj. anagas sinless often seems to take the dative of the name
of a deity, but it is somewhat uncertain whether the case should not
be connected with the verb ; e.'g. anagaso aditaye syama may we be

sinless (to =) in the eyes of Aditi (i. 2415) may perhaps mean may we, a,s
sinless, belong to Aditi.

4. The dative is used with a few adverbs.

a. aram often takes the dat. ; e. g. ye dram vahanti
manyave who drive in accordance with (thy) seal (vi. 1643).
This use of aram is common in combination with the verbs
kr, gam, and bhu. When used with the dat. dram is not
infrequently equivalent to an adj. ; e. g. sasma aram lie is
ready for him (ii. 182) ; ayam somo astu aram manase
yuvabhyam let this Soma be agreeable to your heart (i. 1082).
In B. alam appears in the place of dram and is often
similarly used ; e. g. nalam ahutya asa, nalam bhaksaya
lie was not suitable for sacrifice, nor suitable for food (SB.).

&. The adverb avis visibly is used with the dat. in V. and
B., but only when accompanied by the verbs kr, bhu or as
(the latter sometimes to be supplied) ; e. g. avir ebhyo
abhavat suryahi the sun appeared tOf them (i. 1464) ; tasmai va
avir asama we mil appear to him (SB.).

814 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [200

B. The dative also in a general sense complements the
statement of the whole sentence.

1. It expresses the person for whose advantage or
disadvantage the action of the sentence takes place ; e. g.
devan devayate yaja worship the gods for the benefit of the
pious man (i. 1512) ; tasma etam vajram akurvan for him
they made this bolt (SB.) ; tasma upakrtaya niyoktaram na
vividuh (AB.) for him ivhen he had been brought near they could
find no binder (i.e. they could find no one willing to bind him).

2. It expresses the purpose for which an action is done
(final dative) ; e. g. urdhvas tistha na utaye stand up for
our help = in order to help us (i. 306) ; na susvim indro avase
mrdhati Indra will not leave the pious man in the lurch for
help (vi. 239) ; svargaya lokaya visniikramah kramyante
the Visnu steps are taken for the sake of (= in order to gain)
heaven (TS.) ; agnim hotraya pravrnata they chose Agnifor
the priesthood = in order that he should be priest (SB.). The
final sense is commonly expressed by abstract substantives
(including in V. many infinitives) ; e. g. adhi sriy6 duhita
suryasya ratham tasthau the daughter of the sun has mounted
the car for beauty = so as to produce a beautiful effect (vi. 635) ;
t^na^eva^enam sam srjati santyai ivith him (Mitra) he unites
him (Agni)/or appeasement (TS.).

a. This final dat. is particularly used with as and bhu ;
e. g. asti hi sma maday a vah. there is (something) for your
intoxication, i. e. to intoxicate you (i. 3715) ; madaya somah
(sc. &,sti)*Soma (is for = ) produces intoxication (SB.).

3. The dative is used, though rarely, in expressions
of time like the English for ; e. g. nunam na indra^
aparaya ca syah now and for the future mayst thou be ours,
0 Indra (vi. 335) ; samvatsaraya sam amyate for a year an
alliance is made (MS.).

a. The iterative compound dive-dive day by day, though apparently
dat. of div, is probably in reality meant for the loc. of the transfer
stem div&.

200-201] DATIVE 315

4. Two datives connected in sense often appear together.
This occurs in V. when an ace. is attracted by a dative
infinitive ; e. g. vrtraya hantave = vrtram hantave to slay
Vrtra (cp. 200. A. 1 o a).

a. There is an analogous use in BM where, however, an abstract
substantive takes the place of the infinitive; e.g. y&tha^iddm paru-
bhyani avanejanaya^ah&ranty evam just as they bring it for washing the
hands (SB.). Two datives are here often found with the verb stha, one
expressing the purpose, the other the person affected by the action ;
e.g. devebhyah pasavo 'nnadyayalambaya na^atisthanta the animals
did not present themselves to the gods for food, for sacrifice (AB.).

5. The adverbial use of the dative is very rare : kamaya
and arthaya for the sake of may be regarded as such ;
kamacarasya kamaya for the sake of unrestrained motion
(SB.) ; asmakarthaya jajnise thou hast been lorn for our
sake (AV.).

Ablative.

201. The ablative, expressing the starting-point from
which the action of the verb proceeds, may as a rule be
translated by from. It is chiefly connected with various
classes of words, but is also used independently.
A. In its dependent use the ablative appears with :
1. verbs a. expressing a local action, as go, proceed, drive,
lead, take, receive ; pour, drink ; call, loosen, ward off, exclude ;
e. g. lyiir gavo na yavasad agopah they went like unherded
kine from the pasture (vii. 1810) ; vrtrasya svasathad isa-
manah fleeing from the snorting of Vrtra (viii. 967) ; asatah.
sad ajayata/rom non-leing arose being (x. 723) ; abhrad iva
pra stanayanti vrstayah. from the cloud as it were thunder the
rains (x. 75:}) ; tvarn dasyuinr okasa ajah thou drovest the
enemies from the house (vii. 5G) ; bhujyiim sanmdrad uha-
thuh ye two have borne Blmjyu from the sea (vi. 626) ; daso
hiranyapindan divodasad asanisam ten lumps of gold I

316 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [201

have received from Divodasa (vi. 4723) : apad dhotrad uta
potrad amatta he has drunk from the Hotfs vessel and has
intoxicated himself from the Potr's vessel (ii. 374) ; maruto yad
vo divah. havamahe 0 Maruts, when tve call you from heaven
(viii. 711) ; siinas cic ch6pam yupad amuncah. thou didst
release Sunahsepa from the post (v. 27) ; yuyutam asmad
aniram amivam ivard off from us sickness and calamity
(vii. 712).

a. Examples from B. are : yad dhaved annadyad dhavet if he were to
run, he mould run away from his food (TS.); s& rathat papata he fell from
his car (&B.) ; div6 vrstir irte rain comes from the sky (TS.) ; rsayab. kavasam
ailusam somad anayan the seers led Kavasa Ailiisa away from Soma, i.e.
excluded him from it (AB.) ; enan asmal lokad anudanta they drove them
away from this world (AB.) ; tasmad anasa evd grhniyat therefore he should
take it from the cart (&B. ) ; kesavat purusat sisena parisriitam krinati
he buys the Parisrut from a long-haired man for lead (SB.) ; s& evaweiiam
varunapasan muncati he releases him from the fetter of Varuna (TS.); ,
suvargal lokad yajamano hiyeta the sacrificer would fall short of heaven
(TS.). The two verbs antar dha hide and m-li conceal' oneself sire used
with the abl. in B. only : vajrena^enam suvargal lokad antar dadhyat
he would exclude him from heaven with the bolt (TS.); agnir dev^bhyo ni-
layata Agni concealed himself from the gods (TS.).

1). expressing rescue, protect ; fear, dislike ; transcend, prefer :
verbs with the latter two senses as well as urusya protect,
raks guard, and rej tremble take this construction in V. only ;
pa and tra protect and bhi fear in both V. and B. ; gopaya
protect, bibhatsa be disgusted with in B. only ; e. g. amhaso
no mitra urusyet may Mitra rescue us from distress (iv. 555) ;
sa nas trasate duritat he shall protect us from misfortune
(i. 1285) ; indrasya vajrad abibhet she was afraid oflndra's
bolt (x. 1386) ; pra sindhubhyo ririce, pra ksitibhyah he
reaches beyond rivers and beyond lands (x. 8911) ; somat sutad
indro avrnlta vasisthan Indra preferred the Vasisthas to
(Pasadyumna's) pressed Soma (vii. 332).

a. With bhi two ablatives are found, the one being the
object feared, the other the action proceeding from it ; e. g.
indrasya vajrad abibhed abhisnathah she was afraid of

201] ABLATIVE 317

Indra' s bolt, of its crushing (x. 138"), i. e. that it would crush
her; asuraraksas6bhya asangad bibhayam cakmh. they
were afraid of the Asuras and Raksasas, of their attachment =
that they would attach themselves to them (SB.).

2. substantives when derived from, or equivalent to,
verbs used with the ablative ; e. g. sarma no yamsan triva-
rutham amhasah. they shall grant us thrice-protecting shelter
from distress (x. 665) ; upa chayam iva ghrner aganma
sarma te vayam we have entered thy shelter like shade (that
protects) from heat (vi. 1638) ; raksobhyo vai tarn bhisa
vacam ayachan they restrained their speech from fear of the
demons (SB.).

3. adjectives : in V. and B. comparatives and adjectives
of cognate sense, when it means than • e. g. ghrtat svadiyah.
sweeter than butter (viii. 2420) ; visvasmad indra tittarah.
Indra is greater than every one (x. 861) ; jatany avarany asmat
born later than he (viii. 96°) ; purva visvasmad bhuvanad
abodhi she has awakened earlier than every being (i. 1232) ;
papiyan asvad gardabhah the ass is worse than the horse
(TS.) ; brahma hi purvam ksatrat the priesthood is superior
to the warrior class (PB.) ; anyo va ay am asmad bhavati
he becomes other than we (AB.).

a. In B. several local and temporal adjectives : arvacina below,
urdhv& above, jihm& aslant ; arvauc before, paranc after; e.g. y&t kim
ca^,arvacinam adityat whatever is below the sun (SB.); etdsmac catvalad
urdhvah svargam lokam upod akraman upward from that pit they
ascended to heaven (&B.) ; yajnaj jihma iyuh they (would go obliquely
from =) lose the sacrifice (AB.); dasa va etasmad arvancas trivrto, dasa
parancah ten Trivrts occur before it and ten after it (AB.).

6. iu B. adjectives in uka, which with bhu are equivalent to
a verb ; e. g. yajamanat pasavo 'nutkramuka bhavanti the animals are
not inclined to run away from the sacrificer (AB.).

c. in B. numerals, both ordinals and cardinals : with the former
the abl. expresses the point from which the reckoning is made ;
e.g. Tsvaro ha^asmad dvitiyo va trtiyo va brahmanatam abhyupaitoh
the second or third (in descent)/rom him can obtain Brahminhood (AB.) ; with
the latter it expresses the figure by which the complete number is
defective ; e. g. 6kan na satam not a hundred by one = ninety-nine.

318 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [201-202

Analogously with words meaning incomplete the abl. expresses the
amount of the deficiency ; e. g. elcasmad aksdrad &naptam (a verso)
incomplete by one syllable (TS.); tesam alpakad eva^agnir asamcita asa
their fire (altar) ivas not completely piled up by a little only, i.e. was almost
completely piled up (5§B.\

4. adverbs meaning before, beyond, outside, belotv, far from,
without are used prepositionally with the abl. Those
occurring in V. only are : adhas below, avas down from, are*
without, puras before ; in V. and B. : rte" without, tiras apart
from, paras outside, pura before ; in B. only : abhyardhas
far from-, bahis outside. Cp. 177, 3.

a. In B. some other adverbs with a local or temporal
sense ; e. g, duram ha va asman mrtyiir bhavati death is
far from him (SB.) ; tasman madhyamac chankor daksina
pan cadasa vikraman pra kramati he strides forward fifteen
steps to the right of this middle peg (SB.) ; prag ghomat before
(making) the oblation (AB.).

B. The abl. is used independently of any particular class
of word to express the reason of an action in the sense of
on account of-, e. g. ma nas tasmad 6naso deva ririsah
let us suffer no harm, 0 god, on account of this sin (vii. 89r') ;
anrtad vai tah praja varuno 'grhnat by reason of their guilt
Varuna seised creatures (MS.). Similarly in B. : tasmad
therefore ; kasmat wherefore ?

Genitive.

202. The genitive is a dependent case, being in its main
uses connected with verbs and substantives, but also appear-
ing with adjectives and adverbs.

A. With verbs the gen. has a sense analogous to that of
the ace., but differs here from the latter in expressing that
the action affects the object not as a whole, but only in part.
It is used with verbs having the following senses:

a. rule over, dispose of: always with ksi and raj, nearly
always with irajya and is (rarely ace.). In B. the only verb

202] GENITIVE 319

with this sense taking the gen. is is have power over • e. g.
atha^esam sarva Tse then every one lias power over them (MS.).
&. rejoice in : always with trp, pri, vrdh ; optionally with
kan and mad (also inst. and loc.), and with the caus. of pan
(also ace.).

a. In B. the only verb of this group taking the gen. is trp in a
partitive sense ; e. g. dnnasya trpyati he refreshes himself with (some} food

(s"B.).

c. take note of: always with 2. kr speaJc highly of and
a-dhi think about, care for ; alternatively with ace. : cit
observe, attend to, budh take note of; adhi-i, -gani, -ga
attend to, care for ; vid Jcnoiv about (with ace. know fully) •
sru hear (gen. of person, ace. of thing, heard). In AY.
kirtaya mention and smr remember take the gen.

a. In B. only three verbs of this class are thus construed : vid and
sru as in EV., and kirtaya mention.

d. partitiveness (while the ace. with the same verbs
expresses full extent) :

1. eat, drink : as cat of, ad eat (almost exclusively with
ace.) ; pa drink ; H-vrsfill oneself full of, vi and jus enjoy.

a. In B. only as and pa besides bhaks eat (in KV. with ace. only)
take the partitive gen.

2. give, present, sacrifice: da give of, a-dasasya and sak
present with; prc give abundantly of-, yaj sacrifice (ace. of
person, gen. of offering), e. g. s6masya tva yaksi I will
worship tliee (with a libation) of Soma (iii. 532).

a. In B. yaj may be used without ace. of the person ; e. g. t&smad
ajyasya^eva" yajet therefore he should sacrifice some butter (S"B.).

13. In B. several verbs having the general sense of giving and taking,
not so used in V., come to be used with the gen. of the object in
a partitive sense : vap strew, hu offer, abhi-ghar pour u$on, ava-da cut off
some of, a-sout drip, upa-str spread over, ni-han (AV.) and pra-han strike,
vi-khan dig up some of; grabh take of and in the passive be seized
= suffer in (a part of the body) ; e. g. ii& c&ksuso grhe he does not suffer
in his eye (MS.) : yd vaco grhlt&h who suffers in his voice (MS.).

320 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [202

7. In B. anu-bru invite is used with the dat. of the god and the gen.
of that to which he is invited ; e. g. agni-somabhyam me'daso 'nu
bruhi invite Agni and Soma to the fat (&B.).

e.' obtain, ask for: bhaj participate in (with ace. obtain)]
bhiks beg for: I and id implore for (generally ace. of thing as
well as person) ; e. g. tarn imahe indram asya rayah we
implore Indira for some of that wealth (vi. 223) ; iyate vasu-
nam he is implored for some of his riches (vii. 32'') ; also a-yu
take possession of.

a. Of these verbs bhaj remains in use in B. : with gen. = have a share
in (with ace. receive as a share}.

f. belong to : as and bhu, with the gen. of the possessor in
both V, and B. ; e.g. asmakam astu ke>alah let him
exclusively be ours (i. 710) ; atha^abhavat keValah somo
asya then Soma became exclusively his (vii. 985); manor ha
va rsabha asa Manu had a bull (SB.) ; tasya satam jay a
babhuvuh he had a hundred wives (AB.).

B. The genitive is used with two classes of substantives.

1. It depends on verbal substantives and is then allied to

the gen. with verbs (especially those expressing possession).

a. The subjective gen., which is equivalent to the agent
of the action expressed by the cognate verb ; e. g. usaso
vyustau at the break of dawn = when the dawn breaks ;
apakramad u ha^eva^esam etad bibhayam cakara he
was afraid of their departure (oB.) = thai they would run away.
It very often occurs with datives ; e. g. yajnasya samrd-
dhyai/or the success of the sacrifice (TS.) = that the sacrifice
might succeed.

b. The objective gen., which is equivalent to the object
expressed by the cognate verb ; e. g. yogo vajinah the yoking
of the steed = he yokes the steed ; pur a vrtrasya vadhat
before the slaughter of Vrtra (SB.) = before he slew Vrtra.
It often occurs with datives ; e. g. yajamanasya^ahimsayai
for the non-injury of the sacrificer (MS.) = in order not to
injure the sacrificer.

202] GENITIVE 321

a. This genitive is common with agent nouns, especially those in
tf ; e.g. rayo data giver of wealth (vi. 2310) ; pusa pasunam prajanayita
Pusan is the propagator of cattle (MS.). But in V. the agent nouns in tr
with few exceptions take the ace. when the root is accented ; e. g.
data vasu one who gives ivealth (vi. 233).

2. The gen. commonly depends on non-verbal substantives.
It may then have two senses :

a. The possessive gen. ; e. g. ve"h. parnam the iving oftlie
bird = wing belonging to the bird ; devanam dutah. the
messenger of the gods. It also appears with abstract nouns
derived from such words ; e. g. ad id devanam upa
sakhyam ayan then they came to friendship with the gods
(iv. S3'2) = then they became friends of the gods.

a. The gen. used with the perf. pass, part., felt to be the agent, is a
variety of the possessive gen. Already appearing a few times in the
RV. it is common in B. ; e. g. p&tyuh krlta (MS.) the bought (wife) of
ihe husband — (the wife) bought by the husband,

/3. The gen. is similarly used with the gerundive; e.g. anyasya
balikrd anyasyawadyah paying taxes to another, to be devoured by another
CAB.)".

7. The gen. is frequently used possessively where we would use a
dative ; e. g. tasya ha putro jajne a son of his was born — a son teas born
to him (AB.).

5. The gen. is occasionally used for the dative with srad dha beliere
and da give in the AB. This use may have started from the possessive
sense.

I. The partitive gen. expresses a part of the whole ; e. g.
mitro vai sivo devanam Mitra is the kindly one among the
gods (TS.). If the gen. is a plural of the same word as that
on which it depends it is equivalent to a superlative ; e. g.
sakhe sakhinam 0 friend among friends = lest of friends
(i. 3011) ; mantrakrtam mantrakrt best of composers of
hymns (B.).

a. This gen. is in particular used with comparatives and superla-
tives (including prathamfi first, caram& last, &c.) ; e. g. n& para jigye
katar&s canainoh not either of the two of (hem conquered (vi. 698) ; gardabhah
pasunam bharabharitaniah the ass is the best bearer of burdens among
animals (TS.).

1819 Y

322 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [202

/3. It is used with numbers above twenty (in B. only with sahasram)
and words expressive of a division or a measure ; e. g. sastim asvanam
(an aggregate of) sixty horses', gonam ardham half of the cows; g&vam
yuthani herds ofcoivs. Sometimes this gen. is used by transference to
express not a part, but the whole ; as in marutam gan&h the host (con-
sisting) of the Maruts.

7. The gen. sometimes expresses the material ; e. g. krsnanam
vrihinam carum srapayati he cooks a mess of Hack rice (SB. ) ; ete"sam
vrksanam bhavanti they (the fences) are (made of the wood) of these
trees (SB.). It is used in this sense with the verb kr ; e.g. yd ev£ kas
ca vrksdh phalagrahis tasya karyk whatever tree bears fruit, of (a part of)
that it is to be made (MS.).

C. The gen. is used with a few adjectives meaning
attached to, like, capable of, know-ing, offering, abounding in :
priya dear, anuvrata obedient-, pratyardhi standing at the
side of-, anurupa similar ; isvara able to, navedas cognisant
°f> papri bestotving abundantly (partitive gen. of the thing-
offered, e. g. andhasah of the juice (i. 523) ; and with the
participles, used like adjectives, purna full of, prpivams
abounding in.

D. The gen. is used with certain adverbs having 1. a local
sense : in V. agratas before (AV.) ; in V. and B. : daksinatas
to the right of; avastad below, parastad above, purastad before ;
in B. : uparistad behind, pascad behind, puras before ;
antikam near, n^diyas nearer, n^distham nearest.

a. In the RV. ai6 far from takes the gen. (also the abl.).
/?. In B. the local adjective (like the local adverbs) ridane northward
of takes the gen.

2. a temporal sense : ida and idanim now are used in V.
with the genitives ahnas and ahnam = at the present time of
day, pratar early with the gen. ahnas in V. and with
ratryas in B. ; e. g. yasya ratryah pratar yaksyamanah
syat in the morning of which night he may be about to sacrifice
(MS.).

3. a multiplicative sense: in V. sakrt once with ahnas
one e a day • tris thrice in trir ahnas, trir a divah thrice

202-203] GENITIVE 323

a day and trir aktds three times a night ; in B. : dvis twice
and tris thrice with samvatsarasya, twice, thrice a year.

a. The adverbial use in V. of the gen. in a temporal sense is perhaps
derived from that with multiplicatives : aktos, ksapas and ksapds
of a night; vastos and usasas of a morning.

Locative.

203. This case expresses the sphere in which an action
takes place, or with verhs of motion the sphere which is
reached by the action. Its sense includes not only locality
(both concrete and abstract) but persons and time. It may
therefore be variously translated by in, on, at ; beside, among,
in the presence of; to, into.

A. The loc. appears in a general and independent way in
the following senses :

1. Place : a. concrete ; e. g. divi in heaven, parvate in or
on the mountain (i. 322) ; sarasvatyam at the Sarasvati
(iii. 234) ; yudhi in battle (i. 83), samgram<§ id. (SB.).

b. abstract : asya sumatau syama may ^ve be in his good
graces (viii. 4812) ; tad indra te vase that, 0 Indra, is in
thy power (viii. 934) ; ya adityanam bhavati pranitau who
is in the guidance of the Adityas (ii. 2713) ; vajrasya yat
patane padi susnah when upon the flight of the bolt Susna
fell (vi. 205) ; ghrtakirtau at the mention of (the word)
ghee (SB.).

2. Persons : e. g. yat kim ca duritam mayi whatever sin
there is in me (i. 2322) ; pipaya sa sravasa martyesu he
abounds in fame among mortals (vi. 103) ; yat sth.6 druhyavy
anavi turvase yadau, huv6 vam whether ye two are beside
(with) Druhyu, Anu, Turvasa (or) Yadu, I call you (viii. 105) ;
vayam syama varune anagah may we be guiltless in the eyes
of Varuna (vii. 877) ; asniin pusyantu gdpatau let them
prosper under this herdsman (x. 193).

3. Time : here the loc. expresses that an action takes
place within the limits of the time mentioned ; e. g. usaso

y2

324 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [203-204

vyustau at the fiush of dawn', usasi in the morning (in B.
pratar is used instead) ; dyavi-dyavi every day (not used in
B.) ; trir ahan three times in the day (in B. gen. only) ; jay ate
masi-masi lie is born (once) in every (successive) month
(x. 523).

a. This temporal use sometimes comes to mean that something
happens at the end of the period ; e. g. samvatsara iddm adya vy
akhyata ye have opened your eyes now to-day (for the first time) in a year
(i. 16113) = at the end of a year ; tatah. samvatsare" piirusah sam abhavat
thence arose in (= at the end of) a year a man (SB.).

4. Adverbially. A few substantives and adjectives are
thus used ; e. g. agre often occurs in the sense of in front
and at first, appearing even in compounds (e. g. agre-ga
going before, agre-pa drinking first) ; in SB. the loc. of
ksipra quick is several times thus employed, e. g. ksipre"
ha yajamano 'mum lokam iyat the sacrificer would speedily
go to yonder world.

204. B. The loc. is connected with different classes of
words by which it may be said to be governed.

1. It is specially connected with verbs expressing :
• a. in V. : rejoice in ; grow, prosper ; Uess, injure in respect
of] implore, invoke for (I, hu) ; receive from] e.g. visve deva
havisi madayadhvam do ye, 0 all-gods, rejoice in the oblation
(vi. 5217) ; tavisisu vavrdhe he gretv in strengtli (i. 522) ;
ya esam bhrtyam rnadhat sa jivat lie who will succeed in
their support, shall live (i. 8416) ; prava nas tok6 Uess us in
children (viii. 2312) ; ma nas tok6 ririsah. injure us not in our
children (i. 1148); agnim tok6 tanaye sasvad imahe Agni
we constantly implore for children and for grandchildren
(viii. 7113) ; adha hi tva havamahe tanaye g6su^apsu for
we invoke thee for offspring, cows, water (vi. 1912) ; dev^su^
amrtatvam anasa ye received immortality (among = ) from the
gods (iv. 364) ;

in V. and B. : let share in (a-bhaj) and struggle for (sprdh,
rarely in V.); e. g. yan abhajo mariita indra s6me the

204] LOCATIVE 325

Maruts ivhom thou, 0 Indra, didst allow to share in Soma
(iii. 359) ; anu no 'syam prthivyam a bhajata let us have
a share in this earth (SB.); adityas ca ha va arigirasas ca
svarge loke 'spardhanta the Adityas and the Angirases
struggled for (the possession of) the heavenly world (AB.) ;

in B. : request (is), ask (prach), call in question (mimams) ;
e. g. sa ha^iyam dev^su sutyayam apitvam ise she re-
quested from the gods a share in the Soma feast (SB.) ; te devesv
aprchanta they inquired of the gods (PB.).

b. in V. and B. : motion, to indicate the place that is
reached. The case may here be translated by to, into, upon.
Such verbs in V. are : go (gam), enter (a- vis), ascend (a-ruh),
descend (ava-vyadh), flow (ars, dhav), pour (sic, hu), put
(dha, kr) ; e. g. sa id dev^su gachati (i. I4) that goes to
(= reaches) the gods (while devan gachati would mean goes
in the direction of the gods) ; yo martyesv it krn6ti devan
who brings the gods to mortals (i. 77'); viryam yajamane
dadhati he puts energy into the sacrificer (TS.) ; na va esa
gramy^su pasusu hitah he (is not placed among =) does not
belong to the tame animals (TS.). In B. verbs meaning to
thro'W at are especially common with the loc.

c. desire, to indicate the goal or object aimed at : grdh be
eager, yat strive, a-sams hope ; e.g. annesu jagrdhur they are
eager for food (ii. 2316) ; divi svano yatate the sound soars to
heaven (x. 753) ; a tu na indra samsaya gosv asvesu pray
give us hope, Indra, of cows and horses (i. 291) ; agnihotrini
devata a samsante the gods place their hope in the maintainer
of the sacrificial fire (MS.).

2. The loc. is also used to some extent connected with
nouns :

a. verbal nouns (substantives and adjectives) derived from
verbs taking that case ; e. g. na tasya vacy api bhago asti
he has no share in speech (x. 71°) ; somo bhutv avapanesv
abhaga^i let Soma be a participator in drinking bouts (i. 1364) ;
suta it tvam nimisla indra s6me thoit, art attached, 0 Indra,

326 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [204-205

to the pressed Soma (vi. 231) ; tasminn eva^eta nimislatama
iva to kirn these (women) are most devoted (SB.).

I. ordinary adjectives : in V. priya and caru dear ; e. g.
priyah surye priy6 agna bhavati he will lie dear to Surya,
dear to Agni (v. 375) ; carur mitr6 varune ca dear to Mitra
and Varuna(ix. 61°) ; in B. dhruva firm ; e. g. rastram evaw
asmin dhruvam akah lie has made the sovereignty established
in him (TS.).

3. The loc. is used with a few prepositions : in V. a in,
at, on, and (rarely) dpi near, in, and upa near to, at, upon, as
well as the prepositional adverb saca beside, ivitli ; in V. and
B. adhi on and antar ivithin (cp. 176, 2 ; 177, 5).

Locative and Genitive Absolute.

205. 1. The absolute construction of the loc., in which
the case is always accompanied by a participle, started from
the ordinary use of the loc. Combined with a participle it
came to be regarded as a temporal or qualifying clause
where the case alone could not be employed. Thus beside
usasi at daivn could appear uchantyam usasi at daivn as it
shines forth, which then acquired the independent sense
when daivn shines forth (i. 1841). As regards the participles
used in this construction, the future never occurs ; the perf.
act. is quite isolated ; the perf. pass. part, is somewhat
doubtful in V., but undoubted in B. ; while the pres. part,
is in fully developed use in V. as well as B.

a. An example of the perf. part. act. in vant used
absolutely is : asitavaty atithav asniyat (AV. ix. 638) the
guest having eaten, he may eat (cp. 161).

fc. The perf. part. pass, appears in the BV. in several
expressions, such as jat6 agnau, stirne" barhisi, sute" some,
in which the loc. probably still has its ordinary sense ; e. g.
visvam adhag ayudham iddhe" agnau lie burnt every weapon
in the kindled fire (ii. 154); yo asvasya dadhikravno akarit

205] LOCATIVE ABSOLUTE 327

samiddhe agna usaso vyustau who has honoured the steed
Dadhikravan beside the kindled fire at the flush of Dawn (iv. 39s),
possibly ivhen the fire is kindled. In other examples the
absolute sense seems more likely : yad im enam usat6 abhy
avarsit trsyavatah pravrsy agatayam ivhen it has rained
upon the eager thirsty ones, the rainy season having come
(vii. 1033) ; especially in yan marutah surya udite madatha
when ye, 0 Maruts, are exhilarated at the rising of the sun
(v. 5410). Here surye could not be used alone,1 while the
loc. of time would be expressed by udita suryasya at
sunrise.

a. In B. the absolute use with the perf. part. pass, is much more
pronounced ; e. g. uditesu ndksatresu vacam vf srjati ivhen We stars
have risen he sets free his voice (TS.) ; s& enah svo bhut^ yajate fie sacrifices
to them when the morning has appeared (TS.) ; krite" some maitravarunaya
dandam prd yachati ichen the Soma has been bought he hands the staff to the
Maitrdvaruna priest (TS.); t&smad gardabhe" pura^ayusah prdmlte
bibhyati therefore one is frightened when a donkey has died before its time
(TS.). The substantive has sometimes to be supplied ; e.g. sa hovaca :
hato vrtro ; y&d dhate kuryata tfi,t kuruta^iti he said : Vrtra is dead ;
what you would do, if he icere dead, that do (SB.).

c. Of the pres. part, with the loc. in the absolute sense
there are many examples in V. ; e. g. indram pratar hava-
maha indram prayati^adhvare' Indra we invoke early,
Indra ivhen the sacrifice proceeds (i. 163) ; sarasvatim deva-
yanto havante sarasvatim adhvar6 tayamane men devoted
to the gods invoke Sarasvati, Sarasvatl tvhile the sacrifice is
extended (x. 177) ; ta vam adya tav aparam huvemaw
uchantyam usasi so you two to-day, so you two in future we
would invoke when Dawn shines forth (i. 1841).

a. Similarly in B : yajnamukhe-yajnamukhe v&i kriy&mane yaj-
ndm rdksamsi jighamsanti always when the commencement of the sacrifice
is being made, the RaJcsases seek to destroy the sacrifice (TS.) ; some hanya"-
mane yajno hanyate when Soma is destroyed, the sacrifice is destroyed (TS.) ;

1 Because the sense rejoice in the sun would be unnatural, though the
construction of mad with the loc. is normal (cp. 204, 1 a).

328 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [205-206

tasmad agnicid varsati nd dhavet therefore the fire-piler should not ran
when it rains (TS.) ; tdm et&t pratyayatyam ratrau say&m lipatisthanta
so they approached him in the evening when night returned (SB.).

2. The genitive absolute is unknown in V., but has
already come into use in B. It arose from the possessive
genitive which acquired an independent syntactical value
when accompanied by a (pres. or perf. pass.) participle much
in the same way as the loc. The substantive is sometimes
omitted. Examples are : tasya^alabdhasya^ sa vag apa
cakrama he being sacrificed, this voice departed (SB.) ; tasmad
apam taptanam ph6no jayate therefore, tvhen water is heated,
foam arises (SB.) ; sa eta vipriiso 'janayata ya imah
skuyamanasya vipravante he (Agni) produced those sparks
ivhich dart about when (the fire) is stirred (MS.); tesam ha^
uttisthatam uvaca while these stood up he said (AB.). In
the first three of the . above examples the close relationship
of the absolute to the possessive case is still apparent.

Participles.

206. Participles are of a twofold nature inasmuch as
they share the characteristics of both noun and verb.
In form they are adjectives both in inflexion and concord.
On the other hand they not only govern cases like the verb,
but also indicate differences of voice and generally speaking
retain the distinctions of time expressed by the tenses to
which they belong. They are as a rule used appositionally
with substantives, qualifying the main action and equiva-
lent to subordinate clauses. They may thus express a rela-
tive, temporal, causal, concessive, final, or hypothetical
sense. The verbal character of participles formed directly
from the root (and not from tense stems) is restricted (with
certain exceptions) to the passive voice in sense, and to past
and future time ; while owing to their passive nature they
are not construed with an ace. of the object, but only with
the inst. of the agent or means.

207-208] PARTICIPLES _ 329

207. The pres. part, is occasionally used in V. by anaco-
luthon as a finite verb ; e.g. asmad aham tavisad isamana
indrad bhiya maruto rejamanah I (am) fleeing from this
mighty one, trembling with fearoflndra, ye Maruts (i. 17 14).
This use does not seem to be found in B.

a. The pres. part, is used with the verbs i go, car move,
as remain, stha stand as auxiliaries to express continued
duration in V. and B. ; e. g. visvam anyo abhicaksana eti
the other (Pusan) goes on watching the universe (ii. 4Q5) j
vicakasac candrama naktam eti the moon goes on shining
brightly at night (i. 2410) ; te 'sya grhah pasava upanmrya-
mana lyuh his house and cattle would go on being destroyed
(SB.) ; tvam hi ... 6ko vrtra carasi jighnamanah /or thou
alone goest on killing the Vrtras (iii. 304) ; t6 'rcantah sram-
yantas ceruh they went on praying and fasting (SB.) ; ream
tvah p6sam aste pupusvan the one keeps producing abundance
of verses (x. 7 111) ; somam eva^etat pibanta asate they thus
keep on drinking Soma (TS.) ; ucchvancamana prthivi sii
tisthatu let the earth keep on yawning wide (x. 1812) ; vitrmha-
nas tisthanti they keep conflicting (TS.).

208. The past passive participle in ta is very frequently
used as a finite verb ; e. g. tatam me apas tad u tayate
piinah. my work is done and it is being done again (i. 1101) ;
na tvavarn indra kas cana na jato na janisyate no one is
like thee, 0 Indra, he has not been born, and he will not be born
(i.815) ; used impersonally : sraddhitam te mahata indriyaya
confidence has been placed in thy great might (i. 104°).

Similarly in B. : ista dev&ta dtha katamd et6 the gods have been wor-
ahipped, but which are these gods? (TS.); also in subordinate clauses:
tasmin yad apannam, grasitam evawasya t^,t what has got into' him, that
has been devoured by him (TS.).

a. The perf. pass. part, is not infrequently used with
forms of as and bhu as auxiliaries constituting a periphrastic
mood or tense in V. ; e. g. yuktas te astu daksinari let thy
right (steed) be yoked (i. 825) ; dhumas te ketiir abhavad

330 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [208-209

divi sritah. the smoke, thy banner, (ivas raised = ) arose to
heaven (v. II3).

b. Such forms (pres. and aor. ind. of bhu, impf. and perf.
ind. and opt. of as) make regular past and present tenses and
the opt. mood in B. ; e. g. bhuyasibhir ha^asyawahutibhir
istam bhavati "by him sacrifice has been made with several
offerings (AB.) ; devasurah samyatta asan the gods and
Asuras were engaged in conflict (TS.) ; tad va fsmam anu-
srutam asa that teas heard by the seers (SB.) ; tasmad vidhrta
adhvano 'bhuvan therefore the roads have been divided (TS.).

209. Future Participles Passive. There are six of
these : one, that in ayya occurs in the KV. only ; three,
those in enya, ya, and tva, in V. and in B. ; two, those in
tavya and aniya in V. (but not in the RV.) and in B.
The commonest sense expressed by these verbal nouns is
necessity ; but various allied meanings, such as obligation,
fitness, certain futurity, and possibility, are also frequent.
Four of them are construed with the inst. of the agent (the
gen. and dat. sometimes appearing instead), while the forms
in tva and aniya are never found connected with a case.

1. The commonest of these gerundives is that in ya ;
sadyo jajnan6 havyo babhuva as soon as born he became
one to be invoked (viii. 9621). It often appears without a
verb ; e. g. visva hi vo namasyani vandya namani deva
uta yajniyani vah all your names, ye gods, are adorable,
worthy of praise, and worshipful (x. 632). The agent may be
expressed by the inst., dat., or gen. ; e. g. tvam nrbhir
havyo visvadha^asi thou art always to be invoiced by men
(vii. 227) ; asmabhir u nu praticaksya^abhut she has
become visible (by=) to us(i. 11311) ; sakha sakhibhya idyah.
a friend to be praised by friends (i. 754) ; ya 6ka id dhavyah.
carsaninam who alone is to be invoiced of men (vi. 221).

a. In B. the agent may be in the inst. or gen., but not in the dat. ;
thus t&smai de"yam means to him gifts should be given (SB.). This
example also illustrates the impersonal use of this gerundive in B.,

209] GERUNDIVE 331

a use unknown to the RV. This gerundive is always without a verb,
being unaccompanied by forms of as or bhu in B. ; e. g. bahu d6yam

much (is) to be given (MS.).

2. The gerundive in tva in the RV. implies necessity or
possibility and is often used in contrast with the past ; but
it is not found accompanied by a verb (as or bhu) or a noun
expressing the agent ; e. g. ripavo hantvasah. the enemy are
to be 'killed (iii. 3015) ; yo nantvany anaman ny ojasa ^vho
~by his might lent what could ~be "bent (ii. 242) ; tad visvam
abhibhur asi yaj jatam yae ca jantvam thou surpassest all
that has. been born and that is to be born (viii. 896).

a. The only meaning that seems to be expressed by this gerundive
in B. is possibility; e.g. snatvam udakam water that can be bathed in
(!§B.) ; no asya^anyad dhotvam asit pranat and he had nothing else that
could be offered but breath (MS.).

3. The gerundive in ayya, found in the RV. only, some-
times appears accompanied by an agent in the inst. or the
dat. ; e. g. daksayyo nrbhih to be propitiated by men (i. 1292) ;
daksayyo dasvate dama a who is to be propitiated by the
pious man in his house (ii. 43).

4. The form in enya, almost restricted to the RV., may
be accompanied by an agent in the inst. ; e. g. agnir ildnyo
gira Agni to be praised with song (i. 795) ; abhyayams^nya
bhavatam mamsibhih be willing to be drawn near by the
devout (i. 341).

a. It is once or twice also found in B. ; thus vacam udyasam susru-
se"nyam I would utter a speech worthy to be heard (TS.).

5. The gerundive in tavya, which is not found in the
RV. at all, occurs only twice in the AV. ; thus na brahman6
himsitavyah a Brahmin is not to be injured (AV. v. 186).

a. In B. it is frequent and used much in the same way as the form
in ya ; here it is also used impersonally and with the agent in the
inst. ; e. g. putro yajayayitavyah a son must be made to sacrifice (MS.) ;
agnicita paksino nd^asitavyam anAgnicit should not eat (any part) of a
bird (MS.); pasuvratena bhavitavyam (MS.) he should act after the manner of

332 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [209-210

cattle (more literally : action should be taken by him as one following the
manner of cattle).

6. The form in aniya, which is rare in both V. and B.,
does not occur at all in the KV., and only twice in the prose
of the AV. Expressing only suitability or possibility, and
never used either with an inst. or impersonally, it has
hardly attained the full value of a gerundive even in B. ;
e. g. upajivaniyo bhavati he is one ivlio may be subsisted on
(AV.) ; abhicaraniya liable to ~be bewitched (SB.) ; ahavanlya
suitable to be offered to (AB.).

Gerund or Indeclinable Participle.

210. The forms of the gerund, ending in tvi$ tva, tvaya
(cp. 163) and in ya or tya (164) are synonymous, expressing
an action that is past before that of the finite verb begins.
It regularly refers to what is regarded as the subject of the
sentence ; e. g. gudhvi tamo jyotisa^usa abodhi having
hidden away the darkness, Dawn has aivakened with light
(vii. 802) ; yuktva haribhyam lipa yasad arvak having
yoJced (them) may he come hither with his two bays (v. 404) ;
striyam drstvaya kitavam tatapa having seen a woman it
pains the gambler (x. 3411) = the gambler, having seen a woman,
is pained ; piba nisadya drink, after having sat down (i. 1774) ;
y6 hanti satrum abhitya who slays the foe after having
attacked him (ix. 554).

a. The usage in B. is similar ; e. g. t&smat suptva prajah pra budh-
•yante therefore creatures awake after having slept (TS.); t6m ha^enam
drstva blur viveda having seen him fear seised him = having seen him he
became afraid (SB.). The gerund is, however, here found loosely con-
strued in various ways not occurring in V. Thus it refers in sense to
the agent implied by the future part. pass, in tavya or ya used predi-
catively as a finite verb; e.g. agnihotrahaVanim prat&pya hdsto
'vadheyah his hand (is) to be put into it (by the holder) after having heated
the fire-sacrifice ladle (MS.). Still looser is the connexion in such sen-
tences as the following : t6" pas&va osadhlr jagdhva^apah pitva tdta
es& r&sah s&m bhavati the beasts having eaten the plants and drunk water —

210-211] GERUND 333

then this rital sap arises (J§B.) = then acquire this vital sap. The past sense
of the gerund is often emphasized by the particle atha then being
placed immediately after it. The gerund is here sometimes equiva-
lent to the finite verb of a subordinate clause ; e. g. atithy£na vai
deva istva taiit samad avindat after the gods had sacrificed ivith the rite of
hospitable reception, discord came upon them (SB.); similarly with the verb
man think : etdd vai devah prapya raddhvawivawamanyanta the gods,
having obtained this, thought that they had as good as won (SB.).

b. The gerund in am, which is always a compound, and
the first member of which is nearly always a preposition,
expresses a simultaneous action performed by the subject of
the finite verb of the sentence. Being a cognate ace. used
adverbially it is only beginning to be used as a gerund in
late V. ; e. g. tantram yuvati abhyakramam vayatah the
tivo maidens iveavc the web while going up to it (AY.).

a. In B. it has become common ; e. g. abhikramam juhoti (TS.)
he sacrifices while approaching (the fire). This gerund is sometimes used
with as, i, or car to express continued action ; e. g. te" parapatam

asata they kept flying away (MS.).

Infinitive.

211. The normal use of this form is to supplement the
general statement of the sentence in a final (in order to) or
a consequential (.so as to) sense. The infinitive is, however,
sometimes dependent on a particular word in the sentence,
usually a verb, occasionally a noun : it then loses some of its
full meaning, as in other languages after an auxiliary. The
object when it is expressed is generally in the accusative.

1. Dative Infinitive.

a. The various forms of this infinitive govern either an
ace. or (by attraction) a dat., sometimes (according to the
nature of the verb) another case ; e. g. indraya^arkam
juhva sam anje, viram danaukasam vandadhyai for
Indra I with my tongue adorn a song, to praise the bountiful
hero (i. 6 15) ; tvam akrnor dustaritu saho visvasmai sahase
sahadhyai thou didst display irresistible poiver to overcome

334 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [211

every poiver (vi. I1) ; ava sya stira^adhvano na^ante 'smin
no adya savane mandadhyai unyoke, 0 hero, as at the end
of a journey, to delight in this our Soma pressing to-day (iv. 162) ;
abhud u param 6tave pantha the path has appeared, to
(enable us to) go to the farther shore (i. 4611) ; a no nava
matmam yatam par ay a gantave do ye two come to us with
the boat of our hymns, to go to the farther shore (i. 467) ; indram
codaya datave magham urge Indra to give bounty (ix. 755) ;
indram avardhayann ahaye hantava u they strengthened
Indra to slay the dragon (v. 3 14) ; a ta etu manah punah
jivase jy6k ca suryam drs6 let thy spirit return (to live =)
that thou mayest live and long see the sun (x. 574) ; siSite srnge
raksase vinikse he sharpens his horns in order to pierce the
demon (v. 29) ; sadyas cin mahi davane to give much at
once (viii. 4625) ; pra yad bharadhve suvitaya davane
when ye proceed to give ivelfare (v. 594) ; amitran prtsu
turvane to overcome foes in battle (vi. 46s) ; atha^upa praw
aid yudhaye dasyum then he advanced to fight the demon
(v. 309) ; tav asmabhyam drsaye suryaya piinar datam
asum may these two give us back our breath that we may see
the sun (x. 1412) ; devo no atra savita nu^artham prasavid
dvipat pra catuspad ityai here god Savitr has now urged on
our bipeds, on our quadrupeds to go to their work (i. 1241) ;
abodhi h6ta yajathaya devan the priest has awaJcened to
worship the gods (v. I2).

b. The dat. inf. not infrequently depends on a particular
word in the sentence ; e. g. ta vam vastuni^usmasi ga-
madhyai we desire to go to those abodes of you two (i. 1546) ;
dadhrvir bharadhyai strong to carry (vi. 663) ; cikid nasaya-
dhyai understanding to destroy (viii. 9714) ; agnim dv6so
ydtavai no grmmasi we implore Agni to ward off hostility
from us (viii. 7115) ; t6 hi putraso aditer vidur dv^samsi
y6tave/or those sons ofAditi know how to ward off hostilities
(viii. 185) ; tvam indra sravitava apas kah thou, 0 Indra,
hast made the waters to flow (vii. 213) ; vidyama tasya te

211] INFINITIVE 335

vayam akuparasya davane may we know this oftlm who art
inexhaustible to give (v. 392) ; bhiyase mrgam kali he has
made the monster to fear (v. 294) ; jajamis ca rajase and they
created (him) to rule (viii. 9710) ; kavimr ichami samdrse
I wish to see the poets (iii. 381).

a. The dat. inf. has sometimes a passive force ; e. g. a vo vahistho
vahatu stavadhyai r&thah may your most swift car bring you hither to be
praised (vii. 371); glrbhih sakhayam gam na" dohdse huve with songs I
caJ.l my friend like a cow to be milked (vi. 457) ; esa purut&ma drse" k£m
she here that constantly returns (so as) to be seen (i. 1246). This sense is
especially noticeable in the infinitives in tavai, tave, and e, which
when used predicatively (as a rule with the negative na") are equiva-
lent to a future part, pass.1 with the copula ; e. g. stuse" sa vam ratih2
that bounty of yours is to be praised (i. 1227) ; na"isa gaVyutir a"pabhartava u
this pasture (is) not to be taken away (x. 142); ya"sya na" radhah p&ryetave
whose treasure is not to be surpassed (viii. 2421) ; nd^asmakam asti t&t
t&ra adityaso atisk&de this our zeal, 0 Adityas, is not to be overlooked
(viii. 6711') ; n& pramiye savitur d&ivyasya t&t this (work) of the divine
Savitr (is) indestructible (iv. 544).

/3. The agent (or instrument) of the action expressed by the inf. is
put in the inst. or gen. when there is a passive sense ; e. g. na'^anye'na
stomo vasistha dnvetave vab. your laudation, 0 Vasisthas, is not to be
equalled by another (vii. 338) ; dbhud agnih samidhe manusanam Agni
has appeared to be kindled of men (vii. 771). When there is no passive
sense the agent is expressed by the dat. ; e. g. vi srayantam prayal
dev^bhyo mahih. may the great (gates') open (for the gods to =) that the gods
may enter (i. 1426); dabhra"m p&syadbhya urviya vic&ksa usa ajigar
bnuvanani visva (i. 1I35) Dawn has wakened all creatures (for those who
now see little to = ) that those who see little now may look far and wide ;
ah&m radraya db.a'nur a tanomi brahmadvise sarave hdntava u
I stretch the bow for Rudra (for the arrow to =) that the arrow may strike the
hater of prayer (x. 1256).

7. The infinitive in dhyai is not infrequently employed elliptically
to express an intention, the subject being either expressed or requir-
ing to be supplied in the first or third person3 ; e. g. pr&ti vam r&tham

1 In Latin the gerundive actually appears to have taken the place
of the IE. predicative infinitive : see Brugmann, Grundriss, 4, 2,
pp. 461 and 488.

2 Which in Latin would be : laudanda (esf) vestra benignitas.

3 The inf. is similarly used in Greek in the sense of a 2. pers. impv. ;
e. g. iravra raff a-yyci\ai ftrjSe if/ev8dyye\os fivat tett all this and be not a false
messenger (Homer, Od) ; tM^fval pot, Tpwtj tell me, ye Trojans (ibid.}.

386 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [211

jar&dhyai the chariot of you tivo (I purpose) to invoke (vii. 671) ; a va
ausijo huvddhyai samsam the son ofUs'ij (intends) to proclaim your praise
(i. 1225).

5. In B. the inf. in tavai has three uses : 1. with a final sense ;
e. g. tarn pra harati yo 'sya strtyas tasmai startavai he hurls it in order
to strike down him who is to be struck down by it (AB.). 2. predicatively
with n&, often with a passive sense, sometimes impersonally ; e.g. n&
v&i yajnd iva m&ntavai it is not to be regarded like a sacrifice (SB.) ; na
pura suryasya udetor m&nthitav&i one should not rub fire before sunrise
(MS.) ; tasmad ete'na^dsru na kartavai therefore tears should not be shed
by him (MS.). 3. with a pass, sense after an ace. governed by aha,
uvaca and bruyat ; e. g. agnim p&ristaritava aha he says that the fire is
to be enclosed (MS.) ; gopalan sdmhvayitava uvaca he said that the cow-
herds should be called together (SB.) ; t&d asvam aiietavai bruyat then he
should order the horse to be brought (SB.). Perhaps, however, the ace. here
depends on the inf. alone : he should give orders to bring the horse.

2. Accusative Infinitive.

a. The form in am is used to supplement statements con-
taining a verb of going or in dependence on verbs meaning
be able (arh, as, sak), wish (vas), or Jcnotv (vid) ; e. g. upo
emi cikituso viprcham I go to the ivise to inquire (vii. 863) ;
iy6tha barhir asadam thou hast gone to seat thyself on the
straw (iv. 91) ; sake"ma tva samidham we ivould be able to
kindle thee (i. 943) ; sa veda deva anamam devan he, the god,
knows (how) to guide hither the gods (iv. 83).

ct. In B. this form of the inf. appears only in dependance on the
verbs arh, vid, and sak when they are combined with the negative n&;
e. g. avarundham na\^,aSaknot he was not able to keep back (MS.).

b. The inf. in turn in the EV. expresses the purpose with
verbs of motion1 and also appears in dependence on the
verbs arh be able and ci intend ; e. g. k6 vidvamsam upa
gat prastum etat who has gone to the wise man to ask him
this? (i. 1644) ; bhuyo va datum arhasi or thou canst give
more (v. 7910).

* The use of this inf. is restricted to dependence on such verbs in
the Latin supine in turn.

211] INFINITIVE 337

a. In B. the use is similar, this inf. expressing the purpose
with verbs of motion, or in dependence on the verbs dhr
intend and (generally accompanied by the negative na) arh
and sak be able, kam desire, dhrs dare, a-dr trouble, a-sams
expect ; e. g. hotum eti he goes to sacrifice (TS.), drastum a
gachati he comes in order to see (SB.) ; any ad eva kartum
dadhrire 'nyad vai kurvanti they have purposed to do one
thing, but do another (SB.) ; katham asakata mad rte" jivitum
how have you been able to live without me ? (SB.) ; na cakame
hantum he did not wish to Ml (SB.).

3. Ablative- Genitive Infinitive.

a. The form in as (which is always compounded with
prepositions) is almost exclusively abl. as is shown by its
being used with words governing that case, viz. the pre-
positions rt6 ivithout, pura before, and the verbs pa protect,
tra rescue, bhi/ear ; e. g. rt6 cid abhisrisah pura jatrubhya
atrdah without binding, before the cartilages being pierced
(viii. I12) ; tradhvam kartad avapadah (ii. 296) save us
from falling into the pit (lit. from the pit, from falling doivri).

There is one example of its being a gen., as it is governed
by the verb is : nahi tvad ar6 nimisas canalise for without
thee I am not able even to blinJc (ii. 286).

a. In B. it appears only as a gen. governed by isvara" ; e. g. sdisvaro
yajamanasya pasiin nird6,hah he is able to burn the cattle of the sacrificer

(MS.).

b. The form in tos is abl. when it is governed by the
prepositions pura before and a till or by verbs of saving and
preventing ; e. g. pura hantor bhayamano vy lira fearing
he withdrew, before being struck (iii. 30l°) ; yuydta no anapa-
tyani gantoh. save us from coming to childlessness (iii. 54T 8).

The gen. form is found only in dependence on the verb
is be able (with the object by attraction in the gen.) or on
the adverb madhya in the midst of', e. g. i&e ray ah suvir-
yasya datoh he can give wealth and heroic offspring (vii. 4°) ;

338 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [211

ma no madhya ririsata^ayur gantoh. injure us not (in the

midst of = ) before our reaching old age (i. 899).

a. In B. the abl. inf. is found with prepositional words only. It
usually occurs with a till and pura before, both the subject and the
object being in the gen. The object may, however, by attraction be
in the abl., and a predicate is in the abl. ; e. g. a suryasya udetoh
(MS.) till the sun's rising = till the sun rises ; a tisrnam dogdhoh (&B.)
till the milking of three (cows) = till three (cows) are milked ; a medhyad
bhaVitoh till becoming pure ; pura suryasya^,udetoh before the sun's rising
(MS.)= before tl\e sun rises] pura vagbhyah sampravaditoh before the
voices' uttering (PB.) = before the voices are uttered. The abl. form is also
sometimes used with the prepositional adverbs purdstad and arvacf-
nam before; e.g. purdstad dhotoh before sacrificing (MS.); arvacmam
j&nitoh. before being born (MS.).

The gen. form occurs only in dependence on isvar£ able, the object
being in the ace. (sometimes by attraction in the gen.), and the predi-
cate in the nom. ; e.g. sfi, isvard artim artoh he can fall into misfortune
(TS.) ; ta isvara yajamanam himsitoh. these two can injure the sacrificer
(MS.). Occasionally isvar& is omitted ; e. g. tato diksitdh pamano
bh&vitoh hence the initiated man (can) become scabby (J§B.).

4. Locative Infinitive.

The only loc. forms to which a genuine inf. use (cp. 167, 4)
can be attributed are the few in sani. These supplement
the general statement of the sentence or depend on a
particular word in it, and (like the form in dhyai) express
an intention or exhortation (with the ellipse of a verb in
the 1., 2., or 3. pers.) ; e. g. vi nah pathas citana yastave,
asmabhyam visva asas tarisani do ye open up for us the
paths to sacrifice, (for us to =) that we may conquer all regions
(iv. 377) ; nayistha u no nesani, parsistha u nah parsany
ati dvisah the best guides to guide us, the best leaders to lead
us through our foes (x. 1263) ; tad va ukthasya barhana^
indraya^npastrnisani this song of praise (I will) spread out
with power for your Indra (vi. 44°) ; priyam vo atithim
grnisani (do ye) extol your dear guest (vi. 15°) ; ijanam
bhumir abhi prabhusani (let) Earth assist the sacrificer
(x. 1321).

212] TENSES AND MOODS 339

TENSES AND MOODS.

212. Two or more roots of cognate meaning sometimes
supplement each other in such a way as to be used for
different tenses of what is practically one verb. Such are :

1. as and bhu ~be : the pres., impf., and perf. are formed by
as ; the fut. and aor. by bhu alone. In its proper sense
bhu means to become (originally to grow), but unless opposed
to as l)e, it has the same sense as the latter, the pres. and
perf. of both being used promiscuously. The contrast
appears clearly when the pres. is opposed to the aor. ; e. g.
yamo va idam abhud yad vayam smah. Yama lias become
that wliicli ice are (TS.). It also appears in the impf. : ya
vipriisa asams tab. sarkara abhavan wliat were sparks
became gravel (MS.).

2. dhav and sr run : in the RV. occur the plup. adadhavat
and the pres. sisarti ; in B. the pres. dhavati, the impf.
asarat, and the perf. sasara.

3. pas and drs see : the former appears in the pres. only,
the latter in the aor., fut., and perf. only ; khya see is used
in the same tenses as drs, but as opposed to the latter means
discern.

4. bru and vac speak : the former is used in the pres.
stem only ; the latter in the aor., fut., perf. (V. has also the
pres. vivakti).

5. ban and vadh slay: the former has the pres., impf.,
fut., perf. only, the latter the aor. only.

a. In B. a few additional pairs of roots supplement each other to
some extent. Such are ad and ghas eat ; aj and vi drive • i and ga
(aor.) go • pra-yam and pra- da present ; sad and si fall.

Present.

A. In V. a number of verbs form two or more present
stems, in which, however, no differences of meaning are
traceable. In B. this multiplicity is for the most part lost.

z2

340 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [212

The only type here showing any development is that in ya,
which tends to have an intransitive sense. Such present
stems are formed in B. from more than a dozen roots
that do not form it in the RV. ; e. g. tapyati grows hot
(RV. tapati).

1. As in other languages, the present is used to indicate
an action that is taking place when the speaker makes his
statement.

2. In the RV. the simple pres. is sometimes employed of
past actions in narration to add a new statement in a vivid
manner ; e. g. purutra vrtr6 asayad vyastah : anmya
sayanam ati yanti^apah Vrtra lay scattered in many places :
over Mm as he thus lies the waters flow (i. 327).

This use does not seem to occur in B.

a. pura formerly is used with the pres. to indicate an-
action which has extended through the past down to the
present ; e. g. kva tani nau sakhya babhuvuh, sacavahe
yad avrkam pura cit where has that friendship of us two
gone, inasmuch as tve have hitherto associated inoffensively
(vii. 885) ; sa ha^agnir uvaca^atha yan mam pur a pra-
thamam yajatha kva^aham bhavani^iti so Agni said:
now that you have hitherto honoured me at the sacrifice as the
first where shall I le? (SB.).

a. In B. pura is also used without reference to the actual present
from the speaker's point of view, to express a previous stage in typical
conditions ; e. g. ahota va es& pura bhavati yadaweva\_,enam pravr-
nite" 'tha h6ta he is previously a non-Hotr ; as soon as he chooses him, then
he is a Hotr (&B.) ; dnaddha^iva va asya^dtah pura janam bhavati
previously his origin is as it were uncertain (SB.).

1). sma pura with the pres. ind. expresses that something
used to happen in the past ; e. g. samhotram sma pura
nari samanam vawava gachati formerly the woman used to
go down to the common sacrifice or the assenibly (x. 8610).

a. The same usage is common in B. with ha sma pura ; e.g. n& ha
sma v&i pura^agnir aparasuvrknam dahati formerly Agni used not to
burn what teas not cut off with the axe (TS.). Here, however, the pura fs

212-213] PRESENT 341

much more usually omitted, ha sma alone expressing the same sense,
especially often with the pres. perf. aha ; e. g. et&d dha sma va aha
narad&h (MS.) with regard to this Ndrada used to say, (The AB. uses the
perf. and the impf. with ha sma in the same sense.) The particles ha
sma, which originally only accompanied it, have thus acquired, when
used alone, the sense which is inherent in pura only.

c. The pres. ind. is also sometimes used for the fut. or
the subj. ; e. g. aham api hanmi^iti ha^uvaca he said :
I too will slay him (SB.) ; indras ca rusamas ca^amsam
prasyetam : yataro nau purvo bhumim paryeti sa jay-
ati^iti Indra and Rumania proposed a wager : ivhichever of us
shall go. round the earth first shall win (PB.).

Past Tenses.

213. Each of the past tenses (except the pluperfect) has
a distinctive meaning of its own, though occasional examples
of aor. and perf. forms occur that are almost indistinguish-
able in sense from the impf.

A. The perfect characteristically expresses the condition
attained by the subject as the result of a preceding action.
If that action (often a repeated or continuous one) is con-
tinued into the present so as to include the latter, it may be
translated by the present ; if it is regarded as concluded
before the present, by the present perfect. It can express
both these senses when accompanied by the adverbs pura
formerly and nunam now ; e. g. pura nunam ca stutaya
rsinam pasprdhre the praises of the seers have vied together
in past times and (do so) now (vi. 341) ; sasvad dhl va utibhir
vayam pura nunam bubhujmahe we have constantly enjoyed
your aids and (do so) noiv (viii. 6716) ; the same sense appears
with the adverb satra always ; e. g. tubhyam brahmani
gira indra tubhyam satra dadhire : jusasva to thee
prayers, 0 Indra, to thee songs have always been offered (and
still are): accept them kindly (iii. 51 6). But even without
a particle this double sense is not infrequently apparent:

342 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [213

na soina indram asuto mamada (vii. 26 l) impressed Soma
has not (in the past) intoxicated Indra (and does not now) ;
na bhoja mamrur na nyartham lyur : na risyanti na-
vy athante ha bhojah the liberal have not died (and die not),
the)/ have not fallen into calamity (and do not now) : the liberal
are not injured and waver not (x. 1078) ; indra . . . ubhe' a
paprau rodasi niahitva Indra has ivith his greatness filled
(and still fills) the two worlds (in. 5410).

a. Thus a number of perfects (since their action includes
the present) can be translated by the present, as is indicated
by their often occurring by the side of actual present forms.
Such perfects are formed from verbs meaning to Imow ;
be pleased, sad, or afraid ; stand, sit, lie; rest upon, holdfast;
have, possess ; encompass ; surpass ; prosper ; become ; show
oneself; e. g. kva^idanim suryah : kas ciketa where is now
the sun : ivho Imoivs ? (i. 357) ; yan na indro jujuse yac ca
vasti what Indra likes from us and what he desires (iv. 221) ;
ka isate, tujyate, k6 bibhaya who flees (and) speeds, who is
afraid ? (i. 8417) ; na methete na tasthatuh. they (night and
morning) clash not and stand not still (i. 113:3) ; vane-vane
sisriye takvavir iva on every tree he sits like a bird (x. 912) ;
yatha^iyam prthivi mahi dadhara^iman vanaspatin eva
dadhara te manah as this great earth holds these trees, so he
holds thy spirit (x. 609) ; na te purve na^aparaso na viryam
nutanah. kas cana^apa not earlier men, not future men, no
man of the present (has attained =) equals thy heroism (v. 42G) ;
pra hi ririksa 6jasa divo antebhyas pari, na tva vivyaca
raja indra parthivam thou extendest beyond the ends of
hewen loitli thy might, the terrestrial space does not contain thee
(viii. 885) ; indrena susuve nrbhir yas te sunoti through
Indra he ivho presses (Soma) for thee prospers in men (vii. 32°) ;
s6d u raja ksayati carsanmam, aran na nemih pari ta
babhuva he rules as king over men, he encompasses the worlds
(ta) as the felly the spokes (i. 32 16) ; bhadra dadrksa urviya
vi bhasi, lit te socir bhanavo dyam apaptan brilliant

213] PEKFECT 348

tJwu appearest, thou skinest afar, thy light, thy learns, have shot
up to heaven (vi. 642).

b. Other perfects, which sum up past action but exclude
the present, may be translated by the present perfect ; e. g.
yat sim agas cakrma tat su mrlatu whatever sin ive have
committed, let him forgive that (i. 1793) ; ya vrtraha paravati
sana nava ca cucyuv6, ta samsatsu pra vocata ivhat old
and new deeds the Trim-slayer has set going in the distance,
those proclaim in the assemblies (viii. 4525) ; uvasa^usa uchac
ca nu Dawn has flushed (in the past) and she shall flush now
(i. 48a) ; kim aga asa varuna jy^stnam, yat stotaram
jighamsasi sakhayam what has that chief sin been (in my
past life) that thou desirest to slay the praiser, thy friend?
(vii. 864) ; lyiis t6 ye purvataram apasyan vyuchantim
usasam martyasah ; 6 [ = a u] t6 yanti y6 aparisu pasyan
those mortals have gone who saw flushing the earlier dawn;
those are coming who shall see her in the future (i. 11311).

c. The perf. often expresses a single action that has been
completed in the recent past, when it can be translated by
the pres. perf. ; e.g. a no yatam divas pari : putrah
kanvasya vam iha susava somyam madhu come to us from
heaven : the son of Kativa has here pressed for you, the Soma
mead (viii. 84). This use of the perf. comes very near that
of the aor. The distinction seems to be this : in the above
passage the perfect means come because the Soma has been
pressed, i. e. is ready for you ; the aor. would mean come
because of the fact that the Soma has just been pressed for you.

d. The perf. is not infrequently used of a single action in
the remoter past, when it cannot be translated by the perf.
pres. It occurs thus beside the impf. of narration, when
the story is interrupted by a reflexion which often expresses
the result of the action previously related. Thus in the
story of the Vrtra fight the poet says : ajayo ga ajayah
sura somam ; avasrjah sartave sapta sindhun thou didst
win the kine, thou didst ivin the Soma, 0 hero, thou didst let

344 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [213

loose the seven streams to flow (i. 3212);^he then adds indras
ca yad yuyudhate ahis ca^uta^aparibhyo maghava vi
jigye when Indra and the serpent fought, the bounteous god
conquered ( — remained conqueror) for the future. This use
of the perF. is hardly distinguishable from the impf.

a. In B. the perf. ind. appears in three different uses :

1. in a present sense based on the pres. perf., chiefly in forms that
have a strengthened reduplicative vowel and thus seem to have an
intensive meaning. It is the pres. perf. that includes the present,
expressing that an action takes place in the present as a result of its
repetition in the past ; e. g. dadhara (he has constantly held and now}
holds ; e. g. y&t say&m juhoti ratryai te"na dadhara if he offers in the
evening, he thereby holds (Agni^for the night (MS.). Other perfects of this
kind are: didaya shines', upa dodrava rushes at; yoyava wards off',
lelaya quivers ; bibhaya (beside bibhaya) fears (while the periphrastic
bibhayam cakara has always a preterite sense). Besides these verbs
veda knows and aha says always have a present sense.

Several other perfects with ordinary reduplication often have the
present sense: anase" (has obtained = ) has (MS., TS.) ; p&riyaya (has
acquired =) possesses (TS.); babhuva (has become =) is (MS.); vivyasa
(has encompassed =) contains; dadrs6 (has been seen =) appears (while
dad&rsa, always has a past sense) ; also the perfect of grab and pra-ap :
ye" hi pa6avo loma jagrhus t6 me'dham prapuh the cattle ivhich have hair
have also fat (MS.).

2. in a preterite sense, expressing that an action once occurred in
the past (but not in the narrative sense of the impf.). This use most
often appears in the form uvaca, which may be translated by once
said or has said ; e. g. ete"na va upakeru raradha : rdhnoti y& ete"na
yajate by this sacrifice Upakeru once prospered; he who sacrifices with it
prospers (MS.). It often occurs in the AB. at the conclusion of a story
related in the impf., in the phrase tad etad rsih pasyann abhyanu-
vaca seeing this a seer has uttered with reference to it (the following verse).
A somewhat different connexion with the narrative impf. appears in
the following example : etam ha v&iyajn&senas citim vid§,m cakara :
tdya v&i s& pasdn dvarunddha this method of piling Yajnasena once in-
vented : by means of it he acquired cattle (TS.). This perfect is found con-
trasting what is past with the present and future in the following
successive sentences : y&d va asyam kirn c§-rcanti y&d anrcur ; yad
ev& kim ca vaca^anrcur y&d dto 'dhiwarcitarah whatever prayers they
offer on it (the earth) or have offered ; whatever prayers they have offered with
the voice or will offer in future (TS.).

3. in an historical sense, equivalent to that of the impf. in narrative,

213] PERFECT. IMPERFECT. AORIST 345

in certain parts of the AB. (vi-viii) and the SB. (i-v ; xi, xii, xiv),
while the impf. is used else where in B. (MS., TS., K.,TB., PB., AB. i-v ;
SB. vi-x, xiii). Thus in the former uvaca said and devas caesuras
ca pasprdhire the gods and the Asuras were in conflict, in the latter abravlt
and aspardhanta would be used. There are, of course, exceptions in
both groups.

B. The imperfect is the past tense of narration, never
having any relation to the present as the perf. and the aor.
have ; e. g. ahann ahim . . . pra vaksana abhinat parva-
tanam lie sleiv the serpent; he pierced the bellies of the mountains
(i. 321) ; na vai tvam tad akaror yad aham abravam you
did not do wliat I said (SB.). The impf. has also to do duty
for the pluperfect, as in the relative clause of the preceding
example, which is equivalent to what I had told you.

C. The aorist ind. expresses that an action has occurred
in the past with reference to the present. It neither
describes nor indicates duration, but simply states a fact.
It may nearly always be translated by the English present
perfect.

The aor. usually expresses the immediate past ; e. g. prati
divo adarsi duhita the daughter of heaven has appeared
(iv. 52l) ; yasmad du§vapnyad abhaisma^apa tad uchatu
let her (Dawn) drive away with her light the evil dream that we
have feared (viii. 4718).

a. In B. three uses of the aor. ind. may be distinguished : 1. it
expresses what has occurred in the speaker's experience, very
commonly in the statement made by the witness of an action ; e. g.
tato ha gandharvah. sdm udire : jyok va iy&m urv&si manusyesv
avatsit then the Gandharvas spoke together : this Urvadl has dwelt long among
men (SB.). As compared with the impf. it never narrates ; e.g. yajno
vai devebhya ud akramat; te deva abruvan : yajno vai na ud
akramit the sacrifice went away from the gods ; the gods then said : the sacri-
fice has gone away from us (AB.) ; tam y&d dprchant s&bravld: adya^
amrta^iti when they asked her, she said : he has died to-day (MS.) ; t&m.
aprchan : k&smai tvam ahausir iti they asked him : to whom have you
sacrificed? (MS.); tdm deva abruvan: mahan va ay&m abhud yo
vrtr&m aVadhid iti the gods said of him : he has shown himself great ivho has
slain Vrtra (TS.) ; te~ ha^ucur : agnaye tistha^iti tdtas tasthav, agndye
va asthad iti tam agnav ajuhavuh they said : stand still for Agni ; then

346 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [213-214

it stood still; thinking it has stood still for Agni, they sacrificed it in Agni
(SB.)-

2. it is employed by the author with regard to what from his own
point of view has either just happened or has occurred in the more
remote past ; e. g. sa b&ndhur sunaslryasya ya"m purva"m dvocama
this is the import of the Sunasirya oblation which we have explained above
(SB.) ; puro va etan deva akrata yat purolasams tat purolasanam
purolasatvam because the gods have made these cakes their castles, the cakes
are so called (AB.). The adverb pura is not infrequently used with
these aorists ; e. g. na va et&sya brahmanah. pura^dnnam aksan
Brahmins have never hitherto eaten his food (TS.).

3. it expresses what results from a ritual act or is antecedent to it ;
e. g. putr&sya nama grhnati : prajam eva^anu s&m atanit he gives his
son a name : he has thus extended his race (MS.); et&d v&i trtiyam yajnam
apad ydc chdndamsi^apnoti thereby he has obtained the third sacrifice when
he obtains the metres (TS.) ; y&d dMwasyawamedhya'm &bhut t&d dhiw
asyaweta"d avadhunoti what has been impure in it, that in it he shakes off in
this way (SB.).

D. The pluperfect, as an augmented perfect, is equivalent
to the corresponding Greek tense in form only. It cannot
be distinguished in syntactical use from the impf. in some
examples and from the aor. in others ; e.g. atra samudra
a gulham a suryam ajabhartana then ye brought the sun
hidden in the sea (x. 727) ; ud u sya devah savita yayama
hiranyayim amatim yam asisret that god Savitr noiv has
raised up the golden sheen which he has spread out (vii. 381).

Future.

214. A. 1. The simple future is in comparatively rare
use in V., being formed from only fifteen roots in the RV.
and from rather more than twenty others in the AY. This
limited employment is accounted for by its sense being
partly expressed by the subjunctive and to some extent by
the present. It means that, according to the opinion,
expectation, intention, hope or fear of the speaker, an action
is to take place in the near or the remote future. The
sphere of the future includes that of the will, the specific
meaning of the subjunctive, but the stress is here laid on

214] FUTURE 347

the futurity rather than the purpose j e. g. atha^atah pasor
vibhaktis : tasya vibhagam vaksyamah next (comes) the
division of the (sacrificial) animal: (now) we will (shall) state
its division (AB.).

Examples from the RV. are : stavisyami tvam aham I shall praise
tltee (i. 445j ; kim svid vaksyami kim u nu manisye what pray shall
I say, what shall I now think ? (vi. 96) ; yady eva karisy&tha sakam
devair yajniyaso bhavisyatha if ye will do so, you will be partakers of the
sacrifice with the gods (i. 1612) ; n& tvavarn indra kas cand na jato na
janisyate no one equal to thee, 0 Indra, has been born or will be born.

2. In B. the simple future is frequently used after verbs of speakiiig,
knowing, thinking, hoping, fearing, which are sometimes also to be
supplied ; e.g. so 'bravid : id&m m&yi vlryam, t&t te prd dasyamiw
iti he said : here is heroism in me, that I will give thee (TS.) ; te ha^ucuh
kena rajna, kena^&nikena yotsyama iti they said : with whom as king,
with whom as leader shall we fight ? (SB.) ; t&tra vidyad : varsisyati^iti
•in regard to that he should know : it will rain (SB.) ; indro ha va Iksam
cakre : mahdd va ito 'bhvdm janisyate Indra reflected : a great abuse
iv ill arise from this (SB.) ; sarva devata asamsanta : mam abhi prati
patsyati^iti all the gods hoped : he idll begin with me (AB.) ; yddi bibhiyad
duscarma bhavisyami^,iti if he should fear, ll shall suffer from skin disease'
(TS.); dsura va istaka aeinvata : divam a roksyama iti the Asuras
built up the bricks (thinking) : we shall scale heaven (MS.).

a. After an impv., the fut. is often used with dtha; e.g. p&tim nu
me punar yuvanam kurutam : atha vam vaksyami (SB.) make my
husband young again : then I shall tell you (two).

/3. After the iinpv. of a-i or pra-i the 1. pers. fut. is equivalent to
an exhortation ; e. g. pra^ita, tad esyamah come, WQ will go there (SB.).

7. With the negative n&, the 2. and even the 3. pers. may have the
value of a prohibition ; e. g. devan raksamsi . . ajighamsan : n& yaks-
yadhva iti the Eaksases wished to slay the gods (saying) : you shall not sacri-
fice (SB.); tan visve deva anonudyanta neha pasyanti nehawiti all
the gods drove them back (saying) : they shall not drink here, not here
(AB.).

B. The periphrastic future though not occurring in V., is frequent
in B. It expresses that something will take place at a definite point
of time in the future. It is therefore often accompanied by such
words as pratar early in the morning, sv&s to-morrotv (but never by adya
to-day). The point of time, however, need not be expressed by an
adverb ; it may be defined by a clause. Examples are : samvatsara-
tamlm ratrim a gachatat, tan ma 6kam ratrim ante sayitase, jat£ u
te 'yam tarhi putro bhavita come for the night of this day year, then you

348 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [2U-215

will lie beside me for one night, then too this son of thine will be born (SB.) ;
y&di pura samsthanad diryeta^ady& varsisyati^iti bruyad ; y&di
s&msthite svo vrastawiti bruyat if it (the vessel) should be broken before
the completion (of the sacrifice) he should say : it will rain to-day ; if it has
been completed, he should say : it will rain to-morrow (MS.) ; yarhi vava vo
maya^artho bhavita, tarhy eva vo 'ham punar agantasmi ivhen you will
have need of me, then (on that particular occasion) I will come back to you
(AB.).

a. Sometimes this form is used to express not that an action will
take place at a definite time, but that it will take place with certainty ;
e.g. sa^eva^iyam adya\^,&pi pratistha, sa^u ev&w&piwito 'dhi bhavita
this is the foundation to-day, and it will also (certainly) be so in future (SB.).

A. Imperative.

215. The only pure impv. forms are those of the 2. 3. sing.
and 3. pi., represented by bhava and bhavatat, bhavasva ;
bhavatu ; bhavantu, bhavantam. The forms later regarded
as imperatives of the l.pers., bhavani, bhavava, bhavama
are subjunctives (cp. 131): while the 2. 3. du. and 2. pi.
bhavatam, bhavatam, bhavetham, bhavetam; bhavata,
bhavadhvam, are injunctives (cp. 122 a a).

a. The impv. does not express commands only, but also
a desire in the widest sense, such as a wish, a request,
advice, a direction ; e. g. devam iha^a vaha bring hither the
gods (i. 1412) ; ahelamano bodhi le not angry (i. 2411) ;
imani^asya sirsani chinddhi cut off these heads of his (MS.) ;
vrkse" navam prati badhnisva tie the ship to the tree (SB.) ;
pra vam asnotu sustutih may the hymn of praise reach you
two (i. 179) ; hanta na 6ko vettu come, let one of us find
out (SB.).

&. The sphere of the ordinary impv. is the present ; it
may, however, still be used for the later of two opposed
actions ; e. g. varam vrmsva^atha me punar dehi choose
a loon and then give it me laclt (TS.). The form in tad,
however, has a tendency in V. to express the more remote
future, and in B. does so distinctly ; e. g. ihaweva ma
tisthantam abhye'hi^iti bruhi, tarn tii na agatam pratipra

215] IMPERATIVE 349

brutat tell her : come to me as I stand here ; when she has
come, you shall (then) tell it us (SB.). As this form is only
active, the subj. takes its place in middle verbs ; thus tarn
vrnisva = do thou choose it (now) as opposed to tarn vrnasai
choose it then (SB.).

a. The genuine impv. seems never to be found in negative sen-
tences ; thus it never appears in V. with the prohibitive particle ma
(which is used with injunctive forms only, and in B. almost exclu-
sively with the aor. inj.). It is employed in positive principal clauses
only ; e. g. v( no dhehi y&tha jivama so dispose us that ive may live (&B.).
A subordinate clause with ind., subj., or (very rarely) opt. may pre-
cede or follow ; e. g. y&s tvam dutdm sapary&ti, tdsya sma pravita
bhava be the promoter of him who adores thee as a messenger (i. 128) ; s&m.
vidusa nay a yo . . anusasati bring us together with one who knows, who
may give us directions (vi. 541) ; id&m me haryata v&co ya"sya t&rema
t&rasa satdm himah gladly accept this word of mine by the force of which we
would pass a hundred winters (v. 5415). In such periods the form with
tad would regularly be used in B.

0. The RV. has a number of 2. sing, forms made with si added
directly to the root, which are clearly used imperatively, as is indicated
by their being generally accompanied by imperatives (sometimes by
subjunctives and imperatives) ; e.g. a deve"bhir yahi y&ksi ca come
with the gods and sacrifice (i. 14l). These forms are confined to the RV.
(and passages borrowed from it) except satsi (AV. vi. HO1) ; and they
are restricted to positive principal sentences.

B. Injunctive.

Formally this mood corresponds to an tmaugmented past
tense (including the 2. 3. du. and 2. pi. as represented by
act. bhavatam, bhavatam, bhavata ; mid. bhavetham,
bhavetam, bhavadhvam, which later came to be regarded
as imperatives). Its use constitutes one of the chief
difficulties of Vedic grammar and interpretation, because it
cannot always be distinguished from the subjunctive (e. g.
gamat might be the subj. of a-gan or the inj. of a-gamat)
or from an unaugmented indicative (e. g. carah might be =
a«carah). Judged by its uses the inj. probably represents
a very primitive verbal form which originally expressed an
action irrespective of tense or mood, the context showing

350 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [215

which was meant. The addition of the augment gave the
sense of a past tense to one set of forms, while the rest
finally became incorporated with the impv. The general
meaning of the inj. expresses a desire, combining the senses
of the subj., the opt., and the impv. As compared with the
subj., the inj. is essentially appropriate in principal clauses,
though it sometimes appears in subordinate clauses intro-
duced by relatives or the relative conjunctions yad and
yada.

a. The first person expresses an intention the execution
of which lies in the power of the speaker ; e. g. indrasya
mi viryani pra vocam now I will proclaim the heroic deeds of
Indra (i. 321). Sometimes, however, the execution depends
on another ; e. g. agnim hlnvantu no dhiyas : te~na jesma
dhanam-dhanam let our prayers urge Agni : through him we
shall assuredly win booty after booty (x. 1561).

1). The second person is used exhortatively, very often
beside an impv. ; e. g. suga nah supatha krnu ; pusann
iha kratum vidah do thou make fair paths for us easy to
traverse ; 0 Pusan, here procure us tvisdom ; adya no deva
savih saubhagarn, para dusvapnyam suva to-day, 0 god,
procure us good fortune; drive away evil dream (v. 824).
A parallel opt. is much less common ; e. g. ete"na gatum
vido nah ; a no vavrtyah suvitaya by reason of that find
for us the path; mayst thou bring us to ivelfare (i. 17313).

c. The third person also is used exhortatively, very often
beside an impv. ; e. g. s6mam vetu vasatkrtim ; agnir
jusata no girah let him come to this Vamt call; may Agni
accept our songs (vii. 15°) ; it is often accompanied by a
2. sing. impv. ; e. g. a^idam barhir yajamanasya sida ;
atha ca bhud uktham indraya sastam seat thyself upon this
straw of the sacrificer ; and then may the hymn be sung to Indra
(iii. 533). It appears less frequently with the subj. ; e. g-
lipa brahmani srnava ima no, atha te yajnas tanve vayo
dhat mayst thou listen to these our prayers, and then let the

215] INJUNCTIVE 351

sacrifice bestow vigour on thyself (vi. 404). A parallel opt. is
not common ; e. g. pari no heti rudrasya vrjyah, pari
tvesasya durmatir mahi gat would that the dart of Eudra
pass us by, let the great malevolence of the impetuous one avoid
us (ii. 33U).

d. The injimctive is very frequently used alone (unaccom-
panied by any other modal form) in an impv. sense ; e. g.
ima havya jusanta nah let them accept these oblations of
ours (vi. 5211) ; the preceding verse has the regular impv. :
jusantam yujyam payali let them accept the suitable milk.

In negative sentences the inj. is the only mood (with the
exception of the single opt. form bhujema) with which
the prohibitive particle ma can be used ; e.g. ma na indra
para vrnak do not, 0 Indra, abandon us (viii. 977) ; visvayan
ma na a gan let not any swelling thing come, near us (vii. 50l) ;
ma tantus chedi let not the thread be cut (ii. 285). The aor.
form is commoner than the impf. form in the KV., but its
relative predominance has greatly increased in the AV.

e. The inj. not infrequently expresses a future sense like
the subj. (215 C) in two types of sentences:

1. in positive interrogative sentences ; e. g. k6 no many a
aditaye piinar dat who ivill give us back to great Aditi?
(i. 241). The subj. itself is here sometimes found beside it ;
e. g. kada martam aradhasam pada ksumparri iva sphurat,
kada nah susravad girah. when will he spurn the niggardly
mortal like a mushroom with his foot ; when will he hear our
songs? (i. 848).

2. in negative sentences with na ; e. g. yam aditya abhi
druh6 raksatha, ne'm agham nasat whom, 0 Adityas, ye
protect from harm, him misfortune will not reach (viii. 471).

a. In B. the use of the inj. in positive sentences has almost entirely
disappeared. The SB., however, preserves several examples; e.g.
devan avat let it refresh the gods ; also sometimes in subordinate
clauses, especially with ne"d ; e. g. ne"d idam bahirdha yajuad bhavat
Jest it be outside the sacrifice.

On the other hand the inj. is very frequent in negative sentences,

352 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [215

in which it constantly appears with ma, in the vast majority of cases
in the aor. form. Only a few examples of the impf. form occur : ma
vadhadhvam slay not (TS.) ; ma bibhita fear not (AB.); kilbisam nu
ma yatayan let them not reprove it as a fault (AB.) ; and from the perfect :
ma susupthah sleep not (&B.).

C. Subjunctive.

The meaning of the subj. is best brought out by contrast-
ing its use with that of the opt. From this it appears that
the fundamental sense of the subj. is will, while that of the
opt. is either wish or possibility (this mood being therefore
alternatively called optative or potential). This distinction
appears clearly from the fact that in the first person in
independent sentences one group of verbs in the EV. employs
the subj. exclusively or almost exclusively, while another
employs the opt., because in the former the execution is
dependent on the will of the speaker, while in the latter
it is not in his control, but is only possible. With the subj.
are thus used the verbs han strike, kr make, su press, bru
speak. With the opt. on the- other hand appear : ji conquer,
tr overcome, sah conquer • as and nas obtain, vid acquire, is
l>e master of', sac be associated with ; a-vrt attract (to the
sacrifice) ; sak be able ; mad be happy ; rdh prosper ; pas live
to see', as be (with predicates such as prosperous, &c.); also
certain sacrificial verbs : idh kindle (with the co-operation of
the god), das worship, vac and vad speak (effectively), vidh
serve, sap please = obtain the favour o/(a god), hu call (= bring
hither).

1. The meanings expressed by the different persons of the
subj. are the following :

The first person declares the will of the speaker; e.g.
svastaye vayum lipa bravamahai for welfare we( wily invoke
Vayu (v. 5112). It is often accompanied by the particles mi
and hanta ; e. g. pra nu voca sute"su vam I will now praise
you two at the libations (v. 691). The 1. du. and pi. may also
express an exhortation to another to share an action with

215] SUBJUNCTIVE 353

the speaker, an impv. usually then preceding; e.g. daksi-
nato bhava me : adha vrtrani janghanava bhuri stand on
my right : then ive two ivill slay many Joes (x. S37) ; or an
exhortation to aid the speaker ; e. g. J6samawindra tvaya
yuja we will conquer (= let us -conquer) with thee as our ally
(viii. 6311).

In B. the usage is the same ; e. g. v&ram vrnai / will choose a boon
(TS.) ; hanta^iman bhisayai well, I will terrify them (AB.) ; vayum deva
abruvan : somam rajanam hanama^iti the gods said to Vdyu : let us slay
king Soma (TS.).

The second person is used exhortatively : hano vrtram,
jaya apah slay Vrtra, win the waters (i. 803). It often
follows a 2. pers. impv. ; e. g. agne srnuhi ; deve"bhyo
bravasi/*ear, OAgni, do thou say to the gods (i. 1397); sometimes
it follows a 3. pers. impv. ; e. g. a vam vahantu . . asvah,
pibatho asm6 madhuni let the horses bring you two ; do ye
drink the honied draughts beside us (vii. 674). When an
expectation is indicated, the subj. is almost equivalent to
a future ; e. g. achanta me, chadayatha ca nunam ye have
pleased me and ye shall please me now (i. 16512).

In B. the 2. pers. subj. is used only when the speaker makes a condi-
tion or gives a direction relating to the (not immediate) future ; e. g.
atho etam varam avrnlta : maya^eva pracim disam pra janatha^,iti

so he made this condition: through me ye shall (in future) discover the eastern
quarter (AB.).

The third person is as a rule used in exhortations to the
gods, though the subject is not always the name of the deity;
e.g. imam nah srnavad dhavam he shall hear this our
call (viii. 4322) ; pari no helo varunasya vrjyah. ; uriim
na indrah krnavad u lokam may the wrath of Varuna
avoid us; Indra shall procure us wide space (vii. 842); sa
devam awiha vaksati he shall bring the gods hither (i. I2) ; pra
te sumna no asnavan thy good intentions shall reach us
(viii. 90°). The subj. sentence is sometimes connected with
a preceding one ; e.g. agnim lie : sa u sravat I praise Agni:
he shall hear (viii. 4324). The subj. here often approaches the

354 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [215

future in sense, being then usually opposed with imnam or
nii to another verb : lid u sya devah savita . . asthat :
nunam devdbhyo vi hi dhati ratnam god Savitr lias just
arisen : lie will now distribute bounty to the gods (ii. 381) ;
uvasa^usa uchac ca nii Dawn lias flushed (in the past) and
she will flush now (i. 483). Sometimes there is no opposition ;
e.g. a gha ta gachan littara yugani, yatra jamayah. krna-
van ajami there shall come those later generations ivhen those
who are akin will do what befits not kinsmen (x. 1010).

In B. the 3. pers. sub]', is not found in the hortative sense, appearing
only when a condition, promise, or curse is expressed ; e.g. vrnisvaw
ity abruvan ; so 'bravm : maddevatya^eva samid asad iti they said :
choose a boon; he replied : the fuel shall be sacred to me (MS.) ; sa^abravid :
v&ram vrnai ; khatat parabhavisy&nti manye : t&to ma para bhuvam
fti ; pura te samvatsarad dpi rohad ity abravit she said ,• I will make a
condition ; J think I shall perish in consequence of digging ; let me not perish.
He replied: before the lapse of a year for you, it (the wound) shall heal up
(TS.) ; devas tan asapan : svena vab. kiskuna vajrena vrscan iti the
gods cursed them (the trees) : they shall destroy you with your own handle,
with a bolt (TB.). The 3. pers. subj. often also expresses the purpose of
a ceremony ; e. g. 6rnad iti saram&yam barhir bhavati (MS.) the litter is
made of reeds with the intention : it shall destroy him (the adversary).

2. The syntactical employment of the subj. is twofold.

a. It appears in principal sentences :

a. with interrogatives, either the pronoun or the adverbs
katha how ? kada when, and kuvid ; e. g. kim u nii vah
krnavama what, pray, shall we do for you ? (ii. 293) ; katha
mane" rudriyaya bravama how shall we speak to the great
Eudra-host? (v. 4 111) ; kada nah susravad girah when will
he hear our prayers ? (i. 848). kuvid nearly always accen-
tuates the verb (which is thus treated as in a subordinate
clause) : e. g. asvina sii rse stuhi : kuvit te sravato havam
the Asvins praise well, 0 seer: shall they hear thy call?
(viii. 2610).

In B. first persons only seem to be met with in this use, and an
interrogative word is sometimes lacking.

/3. In negative sentences with na not ; e. g. na ta nasanti ;

215] SUBJUNCTIVE 355

na dabhati taskarah they perish not ; no thief shall ((tan) harm
them (vi. 283).

In B. nd is similarly used ; e. g. nd^ato 'parah kds cand sahd sdri-
rena^amfto 'sat from now onwards no one shall be immortal with his body
(SB.). Once only, in a command, is the subj. used with mS : akamam
sma ma ni padyasai you shall not approach me (in future) against my icill

(SB.).

1). In dependent clauses the subj. is used either with a
negative or with relatives (pronominal or adverbial) :

a. in a final sense with the negative particle ne~d that not,
lest. The antecedent clause has either an ind. or an impv. ;
e.g. hotrad aham varuna bibhyad ay am, n6d eva ma
yunajann atra devah. fearing the office of Hotr, 0 Varuna,
I went aivay, lest the gods should appoint me thereto (x. 5 14) ;
vy ucha duhitar divo ma ciram tanutha apah, ne~t tva
stenam yatha ripum tapati suro arcisa shine forth, daugh-
ter of the sky, delay not long thy work, lest the sun scorch thee,
like a hostile thief, with his ray (v. 799).

In B. the antecedent clause has either an ind. or an opt. ; e. g. a"tha
y&n nd pr^ksate, ne"n ma rudro hindsad iti now (the reason) why he does
not look is lest Rudra should injure him (SB.) ; ta"n rid dadbhih khaded,
n6n ma iddm rudriyam dato hindsad iti he should not chew it with his
teeth, lest this that belongs to Rudra injure his teeth (SB.). A gerundive in
the antecedent clause has also been noted in the AB.

/3. in relative clauses :

1. such a clause normally precedes if it contains a suppo-
sition determining the sense of the principal clause ; the
latter usually has an impv., not infrequently a subj., seldom
an inj. or ind. ; e. g. yo nah prtanyad, apa tam-tam id
dhatam whoever shall combat us, him do ye two slay (i. 1326);
yas tiibhyam dasan na tarn amho asnavat ivho shall serve
thee, him no distress can reach (ii. 234); uta nunam yad in-
driyam karisya indra paumsyam, adya nakis tad a
minat and what heroic, manly deed thou, Indra, shalt now do,
that let no one belittle to-day (iv. 3023) ; yasmai tvam suk^te
jataveda, u lokam agne krnavah syonam, sa rayim

A a 2

356 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [215

nasate svasti the righteous man for whom thou shall procure,
0 Agni Jatavedas, a comfortable place, he obtains riches for
iveljare (v. 411).

In B. the use of the subj. in relative clauses is similar ; but here
the subj. is by far the commonest form in the principal clause, the
impv. and hid. (sometimes omitted) being rare ; e. g. tany abru-
van, v&ram vrnamahai : ydd dsurafi. j&yama, t&n uah sahd^asad iti
they said, we will make a condition : what we shall win from the Asuras that
shall le ours in common (TS.) ; yds tva kds ca^upayat, tusnim evd^asva
whoever shall come towards you, sit still ; yad vindSsai tdt te 'gnihotram
kurmah what thou shall find, that we (shall) make thy fire-oblation (MS.) ;
tdd v&i s&mrddham y&m devah sadhaVe karmane jusantai that, indeed,
(is) excellent, if the gods shall be pleased with him for a good work (SB.). In
the last example the relative clause exceptionally follows.

2. The relative clause follows if it expresses a final or
consequential sense (in order that, so that) arising from the
principal clause ; the latter usually has an impv., but some-
times an inj., opt, or ind. ; e.g. sam pusan vidiisa naya,
yd anjasa^anusasati, ya eva^idam iti bravat associate us,
0 Pusan, with a wise (guide) who shall at once direct us and
who shall say : here it is (vi. 541) ; asmabhyam tad radha a
gat, sam yat stotrbhya apaye bhavati let that wealth come
for us which shall be a blessing to thy praisers and thy kinsman
(ii. 3811); tad adya vacah prathamam masiya y6nawasu-
ram abhi deva asama I would to-day think of that as the
first (point) of my speech wliereby we gods shall overcome the
Asuras (x. 534) ; imam bibharmi sukrtam te ankusam
y^na^arujasi maghavan chaphariijah I bring to thee this
well-fashioned weapon (with which =) in order that thou shouldst
break the hoof-breakers (x. 449). The subj. of these relative
clauses sometimes comes to have a purely future sense;
e. g. 6 (=awu) t6 yanti y6 aparisu pasyan those are coming
who in future days will see her (i. 11311).

In B. this type of relative clause with the subj. is rare ; e. g. y&n ma
dhinaVat t&n me kuruta procure for me that which shall refresh me (SB.) ;
h&nta vaydm t&t srjamahai y&d asmau, anvdsad iti come, let us create
what shall come after us (SB.).

215] SUBJUNCTIVE 357

y. with relative conjunctions :

1. yad, which, if the clause is determinative, means wlien ;
the dependent clause then precedes, while the principal clause
usually contains an impv., but sometimes an inj., a subj.,
or an opt. ; the conjunction means in order that, so that, if the
dependent clause is final or consequential ; the dependent
clause then follows, \vhile the principal clause contains an
impv., a subj., or an ind., e. g.

if yad = when : liso yad adya bhanuna vi dvarav
rnavo divah, pra no yachatad avrkam 0 Daivn, ivhen to-
day with thy beam thou shalt open the doors of heaven, then
bestow on us safe shelter (i. 4815) ; yad adya bhagam vibhaj-
asi nrbhya, liso devo no atra savita damuna anagaso
vocati suryaya when thou shalt to-day distribute a share to men,
0 Dawn, god Savitr, the house friend, shall declare us guiltless
to Surya (i. 1233); yad va agah pnrusata karama, ma vas
tasyam dpi bhuma ivhen we shall commit a sin against you
after the manner of men, let us not have a part in that (shaft) of
yours (vii. 574) ; yad didyavah. prtanasu prakrllan, tasya
vam syama sanitara aj6h wJien shafts shall play in battles, of
that conflict of yours we would be the winners (iv. 41").

if yad = in order that, or so that : sa a vaha devatatim
yavistha, sardho yad adya divyam yajasi so bring hither the
gods, 0 youngest, that thou mayst adore the heavenly host to-day
(iii. 194); tav6d u tah sukirtayd 'sann uta prasastayah,
yad indra mrlayasi nah these laudations and praises shall
be thine, that thou, 0 Indra, mayst be merciful to us (viii. 4533);
na papaso manamahe, yad in nv indram sakhayam krnav-
amahai we deem not ourselves wicked, (so) that we can now
make Indra our friend (viii. 6111). In such posterior clauses
the yad sometimes comes to express the content of the
principal clause ; e. g. na te sakha sakhyam vasty etat,
salaksma yad visurupa bhavati (x. 102) thy friend wishes
not this friendship, that she who is of the same type (= akin)
shall become of a different kind (= not akin). This yad may

358 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [215

once be translated by till : kiyaty a yat samaya bhavati
ya vyusiir yas ca nunam vyuchan in ivhat time will it be
that (= how long will it be till) she shall be between those that
have shone forth and those that shall now shine forth? (i. 11310).

In B. the subj. is rarely found in these clauses with yad ; e.g. tat
prapnuhi yat te prano vatam apipadyatai attain this that your breath
shall transfer itself to the wind (SB.).

2. yatra when seems not to occur in V. with the subj.
when it is a genuine conjunction (that is, when it is not
equivalent to the loc. of the relative pronoun).

In B., however, it is found with the subj. in the sense of
a future perfect ; e. g. yatra hota chandasah param gachat,
tat pratiprasthata prataranuvakam upa kurutat when
the Hotr shall have got to the end of the metre, then let the Prati-
prasthatr start a Prataranuvaka (SB.).

3. yatha with the subj. as an antecedent clause means as,
the principal clause containing an impv. or a subj. ; as a
posterior clause it has the sense of in order that, so that, the
principal clause containing either a demand (generally impv.,
occasionally inj., opt., or gerundive) or a statement (ind.
pres. or aor., act. or pass.). Examples of the first use are :
yatha hotar manuso devatata yajasi, eva no adya yaksi
devan as thou canst, 0 priest, worship at the divine service of man,
so do thou for us to-day worship the gods (vi. 41). This use does
not seem to occur in B. Examples of the second use are : grhan
gacha grhapatni yatha^asah go to the house that you may be
mistress of the house (x. 8526) ; idanim anna upavacyo
nrbhih, sr6stham no atra dravinam yatha dadhat at this
time of day he is to be addressed by men that tie may here bestow
on us the best wealth (iv. 541); mahatam a vrnimah6 'vo,
yatha vasu nasamahai we implore the favour of the great, in
order that we may obtain riches (x. 36n) ; idam patram apayi
matsad yatha saumanasaya devam this botvl has been drunk
up, in order that it may exhilarate the god to benevolence
(vi. 4416). The negative in such clauses is na or nu.

215] SUBJUNCTIVE 359

«. In B. the usage is similar: the principal clause here contains
either an impv. or a subj. ; e.g. tatha me kuru yatha^aham imam
senam jayarii so arrange for me that I may conquer this army (AB.); sam-
dham nu sam dadhavahai ydtha tvam ev& pravisaniti now let us two
make an agreement in order that I may enter into thee (MS.).

4. yada ivhen, with the subj. (pres. or aor.), which then
has the value of a fut. perf., is regularly antecedent, the
principal clause containing an impv. or a subj.; e.g. srtam
yada karasi jatavedo, atha^im enam pari da t tat pitr-
bhyah tvhen thou shalt have made him done, then deliver him to
the fathers (x. 162) ; yada gachaty asumtim etam, atha
devanam vasanir bhavati when he shall have gone to that
spirit world, then he shall become subject to the gods (x. 162).
yada kada ca whenever seems to give the verb the same
sense : yada kada ca sunavama somam, agnis tva dut6
dhanvaty acha whenever ^ve shall have pressed Soma, Agni
shall hasten to thee as a messenger (iii. 534).

a. The usage of B. is the same ; e. g. s& yada tarn ativardha, atha
karsum khatva t&syam ma bibharasi when I shall have outgrown that
(vessel), then having dug a trench you shall keep me in it (SB.).

5. yadi ?/with the subj. generally precedes the principal
clause, which contains an impv., a subj., (rarely) an opt., or
an ind. (sometimes to be supplied); e.g. yadi st6mam
mama sravad, asmakam indram indavo mandantu if he
shall hear my praise, let these drops of ours gladden Indra
(viii. I15) ; yajama devan yadi saknavama we will adore the
gods, if we shall l)e able (i. 27lb); yadi prati tvam haryah . .
apa ena jayema if thou shalt accept (it) gladly, ive might thereby
ivin the tvaters (v. 2n); indra ha varuna dh^stha, yadi
sdmaih . . madayaite Indra and Varuna (are) the most
liberal, if they shall delight in the Soma offerings (iv. 4 13).

a. In B. the subj. with yadi is very rare ; an example is : yadi tva^,
et&t punar braVatas, tv&m brutat if they two shall say this again to thee, do
thou say (SB.).

6. yad so long as occurs twice with the subj. in the EV. :
ananukrtyam apunas cakara yat suryamasa mitha ucca-

360 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [215-216

ratah he lias once for all done what is inimitable so long as sun
and moon alternately shall rise (x. 6810); vasistham ha varu-
no . . rsim cakara . . yan mi dyavas tatanan, yad usasah
Varuna has made Vasutha a seer, so long as the days shall
extend, so long as the dawns (vii. 884). In B. yad doos not
occur.

8. The subj. is sometimes used in an antecedent clause
with ca in the sense of if, which is then treated as a subor-
dinate conjunction and accentuates the verb ; e. g. indras
ca mrlayati no, na nah pascad agham nasat if Indra
shall l)e gracious to us, no evil shall afterwards touch us (ii. 4111).

D. Optative or Potential.

216. 1. The meaning of the opt. is predominantly a
wish, which is modified according to the person of the verb.

The first person, which is very common, expresses the
wish of the speaker, generally addressed to the gods ; e. g.
lisas tarn asyam yasasam rayim 0 Dawn, I would obtain
that glorious wealth (i. 928) ; vidh^ma te stdmaih we would
worship thee with songs of praise (ii.93); vayam syama patayo
rayinam we would be lords of riches (iv. 50G).

In B. the sense of the first person is similar, but its occurrence,
owing to the nature of the subject-matter, is far less common; e.g.
vise ca ksatraya oa samadam kuryam I should like to create enmity between
people and nobility (MS.).

. The second person is much less common. It is almost
exclusively used to express a wish or a request addressed to
a god ; e. g. a no mitravaruna hotraya vavrtyah pray bring
Mitra and Varuna to our oblation (vi. II1); tya me havam a
jagmyatam so, pray, do ye two come to my call (vi. 5010) ; pra
su na ayur jivase tiretana do ye, pray, extend fully our
allotted span that we may live (viii. 1822). We might here
often rather expect the impv., which indeed frequently
either precedes or follows the 2. opt. ; e.g. dhisva vajram
raksohatyaya : sasahistha abhi sprdhah take the bolt for

216] OPTATIVE 361

the slaughter of the demons : mayst thou overcome our foes
(vi. 4518); imam me samidham vaneh; ima u sii srudhi
girah pray accept this my fuel ; graciously hear these songs
(ii. 61).

In B. the second person is used almost exclusively in wishes ; e. g.
asmin yaj'amane bahvyah syata may you be numerous beside this sacriflcer

(SB.).

The third person is used in the three different senses of
wish, precept, or supposition ; e. g. midhvam asmakam
babhuyat may he be bountiful to us (i. 272) ; imam amrtam
dutam krnvita martyah. this immortal the mortal should make
his messenger (viii. 2319); prnann apir aprnantam abhi syat
the friend who bestows would prevail over him who does not
bestow (x. 1177). In the sense of a supposition (regarded as
possible or probable) the opt. seldom appears independently,
but often in an apodosis.

In B. it is common in all three senses : expressing a wish ; e.g. apas-
uh syat may he be bereft of cattle (TS.) ; a general precept (where a
gerundive may also be used) ; e. g. ks&ume vasana agnfm a dadhiya-
tam, t6 adhvary&ve d6ye wearing linen garments the tiro should lay the
fire ; the two (garments) should be given to the Adhvaryu (MS.) ; a supposition
in the apodosis of periods, but seldom independently ; e.g. na^asya
tarn ratrim apo grhan prd hareyur ; §,po v&i santih : sam&yeyur eva
(MS.) they should not during that niyht bring water into his house ; for water
is extinction : they would thus extinguish (if they did this). The protasis
in this example must be supplied.

2. The syntactical employment of the optative is two-
fold :

a. it appears in principal sentences (for the most part re-
taining the sense of a wish) with interrogatives, either the
pronoun or the adverbs katha Iww ? kada tvhen ? and kuvid ;
e.g. kasmai devaya havisa vidhema what god ivould we
worship with oblation? (x. 1211); kada na indra ray a a
dasasyeh when wouldst thou, 0 Indra, bestow riches upon us ?
(vii. 375); kuvit tutujyat sataye dhiyah (i. 1436) would he
not stimulate our prayers for gain ? (cp. p. 354, 2 a). A possi-
bility is sometimes thus repudiated; e.g. kad dha nunam

362 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [216

rta vadanto anrtam rapema how could ivc now speaking
righteous words utter unrighteousness ? (x. 104).

In B. the optative with interrogatives may express a wish, precept,
possibility, or the repudiation of a suggestion : e. g. kath&ni mi pr&
jayeya how should I propagate myself? (SB.) ; yamim eva purvam samset
he should first pronounce the formula addressed to Yama (AB.); kim mama
t&tah syat (SB.) what would then accrue to me (if I did this)? k&s t£d a
driyeta who would pay attention to that ? (SB.).

a. The opt. appears in negative sentences with na not,
sometimes nu. cid never. The sense is either optative or
potential ; e. g. na risyema kada cana may ice never suffer
harm (vi. 549); nu cin mi vayor amrtam vi dasyet may
the nectar of Vayu never' fail (vi. 373) ; na tad devo na mar-
tyas tuturyad yani pravrddho vrsabhas cakara no god,
no mortal could surpass what the mighty bull has done (viii. 962).
The only opt. form with which the prohibitive ma occurs is
bhujema: ma va 6no anyakrtam bhujema may we not
suffer before you for a sin done ~by others (vi. 5 17).

In B. the opt. is used with n& to express either a general prohibition
or a potential sense ; e. g. tdsya^etdd vratdm : na^&nrtam vaden, n&
mams6,m asniyat this is his ww: he should not speak the untruth, he should
not eat meat ; na\_,enam dadhikrava can& pavayam kriyat Dadhikrdvan
himself could not make him pure (MS.).

b. In dependent clauses the opt. is used with relatives
(pronominal or adverbial):

a. such a clause having a determining sense, usually
precedes. This type is very rare in V. ; e. g. suryam yd
brahma vidyat, sa id vadhuyam arhati a priest who should
know Surya deserves the bridal garment (x. 8534).

In B., on the other hand, clauses of this type, which always imply
a supposition, are very common. The opt. here expresses a precept
or a potential sense ; the principal clause most often has the opt.
also ; e. g. y&m dvisyat, t&m dhyayet whom he may hate, he should think
o/"(TS.) ; yo va im&m al&bheta, mucyeta^asmiit papmanah he who were
to offer this (bull), would be delivered from this sin (TS.). In the principal
clause a gerundive occasionally appears or the verb to be has to be

216] OPTATIVE 363

supplied ; e. g. yo rastrad apabhutah syafc tasmai hotavya this should
be offered for him ivho should be deprived of his kingdom (TS.) ; yasya^agnayo
gramyena^agnina samdahyeran, katatra prayascittih -if any one's fires
should be united with a village fire, what expiation (is) there? (AB.).

^. the relative clause, if it has a final or consequential
sense (in order that, so that) follows. The principal clause
contains an iinpv., a subj., or an opt. ; e.g. revatir nah
sadharnada indre santu yabhir madema (i. 3013) let our feasts
beside Indra ~be rich (by which = ) that we may rejoice (in them) ;
dhasatho rayim ye~na samatsu sahisimahl bestow wealth on
us (by which =) that we may be victorious in battles (viii. 401);
yaya^ati visva durita tarema sutarmanam adhi navam
ruhema we would ascend the rescuing ship (by which •=. ) that we
may cross over all misfortunes (viii. 423).

In B. final relative clauses with the optative are rare.

y. with relative conjunctions :

1. yad if: in the antecedent clause of pres. conditional
periods, the condition being generally regarded as unful-
filled. The apodosis normally contains a potential opt.
(though isolated examples of the impv., inj., and ind. occur);
e. g. yad agne syam aham tvam, tvam va gha sya aham,
syus te satya iha^asisah if J, 0 Agni, were thou, and thou
wert I, thy prayers would be fulfilled (viii. 4423); occasionally
the fulfilment of the condition is expected ; e. g. yac chu-
sruya imam havam durmarsam cakriya uta, bhaver apir
no antamah if thou shouldst hear this call and shouldst not
forget it, thou ivouldst be our most intimate friend (viii. 4518).
The temporal sense of when with the opt. seems to occur
only once in the RV. (iii. 3311}.

In B. (as in V.) y&d e/with the opt. is very common in the protasis,
when the fulfilment of the condition is not expected (y&di with opt.
being used when it is expected); e.g. sa ydd bhidyetawartim arched
yajamanah if it should be broken, the sacrificer would fall into calamity (TS.).
The infinitive with Isvard may take the place of the opt. in the prin-
cipal clatise ; e.g. yad etam samsed Isvarah parjanyo Varstoh if he
were to repeat this (formula}, Parjanya might not rain (AB.). Sometimes the

364 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [216

verb (opt. of as be) is omitted in the apodosis. The opt. with yad here
rarely expresses a purely hypothetical case (that is, without the im-
plication that the condition will not be fulfilled); e.g. yan mam
praviseh kfm ma bhunjyah (TS.) if you were to enter me,ofwfiat use would
you be to me 'f (afterwards he does enter Indra).

a. yad with the opt. in the final sense of in order that is
very rare ; e.g. yan nunam asyam gatim, mitrasya yayam
patha in order that I might note obtain a refuge, I would go on
tliepath o/Mitra (v. 643).

0. In B. y&d with the opt in the sense of that is frequently used
after aVa kalpate is suitable, tit sahate endures, ichati desires, ve"da
knows, yukto bhavati is intent, in posterior clauses ; e. g. n& hi t&d
avak&lpate y&d bruyat/or it is not fitting that he should say (SB.) ; n& va
ah dm id dm ut sane y&d vo hota syam (SB.) I cannot endure this that
should be ( = I cannot be) your Hofr- t&d dhy ev& brahmanena^estaVyam
y&d brahmavarcasi syat/or that is to be aimed at by the Brahmin, that he
should be pious (&B.); svay&m va et&smai deva yukta bhavanti y&t
sadhu v&deyuh for the gods themselves are intent on this, that they should say
what is right 0$B.)» k&s t^d veda y&d vrataprad6 vratdm upotsincet
for who knows (this that = ) whether he who hands the fast-milk (should add = )
adds (fresh milk) to it (SB.). In the &B. isvard also is used with this
construction (in other Brahmanas with the infinitive only) to express
a possible consequence (though the yad is nearly always omitted) ;
e. g. paran asmad yajilo 'bhud iti^Isvaro ha yat tatha^evd syat the
sacrifice has turned away from him : it is possible that this should be so (SB.).
Otherwise the phrase regularly appears in the form of iti^isvaro ha
tatha eva syat, perhaps because IsvarS, came to be regarded as a kind
of adverb = possibly this might be so.

7. In B. y£d introducing a clause with the opt. accompanied by na
and ending with fti, dependent on a verb of fearing or similar expres-
sion, is equivalent to lest ; e. g. deva ha vai bibhayam cakrur ydd vai
nah . . asuraraksasani^im&m gr&ham n& hanyur iti the gods feared
lest the Asuras and Raksases should destroy this draught (SB.) ; indro ha va
iksam cakre yd,n ma t&n ndwabhibhdved iti Indra pondered (fearing)
lest that should vanquish him (SB.).

2. yadi if with the opt. does not occur in the RV. and
AV. at all, and only once in the SV.

In B. it is very common, expressing a condition the fulfilment of
which is assumed (while y£d with opt. implies non-fulfilment of the
condition). The clause with yddi generally precedes. The apodosis
has:

216] OPTATIVE 365

a. usually the opt., which expresses a precept applicable when the
condition is fulfilled ; e. g. y&di pura samsthanad diryeta^,ady& var-
sisyatiwiti bruyat if (the vessel) should be broken before the completion (of
the sacrifice), he should say : it will rain to-day (MS.); yadi na saknuyat
so 'gnaye purolasam nir vapet if he should not be able to do so, he should
offer a cake to Agni (AB.). The precept occasionally has a potential
sense ; e.g. y&dy 6kataylsu dvayisu va^avag&ched, aparodhuka enam
syuh (MS.) if he (the banished man) should return after one or two libations,
they might exclude him from the sovereignty (but not if he returns at the
conclusion of the ceremony).

/3. isvard with the infinitive ; e. g. isvaro ha yady apy anyo
yajeta^atha hotaram yaso 'rtoh even -if another should sacrifice (instead
of him), it is possible that fame should come to the Hotr (AB.).

7. a gerundive ; sa yadi na jayeta, raksoghnyo gayatryo 'nucyah
if it (the fire) should not be kindled, the demon-slaying verses are to be repeated
(AB.).

8. an ind. (sometimes omitted if it is a form of as fee);
e. g. tasmad yadi yajna rkta artih syad brahmana eva ni
vedayante therefore if at the sacrifice there should be any failure
with regard to a Re verse, they inform the Brahman priest (AB.);
yadi no yajna rkta artih syat, ka prayascittih if we shall
have an accident at the sacrifice in regard to a EC verse, what (is)
the penance? (AB.).

e. The difference between yad and yadi with the opt.
may be illustrated by the following example : yan no jaye-
yur ima abhyiipa dhavema, yady u jayema^ima abhyupa
vartemahi^iti if they were to conquer us (not to be assumed),
we should take refuge with these (friends), but ?/(as is to be
assumed) we should conquer, we could again betake ourselves to
them (MS.).

3. yatha used in V. only in the sense of in order that,
generally following the principal clause, which contains an
impv., an inj., or an ind. ; e. g. apa visvam amitran midasva,
yatha tava sarman madema drive away all foes that we may
rejoice in thy protection (x. 1311) ; tvaya yatha grtsamadaso
. . uparam abhi syuh, suribhyo grnat6 tad vayo dhah
bestow on the patrons and the singer this blessing that through
thee tlie Grtsamadas may be superior to their neighbours (ii. 49) ;

366 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [216

a daivya vrmmahe" 'vamsi, yatha bhavema milhuse ana-

gah we implore the divine aids that we may be sinless before the
gracious one (vii. 972).

a. In B. yatha with the opt. has two uses : a. in antecedent clauses
in the sense of as, as if, with a correlative meaning so in the principal
clause, which contains an opt., an ind., or no verb ; e. g. yatha^eva
chinna naur bandhanat plavetaJVw,evam eva te plaveran just as a boat
cut from its fastening would drift, so they would drift (AB.); s& yatha iiad-
yai param parapasyed evam svasya^ayusah. param para cakhyau as
if he were looking across to the farther bank of a river, so he saw the end of his
life from afar (SB.) ; atho yatha bruyad etan me gopayaw\ti tadfg ev&
tat then it (is) so as if he were to say : guard this for me (TS.).

#. in posterior clauses in the sense of how, so that ; e. g. upa janita
yatha wiyam ptinar agachet do ye find out how she could come back (SB.) ;
tat tatha^evahotavyam yathawagnim vyaveyat hence it is to be so poured
that it may divide the fire (MS.).

4. yatra and yada are not found with the opt. in V., and
yarhi does not occur at all in the RV. and AV.

In B. all three conjunctions are used hypothetically with the opt. in
the sense of when.

a. yatra, besides having the sense of when, in case, often seems to
mean at the moment when, as soon as ; the principal clause has the opt. or
the ind. : e. g. marutam saptakapalam nir vaped yatra vfd rajanam
jfjyaset he should offer a cake on seven dishes to the Maruts in case the people
were to oppress the king (MS.) ; si yatra prastuyat tad etani japet as soon
as he (the priest) begins to sing, one should mutter the following prayers (SB.).

0. yada as soon as seems often to imply that the action of the opt.
should be assumed to be past ; it seems always to be followed by atha
then • e. g. s& yada samgramam jayed atha^,aindragnam nir vapet as
soon as he may have icon a battle, he should sacrifice to Indra and Agni (MS.).

7. yarhi tvhen is generally followed by the correlative tarhi then in
the principal clause, which usually has the opt. also ; e. g. yarhi
prajah ksiidham nigacheyus, tarhi navaratre'na yajeta when his people
should be exposed to hunger, then he should sacrifice with the rite of nine nights
(TS.).

5. ce'd */is used with the ind. only in the RV. and only
once with the opt. in the AV.

In B. it is used with the opt. like yadi (with which it may inter-
change) ; e. g. etam ced anyasma anubrdyas, tata ev£ te siras chind-
yam if you were to communicate this to another, I would cut off your head (SB.).

217-218] PRECATIVE, CONDITIONAL 367

Precative.

217. This form, which occurs in the RV. and AV. in
principal clauses only, and never interrogatively, expresses
a prayer or wish addressed to the gods almost exclusively, as
is to be expected from the nature of those texts ; e. g. yo no
dv6sty adharah sas padista may lie who hates us fall to the
ground (iii. 5321). When a negative is used it is na ; e. g.
bhago me agne sakhy6 na mrdhyah. may my good fortune,
0 Agni, not relax in (thy) friendship (iii. 5421).

In B. the precative is almost restricted to verse or prose formulas
quoted and to paraphrases of such formulas ; e. g. bhuyasinam utta-
ram sdmam kriyasam iti g&vam l&ksma kuryat would that I may do
(this) to more next year : so saying he should make the mark of the cows (MS.).
sat&m hima iti satdm varsani jivyasam ity evfi^et&d aha by the expres-
sion i a hundred winters ' he says this : i would tliat I may live a hundred years '
(SB.). It is, however, sometimes found in genuine prose narrative
also ; e. g. sa ha vak prajapatim uvaca : dhavyavad eva^ab&m
tubhyam bhuyasam Vac said to Prajdpati : I would like not to be a con-
ductor of sacrifice for thee (SB.); t&m asapad: dhiya-dhiya tva vadhya-
suh him (Agni) cursed (saying) : I wish they may kill thee with repeated
deliberation (TS.).

Conditional.

218. In V. the conditional occurs only once (RV. ii. 302) in
a somewhat obscure passage, though the form abharisyat
used after a past tense appears to mean ivould take away
(in place of the future which would have been used after
a present tense).

In B. the conditional is once found in a simple interrogative sen-
tence : t&ta evd^asya bhay&m viyaya : k&smad dhy dbhesyat there-
upon his fear departed: for of what should he have been afraid? (SB.).
Otherwise it occurs only in compound sentences :

1. usually in both protasis and apodosis of conditional sentences,
expressing what might have happened in the past, but did not happen
because the condition was not fulfilled. The conditional clause is
generally introduced by y&d, rarely by ysidi (216) ; e. g. s& ydd dha^&pi
mukhad &drosyan, n£ hawev& prayascittir abhavisyat if it (Soma) had
also flowed out of his mouth, there would not have been a penance (SB.); y&d ev&m
na^aVaksyo murdha te vy apatisyat if you had not spoken thus, your
head would have split asunder (SB.) ; padau te 'mlasyatam y&di ha na^,
dgamisyah your feet would have withered, if you had not come (SB.).

368 OUTLINES OF SYNTAX [218

a. When yad is used with the opt. the supposed condition
refers to the present (216).

2. in relative clauses dependent on negative principal
clauses containing a past tense (always of vid find) ; e. g. sa
tad eva na^avindat prajapatir yad ahosyat Prajapati
found nothing that he could sacrifice (MS.); sa vai tarn
na^avindad yasmai tarn daksinam anesyat he found no
one to whom he should give this sacrificial fee (TB.).

3. in a clause introduced by yad that dependent on a
negative (or equivalent) clause ; e.g. ciram tan mene yad
vasah. paryadhasyata he thought it too long (that =) till he
should put on the garment (SB.) = he thought the time was not
short enough till lie should put on the garment.

APPENDIX I

LIST OP VERBS.

The order of the parts of the verb, when all are given, is : Present
Indicative (PR.), Subjunctive (SB.), Injunctive (INJ.), Optative (OP.),
Imperative (IPV.), Participle (PT.), Imperfect (lPF.)Q Perfect (PF.)£)
Pluperfect (PPF.)? Aorist (AO.)(?J Precative (PKC.)£ Future (FT.)0
Conditional (co.), Passive (PS.), Present, Aorist, Past ^Participle (PP.) ;
Gerundive (GDV.)(pGerund (oD.)(p Infinitive (INF.); Causative (cs.) f
Desiderative (DS.)~; Intensive (INT.).

The Koman numerals indicate the conjugational class of the verb ;
P. signifies that the verb is conjugated in the Parasmaipada (active)
only, A. that it is conjugated in the Atmanepada (middle) only.

ams attain, V. : PR. asn6ti ; sn. asnavat ; IPV. asn6tu ;

PT. asnuvant. PF. anamsa and anasa ; anasma, anasa,

anasiir ; anasd ; SB. anasamahai ; OP. anasyam ; PT.

anasana; PF. also asa, asatur, asiir; A. du. asathe,

asate. AO. root : A. 3. s. asta, pi. asata ; INJ. asta,

pi. asata; OP. asyat, PRO. 3. s. asyas (^asyas-t); s: SB.

aksat; a: as6t. INF. astave.
aks mutilate, V. : PR. IPV. aksnuhi. PF. PT. aksana. AO.

is : aksisur.
ac bend, I. : PR. acati. IPV. 2. s. aca ; acasva. PS. acyate ;

PT. acyamana ; IFF. acyanta ; PP. akna (B.). GD. -acya.
aj drive, I.: PR, ajati, ajate; SB. ajani, ajasi, ajati; OP.

ajeta ; IPV. ajatu ; PT. ajant. IPF. ajat. PS. ajyate ;

PT. ajyamana. INF. -aje.
anj anoint, VII. : PR. anakti, ankt6 ; SB. anajat ; IPV. andhi

(— angdhi), anaktu; PT. anjant, anjana. IPF. afijan,

PF. ananja ; anajd, anajr6 ; SB. anaja ; OP. anajyat ;

PT. anajana. PS. ajyate; PT. ajyamana; PP. akta.

GD. aktva (B.), -ajya (B.).

370 APPENDIX I

ad eat, II. : PR. admi, atsi, atti ; adanti ; SB. adat, pi.

adan (AV.) ; OP. adyat ; IPV. addhi, attu ; attam, attam ;

atta, adantu ; PT. adant, adana. IFF. adat. FT. atsyati.

pp. anna n. food. GD. attvaya (B.). INF. attum, attave,

attos (B.). cs. adayati (B.).
an breathe, P.: I. anati (AV.) ; VI.: anati (AV.); II.:

aniti ; IPV. anihi ; PT. anant. IPF. amt. PF. ana.

AO. anisur. FT. anisyati (B.). PP. anita(B.). -anya(B.).

INF. anitum (B.). cs. anayati.
am injure, II. : PR. amisi, amiti ; I. : PR. ame ; INJ. amanta ;

IPV. amisva; PT. amamana. IPF. amit. PF. amir6 (B.).

AO. amamat. PS. amyate. cs. amayati.
arc praise, I. : PR. arcati ; SB. area, arcat ; arcama, arcan ;

INJ. arcat ; arcan ; IPV. arcatu ; PT. arcant. IPF. arcan.

PF. anrcur ; anrce\ PS. rcyate ; PT. rcyamana. INF.

rcase. cs. arcayati.
arh deserve, I. : PR. arhati ; SB. arhat ; PT. arhant. PF.

anrhiir (TS.) ; arhir6. INF. arhase.
av favour, I. P. : PR. avati ; SB. avat ; INJ. avat ; OP. avet ;

IPV. avatu; PT. avant. IPF. avat. PF. avitha, ava.

AO. root : OP. 2. avyas; PRC. 3. avyas ( = avyas-t) ; is : avit;

SB. avisat; INJ. avit; IPV. aviddhi, avistu; avistam,

avistam; avistana. FT. avisyati; PT. avisyant. PP.

-uta. GD. -avya. INF. avitave.
as eat, IX. : PR. asnati, asnanti ; asnit6, asnate ; OP.

asniyat; IPV. asana; PT. asnant. IPF. asnam, asnat;

asnan, asnan. PF. asa. AO. is : asisam, asis, asit ;

INJ. asit. FT. asisyati (B.). PS. asyate ; PP. asita.

GD. asitva (B.), -asya (B.). cs. asayati (B.). DS.

asisisati (B.).
1. as be, II. P. : PR. asmi, asi, asti ; sthas, stas ; smas,

stha and sthana, santi ; SB. asani, asasi and asas, asati

and asat ; asathas ; asama, asatha, asan ; INJ. 3. pi.

san; OP. syam, syas, syat; syatam, syatam; syama,

syata and syatana, syiir ; IPV. edhi, astu ; stam, stam ;

sta, santu; PT. sant. IPF. asam, asis, as ( = as-t) and

LIST OF VERBS 371

asit; astam, astam; asan. PF. asa, asitha, asa; asa-

thur, asatur ; asima, asiir.
2. as throw, IV. : PR. asyami, asyati and asyate ; asyamasi,

asyanti ; IPV. asya and asyatat, asyatu ; PT. asyant.

IPF. asyat. PF. asa. FT. asisyati. PS. asyate ; PP. asta.

GD. -asya. INF. astave, astavai (B.).
ah say, P. : PF. aha, attha (B.) ; ahatur (B.) ; ahur.
ap obtain, V. : PR. apnoti. PF. apa, apitha ; apir6 ; PT.

apana. AO. red.: apipan (B.) ; a: apat; OP. ap6yam
.(AV.). FT. apsyati, - te (B. ) ; apta (B.). PS. apyate (B.) ;

AO. api (B.) ; PP. apta. GD. aptva (B.), -apya (B.). INF.

aptum (B.). cs. apayati (B.). DS. ipsati, ipsate (B.) ;

AO. aipsit (B.) ; DS. of cs. apipayiset (B.).
as sit, II. A. : PR. aste ; asathe, asate ; asmahe, asate ;

SB. asate ; OPT. asita ; IPV. s. 3. astam, pi. 2. adhvam ;

PT. asana and asina. IPF. pi. 3. asata. PF. asam cakre

(B.). AO. asista (B.). FT. asisyati, -te (B.). PP. asita

(B.). GD. asitva (B. ). INF. asitum (B.). cs. asayati (B.).
i go, II. : PR. 6ti; yanti ; A. 1. s. iye, du. 3. iyate, pi. 1.

imahe ; SB. aya, ayasi and ayas, ayati and ayat ; ayama,

ayan; INJ. pi. 3. yan; OP. iyam, iyat; iyama; IPV. ihi,

6tu ; itam, itam ; ita and eta, itana, yantu ; PT. yant,

iyana. IPF. ayam, ais, ait ; aitam, aitam ; aita, ayan ;

A. 3. pi. ayata. L: ayati, ayate; INJ. ayanta ; IPV.

3. du. ayatam, pi. ayantam. V. : PR. inoti ; invir^.

IPF. ainos, ainot.

PF. iyetha and iyatha, iyaya; lyathur, lyatur; lyur;

PT. lyivams. PPF. aiyes. FT. esyati; ayisyati (B.);

eta (B.). PP. ita. GD. itva, -itya. INF. 6tum (B.) ;

6tave, 6tavai, ityai, iyadhyai, ayase ; 6tos.
idh kindle, VII. A. : PR. inddh6 ; indhate and indhat6 ;

SB. inadhate ; IPV. indham (^inddham); indhvam

(=inddhvam), indhatam; PT. indhana. IPF. aindiia.

PF. Idh6 ; Idhire\ AO. SB. idhat6 ; OP. idhimahi ; PT.

idhana. PS. idhyate; IPV. idhyasva; PT. idhyamana;

pp. iddha. INF. -idham; -idhe. From the nasalized
Bb 2

372 APPENDIX I

root, inda, the is AO. is formed in B. : IND. aindhista ;
OP. indhisiya.

inv go, I. P. ( = V. i-nu + a): PR. invasi, invati; invathas,
invatas. SB. invat; IPV. inva, invatu; invatam, in-
vatam ; PT. invant.

1. is desire, VI. : PH. ichati, -ta ; SB. ieliat ; INJ. ichas ;
ichanta ; OP. ich6t ; ich^ta ; IPV. icha, ichatu ; ichata ;
ichasva, ichatam ; PT. ichant ; ichamana. IPF. aichat.
PF. (B.) iy6sa, Isiir ; Is6, Isir6. AO. (B.) aisit; aisisur.
FT. (B.) esisyati, -te. PP. ista. GD. -isya. INF. 6stmn
(B.) ; (§stavai (B.).

2. is send, IV. : PR. isyati, -te ; IPV. isyatam ; isyata ;
PT. isyant. IX. : PR. isnati ; PT. isnant ; isnana. VI. :
PR. is6 ; INJ. isanta ; OP. is£ma ; IPF. aisanta. PF. isathur,
isiir; Is6, isir6. PP. isita. GD. -isya(B.). INF. isadhyai.
cs. isayati^ -te ; INF. isayadhyai.

Iks see, I. A. : PR. ikse ; PT. Iksamana. IPF. aiksata ;

aiksetam; aiksanta. PER. PF. iksam cakre (B.). AO. is:

aiksisi. FT. iksisyati, -te (B.). PP. iksita (B.). GDV.

iksenya. GD. Iksitva (B.). cs. iksayati, -te.
mkh swing: cs. Inkhayati, -te ; SB. inkhayatai (AV.),

mkhayavahai ; IPV. inkhaya ; PT. mkhayant. PP.

inkhita.
id praise, II. A. : PR. 1. lie, 3. itte ; ilate ; SB. ilamahai

and ilamahe; INJ. ilata (3. pi.) ; OP. ilita; IPV. ilisva;

PT. liana. PF. 116 (3. s.). PP. Ilita. GDV. idya, Il^nya.
Ir set in motion, II. : PR. irte ; irate; SB. irat; IPV. irsva;

iratham ; irdhvam, iratam; PT. Irana. IPF. airam,

air-a-t, du. 2. air-a-tam; A. airata (3. pi.). PP. Irna (B.).

cs. Irayati; SB. Irayamahe; INJ. Irayanta; IPV. Iraya,

Irayatam; Irayasva; Irayadhvam; PT. irayant. IPF.

airayat ; airayata ; INF. Irayadhyai. PP. Irita.
Is l>e master, II. A. : PR. 1. ise, 2. ikse and isise, 3. iste,

ise and (once) isate ; isathe ; ismahe, isidhve, isate ;

INJ. isata (3. s.) ; OP. islya, isita ; PT. isana. PF. isire ;

PT. Isana.

LIST OF VERBS 373

is move, I. : PR. isati, -te ; 6sati ; INJ. 6sas ; IPV. isatu,
6satu ; PT. 6sant ; isamana. PF. Is6 (1. 3.). PP. -isita.

1. uks sprinkle, VI. : PR. uksati, -te ; IPV. uksatam, uksata ;
uksetham ; PT. uksamana. AO. is : auksisam (B.). FT.
uksisyati (B.). PS. uksyate (B.) ; PP. uksita. GD.
-uksya.

2. uks (=vaks) grow, I. and VI. : PR. PT. uksant ; uksamana.
IFF. auksat. AO. s : auksis. PP. uksita. cs. uksayate.

ue be pleased, IV. P. : PR. ucyasi. PF. uvocitha, uvoca ;

ucis6, uc6 ; PT. okivams, ucus. pp. ucita.
ud wet, VIL: PR. unatti; undanti; undate (3. pi.). IPV.

undhi ( — unddhi); unatta; PT. undant. VI. P.: PR.

undati (B.). IFF. aunat. PF. udiir. PS. udyate;

pp. utta (B.). GD. -udya (B.).
ubj force, VI. P. : PR. ubjati ; IPV. ubja, ubjatu ; ubjatam ;

ubjantu; PT. ubjant. IPF. 2. ubjas, 3. aubjat. PP.

ubjita. GD. -ubjya (B.).
ubh confine, VII. P. : IPF. unap (2. s.), aumbhan (TS.).

VI. P. : IPV. umbhata (2. pi.) ; IPF. aumbhat. IX. P. :

IPF. ubhnas, aubhnat. PP. ubdha.
us burn, I. P. : PR. 6sati ; INJ. osas ; IPV. osa and dsatat,

6satu ; osatam ; PT. osant. IX. P. : PT. usnant. IPF.

usnan. PF. uvosa (B.). AO. ausit (B.). PP. usta (B.).

1. uh remove, I. : PR. uhati ; IPV. uha. IPF. auhat ; auhata,
auhan ; A. auhata (3. s.). AO. auhit (B.) ; OP. uhyat
(B.). PP. udha (B.). GD. -uhya and -lihya (B.). INF.
-uhitavai (B.).

2. uh consider, I. A. : PR. ohate. II. A. : PR. 6hate (3. pi.) ;
PT. 6hana and ohana. PF. uh6 ; 2. du. uhyathe (=uh-
athe ?). AO. auhista ; PT. ohasana.

r go, VI. P. : PR. rchati (-te, B.) ; SB. rchat; IPV. rchatu;
rchantu. III. P.: PR. iyarmi, iyarsi, iyarti; IPV.
iyarta (2. pi.). V. : PR. rnomi, rn6ti ; rnvanti ; rnv6 ;
rnvir6 ; INJ. rnos ; rnvan ; A. rnuta (3. s.) ; SB. rnavas ;
IPV. : A. rnvatam (S. pi.) ; PT. rnvant. IPF. rnvan. pp.
aritha, ara ; arathur, arur ; PT. arivams ; arana. AO.

374 APPENDIX I

root : arta ; arata ; INJ. arta (A. 3. s.) ; OP. aryat (TS.) ;

arita ; PT. arana ; a : aram, arat ; arata, aran ; A. arata

(3. s.); aranta; SB. arama ; INJ. aram; aran; A. ara-

mahi, aranta ; IPV. aratam, aratam. FT. arisyati (B.).

pp. rta. GD. rtva, -ftya. cs. arpayati; AO. red.:

arpipam ; PP. arpita and arpita. GD. -arpya, arpayitva

(AV.). INT. alarsi, alarti.
rj direct, VI. : PR. rnjati, -te ; IPV. rnjata ; PT. rnjant.

VII. A.: PR. rnj<§; rnjate (3. pi.); IV.: PR. rjyate ;

PT. fjyant. I. : PR. arjati (B.). AO. PT. rnjasana.

INF. rnjase.
rd stir, VI. P. : IPV. rdantu. IPF. ardan. I. : PR. ardati

(AV.). cs. ardayati ; SB. ardayati.
rdh thrive, V. P. : PR. rdhndti ; IPF. ardhnot. IV. : PR.

fdhyati, -te; IPV. fdhyatam. VII. P.: SB. rnadhat ;

OP. rndhyam ; PT. rndhant. PF. anardha (K.) ; anrdhiir ;

anrdhe\ AO. root : ardhma (B.) ; SB. rdhat ; A. rdhathe

(2. du.) ; OP. rdhyam, rdhyas, rdhyama ; rdhimahi ;

PRC. rdhyasam; PT. rdhant; a: OP. rdh^t, rdh6ma;

is: ardhista (B.). FT. ardhisyate (B.j; ardhita (B.).

PS. rdhyate; IPV. rdhyatam; PP. rddha. GDV. ardhya.

cs. ardhayati. DS. irtsati ; PT. irtsant.
rs rush, I. : PR. arsati, -te ; SB. arsat ; INJ. arsat ; IPV.

arsa, arsatu ; arsata, arsantu ; PT. arsant. VI. P. : PR.

rsati ; PT. rsant. PP. rsta.
ej stir, I. P. : PR. ejati ; SB. djati and 6jat ; IPV. ejatu ;

PT. 6jant. IPF. aijat. cs. ejayati (B.).
edh thrive, I. A. : PR. <$dhate (B.) ; IPV. 6dhasva, <§dhatam

(B.). PER. PF. edham cakrire (B.). AO. is: OP. edhisiya.
kan, ka enjoy, IV. : PR. PT. kayamana. PF. cak6 ; SB.

cakanas, cakanat; cakanama; INJ. cakananta; OP.

cakanyat ; IPV. cakandhi, cakantu ; PT. cakana ;

PPF. cakan (2. s.). AO. akanisam ; SB. kanisas.
kam love : PF. PT. cakamana. AO. red. : acikamata (B.).

FT. kamisyate (B.); kamita (B.). cs. kamayate; SB.

kamayase ; PT. kamayamana.

LIST OF VEKBS 375

kas appear, I.: PR. kasate (B.). INT. cakasimi, cakasiti ;
cakasyate (B.) ; SB. cakasan (AV.) ; PT. cakasat. IPF.
acakasam. cs. kasayati.

kiip be angry, IV. : PR. PT. kiipyant. PP. kupita. cs.
kopayati.

1. kr make. V. : PR. krnomi, krnosi, krnoti ; krnuthas, kr-
nutas ; krnmasi, krautha, krnvanti ; A. krnv6, krnus6,
krnut£ ; krnmahe, krnvate ; IN.T. krnvata (3. pi.) ; SB.
krnava, krnavas, krnavat; krnavava; krnavama,
krnavatha (VS.), krnavan ; A. krnavai, krnavase,
krnavate; krnavavahai, krnvaite (for krnavaite);
kmavamahai, krnavanta; OP. krnvita; IPV. krnii,
krnuhi and krnutat, krnotu; krnutam, krnutam;
krnuta, krnota, and krnotana, krnvantu ; A. krnusva,
krnutam ; krnvatham ; krnudhvam ; PT. krnvant ;
krnvana. IPF. krnavam, akrnos, akrnot; akrmitam;
akrnuta, akrnota and akrnotana, akrnvan; A. akr-
nuta (3. s.) ; akrnudhvam, akrnvata.
VIII. : kardmi, karoti ; kurmas, kurvanti ; kurv6, ku-
rut6; kurvate; se.karavas, karavat; JPV. kurii, kar6tu;
A. kurvatam. PT. kurvant ; kurvana. IPF. akaros,
akarot; akurvan; A. kuruthas, akuruta; akurvata.
II. : PR. karsi ; krthas ; krtha ; A. krs6.
PF. cakara, cakartha, cakara ; cakrathur, cakratur ;
cakrma, cakra, cakriir ; A. cakr6, cakrsd, cakr6 ; ca-
krathe, cakrate ; cakrir6 ; OP. cakriyas ; PT. cakrvams ;
cakrana. PPF. cakaram, acakrat ; acakriran. AO. root :
akaram, akar, akar ; kartam, dkartam ; akarma,
akarta, akran ; A. akri, akrthas, akrta ; akrata ; INJ.
karam, kar ; SB. karani, karasi and karas, karati and
karat ; karathas, karatas ; karama, karanti and karan ;
A. karase, karate ; karamahe ; OP. kriyama ; PRC.
kriyasma; IPV. krdhi; krtam and kartam; krta and
kartana; A. krsva ; krdhvam; PT. krant; krana.
AO. a : akaras, akarat ; IPV. kara ; karatam, karatam ;
s: akarsit (B.) ; A. akrsi (B.). FT. karisyati ; -te (B.) ;

376 APPENDIX I

SB. karisyas. co. akarisyat (B.). PS. kriyate ; PT. kri-

yamaria ; AO. akari ; PP. krta. GDV. kartva. GD.

krtva, krtvi, krtvaya. INF. kartave, kartavai ; kartos ;

kartum. cs. karayati, karayate (B.). DS. cikirsati.

INT. PT. karikrat and carikrat.
2. kr commemorate : AO. s : akarsam ; is : akarisam, akarit.

INT. carkarmi ; SB. carkiran ; AO. carkrse (3. s.) ; GDV.

carkrtya.
krt cut, VI. P. : PR. krntati ; INJ. krntat ; IPV. krnta ;

PT. krntant. IPF. akrntat. PF. cakartitha, cakarta,

AO. a: akrtas; PT. krtant; red.: acikrtas (B.). FT.

kartsyami. PS. krtyate ; PP. krtta. GD. -krtya.
krp lament, I. A. : . PR. krpate ; PT. krpamana. IPF. akrp-

anta. PF. cakrpe (K.). PPF. cakrpanta. AO. root : akrp-

ran ; is : akrapista. cs. PT. krpayant ; IPF. akrpayat.
krs le lean, IV. P. : PR. krsyati (B.). PF. cakarsa. PP.

krsita (B.). cs. karsayati.
krs plough, I.: PR. karsati ; -te (B.) ; INJ. karsat ; IPV.

karsa. VI. : PR. krsati ; IPV. krsatu ; krsantu ; A. krs-

asva; PT. krsant. PF. cakarsa (B.). AO. red. : acikrsam ;

sa: akrksat (B.). FT. kraksy6 (B.). PS. krsyate ; PP.

krsta. GD. krstva (B.). INT. 3. pi. carkrsati; SB.

carkrsat ; PT. carkrsat ; IPF. acarkrsur.
kf scatter, VI. P. : PR. kirati, -te ; SB. kirasi ; IPV. kira,

kiratu. IPF. akirat. AO. is : SB. karisat. PS. kiryate

(B.) ; PP. kirna (B.).
kip be adapted, I. : PR. kalpate ; IPV. kalpasva ; PT. kalp-

amana. IPF. akalpata, akalpanta. PF. caklpur;

caklpr^. AO. red. : aciklpat ; SB. ciklpati. FT. kalp-

syate (B.). PP. klpta. cs. kalpayati; SB. kalpayati;

kalpayavahai ; IPV. kalpaya, kalpayatu ; kalpayasva ;

PT. kalpayant ; IPF. akalpayat. DS. cikalpayisati (B.) ;

GD. kalpayitva.
krand cry out, I. P. : PR. krandati ; INJ. krandat ; IPV.

kranda, krandatu ; PT. krandant. IFF. akrandas,

krandat. PF. cakrad6. PPF. cakradas, cakradat.

LIST OF VERBS 377

AO. a : INJ. kradas ; red. : acikradas, acikradat ; aci-

kradan ; INJ. cikradas ; s : akran (2. 3. s.). cs. krand-

ayati. INT. kanikranti (3. s. = kanikrant-ti) ; PT.

kanikradat.
kram stride, I. P. : PR. kramati ; OP. kramema ; IPV. krama ;

PT. kramant ; IPF. akramat ; A. : kramate ; SB. kram-

ama ; IPV. kramasva. PF. cakrama, cakramiir ; ca-

kram6 ; cakramathe ; PT. cakramana. PPF. cakram-

anta ; AO. root : akran ; akranmr ; INJ. kramur ; a :

akramat, akraman ; s : A. akramsta ; akramsata ; SB.

kramsate ; is : akramisam and akramim, akramis,

akramit ; kramista (3. s.) ; INJ. kramis ; IPV. kramistam.

FT. kramsyate ; kramisyati, -te (B.) ; PP. kranta. GD.

krantva (B.), -kramya. INF. -krame; kramitum (B.) ;

kramitos (B.). cs. kramayati (B.). INT. IPV. cankra-

m-a-ta (2. pi.) ; cankramyate (B.).
kri buy, IX. : PR. krmati ; krinit6 ; SB. krmavahai.

IPF. akrinan. PT. kresyati, -te (B.). PS. kriyate (B.) ;

pp. krita. GD. kritva, -kriya (B.).
krudh l>e angry, IV. P. : PR. krudhyati. PF. cukrodha (B.).

AO. red. : acukrudhat ; SB. cukrudhama ; INJ. cukrudh-

am ; a : INJ. krudhas. PP. kruddha. cs. krodhayati.
krus cry out, I. : PR. krdsati ; IPV. krosatu ; PT. krdsant ;

krosamana. AO. sa : akruksat. PP. krusta (B.).
ksad divide, I. A. : PR. ksadamahe. PF. caksad6 ; PT.

caksadana. INF. ksadase.
ksam endure, I. A. : OP. ksameta ; IPV. ksamadhvam.

PT. ksamamana. PF. caksame (B.) ; OP. caksam-

Ithas.
ksar flow, I. P. : PR. ksarati ; INJ. ksarat ; IPV. ksara ;

ksarantu ; PT. ksarant. IPF. aksarat ; aksaran. AO. s :

aksar. PP. ksarita (B.). INF. ksaradhyai. cs. ksar-

ayati (B.).
1. ksi possess, II. P. : PR. ksdsi, ks^ti ; ksitas ; ksiyanti ;

SB. ksayas, ksayat; ksayama; PT. ksiyant. I. P. : PR.

ksayati ; OP. ksayema (AV.) ; PT. ksayant. IV. P. :

378 APPENDIX I

PR. ksiyati ; OP. ksiyema ; IPV. ksiya. AO. s : SB. ks6sat.

FT. PT. ksesyant. cs. IPV. ksayaya; INJ. ksepayat.
2. ksi destroy, IX. : PR. ksinati ; ksinanti ; INJ. ksinam.

IFF. aksinas. V. : PR. ksinomi. IV. A. : PR. ksiyate ;

ksiyante. AO. s : INJ. ksesta (AY.). PS. ksiyate ;

PT. ksiyamana; PP. ksita; ksina (AV.). GD. -ksiya (B.).

INF. -ksetos (B.). DS. ciksisati (B.).
ksip throiv, VI. P. : PR. ksipati ; INJ. ksipat ; IPV. ksipa ;

PT. ksipant. AO. red. : INJ. ciksipas ; ciksipan. pp.

ksipta. INF. -kseptos (B.).
ksnu whet, II. : PR. ksnaumi ; PT. ksnuvana. PP. ksnuta

(B,). GD. -ksnutya (B.).
khan, kha dig, I. : PR. khanati; SB. khanama; OP. khan-

ema ; PT. khanant. IPF. akhanat ; akhananta. PF.

cakhana; cakhmir. FP. PT. khanisyant. PS. khayate

(B.) ; pp. khata. GD. khatva (B.) ; khatvi (tfS.), -khaya

(B.). INF. khanitum.
khad chew, I. P. : PR. khadati ; IPV. khada ; PT. khadant.

PF. cakhada. PP. khadita (B.). GD. khaditva (B.).
khid tear, VI. : PR. khidati ; INJ. khidat ; OP. khid6t.

IPV. khida ; khidant. IPF. akhidat. PF. PT. khidvams.

GD. -khidya (B.).
khya see: PF. cakhyathur. AO. a: akhyat; INJ. khyat;

IPV. khyatam; khyata. FT. khyasyati (B.). PS.

khyayate (B.) ; PP. khyata. GDV. -khyeya. GD. -khyaya.

INF. khyatum (B.) ; -khyai. cs. khyapayati, -te (B.).
gam go, I. : PR. gachati, -te ; SB. gachasi and gachas,

gachati and gachat; gachatha, gachan; A. gachai;

OP. gachet ; gachema ; IPV. gacha and gachatat, gachatu

and gachatat ; gachatam, gachatam ; gachata, ga-

chantu ; A. gachasva (AV.), gachatam ; gachadhvam ;

PT. gachant; gachamana. IPF. agachat; agachanta.

PF. jagama, jagantha, jagama ; jagmathur, jagmatur ;

jaganma, jagmiir; jagm6; OP. jagamyam, jagamyat;

jagamyatam, jagamyiir; PT. jaganvams, jagmivams;

jagmana. Per. PF. gamayam cakara (AV.). PPF. ajagan

LIST OF VERBS 379

(2. s.) ; ajaganta ; A. ajagmiran. AO. root : agamam, agan
(2. 3. s.) ; aganma, agman ; agathas, agata ; ganvahi ;
aganmahi, agmata ; SB. gamani, gamas, gamat ;
gamathas, gamatas ; gamama, gamanti ; INJ. gan ;
OP. gamy as ; gmiya (B.) ; PRO. 3. s. gamy as ; IPV.
gadhi and gahi, gantu ; gatam and gantam, gantam;
gata, ganta and gantana, gamantu ; PT. gmant ;
a : agamat. agaman ; SB. gamatas ; gamatha ; INJ. gam-
an ; gam^yam, gam^s, garnet ; gamama ; gam^mahi ;
red. : ajigamam, ajigamat ; s : agasmahi; is: gamistam;
gmisiya (VS.). FT. gamisyati (AV.); ganta (B.). PS.
gamyate; AO. agami; PP. gata. GD. gatva, gatvaya,
gatvi, -gatya. INF. gantave, gantavai, gamadhyai,
gamadhye (TS.); gantos, -gamas. cs. gamayati and
gamayati. DS. jigamsati ; jigamisati, -te (B.). INT.
ganiganti; PT. ganigmat.

1. ga#o, III. P.: PR. jigasi, jigati; INJ. jigat; IPV. jigatam;
jigata; PT. jigat. IPF. ajigat. PF. OP. jagayat. AO. root:
agam, agas, agat ; agatam, agatam ; agama, agata,
agur ; SB. gani, gas, gat ; gama ; INJ. gam ; gama, giir ;
IPV. gata and gatana; s: INJ. gesam(VS.) ; gesma(AV.).
DS. jigasa (SV.). INF. gatave.

2. ga sing, IV.: PR. gayasi, gayati; gayanti; A. gaye;
INJ. gayat; IPV. gaya; gayata, gayantu; PT. gayant.
IPF. agayat. PF. jagan (B.). AO. s: INJ. gasi (1. s.);
sis: agasisur; SB. gasisat. FT. gasyati (B.>. PS. PT.
giyamana; PP. gita. GD. gitva (B.); -gaya (B.) and
-giya (B.). INF. gatum (B.). cs. gapayati, -te (B.).
DS. jigasati (B.).

gah, plunge, I. A. : PR. gahase, gahate; OP. gahemahi;

IPV. gahetham; PT. gahamana. IPF. agahathas. INT.

jangahe.
gur greet, VI.: PR. IPV. gurasva. PF. SB. jugurat; OP.

juguryas, juguryat. AO. root : gurta (3. s. A.). PP. giirta.

GD. -gurya.
guh hide, I. : PR. guhati, -te ; INJ. guhas ; guhathas ;

380 APPENDIX I

IPV. guhata ; PT. guhant ; guhamana. IFF. aguhat.
AO. a: guhas; INJ. guhas; PT. guhant; guhamana;
sa : aghuksat. ps.guhyate; PT. guhyamana; PP. gudha;
GDV. giihya, -gohya. GD. gudhvi. DS. juguksati.

1. gr sing, IX. : PR. grnami, grnati ; grnitas ; grnimasi,
grnanti ; A. grn6, grnise", grnit6 (and grne"), grnimahe ;
INJ. grnita (3. s. A.) ; IPV. grnihi, grnatu ; grnitam,
grnitam ; grnita, grnantu ; PT. grnant ; grnana. GD.
-girya (B.). INF. grmsani.

2. gr wake: AO. red.: 2. 3. ajigar; IPV. jigrtam; jigrta.
INT. jagarti; jagrati; SB. jagarasi (AV.), jagarat; OP.
jagriyama(VS.), jagryama(TS.); ipv.jagrhi andjagrtat;
jagrtam, jagrtam ; PT. jagrat. IFF. ajagar. PF. 1. s. ja-
gara. 3. jagara. PT. jagrvams ; FT. jagarisyati, -te
(B.) ; PP. jagarita (B.). cs. jagarayati (B.).

grdh be greedy, IV. P. : PR. PT. grdhyant. PF. jagrdhur.

AO. a : agrdhat ; INJ. grdhas ; grdhat.
gr swallow, VI. P. : PR. girati. PF. jagara. AO. root :

SB. garat, garan; red.: ajigar (2. s.); is: INJ. garit.

FT. garisyati (B.). PP. girna. GD. -girya (AV.). INT.

SB. jalgulas ; PT. jargurana.
grabh seize, IX.: PR. grbhnami, grbhnati; grbhnanti;

grbhnd; grbhnate; SB. grbhnas; INJ. grbhnita (3. s.);

IPV. grbhmhi. IFF. agrbhnas, agrbhnat; agrbhnan;

agrbhnata (3. pi. A.). PF. jagra-bha (1. s.) ; jagrbhathur ;

jagrbhma, jagrbhiir; A. jagrbhr6 and jagrbhrir6 ; OP.

jagrbhyat; PT. jagrbhvams; PPF. ajagrabham, aja-

grabhit. AO. root : agrabham ; agrbhran ; PT. grbhana ;

a: agrbham; red.: ajigrabhat; is: agrabhim (TS.),

agrabhit; agrabhisma, agrabhisur; agrbhisata(3.pl. A.).

INJ. grabhista (2. pi.). PP. grbhita. GD. grbhitva,

-grbhya. INF. -grabh6, -grbh6. cs. PT. grbhayant.
gras devour, I. A. : PR. grasate ; OP. grasetam. PF. OP.

jagrasita ; PT. jagrasana. PP. grasita.
grah seise, IX. : grhnami, grhnati ; grhnanti ; grime" ;

grhnimahe, grhnate ; OP. grhniyat ; IPV. grhnahi (AV.),

LIST OF VERBS 381

grhmtat and grhana ; grhnatu ; grhnitam ; grhnantu ;

PT. grhnant; grhnana. IFF. agrhnat, agrhnan. PF.

jagraha, jagraha; jagrhma, jagrhur; jagrh6. AO. a:

INJ. grhamahi ; is : agrahit ; agrahista. FT. grahisyati

(B.); co. agrahlsyat (B.), agrahaisyat (B.). PS. grhyate ;

pp. grhita. GD. grhitva, -grhya. INF. grahitavai (B.).

grahitos (B.). cs. grahayati (B.). DS. jighrksati,

-te (B.).
ghas eat: PF. jaghasa, jaghasa; OP. jaksiyat; PT. jaksi-

vams (AV.). AO. root : aghas (2. 3. s.), aghat (3. s., B.) ;

aghastam (3. du., B.) ; aghasta (2. pi., B.), aksan;

SB.ghasas, ghasat ; IPV. ghastam (3.du.); s : aghas (2. s.) ;

red. : ajighasat. PP. -gdha (TS.). DS. jighatsati.
ghus sound, I. : PR. gh6sati, ghdsate ; SB. gh6sat ; gh6san ;

PT. ghosant. PF. jugh6sa (B.). PS. AO. gh6si. GD.

-ghiisya. cs. ghosayati.
oaks see, II. : PR. cakse (= caks-se), caste; caksathe;

caksate; P. caksi (= caks-si) ; IFF. caksur. I. A. : PR.

caksate (3. s.) ; IFF. caksata (3. s.). PF. cacaksa ; ca-

caks6 (B.). PPF. acacaksam. GDV. caksya. GD. -caksya.

INF. -cakse, caksase ; -caksi. cs. caksayati.
car move, I. P. : PR. carati ; SB. carani ; carava, caratas ;

car an ; caratai (AV.) ; INJ. carat ; OP. caret ; IPV. cara,

caratu; carata, carantu; PT. carant. IPF. acarat.

PF. cacara; cerima, ceriir. AO. red. : acicarat; s: acar-

sam (B.) ; is : acarisam ; INJ. carit. FT. carisyami.

PS. caryate (B.) ; PP. carita ; GDV. -car^nya. GD. caritva

(B.) ; -carya (B.). INF. carase, caritave, caradhyai ;

caritavai (B.) ; caritum (B.) ; caritos (B.). cs. carayati,

-te(B.). DS. cicarsati (B.), cicarisati(B.). INT. carcariti;

PT. carcuryamana.
cay note, I. : PR. cayati (B.) ; PT. cayamana. PER, PF. -cayam

cakrur (B.). AO. is : acayisam. PS. cayyate. GD.

cayitva; -cayya.
1. ci gather, V. : PR. cin6tt ; cinvanti ; cinut6 ; SB. cinav-

at ; OP. cinuyama ; IPV. cinuhi, cinotu ; cinvantu ;

382 APPENDIX I

cinusva ; PT. cinvant ; cinvana. I. : PR. eayase, cayate ;

cayadhve ; INJ. cayat ; OP. cayema. PF. cikaya ; cikye ;

cikyir6. AO. root : acet ; IPV. citana, ciyantu ; s :

acaisam (B.) ; is : cayistam. FT. cesyati, -te (B.).

PS. ciyate (B.) ; PP. cita. GD. citva(B.). INF. c6tum (B.) ;

cetavai (B.). DS. cikisate (B.).
2. ci note, III. : PR. cik6si (AV.) ; IPV. cikihi (AV.), ciketu

(TS.) ; A. (3. s.) cikitam (AV.) ; PT. cikyat. IPF. aciket ;

acikaynr (B.). PF. cikaya; cikyatur; cikyiir; A. 2.

du. cik^the (for cikyathe). AO. root : acet ; A. aci-

dhvam. PP. cita. DS. cikisate.
cit perceive, I. : PR. c6tati ; c^tathas ; c^tatha ; A. estate ;

c^tante ; INJ. c6tat ; IPV. c6tatam ; PT. extant ; IPF.

acetat. II. A. : PR. cit6 (3. s.). PF. ciketa ; cikitiir ;

A. cikit6 ; cikitr6 and cikitrir6 ; SB. cikitas, ciketati

and ciketat ; ciketathas ; IPV. cikiddhi ; PT. cikitvams ;

cikitana; PPF. ciketam; aciketat. AO. root: acet;

PT. citana ; PS. : aceti ; s : acait. INF. citaye. cs. cetayati,

-te and citayati, -te ; SB. cetayani, cetayatai (TS.) ; OP.

citayema. DS. INJ. cikitsat. INT. c6kite (3. s.) ; SB. c6-

kitat ; PT. c^kitat.
cud impel, I. : PR. codami ; codate ; INJ. c6dat ; IPV. c6da,

codata; c6dasva, codetham. cs. SB. codayasi, cod-

ayat ; codayase, codayate ; PP. codita.
cyu move, I. : PR. cyavate ; INJ. cyavam ; cyavanta ; IPV.

cyavasva ; cyavetham ; cyavadhvam. PF. cicyus^,

cucyuv^ (3. s. ) ; iNJ.cucyavat ; OP. cucyuvimahi, cucyav-

irata. PPF. acucyavat, acucyavit ; acucyavitana, acu-

cyavur. AO. s: cyosthas. FT. cyosyate (B.). pp. cyuta.

cs. cyavayati, -te.
chad or chand seem, II. : PR. chantsi. PF. cachanda ;

OP. cachadyat. AO. s: achan; achanta (=achant-s-ta),

achantsur ; SB. chantsat. cs. chadayati ; chandayase ;

INJ. chadayat ; SB. chadayatha ; chandayate ; IPF.

achadayan.
chid cut off, VII. : PR. chinadmi, chinatti ; IPV. chindhi

LIST OF VERBS 383

( — chinddhi), chinattu; chintam (=chinttam). PP. ci-

ch6da; cichid6 (B.). AO. root: chedma; a: achidat ;

achidan ; s : achaitsit (B.) ; INJ. chitthas. FT. chetsyati,

-te (B.). PS. chidyate; PT. chidyamana ; AO. achedi;

pp. chinna. GD. -chidya; chittva (B.). INF. ch^ttavai

(B.) ; chettum (B.). DS. cichitsati, -te (B.).
jan generate, I. : PR. janati ; SB. janat ; INJ. janat ; IPV.

janatu; PT. janant; janamana. IFF. ajanat; Janata

(3. s.) ; ajananta. PF. jajana ; jajnatur ; jajniir and

jajamir; A. jajnis6, jajn6; jajnir6; PT. jajnana. AO.

root: ajani(l. s.) ; red.: ajijanat, ajijanan; INJ. jijanam;

jijananta ; is : janistam (3. du.) ; A. ajanisthas, ajanista ;

OP. janisiya, janisista. FT. janisyati, -te ; janita (B.) ;

co. ajanisyata (B.). PS. : AO. ajani; jani, jani. GDV.

jantva and janitva. GD. janitvi. INF. janitos. cs. jan-

ayati, -te ; SB. janayas ; OP. janayes ; IPV. janaya,

janayatu ; janayatam ; janayata. DS. jijanisate (B.).
jambh chew: AO. red.: ajijabham; is: SB. jambhisat.

PP. jabdha. cs. : IPV. jambhaya ; jambhayatam ; PT.

jambhayant. INT. janjabhyate (B.) ; PT. janjabhana.
jas be exhausted, I. : PR. PT. jasamana ; IV. : IPV. jasyata.

PF. jajasa; IPV. jajastam. AO. red. : ajijasata (3. s., B.).

cs. jasayati (B.).
ja l)e born, IV. A. : PR. jayate ; INJ. jayata ; OP. jayemahi ;

IPV. jayasva, jayatam; jayadhvam; PT. jayamana.

IPF. ajayathas, ajayata; ajayanta. PP. jata.
1. ji conquer, I. : jayati, -te ; SB. jayasi, jayas, jayati ;

jayava, jayatha; A. jayatai (AV.) ; INJ. jayat; OP.

jayema ; IPV. jayatu ; A. jayantam ; PT. jayant. IPF.

ajayat. II. P. : PR. J6si. PF. jig^tha, jigaya ; jigyathur ;

jigyur ; A. jigy6 ; PF. jigivams ; jigivams (B.) ; AO. root :

INJ. j6s; IPV. jitam; s: ajaisam, 3. ajais (=ajais-t);

ajaisma; SB. j^sas, j6sat; j^sama; INJ. jdsam (VS.),

j6s; j6sma, jaisur (AV.). FT. jesyati; PT. jesyant.

PP. jita ; GDV. j6tva. GD. jitva (B.) ; -jitya. INF. jis6 ;

j^tave (B.) ; jdtum (B.). cs. japayati (B.) ; ajijapata

384 APPENDIX I

(VS.) and ajijipata (TS.). DS. jigisati, -te ; PT. jigi-

samana.

2. ji quicken, V. : PR. jinosi; jinve. IPF. ajinot (B.).
jinv quicken (=V. ji-nu + a), I. :_ PR. jinvasi, jinvati; jinva-

thas ; jinvatha, jinvanti ; A. jinvate ; IPV. jinva, jinv-

atu; jinvatam; jinvata; PT. jinvant. IFF. aj in vat; ajinv-

atani. PF. jijinvathur. FT. jinvisyati (B.). PP. jinvita.
jiv live, I. P. : PR. jivati ; SB. jivani, jivas, jivati and jivat ;

jivatha, jivan ; OP. jivema ; IPV. jiva, jivatu ; jivatam ;

jivata, jivantu; PT. jivant. PF. jijiva (B.). AO. root:

PRC. jivyasam; is: INJ. jivit. FT. jivisyati (B.). PS.

jivyate (B.) ; PP. jivita. GDV. jivamya. GD. jivitva

(B.). INF. jivase; jivitavai, jivatave (TS. vs.); jivitum

(B.). cs. jivayati. DS. jijivisati (B.) ; jujyusati (B.) ;

PP. jijyusita (B.).
jus enjoy, VI. : PR. jusate ; OP. jus^ta ; jus^rata ; PT.

jusamaua ; IPF. ajusat ; ajusata. PF. juj6sa ; jujus^ ;

SB. jujosati, jiijosat; jiijosatha, jiijosan; A. jiijosate;

IPV. jujustana ; PT. jujusvams ; jujusana. PPF. ajujosam.

AO. root : ajusran ; SB. J6sati, j6sat ; A. josase ; PT.

jusana; is: SB. j6sisat. PP. justa gladdened and justa

welcome. GD. justvi. cs. josayate ; SB. josayase.
ju speed, IX. P. : PR. junati; junanti; sB.junas. I. A. : PR.

javate. PF. jujuviir; SB. jujuvat ( = jujavat); PT. ju-

juvams ; jujuvana. PP. juta. INF. javase.
jurv consume, I. P. : PR. jurvati ; SB. jurvas ; IPV. jurva ;

PT. jurvant. AO. is : jurvit.
jr sing, I. A, : PR. jarate ; SB. jarate j OP. jareta ; IPV.

jarasva, jaratam ; PT. jaramana. INF. jaradhyai.
jf , jur waste away, I. P. : PR. jarati ; IPV. jaratam ; PT.

jarant. VI. P. : PT. jurant. IV. P. : PR. jiryati, juryati ;

PT. juryant; IPF. ajuryan. PF. jajara; PT. jujurvams.

AO. is : jarisur. PP. jirna, jurna. cs. jarayati, -te ;

PT. jarayant and jarayant.
jna know, IX. : PR. janati ; janimas, janitha, jananti ;

janit6 ; janate ; SB. janama; janamahai; OP. janlthas;

LIST OF VERBS 385

IPV. janihi, janitat, janatu; janita, janantu; jamdhvam,

janatam; PT. janant; janana. IFF. ajanam, ajanat ;

ajanan; A. 3. pi. ajanata. PP. jajnau; jajne; PT.

jajnivams and janivams. AO. root : OP. jneyas (Gk.

yvoirisi); s: ajnasam (B.); ajnasthas ; IN.I. jnesam ;

sis: ajnasisam. FT. jnasyati, -te (B.) ; jnata (B.).

PS. jnayate; AO. ajnayi; pp. jnata; GDV. jneya (B.).

GD. jnatva (B.), -jnaya (B.). INF. jnatum (B.), jnatos (B.).

cs. jnapayati; AO. ajijnipat (TS.); PS. jnapyate (B.) ;

pp. jnapta (B.) ; jnapayati (B.). DS. jijnasate.
jya overpower, IX.: PR. jinati; OP. jiniyat; PT. jinant.

IV. A. : PR. jiyate. PF. jijyau (B.). AO. sis : ajyasisam

(B.). FT. jyasyati, -te (B.). PS. jiyate; PP. jita. DS.
jijyasati.
jval flame, I. P. : PR. jvalati (B.). PF. jajvala (B.). AO.

ajvalit (B.). FT. jvalisyati (B.). PP. jvalita (B.). cs.
jvalayati (B.).

tarns shake : PF. tatasr6. PPF. atatamsatam. AO. a : atasat.
cs. tamsayati, -te ; INF. tamsayadhyai. INT. SB. tantas-
aite; GDV. -tantasayya.

taks fashion, I. P. : PR. taksati ; SB. taksama ; INJ. taksat ;
IPV. taksatam ; taksata, taksantu ; PT. taksant. IPF.
ataksat. II. P.: PR. tasti(B.), taksati (3. pi.) ; IPV. talhi.
IPF. ataksma, atasta. V. P. : PR. taksnuvanti (B.). PF.
tataksa (taksathur, taksur) ; tataksd. AO. is : ataksisur.
PP. tasta.

tan stretch, VIII. : PR. tandti ; tanmasi, tanvanti ; tanut6 ;
SB. tanavavahai; INJ. tamithas; IPV. tanii, tanuhi,
tanotu; A. tanusva; tanudhvam; pT.tanvant; tanvana.
IPF. atanuta; atanvata. PF. tatantha, tatana and
tatana; A. 1. tatand, 3. tatn<§ and tat6 (\/ta); tatnire
and tenire ; SB. tatanat ; tatanama, tatanan ; INJ. tatan-
anta; OP. tatanyur; PT. tatanvams. AO. root: atan;
A. 2. atathas, 3. atata; atnata (3. pi.); a: atanat;
INJ. tanat; s: atan and atamsit; atasi (B.) ; atams-
mahi(B.); is: atanit. FT. tamsyate (B.). PS. tayate;

1819 C C

386 APPENDIX I

AO. atayi (B.). PP. tata. QD. tatva (B.), tatvaya (VS.),

-tatya (B.). INF. tantum (B.).
tap heat, I. : PR. tapati, -te ; SB. tapati ; INJ. tapat ; IPV.

tapatu ; PT. tapant. IPF. atapat. IV. P. : PR. tapyati (B.).

PF. 1. tatapa. 3. tatapa; tep6; SB. tatapate; PT. tepana.

AO. root : PT. tapana ; red. : atitipe (3. s.) ; SB. titipasi ;

s : atapsit ; atapthas ; INJ. tapsit ; taptarct. FT. tapsyati

(B.). PS. tapyate ; AO. atapi ; PP. tapta. GD. taptva (B.),

-tapya. INF. taptos (B.). cs. tapayati, -te (AV.) ; PS.

tapyate (B.).
to,m faint, IV. P. : PR. tamyati (B.). PF. tatama (B.). AO. a :

INJ. tamat. PP. tanta (B.). INF. tamitos (B.). tam-

ayati (B.).
tij "be sharp, I. A. : PR. tejate ; PT. tejamana. PF. IPV. titig-

dhi (B.). PP. tikta. DS. titiksate. INT. t^tikte.
tu be strong, II. P. : PR. taviti. PF. tutava. PPF. tutos,

tutot. INT. PT. tavitvat (= tavituat).
tuj urge, VII. : PR. tunjanti; tunjate (3. pi.); PT. tunjana.

VI.: PR. tuj6te; PT. tujant. PF. OP. tutujyat; PT. tu-

tujana and tutujana. PS. tujyate. INF. tujase, tujaye,

-tiije. cs. PT. tujayant.
tud thrust, VI. : PR. tudati ; IPV. tuda ; tudantu ; PT.

tudant. IPF. tudat. PF. tut6da. PP. tunna.
tur (= tr) pass, VI. : PR. turati, -te; IV. P. : IPV. turya;

II. P. : OP. turyama. PF. OP. tuturyat ; tuturyama. PP.

turta (B.). GD. -turya. INF. turvane. cs. turayate.

DS. tutursati.
trd split, VII. : PR. trnadmi, trnatti ; trntte (B.) ; IPF. atrnat ;

atrndan. PF. tatarditha, tatarda; PT. tatrdana. AO.

root : SB. tardas. PP. trnna (VS.). GD. -trdya. INF. -trdas.
trp ~be pleased, V. P. : PR. trpn6ti ; SB. trpnavas ; IPV. trpnuhi ;

trpnutam; trpnuta; VI. P.: PR. trmpati; IPV. trmpa;

IV. : PR. trpyati. PF. tatrpur ; PT. tatrpana. AO. root :

PRC. trpyasma ; a : atrpat ; PT. trpant ; red. : atitrpas ;

atitrpama. co. atarpsyat (B.). PP. trpta. cs. tarpayati,

-te ; DS. titarpayisati. DS. titrpsati ; SB. titrpsat.

LIST OF VERBS 387

trs be thirsty, IV. : PR. trsyati, -te ; FT. trsyant. PF. tatrs-

lir ; PT. tatrsana and tatrsana. AO. root : PT. trsana ;

a : trsat ; red. : atitrsama ; IN.T. titrsas. PP. trsita. cs.

tarsayati (B.).
trh crush, VII. P. : PR. trn£dhi ; trmhanti ; IPV. trn^dhu ;

SB. trnahan (AV.) ; PT. trmhant. PF. tatarha. AO. a:

atrham. PS. trhyate ; PP. trlha, trdha. GD. trdhva.
tf cross, I. : PR. tarati, -te ; SB. tarathas ; INJ. tarat; OP.

taret ; IPV. tara ; PT. tarant. IFF. atarat. VI. : PR. tirati,

-te ; SB. tirati ; INJ. tiranta; OP. tir^ta, -tana (2. pi.); IPV.

tira ; tirata, tirantu ; tiradhvam ; PT. tirant. IPF. atirat.

III. : PT. titrat. VIII. A. : tarute. PF. tatara; titirur;

PT. tatarus- (weak stem) and titirvams. AO. red. : ati-

taras ; is : atarit ; atarisma and atarima, atarisur ; SB.

tarisas, tarisat ; INJ. taris, tarit ; OP. tarisimahi. PS. AO.

atari ; pp. tirna. GD. tirtva. INF. -tiram, -tire ; tara-

dhyai ; tarisani. cs. tarayati. DS. titirsati (B.). INT.

tartariti ; tarturyante ; PT. taritrat.
tyaj forsake : PF. tityaja ; IPV. tityagdhi. PP. tyakta (B).

GD. -tyajya (B.).
tras be terrified, I. P. : PR. trasati. AO. red. : atitrasan ;

is : trasls (B.). PP. trasta (B.). INF. trasas. cs. trasa-

yati. INT. tatrasyate (B.).
tra rescue, IV. A. : PR. trayase ; trayadhve, trayante ;

IPV. trayasva, trayatam ; trayetham, trayetam ; traya-

dhvam, trayantam ; PT. trayamana. II. A. : IPV.

trasva ; tradhvam. PF. tatre\ AO. s. : atrasmahi (B.).

SB. trasate ; trasathe ; OP. trasitham. FT. trasyate (B.).

PP. trata (B.). INF. tramane. cs. GDV. traya-

yayya.
tvis be stirred, II. P. : IPF. atvisur. VI. A. : atvisanta.

PF. titvis^ ; PT. titvisana. PPF. atitvisanta. PP. tvisita.

INF. tvis6.
tsar approach stealthily, I. P. : PR. tsarati. PF. tatsara.

AO. s. : atsar ; is : atsarisam (B.). GD. -tsarya (B.).
dams, das bite, I. P.: PR. dasati ; IPV. dasa; PT. dasant. PF.

cc 2

388 APPENDIX I

PT. dadasvams. PP. dasta. GD. damstva (B.). INT. PT.

dandasana.
daks be able, I. : PR. daksati, -te ; IPV. daksata ; PT. dak-

samana. PF. dadaks6 (B.). AO. red. : adadaksat (B.).

FT. daksisyate (B.). GDV. daksayya. cs. daksayati (B.).
dagh reach to, V. : PR. OP. daghnuyat (B.). AO. root : INJ.

dhak (2. 3. s.) ; daghma ; PRO. daghyas (3. s.) ; IPV.

dhaktam. FT. daghisyante (B.). INF. -daghas (B.),

-daghos (B.).
dabh, dambh. harm, I. P. : PR. dabhati ; SB. dabhati ; INJ.

dabhat. V. P. : PK. dabhnuvanti ; IPV. dabhrmhi. PF.

dadabha, dadambha ; debhur ; INJ. dadabhanta.

AO. root : dabhur ; INJ. dabhur. PS. dabhyate ; PP.

dabdha. GDV. dabhya. INF. -dabhe; dabdhum (B.).

cs. dambhayati. DS. dipsati; SB. dipsat; PT. dipsant;

PR. dhipsati (B.).
das, das lay waste, IV. P. : PR. dasyati ; OP. dasyet. I. P. :

PR. dasati ; SB. dasat ; INJ. dasat ; PT. dasant. PF. PT.

dadasvams. AO. a : INJ. dasat ; PT. dasamana ; is :

dasit. pp. dasta (B.). cs. dasayate ; dasayati.
dah burn, I. P. : PR. dahati ; SB. dahati. II. P. : PR.

dhaksi. PF. dadaha (B.). AO. s. : adhaksit ; adhak

(3. s.); INJ. dhak (3. s.) ; PT. dhaksant and daksant.

FT. dhaksyati ; PT. dhaksyant. PS. dahyate ; PP.

dagdha. GD. dagdhva (B.) ; -dahya (B.). INF. -dahas

(B.). dagdhos (B.), dagdhum (B.). DS. dhiksate (B.).
1. da give, III. : PR. dadati ; datte ; SB. dadas, dadat ;

dadan; dadatai (AV.), dadamahe; INJ. dadas, dadat; OP.

dadyat ; dadimahi, dadiran ; IPV. daddhi, dehi, dattat,

dadatu ; dattam, dattam ; datta and dadata, dadatana,

dadatu ; A. datsva ; PT. dadat ; dadana ; IPF. adadam,

adadas, adadat ; adattam ; adadata, adattana, adadur ;

A. adatta. I. : dadati ; dadate ; INJ. dadat ; IPV. da-

datam (3. s.) ; IPF. adadat ; adadanta. PF. dadatha,

dadau ; dadathur, dadatur ; dada, dadur ; A. dadd,

dadathe, dadrir6 ; PT. dadvams, dadivams (AV.), dada-

LIST OF VERBS 389

vams (AV.) ; dadanaL AO. root : adas, adat, dat ;

adama, adur, diir. A. adi, adithas (B.), adita (B.) ;

adimahi (TS.) and adimahi (VS.) ; SB. das, dati, dat ; INJ.

dur ; OP. deyam; IPV. datu; datam, datam; data; disva

(VS.) ; a : adat. s. : adisi ; SB. dasat, dasathas ; INJ.

desma (VS.) ; is : adadista (SV.). FT. dasyati ; -te (B.) ;

dadisy<§ (K.) ; data (B.). PS. diyate ; PT. dadyamana ;

AO. dayi ; PP. -data, datta, -tta. GDV. d6ya. GD. dattva,

dattvaya ; -daya, -dadya (AV.). INF. -dai, datave,

datavai, damane, davane ; -dam (B.), datum ; datos.

cs. dapayati. DS. PT. ditsant, didasant.
2. da divide, II. P.: PR. dati ; danti ; IPV. dantu. VI. P. :

PR. dyami, dyati; dyamasi; IPV. dyatu; dyatam; IV. :

PR. dayamasi ; IPV. dayasva, dayatam ; PT. dayamana.

IPF. dayanta. PF. dadir6 (B.). AO. root : adimahi (B.),

adimahi (VS., K.) ; s : OP. disiya. PS. diyate ; PP. dina ;

-tta (B.). GD. -daya.
•j. da bind, VI. P. : PR. dyati ; IPF. adyas. PS. AO. dayi ;

pp. dita.
das make offering, I. P. : PR. dasati ; SB. dasat ; OP. dasema ;

IPF. adasat. II. P. : PR. dasti ; PT. dasat. V. P. : PR.

dasnoti. PF. dadasa. SB. dadasas, dadasati and da-

dasat; PT. dadasvams, das vams, dasivams (SV.). cs.

adasayat (B.).
dis point, VI. : PR. disami. IPV. disatu ; PT. disant; disa-

mana. PF. didesa ; SB. didesati ; IPV. dididdhi, didestu ;

didistana. PPF. didista (3. s. A.). AO. root: adista;

s. : adiksi ; sa : adiksat (B.). PP. dista. GD. -disya.

INF. -dise. INT. d^disti; IPF. dedisam; adedista;

dedisyate.
dih smear, II. : PR. d^gdhi ; dihanti ; SB. d^hat ; PT. dihana.

IPF. adihan. AO. s. : adhiksur (B.). PP. digdha.

1. di/y/, IV. : PR. diyati; -te ; INJ. diyat; IPV. diya. IPF.
adiyam. INT. INF. d^diyitavai.

2. di, did! shine : PR. didyati (3. pi.) ; SB. didayat ;
IPV. didihi and didihi ; PT. didyat ; didyana. IPF.

390 APPENDIX I

adides, adidet. PF. dide"the, didaya ; didiyiir ; SB.

didayasi- and didayas, didayati and didayat. FT.

didivams.
diks ~be consecrated, I. A. : PR. diksate(B.). PF. didiks6 and

didiksiir (B.). AO. red. : adidiksas (B.) ; is : adiksista (B.).

FT. diksisyate (B.). PP. diksita. GD. diksitva (B.). cs.

diksayati (B.). DS. didiksisate (B.).
dip shine, IV. A. : PR. dipyate. AO. red. : adidipat ; adi-

dipat (B.) ; INJ. didipas. cs. dipayati.
div play, IV.: PR. divyati; divyate (B.). PF. did^va.

pp. dyuta. GD. *divya.
du, du burn, V. P. : PR, dunoti ; dunvanti ; PT. dunvant.

AO. is : SB. davisani (or from du go ?). PP. duna.
dus spoil, IV. P. : PR. diisyati (B.). AO. red. : adudusat ;

a : dusat (B.) ; is : dosistam (B.). cs. dusayati ; FT.

dusayisyami.
duh milk, II. P. : PR. dogdhi ; duhanti ; A. dugdh6 ; duh^te

and duhat6, duhrate and duhr6; SB. dohat; dohate ;

OP. duhiyat, duhiyan ; IPV. 3. du. dugdham ; A. 3. s.

duharn; 3. du. duhatham ; 3. pi. duhram (AV.) and

duhratam (AV.) ; PT. duhant ; dughana, diihana, and

duhana ; IPF. adhok ; duhiir ; aduhan (B.) and aduhran

(AV.). I. A. : PR. d6hate. VI. : IPF. aduhat (TS.). PF. du-

d6ha, dudohitha; duduhiir ; A. duduhe' ; duduhrd and

duduhrird; PT. duduhana. AO. s : adhuksata (3. pi.) ;

INJ. dhuksata (3. pi.); OP. dhuksimahi; sa: adhuksas,

aduksat and adhuksat ; adhuksan, duksan and dhuk-

san; A. adhuksata, duksata and dhuksata; INJ.

duksas ; A. 3. duksata and dhuksata ; pi. dhuksanta ;

IPV. dhuksasva. PS. duhyate; PT. duhyamana ; PP.

dugdha. GD. dugdhva (B.). INF. duhadhyai ; dohase ;

dogdhos (B.). cs. dohayati (B.). DS. duduksati.
1. dr pierce, II. P. : PR. darsi. IX. P. : OP. drmyat(B.). PF.

dadara ; PT. dadrvams. AO. root : adar ; s : SB. darsasi,

darsat ; A. darsate ; OP. darsista. PS. diryate (B.) ;

PS. dirna (B.). GD. -dirya (B.). cs. darayati; darayati

LIST OF.VEKBS 391

(B.). INT. dardarimi, dardariti; SB. dardirat; IPV.

dardrhi and dadrhi, dardartu; PT. dardrat; daridrat

(TS.) ; IFF. adardar, dardar (2. 3. s.) ; adardrtam ;

adardirur.
2. dr heed : AO. adrthas (B.) ; s : drdhvam (B.). PS. dri-

yate (B.). GD. -drtya.
drp rave, IV. P. : PR. drpyati. AO. a : adrpat (B.). FT.

drapsyati (B.) and drapisyati (B.). pp. drpta and

drpita.
drs see: PF. dadarsa; A. dadrksd, dadrse; dadrSre,

dadrtoe (TS.) ; IPV. (3. pi. A.) dadrsram (AV.); PT.

dadrsvams ; dddrsana. AO. root : adarsam (B.) ; adarsma

(TS.), ad'rsma (B.), adarsur (B.) ; A. 3. pi. adrsran,

adrsram; SB. darsati, darsathas, darsan ; INJ. darsam;

PT. drsana and drsana ; a : adrsan ; INJ. drsan ; OP. drs£-

yam; s: adrak (B.) and adraksit (B.) ; A. adrksata (3.

pi.) ; SB. drksase ; sa : drksam (K.) ; red. adidrsat (B.).

FT. draksyati (B.). PS. drsyate ; AO. adarsi and darsi ;

pp. drsta ; GDV. drs^nya. GD. drstva, drstvaya, -drsya.

INF. drs6, drsaye ; drastuni. cs. darsayati. DS.

di drksase.
drh make firm, I. P. : IPV. drmha ; drmhata ; IPF. adrmhat.

VI. A. : PK. drmhethe ; IPV. drmhantam ; PT. drmhant.

IPF. drmhata (3. s.). IV. : IPV. df hya ; drhyasva.

PF. PT. dadrhana. PPF. adadrhanta. AO. is : adrmhis,

adrmhit. PP. drdha. cs. drmhayati.
dyut shine, I. A. : PR. dyotate. PF. didydta ; didyutiir ;

A. didyut6 ; PT. didyutana. AO. root : PT. dyutant ;

dyiitana and dyntana ; a: adyutat (B.) ; red. : adidyutat ;

INJ. didyutas ; s. : adyaut. FT. dyotisyati (B.). PP.

dyutta. GD. -dyutya (B.). cs. dyutayati (shine), dyota-

yati (illumine). INT. davidyutati (3. pi.) ; SB. davidyutat ;

PT. davidyutat ; IPF. davidyot.
1. dranm, II. P. : IPV. drantu. PF. dadriir ; PT. dadrana.

AO. s : SB. drasat. cs. drapayati (B.) ; DS. didrapayisati

(B.). INT. PT. daridrat.

892 APPENDIX I

2. dra sleep, II. P. : PR. drati (B.). AO. sis: adrasit (B.).

FT. drasyati (B.). PP. drana.

dru run, I. P. : dravati. PF. dudrava (B.) ; SB. dudravat.
PPF. adudrot. AO. red. : adudruvat (B.), FT. drosyati

(B.). PP. druta (B.). GD. drutva (B.) ; -driitya (B.).

cs. dravayati (flows) ; dravayati. INT. PF. dodrava.
druh be hostile, IV. P. : PR. driihyati (B.). PF. 1. dudroha,

2. dudrohitha. AO. a : druhas ; INJ. druhas ; druhan ;

sa : adruksas (B,). FT. dhroksyati. PP. drugdha. GD.

-driihya. INF. drogdhavai. DS. dudruksat.
dvis hate, II, : PR. dv^sti ; dvismas ; SB. dv^sat ; dv^sama ;

A. dv^sate; IPV. dvestu^ PT. dvisant. PF. didv^sa (B.).

AO. sa: INJ. dviksat; A. dviksata (3. s.). PP. dvista.

GDV. dv^sya, -dvisenya. INF. dv^stos (B.).
dhan run : PF. SB. dadhanat ; OP. dadhanyiir ; PT. dadhau-

vams. cs. dhan ay an ; A. dhanayante; dhanayanta.
dhanv run, I. P. : PR. dhanvati ; SB. dhanvati ; IPV.

dhanva. PF. dadhanv^ ; dadhanvir^. AO. is : adhanv-

isur.
dham, dhma, Now, I. P. : PR. dhamati ; PT. dhamant.

IPF. adhamat. PS. dhamyate; dhmayate (B.) ; PP.

dhamita and dhmata. QD. dhmaya (B.).
1. dha^, III. : PR. dadhami, dadhasi, dadhati; dhat-

thas ; dadhmasi and dadhmas, dhatta, dadhati ; A.

dadhe, dhatsS, dhatt^ ; dadhathe, dadhate ; dadhate ;

SB. dadhani, dadhas, dadhat; dadhathas; dadhama,

dadhan; A. dadhase, dadhate; dadhavahai; OP. da-

dhita and dadhita; dadhlmahi; IPV. dhehi and dhattat,

dadhatu ; dhattam, dhattam ; dhatta and dhattana,
s dadhatu; A. dhatsva; dadhatam. PT. dadhat; da-

dhana. IPF. adadham, adadhas, adadhat ; adhattam ;

adhatta, adadhur; A. adhatthas, adhatta. PF. da-

dhatha, dadhau; dadhatur; dadhima, dadhiir; A.

dadhis^, dadh6 ; dadhathe, dadhate ; dadhidhv6, da-

dhir6 and dadhrd ; IPV. dadhisva; dadhidhvam. AO.

root : adham, dhas, adhat and dhat ; dhatam, adhatam ;

LIST OF VERBS 393

adhur ; A. adhithas, adhita ; adhitam ; adhimahi ; SB.

dhas, dhati and dhat ; dhama ; dhethe, dhaithe ; dha-

mahe; INJ. dham; dhur; A. dhimahi; OP. dheyam;

dheyur; IPV. dhatu; dhatam; dhata, dhatana, and

dhetana, dhantu ; A. dhisva ; a : adhat (SV.), dhat ;

s : adhisi (B.) ; adhisata (B.) ; SB. dhasathas ; dhasatha ;

INJ. dhasur ; OP. dhisiya (B.), dhesiya (MS.). FT. dha-

syati, -te(B.); dhata (B.). PS. dhiyate; AO. adhayi; PP.

hita, -dhita. GD. dhitva (B.), -dhaya. INF. -dhe, dha-

tave, dhatavai, dhiyadhyai; -dham; dhatum (B.);

dhatos. cs. dhapayati; SB. dhapayathas. DS. didhisati,

-te ; INJ. didhisanta ; OP. didhisema ; didhiseya ; IPV.

didhisantu ; PT. didhisana ; dhitsati, -te ; GDV. didhi-

sayya.
2. dha suck, IV. P. : PR. dhayati. AO. root : adhat. PP.

dhita. GD. dhitva (B.), -dhiya (B.). INF. dhatave.

cs. dhapayate ; -ti (B.).
1. dhav run, I. : PK. dhavati, -te. PPF. adadhavat. AO.

is : adhavit (B.). cs. dhavayati.
^. dhav ivasli, I. : PR. dhavati, -te. AO. is : adhavista.

PP. dhauta. cs. dhavayati, -te (B.).

dhi think, III. : PR. didhye ; didhyatham and didhitham
(AV.) ; SB.didhayas; didhayan; pT.didhyat; didhyana.
IFF. adidhet, didhet; adidhayur; A. adidhita. PF. didh-
aya ; dldhima, didhiyur and didhyiir ; didhird. PF.
dhita. INT. dedhyat (TS.).

dhu shake, V. : PR. dhun6ti ; dhunut6 ; SB. dhunavat ;
IPV. dhunuhi and dhunii ; dhunuta ; A. dhunusva ; PT.
dhunvant ; dhunvana. IPF. adhunot ; A. adhunuthas,
adhunuta. VI. P.: PR. dhuvati; OP. dhuv^t. PF. dudhuvS;
OP. dudhuvita. PPF. dudhot. AO. root: PT. dhuvana;
s: A. adhusata (3. pi.). FT. dhavisyati, -te (B.). PS.
dhuyate ; PP. dhuta. GD. dhutva (B.), -dhuya. INT.
dodhaviti; PT. dddhuvat and davidhvatj PF. davi-
dhava.
dhr hold : PF. dadhartha, dadhara ; dadhrd, dadhrird.

394 APPENDIX I

AO. root : INJ. dhrthas; red.: adidharat; didhar (2. 3. s.);

INJ. didharat; IPV. didhrtam; didhrta. FT. dharisyate.

PS. dhriyate ; PP. dhrta. GD. dhrtva (B.), -dhrtya (B.).

INF. dharmane; dhartari; dhartavai (B.). cs. dhard-j

yati^ -te; FT. dharayisyati ; PS. dharyate (B.). INT.

dardharsi ; IFF. adardhar ; dadharti (B.) ; 3. pi. da-

dhrati(B.); IPV. dadhartu (B.).
dhrs dare, V, : PR. dhrsnoti ; IPV. dhrsnuhi. PF. dadharsa;

dadhrsur. SB. dadharsati and dadharsat; A. dadhrs-

ate ; INJ. dadharsit ; PT. dadhrsvams ; PPF. dadhrsanta.

AO. a : INJ. dhrsat ; PT. dhrsant ; dhrsamana ; dhrsana

(AV.) ; is : adharsisur (B.). PP. dhrsta and dhrsita.

GDV. -dhrsya. GD. -dhrsya (B.). INF. -dhrse ; -dhrsas.

cs. dharsayati (B.).
dhya think, IV. P. : PR. dhyayati. PF. dadhyau (B.).

AO. sis: adhyasisam (B.). PER. FT. dhyata (B.). PP.

dhyata (B.). GD. dhyatva. DS. didhyasate (B.).
dhraj, dhraj sweep, I. : PR. PT. dhrajant ; dhrajamana.

IPF. adhrajan. AO. is : OP. dhrajisiya.
dhvams scatter, I. P. : PR. dhvamsati, -te(B.). PF. dadhvas^.

AO. a: dhvasan. PP. dhvasta (B.). cs. dhvasayati;

dhvamsayati, -te (B.).
dhvan sound : AO. is : adhvanit. PP. dhvanta. cs. adhvan-

ayat ; AO. INJ. dhvanayit.
dhvr injure, I. P. : PR. dhvarati (B.). AO. s : A. adhursata

(3. pi.). INF. dhurvane. DS. diidhursati.
naks attain, I. : PR. naksati, -te ; INJ. naksat ; IPV. naks-

asva; PT. naksant; uaksamana. IPF. anaksan. PF.

nanaksiir ; nanakse.
nad sound, I. P. : PR. nadati. cs. nadayati. INT. nanad-

ati (3. pi.) ; nanadyate (B.) ; PT. nanadat.
nam bend, I. : PR. namati, -te. PF. nanama ; nem6. PPF.

nanamas. AO. red. : INJ. ninamas ; s : anan (K.) ;

A. anamsata (3. pi., B.). SB. namsai, namsante; PT.

namasana. FT. namsyati (B.). PP. nata; GDV. nantva.

GD. -natya (B.). INF. -namam, -name. cs. namayati.

LIST OF VEBBS 395

INT. nannamiti ; nannate (3. s.) ; PT. nannamat ; nan-
namana ; IPF. anannata (3. s.).

1. nas ~be lost} IV. P. : PR. nasyati ; I. : PR. nasati, -te.
PF. nanasa; nesur(B.). AO. red. : aninasat; n6sat; INJ.
ninasas; n£sat. FT. nasisyati. PP. nasta. cs. nasa-
yati; INF. nasayadhyai.

2. naS attain, I. : PR. nasati, -te. AO. root : anaj (2. 3. s.),
nat (3. s.) ; anastam ; INJ. nak and nat (3. s.) ; A. namsi ;
OP. nasimahi ; s : SB. naksat. INF. -nase. DS. inaksasi ;
INJ. inaksat.

nas unite, I. A. : PR. nasate ; nasamahe ; INJ. nasanta.

AO. root: OP. nasimahi.
nah Und, IV.: PR. nahyati; IPV. nahyatana (2. pi.); PT.

nahyamana. PF. nanaha. PS. PT. nahyamana; PP.

naddha. GD. -nahya (B.).
nath, nadh seek aid, I. A. : PR. nathate (B.) ; PT. nadha-

mana. PP. nathita ; nadhita.
nij wash, II. A. : PT. nijana. III. : IPV. ninikta (2. pi.).

AO. a : anijam ; s : anaiksit ; INJ. niksi. PP. nikta.

GD. niktva(B.), -nijya(B.). INF. -nije. cs. nejayati(B.).

INT. nenikt6; TPV. nenigdhi.
nind, revile, I. P. : PR. nindati ; SB. nindat ; IPV. nindata.

PF. nindima ; ninidur. AO. root : PT. nidana ; is :

anindisur ; SB. nindisat. PS. nindyate ; PP. nindita.

DS. SB. ninitsat.
ni lead, I. : PR. nayati, -te ; SB. nayati, nayat ; A. nayasai

(AV.); INJ. nayat; nayanta; IPV. nayatu; A. nayasva ;

PT. nay ant; nayamana; IPF. anayat. II.: PR. n6§i(=

IPV.) ; netha; IPF. anitam (3. du.). PF. nindtha, ninaya ;

ninyathur; ninye (B.) ; SB. nimthas; OP. niniyat; IPV.

nin^tu. AO. s: anaista (2. pi.) ; anesata (3. pi.); SB.

nesati, n^sat ; n^satha ; INJ. naista (2. pi.) ; A. nesta

(3. s.); is: anayit (AV.). FT. nesyati; -te (B.) ; nayi-

syati (B.). PS. niyate ; PP. nita. GD. nitva (B.), -mya.

INF. nesani; netavai (B.); n6tum (B.), nayitum (B.);

iietos (B.).' DS. nimsati (B.). INT. neniyate.

396 APPENDIX I

nu praise, I. : PR. navati ; navamahe, navante ; INJ.

navanta; PT. navant; navamana. IPF. anavanta. II.

P.: PT. nuvant; IPF. anavan. PPF. anunot, nunot;

AO. s : A. armsi ; anusatam ; anusata ; INJ. nusata

(3. pi.) ; is : A. anavista. GDV. navya. INT. nonaviti ;

normrnas and nomimasi ; SB. nonuvanta ; IPF. navmot ;

anonavur ; PF. n6nava ; nonuvur.
nud push, VI. : PR. nudati, -te ; PF. nurmd6 ; nunudrd.

AO. root : INJ. nutthas ; is : INJ. nudisthas. FT. not-

syate (B.). PP. nutta; nunna(SV.). INF. -nude ; -nudas.

INT. anonudyanta (B.).
nrt dance, IV. P. : PR. nrtyati ; IPV. nrtya, nrtyatu ; PT.

nrtyant. AO. root: nrtur (PF.?); a: PT. nrtamana ; is:

anartisur. PP. nrtta. cs. nartayati.
pac cook, I. : PR. pacati, -te ; SB. pacani, pacati, pacat ;

INJ. pacat ; IPV. pacata, pacantu. IV. A. : PR. pacyate.

PF. papaca ; peed. PPF. apeciran. AO. s : SB. paksat.

FT. paksyati, -te (B.) ; pakta (B.). PS. pacyate. GD.

paktva. INF. paktave. cs. pacayati, -te (B.).
pat fly, I. P. : PR. patati ; SB. patati, patat INJ. patat ;

OP. patet ; IPV. patatu ; PT. patant. IPF. apatat. PF.

papata ; petathur, petatur ; paptima, paptur ; OP.

papatyat; PT. paptivams. AO. red. : apaptat and api-

patat; apaptama, apaptan; INJ. paptas, paptat; paptan;

IPV. paptata. FT. patisyati ; co. apatisyat (B.). PS. AO.

apati (B.) ; PP. patita. GD. patitva, -patya (B.). INF.

pattave ; patitum (B.). cs. patayati, -te ; patayati.

DS. pipatisati. INT. papatiti ; SB. papatan.
pad go, IV.: PR. padyate ; padyati (B.) ; IPV. padyasva;

PT. padyamana ; IPF. apadyanta. PF. papada ; ped6

(B.). AO. root : apadmahi, apadran ; SB. padati, padat ;

PRC. padista; red.: apipadama; s: INJ. patsi (1. s.),

patthas. FT. patsyati (B.). PS. AO. apadi, padi; PP.

panna. GD. -padya. INF. -padas ; pattum (B.), pattos

(B.). cs. padayati, -te ; PS. padyate (B.) ; DS. pipada-

yisati (B.).

LIST OF VERBS 397

pan admire, I. A. : PR. INJ. pananta. PF. papana (1. s.) ;

papn(§. AO. is : panista (3. s.). PS. panyate ; PP.

panita. cs. panayati, -te; GDV. panayayya. INT. PT.

panipnat.
pas see, IV. : PR. pasyati, -te ; SB. pasyani, pasyasi and

pasyas, pasyat ; pasyama, pasyan ; INJ. pasyat ; OP.

pasyet ; pasyeta ; IPV. pasya ; pasyasva ; PT. pasyant ;

pasyamana ; IFF. apasyat ; apasyanta. Cp. spas.

1. pa drink, I. : PR. pibati, -te ; SB. pibasi, pibati and
pibat ; pibava, pibathas, pibatas ; INJ. pibat ; IPV.
pibatu ; pibasva ; pibadhvam ; PT. pibant ; IPF. apibat.
III. : PR. pipite (B.), pipate (B.) ; OP. pipiya (B.) ; IPF.
apipita(B.); IPV. pipatu (K.) ; PT. pipana and pipana
(AV.). PF. papatha, papau ; papathur, papiir; A.
pap6 ; papir6 ; OP. papiyat ; PT. papivams ; papana.
AO. root : apam, apas, apat ; apama, apur ; SB. pas ;
pathas; panti; PEC. peyas (3. s.); IPV. pahi, patu;
patam, patam ; pata and patana, pantu ; PT. pant ; s :
INJ. pasta (3. s.). FT. pasyati, -te (B.). PS. piyate ; AO.
apayi ; PP. pita. GD. pitva, pitvi ; -paya. INF. pitaye,
patave, patavai ; patos (B.) ; pibadhyai. cs. payayati ;
DS. pipayayiset (K.). DS. pipasati; pipisati; PT.
pipisant.

2. pa protect, II. : PR. pami, past, pati ; pathas, patas ;
patha, pathana, panti ; SB. pat ; patas ; IPV. pahi,
patu ; patam, patam ; pata, pantu ; PT. pant ; pana ;
IPF. apam, apas, apat ; apama, apur. AO. s : SB. pasati.

pi, pi swell, I. A. : PR. payate. II. A. : PT. piyana. V. :
PR. pinvire ; PT. pinvant, f. pinvati ; pinvana. PF. pi-
p^tha, pipaya; pipyathur; pipyur ; pipy6 (3. s.) ; SB.
pipayas, pipayat ; pipayatas ; pipayan ; pipayata ;
pipayanta ; INJ. pipes ; IPV. pipihi, pipaya ; pipyatam,
pipyatam ; pipyata PT. pipivams ; pipyana and
pipyana. PPF. apipe ; apipema, apipyan; apipayat;
apipayanta. PP. pina (AV.).

pinv fatten, I. : PR. pinvati, -te ; INJ. pinvat ; pinvanta ;

398 APPENDIX I

IPV. pinva; pinvatam; pinvata; A. pinvasva, pinv-
atam ; pinvadhvam ; PT. pinvant ; pinvamana ; IFF.
apinvam, apinvas, apinvat ; apinvatam ; apinvata,
apinvan; A. 3. s. apinvata. PF. pipinvathur. PP.
pinvita (B.). cs. pinvayati (B.). Cp. pi sivell.

pis adorn, VI. : PR. pimsati, -te. PF. pip6sa ; pipisiir ; A.
pipis6 ; pipisrd. AO. root : PT. pisana. PS. pisyate ;
pp. pista ; pisita. INT. PT. pdpisat ; p^pisana.

pis crush, VII. P. : PR. pinasti ; pimsanti ; INJ. pinak (2. 3.
s.) ; IPV. pinastana ; PT. pimsant ; IPF. pinak. VI. P. :
IPF. apisan (AV.). PF. pip^sa ; pipis6. AO. sa : apik-
san (B.). PS. pisyate (B.) ; PP. pista. GD. pistva (B.).
INF. p^stavai (B.) ; p^stum (B.).

pid press: PF. pipid^. cs. pidayati.

pus thrive, IV. P. : PR. pusyati. PF. pup6sa ; OP. pupusyas ;
PT. pupusvams. AO. root: PRC. pusyasam (B.) ; pus-
yasma (B.) ; a : OP. pus^yam ; pus6ma. PP. pusta. INF.
pusyase. cs. posayati.

pu cleanse, IX. : PR. punami, punati ; pnnanti ; punite ; pu-
nate (AV.)and punati; IPV. punihi and pumtat, punatu ;
pumtam ; pumta, pumtana and punata, punantu ; PT.
punant ; punana ; IPF. apunan. I. A. : PR. pavate ;
SB. pavate ; IPV. pavasva, pavatam ; pavadhvam,
pavantam ; PT. pavamana ; IPF. apavathas. PF. pupuv-
ur (B.) ; pupuv6 (B.). PPF. apupot. AO. is : apavisur ;
INJ. pavista (3. s.). PS. puyate; PP. puta. GD. putvi;
putva; -puya (B.). INF. pavitum (B.). cs. pavayat,
-te (B.), pavayati (B.).

pr pass, III. P. : PR. piparsi, piparti ; piprthas ; piprtha,
piprati ; IPV. piprhi and piprtat, pipartu; piprtam; pi-
prta and pipartana. AO. red. : apiparam, aplparas ; api-
paran ; INJ. piparas, piparat and piparat ; s : SB. parsati,
parsat ; IPV. parsa ; is : SB. parisat. INF. parsani. cs.
parayati ; SB. parayati ; PT. parayant.

pro mix, VII. : PR. prnaksi ; prncanti ; A. prnc6, prnkte ;
prncate (3. pi.) ; INJ. prnak (3. s.) ; OP. prncita ; IPV.

LIST OF VERBS 399

prndhi ( = prngdhi), prnaktu ; prnktam ; PT. prficant ;

prncana ; IFF. aprnak (3. s.). III. P. : IPV. piprgdhi ;

piprkta. PF. paprciir (B.) ; SB. paprcasi ; OP. paprcyam,

paprcyat; PT. paprcana. AO. root_: SB. parcas; OP.

prcimahi ; PT. prcana ; s : aprak ; A. aprksi, aprkta.

PS. prcyate ; PP. prkta ; -prgna. INF. -prce ; prcas.
prnfill, VI. : PR. prnati; SB. prnaithe (du. 2.) ; IPV. prna;

prnata ; prnasva ; prnadhvam ; IPF. aprnat. INF. prna-

dhyai. Cp. pr fill.
pr fill, IX. : PR. prnami, prnasi, prnati ; prnitas ; prnanti ;

SB. prnati, prnat; OP. prniyat; IPV. prmhi, prnatu ;

prnitam ; prnita, prnitana ; A. prnisva ; PT. prnant ;

IPF. aprnas, aprnat. III.: PR. piparmi, piparti; pi-

prati (3. pi.) ; IPV. pipartu ; piprtam ; pipartana ; IPF.

apiprata (3. s. = apiprta). PF. OP. pupuryas ; PT. papr-

vams. AO. root: IPV. purdhi ; PRO. priyasam (AV.) ;

red. : apupuram (B.) ; INJ. piparat ; IPV. pupurantu ; is :

puristhas (B.). PS. puryate (B.) ; PP. purnd ; piirta.

INF. -puras (K.). cs. purayati ; SB. purayati.
py&fill up, IV. A. : PR. pyayase ; IPV. pyayasva, pyayatam ;

py ay ant am ; PT. pyayamana. AO. sis : OP. pyasisimahi

(AV.). PP. pyata. cs. pyayayati ; PS. pyayyate (B.).
prach ask, VI. : PR. prchati, -te ; SB. prchat ; prchan ; A.

prchai, PF. papracha ; papracMr (B.). AO. s : aprak-

sam, aprat ; apraksit. FT. praksyati (B.). PS. prch-

yate ; PP. prsta ; aov. paprks6nya. INF. -prchani,

-prche ; prastum.
prath spread, I. A. : PR. prathate. PF. 2. papratha (= pa-

prat-tha ?) ; A. paprath6 and paprathe (3. s.) ; SB.

paprathas, paprathat ; paprathan ; INJ. paprathanta ;

PT. paprathana. AO. root : PT. prathana ; is : 3. s. A.

aprathista ; prathista. cs. prathayati, -te.
pr&fill, II. P. : PR. prasi, PF. papratha, papra and paprau ;

paprathur, papratur ; papriir ; A. paprs^, papr6 ; PT.

paprvams. AO. root : aprat ; SB. pras ; s : 3. s. apras.

PS. AO. aprayi ; PP. prata.

400 APPENDIX I

pri please, IX,: PR. prmati; prmit6; PT. prinant; prmana.

IPP. aprinat. PF. pipriy6 ; SB. piprayas, piprayat ; IPV.

piprihi ; piprayasva ; PT. pipriyana. PPF. apiprayam,

apipres (B.) ; apiprayan. AO. s : apraisit (B.) ; SB.

pr6sat. PP. prita. GD. pritva (B.). DS. piprisati.
pruth snort, I. : PR. prothati ; PT. prothant ; prtfthamana.

GD. -prtithya. INT. PT. pdpruthat.
prus sprinkle, V. : PR. prusnuvanti ; prusnutS ; SB. prus-

navat. VI. P. : IPV. prusa ; PT. prusant. IV. P. : IPF.

aprusyat (B.). IX. P. : PT. prusnant (B.). FT. PT.

prosisyant. PP. prusita.
plu float, I. : PR. plavate ; plavati (B.). PF. pupluv6 (B.).

AO. red. : apiplavam (B.) ; s : aplosta (B.). FT. plosyati,

-te (B.). PP. pluta. GD. -pluya (K.). cs. plavayati (B.).

INT. popluyate (B.).
psa devour, II. P. : PR. psati. PS. apsiyata (B.) ; PP. psata.

GD. -psaya (B.).

phan spring-., cs. phanayati. INT. PT. paniphanat.
bandh bind, IX. : PR. badhnami ; badhnimas, badhnanti ;

A. badhnate (3. pi.) ; IPV. badhana, badhnatu ; badh-

nantu ; A. badhnitam (3. s.). IPF. abadhuat ; abadh-

nan ; A. abadhnita (3. s.). PF. babandha ; bedhur. FT.

bhantsyati. PS. badhyate; PP. baddha. GD. baddhva;

baddhvaya (B.); -badhya (B.). INF. -badhe. cs. bandh-

ayati (B.).
badh oppress, I. A. : PR. badhate. PF. babadh.6. AO. is :

INJ. badhista. PP. badhita. GD. -badhya. INF. badhe.

cs. badhayati. DS. bibhatsate ; bibadhisate (B.). INT.

babadhe (3. s.) ; badbadh^ ; PT. babadhana ; bad-

badhana.
budh ivcike, I. P. : PR. bodhati ; SB. bddhati ; INJ. b6dhat ;

IPV. bddhatu. IV. : PR. biidhyate ; OP. biidhyema ;

IPV. budhyasva; biidhyadhvam; PT. budhyamana. PF.

bubudh^; SB. bubodhas, biibodhati; bubodhatha;

PT. bubudhana. AO. root: A. 3. pi. abudhran, abu-

dhram ; IPV. bodhi (2. s.) ; PT. budhana ; a : INJ.

LIST OF VERBS 401

budhanta ; red. : abubudhat ; s : A. abhutsi ; abhuts-

mahi, abhutsata; is : SB. bddhisat. FT. bhotsyati(B.). PS.

AO. abodhi; pp. buddha. GD. -budhya (B.). INF. -biidhe.

cs. bodhayati ; bodhayate (B.). INT. bobudhiti (B.).
brh make lig, VI. P. : PR. brhati. I. : PR. brmhati, -te

(B.). PF. babarha ; PT. babrhana. AO. is : INJ. barhis,

barhit. cs. bar hay a. INT. SB. barbrhat; IPV. barbrhi.
bru say, II.: PK. bravimi, bravisi, braviti; brumas,

bruvanti ; A. bruve\ brus6, brut£ and bruv6 ; bruvate ;

bruvate ; SB. bravani and brava, bravasi and bravas,

bravat ; bravama, bravatha (AV.), bravan ; A. brava-

vahai, bravaite ; bravamahai ; OP. bruyat ; bruyatam ;

A. bruvita; bruvimahi; IPV. bruhi and brutat, bravitu ;

brutam ; bruta and bravitana, bruvantu ; PT. bruvant ;

bruvana. IPF. abravam, abravis, abravit ; abrutam;

abravlta, abruvan.
bhaks eat: AO. red.: ababhaksat (B.) ; cs. bhaksayati;

bhaksayate (B.) ; PS. bbaksyate (B.).
bhaj divide, I. : PK. bhajati, -te. II. P. : PR. bhak^i

(=IPV.). PF. 2. s. babhaktha (B.), 3. s. babhaja; A.

bhej6; bhejate ; bhejir^; PT. bhejana. AO. red.: abi-

bhajur (B.) ; s: abhak and abhaksit ; A. abhaksi,

abhakta ; SB. bhaksat ; INJ. bhak (2. 3. s.) ; OP. bhak-

siya, bhaksita ; bhaksimahi ; PRC. bhaksista. FT. bhak-

syati, -te (B.). PS. bhajyate ; PP. bhakta. GD. bhaktva ;

bhaktvaya ; -bhajya (B.). cs. bhajayati ; PS. bhajyate.
bhanj break, VII. P. : PR. bhanakti ; IPV. bhandhi, bha-

naktu ; PT. bhanjant. IPF. abhanas (for abhanak, AV.).

PF. babhanja. PS. bhajyate.
bhan speak, I. : PR. bhanati ; bhananti ; INJ. bhananta.

IPF. bhananta.
bhas devour, III. : PR. babhasti; bapsati ; SB. babhasat;

bapsathas ; PT. bapsat. VI. P. : PR. bhasathas. I. P. :

INJ. bhasat.
bha shine, II. P. : bhasi, bhati ; bhanti ; IPV. bhahi ; PT.

f. bhati. FT. bhasyati (B.).

D d

402 APPENDIX I

bhiks beg, I. A. : PR, bhiksate ; INJ. bhiksanta ; OP. bhik-
seta ; PT. bhiksamana. PF. bibhiks6 (B.).

bhid split, VII. : PR. bhinadmi, bhinatsi, bhinatti ; bhind-
anti ; SB. bhinadas, bhinadat ; INJ. bhinat (2. 3. s.) ;
OP. bhindyat ; IPV. bhindhi, bhinattu ; bhintta ; PT.
bhindant ; bhindana. IPF. bhinat (2. 3. s.) ; abhinat
(3. s.) J abhindan. PF. bibh^da; bibhidur. AO. root:
abhedam, bh<§t (2. 3. s.), abhet (3. s.) ; SB. bhSdati ; INJ.
bh6t (2. s.) ; PT. bhidant ; a : OP. bhideyam ; s : INJ.
bhitthas. FT. bhetsyate (B.). PS. bhidyate (B.) ; AO.
abhedi (B.) ; PP. bhinna. GD. bhittva ; -bhidya. INF.
bh<§ttavai (B.) ; bh^ttum (B.). DS. bibhitsati.

bM/ear, III. P. : PR. bibheti; bibhyati; INJ. bibh6s ; OP.
bibhiyat ; IPV. bibhita, bibhitana ; PT. bibhyat ; IPF.
bibhes, abibhet. I. A. : PR. bhayate ; SB. bhayate ;
IPV. bhayatam (3. s.) ; IPF. abhayanta ; PT. bhayamana.
PF. bibhaya (1. s.), bibhaya (B. also bibhaya) ; bibhya-
tur ; bibhyur ; PT. bibhivams ; PER. PF. bibhayam
cakara. AO. root : INJ. bh6s (TS.) ; bhema ; PT. bhiy-
ana; red.: bibhayat ; abibhayur (Kh.) ; abibhayanta;
s: bhaisis (AY.); abhaisma, abhaisur; PT. bhiyasana
(AV.). co. abhesyat (B.). PP. bhita. INF. bhiyase. cs.
bhisayate (B.) ; AO. bibhisas ; bibhisathas.

1. bhuj enjoy, YIL A. : PR. bhunkt6 ; bhunjate and bhunj-
at6 ; SB. bhunajamahai ; PT. f. bhunjati. PF. bubhuj6 ;
bubhujmahe, bubhujrir^. AO. root : SB. bhojate ; INJ.
bhdjam ; a : OP. bhuj^ma ; IPV. bhuja (TS.). PS. bhuj-
yate (B.). INF. bhuj6 ; bhojase. cs. bhojayati.

2. bhuj lend, VI. P. : INJ. bhujat ; IPV. bhuja (VS.). PPF.
abubhojis. GD. -bhujya (B.).

bhur quiver, VI. : INJ. bhuranta ; IPV. bhurantu ; PT.

bhuramana. INT. jarbhuriti; PT. jarbhurat; jarbhiir-

ana.
bhu 6e, I. : PR. bhavati ; bhavate (B.). PF. babhuva,

babhutha and babhuvitha, babhuva; babhuvathur,

babhuvatur; babhuvima, babhuva, babhuvur; OP.

LIST OF VERBS 403

babhuyas, babhuyat ; IPV. babhutu ; PT. babhuvams.

AO. root : abhuvam, abhus, abhut; abhutam, abhutam ;

abhuma, abhuta and abhutana, abhuvan ; SB. bhuvani,

bhuvas, bhuvat; bhuthas, bhutas; bhuvan; INJ.

bhuvam, bhus, bhut ; bhuma ; OP. bhuyas, bhuyat ;

bhuyama ; PRO. bhuyasam, 3. bhuyas ; bhuyasma,

bhuyasta ; IPV. bodhi (for bhudhi), bhutu ; bhutam ;

bhuta and bhutana ; a : bhiivas, bhuvat ; red. : abu-

bhuvas. FT. bhavisyati; bhavita (B.). PP. bhuta.

GDV. bhavya and bhavya ; bhavitva. GD. bhutvi,

bhutva ; -bhuya. INF. bhuv6, -bhiive, -bhvd ; bhusani ;

bhavitum (B.) ; bhavitos (B.). cs. bhavayati. DS. bu-

bhusati. INT. bdbhaviti.
bhr bear, I. : PR. bharati, -te. III. : PR. bibharmi, bi-

bharsi, bibharti ; bibhrthas, bibhrtas ; bibhrmasi and

bibhrmas, bibhrtha, bibhrati ; SB. bibharani, bibharat ;

OP. bibhryat ; IPV. bibhrhi, bibhartu ; bibhrtam ;

bibhrta (TS.) ; PT. bibhrat ; IPF. abibhar. PF. jabhartha,

jabhara ; jabhriir ; A. jabhrs6, jabhr6 ; jabhrir^ ; ba-

bhara (B.) ; A. babhr6 ; PT. babhrana ; SB. jabharat.

PPF. ajabhartana. AO. root: PRO. bhriyasam; IPV.

bhrtam ; s: abharsam, 3. abhar; abharstara ; SB.

bharsat ; INJ. 3. s. bhar ; is : abharisam. FT. bhari-

syati ; bharta (B.). co. abharisyat. PS. bhriyate ; SB.

bhr iy ate ; AO. bhari ; PP. bhrta. GD. -bhrtya. INF.

bhartum ; bharta ve, bhartavai ; bharadhyai ; bhar-

mane. DS. bubhursati (B.). INT. jarbhrtas ; bhari-

bhrati (3. pi); SB. bharibharat ; PT. bharibhrat.
bhrams fall, I. : PR. INJ. bhramsat. AO. a : INJ. bhrasat.

PP. -bhrsta ; bhrasta. cs. PT. bhrasayant.
bhraj shine, I. A.: PR. bhrajate; PT. bhrajamana. AO.

root: abhrat; PRO. bhrajyasam. PS. AO. abhraji.
mamh, mah be great, I. : PR. mamhate ; mahe (3. s.) ; OP.

mahema, maheta ; IPV. mamhatam ; PT. mamhamana.

IPF. amamhata. PF. mamah6 (1. 3.) ; SB. mamahas ;

INJ. mamahanta ; IPV. mamahasva, mamahantam ; PT.
D d 2

404 APPENDIX I

mamahana. PP. mahita (B.). INF. mane", mahaye. cs.

inahayati, -te ; INJ. mamhayam ; PT. mahayant ;

mahayamana.
majj sink, I. P. : majjati. AO. root : OP. majjyat (B.). FT.

manksyati, -te (B.). GD. -majjya. cs. majjayati (B.).
math, manth stir, IX. : PR. mathnami ; mathnit6 (B.) ;

IPV. mathmta, mathnantu ; PT. mathnant ; IPF. amath-

nat ; I. manthati, -te ; mathati (AY.). PF. mamatha ;

methur (B.) ; A. methir6 (B.). AO. root : SB. mathat ;

is : amanthistam (3. du.) ; amathisata (B.) ; INJ. mathis,

mathit. FT. manthisyati (B.) ; mathisyati, -te (B.).

PS. mathyate ; PP. mathita. GD. mathitva (B.) ; -mathya

(B.). INF. manthitavai ; mathitos (B.).
mad be exhilarated, I.: PR. madati; -te. III. P.: PR. ma-

matsi. II. P. : PR. matsi (— IPV.). IV. P. : PR. madyati

(B.). PF. mamada ; SB. mamadas, mamadat ; mamadan ;

IPV. mamaddhi, mamattu ; mamattana. PPF. ama-

madur. AO. root : IPV. matsva ; red. : amimadas ; A.

amimadanta ; s : amatsur ; A. amatta (3. s. ) ; amatsata

(3. pi.) ; SB. matsati and matsat; matsatha; INJ. mat-

sata (3. pi.) ; is : amadisur. PS. PT. madyamana ; PP.

matta. GDV. -madya. INF. rnaditos (B.). cs. mada-

yati; madayati, -te; SB. madayase, madayate ;

madayaite; madayadhve and madayadhvai; INF.

madayadhyai; PP. madita.
man tUrik, IV. A. : PR. manyate. VIII. A. : PR, manv^ ;

manmahe, manvat^ ; SB. manavai, manavate ; INJ.

manvata (3. pi.) ; OP. man vita ; IPV. A. : manutam (3. s.) ;

PT. manvana; IPF. amamita (3. s.) ; amanvata (3. pi.).

PF. men6 (B. ) ; mamnathe, mamnate ; OP. mamanyat ;

IPV. mamandhi. PPF. amaman (3. s.). AO. i-oot : amata ;

amanmahi ; SB. manamahe, mananta ; PT. manana ;

s : A. amamsta ; amamsatam ; amamsata ; SB.

mamsai, mamsase, mamsate and mamsatai (TS.) ;

mamsante ; INJ. mamsthas, mamsta and mamsta (AV.) ;

OP. masiya, mamsisthas, mamsistd; mamsimdhi;

LIST OF VERBS 405

mamsirata ; IPV. mandhvam (B.). FT. manisy^ ; mam-
syate (B.). PP. mata. GD. -matya (B.). INF. mantave,
mantavai; mantos (B.). cs. manayati; OP. manayet.
DS. mimamsate (AV.), -ti (B.) ; AO. is : amimamsisthas
(B.). PP. mimamsita (AY.).

mand exhilarate, I. : PR. mandati, -te. PF. mamanda ; SB.
mamandat ; PT. f. mamandusi. PPF. amamandur. AO.
root : mandiir ; PT. mandana ; is : amandit; amandisur ;
mandista (3. s. A.) ; amandisatam (3. du. A.) ; OP. mandi-
simahi (VS.). INF. mandadhyai. cs. mandayati ; INF.
mandayadhyai.

1. mo, measure, III.: PR. mime, minute ; mimate; mimi-
mahe, mimate ; OP. mimiyas, mimiyat ; IPV. mimihi,
mimatu ; mimitam, mimitam ; A. mimisva ; mimatham ;
PT. mimana. IFF. amimlthas, amimita. PF. mamatur ;
marmir ; mam(§ (1. 3.) ; mamate ; mamird ; AO. root :
IPV. mahi ; masva ; PT. mana (TS.) ; s : amasi ; SB,
masatai (AV.). PS. AO. amayi; PP. mita; GDV. meya
(AV.). GD. mitva ; -maya. INF. -m6, -mai.

2. ma bellotv, III. P. : PR. mimati ; niimanti. PF. mimaya ;
SB. mimayat. PPF. amimet. INF. matavai. INT. PT.
memyat.

mi fix, V. P. : PR. min6mi, minoti ; SB. minavama ; INJ.

minvan ; IPV. minotu. IFF. niinvan. PF. mimaya ;

mimyur. PS. miyate ; PT. miyamana ; PP. mita. GD.

-mitya (B.).
miks mix : PF. mimiksathur, mimiksatur ; mimiks^ ;

mimiksire. IPV. mimiksva. cs. ineksayati (B.).
mith alternate, I. : PR. m^thamasi ; A. m^thete. VI. P. :

PT. mithant. PF. mim^tha. PP. mithita.
mis mix : DS. mimiksati ; IPV. mimiksa ; mimiksatam,

mimiksatam.
mis wink, VI. P. : PR. misati ; misanti ; FT. misant. INF.

-misas.
mih shed water, I. : PR. m^hati ; FT. m^hant ; m^ghamana.

406 APPENDIX I

AO. sa : amiksat (B.). FT. meksyati. PP. midha. INF.

mih6. cs. mehayati. INT. m6m.ih.at (B.).
mi damage, IX. : PR. minami, minati ; mimmasi, minanti ;

SB. minat ; minama ; INJ. minit (AV.) ; minan ; PT.

minant ; minana. IFF. aminas, aminat ; aminanta.

IV. A. : PR. miyase, miyate ; OP. mryeta (B.). PF. mimaya ;

mimaya (AV.). AO. s : INJ. mesi, mesthas, mesta.

PS. miyate ; AO. amayi (B.) ; PP. mita. INF. m6tos (B.) ;

-miyam, -miye. INT. FT. m6myana.
miv push, I. P. : PK. xnivati ; PT. mivant. PP. -muta ;

mivita (B.). GD. mivya (B.).
muc release, VI. : PR. muncati, -te ; SB. muncasi, muncat ;

IPV. muncatu ; A. muncatam ; PT. muncant ; munca-

inana. IFF. amuncat ; A. amuncata. IV. A. : PR. muc-

yase ; SB. mucyatai(AV.). PF. nmmucmahe, mumucrd ;

SB. mumucas ; mumocati, mumocat, mumucat ; IPV. mu-

mugdhi, mum6ktu ; 2. du. mumuktam, mumocatam ;

mum6cata; PT. mumucana. PPF. amunmktam. AO.

root : amok ; amuktam ; A. amugdhvam ; PRO. mucista ;

a: mucas, amucat; SB. mucati; mucate; INJ. mucas,

mucat ; IPV. muca ; A. mucadhvam ; s : am auk (B.) ;

A. amuksi, amukthas; INJ. mauk (VS.); A. muksata

(3. pi.) ; OP. muksiya. FT. moksyati, -te (B.). PS.

mucyate; AO. amoci; INJ. m6ci; PP. mukta. GD.

muktva (B.); -miicya. INF. moktum (B.). DS. mu-

muksati, -te ; moksate (B.) ; PT. mumuksamana.
mud be merry, I. A. : PR. m6date. PF. mumoda. AO. root :

OP. mudimahi ; is : PRC. A. modisisthas. PS. AO. amodi.

INF. mud6. cs.modayati, -te (B.) ; DS. mumodayisati(B.).
mus steal, IX. P. : PR. musnati ; PT. musnant ; IFF. amus-

nas, amusnat ; amusnitam. I. P. : PR. mosatha. AO.

is : INJ. m6sis. PP. musita. GD. -musya. INF. muse\
muh ~be dazed, IV. P. : PR. muhyati. PF. mumoha (B.).

AO. a : amuhat (B.) ; red. : amumuhat. FT. mohisyati

(B.). PP. mugdha ; mudha (AV.). INF. muh6. cs.

mohayati ; GD. mohayitva.

LIST OF VERBS 407

murch, mur thicken, I. P. : IFF. amurchat. PP. murta (B.).
cs. murchayati (B.).

1 . mr die, I. : PR. marati, marate ; maramahe ; SB. marati ;
marama ; A. marai. PF. mamara ; mamrur ; PT.
mamrvams. AO. root : amrta ; INJ. xnrthas ; OP. mur-
lya ; red. : amimarat (B.). FT. marisyati (AV.). PS.
mriyate ; pp. mrta. GD. mrtva (B.). cs. marayati.

2. mr crush, IX. P. : IPV. mrnihi ; PT. mrnant. PS. mur-
yate (B.) ; PP. murna (AV.). INT. IPV. marmartu.

mrc injure : AO. s : PRC. mrksista. PP. mrkta. cs. marc-

ayati ; SB. marcayat.
mrj wipe, II. : PR. marsti ; mrjanti; mrj6; mrjmahe ; IPV.

marstu ; A. mrksva ; mrddhvam ; PT. mrj ana ; IFF.

mrsta (8. s. A.) ; amrjata. VII. : OP. mrnjyat (B.) ; IPV.

mrnajani (B.) ; IPF. mrnjata (3. pi.). PF. mamarja;

mamrjur; mamrje and mamrj6 ; OP. mam rj it a. AO. sa :

amrksat ; amrksama ; A. amrksanta ; IPV. mrksatam ;

red. : amimrjanta (B.) ; s : amarksit (B.) ; is : amarjit

(B.). FT. mraksyate (B.), marksyate (B.) ; mrasta (B.).

PS. mrjyate ; PP. mrsta ; GDV. marjya. GD. mrstva ;

marjitva (B.) ; -mrjya. INF. -mfjas (B.). cs. marjayati,

-te; marjayati, -te (B.). INT. marmrjyate; marimrj-

yate (B.); SB. marmrjat; marmrjanta; PT. marmrjat ;

marmrjana and marmrjana ; marmrjyamana ; IPF.

marnirjma, marmrjata.
mrd l>e gracious, VI. : PR. mrdati ; mrdate (B.) ; SB. mrlati

and mrlat ; IPV. mrla and mrdatat (AV.), mrlatu. PF.

OP. mamrdyur. cs. mrdayati.
mrn crush, VI. P. : PR. mrnati ; INJ. mrnat ; IPV. mrna.

IPF. amrnat. AO. root : mrnyur (K.) ; red. : amimrnan.
mrd crush: AO. PRC. mrdyasam (B.); FT. mardisyate (B.).

PS. mrdyate (B.); PP. mrdita. GD. -mrdya (B.). INF.

marditos (B.).
mrdh neglect, I. P. : PR. mardhati. VI. : PR. SB. mrdhati.

AO. root : OP. mrdhyas ; is : SB. mardhisat ; INJ. mardh-

is ; mardhistam. PP. mrddha.

408 APPENDIX I

mrs touch, VI. : PR. mrsati, -te. FF. mamrsur ; mamrs6
(B.). AC. sa : amrksat ; INJ. mrksas ; mrksata (2. pi.),
pp. mrsta. GD. -mrsya. INF. -mrse. cs. marsayati (B.).
INT. SB. marmrsat ; IND. marimrsyate (B.).

mrs not heed, IV. : PR. mrsyate. PF. mamarsa. AO. root :
INJ. mrsthas ; a : INJ. mrsanta ; red. : INJ. mimrsas ; is :
INJ. marsisthas. INF. -mrse.

nied be fat} IV. P. : IPV. medyantu. VI. A. : IPV. medatam
(3. s.). cs. medayati.

myaks le situated, I. P. : IPV. niyaksa. PF. mimyaksa ;
mimiksiir ; A. mimiksir6. AO. root : amyak ; PS.
amyaksi.

mrad crush, I. : PR. mradate ; IPV. mrada. FT. mradi-
syati, -te. INF. -mrade (B.). cs. mradayati.

mruc, mine set, I. P. : PR. mrocati ; mldcati (B.) ; PT.
mrocant. PF. mum!6ca (B.). AO. a: amrucat (B.).
pp. mrukta (B.) ; mlukta. INF. mriica.

mla relax, IV. P.: PR. mlayati (B.). PP. mlata; mlana
(B.). cs. mlapayati.

yaj sacrifice, I. : PR. yajati, -te; SB. yajati, -te; OP. yajeta;
IPV. yajatu; yajantam; PT. yaj ant; yajamana. IPF.
ayajat; ayajanta. PF. ije (1. 8. s.), yej6 (3. s.) ; ijathe
IjirS; PT. ijana. AO. root: IPV. yaksva ; red. : ayiyajat
(B.) ; s : ayas, ayat ; s : ayaksit ; A. ayasta (3. s.) ; SB.
yaksat ; du. 2. yaksatas, 3. yaksatam ; A. yaksate ; INJ.
yat (2. s.) ; A. yaksi (1. s.) ; OP. yakslya ; sa : IPV. yak-
satam (3. du.). FT. yaksyate ; yaksyati (B.) ; yasta (B.).
PP. ista. GD. istva. INF. yajadhyai; yajadhyai (TS.) ;
yastave ; yastum. cs. yajayati (B.). DS. iyaksati, -te ;
SB. iyaksan; PT. iyaksant; iyaksamana.

yat stretch, I. : PR. yatati, -te; SB. A. yataite (3. du.); OP.
yatema ; yatemahi ; IPV. yatatam ; A. yatasva ; yatan-
tam ; PT. yatant ; yatamana. PF. yetire\ AO. root :
PT. yatana and yatana ; is : ayatista (B.). FT. yatisyate
(B.). PP. yatta. GD. -yatya (B.). cs. yatayati, -te;
PS. yatyate (B.).

LIST OF VERBS 409

yam stretch out, I. : PR. yachati, -te ; SB. yachat ; OP.

yachet; IPV. yacha and yachatat, yachatu. IFF. aya-

chat ; A. ayachathas. PF. yayantha, yayama ; yema-

thur, yematur ; yemima, yema, yemur ; A. yem6 (8.

s.) ; yernate ; yemir6 ; PT. yemana. AO. root : yamam ;

ayanmr; SB. yamas, yamati and yamat; yaman ; A.

yamase, yamate ; OP. yamimahi ; PRO. yamyas (3. s.) ;

IPV. yandhi ; yantam ; yanta and yantana ; a : OP.

yamet ; s : ayamsarn, ay an (3. s.) ; A. ayamsi (B.),

ayamsta ; ayamsata ; SB. yamsat ; yamsatas ; yamsan ;

A. yamsate ; INJ. A. yamsi ; PT. yamasana ; is :

yamista (3. s. A.). FT. yamsyati (B.). PS. yamyate ;

AO. ay ami (B.) ; PP. yata; GDV. yamsenya. GD. -yatya.

INF. yamitavai, yantave; yamam; yantum (B.).

cs. yamayati ; yamayati (B.). DS. yiyamsati (B.). INT.

yamyamiti.
yas be heated, III. P. : IPV. yayastu. IV. P. : PR. yasyati.

PP. yasta; yasita (B.).
ya go, II. P. : PR. yati ; yanti ; OP. yayam ; IPV. yahi,

yatu ; yatam ; yata and yatana, yantu ; PT. yant. IFF.

ay as, ayat ; ayatam ; ayama, ayatana, ayur (B.). PF.

yayatha, yayau ; yayathur ; yaya, yayiir ; PT. yayi-

vams. AO. s : ayasam ; ayasur ; SB. yasat ; INJ. yesam ;

sis : ayasisam, ayasit ; ayasistam ; ayasista, ayasisur ;

SB. yasisat ; PRC. A. yasisisthas ; IPV. yasistam ; yasista.

FT. yasyati. PP. yata. GD. yatva (B.) ; -yaya (B.).

INF. yatave, yatavai (B.) ; -yai. cs. yapayati (B.).
yac ask, I. : PR. yacati, -te. PF. yayace (B.). AO. is :

ayacit ; ayacista (B.) ; SB. yacisat ; A. yacisamahe.

FT. yacisyate. PP. yacita ; yacitva and yacya (B.).

INF. yacitum. cs. yacayati.

1. yu unite, VI. : PR. yuvati, -te. II. yauti ; A. yut6 ;
SB. yavan ; IPV. yutam (3. s. A.) ; PT. yuvana. PF.
yuyuv^. PER. FT. yuvita (B.). PP. yuta. GD. -yuya. DS.
yiiyusati. INT. yoyuv6 ; PT. ybyuvat (AV.) ; yoyuvana.

2. yu separate, III.: PR. yuydti ; SB. yuyavat; INJ. yuyo-

410 APPENDIX I

thas, yuyota; OP. yuyuyatam ; IPV. yuyodhi, yuy6tu ;

yuyutam and yuyotam ; yuyota and yuyotana. I. P. :

PR. yiichati ; IPV. yiichantu ; PT. yuchant. AO. root :

SB. yavanta ; OP. yuyat (B.) ; 3. du. yuyatam (B.) ; PRC.

yuyas (3. s.) ; red. : INJ. yuyot ; s : yosati and yosat ;

yosatas ; INJ. yusam (AV.) ; yaus (2. s.) ; yaustam ;

yausma, yausta, yausur ; A. yosthas (B.) ; is : INJ.

yavis. PS. AO. ayavi ; PP. yuta. INF. yotave, yotavai ;

yotos. cs. yavayati ; yavayati. INT. PT. yoyuvat ;

IPF. ayoyavit; PP. yoyava.
yuj join, VII. : yunakti ; yunjanti ; yunkte ; yunjate ;

SB. yunajat ; yunajan ; A. yunajate (3. s.) ; INJ. yunjata

(3. pi.) ; IPV. yundhi, yunaktu ; yunakta, yufgantu ; A.

yunksva, yuntam ; 2. du. yunjatham ; yungdhvam ; PT.

yunjant ; yunjana ; IPF. ayunak and ayunak ; ayunjan ;

A. ayunjata (3. pi.). PF. yuydja ; yuyujma ; A. yuyuj^ ;

yuyujr6; SB. A. yuyojate (3. s.); PT. yuyujana. AO.

root : A. ayuji, ayukthas, ayukta ; ayujmahi, ayug-

dhvam, yiijata and ayujran ; SB. yojate ; INJ. yojam ;

A. yukta (3. s.) ; OP. yujyava, yujyatam ; IPV. yuksva ;

PT. yuj ana ; s. : ayuksi ; ayuksatam (3. du.) ; ayuksata

(3. pi.). FT. yoksyati (B.) ; yoksyate ; yokta (B.). PS.

yujyate ; AO. ayoji ; INJ. y6ji ; PP. yukta. GD. yuktva,

yuktvaya. INF. yuj 6 ; yoktum (B.).
yudh fight, IV. : PR. yudhyati, -te ; SB. yudhyai. IV. : IPV.

yiidhya ; PT. yiidhyant ; yudhyamana ; IPF. ayudhyas,

ayudhyat. I. P. : PR. yddhanti (AV.). II. P. y6tsi

(= IPV.). PF. yuy6dha; yuyudhiir; A. yuyudhate (3.

du.). AO. root : SB. y6dhat ; IPV. yodhi ; PT. yodhana ;

is : ayodhit ; SB. yodhisat ; INJ. yodhis ; IPV. yodhistam.

FT. yotsyati, -te (B.). PP. yuddha. GDV. yodhya,

yudh^nya. GD. -yuddhvi. INF. yudh6, yudhaye ;

yudham. cs. yodhayati. DS. yuyutsati, -te.
yup obstruct : PF. yuyopa ; yuyopima. AO. red. : ayu-

yupan (B.). PP. yupita. cs. yopayati. INT. yoyup-

yate (B.).

LIST OF -VERBS 411

yes le heated, I. P.: PR. y&sati; PT. y6sant.

ramh hasten, I. : PR. ramhate ; PT. ramhamana. IPF.

aramhas; A. aramhata (3. s.). PF, PT. rarahana. cs.

ramhayati, -te.
raks protect, I. : PR. raksati, -te. PF. raraksa ; PT. ra-

raksana. AO. is : araksit ; araksit (B.) ; SB. raksisas,

raksisat. PP. raksita. cs. raksayate (B.).
raj colour, IV. : IPF. arajyata. PP. rakta (B.). cs. rajayati.

INT. rarajiti.
rad dig, I. : PR. radati, -te ; INJ. radat ; IPV. rada ; radantu;

A. radantam (3. pi.) ; PT. radant. IPF. aradat, radat.

II. P. : ratsi (=IPV.). pp. rarada. PP. radita.
radh, randh make subject, IV. P. : IPV. radhya, radhyatu.

PF. raradhur. AO. root: IPV. randhi (=randdhi); a:

SB. radhama ; INJ. radham ; red. : SB. riradha ; INJ.

riradhas, riradhat ; riradhatam ; riradhata ; is : INJ.

randhis. PP. raddha. cs. randhayati ; SB. randhayasi.
ran rejoice, I. : PR. ranati ; INJ. rananta ; IPV. rana. IV.

P. : PR. ranyasi, ranyati ; ranyathas ; ranyanti. PF.

rarana (1. s.) ; SB. raranas, raranat ; raranata (2. pi.).
• INJ. raran (3. s.) ; IPV. rarandhi; raranta (2. pi.), rarantu.

PPF. araranur. AO. is : aranisur ; INJ. ranistana. cs.

ranayati.
rap chatter, I. P. : PR. rapati ; INJ. rapat ; OP. rapema.

IPF. arapat. INT. rarapiti.

raps lefull, I. A. : rapsate; rapsante. PF. rarapse.
rabh, rambh grasp, I. : PR. rabhate. PP. rarabhma ; A.

rarabh6 ; rebhir6 ; PT. rebhana. AO. s : 3. s. A. arabdha ;

PT. rabhasana. PP. rabdha. GD. -rabhya. INF. -rabham ;

-rabhe. cs. rambhayati, -te (B.). DS. ripsate (B.).
ram rejoice, I. A. : PR. ramate. IX. P. : IPF. aramnas,

aramnat. AO. red. : ariramat ; SB. riramama ; INJ.

riraman ; s : A. aramsta (3. s.) ; aramsata (3. pi.) ; INJ.

ramsthas ; sis : INJ. ramsisam. FT. ramsyate ; -ti (B.).

PP. rata (B.). GD. ratva (B.). INF. rantos (B.). cs.

ramayati and ramayati.

412 APPENDIX I

1. ra give, III. : IPV. ririhi ; A. rarasva (AV.) ; raratham
(3. du.) ; raridhvam; SB. rarate; PT. rarana. II. : PK.
rasi (=IPV.) ; rate (B.) ; PF. rarima ; rare (1. s.), rarise ;
rarathe ; PT. rarivams ; rarana. AO. root : aradhvam ;
IPV. rasva; s: arasma ; arasata (3. pi.) ; SB. rasat ;
rasan; A. rasate (3. s.) ; OP. rasiya; IPV. A. rasatam
(3. s.) ; rasatham (2. du.) ; rasantam (3. pi.) ; PP. rata.

2. ra bark, IV. P. : PR. rayasi ; IPV. raya ; PT. rayant.

raj rule, I. P. : PR. rajati. II. P. : PR. rasti ; INJ. rat. AO.

is : arajisur. INF. rajase. cs. rajayati (B.), -te.
radh succeed, IVy A. : IPV. radhyatam ; PT. radhyamana.

V. P. : PR, radhnoti (B.). PF. raradha. AO. root : aradh-

am (B.) ; SB. radhat and radhati ; radhama ; PRO.

radhyasam ; radhyasma ; red. : ariradhat (B.) ; s :

aratsis ; is : INJ. radhisi (1. s.). FT. ratsyati. PS. AO.

aradhi ; PP. raddha ; GDV. radhya. GD. raddhva (B.).

-radhya (B.). INF. iradhyai. cs. radhayati.
ri flow, IX. : PR. rinati ; rinithas ; rinanti ; A. rimt^ ;

rinate ; INJ. rinas ; rinan ; PT. rinant ; rinana. IFF.

rinas, arinat ; arinitam ; arinita. IV. : PR. riyate ;

riyante; PT. riyamana.
ric leave, VII. P. : PR. rinakti ; SB. rinacava ; INJ. rinak

(3. s.). IPF. arinak (2. s.) ; rinak (3. s.). PF. rir£ca ;

riricathur ; A. ririks6, riric^ ; riricathe ; riricr^ ; OP.

riricyam, riricyat ; PT. _ririkvams ; riricana. PPF.

arirecit. AO. root : INJ. A. rikthas ; IPV. riktam ; s :

araik (3. s.) ; A. ariksi ; red. : ariricat (B.). FT. reksyate

(B.). PS. ricyate ; IPF. aricyata ; AO. areci ; PP. rikta.

cs. recayati (B.).

rip smear : PF. riripur. PP. ripta. Cp. lip.
ribh sing, I. P. : PR. r^bhati ; rdibhanti ; PT. r^bhant. IPF.

r6bhat. PF. rir^bha. PS. ribhyate.
ris tear, VI. : PR. risamahe ; IPV. risantam ; PT. risant.

pp. rista.
ris le hurt, IV. : PR. risyati ; SB. risyas, risyati and risyat ;

OP. risyet ; risyema. I. P. : SB. rdsat ; INJ. rdsat. AO.

LIST OF VERBS 413

a : arisan ; SB. risama, risatha and risathana ; PT. risant
and risant ; red. : INJ. ririsas, ririsat ; ririsata (2. pi.) ;
OP. ririses; PRC. A. ririsista and ririsista (3. s.). PP.
rista. INF. ris£ ; risas. cs. resayati ; INF. risayadhyai.
DS. ririksati.

rih lick, II. : PR. redhi ; rihanti ; 3. pi. rihate and
rihate" ; PT. rihant ; rihana (VS.) and rihana. PF. PT.
ririhvams. PP. ridha. INT. rerihyate ; PT. r^rihat ;
re" rihana. Cp. lib.

1. ru cry, VI. P.: PR. ruvati ; INJ. ruvat; IPV. ruva; PT.
ruvant. II. (B.) rauti ; ruvanti. PF. ruruvir<§ (B.).
AO. is : aravit ; aravisur. PP. ruta. INT. r6raviti ; PT.
r6ruvat ; rdmvana (B.) ; IPF. aroravit.

2. ru break : AO. is : ravisam. PP. ruta. INT. PT. r6ruvat.
rue shine, I. : PR. r6cate. PF. rur6ca ; ruruciir ; ruruc6

(3. s.) ; INJ. rurucanta; OP. rurucyas ; PT. rurukvams;

rurucana. AO. root : PT. rucana ; red. : arurucat ; A.

arurucata (3. s., B.) ; is : A. arocista (3. s.) ; OP. rucisiya

(AV.) and rocisiya (B.). PS. AO. aroci. PP. rucita (B.).

INF. ruc6. cs. rocayati ; -te (B.). INT. PT. rorucana.
ruj break, I. P. : PR. rujati. PF. rurojitha, rurdja. AO.

root: INJ. r6k; red.: arurujatam (2. du.). PP. rugna.

GD. ruktva (B.) ; -riijya (B.). INF. -riije.
rud iveep, II. P. : PR. roditi ; rudanti ; SB. rodat (Kh.) ;

PT. rudant. 'IFF. arodit (B.). AO. a: arudat. cs.

rodayati.
1. rudh obshuct, VII. : PR. runadhmi, runaddhi ; A.rundhe'

(= runddhe") ; rundhate (3. pi.) ; SB. A. runadhamahai ;

IPV. rundhi (— runddhi) ; A. rundham (= runddham,

3. s.) ; PT. rundhana; IPF. A. arundhata (3. pi.). PF.

rurodhitha ; A. rurudhr^. AO. root : arodham ; arudh-

ma ; a : arudhat ; arudhan ; INJ. rudhat ; PT. rudh-

ant ; s : araut ; arautsit (B.) ; A. arutsi (B.), aruddha

(B.). FT. rotsyati, -te (B.). PS. rudhyate ; PP. ruddha.

GD. -riidhya. INF. -riidham, rundham (B.), -rodham

(B.); roddhos (B.). DS. riirutsate (B.).

414 APPENDIX I

2. rudh grow, I. P. : PR. rddhati ; INJ. rodhat.

rup break, IV. P. : PR. riipyati (B.). AO. red. : arurupat.

pp. rupita. cs. repay ati (B.).
ruh ascend, I. : PR. r6hati, -te. PF. rurohitha, ruroha ;

ruruhiir. AO. root : PT. ruhana ; a : aruham, aruhas,

aruhat ; ' aruhama, aruhan ; SB. ruhava ; INJ. ruham,

ruhat ; OP. ruh^ma ; IPV. ruha ; ruhatam ; sa : ruksas,

aruksat; aruksama. FT. roksyati (B.). PP. rudha.

GD. rudhva, -riihya. INF. -ruham ; r6hisyai (TS.) ;

r6dimm (B.). cs. rohayati ; -te (B.) ; ropayati (B.).

DS. ruruksati.
rej tremble. I. : PR. r6jati, -te; INJ. rejat; r^janta (3. pi.) ;

PT. rejamana ; IPF. arejetam (3. du.) ; arejanta. cs.

rejayati.
lap prate, I. P. : PR. lapati ; PT. lapant. FT. lapisyati (B.).

pp. lapita. cs. lapayati ; -te (B.). INT. lalapiti.
labh take, I. A. : PR. labhate. PF. lebhirS ; PT. lebhana.

AO. s (B.) : A. alabdha ; alapsata. FT. lapsyati, -te (B.).

PS. labhyate (B.) ; PP. labdha. GD. labdhva ; -labhya

(B.). cs. lambhayati, -te (B.). DS. lipsate; lipsate (B.) ;

PS. lipsyate (B.).
likh scratch, VI. : PR. likhati; -te (B.). PF. lilekha (B.).

AO. red. : alilikhat (B.) ; is : INJ. 16khis. PP. likhita.

GD. -likhya (B.).
lip smear, VI. P. : PR. limpati. PF. lilepa, lilipiir (B.).

AO. s : alipsata (3. pi.). PS. lipyate (B.) ; PP. lipta. GD.

-lipya (B.).

lih licit, II. :_PR. le"dhi (B.). cs. lehayati. INT. PP. lelihita(B.).
li cling, I. A. : PR. layate ; IPV. layantam. PF. Iily6 (B.) ;

lilyiir ; -lay am cakre. AO. s : alesta (B.). PP. Una.

cs. lapayati (B.). INT. lelayati; PF. lelaya.
lup 'break, VI. P. : PR. lumpati ; OP. lumped. PS. lupyate ;

PP. lupta. GD. -liipya. cs. lopayati, -te (B.).
lubh desire, IV. P. : PR. liibhyati. AO. red. : aiuJubhat

(B.). PP. lubdha (B.). cs. lobhayati ; DS. lulobha-

yisati (B.).

LIST OF VERBS 415

lu cut (B.), IX. P. : PR. lunati. V. P. : PR. luntfti. PP.

luna.
vaks increase (= 2. uks) : PP. vavaksitha, vavaksa ; va-

vaksatur ; vavaksiir ; A. vavakse ; vavaksire\ PPF.

vavaksat. cs. vaksayati.
vac speak, III. P. : PR. vivakmi, vivakti ; IPV. vivaktana.

PF. uvaktha, uvaca and vavaca; ucima, uciir; A.

ucis6 ; PT. ucana. AO. root : PRO. ucyasam (B.) ; red. :

avocat ; SB. v6ca, vocasi, v6cati and v6cati ; vocama ;

A. vocavahai; INJ. vocam, v6cas, vdcat; vocan; A.

v6ce ; vocanta ; OP. voc^yam, voc^s, voc6t ; voc^tam ;

voc6ma, voc^yur ; A. voc^ya ; voc^mahi ; IPV. vocatat,

vocatu ; vocatam ; vocata. FT. vaksyati ; co. avaksyat

(B.) ; vakta (B.). PS. ucyate; AO. avaci; PP. ukta;

GDV. vacya. GD. uktva(B.) ; -ucya(B.). INF. vaktave;

-vace ; vaktum (B.) ; vaktos (B.). cs. vacayati (B.).

DS. vivaksati, -te (B.). INT. IPF. avavacit.
vaj he strong ; cs. strengthen : PR. vajayamas, -masi ; A.

vajayate ; IPV. vajaya ; PT. vajayant.
vane move crookedly, I. P. : PR. vancati. PF. vavakr6. PS.

vacyate.
vat apprehend, I. : PR. OP. vatema ; PT. vatant. AO. red. :

avivatan. cs. vatayati.
vad speak, I. : PR. vadati, -te ; SB. vadani, vadasi and

vadas, vadati ; vadathas ; vadama, vadan ; INJ. vadat ;

OP. vadet ; A. vadeta ; IPV. vada, vadatu ; ^A. vadasva ;

vadadhvam ; PT. vadant. IPF. avadan ; A. avadanta.

PF. udima; ud6 (B.). AO. root: PRC. udyasam (B.); is:

avadisam ; avadisur ; A. avadiran (AV.) ; SB. vadisas ;

INJ. vadisur. FT. vadisyati ; -te (B.). PS. udyate ; PP.

udita. GD. -udya (B.). INF. vaditum(B.) : vaditos (B.).

cs. vadayati, -te (B.) ; PS. vadyate (B.). DS. vivadisati

(B.). INT. vavaditi; IPV. vavaditu; PT. vavadat; A.

vavadyate (B.).
vadh slay, I. P. : OP. vadheyam, vadhet ; IPV. vadha.

AO. root : PRC. vadhyasam ; OP. vadhyat (B.) ; is : a-

416 APPENDIX I

vadhisam and vadhim, avadhis, a vadhit and vadhit ;

avadhisma ; SB. vadhisas ; INJ. vadhis, vadhit ; vadh-

ista and vadhistana (2. pi.), vadhisur ; A. vadhisthas ;

IPV. vadhistam (2. du.).
van tvin, VIII. : PR. vandsi, vanoti ; vanuthas ; A. vanve,

vanut6 ; SB. vanavat ; A. vanavase ; INJ. vanvan ; OP.

vanuyama ; IPV. vanvantu ; A. vanusva, vanutam ;

vanudhvam, vanvatam ; PT. van van t ; vanvana ; IFF.

avanos ; avanvan ; A. avanvata. VI. and I. : PR.

vanati and vanati; A. vanase, vanate ; SB. vanati;

vanas ; vanava ; A. vanamahai ; INJ. vanas ; A. vanta

(= vananta) ; OP. vands ; van6ma ; van^mahi ; IPV.

vanatam ; vanata ; A. vanatam (3. s.). PF. vavantha,

vavana ; vavamna ; A. vavn6 ; SB. vavanat ; IPV. va-

vandhi ; PT. vavanvams. AO. root : vamsva ; SB. vam-

sat ; vamsama ; A. vamsate ; INJ. vamsi ; OP. vamsi-

mahi and vasimahi ; is : SB. vanisat ; A. vanisanta.

PRC. vanisista ; sis : OP. vamsisiya. PP. -vata. INF.

-vantave. cs. vanayantu. DS. vivasati ; SB. vivasat.
vand greet, I. A. : PR. vandate. PF. vavanda ; vavandima ;

A. vavand^ ; vavandir^. AO. is : OP. vandisimahi.

PS. AO. vandi; PP. vandita; GDV. vandya. INF.

vandadhyai.
vap strew, I. : PR. vapati, -te. PF. tipathur ; A. upis6,

up6 (3. s.). AO. s: avapsit (B.). FT. vapsyati (B.).

PS. upyate ; AO. vapi ; PP. upta. GD. -lipya. cs.

vapayati (B.).
vam vomit, II. : SB. vaman. IPF. avamit ; avamat (B.).

PF. uvama (B.). AO. s : avan (B.). PP. vanta (B.).
valg leap, I. P. : PR. valganti. IPF. avalgata (2. pi.). PT.

valgant.
vas desire, II. : PR. vasmi, vaksi, vasti ; usmasi and smasi,

usanti ; IPV. vastu ; PT. usant ; usana. I. P. : PR.

yasanti ; SB. vasama ; INJ. vasat ; IPF. avasat. III. P. :

PR. vavaksi; vivasti; IPV. vivastu. PF. vavasiir; A.

vavas6; PT. vavasana.

LIST OF VERBS 417

1. vas shine-, VI. P. : PR. uchati; SB. uchat ; uchan; INJ.
uchat ; OP. uch6t ; IPV. ucha, uchatu ; uchata, uchantu ;
PT. uchant; IPF. auchas auchat. PF. uvasa; usa (2.
pi.), usur; PT. f. ususi (TS.). AO. root: avas (2. 3. s.) ;
A. avasran ; s : avat (3. s.). co. avatsyat (B.). PP. usta.
INF. vastave. cs. vasayati.

2. vas wear, II. A. : PK. vaste ; vasathe ; vasate (3. pi.) ;
INJ. vasta (3. s.) ; vasata (3. pi.) ; OP. vasimahi ; IPV.
vasisva, vastam (3. s.) ; vasatham (TS.); PT. vasana;
IPF. avasthas ; avasta. PF. vavas6 ; PT. vavasana.
AO. is ; avasista (3. s.). cs. vasayati, -te ; FT. vas-
ayisyate.

3. vas dwell, I. : PR. vasati ; vasate (B.). PF. usatur ;
usima ; PT. usivams ; vavasana. PER. -vasam cakre (B.).
AO. root : vasana ; red. : avivasat ; s : avatsis. FT.
vatsyati (B.). GD. usitva(B.); -usya(B.). DS. vivatsati
(B.). cs. vasayati, -te ; PS. vasyate (B.).

van carry, I. : PR. vahati, -te. PF. uvaha ; uhathur, uha-
tur; uhiir; A. uhis£ ; uhire. AO. root: OP. uhita; IPV.
volham (2. du.), volham; A. vodhvam ; PT. lihana; s:
avat, vat ; avaksur ; SB. vaksas, vaksati and vaksat ;
vaksathas, vaksatas ; vaksan ; INJ. vaksit. FT. vak-
syati ; vodha (B.). PS. uhyate ; PP. udha. GD. udhva
(B.) ; -uhya. INF. vodhum ; vddhave, vodhavai (B.) ;
-vahe ; vahadhyai. cs. vahayati (B.) ; INT. vani-
vahyate (B.).

1. va llotv, II. P. : PR. vami, vati ; vatas ; vanti ; IPV.
vahi, vatu ; PT. vant ; IPF. avat. IV. P. : PR. vayati ;
vayatas ; vayanti. PF. vavau (B.). AO. sis : avasit (B.).
cs. vapayati.

2. va weave, IV. : PR. vayati ; vayate (B.) ; IPV. vaya ;
vayata; PT. vayant; IPF. avayat; avayan. PF. uvur.
FT. vayisyati. PS. uyate (B.) ; PP. uta. INF. 6tum ;
otave, otavai; vatave (AV.).

vajaya desire booty, den. : PR. PT. vajayant.
vanch desire, I. P. : IPV. vanchantu.
1819 E e

418 APPENDIX I

vas bellow, I. P. : PR. vasati. IV. A. : PR. vasyate. PF.

vavasir6 and vavasrS ; PT. vavasana. PPF. avavasitam

(3. du.) ; avavasanta. AO. red. : avivasat ; avivasan ;

A. avivasanta; is: A. avasisthas (B.). INT. PT. va-

vas*at. cs. vasayati.
vie sift, VII. P. : PR. vincanti ; IPV. vinaktu ; PT. vincant ;

IPF. avinak. III. P. : PR. viveksi. PF. PT. vivikvams.

PS. vicyate ; PP. vikta (B.).
vij tremble, VI. : PR. vijante ; IPV. vijantam ; PT. vijamana ;

IPF. avije. PF. vivijr6. AO. root : INJ. A. vikthas,

vikta; red.: INJ. vivijas. PS. vikta. cs. vejayati (B.).

INT. vevijyate ; PT. v^vijana.

1. vid know, II. P. : PR. vidmas ; SB. v6das, v^dati and
v6dat ; v^dathas ; OP. vidyam, vidyat ; vidyatam ;
vidyama, vidyiir ; IPV. viddhi and vittat, v6ttu ; vittam.
IPF. avedam, avet and v6t ; avidur (B.). PF. v6da (1. 3.),
vSttha ; vidathur ; vidma, vida, vidiir ; A. vidmahe
(B.), vidrd ; PER. vidam cakara (B.) ; PT. vidvams. AO.
is: avedit (B.); PER. vidam akran (B.). FT. vedisyati,
-te (B.); vedita (B.). PP. vidita. GD. viditva. INF.
vidmane ; v^ditum (B.) ; v6ditos (B.). cs. vedayati,
-te. DS. vividisati (B.).

2. vid find, VI. : PR. vindati, -te. II. vitse\ vid6 (3. s.) ;
vidr6 ; IPV. viddhi ; A. 3. s. vidam (AV.) ; PT. vidana
and vidana. PF. viv^ditha, viv6da ; vividathur ; vi-
vidiir; A. vivid6, vivits6; vividr6 and vividrirS; SB.
vividat ; PT. vividvams. AO. a : avidam, avidas,
avidat; avidama, avidan; A. avidanta; SB. vidas,
vidat; vidathas; vidatha; INJ. vidam, vidas, vidat;
vidan; A. vidata(3. s.) ; vidanta; OP. vid^yam, vid6t ;
vid^ma ; A. vid6ya ; PRC. videsta (AV.) ; IPV. vidatam ;
PT. vidant ; s : A. avitsi. FT. vetsyati, -te (B.). PS.
vidyate; AO. avedi, v6di ; PP. vitta; vinna. GDV.
vidayya. GD. vittva, -vidya (B.). INF. vid6, v6ttave ;
v6ttos (B.). DS. vivitsati (B.). INT. SB. veVidama. PT.
v6vidat; v^vidana.

LIST OF VERBS 419

vidh worship, VI. : SB. vidhati ; IN.T. vidhat ; vidhan ; A.

vidhanta ; OP. vidhdma ; vidh^mahi ; PT. vidhant ;

IFF. a vidhat.
vip tremble, I. : PR. v^pate ; PT. v^pamana ; IFF. avepanta.

PF. viviprd. AO. root : PT. vipana ; red. : avivipat ; is :

avepista (B.). cs. vepayati, vipayati.
vis enter, VI. : PR. visati, -te. PF. viv^sa (1. 3.), viv^sitha ;

vivisur and (once) vivesur; A. vivisrS ; OP. vivisyas;

PT. vivisivams (TS.), -visivams (AV.). PPF. avivesis.

AO. root : A. avisran ; s : aviksmahi, aviksata (3 pi.) ;

is: INJ. v6sit ; sa : aviksat (B.). FT. veksyati (B.).

pp. vista. GD. -visya. INF. -visam; v^stavai (B.). cs.

vesayati, -te.
vis le active, III. : PR. viveksi, vivesti ; vivistas ; vivis-

mas ; SB. vivesas ; IPV. vividdhi ; IPF. avives and viv^s

(2. s.), viv6s (3. s.). I. P. : PT. v^sant ; IPF. avesan.

PF, viv^sa ; vivisur. PPF. avivesis. AO. is : v^sisas.

FT. veksyati, -te (B.). PS. visyate (B.) ; PP. vista. GD.

vistvi ; -visya. INF. -vise. INT. ve>esmi ; vevisyate

(B.) ; OP. vevisyat ; PT. v^visat ; vdvisana.
vist, vest wrap, I. P. : IPV. v^statam (3. du.). PP. vistita.

cs. vestayati, -te (B.).
vi enjoy, II. : v^mi, v^si, v^ti ; vithas ; vyanti ; SB.

vayati ; IN.T. v6s ; IPV. vihi, vihi and vitat, v6tu ; vitam ;

vyantu; PT. vyant; vyana. IPF. avyan. PF. vivaya;

vivy6. AO. s. : SB. ve"sat. PS. viyate. PP. vita. INF.

vitaye. INT. vSveti ; veviyate.
vid make strong : cs. SB. vilayasi ; IPV. vilayasva. pp.

vilita.
1. vr cover, V. : PR. vrn6ti ; A. vrnve" ; vrnvate and vrn-

vat6 ; PT. vrnvant ; IPF. avrnos, avrnot ; A. avrnvata

(3. pi.); PR. urndmi, urn6ti; urnuthas, urnutas; A.

urnus6, urnut6 ; INJ. urnot ; IPV. urnuhi and urnu, ur-

notu ; urnuta, urnuvantu ; A. urnusva ; PT. urnuvant ;

urnvana ; IPF. aurnos, aurnot. I. : PR. varathas ; A.

varate ; varethe ; varante ; SB. varate ; INJ. varanta.

420 APPENDIX I

IX. : IFF. avrnidhvam (AV.). PF. vavartha, vavara ;

vavriir ; A. vavr6 ; PF. vavrvams. PPF. avavarit. AO.

root: vam (= varam), avar and var (2. 3. s.) ; avran ;

A. a vrta ; INJ. var (2. 3. s.) ; vran ^ IPV. vrdhi ; vartam ;

varta ; vrana ; red. : avivaran ; A. avivarata (3. s.) ; s :

SB. varsathas ; is : avarit (B.). PS. AO. avari ; PP. vrta.

GD. vrtva, vrtvi ; vrtvaya ; -vrtya. INF. vartave. cs.

varayati, -te ; _DS. vivarayisate (B.). INT. avarivar.
2. vr choose, IX. A. : PB, vrn6, vrmse", vrmte' ; vrnimahe,

vrnate ; INJ. vrnita (3. s.) ; OP. vrnita ; IPV. vrnisva ;

vrmdhvam, vrnatam ; PT. vrnana ; IPF. avrni, avrnita ;

avrnimahi. PF. vavrs^ ; vavrmahe. AO. root : avri,

avrta; SB. varas, varat; varanta; INJ. vrta (3. s.) ; OP.

vurita (3. s.) ; PT. urana ; s : avrsi ; avrdhvam (B.), avr-

sata. FT. varisyate (B.). PP. vrta. GDV. varya ; varenya.
vrj twist, VII. : PR. vrnaksi, vrnakti ; vrrijanti ; A. vrfij£,

vrnkt6 ; vrnjate ; vrnjate ; SB. vrnajan ; IPV. vrndhi,

vrnaktu ; vrnkta, vrnjantu ; A. vynksva. IPF. avrnak

(2. 3. s.) ; avrnjan. PF. vavrjur ; A. vavrj6 ; OP. vavrj-

yiir ; IPV. vavrktam (2. du.) ; PT. f. vavarjiis-i ; (a-)varjusi

(AV.). AO. ro'ot : vark (2. 3. s.), avrk (AV.) ; avrjan ;

A. avrkta ; SB. varjati ; varjate ; INJ. vark ; OP. vrj yam ;

vrjyama ; PRC. vrjyas (3. s.) ; IPV. varktam (2. du.) ;

s : avarksis (B.) ; A. avrksmahi ; INJ. A. vrksi ; sa :

avrksam. FT. varksyati, -te (B.). PS. vrjyate; PP.

vrkta. GD. vrktvi ; -vrjya. INF. -vf je ; vrjadhyai ;

vrrijase. cs. varjayati. DS. vivrksate (B.). INT. PT.

varivrjat ; cs. PT. varivarjayant (AV.).
vrt^wrw, I. A. : vartate. PF. va varta and vavarta; vavrtur;

A. vavrt6; SB. vavartati, vavartat and vavrtat; OP.

vavrtyam, vavrtyas, vavrtyat ; IPV. vavrttana (2. pi.) ;

PT. vavrtvams. PPF. avavrtran; A. avavrtranta. AO.
>. root : avart ; A. avrtran ; SB. vartat ; IPV. varta

(= vartta, 2. pi.); a: avrtat; red.: avivrtat; s: A.

avrtsata. FT. vartsyati ; vartita (B.). co. avartsyat (B.).

pp. vrtta. GD. -vrtya. INF. -vfte; -vftas (B.). cs.

LIST OF VERBS 421

vartayati, -te ; PS. vartyate (B.) ; INF. vartayadhyai.

DS. vivrtsati; -te (B.). INT. varvarti (= varvartti) and

varivarti (= varivartti) ; varvrtati (3. pi.) ; A. varivrt-

yate (B.) ; IFF, avarivar (3. s.) ; avarivur (3. pi.),
vrdh grow, I. : PR. vardhati, -te. PF. vavardha ; va-

vrdhatur ; vavrdhur ; A. vavrdh6 ; vavrdhate ; SB.

vavrdhati ; A. vavrdhate ; OP. vavrdhithas ; IPV.

vavrdhasva ; PT. vavrdhvams ; A. vavrdhana. PPF.

vavrdhanta. AO. a : avrdham, avrdhat ; vrdhama,

avrdhan ; PT. vrdhant ; vrdhana ; red. : avivrdhat ;

avivrdhan ; A. avivrdhadhvam, avivrdhanta ; s : PT.

vrdhasana ; is : OP. vardhisimahi. PP. vrddha. INF.

vrdhd ; vrdhase ; vavrdhadhyai (PF.). cs. vardha-

yati, -te. INT. GDV. vavrdh^nya.
vrs rain, I. P. : PR. varsati ; IPV. varsantu ; PT. varsant.

VI. A. : vrsasva ; vrs^tham (2. du.). PF. IPV. vavrsasva;

PT. vavrsana. AO. s : avarsis, avarsit. FT. varsisyati

(B.) ; vrasta(MS.). PP. vrsta. GD. vrstvi ; vfstva (B.) ;

-varstos (B.). cs. varsayati.
vrh tear, VI. P. : PR. vrhati ; INJ. vrhat ; OP. vrh^va ; IPV.

vrha and vrhatat ; vrhatam ; vrhata ; IPF. avrhas. PF.

vavarha. AO. sa: avrksat (B.). PS. vrhyate (B.) ; AO.

varhi ; pp. vrdha (B.). GD. -vrhya. INF. -vrhas.
ven long, I. P.: PR. v6nati; INJ. v^nas; IPV. v6natam

(2. du.) ; PT. v^nant. IPF. avenat.
vyac extend, III. P. : PR. viviktas (3. du.) ; INJ. vivyak (3.

s.). IPF. avivyak; aviviktam (3. du.) ; avivyacur. PF.

vivyaktha, vivyaca. PPF. vivyacat ; A. vivyacanta.
vyath waver, I. : PR. vyathate. AO. red. : vivyathas (B.) ;

is : SB. vyathisat ; INJ. vyathisthas ; vyathismahi. pp.

vyathita. INF. vyathisyai (B.). cs. vyathayati ; AO.

vyathayis (AV.).
vyadh pierce, IV. P. : PR. vidhyati. PF. vivyadha (B.) ;

PT. vividhvams. AO. s : vyatsis (B.). PP. viddha. INF.

-vidhe. cs. vyadhayati (B.). DS. vivyatsati (B.).
vya envelope, IV. : PR. vyayati, -te ; OP. vyayeyam ; IPV.

422 APPENDIX I

vyayasva ; PT. vyayant. IFF. avyayam, avyayat. PF.

vivyathur ; A. vivy6 ; PT. vivyana ; PER. PF. -vyay am

cakara (B.). AO. a: avyat; avyata (2. pi.); A. avyata

(3. s.) and vyata. PS. viyate (B.) ; PP. vita. GD.

-viya (B.).
vraj proceed, I. P. : IPV. vrajata (2. pi.); PT. vrajant. PF.

vavraja. AO. is : avrajit (B.). FT. vrajisyati (B.). PP.

vrajita (B.). GD. -vrajya (B.). cs. vrajayati (B.).
vrasc cut up, VI. P. : PR. vrscati ; SB. vrscat ; INJ. vrscas ;

IV. : vrsca, vrscatu ; PT. vrscant. IPF. avrscat and

vrscat. PS. vrscyate ; PP. vrkna. GD. vrstva ; vrktvi.
sams praise. I. : PR. samsati, -te. PP. sasamsa (B.) ; sa-

sams6 (B.). AO. root: IPV. sasta (2. pi.) ; is: asamsisam,

asamsit; SB. samsisas, samsisat; INJ. samsisam. FT.

samsisyati (B.). PS. sasyate ; AO. samsi ; PP. sasta ;

GDV. samsya; samstavya(B.). GD. sastva (B.). INF. -sase.
sak be able, V. P. : PR. saknbmi, sakndti ; saknuvanti ;

SB. saknavama. IPF. asaknuvan. PF. sasaka ; sekima,

seka, 6ekiir. AO. root : SB. sakas, sakat ; OP. sakyarn ;

IPV. sagdhi, saktam; a: asakam, asakat; asakan;

INJ. sakan ; OP. sakdyam ; sak6ma. FT. saksyati, -te

(B.). INF. saktave. DS. siksati, -te.

1. sad prevail : PF. sasadiir ; A. sasadmahe, sasadr6 ; PT.
sasadana.

2. s&dfall: PF. sasada (B.) ; sediir (B.). FT. satsyati.
sap curse, I. : PR. sapati ; sap ate (AV.) ; SB. sapatas (3.

du.); PT. sapant. IPF. asapata (2. pi.). PF. sasapa;
sepd (1. 3. s.), sepisS. AO. s : INJ. sapta (2. pi.). PP.
sapta (B.). cs. sapayati.

1. sam, ^im labour, IV. P. : samyati (B.) ; simyati; IPV.
simyantu ; PT. simyant. PF. sasam£ ; SB. sasamate
(3. s.) ; PT. sasamana. AO. is : A. asamisthas, asamista.
pp. samita (B.).

2. sam, be quiet, IV. (B.) : PR. samyati, -te. PF. sasama
(B.) ; semur (B.). AO. a : asamat (B.) ; red. : aslsamat.
pp. santa. cs. samayati.

LIST OF VERBS 423

£a sharpen, III. : PR. sisami, sisati ; sisimasi ; A. sislte ;

IPV. sisihi, sisatu; sisitam, sisltam ; sisita (2. pi.); PT.

sisana. IPF. sisas, asisat; A, sisita (3. s.). PP. PT.

-sasana. PP. sita. GD. -saya.
sas order, II. : sasmi, sassi ; A. sast6 ; sasmahe, sasate ;

SB. sasan ; IPV. sadhi ; sastana, sasatu ; PT. sasat ;

sasana. IPF. asasam ; A. asasata (3. pi.) . pp. sas"asa;

Sa^asur ; INJ. sasas; IPV. sasadhi. AO. root: SB. s"a&as;

a : A. sisamahi ; INJ. sisat ; PT. sisant. PP. s"ista ; GD.

-^isya (B.).
siks (= DS. of sak) be helpful: PR. siksati, -te ; SB. siksas,

siksat ; siksan ; INJ. siksat ; OP. sikseyam ; ^iksema ;

IPV. siksa, siksatu ; siksatam ; FT. siksant ; A. siks-

amana. IFF. asiksas; asiksatam.
^is leave, VII. P. : PR. sinasti (B.). PF. sisisd (B.). AO. a :

sisas. FT. seksyati, -te (B.). PS. sisyate ; AO. s£si ;

PP. sista. GD. -^isya (B.).
si lie, II. A. : PR. s<§se, saye (3. s.) ; sayate (3. du.) ;

s^mahe, sere and senate ; OP. sayiya, sayita (3. s.) ; IPV-

3. s. s6tam and say am (AV.) ; PT. sayana; IPF. aseran.

I. : PR. sayate ; sayadhve, sayante ; IPF. asayat ; asay-

atam ; A. asayata (3. s.). PF. sisy(§ (B.) ; sisyir^ (B ) ;

PT. sasayana. AO. s : SB. s£san ; is : A. asayisthas. FT.

sayisyati, -te (B.) ; sayitase (B.). INF. sayadJtiyai.
sue gleam, I. : PR. sdcati, -te. PF. sus<5ca ; OP. A. susuclta

(3. s.) ; IPV. susugdhi ; PT. susukvams ; susucana. AO.

a: asucat; PT. sucant; A. sue am an a ; red.: ^u^ucas ;

INJ. susucas; susucan; is: INJ. s6cis; PS. asoci. INF.

sucadhyai. cs. socayati; PT. sucayant. INT. SB. s"<5-

sucan ; A. sosucanta ; PT. sosucat ; sdsucana.
sudh, sundh purify, I. P. : PR. sundhati ; IPV. sundhata

(2. pi.). IV. P. : PR. sudhyati (B.). PP. Suddha. cs.

sundhayati ; sodhayati (B.).
subh, sumbh beautify, I. A. : PR. s6bhate; PT. sobhamana;

siimbhate; PT. sumbhamana; VI. P.: PR. sumbhati;

SB. sumbhati; IPV. sumbha; sumbhata, sumbhantu;

424 APPENDIX I

PT. sumbhamana. AO. root : FT. subhana ; sumbhana ;

red. : asiisubhan ; asusubhanta (B.). PP. sumbhita ;

subhita (B.). INF. subbe" ; sobhase ; siibham. cs.

subhayati, -te ; sobhayati.
sus dry, IV. P. : PR. susyati ; IPV. siisya, siisyatu ;

stisyantu. GD. -siisya (B.). cs. sosayati.
su, sva swett, IV. P.: PR. PT. svayant. PF. siisuvur; A.

susuv6 ; SB. susuvat ; susavama ; OP. susuyama ; PT.

susuvams ; A. susuvana. AO. a : asvat (B.) ; s : PT.

savasana. INF. susani ; svayitum (B.).
srdh be defiant, I. : PR. sardhati ; sardhate (B.) ; INJ. sardhat ;

IPV. sardha; PT. sardhant. cs. sardhayati.
sf crush, IX. : PR. srnami, srnasi, srnati ; srnimasi ; IPV.

srnlhi, srnatu ; srnitam ; srnantu ; PT. srnana. IPF.

asrnat. PF. sasr6. AO. is : asarit. FT. sarisyate (B.).

PS. siryate ; AO. sari ; pp. sirna ; -sirta. GD. -sirya (B.).

INF. saritos.
snath pierce, II. P. : SB. snathat; IPV. snathihi. AO. red. :

sisnatham, asisnat and sisnathat ; INJ. sisnathas ; is :

IPV. snathistam; snathistana. PP. snathita. INF.

-snathas. cs. snathayati, -te.
sya coagulate, IV.: PR. syayati (B.). PS. siyate(B.); PP.

sita ; sina. cs. syayayati (B.).
srath slacken, IX. : PR. srathnit^ ; PT. srathnana. IPF.

srathnas ; asrathnan. PF. sasratli^. AO. red. : si-

srathas, sisrathat; IPV. sisrathantu. PP. srthita. cs.

srathayati, -te.
sram l)e iveary, IV. P. : PR. sramyati. PP. sasramur ; PT.

sasramana. AO. a: asramat ; INJ. sramat; is: A.

asrami sthas ; INJ. sramisma. PP. sranta. GD. -sramya

(B.).
sra (sn, sr) boil, IX. : PR. srmanti ; sriiiise" ; IPV. srmihi ;

srinita and srmitana ; PT. srinant ; A. srinana. IPF. A.

asrmita (3. s.). PP. srata; srta. cs. srapayati; PS.

srapyate (B.) ; AO. asisrapat (B.).
sri resort, I. : PR. srayati ; -te. PF. 1. sisraya, 8. sisraya;

LIST OF VERBS 425

A. sisriyd ; OP. sisrita (8. s.) ; FT. sisriyana. PPF. asiSret ;

asisrayur. AO. root : asres, asret ; asriyan ; red. :

asisriyat ; s : asrait (AV.). FT. srayisyati, -te (B.).

PS. sriyate (B.) ; PP. srita ; AO. asrayi. INF. srayitavai

(B.). cs. srapayati (VS.).
sris clasp, I.: SB. sre"sama. AO. a: INJ. srisat. INF.

-srisas.
sri mix, IX. : PR. srmati ; srmite. PP. srita. INF.

sriyase.
sru hear, V. : PR. srnomi, srn6ti ; srnvanti ; A. srnvis6,

srnut6 and srnv6 ; srnvir6 ; SB. srnavas, srnavat ;

srnavama, srnavan ; OP. srnuyat ; srnuyama ; IPV.

srnudhi, srnuhi and srnu, srnotu; srnutam; srnuta

and srnota, srnotana, srnvantu ; srnusva ; PT. srnvant ;

IPF. asrnavam, a^rnos ; asrnvan. PF. 1. susrava, 8.

susrava ; A. susruv6 (3. s.) ; SB. susravat ; OP. susru-

yas ; susruyatam ; PT. susruvams. PPP. asusravur ;

A. asusravi (1. s.). AO. root : asravam, asrot ; asravan

(AV.) ; SB. sravat ; sravathas, sravatas ; PRO. sruyasam,

sruyas (3. s.) ; IPV. srudhi, srotu ; srutam;, sruta and

srota, sruvantu ; a : INJ. sriivat ; red. : asusravat ;

asusruvat (B.) ; s: asrausit (B.). FT. srosyati (B.). PS.

smyate ; AO. asravi, sravi ; PP. sruta ; GDV. sriitya ;

sravayya. GD. srutva; -srutya. cs. sravayati, srava-

yati. DS. susrusate.

srus hear, I. : INJ. srosan ; IPV. sr6santu ; PT. srosamana.
svanc spread, I. A. : IPV. svancasva ; PT. svancamana. PF.

A. SB. sasvacai. cs. svancayas.
svas blow, II. : PR. svasiti ; A. susd ; IPV. svasihi ; PT.

svasant and susant ; A. susana ; IPF. asvasit (B.). I. :

PR. svasati, -te (AV.). PP. svasita (B.). INF. -svasas.

cs. svasayati. INT. PT. sasvasat.
svit le bright : AO. root : asvitan ; PT. svitana ; red. : asi-

svitat ; s : asvait.
sthiv spew, I. P. : PR. sthivati. IPF. asthivan. PF. tisth6va

(B.). PP. sthyuta (B.).

426 APPENDIX I

sagh be equal to, V. P. : IFF. asaghnos. AO. root : SB.

saghat ; PRC. saghyasam (B.).
sac accompany, I. A. : PE. sacate. III. : PR. sisaksi ; sisakti;

sascati (3. pi.); INJ. A. sascata (3. pi.); IPV. sisaktu;

sisakta ; PT. sascat and sascat. I. : PR. sascasi ; A.

sa6ce (1. s.) ; INJ. sascat; IPV. sascata (2._ pi.) ; IFF.

asascatam (2. du.). PP. sascima, sascur ; A. sascirS ;

secir6 (AV.) ; FT. sascivams. AO. root : IPV. saksva ;

FT. sacana ; s : A. asaksata (3. pi.) ; SB. saksat ; INJ.

saksata (3. pi.) ; OP. saksimahi. INF. sacadhyai ;

saksani.
saj, sanj, hang, I. P. : PR. sajati. IFF. asajat, PF. sasanja

(B.) ; sejur (B.). AO. s : A. asakta. PS. sajyate (B.) ; AO.

asanji (B.) ; PP. sakta. GD. -sajya (B.). INF. sanktos

(B.). DS. sisanksati (B.).
sad sit, I. P. : PR. sidati ; SB. sidati ; INJ. sidan ; OP.

sidema ; IPV. sidatu ; FT. sidant. IFF. asidat. PF.

sasattha, sasada; sedathur, sedatur; sedima, seda,

sediir ; A. sedir6 ; OP. sasadyat ; PT. sediis-. AO. a :

asadat ; asadan ; INJ. sadas, sadat ; OP. sadema ; IPV

sada, sadatu ; sadatam, sadatam ; sadata, sadantu ;

A. sadantam ; FT. sadaut ; red. : asisadan ; s : SB.

satsat. FT. satsyati (B.). PS. sadyate (B.) ; AO. asadi,

sadi ; PP. satta ; sanna (AV.) ; GDV. sadya. GD. -sadya.

INF. -sade ; -sadam ; sattum (B.). cs. sadayati, -te ;

PS. sadyate (B.).
san gain, VIII. P. : PR. sanoti ; SB. sanavani, sanavat ;

sanavatha ; OP. sanuyam ; samiyama ; IPV. sanuhi,

sanotu ; sanvantu. IFF. asanos, asanot ; asanvan. PF.

sasana ; FT. sasavams. AO. a : asanam, asanat ; asan-

ama, asanan ; INJ. sanam, sauat ; OP. saneyam, san^t ;

IPV. sana ; PT. sanant ; is : asanisam ; SB. sanisat ; A.

sanisamahe, sanisanta ; IPV. sanisantu. FT. sanisyati.

PP. sata. GDV. sanitva. INF. sanaye; sataye. DS.

sisasati. INT. A. sanisnata (3. pi.).

LIST OF VERBS 427

sap serve, I. : PR. sapati, -te. PF. sepiir. AO. red. : INJ.

sisapanta.
saparya honour, den. : PR. saparyati ; SB. saparyat ; OP.

sapary^ma; IPV. saparya; PT. saparyant. IPF. asap-

aryan. AO. asaparyait (AY.). GDV. saparySnya.
sas sleep, II. P. : PR. sasti ; sastas ; IPV. sastu ; sastam ;

sasantu ; PT. sasant ; IPF. asastana. III. P. : PR.

sasasti and sasasti.
sah prevail, I. : PR. sahate ; PT. sahant and sahant ; A. sah-

amana. PF. sasaha; A. sasahis^, sasahej SB. sasahas,

sasahat ; OP. sasahyat ; sasahyama ; PRC. A. sasahisthas ;

PT. sasahvams and sahvams ; A. sasahana and sehana.

AO. root : OP. sahyas ; sahyama ; PRC. sahyas (3. s.) ; PT.

sahana ; s : asaksi and saksi ; saksmahi (B.) ; SB. sak-

sati and saksat ; saksama ; A. saksate ; OP. saksiya ;

IPV. saksva ; PT. saksant ; A. sahasana ; is : asahista ;

OP. sahisivahi ; sahisimahi and sahisimahi. FT. sak-

syate (B.). PP. sadha. GD. -sahya. INF. sahadhyai ;

-saham (B.). DS. siksati, -te.
sa bind, VI. : PR. syati, -te ; IPV. sya, syatu ; syatam,

syatam ; A. syasva ; syadhvam. IPF. asyat. AO. root :

asat; SB. sat; OP. simahi ; IPV. sahi; a: OP. s6t (VS.).

pp. sita. GD. -saya. INF. -sai ; satum (B.).
sadh succeed, I. : PR. sadhati, -te. AO. red. : SB. sisadhati ;

sisadhama; INJ. sisadhas. cs. sadhayati.
si bind, IX. P. : PR. sinati ; sinithas ; IPV. sinatu. PF.

sisaya ; INJ. siset. AO. root : IPV. sitam. INF. s^tave.
sic pour, VI. : PR. sincati, -te. PF. sise*ca ; sisicatur ;

sisiciir ; sisic^. AO. a : asicat ; asican ; SB. sicamahe.

FT. seksyati (B.). PS. sicyate ; AO. aseci (B.) ; PP. sikta.

GD. siktva (B.) ; -sicya. INF. s&ktavai (B.).

1 . sidh repel, I. P. : PR. sadhati. PF. sise'dha. AO. is :
asedhis. PP. siddha (B.). GD. -sidhya. INF. se"ddhum
(B.). INT. PT. s&sidhat.

2. sidh succeed, IV. P. : I>R. sidhyati. PP. siddha (B.).
siv sew, IV. : PR. ii'v. sivyatu ; A. sivyadhvam ; PT.

sivyant. PP. syuta. GD. -sivya.

428 APPENDIX I

su press, V. : PR. sunoti ; sunutas ; sunutha, sunvanti ;

A. sunv6 ; sunvir6 ; SB. sunavat ; sunavama ; A. su-

navai ; IPV. sumi, sunotu ; sunuta and sunota, sun6-

tana; A. sunudhvam; PT. sunvant; sunvana. PF.

susava ; susutna ; PT. susuvams ; susvana. PPF. asu-

savur and asusuvur (B.). AO. root : IPV. s6tu ; sutam ;

sota, sotana ; PT. suvana, svana. FT. savisyati (B.) ;

sota (B.). PS. suyate ; AO. asavi; PP. suta; GDV.

s6tva. GD. -siitya (B.). INF. sotave; s6tos.
su generate, impel, VI. P. : PR. suvati ; SB. suvati ; IPV.

suva, suvatat, suvatu ; suvatam ; suvantu ; PT. suvant ;

IPF. asuvat. II. A. : PR. suve, sute ; suvate (3. du.) ;

siivate (3. pi.) ; INJ. suta (3. s.) ; PT. suvana ; IPF. asuta.

PF. sasuva ; susuv6. PPF. asusot (MS.) ; asusavur (B.).

AO. is : asavit ; asavisur ; SB. savisat ; INJ. savis. FT.

sosyati, -te (B.); PT. susyant. PS. suyate; PP. suta.

GD. sutva (B.) ; -siitya (B.). INF. sutave, sutavai ; savi-

tave. INT. sdsaviti.
sudput in order: PF. susudima; SB. siisudas, susudat and

siisudati ; susudatha ; IPV. susudata (2. pi.). AO. red. :

asusudanta. cs. sudayati, -te ; SB. sudayati.
sr flow, III. : PR. sisarsi, sisarti ; A. sisrate (3. pi.) ; IPV.

sisrtam; A. sisratam (3. pi.). PT. sisrat. PF. sasara;

sasrva(B.) ; sasriir ; A. sasr6 ; sasrathe ; PT. sasrvams ;

sasrana. AO. a : asaram, asaras, asarat ; asaran ; IPV.

sara ; s : SB. sarsat. FT. sarisyati. PS. AO. asari (B.) ;

PP. srta (B.). GD. srtva (B.) ; srtya (B.). INF. sartave,

sartavai. os. sarayati, -te. DS. sisirsati (B.). INT.

sarsr6 (3. s.) ; PT. sarsrana.
srj emit, VI.: PR. srjati, -te. PF. sasarja; A. sasrj6;

sasrjmahe, sasrjrir^ ; OP. sasrjyat ; PT. sasrjana. PPF.

asasrgram (3. pi.). AO. root : asrgran, asrgram ; PT.

srjana ; s : sras (2J s., AV.), asrak (3. s.), asrat (B.) ;

asrastam (2. du.) ; A. asrksi, asrsta ; asrksmahi, asrk-

sata ; SB. sraksat ; INJ. srastam ; A. srksatham (2. du.).

FT. sraksyati (B.). PS. srjyate ; AO. asarji ; PP. srsta.

LIST OF VERBS 429

GD. srstva ; -s£jya (B.). cs. sarjayati, -te (B.). DS.

sisrksati, -te(B.).
srp creep, I. P, : PR. sarpati. PF. sasarpa (B.). AO. a :

asrpat; INJ. srpat; s: A. asrpta (B.). FT. srapsyati

(B.) and sarpsyati (B.). PP. srpta(B.). GD. srptva (B.) ;

-stfpya. INF. srpas (B.). DS. sisrpsati. INT. sari-

srpyate (B.).

sev attend upon, I. A. : PR. s6ve, s^vate ; IPV. se>asva.
skand leap, I. P. : PR. skandati ; SB. skandat ; IPV. skanda ;

PT. skandant ; IFF. askandat. PF. caskanda. AO. root :

skan (3. s.); s: askan (B.) and askantsit (B.). FT.

skantsyati (B.). PP. skanna. GD. -skandya (B.) and

-skadya (B.). INF. -skade, -skadas." cs. skandayati.

INT. SB. caniskadat ; IPF. kaniskan (3. s.).
skabh or skambh prop, IX. : PR. skabhnati ; PT. skabh-

nant ; A. skabhana (B.). . PF. caskambha ; skambhatur ;

skambhur; PT. caskabhana. PP. skabhita. GD. skabh-

itvi. INF. -skabhe.
sku tear, II. P. : PR. skauti (B.). V. P. : PR. skundti.

PS. skuyate ; PP. skuta. INT. coskuyate.
stan thunder, II. P. : IPV. stanihi; INJ. stan (3. s.). I. P.:

IPV. stana. AO. is : astanit. cs. stanayati. INT. IPV

tamstamhi.
stabh or stambh prop, IX. : stabhnami ; IPV. stabhana ;

IPF. astabhnas, astabhnat. PF. tastambha ; tastabhur ;

PT. tastabhvams ; tastabhana. PPF. tastambhat. AO. s :

astampsit (B.) ; is : astambhit, stambhit. PP. stabhita ;

stabdha (B.). GD. stabdhva, -stabhya (B.).
stu praise, II. : PR. staumi (AV.) ; st6si, stauti (AV.) ;

stumasi, stuvanti ; A. stus6 ; SB. stavat ; stavama,

stavatha ; A. stavai ; INJ. staut ; OP. A. stuvita ; stuv-

imahi ; IPV. stuhi, stautu ; PT. stuvant ; stuvana,

stavana and stavana ; IPF. astaut. I. A. : stavate and

stave (3. s.) ; INJ. stavanta ; OP. staveta ; PT. stavamana.

PF. tustava ; tustuviir ; A. tustuv6 ; SB. tustavat ; PT.

tustuvams; tustuvana. PPF. atustavam. AO. s: astau-

430 APPENDIX I

sit (B.) ; A. astosi, astosta ; astodhvam, astosata ;

SB. stosani, stosat ; st6sama ; IN.T. stosam ; is : astavit

(B.). FT. stosyati, -te (B.) ; stavisyati, -te. co. astosyat.

PS. stuyate; AO. astavi; PP. stuta; GDV. stus^yya.

GD, stutva; -stutya (B.). INF. stavadhyai, sttftave ;

stotum (B.). cs. stavayati (B.).
stubh praise, I. P. : PR. stpbhati ; IPV. stobhata, stobh-

antu ; PT. stobhant. II. A. : PT. stubhana. PP. stubdha

(B.). cs. stobhayati.
str strew, IX. : PR. strnami ; strnithana, strnanti ; A.

strnitd ; INJ. strmmahi ; IPV. strmhi ; strnitam (2. du.) ;

strnita ; A. strnitam (3. s.) ; PT. strnant ; strnana ; IPF.

astrnat; astrnan. V.: PR._ strnosi ; strnut6. PF.

tastara (B.) ; tastariir (B.) ; A. tistir^ (3. s.) ; tastrird ;

PT. tistirana. AO. root : astar ; A. astrta (B.) ; SB.

starate ; staramahe ; INJ. star (2. s.) ; s : astrsi (B.) ;

OP. strsiya ; is: astaris. FT. starisyati, -te (B.). PS.

striyate (B.) ; AO. astari ; PP. strta ; stirna. GD.

stirtva (B.) ; -stirya (B.). INF. -stire, strnisani ; stari-

tave (AV.) ; startave (B.), startavai (B.) ; staritavai (B.),

-staritavai (B.). DS. tistirsate (B.) ; tusttirsate (B.).
stha stand, I. : PR. tisthati, -te. PF. tasthau ; tasthathur,

tasthatur; tasthima, tasthur; A. tasth6, tasthisd,

tasth6 ; tasthir6 ; PT. tasthivams ; tasthana. AO. root :

astham, asthas, asthat ; asthama, sthata, asthur ; A.

asthithas, asthita; asthirau; SB. sthas, sthati and sthat ;

sthatas ; INJ. stham, sthat ; sthiir ; OP. stheyama ; IPV.

sthatam (2. du.); sthata; PT. sthant; a: asthat (AV.) ;

s: asthisi (B.) ; asthisata (3. pi.) ; INJ. sthesam (VS.).

FT. sthasyati. PS. sthiyate (B.); PP. sthita. GD. -sthaya.

INF. sthatum (B.) ; sthatos (B.). cs. sthapayati, -te ;

AO. atisthipam, atisthipas, atisthipat ; INJ. tisthipat.

DS. tisthasati (B.).
sna lathe, II. P. : PR. snati ; IPV. snahi ; PT. snant. PP.

snata. GDV. snatva. GD. snatva ; -snaya. INF. snatum

(B.). cs. snapayati; -te (B.) ; snapayati (AV.).

LIST OF VERBS 431

spas see : PF. paspase ; PT. paspasana. AO. root : aspasta

(3. s.). PP. spasta. cs. spasayate.
spr win, V. : PR. sprnvatd ; SB. sprnavama ; IPV. sprnuhi.

PF. paspara (B.). AO. root : aspar (2. s.) ; SB. sparat ;

INJ. spar (2. s.) ; IPV. sprdhi ; s : asparsam. PP. sprta.

GD. sprtva. INF. sparase.
sprdh contend, I. A. : PR. spardhate ; PT. spardhamana.

PF. A. pasprdhate (3. du.) ; pasprdhrS ; PT. pasprdhana.

PPF. apasprdhetham (2. du.). AO. root : A. asprdh-

ran ; PT. sprdhana. GD. -sprdhya. INF. spardhifrum.
sprs touch, VI. : PR. sprsati, -te. PF. SB. pasparsat. AO.

red.: SB. pisprsati; INJ. pisprsas; s: aspraksam (B.) ;

sa: asprksat. PP. sprsta. GD. sprstva (B.); -sprsya

(B.). INF. -spfse; sprsas (B.). cs. sparsayati (B.), -te.
sprh le eager : cs. sprhayanti ; OP. sprhayet. IPF. asprh-

ayam. GDV. sprhayayya.
sphur jerk, VI. : PR. sphurati ; A. sphurate (B.) ; SB.

sphuran; INJ. sphurat; IPV. sphura; sphuratam (2.

du.) ; PT. sphurant. IPF. asphurat. AO. is : spharis

(V'sphr).

sphurj rumble, I. P. : PR. sphurjati. cs. sphurjayati.
smi smile, I. : PR. smayate ; INJ. smayanta ; PT. smaya-

mana. PF. sismiy6 ; PT. sismiyana.
smr remember, I. : PR. smarati, -te. PS. smaryate (B.) ;

pp. smrta.
syand move on, I. A. : PR. syandate. PF. sisyadiir ; A.

sisyad£. AO. red. : asisyadat ; asisyadauta ; s : asyan

(3. s.). FT. syantsyati (B.). PS. AO. syandi (B.); PP.

syanna. GD. syanttva (B.) ; syattva (B.), -syadya (B.).

INF. -syade ; syanttum (B.) ; cs. syandayati (B.) ; INF.

syandayddhyai. INT. PT. sanisyadat.
sras, srams/a^, I. A.: PR. sramsate (B.). PF. sasramsur

(B.). AO. root: asrat (VS.); a: OP. srasema; red.:

asisrasan ; is : asramsisata (B.). PP. srasta. GD.

-sramsya (B.). INF. -srasas. cs. sramsayati.
sridh blunder, I. P. : PR. sr^dhati ; IPV. sr^dhata ; PT.

432 APPENDIX I

sre'dhant. IFF. asredhan. AO. a : IN.T. sridhat ; PT.

sridhana.
sru flow, I. : PR. sravati. PF. susrava ; susruvur ; INJ.

susrot. PPF. asusrot. AO. is : asravis (B.). PP. sruta.

INF. sravitave ; sravitavai. cs. sravayati ; -te (B.).
svaj embrace, I. : PR. svajate ; SB. svajate, svajatai (AV.) ;

INJ. svajat; IPV. svajasva; svajadhvam. PF. sasvaj6;

sasvajate (3. du.); PT. sasvajana. PPF. asasvajat. PP.

svakta (B.). INF. -svaje.
svad, svad siveeten, I. : PR. svadati, -te ; A. svadate ; SB.

svadati ; IPV. svada ; svadantu ; A.svadasva. AO. red.:

INJ. sisvadat. PP. svatta. INF. -sude. cs. svadayati,

-te ; PP. svadita.
svan sound : AO. is : asvanit ; INJ. svanit. cs. svanayati ;

pp. svanita. INT. SB. sanisvanat.
svap sleep, II. P. : PR. IPV. svaptu ; PT. svapant. I. P. : PR.

svapati. PF. susupur ; INJ. susupthas (B.) ; PT. susup-

vams; susupana. AO. red. : sisvapas and sisvap (2. s.).

FT. svapsyati (B.) ; svapisyami. PP. supta. GD. suptva.

INF. svaptum (B.). cs? svapayati.
svar sound, I. P. : PR. svarati. PF. INJ. sasvar (3. s.). AO.

s: asvar (3. s.) ; asvarstam (3. du.) ; is: asvaris (B.).

INF. svaritos (B.). cs. svarayati.
svid s^veat, I. A.: PR. sv<§date. PF. PT. sisvidana. PP.

svinna. cs. svedayati (B.).
ban strike, II. : PR. hamni, hamsi, hanti ; hathas, hatas ;

hanmas, hatha, ghnanti ; SB. hanas, hanati and hanat ;

hanava ; hanama ; hanatha (AV.), hanan ; INJ. ban

(3. s.); OP. hanyat, hanyama; ipv.jahi, hantu ; hatam,

hatam; hata and nan tana, ghnantu; PT. ghnant. I.:

PR. jighnate ; -ti (B.). PF. jaghantha, jaghana ; jaghna-

thur ; jaghnima, jaghnur ; A. jaghn6 (B.) ; SB. jaghan-

at ; PT. jaghanvams ; jaghnivams (B.). AO. is : ahanit

(B.). FT. hanisyati ; -te (B.). PS. hanyate ; PP. hata ;

GDV. hantva. GD. hatva, hatvi ; hatvaya ; -hatya.

INF. hantave, hantavai ; hantum. cs. ghatayati (B.).

LIST OF VERBS 433

DS. jighamsati; AO. ajighamsis (B.). INT. janghanti ;
SB. janghanani, janghanas, janghanat; janghanava;
A. janghananta ; IPV. janghanihi ; PT. janghanat ;
ghanighnat.

bar be gratified, IV. : PR. haryati ; SB. haryasi and haryas ;
IPV. harya ; PT. haryant. IPP. aharyat ; A. aharyathas.

1. ha leave, III. P. : PR. jahami, jahasi, jahati ; jahati ;
SB. jahani ; jahama ; OP. jahyat ; jahyiir ; IPV. jahitat,
jahatu ; jahitam ; jahita ; PT. jahat. IPF. ajahat ;
ajahatana, ajahur. pr. jaha; jahatur; jahiir. AO.
root: ahat (B.) ; s: ahas (3. s.) ; A. ahasi, ahasthas ;
INJ. hasis ; sis : INJ. hasistam, hasistam ; hasista,
hasisur. FT. hasyati ; hasyate (B.). PS. hiyate ; AO.
ahayi ; PP. hma ; hana (B.) ; jahita. GD. hitva, hitvi,
hitvaya; -haya (B.). INF. hatum (B.). cs. Ao.jihipas.

2. ha go forth, III. A. : PR. jihite ; jihate ; jihate ; INJ.
jihita; IPV. jihisva, jihitam (3. s.) ; jihatham (2. du.) ;
jihatam (3. pi.) ; PT. jihana. IPF. A1 ajihita ; ajihata.
PF. jahir6. AO. red.: jijananta; s: A. ahasata (3. pi.);
INJ. hasthas. FT. hasyate (B.). PP. hand (B.). GD.
-haya. INF. hatum. cs. hapayati. DS. jihisate.

hi impel, V. : PR. hinomi, hinosi, hin6ti ; hinmas and
hinmasi, hinvanti; A. hinv^ (1. 3.); hinvate and
hinvir^ ; SB. hinava ; INJ. hinvan ; IPV. hinuhi, hinutat,
hinii ; hinotam ; hinuta, hi not a and hin6tana, hinv-
antu; PT. hinvant; hinvana; IPF. ahinvan. PF.
jighaya (B.) ; jighyur (B.). AO. root: ahema, ahetana,
any an ; IPV. heta ; PT. hiyana ; a : ahyam ; s : ahait
(3. s., AV.) ; ahaisit (B.) ; A. ahesata (3. pi.). PP. hita.
GDV. h^tva. INF. -hyd.

hims injure, VII. : hinasti; himsanti ; A. hinpste (AV.) ;
IPV. hinastu ; OP. himsyat (B.) ; PT. himsana ; IPF.
ahinat (3. s., B.). I. : PR. himsati, -te (B.). PF. jihims-
ima. PPF. jihimsis. AO. is : INJ. himsisam, himsis,
himsit ; himsistam (2. du.) ; himsista, himsisur. FT.
himsisyati, -te (B.). PS. himsyate ; PP. himsita ; GDV.

1819 F f

484 APPENDIX I

himsitavya. GD. himsitva. INF. himsitum (B.), hims-

itos (B.). DS. jihimsisati (B.).
hid le hostile, I. : PT. helant ; A. helamana ; hidamana

(*B.). PF. jihila (1. s.), jihida (AV.) ; A. jihil<§ ; jihilire" ;

PT. jihilana. AO. red.: ajlhidat ; is: A. hidisatam

(TA.). PP. hidita. cs. PT. helayant.
hu sacrifice, III. : PR. juhomi, juhoti ; juhumas, juhvati ;

A. juhv6, juhutS ; juhvate ; SB. juhavama ; OP. juhuyat ;

juhuyama; juhudhi (B.), juhotu; juhuta and juh6ta,

juhotana ; A. juhudhvam ; PT. juhvat ; juhvana ; IPF.

ajuhavur; A. ajuhvata. PF. juhv6; juhur6; juhvir6

(B.) ; per. juhavam cakara (B.). AO. s : ahausit (B.).

FT. hosyati. PS. huyate ; AO. ahavi ; PP. huta. GD.

hutva (B.). INF. h6tavai ; ho turn (B.), h6tos (B.).
hu call, I. A. : PR. havate ; INJ. havanta ; PT. havamana.

VI. : PR. huv6 (1. 3.) ; huvamahe ; INJ. huvat ; OP.

huv^ma ; A. huv6ya ; PT. huvant ; IPF. ahuve ; ahuv-

anta. III. : PR. juhumasi and juhumas. II. : PR.

hut6 ; humahe. PF. juhava ; A. juhv6 ; juhur6 ;

juhuvir6 (B.). AO. root : A. ahvi ; ahumahi ; INJ.

h6ma ; a : ahvam, ahvat ; ahvama ; A. ahve ; ahvanta ;

s : A. ahusata (3. pi.). PS. huyate ; PP. huta ; GDV.

hdvya. GD. -huya (B.). INF. havitave; huvadhyai.

DS. jiihusati (B.). INT. jdhavimi, jdhaviti; SB. A.

johuvanta; IPV. johavitu; IPF. ajohavit; ajohavur.

1. hr take, I. : PR. harati, -te ; SB. harani, harat ; harama,
haran ; OP. haret ; harema ; IPV. hara ; ha rata, harantu ;
PT. harant. IPF. aharat. PF. jahara, jahartha (B.) ;
jahriir ; A. jahr6 (B.). AO. root: ahrthas (B.) ; s:
dharsam, ahar (3. s.) ; A. ahrsata(3. pi.). FT. harisyati,
-te (B.); harta (B.) ; co. aharisyat (B.). PS. hriyate;
pp. hrtd. GD. hrtva (B.) ; -hrtya. INF. harase ; hartavai
(B.); hartos (B.) ; hartum (B.). cs. harayati, -te (B.).
DS. jihirsati.

2. hr l>e angry, IX. A. : PR. hrnis6, hrnit6 ; INJ. hrnithas ;
IPV. hrnltam (3. s.) ; PT. hrnana.

LIST OF VEEBS 435

hrs fee excited, I. : PR. harsate ; IPV. harsasva ; PT. harsant ;

harsamana. PP. PT. jahrsana. PP. hrsita. cs. harsa-

yati, -te. INT. SB. jarhrsanta ; PT. jarhrsana.
hnu hide, II. : PR. hnutas ; A. hnuve". PP. hnuta. GDV.

hnavayya.
hri fee ashamed. III. P. : PR. jihreti. AO. root : PT. -hrayana.

PP. hrita (B.).
hva call, IV. : PR. hvayati ; hvaye ; SB. hvayamahai ; OP.

hvayetam (3. du.) ; IPV. hvaya, hvayatu ; hvayantu ;

A. hvayasva ; hvayetham (2. du.) ; hvayantam ; PT.

hvayamana. IPF. ahvayat; ahvayanta. AO. ahvasit

(B.). FT. hvayisyati, -te (B.). INF. hvayitavai (B.) ;

hvayitum (B.).
hvr fee crooked, I. A. : PR. hvarate. IX. P. : PR. hrunati.

III. : SB. juhuras; A. juhuranta; INJ. juhurthas; PT.

juhurana. AO. red. : jihvaras ; INJ. jihvaras ; jihvara-

tam (2. du.) ; s: INJ. hvar (2. s.), hvarsit; is: hvarisur.

pp. hvrta, hrutd. cs. hvarayati.

Ff2

APPENDIX II

VEDIC METRE.

1. The main principle governing Vedic metre1 (the source
of all later Indian versification) 2 is measurement by number
of syllables.3 The metrical unit here is not the foot in the
sense of Greek prosody, but the foot (pada) or quarter^ in
the sense of the verse or line which is a constituent of the
stanza. Such verses consist of eight, eleven, twelve, or
(much less commonly) five syllables. The verse is further
more or less regulated by a quantitative rhythm (unaffected
by the musical accent) in which short and long syllables
alternate. Nearly all metres have a general iambic rhythm
inasmuch as they show a preference for the even syllables
(second, fourth, and so on) in a verse being long rather than
short. In every metre the rhythm of the latter part of the
verse (the last four or five syllables), called the cadence, is
more rigidly regulated than that of the earlier part. Verses
of eleven and twelve syllables are characterized not only by
their cadence, but by a caesura after the fourth or the fifth
syllable, while verses of five and eight syllables have no
such metrical pause.

1 Called chandas in the RJ. itself.

2 Except the two metres Arya and Vaitaliya which are measured
by morae.

3 This seems to have been the only metrical principle in the Indo-
Iranian period, because in the Avesta the chai-acter of a verse depends
solely on the number of syllables it contains, there being no quanti-
tative restriction in any part of it.

4 A figurative sense (derived from foot = quarter of a quadruped)
applicable because the typical stanza has four lines.

VEDIC METRE 437

Verses combine to form a stanza or re, the unit of the
hymn, which generally consists of not less than three or
more than fifteen such units. The stanzas of common
occurrence in the RV. range, by increments of four syllables,
from twenty syllables (4 x 5) to forty-eight (4x12) syllables
in length.1 A stanza may consist of a combination of
metrically identical or of metrically different verses ; and
either two or three stanzas may further be combined to form
a strophe.

a. The following general rules of prosody are to be noted. 1. The
end of a verse regularly coincides with the end of a word 2 because
each verse in a stanza is independent of the rest in structure. 2. Tho
quantity of the first and last syllables of a verse is indifferent.
3. A vowel becomes long by position if followed by two consonants.
One or both of these consonants may belong to the following word.
The palatal aspirate oh and the cerebral aspirate Ih (dh) count as
double consonants. 4. One vowel is shortened before another ; 3
e and o are also pronounced e and 6 before a. 5. The semivowels
y and v, both within a word and in Sandhi, have often to be pro-
nounced as i and u ; e. g. siama for syama ; suar for svar ; vi usah
for vy usah ; vid&thesu anj&n for vid&thesv anjan. 6. Contracted
vowels (especially I and u) must often be restored ; e. g. ca agn&ye
for cagnaye ; vi indrah for vindrah ; &vatu utaye for avatutaye ; a
indra for e"ndra. 7. Initial a when dropped after e and o must
nearly always be restored. 8. The long vowel of the gen. pi. ending
am, and of such words as dasa, sura, and e (as jyd-istha for jygstha)
or ai (as &-ichas for Sichas) must often be pronounced as equivalent
to two short syllables. 9. The spelling of a few words regularly
misrepresents their metrical value ; thus pavaka must always be pro-
nounced as pavaka, mrlaya as mflaya, and suvan& nearly always as
svana".

1 There are also several longer stanzas formed by Adding more
verses and consisting of 52, 56, 60, 64, 68, and 72 syllables ; but all
these are rare : only two stanzas of 68 and one of 72 are found in
the RV.

2 No infringement of this rule occurs in any metre of the RV. but
the comparatively rare Dvipada Viraj (4 x 5), in which three exceptions
are met with.

3 The vowels I, u, e when Pragrhya (25, 26), however, remain long
before vowels. When a final long vowel is the result of Sandhi, it
also remains long ; t&sma adat for tasmai adat.

438 APPENDIX II

I. Simple Stanzas.

2. The Vedic hymns consist chiefly of simple stanzas,
that is, of such as are formed of verses which are all
metrically identical. Different stanzas are formed by com-
bining three, four, five, or six identical verses. The
following is an account of the various types of verse and of
the different simple stanzas formed by them.

A. Verse of eight syllables. This is a dimeter verse
consisting of two equal members of four syllables each, the
opening and the cadence. In the opening the first and
third syllable are indifferent, while the second and fourth
are preferably long. When the second is short, the third
is almost invariably long. In the cadence the rhythm is
typically iambic, the first and third syllables being almost
always short, while the second is usually long (though it is
not infrequently short also). Thus the prevailing scheme of
the whole verse is ^ - ^ — j^-w^

a. Even after every admissible vowel restoration a good many verses
of this type exhibit the anomaly (which cannot be removed without
doing violence to the text) of having one syllable too few ; e. g. t£m
tua vayam pito. There are also here a veiy few instances of one or
even two syllables too many ; e. g. agnim lie | bhujSrn yavi | stham
and vaydm t&d as j ya sambhrtam | v&su.

3. a. The Gayatri l stanza consists of three 2 octosyllabic
verses ; 3 e. g.

1 Next to the Tristubh this is the commonest metre in the RV.,
nearly one-fourth of that Samhita being composed in it ; yet it has
entirely disappeared in Classical Sanskrit. The Avesta has a parallel
stanza of 3 x 8 syllables.

2 The first two Padas of the Gayatri are treated as a hemistich in
the Samhita text, probably in imitation of the hemistich of the
Anustubh and the Tristubh ; but there is no reason to believe that in
the original text the second verse was more sharply divided from the
third than from the first.

3 By far the commonest variation from the normal type is that in
which the second syllable of the cadence is short (w w \j Jsi). This
occurs about as often in the first verse of Gayatiis as in the second
and third combined.

SIMPLE STANZAS 439

agnim lie purdhitam — w w - w w |

yajnasya de vam rtvijam w— |^-w^|

hdtaram ra | tnadhatamam || | w — w w ||

a. A comparatively rare but sufficiently definite variety
of Gayatrl x differs from the normal type by having a decided
trochaic rhythm in the cadence,2 while the iambic rhythm
of the opening is more pronounced than usual ; e. g.

tuam no ag | ne mahobhih | w — w - - w — w |
pahi visva | sya arateh |- w | — ^ !

uta dvis6 | martiasya || ^ — w — j — ^ — w |

b. The Anustubh3 stanza consists of four octosyllabic
verses, divided into two hemistichs ; e. g.

a yas te sar | pirasute | - | w — ^ — |

agne sam as | ti dhayase j| ^ — | ^ — w — |j

aisu dyumnam uta sravah | w | w — w o |

a cittam mar | tiesu dhah. || — | w - ^ - ||

a. In the latest hymns of the RV. there begins a tendency to
differentiate the first from the second verse of an Anustubh hemistich
by making the end of the former trochaic, while the cadence of the
latter becomes more strictly iambic. Although in these hymns
the iambic cadence of the first verse is still the most frequent
(25 per cent.) of all varieties, it is already very nearly equalled by the
next commonest (23 per cent.), which is identical with the normal
and characteristic cadence of the first verse in the epic Anustubh 4
(sloka). The scheme of the whole hemistich according to this

innovation 5 then is : i=i — ±L— \ ^ i=i||isi — i^— |o — wJsi|| e.g.

kesi vis& | sya patrena || yad rudrena | pibat sah& |j

1 The only long series of such trochaic Gayatrls occurs in RV. viii.
2, 1-39.

2 The trochaic Gayatrl is commonest in Mandalas i and viii, which
taken together contain about two-thirds of the total number of
examples in the RV.

3 The frequency of this metre is about one-third that of Gayatrl in
the RV., but in the post-Vedic period it has become the predominant
metre. The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 4 x 8 syllables.

4 Where the iambic cadence in the first verse has entirely dis-
appeared.

6 This is the regular type of the Anustubh in the AV.

440 APPENDIX II

c. The Pankti stanza consists of five octosyllabic verses l
divided into two hemistichs of two and of three verses
respectively. In origin it seems to be an extension of the
Anustubh by the addition of a fifth verse. This is indicated
by the fact that in hymns consisting entirely of Panktis the
fifth verse of every stanza is (except in i. 81) regularly a
refrain (e. g. in i. 80). The following is an example of
a Pankti stanza : —

ittha hi soma in made j brahma cakara vardhanam ||
savistha vajrinn ojasa | prthivya nih sasa ahim | arcann
anu svarajiam ||

d. In about fifty stanzas of the KV. the number of
octosyllabic verses is increased to six and in about twenty
others to seven, generally by adding a refrain of two verses
to an Anustubh (e.g. viii. 47) or to a Pankti (e.g. x. 133,
1-3). The former is called Mahapankti (48), the latter
6akvari (56).

4. B. Verses of eleven syllables differ from those of
eight in consisting of three members (the opening, the break,
and the cadence). They also contrast with the latter in two
other respects : their cadence is trochaic 2 (— w — — ) and
they have a caesura, which follows either the fourth :>> or the
fifth syllable. The rhythm of the syllables preceding the
caesura is prevailingly iambic, being - - — - 4 or — - — - -.5
The rhythm of the break between the caesura and the
cadence is regularly w <u — or w w G | . Thus the scheme of

1 The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 5 x 8 syllables.

a The only irregularity here is that the first syllable of the cadence
may be short when it coincides with the end of a word.

8 This appears to have been the original position of the caesura
because the parallel verse of the Avesta has it there and never after
the fifth syllable.

4 Identical with the opening of the octosyllabic verse.

6 The fourth syllable here is sometimes short : the fifth is then
always long.

6 The first of these two syllables is sometimes, but rarely, long in
the old hymns of the RV.} still more rarely in the later hymns, and
hardly ever in B.

SIMPLE STANZAS 441

the whole normal verse of eleven syllables is :

(ft) ^ - ^ -, w w - - w - * or

(b) | ^ - ^ - ^, w ^ | - w - * |

a. Apart from corruptions or only seeming irregularities (removable
by restoration of vowels) several verses of this type have one syllable
too many or too few ; l e. g. ta no vidvamsa, manma vo | cetam
adya52 (12); tarn im giro, jana | yo na patnih 8 (10). Occasionally
two syllables are wanting after the caesura or the verse is too long by
a trochee added at the end ; e. g. ti u sd no, [. .] ma | ho yajatrah (9) ;
ayam s& hota, [w o] yo dvijanma (9) ; rathebhir yata, rsti | madbhir
asva i parnaih (18).

5. The Tristubh stanza, the commonest in the BV.,4
consists of four verses of eleven syllables r> divided into two
hemistichs. The following are hemistichs of each type :

(a) anagastv6, aditi | tve" turasah | imam yajnam, da-

dhatu | srosamanah ||
(6) asmakam santu, bhuva nasya gopah pibantu

somam, ava | se nd adya ||

a. A few Tristubh stanzas of only two verses (dvipada) occur
(e.g. vii. 17). Much commoner are those of three verses (viraj), the
first two of which (as in the Gayatrl stanza) are treated in the
Samhita text as a hemistich ; the whole of some hymns is composed
in this three-line metre (e. g. iii. 25). Fairly frequent are also
Tristubh stanzas of five verses6 divided into two hemistichs of two
and three verses respectively. They are always of isolated occurrence,
appearing generally at the end of (Tristubh) hymns, but never form-
ing an entire hymn.

1 This anomaly also appears in the metre of later Vedic texts and of
Pali poetry.

2 The extra syllable in such cases is perhaps due to the verse being
inadvertently continued after a fifth syllable caesura as if it were
a fourth syllable caesura.

3 The deficiency of a syllable in such cases may have been partly
due to the similarity of the decasyllabic Dvipada Viraj (8) with which
Tristubh verses not infrequently interchange.

4 About two-fifths of the RV. are composed in this metre.

6 The Avesta has a parallel stanza of 4x11 syllables with caesura
after the fourth syllable.

6 These are accounted Atijagatl (52) or Sakvarl stanzas by the
ancient metricians when the filth verse is a repetition of the fourth.
If it is not a repetition it is treated in the Samhita text as a separate
verso (as v. 41, 20 ; vi. 63, 11) and is called an ekapada by the
metricians.

442 APPENDIX II

6. C. The verse of twelve syllables is probably an
extension x of the Tristubh verse by one syllable which gives
the trochaic cadence of the latter an iambic character.2
The rhythm of the last five syllables is therefore — w - w ^.
The added syllable being the only point of difference, the
scheme of the whole verse is :

(a) ,

(&);*_*_!

or

a. Several examples occur of this type of verse (like the Tristubh)
having one, and occasionally two, syllables too many or too few ; e.g.
ma no martaya, ripave vajinivasu (13) ; rodasl a, vada | ta ganasri-
yah (11) ; sa drlhe" cit, abhf tr | natti vajam ar | vata (14) ; piba
somam, [w w] e | na satakrato (10).

7. The Jagati stanza, the third in order of frequency in
the RV., consists of four verses of twelve syllables divided
into two hemistichs. The following hemistich gives an
example of each of the two types of verse :

ananud.6, vrsabh6 d6dhato vadhah |
gambhira rsvo, asam | astakaviari ||

a. There is an eleven syllable variety of the Jagati verse which is
sufficiently definite in type to form entire stanzas in two hymns of
the RV. (x. 77, 78). It has a caesura after both the fifth and the

seventh syllable, its scheme being ^. — ±L — w , , u — w !sd [

The following hemistich is an example :

abhrapruso nd, vaca, prusa v&su |

havismanto na, yajni,, vijanusah ||

8. D. The verse of five syllables resembles the last rive
syllables of the Tristubh verse in rhythm, its commonest
form being w — o — ^, and the one next to it in frequency

1 It is probably not Indo-Iranian, because though a verse of
12 syllables occurs in the Avesta, it is there differently divided (7+5).

2 As the Gayatri verse is never normally found in combination
with the Tristubh, but often with the Jagati verse, it seems likely
that the iambic influence of the Gayatr! led to the creation of the
Jagati, with which it could form a homogeneous combination.

3 That is, its first syllable is less often long than short

THE JAGATI STANZA 443

The Dvipada Viraj stanza1 consists of four such verses
divided into two hemistichs ; 2 e. g.

pari pra dhanva | indraya soma ]
svadiir mitraya j pusn6 bhagaya ||

a. Owing to the identity of the cadence a Dvipada
hemistich :j not infrequently interchanges in the same stanza
with a Tristubh verse ; * e. g.

» priya vo nama huve 5 turanam |

a yat trpan, maruto | vavasanah ||

b. The mixture of Dvipada hemistichs with Tristubh
verses led to an entire hymn (iv. 10) being composed in a
peculiar metre consisting of three pentasyllabic verses6
followed by a Tristubh ; e. g.

agne tarn adya \ asvam na stomaih [ kratum na bhadram |
hrdisprsam, rdhia ma7 ta 6haih ||

II. Mixed Stanzas.

9. The only different verses normally used in combination
to form a stanza are the Gayatri and the Jagatl. The
principal metres thus formed are the following :

a. Stanzas of 28 syllables consisting of three verses, the
iirst two of which are treated as a hemistich :

1 This stanza is somewhat rare, occurring in the RV. not much more
than a hundred times.

2 The otherwise universal rule that the end of a verse must coincide
with the end of a word is three times ignored in this metre (at the
end of the first and third verses).

3 With this metre compare the defective Tristubh verse of ten
syllables (4 a).

4 This interchange occurs especially in RV. vii. 34 and 56.

5 Here the verb, though the first word of the verse (App. Ill, 19 6),
is unaccented. This is because the end of the first and the third
verse in this metre has a tendency to be treated like a caesura rather
than a division of the stanza. Cp. note 2.

6 These three verses are treated as a hemistich in the Samhita text.

7 The verb is accented because in the Samhita text it is treated as
the first word of a separate verse.

444 APPENDIX II

1. Usnih: 8 8 12 ; e.g.

agne vaja | sya gomatah |

isanah sa haso yaho ||

asme" dhehi, jatave | do mahi sravah |

2. Purausnih : 1288; e.g.

apsu antar, amrtam apsii bhesajam |
apam uta | prasastaye ||
de>a bhava | ta vajinah ||

3. Kakubh : 8 12 8 ; e. g.

adha hi in | dra girvanah |

upa tva kaman, mahah sasrjmahe ||

tid6va yan ta udabhih ||

b. Stanzas of 36 syllables consisting of four verses divided
into two hemistichs : Brhati 88128; e. g.

sacibhir nah | saclvasu

dcvii naktam | dasasyatam ||

ma vam ratir, upa da | sat kada cana

asmad ratih kada cana ||

c. Stanzas of 40 syllables consisting of four verses divided
into two hemistichs : Satobrhati 12 8 12 8 ; e. g.

janaso agnim, dadhi j re sahovrdham |
havismanto vidhema te ||
sa tvam no adya, suma ] na ihavita
bhava vaje | su santia ||

10. There are besides two much longer mixed stanzas of
seven verses,1 each of which is split up into three divisions
of three, two, and two verses respectively in the Samhita
text.

a. Stanzas of 60 syllables consisting of six Gayatri
verses and one Jagatl: Atisakvari 8 8 8, 8 8, 12 8 ; 2 e. g.

1 These are the composition of a very few individual poets.

2 Only about ten examples of this metre occur in the KV.

MIXED STANZAS 445

susuma ya | tam adribhih

gosrita mat | sara

somaso mat ! sara

a raj ana | divisprsa

asmatra gan tam lipa nah ||

ime vam mitra, -varu na gavasirah |

s6mah sukra gavasirah |

1). Stanzas of 68 syllables consisting of four GayatrT and
three Jagatl verses : Atyasti 1 12 12 8, 8 8, 12 8 ; e. g.

sa no ne"distham, dadrs ana a bhara |

agne dev^bhih, saca | nah sucetiina

maho rayah | sucetiina ||

mahi savi stha nas krdhi |

samcakse bhu | j6 asiai ||

mahi stotrbhyo, magha | van suviriam |

mathir ugr6 | na savasa ||

a. Besides the above mixed metres various other but isolated
combinations of Gayatri and Jagatl verses occur in the RV., chiefly in
single hymns. There are stanzas of this kind containing 20 syllables
(12 8) ; 2 32 syllables (12 8, 12) ;3 40 syllables (12 12, 8 8) ; 4 44 syllables
(12 12, 12 8) 5 ; 52 syllables (12 12, 12 8 8).G

0. 1. Tristubh verses are quite often interspersed in Jagatl stanzas,
but never in such a way as to form a fixed type of stanza or to make
it doubtful whether a hymn is a Jagatl one.7 This practice probably
arose from the interchange of entire Tristubh and Jagatl stanzas in
the same hymn bringing about a similar mixture within a single
stanza. 2. An occasional licence is the combination of a Tristubh
with a Gayatri verse in the same stanza. This combination appears
as a regular mixed stanza (11 8, 8 8) in one entire hymn (RV. x. 22).8
3. The combination of a Tristubh verse with a Dvipada Viraj hemistich
has already been noted (8 a).

1 This is the only comparatively common long metre (of more than
48 syllables) in the RV., where more than 80 Atyasti stanzas occur.

2 RV. viii. 29. 3 RV. ix. 110. ' * RV. x. 93.
•' RV. viii. 85. ° RV. v. 87.

7 But the intrusion of Jagatl verses in a Tristubh hymn is
exceptional in the RV., though very common in the AV. and later.

8 Except stanzas 7 and 15, which are pure Anustubh and Tristubh
respectively.

446 APPENDIX II

III. Strophic Stanzas.

11. Two or three stanzas are often found strophically
combined in the BV., forming couplets or triplets.

A. Three simple stanzas (called trca) in the same metre
are often thus connected. Gayatrl triplets are the com-
monest ; less usual are Usnih, Brhati, or Pahkti triplets ;
while Tristubh triplets are rare. A hymn consisting of
several triplets often concludes with an additional stanza in
a different metre.

a. It is a typical practice to conclude a hymn composed in one
metre with a stanza in another. A Tristubh stanza at the end of
a Jagat! hymn is the commonest ; a final Anustubh stanza in Gayatrl
hymns is much less usual ; but all the commoner metres are to some
extent thus employed except the Gayatrl, which is never used in
this way.

B. Two mixed stanzas in different metres are often com-
bined, the RV. containing about 250 such strophes. This
doubly mixed strophic metre, called Pragatha, is of two
main types :

1. The Kakubha Pragatha is much the less common
kind of strophe, occurring only slightly more than fifty
times in the EV. It is formed by the combination of a
Kakubh with a Satobrhatl stanza : 8 12, 8 + 12 8, 128; e. g.

a no asva | vad asvina |

vartir yasistam, madhu | patama nara ||

gdmad dasra | hiranyavat ||

supravargam, suviryam | susthii variam

anadhrstam j raksasvina ||

asminn a vam, ayane vajinivasu |

visva vama | ni dhimahi ||

2. The Barhata Pragatha is a common strophe, occurring
nearly two hundred times in the KV. It is formed by the
combination of a Brhati with a Satobrhatl stanza : 8 8, 12 8 +
12 8, 12 8 ; e. g.

STKOPHIC STANZAS 447

dyumni vam st6mo asvina

krivir na s6 | ka a gatam ||

madhvah. sutasya, sa di | vi priy6 nara |

patam gaurav | iv^rine ||

pibatam gharmam, madhu | mantam asvina

a barhih si datam nara ||

ta mandasana, mami | so durona a

ni patam v6 | dasa vayah ||

a. Of these two types there are many variations occurring in
individual hymns, chiefly by the addition of one (8), two (12 8),
three (12 8 8), or once (vii. 96, 1-3) even four verses (12 12 8 8).

APPENDIX III

THE VEDIC ACCENT.

1. The accent is marked in all the texts of the four Vedas
as well as in two Brahmanas, the Taittirlya (including its
Aranyaka) and the Satapatha (including the Brhadaranyaka
Upanisad).

The Vedic, like the ancient Greek, accent was a musical
one, depending mainly on pitch, as is indicated both by its
not affecting the rhythm of metre and by the name of the
chief tone, udatta raised. That such was its nature is,
moreover, shown by the account given of it by the ancient
native phoneticians. Three degrees of pitch are to be dis-
tinguished, the high, properly represented by the udatta,
the middle by the svarita (sounded), and the low by the
anudatta (not raised). But in the Kigveda the Udatta,
the rising accent, has secondarily acquired a middle pitch,
lower than the initial pitch of the Svarita. The Svarita is
a falling accent representing the descent from the Udatta
pitch to tonelessness. In the Rigveda it rises slightly
above Udatta pitch before descending : here therefore it has
something of the nature of a circumflex. It is in reality
always an enclitic accent following an Udatta, though it
assumes the appearance of an independent accent when the
preceding Udatta is lost by the euphonic change of a vowel
into the corresponding semivowel (as in kva = kiia). In
the latter case it is called the independent Svarita. The
Anudatta is the low tone of the syllables preceding an
Udatta.

2. There are four different methods of marking the accent
in Vedic texts. The system of the Kigveda, which is

METHODS OF MARKING ACCENTS 449

followed by the Atharvaveda, the Vajasaneyi Samhita, the
Taittirlya Samhita and Brahmana, is peculiar in not marking
the principal accent at all. This seems to be due to the fact
that in the RV. the pitch of the Udatta is intermediate
between the other two tones. Hence the preceding Anudatta,
as having a low pitch, is indicated below the syllable bearing
it by a horizontal stroke, while the following Svarita, which
at first rises to a slightly higher pitch and then falls, is
indicated above the syllable bearing it by a vertical stroke ;
e. g. agnina = agnina ; viryam = viryam (for viriam).
Successive Udattas at the beginning of a hemistich are
indicated by the absence of all marks till the enclitic Svarita
which follows the last of them or till the Anudatta which
(ousting the enclitic Svarita) follows the last of them as
a preparation for another Udatta (or for an independent
Svarita) ; e. g. tav a yatam = tav a yatam ; tavet tat
satyam 1 = ta v6t tat satydm. On the other hand, all
successive unaccented syllables at the beginning of a
hemistich are marked with the Anudatta ; e. g. vaisvanaram
=vaisvanaram. But all the unaccented syllables following
a Svarita remain unmarked till that which immediately
precedes an Udatta (or independent Svarita) ; e. g. imam
me gange yamune sarasvati sutudri = imam me gange
yamune sarasvati sutudri.

a. Since a hemistich of two or more Padas is treated as
a unit that consists of an unbroken chain of accented and
unaccented syllables, and ignores the division into Padas,
the marking of the preceding Anudatta and the following
Svarita is not limited to the word in which the Udatta
occurs, but extends to the contiguous words not only of the
same, but of the succeeding Pada ; e. g. agnina rayim
asnavat posam eva dive-dive = agnina rayim asnavat j

1 Here the enclitic Svarita, which would rest on the syllable sa if
the following syllable were unaccented, is ousted by the Anudatta,
which is required to indicate that the following syllable tyam has the
Udatta.

1819 G g

450 APPENDIX III

p6sam eva dive~-dive ; sa nah piteva sunave $gne supa-
yano bhava = sa nah piteVa sunave" 'gne supayano
bhava.1

?>. When an independent Svarita 2 immediately precedes an
Udatta, it is accompanied by the sign of the numeral 1 if
the vowel is short and by 3 if it is long, the figure being
marked with both the Svarita and the Anudatta ; e.g.
apsviantah = apsii antah ; rayo $ vanih = ray6 'vanih
(cp. 17, 3).'

3. Both the Maitrayanl and the Kathaka Samhitas agree
in marking the Udatta with a vertical stroke above (like the
Svarita in the RV.), thereby seeming to indicate that here
the Udatta rose to the highest pitch ; e. g. agnina. But
they differ in their method of marking the Svarita. The
Maitrayanl indicates the independent Svarita by a curve
below ; e. g. viryam = viryam ; but the dependent Svarita
by a horizontal stroke crossing the middle of the syllable or
by three vertical strokes above it ; while the Kathaka
marks the independent Svarita by a curve below only if an
unaccented syllable follows, but by a hook below if the
following syllable is accented ; e. g. viryam = viryam
badhnati ; viryam = viryam vyacaste ; the dependent
Svarita has a dot below the accented syllable.3 The Anudatta
is marked in both these Samhitas writh a horizontal stroke
below (as in the RV.).4

4. In the Samaveda the figures 1, 2, 3 are written above
the accented syllable to mark the Udatta, the Svarita, and

1 In the'Pada text on the other hand, each word has its own accent
only, unaffected by contiguous words, The two above hemistichs
there read as follows : agnina rayim asnavat posam eva dive^ dive ;
sah nah pita $iva sunave agne su^upayanah bhava.

2* As in kva = kua, viryam = viriam.

8 In L. v. Schroednr's editions of these two Samhitas the Udatta
and the independent Svarita only are marked.

4 When the text of any of the Samhitas is transliterated in Roman
characters, the Anudatta and the enclitic Svarita are omitted as
unnecessary because the Udatta itself is marked with the sign of the
acute ; thus agnina becomes agnina.

VEDIC ACCENT 451

the Anudatta respectively as representing three degrees of

a i 2

pitch ; e. g. barhisi = barhisi (barhisi). The figure 2 is,
however, also used to indicate the Udatta when there is no

3'2 _,

following Svarita ; e. g. gira = gira (gira). When there
are two successive Udattas, the second is not marked,
but the following Svarita has 2r written above; e.g.

31 2r

dviso martyasya (dvis6 martyasya). The independent
Svarita is also marked with 2r, the preceding Anudatta

3k 2r

being indicated by 3k ; e. g. tanva = tanva.

5. The Satapatha Brahrnana marks the Udatta only.
It does so by means of a horizontal stroke below (like the
Anudatta of the KV.) ; e. g. purusah. = purusah. Of two
or more successive Udattas only the last is marked ; e. g.
agnir hi vai dhur atha = agnir hi vai dhur atha. An
independent Svarita is thrown back on the preceding
syllable in the form of an Udatta ; e. g. manusyesu =
manusyesu for manusyesu. The Svarita produced by
change to a semivowel, by contraction, or the elision of
initial a is similarly treated ; e. g. evaitad = eVaitad for
evaitad (= eva etad).

6. Accent of single words. Every Vedic word is, as
a rule, accented and has one main accent only. In the
original text of the RV. the only main accent was the Udatta
which, as Comparative Philology shows, generally rests on
the same syllable as it did in the Indo-European period ;
e. g. ta-ta-s stretched, Gk. ra-ro-y ; janu n. Jcnee, Gk. yovv ;
a-drs-at, Gk. e'-tSpa/c-e ; bhara-ta, Gk. ^epe-re.1 But in the
written text of the RV. the Svarita appears to be the main
accent in some words. It then always follows a y or v
which represents original i or u with Udatta ; e. g. rathyam

1 But (pfpopfvo-s (bharamanas) by the secondaiy Greek law of
accentuation which prevents the acute from going back farther than
the third syllable from the end of a word.

Qg2

452 APPENDIX III

= rathiam1; svar 2 = siiar n. light ; tanvam = tanuam.3
Here the original vowel with its Udatta must be restored in
pronunciation except in a very few late passages.

7. Double Accent. One form of dative infinitive and
two types of syntactical compounds have a double accent.
The infinitive in tavai, of which numerous examples occur
both in the Samhitas and the Brahmanas, accents both the
first and the last syllable ; e. g. 6-tavai to go j apa-bhar-
tavai to take away. Compounds both members of which
are duals in form (186 A 1), or in which the first member
has a genitive ending (187 A 6 a), accent bothmembers ; e. g.
mitra-varuna Mitra and Varuna ; brhas-pati lord of prayer.
In B. a double accent also appears in the particle vava.

8. Lack of Accent. Some words never have an accent ;
others lose it under certain conditions.

A. Always enclitic are :

a. all cases of the pronouns ena he, she, it, tva another,
sama some-, and the following forms of the personal pro-,
nouns of the first and second persons : ma, tva ; me, te ;
nan, vam ; nas, vas (109 a), and of the demonstrative
stems i and sa : im (111 n. 3) and sim (180).

&. The particles ca and, u also, va or, iva like, gha, ha
just, cid at all, bhala indeed, samaha somelwiv, sma just,
indeed, svid probably.

B. Liable to loss of accent according to syntactical
position are :

a. vocatives, unless beginning the sentence or Pada.

&. finite verbs in principal clauses, unless beginning the
sentence or Pada.

c. oblique cases of the pronoun a, if unemphatic (replacing
a preceding substantive) and not beginning the sentence or
Pada; e.g. asya janimani his (Agni's) Urths (but asya
usasah of that dawn).

1 Ace. of rathi charioteer.

2 In the TS. always written suvar.
8 Aec. of tanu body.

ACCENT OF NOMINAL STEMS 453

d. yatha as almost invariably when, in the sense of iva
like, it occurs at the end of a Pada ; e. g. tayavo yatha like
thieves ; kam indeed always when following mi, su, hi.

1. Accentuation of Nominal Stems.

9. The most important points to he noted here are the
following : —

A. Primary Suffixes :

a. Stems in-as accent the root if neut. action nouns, but
the suffix if masc. agent nouns ; e. g. ap-as n. ivork, but
ap-as active. The same substantive here, without change
of meaning, sometimes varies the accent with the gender ;
e. g. raks-as n., raks-as m. demon.

b. Stems formed with the superlative suffix istha accent
the root ; e. g. yajistha sacrificing best. The only exceptions
are jyestha eldest (but jyestha greatest) and kanistha youngest
(but kanistha smallest).1 When the stem is compounded
with a preposition, the latter is accented ; e. g. a-gamistha
coming best.

c. Stems formed with the comparative suffix lyams
invariably accent the root ; e. g. jav-iyams swifter. When
the stem is compounded with a preposition, the latter is
accented ; e. g. prati-cyaviyams pressing closer against.

d. Stems formed with tar generally accent the root when
the meaning is participial, but the suffix when it is purely
nominal ; e. g. da- tar giving (with ace.), but da-tar giver.

e. Stems in man when (neut.) action nouns, accent the
root, but when (masc.) agent nouns the suffix ; e. g. kar-man
n. action, but dar-man, m. breaker. The same substantive
here varies, in several instances, in accent with the meaning
and gender (cp. above, 9 A a) ; e. g. brahman n. prayer,
brahman m. one ivlio prays ; sad-man, n. seat, sad-man, m.
sitter. When these stems are compounded with prepositions,

1 These two exceptions arise simply from the desire to distinguish
the two meanings of each of them. See below (16, footnote 2).

454 APPENDIX III

the latter are nearly always accented ; e. g. pra-bharman,
n. presentation.

B. Secondary Suffixes:

a. Stems in -in always accent the suffix : e. g. asv-in
possessing horses.

&. Stems in tama, if superlatives, hardly ever accent the
suffix (except puru-tama very many, ut-tama highest, 6a6vat-
tama most frequent), but if ordinals, the final syllable of the
suffix ; e. g. £ata-tama hundredth.

c. Stems in ma, whether superlatives or ordinals, regularly
accent the suffix; e.g. adha-ma lowest; asta-ma eighth:
except anta-ma next (but twice anta-ma).

2. Accentuation of Compounds.

10. Stated generally, the rule is that iteratives, possessives,
and governing compounds accent the first member, while
determinatives (Karmadharayas and Tatpurusas), and regu-
larly formed co-ordinatives accent the last member (usually
on its final syllable). Simple words on becoming members
of compounds generally retain their original accent. Some,
however, always change it : thus visva regularly becomes
vi6va ; others do so in certain combinations only : thus
purva prior becomes purva in purva-citti f. first thought,
purva-piti f. first draught, purva-huti first invocation ;
me"dha sacrifice shifts its accent in medha-pati lord of
sacrifice and medha-sati f. reception of the sacrifice, and
vira hero in puru-vira possessed of many men and su-vira
heroic. An adjective compound may shift its accent from
one member to another on becoming a substantive or a
proper name ; e. g. sii-krta ivell done, but su-krta, n. good
deed ; a-raya niggardly, but a-raya m. name of a demon.

a. Iteratives accent the first member only, the two words
being separated by Avagraha in the Pada text, like the
members of other compounds ; e.g. ahar-ahar day after day ;
yad-yad whatever ; yatha-yatha as in each case ; adya-adya,
svah-svah on each to-day, on each to-morrow ; pra-pra forth
and again ; piba-piba drink again and again.

ACCENTUATION OF COMPOUNDS 455

6. In governing compounds the first member, when it is
a verbal noun (except siksa-nara helping men) is invariably
accented ; e. g. trasa-dasyu. terrifying foes, name of a man ;
present or aorist participles place the accent, wherever it
may have been originally, on their final syllable ; e. g.
tarad-dvesas overcoming (tarat)/bes. When the first member
is a preposition, either that word is accented, or the final
syllable of the compound it it ends in a ; e. g. abhi-dyu
directed to heaven, but adhas-pad-a under the feet ; anu-kama
according to wish (kama).

c. Bahuvrlhis normally accent their first member ; e. g.
raja-putra having kings as sons (but raja-putra son of a king) ;
visvato-nmkha facing in all directions ; saha-vatsa accom-
panied ~by her calf.

a. But about one-eighth of all BahuvrJhis accent the second member
(chiefly on the final syllable). This is commonly the case when the
first member is a dissyllabic adjective ending in i or u, invariably in
the RV. when it is puru or bahu much ; e. g. tuvi-dyumnd, having great
glory ; vibhu-kratu having great strength ; puru^putr& having many sons ;
bahv-anna having much food.1 This also is the regular accentuation
when the first member is dvi two, tri three, dus ill, su well, or the
privative particle a or an ; 2 e. g. dvi-p&d two-footed, tri-nabhi having
three naves, dur-m&iiman ill-disposed, su-bh&ga ivell- endowed, a-dant
toothless, a-phala lacking fruit (phala).

d. Determinatives accent the final member (chiefly on the
final syllable).

1. Ordinary Karmadharayas accent the final syllable ;
e. g. prathama-ja first-born, pratar-yuj early yoked, maha-
dhana great spoil. But when the second member ends in
i, man, van, or is a gerundive (used as a n. substantive),
the penultimate syllable is accented ; e.g. dur-grbhi hard to
hold ; su-tarrnan crossing well ; raghu-patvan swift-flying ;
purva-p6ya, n. precedence in drinking.

1 The later Samhitas tend to follow the general rule j e.g. purti-
naman (J5V.) many-named.

2 Bahuvrlhis formed with a or an are almost invariably accented
on the final syllable as a distinction from Karmadharayas (which
normally accent the first syllable, as d-manusa inhuman} ; e. g. a-matrd
measureless.

456 APPENDIX III

a. The first member is, however, accented under the following
conditions. It is generally accented when it is an adverbial word
qualifying a past participle in ta or na or a verbal noun in ti ; e. g.
dur-hita faring ill ; sadhd-stuti joint praise. It is almost invariably
accented when it is the privitive particle a or an1 compounded with
a participle, adjective, or substantive ; e. g. an-adant not eating,
6,-vidvams not knowing, 6-krta not done, d-tandra unwearied, a-kumara
not a child. The privative particle is also regularly accented, when it
negatives a compound ; e. g. fin-asva-da not giving a horse, &n-agni-
dagdha not burnt icith fire.

2. Ordinary Tatpurusas accent the final syllable ; e. g.
gotra-bhid opening the cow-pens, agnim-indha fire-kindling,
bhadra-vadin uttering auspicious cries ; uda-megha shower
of water. But when the second member is an agent noun
in ana, an action noun in ya, or an adjective in i, or van,
the radical syllable of that member is accented ; e. g. deva-
madana exhilarating the gods ; ahi-hatya n. slaughter of the
dragon ; pathi-raksi protecting the road ; soma-pavan Soma-
drinking.

a. The first member is, however, accented when it is dependent on
past passive participles in ta and na or on action nouns in ti ; e. g.
dev&-hita ordained by the gods, dh&na-sati acquisition of wealth. It is
usually also accented, if dependent on p&ti lord ; e. g. grhd-pati lord of
the house. Some of these compounds with pati accent the second
member with its original accent ; some others in the later Samhitas,
conforming to the general rule, accent it on the final syllable ;
thus apsara-pati (AV.) lord of the Apsarases, ahar-pati (MS.) lord of day,
nadi-pati (VS.) lord of rivers.

/3. A certain number of Tatpurusas of syntactical origin, having
a genitive case-ending in the first member nearly always followed by
pati, are doubly accented ; e. g. bfhas-pati lord of prayer. Other arc
apam-n&pat son ofivaters, nara-s&msa (for ndram-sdmsa) praise of men,
6unah-se"pa Dog's tail, name of a man. The analogy of these is
followed by some Tatpurusas without case-ending in the first member :
saci-pati lord of might ; t&nu-napat son of himself (tanu) ; nf-samsa
praise of men.

1 Sometimes, however, the first syllable of the second member is
accented ; e. g. a-jara unaging ; a-mitra m. enemy (non-friend : mitra) ;
a-mfta immortal (from mrt&).

ACCENTUATION OF COMPOUNDS 457

e. Regularly formed Dvandvas (186 A 2. 3) accent the
final syllable of the stem irrespective of the original accent
of the last member ; e. g. ajavayah m. pi. goats and sheep ;
aho-ratrani days and nights ; ista-purtam n. what is sacrificed
and presented.

a. The very rare adverbial Dvandvas accent the first member:
&har-divi l day by day, saydm-pratar ecening and morning.

/?. Co-ordinatives consisting of the names of two deities, each dual in
form (Devata-dvandvas), accent both members ; e. g. indra-varuna
Indra and Varwia ; surya-masa Sun and Moon. A few others, formed
of words that are not the names of deities, are similarly accented ;
e. g. turvasa-yadu Turvasa and Yadu ; matara-pit&ra mother andfather.z

3. Accent in Declension.

11. a. The vocative, when accented at all (18), invariably
has the acute on the first syllable ; e. g. pitar (N. pita),
de>a (N. deva-s). The regular vocative of dyii (dyav) is
dyaus, i. e. diaus (which irregularly retains the s of the
nom. : cp. Gk. Zed), but the accent of the N., dyaus,
usually appears instead.

b. In the a and a declensions the accent remains on the
same syllable throughout (except the vocative) ; e. g. deva-s,
deva-sya, deva-nam. This rule includes monosyllabic
stems, pronouns, the numeral dva, and radical a stems ;
e. g. from ma : maya, ma-hyam, may-i ; from ta : ta-sya,
t6-sam, ta-bhis ; from dva : dva-bhyam, dvayos ; from
ja m. f. offspring : ja-bhyam, ja-bhis, ja-bhyas, ja-su.

a. The cardinal stems in a, panca, naVa, dasa (and its compounds)
shift the accent to the vowel before the endings bhis, bhyas, su, and
to the gen. ending nam ; asta shifts it to all the endings and saptd to
the gen. ending; e. g. pafica-bhis, panca-nam ; saptd-bhis, sapta-nam;
asta-bbis, asta-bhyds, asta-nam.

1 This is perhaps rather an irregular iterative in which the first
member is repeated by a synonym.

a Occasionally these compounds become assimilated to the normal
type by losing the accent and even the inflexion of the first member ;
e. g. indragni Indra and Agni, indra-vayu Indra and Vayu.

458 APPENDIX III

)8. The pronoun a this, though sometimes conforming to this rule
(e. g. a-smai, d-sya, a-bhis), is usually treated like monosyllables not
ending in a ; e. g. a-sya, e-sam, a-sam.

c. When the final syllable of the stem is accented, the
acute is liable to shift (except in the a declension) to the
ending^ in the weak cases.

1. In monosyllabic stems (except those ending in a) this
is the rule;1 e.g. dhi f. thought: dhly-a, dhi-bhis, dhi-
nam ; bhu f. earth : bhuv-as, bhuv-6s ; nau f. ship : nav-a,
nau-bhis, nau-su (Gk. vav-<ri) ; dant, in. tooth : dat-a,
dad-bhis.1

There are about a dozen exceptions to this rule : go COM;, dy6 sky ;
nf man, str star ; ksdm earth ; t&n succession, r&n joy, van ivood ; vi m.
bird ; vfp rod ; svar light ; e. g. gaV-a, gaV-am, g6-bhis ; dyav-i,
dyti.-bb.is ; n&r-e, nf -bhis, nr-su (but nar-am and nr-nam) ; stf-bhis ;
ksam-i ; t&n-a (also tan-a) ; rfi,n-e, r&m-su ; vam-su (but van-am) ;
vi-bhis, vf-bhyas (but vl-nam) ; G. vip-as ; sur-as (but sur-6) ; also the
dative infinitives badh-e to press and vah-e to convey. TJie irregular
accentuation of a few other monosyllabic stems is due to their being
reduced forms of dissyllables ; these are dru wood (daru), snii summit
(sanu). svan dog (Gk. KVOJV}, yu.n (weak stem of yuvan young} • e. g.
dru-na ; snu-su ; ^lina, sv6,-bhis ; yun-a.

2. When the final accented syllable loses its vowel either
by syncope or change to a semivowel, the acute is thrown
forward on a vowel ending ; e. g. from mahiman greatness :
mahimna ; agni /ire : agny-6s ; dhenii cow : dhenv-a ;
vadhu bride : vadhv-ai (AV.) ; pitf father: pitr-a.

a. Polysyllabic stems in f, u, f and, in the KV.. usually those in f,
throw the acute on the ending of the gen. pi. also, even though the
final vowel of the stem here retains its syllabic character; e.g.
^ dhenu-nam, datf-nam, bahvi-nam (cp. 11 6 a).

3. Present participles in at and ant throw the acute
forward on vowel endings in the weak cases ; e. g. tud-ant
striking : tudat-a (but tudad-bhis). This rule is also

1 At the end of a compound a monosyllabic stem loses this accentua-
tion ; e. g. su-dhf wise, sudbi-nam.

ACCENT IN DECLENSION 459

followed by the old participles mahant great and brhant
lofty ; e. g. mahat-a (but mahad-bhis).

4. In the KV. derivatives formed with accented -anc
throw the acute forward on vowel endings in the weak cases
when the final syllable contracts to ic or uc ; e.g. praty-anc
turned towards: pratic-a(but pratyak-su) : anv-anc following :
anuc-as ; but pro&o forward: prac-i.1

4. Verbal Accent.

12. a. The augment invariably bears the acute, if the
verb is accented at all (19) ; e. g. impf. a-bhavat ; aor.
a-bhut ; plup. a-jagan ; cond. a-bharisyat. The accentua-
tion of the forms in which the augment is dropped (used
also as injunctives) is as follows. The imperfect accents the
same syllable as the present ; e. g. bharat : bharati ; bhinat :
bhinatti. The pluperfect accents the root ; e. g. cakan
(3. s.) : namamas, tastambhat ; tatananta ; but in the
3. pi. also occur cakrpanta, dadhrsanta.

The aorist is variously treated. The s and the is forms
accent the root ; e. g. vam-s-i (van ivin) ; sams-is-am. The
root aorist (including the passive form) accents the radical
vowel in the sing, active, but the endings elsewhere ; e. g.
3. s. vark (\/vrj); pass. v6d-i ; 2. s. mid. nut-thas. The
aorists formed with -a2 or -sa accent those syllables; e.g.
ruham, vidat ; budhanta ; dhuk-sa-nta. The reduplicated
aorist accents either the reduplicated syllable ; e. g. ninasas,
piparat, jijanan ; or the root, as piparat, sisnathat.

b. Present System. The accent in the a conjugation
(as in the a declension) remains on the same syllable
throughout: on the radical syllable in verbs of the first and
fourth classes, on the affix in the sixth (125) ; e. g. bhavati ;
nahyati ; tudati.

1 In the other Samhitas, however, the accent is generally retained
on the stem ; thus the AV. forms the f. stem pratic-i (RV. pratic-f).

2 Iii the a aorist several forms are found accenting the root ; e. g.
aranta, sadatam, sdnat.

460 APPENDIX III

The graded conjugation accents the stem in the strong
forms (126), but the endings in the weak forms. In the
strong forms the radical syllable is accented in the second l
and the reduplicative syllable in the third class ; 2 and the
stem affix in the fifth, eighth, seventh, and ninth classes ;
e. g. as-ti, as-a-t, as-tu ; bibhar-ti ; kr-no-ti, kr-nav-a-t ;
man-av-a-te ; yu-na-j-mi, yu-naj-a-t; grh-na-ti, grbh-
na-s (2. s. sub.); but ad-dhi, ad-yur; bi-bhr-masi ; 3
kr-nv-6, kr-nu-hi ; van-u-yama, van-v-antu ; 4 yunk-t6,
yunk-sva; gr-ni-masi, gr-ni-hi.

c. Perfect. The strong forms (the sing. 1. 2. 3. ind. and
8. impv. act. and the whole subjunctive) accent the radical
syllable, the weak forms (cp. 140) the endings ; e. g. cakara ;
jabhar-a-t, vavart-a-ti; mum6k-tu ; but cakr-ur, cakr-
mahe ; vavrt-yam ; mu-mug-dhi. The participle accents
the suffix ; e. g. cakr-vams, cakr-ana.

d. Aorist. The injunctive is identical in accentuation
(as well as form) with the unaugmented indicative (see
above, 12).

a. The root aor. accents the radical syllable in the subjunctive ;
e. g. k£r-a-t, srav-a-tas, gam-a-nti, bhaj-a-te ; but the endings in
the opt. and impv. (except the 3. s\ act.),5 and the suffix in the
participle ;6 e.g. as-yam, as-I-m&hi ; kr-dhi, ga-tani, bhu-td (but 3. s.
srd-tu), kr-svd ; bhid-dnt,

1 Eleven verbs of this class accent the root throughout : as sit,
id praise, ir set in motion, is rule, caks see, taks fashion, tra protect, nims
kiss, vas ivear, si lie, su bring forth ; e. g. saye, &c.

Occasionally the 2. s. impv. mid. accents the root in other verbs
also ; e. g. ySk-sva (\/yaj).

2 Four verbs, ci note, mad exhilarate, yu separate, hu sacrifice, accent
the radical syllable ; e. g. juho-ti. A few other verbs do so in isolated
forms ; e. g. bibh&r-ti (usually bibhar-ti).

3 In the third class the reduplicative syllable is accented in the
weak forms also if the ending begins with a vowel; e.g. bi-bhr-ati.

* In the second, fifth, seventh, eighth, and ninth classes the final syl-
lable of the 3. pi. mid. is irregularly accented in rihatS (beside rih&te) ;
krnv-ate, vrnv-ate", sprnv-ate", tanv-ate", manv-ate" ; bhunj-ate" (beside
bimnj-dte) ; "pun-at6, rin-ate".

6 The radical syllable (in its strong form) is also in several instances
accented in the 2. pi. act. ; e.g. kar-ta beside kr-td; gan-ta, g&n-tana
beside ga-td, &c.

6 In the mid. part, the root is, in several instances, accented ; e. g.
dyiit-ana. '

ACCENT IN CONJUGATION 461

/3. The s and is aor. accent the root in the subjunctive but the
endings in the opt. and impv. ; e. g. yak-s-a-t (\/yaj), b6dh-is-a-t ;
but bhak-s-Iyd (-v/bhaj), dhuk-s-I-mahi (Vduh), edh-is-i-yd (AV.) ;
avid-dhi, avis- tarn.1 The s aor. accents the root in the act. part.,
but nearly always the suffix in the irregularly formed middle ; 2 e. g.
d&k-s-ant (\/dah), arca-s-an&.

7. The a aorist accents the thematic vowel throughout the moods
(as in the unaugmented indicative) and the part. ; e. g. vidat ;
vid6yam ; ruhd-tam ; trp&nt, guh&-mana.3

8. The sa aor. accents the suffix in the impv. : dhak-sd-sva (>\/dah.).
The same accentuation would no doubt appear in the subjunctive and
optative, but no examples of those moods (nor of the part.) occur.

e. In the reduplicated aor. the treatment of the subj. and opt. is
uncertain because no normally formed accented example occurs ; but
in the impv. the ending is accented ; e. g. jigr-t&m, didhr-tfi,.4

e. Future. The accent in all forms of this tense remains
on the suffix sya or i-sya ; e. g. e-syami ; kar-i-syati ;
karisyant.

/. Secondary conjugations. As all these (except the
primary intensive) belong to the a conjugation, they accent
the same syllable throughout. The causative (168) accents
the penultimate syllable of the stem, as krodh-aya-ti enrages ;
the passive, the secondary intensive (172), and the denomina-
tive (175), accent the suffix ya ; e. g. pan-ya-te is admired ;
rerih-ya-te licks repeatedly ; gopa-ya-nti they protect:' The
desiderative (169) accents the reduplicative syllable ; e. g.
pi-pri-sa-ti desires to please. The primary intensive agrees
with the third conjugational class in accenting the reduplica-
tive syllable in the strong forms, but the endings with
initial consonant in the weak forms of the indie, act. ; e. g.
j6-havi-ti, jar-bhr-tas, but 3. pi. varvrt-ati ; in the mid.
ind. the reduplicative syllable is more frequently accented

1 No accented impv. forms occur in the s. aor. In the sis aor. the
only accented modal form occurring is the impv. : ya-sis-tam.

2 Neither the is nor the sis aor. forms participles.

8 But the root 'is accented, in several imperatives and participles,
e. g. sana, sadatam, khyata ; sadant, d&samana.

4 No participial form occurs in this aor.

8 A certain number of unmistakable denominatives, however, have
the causative accent ; e. g. mantra- yati takes counsel (mantra).

462 APPENDIX III

than not ; e. g. t^-tik-te, less often ne-nik-te\ In the subj.
and part, the reduplicative syllable is regularly accented ;
e. g. jan-ghan-a-t, jan-ghan-a-nta ; ce"kit-at, c6kit-ana.
The accentuation of the imperative l was probably the same
as that of the present reduplicating class (12 &) ; but the
only accented forms occurring are in the 2. s. act., as
jagr-hi, carkr-tat.

5. Accent of Nominal Verb Forms.

13. a. Tense Participles when compounded with one or
more prepositions retain their original accent (while the
prepositions lose theirs) ; e. g. apa-gachant going away,
vi-pra-yantah advancing, pary-a-vivrtsan ivisliing to turn
round] apa-gacha-mana ; apa-jaganvams, apa-jagm-ana.

a. A single preposition, or the first of two, not infrequently
becomes separated by the interposition of one or more words or by
being placed after the participle. It is then treated as independent
and recovers its accent ; e. g. apa drlhani d&rdrat bursting strongholds
asunder ; a ca para ca pathibhis c&rantam wandering hither and thither
on his paths ; mddhu bibhrata upa bringing sweetness near ; pra vayam
uj-jlhanah flying up to a branch ; avasrj£rm upa bestowing. Occasionally
an immediately preceding preposition is not compounded with the
participle and is then also accented ; e. g. abhf daksat burning around •
vi vidvan 2 discriminating ; abhf a-cdrantah approaching.

&. On the other hand, the past passive participle,3 when
compounded with one or more prepositions, generally loses
its accent ; e. g. ni-hita deposited.* When there are two
prepositions the first remains unaccented ; e. g. sam-a-krtam
accumulated ; or the first may be separated and independently
accented ; e. g. pra yat samudra ahitah when dispatched
forth to the ocean.

1 No accented form of the optative occurs.

2 Probably in distinction from vividvan simple reduplicated
participle of vid find.

8 Which itself is always accented on the final syllable ; e. g. ga-td,
pati-ta", chin-nS.

* In several instances, however, it retains its accent ; e. g. nis-krtfi
prepared. This is the case with prepositions that are not used
independently.

ACCENT OF NOMINAL VERB FORMS 463

c. Gerundives in ya (or tya) and tva accent the root ;
e. g. caks-ya to be seen, srii-t-ya to be heard, carkr-tya to le
praised, vak-tva to be said ; those in ayya, enya, amya
accent the penultimate of the suffix ; e. g. pan-ayya to be
admired, iks-enya worthy to be seen, up a-jiv- aniya (AV.) to
be subsisted on ; while those in tavya accent the final
syllable : jan-i-tavya (AV.) to be born. When compounded
with prepositions (here always inseparable) gerundives nearly
always retain the accent of the simple form ; e. g. pari-
caks-ya to be despised ; abhy-a-yams6nya to be drawn near ;
a-mantraniya (AV.) to be addressed.

14. Infinitives are as a rule accented like ordinary cases
that would be formed from the same stem.

a. Dative infinitives from stems in i, ti, as, van accent
the suffix ; those in dhyai, the preceding thematic a ; and
those formed from the root, the ending ; e. g. drsay-e to see,
pitay-e to drink, caras-e1 to move, da-van-e2 to give,
tur-van-e ?> to overcome ; iy-a-dhyai 4 to go ; drs-6 to see.

a. When radical infinitives are compounded with prepositions the
root is accented ; e.g. sara-fdh-e to kindle, abhi-pra-c£ks-e 6 to see.

b. The dative infinitive from stems in man, the accusative
and the abl. gen. from roots, and all from stems in tu
accent the root ; e. g. da-man-e to give ; 6 subh-am to shine,
a-sad-am to sit down ; ava-pad-as to fall down ; da-turn
to give, gan-tos to go, bhar-tav-e to bear, gan-tav-ai 7 to go.

a. When compounded, infinitives from tu stems accent the preposi-
tion ; 8 e. g. sa"m-kar-tum to collect ; nf-dha-tos to put down ; dpi-dha-

1 In these the root is sometimes accented, as c&ks-as-e to see.

2 This infinitive also appears with independently accented preposi-
tions ; pro, dav&ne and abhi prd dav&ne.

3 The root is once accented in dhur-vane to injure.

4 In these the root is sometimes accented ; e. g. g&ma-dhyai.

6 The regular accentuation of monosyllabic stems when compounded :
cp. lie, 1.

6 But vid-m&n-e to know.

7 With a secondary accent on the final syllable : cp. above, 7.

8 But when the preposition is detached the infinitive retains its
accent ; e. g. pra" daSuse datave to present to the worshipper.

464 APPENDIX III

tav-e to cover up • apa-bhar-tav&L * to be taken away. When there are two
prepositions the first may be separate and independently accented ;
e. g. anu pr6-volhum to advance along, vi pr&-sartave to spread.

15. Gerunds formed with tvl, tva, tvaya accent the
suffix, but when they are compounded with prepositions
(here always inseparable) and formed with ya or tya, they
accent the root ; e. g. bhu-tva having become, ga-tvi and
ga- tvaya having gone ; sam-grbh-ya having gathered, upa-
srii-tya (AV.) having overcome.

16. Case forms used as adverbs frequently shift their
accent to indicate clearly a change of meaning.2 The
accusative neuter form is here the commonest ; e. g. dravat
quickly, but dravat running ; aparam later, but aparam as
n. adj. ; uttaram higher, but uttaram as n. adj. ; adverbs in
vat e. g. pratna-vat as of old, but the ace. n. of adjectives
in vant do not accent the suffix. Examples of other cases
are : div-a ~by day, but div-a through heaven ; aparaya for
the future, but aparaya to the later ; sanat from of old,
but sanat from the old.

6. Sandhi Accent.

17. 1. When two vowels combine so as to form a long
vowel or diphthong, the latter receives the Udatta, if either
or both the original vowels had it ; e. g. agat = a agat ;
nudasvatha = nudasva atha ; kve*t = kva it ; s nantarah
= na antarah.

a. But the contraction of i i is accented as i,4 the enclitic Svarita
(f 1) having here ousted the preceding Udatta ; e. g. diviva 6 = divi Iva.6

1 Ketaining the secondary accent on the final syllable.

2 Such a shift is found in nouns to indicate either a simple change
of meaning, e. g. jye"stha greatest, but jyesthfi, eldest ; or a change of
category also, e.g. gomati rich in cows, but gomati name of a river;
rajaputrd son of a king, but rajaputra having sons as kings.

3 Eut when a Svarita on a final vowel is followed by an unaccented
initial vowel, it of course remains, e. g. kvey atha = kva iyatha.

4 In the KV. and AV., but not in the Taittirlya texts, which follow
the general rule.

5 RV. and AV., but diviva in the Taittirlya texts.

8 This is the praslista or contracted Svarita of the Prati^akhyas.

SANDHI ACCENT 465

2. When i and u with Udatta are changed to y and v,
a following unaccented vowel receives the Svarita ; 1 e.g.
vy &nat = vi anat. Here the Svarita assumes the appear-
ance of an independent accent ; but the uncontracted form
with the Udatta must almost invariably be pronounced in
the KV.

3. When accented a is elided it throws back its Udatta
on unaccented e or o ; e. g. sunav6 vjgne = sunave agne ;
v6 {vasah = vo avasah. But when unaccented a is elided,
it changes a preceding Udatta to Svarita ; 2 e. g. s6 jdhamah.
= s6 adhamah.3

7. Sentence Accent.

18. The vocative, whether it be a single word or a
compound expression, can be accented on its first syllable
only.

a. It retains its accent only at the beginning of a sentence
or Pada,* that is, when having the full force of the case it
occupies the most emphatic position ; e. g. agne, supayan6
bhava 0 Agni, be easy of access ; urjo napat sahasavan 5
0 mighty son of strength. This rule also applies to doubly
accented dual compounds ; e. g. mitra-varuna 6 0 Mitra
and Varuna. Two or more vocatives at the beginning of
a sentence are all accented ; e. g. adite, mitra, varuna
0 Aditi, 0 Mitra, 0 Varuna. Two accented vocatives are
sometimes applicable to the same person ; e. g. urjo nap ad,

1 This is the ksaipra or quickly pronounced Svarita of the PratiSakhyas.

2 This is the abhinihita Svarita of the Prati^akhyas.

3 Here the Svarita (6 a) has ousted the preceding Udatta.

4 This applies to the second as well as the first Pada of a hemistich,
indicating that both originally had a mutually independent character,
which is obscured by the strict application of Sandhi and the absence
of any break in marking the accent, at the internal junction of the
Padas of a hemistich.

8 The corresponding nom. would be urjo napat s&hasava,
6 The nom. is mitra- v&runa.

466 APPENDIX III

bhadrasocise 0 son of strength, 0 propitiously bright one (both
addressed to Agni).1

b. When it does not begin the sentence or Pada, the
vocative, being unemphatic, loses its accent ; e. g. upa tvaw
agne div6-dive | dosavastar2 dhiya vayam | namo
bharanta 6masi to thee, 0 Agni, day l)y day, 0 illumincr of
darkness, bringing homage with prayer we come ; a raj ana
maha rtasya gopa ^hither (come), 0 ye tivo sovereign guardians
of great order • rt6na mitra-varunav | rtavrdhav rtasprsa
through Latv, 0 law-loving, law-cherishing Mitra and Varuna ; ^
yad indra brahmanaspate 5 abhidroham caramasi |
«/, 0 Indra, 0 Brahmanaspati, we commit an offence.

19. The verb is differently accented according to the
nature of the sentence.

A. The finite verb in a principal sentence is unaccented ;
e. g. agnim lie pur6hitam I praise Agni the domestic priest.

This general rule is subject to the following restrictions :

a. A sentence being regarded as capable of having only
one verb, all other verbs syntactically connected with the
subject of the first are accented as beginning new sentences ; G
e, g. t6sam pahi, srudhi havam drink of them, hear our
call', taranir ij jayati, kse"ti, pusyati the energetic man
conquers, rules, thrives; jahi prajam nayasva ca slay the
progeny and bring (it) hither.

b. The verb is accented if it begins the sentence or if.

1 Here the second voc. is accented as in apposition, whereas if it
were used attributively it would be unaccented as in hdtar yavistha
sukrato 0 youngest wise priest.

2 Accented because the first word of the Pada.

8 This might represent two vocatives addressed to the same persons;
their accented foim would then be : rajana, maha rtasya gopa.

4 Here the rule that the whole of the compound voc. must be
unaccented overrides the rule that the first word of the Pada must
be accented, i.e. here ftavrdhav.

K An example of two independent unaccented vocatives.

6 A subject or object coming between two such verbs is generally
counted to the first.

ACCENT IN THE SENTENCE 467

though not beginning the sentence, it coincides with the
beginning of a Pada ; e. g. saye vavris, carati jihvayadan |
rerihyate yuvatim vispatih san the covering lies (there) ;
he (Agni) moves eating with his tongue ; he kisses the maiden,
being the lord of the house ; atha te antamanam | vidyama
sumatmam then may we experience thy highest favours.

c. Vocatives being treated as extraneous to a sentence,
a verb immediately following an initial one, becomes the
first word of the sentence and is accordingly accented ; e. g.
agne, jusasva no havih 0 Agni, enjoy our sacrifice. Thus
the sentence indra, jiva ; surya, jiva ; de>a, jivata 0 Indra,
live ; 0 Surya, live ; 0 gods, live contains three accented
verbs as beginning three sentences, while the three preceding
vocatives are accented as bsing at the head of those sen-
tences, though syntactically outside them.

.d. Sometimes the verb when emphatic, though not
beginning the sentence, is accented if followed by the
particles id or cana ; e. g. adha sma no maghavafi carkr-
tad it then be mindful of us, bountiful one ; na deva
bhasathas cana (him) 0 gods, ye two never consume.

B. The verb of a subordinate clause (introduced by the
relative ya and its derivatives, or containing the particles
ca and c6d if- n6d lest, hi for, kuvid whether) is always
accented ; e. g. yam yajnam paribhur asi what offering thou
protectest ; grhan gacha grhapatni yatha^asah go to the
house that thou mayest be the lady of the house ; indras ca
mrlayati no, na nah. pascad agham nasat if Indra be
gracious to us, no evil will hereafter reach us ; tvam hi balada
asi for thou art a giver of strength. The relative may govern
two verbs ; e.g. y6na surya jyotisa badhase tamo, jagac
ca visvam udiyarsi bhanuna the light with which thou,
0 Sun, drivest away the darkness and arousest all the world
with thy beam.

The rule is stibject to the extension that principal clauses in
form may be accented as subordinate in sense under the following
conditions :

Hh2

468 APPENDIX III

a. The first of two clauses, if equivalent to one introduced by 'if
or ' when ' is occasionally accented ; e. g. sam asvaparnas c&ranti no
n&ro, asmakam indra rathfno jayantu when our men winged with steeds
come together, may our car-fighters, Indra, win victory.

6. The first of two antithetical clauses is frequently accented,1
especially when the antithesis is clearly indicated by corresponding
words like anya-anya, e'ka-e'ka, ca-ca, va-va ; e. g. prfi,-prawanye"
yanti, p&ry any& asate while some go on, others sit down ; sam cawidh&sva
agne, pr£ ca bodhaya^enam both be kindled, Agni, and waken this man's
knowledge. When the verb of two such clauses is the same, it usually
appears (accented) in the first only ; e. g. dvipac ca sarvam no raksa,
catuspad y£c ca nah sv£m protect both every biped of ours and whatever
quadruped is our own.

7. The verb of the second clause is accented if it is a 1. pers.
subjunctive or 2. pers. imperative2 with a final meaning, and the
verb of the first clause is a 2. pers. impv. of a-f i, gam, or ya go ; e. g.
6ta, dhfyam krnavama come, we ivill offer prayer ; tuyam a gahi, kanvesu
sti. saca piba come quickly, beside the Kanvas drink thy fill. In B. the verb of
the first clause is an impv. of either a-i or pra-i ; e. g. e'hi^ida'm
patava (&B.) come, we will nowfiy thither ; pr^ta tad esyamo yfi,tra^imam
dsura vibhajante come, we ivill go thither where the Asuras are dividing this
earth (&B.). The second verb is, however, in similar passages not
infrequently left unaccented in B.

Verbal Prepositions.

20. A. In principal clauses the preposition, which is
detached and usually precedes but sometimes follows the
verb, is accented ; e. g. a gamat may lie come • gavam apa
vrajam vrdhi unclose the stable of the Une-, jayema sam
yudhi sprdhah we would conquer our adversaries in fight ;
gamad vajebhir a sa nah. may he come to us with booty.

a. When there are two prepositions, both are independent
and accented ; e. g. upa pra yahi come forth ; pari spaso ni
sedire the spies have sat down around ; agne vi pasya
brhata abhi ray a 0 Agni, look forth towards (us) with ample
wealth.

1 This accentuation is more strictly applied in B. than in V., and
among the Samhitas least strictly in the RV.

2 In B. the accented verb is either a subjunctive or a future.

VERBAL PREPOSITIONS 469

a. When a is immediately preceded by another preposition (not
ending in i) it alone is accented, both prepositions being compounded
with the verb ; e. g. sam-a-krnosi jiv&se thou fittest (them) to live ; but
praty a tanusva draw (thy bow) against (them).

B. In subordinate clauses the exact reverse takes place,
the preposition being generally compounded and unaccented ;
e. g. yad . . nisidathah. iv hen ye two sit doivn. It is, however,
often separated by other words from the verb, when it
commonly commences the Pada, or much less frequently
follows the verb ; e. g. vi yo mame" rajasi ivlio measured out
the two expanses ; yds tastambha sahasa vi jm6 antan who
with might propped earth's ends asunder. Occasionally the
preposition is detached and accented even immediately before
the verb ; e. g. ya ahutim pari v6da namobhih who fully
knows the offering with devotion.

a. When there are two prepositions, either both are com-
pounded and unaccented or the first only is detached and
accented ; e. g. yuyam hi devih. pari-pra-yatha for ye,
0 goddesses, proceed around ; yatra^abhi sam-navamahe
where we to (him) together shout ; sam yam a-yanti dhenavah
to whom the cows come together.

a. Very rarely both prepositions are detached and accented ; e. g.
pr& yat stota . . upa girbhir ftte when the praiser lauds him with songs.

VEDIC INDEX

This index contains all Sanskrit words and affixes occurring in the
grammar, except the verbs in Appendix I, which can be found at
once owing to their alphabetical order. Indifferent words occurring
in examples of Sandhi, of nominal derivation (Chapter VI), or of
Syntax, as well as in Appendixes II arid III, are excluded.

The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified.

ABBREVIATIONS

A. = adjective, act., active, adv., adverb, adverbial, ao., aorist.
Bv., Bahuvrlhi. cd., compound, cj., conjunction, cond., conditional,
conj., conjugation, -al. corr., correlative, cpv., comparative, cs.,
causative, dec., declension, dem., demonstrative, den., denomina-
tive, der., derivative, derivation, ds., desiderative. eucl., enclitic.
Dv., Dvandva. f.n. foot-note, ft., future, gd., gerund, ij., inter-
jection, indec., indeclinable. inf., infinitive. inj., injunctive.
int., intensive, inter., interrogative, ipv., imperative, irr., irregu-
larities, itv., iterative, mid., middle. N., nominative, n., neuter,
neg., negative, nm., numeral, nom., nominal, ord., ordinal, par.,
paradigm, pel., particle, per., periphrastic, pf., perfect, ppf., plu-
perfect, poss., possessive, pp., past passive participle, pr., present,
pri., primary, prn., pronoun, pronominal, prp., preposition, pre-
positional, prs., person, personal, ps., passive, pt., participle, red.,
reduplication, reduplicated, ref., reflexive, rel., relative, rt., root,
sb.j subjunctive, sec., secondary. sf., suffix. spv., superlative,
synt., syntactical. Tp., Tatpurusa. v., vocative, vb., verb, verbal,
w., with.

A, vowel, pronunciation of, 15, 1 a ; a, pronominal root, 111 ; 195 B 6 ;
initial, dropped, 5 c ; 156 a ; accentuation of, p. 452, 8 B c ;

elided, 45, 2 b ; lengthened, j p. 458)3.

162, Ic; 1686; 171,1; 175 A 1;
thematic, 140, 6 ; 141 ; 143, 5. 6 ;
147, 149 ; change to i, 175 A 1 ;

a-, augment, 128.
a- or an-, privative pel., in Bv.
cds., p. 455, 10 c a ; in Karma-

dropped, 175 A 2 ; to be restored dharayas, p. 455, f.n. 2 ; p. 456,

after e and o, p. 487, a 7. , 10 d 1 a.

472

VEDIC INDEX

-a, sf. of 1st conj., 125 ; pri. nom.

sf., 182, 1 6; sec. nom. sf.,

182, 2 ; radical nom. stems in,

97, 8 ; der. nom. stems in, 97.
ams, attain, pf., 139, 6 ; 140, 3. 5 ;

'rt. ao. inj., 148, 3, op., 148, 4,

prc., 148, 4 o.
aktubhis, inst. adv. by night,

178, 3.
aktos, gen. adv. by night, 178, 6 ;

202 D 3 a.
aks, eye, 80.
£ksi, n. eye, 99, 4.
akhkhall-kr, croak, 184 d.
agratas, adv. before, w. gen. , 202 D.
agram, adv. 6e/ore, 1 78, 2.
agru, f. maid, 100, II a.
6gre, loc. adv. in front, 178, 7.
agrena, adv. tn front, 178, 3 ; w.

ace., 197 c /3.
anga, pel. /us?, 180.
angiras, m. a proper name, 83, 2 a.
&cha, prp. towards, w. ace., 176, 1 ;

197 B c.

aj, m. driver, 79, 3 a.
-aj, stems in, 79, 3 &.
ajav&yah, m. pi. groans and sheep,

186 A 2; accentuation of,

p. 457, e.

ajosas, a. insatiable, 83, 2 a a.
-anc, -ward, adjectives in, 93; ac-
centuation, p. 459, c 4.
afij, onofnf, 'pr., 134 D 1 ; pf.,

139,6; 140, 1. 3. 5.
anlyams, cpv. of arm, small, 103,

*2a.

atatha, a. no* saj/ingr « t/es ', 97, 2 a.
atas, adv. tence, 179, 2.
4ti, prp. beyond., w. ace., 176, 1 ;

197 B c.

atijagati, f. a metre, p. 441, f.n. 6.
atisakvari, f. a metre, p. 444, 10 a.
atyasti, f. a metre, p. 445, 10 6.
4tra,' 'adv. here, 179, 3 ; = then,

180.
atha, adv. then, 179, 1 ; synt. use

of, 180.
Atharvaveda, how accented,

p. 449.
4tno, adv. moreover, synt. use of,

180.
•ad, stems in, 77, 3 b.

&dant, pr. pt. eating, 85 (par.),
adas, dem. prn. that, 112 ; adv.

there, 178, 2 a.
addha, adv. truly, 179, 1.
adrak, has seen, s ao. of drs, p. 161 ,

f. n. 1.
adribhid, Tp. cd. mountain- cleaving,

77, 3 a.
adha, adv. then, 179, 1 ; synt. use

of, 180.
adhas, adv. below, 179, 1 ; prp., w.

ace., abl., gen., 177, 1. 3.
adh&stat, adv. below, 179, 2.
adhi, prp. upon, w. loc., abl..

176, 2.
ddhvau, m. road, 90.

I an, breathe, pr., 134 A 3 a (p. 143 .
•an, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems

in, 90, 1 ; irr. stems in, 91 ;

influence of stems in, p. 78,

f. n. 15.

-ana, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
an&ks, a. eyeless, 80.
anadvah, m. ox, 81 ; 96 ; 96, 2.
anarvan, a. irresistible, 90, 3.
ana, adv. thus, 178, 3 c.
-ana, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
anagas, a. sinless, 83, 2 a a.
-ani, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6.
-amya, gdv. sf., 162; 162, 6;

209, 6.
anu, prp. after, w. ace., 176. 1 ;

197 B c.
anudatta, m. low pitch accent, p. 448,

1 ; how marked, p. 449, 2 ; p. 450,

3.4.

anunasika, m. nasal, 10 f- 15, 2/.
anustubh, f. a metre, p. 438, f.n.

2 ; " p. 439, 3 b ; later form of,

p. 439, 3 b a.
anusvara, m. pure nasal, 3/; 10 /;

15, 2/; 29 &; 39; 40 a ; 40,2;

42; p. 33, f. n. 1, 2, 6; 496;

66 A ; 67 ; for n, p. 163, f. n. 2 ;

144, 1.
-ant, stems in, 85 ; sf. of pr. pt.

act., 156.
antar, prp. between, w. ace., abl.,

loc., 176, 2.
antara, adv. prp. between, w. ace.,

177, 1 ; 197 B c.

VEDIC INDEX

473

antarena, adv. prp. between, w.
ace., 197 B c p.

antastha, f. intermediate — semi-
vowel, 11.

antika, a. near, cpv. and spv. of,
103, 2 b.

antikam, adv. near, w. gen.,
202 D.

anyd, prn. a. otter (par.), 120 a.

anyatra, adv. elsewhere, 171), 3.

anyatha, adv. otherwise, 179, 1.

anyedyus, adv. next day, 179, 1.

anyo 'nyd, a. o/<e another, concord
of, ,p. 290, 2 |8.

anvdnc, a. following, 93 a.

ap, f. -icafer, 78, 1 ; 78, 1 a ; 96, 1.

apara, a. lower, 120 c 1.

aparaya, dat. adv. for the future,
178, 4.

aparisu, loc. pi. adv. in future,
178,' 7.

apas, n. zoorfc, 83, 2 a Qpar.).

apds, a. active, 83, 2 a (par.).

apanc, a. backward, 93 &.

dpi, prp. wpott, w. loc., 176, 1 b ;
adv. also, even, 180.

apsards, f. nymph, 83, 2 o.

abhi, prp. towards, w. ace., 176, 1.

abhitas, adv. around, 179, 2 ; prp.
w. ace., 177, 1 ; 197 B c.

abhinihita svarita, a Sandhi ac-
cent, p. 465, f. n. 2.

abhisndth, a. piercing, 77, 2.

dbhiru, a. fearless, 98 a.

am, injure, pr., 134, 3 c ; irr. red.
ao., 149 a 1.

-am, gd. in, 166 ; 210 a ; inf. in.
211, 2 a.

dma, dem. prn. this, 112 a 7.

ama, adv. at home, p. 110, f. n. 1 ;

178, 3 c.

amad, adv. from near, p. 110,

f^n. 1.

ami, dera. prn. those, N. pi. m., 112.
amiitas, adv. thence, p. 109, f. n. 1 ;

179, 2.

amutra, adv. there, p. 109, f. n. 1.
amutha, adv. thus, p. 109, f. n. 1.
amuya, inst. adv. in that icay, I

178, 3 c.

amba, v. 0 mother, p. 78, f. n. 6.
-ay a, cs. sf., how added, 168, 1.

ayam, dem. pru. this here, 111

(par.) ; 195 B 1.
aya, adv. thus, 178, 3 c.
dyat, IMS sacrificed, s ao. of yaj,

p. 161, f. n. 1.
dyas, hast sacrificed, 2. s. s ao. of

yaj, 144, 2.

ayuta, iim. ten thousand, 104.
-ar, stems in, 101, 1.
ar, high grade of r, 5 a ; low grade

of, 4 a.

aram, adv. suitably, 178, 2 a ; com-
pounded w. verbs, 184 b ; synt.

use, 180 ; w. dat., 200 A 4 a.
ari, a. devout, p. 81, f. n. 1 ; 99, 3.
drus, 11. wound, 83, 2 c.
arc, praise, pf. 139, 6 ; pr. pt. 85.
arthaya, adv. dat. for the sake of,

200 B 5.

ardh, thrive, pf. 139, 6.
arp&ya, cs. of r, go, red. ao.,

149 a 3.
arpita" and drpita, pp. cs. of r, go,

160, 3.

drbuda, nm. ten millions, 104.
aryaman, m., a god, 90.
arvauc, a. hitherward, 93 b.
arh, deserve, pf., 139, 6.
alam = dram, adv., synt. use of,

180.
alalabhavant, pr. pt. sounding

merrihj, 184 d.

al, high grade of vowel 1, 5 a.
alpa, a. stnall, cpv. and spv. of,

103, 2 b.

avd, dem. prn. this, 112 a j8.
dva, prp. doivn, w. abl., 176, 3.
avagraha, m. mark of separation,

p. 454, 10 a.

avatta, cut off: pp. of da, 160, 2 6.
avdni, f. stream, p. 82, f. n. 3.
avamd, spv. lowest, 120 c 1.
avayaj, f. share of oblation, 79, 3 a o.
dvara, cpv. lower, 120 c 1.
aVarena, adv. prp. below, w. abl.,

p. 209, f. n. 3.

avds, adv. downwards ; prp. down
from, beloio, w. abl., 177, 3 ; w.

inst., 177, 2.
av&stad, adv. below, w. gen.,

202 D.

474

VEDIC INDEX

avaiic, a. downward, 93 b.

avat, has shone, 3. s. s ao. of vas,

144, 2.
avi, m. sheep, p. 81, f. n. 1.

1. as, reacft, see ams.

2. as, gaf, pr. stem, 134 E 4.
asitavant, pf. pt. having eaten, 161.
as"Iti, nm. ctflrJWy, 104.

&sman, m. stone, 90, 1. 2 (par.),
dsrait, 3. s. s ao. of sri, resort,

144, 2.
asvin, a. possessing horses, p. 64,

f. n. 4.
astakfcvas, nm. adv. e/gr/^ times,

"W8a.
astadha, nm. adv. -in eight ways,

'1086.

astaina, ord. eighth, 107.
asta, nm. eiflr/tf, 104 ; 106 6 (par.). '
astacatvarimsd, ord. forty-eighth,

'107,

astadasa, nm., 104 ; 106 c (par.),
as, be, pr., 134 A 2 & ; pr. pt. act.,

156 a.
-as, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6 ; stems

in, 83, 2 a ; p. 453, 9 A a ; adv.

sf. w. loc. sense, 179, 3 ; abl.

gen. inf. in, 163, 3 a ; 211, 3 a ;

changed to o, 145, 2 b.
asak&u, dem. prn. that little, 117 a.
asascat, Bv. cd. unequalled, 85 b.
asikni, a. f. black, p. 86, f. n. S.
asikni, f. name of a river, p. 86,

f. n. 3.

asrj, n. blood, 79, 3 b.
as£u, dem. prn.- that (there), 112

(par.) ; synt. use, 195 B 2.
astam, ace. adv. home, 178, 2 ; \v.

verbs, 184 c.

astamikS, loc. adv. at home, 178, 7.
&stodhvam, 2. pi. s ao. of stu,

praise, 144, 2 a.
asthi, n. bone, 99, 4.
asma, prs. prn. stem, 109 b.
asmatra, adv. among us, 179, 3.
asmatsakhi, Bv. cd. having us as

companions, 109 b.
asmad, prs. prn. stem in cds.,

109 6.
asmadruh, Tp. cd. hating us, 109 6.

asmaka, poss. prn. our, 116 a.

asmakam, gen. pi. prs. prn. of us,
116 a.

asvapnaj, sleepless, 79, 3 b.

ah, say, defective verb, pf., 139, 4.

aha, emphasizing pel. just, 180.

dhamsana, a. rapacious, synt. cd.,
189 B. c.

ahan, n. day, 90 ; 91, 2 ; as final
member of Bv. cds., 189, 3 c.

aham, personal prn., I, 109.

ahamuttard, n. dispute for prece-
dence, synt. cd., 189 B c.

ahampurvd, a. eager to be first, synt.
cd'., 189 B c.

ahar, n. day, 91, 2 ; 101, 1.

aharahar, every day, itv. cd. , 189 C a .

ahardivi, day after day, mixed itv.
cd., 189 C a, f. n. 1 ; accentua-
tion, p. 457, e a.

aharpati, m. lord of day, 49 d.

ahl, m. serpent, 100, I a.

ahait, 3. s. s ao. of hi, 144, 2.

ahoratra, n. day and night, 186 A 2 ;
accentuation, p. 457, e.

ahna = ahan, day, in cds., p. 275,
f. n. 3.

A, vowel, dropped, p. 206, f. n. S ;
low grade of, 5 c ; reduced to I
or i, 148, I/; 160, 2; 169,2;
to i, p. 190, 2 ; shortened, 19 a,
f. n. 5 ; 147 a 1 ; p. 273, f. n. 4 ;
nasalized, 19 b, f. n. 1.

a, prp. on, w. loc., ace., abl., 176, 2 ;
reverses meaning of gam, go,
and da, give, p. 265, f. n. 6.

a, emphasizing pel., 180.

-a, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6; stems
in, 97, 2 ; sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ;
stems in, 97 ; for a in sb.,
134 A 4 c j8 ; du. ending, p. 78,'
f. n. 13 ; p. 81, f. n. 1, 2 ; pi. n.
ending, p. 78, f. n. 14.

ake", loc. adv. near, 178, 7.

atmdn, m. self, 115 b a.

ad, adv. tJien, 178, 5; synt. use,
180.

adhi, f. care, 100 C a, f. n. 4.

an-, pf. red., 139, 6 ; shortened,
140, 1.

VEDIC INDEX

475

-ana, sf. of mid. pt., pr. 158 a, pf.

159.
-ana, sf. of 2. s. ipv. act., 125,

f. n. 9 ; 134 E 4.
anajand, pf. pt. mid., of anj,

anoint, 159.
anaSana, pf. pt. mid., of ams,

reach, 159.

arn, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
apfk, adv. in a m'ued way, 79, 1.
abhu, a. present, 100, II b.
-ayana, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
ayu, n. life, 98 a (p. 83;.
-ayya,gdv. sf., 162; 162, 2 ; 209, 3.
arat, abl. adv. from afar, 178, 5.
arattat, adv. from afar, 179, 2.
are", loc. adv. afar, 178, 7 ; prp. w.

abl. or gen., 177, 3 ; 202 D a.
arya, f. a metre, p. 430, f. n. 2.
av&m, prs. prn. N. du., we ttco,

109.

avayaj, m. privst who offers the
. oblation, 79, 3 a a.
avis, adv. openly, \\. verbs, 184 b ;

w. dat., 200 A 4 b.
asistha, spv. swiftest, 103, 2 0.
as*f s,' f. prayer, 83, 2 b a.
is a, a. swift, spv. of., 103, 2 ft.
asuya, inst. adv. swiftly, 178, 3 b.
as, ti. /ace, 83, 1.
asat, abl. adv. /row near, 178, 5.
a sand, pr. pt. mid., of as, sit,

158 a.
asina, irr. pr. pt. mid., of as, sit,

158 a.
asmakd, puss. prn. our, p. 113,

f. n. 2.

I, vowel, low grade of e and ya,

4 a ; 5 a, b.
i, go, 134, lea; pr. system of

(par.), 132 (pp. 130-1) ; red. pf.

pt., 157 a.
-i, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sec.

nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems in, 98.
-i-, connecting vowel, 89 a ; 145.
-ij, steins in, 79, 3 b.
id, f. refreshment, 80.
-it, stems in, 77, 1.
-ita, pp. sf., 160, 3 ; always taken

by see. verbs, ibid.

itara, prn. a. other, 117 b ; 120, a,

itas, adv. /row here, 179, 2.

iti, pel. thus, synt. use of, 180 ;

196 a ft ; use in Pada text, p. 25,

f. n. 2 ; p. 26, f. n. 1, 5.
itthdm, adv. thus, 179, 1 a.
ittha, adv. so, 179, 1 ; synt. use.

180.
id, emphasizing pel., 180; accents

verb, p. 467, 19 Ad.
idam, dem. prn. this. Ill ; as adv.,

178, 2 a.
ida, adv. noiv, 179, 3 ; w. gen.,

D2.
idaiilm, adv. now, 179, 3 ft ; w.

gen., 202 D 2.
idh, kindle, rt. ao. op., 148, 4 ; pt.

148, 6.

-idhe, inf. to kindle, 167 a (p. 191;.
-in, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems in,

87 ; accentuation of, p. 454, B a.
indra-vayu, du. cd., Indra and

Vayu, 186 A 1 ; accentuation,

p. 457, f. n. 2.
inv, send, pr. stem, 133 A 2 b;

134 C 4 ft.

im&, dem. prn. stem, this, -111.
imatha, adv. in this manner, 179, 1.
-iya, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
iyant, quantitative a. so much,

118 b (par.;.

iy&m, f. dem. prn. this, 111.
-iran, 3. pi. mid. ending of ppi. .

140, 6.
iva, end. pel. as if, like, 179, 1 ;

180 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
is, wish, pr. stem, 133 C 2 ; pr. pt.,
'85.

is, f. refreshment, 80,
-is, ao. suffix, 142 ; 145.
isu, f. arrow, 98 a (p. 82).
istapurt&m, n. Dv. cd. what has
"been offered and given, 186 A 3;

accentuation, 457, e.
-Istha, pri. spv. suffix, 103, 2;

p. 453, 9 A b.
-is, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sterns

in, 83, 2 b.
iha, adv. here, 179, 1.

I, vowel, often changed to iy in

476

VEDIC INDEX

Saiidhi, 57 ; low grade of ya,
5 6 a ; ending of du. and of ami,
uncontracted in Sand hi, 25 a,
6, c ; inserted in int. red. , 172 a ;
173, 3; sec. nom. sf., 182, 2;
stems in, 95 ; 100 b ; connecting
vowel, 144, 2 (s ao.) ; 145 & (is
ao.) ; 160, 3 a (pp.) ; 162, 4

t (gdv.).

id, f. praise, 80.

id, praise, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b.

Idfksa, prn. cd. such, 117.

idfs, prn. cd. such, 117.

Idfsa, prn. cd., 117, f. n. 4.

-ina, secondary nom. suffix, 182, 2.

Im, encl. pronominal particle,

180 ; p. 452, 8 A a.
-Im, ending of 1. s. is aorist,

145 c.

-iya, secondary nom. suffix, 182, 2.
-lyams, pri. cpv. suffix, 103, 2 ;

p. 453, 9 A c.

lyivams, pf. pt. act. of i, go, 89 a.
ivant, prn. derivative, so great,

118 c.
is, ride, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b;

134 A 4 c a.
fs, m. lord, 79, 4.
Isvard, a. able, concord of, 194 B2 a ;

w. inf., 216 (p. 365 0) ; w. gen.

inf., 211, 3 a a; 211, 3 & a; w.

yad und op., 216 (p. 364 0).

U, vowel, low grade of o and va,

5 a, b.
u, encl. pel. now, pray, 180 ; form

of, in Pada text, p. 25, f. n. 2 ;

p. 452, 8 A b.
•u, stems in, 98.
uksan, m. ox, 90, 1 (p. 68).
uc, be pleased, red. pf. pt., 157 a.
ucca, adv. on high, 178, 3 &.
uccdis, adv. on high, 178, 3 6.
-ut, stems in, 77, 1 .
ut£, cjj. and, 180.
uto, cj. and also, synt. use, 180.
uttama", spv. highest, 103, 1 c.
uttara, cpv. higher, 103, 1 c ; 120 c 1

(par.),
uttarat, abl. adv. from the north,

178, 5.
utt arena, adv. prp. north of, w.

ace., 177, 1, f. n. 3 ; 197 B c 13 ;

p. 209, f. n. 3.
ud, f. wave, 77, 3 a.
-ud, stems in, 77, 3 &.
udanc, a. upward, 93 a ; northward

of, w. gen., 202 D #.
udatta, m. rising accent, p. 448, 1 ;

p. 451, 6 ; how marked, p. 449,

2 ; p. 450, 3. 4. 5.
-uua, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
upa, prp. to, w. ace., 176 b ; upon,

w. loc., ibid.
upadhmaniya, labial breathing, 3 g :

14 ; 15 ; 43, 2.
upama", spv. highest, 120 c 1.
I upara, cpv. lower, 120 c 1.
upa"ri, prp. above, w. ace., 177, 1 ;

197 B c.
uparistad, adv. behind, w. gen.,

202' I).

upandh, f. shoe, 81, f. n. 1.
ubhaya, a. of both kinds, 120 c 3

(par.),
ubhay&tas, adv. on both sides of,

w. ace., 197 B c 0.
ubhayadyus, adv. on both days,

179, 1.
ubhaya, inst. adv. in both ways,

178, 3 c.
-ur, ending of gen. s., 99, 1. 2 ;

101; of 3. pi. act.: impf.!34A4c;

p. 125, f. n. 7; pf., 136; ppf.,

140, 6 ; s ao., 143, 1 ; root ao.,

148, 1.

uru, a. wide, 98 c ; cpv. of, 108, 2a.
uruvydnc, a. far-extending, p. 54.

f. n. 1.

urviya, inst. adv./ar, 178, 3 &.
urvi, f. earth, du. of, p. 81, f. n. 14.
us&na, m. a name, 97, 2 a.
usij, a. desiring, 79, 3 b (par.),
us, f. dawn, 80.
usks, f. dawn, 83, 2 a.
usasa, f. elliptical du., dawn and

'night, 193, 2 a.
ustranam, gen. pi. without cere-

'bral n, p. 43, f. n. 1.
usnih, f. a metre, 81 ; p. 444, 1 ;

*p. 476, 11 A.
•us, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems

in, 83, 2 c.
usf, f. dawn, 101, 1.

VEDIC INDEX

477

0, vowel often changed to uv in
Sandhi, 57 ; shortened to u,
p. 274, f.n. 1 ; pri. nom. sf.,
182, 1 6 ; stems in, 100 (pp. 88-
90).

udhd, pp. of vah, carry, 160, 2.

uti, inst. of uti, f. aid, p. 81, f. n. 4.

udhan, n. udder, 91, 6.

udhar, n. udder, 91, 6 ; 101, 1.

urj, f. vigour, 79, 3 a.

urnamradas, cd., soft as wool, 83, 2 a.

urdhv&tha, adv. uptvards, 179, 1.

uh, consider, pr. stem, 133 A 1.

uh, remove, 133 A 1, f. n. 2.

B, vowel, low grade of ar and ra,
* 5 a, b ; before y becomes ri, 58 ;

stems in, 101.
r, go, pr., 133 C 2 ; 134 B 3 a ; a

ao., 147 c ; 148, 1 g ; root ao.

inj., 148, 3 ; root ao. op., 148, 4 ;

root ao. pt., 148, 6.
rgmin, a. praising, 87.
fc, f. stanza, 79 ; 1, p. 437.
rjisvan, m. a name, 90 a.
i-nv, send, pr., 134 C 4 0.
rtay§, inst. adv. in the right way,
' 178, 3 a.
rtaspati, m. lord of pious works,

p. 273, f. n. 3.
rt&van, a. regular, 90, 3 ; v. in

-vas, ibid.

rtutha, adv. regularly, 179, 1.
rtus&s, adv. season by season, 179, 1.
rte", adv. prp. without, 178, 7 ; w.

abl., 177, 3 ; w. ace., 197 B c a

(p. 303).

rtvij, m. priest, 79, 3, f. n. 4.
rdh, thrive, root ao. op., 148, 4 ;
' pt., 148, 6.

rbhuks&n, m. chief of the Rbhus,
' 90, 1 (p. 68).

B before y becomes Ir or ur.

L, vowel, low grade of al, 4 a

' (P- *)•

B, diphthong, originally Si, p. 22,
f. n. 3 ; high grade of i, 5 a ;
Sandhi of final, 21 ; internal
Sandhi of, 59 ; unchangeable

as du. ending, 26 ; for az, 4 b ;
134 A 2 b ; p. 149, f. n. 2 ; for a
in s ao. , 143, 3 ; shortened before
a, p. 437, a 4.
e"ka, nm. one, 104 ; 105, 1 (par.) ;

120 a.

ekadha, adv. singly, 179, 1 a.
ekapada verse, p. 441, f. n. 6.
ekavims&, ord. twenty-first, 107.
ekasasth&, ord. sixty-first, 107.
<§kada'sa, nm. eleven, 104 ; 106 c

(par.).

ekadasS, ord. eleventh, 107.
ekan n& vimsati, nm. nineteen,

104 a 0.
6kaika, nm. cd. one by one, p. 282,

f. n. 4.
et&, dem. prn. this, 101 a 1 (par.) ;

correlative use, 195 B 4 a ; = well

known, ibid. ; anaphoric use,

195 B 4 b ; w. following yad =

that is to say, 195 B 4 a.
etadfksa, prn. cd. such, 117.
etadrs, prn. cd. such, 117.
et§,vant, prn. derivative, so great,

118 c.

ed, ij. lo ! with ace., 197 B c 7.
ena, encl. prn., he, she, it, 112 a

(par.) ; p. 452, 8 A a.
ena, inst. adv. in this way, 178, 3.
-enya, gdv. suffix, 162, 3 ; 209, 4.
-eya, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
ev&, adv. thus, just, 179, 1 ; synt.

use, 180.

evdtha, adv. just as, 179, 1.
ev&m, adv. thus, 179, 1 ; synt. use,

180.

eva-yavas, voc. going quickly, 90, 8.
esa, dem. prn. this, Sandhi of, 48 ;

'110 a 1 ; 195, 4 a.

O, diphthong, originally Su, p. 22,
f. n. 3 ; high grade of u, 4 b • low
grade of, 4 a ; internal Sandhi
of, 59 ; for az, 15, 2 k a ; p. 47,
f. n. 3 ; for azh, p. 47, f. n. 3 ;
4 b ; stem in, 102, 2 ; shortened
before a, p. 437 a 4.

okivams, pf. pt. act. of uc, 89 a.

6tave, dat. inf. to weave, 167 b 4.

478

VEDIC INDEX

osam, adv. quickly, 103, 2 a.
osistha, spv. rery quick, 103, 2 a.
ohand, pr. pt. of uh, consider, 1 58 a.

A I, diphthong, low grade of, 5 d;
Sandhi of final, 22 ; internal
Sandhi of, 59 ; stem in, 102.

-ais, inst. pi. ending, p. 78, f. n. 9.

AIT, diphthong, low grade of, 5 d •
Sandhi of final, 22 ; internal
Sandhi of, 59 ; stem in, 102.

-au, ending of 1. 3. s. pf. act.,
136, 4; of N. A. du., p. 59,
f. n. 2 ; p. 78, f. n. 13.

K, insertion of transitional, 35.

ka, inter, prn. who? 113.

-ka, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6; sec.

nom. sf., 182, 2.
kak\ld, f. summit, 77, 3 6.
kakubh, f. peak, 78, 2; a metre,

p. 444, 3.
katamd, inter, prn. a. who? (of

many), 117 b ; 120 a.
katard, prn. a. which (of two) ?,

1176; 120 a.
kdti, nm. du. how many? 113 a;

11 8 a.
katidbS, inter, adv. how many

times? 179, 1.

katpayd, a. greatly swelling, 113 a.
kathdm, inter, adv. how? 179, 1 a.
kdtha, inter, adv. how? p. 354. 2 a ;

216, 2 a.

kdd, inter, prn. what? 113.
kddartha, a. having what purpose?

113 a.
kadi, inter, adv. when? 179, 3;

p. 354, 2 a ; 216, 2 a.
kadru, f. Soma vessel, p. 89, f. n. 3.
kanistha, spv. smallest, 103, 2 6.
kanisthd, spv. youngest, p. 95,

f. n.' 3.
kdniyams, cpv. lesser, 103, 2 a ;

younger, 88.

kanya, f. girl, p. 96, f. n. 3.
kaprth, n. penis, 77, 2.
kam, adv. well, synt. use, 180.
kam, pel. used after m&, su, hi,

180 ; p. 453, 8 B d.

kdya, inter, prn. who? 113 b.
kaya, inst. adv. how? 178, 3 c.
kdrna, ear, compounded w.

184 c.
karmadharaya, poss. cds., 188 ;

1 89 d ; accentuation of, p. 455,

10 <M.

karman, n. work, 90, 2 (p. 69).
kasipii, m. n. mat, 98 a.
kds ca, indefinite prn. any one,

1196.

kds cand, indef. prn. any, 119 ?>.
kds cid, indef. prn. any, 119 6.
kakiid, f. palate, 77, S b.
kakubh.a pragatha, m, a kind of

mixed strophe, p. 446, 11 B 1.
Kathaka Samhita, accentuation

of, p. 450, 3*.

kamam, adv. at will, 197 A 5 a.
kamaya, adv. dat. for the sake of,

200 B 5.

kas, f. cough, 83, 1.
ki, inter, prn. stem in cds., 113 a.
kikkita, ij., 181.
kikkira, ij., 181; w. kr, tear to

tatters, 184 d.

kimkard, m. servant, 113 a.
kimtvd, synt. cd. asking garrn-

Imisly, 189 B c.
kim, inter, prn. what? 113 ; inter.

pel. why? 178, 2 a; 180.
kiyant, prn. der. how great? 113 a ;

1186.

kila, adv. indeed, synt. use, 180.
kidfs, prn. cd. what like? 117.
kivant, prn. cd. hoivfar? 118 c.
ku, inter, stem in derivatives,

113 a.

kumarf, f. girl, 100, I 6 a (p. 88).
kuvitsa, some one, synt. cd.,

189 B c.
kuvid, inter, pel., 180 ; p. 354, 2 a ;

216, 2 a ; accents verb, p. 467,

19 B.
kiiba, inter, adv. where? 113 a ;

179, 1.
kr, make, 127, 4 a ; pr. system,

132 (par.) ; anomalous pr. stem,

134 C 4 ; pr. pt., 85 ; pf., 38, 2 :

pf. pt., 157 ; 89, 1 (par.) ; a ao..

transfers, 147 a 2 ; root ao.,

148, 16 (par.); op., 148. 4 ; inj.,

VEDIC INDEX

479

148, 3 ; pt., 148, 6 ; sb., 148, 2

(par.) ; impv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao.,

155; ft., 151 6 (par.); ft. pt.,

85; 151 b 2; prc., 148, 4 a.
kf-t, a. making, 77, 1.
krt, cut, pr., 133 C 1 ; ft., 151 a.
kftvas, nm. adv. times, 108 a.
kfp, f. beauty, 78, 1.
krp, lament, pr. stem, 133 A 1.
krs, drag, red. ao., 149, 1.
kf,' scatter, pr., 133 C 3.
kip, be adapted, red. ao., 149, 1.
ke" vala, a. exclusive, 1 20 c 3.
krand, cry out, pf., 137, 2 d ; a ao.,

147 b • red. ao., 149, 1 ; s ao.,

144, 5.
kram, stride, pr. stem, 133 A 1 ;

root ao., 148, 1 d ; inj., 148, 3;

is ao., 145, 1 (par.).
kriinc, m. curlew, 79, 1.
krudh, be angry, red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
krus, cry out, sa ao., 141 a.
ksa"p, f. night, 78, 1 ; gen. adv. of

'a night, 202 D 3 a.
ks&m, f. earth, 78, 3 ; accentuation

'of, p. 458, c 1.
ksar,./7o?0, 3 ao., 144, 5.
ks&, f. abode, 97, 2.
ksip, throio, red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
ksip, f. finger, 78, 1.
ksudb, f. hunger, 77, 4.
ksnibh, f. push, 78, 2.
ksaipra, a. quickly pronounced Sva-

rita accent in Sandhi, p. 465,

f. n. 1.
ksnu, whet, pr. stem, 134, 1 a.

Kh&, n. aperture, 97, 3.

khan, dig, pf., 137, 26; ps. stem,

154 d.
khdlu, emphasizing pel., indeed,

180.

kha, f. well, 97, 2.
khidvams, oppressing, 157 6.
khya, see, a ao., 147 a I.

Gam, go, pr. stem, 133 A 2 ; pf.,
137,26; 138,7; 140,3; pf.pt,,
157; per. pf., 139, 9 a ; a ao.,
147 a 2 (transfers) ; s ao., 144, 3 ;
rt. ao., 148, 1 a : op., 148, 4,

prc. 148, 4 a, impv. 143, 5, pt.
148, 6; ao. ps., 155; gd., 165 a.

gdm, f. earth, 78, 3.

gam&dhye, dat. inf. to go, 167 6 7 a.

ga, sing, sis aorist, 146.

gathin, m. singer, 87.

gayatri stanza, p. 438, 3 a; tro-
chaic, p. 439, 3 a a.

gir, f. praise, 82, f. n. 5 ; a. praising,
82, f. n. 6.

guggulu, n. bdellium, 98 6.

guna, high grade (of vowels), 5 a ;
5 a a; 17; 17 a; 19 a ; 21; in
dec., 98; in conj., 125, 1. 2;
127, 1. 2 ; pr. stem, 133 A 1 ;
134, 1 c ; 134, lea; pr. pt. mid.,
158 a ; a ao., p. 167, f. n. 3 ; a
ao., 147 c ; 148, 1 g ; red. ao.,
149 ; s ao., 143, 1. 2. 3 ; is ao.,
145, 1 ; ps. ao., 155 ; ft., 151 a ;
gdv., 162, 1 6, c ; cs., 168, 1 ;
168, 1 c.

guh, hide, pr. stem, 133 A 1 ; sa
ao., 141 a.

guh, f. hiding-place, 81.

gudha, pp. of guh, hide, 160, 2.

gr, waken, red. ao., 149, 1 ; 149 a 1 •
'ipv., 149, 5.

gfbh, f. seizure, 78, 2.

gf, swallow, pr. stem, 133 C 3 ;
red. ao., 149, 1.

go, m. butt, f. cow, 102 ; 102, 2
(par.) ; accentuation of, p. 458 c 1.

go -m ant, a. possessing coivs, 86.

go-s&n, a. winning coics, 77, 5.

gdha, rt. ao. of ghas, 148, 1 g.

-gdha, pp. of ghas, eat, 160, 2 a.

gca, f. divine woman, 97, 2.

grabh, seise, is ao., 145 6 ; pr.
system, 132 (par.) ; pr. stem,
134 E 2; pf., 137, 2c; cs., 168,
irr 5.

grabbe", dat. inf. to seize, 167 a
(p. 191).

grab, seize, pr. stem, 134 E 2, 4 ;
pf., 137, 2 c ; ps., 154, 6.

giaVan, m. pressing stone, 90, 1. 3.

gldu, m. f. lump, 102 ; 102, 5.

Gha, emphasizing end. pel., 180 ;
p. 452, 8 A 6.

480

VEDIC INDEX

gh&nighnat, pr. pt. int. of han,

km, 85 b.
ghas, eat, pf., 137, 26; pf. pt.,

157 a; rt. ao., 148, 1 d ; des.,

171, 5.
ghrtdvant, a. having ghee, 86 (p. 64 ,

f. n. 3).

ghn&nt, pr. pt. of han, kill, 85.
ghra, smell, pr. stem, 134 B 3 ft.

Ca, cj. and, syntactical use, 180 ;

if. w. sb., p. 360 5 ; p. 452, 8 A b ;

467,^19 B.
cakrvams, pf. pt., having done, 89

(par.)'.
cakri, f. wheel, 100 I a (p. 86,

f. n. 1).
caksus, n. eye, 83, 2 ; 83, 2 c ; a.

seeing, 83, 2 c.

catur, nm./owr, 104; 105, 4 (par.),
caturtha, ord. fourth, 107.
caturdasa, nm. fourteen, 104 ; 106 c

(Par.)-,

catur dha, adv. in four ways, 108 b.
catur vaya, nm. der. fourfold, 108 c.
cattis, nm. adv. four times, 108 a.
catustrimsa, ord. thirty-fourth, 107.
catvarimsa, ord. fortieth, 107.
catvarimS&t, nm. forty, 104.
cand, pel. wo# even, synt. use, 180 ;

accents verb, p. 467, 19 A d.
caru, a. dear, 98 a, c.

1. ci, gather, pf., 139, 4.

2. ci, note, pf., 139, 4.

cit, perceive, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c a ;

pf. pt., 157 b a ; rt. ao., 148, 1 d ;

s ao., 144, 5.
oft, f. thought, 77, 1.
cid, pel. even, synt. use, 180 ;

p. 452, 8 A b.
cisca, ij. whiz ! 181.
c6d, cj. if, synt. use, 180 ; w. op.,

p. 366, 5 ; p. 467, 19 B.
cyu, stir, pf., 139, 8 ; red. ao.,

149, 1 ; inj., 149, 3 ; op., 149, 4.

Ch, doubling of, 51 ; produces
length by position, p. 437, a 3.

-cha, pr. stem sf., 133 A 2 ; 133 C 2.

chand, seem, s ao., 144, 5.

chandas, n. metre, p. 436, f.n. 1.

chid, split, pf. pt., 157 a ; rt. ao.
inj., 148, 8.

J before conj. s, 63 (p. 41, f. n. 3).
j&gat, a. going ; n. inanimate world,

85 b.

jagatl, f. a metre, p. 442, 7.
jaganvams, pf. pt.act. of gam, 89 a.
jagmivams, pf. pt. act. of gam,

go, 89 a.

jajnivams, pf. pt. of jna, 89 a.
jan, beget, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ; pf.,

137, 2 b ; red. ao., 149, 1 (par.) ;

pr. stem, 154 d', ps. ao., 155 a 1 ;

cs. pt., 85.

janayitf, a. creative, 101, 2 &.
jani, f. wife, 99, 1 a.
janitri, f. mother, 101, 2 c.
janus, n. birth, 83, 2 c.
jam, f. earth, 78, 3.
jamat, palatalized ao. pt. of gam,

go, 189 A 2 a (p. 280, f. n. 4).
jar as, m. old age, 83, 2 a a.
javistha, spv. quickest, 103, 2.
javiyams, cpv. quicker, 103, 2.
jahf, 2. s. pr. ipv. of han, strike,

134 A 2 c ; p. 41, f. n. 1.
ja, m. f. child, 97, 2.
janu, n. knee, du. of, p. 81, f. n. 14,

15.
jap£ya, cs. of ji, conquer : red. ao.,

149 a 3.
jaraya, den. play the lover, ps. ao.,

155 a 2.
ji, conquer, pf., 139, 4 ; pf. pt.,

157 6 a ; rt. ao. inj., 148, 3;

s ao., 144, 5; ft., 151 a; cs.,

p. 196, f. n. 1.
jit, a. conquering, 77, 1.
jinv, quicken, pr. stem, 133 A 3 b ;

134 C 4 j8.
jihvamuliya, guttural spirant, 3 g ;

14; 15 j; 43,2.
ji, overpower, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
jivatave, dat. inf. to live, 167 6 4.
juhu, f. tongue, 100, II a ; sacrificial

spoon, ibid.

ju, hasten, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
ju, a. speeding, 100, II a.
jf, waste away, pr. stem, 133 B 2.
je"man, a. victorious, 90, 2.
jogu, a. singing aloud, 100, II a.
jnapt£, pp. cs. of jna,A;wow, p. 185,

f. n. 3.
jna, know, pr. stem, 134 E 3 ; pr.

VEDIC INDEX

481

pt., 85 ; rt. au. op., 148, 4 ; sis

ao., 140.

jnapaya,cs.of jna:~red.ao., 149 a 3.
jnas, 111. relative, 83, 1.
jya, f. boivstriny, 97, 2.
jyayams, cpv. greater, 88 ; 103, 2 a.
jye~stha, spv. greatest, 103, 2 ; as

final member of Bv. ed., 189, 1 &.
jyesthd, spv. e?des/, 103, 2.
jyotis, n. light, 83, 2.

T, interposed in Sandhi, 36 a ;
40, 1 ; in gdv., 162, 1 d ; deter-
minative sf., 77, 1 ; 182, 1 a ;
187 A a (in cds.) ; stems in
secondary, 77, 1.

ta, dem. prn. MctJ, 110 (par.) ; in
syntax : position of, 191 j ; as
corr., 195 B 3 ; w. prs. prns.,
195 B 3 b a • w. dem. prns.,
195 B 3 b (3.

-ta, pri. noui. sf., 182, 1 b ; sf. of
pp., 160.

tarns, shake, pf., 137, 2 d ; a ao.,
147 b.

taka, dem. prn. that little, 110 a 3 ;
* 117 a.

t&tas, adv. thence, syiit. use, 180.

t&ti, nni. der. so many, 118 a.

tatpurusa compounds, 100, I a ;
187, 2 a ; w. ace. sense, 187 A 1,
inst., A 2, dat., A3, abl., A 4,
gen. , A 5, loc. , A 6; as possessi ves,
189, 2 ; accentuation of, p. 456, 2.

tatha, adv. thus, 110 a ; 179, 1 ;
synt. use, 180.

t&d, adv. then, thither, synt. use,
180.

tadapas, Bv. cd. accustomed to that
'fork, 110 a.

tada, adv. then, 179, 3.

tadanim, adv. then, 179, 3 (3.

tan, stretch, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;
pf., 137, 2 a, 6; 140, 1. 2; s ao.,
144, 2 ; 144, 5 ; rt. ao., 148, 1 d;
ps. stem, 154 d.

t&c, f. succession, 77, 5 ; accent,
p. 458, c 1.

-tana, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.

-tana, ending of 2. pi. impf. and
ipv., 133 A 5.

tanu, a. thin, 98 c.

tanu, f. body, p. 89 (par.) ; self,

115 b.

tandri, f. weariness, p. 88 a.
tap, heat, pf, 137, 2 a ; 138 b ;
140, 1 ; s ao., 144, 2 ; red. ao.
sb., 149, 2.
tapus, a. hot, 83, 2 c.
tarn, faint, pr. stem, 133 B 3.
-tama, sec. spv. sf., 103, 1 ; 117 b;
120 a ; 182 ; ord. sf., 107 ; ad-
verbs formed vv., p. 301 /3; ac-
centuation of, p. 454, 9 B b.

tar, f. star, 82, f. n. 5 ; 82 b.

-tar, loc. inf. of stems in, 167, 4 b.

-tara, sec. cpv. sf., 103, 1 ; 117 b ;
120 a ; 182, 2 ; adverbs formed
w., p. 301 0.

tarhi, adv. then, synt. use, 180.

tavastara, cpv. stronger, 103, 1.

-tavai, dat. inf. in, senses of,
211, 165; accentuation of,
p. 452, 7.

-tavya, gdv. suffix, 162 ; 162, 5 ;
209, 5.

tavyams, cpv. stronger, 103, 2 o.

-tas, adv. sf., w. abl. sense, 179, 2.

tasthivams, pf. pt. of stha, 89 «.

tdsmad, abl. adv. therefore, 180.

-ta, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.

-tat, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; steins
in, 77, 1 ; adv. sf. w. abl. sense,
179, 2 ; ending of 2. s. pr. ipv.
act., p. 125; 133 A 4 ; 133 C 3 a;
134 C 4 5 ; 168 e, f. n. 2 (cs.).

-tati, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.

tad, adv. thus, 178, 5.

tadfs, prn. cd. such, 117.

tadrsa, prn. cd., such, p. 113,
f.'n. 4.

tavak6, poss. prn. thy, 116 b.

tavant, prn. der. so great, 118 c.

-ti, inn. a. sf., 118 a; pri. nom.
sf, 182, 1 6.

tirasci, m. a man's name, 100, 1 b.

tir&s, prp. across, w. ace.. 176, 1 ;
197 B c ; adv. across, ' 179, 2 ;
aside, compounded w. verbs,
184 6.

tiryanc, a. transverse, 93 a.

tlksnd, a. sharp, 103, 2 /3.

tiksmyams, cpv. sharper, 103, 2 0.

tu, pel. then, but, synt. use, 180.

I 1

482

VEDIC INDEX

-tu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6.

tud, thrust, pr., 125, 2 ; 133 C 1 ;

pf., 138, 1.

-turn, ace. inf. in, p. 194; 211, 2 6.
turiya, ord. fourth, 107.
tuvisvan, a. roaring aloud, 77, 5.
-tr, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6 ; stems

'in, 101,2; p. 453, 9 Ad.
tfroa, m. n. triplet, p. 446, 11 A.
trtiya, ord. third, 107 ; 120 c 3.
trp, be pleased, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
trsnaj, a. thirsty, 79, 3 b.
trhj crush, pr. stem, 134 D 2.
tr, cross, pr. stem, 133 B 2 ; 133 C 3.
te, encl. dat. gen. s. of tvam, thou,

109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.
tdjistha, spv. very sharp, 103, 2.
tsjiyams, cpv. sharper, 103, 2.
tena, inst. adv. therefore, 180.
Taittirlya Aranyaka, accented,

p. 448, 1.
Taittirlya Brahmana, accented,

p. 448, 1 ; p. 449. '
Taittirlya Samhita,how accented ,

p. 449.
-tos, abl. gen. inf. in, 167, 3 b ;

211, 86.
-tta, syncopated pp. of da, give,

160, 2 6.

-tna, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
•tnu, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
tman, m. self, 90, 2.
tya, dem. prn. that, 110 a 2 ;

195 B 5.

-tya, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
-tya, gd. suffix, 164 ; 165 ; 210.
tyaj, forsake, pr. stem, 135, 4.
tyad, dem. prn. n. as adv., 195 B 5.
-tra, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
tra, adv. sf. \v. loc. sense, 179, 3 ;

- loc., 179, 3 a.

traya, nm. der. threefold, 108 c.
tra, protect, s ao. op., 143, 4.
tra, m. protector, 97, 2.
-tra, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
tri, nm. three, 104 ; 105, 3 (par.) ;

in Bv. compounds, p. 455, lOc, d.
trimsat, nm. thirty, 104; 106 d

(par.).
tridha, nm. adv. in three ivays,

108ft.
trivft, a. threefold, 77.

tristubh, f. triple praise, 78, 2
ij>ar.) ; a metre, p. 438, f n. 1,2 ;
p. 441,5; triplets, p. 446, 11 A.

tris, nm. adv. thrice, 108 a ; 179, 1 ;
AV. gen., 202 D 3.

tredha, nm. adv. in three tvays,

108 6.

tva, dem. prn. many a one, 112 a a

(par.); p. 452, 8 A a.
tva, poss. prn., thy, 116 b.
tva- = tvam, thou, in derivatives

or as first member of a cd.,

109 fc.

-tva, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2 ; sf.

forming gdv., 162 ; 162, 4 ;

209, 2.

tvae, f. skin, 79, 1.
tvad-, prs. prn. as first member

of a cd., 109 &.

tvadyoni, a. derived from thee, 1096.
-tvana, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
tvam, prs. prn. thou, 109 (par.).
tvayata, Tp. cd. presented by thee,

1096.
tva, encl. prs. prn. ace. of tvam,

109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
-tva, suffix of gd., 163, 2; 210.
-tvaya, suffix of gd., 163, 3 ; 210 ;

added to cs. stem, p. 189, f. n. 1.
tvava, emphasizing pel., 180.
tvavant, prn. der. like thee, 118 c.
tvis, be stirred, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c.
tvis, f. excitement, 80.
-tvi,suffix of gd., 163, 1 ; 210.
tvai, pel. but indeed, 180.
ts&,r,approach stealthily, s ao., 144, 5.

-Tha, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sec.

nom. suffix, 182, 2.
-tham, adv. suffix, 179, 1 a.
-tha, pri. vom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
-tha, adv. suffix of manner

(=inst.), 179, 1.

Dams, bite, pr. stem, 133 A 4.
daksat, ao. pt. of dan, lurn, 85 b.
daksinatas, adv. from the right,

179,' 2 ; \v. gen., 202 D.
daksinatra, adv. on the right,

179,' 3.
daksinena, adv. south of, w. ace.,

197 Be ^3; p. 209, f. n. 3.

VEDIC INDEX

483

dagh, reach, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ;

ipv., 148, 5; prc., 148, 4 a.
dattd, pp. of da, give, 160, 26;

134 B 3 0.

d&dat, pr. pt. of da, </tre, 85 b.
dadhf, 11. cw/tfs, 99, 4.
dadhfk, adv. boldly, 80.
dadhfs, a. bold, 80.
d4nt,'m. tooth, 85 a.
dabh, /tarm, pf., 137, 2 a.
dam, n. (?), house, 78, 3.
-dam, adv. suffix of time, 179, o.
d&mpati, m. Zorc? o/ the house,

78, 3 a ; p. 273, f. n. 3.
daviyams,/arMer, 103, '2 a.
d&sa, nni. ten, 10(5 c (par.).
dasataya, inn. der. tenfold, 108 c.
dasamd, orcl. fentfi, 107.
d&syave vfka, in. Wolf to theDasyv,

as a name, 200 A 2 a 7.
dah, burn, s ao., 144, 5 ; s ao. pt.,

143 6; 156 a; ft., 151 a ; pt.,

151 6 2.

1. da, give, pr. stem, 134 B 1 6 ;
134 B 3 a ; 134 B 3 £ ; pf. pt.,
157 ; 157 b a ; s ao., 144, 3 ;
a ao., 147 a 1 ; rt. ao, inj.,
148,3; op., 148, 4; ft., 151 a;
pp., 160, 2 b.

2. da, ait, s ao., 144, 3 ; op., 143, 4.
da, m. giver, 97, 2.

-da, adv. suffix of time, 179, 3.
datar, m. giver, 101, 2 (par.),
-danim, adv. suffix of time.

179, 3 0.

daman, n. giving, 90, 2.
daru, n. wood, 98 a (p. 83).
davan, n. giving, 90, 3.
das, f. ivorship, 79, 4.
das at, pr. pt. ivorshipping, 85 b ;

156 o.

dasivams, unred. pf. pt., 157 b.
dasvams, unred. pf. pt., 157 b.
didrks^nya, ds. gdv. ivorthy to be

seen', 162, 3.

div,play, fourth conj. class, 125, 3.
div, m. f. sky, 99, 5 (p. 85, f. n. 1).
diva, inst. adv. by day, 178, 3.
divSdive, itv. cd. day by day,

189 C a ; 200 B 3 a.
dis, f. direction, 63 b (f. n. 1) ;

79,4.

| dip, shine, irr. red. ao. , 149 a 1.
dirgh&, a. long, 103, 2 a.
dughana, pr. pt. mid. of duh,

•milk, 158 a.

I dus, spoil, cs. future of, 151 a a.
; dustara, a. hard to cross, 50 6.
duhs&ha, a. hard to resist, 50 b.
dus-, adv. in cds., Sandhi of, 49 c ;

accent of, p. 455, 10 c a.
duh, milk, pr. stem, 134 A 4 b ;
134 A 4 c a ; sa ao., 141 a ; s ao.
op., 143, 4.

i duhana, pr.pt., mid. of duh, 158 a.
I duhitar, f. daughter, 101, 2.
! du, f. gift, 100 II a.
| dudabha, a. hard to deceive, 49 c.
', dudas, a. not tvorshipping, 49 c.
| dudhi, a. malevolent, 49 c.
dundsa, a. hard to attain, 49 c.
dunasa, a. hard to destroy, 49 c.
i duti, f. messenger, p. 88 a.
| dur&, a./ar, cpv. of, 103, 2 d.
j duram, adv./ar, 178, 2.
durat, abl. adv. /row cr/ar, 178, 5
dur6, loc. adv. afar, 178, 7.
dr, fear, s ao. op., 143, 4 ; rt.ao.

'148, 1 d.

-drksa, sf. in prn. cds. =like, 117.
drs", 'see, pf. pt., 157 ; rt. ao. inj.,
'148, 3; pt., 148, 6 ; a ao., 147 c ;
ps. ao., 155.

dfs', f. look, 63 b (f. n. 1) ; 79, 4.
-drs, sf. in prn. cds. = like, 117.
drs~e", to see, dat. inf., 167 a (p. 191).
di-sad, f. nether millstone, 77, 3 6.
drh, make firm, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
d^ya, gdv. to be given, 162, 1 a.
Devata-dvandva cds., accent of,

p. 457, e )8.

devatat, f. divine service, 77, 1.
devattd, Tp. cd. given by the goda,

160, 2 6.
devadrydnc, a. godward, 93 (p. 73,

f. n. 1).
devasas, adv. to each of the gods,

179, 1.

devanc, a. godward, 93 6.
devi, f. goddess, 100 I b (par.).
devf, m. husband's brother, 101, 1.
dehi, 2. s. pr. ipv. act. of da, give.

134 BIZ/,
dos, n. arm, 83, 1.

i 2

484

VEDIC INDEX

dydv, in. f. sky, 99, 5 (p. 85, f. n. 1).
dySvah, N. pi. the (three) heavens,

193, 3 a.
dyava, elliptical du. heaven and

earth, 193, 2 a ; 186 B 3 a.
dyu, in. day, 98 d ; m. f. sky, 99, 5

(par.).
dyut, shine, pf., 139, 8 ; s ao.,

144, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1 ; irr.

red. ao., 149 a 1.
dyut, f. brilliance, 77, 1.
dyo, in. f. sky, 102 ; 102, 3 (par.) ;

accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
dyaus, m. N. of dyo, sky, 99, 5 ;

voc., accentuation of, p. 457,

11 a.

draghman, m. length, 90, 2.
draghistha, spv. longest, 103, 2 a.
draghiyams, cpv. longer, 103, 2 a.
dru, n. wood, accent, p. 458 c 1.
drub, m.. fiend, 81.
dva, nm. <tco, 104 ; 105, 2 (par.).
dvandva, n. .pair, 189 (p. 282,

f. n. 4) ; compounds, 186 ; ac-
centuation of, p. 457, 10, 2 e.
dvay&, nm. der. twofold, 108 c.
dvadasa, nm. twelve, 104 ; 106 c

(par.).

dvapancasd, ord. fifty-second, 107.
dvar, f. door, 82 (f. n. 5) ; 82 a.
dvi, nm. two, in cds. and der.,

105, 2 (f. n. 2) ; in Bv. com-
pounds, p. 455, 10 c a.
dvita, adv. doubly, synt. use, 180.
dvitiya, ord. second, 107.
dvidha, iim. adv. in two icays,

108 b ; 179, 1.
dvipada, f. stanza of two verses,

p. 441, 5 a.
dvipada viraj, f. a metre, p. 437,

f. 11. 2 ; p. 443.
dvis, hate, sa aorist, 141 a.
dvis, f. hatred, 80.
dvis, nm. adv. twice, 108 a ; 179, 1 ;

w. gen., 202 D 3.

Dh, stems in, 77, 4.

-dhak = -dah + s, N. sing., 81 a.

dh&ksat, s ao. pt. of dan, burn,

85 & ; 143, 6.
dh&nvan, n. bow, 90, 3.
dhartr, n. prop, 101, 2 b.

1. dha, put, pr. stem, 134 B 1 6 ;
134 B 3 a; 134 B 3 0 ; pf.,
137, 2 e ; 138, 3 ; a ao., 147 a 1 ;
rfc. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; op., 148, 4 ;
ipv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao., 155.

2. dha, suck, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
-dha, adv. sf. of manner, 179, 1.
-dhi, compounds in, 98 d.

-dhi, 2. s. ipv. act. ending,

134 C 4 5.

dhik, ij. fie I w. ace., 197 B c 7.
dhi, f. thought, 100, la; 100, I b

(par.).

-dhuk - -duh + s, N. s. milking, 81 a.
dhiir, f. burden, 82, f. n. 5.
dhursdd, a. being on the yoke, 49 d.
dhursah, a. bearing the yoke, 49 d.
dhr, hold, irr. red. ao., 149 a 1 ;

inj., 149, 3; ipv., 149, 5; ps.

stem, 154 d ; ca. ft., 151 a a.
dhrsaj, a. bold, 79, 3 &.
dhrsad, f. nether millstone, 77, 3 b.
dhehf, 2. s. pr. ipv. act. of dha,

put, 134 B 1 b.
dhmatr, n. smithy, 101, 2 b.
-dhyaij inf., used elliptically,

211, 1 & 7.
-dhruk = druh + s, N. s. hating,

81 a.
-dhva, ending of 2. pi. mid.,

133 A 5.

dhvams, scatter, a ao., 147 6.
-dhvam, 2. pi. ending, cerebra-

lized, 144, 2 a.

N, dental nasal, never cerebra-
lized in ghn = han, in cds.,
50c/3 ; inserted, in N. s., 79,4 a,
in N. pi. n. of as, is, us steins,
83 ; loss of : in pr., 134 A 2 c,
p. 121, f. n. 1, 134 A 4 a, in
final an stems of Karmadha-
rayas, 188, 2 a, of Bahuvrihis,
189, 4 a, in -ant, 156 a ; stems
in radical, 77, 5 ; influence of
stems in, 98 ; 98 a.

na, pel. not, 180 ; w. sb., 215 C 2 ft,
w. inj. (=ft.)» 215 c 1. w. op.,
p. 362 a, p. 364 7, \v. prc., 217 ;
like, 180.

-na, pri. 110111. sf., 182, 1 b ; pp.
sf., 160.

VEDIC INDEX

485

ndkis, indec. prn. no one, never,

180 ; 113, f. n. 2.
n&kim, adv. prn. never, 180.
ndktam, ace. adv. by night, 178, 2 ;

197 A 5 a.

naktaya, inst. adv. by night, 178, 3 a.
nadi, f. stream, 100, 1 a ; 100, I b a.
n&dh, f. bond, 77, 4.
n&nandr, m. husband's sister, 101, 1.
ndnu, adv. by no means, 180.
n&pat, m. grandson, 101, 2, f. n. 5;

101, 2 a.

ndptr, m. grandson, 101, 2 ; 101, 2 a.
nabti, f. destroyer, 78, 2.
nam, feenrf, pf., 137, 2 or.
namas, n. obeisance, w. kr, 184 c.
namasyd, den., 175 B (par.),
n&mi, m. a name, 100, I b.
naVa, a. neir, cpv. and spv. of,

103, 2 0.

naVa, nm. nine, 104 ; 106 c (par.),
navatf, nm. ninety, 104 ; 106 d

(par.).
naVadasa, nm. nineteen, 104 ;

106 c (par.).
navadha, nm. adv. in nine trays,

108 6.

navamd, ord. ninth, 107.
naVistha, spv. newest, 103, 2 0.
ndvedas, a. cognisant, 83, 2 a a.
naviyams, cpv. nearer, 103, 2 #.
naVyasa, inst. adv. anew, 178, 3.
navyams, cpv. newer, 103, 2 a.

1. nas, reach, rt. ao., 148, 1 d, inj.,
148, 3, op., 148, 4.

2. nas, be lost, red. ao., 149, 1 ;
irr., 149 a 2.

nds, f. m0W, 79, 4.

nas, prn. MS, ace., dat., gen., pi.,

109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.

rahf, adv. for not, by no means, 180.

n&hus, m. neighbour, S3, 2 c.

-na, conjugational class formed

w., 127, 5.

-n§, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
ntinadh.1, a. having diverse intentions,

ICO, I a.
nama, adv. by name, 178, 2 ; 180 ;

197 A 5 a.

namatha, adv. by name, 179, 1.
na«, ^ nose, S3, 1.
-ni, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.

nii, n-ash, s ao., 144, 2; int.,

174 (par.).

nity&m, adv. constantly, 178, 2.
nid, f. contempt, 77, 3 a.
nidhf, m. treasury, 98 d.
nimruc, f. sunset, 79, 1.
iiiyiita, n. a hundred thousand,

104.

nirnfj, f. bright garment, 79, 3 «.
nih, f. destroyer, 81.
ni, lead, pf., 138, 4 ; s ao. ipv.,

143, 5 ; ft., 151 a.
-ni, secondary nom. sf., 182, 2.
mi or nu, adv. now, synt. use, 180.
-nu, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
-nu, conj. class formed with,

127, 3.
nud, push, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ;

ft. sb., 151 6 1.
-nude, dat. inf. to push, 167 a

(p. 191).
nu cid, adv. never, w. op., 216, 2 a a

(p. 362).

nunam, adv. now, 178, 2 a ; 180.
nf, m. man, 101, 1 ; accentuation

'of, p. 458, c 1.
nft, f. dancing, 77, 1.
ned, neg. pel. certainly not, lest,
180; toa* wo£ w. sb., 215
(p. 355 a) ; accents verb, 467,
19 B.

nedistha, spv. nearest, 103, 2 b.
nedistham, adv. nearest, w. gen.,

202 'D.
nediyas, adv. nearer, w. gen.,

202 D.

nediyams, cpv. nearer, 103, 2 b.
nema, prn. other, 120 c 2 (par.),
nau, encl. du. prn. us two, 109 « ;

p. 452, 8 A a.

nau, f. ship, 102 ; 102, 4 (par.),
ny&nc, a. downward, 93 a.
nyarbuda, n. a hundred millions,

104.

-ns, original ending of ace. pi. of
a stems, 97, f. n. 8 (p. 78).

Pankti, stanza, p. 440, c ; triplets,

p. 446, 11 A.
pac, ro<;fr, pf., 137, 2 «.
panca, nm.five, 104; 106 c (par).

486

VEDIC INDEX

p&ncadasa, nm. fifteen, 104 ; 106 c

(par.),
pancadha, nm. adv. in fire u-ays,

1086.

pancamd, ord. fifth, 107.
paficas&t, nm. fifty, 104.
p&t, fly, fall, pf., 137, 2 a; 137, 2 6 a ;

pf. pt., 157 a ; red. ao., 149 a 2,

ipv., 149, 5.

pat&ya, iterative vb. fly about, 168.
pati, m. husband, lord, 99, 1 ; ac-
centuation of, in cds., p. 456, 2a.
p&tir d&n, m. lord of the house,

78, 3 a.
p6tni, f. wife, lady, 99, 1 ; as f. for

p&ti when final member of Bv.,

189, 4 e.

p&tk, m. path, 77, 2.
p&thi, m. path, 99, 2 «.
pad, walk, precative, 148, 4 a.
p&d, m. /oo£, 77, 8 a.
pada-patha, m. Pada text, 2 ; 25 c a,

f. n. l" (p. 26) ; p. 25, f. n. 2 ;

41 a ; p. 88. f. n. 5 ; p. 37, f. n. 5 ;

p. 64, f. n. 3 ; p. 67, f. n. 4 ;

p. 205, f. n. 3 ; p. 206, f. n. 2;

p. 454, 10 a.

pan, admire, pf., 187, 2 b.
p&nthan, m. path, 91, 1.
p&ntha, m. path, 97, 2 a.
p&nyams, cpv. more wonderful,

103,/2 a.

papivams, pf. pt. of pa, drink, 89 a.
paptivams, pf. pt. of pat, fiy, 89 a.
-paya, cs. suffix, 168 d ; irr. 2.
para, a. ulterior, 120 c 2 (par.) ;

higher, as final member of Bv.,

189, 1 b.

parama", spv. farthest, 120 c 1.
par&s, adv. beyond, 179, 3 ; prp. w.

ace., 177, 1, inst., 177, 2, abl.,
. 177, 3.
par&stad, adv. prp. after, w. gen.,

177, 4, f. n. 1 ; above, 202 D.
p&ranc, a. turned away, 93 b.
parad&i, dat. inf. to give up, p. 79,

f. n. 1 ; p. 191.
p&ri, prp. around, w. ace. and abl.,

176, 1 a.

p&rijman, a. going round, 90, 1 a.
paritas, adv. round about, 179, 2 ;

prp. around, w. ace., 177, 1.

paribhu, a. surrounding, 98 d.
paribhu, a. surrounding, 100, II a.
pdritta, pp. of pari-da, give away,

160, 2 6.
p&rena, inst. adv. beyond, w. ace.,

197 B c 0 ; p. 209, f. n. 3.
parvas&s, adv. joint by joint, 179, 1.
pas = spas, see, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
pas', f. sight, 79, 4.
pasutfp, a. delighting in cattle, 78, 1,
pasum&nt, a. possessing cattle, 86

(p. 64, f. n. 3).
pasca, adv. behind, 178, 3 6.
pascat, abl. adv. from behind,

178, 5 ; w. gen., 202 D.
pascatat, adv./rom behind, 179, 2.

1. pa, drink, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;
134 B 3 0, rt. ao. prc., 148, 4 o ;
ipv., 148, 5.

2. pa, protect, pr. stem, 134 A 4 c.
Panini, m. a grammarian, 15.
pad, m. foot, 77, 3.

pada, m.foot, compounded w. gd.,

184 c ; quarter stanza, verse, 16 ;

18 a ; 48 ; p. 436, 1.
pap&, a. bad, cpv. of, p. 96, f. n. 1.
papiyams, cpv. worse, p. 96, f. n. 1.
pitar, m. father, 10J, 2 (par.).
pitara, elliptical du., father and

mother, 186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
^inv, fatten, 133 A 3 b ; 134 C 4 0.
pis, adorn, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
pis, f. ornament, 79, 4.
pumscalii, f. courtesan, p. 89, f. n. 1 .
pums, m. man, 83, 1 ; 96, 3.
pur, f. stronghold, 82 (par.),
purausnih, f. a metre, p. 444, 2.
pur&s,' adv. before, 179, 3 ; prp.

before, w. loc., ace., abl., 176, 2 ;

202 I) ; compounded w. verbs,

1846.
pur&stad, adv. in front, 179, 2 ;

prp. in front of, w. gen., 177, 4 ;

202 D.
pura, adv. formerly, w. pr.,

212 A 2 a ; w. sma, 180 ; prp.

before, w. abl., ace., inst., 177, 3 ;

179, 3 7.

puranavat, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
I puru, a. much, in Bv. compounds,
p. 455, 10 c a.

VEDIC INDEX

487

purutra, adv. in many places,

179, 3.

purudha, adv. variously, 179, 1.
purodas, m. sacrificial cake, 79, 4 a.
pu, purify, pr. stem, 134 E 1.
purpati, m. lord of the stronghold,

^49 d.
purva, a. prior, 120 c 2 (par .) ;

p. 454, 10.

puiva'th.a, adv. formerly, 179, 1.
purvam, adv./orwerZ*/, 178, 2.
purvavdt, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
pusan, m. a god, 90 (p. 68).
pr, cross, pr. stem, 134 B 3 a ; s ao.

'ipv., 143, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1 ;

loc. inf., 167, 4 c.
pfks, f. satiation, 80.
pro, mix, s ao., 144, 4. 5.
pfch, a. asking, 79, 2.
prche", dat. inf. to ask, 79, 2 j

'167 « (p. 191).
prthivis, f. pi. the (three) earths,

'193, 3 a.

pfthi, m. a man, 100, I & (p. 87).
prsant, (pt.) a. spotted, 85 a.
pf I fill, pr. stem, 133 B 2, 134 E 4 a ;
'rt. ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; red. ao. ipv.,

149, 5 ; ps., 154, 4, f. n. 2 ; cs.,

168, irr. 5.

pya,./?M up, sis aorist, 146.
prakhydi, dat. inf. to see, 97, 2

(p. 79), f. n. 1.
pragatha, m. mixed strophe, p. 446,

11 B.
pragrhya, unconir 'actable, vowels,

24-6 ; 24, f. n. 2. ; p. 437, f. n. 3.
prach, as/,-, s aorist, 144, 5.
pratar&m, ace. adv. furthermore,

197 A 5 & 0.
pr&ti, prp. against, w. ace., 176, 1 ;

197 B c.
pratimai, dat. inf. to imitate, 97, 2,

f. n. 1.
pratitta, pp. of prati-da, give back,

160, 2 &.

pratndtha, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
pratnavat, adv. as of old, 179, 1.
pratyafic, a. turned towards, 93

(par.) ; w. ace., 197 B a.
prathama, ord. first, 107; 120 c 3.
prathamam, adv. ace. first,

\ 97 A 5 b a.

prathamajd, a. first-born, 97, 3.
prathiman, m. icidth, 90, 2.
prame, dat. inf. to form} 167, 1,

f. n. 2 (p. 191).
prayaj, f. offering, 79, 3 a.
prayuta, nm. n. million, 104.
pravat, f. fc«gW, 77, 1.
pras, asA-, pr. stem, 133 C 2.
prahye, dat. inf. to send, 167 a

(p. 181).
pr§, fill, irr. pf., 136, 4 ; s ao.,

144, 5.

praktat, adv./rom the front, 179, 2.
piaca, inst. adv. forwards, 178, 3 6.
pranc, a. forward, 93 &.
pratar, adv. earZt/, w. gen., 202 D 2.
prataritvas, v. of -van stem, 90, 3.
pradur, adv. before the door, w. bnu,

1846.

pras, f. dispute, 79, 4.
priy^i, a. dear, 97, 1 (par.) ; sec.

cpv. of, 103, 1.
priyadha, adv. kindly, 179, 1.
prem&n, m. love, 90, 2.
pr^yams, pri. cpv. of priy£, dear,

103, '2 a; f. of, 88, f. n. 1.
pre"stha, spv. dearest, 103, 2 a.
plu,' 'float, red. aorist, 149, 1.
psur, f. victuals, 82, f. n 5.

Phat, ij. crash! 181.
phai, ij. splash! 181.

Bat, ij. frwfy, 181.

bata, ij. afas / 181.

bandh, bind, pr. stem, 134 E 3, 4 ;

pf, 139, 1 ; ft., 151 a ; ps.,

154, 5.

babhru, a. f. brown, 100, II &.
barhistha, spv. very lofty, 103, 2 a.
bahirdha, adv. outioard, 179, 1 ;

prp. /row* out, w. abl., 177, 3.
bahu, a. much, in Bv. compounds,

p. 455, 10 c a.

bahutra, adv. among many, 179, 3.
bahudha, adv. in many loays,

17$, 1.
bahuvrihi (a. having much rice}

compounds, 100, I a ; 189 ; as

substantives, 189, 3 ; ending

modified, 189, 4 d ; suffixes a,

488

VEDIC INDEX

ya, ka, in added to, 189, 4 ft, c;

accentuation of, p. 455, 10 c.
barhata pragatha, m. a kind of

mixed strophe, p. 446, 11 B 2.
bal, ij. dash ! 181.
bibibabhavant, pt. crackling, 184 cL
bibhyat, pr. pt. of bhi,/cor, 85 I.
bibhatsu, ds.a. loathing, 100, lib a,

f. n. 3.
budh, wake, ao., 141 ; rt. ao. pt.,

148, 6 ; red. ao., 149, 1 ; ps. ao.,

155.
brhati, f. a metre, p. 444, 8 6 ;

'p. 446, 11 A.
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, ac-

'cented, p. 448, 1.
brhant, (pt.) a. great, 85 a ; cpv.

" of, 103, 2 a ; accentuation of,

p. 459.
bodhi, 2. s. ipv. rt. ao. of bhu, be

and budh, wake, 148, 5 ; cp. 62,

f. n. 1.

bru, speak, pr. stem, 134 A 1 c a ;
134 A 4 c a.

-Bha, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
bhagavattara, cpv. more bounteous,

103, 1.

bhagavant, a. bounteous, 86.
bhaj, share, pf., 139, 1 ; s. ao. op.,

143, 4; red. ao., 149, 1 ; cs.,

154, 6 a.
bhanj, break, pr. stem, 134 D 1 ;

pr. pt., 85 ; ps., 154, 5.
bhadrapapas, N. pi. Dv. cd., the

good and the bad, 186 A 2.
bhartf, a. supporting, 101, 2 6.
bharbharabhavat, impf. became

confounded, 184 d.
bhala, pel. indeed, p. 452, 8 Ab.
bhavan, m. Your Honour, w. 3.

prs. s., 195 A c.
bhavlyams, cpv. more, 88.
bhas, cheiv, pi*, stem, 134 B 3 ;

134 B 3 0.

bhasad, f. hind quarters, 77, 8 6.
-bhaj, a. sharing, 79, 3 a, f. n. 3.
bhamitfi,, den. pp. enraged, 160,

3, f. n. 2.

bhfb, n. light, 83, 1.
bhid, pierce, rt. ao., 148, 1 d ; inj.,

148, 3.

bhid, f. destroyer, 77, 3 a.

bhi, f.fear, 100, I a.

bhi, /ear, s ao., 144, 2 ; rt. ao. inj.,

148, 3, pt., 148, 6 ; red. ao.,

149, 1 ; cs., 168, in*. 3.
bhisaya, cs. frighten : red. ao.,

149 a 3.

bhuk, ij. bang ! 181. ^
bhuj, enjoy, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3.
bhuje, dat. inf., to enjoy, 167 a

(p. 191).

bhurij, f. arm, 79, 3 b.
bhuv<§, inf. to be, 167 a (p. 191).
bhu, be, as representing first class

of theaconj., 125, 1 ; pr. system

of, 132 (par.); pf., 139, 7;

140, 3. 4. 5; pt. 157; rt. ao.,

148, 1 c (par.), inj., 148, 3, prc.,

148, 4 a, op., 148, 4, ipv., 148, 5 ;

red. ao., 149, 1, pt., 151 a ;

per. ft., 152.

bhu, f. earth, 100, II « ; II b (par.).
bhumdn, m. abundance, 90, 2.
b human, n. earth, 90. 2.
bhumi, f. earth, 98 a.
bhuyas, cpv. adv. ace. more, 178, 2.
bhuyams, cpv. more, 88 ; becoming

more,*108, 2 a; as final member

of Bv., 189, 1 &.

bhuyistha, spv. greatest, 103, 2 a.
bhuridavattara, cpv. a. giving more

abundantly, 103, 1.

M, final^ before vowels, 41, some-
times dropped, 41 a ; before
consonants, 42 ; 42, 1, f. n. 1 ;
unchanged in internal Sandhi,
68 ; becomes n, 68.

ma-, prn. stem of first prs. in der.
and cds., 109 6.

-ma, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; sec.
nom. sf., 182, 2 ; p. 454, 9 B c.

mamhistha, spv. most liberal, 103, 2.

maghdvan, a. bountiful, 91, 5.

maghaVant, a. bountiful, 91, 5,
f. n. 3.

matkrta, Tp. cd. done by me, 109 6.

mattds, adv. /row me, 179, 2.

mad, be exhilarated, pr. stem,
133 B 3 ; rt. ao. ipv., 148, 5.

mad-, prn. stem of 1st prs.,
109 b.

VEDIC INDEX

489

madfntara, cpv. more gladdening,

103, 1 a.

m&dhu, a. sweet, 98 (par.),
madhyamd, spv. middlemost,

120 c 1.
madhya, inst. adv. in the midst,

178, 3 6 ; 211, 3 b.

man, think, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;

pf., 137, 2 fc ; s ao., 143, 3 ; irr.

144, 3.
-man, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ;

stems in, 90 ; p. 453, 9 A e.
manas, n. mind, 83, 2.
manuv&t, adv. like Manu, 179, 1.
maims, m. a name, 83, 2 (.
-mant, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems

in, 86.

manth, shake, pr. stem, 134 E 3.
mantha, m. churning stick, 97, 2 a.
manmasas, adv. each as he is

minded, 179, 1.

mamaka, poss. prn. my, 116 a.
mamasatyfi,, n. dispute as to owner-
ship, synt. cd., 189 B c.
-maya, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
mariit, m. storm-god, 77, 1.
martitsakhi, a. having the Maruts

as friends, 99, 2 a.
martyatra, adv. among mortals,

179, 3.

marmrj^nya, int. s;dv. to be glori-
fied,'162, 3.

malmalabhavant, pt. glittering,
184 d.

masmasa-kr, crush, 184 d.

-mas, vocatives in, 86.

-masi, 1. pi. ind. ending, fre-
quency of, p. 125, f. n. 2.

masmasa-kr, crush, 184 d.

mah, a. great. 81.

mahaiit, a. grreaf, 85 a (par.) ;
accentuation of, p. 459.

mahds, a. great, 83, 2 a a.

maha, a. great. 97, 2 a ; for mahat-
in Karmadharayas and Bahu-
vrlhis, p. 275, f. n. 1.

mahapaiikti, a metre, p. 440 d.

mahimaii, m. greatness, 90, 2.

mahe", inf. to be *glad, 167 a
(p. 191).

1. ma, measure, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a •
root ao. ipv., 148, 5.

2. ma, bellow, pr. stem, 134 B 3/3 ;
red. ao. inj., 149, 3.

3. ma, exchange, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
ma, f. measure, 97, 2.

ma, encl. prs. prn. ace. s., me,

J09a; p. 452, 8 A a.
ma, prohibitive pel. not, 128 c;

180 ; w. inj., 215 c 2 a ; never

w. ipv., 215 b a.
makis, prohibitive prn. pel. no

one, never, 113, f. n. 2 ; 180.
makim, prohibitive prn. pel. no

one, 180.

xnatfir, f. mother, 101, 2 (par.),
matara, f. du. mother and father,

186 B 3 a.

| matarisvan, m. a name, 90 a.
matali, m. a name, 100, I b.
matftama, f. spv. most motherly,

103, 1 e.

-mana, sf. of mid. pt., 158.
mamaka, possessive prn., 116 a.
mampasy&, synt. cd., a plant,

189 B c.

mavant, prn. der. like me, 118 c.
mils, m. month, 83, 1.
mas, n. flesh, 83, 1.
-mi, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
mitradha, adv. in a friendly way,

179, 1.
mitra, m. du. Mitra and Varuna,

186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.
mitrasas, m. pi. = Mitra, Vanina,

Aryaman, 193, 3 a.
mith&s, adv. wrongly, 179, 3.
mithu, adv. wrongly, 179, 3 7.
: -min, stems in, 87.
I mih, shed water, ft., 151 a; inf.,

167 (p. 191).
mih, f. mist, 81.
-mi, pri. nom. suffix, 182, 1 b.
\ mldhvams, a. bountiful, 157 b.
mimamsitdi,, pp. of des. of man,

think, 160, 3, f. n. 2.
milhustama, spv. most gracious,

l'03,'i 6.
; muc, release, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ; s

ao. opt., 143, 4 ; rt. ao., 148, 1 a;

prc., 148, 4 d.
mud, f. joy, 77, 3 a.
mu>, m. destroyer, 82, f. n. 6.
murdh&n, m. head, 90.

490

VEDIC INDEX

1. mr, die, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; ps.. !
154 rf.

2. mr, crush, pr. stem, 134 E 4 a.
mrc, 'injure, s ao. op., 143, 4.
mfc, f. injury, 79, 1.

mrj, wipe, pr. stem, 134, 1 b ; sa

ao., 141 a.
mfd, f. clay, 77, 3 a.
mfdh, f. conA'trt, 77, 4.
mrs, fcwcft, sa ao., 141 a.
mrs, neglect, rt. ao. inj., 148, 3.
mrsmrsa-kr, crush, 184 rf.
me, encl. prn. dat. gen. s. of

aham, 109 a ; p. 452, 8 A a.
medha, m. sacrifice, accent of, in

cds. , p. 454, 10.
medhas, n. wisdom, 83, 2 a a.
Maitrayam Samhita, accent ua-

,tion of, p. 450,' 3.
-mna, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
myaks, be situated, rt. ao., 148, 1 d.

Y, interposed in ps. ao., 155 ; in

cs., 168 ; irr., 4.
ya, i'el. prn. who, 114 (par.).
-ya, gdv. sf., 162; 209,1; gd. sf.,

210; den. sf., 175; sec. nom.

sf., 182, 2.
yams6nya, ao. gdv. to be guided,

162, 3.

yaka, rel. prn. who, 114 6; 117 a.
yakrt, n. liver, 77, 1.
yaj,' 'sacrifice, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf.,

137, 2 c ; sa ao., 141 a ; s ao.,

144, 5 ; root ao., 148, 5 ; pt. ft.,

151 6 2.
yajivams, pf. pt. act. of yaj,

sacrifice, 89 a.

yajistha, spv. sacrificing best, 103, 2.
yajiyams, cpv. sacrificing better,

103, 2.
yajfiani, a. leading the sacrifice,

100, I a.
yajnapriya, a. sacrifice-loving, 100,

I a.

yat, stretch, pf., 137, 2 a.
yatama, prn. a. who (of many], 1 17 b ;

120 a.
yatara, prn. a. who (of two), 117 6 ;

120 a.,
yati, nm. der. as many, 118 a.

ydtkama, a. desiring tvhat, 114 a.
yatkarin, a. doing what, 1 14 a.
yatra, adv., synt. use, 180 ; 215

(p. 358) ; w. op., 216 (p. 366).
yatha, adv. as, 114 a ; 179, 1 ;

loses accent, p. 453. 8 B a ; cj.

in order that, 180 ; 216 (p. 365) ;

as, so that, 215 (p. 358).
yad, prn. what, 114 ; when, so that,

w. sb., 215 (p. 357) ; when,

178, 2 a ; when, if, 180 ; if, w.

op., 216 (p. 363 7 1 ; p. 365 e) ;

in order that, 216 (p. 364 a) ; that,

w. op., p. 364 j8 ; w. cond. 218

(p. 368).
yada, adv. ivhen, 179, 3 ; cj., 180 ;

w. sb., 215 (p. 359, 4) ; as soon

as, w. op., 216 (p. 366, 4 0).
yadi, cj. if, when, 180; if, \v. sb.,

215 (p. 359, 5) ; if, w. op., 216

(p. 364).
yaddevatya, a. having what deity,

114 a.
-yant, prn. sf. expressing quantity,

118 b.
yam, stretch, pr. stem, 133 A 2,

135, 4; pf., 137, 2 a; 139, 2;

gd., 165 ; s ao., 144, 5; root ao.

ipv., 148, 5.
yarhi, adv. when, w. op., 216

(p. 366, 4 7).

yavistha, spv. youngest, 103, 2 a.
yasas, n. glory, 83, 2 a.
ya, low grade of, 4 a.
ya, go, sis aorist, 146.
-y^* g^' sf-5 164 ; how added,

164, 1.
-yams, cpv. sf., 103, 2 a ; stems

in, 88.
yad, adv. as far as, 178, 5; cj.,

180 ; so long as, w. sb., 215

fp. 359, 6) ; in so far as, h'rst

member of synt. cd., 189 B a.
yadfs, prn. cd. what like,lUa; 117.
yadrsa, prn. cd. what like, 117,

f.'n. 4.

yavat, cj. as long as, 180.
yavant, prn. der. as great, 118 c.

1. yu, unite, pr. stem, 134, 1 a.

2. yu, separate, 133 A 2 ; 134 B 3 a.
-yu, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ; stems

in, 98 a.

VEDIC INDEX

491

yuj, join, pr. system, 132 (pp. 136-

7); root ao. ipv., 148, 5; ft.,

151 «.

yuj, m. companion, 79, 3 a.
yudh, fight, root ao. ipv., 148, 5 ;

ds. pr. pt., 85.
yudh, f. fight, 77 ', 4.
yuva-, prs. prn. you two, 109 b.
yuvati, f. young, 95 c.
yuvan, m. youth, 90 a ; 91, 4 ; f.

of, 95 c; cpv. of, 103, 2 a;

accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
yuv&m, prn. ye two, 109.
yuvayu, a. desiring you two, 109 b.
yuvaVant, prn. der. devoted to you

two, 118 c.
yusma-, prn. you (as first member

of a cd.), 1096.
yusmayant, prn. der. desiring you,

1096.

yusmaka, poss. prn. your, 1166.
yusmakam, prn. (G. pi.) o/ ?/<m,

116 6.
yusmavant, prn. der. belonging fo

you, 118 c.

yuyam, prs. prn. ye, 109.
yeyajamahd, synt. cd., 189 B 6.
yodhana, pr. pt. of yudh, fight,

158 a.

yosan, f. woman, 90.
y6s, n. welfare, 83, 1.

R, original final, 46, f. n. 1 ;

49 d ; before r, 47 ; two r

sounds in same syllable avoided,

39, f. n. 4 ; r inserted in conj.,

134, 1 c ; stems in, 82.
ra, low grade of, 4 a (p. 4).
-ra, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6 ; sec.

nom. sf., 182, 2.
raks&s, m. demon, 83, 2 a.
raghudru, cd. a. running swiftly,

98 d.
raghuya, inst. adv. rapidly,

178, 3 a.
ratnadhatama, spv. best bestonier of

treasure, 103, 1.
rathasp&ti, m. lord of the car. 187

(p. 273, f. n. 3).
rathi, m. f. charioteer, 100, I a

(p. 86 ; 87, par.).

rathitama, spv. best charioteer,

103, 1.
r&n, m. joy, 77, 5 ; accentuation

of, p. 458, c 1.
-ran, 3. pi. ending in ppf., 140, 6 ;

in root ao., 148, 1 ; 148, 1 h.
randh, make subject, a ao., 147 6.
rabh, grasp, pf., 137, 2 a.
r&bhiyams, cpv. more violent,

103, 2 o.
ram, rejoice, red. ao. sb., 149, 2,

inj., 149, 3; sis. ao., 146.
-ram, 3. pi. mid. ending in ppf.,

140 6 (p. 158, f. n. 1) ; in root

ao., 148, 1 ; 148, 1 h.
rayintama, spv. a. very rich,

103, 1 a.

rarivams, red. pf. pt. of ra, 89 a.
rasm&n, m. rein, 90, 2.
ra, low grade of, 4 a ; 5 6 a.
ra, give, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;

134 B 3 0 ; s ao. op., 143, 4,

ipv., 143, 5 ; root ao. ipv., 148, 5.
raj, m. king, 79, 3 a.
raj an, m. king, 90.
ratri, f. night, as final member of

cds., 186 (p. 269), f. n. 2 ; 189 A

(p. 279), f. n. 3.
| radh, succeed, s ao., 144, 2 ; red.

ao. sb., 149, 2 ; red. ao. inj.,

149, 3.
rastranam, G. pi., 65 (p. 43),

f.' n. 1.

rastrl, m. ruler, 100, I 6.
-ri/pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 6.
ric, leave, s ao., 144, 5 ; root ao.

inj., 148, 3 ; red. pf. pt., 157 b o.
rip, f. deceit, 78, 1.
ris, hurt, red. ao. op., 149, 4.
ris, f. injury, 80.
1 rih&nt, (pt.) a. weak, 85 a.
ru, cry, pr. stem, 134 (p. 142,

f. 11. 1).

j -ru, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
-ruk, N. of -ruh, a. mounting, 81 a.
rue, shine, red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
rue, f. lustre, 79, 1.
ruj, break, root ao. inj., 148, 3.
rud, weep, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
rudh, obstruct, s ao., 144, 5.
rup, f. earth, 78, 1.
rusant, (pt.) a. brilliant, 85 a.

492

VEDIC INDEX

ruh, ascend, sa no., 141 a ; 168

irr. 2, f. n. 1.
ruh, f. sprout, 81.
rupdm, ace. adv. inform, 178, 2.
-re, 3. pi. mid. ending, pr.,

134 C 4 7 ; pf., 136 a, f. n. 1.
r£i, m. f. wealth, 102 ; 102, 1 (par.).

-La, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.
laksmi, f. mark, 100, I a (p. 88).
laghiyams, cpv. lighter, 103, 2 a.
laghu, a! light, cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
labh, take, pf., 137, 2 a.
lip, swieor, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
lup, break, pr. stem, 133 C 1.

Va, low grade of, 4 a.

-va, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b • adv.

sf., 179, 1.

vaghat, m. sacrifices; 85 b.
vac, speak, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf.,

137, 2c; 138, 8; red. ao. irr.,

149 a 2, op., 149, 4, ipv., 149, 5 ;

ps., 154, 6 ; ps. ao., 155.
vane, move crookedly, ps., 154, 5.
vanfj, m. trader, 79, 3 5.
-vat, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems

in, 77, 1 ; adv. sf., like, 179, 1 ;

advs. in, 197 A 5 & 7 (p. 301).
vad, speak, pr. stem, 135, 4; pf.,

137, 2c; ps., 154, 6.
vadhar, n. weapon, 101, 1.
van, 7 pin, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;

135, 4 ; pf., 137, 2 b ; 139, 2 ; s

ao. op., 143, 4 ; 3 ao., 144, 3 ;

sis ao., 146 ; root ao. ipv., 148, 5 ;

ds'., 171 (p. 200), par.
v&n, n.(?) mod, 77, 5 ; accent, p. 458

el.
-van, pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b ;

nouns in, 90, 1. 2; fern, of, 90

(p. 59, f. n. 2) ; 95 c ; sec. nom.

sf., 182, 2; v. in, 94, f. n. 4.
vanad, f. longing, 77, 3 b.
vanarsdd, a. sitting in the ivoodt

49 d.
-vant, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems

in, 86 ; pf. pt. act. in, 161 ;

205, 1 a.
vap, strew, pr. stem, 135, 4 ; pf.,

137, 2 c.

vdpustara, cpv. more wonderful,

103/1.

vapus, n. beauty, 83, 2 c.
vam, vomit, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.
! -vam, adv. suffix, 179, 1.
vay&m, prs. prn. ?re, 109.
vayas, n. vigour, 83, 2 a a.
vara, a. choice, spv. of, 103, 2 a.
varaya, dat. adv. according to wish,

178, 4.

varimdn, m. width, 90, 2.
v&ristha, spv. most excellent, 103, 2 a ;

widest, 103, 2 a.
vdriyams, cpv. wider, 103, 2 a.
varjivams, pf. pt. act. of vrj,

heist, 157 6.

varsistha, spv. highest, 103, 2 6.
varsiyams, cpv. higher, 103, 2 &.
varsman, n. height, 103, 2 b, f. n. 5.
vas, desire, pr. stem, 134 A 2 rt.
1 vas, dwett, pf., 137, 2 c ; s ao.,

144, 1; s ao., 144, 2; red. pf.

pt., 157 a.
\ 2. vas, wear, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ;

135, 4; pf., 139, 2; cs. ft,

151 a a.
j 3. vas, shine, pr. stem, 133 C 2;

s ao., 144, 1 ; s ao., 144, 5 ; root

ao., 148, 1 d.
vas, m. (?) abode, 83, 1.
vas, encl. prs. prn. A.D.G. pi. you,

109 a; p. 452, 8 A a.
-vas, v. in, 86 ; 89 ; 90, 3 ; 94, 3,

f. n. 3.

vasistha, spv. best, 103, 2 a.
vasu, n. wealth, 98 a ; spv. of, best,

103, 2 a.

vasuvan, a. bestoiving wealth, 90, 3.
v&stos, gen. adv. in the morning,

178, 6 ; 202 D 3 a.
vasyams, cpv. belter, 103, 2 a.
vah, carry, pr. stem, 135,4; pf.,

137, 2 c ; s ao,, 144, 2 ; 144, 5 ;

root ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; ps., 154, 6;

ps. sb., 154 & ; ps. ao., 155 a 1.
vahat, f. stream, 85 &.
va, low grade of, 5 & a.
va, weave, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
va, encl. cj. or, 180 ; p. 452, 8 A b.
-vams, sf. of red. pf. pt., 157;

pf. pt. in, 89 (par.).

VEDIC INDEX

498

vao, f. speech, 79, 1.

-vtbe, iiif. to apeak, 167 a (p. 191).

Vajasaneyi Samhita, how ac-
cented, p. 449.

-vat, N. sing, of -van, carrying,
81 a.

vatikrta, n. a disease, 184 d a.

vam, prs. prn. du. we two, 109 ;
p. 452, 8 A a.

vam, encl. prs. prn., A. D. G. du.,
you tioo, 109 a.

var, m. protector, 82, f. n. 0.

var, n. water, 82, f. n. 7.

varkarya, a. producing water, 49 c?.

vava, pel. certainly, 180.

vas, leUow, red. ao., 149, 1.

vi, m. bird, 99, 3 a; accent, p. 458,
cl.

vimsati, nm. twenty, 104 ; 106 d
(par.).

vie, sift, red. pf. pt., 157 & o.

vij, tremble, root ao. inj., 148, 3.

vij, f. (?) stake, 79, 3 a.

vitaram, adv. more widely, 178, 2.

1. vid, know, unred. pf., 139, 3 ;
ao. ps., 155.

2. vid, find, pr. stem, 133 C 1 ;
!34A4ca; aao., 147,1 (par.) ;
a ao. op., 147, 4 (par.).

vid, f. knowledge, 77, 3 a.
vidana, and vidana, pr. pt. mid.

of vid, find, 158 a.
vidustara, cpv. wiser, 103, 1 &.
vidvams, pf. pt. knowing, 157 b.
vidhartf, a. meting out, 101, 2 &.
-vidhe, inf. to pierce, 167 a (p. 191).
-vin, sec. nom. sf., 182, 2 ; stems

in, 87.
vina, prp. without, w. ace., 197 c a

(p. 303).
vip, f. rod, 78, 1 ; accent, p. 458,

01.

vipas, f. a river, 63 &, f. n. 2 ; 79, 4.
viprus, f. drop, 80.
vibhavas, v. radiant, 90, 3.
vibhu, a. eminent, 100, II b.
vibhvan, a. far-reaching, 90, 1 a.
viraj, f. stanza of three verses,

p. 441, 5 a.
vivisivams, red. pf. pt. of vis,

enter, 89 a ; 157 a.

vis, f. settlement, 63 b, f. n. 2 ; 79, 4
(par.).

visivams, unred. pf. pt. of vis,
enter j 157 b.

visevise, itv. cd. in every house,
189 C a.

vispati, m. lord of the house, 49 a.

visva, prn. a. all, 120 b (par.);
accent in cds., p. 454, 10.

visvatra, adv. everywhere, 179, 3.

visvatha, adv. in every ivay, 179, 1.

visvadanim, adv. always, 179, 3 /8.

visvadha, adv. in every way, 179, 1.

visvaha, adv. always, 179, 1.

vistap, f. summit, 78, 1.

visvanc, a. all-pervading, 93 a.

visarjaniya, m. spirant, 3 g ; 14 ;
15 ; 27 ; 31 ; 32 ; 37 ; 43 ; 43, 3,
f. n. 4 ; 44 ; 48 ; 49 c ; 76 ;
sandhi of final, 43 ; 44 ; some-
times becomes s before gutturals
and labials, 43, 2 a ; dropped,
43, 3 a ; 45, 1 ; 45, 2 a ; 4'8 ;
changed to r, 44 ; 46.

vispas, m. spy, 79, 4.

vi, m. receiver, 100, I a.

vlra, m. hero, accent of, in com-
pounds, p. 454, 10.

1. vr, cover, pr. stem, 134 C 3 ;
root ao., 148, 1 d, inj., 148, 3,
ipv., 148, 5, pt, 148, 6 ; red. ao.,
149, 1 ; cs. ft., 151 a a.

2. vr, choose, root ao. inj., 148, 3.
vrj, twist, sa ao., 141 a; root ao.,

'148, 1 d, op., 148, 4.
vrt, turn, ft., 151 a ; red. pf. pt.,

'157.

vrt, f. host, 77, 1.

vrtratara, cpv. aivorse Vrtra, 103, 1.
vrtrahan, a. Vrtra- slay ing, 92.
vrddha, pp. groion up, cpv. of,

'103, 2 &.

vfddhi, f. strong grade of vowels,
;5a; 5aa; 17; 17a; 19 &; 22;
23 (for Guna) ; 128 b ; in pr.
stem, 134, 1 a (irr.) ; in pf. stem,
136, 2. 3 ; in s ao., 143, 1 ; in
is ao., 145, 1 ; in ao. ps., 155 ;
in gdv., 162, 1 & ; 168, 1 c.
vrdh, grow, red. ao., 149, 1.
vrdh, f. prosperity, 77, 4 ; a. strength-
'ening. 77, 4.

494

VEDIC INDEX

vrsanasva, Bv. cd. having stallions

as steeds, 52 a.
vfsan, m. bull, 90.
vrsantama, spv. . most manly,

' 103, 1 a.
vedi, f. altar, loc. of, 98 (p. 81),

f. n. 6.

vedhas, m. ordainer, 83, 2 a a.
vehat, f. barren cow, 85 b.
v&i, emphasizing pel. indeed, 180.
vaitallya, n. a metre, p. 436, f.

n. 2.

volhave, dat. inf. to carry, 167, 164.
vyac, extend, pr. stem, 134 B 2 :

135, 4.

vyadh, pierce, pr. stem, 133 B 1.
vya, envelope, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ;

a ao., 147 a 1.
vyatta, opened, pp. of vi-a-da,

160, 2 6.

vrasc, cut, pr. stem, 133 C 2.
-vraska, a. cutting, 133 C 2, f. n. 2.
vra, f. troop, 97, 2.
vradhaiitama, spv. being most
• mighty, 103, 1 6.
vris, f . finger, 79, 4.

S, stems in, 79, 4.

-sa, sec. nom. suffix, 182, 2.

sams, praise, ps., 154, 5.

sak, fee able, pf., 137, 2 a ; root ao.

ipv., 148, 5.

sakrt, n. excrement, 77, 1.
sakvari, f. a metre, p. 440 d ;

p. 441, f. 11. 6.
sad, f. might, 100, I &.
satakratu, a. having a hundred

powers, 98 (p. 82), f. n. 6.
satatam&, ord. hundredth, 107.
satadavan, a. giving a hundredfold,

, 90-

Satapatha Brahmana, accentua-
tion of, p. 448, 1 ; 'p- 451, 5.

sat&m, nm. a hundred, 104 ; 106 d
(par.) ; concord of, 194 B 1 6.

satasas, adv. by hundreds, 179, 1.

satruha, a. slaying enemies, 97, 3.

sanais, adv. slowly, 178, 3 b.

sap, curse, pf., 137, 2 a.

sam, n. happiness, 78, 3.

s&yana, pr. pt. mid. of si, lie,
158 a.

sayutra, adv. on a couch, 179, 3.

sarad, f. autumn, 77, 3 6.

sal, ij. clap ! 181.

sasayana, pf. pt. mid. of si, lie,

159 «.
saslyams, cpv. more frequent,

103, 2 a.
sasVattama, spv. most constant,

103, 1.
sasvadha, adv. again and again,

179, 1.

sasvant, a. constant, 103, 2 a.
-sas, adv. sf. w. distributive sense,

179, 1.
sa, sharpen, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;

134 B 3 a.
sas, order, pr. stem, 134 A 4 a; a

ao., 147 a 1.
sas, m. nifer, 83, 1.
sasat, pr. pt. instructing, 85 b ;

156 a.

siras, n. head, 90, 1 a.
sista, pp. of sas, order, 160, 2 6.
siksanara, a. helping men, 189 A 2 fr.
fi!,Zfc,pr. stem, 134, 1 c ; 134 A 4 c a ;

pf., 139, 7<f. n. 1).
sirsan, n. head, 90, 1.
sue, shine, red. pf. pt.. 157 b a ;

red. ao. inj., 149, 3.
sue, f. flame, 79, 1.
suei, a. bright, 98 (par.).
subh, shine, pr. stem, 183 C 1 ;

rootao. pt., 148, 6.
subh, f. splendour, 78, 2.
su, swell, red. pf. pt., 157 b a.
socis, n. gloiv, 83, 2 &.
scandra, a. &n'#M, 50 a.
snath, pierce, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b ;

red. ao., 149, 1.

srath, slacken, red. ao. ipv., 195, 5.
srad, heart, compounded with

verbs, 184 b.
sraddhe, inf. to trust, 167, 1, f. n. 2

(p. 191).

sram, be weary, pr. stem, 133 B 3.
sri, resort, root ao. inj., 148, 3 ;
red. ao., 149, 1 ; ps. ao., 155 ;
cs., 168 c, f. n. 1 (p. 196).
sri, f. glory, 100, 1 a.
sru, hear, pr. stem, 134 C 3 ; root

ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; ps. ao., 155.
srut, a. hearing, 77, 1.

VEDIC INDEX

495

srenisas, adv. in rows, 179, 1.

sre"yarns, cpv. better, 103, 2 a.

srestha, spv. best, 103, 2 a ; 189, 1 6.

sresthatama, double spv., 103, 1 c.

sloka, m. a metre, p. 439, 3 & a.

svan, m. dog, 90 a ; 91, 3 ; accen-
tuation of, p. 458, c 1.

svasru, f. mother-in-law, 100, II b, a,
f. n. 1.

svas, blow, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a.

sv&s, adv. to-mon-ow, 179, 3.

svit, be bright, s ao., 144, 5.

S, stems iu, SO.

sat, nm. six, 65 c, f. 11. 2 (p. 43).

sas, urn.' six, 104 ; 106 a (par.).

sasti, nm. sixty, 104.

sastha, ord. sixth, 107.

sodasa, nm. sixteen, 104 ; 106 c

(par.),
sodha, nm. adv. in six ways, 108 &.

S, changed to t, 83, 1 a ; 89;

171, 5 (ds.) ; 144, 1 (s ao.) ; loss

of, 133 B 1, 144, 2 a, in s ao.,

144, 6, between consonants,

148, 1 </ ; of N. in cds., 189, 1 b ;

adv. sf., 179, 1; ao., 142; 143;

stems in, 83.
sa, deni. prn., 110 ; Sandhi of,

48 ; pleonastic formulaic use of,

180.
-sa, sf. of ao., 141 a ; of ds.,

169, 1.2; pri. nom. sf., 182, 1 b.
sak£, deni. prn., that little, 117 a.
sakft, nm. adv. once, 108 « ; w.

gen., 202 D 3.
sakthi, n. thigh, 99, 4.
sdksant, s ao. act. pt. of sah,

overcome, 85 ; 156 a.
sakha for s&khi, in cds., 188, 2

(p. 275), f. n. 2 ; 189, 4 d.
sdkhi, m. friend, 99, 2 ; in Balm-

vrihis and Karmadharayas,

188, 4 d, f. ri. 1 ; in governing

cds., 189 A 2 a (p. 280), f. n. 3.
sac, follow, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;

134B30; 134B3; pf.,137,2a;

137, 2 6 ; s ao. op., 143, 4 ; root

ao. ipv., 148, 5 ; red. pf. pt.,

157 a.
s&ca; prp. with, w. loc., 177, 5.

sajosas, a. united, 83, 2 a a.
sanjj hatig, pr. stem, 133 A 4.
satobrhatl, f. a metre, p. 444, 3 c.
saty&m, adv. truly. 178, 2.
satra, adv. in one place, 179, 3.
sad, sit, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ; pf.,

137, 2 a, f. n. 2 ; a ao. ipv.,

147, 5; red. ao., 149, 1.
s&dam, adv. always, 179, 3.
sada, adv. always, 179, 3.
sadivas, adv. to-day, 179, 3.
sadyds, adv. to-day, 179, 3.
sadha-, adv. together, 179, 1 (p. 212).
sadhryanc, a. converging, 93 b

(p. 74), f. n. 1.
san, gain, pr. stem, 134 C 4 a ;

red. pf. pt., 157.
-san, loc. inf. of stems in, 167,

4c.

s£na, a. old, cpv. of, 103, 2 a.
sandj, a. old, 79, 3 b.
sanat, abl. adv. -from of old, 178, 5.
-sani, loc. inf. in, 211, 4.
sanitur, prp. apart from, w. ace. ,

177, 1 ; 197 B c.
sanutar, prp. far from, w. abl.,

177, 3.

s&nt, pr. pt. of as, be, 85.
samtaram, ace. adv. closer together,

197 A 5 6 0.

samnam, f. favour, 78, 3.
sdnyams, cpv. older, 88 ; 103, 2 a.
sap, serve, pf., 137, 2 a ; red. ao.

inj., 149, 3.
sapar^nya, den. gdv. to be adored,

162, 3.

sapta, nm. seven, 104 ; 106 c (par.),
saptatf, nm. seventy, 104.
saptathd", ord. seventh, 107.
saptadasa, nm. seventeen, 104 ;

106 c. r

saptadha, adv. in seven ways, 108 b.
saptamd, ord. seventh, 107.
sama, indef. prn. any, 119 a (par.) ;

p. 452, 8 A a.
samaha, adv. in some toay or other,

179, 1 ; p. 452, 8 A 6.
samand, a. similar, 120 c 2 (p. 117).
samudri, f. oceanic, 100, I a (p. 86),

f. n. 1.
samprasarana, in. distraction, 5 6 ;

17 o, f. n.2';69c,f.n. 2 ; 89 ; 91,

496

VEDIC INDEX

3. 4. 5 ; 96, 2 ; 99, 5, f. 11. 1 ; pr.

stern, 133 B 1 ; 133 C 2, f. n. 1 ;

134 A 2 a ; 134 B 2 ; 134 E 2 ;

135, 4 ; 137, 2 a, f. n. 1 ; 137, 2 c ;

139, 2 ; 154, 6 ; 160, 2 ; 160, 3 a ;

inf., 167, 1, f. n. 3; cs., 168,

irr., 5.
samy&iic, a. united, 93 a ; w. ace.,

197.

saniraj, in. sovereign ruler, 49 b,
sarah, f. (?) lee, 81.
sarit, f. stream, 77, 1.
s&rva, prn. a. i(;/«o?e, 120 b (par.),
sarvada, adv. always, 179, 3.
sarvahut, a. offering completely,

77,1.
sascat, pr. pt. of sac, follow, 85 b,

f. n. 5.

sasc&t, m. pursuer, 85 &.
sah, overcome, 140, 3 a ; s. ao.,

144,3; op., 143, 4; ipv.,143,5;

pt., 143, 6 ; pf. prc., 150 a ; ft.,

151 c ; s ao. pt. act., 156 a.
sah, m. conqueror, 81 ; a. victorious,

81 a (par.).
sah£, prp. with, w. inst., 177, 2 ;

adv , 179, 1.
saliantama, spv. most victorious,

103, 1 6.

sahasa, inst. adv. forcibly, 178, 3.
sahasra, n. thousand, 104 ; 106 d

(par.) ; concord of, 194 B 1 6.
sahasratam6, ord. thousandth, 107

(p. 102),^f. n. 2.
sanasradna, iim. adv. in a thousand

ways, 108 6.
sahasras&s, adv. by thousands,

179, 1.

sahyams, cpv. stronger, 103, 2 a.
sa, bind, root ao. ipv. , 148, 5.
sak&m, prp. with, w. inst., 177, 2.
saksat, abl. adv. visibly, 178, 5.
-sac, a. accompanying, 79 (p. 54),

f. n. 1.
sadh, succeed, red. ao. sb., 149, 2 ;

inj., 149, 3.

sadhistha, spv. straightest, 103, 2 a.
sadhu, a. straight, spv. of, 103, 2 a.
sadhuya, inst. adv. straight,

178, 3 6.
sanu, m. 11. summit, 98 (p. 81),

f. n. 13 ; 98 a.

\ Samaveda, accentuation of,

p. 450, I.

say&m, adv. in the evening, 178, 2.
say&mpratar, adv. evening and
morning, accentuation, p. 475 e a.
sahvams, unred. pf. pt. act., pre-
vailing, 157 b.
j -si, 2. s. ind. ending = ipv.,

21560.

simhi, f. lioness, 100, I a (p. 88).
sic, sprinkle, pr. stem, 133 C 1.
j sic, f. hem of a garment, 79, 1.
! sima, dem. prn., 100, 3 a.
! siri, m. weaver, 110, I b.
\ sis aorist, 142 ; 146.
i sidant, pr. pt. of sad, sit, 85.
sim, encl. prn. pel., 180 ; p. 452,

8 A a.

su, impel, pr. stem, 134. 1 a (p. 142).
su, press, root ao. part., 148, 6 ;

pr.jpt., 85.
su, sii, adv. well, 180 ; in Bv, cds.,

p. 455, 10 c a.
! sudas, a. liberal, 83, 1.
sudhi, a. wise, 100, I a, f. n. 4.
supti, a. clarifying well, 98 d.
| sumad, prp. with, w. inst., 177, 2.
sumedhas, a. intelligent, 83, 2 a a.
surabhintara, cpv., 103, 1 a.
suradhas, a. bountifid, 83, 2 a a.
i suvastu, f. a river, 98 a.
su, bring forth, pf., 139, 7 ; ft.,

151 c; ps. inj., 154 b.
su, m. begetter, 100, II a.
I sud, put in order, red. ao. ipv.,

195, 5.

i sr,.//oM?, a ao., 147 c; ft., 151 «.
j srj, emtY, s aorist, 144, 4. 5.
sdbhari, m. a name, 100, I b.
skand, leap, root ao. , 148, 1 d.
skambh, make firm, 134 E 3.
sku, tear, pr. stem, 134, 1 a

(p. 142), f. n. 1.

stan, thunder, pr. stem, 134 A 3 b.
i stambh, prop, pr. stem, 134 E 3. 4 ;

red. pf. pt., 157.
star, m. star, 82, f. n. 5 ; 82 b.
j stavand, pr. pt. mid. of stu,

praise, 158 a.

stu, praise, pr. stem, 134, lea;
pf., 138, 5 ; s ao., 143, 1. 2 (par.) ;
ft. pt., 151 b 2 ; ps. ao., 155.

VEDIC INDEX

497

stiibh, f. praise, 78, 2.

sir, star, accentuation of, p. 458,

cl.
str, strew, ps., 154, 3, f. n. 1 ; s ao.

op., 143, 4.

stri, f. woman, 100, I b 0 (p. 88).
stha, stand, pr. stem, 133 A 3 a ;

134 B 3/3; a ao., 147 a \ ; root

ao., 148, 1 a (par.), op., 148, 4,

pt., 148, 6 ; red. pf. pt., 157.
stha, a. standing, 97, 2.
sthatr, a. stationary, 101, 2 b.
sthapdya, cs. of stha, stand: red.

ao , 149 a 3.

sthird, a firm, cpv. of, 103, 2 b.
sthe"yams, cpv. »nos£ steadfast,

103, 2 a.

snii, summit, accent, p. 458, c 1.
snu, distil, pr. stem, 134, 1 a

(p. 142), f. 11. 1.
-snu, pri. noin. sf., 182, 1 b.
spas, see, pr. stem, 133 B 1 ; pr.

pt., 85.

spa's, m. spy, 63 b, f. n. 2 ; 79, 4.
spr, icin, root ao., 148, 1 d.
-sprk, N. of -sprs, touching, 81 a.
spf'db, f. ftaWte, 77, 4.
sprs, fowcft, sa ao., 141 a ; red. ao.

sb., 149, 2; inj., 149, 3.
sma, eucl. emphasizing pel., 180 ;

w. pura and pr., 212 A 2 6 ;

p. 452, 8 A &.
sma, prn. elemeiit, 110.
smad, prp. with, with inst., 177, 2.
smr, remember, ps., 154, 4, f. n. 1.
sya', dem. prn. that, Sandhi of.

48.

-sya, ft. suffix, 151.
-syade, inf. to flow, 167 a (p. 191).
syand, flow, pf., 135, 4 ; s ao.,

144, 5 ; red. ao., 149, 1.
syu, f. thread, 100, II a.
srams,/aU, a ao., 147 6; red. ao.,

149, 1.

sraj, f. garland, 79, 3 a.
sravat, f. stream, 85 b.
sras, 2. s. s ao. of srj, emit, 144, 2.
sridh, f. foe, 77, 4. '
sruc, f. ladle, 79, 1.
sru, f. stream, 100, II a.
sva, poss. prn. men, 115 &, c (par.) ;

116 c; 120 c 2.

svad, sweeten, red. ao. inj., 149, 3.

svan, a. sounding, 77, 5.

svap, sleep, pr. stem, 134 A 3 a ;

pf., 135, 4; 137, 2 c; pf. pt.,

157 ; red. ao., 149, 1.
svay&m, ref. prn., 115 a.
svayukta, Tp. cd. self -yoked, 115 c a.
svar, sound, s ao. , 144, 5.
svar, n. light, 82, f. n. 7 ; 82 c ;

accentuation of, p. 458, c 1.
svarabhakti, f. vowel element, 15 d.
svarita, m. (enclitic) falling accent,

p. 448, 1 ; p. 451, 6 ; how

marked, p. 449, 2 ; p. 450, 3. 4.
svarcaksas, a. brilliant as light,

49 d.

svarpati, m. lord of heaven, 49 d.
svarsa, a. icinning light, 49 d.
svarsati, f. acquisition of light, 49 d.
svasocis, a. self-radiant, 83, 2 &.
svasr, f. sister, 101, 1.
svadistha, spv. sweetest, 103, 2 0.
svadiyams, cpv. siveeter, 103, 2 ft.
svadu, a. sweet, cpv. and spv. of,

103, 2 0.
s/vid, encl. emphasizing pel., 180 ;

p. 452, 8 A 6.

H treated like aspirate cerebral,

69 c ; like dh, 69 d ; reverts to

guttural, 92 (p. 72) f.n. 1, in pr.

stem, 134 A 2 c, 158 a; stems in,

81.
ha, encl. emphasizing pel., 180;

p. 452, 8 A b ; w. pura and pr.,

212 A 2 b a.
-ha, a. slaying, 97, 3.
-ha, adv. suffix, 179, 1 ft.
han, slay, pr. stem, 134, 1 c a ;

134 A 2 c ; 134 B 3 ft ; pf.,

137, 2 b ; 139, 4 ; pr. pt. act.,

156 a ; gd., 165 a.
-han, a. slaying, 77, 5 ; 92.
hanta, ij. come! 180; 181.
haye", ij. come! 181.
havismant, a. offering an oblation,

86.'

has, laugh, pr. stem, 134 B 3.
h&sta, m. hand, compounded w.

gd., 184 c.
hastin, a. having hands, 87 (par.).

498

VEDIC INDEX

ha, go away, pr. stem, 134 B 1 a ;

sao.,144, 2. 5; 146.
hi, cj. for, 180 ; accents verb,

p. 467, 19 B.
-hi, ending of 2. s. ipv. act,,

134 C 4 5.

hims, injure, pr. stem, 134 D 1.
hin, ij. compounded with kr, Ho,

1 84 d.

hita, pp. of dha, put, 160, 2 a.
hinv, impel, pr. stem, 133 A 3 I ;

134 C 4)3.
him, n. cold, 78, 3.
hiranyavasimattama, spy. best

loielder of the golden axe, 103, 1.
hiruk, ij. away! 181.
hid, be angry, red. ao., 149, 1.
hu, sacrifice, pr. stem, 134 B 3 o.
huruk, ij. away, 181.

hu, call, rfc. ao. inj., 148, 3 ; ps.,

154 a (par.), ipv., 151 & (P^i'-)?

impf., 154 c.
hr, take, a ao., 144, 5.
hrttas, adv. from the heart, 179, 2.
hrd, n. heart, 77, 3 «.
hai, ij. ho! 181.
hyds, adv. yesterday, 179, 3.
hvar, be crooked, pr. stem, 134 B 2 ;

s ao., 144, 2 ; red. ao. inj., 149,3.
hva, call, pr. stem, 183 B 1 ; a ao.,

147 a 1.

L = d, 3 b 7 (p. 3), f. n. 1 ; 11 d a ;
' 15', 2d-, 15, 2i.

Lh = dh, 3 & 7 (p. 3), f. n. 1 ; 15, 2 d;
15/2 i; produces length by
position, p. 437, a 3.

GENERAL INDEX

The abbreviations occurring in this index have been explained at
the beginning of Appendix I and of the Vedie Index.
The figures refer to paragraphs unless pages are specified.

Ablative, syntactical use of, 201 ;
w. verbs, 201 A 1 ; w. substan-
tives, 201 A 2 ; w. adjectives,
201 A 3 ; w. numerals, 201 A 3 c ;
w. adverbs, 201 A 4 ; w. pre-
positions, 176 a, b-, 177, 8;
expresses the reason, 201 b.

Abl.-gen. inf., 167, 3 (p. 194) ;
synt. use of, 211, 3.

Absolute cases, 205 : loc., 205, 1 ;
gen., 205, 2.

Accent, 16 ; 71 a ; 77, 5, f. n. 1 ;
82 6, f. n. 1 ; 82 c, f. n. 2 ;
83, 1 b ; 85 ; 89 ; 93 a, f. n. 1 ;
97, 2, f. n. 2 (p. 79) ; 100, 1 a ;
100, 1 b, f. n. 3; 100, II;
100, II 6; 102, 2, f. n. 1;
103, 1. 2 (f. n. 1-3) ; 104, f. n. 6 ;
104 a, 6; 106; 107 ; 125, 1. 2;
126 a ; 127, 1. 2 ; 128 ; 131 ;
134, 1 c; 134 A 4 & (f. n. 1) ;
136 ; 141, 1 (f. n. 3) ; 148, 5 ;
154; 155; 158 a; 159 a 4 ;
162, 4 ; 164 ; 167, 1 b, f. n. 1 ;
169; 172; 175; 175A2, f. n.l;
189 A, f. n. 2 ; 195 B b ; double,
167 & 5 ; 185, f. n. 1 ; 186 A 1 ;
p. 452, 7 ; p. 456, 2 /3 ; shift
of, 5 ; 72 a ; 85 & ; 100, I b,
f. n. 3 and p. 87 ; 112, f. n. 4 ;
112 7, f. n. 1 ; 189; 199 A b a •
p. 454, 10; p. 458, lie; p. 464,
1 6 ; pp. 448-69 ; musical, p. 436 ;
p. 448, 1 ; methods of marking,
App. Ill, 2-5; of single words,
p. 451, (>; Greek, p. 451, 6;

Kk

lack of, p. 452, 8 ; in dec.,
p. 457, 11 a ; p. 475, 11 a ; in
the sentence, p. 464, 18 ; verbal,
pp. 459-62 ; of augmented
tenses, p. 459, 12 a ; of pr.
system, p. 459, 12 b ; p. 460,
pf. 12 c.

Accented particles, position of,
191 ».

Accusative, syntactical use of,
197 A ; w. verbal nouns, 197 B ;
w. adjectives, 197 Bo, 0 (p. 302) ;
w. adverbs, p. 303, /3 ; w. inter-
jections, p. 303, 7 ; w. preposi-
tions, 176, 1 ; 177, 1 ; 197 B c
(p. 303) ;' adverbial, 178, 2 ;
197, 5; double, 198; inf.,
167, 2 ; 211, 2.

Action nouns, 182, 1.

Active voice (Parasmaipada), 121.

Adjectives, 86 ; 87 ; 88 ; 93 ; 95 c ;
120 ; 186 B ; w. inst., 199, 2 a, & ;
w. gen., 202 C ; w. inf., 211, 1 b ;
211, 3 a a; 211, 3 & a.

Adverbial, suffixes, 179 : w. inst.
sense, 171, 1 ; w. abl sense,
179, 2 ; w. loc. sense, 179, 3 ;
particles, 180.

Adverbs, 180 ; compound, 197 A 5
b 8, € (p. 301); compounded
w. verbs, 184 b, w.gd., 164, 1 a ;
numeral, 108 a-c; prepositional,
177; w. gen., 202 d.

Agent, expressed by inst., 199, 2 ;
nouns, 101, 2 ; 152, f. n. 1 ;
182, 1 ; w. gdv., 209, 1 a, 3,

2

500

GENERAL INDEX

4, 5 a ; w. inf. in ps. sense,

211 6 /3.
Analogy, 97, f. n. 5 (p. 77) ; of an

stems, p. 78, f. n. 15 ; of r stems,

99, 1, f. n. 1 ; 139, 6 (pf.) ;

p. 273, f.n. 3.
Anaphoric use of t&, 195 B 3 b ;

of etfi, 195 B 4 b.
Antithetical clause, accentuation

of, p. 468, 0.
Aorist, 141-9 ; meaning of, 213 C ;

accent of its moods, p. 460, 12 d.
Apodosis in conditional sentences,

216 (p. 364, yddi 2) ; 218, 1.
Apposition, position of, 191 d ; in
_ descriptive compounds, 188, 1.
Aranyakas, 1.

Archaisms in compounds, 49 ; 50.
Article, non-existent, 192 ; in-
cipient in B., 195 B 3 6.
Articulation, phonetic position of,

29.
Aspiration, 3 c ; initial, 40, 1 ;

53-5 ; of s, 53 a ; of h, 54 ; of

g, d, b, 55; loss of, 62; 62,

f. n. 1 ; thrown back, 62 a ;

134 B 1 b ; thrown forward,

62 b ; loss of initial, 141 a, f. n. 1

(p. 160) ; 143, 6 ; 148, 1 g. ,
Aspirates, 15, 2 ; 30, 2 ; avoidance

of two, 55, f. ri. 1.
Assimilation, 16; 29; 32; 33;

34 ; 37 ; 38 ; 40, 1. 3 ; 43, 3 ;

60 a.
Attraction of ace. by dat., 200 B 4 ;

of ace. by gen. inf., 211, 3 b a •

in gender and number, 194, 3.
Attribute (adj. or gen.), position

of, 191 e.
Aufrecht, Prof., 2, f. n. 1 ; p. 33,

f. n. 6 ; p. 38, f. n. 1.
Augment, 15, 1 c ; 23 c ; 128;

lengthened, 128 a ; 140, 6 ; 141

a; 148, 1 d ; Sandhi of, 128 b ;

accented, p. 459, 12 a.
Avesta, p. 67, f. n. 4 ; 134, 2 b ;

137, 2 a (f. n. 2) ; p. 436, f. n. 3 ;

p. 438, f. n. 1 ; p. 439, f. n. 3 ;

p. 440, f. n. 1 ; p. 441, f. n. 5 ;

p. 442, f. n. 1.

Benedictive (or Precative), 150.

Brahmanas, 1 ; 2 ; 28, f. n. 3
76 6, f. n. 1 ; 79, 3 a, f. n. 3
97 a a ; p. 78, f. n. 9 ; 107
(p. 102), f. n. 1 ; 113 a ; 22 a a
139,5; 139, 9 a ; 149; 154, 6 &
161, f. n. 6; 162, 4, f. n. 1
163, 1, f. n. 1 ; 166, 167 ; 168
172 ; 190 ; 191 ; p. 452, 7.

Break, metrical, p. 440, 4 B.

Breathing h, 7 a 4 ; 15, 2 i
29 c ; origin of, 13 ; becomes k
before s, 69 a ; treated like gh
before t, th, dh, 69 6.

Cadence, p. 436 ; p. 438 ; p. 440,
4 B ; trochaic, p. 440, 4 B ;
p. 442, 6 ; p. 443, 8 a.

Caesura, p. 436; p. 440, 4 B;
double, p. 442, 7 a.

Cardinals, 104-6 ; intermediate
between decades, 104 a ; as
Dvandvas, 186 A 2, f. n. 3 ;
concord of, 194 B 1 a, b ; ac-
centuation of, p. 457, 11 6 a.

Case-endings, 16 a ; normal, 71 ;
sometimes retained in com-
pounds, 187 a ; 188, 2 3 ; 189, 2.

Case-forms, adverbial, 178 : nom.,

I ; ace., 2 ; inst., 3 ; dat., 4 ;
abl., 5 ; gen., 6 ; loc., 7.

Cases, 70 c ; strong, 73 ; position
of, 191 c ; synt. use of, 196-205.

Causal sense of inst., 199 A 3 ; of
abl., 201 B.

Causative, 124 ; 168 ; tenses and
moods of, 168 c; sense of ao.,
149 ; sf. dropped, 154, 6 a ;
160, 3 ; sf. partly retained in
red. ao., 149 a 3 ; ft., 151 ; synt.
use of, 198 A 3.

Cerebral sibilant s, 12 6 ; in dec.
and conj., 64 a ; z, 8, f. n. 1 ;

II c ; 49 c (in cds.).
Cerebralization, of ch, 63 d ; of j,

63 ; of s, 63 b ; of dentals,
15, 2 ft a ; 64 ; 69 c ; of n, 10 c ;
65 ; 66, 2 & ; of n in cds., 50 c ;
65 a ; 65 b ; of n in external
Sandhi, 65 c ; of initial d, n in
cds., 49 c ; of dh, 160, 2, f. n. 1 ;
of s, 50 & ; 67 ; 81 a, f. n. 2 ;
83, 2 &, 2 c ; of s in vb. cds.,

GENERAL INDEX

501

67 a ; of s in nom. cds., 67 b •

of s in external Sandhi, 67 c ;

of Visarjaniya, 43, 1 a ; 43, 2

a ; absence of, 67, f. n. 1, 3, 4 ;

92, f. n. 1.
Cerebrals, 3 b y ; 29 a ; internal

Sandhi of, 64 ; 65 ; 67 ; origin

of, 8 ; pronunciation of, 15, 2 d ;

stems in, 80.
Changeable consonant stems,

84-96 ; irregularities of, 96 ;

peculiarities of, 94 ; fern, of, 95.
Cognate accusative, 197, 4.
Collective Dvandvas, 186 A 3.
Comparative Philology, 17, f. n. 2 ;

p. 451, 6.
Comparison, degrees of, 103 ;

implied in compounds, 188, 1, a ;

189, 1 a ; 189, 2 a.
Compounded participles, accent

of, p. 462, 13.
Compounds, 184-9 ; classification

of, 185 & ; gender of, 185 a ;

verbal, 184; doubly accented,

p. 452, 7 ; accentuation of,

p. 454, 10.
Concomitance, expressed by inst.,

199 A.

Concord, 194.
Conditional, 153 ; synt. use of,

218 ; in rel. clauses, p. 368, 2 ;

in periods, 218, 1 ; w. y&d and

op., p. 363 7 1 ; w. yadi if,

p. 364, 2 ; w. cǤd if, p. 366, 5.
Conjugation, 121-75 ; first, 125 ;

graded, 124 ; paradigms of pr.

system, 132 ; second, 126.
Conjugational classes, 124 ; 125 ;

127 ; irregularities of, 133 ;

134.

Conjugations, two, 124 ; secon-
dary, ibid. : accentuation of,

p. 461, 12 e.

Conjunctive particles, 180.
Connecting vowel a, 147 ; 149 ;

i, 89a; 136 a; 140,5; 157 a, 6;

160, 3 ; 162, 4. 5 ; 163, 1. 2 ;

169 ; I, 140, 6 ; 143, 1.
Consonant, endings w. initial

(bhyam, bhis, bhyas, su), 16 a ;

73 a ; stems, 75-96.
Consonants, 6-14 ; changes of,

32 ; 37 ; classification of, 29 ;
30; doubling of, 51 (eh); 52
(n, n) ; final, 27 ; 28 ; 31 ; 32 ;

33 ; 76 ; loss of, 15, 2 k ; 28 ;
61 ; 90, 2 ; 96, 3, f. n. 2 ; 101 ;
144 ; 148, 1 d (ao.) ; 160, 2,
f. n. 1 ; quality of, 30 ; un-
changeable, 60, 1.

Contracted vowels restored,

p. 437 a, 6.
Contraction, 83, 2 a a (p. 59) ;

133, 3a(pr.); 137, 2 a (f. n. 1),

2c (pf.) ; 149, irr.a2 (red. ao.) ;

171, 3 (ds.) ; 171, 3 a (ds.) ;

after secondary hiatus, 48 a.
Couplets, p. 446, 11.

Dative, syntactical use of, 200:
w. verbs, 200 A 1, w. substan-
tives, A 2, w. adjectives, A 3,
w. adverbs, A 4 ; of advantage,
200 B 1, of purpose, B 2, of time,
B 3 ; double, 200 B 4 ; adverbial,
200 B 5 ; for gen., 97 a a ; 98 a ;
f. n. 8; 100, I & 0 (p. 88),
f. 11. 2 ; 100, II 6 a (p. 89),
f. n. 1.

Dative inf., 167, 1 : in e, a, in
ase, b 1, in aye, b 2, in taye,
b 3, in tave, & 4, in tavai, b 5,
& 5 a, in tyai, 6 6, in dhyai,
& 7, in mane, & 8, in vane, b 9 ;
synt. use of, 211, 1 ; w. ps.
force, 211, I b a (p. 335).

Declension, 70-120 : of nouns,
74-102 ; of numerals, 104-7 ;
of pronouns, 109-20 ; accent in,
p. 457, 11 a.

Demonstrative pronouns, 110-12 ;
synt. use of, 195 B ; concord
of, 194 B 3.

Denominative, 124 ; 175 ; ao.,
175 B a ; ft., ibid. ; pp. ibid.

Dental : n, Sandhi of fintil, 35 ;
36; 39; 40; 42, 3 a ; 52;
66 A 1 ; 66 A 2 ; s, changed to
t or d, 9 a ; 66 B 1 ; disappears,
66 B 2 ; inserted, 40, 2.

Dentals, 3 b 5 ; 9 a ; 10 a (n) ;
15, 2 e ; 29 a ; palatalized, 37 a ;
38 ; 40 (n) ; 63 a ; cerebralized,
64 ; stems in, 77.

502

GENERAL INDEX

Derivative verbs, 168-75.
Descriptive compounds, 188 ;

accent of, p. 455, 10 d 1.
Desiderative, 124 ; 169 ; 170 ;

171 ; ao., 171 a (p. 201);

pp., ibid. ; gd., ibid. ; of cs.,

168 e (p. 197), f. n. 4.
Determinative compounds, 185 b ;

187 ; dependent, 187, 2 a ; de-
scriptive, 187 ; accent of,

p. 455, 10 d.

Devanagar! character, 2, f. n. 1.
Dialects, 11 c.
Dimeter verse, p. 438, 2.
Dipthongs, 3 a ; 46.
Dissimilation, 96, 2 ; 134 C 3 ;

174 a.
Distance, expressed by ace.,

197 A 3.

Dodecasyllabic verse, p. 442, 6.
Doubling of ch, 51 ; of n and n,

52.

Dravidian sounds, 8.
Dual, synt. use of, 193, 2 ; com-

pounds, 186 A 1 ; elliptical,

186 B 3 a ; 193, 2 a.

Elision of initial a, 11, 1 a, b, c ;

19 6, f. n. 1 ; 21 a, f. n. 4 and 6.
Emphatic words, synt. position

of, 191 a.
Enclitics, 109 a ; 112 a ; p. 452,

8 A ; synt. position of, 191 h ;

195 A 6.
Endings, in dec., 71 ; in conj.,

131 (table) ; of pf., 136 a.
External Sandhi, 17-55.

Feminine, formation of, 73, f. n. 1 ;
of changeable stems, 95 ; of u
stems, 98 c (p. 83) ; 101, I b ;
of tr stems, 101 c ; of sec. cpv.
and spv. stems, 103, 1 e ; of
ordinals, 107 ; special endings
of (in I and a stems), 100, I b ;
97, 1, f. n. 5 ; suffixes, 183 a.

Final consonants allowable, 27 ;
28 ; 31 ; 61 ; 76.

Final dative, synt. position of,
191 ft, a 1.

Frequentative, see Intensive.

Future, simple, 151 ; pt. ps. =

gdv., 162 ; 209 ; synt. use of,
214; of cs., 168, 1 e ; peri-
phrastic, 152 ; accent of, p. 461,
12 e.

Gender, 70 a ; rules of, 183 ; of
compounds, 185 a ; in syntax,
194 ; attraction in, 194, 3.

Genitive, synt. use of, 202 : w.
verbs, 202 A, w. substantives, B,
adjectives, C, adverbs, D ; w.
prepositions, 177, 4 ; adverbial,
178, 6 ; 202 C 3 a ; absolute,
205, 2 ; partitive, 202 A d ;
possessive, 202 B 2 a ; objective,
202 B 1 b ; subjective, 202 B 1 a.

Gerund, 122 c ; 163-6 ; accentua-
tion of, p. 464, 15 ; compounded
w. adv., 165 ; w. noun, 165 ;
syntactical use of, 210.

Gerundive, 162 ; synt. use of,
209.

Goal of an action, expressed by
the ace., 197, 1 ; 198, 3 & ; by the
lot-., 204, 1 b, c; 198, 3, f. n. 2.

Governing compounds, 1856; 189;
as substantives, 189, 1 a ; w.
suffixes a or ya, 189, 1 b ; accent
of, p. 455, 10 b.

Grammarians, Hindu, 5 a.

Gutturals, 3 & a ; 6; 7 & ; 15, 2 b ;
29 a ; changed to palatals, 7 b a ;
reversion to, 92 ; 134 A 2 c ;
160, 1 b ; 160, 2 ; 171, 4.

Haplology, 15, 2 b.

Hard (surd, voiceless) sounds,

30, 1 ; 32 ; 33.
Hemistich, 16 ; 18 a ; p. 438,

f. n. 2 ; p. 439 b ; p. 440 C ;

p. 441, 5 ; p. 443 ; p. 449, 2 a ;

accentuation of, p. 465, f. 11. 4.
Heiidecasyllabic verse, p. 440., 4 B.
Hiatus, 15, 1 /; 16; 21 6; 22;

24 ; 45 ; 48 ; 49 ; 97, 1, f. n. 11 ;

avoidance of, 16 ; in compounds,

49 ; restored, 18 6 ; 19 a, f. n. 4 ;

20 ; 21 6 ; secondary, 22 a ; 48 a

(avoided).
High grade syllables (e, o, ar, al),

5 a ; (ya, va, ra), 5 b ; (ya, va,

ra), 5 b a ; of i and u, 4 & ; 5 a, b.

GENERAL INDEX

503

Historical present, 212, 2.
Hypothetical clauses, 216 (under
yad, p. 363, and yddi, p. 364) ;

218.

Imperative, 122 a ; formation of,
122 a a; endings of, p. 125;
root ao., 148, 4 a 5 ; is ao.,
145, 5 ; sis ao., 146, 5 ; pf.,
140, 4 ; first persons wanting,
121 ; syntactical use of, 215.

Imperfect, inflected, 132 ; ps.,
154 c ; syntactical use of, 213 B.

Indeclinable, words, 176-81 ;
synt. position of, 191 /-*' ; par-
ticiple ( = gerund), 210.

Indefinite pronouns, 119 6.

Indo-European period, p. 451, 6.

Indo-Iranian, 8; 11 c ; p. 442,
f. n. 1 ; period, p. 436, f. n. 3.

Infinitive, 1 ; 122 d ; 167 ; accent
of, p. 463, 14 ; characteristics
of, 167 a ; synt. use of, 211 ;
w. ps. force, 211, 1 b a, 0, S.

Initial consonant, loss of, 50 a,
f. n; 5 ; 134 A 2 & ; 171, 6.

Iiijunctive, 122 a ; 128 c ; forma-
tion of, 122 a a ; root ao., 1 48, 2 ;
is ao., 145, 3 ; sis ao., 146, 4 ;
s" ao., 143, 3 ; a' ao., 147, 3 ;
pf., 140, 2 ; synt. use of, 215 B.

Insertion, of vowels : i, I, 134 A 3
(pr. stem) ; I, 134 A 2 b (impf.),'
172 a (int.), 173, 3 (int.), 174 b
(int.) ; of consonants : k, 35
(in Sandhi), t, 36 a, 40, 1 (in
Sandhi), n, 66 A 2 (in N. pi. n.),
105, 4 (G. pi.), p. 100, f. n. 1,
(G. pi.), n or na, 127, 3 (pr.
stem), y, 155 (ps. ao.), 168
irr. 4 (cs.), r, 134, 1 c (pr.
stem), s, 40, 1 a (in Sandhi),
s, 40, 2 (in Sandhi), 134 C 4,
f. n. 1 (pr. stem), 150 (prc.),
s, 168, irr. 4 (cs.).

Instrumental, synt. use of, 199 :
w. verbs, 199 B 1, w. nouns,
B 2, w. numerals, B 2 c, w.
prepositions, B 3, 177, 2 ; adv.
use of, 178, 3; 199 A 6 ; ex-
presses means or agent, 199 A 2;
p. 309, a, 0.

Intensive, 124 ; 127, 2, f. n. 1 ;

172-4 ; moods of, 174, 2-4 ; pt.,

174,5; inipf., 174, 6; pf., 174,

6 a ; cs. , ibid.

Interchange of vowel and semi-
vowel, 134 C 3 ; 167, 1, 9, f. n. 4 ;

171, 2.

Interjections, 181 ; 184 d.
Interrogative pronoun, 113 ; synt.

position of, 191 7c.
Iranian, Old, 11 c, d ; 15, 1 a.
Irregularities, of vowel Sandhi,

23 ; of consonant Sandhi, 48 ;

49 ; in declension : 91 ; 92 ; 96 ;

98 a ; 99 (i and u stems) ; in

conjugation : 133, 134 (pr.

stem) ; 156 a, 157 b a (pr. pt.

act.) ; 158 a (pr. pt. mid.) ; 139

(pf.) ; 159 a (pf. pt. mid.) ;

144 (s ao.) ; 145 a-c (is ao.) ;

147 a-c (a ao.) ; 149 a (red. ao.) ;

151 c (ft.) ; 155 a (ps. ao.) ; 168,

p. 197 (cs.); 171, l'(cls.); 174

(int.).
Iterative, verbs, 168 ; compounds,

185 b ; 189 C : accent of, p. 454,

10 a.

Labials, 3 b c ; 96; 29 a ; stems
in, 78.

Length by position, p. 437 a 3.

Lengthening, of vowels, 15, 1 c ;
15, 2fca; 143, 1. 3 (s ao.) ; 155
(ps. ao.); p. 280, f. n. 5; of
reduplicative vowel, 139, 9 (pf.) ;
171, 6 (ds.).

Local sense of instrumental,
199 A 4.

Locative, sing, in I and u (un-
contractable), 25 b • inf., 167, 4
(p. 195) ; 211, 4 ; synt. use of,
203 ; local sense, 203 A 1. 2,
temporal sense, A 8, adv. sense,
A 4 ; w. verbs, 204, 1 ; w. nouns,

204, 2 ; w. adjectives, 204, 2 b ;
w. prepositions, 176, 2 ; 204, 3 ;

205, 1.

Long vowels pronounced as two :
p. 437 a 8.

Loss of sounds : of initial a, 21 a ;
45, 2 b ; 134 A 2 & ; 156 a ; of
medial a (see Syncope) ; of

504

GENERAL INDEX

medial u, 134 C 1 ; 134 C 4, f. n.
2 ; of final n, 90 (N. s.) ; 94, 2
(N. s.) ; of radical nasal, 137, 2 d
(pf.) ; 133 A 4 (pr. stem) ; 160, 2
(pp.) ; 165 a (gd.) ; of n in 3. pi.
ending, p. 125, f. n. 4 ; 156
(pt. act.) ; of Visarjaniya, 45 ;
48; ofs (N. s.), 100, 1 & (p. 87).
Low grade vowels, 4 a ; 5 &, c, d.

Magadhi dialect, 11 c.

Mantras, 1.

Manuscripts, age of, 2.

Masculine suffixes, 183.

Max Miiller, p. 33, f. n. 6 ; p. 38,

f. n. 1.
Metathesis, 11 c a ; 103, 2 a (cpv.) ;

144, 4 (s ao.) ; 167, 2 & (inf.).
Metre, 1 ; 16 ; 18 6 ; 19 a ; 20 ;

21 ; 22 a ; 41 a ; 49 ; 52 j

191 ; 194 B 1 ; Appendix II,

pp. 436-47.
Middle, stem, 72; 73 a, b ; 101, 2,

note; 185 a; voice, 121; endings,

131 (p. 126).
Monosyllabic stems, accentuation

of, p. 458, c 1.
Moods, 122 a ; 140, 1-4 (pf.) ;

171, p. 200 (ds.) ; synt. use of,

215-18.

Multiples, formation of, 104 &.
Multiplicatives, 108 a, c ; w. gen.,

202 D 3.
Mutes, 3 6.

Nasal, loss of, 89 (pf. pt.) ; 133
(pr.) ; 134 D ; 134 E 3 ; 137, 2 d
(pf.) ; 139, 1 ; 140, f. n. 4 ;
144, 3 (s ao.) ; 147 irr. & (a ao.) ;
148, 1 e (rt, ao.) ; 149 (red. ao.) ;
154, 5 (ps.); 167, 1, f. n. 5
(inf.); 160, 2 (pp.); 165 a (gd.);
171, 1 (ds.) ; 188, 2 a ; insertion
of, 79, 3 a, f. n. 2, 3 ; pure,
10 /; sonant, 4 a ; 127, 4 a ;
134 C 4 a ; 143, 4, f. n. 3 ; p. 163,
f. ri. 3 ; p. 185, f. n. 1.

Nasalization, 19 a, f. n. 5 ; 19 &,
f. n. 1 ; 24, f. n. 2 ; 79, 3 a,
f. n. 2 ; 133 C 1.

Nasals, 3; 10; 15, 2 /; 29 &;
final, 35 (in Sandhi).

Neuter, 73 6 (changeable stems) ;

97, 1 a (a stems) ; 98 a (i and u

stems) ; 101, 2 & (tr stems) ;

suffixes, 183 &; synt. use of,

194 A 1 ; B 2 6.
Nominal compounds, 185-9 ;

characteristics of, 185.
Nominal stem formation, 182-4.
Nominal verb forms, accent of,

pp. 462-4.
Nominative, synt. use of, 196 ;

predicative, 196 a ; w. iti =

ace., 196 a j8 ; for voc., 196 c a.
Nouns, declension of, 74-102 ;

classification of, 74.
Number, 70 6 ; 121 a ; synt. use

of, 193.
Numeral, as first member of poss.

cd., 189, 3 c ; derivatives, 108 ;

adv. w. gen., 202, 3.
Numerals, 104-8.

Objective genitive, 202 B 1 6.

Octosyllabic verse, p. 438, 2.

Opening of a verse, p. 438, 2 ;
p. 440, 4 B.

Optative (Potential), 122 a; forma-
tion of, 122 a a ; pf., 140, 3 ;
s ao., 143, 4 ; is ao., 145, 4 ; sis
ao., 146, 3; a'ao., 147, 4; rt.
ao., 148, 4 ; synt. use of, 216.

Oral tradition, 2.

Order of words, 191.

Ordinals, 107 ; fern, of, ibid.

Palatal, aspirate ch, 7 a 1 ; 13 ;
old sibilant z, 15, 2k a; s and
ch before s, 63 6 ; spirant y,
15, 2 g ; sibilant s, 12 a, inser-
tion of, 40, 1 a.

Palatalization of n, 63 c.

Palatals, 3 b 0 ; 29 a ; two series
of, 7 ; new, 7 & ; old, 7 a ; 81 a ;
before gutturals, 63 ; before s,
636 ; revert to gutturals, 139, 4 ;
140, 6, f. n. 2 ; 148, 1 h, f. n. 8 ;
157 & a ; 157 a, f. n. 2 ; 160, 1 ;
160, 1 &; 171, 4; represent
gutturals in reduplication,
129, 3 ; nominal stems in, 79.

Participles, 156-62; 122 6; act.,
85; 156; 157; mid. and ps.,

GENERAL INDEX

505

158-62 ; pr., 85 ; 156 ; pr. mid.,
158 ; pr. ps., 154 c ; pf. act.,
89 ; 140, 5 ; 157 ; pf. mid.,
159; ao. act., 85; 156; a ao.,
147, 6; ft. act., 85; 151 6 2 ;
156; ft. mid., 158; pp., 160;
ft. ps. pt. (gdv.), 162; indec.
(gd.), 163; fern, of pr. and ft.,
95 a, b ; synt. use of, 206-10 ;
characteristics of, 206 ; durative
sense of pr., 207 a ; pr. = finite
verb, 207 ; w. gen. absolute,
205, 2 ; w. loc. absolute, 205, 1 ;
pp. as finite verb, 208 ; pp. used
periphrastically, 208 a, 6; mean-
ing and construction of ft. ps.,
209 ; construction of indec., 210.

Partitive genitive, 202 B 2 &.

Passive, 121 ; 154 (par.) ; 155
(ao.) ; pr. stem, 121 ; 154 ; sb.,
154 & ; cs. stem, 154, 6 a ; past
pt. = finite vb., 208 ; w. as and
bhu = periphrastic mood or
tense, 208 a, b.

Past tenses, meaning and synt.
use of, 213.

Pentasyllable verse, p. 442, 8.

Perfect, 135-40 ; endings of, 136 ;
paradigms of, 138 ; irregularities
of, 139; moods of, 140; synt.
use of, 213 A ; act. pt. unre-
duplicated, 157 & ; pt. mid.,
159 ; pt. ps., 160 : formed w.
both ta and na, 160, 1 a ; ac-
centuation of, App. Ill, 12 c.

Periphrastic forms : ft., 152,
forerunners of, 152, f. n. 1,
sense of, 214 B ; pf., 139, 9 a.

Personal pronouns, 109 ; limited
use of, 195 A.

Phoneticians, native, p. 448, 1.

Pluperfect, 140, 6 ; meaning of,
213 D.

Plural, elliptical use of, 193, 3 a ;
loose use of, 193, 3 b ; Dvandvas,
186 A 1.

Possessive, compounds, 185 & ;
189 ; gen., 202 B 2 a.

Potential, see Optative.

Prati^akhyas, 11 ; 15, 1 a, b, d;
15, 2 ; 15, 2 e, g, i, j ; 42, 2,
f. n. 2 ; 51 ; p. 465, f. n. 1.

Precative (Benedictive), 150 ; pf.,
140, 3 a; rt. ao., 148, 4 a;
synt. use of, 217.

Predicative adjective, concord of,
194 B 2 ; noun, synt. position
of, 191 6.

Prepositions, 176 ; adverbial,
176, 1 ; adnominal, 177 ; com-
pounded w. roots, 184, 2 ; syn-
tactical position of, 191 /; synt.
accentuation of, App. Ill, 20.

Present, system, 123-34 ; tense,
synt. use of, 212 A ; stems,
plurality of, 212; for ft., 212 A 3;
pt. = finite vb., 207, expressing
duration, 207 a • accentuation
of, p. 459, 12 6; p. 458 c (pr. pt.).

Primary endings, 131 ; nom. suf-
fixes, 182, 1 ; 182, 1 b : accentua-
tion of, p. 453, 9 A.

Principal clause, verb unaccented
in, App. HI, 19 A.

Pronominal adjectives, 105, 1 ;
107, f. n. 4 ; 120 ; declension :
109-20; its influence on no-
minal forms, 97, f. n. 1 2
(p. 77) ; 120.

Pronouns, 109-20 ; personal, 109 ;
demonstrative, 110-12 ; inter-
rogative, 113 ; relative, 114 ;
reflexive, 115 ; possessive, 116 ;
compound and derivative, 117-
18 ; indefinite, 119 ; syntactical
use of, 195.

Pronunciation, ancient, 15 ;
Greek, of Sanskrit words, ibid. ;
of vowels, 15, la; of diph-
thongs, 15, 1 b ; of consonants,
15, 2 ; of 1, 15, 2 g.

Proper names, 189, 3 a ; 189 A 2 ;
193, 2 a, 3 a ; 200 A 2 7.

Prosodical rule, 18 &, f. n. 1 ; 25 a.

Prosody, rules of, p. 437 a.

Protasis, 216 (w. y&d, p. 363, and
y&di, p. 364) ; 218, 1.

Purpose, expressed by dative,
200 B 2.

Kadical vowel lengthened, 143, 1 ;
145, 1 ; 155 ; 171, 6 ; shortened,
149; 171, 6; 174.

506

GENERAL INDEX

Eeason, expressed by inst.,
199 A 3 ; by abl., 201 B.

Keduplicated root as nom. stem,
182, 1 a.

Reduplication, general rules of,
129, 1-6 ; special rules of, 130
(pr.) ; 135, 1-4 (pf.) ; 149 a, b
(ao.); 170 (ds.); 173 (int.);
w. an-, 139, 6 (pf.) ; w. repeated
nasal, 173, 3 (int.) ; w. inserted
nasal, 174 a (int.) ; of vowel in
second syllable, 149, irr. 3 ;
171, 6 a ; dropped, 139, 3 (pf.) ;
157 b (pf. pt.) ; 171, 6 (ds.).

Relatives, synt. position of, 191 /<•.

Restoration of elided a, 21 a, f. n.
5,6.

Rhotacism, 11 c, d.

Rhythm, quantitative, p. 436, 1 ;
iambic, p. 436; p. 438 ; p. 440,
40.

Rhythmic, rule, 136 a, f. n. 3 (pf.) •
139, 9, f. n. 2 (pf.) ; 149 (red.
ao.) ; tendency, 50 d.

Rigveda, 1 ; 2.

Root, as nom. stem, 182, 1 a ; ao.,
148.

Roots, two or more used in in-
flexion of same vb., 212 ; secon-
dary, 134 C 4 a.

Sandhi, 16-69; accent in, p. 464, 17 ;
nature of, 16 ; 1. external, 16-
55: of vowels, 18; 19; 20; of
diphthongs, 21 ; 22 ; irr. vowel,
23 ; absence of vowel, 24-6 ; of
consonants, 27-55 ; of final k,
t, t, p before n or m, 33 ; of
final t before 1, 34, before pala-
tals, 38 ; of final nasals, 35 ; of
final dental n, 36 ; 39 ; 40 ; of
final m, 41 ; 42 ; 42, 3 a and
f. n. 5 (ambiguous) ; of final
Visarjanlya, 43 ; 43, 2 a arid
3; 44; of the final syllable
ah, 45, 2 ; 46 ; 48 ; of the
final syllable ah, 45, 1 ; 46 ; of
final r, 46 ; 47; 2.' internal :
56-69 ; of vowels, 57 ; 58 ; of r,
58 ; 154, 3 ; of f, 58 ; 154, 4 ;
of diphthongs, 59 ; of conso-
nants, 60 ; 61 ; of aspirates, 62 ;

of palatals before consonants,

63 ; of dentals after cerebrals,

64 ; 65 ; of dental n before y,

v, s, 66, 1. 2 ; of dental s, 66 B ;

67 ; of m before y, r, 1, v, 68 ;

of h before s, t, th, dh, 69 ;

3. in compounds: 49-50; 185
(p. 268) ; archaisms in, 49a,6,c,rf.
Sanskrit, Classical, 1.
Samhita text, 2; 15, la; 16.
Samhitas, 1 ; 2.
Schroeder, Prof. L. v., p. 450,

f. n. 3.

Second Aorist, 147-9.
Secondary, endings, 131 ; nom.

suffixes, 182, 2 ; accentuation

of, p. 453, 9 B ; shortening of

I, u, f, 5 e.
Semivowel r, originally cerebral,

15, 2 g.
Semivowels, 3 c ; 11 ; 15, 2 g ;

17 B 1 ; 20 ; 29 c ; pronounced

as vowels, p. 437 a 5.
Sentence, 16 ; 190 ; accent,

p. 464, 18.
Sibilants, 3 d ; 7 a 2 ; 12 ; 15, 2 7* ;

29 d ; assimilation of, 12, a, b ;

loss of, 15, 2 Je ; 66 B 2 ; traces

of soft, 7 a 3 ; 8 ; 15, 2 h ;

15,2k; 15, 2 k a ; 29 d.
Singular number, strict use of,

193, 1.

Sociative sense of inst., 199 A 1.
Soft (sonant, voiced) sounds,

30, 1.
Space, extension of, expressed by

ace., 197, 3.

Spelling, misleading, p. 437, a 9.
Spirants, 3 g ; 14 ; 15 ; 29 e.
Stanzas, p. 437 ; simple, pp. 438-

43 ; mixed, pp. 443-5 ; irr.

mixed, p. 445, 10 b a, /3 ; strophic,

pp. 446-7.

Stem formation, nominal, 182.
Stems, classification of nominal,

74 ; ending in consonants, 74-

96 ; unchangeable stems, 75-

183; nouns with two, 85-8;

nouns with three, 89-93 ;

ending in vowels, 97-102 ;

accentuation of nominal,

p. 453, 9.

GENERAL INDEX

507

Strong stem, in declension, 72 ;
73 ; 97, 2 a ; in conjugation,
124 ; 126 (pr.); 134 (pr.) ; 136
(pf.) ; 143 (s ao.) ; 145 (is ao.) ;
148, 1 (rt. ao.) ; in weak forms,
134 B 3 a ; 134 C 4 5 ; 148, 5.

Strophe, p. 437.

Subject, synt. position of, 191 a ;
exceptional position of, 191 ka.2.

Subjective genitive, 202 B 1 a.

Subjunctive, 1 ; 122 a ; formation
of, 122 a a ; 140, 1 (pf.) ; 143, 2
(s ao.) ; 145, 2 (is ao.) ; 146 (sis
ao.) ; 147, 2 (a ao.) ; 148, 2 (rt'.
ao.) ; synt. use of, 215 C.

Subordinate clause, verb accented
in, App. Ill, 19 B.

Substantives compounded w. gd.,
164, 1 a ; 184 c ; w. participle,
184 c.

Suffixes, primary, 182, 1 ; secon-
dary, 182, 2 ; 16 a ; s and t of
2. 3. s. irregularly retained,
28 a a (cp. f. n. 3).

Superlative suffix in tama, 103, 1 ;
in istha, 103, 2.

Sutras',' 1 ; 97 a a ; 166.

Syncope, 78, 3 a ; 90, 1. 2. 3 (an
stems); 133, 3a(pr.); 134 A2c
(pr.) ; 134 B 3 (pr.) ; 137, 2 b
(pf.) ; 139, 2 (pf.) ; 148, 1 e, g
(rt. ao.) ; 149, irr. a 2 (red. ao.) ;
156 a (pr. pt.) ; 157 a, f. n. 1
(pf.pt.); 160, 2 a (pp.); 171,3
(ds.) ; p. 458, 2.

Syntactical compounds, 185 b ;
189 B.

Syntax, 1; 190-218; charac-
teristics of Vedic, 190.

Temporal sense of ace., 197 A 2 ;

of inst., 199 A 5; of dat.,

200 B 3 ; of gen., 202 D 3 a ; of

loc., 203, 3.

Tenses, 122 ; synt. use of, 212-14.
Terminations, see Endings.
Than expressed by abl., 201 A 3.
Time, ace. of, 197, 2; inst.

of, 199 A 5 ; dat. of, 200' B 3 ;

gen. of, 202 D 3 a; loc. of,

203, 3.

Tmesis of compounds, 185 (p. 267,

f. n. 1) ; 186 A 1.
Transfer stems, in pr. system,

130 a, f. n. 4; 134 C 4 £ ;

134 E 4 a ; in ppf., 140, 6 ; in

ao., 147 a, b.
Triplets, p. 446, 11.

Unaccented pronouns, 109 a ;

112 a; 195 b ; synt. position of,

191 h ; 195 b.

Unaspirated consonants, 30, 2.
Unaugmented forms, 128 c.
Unchangeable consonant stems,

75-83.
Un reduplicated pf. forms, 139, 3 ;

139, 3 a ; 157 b.
Upanisads, 1.

Vedas, 1 ; 2.

Vedic language, 1 ; sounds of, 3.

Velars, 3 b a ; 6 ; 7 b • 15, 2 b.

Verb, concord of the, 194 A 1 ;
synt. position of, 191 a ; w. two
s. subjects, 194 A 2 a ; w. more
than two, 194 A 2 b ; w. subjects
of different numbers, 194 A 3 ;
w. subjects of different persons,
194 A 3 ; synt. accent of,
p. 466, 19 ; loses accent, p. 452.
8B&.

Verbal compounds, 65 a ; 184.

Verbs governing two ace., 198 ;
inst., 199 B 1 ; dat., 200 A 1 ;
abl., 201 A 1 ; gen., 202 A ; loc.,
204, 1.

Vocative, 71 a ; 72 a ; 76 a ; 94, 3 ;
98 b ; for predicative nom.,
196 c ; accent of, p. 457, 11 a ;
p. 465, 18 ; loses accent, p. 452,
8 B a ; compound, p. 466,
f. n. 3, 4.

Voices of the verb, 121.

Vowel shortened before vowel,
p. 437, a 4.

Vowel declension, 97-102 : stems
in a, a, 97 ; in i, u, 98 ; irr.
i, u stems, 99 ; in i, u, 100 ; in
r, 101 ; in ai, o, au, 102.

Vowels, 3 a ; 4 a ; classification
of, 17 ; changed to semivowels,

508

GENERAL INDEX

20 ; coalescence of, 18 ; 19 ;
contraction avoided, 19 a,
f. n. 2 ; 24 ; 25 ; 26 ; gradation
of, 5 ; loss of, 15, 1 e ; 127, 4
f. n. 3 ; 134 A 2 & ; 134 C 1 ;
145 a ; long by position before
oh, 51 ; lengthened, 47 ; 69 c
(cp. f. n. 4) ; 78, 1 a ; 78, 2 a ;
82 (i, u) ; 83, 2 (N. pi. n.) ;
83, 2 a (N. s. m. f.) ; 85 a(mahat) ;
86 (mat, vat stems) ; 87 (in
stems) ; 90 (an stems) ; 92
(ban) ; 94, 1 (N. s.) ; 96, 1. 2 ;
131 (p. 125), f. n. 1 ; 133 B 3 ;
144, 3 ; 145, 1 ; 145, 5 a ; 149 ;
151 c; 154, 2 (ps.) ; 155 (ps.
ao.) ; 160, 2 c (pp.) ; 162, 1 c
(gdv.); 169, 1 (ds.); 171, 1
(ds.); 173, 2 a (int.); 175 A 1
(den.) ; lengthened in com-

pounds, 49 e ; 50 d ; shortened,
89 (pf. pt.) ; 94, 3 (voc.) ; 129, 6
(red.) ; 133 B 1 (pr.) ; 149 (red.
ao.) ; 174 ^int.) ; 187 a a (p. 273) ;
shortened in compounds, 50 e ;
shortened before other vowels,
186; 18 &, f. n. 1 ; 19 a, f. n. 5 ;
20, f. n. 2; 26 6; 100, I a
(p. 86) f. n. 2; nasalized, 15,
2/; 19 a, f. n. 5; 196, f. n, 1 ;
terminations beginning \v., 76 ;
stems in, 97-102.

Weak stem, in dec., 72 ; 84 ; in
conj., 134A2(pr.); 137, l(pf.);
160, 2 (pp.) ; in first member
of compounds, 185 a.

Weakest stem, 72 ; 73 b.

Weber, Prof. A., 2, f. 11. 1.

Writing, introduction of, 2.

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