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Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde

(ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDO-ARYAN RESEARCH)

HERAUSGEGEBEN VON G. BUHLER.
III. BAND, 1. HEFT A.

VEDIC MYTHOLOGY

y

A. A. MACDONELL.

—

STRASSBURG

VERLAG VON KARL J. TRUBNER

Grundriss der Indo - Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde

(ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDO -ARYAN RESEARCH)

HERAUSGEGEBEN VON G. BUHLER.

III. BAND, I. HEFT A.

VEDIC MYTHOLOGY

BY

A. A. MACDONELL.

I. INTRODUCTION.

§ i. Religion and mythology. — Religion in its widest sense includes
on the one hand the conception which men entertain of the divine or
supernatural powers and, on the other, that sense of the dependence of human
welfare on those powers which finds its expression in various forms of wor-
ship. Mythology is connected with the former side of religion as furnishing
the whole body of myths or stories which are told about gods and heroes and
which describe their character and origin, their actions and surroundings.
Such myths have their source in the attempt of the human mind, in a
primitive and unscientific age, to explain the various forces and phenomena of
nature with which man is confronted. They represent in fact the conjectural
science of a primitive mental condition. For statements which to the highly
civilised mind would be merely metaphorical, amount in that early stage to
explanations of the phenomena observed. The intellectual difficulties raised
by the course of the heavenly bodies, by the incidents of the thunderstorm,
by reflexions on the origin and constitution of the outer world, here receive
their answers in the form of stories. The basis of these myths is the primitive
attitude of mind which regards all nature as an aggregate of animated entities.
A myth actually arises when the imagination interprets a natural event as
the action of a personified being resembling the human agent. Thus the
observation that the moon follows the sun without overtaking it, would have
been transformed into a myth by describing the former as a maiden following
a man by whom she is rejected. Such an original myth enters on the further
stage of poetical embellishment, as soon as it becomes the property of people
endowed with creative imagination. Various traits are now added according
to the individual fancy of the narrator, as the story passes from mouth to
mouth. The natural phenomenon begins to fade out of the picture as its
place is taken by a detailed representation of human passions. When the natural
basis of the tale is forgotten, new touches totally unconnected with its original
significance may be added or even transferred from other myths. When met
with at a late stage of its development, a myth may be so far overgrown
with secondary accretions unconnected with its original form, that its analysis
may be extremely difficult or even impossible. Thus it would be hard indeed
to discover the primary naturalistic elements in the characters or actions of
the Hellenic gods, if we knew only the highly anthropomorphic deities in the
plays of Euripides.

B. Dei.br.uck, ZVP. 1865, pp. 266 — 99; Kuhn, Uber Entwicklungsstufen der
Mythenbildung, Berliner Ak. der Wissenschaften 1873, pp. 123 — 51 ; Max Muller,
Comparative Mythology. Oxford Essays. II; Philosophy of Mythology. Selected
Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 1

2 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

Essays. I; Chips from a German Workship, IV2, 155 — 201; Physical Religion 276— 8 ;
Schwartz, Der Uisprung der Mythologie; Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte,
Berlin 1871, Preface; Mullenhoff in preface to Mannliardt’s Mythologische For-
schungen, Strassburg 1884; Lang, Mythology. Encyclopaedia Britannica; Gruppe, Die
griechischen Culte und Mythen. Introduction; Bloomfield, JAOS. XV, 135 — 6; F. B.
[evons, Mythology. Chambers’ Encyclopaedia ; Introduction to the History of Religion,
London 1896, pp. 23. 32. 249—69.

§ 2. Characteristics of Vedic mythology. — Vedic mythology occupies
a very important position in the study of the history of religions. Its oldest
source presents to us an earlier stage in the evolution of beliefs based on the
personification and worship of natural phenomena, than any other literary
monument of the world. To this oldest phase can be traced by uninterrupted
development the germs of the religious beliefs of the great majority of the
modern Indians, the only branch of the Indo-European race in which its
original nature worship has not been entirely supplanted many centuries ago
by a foreign monotheistic faith. The earliest stage of Vedic mythology is
not so primitive as was at one time supposed % but it is sufficiently primitive
to enable us to see clearly enough the process of personification by which
natural phenomena developed into gods, a process not apparent in other
literatures. The mythology, no less than the language, is still transparent
enough in many cases to show the connexion both of the god and his name
with a physical basis; nay, in several instances the anthropomorphism is only
incipient. Thus usas, the dawn, is also a goddess wearing but a thin veil of
personification; and when agni, fire , designates the god, the personality of
the deity is thoroughly interpenetrated by the physical element.

The foundation on which Vedic mythology rests, is still the belief,
surviving from a remote antiquity, that all the objects and phenomena of
nature with which man is surrounded, are animate and divine. Everything
that impressed the soul with awe or was regarded as capable of exercising a
good or evil influence on man, might in the Vedic age still become a direct
object not only of adoration but of prayer. Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers,
plants might be supplicated as divine powers; the horse, the cow, the bird of omen,
and other animals might be invoked; even objects fashioned by the hand
of man, weapons, the war-car, the drum, the plough, as well as ritual im-
plements, such as the pressing-stones and the sacrificial post, might be adored.

This lower form of worship, however, occupies but a small space in
Vedic religion. The true gods of the Veda are glorified human beings, in-
] spired with human motives and passions, born like men, but immortal. They
are almost without exception the deified representatives of the phenomena or
] agencies of nature 2. The degree of anthropomorphism to which they have
attained, however, varies considerably. When the name of the god is the
same as that of his natural basis, the personification has not advanced beyond
the rudimentary stage. Such is the case with Dyaus, Heaven, PrthivI, Earth,
Surya, Sun, Usas, Dawn, whose names represent the double character of
natural phenomena and of the persons presiding over them. Similarly
in the case of the two great ritual deities, Agni and Soma, the personifying
imagination is held in check by the visible and tangible character of the
element of fire and the sacrificial draught, called by the same names, of
which they are the divine embodiments. When the name of the deity is
different from that of the physical substrate, he tends to become dissociated
from the latter, the anthropomorphism being then more developed. Thus the
Maruts or Storm-gods are farther removed from their origin than Vayu, Wind,
though the Vedic poets are still conscious of the connexion. Finally, when
in addition to the difference in name, the conception of a god dates from a

2. Characteristics of Vedic Mythology. 3. Sources of V. M.

pre-Vedic period, the severance may have become complete. Such is the
case with Varuna, in whom the connexion can only be inferred from mytho-
logical traits surviving from an earlier age. The process of abstraction has
here proceeded so far, that Varuna’s character resembles that of the divine
ruler in a monotheistic belief of an exalted type. Personification has, how-
ever, nowhere in Vedic mythology attained to the individualized anthropo-
morphism characteristic of the Hellenic gods. The Vedic deities have but
very few distinguishing features, while many attributes and powers are shared
by all alike. This is partly due to the fact that the departments of nature;
which they represent have often much in common, while their anthropomor-
phism is comparatively undeveloped. Thus the activity of a thunder-god, of
the fire-god in his lightning form, and of the storm-gods might easily be de-
scribed in similar language, their main function in the eyes of the Vedic poets
being the discharge of rain. Again, it cannot be doubted that various Vedic
deities have started from the same source3, but have become differentiated
by an appellative denoting a particular attribute having gradually assumed an
independent character. Such is the case with the solar gods. There is, more-
over, often a want of clearness in the statements of the Vedic poets about
the deeds of the gods; for owing to the character of the literature, myths
are not related but only alluded to. Nor can thorough consistency be ex-
pected in such mythological allusions when it is remembered that they are
made by a number of different poets, whose productions extend over a pro-
longed literary period.

1 BRI. XIII ff. ; P. v. Bradke, Dyaus Asura, Halle 1SS5, 2 — 1 1 ; ZDMG. 40,
670. — 2 ORV. 591 — 4. — 3 L. v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 125—6; cp. BRI. 25.

Works on Vedic Mythology in general : R. Roth, Die hochsten Gotter der
arischen Volker, ZDMG. 6, 67—77; 7> 607; Bohtlingk and Roth, Sanskritworter-
buch, 7 vols. , St. Petersburg 1S52 — 75; j. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts on the
Origin and History of the People of India, their Religion and Institutions, 5 vols.,
especially vols. 42 revised (1873) and 53 (1884); Grassmann, Worterbuch zum Rig-
Veda, Leipzig 1873; Rig-Veda iibersetzt und mit kritischen und erlauternden An-
merkungen versehen, 2 vols., Leipzig 1876—7; W. D. Whitney, Oriental and
Linguistic Studies, 2, 149 ff.; JAOS. 3, 291 ff. 331 ff.; P. WURM, Geschichte der
indischen Religion, Basel 1874, pp. 21 — 54; A. Bergaigne, La Religion Vedique
d’apres les Hymnes du Rigveda, 3 vols., Paris 1878—83; A. Ludwig, Der
Rigveda oder die heiligen Hvmnen der Brahmana. Zum ersten Male vollstiindig
ins Deutsche iibersetzt. Mit Commentar und Einleitung. Prag, Wien, l.eipzig
1876 — 88; F. Max Muller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion,
London 1878; A. Kaegi, Der Rigveda, 2nd ed., Leipzig 1881 ; English Translation
by R. Arrowsmith, Boston 1886; A. Barth, The Religions of India, London
1882; A. Kuhn, Mythologische Studien. I2: Die Herabkunft des Feuers und
des Gottertranks, Giitersloh 1886; L. v. Schroder, Indiens Litteratur und Kultur,
Leipzig 1887, pp. 45 — 145; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Re-
ligionsgeschichte, Freiburg i. B., 1887, i,pp. 346 — 69; Pischel and Geldner, Vedisclie
Studien. vol. I, Stuttgart 1889, vol. II, part I 1892; A. HlLLEBRANDT, Vedische
Mythologie, vol. I, Soma und verwandte Gotter, Breslau 1891; P. Regnaud, Le
Rig-Veda et les Origines de la Mythologie indo-europeenne, Paris 1892 (the author
follows principles of interpretation altogether opposed to those generally accepted).
E. Hardy, Die Vedisch-brahmanische Periode der Religion des alten Indiens,
Munster i. W. 1893; H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, Berlin 1894;
P. Deussen, AHgemeine Geschichte der Philosophic mit besonderer Beriick-
sichtigung der Religionen, vol. I, part I, Philosophic des Veda bis auf die
Upanishad’s, Leipzig 1894; E. W. Hopkins, The Religions of India, Boston and
London 1895.

§ 3. Sources of Vedic Mythology. — By far the most important
source of Vedic Mythology is the oldest literary monument of India, the
Rigveda. Its mythology deals with a number of coordinate nature gods of
varying importance. This polytheism under the influence of an increasing

1*

4 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

tendency to abstraction at the end of the Rigvedic period, exhibits in its latest
book the beginnings of a kind of monotheism and even signs of pantheism.
The hymns of this collection having been composed with a view to the sa-
crificial ritual, especially that of the Soma offering, furnish a disproportionate
presentment of the mythological material of the age. The great gods who
occupy an important position at the Soma sacrifice and in the worship of
the wealthy, stand forth prominently; but the mythology connected with spirits,
with witchcraft, with life after death, is almost a blank, for these spheres of
belief have nothing to do with the poetry of the Soma rite. Moreover, while
the character of the gods is very completely illustrated in these hymns, which
are addressed to them and extol their attributes, their deeds, with the ex-
ception of their leading exploits, are far less definitely described. It is only
natural that a collection of sacrificial poetry containing very little narrative
matter, should supply but a scattered and fragmentary account of this side
of mythology. The defective information given by the rest of the RV. re-
garding spirits, lesser demons, and the future life, is only very partially sup-
plied by its latest book. Thus hardly any reference is made even here to the
fate of the wicked after death. Beside and distinguished from the adoration
of the gods, the worship of dead ancestors, as well as to some extent
the deification of inanimate objects, finds a place in the religion of the
Rigveda.

The Samaveda, containing but seventy-five verses which do not occur in
the RV., is of no importance in the study of Vedic mythology.

The more popular material of the Atharvaveda deals mainly with dom-
estic and magical rites. In the latter portion it is, along with the ritual text
of the Kausika sutra, a mine of information in regard to the spirit and demon
world. On this lower side of religion the Atharvaveda deals with notions of
greater antiquity than those of the Rigveda. But on the higher side of
religion it represents a more advanced stage. Individual gods exhibit a later
phase of development and some new abstractions are deified, while the general
character of the religion is pantheistic1. Hymns in praise of individual gods
are comparatively rare, while the simultaneous invocation of a number of
deities, in which their essential nature is hardly touched upon, is characteristic.
The deeds of the gods are extolled in the same stereotyped manner as in the
RV.; and the AV. can hardly be said to supply any important mythological
trait which is not to be found in the older collection.

The Yajurveda represents a still later stage. Its formulas being made
for the ritual, are not directly addressed to the gods, who are but shadowy
beings having only a very loose connexion with the sacrifice. The most salient
features of the mythology of the Yajurveda are the existence of one chief
god, Prajapati, the greater importance ofVisnu, and the first appearance of an
old god of the Rigveda under the new name of Siva. Owing, however, to
the subordinate position here occupied by the gods in comparison with the
ritual, this Veda yields but little mythological material.

Between it and, the Brahmanas, the most important of which are the
Aitareya and the Satapatha, there is no essential difference. The sacrifice
being the main object of interest, the individual traits of the gods have faded,
the general character of certain deities has been modified, and the importance
of others increased or reduced. Otherwise the pantheon of the Brahmanas
is much the same as that of the RV. and the AV., and the worship of in-
animate objects is still recognized. The main difference between the mytho-
logy of the RV. and the Brahmanas is the recognized position of Prajapati
or the Father-god as the chief deity in the latter. The pantheism of the

4. Method to be pursued.

5

Brahmanas is, moreover, explicit. Thus Prajapati is said to be the All (SB.
i, 3) 5'°) or the All and everything (SB. i, 6, 42; 4, 5, 72).

The gods having lost their distinctive features, there is apparent a tend-
ency to divide them into groups. Thus it is characteristic of the period that
the supernatural powers form the two hostile camps of the Devas or gods
on the one hand and the Asuras or demons on the other. The gods are
further divided into the three classes of the terrestrial Vasus, the aerial Rudras,
and the celestial Adityas (§ 45). The most significant group is the repre-
sentative triad of Fire, Wind, and Sun. The formalism of these works further
shows itself in the subdivision of individual deities by the personification of
their various attributes. Thus they speak of an ‘Agni, lord of food’, ‘Agni,
lord of prayer’ and so forth2.

The Brahmanas relate numerous myths in illustration of their main
subject-matter. Some of these are not referred to in the Samhitas. But where
they do occur in the earlier literature, they appear in the Brahmanas only as
developments of their older forms, and cannot be said to shed light on their
original forms, but only serve as a link between the mythological creations
of the oldest Vedic and of the post-Vedic periods.

1 HRI. 153.-2 BRI. 42; HRI. 182.

§4. Method to be pursued. — Vedic mythology is the product of
an age and a country, of social and climatic conditions far removed and
widely differing from our own. We have, moreover, here to deal not with
direct statements of fact, but with the imaginative creations of poets whose
mental attitude towards nature was vastly different from that of the men of
to-day. The difficulty involved in dealing with material so complex and re-
presenting so early a stage of thought, is further increased by the character
of the poetry in which this thought is imbedded. There is thus perhaps no
subject capable of scientific treatment, which, in addition to requiring a certain
share of poetical insight, demands caution and sobriety of judgment more
urgently. Yet the stringency of method which is clearly so necessary, has
largely been lacking in the investigation of Vedic mythology. To this defect,
no less than to the inherent obscurity of the material, are doubtless in con-
siderable measure due the many and great divergences of opinion prevailing
among Vedic scholars on a large number of important mythological questions.

In the earlier period of Vedic studies there was a tendency to begin
research at the wrong end. The etymological equations of comparative
mythology were then made the starting point. These identifications, though
now mostly rejected, have continued to influence unduly the inter-
pretation of the mythological creations of the Veda. But even apart from
etymological considerations, theories have frequently been based on general
impressions rather than on the careful sifting of evidence, isolated and second-
ary traits thus sometimes receiving coordinate weight with what is primary.
An unmistakable bias has at the same time shown itself in favour of some
one particular principle of interpretation1. Thus an unduly large number of
mythological figures have been explained as derived from dawn, lightning,
sun, or moon respectively. An a priori bias of this kind leads to an un-
consciously partial utilization of the evidence.

Such being the case, it may pove useful to suggest some hints with a
view to encourage the student in following more cautious methods. On the
principle that scientific investigations should proceed from the better known
to the less known, researches which aim at presenting a true picture of the
character and actions of the Vedic gods, ought to begin not with the meagre

6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. t a. Vedic Mythology.

and uncertain conclusions of comparative mythology, but with the information
supplied by Indian literature, which contains a practically continuous record
of Indian mythology from its most ancient source in the RV. down to modern
times2. All the material bearing on any deity or myth ought to be collected,
grouped, and sifted by the comparison of parallel passages, before any con-
clusion is drawn3. In this process the primary features which form the basis
of the personification should be separated from later accretions.

As soon as a person has taken the place of a natural force in the
imagination, the poetical fancy begins to weave a web of secondary myth,
into which may be introduced in the course of time material that has
nothing to do with the original creation, but is borrowed from elsewhere.
Primary and essential features, when the material is not too limited, betray
themselves by constant iteration. Thus in the Indra myth his fight with Vrtra,
which is essential, is perpetually insisted on, while the isolated statement that
he strikes Vrtra’s mother with his bolt (i, 329) is clearly a later touch, added
by an individual poet for dramatic effect. Again, the epithet ‘Vrtra-slaying’,
without doubt originally appropriate to Indra alone, is in the RV. several
times applied to the god Soma also. But that it is transferred from the
former to the latter deity, is sufficiently plain from the statement that Soma
is ‘the Vrtra-slaying intoxicating plant’ (6, 17”), the juice of which Indra
regularly drinks before the fray. The transference of such attributes is parti-
cularly easy in the RV. because the poets are fond of celebrating gods in
couples, when both share the characteristic exploits and qualities of each other
(cp. § 44). Attributes thus acquired must of course be eliminated from the
essential features. A similar remark applies to attributes and cosmic powers
which are predicated, in about equal degree, of many gods. They can have
no cogency as evidence in regard to a particular deity4. It is only when
such attributes and powers are applied in a predominant manner to an in-
dividual god, that they can be adduced with any force. For in such case it
is possible they might have started from the god in question and gradu-
ally extended to others. The fact must, however, be borne in mind in this
connexion, that some gods are celebrated in very many more hymns than
others. The frequency of an attribute applied to different deities must there-
fore be estimated relatively. Thus an epithet connected as often with Varuna
as with Indra, would in all probability be more essential to the character of
the former than of the latter. For Indra is invoked in about ten times as
many hymns as Varuna. The value of any particular passage as evidence
may be affected by the relative antiquity of the hymn in which it occurs.
A statement occurring for the first time in a late passage may of course re-
present an old notion; but if it differs from what has been said on the same
point in a chronologically earlier hymn, it most probably furnishes a later
development. The tenth and the greater part of the first book of the RV.s
are therefore more likely to contain later conceptions than the other books.
Moreover, the exclusive connexion of the ninth book with Soma Pavamana
may give a different complexion to mythological matter contained in another
book. Thus Vivasvat and Trita are here connected with the preparation of
Soma in quite a special manner (cp. §§ 18, 23). As regards the Brahmanas,
great caution should be exercised in discovering historically primitive notions
in them; for they teem with far-fetched fancies, speculations, and identi-
fications6.

In adducing parallel passages as evidence, due regard should be paid
to the context. Their real value can often only be ascertained by a minute
and complex consideration of their surroundings and the association of ideas

5. The Avesta and Yedic Mythology.

7

which connects them with what precedes and follows. After a careful estim-
ation of the internal evidence of the Veda, aided by such corroboration
as the later phases of Indian literature may afford, further light should be
sought from the closely allied mythology of the Iranians. Comparison with
it may confirm the results derived from the Indian material, or when the
Indian evidence is inconclusive, may enable us either to decide what is old and
new or to attain greater definiteness in regard to Vedic conceptions. Thusi
without the aid of the Avesta, it would be impossible to arrive at anything
like certain conclusions about the original nature of the god Mitra.

The further step may now be taken of examining the results of com-
parative mythology, in order to ascertain if possible, wherein consists the Vedic
heritage from the Indo-European period and what is the original significance
of that heritage. Finally, the teachings of ethnology cannot be neglected, when
it becomes necessary to ascertain what elements survive from a still remoter
stage of human development. Recourse to all such evidence beyond the range of
the Veda itself must prove a safeguard against on the one hand assuming that
various mythological elements are of purely Indian origin, or on the other hand
treating the Indo-European period as the very starting point of all mythological
notions. The latter view would be as far from the truth as the assumption that
the Indo-European language represents the very beginnings of Aryan speech7.

1 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 49, 173. — 2 PVS. XXVI — VIII. — 3 Bloomfield,
ZDMG. 48, 542. — 4 HRI. 51. — 5 Cp. Oldenberg, Die Hymnen des Rigveda I,
Berlin 1888; E. V. Arnold, KZ. 34, 297. 344; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 23 — 92. —
6 HRI. 183. 194; v. SchrSder, WZKM. 9, 120. — 7 ORV. 26 — 33.

Cp. also Ludwig, Uber Methode bei Interpretation des Rgveda, Prag 1890;
Hillebrandt, Vedainterpretation, Breslau 1895.

§ 5. The Avesta and Vedic Mythology. — We have seen that the
evidence of the Avesta cannot be ignored by the student of Vedic mytho-
logy. The affinity of the oldest form of the Avestan language with the dialect
of the Vedas is so great in syntax, vocabulary, diction, metre, and general
poetic style, that by the mere application of phonetic laws, whole Avestan
stanzas may be translated word for word into Vedic, so as to produce verses
correct not only in form but in poetic spirit1. The affinity in the domain of
mythology is by no means so great. For the religious reform of Zarathustra
brought about a very considerable displacement and transformation of mytho-
logical conceptions. If therefore we possessed Avestan literature as old as
that of the RV., the approximation would have been much greater in this
respect. Still, the agreements in detail, in mythology no less than in cult,
are surprisingly numerous. Of the many identical terms connected with the
ritual it is here only necessary to mention Vedic yajha = Avestan yasna,
sacrifice, hotr = zaotar, priest, atharvan = athravan , fire-priest, rta = asa order,
rite, and above all soma — haoma, the intoxicating juice of the Soma plant, in
both cults offered as the main libation, pressed, purified by a sieve, mixed
with milk, and described as the lord of plants, as growing on the mountains,
and as brought down by an eagle or eagles (cp. § 37). It is rather with
the striking correspondences in mythology that we are concerned. In both
religions the term asura = ahura is applied to the highest gods, who in
both are conceived as mighty kings, drawn through the air in their war
chariots by swift steeds, and in character benevolent, almost entirely
free from guile and immoral traits. Both the Iranians and the Indians ob-
served the cult of fire, though under the different names of Agni and Atar.
The Waters, apah — apo, were invoked by both, though not frequently2.
The Vedic Mitra is the Avestan Mithra, the sun god. The Aditya Bhaga
corresponds to bag/ia, a god in general; Vayu, Wind is vayu, a genius of

8 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

air; Apam napat, the Son of Waters = Apam napat; Gandharva = Gandarewa
and Krsanu = Keresani are divine beings connected with soma = haoma.
To Trita Aptya correspond two mythical personages named Thrita and Athwya,
and to Indra Vrtrahan the demon Indra and the genius of victory Verethragna.
Yama, son of Vivasvat, ruler of the dead, is identical with Yima, son of
Vlvanhvant, ruler of paradise. The parallel in character, though not in name,
of the god Varuna is Ahura Mazda, the wise spirit. The two religions also have
in common as designations of evil spirits the terms druh = druj and yatu \
1 Bartholomae in Geiger and Kuhn’s Grundriss der iranischen Philologie,
vol. i, p. I. — 2 Spiegel, Die Arische Periode, Leipzig 1887, p. 155. — 3 Spiegel,
op. cit. 225 — 33; Gruppe, Die griechischen Culte und Mythen, 1, 86 — 97; ORV. 26
-33; HRI, 167-8.

§ 6. Comparative Mythology. — In regard to the Indo-European
period we are on far less certain ground. Many equations of name once
made in the first enthusiasm of discovery and generally accepted, have since
been rejected and very few of those that remain rest on a firm foundation.
Dyaiis = Zeu; is the only one which can be said to be beyond the range
of doubt. Varuna = Oupavo; though presenting phonetic difficulties, seems
possible. The rain-god Parjanya agrees well in meaning with the Lithuanian
thunder-god Perkunas, but the phonetic objections are here still greater. The
name of Bhaga is identical with the Slavonic bogie as well as the Persian bagha ,
but as the latter two words mean only ‘god’, the Indo-European word cannot
have designated any individual deity. Though the name of Usas is radically
cognate to Aurora and Hcoc, the cult of Dawn as a goddess is a specially
Indian development. It has been inferred from the identity of mythological
traits in the thunder-gods of the various branches of the Indo-European
family, that a thunder-god existed in the Indo-European period in spite of
the absence of a common name. There are also one or two other not im-
probable equations based on identity of character only. That the conception
of higher gods, whose nature was connected with light (j f div, to shine) and
heaven (div) had already been arrived at in the Indo-European period, is
shown by the common name deivos (Skt. deva-s , Lith. deva-s, Lat. deu-s), god.
The conception of Earth as a mother (common to Vedic and Greek mytho-
logy) and of Heaven as a father (Skt. Dyaiis pitar, Gk. Zeu rrarep, Lat.
Jupiter) appears to date from a still remoter antiquity. For the idea of
Heaven and Earth being universal parents is familiar to the mythology of
China and New Zealand and may be traced in that of Egypt2. The practice
of magical rites and the worship of inanimate objects still surviving in the
Veda, doubtless came down from an equally remote stage in the mental
development of mankind, though the possibility of a certain influence exer-
cised by the primitive aborigines of India on their Aryan conquerors cannot
be altogether excluded.

1 Gruppe op. cit. I, 97— 121 ; ORV. 33 — 8; HRI. 168— 9. — 2 Tylor, Primitive
Culture I, 326; Lang, Mythology. Encyclopaedia Britannica, p. 150 — I.

II. VEDIC CONCEPTIONS OF THE WORLD AND ITS ORIGIN.

§ 7. Cosmology. — The Universe, the stage on which the actions of
the gods are enacted, is regarded by the Vedic poets as divided into the
three domains1 of earth, air or atmosphere, and heaven2. The sky when
regarded as the whole space above the earth, forms with the latter the entire
universe consisting of the upper and the nether world. The vault (naka) of
the sky is regarded as the limit dividing the visible upper world from the

6. Comparative Mythology. 7. Cosmology. 9

third or invisible world of heaven, which is the abode of light and the dwelling
place of the gods. Heaven, air, and earth form the favourite triad of the
RV., constantly spoken of explicitly or implicitly (8, io6. 906 & c.). The solar
phenomena which appear to take place on the vault of the sky, are referred
to heaven, while those of lightning, rain, and wind belong to the atmosphere.
But when heaven designates the whole space above the earth both classes
of phenomena are spoken of as taking place there. In a passage of the AV.
(4, 143 = VS. 17, 67) the ‘vault of the sky’ comes between the triad of
earth, air, heaven and the world of light, which thus forms a fourth division3.
Each of the three worlds is also subdivided. Thus three earths, three atmo-
spheres, three heavens are sometimes mentioned; or when the universe is
looked upon as consisting of two halves, we hear of six worlds or spaces
( rajatnsi ). This subdivision probably arose from the loose use of the word
prthivi ‘earth’ (1, I089* 10 ; 7, 104") 4 in the plural to denote the three worlds
(just as the dual pitarau , ‘two fathers’ regularly denotes ‘father and mother’).

The earth is variously called bhumi , ksam, ksd, gma, the great {main),
the broad ( prthivi or urvi ), the extended ( uttdna ), the boundless (apdra), or
the place here ( idatn ) as contrasted with the upper sphere (1, 22 V 1 54 T* 39.

The conception of the earth being a disc surrounded by an ocean does
not appear in the Samhitas. But it was naturally regarded as circular, being
compared with a wheel (10, 89 4) and expressly called circular ( parimandala )
in the SB.6

The four points of the compass are already mentioned in the RV. in
an adverbial form (7, 72 s; 10, 36 14. 42") and in the AV. as substantives
(AV. 15, 2 1 ff.). Hence ‘four quarters’ (pradis'ah) are spoken of (10, 19s),
a term also used as synonymous with the whole earth (1, 16442), and the
earth is described as ‘four-pointed’ (10, 583). Five points are occasionally
mentioned (9, 8629; AV. 3, 24J &c.), when that in the middle (10,42"),
where the speaker stands, denotes the fifth. The AV. also refers to six (the
zenith being added) and even seven points3. The same points may be
meant by the seven regions ( dis'a/i ) and the seven places ( dkama ) of the
earth spoken of in the RV. (9, 1143; 1, 2216).

Heaven or div is also commonly termed vyoman , sky, or as pervaded
with light, the ‘luminous space’, rocana (with or without divah). Designations
of the dividing firmament besides the ‘vault’ are the ‘summit’ ( satiu ), ‘surface’
0 vis tap ), ‘ridge’ ( prstha ), as well as the compound expressions ‘ridge of the
vault’ (1, 125s cp. 3, 212) and ‘summit of the vault’ (8, 92 2)3. Even a ‘third
ridge in the luminous space of heaven’ is mentioned (9, 86 2?). When three
heavens are distinguished they are very often called the three luminous spaces
(tri rocana ), a highest ( uttama ), a middle, and a lowest being specified (5, 606).
The highest is also termed uttara and parya (4, 26 s; 6, 40 5). In this third
or highest heaven (very often parame rocane or vyoman) the gods, the fathers,
and Soma are conceived as abiding.

Heaven and earth are coupled as a dual conception called by the terms
rodasl , ksoni, dvyavdprthivi and others (§ 44), and spoken of as the two
halves (2, 2713). The combination with the semi-spherical sky causes the
notion of the earth’s shape to be modified, when the two are called ‘the two
great bowls {camva) turned towards each other’ (3, 5520). Once they are
compared to the wheels at the two ends of an axle (10, 89 4).

The RV. makes no reference to the supposed distance between heaven
and earth, except in such vague phrases as that not even the birds can soar
to the abode of Visnu (1, 155s). But the AV. (10, 8l8) says that ‘the two
wings of the yellow bird (the sun) flying to heaven are 1000 days’ journey

io III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

apart’. A similar notion is found in the AB., where it is remarked (2, 178)
that ‘1000 days’ journey for a horse the heavenly world is distant from here’.
Another Brahmana states that the heavenly world is as far from this world
as 1000 cows standing on each other (PB. 16, 86; 21, 1 9).

The air or intermediate space ( antariksa ) is hardly susceptible of per-
sonification. As the region of mists and cloud, it is also called rajas which
is described as watery (1, 124 5 cp. 5, 85 2) and is sometimes thought of
as dark, when it is spoken of as ‘black’ (1, 3 5 2* 4' 9; 8,43 s). The triple
subdivision is referred to as the three spaces or rajamsi (4, 53 5; 5, 69 1).
The highest is then spoken of as uttama (9, 22 s), parama (3, 30 z), or trtlya ,
the third (9, 74s; 10, 453. i238j, where the waters and Soma are and the
celestial Agni is produced. The two lower spaces are within the range of
our perception, but the third belongs to Visnu (7, 99Jcp. 1, 1555). The
latter seems to be the ‘mysterious’ space once referred to elsewhere (10, 105 7).
The twofold subdivision of the atmosphere is commoner. Then the lower
(1 apara ) or terrestrial ( pdrthiva) is contrasted with the heavenly ( divyam or
divafy ) space (1, 62s; 4, 53 3). The uppermost stratum, as being contiguous
with heaven (div) in the twofold as well as the triple division, seems often
to be loosely employed as synonymous with heaven in the strict sense.
Absolute definiteness or consistency in the statements of different poets or
even of the same poet could not reasonably be expected in regard to such
matters.

The air being above the earth in the threefold division of the universe,
its subdivisions, whether two or three, would naturally have been regarded
as above it also; and one verse at least (1, 8i5cp. 907) clearly shows that
the ‘terrestrial space’ is in this position. Three passages, however, of the
RV. (6, 91; 7, 801; 5, 81 4) have been thought to lend themselves to the
view7 that the lower atmosphere was conceived as under the earth, to account
for the course of the sun during the night. The least indefinite of these
three passages (5, 81 4) is to the effect that Savitr, the sun, goes round night
on both sides ( ubhayatah ). This may, however, mean nothing more than
that night is enclosed between the limits of sunset and sunrise. At any rate,
the view advanced in the AB. (3, 44 4) as to the sun’s course during the night
is, that the luminary shines upwards at night, while it turns round so as to
shine downwards in the daytime. A similar notion may account for the
statement of the RV. that the light which the sun’s steeds draw is sometimes
bright and sometimes dark (1, 1155), or that the rajas which accompanies
the sun to the east is different from the light with which he rises (10, 37 3).

There being no direct reference to the sun passing below the earth, the
balance of probabilities seems to favour the view that the luminary was
supposed to return towards the east the way he came, becoming entirely
darkened during the return journey. As to what becomes of the stars during
the daytime, a doubt is expressed (1, 2410), but no conjecture is made.

The atmosphere is often called a sea ( samudra ) as the abode of the
celestial waters. It is also assimilated to the earth, inasmuch as it has
mountains (1, 32s &c.) and seven streams which flow there (1, 32 12 &c.),
when the conflict with the demon of drought takes place. Owing to the
obvious resemblance the term ‘mountain’ ( parvata ) thus very often in the
RV. refers to clouds8, the figurative sense being generally clear enough. The
word ‘rock’ ( adri ) is further regularly used in a mythological sense for ‘cloud’
as enclosing the cows released by Indra and other gods9.

The rainclouds as containing the waters, as dripping, moving and roaring,
are peculiarly liable to theriomorphism as cows10, whose milk is rain.

8. Cosmogony.

i i

The cosmic order or law prevailing in nature is recognised under the
name of rta 11 (properly the ‘course’ of things), which is considered to be
under the guardianship of the highest gods. The same word also designates
‘order’ in the moral world as truth and ‘right’, and in the religious world as
sacrifice or ‘rite’.

1 Roth, ZDMG. 6, 68. — 2 Cp. Sp.AP. 122; KRV. 34, note 118. — 3 Hopkins,
AJP. 4, 189. — 4 Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 494- — 5 Bloomfield, AJP. 12, 432. —
6 Cp. Weber, IS. 10, 358—64. — 7 AIL. 357—9- — 8 KHF. 178; Delbruck, ZVP.
1865, pp. 284—5. — 9 KHF. 187; Zft. f. deutsche Mythologie, 3, 378. — 10 GW.,
s. v. go\ WVB. 1894, p. 13. — ” Ludwig, Religiose und philosophische Anschau-
ungen des Veda (1875), p. 15; LRV. 3, 284—5; Harlez, JA. (1878), 11, 105—6;
Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman, 13 — 4; OGR. 198. 243; KRV. 28; BRV. 3, 220;
WC. 91 — 7. 100; Sp.AP. 139; ORV. 196 — 201; Jackson, Trans, of 10th Or. Con-
gress, 2, 74.

Bruce, Vedic conceptions of the Earth, JRAS. 1862, p. 321 ff. ; BRV. I, 1 — 3;
Wallis, Cosmology of the Rigveda (London 1887), ill — 17.

§ 8. Cosmogony. — The cosmogonic mythology of the RV. fluctuates
between two theories, which are not mutually exclusive, but may be found
combined in the same verse. The one regards the universe as the result of
mechanical production, the work of the carpenter’s and joiner’s skill; the other
represents it as the result of natural generation.

The poets of the RV. often employ the metaphor of building in its
various details, when speaking of the formation of the world. The act of
measuring is constantly referred to. Thus Indra measured the six regions,
made the wide expanse of earth and the high dome of heaven (6, 47 3' 4).
Visnu measured out the terrestrial spaces and made fast the abode on high
(1, 1541). The measuring instrument, sometimes mentioned (2, 153; 3, 38 3),
is the sun, with which Varuna performs the act (5, 85 s). The Fathers
measured the two worlds with measuring rods and made them broad (3,38-5
cp. 1, 1902). The measurement naturally begins in front or the east. Thus
Indra measured out as it were a house with measures from the front (2,15’
CP- 7> 99 2)- Connected with this idea is that of spreading out the earth, an
action attributed to Agni, Indra, the Maruts, and others. As the Vedic house
was built of wood, the material is once or twice spoken of as timber. Thus
the poet asks; ‘What was the wood, what the tree out of which they fashioned
heaven and earth?’ (10, 31? = 10, 81 4). The answer given to this question
in a Brahmana is that Brahma was the wood and the tree (TB. 2, 8, 96).
Hea\ en and earth are very often described as having been supported (skab/i
or stab/i) with posts ( skamb/ia or skambhana), but the sky is said to be
rafterless (2, 152; 4, 56 3 ; 10, 149 1), and that it never falls is a source of
wonder (5, 29*; 6, 177; 8, 45 6). The framework of a door is called ata;
in such a frame of heaven Indra fixed the air (1, 56 s). The doors of the
cosmic house are the portals of the east through which the morning light
enters (1, 1134; 4, 51 2; 5, 45 *). Foundations are sometimes alluded to.
Thus Savitr made fast the earth with bands (10, 149 '), Visnu fixed it with
pegs (7, 993), and Brhaspati supports its ends (4, 50 1 cp. 10, 89 ‘). The
agents in the construction of the world are either the gods in general or
various individual gods; but where special professional skill seemed to be
required in details, Tvastr, the divine carpenter, or the deft-handed Rbhus
are mentioned. Little is said as to their motive; but as man builds his house
to live in, so of Visnu at least it is indicated that he measured or stretched
out the regions as an abode for man (6, 49 13 69s, cp. 1, 1554).

The notion of parentage as a creative agency in the universe, chiefly
connected with the birth of the sun at dawn and with the production of rain

1 2 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

after drought, has three principle applications in the RV. The first is tem-
poral, as involving the idea of priority. One phenomenon preceding another
is spoken of as its parent. Thus the dawns generate ( jan) the sun and the
morning sacrifice (7, 78 3), while Dawn herself is born of Night (1, 1239).
As the point of view is changed, contradictions with regard to such relation-
ships naturally arise (cp. p. 48). When the rising of the dawn is ascribed
to the sacrifice of the Fathers, the explanation is to be found in this notion
of priority. Secondly, a local application frequently occurs. The space in
which a thing is contained or produced is its father or mother. Illustrations
of this are furnished by purely figurative statements. Thus the quiver is
called the father of the arrows (6, 755) or the bright steeds of the sun are
termed the daughters of his car (1, 509). This idea of local parentage is
especially connected with heaven and earth. Paternity is the characteristic
feature in the personification of Dyaus (see §11), and Dawn is constantly
called the ‘daughter of Heaven’. Similarly the Earth, who produces vegetation
on her broad bosom (5, Sq3), is a mother (1, 89^ R'c.). Heaven and earth
are, however, more often found coupled as universal parents, a conception
obvious enough from the fact that heaven fertilizes the earth by the descent
of moisture and light, and further developed by the observation that both
supply nourishment to living beings, the one in the form of rain, the other
in that of herbage. They are characteristically the parents of the gods (§ 44).
As the latter are often said to have created heaven and earth, we thus arrive
at the paradox of the Vedic poets that the children produced their own
parents; Indra, for instance, being described as having begotten his father
and mother from his own body (1, 1592; 10, 543). Again, the raincloud
cow is the mother of the lightning calf, or the heavenly waters, as carrying
the embryo of the aerial fire, are its mothers, for one of the forms of the
fire-god is ‘the son of waters’ (§ 24). ‘Son of the steep’ also appears to
be a name of lightning in the AV. (i,i32-3; cp. 26 3 and RV. 10, 1422).
Thirdly, the notion of parentage arises from a generic point of view: he
who is the chief, the most prominent member of a group, becomes their
parent. Thus Vayu, Wind, is father of the Storm-gods (1, 1344), Rudra,
father of the Maruts or Rudras, Soma, father of plants, while Sarasvatl is
mother of rivers.

There are also two minor applications of the idea of paternity in the
RV. As in the Semitic languages, an abstract quality is quite frequently em-
ployed in a figurative sense (which is sometimes mythologically developed)
to represent the parent of sons who possess or bestow that quality in
an eminent degree. Thus the gods in general are sons ( sunavah or putraJi)
of immortality1 as well as sons of skill, daksa (8, 25 s; cp. 8 19)- Agni is
the ‘son of strength’ or of ‘force’ (§ 35). Pusan is the ‘child of setting
free’2. Indra is the ‘son of truth’ (8, 58 4), the ‘child of cow-getting’ (4, 32“),
and the ‘son of might’ ( savasah , 4, 24 8, 81 I4, his mother twice being called
savasi, 8, 45s. 66 2). Mitra-Varuna are the ‘children of great might’. Another
application is much less common. As a father transmits his qualities to his
son, his name is also occasionally transferred, something like a modern sur-
name. Thus vis'varlpa, an epithet of Tvastr, becomes the proper name of
his son. Analogously the name of Vivasvat is applied to his son Manu in
the sense of the patronymic Vaivasvata (Val. 41).

A mythological account of the origin of the universe, involving neither
manufacture nor generation, is given in one of the latest hymns of the RV.,
the well-known purusa-sukta (10, 90). Though several details in this myth
point to the most recent period of the RV., the main idea is very primitive,

8. Cosmogony

13

as it accounts for the formation of the world from the body of a giant.
With him the gods performed- a sacrifice, when his head became the sky,
his navel the air, and his feet the earth. From his mind sprang the moon,
from his eye the sun, from his mouth Indra and Agni, from his breath, wind.
The four castes also arose from him. His mouth became the brdhmana,
his arms the rajanya or warrior, his thighs the vaisya, and his feet the
sudra. The interpretation given in the hymn itself is pantheistic, for it is
there said (v. 2) that Purusa is ‘all this, both what has become and what
shall be’. In the AY. (10, 17) and the Upanisads (Mund. Up. 2, i10)
Purusa is also pantheistically interpreted as identical with the universe. He
is also identified with Brahma (Chand. Up. 1, 7 s). In the SB. (n, 1, 61) he
is the same as Prajapati, the creator.

There are in the last book of the RV. some hymns which treat the
origin of the world philosophically rather than mythologically. Various passages
show that in the cosmological speculation of the RV. the sun was regarded
as an important agent of generation. Thus he is called the soul ( atma ) of
ail that moves and stands (1, 1151). Statements such as that he is called
by many names though one (1, 16446; 10, 1145 cp. Val. io2) indicate that his
nature was being tentatively abstracted to that of a supreme god, nearly
approaching that of the later conception of Brahma. In this sense the sun
is once glorified as a great power of the universe under the name of the
‘golden embryo’, Jiiranya-garbha, in RV. 10, 121. 3 It is he who measures!
out space in the air and shines where the sun rises (vv. 5- 6). In the last
verse of this hymn, he is called Prajapati4, ‘lord of created beings’, the name
which became that of the chief god of the Brahmanas. It is significant that
in the only older passage of the RV. in which it occurs (4, 53 2), prajapati is
an epithet of the solar deity Savitr, who in the same hymn (v. °) is said to
rule over what moves and stands5.

There are two other cosmogonic hymns which both explain the origin
of the universe as a kind of evolution of the existent (sat) from the non-existent
(asat). In 10, 72 6 it is said that Brahmanaspati forged together this world

like a smith. From the non-existent the existent was produced. Thence in

succession arose the earth, the spaces, Aditi with Daksa; and after Aditi the
gods were born. The gods then brought forward the sun. There were eight
sons of Aditi, but the eighth, Martanda, she cast away; she brought him to
be born and to die (i. e. to rise and set). Three stages can be distinguished
in this hymn: first the world is produced, then the gods, and lastly the sun.

In RV. 10, 129, a more abstract and a very sublime hymn, it is affirmed

that nothing existed in the beginning, all being void. Darkness and space

enveloped the undifferentiated waters (cp. 10, 82°. 1217, AV. 2, 8). The
one primordial substance (ekam) was produced by heat. Then desire (kama),
the first seed of mind (??ianas) arose. This is the bond between the non-
existent and the existent. By this emanation the gods came into being. But
here the poet, overcome by his doubts, gives up the riddle of creation as
unsolvable. A short hymn of three stanzas (10, 190) forms a sequel to the
more general evolution of that just described. Here it is stated that from
heat ( tapas ) was produced order (rta); then night, the ocean, the year; the
creator ( d/iata ) produced in succession sun and moon, heaven and earth,
air and ether.

In a similar strain to RV. 10, 129 a Brahmana passage declares that
‘formerly nothing existed, neither heaven nor earth nor atmosphere, which
being non-existent resolved to come into being’ (TB. 2, 2, 91 ff.). The regular
cosmogonic view of the Brahmanas requires the agency of a creator, who is

i4 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

not, however, always the starting point. The creator here is Prajapati or
the personal Brahma, who is not only father of gods, men, and demons, but
is the All. Prajapati is here an anthropomorphic representation of the desire
which is the first seed spoken of in RV. io, 129. In all these accounts the
starting point is either Prajapati desiring offspring and creating, or else the
primeval waters, on which floated Hiranyagarbha the cosmic golden egg,
whence is produced the spirit that desires and creates the Universe. This
fundamental contradiction as to the priority of Prajapati or of the waters
appears to be the result of combining the theory of evolution with that of
creation. Besides this there are many minor conflicts of statement, as, for
instance, that the gods create Prajapati and that Prajapati creates the gods 7.
The account given in the Chandogya Brahmana (5, 19) is that not-being
became being; the latter changed into an egg, which after a year by splitting
in two became heaven and earth; whatever was produced is the sun, which
is Brahma8 (cp. Ch. Up. 3, i9,— 4). Again, in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
(5, 61), the order of evolution is thus stated: In the beginning waters were
this (universe); they produced the real (satyam); from this was produced
Brahma, from Brahma Prajapati, from Prajapati the gods.

The All-god appears as a creator in the AY. under the new names of
Skambha, Support, Prana9, the personified breath of life (AV. 11, 4), Rohita,
as a name of the sun, Kama, Desire, and various others io. The most notable
cosmogonic myth of the Brahmanas describes the raising of the submerged
earth by a boar, which in post-Vedic mythology developed into an Avatar
of Visnu. “.

1 OST. 5, 52. — 2 OST. 5, 175, note 271; BRV. 2, 422 ff.; Darmesteter, Haur-
vatat et Ameretat, 83; ORV. 232, note 2. — 3 SPH. 27 — 8; HRI. 208. — 4 SPH.
29. — 5 OGR. 295; WC. 50 — 1. — 6 OST. 5, 48. — 7 OST. 4, 20 ff.; HRI. 208—9.
— 8 Weber, IS. 1, 261. — 9 SPH. 69—72. — i° HRI. 209. — « Macdonell,
JRAS. 1895, pp. 178—89.

Haug, Die Kosmogonie der Inder, Allgemeine Zeitung, 1873, p. 2373 ff. ; Weber, IS.
9, 74; Ludwig, Die philosophischen und religiosen Anschauungen des Veda; AIL.
217; BRI. 30 — I; Scherman, Philosophische Hymnen aus der Rig- und Atharva-
veda Sarnhita, Miinchen 1887; Lukas, Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonien der
alten Volker, Leipzig 1893, pp. 65 — 99.

§ 9. Origin of gods and men. — As most of the statements con-
tained in the Vedas about the origin of the gods have already been mentioned,
only a brief summary need here be added. In the philosophical hymns the
origin of the gods is mostly connected with the element of water *. In the
AV. ( 1 o, 7 25) they are said to have arisen from the non-existent. According
to one cosmogonic hymn (10, 1 2 9 6) they were born after the creation of
the universe. Otherwise they are in general described as the children of
Heaven and Earth. In one passage (10, 63 2) a triple origin, apparently
corresponding to the triple division of the universe, is ascribed to the gods,
when they are said to have been ‘born from Aditi, from the waters, from
the earth’ (cp. 1, 139"). According no doubt to a secondary conception,
certain individual gods are spoken of as having begotten others. Thus the
Dawn is called the mother of the gods (1, 11319) and Brahmanaspati (2, 26 3),
as well as SomaL (9, 87 2), is said to be their father. A group of seven or
eight gods, the Adityas, are regarded as the sons of Aditi. In the AV. some
gods are spoken of as fathers, others as sons2 (AV. 1, 30 2).

The Vedic conceptions on the subject of the origin of man are rather
fluctuating, but the human race appear generally to have been regarded as
descended from a first man. The latter is called either Vivasvat’s son Manu,
who was the first sacrificer (10, 63?) and who is also spoken of as father

9. Origin of gods and men. io. General character and classification. 15

Manus (1, 80 l6); or he is Yama Vaivasvata, Vivasvat’s son, who with his
twin sister Yam! produced the human race. The origin of men, when thought
| of as going back, beyond this first ancestor, seems to have been conceived
as celestial. Vivasvat (§ 18) is the father of the primeval twins, while once
the celestial Gandharva and the water nymph are designated as their highest
kin (10, 104). Men’s relationship to the gods is sometimes also alluded to
and men must have been thought of as included among the offspring of
Heaven and Earth, the great parents of all that exists. Again, Agni is said
to have begotten the offspring of men (1, 96 2-4), and the Angirases, the
semi-divine ancestors of later priestly families, are described as his sons.

, Various other human families are spoken of as independently descended
i from the gods through their founders Atri, Kanva, and others (1, 1399).
Vasistha (7, 33 1 1) was miraculously begotten by Mitra and Varuna, the divine
nymph UrvasI having been his mother. To quite a different order of ideas
belongs the conception of the origin of various classes of men from parts
of the world giant Purusa4 (§ 8, p. 13).

1 SPH. 32. — 2 OST. 5, 13 f., 23 {., 38 f. — 3 BRV. 1, 36. — 4 ORV. 275 — 7.

125—8.

III. THE VEDIC GODS.

§ 10. General character and classification. — Indefiniteness of out-
line and lack of individuality characterize the Vedic conception of the gods.
This is mainly due to the fact that they are nearer to the physical pheno-
mena which they represent, than the gods of any other Indo-European people.
Thus the ancient Vedic interpreter Yaska1 (Nir. 7, 4) speaking of the nature
of the gods, remarks that what is seen of them is not anthropomorphic at
all, as in the case of the Sun, the Earth, and others. The natural bases of
the Vedic gods have, to begin with, but few specific characteristics, while they
share some of the attributes of other phenomena belonging to the same
domain. Thus Dawn, Sun, Fire have the common features of being luminous,
dispelling darkness, appearing in the morning. The absence of distinctiveness
must be still greater when several deities have sprung from different aspects
of one and the same phenomenon. Hence the character of each Vedic god
is made up of only a few essential traits combined with a number of other
features common to all the gods, such as brilliance, power, beneficence, and
wisdom. Certain great cosmical functions are predicated of nearly every
leading deity individually. The action of supporting or establishing heaven
and earth is so generally attributed to them, that in the AV. (19, 32) it is
even ascribed to a magical bunch of darbha grass. Nearly a dozen gods
are described as having created the two worlds, and rather more are said to
have produced the sun, to have placed it in the sky, or to have prepared
a path for it. Four or five are also spoken of as having spread out the
earth, the sky, or the two worlds. Several (Surya, Savitr, Pusan, Indra, Pra-
janya, and the Adityas) are lords of all that moves and is stationary.

Such common features tend to obscure what is essential, because in
hymns of prayer and praise they naturally assume special prominence. Again,
gods belonging to different departments, but having prominent functions in
common, are apt to be approximated. Thus Agni, primarily the god of
terrestrial fire, dispels the demons of darkness with his light, while Indra, the
aerial god of the thunderstorm, slays them with his lightning. Into the con-
ception of the fire-god further enters his aspect as lightning in the atmosphere.
The assimilation is increased by such gods often being invoked in pairs.

1 6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

These combinations result in attributes peculiar to the one god attaching them-
selves to the other, even when the latter appears alone. Thus Agni comes
to be called Soma-drinker, Vrtra-slayer, winner of cows and waters, sun and
dawns, attributes all primarily belonging to Indra.

The indefiniteness of outline caused by the possession of so many com-
mon attributes, coupled with the tendency to wipe out the few distinctive
ones by assigning nearly every power to every god, renders identification of
one god with another easy. Such identifications are as a matter of fact
frequent in the RV. 1 Thus a poet addressing the fire-god exclaims: ‘Thou
at thy birth, O Agni, art Varuna; when kindled thou becomest Mitra, in thee,
O son of strength, all gods are centred; thou art Indra to the worshipper’
(5, 3 I). Reflexions in particular on the nature of Agni, so important a god
in the eyes of a priesthood devoted to a fire cult, on his many mani-
festations as individual fires on earth, and on his other aspects as atmospheric
fire in lightning and as celestial fire in the sun, aspects which the Vedic
poets are fond of alluding to in riddles, would suggest the idea that various
deities are but different forms of a single divine being. This idea is found
in more than one passage of the RV. ‘The one being priests speak of in
many ways; they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan’ (1, 16440; cp. AV. 10, 8 28.
13, 415). ‘Priests and poets with words make into many the bird (= the sun)
that is but one’ (10, 114s). Thus it appears that by the end of the Rigvedic
period a kind of polytheistic monotheism had been arrived at. We find there
even the incipient pantheistic conception of a deity representing not only all
the gods but nature as well. For the goddess Aditi is identified not only
with all the gods, but with men, all that has been and shall be born, air,
and heaven (1, 89 10); and Prajapati is not only the one god above all gods,
but embraces all things (10, 121s-10). This pantheistic view becomes fully deve-
loped in the AV. (10, 7 l4- 25) and is explicitly accepted in the later Vedic
literature 2.

In the older parts of the RV. individual gods are often invoked as the
highest, but this notion is not carried out to its logical conclusion. The fact
that the Vedic poets frequently seem to be engrossed in the praise of the
particular deity they happen to be invoking, that they exaggerate his attributes
to the point of inconsistency, has given rise to the much discussed theory
which Max Muller originated and to which he has given the name of Heno-
theism or Kathenotheism 3. According to this theory, ‘the belief in individual
gods alternately regarded as the highest’, the Vedic poets attribute to the
god they happen to be addressing all the highest traits of divinity, treating
him for the moment as if he were an absolutely independent and supreme
deity, alone present to the mind. Against this theory it has been urged11
that Vedic deities are not represented ‘as independent of all the rest’, since no
religion brings its gods into more frequent and varied juxtaposition and com-
bination, and that even the mightiest gods of the Veda are made dependent
on others. Thus Varuna and Surya are subordinate to Indra (1, 1013), Va-
runa and the Asvins submit to the power of Visnu (1, 156 4), and Indra,
Mitra-Varuna, Aryaman, Rudra cannot resist the ordinances of Savitr (2, 38 9).
It has been further pointed out that in the frequent hymns addressed to the
vtivedevaJ}, or All-gods, all the deities, even the lesser ones, are praised in
succession, and that as the great mass of the Vedic hymns was composed
for the ritual of the Soma offering, which included the worship of almost
the entire pantheon, the technical priest could not but know the exact rela-
tive position of each god in that ritual. Even when a god is spoken of as
unique or chief {eka), as is natural enough in laudations, such statements

The Vedic Gods. io. General character and classification.

i7

(dose their temporarily, monotheistic force through the modifications or cor-
Tjictions supplied by the context or even by the same verse. Thus a poet
says that ‘Agni alone, like Vanina, is lord of wealth’. It should also be
remembered that gods are constantly invoked in pairs, triads, and larger groups,
even the exalted Varuna being mostly addressed in conjunction with one
other god (as in 6, 67) or with several other gods (as in 2, 28). Heno-
theism is therefore an appearance rather than a reality, an appearance pro-
duced by the indefiniteness due to undeveloped anthropomorphism, by the
lack of any Vedic god occupying the position of a Zeus as the constant
head of the pantheon, by the natural tendency of the priest or singer in
extolling a particular god to exaggerate his greatness and to ignore other
gods, and by the growing belief in the unity of the gods (cf. the refrain of
3, 55), each of whom might be regarded as a type of the divine. Heno-
theism might, however, be justified as a term to express the tendency of the
RV. towards a kind of monotheism.

The Vedic gods, as has been shown, had a beginning in the view of
the Vedic poets, since they are described as the offspring of heaven and
earth or sometimes of other gods. This in itself implies different generations
of gads, but earlier ( purve ) gods are also expressly referred to in several
passages (7, 21 7 &c.). An earlier or first age of the gods is also spoken of
(10, 72 2-3). The AV. (11, 8 10) speaks of ten gods as having existed before
the rest. The gods, too, were originally mortals. This is expressly stated
in the AV. (11, 5*9; 4, 1 1 6). The Brahmanas state this both of all the gods
(SB. 10, 4, 3S) and of the individual gods Indra (AB. 8, 144), Agni (AB. 3, 4),
and Prajapati (SB. 10, 1, 31)6. That they were originally not immortal is
implied in the RV. For immortality was bestowed on them by Savitr (4, 54s
= VS. 33, 54) or by Agni (6, 74; AV. 4, 23 6). They are also said to have
obtained it by drinking Soma (9, 106 8 cp. io92-3), which is called the prin
ciple of immortality (SB. 9, 5, 1 8). In another passage of the RV. (10, 53 IO),
they are said to have acquired immortality, but by what means is not clear.
According to a later conception Indra is stated to have conquered heaven
by tapas or austerity (10, 167 I). The gods are said to have attained divine
rank by the same means (TB. 3, 12, 31), or to have overcome death by con-
tinence and austerity (AV. 11, 5 '9) and to have acquired immortality through
Rohita (AV. 13, 1 7). Elsewhere the gods are stated to have overcome death
by the performance of a certain ceremony (TS. 7, 4, 2 '). Indra and several
other gods are said to be unaging (3, 46 1 8cc.), but whether the immortality
of the gods was regarded by the Vedic poets as absolute, there is no evi-
dence to show. According to the post-Vedic view their immortality was only
relative, being limited to a cosmic age.

The physical appearance of the gods is anthropomorphic, though only
in a shadowy manner; for it often represents only aspects of their natural
bases figuratively described to illustrate their activities7. Thus head, face,
mouth, cheeks, eyes, hair, shoulders, breast, belly, arms, hands, fingers, feet
are attributed to various individual gods. Head, breast, arms, and hands are
chiefly mentioned in connexion with the warlike equipment of Indra and the
Maruts. The arms of the sun are simply his rays, and his eye is intended
to represent his physical aspect. The tongue and limbs of Agni merely
denote his flames. The fingers of Trita are referred to only in order to
illustrate his character as a preparer of Soma, and the belly of Indra only
to emphasize his powers of drinking Soma8. Two or three gods are spoken
of as having or assuming all forms ( visvariipa ). It is easy to understand
that in the case of deities whose outward shape was so vaguely conceived

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 2

1 8 III. Religion, wei.tl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

and whose connexion with natural phenomena was in many instances still
clear, no mention of either images (§ 66 c) or temples is found in the RY.

Some of the gods are spoken of as wearing garments. Thus Dawn is
described as decked in gay attire. Some of the gods are equipped with
armour in the shape of coats of mail or helmets. Indra is regularly armed
with a bolt ( vajra ), while to others spears, battle-axes, bows and arrows are
assigned. The gods in general are described as driving luminous cars, nearly
every individual deity being also said to possess one. The car is usually
drawn by steeds, but in the case of Pusan by goats, of the Maruts perhaps by
spotted deer as well as horses, and of Usas, by cows as well as horses.

In their cars the gods are frequently represented as coming to seat
themselves on the layer of strewn grass at the sacrifice, which, however,
from another point of view, is supposed also to be conveyed to them in
heaven by Agni (§ 35). The beverage of the gods is Soma. What they
eat is the favourite food of men and is of course represented by what is
offered to them at the sacrifice. It consists of milk in its various forms,
butter, barley, and (though perhaps not in the oldest Vedic period) rice;
cattle, goats, and sheep, with a preference for the animal which in some
way is most closely connected with a deity’s peculiar qualities. Thus the
bull or the buffalo, to which Indra is so often compared, is offered to him
and eaten by him, sometimes in extraordinary numbers (§ 22). Analogously,
Indra’s steeds are supposed to eat grain9. The abode of the gods is vari-
ously described as heaven, the third heaven, or the highest step of Visnu,
where they live a joyous life exhilerated by Soma. The gods on the whole
are conceived as dwelling together in harmony and friendship10. The only
one who ever introduces a note of discord is the warlike and overbearing
Indra. He once appears to have fought against the gods in general (4, 30^-5)”;
he slew his own father (§ 22), and shattered the car of Dawn (§ 20).
He seems also to have threatened on one occasion to slay his faithful com-
panions the Maruts (§ 29).

The gods representing the chief powers of nature, such as fire, sun,
thunderstorm, appeared to the successful and therefore optimistic Vedic
Indian as almost exclusively beneficent beings, bestowers of prosperity. The
only deity in whom injurious features are at all prominent is Rudra. Evils
closely connected with human life, such as disease, proceed from lesser
demons, while the greater evils manifested in nature, such as drought and
darkness, are produced by powerful demons like Vrtra. The conquest of
these demons brings out the beneficent nature of the gods all the more pro-
minently. The benevolence of the gods resembles that of human beings.
They are preeminently the receivers of sacrifice, the hymns to them being
recited while the Soma is pressed, the offering is cast in the fire, and priests
attend to the intricate details of the ritual12. They are therefore the friends
of the sacrificer, but are angry with and punish the niggard. This is especially
the case with Indra, who at the same time is not altogether free from arbi-
trariness in the distribution of his favours W

The character of the Vedic gods is also moral. All the gods1-* are
'true’ and ‘not deceitful’, being throughout the friends and guardians of honesty
and righteousness. It is, however, the Adityas, especially Varuna, who are
the chief upholders of the moral law. The gods are angry with the evil-doer,
but it is Varuna’s wrath which is most closely connected with the conception
of guilt and sin. Agni also is invoked to free from guilt, but this is only
one of many prayers addressed to him, not their chief purport as in the
case of Varuna. Indra too is a punisher of sin, but this trait is only super-

The Yedic Gods, i o. General character and classification.

19

ficially connected with his character. The standard of divine morality of
course reflects only an earlier stage of civilization. Thus even the alliance
ofVaruna with righteousness is not of such a nature as to prevent him from
employing craft against the hostile and deceitful man. But towards the good
and pious the faithfulness ofVaruna is unswerving. Indra, however, is occa-
sionally not above practising deceitful wiles even without the justification of
a good end15.

Moral elevation does not, however, occupy so high a position as power
among the attributes of the Vedic gods. Epithets such as ‘true’ and ‘not
deceitful’ are far less prominent than such as ‘great’ and ‘mighty’. The gods
can do whatever they will. On them depends the fulfilment of wishes. They
have dominion over all creatures; and no one can thwart their ordinances
or live beyond the time the gods appoint16.

The RV. as well as the AV. states the gods to be 33 in number
(3, 69 &c.; AV. 10, 7 15), this total being several times expressed as ‘thrice

eleven’ (8, 353 &c.). In one passage (1, 139 u) eleven of the gods are

addressed as being in heaven, eleven on earth, and eleven in the waters
(= air). The AV. (10, 912) similarly divides the gods into dwellers in heaven,
air, and earth, but without specifying any number. The aggregate of 33
could not always have been regarded as exhaustive, for in a few passages
(1, 34 “. 45 2; 8, 35 3. 399) other gods are mentioned along with the 33. In
one verse (3, 9$ = 10, 52s = VS. 33, 7) the number of the gods is by way

of a freak stated to be 3339. They are also spoken of in a more general

way as forming three troops (6, 512). A threefold division is implied when
the gods are connected with heaven, earth, and waters (7, 35 11 ; 19, 49 2. 65 9).
The Brahmanas also give the number of the gods as 33. The SB. and the
AB. agree in dividing them into three main groups of 8 Yasus, 1 x Rudras,
12 Adityas, but while the SB. adds to these either (4, 5, 72) Dyaus and
Prthivi (Prajapati being here a 34th) or Indra and Prajapati (11, 6, 3 s), the
AB. (2, 1 8s) adds Vasatkara and Prajapati, to make up the total of 33.

Following the triple classification of RV. 1, 139 11 Yaska (Nir. 7, 5) divides
the different deities or forms of the same deity enumerated in the fifth chapter
of the Naighantuka, into the three orders of prthivlsthdna, terrestrial (Xir.
7, 14 — 9. 43), antariksasthdna, madhyamast/uma, aerial or intermediate (10,

1 — 11. 50), and dyusthana, celestial (12, 1 — 46). He further remarks that
in the opinion of his predecessors who expounded the Veda ( nairnktah )
there are only three deities17, Agni on earth, Vayu or Indra in air18, Surya
in heaven19. (This view may be based on such passages as RV. 10, 1 58 1 :
‘May Surya protect us from heaven, Vata from air, Agni from the earthly
regions’.) Each of these he continues has various appellations according to
differences of function, just as the same person may act in the capacity of

hotr, adhvaryu, brahman , udgatr . Yaska himself does not admit that all the

various gods are only forms or manifestations of the three representative
deities, though he allows that those forming each of the three orders are
allied in sphere and functions. The fifth chapter of the Naighantuka on
which Yaska comments, contains in its enumeration of gods a number of

minor deities and deified objects, so that the total far exceeds eleven in each

division. It is worthy of note that in this list of gods the names of Tvastr
and Prthivi appear in all the three spheres, those of Agni and Usas in both
the terrestrial and the aerial, and those of Yaruna, Yama, and Savitr in the
aerial as well as the celestial.

An attempt might be made to classify the various Vedic gods according
to their relative greatness. Such a division is in a general way alluded to

2*

20 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

in the RY. where they are spoken of as great and small, young and old
(x, 27 li). It is probable that this statement represents the settled view of
the Vedic poets as to gradation of rank among the gods (cp. pp. 14. 17).
It is only a seeming contradiction when in one passage (8, 30') it is said
with reference to the gods, ‘none of you is small or young; you are all
great’; for a poet addressing the gods directly on this point could hardly
have expressed himself differently. It is certain that two gods tower above
the rest as leading deities about equal in power, Indra as the mighty warrior
and Varuna as the supreme moral ruler. The older form of Varuna became,
owing to the predominance of his ethical qualities, the supreme god of
Zoroastrianism as Ahura Mazda, while in India Indra developed into the
warrior god of the conquering Aryans. Varuna appears as preeminent only
when the supreme laws of the physical and moral world are contemplated,
and cannot be called a popular god. It has been held by various scholars
that Varuna and the Adityas were the highest gods of an older period, but
were later displaced by Indra (p. 28). There is at any rate no evidence to
show that Indra even in the oldest Rigvedic period occupied a subordinate
position. It is true that Ahura Mazda is the highest god and Indra only
a demon in the Avesta. But even if Indra originally possessed coordinate
power with Varuna in the Indo-Iranian period, he was necessarily relegated
to the background when the reform of the Avestan religion made Ahura
Mazda supreme20 (cp. p. 28). Next to Indra and Vanina come the two great
ritual deities Agni and Soma. These two along with Indra are, judged by
the frequency of the hymns addressed to them, the three most popular deities
of the RV. For, roughly speaking, three-fifths of its hymns are dedicated to
their praise. The fact that the hymns to Agni and Indra always come first
in the family books, while the great majority of the hymns to Soma have a
whole book, the ninth, to themselves, confirms this conclusion21. Following
the number of the hymns dedicated to each of the remaining deities, com-
bined with the frequency with which their names are mentioned in the RV.,
five classes of gods may be distinguished: 1) Indra, Agni, Soma; 2) Asvins,
Maruts, Varuna; 3) Usas, Savitr, Brhaspati, Surya, Pusan; 4) Vayu, Dyava-
prthivi, Visnu, Rudra; 5) Yama, Parjanya22. The statistical standard can
of course be only a partial guide. For Varuna is celebrated (mostly together
with Mitra) in only about thirty hymns, his name being mentioned altogether
about 250 times, while the Asvins can claim over 50 hymns and are named
over 400 times. Yet they cannot be said to approach Varuna in greatness.
Their relative prominence is doubtless owing to their closer connexion with
the sacrifice as deities of morning light. Again, the importance of the Maruts
is due to their association with Indra. Similar considerations would have to
enter into an estimate of the relative greatness of other deities in the list.
Such an estimate involves considerable difficulties and doubts. A classification
according to gradations of rank would therefore not afford a satisfactory basis
for an account of the Vedic gods.

Another but still less satisfactory classification, might take as its basis
the relative age of the mythological conception, according as it dates from
the period of separate national Indian existence, from the Indo-Iranian, or
the Indo-European epoch. Thus Brhaspati, Rudra, Visnu may be considered
the creations of purely Indian mythology; at least there is no adequate
evidence to show that they go back to an earlier age. It has already been
indicated (§ 5) that a number of mythological figures date from the Indo-
Iranian period. But as to whether any of the Vedic gods besides Dyaus may
be traced back to the Indo-European period, considerable doubt is justified.

Celestial Gods, i i . Dyaus.

21

A classification according to the age of the mythological creation would there-
fore rest on too uncertain a foundation.

The stage of personification which the various deities represent, might
furnish a possible basis of classification. But the task of drawing a clear
line of demarcation would involve too many difficulties.

On the whole, the classification of the Vedic deities least open to ob-
jection, is that founded on the natural bases which they represent. For though
in some cases there may be a doubt as to what the physical substrate really
is, and a risk is therefore involved of describing a particular deity in the
wrong place, this method offers the advantage of bringing together deities of
cognate character and thus facilitating comparison. It has therefore been
adopted in the following pages. The various phenomena have been grouped
according to the triple division suggested by the RV. itself and adhered to
by its oldest commentator.

x OST. 5, 219; BRI. 26; BDA. 12—14; ORV. 100. — 2 HRI. 138—40. — 3 MM.,
ASL. 526. 532. 546; Chips I, 28; OGR. 266. 283. 298k 312 ft.; Science of Religion
52; PhR. 1 80 ff. ; OST. 5. 6 f. I2f. 125; 00-3,449; Buhler, OO. 1,227; LRV.
3, XXVII f.; KRV. 33; note 113; Zimmer, ZDA. 19(7), 175; IIillebrandt, Varuna
und Mitra, 105; BRI. 26. — 4 Whitney, PAOS., Oct. 1881; ORV. 101 ; Hopkins,
Henotheism in the Rigveda, in Classical studies in honour of H. Drisler (New York
1894). 75 — 83; HRI. 139 &c. — 5 SVL. 134; cp. ZDMG. 32, 300. — 6 Muir, JRAS.
20, 41— 5; OST. 4, 54—8; 5, 14—17; cp. AV. 3, 223; 4, 141; SB. 1, 7, 3 * ;
AB. 6, 20»; TS. 1, 7, I 3 ; 6, 5, 3 1 ; HRI. iS7. — 7 Nirukta 7, 6. 7. — 8 WC. 9. —
9 ORV. 347- 353- 355- 357-8. - xo ORV. 93- — 11 OST. 5, 18. — x2 ORV. 238.
— 13 BRV. 3, 203—4. — X4 BRV. 3, 199. — x5 ORV. 282. — 16 OST. 5, 18—20;
ORV. 97 — ioi; 2S1 — 7. 293 — 301. — X7 Katyayana, SarvanukramanT, Introd. $ 2, S;
Sayana on RV. I, 1 39 1 x- — lS ‘India and Vayu are closely allied’ (TS. 6, 6, 83).
Cp. HRI. 89. — x9 Agni, Vayu, Surya are sons of Prajapati (MS. 4, 212). — 20 ORV.
94—8. — 21 HRI. 90. — 22 These classes and the statistics fournished below in
the account given of the single gods, are based on data derived from LRV., GW.,
GRV. (2,421 — 3), and Aufrecht’s RV. II2, 668 — 71.

A. THE CELESTIAL GODS.

§n. Dyaus. — By far the most frequent use of the word dyaus is as
a designation of the concrete ‘sky’, in which sense it occurs at least 500
times in the RV. It also means ‘day’1 about 50 times. When personified
as the god of heaven, Dyaus is generally coupled with Earth in the dual
compound dydvaprthivi, the universal parents. No single hymn of the RV.
is addressed to Dyaus alone. When he is mentioned separately the per-
sonification is limited almost entirely to the idea of paternity. The name
then nearly always appears in the nominative or genitive case. The latter
case, occurring about 50 times, is more frequent than all the other cases
together. The genitive is regularly connected with the name of some other
deity who is called the son or daughter of Dyaus. In about three-fourths
of these instances Usas is his daughter, while in the remainder the Asvins
are his offspring {nafiata), Agni is his son (. sunu ) or child (sisu), Parjanya,
Surya, the Adityas, the Maruts, and the Aiigirases are his sons ( putra ).
Out of its thirty occurrences in the nominative the name appears only eight
times alone, being otherwise generally associated with PrthivI or mentioned
with various deities mostly including PrthivI. In these eight passages he is
three times styled a father (1, 90 7. 16433- 4, 1 IO), once the father of Indra
(4, 72 3), once he is spoken of as rich in seed ( suretah ) and as having generated
Agni (4, 174); in the remaining three he is a bull (5, 36s) or a red bull that
bellows downwards (5, 58 6), and is said to have approved when Vrtra was
slain (6, 723). In the dative the name is found eight times. In these passages

22

III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

he is mentioned only three times quite alone, once being called the ‘great
father’ (i, 715), once ‘lofty’ (x, 54s), and once the ‘lofty abode’ (5, 477).
In two of the four occurrences in the accusative Dyaus is mentioned with
PrthivT, once alone and without any distinctive statement (1, 1743), and once
( 1 , 3 1 4) Agni is said to have made him roar for man. Thus it appears
that Dyaus is seldom mentioned independently and in only one-sixth of over
ninety passages is his paternity not expressly stated or implied by association
with Prthivl. The only essential feature of the personification in the RV.
is in fact his paternity. In a few passages Dyaus is called a bull (1,160 s;
5,36s) that bellows (5,58°). Here we have a touch of theriomorphism inas-
much as he is conceived as a roaring animal that fertilizes the earth. Dyaus
is once compared with a black steed decked with pearls (xo, 68 “), an
obvious allusion to the nocturnal sky. The statement that Dyaus is furnished
with a bolt ( asanimat ) looks like a touch of anthropomorphism. He is also
spoken of as smiling through the clouds (2, 46), the allusion being doubtless
to the lightening skv2. Such passages are, however, quite isolated, the con-
ception of Dyaus being practically free from theriomorphism and anthropo-
morphism, excepting the notion of paternity. As a father he is most usually
thought of in combination with Earth as a mothers This is indicated by
the fact that his name forms a dual compound with that of Prthivl oftener
than it is used alone in the singular (§ 44), that in a large proportion of
its occurrences in the singular it is accompanied by the name of PrthivT,
and that when regarded separately he is not sufficiently individualized to have
a hymn dedicated to his praise, though in conjunctioix with Prthivl he is
celebrated in six. Like nearly all the greater gods4 Dyaus is sometimes
called asura 5 (1, 122 *. 1311; 8, 201') and he is once (6, 51®) invoked in
the vocative as ‘Father Heaven’ {dyaus pitar ) along with ‘Mother Earth’
( prthivi matar). In about 20 passages the word dyaus is feminine, some-
times even when personified0. Dyaus, as has been pointed out (§ 6) goes
back to the Indo-European period. There is no reason to assume that the
personification in that period was of a more advanced type and that the RV.
has in this case relapsed to a more primitive stage. On the contrary there
is every ground for supposing the reverse to be the case. Whatever higher
gods may have existed in that remote age must have been of a considerably
more rudimentary type and can hardly in any instance have been conceived
apart from deified natural objects7. As the Universal Father who with Mother
Earth embraced all other deified objects and phenomena, he would have
been the greatest among the deities of a chaotic polytheism. But to speak
of him as the supreme god of the Indo-European age is misleading, because
this suggests a ruler of the type of Zeus and an incipient monotheism for an
extremely remote period, though neither of these conceptions had been
arrived at in the earlier Rigvedic times.

The word is derived from the root div, to shine, thus meaning ‘the
bright one’ and being allied to deva , god8.

1 v. Schroder. WZKM. 8, 126—7. — 2 PVS. 1, ill ; SBE. 46, 205. — 3 HRI.

171.-4 BDA. 1 19—23. — 5 EDA. 85. — 6 BDA. 1 14; cf. GW. s. v. div, Osthoff,

IF. 5, 286, n. — 7 BDA. in. — 8 Cp. KZ. 27, 187; BB. 15, 17; IE. 3. 30L

OST. 5,2 1—3 ; OGR. 209; LRY. 3,312—3; BRV. 1,4-5 > Sp.AP. 160; JAOS. 16, cxlv.

§ 12. Varuna. — Varuna, as has been shown (p. 20), is by the side of
Indra, the greatest of the gods of the RV. The number of hymns dedicated
to his praise is not a sufficient criterion of his exalted character. Hardly a
dozen hymns celebrate him exclusively. Judged by the statistical standard
he would rank only as a third class deity; and even if the two dozen hymns

Celestial Gods. 12. Varuna.

in which he is invoked along with his double Mitra are taken into account,
he would only come fifth in order of priority, ranking considerably below
the Asvins and about on an equality with the Maruts (cp. p. 20).

The anthropomorphism of Varuna’s personality is more fully developed
on the moral than the physical side. The descriptions of his person and
his equipment are scanty, more stress being laid on his activity. He has a
face, an eye, arms, hands, and feet. He moves his arms, walks, drives, sits,
eats and drinks. The poet regards the face (ariikam) of Varuna as that of
Agni (7, 88 2 cp. 87 6). The eye of Mitra and Varuna is the sun (1, 1151;
6, 51 1; 7, 6i*. 63 ‘; xo, 37 l). The fact that this is always mentioned in the
first verse of a hymn, suggests that it is one of the first ideas that occur when
Mitra and Varuna are thought of. The eye with which Varuna is said in
a hymn to Surya (1, 506) to observe mankind, is undoubtedly the sun.
Together with Aryaman, Mitra and Varuna are called sun-eyed (7, 66 10), a
term applied to other gods also. Varuna is far-sighted (1, 25s-16; 8, 90 2)
and thousand-eyed (7, 34 10). Mitra and Varuna stretch out their arms
(5, 64 2; 7, 62 s) and they drive with the rays of the sun as with arms (8, 90 2).
Like Savitr and Tvastr they are beautiful-handed {supani). Mitra and Va-
runa hasten up with their feet (5, 64 7), and Varuna treads down wiles with
shining foot (8, 41 8). He sits on the strewn grass at the sacrifice (1, 264;
5, 7 2 2), and like other gods he and Mitra drink Soma (4, 4i3&c.). Varuna
wears a golden mantle ( drdpi ) and puts on a shining robe (1, 2513). But
the shining robe of ghee with which he and Mitra are clothed (5, 62 4; 7, 64 ’)
is only a figurative allusion to the sacrificial offering of melted butter. The
glistening garments which they wear (1, 152 x) probably mean the same thing.
In the SB. (13, 3, 65) Varuna is represented as a fair, bald, yellow-eyed old
man1. The only part of Varuna’s equipment which is at all prominent is
his car. It is described as shining like the sun (1, 122 IS), as having thongs
for a pole (ibid.), a car-seat and a whip (5,62?), and as drawn by well-yoked
steeds (5, 62 4). Mitra and Varuna mount their car in the highest heaven
(5, 63 x). The poet prays that he may see Varuna’s car on the earth (1, 25lS).

Mitra and Varuna’s abode is golden and situated in heaven (5, 67 2;
1, 1362) and Varuna sits in his mansions ( pastyasu ) looking on all deeds
(1, 2 510-1'). His and Mitra’ s seat ( sadas ) is great, very lofty, firm with a
thousand columns (5, 68 s; 2, 41 5) and their house has a thousand doors
(7, 88 5). The all-seeing sun rising from his abode, goes to the dwellings of
Mitra and Varuna to report the deeds of men (7, 6o'- 3), and enters their
dear dwelling (1, 1524). It is in the highest heaven that the Fathers behold
Varuna (10, 148). According to the SB. (11, 6, 1) Varuna, conceived as the
lord of the Universe, is seated in the midst of heaven, from which he surveys
the places of punishment situated all around him z.

The spies ( spasa/i ) of Varuna are sometimes mentioned. They sit down
around him (1, 2413). They behold the two worlds; acquainted with sacrifice
they stimulate prayer (7, 87 3). Mitra’s and Varuna’s spies whom they send
separately into houses (7, 61 3), are undeceived and wise (6,67 s). In the
AV. (4, 164) it is said that Varuna’s messengers descending from heaven,
traverse the world; thousand-eyed they look across the whole world. The
natural basis of these spies is usually assumed to be the stars; but the RV.
yields no evidence in support of this view. The stars are there never said
to watch, nor are the spies connected with night. The conception may very
well have been suggested by the spies with whom a strict ruler on earth is
surrounded2. Nor are spies peculiar to Varuna and Mitra, for they are also
attributed to Agni (4, 43), to Soma (9, 7 34-'. here perhaps suggested by the

24 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Yedic Mythology.

previous mention of Varuna), to demons combated by Indra (i, 33 s), and
to the gods in general (10, io8). In one passage the Adityas are said to
look down like spies from a height (8, 47 "). That these spies were primarily
connected with Mitra and Varuna is to be inferred from the fact that the
Iranian Mithra also has spies, who are, moreover, called by the same name
{spas) as in the Veda5. The golden-winged messenger (data) of Varuna
once mentioned in the RV. (10, 1236), is doubtless the sun.

Varuna alone, or conjointly with Mitra, is often called a king (raja),
like the other leading deities and Yama (1, 2 4 ?• 8 ,S:c.) 4. He is king of all,
both gods and men (10, 1 3 2 4; 2, 27'°), of the whole world (5, 853), and of
all that exists (7, 876). Varuna is also a self-dependent ruler (2, 28 *), a term
generally applied to Indra. Much more frequently Varuna, alone or mostly
in association with Mitra, is called a universal monarch (samrdj). This term
is also applied to Agni a few times and oftener to Indra. Counting the
passages in which Varuna and Mitra together are so called, it is connected
with Varuna nearly twice as often as with Indra. Considering that for every
eight or ten hymns celebrating Indra only one is dedicated to Varuna in the
RV., the epithet may be considered peculiarly appropriate to Varuna.

The attribute of sovereignty (ksatra) is in a predominant manner appro-
priated to Varuna, generally with Mitra and twice with Aryaman also. Other-
wise it is applied only once respectively to Agni, Brhaspati, and the Asvins.
Similarly the term 'ruler’ (ksatriya) in four of its five occurrences refers to
Varuna or the Adityas and once only to the gods in general. The epithet
asura (§67) is connected with Varuna, alone or accompanied by Mitra,
oftener than with Indra and Agni; and, taking account of the proportion of
hymns, it may be said to be specially applicable to Varuna5. Mitra and
Varuna are also called the mysterious and noble lords (asura ary a) among
the gods (7, 652)-

The divine dominion of Varuna and Mitra is often referred to with the
word maya This term signifies occult power, applicable in a good sense
to gods or in a bad sense to demons. It has an almost exact parallel in
the English word ‘craft’, which in its old signification meant 'occult power,
magic’, then 'skilfulness, art’ on the one hand and 'deceitful skill, wile’ on
the other. The good sense of maya, like that of asura (which might be
rendered by 'mysterious being’) is mainly connected with Varuna and Mitra,
while its bad sense is reserved for demons. By occult power Varuna standing
in the air measures out the earth with the sun as with a measure (5, 85s),
Varuna and Mitra send the dawns (3, 61 '), make the sun to cross the sky
and obscure it with cloud and rain, while the honied drops fall (5, 63 4);
or (ibid. 3- 7) they cause heaven to rain and they uphold the ordinances by
the occult power of the Asura (here = Dyaus or Parjanya)?. And so the
epithet mayin, ‘crafty’, is chiefly applied to Varuna among the gods (6, 48 14 ;
7, 284; 10, 99 io. 1475).

In marked contrast with Indra, Varuna has no myths related of him,
while much is said about him (and Mitra) as upholder of physical and moral
order. Varuna is a great lord of the laws of nature. He established heaven
and earth and dwells in all the worlds (8, 42 '). The three heavens and the
three earths are deposited within him (7, 87s). He and Mitra rule over the
whole world (5, 63 7) or encompass the two worlds (7, 614). They are the
guardians of the whole world (2, 274 &c.). By the law of Varuna heaven
and earth are held apart (6, 70 z; 7, 86 8, 41 10). With Mitra he supports
earth and heaven (5, 62 5), or heaven, earth, and air (5, 69 ’-4). He made
the golden swing (the sun) to shine in heaven (7, 8 7 s). He placed fire in

Celestial Gods. 12. Varuna.

2 5

the waters, the sun in the sky, Soma on the rock (5, 8$2). He has made a
wide path for the sun (1, 24s; 7, 87 1). Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman open
paths for the sun (7, 604). The order (rta) of Mitra and Varuna is established
where the steeds of the sun are loosed (5, 621). The wind which resounds
through the air is Varuna’s breath (7, 87").

By Varuna’s ordinances ( vratani ) the moon shining brightly moves at
night, and the stars placed up on high are seen at night but disappear by day
(1, 24'°). In another passage (8, 41 -) it is said that Varuna has embraced
(pari sasvaje) the nights, and by his occult power has established the mornings
or days ( usrah ). This can hardly indicate a closer connexion with night than
that he regulates or divides night and day (cp. 7, 66"). In fact it is the sun
that is usually mentioned with him, and not the moon or night. Thus in the
oldest Veda Varuna is the lord of light both by day and by night, while Mitra, as
far as can be judged, appears as the god of the celestial light of day only.

In the later Vedic period of the Brahmanas Varuna comes to be specially
connected with the nocturnal heaven8. Thus Mitra is said to have produced
the day and Varuna the night (TS. 6, 4, 83); and the day is said to belong to
Mitra and the night to Varuna (TS. 2, 1, 74)9. This view may have arisen
from a desire to contrast Mitra, who was still felt to be related to the sun,
with Varuna whose natural basis was more , obscure. The antithesis between
the two is differently expressed by the SB. (12, 9, 212), which asserts that
this world is Mitra, that (the celestial) world is Varuna.

Varuna is sometimes referred to as regulating the seasons. He knows
the twelve months (1, 25s)10; and the kings Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman are
said to have disposed the autumn, the month, day and night (7, 66").

Even in the RV. Varuna is often spoken of as a regulator of the waters.
He caused the rivers to flow; they stream unceasingly according to his ord-
inance (2, 284). By his occult power the rivers swiftly pouring into the ocean
do not fill it with water (5,85s,). Varuna and Mitra are lords of rivers (7,642).
Varuna is already found connected with the sea in the RV., but very rarely,
perhaps owing to its unimportance in that collection. Varuna going in the
oceanic waters is contrasted with the Maruts in the sky, Agni on earth, and
Vata in air (1, i6i'4)“. The statement that the seven rivers flow into the
jaws of Varuna as into a surging abyss (8, 5812), may refer to the ocean'2.
Varuna is said to descend into the sea (sindhum) like Dyaus (7,87s)13.
It is rather the aerial waters that he is ordinarily connected with. Varuna
ascends to heaven as a hidden ocean (8, 418). Beholding the truth and
falsehood of men, he moves in the midst of the waters which drop
sweetness and are clear (7, 493). Varuna clothes himself in the waters
(9, 902 cp. 8, 69"- I2). He and Mitra are among the gods most frequently
thought of and prayed to as bestowers of rain. Varuna makes the in-
verted cask (of the cloud) to pour its waters on heaven, earth, and air,
and to moisten the ground, the mountains then being enveloped in cloud
(5>853'4)- Mitra and Varuna have kine yielding refreshment and streams
flowing with honey (5, 692). They have rainy skies and streaming waters
(5, 685). They bedew the pasturage with ghee (= rain) and the spaces
with honey (3, 62,s). They send rain and refreshment from the sky (7, 642).
Rain abounding in heavenly water comes from them (8, 25s). Indeed, one
entire hymn (5, 63) dwells on their powers of bestowing rain. It is probably
owing to his connexion with the waters and rain, that in the fifth chapter of
the Naighantuka Varuna is enumerated among the deities of the atmospheric
as well as those of the celestial world. In the Brahmanas Mitra and Varuna
are also gods of rain'4. In the AV. Varuna appears divested of his powers

26 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

as a universal ruler, retaining only the control of the department of waters.
He is connected with the waters as Soma with the mountains (AV. 3, 35).
As a divine father he sheds rain-waters (AV. 4, 1512). His golden house is
in the waters (AV. 7, 83'). He is the overlord of waters, he and Mitra are
lords of rain (AV. 5, 24“*- 5). In the YV. he is spoken of as the child (s'is'u)
of waters, making his abode within the most motherly waters (VS. xo, 7).
The waters are wives of Varuna (TS. 5, 5, 41). Mitra and Varuna are the
leaders of waters (TS. 6, 4, 32).

Varuna’s ordinances are constantly said to be fixed, the epithet dhrta-
vraia being preeminently applicable to him, sometimes conjointly with Mitra.
The gods themselves follow Varuna’s ordinances (8, 417) or those of Varuna,
Mitra, and Savitr (10, 36 13). Even the immortal gods cannot obstruct the
fixed ordinances of Mitra and Varuna (5, 694 cp. 5, 63'). Mitra and Varuna
are lords of order (rta) and light, who by means of order are the upholders
of order (1,235). The latter epithet is mostly applied either to them and some-
times the Adityas or to the gods in general. They are cherishers of order
or right (1, 28). Varuna or the Adityas are sometimes called guardians of
order ( rtasya go pa ), but this term is also applied to Agni and Soma. The
epithet ‘observer of order’ ( rtavan ), predominantly used of Agni, is also
several times connected with Varuna and Mitra.

Varuna’s power is so great that neither the birds as they fly nor the

rivers as they flow, can reach the limit of his dominion, his might, and his

wrath (1, 24°). Neither the skies nor the rivers have reached (the limit of)
the godhead of Mitra and Varuna (1, 1519). He embraces the All and the
abodes of all beings (8, 4117). The three heavens and the three earths are
deposited in him (7, 87s). Varuna is omniscient. He knows the flight of
birds in the sky, the path of ships in the ocean, the course of the far-
travelling wind, and beholds all the secret things that have been or shall be
done (1, 257-9- “). He witnesses men’s truth and falsehood (7, 49’). No
creature can even wink without him (2, 2 86). The winkings of men’s eyes
are all numbered by Varuna, and whatever man does, thinks, or devises,
Varuna knows (AV. 4, 1 62- 5). He perceives all that exists within heaven and

earth, and all that is beyond: a man could not escape from Varuna by

fleeing far beyond the sky (AV. 4, 1645). That Varuna’s omniscience is
typical is indicated by the fact that Agni is compared with him in this respect
(10, 111).

As a moral governor Varuna stands far above any other deity. His
wrath is roused by sin, the infringement of his ordinances, which he severely
punishes (7, 86-3- 4). The fetters ( pasah ) with which he binds sinners, are
often mentioned (1, 2415. 2521; 6, 7 44; 10, 8s24). They are cast sevenfold
and threefold, ensnaring the man who tells lies, passing by him who speaks
truth (AV. 4, 166). Mitra and Varuna are barriers, furnished with many fetters,
against falsehood (7, 653). Once Varuna, coupled with Indra, is said to tie
with bonds not formed of rope (7, 842). The term pdsa is only once used
in connexion with another god, Agni, who is implored to loosen the fetters
of his worshippers (5,. 27). It is therefore distinctive of Varuna. According
to Bergaigne the conception of Varuna’s fetters is based on the tying up of
the waters, according to Hillebrandt on the fetters of night15. But is seems
to be sufficiently accounted for by the figurative application of the fetters of
criminals to moral guilt. Together with Mitra, Varuna is said to be a dis-
peller, hater, and punisher of falsehood (1, 1521; 7, 605. 661-3). They afflict
with disease16 those who neglect their worship (1, I229). On the other hand,
Varuna is gracious to the penitent. He unties like a rope and removes sin

Celestial Gods. 12. Varuna.

27

(2, 28s; 5, S57-8). He releases not only from the sins which men themselves
commit, but from those committed by their fathers (7, 86s). He spares the
suppliant who daily transgresses his laws (1, 251) and is gracious to those
who have broken his laws by thoughtlessness (7, 89s). There is in fact no
hymn to Varuna (and the Adityas) in which the prayer for forgiveness of
guilt does not occur, as in the hymns to other deities the prayer for worldly
goods.

Varuna has a hundred, a thousand remedies, and drives away death as
well as releases from sin (1,249). He can take away or prolonglife (1,24“.
2512; 7, 884. 891). He is a wise guardian of immortality (8, 4a2), and the
righteous hope to see in the next world Varuna and Yama, the two kings
who reign in bliss (10, 147).

Varuna is on a footing of friendship with his worshipper (7, 88+ 1 5), who
communes with him in his celestial abode and sometimes sees him with the
mental eye (1, 2518; 7, 882).

What conclusions as to the natural basis of Varuna can be drawn from
the Vedic evidence which has been adduced? It is clear from this evidence,
in combination with what is said below about Mitra ($ 13), that Varuna and
Mitra are closely connected with the sun, but that the former is the much
more important deity. Mitra has in fact been so closely assimilated to the
greater god that he has hardly an independent trait left. Mitra must have
lost his individuality through the predominant characteristics of the god with
whom he is almost invariably associated. Now, chiefly on the evidence of
the Avesta, Mitra has been almost unanimously acknowledged to be a solar
deity (§ 13). Varuna must therefore have originally represented a different
phenomenon. This according to the generally received opinion, is the en-
compassing sky. The vault of heaven presents a phenomenon far more vast
to the eye of the observer than the sun, which occupies but an extremely
small portion of that expanse during its daily course. The sky would there-
fore appear to the imagination as the greater deity. The sun might very
naturally become associated with the sky as the space which it traverses every
day and apart from which it is never seen. The conception of the sun as
the eye of heaven is sufficiently obvious. It could not very appropriately be
termed the eye of Mitra till the original character of the latter had become
obscured and absorbed in that of Varuna. Yet even the eye of Surya is several
times spoken of in the RV. (p. 30). The attribute of ‘far-seeing’, appropriate
to the sun, is also appropriate to the sky, which might naturally be conceived
as seeing not only by day but even at night by means of the moon and stars.
No real difficulty is presented by the notion of Varuna, who has become
quite separate from his physical basis17, mounting a car in the height of
heaven with Mitra. For such a conception is easily explicable from his asso-
ciation with a solar deity; besides every leading deity in the RV. drives in a
car. On the other hand, the palace of Varuna in the highest heavens and
his connexion with rain are particularly appropriate to a deity originally re-
presenting the vault of heaven. Finally, no natural phenomenon would be so
likely to develope into a sovereign ruler, as the sky. For the personification
of its vast expanse, which encompasses and rises far above the earth and on
which the most striking phenomena of regular recurrence, the movements of
the luminaries, are enacted, would naturally be conceived as watching by night
and day all the deeds of men and as being the guardian of unswerving law.
This development has indeed actually taken place in the case of the Zeus
(= Dyaus) of Hellenic mythology. What was at first only an appellative of
the sky has here become the supreme ruler of the gods dwelling in the serene

28 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

heights of heaven, who gathers the clouds, who wields the thunderbolt, and
whose will is law.

The phenomena with which the two greatest gods of the RV. were
originally connected, largely accounts for the difference in their personality.
Varuna as concerned with the regularly recurring phenomena of celestial light,
is the supreme upholder of law in the moral as well as the physical world. His
character as such afforded no scope for the development of myths. Indra
as the god fighting in the strife of the elements, was conceived by the militant
Vedic Indian as a sovereign of the warrior type. Owing to his close con-
nexion with the meteorological phenomena of the thunderstorm, which are so
irregular in time and diversified in feature, the character of Indra on the one
hand shows traits of capriciousness, while on the other he becomes the centre
of more myths than any other deity of the RV. The theory of Roth as to
the supersession of Varuna by Indra in the Rigvedic period, is dealt with
below (§ 22).

With the growth of the conception of Prajapati (§ 39) as a supreme deity,
the characteristics of Varuna as a sovereign god naturally faded away, and
the dominion of the waters, only a part of his original sphere, alone remained
to him. Thus he ultimately became in post-Vedic mythology an Indian
Neptune, god of the Sea.

The hypothesis recently advanced by Oldenberg 18 that Varuna primarily
represented the moon, cannot be passed over here. Starting from the assertion
that the characteristic number of the Adityas was seven and that their identity
with the Amesaspentas of the Avesta is an assured fact, he believes that
Varuna and Mitra were the moon and sun, the lesser Adityas representing
the five planets, and that they were not Indo-European deities, but were
borrowed during the Indo-Iranian period from a Semitic people more skilled
in astronomy than the Aryans. The character of Varuna when borrowed
must further have lost much of its original significance and have already
possessed a highly ethical aspect. For otherwise a distinctly lunar deity could
hardly have thrown Mitra, who was clearly understood to be the sun, into
the shade in the Indo-Iranian period, or have developed so highly abstract
a character as to account for the supreme position, as a moral ruler, of Ahura
Mazda in the Avesta and of Varuna in the Veda. This hypothesis does not
seem to account at all well for the actual characteristics of Varuna in the RV.
It also requires the absolute rejection of any connection between Varuna and
oupavo; *9.

It has already been mentioned that Varuna goes back to the Indo-Iranian
period (§ 5), for the Ahura Mazda of the Avesta agrees with him in character20
though not in name. The name of Varuna may even be Indo-European.
At least, the long accepted identification of the word with the Greek oopavo;,.
though presenting phonetic difficulties, has not been rejected by some recent
authorities on comparative philology21.

But whether the word is Indo-European or the formation of a later
period22, it is probably derived from the root var , to cover23, thus meaning
‘the encompasser’. Sayana (on RV. 1, 89^) connects it with this root in the
sense of enveloping or confining the wicked with his bonds24, or commen-
ting on TS. 1, 8, 161, in that of enveloping ‘like darkness’ (cp. TS. 2, 1, 74).
If the word is Indo-European, it may have been an attribute of dyaus, the
ordinary name of ‘sky’, later becoming the regular appellative of sky in Greece,
but an exalted god of the sky in India25.

1 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 242; 18, 268. — 2 ORV. 286, n. 2.-3 Cp. Roth,

ZDMG. 6, 72; Eggers, Mitra 54 — 7; Olde.nberg, ZDMG. 50,48. — 4 OST. 5, Co.

Celestial Gods. 13. Mitra.

29

— 5 BDA. 120—I; ORV. 163. — & BRV. 3, 81 ; v. Bradke, ZDMG. 48, 499— 501:

ORV. 163. 294. — 7 Cf. BDA. 55. 60. — « OST. 5, 70; Roth, P\V. s. v. Varuna;

BRV. 3, 116 ff.; V. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 119.-9 Cf. TB. 1, 7, 101 ; Sayana 011

RV. I, 893; 2, 388; 7, 871; TS. 1, 8, 161. — *° Cp. WVB. 1894, p. 38. —

n Bollensen, OO. 2, 467. — i2 Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 70 — 1. — 13 Cp. Roth,

ZDMG. 6, 73. — H Hillebrandt, Varuna und Mitra 67, note. — *5 Cp. HRI. 68.

— i& Varuna’s later connexion with dropsy is traced by Hillebrandt, p. 63 f. and
ORV. 203 even in the RV., a view opposed by BRV. 3, 155. — >7 Cp. Oldenberg,
ZDMG. 50, 61. — 18 ORV. 285—98. — '9 Cp. v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 116—28;
Macdonei.l, J R AS. 27, 947—9- — 20 Roth, ZDMG. 6, 69 ff. (cp. OST. 5, 72);
Whitney, JAOS. 3, 327; but Windischmann (Zoroastrische Studien p. 122) held
Ahura Mazda to be purely Iranian, and Spiegel, Av. Transl. 3, introd. iii., sees no
similarity between Ahura Mazda and Varuna; cp. Sp.AP. 181. — 21 Brugmann,
Grundriss 2, 154; Prellwitz, Etym. Worterbuch d. gr. Spr. — 22 Cp. v. Schroe-
der, WZKM. 9, 127. — 23 Hillebrandt 9—14; v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 118,
n. 1; HRI. 66, note; 70; cp. also Sonne, KZ. 12,364—6; ZDMG. 32, 716 f.;
Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 504f.; Geldner, BB. 11, 329; MM., Chips 42, xxiii f. —
2t Cp. GVS. 2, 22, note; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 60. — 25 Macdonell, JRAS. 26, 628.

Roth, ZDMG. 6, 70—4; 7, 607; JAOS. 3, 341—2. Weber, IS. 17, 212 f.; OST.
5, 5S — 75; LRV. 3, 314 — 6; GRV. 1, 34; Hillebrandt, Varuna und Mitra, Breslau
1877; BRV. 3, 110—49; MM., India 197 — 200; BRI. 16 — 9; GPVS. I, 142. 188;
WC. 98 — 103; Kerbaker, Varuna e gli Aditva, Napoli 1889; Bohnenberger, Der
altindische Gott Varuna, Tubingen 1893; ORV. 189—95. 202—3. 293— 8. 336, n. 1;
ZDMG. 50, 43 — 68; HRI. 61 — 72; JAOS. 16, cXLviiiff.; 17, 8i, note; Foy, Die
konigliche Gewalt, Leipzig 1895, p. 80—6 (Die Spaher Varuna’s).

§ 13. Mitra. — The association of Mitra with Varuna is so predominant
that only one single hymn of the RV. (3, 59) is addressed to him alone.
The praise of the god is there rather indefinite, but the first verse at least
contains something distinctive about him. Uttering his voice ( bruvanah ) he
brings men together ( ydtayati ) and watches the tillers with unwinking eye
( animisd , said also of Mitra- Varuna in 7, 6o°).

In another passage (7, 362) almost the same words are applied to Mitra
who ‘brings men together, uttering his voice’, in contrast with Varuna who is
here called ‘a mighty, infallible guide’. This seems a tolerably clear reference
to Mitra’s solar character, if we compare with it another verse (5, 829) where
it is said that the sun-god Savitr ‘causes all creatures to hear him and impels
them’. In the fifth verse of the hymn to Mitra the god is spoken of as the
great Aditya ‘bringing men together’. This epithet ( yatayaj-jana ) is found
in only three other passages of the RV. In one of these it is applied to
Mitra-Varuna in the dual (5, 7 2 ^J, in another to Mitra, Varuna, and Ary am an
(1, 1363), and in the third (8, 9 x I2J to Agni, who ‘brings men together like Mitra’.
The attribute therefore seems to have properly belonged to Mitra. The hymn
to Mitra further adds that he supports heaven and earth, that the five tribes
of men obey him, and that he sustains all the gods. Savitr is once (5, 8 1 4)
identified with Mitra because of his laws, and elsewhere (Val. 48) Visnu is
said to take his three steps by the laws of Mitra. These two passages appear
to indicate that Mitra regulates the course of the sun. Agni who goes at
the head of the dawns produces Mitra for himself (10, 84); Agni when kindled
is Mitra (3, 5+); Agni when born is Varuna, when kindled is Mitra1 (5, 31).
In the AV. (13, 313) Mitra at sunrise is contrasted with Varuna in the evening,
and (AV. 9, 318) Mitra is asked to uncover in the morning what has been
covered up by Varuna2. These passages point to the beginning of the view
prevailing in the Brahmanas, that Mitra is connected with day and Varuna
Avith night. That view must have arisen from Mitra having been predominantly
conceived as allied to the sun, Varuna by antithesis becoming god of night3.
The same contrast between Mitra as god of day and Varuna as god of night
is implied in the ritual literature, when it is prescribed that Mitra should

30 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. ia. Vedic Mythology.

receive a white and Varuna a dark victim at the sacrificial post (TS. 2, 1, 7k
91; MS. 2, 5?)4. The somewhat scanty evidence of the Veda showing that
Mitra is a solar deity, is corroborated by the Avesta and Persian religion in
general. Here Mithra is undoubtedly a sun-god or a god of light specially
connected with the sun5.

The etymology of the name is uncertain6. However, as the word also
often means ‘friend’ in the RV. and the kindly nature of the god is often
referred to in the Veda, Mitra even appearing as a god of peace (TS. 2,
1, 84)7, while in the Avesta Mithra is on the ethical side of his character
the guardian of faithfulness8, it must have originally signified ‘ally’ or ‘friend’
and have been applied to the sun-god in his aspect of a beneficent power of
nature.

* Eggers 16—19. — 2 Hillebrandt 67. — 3 Oi.denberg thinks that the
special connexion of Varuna with night is old: ZDMG. 30, 64 — 5. — 4 Hille-
brandt 67. 90; ORV. 192, note. — s Sp.AP. 183; ORV. 48. 190; Eggers 6 — 13.
<> Hillebrandt 113—4; Eggers 70. — 7 Eggers 42 — 3. — 8 Eggers 53 — 6.

KHF. 13; Roth, ZDMG. 6, 70 ff.; PW.; OST. 5, 69 — 71; Windischmann,
Mithra, Leipzig 1859; GW. s. v. Mitra; Hillebrandt, Varuna und Mitra in — 36;
BRV. 3, no — 29; Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 503—4; Weber, IS. 17, 212; BRI. 17;
ORV. 190 — 2; Boiinenberger 85; A. Eggers, Der arische Gott Mitra, Dorpat 1894
(Dissertation); v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 118; HRI. 71 ; Oldenberg, SBE.46, 241. 287.

S 14. Surya. — Ten entire hymns of the RV. may be said to be de-
voted to the celebration of Surya specifically. It is impossible to say how
often the name of the god occurs, it being in many cases doubtful whether
only the natural phenomenon is meant or its personification. Since his name
designates the orb of the sun as well, Surya is the most concrete of the solar
deities, his connexion with the luminary never being lost sight of. The
adorable light of Surya in the sky is as the face (anikd) of great Agni
(10, 73). The eye of Surya is mentioned several times (5, 408 &rc.), but he
is himself equally often called the eye of Mitra and Varuna (p. 23) or of
Agni as well (1, 1151); and once (7, 773) Dawn is said to bring the eye of
the gods. The affinity of the eye and the sun is indicated in a passage
where the eye of the dead man is conceived as going to Surya (10, i63cp.
903. 15s3- 4). In the AV. he is called the ‘lord of eyes’ (AV. 5, 249) and is
said to be the one eye of created beings and to see beyond the sky, the
earth, and the waters (AV. 13, i45). He is far-seeing (7, 35s; 10, 371), all-
seeing (1, 502), is the spy (spas) of the whole world (4, 133), beholds all
beings and the good and bad deeds of mortals (1, 507; 6, 512; 7, 602. 611.
631,4). Aroused by Surya men pursue their objects and perform their work
(7, 634). Common to all men, he rises as their rouser (7, 632- 3). He is the
soul or the guardian of all that moves or is stationary (1, 1151; 7, 602). He
has a car which is drawn by one steed, called etasa (7, 632), or by an in-
definite number of steeds (i,ii53; 10, 37b 49?) or mares (5,29s) or by seven
horses (5, 45s) or mares called haritah (1, 50s- 9; 7, 603) or by seven swift
mares (4, 133).

Surya’s path is prepared for him by Varuna (1, 24s; 7, 871) or by the
Adityas Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman (7, 604). Pusan is his messenger (6, 583).
The Dawn or Dawns reveal or produce Surya as well as Agni and the sacri-
fice (7, 802. 783). He shines forth from the lap of the dawns (7, 635). But
from another point of view Dawn is Surya’s wife (7, 75s).

He also bears the metronymic Aditya, son of Aditi (1, 5012. i9i9; 8,90”)
or Aditeya (xo, 88”), but he is elsewhere distinguished from the Adityas
(8, 3513-15). His father is Dyaus (10, 371). He is god-bom (ibid.). The gods
raised him who had been hidden in the ocean (10, 727). As a form of Agni

Celestial Gods. 14. Surya.

31

he was placed by the gods in heaven (10, 8811). According to another order
of ideas he is said to have arisen from the eye of the world-giant Purusa
(io, 903). In the AV. (4, io5) the sun ( divakara ) is even described as having
sprung from Vrtra.

Various individual gods are said to have produced the sun. Indra
generated him (2, 124 &c.), caused him to shine or raised him to heaven
(3, 442; 8, 7s7). Indra- Visnu generated him (7, 994). Indra-Soma brought up
SOrya with light (6, 72*); Indra-Varuna raised him to heaven (7, 82s). Mitra-
Varuna raised or placed him in heaven (4, 132; 5, 634- 7). Soma placed light
in the Sun (6, 442J; 9, 974'), generated Surya (9, 96s. no5), caused him to
shine (9, 637), or raised him in heaven (9, 1077). Agni establishes the
brightness of the sun on high (10, 32) and caused him to ascend to heaven
(10, 1 56+). Dhatr, the creator, fashioned the sun as well as the moon (10,
1903). The Angirases by their rites caused him to ascend the sky (10, 62 3).
In all these passages referring to the generation of Surya the notion of the
simple luminary doubtless predominates.

In various passages Surya is conceived as a bird traversing space. He
is a bird (10, 177 *■ *), or a ruddy bird (5, 47 3), is represented as flying (1,
1919), is compared with a flying eagle (7, 63s) and seems to be directly
called an eagle (5, 459)1. He is in one passage called a bull as well as a
bird (5, 473) and in another a mottled bull2 (10, 189’ cp. 5, 473). He is once
alluded to as a white and brilliant steed3 brought by Usas (7, 773). Surya’s
horses represent his rays (which are seven in number: 8, 6116), for the latter
(/ ketavah ), it is said, bring ( vahanti ) him. His seven mares are called the
daughters of his car (1, 509).

Elsewhere Surya is occasionally spoken of as an inanimate object. He
is a gem of the sky (7, 63+ cp. 6, 511) and is alluded to as the variegated
stone placed in the midst of heaven (5, 473 cp. SB. 6, 1, 23). He is a brilliant
weapon ( ayudha ) which Mitra-Varuna conceal with cloud and rain (5, 634),
he is the felly ( pavi ) of Mitra-Varuna (5, 622), or a brilliant car placed in
heaven by Mitra-Varuna (5, 637). The sun is also called a wheel (1, 1754;
4, 304) or the ‘wheel of the sun’ is spoken of (4, 282; 5, 2910).

Surya shines for all the world (7, 63 x), for men and gods (1, 505). He
dispels the darkness with his light (10, 374). He rolls up the darkness as a
skin (7, 631). His rays throw off the darkness as a skin into the waters
(4, 134). He triumphs over beings of darkness and witches (1, i9i8- 9 cp.
7, 10424). There are only two or three allusions to the sun’s burning heat
(7, 3419; 9> i°720); for in the RV. the sun is not a maleficent power4, and
for this aspect of the luminary only passages from the AV. and the literature
of the Brahmanas can be quoted5.

Surya measures the days (1, 507) and prolongs the days of life (8,4s7).
He drives away sickness, disease, and every evil dream (10, 374). To live is
to see the Sun rise (4, 2 5^ ; 6, 5 2 5). All creatures depend on Surya (1, x 6414).
and the sky is upheld by him (10, 851). The epithet ‘all-creating’ ( visva -
karman) is also applied to him (10, 1704; cp. § 39). By his greatness he
is the divine priest (asurya/i purohitah ) of the gods (8, 9012). At his rising
he is prayed to declare men sinless to Mitra-Varuna and other gods (7, 60’.
622). He is said, when rising, to go to the Vrtra-slayer Indra and is even
styled a Vrtra-slayer himself when invoked with Indra (8, 821, 2- 4).

The only myth told about Surya is that Indra vanquished him (10,43s)
and stole his wheel (1, 1754; 4, 304). This may allude to the obscuration of
the sun by a thunderstorm.

In the Avesta, the sun, hvare (== Vedic svar , of which surya 6 is a de-

3 2 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

rivative and to which Gk. r(sXio?7 is allied) has swift horses, like Surya, and
is called the eye of Ahura Mazda8.

i Cp. ZDMG. 7, 475 — 6. — 2 Otherwise HVM. 1, 345, note 3. — 3 Cp. ZDMG.

2 223; 7, 82. — 4 BRY. 1, 6; 2, 2. — 5 Ehni, Yama 134. — <> KZ. 12, 358;

J. Schmidt, KZ. 26, 9. — 7 Brugmann, Grundriss 1, 218. — 8 Sp.AP. 1, 190 — 1;

cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 49.

Nirukta 12, 14—16; OST. 5, 151 — 61 ; GKR. 55 — 6; BRI. 20; KRV. 54—5.

145; BRY. 1, 7; HVM. 1, 45; HYBP. 29 — 30; ORY. 240—1; HRI. 40—6.

S 15. Savitr. — Savitr is celebrated in eleven whole hymns of the RV.
and in parts of others, his name being mentioned about 170 times. Eight or
nine of these are in the family books, while all but three of those to Surya
are in the first and tenth. Savitr is preeminently a golden deity, nearly all
his members and his equipment being described by that epithet. He is golden-
eyed (1, 35s), golden-handed (1, 35^ 10), golden-tongued (6, 713), all these
epithets being peculiar to him. He has golden arms (6, 7X1- 3; 7, 45s), and
is broad-handed (2, 38"*) or beautiful-handed (3, 336). He is also pleasant-
tongued (6, 714) or beautiful-tongued (3, 54“)? and is once called iron-jawed
(6, 714). He is yellow-haired (xo, 1391), an attribute ofAgni and Indra also.

He puts on a tawny garment (4, 532). He has a golden car with a golden

pole (1, 352- 5), which is omniform (1, 353), just as he himself assumes all
forms (5, 8 12). His car is drawn by two radiant steeds or by two or more
brown, white-footed horses (1, 35s- 3; 7, 451).

Mighty splendour (amati) is preeminently attributed to Savitr, and mighty
golden splendour to him only (3, 38s; 7, 381). This splendour he stretches
out or diffuses. He illumines the air, heaven and earth, the world, the spaces
of the earth, the vault of heaven (1, 3s7- 8; 4, 142. 5 34; 5, 81 2). He raises
aloft his strong golden arms, with which he blesses and arouses all beings
and which extend to the ends of the earth (2,38s; 4,533-4; 6, 7i1-5; 7,452). The
raising of his arms is characteristic, for the action of other gods is compared

with it. Agni is said to raise his arms like Savitr (1, 95"); the dawns extend

light as Savitr his arms (7, 79s), and Brhaspati is implored to raise hymns of
praise as Savitr his arms (1, 1903). He moves in his golden car, seeing all
creatures, on a downward and an upward path (1, 352- 3). He impels the
car of the Asvins before dawn (1, 3410). He shines after the path of the
dawn (5, 8 12). He has measured out the earthly spaces, he goes to the three
bright realms of heaven and is united with the rays of the sun (5, 8i3, 4).
The only time the epithet surya-rasmi is used in the RV. it is applied to
Savitr; ‘Shining with the rays of the sun, yellow-haired, Savitr raises up his
light continually from the east’ (10, 1391). He thrice surrounds the air, the
three spaces, the three bright realms of heaven (4, 53s; cp. Visnu, § 17).
His ancient paths in the air are dustless and easy to traverse, on them he
is besought to protect his worshippers (1, 35“). He is prayed to convey the
departed spirit to where the righteous dwell (10, 174). He bestows immort-
ality on the gods as well as length of life on man (4, 54s). He also bestowed
immortality on the Rbhus, who by the greatness of their deeds went to his
house (1, no2, 3). Like Surya, he is implored to remove evil dreams (5, 824)
and to make men sinless (4, 543). He drives away evil spirits and sorcerers
(1, 3510; 7> 387)-

Like many other gods Savitr is called aswa (4, 531). He observes fixed
laws (4, 53 10, 348. 1393). The waters and the wind are subject to his or-
dinance (2, 382). He leads the waters and by his propulsion they flow broadly
(3, 336 cp. Nir. 2, 26). The other gods follow his lead (5, 813). No being, not
even Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Rudra, can resist his will and independent

Celestial Gods. 15. Savitr.

33

dominion (2, 38'. 9; 5, 82 2). His praises are celebrated by the Vasus, Aditi,
Varuna, Mitra and Aryaman (7, 38 4). Like Pusan and Surya, he is lord of
that which moves and is stationary (4, 536). He is lord of all desirable things,
and sends blessings from heaven, air, earth (1, 243; 2, 38'1). He is twice
(1, 1233; 6, 714) even spoken of as ‘domestic’ (dainunas), an epithet other-
wise almost entirely limited to Agni. Like other gods, he is a supporter
of the sky (4, 53s; 10, 1494). He supports the whole world (4, 544). He
■fixed the earth with bonds and made firm the sky in the rafterless space
(10, 1491).

Savitr is at least once (1, 22s) called ‘child of Waters’ ( apam napdt),
an epithet otherwise exclusively belonging to Agni. It is probably also applied
to him in 10, 1492 2. Yaska (Nir. 10, 32) commenting on this verse regards
j Savitr here as belonging to the middle region (or atmosphere) because he
causes rain, adding that the sun ( Aditya , who is in heaven) is also called
Savitr3. It is probably owing to this epithet and because Savitr’s paths are
once (1, 35”) said to be in the atmosphere, that this deity occurs among the
gods of the middle region as well as among those of heaven in the Nai-
ghantuka. Savitr is once called the prajapati of the world (4, 532). In the SI!.
(12, 3) 51) people are said to identify Savitr with Prajapati; and in the TB.
(1, 6, 41) it is stated that Prajapati becoming Savitr created living beings4.
Savitr is alone lord of vivifying power and by his movements ( yamabhih )
becomes Pusan (5, 82S). In his vivifying power Pusan marches, Iteholding all
beings as a guardian (10, 1391). In two consecutive verses (3, 62^- *°) Pusan
and Savitr are thought of as connected. In the first the favour of Pusan who
sees all beings is invoked, and in the second, Savitr is besought to stimultae
(cp. Pusan, p. 36) the thoughts of worshippers who desire to think of the
excellent brilliance of god Savitr. The latter verse is the celebrated Savitri ,
with which Savitr was in later times invoked at the beginning of Vedic study5.
Savitr is also said to become Mitra by reason of his laws (5, 8 14). Savitr
seems sometimes (5, 82’- 3; 7, 381- 6) to be identified with Bhaga also, unless
the latter word is here only an epithet of Savitr. The name of Bhaga (the
good god bestowing benefits) is indeed often added to that of Savitr so as
to form the single expression Savita Bhagah or Bhagah Savita 6. In other
texts, however, Savitr is distinguished from Mitra, Pusan, and Bhaga. In
several passages Savitr and Surya appear to be spoken of indiscriminately
to denote the same deity. Thus a poet says: ‘God Savitr has raised aloft
his brilliance, making light for the whole world; Surya shining brightly has
filled heaven and earth and air with his rays’ (4, 142). In another hymn
(7, 63) Surya is (in verses 1. 2. 4) spoken of in terms (e. g. prasavitr , vivi-
fier) usually applied to Savitr, and in the third verse Savitr is apparently
mentioned as the same god. In other hymns also (10, i581-4; 1, 351 — XI.
1241) it is hardly possible to keep the two deities apart. In passages such as
the following, Savitr is, however, distinguished from Surya. ‘Savitr moves
between both heaven and earth, drives away disease, impels ( veti ) the sun’
(1, 3S9)- Savitr declares men sinless to the sun (1, 1233). He combines
with the rays of the sun (5,8i4) or shines with the rays of the sun (10, 1391
cp. 1813; 1, 1571; 7, 358- I0). With Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, Savitr is besought
to vivify the worshipper when the sun has risen (7, 66').

According to Yaska (Nir. 12, 12), the time of Savitr’s appearance is
when darkness has been removed. Sayana (on RV. 5, 814) remarks that be-
fore his rising the sun is called Savitr, but from his rising to his setting, Surya.
But Savitr is also sometimes spoken of as sending to sleep (4, 53b;7,45\), and
must therefore be connected with evening as well as morning. He is, indeed,

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1 A. 3

34 HI. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

extolled as the setting sun in one hymn (2, 38); and there are indications
that most of the hymns addressed to him are meant for either a morning or
an evening sacrifice7. He brings all two-footed and four-footed beings to
rest and awakens them (6, 712 cp. 4, 53^; 7, 45'). He unyokes his steeds,
brings the wanderer to rest; at his command night comes; the weaver rolls
up her web and the skilful man lays down his unfinished work (2, 38^ 4).
Later the west was wont to be assigned to him (SB. 3, 2, 318), as the east to
Agni and the south to Soma.

The name Savitr has all the appearance of being a word of purely
Indian formation. This is borne out by the fact that the root su, from which
it is derived, is continually used along with it in a manner which is unique
in the RV. Some other verb would nearly always be used to express the
same action in connexion with any other god. In the case of Savitr not
only is the root itself used, but also several derivatives (such as prasavitr
and prasava) constituting a perpetual play on the name8. These frequent
combinations show clearly that the root has the sense of stimulating, arousing,
vivifying. A few examples may here be given in illustration of this peculiar
usage. 'God Savitr has aroused ( prasavit ) each moving thing’ (1, 1571).
‘Thou alone art the lord of stimulation’ (prasavasya : 5, 8i5j. ‘Savitr bestowed
0 dsuvat ) that immortality on you’ (1,110^). ‘God Savitr has arisen to arouse
( savaya ) us’ (2, 381). ‘Thrice a day Savitr sends down (sosavlti) boons from
the sky’ (3, 56s). ‘Do thou, o Savitr, constitute ( suvatat ) us sinless’ (4, 54^).
‘May we being sinless towards Aditi through the influence (save) of Savitr
possess all boons’ (5, 826). ‘Send away ( para sava) evil dream, send away
all calamities, bestow ( asuva ) what is good (ib. 4- s). ‘May Savitr remove
(apa savisat) sickness’ (10, 1008). With this verb Savitr is specially often
besought to bestow wealth (2, 566 &c.). This use of su is almost peculiar to
Savitr; but it is two or three times applied to Surya (7, 63*- 4; 10, 374). It
also occurs with Usas (7, 771), with Varuna (2, 28?), with the Adityas (8,1s1),
and with Mitra, Aryaman coupled with Savitr (7, 664). This employment
being so frequent, Yaska (Nir. 10, 31) defines Savitr as sarvasya prasavita ,
‘the stimulator of everything’.

The fact that in nearly half its occurrences the name is accompanied by
deva , god, seems to show that is has not yet lost the nature of an epithet,
meaning ‘the stimulator god’. At any rate, the word appears to be an epithet
of Tvastr in two passages (3, 5 5 19; 10, io5), where the juxtaposition of the
words dev as tiasta savita visvarupa and the collocation with deva indicate
that Savitr is here identical with Tvastr.

We may therefore conclude that Savitr was originally an epithet of Indian
origin applied to the sun as the great stimulator of life and motion in
the world, representing the most important movement which dominates all
others in the universe, but that as differentiated from Surya he is a more
abstract deity. He is in the eyes of the Vedic poets the divine power of
the sun personified, while SOrya is the more concrete deity, in the conception
of whom the outward form of the sun-body is never absent owing to the
identity of his name with that of the orb (cp. i,359. 1241).

Oldenberg9, reversing the order of development generally recognized,
thinks that Savitr represents an abstraction of the idea of stimulation and
that the notion of the sun, or of the sun in a particular direction, is only
secondary in his character10.

1 HRI. 44. — 2 Cp. v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40. 355; HRI. 48. — 3 Cp. Roth,

Nirukta Erl. 143; OST. 4, 96. in. — 4 Weber, Omina und Portenta 3S6. 392. —

5 Whitney in Colebrooke’s essays, rev. ed. 2, in. — 6 BRV. 3, 39. — 7 HRI.

Celestial Gods. 16. Pusan.

35

46. — 8 Roth, op. cit. 76. — 9 ORV. 64 — 5. — >° Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 951—2;

V. SCHROEDER, WZKM. 9, 125.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 324; OST. 5, 162 — 70; Roth, PW. ; ZDMG. 24, 306 — 8;

GRV. I, 49; GW. s. v.; KRV. 56; BRV. 3, 38—64; HVBP. 33.

§ 16. Pusan. — The name of Pusan is mentioned about 120 times in
the RV. and he is celebrated in eight hymns (five of them occurring in the
sixth, two in the first, and one in the tenth book). He is also lauded as a dual
divinity in one hymn (6, 57) with Indra and in another with Soma (2, 40).
Thus statistically he occupies a somewhat higher position than Visnu (§ 17).
In the later Vedic and the post-Vedic periods his name is mentioned with
increasing rareness. His individuality is indistinct and his anthropomorphic
traits are scanty. His foot is referred to when he is asked to trample on
the brand of the wicked. His right hand is also mentioned (6, 5410). He
has (like Rudra) braided hair (6, 552) and a beard (10, 2 67). He wields a
goiden spear (1, 426) and carries an awl (6, 53s- 6- 8) or a goad (539. 5s2).
The wheel, the felly, and the seat of his car (6, 543) are spoken of and he
is called the best charioteer (6, 562, 3). His car is drawn by goats1 {ajasva)
instead of horses (1, 38+; 6, 553- 4). He eats, for his food is gruel (6, 561
cp. 3, 52?). It is probably for this reason that he is said to be toothless in
the SB. (1, 7, 4').

Pusan sees all creatures clearly and at once (3, 62?), these identical
words being applied to Agni also (10, 1874). He is ‘the lord of all things
moving and stationary’ almost the same words with which Surya is described
(1, 1 1 5 1 ; 7, 602). He is the wooer of his mother (6, 55s) or the lover of his
sister (ib. 4- 5), similar expressions being used of Surya (1, 1152) and of Agni
(10, 33). The gods are said to have given him, subdued by love, to the sun-
maiden Surya in marriage (6, 5s4). Probably as the husband of Surya, Pusan
is connected with the marriage ceremonial in the wedding hymn (10, 85),
being besought to take the bride’s hand and lead her away and to bless her
in her conjugal relation2 (v. 37). In another passage (9, 6710) he is besought
to give his worshippers their share of maidens. With his golden ships which
move in the aerial ocean, subdued by love he acts as the messenger3 of Surya
(6, 583). He moves onward beholding the universe (2, 405; 6, 582) and
makes his abode in heaven (2, 404). He is a guardian, who goes at the in-
stigation of Savitr, knowing and beholding all creatures. In a hymn devoted
to his praise, Pusan is said as best of charioteers to have driven downwards
the golden wheel of the sun (6, 563), but the connexion is obscure (cp. Nir.
2, 6). A frequent and exclusive epithet of Pusan is ‘glowing’ ( aghrni ). He
is once termed agohya , ‘not to be concealed’, an attribute almost peculiar
to Savitr.

Pusan is bom on the far path of paths, on the far path of heaven and
of earth; he goes to and returns from both the beloved abodes, knowing
them (6, 176). Owing to this familiarity he conducts the dead on the far path to
the Fathers, as Agni and Savitr take them to where the righteous have gone
and where they and the gods abide, and leads his worshippers thither in
safety, showing them the way (10, i73- 5). The AV. also speaks of Pusan
as conducting to the world of the righteous, the beautiful world of the gods
{AV. 16, 92; 18, 253). So Pusan’s goat conducts the sacrificial horse (1, i622-3).
Perhaps to Pusan’s familiarity with the (steep) paths is due the notion that
his car is drawn by the sure-footed goat.

As knower of paths, Pusan is conceived as a guardian of roads. He is
besought to remove dangers, the wolf, the waylayer, from the path (1, 42 1-3).
In this connexion he is called vimuco 7iapat , ‘son of deliverance’4. The same

3*

36 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

epithet is applied to him in another passage (6, 5 5 T) and he is twice (8,4IS-16)
called vimocana , ‘deliverer’. As vimuco nap at he is invoked to deliver from
sin’ (AY. 6, 1125). Pusan is prayed to disperse foes and make the paths
lead to booty (6,534), to remove foes, to make the paths good, and to lead
to good pasture (1, 4 2 7- 8). He is invoked to protect from harm on his path
(6, 54®) and to grant an auspicious path (10, 59?). He is the guardian of
every path (6, 49s) and lord of the road (6, 531). He is a guide (prapathya )
on roads (VS. 22, 20). So in the Sutras, whoever is starting on a journey
makes an offering to Pusan, the road-maker, while reciting RV. 6, 53; and
whoever loses his way, turns to Pusan (AGS. 3, 7s- 9; SSS. 3, 49). Moreover,
in the morning and evening offerings to all gods and beings, Pusan the road-
maker receives his on the threshold of the house (SGS. 2, 149).

As knower of ways he can make hidden goods manifest and easy
to find (6, 48 xs). He is in one passage (1, 2314- 15 cp. TS. 3, 3, 91) said to
have found the king who was lost and hidden in secret (probably Soma), and
asked to bring him like a lost beast. So in the Sutras, Pusan is sacrificed
to when anything lost is sought (AGS. 3, 79). Similarly, it is characteristic of
Pusan that he follows and protects cattle (6, 54s- 6- IO, 58s cp. 10, 26s). He
preserves them from injury by falling into a pit, brings them home unhurt,
and drives back the lost (6, 547, 10). His goad directs cattle straight (6, 539).
Perhaps connected with the idea of guiding straight is the notion that he
directs the furrow (4, 577). Pusan also protects horses (6, 54s) and weaves
and smooths the clothing of sheep (10, 2 66j. Hence beasts are said to be
sacred to Pusan (1, 51-2), and he is called the producer of cattle (MS. 4, 37;
TB. 1, 7, 24). In the Sutras verses to Pusan are prescribed to be recited
when cows are driven to pasture or stray (SGS. 3, 9).

Pusan has various attributes in common with other gods. He is called
asura (5, 5111). He is strong (5, 439), vigorous (8, 415), nimble (6, 54s),
powerful (1, 1381), resistless (6, 48 xs). He transcends mortals and is equal
to the gods in glory (6, 48*9). He is a ruler of heroes (1, 1064), an uncon-
querable protector and defender (1, 89s), and assists in battle (6, 4819). He
is a protector of the world (10, 175 cp. 2, 40’). He is a seer, a protecting
friend of the priest, the unshaken friend born of old, of every suppliant (10,
26s- 8). He is wise (1, 42s) and liberal5 (2, 314). His bounty is particularly
often mentioned. He possesses all wealth (1, S96), abounds in wealth (8, 4IS),
gives increase of wealth (1, 89s), is beneficent (1, 1 3 8 2) , bountiful (6, 584;
8, 418), and bestows all blessings (1, 426). He is the strong friend of
abundance, the strong lord and increaser of nourishment (10, 267- 8). The
term dasra, ‘wonder-working’, distinctive of the Asvins, is a few times (1,42 s;
6, 564) applied to him, as well as dasjna, ‘wondrous’ (1, 4210. 1384) and
dasma-varcas, ‘of wondrous splendour’ (6, 5s4), usually said of Agni and Indra.
He is also twice (1, 1064; 10, 64s) called Narasamsa ‘praised of men’, an
epithet otherwise exclusively limited to Agni. He is once spoken of as ‘all-
pervading’ (2, 406). He is tenned ‘devotion-stimulating’ (9, 88s), is invoked
to quicken devotion (2, 406), and his awl is spoken of as ‘prayer-instigating’
(6, 538; cp- Savitr, p. 33).

The epithets exclusively connected with Pusan are aghrni, ajas'va , vimo-
ca?ia, vimuco napat, and once each pustimbhara, ‘bringing prosperity’, anasta-
pasu , ‘losing no cattle’, anastavedas , ‘losing no goods’, karambhad , ‘eating
gruel’. The latter attribute seems to have been a cause for despising Pusan
by some (cp. 6, 561; 1, 1384)6. Karambha, mentioned three times in the RV.,
is Pusan’s distinctive food, being contrasted with Soma as Indra’s (6, 5 72).
Indra, however, shares it (3,52?), and in the only two passages in which the

Celestial Gods. 17. Visnu. 37

adjective karambhin ‘mixed with gruel’ occurs, it applies to the libation of
Indra (3, 521; 8, 802). Pusan is the only god who receives the epithet
pasupd, ‘protector of cattle’ (6, 582) directly (and not in comparisons).

The only deities with whom Pusan is invoked conjointly in the dual are
Soma (2, 40) and Indra (6, 57), whose brother he is once called (6, 55s).
Next to these two, Pusan is most frequently addressed with Bhaga (1, 904;

4, 3024; 5, 414. 4b2; 10, 1252; cp. SB. 11, 4, 33; KSS. 5, 131) and Visnu (t,9o-c;

5, 463; 6, 2i9; 7, 441; 10, 66s), his name in all these passages of the RY.
being in juxtaposition with theirs. He is occasionally addressed with various
other deities also.

The evidence adduced does not show clearly that Pusan represents a
phenomenon of nature. But a large number of passages quoted at the
beginning point to his being closely connected with the sun. Yaska, too,
(Nir. 7, 9) explains Pusan to be ‘the sun (. Aditya ), the preserver of all beings’,
and in post-Vedic literature Pusan occasionally occurs as a name of the sun.
The path of the sun which leads from earth to heaven, the abode of the
gods and the pious dead, might account for a solar deity being both a con-
ductor of departed souls (like Savitr) and a guardian of paths in general.
The latter aspect of his character would explain his special bucolic features
as a guide and protector of cattle, which form a part of his general nature
as a promoter of prosperity. Mithra, the solar deity of the Avesta, has the
bucolic traits of increasing cattle and bringing back beasts that have strayed7.

Etymologically the word means ‘prospered as derived from the root pits,
‘to cause to thrive’. This side of his. character is conspicuous both in his
epithets visvavedas, anastavedas, puruvasu, pustimbhara, and in the frequent
invocations to him to bestow wealth and protection (6, 48 13 &c.). He is lord
of great wealth, a stream of wealth, a heap of riches (6, 552- 3). But the
prosperitiy he confers is not, as in the case of Indra, Parjanya, and the
Maruts, connected with rain, but with light, which is emphasized by his ex-
clusive epithet ‘glowing’. The welfare which he bestows results from the
protection he extends to men and cattle on earth, and from his guidance of
men to the abodes of bliss in the next world. Thus the conception which
seems to underlie the character of Pusan, is the beneficent power of the sun
manifested chiefly as a pastoral deity.

1 KRV. note 120. — 2 is. 5, 186. 190. — 3 GGA. 1889, p. 8. — 4 OST. 5,
175; GW.; LRV. 4, 444; HVBP. 34, and BRV. (who explains the original meaning
differently); ‘Sohn der Einkehr’ (= unyoking): Roth, PW. und ORV. 232; ‘Son
of the cloud’: Sayana and Griffith on RV. 1, 421. — 5 Puramdhi according to
Hillebrandt, WZKM. 3, 192 — 3, means ‘active, zealous’. — 6 HRI. 51- —
7 Sp.AP. 184.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 325; OST. 5, 171 — 80; Gubernatis, Letture 82; BRV. 2,
420 — 30; KRV. 55; PVS. 1, II; HVM. 1, 456; HVBP. 34; ORV. 230- — 3 (cp. WZKM.
9, 252J; Perry, Drisler Memorial 241 — 3; HRI. 50 — 3.

§ 17. Visnu. — Visnu, though a deity of capital importance in the mytho-
logy of the Brahmanas, occupies but a subordinate position in the RV. His
personality is at the same time more important there than would appear from
the statistical standard alone. According to that he would be a deity only
of the fourth rank, for he is celebrated in not more than five whole hymns
and in part of another, while his name occurs only about 100 times alto-
gether in the RV. The only anthropomorphic traits of Visnu are the fre-
quently mentioned strides which he takes, and his being a youth vast in body,
who is no longer a child (1, 1556). The essential feature of his character is
that he takes (generally expressed by ii-kram) three strides, which are referred
to about a dozen times. His epithets urugdya , ‘wide-going’ and urukrama ,

38 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

‘wide-striding’, which also occur about a dozen times, allude to the same
action. With these three steps Visnu is described as traversing the earth or
the terrestrial spaces. Two of these steps or spaces are visible to men, but
the third or highest step is beyond the flight of birds or mortal ken ( 1 , 1 5 5 5;
7, 992). The same notion seems to be mystically expressed (1, 1553) when
he is said to bear his third name in the bright realm of heaven. The highest
place of Visnu is regarded as identical with the highest place of Agni, for
Visnu guards the highest, the third place of Agni (10, 1 3) and Agni with the
loftiest station of Visnu guards the mysterious cows (probably = clouds:
5, 33). The highest step of Visnu is seen by the liberal like an eye fixed in
heaven (1, 2220). It is his dear abode, where pious men rejoice and where
there is a well of honey (1, 1 54s), and where the gods rejoice (8, 29?).
This highest step 1 shines down brightly and is the dwelling of Indra and Visnu,
where are the many-horned swiftly moving cows2 (probably = clouds), and
which the singer desires to attain (1, 1546). Within these three footsteps all
beings dwell (1, 1542), and they are full of honey (1,1 544), probably because
the third and most important is full of it3. Visnu guards the highest abode
( pathas )4, which implies his favourite dwelling-place (3, 5 5 10) and is else-
where expressly stated to be so (1, 1545). In another passage (7, ioo3)
Visnu is less definitely said to dwell far from this space. He is once spoken
of (1,1 56s) as having three abodes, trisadhast/ia, an epithet primarily appro-
priate to Agni (§ 35).

The opinion that Visnu’s three steps refer to the course of the sun is
almost unanimous. But what did they originally represent? The purely
naturalistic interpretation favoured by most European scholars3 and by Yaska’s
predecessor Aurnavabha (Nir. 12, 19) takes the three steps to mean the rising,
culminating, and setting of the sun. The alternative view, which prevails
throughout the younger Vedas, the Brahmanas, as well as post-Vedic litera-
ture, and was supported by Yaska’s predecessor Sakapuni and is favoured by
Bergaigne and the present writer8, interprets the three steps as the course of
the solar deity through the three divisions of the universe. With the former
interpretation is at variance the fact that the third step of Visnu shows no trace
of being connected with sunset, but on the contrary is identical with the
highest step. The alternative view does not conflict with what evidence the
RV. itself supplies, and is supported by the practically unvarying tradition
in India beginning with the later Vedas.

That the idea of motion is characteristic of Visnu is shown by other
expressions besides the three steps. The epithets ‘wide-going’ and ‘wide-
striding’ are almost entirely limited to Visnu, as well as the verb vi-kram.
The latter is also employed in allusion to the sun, spoken of as the varie-
gated stone placed in the midst of heaven, which took strides (5, 47 3). Visnu
is also swift esa (otherwise said only once of Brhaspati) or ‘swift-going’ cvaya,
evayavan (otherwise connected only with the Maruts). Coupled with the con-
stant idea of swift and far-extending motion is that of regularity. In taking
his three strides Visnu observes laws (1, 2218). Like other deities typical of
regular recurrence (Agni, Soma, Surya, Usas), Visnu is the ‘ancient germ of
order1, and an ordainer, who (like Agni, Surya, Usas) is both ancient and
recent (1, 1562-4). In the same words as the sun-god Savitr (5, 813), he is
said (1, 1541; 6, 4913) to have measured out the earthly spaces. With this
may also be compared the statement that Varuna measured out the spaces
with the sun (p. n). Visnu is in one passage (1, 1556 cp. 1, i644- 48) de-
scribed as setting in motion like a revolving wheel his 90 steeds (= days)
with their four names (= seasons). This can hardly refer to anything but

Celestial Gods, i 7. Visnu.

39

the solar year of 360 days. In the AV. (5, 26?) Visnu is besought to bestow
heat on the sacrifice. In the Brahmanas Visnu’s head when cut off becomes
the sun. In post-Vedic literature one of Visnu’s weapons is a rolling wheel8
which is represented like the sun (cp. RV. 5, 634), and his vehicle is Garuda,
chief of birds, who is of brilliant lustre like Agni, and is also called gar ut mat
and suparna , two terms already applied to the sun-bird in the RV. Finally
the post-Vedic kaustubha or breast-jewel of Visnu has been explained as the
sun by Kuhn9. Thus though Visnu is no longer clearly connected with a
natural phenomenon, the evidence appears to justify the inference that he
was originally conceived as the sun, not in his general character, but as the
personified swiftly moving luminary, which with vast strides traverses the whole
universe. This explanation would be borne out by the derivation from the
root vis10, which is used tolerably often in the RV. and primarily means ‘to
be active’ (PW.). According to this, Visnu would be the ‘active one’ as re-
presenting solar motion. Oldenberg, however, thinks that every definite trace
of solar character is lacking in Visnu, that he was from the beginning con-
ceived only as a traverser of wide space, and that no concrete natural con-
ception corresponded to the three steps. The number of the steps he attri-
butes simply to the fondness for triads in mythology.

Visnu’s highest step, as has been indicated, is conceived as his distinctive
abode. The sun would naturally be thought of as stationary in the meridian
rather than anywhere else. So we find the name of the zenith in Yaska to
be visnupada , the step or place of Visnu. Probably connected with the same
range of ideas are the epithets ‘mountain-dwelling’ (giriksit) and ‘mountain-
abiding’ (giristha) applied to Visnu in the same hymn (1, I542- 3); for in the
next hymn (1, 1 5 5 T) Visnu and Indra are conjointly called ‘the two undeceivable
ones, who have stood on the summit ( sanuni ) of the mountains, as it were with
an unerring steed’. This would allude to the sun looking down from the
height of the cloud mountains 12 (cp. 5, S74). It is probably owing to such
expressions in the RV. that Visnu is later called ‘lord of mountains’ (TS. 3,
4, 51)-

The reason why Visnu took his three steps is a secondary trait. He
thrice traversed the earthly spaces for man in distress (6, 49 l3); he traversed
the earth to bestow it on man for a dwelling (7, 1004); he traversed the
earthly spaces for wide-stepping existence (1, 1 5 54); with Indra he took vast
strides and stretched out the worlds for our existence (6, 69s- 6). To this
feature in the RV. may ultimately be traced the myth of Visnu’s dwarf in-
carnation which appears in ; the Epic and the Puranas. The intermediate stage
is found in the Brahmanas (SB. 1, 2, 5$; TS. 2, 1, 31; TB. 1, 6, 1 s), where Visnu
already assumes the form of a dwarf, in order by artifice to recover the
earth for the gods from the Asuras by taking his three strides’3.

The most prominent secondary characteristic of Visnu is his friendship
for Indra, with whom he is frequently allied in the fight with Vrtra. This is
indicated by the fact that one whole hymn (6, 69) is dedicated to the two
deities conjointly, and that Indra’s name is coupled with that of Visnu in the
dual as often as with that of Soma, though the name of the latter occurs
vastly oftener in the RV. The closeness of their alliance is also indicated
by the fact that in hymns extolling Visnu alone, Indra is the only other deity
incidentally associated with him either explicitly (7, 99s- 6; 1, 1552) or im-
plicitly (7, 994; 1, 1546. 1551; cp. 1, 617)14. Visnu strode his three steps by
tha energy ( ojasa ) of Indra (8, 1227), who in the preceding verse is described
as slaying Vrtra, or for Indra (Val.43). Indra about to slay Vrtra says, ‘friend
Visnu, stride out vastly’ (4, 18”). In company with Visnu, Indra slew Vrtra

40 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology

(6, 2 o2). Visnu and Indra together triumphed over the Dasa, destroyed Sam-
bara’s 99 castles and conquered the hosts of Varcin (7, 994- 5). Visnu is
Indra’s intimate friend (1, 2 219). Visnu accompanied by his friend opens the
cows’ stall (1, 1564). In the SB. (5, 5, 5’) Indra is described as shooting
the thunderbolt at Vrtra, while Visnu follows him (cp. TS. 6, 5, i1). Visnu is
also invoked with Indra in various single verses (4, 24. 5 54; 8, io2; 10, 664).
When associated with Indra as a dual divinity, Visnu shares Indra’s- powers
of drinking Soma (6,69) as well as his victories (7, 994- 6), Indra conversely
participating in Visnu’s power of striding (6, 69s; 7, 99s). To both conjointly
is attributed the action of creating the wide air and of spreading out the
spaces (6, 69s) and of producing Surya, Usas, and Agni (7, 994). Owing
to this friendship Indra drinks Soma beside Visnu (8, 3”. 1216) and thereby
increases his strength (8, 3s; 10, 1132). Indra drank the Soma pressed by
Visnu in three cups (2, 22 1 cp. 6, 17”), which recall Visnu’ s three footsteps
filled with honey (1,1 544). Visnu also cooks for Indra 100 buffaloes (6,17”)
or 100 buffaloes and a brew of milk (8, 66’° cp. 1, 617). Along with Mitra,
Varuna, and the Maruts, Visnu celebrates Indra with songs (8, 15°).

Indra’s constant attendants in the Vrtra-fight, the Maruts, are also drawn
into association with Visnu. When Visnu favoured the exhilerating Soma, the
Maruts like birds sat down on their beloved altar ( 1 , 8 57) IS. The Maruts are
invoked at the offering of the swift Visnu (2, 34” cp. 7, 40s). They are the
bountiful ones of the swift Visnu (8,20-5). The Maruts supported Indra, while
Pusan Visnu cooked 100 buffaloes for him (6, 1711). Visnu is the ordainer
associated with the Maruts (maruta), whose will Varuna and the Asvins follow
(1, 1564). Throughout one hymn (5, 87, especially verses 4 -s) he is associated
with the Maruts, with whom, when he starts, he speeds along'6.

Among stray references to Visnu in the RV. may be mentioned one
(7, 1006) in which different forms of Visnu are spoken of: ‘Do not conceal
from us this form, since thou didst assume another form in battle’. He is
further said to be a protector of embryos (7,369) and is invoked along with
other deities to promote conception (10, 1841). In the third verse of the
Khila after 10, 184 1?, Visnu is, according to one reading, called upon to
place in the womb a male child with a most beautiful form, or, according
to another, a male child with Visnu’s most beautiful form is prayed for18.

Other traits of Visnu are applicable to the gods in general. He is bene-
ficent (1, 156s), is innocuous and bountiful (8, 2512), liberal (7, 405), a
guardian (3, 5 5 IO), who is undeceivable (1, 2218), and an innoxious and generous
deliverer (i,i554). He alone sustains the threefold (world), heaven and earth,
and all beings (1, 1544). He fastened the world all about with pegs (7, 993)-
He is an ordainer (1, 1564).

In the Brahmanas Visnu is conceived as taking his three steps in earth,
air, and heaven (SB. 1, 9, 3$; TB. 3, 1, 2'). These three strides are imitated
by the sacrifices who takes three Visnu strides beginning with earth and
ending with heaven19, for that is the goal, the safe refuge, which is the sun
(SB. 1, 9, 310- 15). The three steps of the Amsaspands taken from earth to
the sphere of the sun, are similarly imitated in the ritual of the Avesta20.
A special feature of the Brahmanas is the constant identification of Visnu
with the sacrifice.

Two myths connected with Visnu, the source of which can be traced
to the RV., are further developed in the Brahmanas. Visnu in alliance with
Indra is in the RV. described as vanquishing demons. In the Brahmanas
the gods and demons commonly appear as two hostile hosts, the former not,
as in the RV., uniformly victorious, but often worsted. They therefore have

Celestial Gods. 17. Visnu.

41

recourse to artifice, in order to recover the supremacy. In the AB. (6, 1 5)
it is related that Indra and Visnu, engaged in conflict with the Asuras, agreed
with the latter that as much as Visnu could stride over in three steps should
belong to the two deities. Visnu accordingly strode over these worlds, the
Vedas, and speech. The SB. (1, 2, 5) tells how the Asuras having overcome
the gods began dividing the earth. The gods placing Visnu, the sacrifice, at
their head, came and asked for a share in the earth. The Asuras agreed to
give up as much as Visnu, who was a dwarf, could lie on. Then the gods
by sacrificing with Visnu, who was equal in size to sacrifice, gained the whole
earth. The three steps are not mentioned here, but in another passage (SB.

1, 9) 3°\ Visnu is said to have acquired for the gods the all-pervading power

which they now possess, by striding through the three worlds. It is further
stated in TS. 2, x, 3', that Visnu, by assuming the form of a dwarf whom he
had seen, conquered the three worlds (cp. TB. 1, 6, 15). The introduction of
the dwarf as a disguise of Visnu is naturally to be accounted for as a
stratagem to avert the suspicion of the Asuras 2I. This Brahmana story forms

the transition to the myth of Visnu’s Dwarf Incarnation in post-Vedic

literature 22.

Another myth of the Brahmanas has its origin in two passages of the
RV. (1, 6 17; 8, 6610). Their purport is that Visnu having drunk Soma and
being urged by Indra, carried off 100 buffaloes and a brew of milk belonging
to the boar (= Vrtra), while Indra shooting across the (cloud) mountain,
slew the fierce ( emusam ) boar. This myth is in the TS. (6, 2, q2- J) developed
as follows. A boar, the plunderer of wealth, kept the goods of the Asuras
on the other side of seven hills. Indra plucking up a bunch of kusa grass
and piercing through these hills, slew the boar. Visnu, the sacrifice, carried
the boar off as a sacrifice for the gods. So the gods obtained the goods of
the Asuras. In the corresponding passage of the Kathaka (IS. XI. p. 161)
the boar is called Emusa. The same story with slight variations is told in
the Caraka Brahmana (quoted by Sayana on RV. 8,66'°). This boar appears
in a cosmogonic character in the SB. (14, 1, 2”) where under the name of
Emusa he is stated to have raised up the earth from the waters. In the TS.
(7, 1, 51) this cosmogonic boar, which raised the earth from the primeval
waters, is described as a form of Prajapati. This modification of the myth
is further expanded in the TB. (1,1,3s). In the post-Vedic mythology of the
Ramayana and the Puranas, the boar which raises the earth, has become one
of the Avatars of Visnu.

The germs of two other Avatars of Visnu are to be found in the Brah-
manas, but not as yet connected with Visnu. The fish which in the SB.
(1, 8, i1) delivers Manu from the flood, appears in the Mahabharata as a
form of Prajapati, becoming in the Puranas an incarnation of Visnu. In the
SB. (7, 5, 15, cp. TA. 1, 23s) Prajapati about to create offspring becomes a
tortoise moving in the primeval waters. In the Puranas this tortoise is an
Avatar of Visnu, who assumes this form to recover various objects lost in the
deluge 2h

The SB. (14, 1, 1) tells a myth of how Visnu, the sacrifice, by first
comprehending the issue of the sacrifice, became the most eminent among
the gods, and how his head, by his bow starting asunder, was cut off and
became the sun ( aditya ). To this story the TA. (5, 1, 1 — 7) adds the trait
that the Asvins as physicians replaced the head of the sacrifice and that the
gods now able to offer it in its complete form conquered heaven (cp. PB.
7, 56)-

In the AB. (1, 1) Visnu as the locally highest of the gods is contrasted

4 2 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

with Agni the lowest, all the other deities being placed between them. The
same Brahmana (i, 30) in quoting RV. 1, 1564, where ‘Visnu accompanied
by his friend opens the stall’, states that Visnu is the doorkeeper of the gods.

1 The moon according to HVBP. 33. — 2 Stars according to PW., HVBP. and
others. — - 3 Cp. BRV. 2, 416. — 4 Otherwise StEG in FaW. (Leipzig 1896), 97 — too.
— 5 Whitney, Max Muller, Haug, Kaegx, Deussen, and others. — 6 BRV.
2,414—5. — 7 Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 170—5. — 8 KHF. 222. — 9 Entwicklungsstufen,
116. — 10 Other derivations in ORV. 229, HRI. 580, BB. 2 1,205. — 11 ORV. 228 — 30. —
12 Cp. ORV. 230, note 2; Macdonell, JRAS. 27, p. 174, note 2. — 13 JRAS. 27, 188— 9. —
Ibid. 184. — is Bergaigne, JA. 1884, p. 472. — >6 MM., SBE. 32, p. 127. 133—7. —
17 AUFRECHT, RV. II2, 687. — 13 WlNTERNtTZ, JRAS. 27, 150 — 1. — !9 HlLLEBRANDT,
Xeu- und Vollmondsopfer, 171 f. — 20 Darmesteter, French Tr. of the Avesta
1, 401; ORV. 227. — 21 Otherwise A. Kuhn, Entwicklungsstufen der Mythenbildung,
128. — 22 JRAS. 27, 168—177. — 23 Ibid. 166—8.

Whitney, JAOS. 3,325; OST. 4, 63— 98. 121—9. 298; Weber, IStr. 2, 226 f.;
Omina und Portenta 338; BRV. 2, 414— 8; ORV. 227 — 30; Hopkins, PAOS. 1894,
cXLVii f. ; HRI. 56 f.

§ 18. Vivasvat. — Vivasvat is not celebrated in any single hymn of the
RV., but his name occurs there about thirty times, generally as Vivasvat, five
times also as Vivasvat. He is the father of the Asvins (10, 172) and of Yama
(10, 145. 17 '). As in post-Vedic literature he is already also in the Vedas
the father of Manu (§ 50), the ancestor of the human race, who is once
(Val. 41) called Vivasvat (= Vaivasvata, p. 12) and receives the patronymic
Vaivasvata in the AV. and the SB. Men are also directly stated to be the
progeny of Vivasvan Adityah (TS. 6, 5, 62; SB. 3, 1 , 3 4). The gods are also
once spoken of as the offspring ( janima ) of Vivasvat (10, 63 ’). Vivasvafls
wife is Saranyu, daughter of Tvastr (10, 17'- 2).

It was to Vivasvat as well as Matarisvan that Agni was first manifested
(1, 31°). Vivasvat’s messenger is once (6, 84) stated to be Matarisvan, but
is otherwise Agni (1, 58 r; 4, 74; 8, 398; 10, 2i3). Agni is once said to be
produced from his parents (the fire-sticks) as the sage of Vivasvat (5, n3).

The seat ( sadana ) of Vivasvat is mentioned five times. The gods (10, 12 7)
and Indra delight in it (3, 5 1 3) and there singers extol the greatness of Indra
(1, 53 1 5 3, 347) or of the waters (10, 75 J). Perhaps the same notion is
referred to when a new hymn is said (1, 1391) to be placed in Vivasvat as
a centre ( nabha ).

Indra is connected with Vivasvat in several passages of the RV. He rejoices
in the prayer of Vivasvat (8, 6 &) and placed his treasure beside Vivasvat (2,
136). With the ten1 (fingers) of Vivasvat Indra pours out the pail from heaven
(8, 61 8, cp. 5, 536). Indra being so closely associated with the abode of Vi-
vasvat, Soma is likely to be there. And indeed Soma is in the ninth book
brought into intimate relation to Vivasvat. Soma dwells with Vivasvat (9, 26 4)
and is cleansed by the daughters (= fingers) of Vivasvat (9, 145). The prayers
of Vivasvat urge the tawny Soma to flow (9, 99 2). The seven sisters (== waters)
urge the wise Soma on the course of Vivasvat (9, 66 8). The streams of
Soma flow through the sieve having obtained (the blessing) of Vivasvat and
producing the blessing ( bhagam ) of dawn (9, 103).

The Asvins who dwell with Vivasvat are besought to come to the offering
(1, 46 l3). At the yoking of the Asvins’ car the daughter of the sky is born
and, the two bright days (probably day and night) of Vivasvat (10, 39 12;
cp. SB. 10, 5, 24).

Vivasvat is also mentioned along with Varuna and the gods as an object
of worship (10, 6 5 6). I11 one passage Vivasvat shows a hostile trait, when

the worshippers of the Adityas pray that the missile, the well-wrought arrow

Celestial Gods. 18. Vivasvat. 19. Adityas. 43

ofVivasvat, may not slay them before old age2 (8, 56 2°, cp. AV. 19, 9?). On
the other hand, Vivasvat preserves from Yarna (AV. 18, 36:).

The word vivasvat occurs a few times as an adjective meaning ‘brilliant’
in connexion with Agni and Usas. Agni is said to have produced the children
of men and by brilliant sheen heaven and the waters (1, 96 2). Agni is the
wise, boundless, brilliant sage who shines at the beginning of dawn (7, 93).
Agni is besought to bring the brilliant gift of dawn ( 1 , 44 19, and men desire
to see the shining face of brilliant dawn (3, 30 I3). The etymological meaning
‘shining forth’ (vi + Y vas) is peculiarly appropriate in relation to Usas,
whose name is derived from the same root and in connexion with whom the
words vius and vhcsti, ‘shining forth, dawning’ are nearly always used. The
derivation is given in the SB. where it is said that Aditya Vivasvat illumines
(: vi-vaste ) night and day (SB. 10, 5, 2 4).

In the YV. (VS. 8, 5; MS. 1, 6 I2) and the Brahmanas Vivasvat is called
Aditya and in the post-Vedic literature is a common name of the sun.

He goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, being identical with Vlvanhvant
(the father of Yima), who is described as the first man that prepared Haoma,
Athwya being the second, and Thrita the third (Yasna, 9, 10). The first and
third of these are found connected in the RV. also (Val. 41), where Indra
is said to have drunk Soma beside Manu Vivasvat and Trita.

As a mythological figure Vivasvat seems to have faded by the time of
the RV. like Trita3. Considering the etymology, the connexion with the
Asvins, Agni, and Soma, the fact that his seat is the place of sacrifice4, the
most probable interpretation of Vivasvat seems to be that he originally
represented the rising sun5. Most scholars6 explain him simply as the sun.
Some take him to be the god of the bright sky7 or the heaven of the
sun8. Bergaigne (i,8S) thinks that Agni alone, of whom the sun is a form,
■can be responsible for the character of a sacrificer which is prominent in
Vivasvat. Oldenberg9 comparing the Avestan Vlvanhvant, the first mortal
that prepared Haoma, believes that the reasons for considering Vivasvat a
god of light, are insufficient and that he represents simply the first sacrificer,
the ancestor of the human race.

1 Cp. LRV. 4, 3S6. — 2 SVL. 148. — 3 Roth, ZDMG. 4, 424. — 4 PW., BRV.
1, 87, ORV. 275; PVS. I, 242 (‘chapel ofV.’); Foy, KZ. 34, 228. — 5 The later view of
Roth, PW. (‘Morgensonne’); cp. ZDMG. 4, 425 (‘das Licht der Himmelshohe’). —
0 A. Kuhn, Sp.AP. 248 ff., HVM. 1,488, HRI. 128. 130, and others. — 7 LRV. 3, 333;
5, 392; Ehni, Yama, 19. 24. — 8 BRI. 9—10. — 9 ORV. 122, ZDMG. 49, 173, SBE.
46, 392. Cp. also Roth, ZDMG. 4, 432; BRV. 1, 86—8; HVM. 1, 474 — 88; Bloom-
field, JAOS. 15, 176—7.

§ 19. Adityas. — The group of gods called Adityas is celebrated in six
whole hymns and in parts of two others in the RV. It is rather indefinite
both as to the names of the gods it includes and as to their number. Not
more than six are anywhere enumerated and that only once: Mitra, Aryaman,
Bhaga, Varuna, Daksa, Amsa (2, 271). In the last books of the RV. the
number is once (9, 1143) stated to be seven and once (10, 72s) eight, Aditi
at first presenting only seven to the gods and bringing the eighth, Martanda1,
afterwards (ibid. 9). The names of the Adityas are not specified in either of
these passages. The AV. states that Aditi had eight sons (8, 9 2l), and the
TB. (1, 1, 91) mentions these eight by name as Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman,
Amsa, Bhaga, Dhatp, Indra, Vivasvat (the first five occur in RV. 2, 27 ‘), and
the same list is quoted by Sayana (on RV. 2, 27') as found in another
passage of the Taittirlya branch of the Veda. The SB. in one passage speaks
of the Adityas as having become eight by the addition of Martanda, while
in two others (6, 1, 28; 11, 6, 3 s) they are said to be twelve in number and

44 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

are identified with the twelve months. In post-Vedic literature they are
regularly twelve sun-gods, evidently connected with the twelve months, Visnu
being one of them and the greatest2. In addition to the six Adityas men-
tioned in RV. 2, 271, Surya is a few times termed an Aditya (p. 30), which
is a common name for the sun in the Brahmanas and later. Under the
name of Aditya, identified with Agni, Surya is said to have been placed by
the gods in the sky (10, 88”). Savitr is also once mentioned in an enumer-
ation with the four Adityas Bhaga, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman (8, 183). If there-
fore the number of the Adityas was regarded by the poets of the RY. to
have been definitely seven, the sun must have been the seventh, the eighth
Martanda whom Aditi throws away and brings back (10, 72 s-9) probably
being the setting sun. In _the AY. (13, 29'37) the sun is called the son of
Aditi, the sun and moon Adityas (8, 2 IS), and JVisnu is invoked in an enu-
meration containing gods who in the RV. are Adityas: Varuna, Mitra, Visnu,
Bhaga, Amsa besides Vivasvat (11, 62). The mother of the Adityas is here
once (9, 1 4) said to be not Aditi but the golden-hued Madhukasa, daughter
of the Vasus.

Indra is, however, in the RV. once coupled in the dual as an Aditya
with Varuna the chief of the Adityas (7, 85 4), and in Yal. 4 7 he is directly
invoked as the fourth Aditya. In MS. 2, 1 12 Indra is a son of Aditi, but in
the SB. (n, 6, 35) he is distinguished from the 12 Adityas. When one god
alone is mentioned as an Aditya, it is generally Varuna, their chief; but in
the hymn in which Mitra is celebrated alone (3, 59), that deity is called an
Aditya, as well as Surya. When two are mentioned, they are Varuna and
Mitra, once Varuna and Indra; when three, Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman3;
when five, which is only once the case, the same three together with Savitr
and Bhaga. Daksa occurs only in the enumeration of six mentioned above.
The Adityas are often invoked as a group, the names of Mitra and Varuna
being generally mentioned at the same time. They also appear frequently
along with other groups (§ 45) Vasus, Rudras, Maruts, Angirases, Rbhus,
Visvedevas. The term Adityas seems not infrequently to be used in a wider
sense, as an equivalent for the gods generally4. Their nature as a class in
fact resembles that of the gods in general, not being specifically characterized
like that of their two chiefs, Mitra and Varuna. In the aggregate sense they
are the gods of celestial light, without representing any particular manifestation
of that light, such as sun, moon, and stars, or dawn. The hypothesis of
Oldenberg that the Adityas originally represented sun, moon, and the five
planets, is based on their abstract nature and names (such as Bhaga, Amsa,
Daksa) and the supposition that their characteristic number is seven5, which
is also the number of the Iranian Amesaspentas6. It is here to be noted that
the two groups have not a single name in common, even Mithra not being
an Amesaspenta; that the belief in the Adityas being seven in number is not
distinctly characteristic and old7; and that though the identity of the Adityas
and Amesaspentas has been generally accepted since Roth’s essay8, it is.
rejected by some distinguished Avestan scholars9.

In some of the hymns of the RV. in which the Adityas are celebrated
(especially in 2, 27), only the three most frequently mentioned together, Mitra,
Varuna, and Aryaman, seem to be meant. What is distant is near to them;
they support all that moves and is stationary, as gods who protect the uni-
verse (2, 2 73'4). They see what is good and evil in men’s hearts and
distinguish the honest man from the deceitful (2, 27J; 8, i815). They
are haters of falsehood and punish sin (2, 274; 7, 52 2. 6o3. 6613). They
are besought to forgive sin (2, 27 14. 29 s), to avert its consequences or to

Celestial Gods. 19. Adityas.

45

transfer them to Trita Aptya (5, 52 2; 8, 47 8). They spread fetters for their
enemies (2, 27 ,0), but protect their worshippers as birds spread their wings
over their young (8, 47 2). Their servants are protected as with armour, so
that no shaft can strike them (ib. '• 8). They ward off sickness and distress
(8, 1810), and bestow various boons such as light, long life, offspring, guidance
(2, 27; 8, 18 « 56 15- 20).

The epithets which describe them are : bright ( s'uci ), golden ( hiranyaya ),
many-eyed ( b/niryaksa ), unwinking ( animisa ), sleepless ( asvapnaj ), far-observing
(, dirghadhi ). They are kings, mighty ( ksatriya ), vast (tiru), deep ( gabkira ),
inviolable (arista), having fixed ordinances (dhrtavrata), blameless (anavadya),
sinless ( avrjina ), pure ( dharaputa ), holy (rtavan).

The name is clearly a metronymic formation from that of their mother
Aditi, with whom they are naturally often invoked. This is also one of the
three derivations given by Yaska (Nir. 2, 13, cp. TA. 1, 141).

The greater gods belonging to the group have already been dealt with
separately, but the lesser Adityas having hardly any individuality may best
be described here in succession.

Aryaman 10 though mentioned about 100 times in the RV. is so destitute
of individual characteristics, that in the Naighantuka he is passed over in the
list of gods. Except in two passages, he is always mentioned with other
deities, in the great majority of cases with Mitra and Varuna. In less than
a dozen passages the word has only the appellative senses of 'comrade’ and
‘groomsman’, which are occasionally also connected with the god. Thus Agni
is once addressed with the words: ‘Thou art Aryaman when (the wooer) of
maidens’ (5, 3 2). The derivative adjective aryamya, ‘relating to a comrade’,
once occurs as a parallel to mitrya, ‘relating to a friend’ (5, 8s7). Thus
the conception of Aryaman seems to have differed but little from that of the
greater Aditya Mitra, ‘the Friend’. The name goes back to the Indo-Iranian
period, as it occurs in the Avesta.

One hymn of the RV. (7, 41) is devoted chiefly to the praise of Bhaga11,
though some other deities are invoked in it as well; and the name of the
god occurs over sixty times. The word means ‘dispenser, giver’ and appears
to be used in this sense more than a score of times attributively, in several
cases with the name of Savitr12. The god is also regularly conceived in the
Vedic hymns as a distributor of wealth, comparisons with Bhaga being generally
intended to express glorification of Indra’s and Agni’s bounty. The word
bhaga also occurs about twenty times in the RV. with the sense of ‘bounty,
wealth, fortune’, and the ambiguity is sometimes played upon. Thus in one
passage (7, 41 2) where Bhaga is called the distributor (vidharta), it is stated
that men say of the god, ‘May I share in Bhaga’ (bhagam b/iaksi). In another
verse (5, 46s) in which he is termed the ‘dispenser’ ( vibhakta , derived from
the same root bhaj), he is invoked to be full of bounty (bhagavari) to his
worshippers.

Dawn is Bhaga’s sister (1, 123s). Bhaga’s eye is adorned with rays
(1, 1362), and hymns rise up to Visnu as on Bhaga’s path (3, 54 14). Yaska
describes Bhaga as presiding over the forenoon (Nir. 12, 13). The Iranian
fonn of the name is bagha, ‘god’, which occurs as an epithet of Aliura Mazda.
The word is even Indo-European13, since it occurs in Old Church Slavonic
as bogu in the sense of ‘god’. There is no reason to suppose that it designated
any individual god in the Indo-European period, for it cannot have attained
a more specialized sense than ‘bountiful god’, if indeed it meant more than
merely ‘bountiful giver’.

The word Arasa, which occurs less than a dozen times in the RV., is

46 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

almost synonymous with bhaga, expressing both the concrete sense of 'share,
portion’ and that of ‘apportioner’. It is found but three times as the name
of a god14, only one of these passages stating anything about him besides
his name. Agni is here said to be Amsa, a bountiful ( bhdjayu ) god at the
feast’ (2, 1 4).

Daksa15 is mentioned hardly more than half a dozen times in the
RV. as the name of a god. The word occurs more frequently as an adjective
meaning ‘dexterous, strong, clever, intelligent’, applied to Agni (3, 14?) and
Soma (9, 61 18 &c.), or as a substantive in the sense of ‘dexterity, strength,
cleverness, understanding’. The name of the personification therefore appears
to mean the ‘dexterous’ or ‘clever’ god. Excepting the verse (2, 271) which
enumerates the six Adityas, he is mentioned only in the first and tenth books.
In one passage (1, 89 3) he is referred to with other Adityas, and in another
(10, 64 s) with Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman, Aditi also being spoken of in
connexion with his birth. In a cosmogonic hymn (10, 7 2 4- s) Daksa is said
to have sprung from Aditi, when it is immediately added that Aditi sprang
from him and is his daughter, the gods being born afterwards. In another
verse (10, 57) it is stated that the existent and non-existent were in the womb
of Aditi, in the birthplace of Daksa. Thus the last two passages seem to
regard Aditi and Daksa as universal parents. The paradox of children pro-
ducing their own parents has been shown (p. 12) to be not unfamiliar to
the poets of the RV. The manner in which it came to be applied in this
particular case seems to be as follows. The Adityas are spoken of as ‘gods
who have intelligence for their father’ (6, 50 2), the epithet ( daksapitara ) being
also applied to Mitra-Varuna, who in the same verse (7, 66 2) are called ‘very
intelligent’ ( sudaksa ). The expression is made clearer by another passage
(8, 2 5 5), where Mitra-Varuna are termed ‘sons of intelligence’ {sunu daksasya)
as well as ‘children of great might’ ( napdtd savaso mahah). The juxtaposition
of the latter epithets shows that daksa is here not a personification but the
abstract word used as in Agni’s epithets ‘father of skill’ ( daksasya pitr: 3,279)
or ‘son of strength’ (§§ 8, 35). This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that
ordinary human sacrificers are called daksapitarah, ‘having skill for their father’
(8, 52 10). Such expressions probably brought about the personification of
Daksa as the father of the Adityas and his association with Aditi. In the
TS. the gods in general are called daksapitarah , and in the SB. (2, 4, 4*)
Daksa is identified with the creator Prajapati.

3 Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 176 note; SPH. 31. — 2 OST. 4, 117 — 21. — 3 Bol-
lensen, ZDMG. 41, 503. — 4 Cp. GW., s. v. Aditya. — 5 Cp. v. Schroeder,
WZKM. 9, 122. — <> On the Amesaspentas see Darmesteter, Haurvatat et Ameretat
(Paris 1875), 1 f. ; Bartholomae, AP'. 3, 26. — 7 Cp. Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 948. —
« ZDMG. 6, 69 f. — 9 Sp.AP. 199; Harlez, JA. 1878(1 1), 129 ff. — 10 Roth, ZDMG. 6, 74;
Bollensen, ibid. 41, 503; HVBP. 55—6. — 11 Roth, 1. c.; WC. 11 — 12; Baynes,
The Biography of Bhaga. Transactions of the 8 th Oriental Congress, II, I, 85 — 9;
HRI. 53—6. — 12 Cp. GW. s. v. bhaga. — 13 v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 127. —
14 Roth, ZDMG. 6, 75; BRI. 19. — 35 OST. 5, 51—2; BRV. 3, 93. 99; WC. 45.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 323—6; OST. 5, 54—7; MM., SBE. 32,252—4; ORV. 185—9.
286—7; ZDMG. 49, 177—8; 50, 50— 4; SBE. 48, 190; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 28; IF. 6, 1 1 6.

§ 20. Usas. — Usas, goddess of Dawn, is celebrated in about 20 hymns
of the RV. and mentioned more than 300 times. Owing to the identity of
name, the personification is but slight, the physical phenomenon of dawn
never being absent from the poet’s mind, when the goddess is addressed.
Usas is the most graceful creation of Vedic poetry and there is no more
charming figure in the descriptive religious lyrics of any other literature. The
brightness of her form has not been obscured by priestly speculation nor
has the imagery as a rule been marred by references to the sacrifice. Arraying

Celestial Gods. 20. Usas.

47

herself in gay attire, like a dancer, she displays her bosom (1, 92 4, cp. 6, 64*).
Like a maiden decked by her mother she shows her form (1, I231'). Clothed
in light the maiden appears in the east, and unveils her charms (1, i243-4).
Effulgent in peerless beauty she withholds her light from neither small nor
great (ib. 6). Rising resplendent as from a bath, showing her charms she
comes with light, driving away the darkness (5, 8o3<b). She is young, being
born again and again, though ancient; shining with an uniform hue, she
wastes away the life of mortals (1, 92 I0). As she has shone in former days,
so she shines now and will shine in future, never aging, immortal (1, 1 13 ‘3- *s).
The maiden coming again awakes before all the world (1, 1232). Ever
shortening the ages of men, she shines forth, the last of the dawns that have
always gone, the first of those to come1 (1, 1242). Like a wheel she revolves
ever anew (3, 61 3). She awakens creatures that have feet and makes the
birds to fly up: she is the breath and life of everything (1, 48s- IO- 49 3). She
awakens every living being to motion (1, 92^; 7, 77 1). The Dawns waken
the sleeping and urge the living, the two-footed and the four-footed, to
motion (4, 5 1 5). When Usas shines forth, the birds fly up from their nests,
and men seek nourishment (1, 12412). She reveals the paths of men, waken-
ing the five tribes (7, 7 9 2). She manifests all beings and bestows new life
(7, 80 *• 2). She drives away evil dreams to Trita Aptya (8, 47 14, lb). She
removes the black robe of night (1, 11314). She dispels the darkness (6, 64b
65 2). She wards off evil spirits and the hated darkness (7, 751). She dis-
closes the treasures concealed by darkness and distributes them bountifully
(1, i 234, 6). She illumines the ends of the sky when she awakes (1, 92“).
She opens the gates of heaven (1, 48 lS. 1134). She opens the doors of
darkness as the cows their stall (1, 92 4). Her radiant beams appear like
herds of cattle (4, 52 s- 4). She is visible afar, spreading out cattle (J>asun)
as it were (1, 92 12). The ruddy beams fly up, the ruddy cows yoke them-
selves, the ruddy dawns weave their web (of light) as of old (ib. 2). Thus
Usas comes to be called ‘mother of kine’2 (4, 52s-3; 7, tj2).

Day by day appearing at the appointed place, she never infringes the
ordinance of order and of the gods (x, 92 I2. [23b 1242; 7, 76s); she goes
straight along the path of order, knowing the way she never loses her direc-
tion (5, 80 4). She renders good service to the gods by causing all wor-
shippers to awake and the sacrificial fires to be kindled (1, 1139). She is
besought to arouse only the devout and liberal worshipper, leaving the un-
godly niggard to sleep on (1, 12410; 4, 51 3). Worshippers are however
sometimes spoken of as wakening her instead of being awakened by her
(4, 52 4 &c.), and the Vasisthas claim to have first wakened her with their
hymns (7, 8o'). She is once asked not to delay, that the sun may not
scorch her as a thief or an enemy (5, 79°). She is besought to bring the
gods to drink Soma ( 1, 48' 2). Hence probably, the gods are often described
as ‘waking with Usas’ (1, 149 Szc.).

Usas is borne on a car which is shining (7, 78’), brilliant (1, 23?),
bright (3, 61 2), well-adorned (1, 49 2), all-adorning (7, 7 5 6), massive (1, 48 10 &c.),
and spontaneously-yoked (7, 784). She is also said to arrive on a hundred
chariots (x, 48 7). She is drawn by steeds which are ruddy (7, 75s See.),
easily guided (3, 61 2), regularly-yoked (4, 51S), or is said to be resplendent
with steeds (5, 79I_I°). She is also described as being drawn by ruddy
kine or bulls {go: 1, 92 s. 124”; 5, 803). Both the horses and the cows
probably represent the ruddy rays of morning light3; but the cows are generally
explained as the red morning clouds. The distance the dawns traverse in
a day is 30 yojanas (1, 1238).

48 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

As is to be expected, Usas is closely associated with the sun. She has
opened paths for Surya to travel (i, 11316). She brings the eye of the gods
and leads on the beautiful white horse (7, 773). She shines with the light
of the sun (1, 1139), with the light of her lover (1, 9211). Savitr shines after
the path of U§as (5, 812). Surya follows her as a young man a maiden
(x, 1152). She meets the god who desires her (1, 12310). She is the wife
of Surya (7, 75s); the Dawns are the wives of the Sun (4, 5 I3). Thus as
followed in space by the sun, she is conceived as his wife or mistress. But
as preceding the sun in time she is occasionally thought of as his mother
(cp. p. 35). She has generated Surya, sacrifice, Agni (7, 785). She has been
produced ( prasuta ) for the production (savaya) of Savitr, and arrives with a
bright child (1, II31-2). Usas is the sister of the Aditya Bhaga (1, 1235;
cp. p. 45) and the kinswoman (jdmi) of Varuna (1, 1235). She is also the
sister (1, ii32,3; 10, 127 3) or the elder sister (1, 1248) of Night; and the
names of Dawn and Night are often conjoined as a dual compound ( usasa -
nakta or naktosasa). Usas is born in the sky (7, 7 5 ’); and the place of
her birth suggests the relationship most frequently mentioned in the RV. : she
is constantly called the daughter of heaven (1, 30 22 &c.)4. She is once also
spoken of as the beloved ( priya ) of heaven (1, 46 J).

The sacrificial fire being regularly kindled at dawn, Agni is naturally
often associated with Usas in this connexion, sometimes not without a side-
glance at the sun, the manifestation of Agni which appears simultaneously with
the kindling of the sacrificial fire (1, I241- 11 &c.)5. Agni appears with or
before the Dawn. Usas causes Agni to be kindled (1, 1139). He is thus
like the sun sometimes called her lover (1, 69 r; 7, 10 cp. 10, 35). He goes
to meet the shining Usas as she comes, asking her for fair riches (3, 6 1 6).
Usas is naturally also often connected with the twin gods of the early morning,
the Asvins (1, 44 s &c.). They accompany her (1, 183 2) and she is their
friend (4, 52 2- 5). She is invoked to arouse them (8, 9 I?>), and her hymn is
said to have awakened them (3, 58 J). When the Asvins’ car is yoked, the
daughter of the sky is born (10, 39 12). Usas is once associated with the
moon, which being born ever anew goes before the dawns as harbinger of
day (10, 8519).

Various gods are described as having produced or discovered the dawns.
Indra who is characteristically a winner of light, is said to have generated
or lighted up Usas (2, 12? Nc.). But he is sometimes also hostile to her,
being described as shattering her wain (§ 22). Soma made the dawns bright
at their birth (6, 39 3) and constituted them the wives of a good husband

(6, 44 23), as Agni does (7, 6 5). Brhaspati discovered the Dawn, the sky

(svar), and Agni, repelling the darkness with light (10, 68 9). The ancient
Fathers, companions of the gods, by efficacious hymns discovered the hidden
light and generated Usas (7, 7 b4).

The goddess is often implored to dawn on the worshipper or bring to
him wealth and children, to bestow protection and long life (1, 3022. 48 1 &c.),
to confer renown and glory on all the liberal benefactors of the poet (5, 79 6,
cp. 1, 48 4). Her adorers ask from her riches and desire to be to her as
sons to a mother (7, 81 4). The soul of the dead man goes to the sun and

to Usas (10, 58s), and by the ruddy ones in whose lap the Fathers are said

to be seated, the Dawns are doubtless meant (10, 157).

Besides the sixteen enumerated in the Naighantuka (1, 8) Usas has
many other epithets. She is resplendent, shining, bright, white, ruddy, golden-
lxued, of brilliant bounty, born in law, most Indra-like, divine, J immortal0.
She is characteristically bountiful ( maghorii : ZDMG. 50, 440).

Celestial Gods. 2 1 . As'vins.

49

The name of Usas is derived from the root vas to shine and is radically
cognate to Aurora and Hu)? (p. 8)7.

1 GVS. i, 265 — 6. — 2 Cp. Kuhn, Entwicklungsstufen, 131. — 3 See the passages

quoted above, where the rays of dawn are compared with cattle or cows. — 4 OST.

5, 190; cp. above p. 21. — 5 Ibid. 191. — 6 Ibid. 193 — 4- — 7 Sonne, KZ. 10,416.

Whitney, JAOS. 3, 321 — 2; OST. 5, 181—98; MM., LSL. 2, 583 — 4; GKR. 35—6;

KRY. 52—4; BRV. 1, 241—50; Brandes, Usas (Copenhagen 1879, pp. 123).

§ 21. Asvins. — Next to Indra, Agni, and Soma, the twin deities named
the Asvins are the most prominent in the RV. judged by the frequency
with which they are invoked. They are celebrated in more than fifty entire
hymns and in parts of several others, while their name occurs more than
400 times. Though they hold a distinct position among the deities of light
and their appellation is Indian, their connexion with any definite phenomenon
of light is so obscure, that their original nature has been a puzzle to Vedic
interpreters from the earliest times. This obscurity makes it probable that
the origin of these gods is to be sought in a pre-Vedic period. They are
twins (3, 393; 10, 172) and inseparable. The sole purpose of one hymn
(2, 39) is to compare them with different twin objects such as eyes, hands,
feet, wings, or with animals and birds going in pairs, such as dogs and goats
or swans and eagles (cp. 5,7s1 — 3; 8, 35 7 — 9; 10, 1062 — ’°). There are,
however, a few passages which may perhaps point to their originally having
been separate. Thus they are spoken of as born separately (nand: 5, 73 4)
and as born here and there ( iheha ), one being called a victorious prince,
and the other the son of heaven (1, 1814). Yaska also quotes a passage
stating that ‘one is called the son of night, the other the son of dawn’ (Nir.
12, 2). The RV., moreover, in another passage (4, 36) mentions alone ‘the
encompassing Nasatya’, a frequent epithet otherwise only designating both
Asvins in the dual.

The Asvins are young (7, 67 10 ), the TS. (7, 2, 72) even describing them
as the youngest of the gods. They are at the same time ancient (7, 62 5j.
They are bright (7, 68 U, lords of lustre (8, 22 I4; 10, 93 6), of golden brilliancy
(8, 82j, and honey-hued (8, 2 6 6). They possess many forms (1, 1179). They
are beautiful (6, 62s. 63') and wear lotus-garlands (10, 1842; AV. 3, 2 2 4;
SB. 4, 1, 516). They are agile (6, 63 s), fleet as thought (8, 22 l6), or as an
eagle (5, 78 4). They are strong (10, 24+), very mighty (6, 62 s), and are
several times called ‘red’1 ( rudra , 5, 75 s &c.). They possess profound wis-
dom (8, 82) and occult power (6, 63s; 10, 93 7). The two most distinctive
and frequent epithets of the Asvins are dasra, ‘wondrous’, which is almost
entirely limited to them, and nasatya, which is generally explained to mean
‘not untrue’ ( na-asatya :), but other etymologies2, such as ‘the savers’ have
been proposed. The latter word occurs as the name of a demon in the
Avesta \ which, however, sheds no further light on it. These two epithets
in later times became the separate proper names of the Asvins4. The attri-
bute rudravartani ‘having a red path’ 5 is peculiar to them, and they are the
only gods called ‘golden-pathed’ ( hiranyavartani ), an epithet otherwise only
used (twice) of rivers.6

Of all the gods7 the Asvins are most closely connected with honey
( madhu ), with which they are mentioned in many passages. They have a
skin filled with honey, and the birds which draw them abound in it (4, 45 3-4).

‘ \ They poured out 100 jars of honey (1 , 1 1 7 6). Their honey-goad (1, 1223.
1 57 4) with which they bestrew' the sacrifice and the umrshipper8, is peculiar
to them. Only the car of the Asvins is described as honey-hued ( madhu -
varna ) or ‘honey-bearing’ ( madhn-vahana ). They only are said to be fond

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 4

50 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

of honey (; madhuyu , madhvt ) or drinkers of it ( madhupa ). The priest to

whom they are invited to come is called honey-handed (io, 41 3). They give
honey to the bee (1, 1 1 2 21 cp. io, 406) and are compared with bees (10, 106 IO).
They are, however, like other gods, fond of Soma (3, 5 8 7- 9 ,Scc.) and are
invited to drink it with Usas and Surya (8, 35 ’). Hillebrandt (VM. 1, 241),
however, finds traces showing that the Asvins were at first excluded from the
circle of the Soma-worshipped gods.

The car of the Asvins is sun-like (8, 82) or golden (4, 44 <'-5), and all
its parts, such as wheels, axle, fellies, reins are golden (1, 180 8, 5^. 22s).
It has a thousand rays (1, 1191) or ornaments (8, 811- '4). It is peculiar in
construction, being threefold, having three wheels, three fellies, and some
other parts triple (1, n8'-2 &c.). It moves lightly (8,9 s), is swifter than
thought (1, ii72&c.) or than the twinkling of an eye (8, 62 2). It was
fashioned by the Rbhus (10, 39 12). The Asvins’ car is the only one which
is three-wheeled. One of its wheels is said to have been lost when the
Asvins came to the wedding of Surya (10, 85 l5; cp. § 37).

The Asvins’ name implies only the possession of horses, there being no
evidence to show that they are so called because they ride on horses1"
Their car is drawn by horses (1, ii72&c.), more commonly by birds (m,
6, 63s &c. or patatrm, 10, 1435), swans (4, 45 4), eagles (1, 1184), bird steeds
(6, 63 7) or eagle steeds (8, 5'). It is sometimes described as drawn by a
buffalo ( kakuha ) or buffaloes (5, 73 7; 1, 1843 &c.) or by a single ass ( rasa -
bha: 1, 34°. 1162; 8, 74'). In the AB. (4, 7 — 9) the Asvins are said at the
marriage of Soma and Surya to have won a race in a car drawn by asses11
(cp. RV. 1, 1 16 7 and Sayana’s comm.). Their car touches the ends of heaven
and extends over the five countries (7, 63 2-3). It moves round heaven
(1, 18010). It traverses heaven and earth in a single day (3, 58s), as the
car of the sun (1, 1153) and that of Usas (4, 51 s) are also said to do. It
goes round the sun in the distance (1, ii2'3). Frequent mention is also
made of their course ( vartis ), a word which with one exception is applicable
to them only. The word parijman , ‘going round’ is several times connected
with the Asvins or their car, as it is also with Vata, Agni, and Surya.

The locality of the Asvins is variously described. They come from afar
(8, 530), from heaven (8, 87), heaven and earth (1, 44 5), from heaven and
air (8, 84. 92), from air (8, 83), earth, heaven, and ocean (8, io'), from the
air, from far and near (5, 731). They abide in the sea of heaven (8, 26 17),
in the floods of heaven, plants, houses, the mountain top (7, 70 3). They
come from behind, before, below, above (7, 72 s). Sometimes their locality
is inquired about as if unknown'2 (5, 74s-3; 6, 63 8, 624). They are once

(8, 823) said to have three places ( padani ), possibly because invoked three
times a day.

The time of their appearance is often said to be the early dawn13, when
‘darkness still stands among the ruddy cows’ (10, 614) and they yoke their
car to descend to earth and receive the offerings of worshippers (1, 22 2 &c.).
Usas awakes them (8, 9,?). They follow after Usas in their car (8, 52). At
the yoking of their car Usas is born (10, 39 12). Thus their relative time
seems to have been between dawn and sunrise. But Savitr is once said to
set their car in motion before the dawn (1, 34 10). Occasionally the appearance
of the Asvins'4, the kindling of the sacrificial fire, the break of dawn, and
sunrise seem to be spoken of as simultaneous (1, 1 5 7 1 ; 7, 724). The Asvins
are invoked to come to the offering not only at their natural time, but also
in the evening (8, 2214) or at morning, noon, and sunset (5, 76 3). The
appearance of the Asvins at the three daily sacrifices may have been the

Celestial Gods. 2 1 . Asvins.

5i

starting-point of the continual play on the word 'three’ in the whole of a
hymn devoted to their praise (1, 34). As deities of the morning, the Asvins
dispel darkness (3, 3 9 3) and are sometimes said to chase away evil spirits
(7, 73 4; 8, 35 l6). In the AB. (2, 15), the Asvins as well as Usas and Agni
are stated to be gods of dawn; and in the Vedic ritual they are connected
with sunrise'5. In the SB. (5, 5, 41) the Asvins are described as red-white
in colour and therefore a red-white goat is offered to them16.

The Asvins are children of Heaven (1, 182 '. 1841; 10, 61 4), one of
them alone being once said to be a son of Heaven (1, 1844). They are
once (1, 46 2) said to have the ocean as their mother ( sindhumatara ). Other-
wise they are in one passage (10, 172) said to be the twin sons of Vivasvat
and Tvastr’s daughter Saranyu (p. 42), who appear to represent the rising
sun and dawn. On the other hand the solar deity Pusan claims them as his
fathers (10, 85'4)17. By their sister (1, 1802) Dawn seems to be meant
(cp. p. 48). They are, as male deities of morning light, often associated
with the sun conceived as a female called either Surya or more commonly
the 'daughter of Surya’. They are Surya’s two husbands (4, 43 6 cp. 1, 1195),
whom she chose (7, 69 4). Surya (5, 73s) or the maiden (8, 810) ascended
their car. The daughter of the sun mounts their car (1, 34s. 11617. 1185;
6, 63 s) or chose it (1, 11715; 4, 43 2). They possess Surya as their own
(7, 68 3), and the fact that Surya accompanies them on their car is character-
istic (8, 29 s). She must be meant by the goddess called AsvinI and men-
tioned with others in 5,46 s. In a late hymn (10, 85 s) it is said that when
Savitr gave Surya to her husband ( patye ) Soma was wooer ( vadhuyu ) while
the Asvins were groomsmen {vara). In another passage (6, 584) the gods
are said to have given Pusan to Surya. Owing to their connexion with Surya
the Asvins are invoked to conduct the bride home on their chariot (10, 85 26).
They are also besought along with several other deities to bestow fertility on
the bride (10, 1842). They give the wife of the eunuch a child and make
the barren cow yield milk (1, 1123). They give a husband to the old maid
(10, 395) and bestowed a wife on one of their favourites (1, 1161 <S:c.). In
the AY. (2, 30 2 &c.) they are said to bring lovers together18.

The Asvins may originally have been conceived as finding and restoring
or rescuing the vanished light of the sun '9. In the RV. they have come to
be typically succouring divinities. They are the speediest helpers and
deliverers from distress in general (1, 1122. 1183). They are constantly
praised for such deeds. In particular, they rescue from the ocean in a ship
or ships. They are also invoked to bring treasures from the ocean or from
heaven (1, 47s) and their car approaches from the ocean (4, 43 s); here,
however, the celestial ocean appears to be intended. Their rescue from all
kinds of distress is a peaceful manifestation of divine grace, not a deliverance
from foes in battle, as is generally the case with Indra (with whom, however,
they are once associated in fight, even receiving the epithet of Vrtra-slayers) 20.
They are thus also characteristically divine physicians (8, 18s &c.), who heal
diseases with their remedies (8, 22'0 &c.), restoring sight (1, 116'6), curing
the blind, sick, and maimed (10, 39 3). They are the physicians of the gods
and guardians of immortality, who ward off death from the worshipper (AV.
7> 53 z> TB. 3, 1, 2"). Apart from their character as helpers, healers, and
wonder-workers, their general beneficence is often praised. They bring their
worshipper to old age with seeing eye and reward him with riches and
abundance of children (1, ii62S; 8, 813&c.).

Quite a number of legends illustrating the succouring power of the Asvins
are referred to in the RV. The sage Cyavana, grown old and deserted,

4*

52 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

they released from his decrepit body; they prolonged his life, restored him
to youth, rendered him desirable to his wife and made him the husband of
maidens (i, 11610 &c. : OST. 5, 143). A detailed story of how Cyavana was
restored to youth by the Asvins is given in the SB. (4, 1, 5)21. They also
renewed the youth of the aged Kali (10, 39s) and befriended him when he
had taken a wife (1, 11215). They brought on a car to the youthful Virnada
wives (1, 11219) or a wife (1, 1161) named Kamadyu (10, 6 5 1 , who seems
to have been the beautiful spouse of Purumitra (1. 11720; 10, 397). They
restored Visnapu, like a lost animal, to the sight of their worshipper Visvaka,
son of Krsna (1, n62->. 1 1 7 7; xo, 6 5 1 2) , who according to the commentator
was his father. The story most often referred to is that of the rescue of
Bhujyu, son of Tugra, who was abandoned in the midst of the ocean (sam-
udre ) or in the water-cloud ( udameghe ) and who tossed about in darkness
invoked the aid of the youthful heroes. In the ocean which is without
support they took him home in a hundred-oared ship. They rescued him
with animated, water-tight ships, which traversed the air, with four ships,
with an animated winged boat, with three flying cars having a hundred
feet and six horses, with their headlong flying steeds, with their well-
yoked chariot swift as thought. In one passage Bhujyu is described as
clinging to a log (1 vrksa ) for support in the midst of the waves22. The sage
Rebha, stabbed, bound, hidden by the malignant, overwhelmed in the waters
for ten nights and nine days, abandoned as dead, was by the Asvins revived and
drawn out as Soma is raised with a ladle 2h They delivered Vandana from
calamity and restored him to the light of the sun (1, 1125. 116”. 1175. 1186),
raising him up from a pit in which he lay hidden away as one dead (10,39s)
or restoring him from decrepitude (1, ii96-7)24. They succoured the sage
Atri Saptavadhri who along with his companions was plunged in a burning
pit by the wiles of a demon. They brought him a cooling and refreshing
draught, protected him from the flames, and finally released him in youthful
strength. They are also said to have delivered him from darkness. When
Agni is spoken of as having rescued Atri from heat (10, 30^), the meaning
probably is that Agni spared him through the intervention of the Asvins 2s. The
Asvins even rescued from the jaws of a wolf a quail which invoked their aid26.

To Rijrasva who had been blinded by his father for killing one hundred
and one sheep and giving them to a she-wolf to devour, they restored his
eyesight at the prayer of the she-wolf (1, 11616. ii717- lS); and cured Paravrj
of blindness and lameness (1, 1128). When Vispala’s leg had been cut off in
battle like the wing of a bird, the Asvins gave her an iron one instead27.
They befriended Ghosa when she was growing old in her father’s house by
giving her a husband (1, 1177; 10, 393, 6. 405). To the wife of a eunuch
they gave a son called Hiranyahasta (1, n6x3. 11724; 6,^62?; 10,39?), who
is, however, once called Syava (xo, 65 t2). The cow of Sayu, which had left
off bearing they caused to give milk (1, ii622 &c.). They gave to Pedu a
swift, strong, white, incomparable, dragon-slaying steed impelled by Indra,
which won him unbounded spoils (1, 1166 &.). To Kakslvat of the family
of Pajra they granted blessings in abundance, causing a hundred jars of wine
{sura) or of honey to flow from a strong horse’s hoof, as from a sieve
(1, 1 167. 1 176) 2S. Another miraculous deed of theirs is connected with honey
or mead. They placed a horse’s head on Dadhyanc, son of Atharvan, who
then told them where was the mead {mad/m) of Tvastr (§ 53) 2?. Besides
the persons referred to above, many others are mentioned as having been suc-
coured or befriended by the Asvins in RV. 1,112 and 116 — 19. These may
be largely the names of actual persons who were saved or cured in a

Celestial Gods. 2 1 . Asvins.

53

remarkable manner. Their rescue or cure would easily have been attributed
to the Asvins, who having acquired the character of divine deliverers and
healers, naturally attracted to themselves all stories connected with such mira-
culous powers. The opinion of Bergaigne and others that the various miracles
attributed to the Asvins are anthropomorphized forms of solar phenomena
(the healing of the blind man thus meaning the release of the sun from
darkness), seems to lack probability30. At the same time the legend of Atri
(cp. § 56) may be a reminiscence of a myth explaining the restoration of the
vanished sun.

As to the physical basis of the Asvins, the language of the Rsis is so
vague tjiat they themselves do not seem to have understood what phenomenon
these deities represented. The other gods of the morning, the night-dispelling
Agni, the man-waking Usas, and the rising Surya are much more vividly ad-
dressed. They may be called possessors of horses, because the latter are
symbolical of rays of light, especially the sun’s. But what they actually re-
presented puzzled even the oldest commentators mentioned by Yaska. That
scholar remarks (Nir. 12, 1) that some regarded them as Heaven and Earth
(as does also the SB. 4, 1, 5'6), others, as Day and Night, others, as sun and
moon, while the ‘legendary writers’ took them to be ‘two kings, performers of
holy acts’.

Yaska’s own opinion is obscure. Roth thinks he means India and the
sun, GoldstCcker, that he means the transition from darkness to light, which
represents an inseparable duality corresponding to their twin nature, and agrees
with this view. This is also the opinion of Myriantheus as well as of Hopkins,
who considers it probable that the inseparable twins represent the twin-lights
or twilight before dawn, half dark, half light, so that one of them could be
spoken of alone as the son ofDyaus, the bright sky. Other scholars31 favour
the identification of the Asvins with sun and moon. Oldexberg following
Mannhardt32 and Bollensen (ZDMG. 41, 496) believes the natural basis
of the Asvins must be the morning star, that being the only morning light
beside fire, daw7n, and sun. The time, the luminous nature, and the course of
the Asvins round the heavens suit, but not their duality.

The morning star would indeed naturally be thought of in connexion
with the evening star, but they are eternally separate, while the Asvins are
joined. The latter are, however, in one or two passages of the RV. spoken
of separately; and though the morning in Yedic worship is so important,
while sunset plays no part (5, 7 7 2), the Asvins are nevertheless sometimes
(8, 2214; 10, 391. 404) invoked morning and evening33. The Asvins, sons of
Dyaus, who drive across the sky with their steeds and possess a sister, have
a parallel in the two famous horsemen of Greek mythology, sons of Zeus
(Aioc xoopoi)34, brothers of Helena, and in the two Lettic God’s sons who
come riding on their steeds to woo the daughter of the sun. either for them-
selves or the moon. In the Lettic myth the morning star is said to have
come to look at the daughter of the sun33. As the two Asvins vred the one
Surya, so the two Lettic god-sons wed the one daughter of the sun; they
too are (like the Aioszoupcu) rescuers from the ocean, delivering the daughter
of the sun or the sun himself36. If this theory is correct, the character of
the Asvins as rescuers may have been derived from the idea of the morning
star being a harbinger of deliverance from the distress of darkness. Weber
is also of opinion that the Asvins represent twro stars, the twin constellation
of the Gemini37. Finally Geldxer thinks that the Asvins do not represent
any natural phenomenon, but are simply succouring saints (Notheilige) of
purely Indian origin3®.

54 HI. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

The twilight and the morning star theory seem the most probable. In
any case, it appears not unlikely that the Asvins date from the Indo-European
period in character though not in name.

1 According to PVS. I, 56—8; variously interpreted by others; cp. BRV. 3, 3S
note. — 2 Brunnhofer, (‘savers’ from ]/"nas in Gothic nasyan), Vom Aral bis zur
Ganga, p. 99; BRV. 2, 434; HRI. 83. — 3 Sp.AP. 207; Colinet, BOR. 3, 193. —
4 KRV. note 172. — 5 PVS. 1, 55. — 6 PVS. 56 — 7, gives a list of the epithets
of the Asvins. — 7 HVM. 1, 237. — 8 According to Oldenberg, this refers to
morning dew; cp. BRV. 2, 433. — 9 Haug, GGA. 1875, p* 93- — 10 Bollensen,
ZDMG. 41, 496; HRI. 80. — 11 On the car and steeds of the Asvins cp. Hopkins,
JAOS. 15, 269—71. — 12 PVS. 2, 105. — *3 OST. 5, 238—9; HRI. 82. — >4 BRV.
2, 432. — 15 ORV. 208. — 16 HRI. 83. — 17 Cp. IS. s, 183. 187; Ehni, ZDMG.
33, 168—70. — 18 Weber, IS. 5.218. 227. 234. — 19 v. SchrSder, WZKM. 9, 13 1 ;
HRI. 83. — 20 OST. 5, 248—9. — 21 OST. 5, 250—3; SBE. XXVI, 273 flf; Benfey,
OO. 3, 160; Myriantheus p. 93 (= sun which has set restored in the morning);
HVBP. 112. — 22 References in OST. 5, 244 — 3; Sonne, KZ. 10,335 — 6; Benfey,
OO. 3, 159; Myriantheus 158; HVBP. 112. — 23 OST. 5, 246; Benfey, OO. 3,
162. 164; Myriantheus 174; Baunack, ZDMG. 50, 264—6. — 24 Baunack, ibid.
263 — 4. — 25 ibid. 268; Sonne, KZ. 10, 331 (Atri = sun); OST, 5, 247; cp.
v. Bradke, ZDMG. 45, 482 — 4. — 26 MM, LSL. 2,525—6; OST. 5, 248; Myrian-
theus 78 — 81. — 27 OST. 5, 245; Myriantheus 100—12; PVS. 1, 171—3 (Vispala,
name of a racing mare). Vispala is variously interpreted. — 28 Myriantheus i 49 f . ;
KRV. note 185. — 29 Benfey, OO. 2, 245; Myriantheus 142 — 3; HVBP. 113. —

3° OST. 5, 248; HVBP. 1 12. — 31 LRV. 3, 334; HVM. 1, 535 (against Zimmer,

Archiv f. slav. Philol. 2, 669 ff.); HVBP. 47 — 9. — 32 Zft. f. Ethnologie 7, 3t2f. —
33 BRV. 2, 500. — 34 HRI. 78. 80; JRAS. 27, 953—4. — 35 ORV. 212 n. 3. —

36 v. Schroder, WZKM. 9, 133—1. — 37 Weber, IS. 5, 234; RajasQya 100. —

38 GVS. 2, 31 cp. 1. xxvii.

Roth, ZDMG, 4, 425; Whitney, JAOS. 3,322; Max Muller, LSL, 2, 607 — 9 ;
Benfey, OO. 2, 245; OST. 5, 234 — 54: Goldstucker, ibid. 255 — 7; GRV. 1, 150;
Myriantheus, Die Asvins oder Arischen Dioskuren, Miinchen 1876; BRV. 2, 431
— 510; KRV. 49 — 52, notes 171. 179. 180; HVBP. 47 — 49. Ill — 13; ORV. 209 — 15;
HRI. 80-6.

B. THE ATMOSPHERIC GODS.

§ 22. Indr a. — Indra is the favourite national god of the Vedic Indians.
His importance is indicated by the fact that about 250 hymns celebrate his
greatness, more than those devoted to any other god and very nearly one-
fourth of the total number of hymns in the RV. If the hymns in parts of
Avhich he is praised or in which he is associated ivith other gods, are taken
into account, the aggregate is brought up to at least 300. As the name,
which dates from the Indo-Iranian period and is of uncertain meaning, does
not designate any phenomenon of nature, the figure of Indra has become
very anthropomorphic and much surrounded by mythological imagery, more
so indeed than that of any other god in the Veda. The significance of his
character is, however, sufficiently clear. He is primarily the thunder-god, the
conquest of the demons of drought or darkness and the consequent liberation
of the waters or the winning of light forming his mythological essence. Se-
condarily Indra is the god of battle, who aids the victorious Aryan in the
conquest of the aboriginal inhabitants of India.

He is the dominant deity of the middle region. He pervades the air
(1, 5 12). He occurs among the gods of the air alone in the Naighantuka
(5, 4), and is the representative of the air in the triad Agni, Indra (or Vayu),
Surya.

Many of Indra’s physical features are mentioned. He has a body, a
head, arms, and hands (2, 162; 8, 853). His belly is often spoken of in
connexion with his powers of drinking Soma (2, 162 &c.). It is compared

Atmospheric Gods. 22. Indra.

55

when full of Soma to a lake (3, 36s). His lips (the probable meaning of
sipra) are often referred to, the frequent attributes susipra or siprin , 'fair-
lipped’, being almost peculiar to him. He agitates his jaws after drinking Soma
(8, 65'°). His beard is violently agitated when he is exhilerated or puts
himself in motion (2, 1117; 10, 23*). He is tawny-haired (10, 96s-8) and
tawny-bearded (10, 23*). His whole appearance is tawny, the changes being
rung on that word (/ tari ) in every verse of an entire hymn (10, 96) with
reference to Indra. He is a few times described as golden (1, 72; 8, 553),
an attribute distinctive of Savitr (p. 32), as golden-armed (7, 344), and as
iron-like (1, 56 s; 10, 9 64- 8). His arms as wielding the thunderbolt are men-
tioned particularly often. They are long, far-extended, great (6, 193; 8. 3210.
70’), strong and well-shaped (SV. 2, 1219). Indra assumes the most beautiful
forms and the ruddy brightness of the sun (10, 1123) and takes many different
forms at will (3, 48+. 53s; 6, 47 l8).

The thunderbolt {vajra) 1 is the weapon exclusively appropriate to Indra.
It is the regular mythological name of the lightning stroke (cp. p. 59). It is
generally described as fashioned for him by Tvastr (1, 32s &c.), but Kavya
Usana is also said to have made it and given it to him (1, 12112; 5, 34s).
In the AB. (4, 1) it is the gods who are said to have provided Indra with
his bolt. It lies in the ocean enveloped in water (8,899). Its place is below
that of the sun (xo, 2721). It is generally described as dyasa or metallic
(1, 52s &c.), but sometimes as golden (1, 572 &c.), tawny (3, 44*; 10, 96’)
or bright (3,44s). It is four-angled (4, 22 2), hundred-angled (4, 1 7 lo), hundred-
jointed (8,66&rc.), and thousand-pointed (i,8oI2&c.). It is sharp (7,i8,8&c.).
Indra whets it like a knife or as a bull his horns2 (1, 1304. 551). It is spoken
of as a stone (asman) or rock ( parvata : 7, xo419). The bolt in Indra’s hand
is compared with the sun in the sky (8, 592). Epithets derived from or com-
pounded with vajra , some of which are very frequent, are almost entirely
limited to Indra. Vajrabhrt , 'bearing the bolt’, vajrivat , ‘armed with the bolt’,
and vajradaksina , ‘holding the bolt in his right hand’ are applied to him
exclusively, while vajrabahu or - hasta , ‘holding the bolt in his arm or hand’,
and the commonest derivative vajrin , ‘armed with the bolt’, otherwise occur
as attributes of Rudra, the Maruts, and Manyu only once each respectively.

Indra is sometimes said to be armed with a bow and arrows (8, 45b
66°- 10, io32- 3). The latter are golden, hundred-pointed, and winged

with a thousand feathers (8, 667- “). He also carries a hook ( ankusa ) with
which he bestows wealth (8, 1710; AV. 6,82’’) or which he uses as a weapon
(10, 449). A net with which he overwhelms all his foes is also attributed to
him (AV. 8, 8s ~8).

Indra is borne on a car which is golden (6, 29s &c.) and is swifter than
thought (10, 1122). The epithet ‘car-fighter’ ( rathestha ) is exclusively appro-
priated to Indra. His car is drawn by two tawny steeds {/tan) 3, a term very
frequently used and in the great majority of instances referring to Indra’s
horses. In a few passages a greater number than two, up to a hundred and
even a thousand or eleven hundred are mentioned (2, i84— 7; 4. 463; 6,47 l8;
8,i9-24). These steeds are sun-eyed (1 , 1 6 T- 2). They snort and neigh (i,3ol6).
They have flowing manes (1, io3 &c.) or golden manes (8 , 3 2 29. 8 2 2+). Their
hair is like peacocks’ feathers or tails (3, 45’; 8, 123). They swiftly traverse
vast distances and Indra is transported by them as an eagle is borne by its
wings (2, 163; 8, 349). They are yoked by prayer (2, 183 See.), which doubt-
less means that invocations bring Indra to the sacrifice. Indra is a few times
said to be drawn by the horses of Surya (10, 49?) or by those ofVata (10,
2 2 4 6), and Vayu has Indra for his charioteer (4, 46s. 482) or his car-com-

5 6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

panion (7, 916). Indra’s car and his steeds were fashioned by the Rbhus (1,
in'; 5> 3l4)- Indra is once said to be provided with a golden goad ( kasa:

8, 3311)-

Though the gods in general are fond of Soma (8, 218. 58 IJ), Indra is
preeminently addicted to it (1,104° &c.). He even stole it in order to drink
it (3, 48*; 8, 44). He is the one Soma-drinker among gods and men (8, 24),
only Vayu, his companion, coming near him in this respect4. It is his favourite
nutriment (8, 412). The frequent epithet ‘Soma-drinker’ ( soma-pa , -pavari) is
characteristic of him, being otherwise only applied a few times to Agni and
Brhaspati when associated with Indra, and once besides to Vayu alone.

Soma is sometimes said to stimulate Indra to perform great cosmic
actions such as supporting earth and sky or spreading out the earth (2, 152).

But it characteristically exhilerates him to carry out his warlike deeds, the
slaughter of the dragon or Vrtra (2, 151. 192; 6, 47'- 2) or the conquest of
foes (6, 27; 7, 2 22; 8, 816). So essential is Soma to Indra that his mother
gave it to him or he drank it on the very day of his birth (3, 482-3- 329-10;

6, 402; 7, 983). For the slaughter of Vrtra he drank three lakes5 of Soma
(5, 297 cp. 6, 17”)) and he is even said to have drunk at a single draught
thirty lakes of the beverage (8, 664). One entire hymn (10, 119) consists of
a monologue in which Indra describes his sensations after a draught of Soma.

But just as too much Soma is said to produce disease in men, so Indra him-
self is described as suffering from excessive indulgence in it and having to be
cured by the gods with the SautramanI ceremony6. Indra also drinks milk
mixed with honey7 (8, 4s).

He at the same time eats the flesh of bulls (10, 285), of one (10, 27s),
of twenty (10, 86‘4), or of a hundred buffaloes (6, 17”; 8, 6610), or 300
buffaloes roasted by Agni (5, 297). At the sacrifice he also eats an offering
of cake (3, 527- 8), as well as of grain (3, 353. 434; 1, 162), and the latter his
steeds are supposed to eat as well (3, 357. 527).

Indra is often spoken of as having been born. Two whole hymns (3, 48;

4, 18) deal with the subject of his birth. Once (4, 18'- 2) he is represented
as wishing to be born in an unnatural way through the side of his mother'.
This trait may possibly be derived from the notion of lightning breaking from
the side of the storm-cloud. On being born he illuminates the sky (3, 444).
Scarcely born he set the wheel of the sun in motion (1, 130°). He was a
warrior as soon as born (3, 518; 5, 305; 8, 45b 66 z; 10, 1134) and was irre-
sistible from birth (1, 1028; 10, 1332). Through fear of him when he is born,
the firm mountains, heaven and earth are agitated (1, 61 14). At his birth
heaven and earth trembled through fear of his wrath (4, 172) and all the
gods feared him (5, 3o5)9. His mother is often mentioned (3, 482> 3 &c.)'°.

She is once (4, i8'°) spoken of as a cow ( grsti ), he being her calf; and he •
is spoken (10, n i2) of as a bull, the offspring of a cow ( garsteya ). He is
once (10, ioi'*) called the son of Nistigri, whom Sayana regards as synony-
mous with Aditi (cp. § 41). According to the AV. (3, io12- I3) Indra’s (and
Agni’s) mother is Ekastaka, daughter of Prajapati. Indra has the same father
as Agni (6, 592), who is the son of Dyaus and PrthivI (§ 35). According to
one interpretation of a verse in a hymn (4, 174) in which his father is twice
mentioned, the latter is Dyaus. A similar inference may be drawn from a
verse in an Indra hymn (10, 120') where it is said that ‘among the worlds
that was the highest from which this fierce (god) wras born’, and from a few
other passages (cp. 6, 30s ; 8, 364 with 10, 543, and 10, 138° with 1, 16411).

His father is said to have made his thunderbolt (2, 176), which is elsewhere
generally described as fashioned by Tvastr (§ 38). Indra drank Soma in

Atmospheric Gods. 22. Indra.

57

the house of his father, where it was given to him by his mother (3, 48s).
He drank Soma in the house of Tvastr (4, 185), Indra having at his birth
overcome Tvastr and having stolen the Soma, drank it in the cups (3, 484).
Indra seizing his father by the foot crushed him, and he is asked in the
same verse who made his mother a widow (4, 1812). From these passages
it is clearly to be inferred that Indra’s father whom he slays in order to
obtain the Soma, is Tvastr11 (cp. 1, 8014). The hostility of the gods, who in
one passage (4, 305) are said to have fought against him, is perhaps con-
nected with the notion of his trying to obtain Soma forcibly.12.

A few different accounts are given of the origin of Indra. He is said
to have been generated by the gods as a destroyer of fiends (3, 491), but
the verb jan is here no doubt only used in the figurative sense of ‘to con-
stitute’ (cp. 2, 135; 3, 518). Soma is once spoken of as the generator of Indra
and some other gods (9,96s). In the Purusa hymn Indra and Agni are said
to have sprung from the mouth of the world-giant (10, go'3). According to
the SB. (11, 1, 614) Indra, as well as Agni, Soma, and Paramesthin, is said to
have been created from Prajapati. The TB. (2, 2, io1) states that Prajapati
created Indra last of the gods.

Agni is Indra’s twin brother (6, 592) and Pusan is also his brother (6, 55s).
The sons of Indra’s brother are once mentioned (10,55'), but who are meant
by them is uncertain.

Indra’s wife is several times referred to (1, 82s- 6; 3, 534- 6; 10, 869- ,c).
Her name is IndranI in a hymn in which she is represented as conversing
with Indra (10, 86 ”• ,2) and occurs in a few other passages which contain
enumerations of goddesses (1, 2212; 2, 32s; 5, 46s). The SB. expressly states
IndranI to be Indra’s wife (14, 2, i8). The AB. (3, 2 27), however, mentions
Prasaha and Sena as Indra’s wives V These two are identified with IndranI
(TB. 2, 4, 2 "* 8; MS. 3, 84; 4, 12') '4. Pischel (VS. 2, 52) thinks that SacI is
the Proper name of Indra’s wife in the RV. as well as in post-Vedic litera-
ture15. The AV. (7, 38s) refers to an Asura female who drew Indra down
from among the gods; and the Kathaka (IS. 3, 479) states that Indra en-
amoured of a DanavT named Vilistenga, went to live among the Asuras,
assuming the form of a female among females and of a male among males.

Indra is associated with various other gods. His chief friends and allies
are the Maruts, who in innumerable passages are described as assisting him
in his warlike exploits (§ 29). His connexion with these deities is so close that
the epithet mcu-utcat, ‘accompanied by the Maruts’, though sometimes applied
to other gods, is characteristic of Indra, this epithet, as well as marudgcuia
‘attended by the Marut host’, being sufficient to designate him (5, 42s; 9, 6510).
With Agni Indra is more frequently coupled as a dual divinity than with any
other god (§ 44) ,6. This is natural, as lightning is a form of fire. Indra is
also said to have produced Agni between two stones (2, 12s) or to have
found Agni hidden in the waters (10, 326). Indra is further often coupled
with Varuna and Vayu, less frequently with Soma, Brhaspati, Pusan, and
Vi?nu (§ 44). The latter is a faithful friend of Indra and sometimes attends
him in his conflict with the demons (§§ 17. 44) t?.

Indra is in three or four passages more or less distinctly identified with
Surya18. Speaking in the first person (4, 26') Indra asserts that he was once
Manu and Surya. He is once directly called Surya (10, 8g2); and Surya and
Indra are both invoked in another verse (8, 824) as if they were the same
person. In one passage Indra receives the epithet Savitr (2, 301). The SB.
(1, 6, 418), too, once identifies Indra with the sun, Vrtra being the moon.

The gigantic size of Indra is dwelt upon in many passages. When Indra

5 8 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

grasped the two boundless worlds, they were but a handful to him (3, 305).
He surpasses in greatness heaven, earth, and air (3, 462). The two worlds
are but equal to the half of him (6, 30 10, 119"). Heaven and earth do
not suffice for his girdle (1, 1736). If the earth were ten times as large,
Indra would be equal to it (1, 5211). If Indra had a hundred heavens and
a hundred earths, a thousand suns would not equal him nor both worlds
(8; 59s)-

His greatness and power are lauded in the most unstinted terms. He has
no parallel among those born or to be born (4, 184). No one, celestial or
terrestrial, has been born or shall be born, like to him (7, 32 23). No one,
god or man, either surpasses or equals him (6, 304). Neither former, later,
nor recent beings have attained to his valour (5, 426). Neither gods nor men
nor waters have attained to the limit of his might (1, iooIS). No one like
him is known among the gods; no one born, past or present, can rival him
(1, 1659). He surpasses the gods (3, 46s). All the gods yield to him in
might and strength (8, 517). Even the former gods subordinated their powers
to his divine glory and kingly dignity (7, 217). All the gods are unable to
frustrate his deeds and counsels (2, 324). Even Varuna and Surya are sub-
ject to his command (1, 1013 cp. 2, 389 p. 16). He is besought to destroy
the foes of Mitra, Aryaman, and Varuna (10, 89s- 9) and is said to have
acquired by battle ample space for the gods (7, 98s). Indra alone is king of
the whole world (3, q62). He is the lord of all that moves and breathes
(1, 1 o 1 3). He is the king of things moving and of men (5, 305); he is the
eye of all that moves and sees (10, 10212). He is the leader of human
races and divine (3, 342). He is several times called a universal monarch
(4, 192 &c.) and still oftener a self-dependent sovereign (3,46'&c.; cp.p. 24).
He is also said to rule alone (eka) by his might as an ancient seer (8, 641).
A few times he receives the epithet asura (1, 1 74^,8, 79s). Indra bears
several characteristic attributes expressive of power. Sakra 'mighty’ applies
to Indra about 40 times and only about five times to other gods. Sacivat ,
'possessed of might’ describes Indra some fifteen times and other deities only
twice. The epithet sacipati ‘lord of might’, occurring eleven times in the RV.
belongs to Indra with only one exception (7,67 s), when the Asvins as ‘lords
of might’ are besought to strengthen their worshippers with might ( saclbhih ).
In one of these passages (10, 2q2) Indra is pleonastically invoked as 'mighty
lord of might’ (saclpate sacmam). This epithet survives in post-Vedic literature
as a designation of Indra in the sense of ‘husband of Saci’ (a sense claimed
for it by Pischel even in the RV.). The very frequent attribute satakratu,
‘having a hundred powers’, occurring some 60 times in the RV. is with two
exceptions entirely limited to Indra. In the great majority of instances satpati ,
‘strong lord’ is appropriated to Indra. Indra’s strength and valour are also
described with various other epithets. He is strong ( tavas ), nimble ( nrtu ),
victorious (turn), heroic (sura), of unbounded force (i,ii4. 1026), of irresistible
might (1, 8q2). He is clothed in might like the elephant and bears weapons
like the terrible lion (4, 1614). He is also young (1, n4 &c.) and unaging
(ajara), as well as ancient (puny a).

Having dealt with Indra’s personal traits and his character, we now come
to the great myth which is the basis of his nature. Exhilerated by Soma and
generally escorted by the Maruts he enters upon the fray with the chief
demon of drought, most frequently called by the name of Vrtra, the Obstructor
(§ 68) and also very often styled ahi the ‘Serpent’ or ‘Dragon’ (§ 64). The
conflict is terrible. Heaven and earth tremble with fear when Indra strikes
Vrtra with his bolt (1, 80”; 2, n9- IO; 6, 179); even Tvastr who forged the

Atmospheric Gods. 22. Indra.

59

bolt trembles at Indra’s anger. (1, So1*!). Indra shatters Vrtra with his bolt

(1, 32S. 61 10; 10, 897). He strikes Vrtra with his bolt on his back (1, 327.

So5), strikes his face with his pointed weapon (1, 52'S), and finds his
vulnerable parts (3, 32+; 5, 32$). He smote Vrtra who encompassed the
waters (6, 202 &c.) or the dragon that lay around ( parisaydnam ) the waters
(4, 192); he overcame the dragon lying on the waters (5, 306). He slew
the dragon hidden in the waters and obstructing the waters and the sky

{2, 11s), and smote Vrtra, who enclosed the waters, like a tree with the bolt

{2, 142). Thus ‘conquering in the waters’ ( apsujit ) is his exclusive attribute.
Indra being frequently described as slaying Vrtra in the present or being in-
voked to do so, is regarded as constantly renewing the combat, which
mythically represents the constant renewal of the natural phenomena. For
many dawns and autumns Indra has let loose the streams after slaying Vrtra
(4, 198) or he is invoked to do so in the future (8, 784). He cleaves the
mountain, making the streams flow or taking the cows (1, 5 76; 10,89'), even
with the sound of his bolt (6, 27’). When he laid open the great mountain,
he let loose the torrents and slew the Danava, he set free the pent up
springs, the udder of the mountain (5, 321-2). He slew the Danava, shattered
the great mountain, broke open the well, set free the pent up waters (1,57°;
5, 331). He releases the streams which are like imprisoned cows (1, 61 IO) or
which, like lowing cows, flow to the ocean (1,3a2). He won the cows and Soma
and made the seven rivers to flow (1,3a12; 2, 1212). He releases the imprisoned
waters (1, 57s. 1032), released the streams pent up by the dragon (2, n2),
dug out channels for the streams with his bolt (2, 15s), let the flood of waters
flow in the sea (2,19s), caused the waters pent up by Vrtra to flow (3,26s;
4, 171). Having slain Vrtra, he opened the orifice of the waters which had
been closed (1, 32”). His bolts are dispersed over ninety rivers (1, 808).
References to this conflict with Vrtra and the release of the waters are ex-
tremely frequent in the RV. The changes on the myth are rung throughout
the whole of one hymn (1, 80). Another deals with the details of the Vrtra
fight (1, 32). That this exploit is Indra’s chief characteristic, is shown by the
manner in which the poet epitomizes the myth in the two first verses of the
latter hymn: ‘I will proclaim the heroic deeds of Indra, which the wielder of
the bolt first performed: he slew the dragon lying on the mountain, released
the waters, pierced the belly of the mountains’. The physical elements are
nearly always indicated by the stereotyped figurative terms ‘bolt’, ‘mountain’,
‘waters or rivers’, while lightning, thunder, cloud, rain ( vrsti , varsa , or the verb
vrs) are seldom directly named (1, 52s- 6- 14&:c.)19. The rivers caused to
flow are of course often terrestrial (BRV. 2, 184), but it cannot be doubted
that waters and rivers are in the RV. very often conceived as aerial or
celestial (1, io8; 2, 208. 221 cp. BRV. 2, 187). Apart from a desire to ex-
press the Vrtra myth in phraseology differing from that applied to other gods,
the large stores of water (cp. arnas, flood) released by Indra would encourage
the use of words like ‘streams’ rather than ‘rain’. The ‘cows’ released by
Indra may in many cases refer to the waters, for we have seen that the latter
are occasionally compared with lowing cows. Thus Indra is said to have
found the cows for man when he slew the dragon (5, 29s cp. 1, 52s). The
context seems to shew that the waters are meant when Indra is described as
having, with his bolt for an ally, extracted the cows with light from darkness
(1, 3310)- But the cows may also in other cases be conceived as connected
with Indra’s winning of light, for the ruddy beams of dawn issuing from the
blackness of night are compared with cattle coming out of their dark stalls
(p. 47). Again, though clouds play no great part in the RV. 20 under their

6o III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Yedic Mythology.

literal name ( alhra &c.) it can hardly be denied that, as containing the waters,
they figure mythologically to a considerable extent under the name of cow
(go: § 6 1), as well as udder ( ud/iar ), spring ( utsa ), cask ( kavandha ), pail
(kosa) and others. Thus the rain-clouds are probably meant when it is said
that the cows roared at the birth of Indra (8, 594).

It is however rather as mountains (jparvala , giri: p. io) that they appear
in the Indra myth. They are the mountains (i, 321) on which the demons
dwell (1, 322; 2, 1211), or from which he casts them down (1, 1307; 4, 3014;
6,26s). Indra shoots forth his well-aimed arrow from these mountains (8, 6 66).
He cleft wide the mountain to release the cows (8, 4530). Or the cloud is
a rock ( adri ) which encompasses the cows and which Indra moves from its
place (6, 17s). He loosened the rock and made the cows easy to obtain
(10, 1128). He released the cows which were fast within the stone (6, 43s
cp. 5, 304). The cloud rocks or mountains would seem to represent the
stationary rainless clouds seen during drought, while the cloud cows would
rather be the moving and roaring rain-cloud (p. 10). Oldenberg (ORY.
140 f.) thinks that to the poets of the RV. the mountains as well as the rivers
in the Vrtra-myth are terrestrial, though he admits that they were originally
aerial and at a later period also were understood as such.

In the mythical imagery of the thunderstorm the clouds also very fre-
quently become the fortresses ( purah )21 of the aerial demons. They are spoken
of as ninety, ninety-nine, or a hundred in number (2, 146. 196; 8, 1714. 87s).
These fortresses are 'moving’ (8, 128), autumnal (1, 1307. 1314. 1742; 6, 2010),
made of metal (2, 208) or stone (4, 3020)22. Indra shatters them (1,51s &c.),
and so the epithet ‘fort-shatterer’ ( purbhid ) is peculiar to him. In one verse
(10, hi10) he is spoken of as a fort-shatterer and lover of waters at the
same time. In another the various features of the myth are mentioned
together: he slew Vrtra, broke the castles, made a channel for the rivers,
pierced the mountain, and made over the cows to his friends (10, 89').

Owing to the importance of the Vrtra-myth the chief and specific epithet
of Indra is Vrtrahan , ‘Vrtra-slayer’23. It is applied about 70 times to him
in the RV. The only other deity who receives it with any frequency is Agni;
but this is due to Agni’s frequent association with Indra as a dual divinity.
The few applications of the epithet to Soma are also clearly secondary
(§ 37) 24. Though Indra is sometimes expressly stated to have slain Vrtra
by his own might alone (1, 1658; 7, 216; 10, 13s6) other deities are very
often associated with him in the conflict. The gods in general are said to
have placed him in the van for action or battle (1, 55s; 6, 178) or the
slaughter of Vrtra (8, 1222). They are also said to have increased his vigour
for the fray with Vrtra (10, 1138), or to have infused might or valour intO'
him (1, 8o’s; 6, 202; 10, 48s. 1203), or to have placed the bolt in his hands
(2, 208). But most frequently he is urged on and fortified by the Maruts
(3> 3241 io> 7 31, 2 <Scc. § 29). Even when the other gods terrified by Vrtra
fled away (8, 857 cp. 4, 1811; AB. 3, 20), they stood by him; but the Maruts
themselves are in one passage said to have deserted him (8, 73’). Agni,
Soma, and Visnu are often also allied with Indra in the fight with Vrtra.
Even priests on earth sometimes associate themselves with Indra in his com-
bats (5, 308; 8, 51"; 10, 449). The worshipper (jarita) is said to have
placed the bolt in India’s hands (1, 632), and the sacrifice is spoken of as
having assisted the bolt at the slaughter of the dragon (3, 32*2). Hymns,
prayers, and worship, as well as Soma, are also often described as increasing
( Y vrdfi) the vigour of Indra 2S.

Besides Vrtra, Indra engages in conflict with many minor demons also

Atmospheric Gods. 22. Indra. 61

(§ 69). One of these, Urana, mentioned only once (2, 144) is described
as having 99 arms, while another, Visvarupa, is three-headed and six-eyed
(10, 996). He does not always slay them with his bolt. Thus one of them,
Arbuda, he crushes with his foot or pierces with ice (1, 5 1 °; 8, 3 2 26). Some-
times Indra is described as destroying demons in general. Thus he is said
to sweep away the Asuras with his wheel (8, 859), to consume the Raksases
with his bolt as lire a dry forest (6, 18'0) and to overcome the druhah or
malignant spirits (4, 23". 282).

With the liberation of the waters is connected the winning of light, sun,
and dawn. Indra won light and the divine waters (3, 34s). The god is in-
voked to slay Vrtra and win the light (8, y84). When Indra had slain the
dragon Vrtra with his metallic bolt, releasing the waters for man, he placed
the sun visibly in the heavens (x, 514. 52s). Indra, the dragon-slayer, set in
motion the flood of waters to the sea, generated the sun, and found the
cows (2, 19s). He gained the sun and the waters after slaying the demons
(3, 348- 9). When Indra slew the chief of the dragons and released the
waters from the mountain, he generated the sun, the sky and the dawn (1,
324; 6, 305). The sun shone forth when Indra blew the dragon from the
air (8, 3*°). Though the sun is usually the prize of the conflict, it also
appears as Indra’s weapon, for he burns the demon with the rays of the sun
(8, 129). Without any reference to the Vrtra fight, Indra is said to find
the light (3, 344; 8, 155; 10, 43+) in the darkness (x, 1088; 4, 164). Indra is
the generator of the sun (3, 494). He placed the sun, the brilliant light, in
the sky (8,12 s0). He made the sun to shine (8,3s. 872), and made it mount
in the sky (1, 7s). He gained the sun (1, ioo6- lS; 3, 349) or found it in the
darkness in which it abode (3, 39s) and made a path for it (10, iix3).

Indra produces the dawn as well as the sun (2, 127. 214; 3, 3115; 32s.
494). He has made the dawns and the sun to shine (3, 442). He has

opened the darkness with the dawn and the sun (1, 62s). He steals the

dawn with the sun (2, 20s). The cows which are mentioned along with
sun and dawn (1, 62s; 2, 127; 6, 175) or with the sun alone (1, 7s; 2, 193;
3, 349; 6, 17s. 322; 10, 1382) as found, delivered, or won by Indra, probably
do not so much represent the waters25 or rainclouds, as the morning beams
(S 61) or, according to Bergaigne (BRV. i, 245) and others, the red clouds
of dawn. The waters are probably meant by the ruddy watery ( apya ) cows
(9, 1086), but the morning beams or clouds in the following passages. The
dawns on seeing Indra went to meet him, when he became the lord of the
cows (3, 3 14). When he overcame Vrtra he made visible the cows (dhenah)
of the nights (3, 34s cp. BRV. 2, 200). Dawn is in some passages spoken of
in expressions reminding of the Manning of the cows. Thus ‘Dawn opens the
darkness as cows their stall’ (1, 924). Dawn opens the doors of the firm rock
(7, 794)- The cows low towards the dawns (7, 757). The Angirases burst
open the cowstalls of Usas on the heights (6, 65s). The dawn is sometimes

said to have been produced along with the sun in the same passages in

which the conquest of the waters is celebrated (i,321-2- 4; 6,30s; 10, i381-2).
Thus there appears to be a confusion between the notion of the restoration
of the sun after the darkness of the thunderstorm and the recovery of the
sun from the darkness of night at dawn. The latter trait is in the Indra
myth most probably only an extension of the former.

Indra’s activity in the thunderstorm is sometimes more directly expressed.
Thus he is said to have created the lightnings of heaven (2, 137) and to have
directed the action of the waters downwards (2, 175).

With the Vrtra fight, with the winning of the cows and of the sun, is

62 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

also connected that of Soma. When Indra drove the dragon from the air, fires,
the sun, and Soma, Indra’s juice, shone forth (8, 320j. After his victory over
the demon, he chose Soma for his drink (3, 36s). After he conquered the
demons, Soma became his own property ( 7 , 9 8 ; he became the king of the
Soma mead (6, 2 0-5). Indra disclosed the juice pressed with stones and
drove out the cows (3, 44s). He won Soma at the same time as the cows
(1, 3212). He found in heaven the hidden nectar (6, 442-1). He found the
honey accumulated in the ruddy cow ( usriydyam: 3, 396). The raw cow goes
with ripe milk, in the ruddy cow is accumulated all sweetness, which Indra
placed there for enjoyment (3, 3014). Indra places ripe milk in the cows
(8, 3 2 25), which are raw (8,78?) black or red (1,629), and for which he opens
the gates (6, 176). These passages seem to have primarily at least a mytho-
logical reference to rainclouds, as the context in most cases describes the
great cosmical actions of Indra.

Indra is said to have settled the quaking mountains and plains (2, 122;
10, 44s). In a later text Indra is said to have cut off the wings of the
mountains, which originally alighted wherever they pleased and thus made the
earth unsteady. The wings became the thunder clouds (MS. 1, 1013). This
is a favourite myth in post-Vedic literature. Pischel (VS. 1, 174) traces its
origin to a verse of the RV. (4, 54s). Indra also fixed the bright realms of
the sky (8, 149). He supported the earth and propped the sky (2, 17S&C.).
He holds asunder heaven and earth as two wheels are kept apart by the
axle (10,89+). He stretches out heaven and earth (8,3s) like a hide (8,6s).
He is the generator of heaven and earth (8, 36+ cp. 6, 474). He generated
that which is and shall be by his great secret name (10, 55s) and made the non-
existent into the existent in a moment (6, 24S). The separation and supporting
of heaven and earth are sometimes described as the result of Indra’s victory-
over a demon (5,2 94), who held them together (8,6I?). When he was born
for the Vrtra fight, Indra spread out the earth and fixed the sky (8, 78s).
The dragon-slayer made earth visible to heaven, when he opened a path for
the streams (2, 135). Similarly he is said to have found heaven and earth
which were hidden (8, 8 5 i69 or to have won them along with light and waters
(3, 348). Possibly the effect of light extending the range of vision and seeming
to separate heaven and earth apparently pressed together by darkness, may
have been the starting point of such conceptions.

Indra, the wielder of the thunderbolt, who destroys the aerial demons
in battle, is constantly invoked by warriors (4, 243 &c.). As the great god
of battle he is more frequently called upon than any other deity as the
helper of the Aryans in their conflicts with earthly enemies. He protects the
Aryan colour and subjects the black skin (3, 349; 1, 1308). He dispersed
50000 of the black race and rent their citadels (4, 1613). He subjected the
Dasyus to the Aryan (6, 183) and gave land to the Aryan (4,26s). He turns
away from the Arya the weapon of the Dasyu in the land of the seven rivers
(8, 24s?). Other deities are only occasionally referred to as protectors of
the Aryas, as the Asvins (1, 11721), Agni (8,92'), or the gods in general
(6, 2111).

More generally Indra is spoken of as the one compassionate helper
(1, 8419; 8, 5513. 691), as the deliverer and advocate of his worshippers
(8,852°), as their strength (7,31 3), and as a wall of defence (8, 69?). His friend
is never slain or conquered (10, 1521). Indra is very often called the friend
of his worshippers27, sometimes even a brother (3, 5 35), a father (4, 1717;
10, 48 ‘) or a father and mother in one (8, 87 12). He was also the friend of
the fathers in the olden time (6, 2i8cp. 7,33+), and the epithet Kausika which

Atmospheric Gods. 22. Indra.

63

he once receives (1,10”), implies that he particularly favoured the family of
the Kusikas28. Indra does not desire the friendship of him who offers
no libations (10, 424). But he bestows goods and wealth on the pious
man (2, 194. 22s; 7, 27s), and is implored not to be diverted by other
» worshippers (2, 18s &c.)29. All men share his benefits (8, 547). Both his
hands are full of riches (7, 37 s). He is a treasury filled with wealth
(10, 42 2). He can shower satisfying wealth on his worshippers as a
man with a hook shakes down ripe fruit from a tree (3, 454). Gods and
mortals can no more stop him wishing to give than a terrific bull (8,
70s). He is an ocean of riches (1, 511), and all the paths of wealth lead
to him as the rivers to the sea (6,19s). One entire hymn in particular (10,47)
dwells on the manifold wealth which Indra bestows. Cows and horses are
the goods which Indra, like other gods, is most often asked to bestow (1,16'.
1014 &c.), and it is chiefly to him that the epithet gopciti, ‘lord of cows’ is
applied. His combats are frequently called gavisti , literally ‘desire of cows’
(8,24s &c.) and his gifts are considered the result of victories (4, 1 7 IO- 11 &c. :
cp. BRV. 2, 178). Indra also bestows wives (4, 1710) and male children
(i,53s&c.). His liberality is so characteristic that the very frequent attribute
niag/iavaji, ‘bountiful’ is almost entirely monopolized by him in the RV. (cp.
p. 48) and in post-Vedic literature remains his exclusive epithet. The epithet
vasupati, ‘lord of wealth’, is also predominantly applicable to Indra.

Though the main myth concerning Indra is his combat with Vrtra,
various other stories attached themselves to him as the performer of heroic
deeds. Some passages describe Indra as coming into conflict with Usas. He
struck down the wain (anas) of Dawn (10, 736). He shattered the wain of
Usas with his bolt and rent her slow (steeds) with his swift (mares: 2, 156).
Terrified at the bolt of Indra, Usas abandoned her wain (xo, 138s). Indra
performed the heroic manly exploit of striking and crushing the female medi-
tating evil, Usas, the daughter of the sky; her wain lay shattered in the river
Vipas and Usas fled away in terror (4, 308--'1). The obscuration of the
dawn by a thunderstorm is usually regarded as the basis of this myth.
Against such an interpretation Bergaigne urges that it is not Indra who
obscures the sky but a demon, and that the application of the bolt, Indra’s
characteristic weapon, need not be restricted to the Vrtra-fight. He concludes
that the sunrise overcoming the delaying dawn (cp. 2, 156; 5, 79°) is here
conceived as a victory of Indra bringing the suns°.

Indra comes in conflict with the sun in the obscure myth about a race
run between the swift steed Etasa, who draws a car, and the sun drawn by

his yellow steeds. The sun being ahead is hindered by Indra. His car

loses a wheel, a loss which in some way seems to have been caused by
Indra (§ 60 D). With this myth is probably connected the statement that Indra
stopped the tawny steeds of the sun (10, 92s). Indra is also associated with
the myth of the rape of Soma. For it is to him that the eagle brings the

draught of immortality (§ 37). Another myth which is not often mentioned

and the details of which chiefly occur in a single hymn (10, 108) is that of
the capture by Indra of the cows of the Panis (§67). These demons, who
here seem to be the mythical representatives of the niggards who withhold
cows from the pious sacrificer, possess herds of cows which they keep hidden
in a cave far away beyond the Rasa, a mythical river. Sarama, Indra’s
messenger, tracks the cows and asks for them in Indra’s name, but is mocked
by the Panis. In another passage (6,39*) Indra desiring the cows around the
rock is said to have pierced Yala’s unbroken ridge and to have overcome
the Panis. Elsewhere the cows are spoken of as confined by the demon

64 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

Vala without reference to the Panis, and driven out by Indra (2,i23; 3,3o10).
In various passages the Angirases are associated with Indra in piercing Vala,
shattering his strongholds, and releasing the cows (§ 54).

Fragmentary references, often in enumerations, are frequently made to
the victory of Indra over Dasas or Dasyus. These are primarily human foes
whose skin is black (1, i3oHcp. 2, 207), who are noseless (5, 2910), are god-
less and do not sacrifice. Though mythological elements are no doubt largely
mingled in the account of his victory over individual Dasas, the foundation
of these myths seems to be terrestrial and human. For while Vrtra is slain
for the good of man in general, individual human beings are mentioned for
whom or with whom Indra overcame the Dasa or Dasas. These proteges
of Indra are not as a rule ancestors of priests but are princes or warriors
who seem to have been historical. Thus Divodasa Atithigva3* is the father
of the famous king Sudas, his Dasa foe being Sambara, the son of Kulitara
(S 69 B). But when the term dasa is applied to the dragon {a hi), from whom
Indra wrests the waters (2, n2) or to the three-headed six-eyed monster
whom Trita combats (10, 996) or to Vyamsa who struck off Indra’s jaws
(4, 189), it unmistakably designates regular demons. An account of Namuci
and other Dasas vanquished by Indra will be found in the chapter on demons.

A myth which seems to have no general significance but to be simply
the invention of a later poet of the RV., is that of Indra and Vrsakapi, the
details of which are given somewhat obscurely in RV. xo, 86. This hymn
describes a dispute between Indra and his wife Indram about the monkey
Vrsakapi, who is the favourite of the former and has damaged the property
of the latter. Vrsakapi is soundly threshed and escapes, but afterwards returns,
when a reconciliation takes place, v. Bradke considers the story a satire,
in which under the names of Indra and Indran! a certain prince and his
wife are intended32.

Among stories preserving historical traits is that of Indra having safely
brought Turvasa and Yadu across the rivers (x, 1749 &c.). They are the
eponymous heroes of two closely connected Aryan tribes, which are, however,
sometimes mentioned by the poets in a hostile sense. This varying attitude
is a tolerably sure indication of historical matter. Here the national warrior
god appears as the patron of Aryan migrations. In another passage Indra
is said with Susravas to have crushed twenty chiefs and their 60099 warriors
with fatal chariot wheel. The accounts of the conflicts of king Sudas have
all the appearence of a historical character. Thus Indra is said to have
helped him in the battle of the ten kings (7, 333), to have aided him in
answer to the prayers of his priests the Trtsus (among whom Vasistha is
prominent), and to have drowned his foes in the river Parusnl (7, i89- I3).

Finally, a hymn of the RV. (8, 80) relates how a maiden named Apala
having found Soma beside a river and having pressed it with her teeth, de-
dicates it to Indra who approaches and from whom she receives as a reward
the fulfilment of certain desires33.

Regarded as a whole the attributes of Indra are chiefly those of physical
superiority and of dominion over the physical world. Energetic action is
characteristic of him, while passive sway is distinctive of Varuna. Indra is a
universal monarch, not as the applier of the eternal laws of the universe nor
as a moral ruler, but as an irresistible warrior whose mighty arm wins victory,
whose inexhaustible liberality bestows the highest goods on mankind, and who
delighting in the exhileration of magnificent Soma sacrifices, confers rich re-
wards on the hosts of priests officiating in his worship. The numerous
hymns which celebrate him dwell on these features in more or less stereo-

Atmospheric Gods. 22. Indra.

65

typed terms and are seldom free from references to the Soma offering. He
is not usually described as possessing the moral elevation and grandeur of
Varuna. There are, however, several passages which ascribe to Indra actions
characteristic of Varuna 34. There are also a few, mostly in the later books,
in which an ethical character is attributed to him and faith in him is con-
fessed or enjoined (1, 55s &c.), faith in the reality of his existence being
sometimes expressed as against the disbelief of sceptics (2, 12S &.)35. Once
he is said in a late passage of the RV. to have attained heaven by austere
fervour (10, 1671 cp .1594).

To the more intense anthropomorphism of Indra’s nature are doubtless
due certain sensual and immoral traits which are at variance with the moral
perfection elsewhere attributed to him and essential to the character of the
Vedic gods. This incongruity cannot be accounted for by different passages
representing chronologically different stages in the development of his char-
acter, for it is apparent in the words of the same poet, sometimes even in
the same verse. It is chiefly connected with his excessive fondness for Soma.
In one passage (8, 67 s- 6) he is said to hear and see everything, viewing
the zeal of mortals, and in the next verse his belly is described as full of the
vigorous draught. One entire hymn (10, 119) consists of a monologue in
which Indra is intoxicated with Soma, boasting of his greatness and capricious
power. It is even indicated that he once suffered from the effects of ex-
cessive drinking (§ 69). His love of Soma is even represented as having
driven him to parricide (4, 1812). In judging morally of Indra’s immoderate
indulgence in Soma, it must be borne in mind that the exhilaration of Soma
partook of a religious character in the eyes of the Vedic poets and that the
intoxicating influence of Soma itself led to its being regarded as the drink
of immortality. It is probably from the latter point of view that Indra is
conceived as having performed his grandest cosmical feats, such as fixing
heaven and earth, under the influence of Soma (2, 152). And the evident
sympathy of the poets with the effect of Soma on the god but reflects the
moral standard to the age. Amorous adventures, on the other hand, are
entirely absent from the exploits of Indra in the RV. and there is hardly a
trace of such even in the Brahmanas, except that he is spoken of as the
paramour of Ahalya the wife of Gautama36. It is only natural that the
poetry of the Soma offering should have dwelt on the thirsty aspect of his
nature.

It has been maintained by Roth37 followed by Whitney (JAOS. 3, 327) !
that the preeminence of Varuna as belonging to an older order of gods was
in the course of the Rigvedic period transferred to Indra. This view is based
partly on the fact that not a single entire hymn in the tenth book is addressed
to Varuna, while Indra is celebrated in forty-five. There are, however, two
hymns (126, 185) of book X, in which Varuna is lauded with two other
Adityas, and in many single verses of that book Varuna is invoked or re-
ferred to along with other deities. The argument from the number of hymns
is not very cogent, as in all the earlier books of the RV. far more hymns
are addressed to Indra than to Varuna. In book III no hymn is devoted to
Varuna but 22 to Indra, and in book II there is only one to Varuna and
23 to Indra. Moreover, these two books added together are considerably
shorter than the tenth alone. ' It is, however, true that Varuna is much less
frequently mentioned in the last book than in the earlier books of the RV.
Beyond this fact there seems to be no direct and decisive proof of the super-
session of Varuna by Indra during the composition of the RV. One hymn
(4, 42) of the earlier part, describing in the form of a dialogue the rivalry

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1 A. 5

66 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

between Indra and Varuna lias, however, been regarded (GKR. 27) as char-
acteristically indicating a transition from an older period in the relative im-
portance of the two gods. The conclusion is perhaps hardly justified by the
statements of another (cp. GRY. 2, 401) of the last book (10, 12 4) 3®. At
the same time it must be remembered that on the one hand Varuna seems
to have occupied a more important position than Indra in the Indo-Iranian
period, while on the other, Indra in the Brahmanas (AB. 8, 12) and in the
epics has become chief of the Indian heaven and even maintains this posi-
tion under the Puranic triad Brahma- Visnu-Siva, though of course subordinate
to them3^. Varuna meanwhile had become divested of his supreme powers
by the time of the AV. (p. 26). Thus there must have been at least a
gradually increasing popularity of Indra even in the Rigvedic age. By Benfey
(00. 1, 48) and Br£al (Hercule et Cacus 101) Indra in the Vedas is con-
sidered rather to have superseded the ancient Dyaus. This may perhaps
with greater probability be maintained with regard to the Indo-Iranian Trita
Aptya. For Trita though rarely mentioned in the RV. is there described as
performing the same exploits as Indra, occasionally appearing even as the
more important personage in the myth (§ 23).

The name of Indra occurs only twice in the Avesta40. Beyond the fact
of his being no god, but only a demon, his character there is uncertain41.
Indra’s distinctive Vedic epithet vrtrahan also occurs in the Avesta in the
form of verethraghna, which is, however, unconnected with Indra or the
thunderstorm myth, designating merely the God of Victory42. Thus it is
probable that the Indo-Iranian period possessed a god approaching to the Vedic
form of the Vrtra-slaying Indra. It is even possible that beside the thundering
god of heaven, the Indo-European period may have known as a distinct con-
ception a thundergod gigantic in size, a mighty eater and drinker, who slays
the dragon with his lightning bolt4-3. The etymology44 of Indra is doubtful,
but that the root is connected with that in indu , drop, seems likely.

1 ZDMG. 32, 296 — 7; WZKM. 9, 232. — 2 HVM. 1, 44, note. — 3 ZDMG.

I, 67. — ■ 4 IIVM. 1, 119. — 5 Rotil on Nir. 5, 11; KHF. 138 — 9. — ° SB. 5, 5,49;
12, 7, I11; TS. 2, 3, 2, cp. HVM. 1, 266; Zimmer, Ail. 275. — 7 HVM. 238. —

8 PVS. 2, 242 — 53; I.ang, Myth, Ritual and Religion 1, 183; 2, 1136 244. —

9 1JVS. 2, 249. — Ibid. 2, 51 — 4; Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 183. — 11 BRV 3,
58—62; PVS. 1, 44. — »2 Ibid. 1, 211. — J3 Cp. ibid. 2, 38, note 1. — '4 Bloom-
field, ZDMG. 48, 549—51. — '5 Ibid. 548. — l(> Macdonell, JRAS. 25,470 — 1;
27, 475- — *7 Rid. 27, 175. — 18 HRI. 92. — 19 Other passages 1, 804- *4; 2, 134;

4, z62 ; 8, 3 ‘9- so. 61; 10, 928. 1249; AV. 13,441. — 20 HVM. 1, 313. — 21 Zimmer,
Ail 42. — 22 Also Kathaka IS. 12, 161 ; JRAS. 27, 181. — 2 3 ZDMG. 8, 460. —
24 Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 472. — 25 OST. 5, 91 — 2. — 26 Aufrecht, ZDMG. 13,
497; BRV. 1, 259; KRV. 42 (raincloud). — 27 OST. 5, 104—5. — 28 OST. 5, 348 — 9.
29 OST. 5, 106—7. — 3° BRV. 2, 193; cp. Sonne, KZ. 10, 416 — 7; MM. Chips 2,
91 f . ; ORV. 169; HRI. 77, note. — 3* BRV. 2, 209; IIVM. 1, 96. 107. — 32 ZDMG.
46, 465 cp. ORV. 172 — 4. — 33 Aifrecht, IS. 4, I — 8; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39,
76 — 7. — 34 BRV. 3, 143. — 35 OST. 5, 103 — 4. — 36 Weber, Sitzungsberichte
der Berliner Akad. 1887, p. 903. — 37 ZDMG. 6, 73; PW. ; cp. BRI. 27. — 38 ORV.
95 — 7; OST. 5, 121 — 6. — 39 ZDMG. 6, 77; 25, 31. — 4° Spiegel, Av. Tr. Ill,
lxxxi; Sp.AP. 195; OST. 5, 121, note 212. — 41 Darmesteter, SBE. IV2, lxxii;
IIillebrandt, ZDMG. 48, 422. — 42 Sp.AP. 195. — 43 ORV. 34, note 1; 134;
v. Schroder, WZKM. 9, 230. — 44 YN. 10, 8; Sayana on RV. 1, 34; Benfey,
OO. 1, 49; Roth, PW. ; MM., LSL. (1891)2,543, note; OGR. 218; AR. 396; OST.

5, 119, note. 208; GW.; BB. 1,342; BRV. 2, 166; Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 505 — 7;
Jacobi, KZ. 31, 316; IF. 3, 235.

KHF. 8; Roth, ZDMG. 1, 72; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 319—21; Delbruck, ZVP.
1865, 277-9; OST. 5> 77— 139; 4, 99— 108; LRV. 3, 317; KRV. 40— 7; BRI. 12—3;
BRV. 2, 159—96; Perry, Indra in the Rigveda, JAOS. 11, 117 — 208; Hillebrandt,

J. iteraturblatt f. Or. l’hilol. 1884 — 5, p. 108; Die Sonnwendfeste in Altindien (1889),
16; Sp. AP. 194—7; HVBP. 60 — 80; ORV. 134—75; ZDMG. 49, 174 — 5; HRI.
91 — 6; v. Schroder, WZKM. 9, 230—4.

Atmospheric Gods. 23. Trita Aptya.

67

§ 23. Trita Aptya. — Trita Aptya is not celebrated in any entire
hymn of the RV. but is only incidentally mentioned there in forty passages
occurring in twenty-nine hymns. The epithet Aptya accompanies or alternates
with Trita seven times in four hymns of the RV. (1, 109; 5, 41; 8, 47;
10, 8). He is oftenest mentioned or associated with Indra; he is seven times
connected or identified with Agni, is several times spoken of with the Maruts,
and ten times with Soma either as the beverage or the deity. Trita is
mentioned alone as having rent Vrtra by the power of the Soma draught
(1, 1871).

The Maruts aided Trita and Indra in the victory over Vrtra (8, 7 24).
Such action must have been regarded as characteristic of Trita, for it is
mentioned as an illustration. When Indra in the Vrtra fight strove against
the withholder of rain, he cleft him as Trita cleaves the fences of Vala (1,
5 24* 5). So again the man who is aided by Indra- Agni, pierces rich strong-
holds like Trita (5, 861). Trita Aptya knowing his paternal weapons and
urged by Indra fought against and slew the three-headed son of Tvastr and
released the cows (10, 8s). In the following stanza Indra performs exactly
the same feat; for he strikes off the three heads of Visvarupa the son of
Tvastr and takes possession of the cows. Indra (or perhaps Agni) subdued
the loudly roaring three-headed six-eyed demon and Trita strengthened by
his might slew the boar (i. e. the demon, cp. 1, 12111) with iron-pointed bolt
(10, 990). Here the feat performed by the two gods is again identical. Indra
produced cows for Trita from the dragon (10, 4s2). Indra delivered over
Visvarupa the son of Tvastr to Trita (2, n‘9). Indra strengthened by the
Soma-pressing Trita, cast down Arbuda and with the Angirases rent Vala
(2, 1120). When the mighty Maruts go forth and the lightnings flash, Trita
thunders and the waters roar (5, 542). In two obscure passages of a Marut
hymn (2, 34) the bright path of the Maruts is said to shine forth when Trita
appears (v. 10) and Trita seems to be conceived as bringing the Maruts on
his car (v. 14). In an Agni hymn the winds are said to have found Trita,
instructing him to help them (10, 1154). The flames of Agni rise when Trita
in the sky blows upon him like a smelter and sharpens him as in a smelting
furnace (5,9s). Trita eagerly seeking him (Agni) found him on the head of
the cow; he when born in houses becomes as a youth the centre of bright-
ness, establishing himself in dwellings. Trita enveloped (in flames) seated
himself within his place (10, 463-6). Trita is spoken of as in heaven (5,9s).
His abode is secret (9, 1022). It is remote; for the Adityas and Usas are
prayed to remove ill deeds and evil dreams to Trita Aptya (8, 47*3- ^ 7). It
seems to be in the region of the sun. For the poet says: ‘Where those seven
rays are, there my origin is extended; Trita Aptya knows that; he speaks for
kinship’: which seems to mean that he claims kinship with it (1, 1059). In
the same hymn (v. 17) Trita is described as buried in a well ( kiipe ) and
praying to the gods for help; Brhaspati heard him and released him from
his distress. In another passage (10, 8?) Trita within a pit ( vavre ) prays to
his father and goes forth claiming his paternal weapons; and in the next
stanza (10, 88) he fights with Visvarupa. Indra is said to drink Soma beside
Visnu, Trita Aptya, or the Maruts (8, 1216) and to delight in a hymn of
praise beside Trita (Val. 41). In the ninth book, doubtless owing to its
peculiar character, Trita appears in the special capacity of a preparer of
Soma, a feature alluded to only once in the rest of the RV. (2, 1120).
Soma is purified by Trita (9, 344). Trita’s maidens (the fingers) urge the
tawny drop with stones for Indra to drink (9, 322. 38s). Soma occupies the
secret place near the two pressing stones of Trita (9, 1022) and is besought

68 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

to bring wealth in a stream on the ridges ( prsthesu ) of Trita (9, 102*). Soma
caused the sun along with the sisters to shine on the summit ( sanu ) of Trita
(9) 374)- They press out the stalk, the bull that dwells on the mountains,
who, like a buffalo, is purified on the summit; hymns accompany him as he
roars; Trita cherishes (him who is like) Varuna in the ocean (9, 954). When
Soma pours the mead, he calls up the name of Trita (9, 8620).

There are several passages from which little or nothing can be gathered
as to Trita’s original nature. Thus his name occurs in some enumerations
which furnish no information (2, 3 1 6; 5, 414; 10, 643). In two other verses
(5, 4i9- IO) the interpretation is uncertain, as the text seems to be corrupt.
In one passage in the middle of a Varuna hymn Trita is described as one
in whom all wisdom is centred, as the nave in the wheel (8,4i6). In another
passage Trita is said to have harnessed a celestial steed fashioned from the
sun and given by Yama, this steed being in the following stanza said to be
identical with Yama, the Sun, and with Trita ‘by secret operation’ (i,i632-3).
The half dozen passages of the AV. 1 which mention Trita, add no definite
information about him. They suggest only the idea of a remote god, to
whom guilt or dream is transferred (1, ii31,3; 19, 564). The TS. (1, 8, io2)
describes Trita as a bestower of long life. This is no doubt a secondary
trait2 accruing to Trita as the preparer of Soma, the draught of immortality.
The Brahmanas speak of Trita as one of three deities, the ( other two being
Ekata and Dvita, sons of Agni and born from the waters (SB. 1, 2, 3'- 2; TB.
3, 2, 8IQ- "). Sayana on RV. 1, 105 quotes a story of the Satyayanins, in
which the same three brothers are Rsis, Trita being cast into a well by the
other two. It is clear that here the three names have a numerical sense.
Dvita already occurs in the RV., once along with Trita (8, 47 l6) and once
alone in an Agni hymn (5, 182) and apparently identified with Agni. The
name of Trita is not mentioned in the list of deities in the Naighantuka.
Yaska (Nir. 4, 6) explains the word to mean ‘very proficient in wisdom’
(deriving it from \f tr), or as a numeral referring to the three brothers Ekata,
Dvita, Trita. In another passage (Nir. 9, 25) he explains Trita as ‘Indra in
three abodes’ (i. e. heaven, earth, air).

In examining the evidence of the RV. we find that Indra and Trita in
three or four passages perform the same feat, that of slaying a demon. Trita
in one is impelled by Indra, while in another Indra is inspired by Trita; and
twice Indra is said to have acted for Trita. Further, Trita is associated with
the Maruts in the thunderstorm. Moreover, he finds Agni, kindles Agni in
heaven, and takes up his abode in human dwellings, clearly as a form of
Agni. His abode is remote and hidden, and Soma is there. In the ninth
book Trita as the preparer of Soma diverges more from Indra, who is only
a drinker of Soma. Corresponding to Trita in the Avesta we find Thrita,
who is a man (as Trita becomes in the Indian Epic). He is once (Yasna
9, 10) described as the third man who prepared Haoma (= Soma) for the
corporeal world (Athwya = Aptya being the second) and once (Vend. 20,2)
as the first healer who received from Ahura Mazda ten thousand healing
plants which grow round, the white Haoma, the tree of immortality. Thrita
is also called the son of Sayuzhdri in two passages (Yasht 5, 72; 13, 113) in
one of which he is said to have dwelt in Apam napat (as a locality on earth)3.
This shows that Trita was connected with Soma as early as the Indo-Iranian
period. The other side of Trita’s activity, the slaughter of the three-headed
six-eyed demon or dragon we find in the Avesta transferred to a cognate
personage, Thraetaona, who slays the fiendish serpent (Azi da/iaka), the three-
mouthed, three-headed, six-eyed demon. It is noteworthy that Thraetaona in

Atmospheric Gods. 24. Apam napat.

69

his expedition against Dahaka is accompanied by two brothers who seek to
slay him on the way4. The word tritd phonetically corresponds to the Greek
xpiro;5, the third. That it was felt to have the meaning of ‘the third’, is
shown by the occurrence beside it of Dvita in the RV. and by the invention
of Ekata beside these two in the Brahmanas. The collocation of trim, three,
with Trita (RV. 9, 1023; AV. 5, i1) points in the same direction. Finally,
it is highly probable that in one passage of the RV. (6, 4423)0 the word trita
in the plural means ‘third’.

Trita’s regular epithet Aptya seems to be derived from dp, water, and
hence to be practically equivalent in sense to Apam napat7. Sayana (on
RV. 8, 47 IS) explains it as ‘son ( putra ) of waters’. Another epithet of Trita,
raibhuvasa , which is formed like a patronymic and only occurs once (10,
46 3) may be connected -with Soma8.

The above evidence may perhaps justify the conclusion that Trita was
a god of lightning, the third or aerial form of fire, originally the middle
member of the triad Agni, Vayu or Indra, Surya. By a process of natural
selection Indra seems to have ousted this god originally almost identical in
character with himself, with the result that Trita occupies but an obscure
position even in the RV. If this interpretation be correct, Trita’s original
connexion with Soma would signify the bringing of Soma from heaven by
lightning (as in the Soma-eagle myth: § 37). The paucity of the evidence
has led to many divergent views9. Only some of these need be mentioned
here. Roth (ZDMG. 2, 224) considered Trita a water and wind god. Hille-
brandt10 regards him as a deity of the bright sky. Perry believes him to
be a god of the storm, older than Indra11. Pischel who formerly (PVS. 1,
186) thought him to be ‘a god of the sea and of the waters’ has recently
(GGA. 1894, p.428) expressed the opinion that Trita was originally a human
healer who was later deified. Hardy thinks Trita is a moon god12.

1 See Whitney’s AV. Index verborum, s. v. Trta. — 2 Otherwise Pischel,
GGA. 1894, p. 427. — 3 Sp. AP. 193. — 4 Sp. AP. 271. — 5 Brugmann, Grundriss 2, 229;
according to Fick, Vergleichendes Worterbuch 14, 63. 229, Trita originally meant
sea. — 0 ORV. 183, n.; cp. Pott, KZ. 4, 441. — 7 Cp. Johansson, IF. 4, 136.
143. — 8 JRAS. 25, 450. — 9 Stated up to date in JRAS. 25, 4, 19 — 23. —

Varuna und Mitra 94—5. — 11 JAOS. 11, 142— 5. — *2 HVBP. 35—8.

Macdonell, The god Trita; JRAS. 25, 419 — 96. To the authorities here
quoted may be added: LRV. 3, 355 — 7; KRV. 33, note 112 d; BRI. 11; BDA. 82,
n. 3; Sp.AP. 262 — 71 ; Bloomfield, AJP. i i, 341 ; PAOS. 1894, cxtx — cxxiii; Ludwig,
Rgveda-Forschung 1 17—9; Fay, PAOS. 1894, CLXxiv; AJP. 17, 13; ORV. 143;
SBE. 46, 406; HRI. 104; Oertel, JAOS. 18, 18—20.

§ 24. Apam napat. — The deity called Apam napat is celebrated in

one whole hymn (2, 35), is invoked in two verses of a hymn to the waters

(10, 30F 4), and is mentioned by name nearly thirty times altogether in the
RV. The waters stood around the brilliant Son of waters; the youthful waters
go around him the youthful; three divine females desire to give food to him
the divine; he sucks the milk of the first mothers (2, 3 5^ sj. He, the bull,
engendered the embryo in them; he the child, sucks and they kiss him
(v. I3); the Son of waters growing strong within the waters, shines forth (v. 7).
He shines without fuel in the waters (v. 4; 10, 3 04). Clothed in lightning
the Son of waters has mounted upright the lap of the slanting (waters);
carrying him the swift (waters) golden in colour go around him (v. 9; cp.
Agni in 1, 95P s). The Son of waters is golden in form, appearance and
colour; coming from a golden womb he sits down and gives food to his
worshipper (v. I0). Standing in the highest place he always shines with un-
dimmed (splendour); the swift waters carrying ghee as food to their son, fiy

70 ITT. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

around with their garments (v. I4). The face of the Son of waters, whom the
maidens kindle, whose colour is golden, and whose food is ghee, increases
in secret (v. “). He has a cow which in his own house gives good milk
(v. 7). Steeds ( vrsanah ) swift as thought carry the son of waters (i, 1865).
The son of waters is connected with rivers {nadya : v. x). The son of waters
has engendered all beings, who are merely branches of him (v. *• 8). In the
last stanza of the Apam napat hymn, the deity is invoked as Agni and must
be identified with him. Conversely Agni is in some hymns addressed to him,
spoken of as Apam napat (cp. VS. 8, 24). Agni is the Son of waters (3,9l).
He is the Son of waters who sat down on earth as a dear priest (1, 1431).
But they are also distinguished. Agni, accordant with the Son of waters,
confers victory over Vrtra (6, 133). The Son of waters unites here with the
body of another as it were (2,35 IJ). The epithet asuheitian, ‘swiftly speeding’1,
applied three times to Apam napat, is in its only other occurrence used
of Agni.

Apam napat is mentioned in various enumerations, especially with Aja
ekapad (2, 3 16; 7, 3513), Ahi budhnya (1, 1 86s ; 2,31s; 7, 3 5 13), and Savitr
(2, 3 16; 6, 5013). The epithet is directly applied to Savitr at least once
(p. 33), perhaps because Savitr represents another fertilizing form of Agni.

Apam napat, who is golden, is clothed in lightning, dwells in the highest
place, grows in concealment, shines forth, is the offspring of the waters,
comes down to earth, and is identified with Agni, appears to represent the
lightning form of Agni which is concealed in the cloud. For Agni, besides
being directly called Apam napat, is also termed the embryo ( garbha ) of the
waters (7, 93; 1, 703). As such he has been deposited in human dwellings
(3, 53), his abode is in the waters (8, 439) and the two fire-sticks engender
Agni who is the embryo both of plants and of waters (3, 113). Agni is also
called the ‘son of the rock’ (10, 207 cp. 6, 48s), which can hardly refer to
anything but the lightning which issues from the cloud mountain. As con-
trasted with his celestial and terrestrial forms, the third form of Agni is de-
scribed as kindled in the waters, the ocean, the udder of heaven, the lap of
the waters (io,451-3). In fact the abode of the celestial Agni in the waters
is one of the best established points in Vedic mythology2. The term Aptya
applied to Trita appears to bear a similar interpretation (§ 23).

Apam napat is not a creation of Indian mythology, but goes back to
the Indo-Iranian period. In the Avesta Apam napat is a spirit of the waters,
who lives in their depths, is surrounded by females and is often invoked
with them, drives with swift steeds, and is said to have seized the brightness
in the depth of the ocean3. Spiegel4 thinks this deity shows indications of
an igneous nature in the Avesta, and Darmesteter considers him to be the
fire-god as born from the cloud in lightning3. L. v. Schroeder agrees with
this view6; some scholars, however, dissent from it. Oldenberg7 is of opinion
that Apam napat was originally a water genius pure and simple, who became
confused with the water-born Agni, a totally different being. His grounds
are, that one of the two hymns in which he is celebrated (10, 30), is con-
nected in the ritual with ceremonies exclusively concerned with water, while
even in 2,35 his aqueous nature predominates8. Hillebrandt?, on the other
hand, followed by Hardy10, thinks Apam napat is the moon, and Max
Muller11 that he is the sun or lightning.

1 Windisch, FaR. 144. — 2 Cp. especially RV. 3, I (GVS. 1, 157—70); also

5» 85s; 7, 494; 10, 96. — 3 Cp. HVM. 1, 377—8. — 4 Sp.AP. 192—3. — 5 SEE.

42, Lxiii; l’Avesta traduit 2,630, note, 3, 82 (cp. Ormazd et Ahriman 34); but see

Hillebrandt, ZDMG. 48, 422. — 6 WZKM. 9, 227—8. — 7 ORV. 118—20, cp.

Atmospheric Gods. 25. Matarisvan. 71

357. — 8 Cp. v. Schroeder, WZKM. 1. c. ; Macdoneei., JRAS. 27, 95s — 6. —
9 HVM. 1,365— 80; ZDMG. 48, 422f. — HVBP-38f. — n Chips, 42, 410; NR. 500.

Riai.le, Revue de l ing. 3, 49 fT. ; Windisciimann in Spiegel’s Zoroastrische
Studien 177—86; Spiegel, Avesta Tr. 3, xix. Liv; GRV. I, 45; BRV. 2, 17 — 19.
36 — 7; 3, 45; Manuel pour etudier le Sanscrit vedique, s. v. apam napat; LRV. 4,
181; GRUrPE, Die griech. Culte 1, S9; BDA. 82, note 2; I.RF. 93; Macdonell,
JRAS. 25, 475 — 6; HRI. 106.

§ 25. Matarisvan. — Matarisvan is not celebrated in any hymn of the
RV., and the name is found there only twenty-seven times, occurring twenty-
one times in the latest portions of that Veda and otherwise only five times
in the third and once in the sixth book. In these six older passages
Matarisvan is always either identified with Agni or is the producer of fire.
Though the myth of Matarisvan is based on the distinction between fire and
a personification which produces it, the analysis of the myth shows these
two to be identical. Nothing even in any of the later books of the RV.,
can be said to show clearly that the conception of Matarisvan prevailing in
the other Vedas and in the post-Vedic period, had begun to appear in
that Veda.

Matarisvan is a name of Agni in three passages (3, 59. 2 62; 1, 96 4).
This is probably also the case where the name occurs in the vocative at the
end of an Agni hymn (9, 88 19). In another verse, where an etymological
explanation of the name is given, he is spoken of as one of the forms of
Agni: ‘As heavenly germ he is called Tanunapat, he becomes Narasamsa
when he is bom; when as Matarisvan he was fashioned in his mother (ami-
mita matari-. cp. 1, 141s), he became the swift flight of wind’ (3, 29”). It
is further said elsewhere: ‘One being the wise call variously: they speak of
Agni, Yama, Matarisvan’ (1, 16446). Once Matarisvan is also a form of
Brhaspati, who is several times identified with Agni (§ 36): ‘That Brhaspati
appeared (sam abhavat) at the rite as Matarisvan’ (1, 1902).

Elsewhere Matarisvan is distinguished from Agni. ‘He (Agni ) being
born in the highest heavens appeared to Matarisvan’ (1, 1432). ‘Agni first
appeared to Matarisvan and Vivasvat; the two worlds trembled at the choosing
of the priest’ (1,31 3). ‘Agni being the highest of the luminaries has supported
with his flame the firmament, when Matarisvan kindled the oblation-bearer
who was concealed’ (3,5 IO). This verse follows one in which Agni is directly
called Matarisvan. The only explanation of such a discrepancy in contiguous
verses of the same hymn, seems to be that the name of a specific personi-
fication of Agni in the latter verse is used as an epithet of the generic Agni
in the former. Matarisvan brought to Bhrgu as a gift the glorious offerer,
the banner of the sacrificial gathering, the messenger who has two births
(1, 601). Matarisvan brought the one (Agni) from the sky, the eagle wrested
the other (Soma) from the rock (1, 936). Matarisvan brought Agni the
adorable priest, the dweller in heaven (3, 2^). Matarisvan (and) the gods
fashioned Agni, whom the Bhrgus produced, as the first adorable (priest) for
man (10, 46?). Him, the god, Matarisvan has brought from afar for man
(1, 1282). Matarisvan, the messenger of Vivasvat, brought hither from afar
Agni Vaisvanara, whom the mighty seized in the lap of the waters (6, 84).
Matarisvan brought from afar the hidden Agni, produced by friction, from
the gods (3, 95). Matarisvan produced by friction the hidden Agni (1, 1413).
Agni was produced with friction by Matarisvan and was set up in human
abodes (1, 714. 1481). Indra produced cows for Trita from the dragon and
delivered the cowstalls to Dadhyanc (and) Matarisvan (10, 48s).

There are a few obscure passages in late hymns which hardly shed any
further light on the character of Matarisvan. In two of these he seems to

72 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

be regarded ras purifying and enjoying Soma (9, 6731; 10, 1141); and in
another, he is mentioned in an enumeration of Fathers beside whom Indra
drank Soma (Val. 42). Indra is once compared with him as with a skilful
artificer (10, 1056), probably in allusion to Matarisvan’ s skill in producing
Agni (cp. 10, 469, where the same verb taks is used). This notion of skill
is probably also present in a verse of the wedding hymn (10, 8 547), where
Matarisvan is invoked along with other deities to join the hearts of two
lovers (cp. Tvastr, § 38). Finally, in a very obscure verse (10, 1091) Matari-
svan is spoken of as ‘boundless’ and ‘wandering’ (sa/i/a, an adjective several
times used with vata in the AV.), attributes which possibly already represent
the conception of Matarisvan to be found in later times.

Matarisvan would thus appear to be a personification of a celestial form
of Agni, who at the same time is thought of as having like Prometheus
brought down the hidden fire from heaven to earth. Hardly anything but
lightning can be his natural basis. This would account for his being the
messenger of Vivasvat from heaven to earth (6,84), just as Agni himself
is a messenger of Vivasvat (§ 35) between the two worlds1. In the AV.
Matarisvan is still found as a mystic name of Agni (AV. 10, 839- 4°); but
generally in that (AV. 12, iSl &c.) and other Samhitas, the Brahmanas and
all the subsequent literature, the name is a designation of wind. The transition
to this conception is to be found in a passage already quoted (3, 2911):
‘Agni, when as Matarisvan he was formed in his mother, became the swift
flight of wind’2, and Agni in the air as a raging serpent is elsewhere com-
pared with the rushing wind (1, 791). Such a statement might easily have
been taken later to interpret Matarisvan as the wind.

The word matarisvan, which is without a cognate in any other Indo-
European language, has every appearance of being a purely Indian compound
(like mataribhvari, rjisvan , durgrbhis'van). The Rigvedic poet’s explanation
of the name as ‘he who is formed in his mother’ can hardly be dismissed
as an etymological conceit, since the word in all likelihood dates from a
contemporary phase of language. It probably means ‘growing in his mother’
( Y su, to swell, from which we have s'is'u, child, and other derivatives) 3, Agni
being also said to grow ( Yvrdh ) in his mothers (1, 1415). There is a change
of accent from the second to the third syllable, probably due to the influence
of numerous words in -van (like prataritvan). By the mother either the
lower aram or the thundercloud might be meant; but the latter is the more
probable, as Matarisvan comes from heaven. Yaska (Nir. 7, 26), who regards
Matarisvan as a designation of Vayu, analyzes the compound into nidtari
(= antarikse) and s'van (from s’vas to breathe or asu an to breathe quickly),
so as to mean the wind that breathes in the air.

1 ORV. 122, n. 1 thinks the frequently expressed opinion that Matarisvan is
nothing but a form of Agni, has no sure foundation, and regards Matarisvan
simply as the Prometheus of the RV. ; cp. ORV. 108, n. 1, and SBE. 46, 123. —

2 Cp. BRV. 1, 27; BDA. 51; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 306. — 3 Cp. Whitney,
Sanskrit Roots p. 176; Roth, Nirukta hi — 3; Weber, IS. 1, 416; Reuter, KZ.
31. 544— 5-

KHF. 8. 14; Muir, JRAS. 20, 416, note; OST. 5,204, note; Schwartz, KZ. 20,210;
GW. s. v.; BRV. 1, 52 — 7; BRI. 9; KRV. 35; HVBP. iio; Eggeling, SBE. 12, 186,
note 2; ORV. 122 — 3.

§ 26. Ahi budhnya. — The serpent of the Deep, Ahi budhnya, whose
name is mentioned solely in hymns to the Visvedevas, is spoken of only
twelve times in the RV. and hardly ever alone. He is associated five times
with Aja ekapad, three times with Apam napat, three times with the ocean
(■ samudra), and twice with Savitr. There are only three verses (5, 41 l6;

Atmospheric Gods. 26. Ahi budhnya. 27. Aja ekapad.

73

7, 34l6, I?) in which he is invoked alone. When only one other deity is
referred to with him, it is either Apam napat (1, 1865) or Aja ekapad (10,
644). When Ahi budhnya and Aja ekapad are mentioned together in the
same verse, they are always (with the slight exception of 10, 6611) in juxta-
position. The most characteristic enumerations in which the name is invoked
are: Aja ekapad, Ahi budhnya, the ocean, Apam napat, Prsni (7, 3513); Ahi
budhnya, Aja ekapad, Trita, Rbhuksan, Savitr, Apam napat (2, 316); the ocean,
the" stream, the space {rajas), the air, Aja ekapad, the thundering flood, Ahi
budhnya, and all the gods (10, 66”). Judged by these associates Ahi
budhnya would seem to be an atmospheric deity, and he is enumerated in
the Naighantuka (5, 4) among the divinities of the middle or aerial region.
But it is only where he is mentioned alone that anything more definite than
this can be gathered. In the verse which gives most information about him,
the poet exclaims: ‘I praise with songs the serpent born in water {abjdm),
sitting in the bottom ( badhne ) of the streams in the spaces’ (7, 3416; cp. 10,
935). This indicates that he dwells in the atmospheric ocean, and Yaska
explains budhna as air (Nir. 10, 44). In the verse immediately following he

is besought not to give his worshippers over to injury, and these identical

words are addressed to him in another passage also (5, 4116). This suggests
that there is something hurtful in his nature. Ahi is otherwise a term com-
monly applied to Vrtra (§ 68), and Vrtra enclosing the waters is described
as overflowed by the waters or lying in them (ibid.) or at the bottom ( budhna )
of the air (1, 52s). Agni in the space of air is called a raging ahi (1, 791)

and is also said to have been produced in the depth {bud/me) of the great

space (4, 111). Thus it may be surmised that Ahi budhnya was originally
not different from Ahi Vrtra, though he is invoked as a divine being, who
resembles Apam napat, his baleful aspect only being hinted at. In later Vedic
texts Ahi budhnya is allegorically connected with Agni Garhapatya (VS. 5, 33;
AB. 3, 36; TB. 1, 1, io3). In post-Vedic literature Ahi budhnya is the name
of a Rudra as well as an epithet of Siva.

Weber, IS. 1, 96; Roth, PW. s. v. budhnya ; OST. 5, 336; BRV. 2, 205 — 6.

401 ; 3, 24 — 5; HVBP. 41 (as a name of the moon).

§ 27. Aja ekapad. — This being is closely connected with Ahi budhnya,
his name occurring five times in juxtaposition with that of the latter and
only once unaccompanied by it (10, 6513). The deities invoked in the latter
passage, ‘the thundering PavTravI (‘daughter of lightning’: PW.), Ekapad aja,
the supporter of the sky, the stream, the oceanic waters, all the gods, Sara-
svati’, are, however, almost identical with those enumerated in the following
hymn: ‘the ocean, the stream, the aerial space, Aja ekapad, the thundering
flood, Ahi budhnya, and all the gods’ (10, 66”). These two passages suggest
that Aja ekapad is an aerial deity. He is, however, enumerated in the
Naighantuka (5, 6) among the deities of the celestial region. In the AV.
Aja ekapada is said to have made firm the two worlds (AV. 13, i“). The
TB. (3,1,2s) speaks of Aja ekapad as having risen in the east. The commen-
tator on his passage defines Aja ekapad as a kind of Agni, and Durga on
Nirukta 12, 29 interprets him as the sun. Yaska himself does not express an
opinion as to what Aja ekapad represents, merely explaining Aja as ajana,
driving, and ekapad as ‘he who has one foot’ or ‘he who protects or drinks
with one foot’. Though hardly any longer an independent deity, Aja ekapad
as well as Ahi budhnya receives a libation in the domestic ritual (Parask.
2) I52)- the Epic Ajaikapad is both the name of one of the eleven Rudras
and an epithet of Siva.

Roth *, with whom Grassmann agrees 2, regards Aja ekapad as a genius

74 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

of the storm, translating the name as the ‘one-footed Driver or Stormer’.
Bloomfield3 and Victor Henry4 think he represents a solar deity. Hardy5
believes that ‘the goat who goes alone’ is the moon. Bergaigne6, interpreting
the name as ‘the unborn {a -ja) who has only one foot’, thinks this means he
who inhabits the one isolated mysterious world. If another conjecture may
be added, the name, meaning ‘the one-footed goat’ 7, was originally a figurative
designation of lightning, the ‘goat’ alluding to its agile swiftness in the cloud-
mountains, and the one foot to the single streak which strikes* the earth.

1 PW. s. v. aja\ Nirukta, Erl. 165 — 6 (cp. OST. 5, 336). — 2 GW. s. v. 1 aja ;

cp. Fay, AJF. i 7, 24 — 5. — 3 AJP. 12, 443 ; SBE. 42, 664. — 4 Les hymnes Rohita, Paris

1891, p. 24. — 5 HVBP. 41 — 2. — 5 BRV. 3, 23. — 7 ORV. 71 — 2; cp. BRI. 24.

Weber, IS. 1, 96.

§ 28. Rudra. — This god occupies a subordinate position in the RV.,
being celebrated in only three entire hymns, in part of another, and in one
conjointly with Soma, while his name occurs about 75 times.

His physical features in the RV. are the following. He has a hand
fa, 33" &c.), arms (2,33-1; VS. 16, 1), and firm limbs (2, 3311). He has beautiful lips
(2, 335) and (like Pusan) wears braided hair (1, ii4'-5). His colour is brown
( babhru : 2, 33s &rc.). His shape is dazzling (1, 1145), and he is multiform
(2, 339). He shines like the brilliant sun, like gold (1, 43s). He is arrayed
with golden ornaments (2, 339) and wears a glorious multiform necklace1
(niska : 2, 33 10). He sits on a car-seat (2, 3 34). The later Samhitas (espe-
cially VS. 16) add a number of other traits. He is thousand-eyed (AV. 11,
2 2< 7, VS. 16, 7). He has a belly, a mouth, a tongue, and teeth (AV. 11, 26).
His belly is black and his back red (AV. 15, i7-8). He is blue-necked (VS.
16, 7) and blue-tufted (AV. 2, 2 76). He is copper-coloured and red (VS.
16, 7). He is clothed in a skin (VS. 3, 61; 16, 51) and dwells in mountains
(VS. 16, 2 — 4).

The RV. often mentions Rudra’s weapons of offence. He is once said
to hold the thunderbolt in his arm (2, 333). His lightning shaft ( didyut ) dis-
charged from the sky traverses the earth (7, 463). He is usually said to be
armed with a bow and arrows (2, 3310, 11 ; 5, 42”; 10, 1256), which are
strong and swift (7, 461). He is invoked with Krsanu (§ 48) and the archers
(io, 64s); and seems to be intended when Indra is compared with the archer
on the car-seat (6, 20°, cp. 2, 3311). In the AV. he is also called an archer
(1, 28'; 6, 931; 15, 51-7). In that and other later Vedic texts his bow,
arrow, weapon, bolt, or club are frequently referred to (AV. 1, 28s &c.; SB.
9, 1, i6)-

One of the points most frequently mentioned about Rudra is his rela-
tionship to the Maruts. He is their father (1, nq6- 9; 2, 3 31); or they are
more frequently spoken of as his sons and are also several times called
Rudras or Rudriyas2. He is said to have generated them from the shining
udder of Prsni (2, 342) 3. But Rudra is never associated, as Indra is, with
the warlike exploits of the Maruts, for he does not engage in conflict with
the demons. Tryambaka , a common epithet of Siva in, post-Vedic literature,
is already applied to Rudra in Vedic texts (VS. 3, 58; SB. 2, 6, 2?) and seems
to refer to him once even in the RV. (7, 5912). The meaning appears to be
‘he who has three mothers’ (cp. 3, 56s) in allusion to the threefold division
of the universe (cp. GRV. 1, 555). Ambika, a post-Vedic name of Siva’s
wife, is mentioned for the first time in VS. 3, 5, appearing here, however,
not as Rudra’s wife, but as his sister. Uma and Parvati, regular names of
Siva’s wife, seem first to occur in the TA. and the Kena Upani§ad.

In a passage of the'RV. (2, i6) Rudra is one of several deities identified

Atmospheric Gods. 28. Ruhr a.

75

with Agni. He is also identified with Agni in the AV. (7, 871), in the TS.
(5, 4, 31; 5> 5. 74)> and the SB. (6, 1, 310, cp. 9, 1, H). The word rudra
often occurs as an adjective, in several cases as an attribute of Agni4 (though
rather oftener as an attribute of the Asvins (§ 21). Sarva and Bhava are,
among several others, two new names assigned to Rudra in VS. fi6, 18. 28).
These two also occur in the AV. where their destructive arrows and lightnings
are referred to (2, 27s; 6, 93'; 10, 123; ir, 21- I2); but they seem here to
have been regarded as deities distinct from one another and from Rudra.
Bhava and Sarva are in a Sutra passage, spoken of as sons of Rudra and
are compared with wolves eager for prey (SSS. 4, 201). In VS. 39,8 Agni, Asani,
Pasupati, Bhava, Sarva, Isana, Mahadeva, Ugradeva, and others are enumerated
as gods or forms of one god. Rudra, Sarva, Pasupati, Ugra, Asani, Bhava,
Mahan devah are names given to represent eight different forms of Agni
(SB. 6, 1, 37; cp. Sarikh. Br. 6, 1 See.), and Sarva, Bhava, Pasupati, and Rudra
are said to be all names of Agni (SB., 1, 7, 3s). Asani, one of the above
names assigned to AgniKumara in the SB. (6, 1, 310), is there explained to
mean lightning ( vidyut ) but in the Sankh. Br. it is interpreted as Indra. The
epithet pasupati , ‘lord of beasts’, which Rudra often receives in the VS., AV.,
and later, is doubtless assigned to him because unhoused cattle are peculiarly
exposed to his attacks and are therefore especially consigned to his care.

Rudra is described in the RV. as fierce (2, 339- 11 • 10, 1265) and de-
structive like a terrible beast (2, 33 He is the ruddy s ( arusa ) boar of
heaven (1, 1145). He is a bull (2, 33?- 8- js). He is exalted (7, 104), strong
(1,43b 1141), strongest of the strong (2, 333), unassailable (7, 461), unsurpassed
in might (2, 3310), rapid (10, 92S), and swift (x, 1144). He is young (2, 33s;
5, 6o5) and unaging (6, 4910). He is called asura (5,42”) or the great
asura of heaven6 (2, i6). He is self-glorious (1, 1293; 10, 929), rules heroes
(1, H41* 2 &c.), and is a lord ( isana ) of this vast world (2, 339) and father
of the world (6, 4910). He is an ordainer (6, 46 r), and by his rule and uni-
versal dominion he is aware of the doings of men and gods (7, 46 2). He makes
the streams flow over the earth and, roaring, moistens everything (10, 92s).
He is intelligent (1, 43*), wise (1, 1144), and beneficent (2, 33?; 6, 4910). He
is several times called ‘bountiful’, midhvas (1, nq3), and in the later Vedas
the comparative and superlative of this word have only been found in con-
nexion with Rudra7. He is easily invoked (2, 33s) and is auspicious, siva

(10, 92°), an epithet which is not even in the AV. as yet peculiar to any

particular deity.

Malevolence is frequently attributed to Rudra in the RV.; for the hymns
addressed to him chiefly express fear of his terrible shafts and deprecation

of his wrath. He is implored not to slay or injure, in his anger, his wor-

shippers, their parents, children, men, cattle, or horses (1, ii47-8), but to
spare their horses (2, 33*), to avert his great malevolence and his bolt from
his worshippers, and to prostrate others with them (2, 33"' I4). He is besought
to avert his bolt when he is incensed and not to injure his adorers, their
children, and their cows (6, 28b 462-4), and to keep from them his cow-
slaying, man-slaying missile (2, 33'). His ill-will and anger are deprecated
(2, 334-6' I5), and he is besought to be merciful to the walking food (10,
1691). His worshippers pray that they may be unharmed and obtain his
favour (2, 33 *• 6). He once even receives the epithet ‘man-slaying’ (4, 36),
and in a Sutra passage it is said that this god seeks to slay men (AG.
4, 832). Rudra’s malevolence is still more prominent in the later Vedic texts.
His wrath is frequently deprecated (VS. 3,61 See.; AV. t,2 85 Sec.). He is invoked
not to assail his worshippers with celestial fire and to cause the lightning to

76 HI. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

descend elsewhere (AV. n, 225; io, 123). He is even said to assail with
fever, cough, and poison8 (AV. n, 222- 26; 6, 90 cp. 93). Rudra’s wide-
mouthed, howling dogs, who swallow their prey unchewed, are also spoken
of (AV. 10, 130, cp. VS. 16, 28). Even the gods were afraid r of the strung
bow and the arrows of Rudra, lest he should destroy them (SB. 9, 1, i1- 6j.
Under the name of Mahadeva he is said to slay cattle (TMB. 6, g7). In
another Brahmana passage he is said to have been formed of a compound
of all the most terrible substances (AB. 3, 331). It is probably owing to his
formidable characteristics that in the Brahmanas and Sutras Rudra is regarded
as isolated from the other gods. When the gods attained heaven, Rudra
remained behind (SB. 1, 7, 31). In the Vedic ritual after offerings to other
gods, a remainder is not uncommonly assigned to Rudra (Gobh. GS. 1, 828;
Ap. Dh. S. 2, 4^). His hosts, which attack man and beast with disease and
death, receive the bloody entrails of the victim (SSS. 4, 198), just as blood
is poured out to demons as their peculiar share of the sacrifice9 (AB. 2, 7 T).
The abode of Rudra in these later texts is commonly regarded as in the
north10, while that of the other gods is in the east. It is perhaps due to
his formidable nature that in the RV. Rudra only appears once associated
with another deity (Soma: § 44) as a dual divinity in one short hymn of
four stanzas.

In the VS., besides many other epithets too numerous to repeat, several
disgraceful attributes of Rudra are mentioned. Thus he is called a 'robber,
cheat, deceiver, lord of pilferers and robbers’ (16, 20 — 1). In fact, his
character as shown by the various epithets occurring here, approximates to
the fierce, terrific, impure, and repulsive nature of the post-Vedic Siva.

Rudra is, however, not purely maleficent like a demon. He is also
supplicated in the RV. to avert the anger or the evil that comes from the
gods (1, 1144; 2, 337). He is besought not only to preserve from calamity
(5) 5iI3)> but to bestow blessings (1, H41- 2; 2, 33s), and produce welfare for
man and beast (1, 436). His healing powers are mentioned with especial
frequency. He grants remedies (2,33“), he commands every remedy (5,42"),
and has a thousand remedies (7, 463). He carries in his hand choice reme-
dies (1, 114s), and his hand is restorative and healing (2, 337). He raises
up heroes by his remedies, for he is the greatest physician of physicians
(2, 334), and by his auspicious remedies his worshipper hopes to live a hundred
winters (2, 33 29. He is besought to remove sickness from his worshippers’
offspring (7, 462) and to be favourable to man and beast, that all in the
village may be well-fed and free from disease (1, 1141). In this connexion
Rudra has two epithets which are peculiar to him, jaldsa , (perhaps) ‘healing’
and jaldsa-b/tesaja , ‘possessing healing remedies (1, 434; AV. 2, 2 76). These
medicines against sickness are probably rains11 (cp. 5, 5314; 10, 599). That
this attribute was essential to his nature, appears from a verse of a hymn in
which various deities are characterized without being named (8, 29s): ‘One
bright, fierce, possessing healing remedies, holds a sharp weapon in his hand’.
Rudra’s lightning and his remedies are also mentioned together in another
verse (7, 463). The healing Rudra with the Rudras is invoked to be favour-
able (7. 356). The Maruts are also in another verse associated with Rudra
as possessing pure and beneficent remedies (2, 3313). The healing power of
Rudra is sometimes referred to in the other Samhitas (VS. 3, 59; 16, 5. 49;
AV. 2, 2 76); but much less frequently than his destructive activity. In the
Sutras, sacrifices to him are prescribed for removing or preventing disease in
cattle (AG. 4, 84°; Kaus. S. 51, 7 &c.).

The evidence of the RV. does not distinctly show with what physical

Atmospheric Gods. 28. Rudra. 29. The Maruts.

77

basis Rudra is connected. He is generally regarded as a storm-god. But
his missile is maleficent, unlike that of Indra, which is directed only against
the enemies of his worshippers. Rudra appears therefore to have originally
represented not the storm pure and simple, but rather its baleful side in the
destructive agency of lightning ,2. This would account for his deadly shafts
and for his being the father or chief of the Maruts or Storm-gods, who are
armed with lightning and who are said to have been born ‘from the laughter
of lightning’ (1, 2312). His beneficent and healing powers would be based
partly on the fertilizing and purifying action of the thunderstorm and partly
on the indirect action of sparing those whom he might slay. Thus the de-
precations of his wrath gave rise to the euphemistic epithet ‘auspicious’ ( s'iva ),
which became the regular name of Rudra’s historical successor in post-Vedic
mythology. This explanation would also account for Rudra’s close connexion
with Agni in the RV.

Weber 18 expresses the view that this deity in the earliest period speci-
ally designated the howling of the Storm (the plural therefore meaning the
Maruts), but that as the roaring of fire is analogous, Storm and ,Fire com-
bined to form a god of rage and destruction, the epithets of the Satarudriya
being derived partly from Rudra = Storm and partly from Agni = Fire.
H. H. Wilson thought that Rudra was ‘evidently a form of either Agni or
Indra’14. L. v. Schroeder15 regards Rudra as originally the chief of the
souls of the dead conceived as storming along in the wind (cp. p. 81).
Oi.denberg is of opinion that Rudra probably represented in his origin a god
of mountain and forest, whence the shafts of disease attack mankind16.

The etymology of the word rudra is somewhat uncertain as regards the
meaning. It is generally derived from the root rud , to cry, and interpreted
as the Howler17. This is the Indian derivation18. By Grassmann1? it is
connected with a root rud having the conjectural meaning of ‘to shine’ or,
according to Pischei., ‘to be ruddy’20. Rudra would thus mean the ‘bright’
or the ‘red one’21.

1 Cp. Pischel, ZDMG. 40, 120 — 1. — 21, 642- 12. 85U; 5, 4215; 6, 504. 66 ii;
8, 2017 (cp. 5, 59 8; 7, 561. 585). — 3 Vayu is once said to have generated the
Maruts from the sky (1, 1344) and Vata is approximated to Rudra in 10, 1691. —

4 1, 27m (cp. Nir. 10, 8; Erl. 136); 3, 25; 4, 31; 5, 33; 8, 6i3. — 5 Cp. Bloom-
field, AJP. 12, 429; PVS. 1, 57; ORV. 359, note 4. — 6 Cp. BDA. 46. 54;

Geldner, FaW. 20. — 7 Bloomfield, AJP. 12, 428—9. — 8 Cp. Bloomfield’s
explanation (AJP. 7, 469 — 72) of AV. I, 12 as a prayer to lightning conceived as
the cause of fever, headache, and coughs (otherwise Weber, IS. 4, 405). — 9 HRI.
250, note 2; cp. ORV. 488. 302—3. 334—5- 45s- — 10 CP- 0RV- 335. note 3- —
11 The remedy is explained by BRV. 3, 32 as Soma, the draught of immortality,
and by Bloomfield (AJP. 12, 425—9) followed by HVBP. 83—4, and Hopkins,
PAOS. Dec. 1894, cl ff., as rain ( jatasa = the mutra of Rudra). — 12 Macdonell,
JRAS. 27, 957; Hopkins, PAOS. Dec. 1894, p. cu; HRI. 112; cp. KRV. 38,
note 133. — 13 IS. 2, 19 — 22. — 14 Translation of the RV., introductions to vol.
t, 26—7. 37—8; cp. vol. 2, 9 — 10. — 15 WZKM. 9, 248. — 16 ORV. 216—24
(cp. Hopkins, PAOS. 1. c.). — >7 Kuhn, Herabkunft 177; KZ. 2, 278; 3, 335;
Weber, IS. 2, 19—22; MM., OGR. 216; otherwise v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 359— 61.

— 18 TS. I, 5, ii; SB. 6, I, 31°; YN. 10, 5; Sayana on RV. 1, 1141. — 19 GW.

— 20 PVS. 1, 57; ZDMG. 40, 120. — 21 Cp. BRI. 14; HVBP. 83.

Roth, ZDMG. 2, 222; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 318 — 9; Oriental and Linguistic
Studies 1873, p.34—5; OST. 4. 299—363. 420—3; I.RV. 3,320—2; BRV. 3,31 — 8.
152—4; v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 233— 8. 248—52; HRI. 99. 578.

5 29. The Maruts. — These are prominent deities in the RV., thirty-
three hymns being dedicated to them alone, seven at least to them conjointly
with Indra, and one each to them with Agni and Pusan. They form a troop,
gana (a word generally used in connexion with them) or sard/ias (i,37i-5&c.),

78 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

of deities mentioned only in the plural. Their number is thrice sixty (8, 85s)
or thrice seven (1, 133“; AV. 13, 113). Their birth is often referred to (5,
57s &c.). They are the sons of Rudra (p. 74), being also often called Rudras
(1, 39‘’- 7 &c.) and sometimes Rudriyas (1, 38?; 2, 34*° &c.), and of Prsni
(2, 342j 5) 52l6- 6oS; 6, 663), often also receiving the epithet prsnimatarah ,
‘having Prsni for their mother’ (1, 2310 &c.; AV. 5, 2111). The cow Prsni
(5, 5216), or simply a cow is their mother (8, 83') and they bear the epithet
gomatarah , ‘having a cow for their mother’ (1, 85®, cp. 8, 208). This cow
presumably represents the mottled storm-cloud (§§43. 61B.); and the flaming
cows having distended udders with whom they come (2, 34®), can hardly
refer to anything but the clouds charged with rain and lightning. When born
from Prsni the Maruts are compared with fires (6, 66 1—3). They are also
said to have been born from the laughter of lightning (1, 2312, cp. 38s).
Agni is said to have fashioned or begotten them (6, 30; 1, 718). Vayu is
once said to have engendered them in the wombs of heaven (1, 1344), and
once they are called the sons of heaven (10, 7 7 2), being also referred to as
the heroes ( vlrah ) of heaven (1, 64b 1221; 5, 5410) or as the males (inary ah)
of heaven (3, 5413; 5, 596). Once they are said to have the ocean for their
mother, sindhumatarah (10, 7 s6 cp. p. 51). Elsewhere they are said to be
self-born (1, 1682; 5, 872).

They are brothers among whom none is eldest or youngest (5, 59s. 60S),
for they are equal in age (1, 1651). They have grown together (5, 56®;

7, 581) and are of one mind (8, 20'- 2l). They have the same birthplace
(S, 531) and the same abode (1, 1C51; 7, 56*). They are spoken of as having
grown on earth, in air, and heaven (5, 5 57) or as dwelling in the three
heavens (5, 6ou). They are also once described as dwelling in the mountains

(8, 831 2).

They are associated with the goddess Indram, who is their friend (10,
869), and with Sarasvati (7, 962, cp. 39s). Their connexion is, however,
closest with the goddess RodasT, who is described as standing with them on
their car bringing enjoyments (5, 56s) or simply as standing beside them (6,
666). In all the five passages in which her name occurs, she is mentioned
with them (cp. 1, i674- 5). She therefore appears to have been regarded as
their bride (like Surya as the bride of the Asvins). It is probably to this
connexion that they owe the epithet bhadrajanayah , ‘having a beautiful wife’
(5, 6 14) and their comparison with bridegrooms (5, 604) or youthful wooers
(10, 7S6).

The brilliance of the Maruts is constantly referred to. They are golden,
of sun-like brightness, like blazing fires, of ruddy aspect (6, 662; 7, 59";

8, 77). They shine like tongues of fire (10, 7 83). They have the form or
the brilliance of Agni (10, 841; 3, 26 s), with whom they are compared in
brightness (10, 782). They are like fires (2, 341) or kindled fires (6, 662)
and are expressly called fires (3, 2 64). They have the brilliance of serpents
(ahibhanavair. 1, 1721). They shine in the mountains (8, 71). They are
self-luminous (i,372<S:c.), an epithet almost exclusively applied to them. They
are frequently spoken of in a more general way as shining and brilliant
(1, 16512 &c.).

They are particularly often associated with lightning, vidyut (5, 542-3-
1, 64s). The lightnings smile down on earth when the Maruts shed their
ghee (1, 1 68s, cp. 5, 52°). The lightning lows like a cow, as a mother
following her calf, when they shed their rain (1, 38s). They are like lightnings
shining with rain (7, 5613). Lightning is so characteristic of them that all
the five compounds of vidyut in the RV. are connected with the Maruts and,

Atmospheric Gods. 29. The Maruts.

79

excepting a single instance, with them only. They hold lightnings in their
hands (8 , 725; 5, 54“)) they delight in lightnings and cast a stone (5, 543).
Their lances (rsti) are often mentioned, and that these represent the lightning
is shown by their epithet rstiv'uiyut, ‘lightning-speared’ (r, 1 685 ; 5, 5 2 1 3). Less
frequently they are spoken of as having axes (1, 372. 88>; 5, 33+. 57s; 8, 204),
which are golden (8, 732). Once (ibid.) they are said to bear the bolt 0 vajra ),
lndra’s peculiar weapon, in their hands. Sometimes they are said to be
armed with bows and arrows (5, 53b 57 2; 8, 20*- I2), once being termed
archers shooting an arrow; but as this trait is rare in the numerous hymns
addressed to them, it may be borrowed from their father Rudra. The Maruts
are decorated with garlands and other ornaments (5, 534). They wear golden
mantles (5, 556). Like rich wooers they deck their bodies with golden orna-
ments (5, 604). Armlets or anklets (k/iadi) are an ornament peculiar to them.
With these they shine like the sky with stars and glitter like showers from
the clouds (2, 342). One verse describes their appearance more fully than
usual. They have spears on their shoulders, anklets on their feet, golden
ornaments on their breasts, fiery lightnings in their hands, golden helmets
upon their heads (5, 5411).

The Maruts ride on cars which gleam with lightning (1, 881; 3, 5413),
which are golden (5, 571), which have golden wheels or fellies (1,64". 88s),
in which are weapons (5, 5 76), and which have buckets standing in them
(1, 87 2). The coursers which draw their cars are ruddy or tawny (1, 882;
5, 574), golden-footed (8, 7 27), and swift as thought (1, 854). These coursers
are spotted, as appears from the epithet prsadasva , ‘having spotted steeds’,
which is several times and exclusively connected with the Maruts. More fre-
quently the animals which draw their car are spoken of in the feminine as
prsatlh (1, 396 &c.). These are in two passages (5, 556. 5s6), mentioned
with the masculine asvah. The Maruts are also described as having yoked
the winds as steeds to their pole (5, 5s7).

The Maruts are great as the sky (5, 5 7 *4), they surpass heaven and earth
(10, 773), are immeasurable in greatness (5, 5 8 29, and no others can reacli
the limit of their might (1, 1679). The Maruts are young (1, 64b 1652; 5,
42 15) and unaging (1, bq3J. They are divine ( asura ), vigorous, impetuous,
without soil (1, 64-’- I2) and dustless (6, 662). They are fierce (1, 194), irascible
(7, 56s), terrible (5, 5b2- 3; 7, 582), of terrible aspect (5, 5b2), of fearful form
(1, 195. 642), and are terrible like wild beasts (2, 341; cp. p. 75). They are
playful like children or calves (1, 1662; 7, 5b16; 10, 7S6). They are like
black-backed swans (7, 597). They are iron-tusked boars (1, 88s); they are
like lions (1, 64s).

The noise which they make is often referred to (1, 1697 Sic.) and is
expressly called thunder (1, 2311); but it is also the roaring of the winds (7,
5b3). At their coming heaven as it were roars with fear (8, 729). They are
often described as causing the mountains to quake as well as making the
earth or the two worlds tremble h With the fellies of their cars they rend the
mountains or the rock (1, bq11; 5, 529). It is when they come with the winds
that they cause the mountains to quake (8, 74). They rend trees and like
wild elephants devour the forests (1, 39s. b47). The forests bow down before
them through fear (5, bo2). Resistless as mountains they cast down terrestrial
and celestial creatures (1, bq3). All creatures are afraid of them (1, 85s).
They speed like boisterous winds (io, 783) and whirl up dust (1, bq12). They
make the winds or the noise of the winds (7, 5b3). They come with the
winds (8, 73, 4- 17) and take them as their steeds (5, 587).

One of the main functions of the Maruts is to shed rain. They are

8o III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

clothed with rain (5, 574). They rise from the ocean and shed rain (i,389).
Milking the unfailing well, they blow through the two worlds with rain (1,
6413; 8, 716). Rain follows them (5, 5310). They bring water and impel rain
(5> 58s). They obscure their brilliance with rain (5, 591). They cover the
eye of the sun with rain (5, 59s). They create darkness with the cloud when
they shed rain (i,389). They scatter mist when they speed with winds (8, 7 4).
They cause the heavenly pail (5, 53s. 59s) and the streams of the mountains
to pour (5, 597). When they hurry on, the waters flow (5, 58s). A terrestrial
river receives its name, Marudvrddha, ‘swelled by the Maruts’ (10,75s), from
this action. The sweat of the sons of Rudra became rain (5, 587). The
rain shed by the Maruts is also figuratively referred to as milk (x, 166s),
ghee (1, 85s; 10, 784), milk and ghee (1, 646); or they are said to pour out
the spring (1, 85”) or to wet the earth with honey (5, 54s)2. They raise
waters from sea to sky and discharge them from the sky upon the earth
(AV. 4, 2 74). The waters which they shed are often clearly connected with
the thunderstorm. Desiring to give water, whirling hail, violent, they rush
on with thunder (5, 54s). They cause winds and lightnings with their might,
milk heavenly gifts from the udder, and fill the earth with milk (1, 64s).
The spring which they milk, thunders (1, 64s). The sky, the ruddy bull,
bellows when they shed the waters (5, 58s). They cause the stallion to make
water (1, 64s). They bestow the rain of heaven and shed abundantly the
streams of the stallion (5, 836). They assume a golden colour when they
make water with the steed (2, 3413). The streams resound with the fellies
of the Maruts, when they raise the voice of the cloud (1, 1688). The waters
which Indra sheds are called marutvatih, ‘attended by the Maruts’ (1, 804).
In connexion with their character as shedders of rain, the Maruts receive the
epithets pwudrapsah (5, 57s) or drapsinah (1,64s) ‘abounding in drops’ and
the frequent sudanavah, ‘dripping well’. They also avert heat (5, 541). But
they likewise dispel darkness (7, 5620), produce light (1, 86IG), and prepare
a path for the sun (8, 78). They are also said to have measured out the
air (5, 552), stretched out the terrestrial regions as well as the bright realms
of heaven, and held apart the two worlds (8, 839, “).

Doubtless in allusion to the sound of the wind, the Maruts are several
times called singers (5, 521. 608; 7, 3 5°). They are the singers of heaven
(5, 57s). They sing a song (1, 194. 1667). While singing they made the sun
to shine (8, 2910) and while blowing their pipe they cleft the mountain
(1, 8510). For Indra when he slew the dragon, they sang a song and pressed
Soma (5, 29s. 306). In singing a song they created Indra-might (1, 85s).
Though their song must primarily have represented the sound of the winds
(cp. 4, 2 24), it is also conceived as a hymn of praise (3, 144). Thus they
come to be addressed as priests when in the company of Indra (5,29s), and
are compared with priests (10, 781). They were the first to perform the
sacrifice as Dasagvas (2, 36s), and they purified Agni in the house of the
pious, while the Bhrgus kindled him (10, 122s). Like the other gods they
are several times also spoken of as drinkers of Soma (2,36s; 8, 839_ 12 &c.).

Being identified with the phenomena of the thunderstorm, the Maruts are
naturally intimate associates of Indra, appearing as his friends and allies in
innumerable passages. They increase his strength and prowess (3, 359; 6,17”),
with their prayers, hymns, and songs3 (1, 165” &c.). They generally assist
Indra in the Vrtra fight (8, 65s- 3; 10, 1133). They help Trita as well as
Indra in slaying Vrtra (8, 7 s4). They are besought to sing a Vrtra-slaying
hymn, (8, 781-3). They helped Indra in the conflict with the dragon and
with Sambara (3, 47s- 4). With them Indra gains the light (8, 654), found

8i

Atmospheric Gods. 30. Vayu-Vata.

the cows (1, 65) and supported the sky (7, 47s). In fact Indra accomplishes
all his celestial exploits in their company (1, 100. xoi. 165; 10, 65). Some-
times the Maruts appear more independent in these exploits. Thus they
strike Vrtra, assisted by Indra (1, 230) and are even spoken of alone as having
rent Vrtra joint from joint (8, 72J) or as having disclosed the cows (2,34').
They (like the gods in general) have Indra as their chief (1, 23s &c.) and
are accompanied by Indra (10, 1282). They are like sons to Indra (1, 100 5)
and are called his brothers (1, 1702). The Maruts are, however two or three
times said to have left Indra in the lurch. They involved him alone in the
fight with the dragon (1, 1656) and they abandoned him (8, 7 3I). One verse
even gives evidence of hostility between Indra and the Maruts, when the
latter say to him: ‘Why dost thou seek to kill us, Indra? Do not kill us in
the fray’ (1, 1702 cp. 1716)4. A Brahmana passage (TB. 2, 7, n1) also refers
to a conflict between the Maruts and Indra.

When not associated with Indra, the Maruts occasionally exhibit male-
volent traits. They then to some extent participate in the maleficent nature
of their father Rudra. They are implored to ward off the lightning from
their worshippers nor to let their ill-will reach them (7, 5 69), and are besought
to avert their arrow and the stone which they hurl (1, 1722), their lightning
(7, 574), and their cow- and man-slaying bolt (7, 56’?). Evil can come from
them (1, 398), their anger is deprecated (1, 1711; 7, 58s), and they are said
to have the wrath of the serpent (1, 64s- 9). But like their father Rudra, the
Maruts are supplicated to bring healing remedies, which abide in the Sindhu,
the Asikni, the seas, and mountains (8, 2o2j-6), and once they are associated
with Rudra in the possession of pure, salutary, and beneficent remedies
(2, 33ia). The remedies appear to be the waters, for the Maruts bestow
medicine by raining (5, 5 3 ,4). Like Agni, they are several times also said
to be pure or purifying, fiavaka (7, 5612 &c.).

From the constant association of the Maruts with lightning, thunder, wind,
and rain, as well as from other traits mentioned above, it seems clear that
they are Storm-gods in the RV. According to the native interpreters the
Maruts represent the winds, and the post-Vedic meaning of the word is simply
‘wind’. But in the RV. they hardly represent the winds pure and simple,
as some of their attributes are borrowed from cloud and lightning as well.
A. Kuhn and Benfey5 held the Maruts to be personifications of the souls
of the dead (cp. p. 77), and with this view Meyer6 and v. Schroeder7 sub-
stantially agree. This origin is historically possible, but the RV. furnishes
no evidence in support of it. The etymology8 being uncertain can throw no
additional light on the beginnings of the conception. The root appears to
be mar, but whether in the sense of ‘to die’, ‘to crush’, or ‘to shine’, it is
hard to decide. The latter meaning, however, seems to accord best with the
description given of the Maruts in the RV.

1 PVS. 2, 73. — 2 On the various names for rain in the RV. see Bohnen-
berger, op. cit. 43—4. — 3 BRV. 2, 39U — 4 PVS. 1, 59. — 5 00. on RV. 1,6 4.
— 6 Indogermanische Mythen 1,218. — 7 WZKM. 9, 248 — 9. — 8 Nirukta 1 1, 13 ;
Grassmanx, KZ. 16, 161—4; BDA. 112 — 3; ZDMG. 40, 349—60; KRV. note 136;
MM, Vedic Hymns, SBE. 32, xxiv— xxv; HRI. 97.

Roth, ZDMG. 2, 222; Whitney, TAOS. 3, 319; OST. 5, 147 — 54; GRV.
1, 44; BRV. 2, 369—402; BRI. 14; KRV. 39; MMPhR. 317—20; HVB1'. 83—5;
v. Bradke, FaR. 117—25; ORV. 224—5. 283; HRI. 96—9.

§ 30. Vayu-Vata. — Each of the two names of wind Vayu and Vata
is used to express both the physical phenomenon and its divine personi-
fication. But Vayu is chiefly the god and Vata the element. Vayu is cele-
brated alone in one whole hymn besides parts of others, and in about half

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 6

82 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

a dozen others conjointly with Indra. Vata is invoked only in two short
hymns (168 and 186) at the end of the tenth book of the RV. The names
of both sometimes occur in the same verse (6, 5012; 10, 9213). The difference
between the two is illustrated by the fact that Vayu alone is as a god associated
with Indra, the two deities being then often invoked as Indravayu. This
couple was regarded as so closely connected by the ancient native inter-
preters, that either of them might represent the deities of the atmospheric
region in the Vedic triad (Nir. 7, 5). Vata on the other hand, being less
fully personified, is only associated with Parjanya (§ 31), whose connexion
with the thunderstorm is much more vivid than that of Indra. Different sets
of epithets are applied to the two wind-gods, those belonging to Vata being
chiefly expressive of the physical attributes of swiftness and violence.

Few references are made to Vayu’s origin. The two worlds are said to
have generated him for wealth (7, 903). He is once spoken of as the son-
in-law of Tvastr (8, 2621-2), though his wife’s name is not mentioned (cp.
§ 38). In the Purusa hymn he is said to have sprung from the breath of
the world-giant (10, 9013). Vayu is rarely connected with the Maruts. He is,
however, once said to have generated them from the wombs of heaven
(1, 1344) and to be accompanied by them (1, 14212) as well as by Pusan
and the Visvedevas. His personal attributes are rather indefinite. He is
beautiful (1, 21) and with Indra is spoken of as touching the sky, swift as
thought, and thousand-eyed (1, 232- 3). He is once said to have roaring
velocity (10, 1002). Vayu has a shining car drawn by a team or by a pair
of red ( rohita ) or ruddy ( aruna ) steeds. His team consists of 99 (4, 484),
100 or even 1000 (4, 46s) horses yoked by his will. The attribute niyutvat,
‘drawn by a team’, often occurs with reference to Vayu or his car, being
otherwise used only once or twice in each case with reference to Indra, Agni,
Pusan, or the Maruts. Vayu’s car, in which Indra is his companion (4, 462.
482; 7, 9 15), has a golden seat and touches the sky (4, 464). Like the other
gods, Vayu is fond of Soma, to which he is often invited to come with his
teams and the first draught of which he obtains as his share1 (also in com-
pany with Indra: 1,135 4), f°r he is the swiftest of the gods (SB. 13, 1, 2'&c.)2.
The AB. (2, 25) tells a story of how in a race which the gods ran for the
first draught of Soma, Vayu reached the goal first and Indra second. He is
in the RV. also called a protector of Soma (10, 85s) and has the characteristic
epithet sucipa, ‘drinking the clear (Soma draught)’, an epithet which Indra
once shares with him. He is also once connected with the ‘nectar-yielding’
(sabardughd) cow3 (1, 1344). Vayu grants fame, offspring, wealth in steeds,
oxen, and gold (7, go2- b). He disperses foes (4, 48*) and is invoked for
protection by the weak (1, 1345).

Vata, as the ordinary name of wind, is celebrated in a more concrete
manner. His name is frequently connected with the root va, to blow, from
which it is derived. One of the hymns devoted to his praise (10, 168) de-
scribes him as follows. Shattering everything and thundering, his din presses
on; he goes along whirling up the dust of the earth; he wanders in the air
on his paths; he does not rest even a day. Firstborn, he is a friend of the
waters; but the place of his birth is unknown. This deity wanders where he
lists; one hears his roaring, but his form one does not see (cp. 1, 16444).
He is the breath of the gods (cp. 7, 872; 10, 9213) and is worshipped with
oblations.

Vata, like Rudra, also wafts healing and prolongs life, for he has the
treasure of immortality in his house (10, 186). This healing power of wind
doubtless represents its purifying character (cp. p. 77). The activity of wind

Atmospheric Gods. 31. Parjanya.

83

is chiefly mentioned in connexion with the thunderstorm (4, 1712; 5, 834;
10, 168'- 2). Blasts of wind being coincident with the appearance of lightnings
and preceding the reappearance of the sun, Vata is spoken of as producing
ruddy lights (10, 168',) and of making the dawns to shine (1, 1343). The
swiftness of wind often supplies a comparison for the speed of the gods
(4, 1712; 5, 413; 9, 9752) or of mythical steeds (1, 163"; 4, 385). Its noise
is also frequently mentioned (4, 22*; 8, 913; 10, i68'-4). The name of Vata
has been identified with that of the Germanic god of storm and battle, Odhin
or Wodan 4, which is explained as formed with a derivative suffix from the
cognate base. But this identification seems to be very doubtful5.

1 1, 1341. 1 35 I ; 4, 461; 5, 433; 7, 92 1; 8, 892. — 2 Oldenberg, ZDMG .39,
SS, note 1; HVM. 1, 260. — 3 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 244. — 4 Grohmann,
KZ. 10,274; Zimmer, ZDA. 19, 170 — 2. 179—80; Mannhardt, ibid. 22, 4; Mogk in
Paul’s Grundriss 1075; Stokes, BB. 19, 74; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 488;
v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 239. — 5 Cp. BDA. p. X; IF. 5, 272.

OST. 5, 143—6; KRV. 38; BRV. 1, 24—8; Sp.AP. 156—8; HVBP. 82—3;
ORV. 225-6.

§ 31. Parjanya. — This god plays a very subordinate part among the
deities of the RV., being celebrated in only three hymns, while the name is
mentioned less than thirty times. His praises are also sung in one hymn of
the AV. (4, 15), which, however, chiefly consists of verses from the RV. In
the following passages the word parjanya can only have the appellative sense
! of ‘rain-cloud’. ‘This same water rises and descends day by day; the rain-
clouds (parjanya/i) quicken the earth, the fires quicken heaven’ (1, 16451).
The Maruts ‘even during the day cause darkness by the ‘ water-carrying rain-
cloud, when they inundate the earth’ (1, 38^) ; ‘they poured out the pail of
heaven, they discharge the raincloud through the two worlds, the rain pervades
the dry places’ (5, 53s). Brhaspati is besought to cause the cloud to rain
and to send the rain-charged ( vrstimantam ) cloud (10, 981- 8). Soma flows
‘like the rain-charged cloud’ (9, 29) and the drops of Soma speed ‘like the
rains of the cloud’ (9, 2 22). In the AV. the rain-shedding cow Vasa is thus
addressed: ‘The rain-cloud is thy udder, o excellent goddess, the lightnings
are thy teats, O Vasa’ (AV. 10, io7). In all such passages the native com-
mentators explain parjanya by meg/ia , ‘cloud’. On the other hand parjanya
is used to explain dyans in VS. 12, 6 and stanayitnu , ‘thunder’ in SB. (14, 5,
510)1. In some casps it is hard to say whether we have the appellative or
the personified meaning. Thus the might of Agni is said to resound like
parjanya (8, 91s); and the frogs are spoken of as uttering their voices when
roused by parjanya (7, 1031). In most passages, however, the word clearly
represents the personification which presides over the rain-cloud, while generally
retaining the attributes belonging to the phenomenon. The latter then becomes
an udder, a pail (, kosa ) or water-skin (drti: 5, 83s- 9; 7, 1014). The personi-
fication is to a considerable extent theriomorphic, Parjanya being often spoken
of as a bull, though with a certain confusion of gender (probably because
clouds are otherwise cows). He is a roaring bull with swift-flowing drops,
who places his seed in the plants as a germ (5, 831, cp. '• 9; AV. 4, 151).
The clouds ( abhrdni ) impelled by the wind come together, and the roaring
waters of the great bellowing aqueous ( nabhasvatah ) bull delight the earth (AV.
4, 151). Sometimes Parjanya is like a barren cow, sometimes he is productive,
disposing of his body according to his wish (7, 1013).

The shedding of rain is his most prominent characteristic. He flies
around with a watery car and loosens and draws downwards the water-skin
(5, S37). Like a charioteer urging on his horses, he displays his rainy mess-
engers; when he sheds rain water, the roar of the lion resounds from afar;

8 4 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

with thunder he comes shedding rain-water as our divine ( asura ) father
( 5, S33, 6). He is besought for rains (7, 1015) and is implored to withhold
rain after shedding it (5, 8310). It is, however, implied that the action of
Parjanya, as well as of the Maruts, in shedding rain is subordinate to that
of Mitra and Varuna (5, 633-6). He is several times said to thunder (5,83).
Thundering he strikes down trees, demons, evil-doers; the whole world is
terrified at his mighty weapon (5, S32). He and Vata are the wielders of
mighty thunder (10, 6610). Parjanya is also associated with lightning, though
less frequently than with thunder. The winds blow forth, the lightnings fall,
when Parjanya quickens the earth with his seed (5, S34). Parjanya thunders
with lightning in the (aerial) ocean (AY. 19, 30''). He also appears to be
meant, in a hymn of the RV. to the Visvedevas, by the god who thunders
and roars, rich in clouds and water, who with lightning excites the two worlds,
besprinkling them (5, 4214).

As the shedder of rain Parjanya is naturally in a special degree the
producer and nourisher of vegetation. When he quickens the earth with
his seed, the plants spring up; in his activity are plants of every form; he
has produced plants for nourishment (5, S34, 5< I0, cp. 6, 52s; AV. 4, i52,3,15;
8, 721). He is the fructifier and increaser of plants; protected by the god
they bear good fruit (7, ioi1-5). Reeds and grass are produced by his action
(7, 1021, cp. 5, 7515; AV. 1, 21. 31; 19, 305). Parjanya places the germ not
only in plants but in cows, mares, and women (7, 1022), and is invoked to
bestow fertility (5, 83? cp. 6, 5 2 l6). He is the bull that impregnates everything: in
him is the soul of what moves and stands (7, ioi6; cp. 1, 1151). He is even
described as a self-dependent sovereign, who rules over the whole world,
in whom all beings and the three heavens are established, and in whom the
threefold waters flow (7, ioi2-4-s). Owing to his generative activity Parjanya
several times receives the epithet of ‘father’ (7, ioi3; 9, 823; AV. 4, 1512;
12, i12). He is once called ‘our divine (asura) father’ (5, 83s); and in an-
other passage ‘the occult power of the Asura’ (5, 633-7) perhaps refers to him.

His wife is by implication the Earth (5, 83+; 7, ioi3, cp. 1, 1603). The
AV. (12, i12) states that Earth is the mother, Parjanya the father2, but else-
where explicitly calls Vasa his wife (10, io6). In these respects as well as
the theriomorphic conception of him as a bull, his relation to thunder,
lightning, and rain, he approximates to the character of Dyaus (cp. 10, 45+;
2, 46. 2715) whose son he is once called (7, 102’). Parjanya lhmself is said
to produce a calf (vatsaj?i), the germ of plants (7, ioi1, cp. v. 3; 5, 831),
who perhaps represents lightning. Soma may, however, be meant, for his father
is once (9, 82 3) said to be Parjanya3, and he is spoken of as ‘increased by
Parjanya’ (9, 1133).

Parjanya is associated with various other deities. His connexion is closest
with Vata, who, with the single exception of Agni in one passage, is the only-
god forming a dual divinity with him (§ 44). The Maruts are also a few
times invoked with Parjanya (5, 636. 835) and are called upon to sing his
praises (AV.4,154). Agni is celebrated with him in two verses of one hymn
(6, 526- 16 ; cp. § 44). Indra has much in common with the ‘rainy’ Parjanya,
being compared with him in this respect (8, 61). The two gods have in fact
much the same natural basis, the connexion with which is, however, much
clearer in the case of Parjanya (cp. p. 82).

Parjanya’s name is of uncertain derivation. But it is still usually identi-
fied, owing to the similarity of character, with that of the Lithuanian thundergod
Perkunas4, though the phonetic difficulties of the identification cannot be ex-
plained. The freshness of the conception in the RV. renders it probable that

Atmospheric Gods. 32. Apah.

85

if the two names are really connected, their Indo-European form was still an
appellative. It seems clear that in the RV. the word is an appellative of
the thundering rain-cloud as well as the proper name of its personification,
the god who actually sheds the rain. The senses of rain- cloud and rain-god
both survive through the Brahmanas into the later language. The native
dictionaries explain the appellative as ‘thunder-cloud’ {garjanmegha &c.), while
the deity is sometimes found identified with Indra in the Mahabharata.

1 Cp. 00. 1, 223. — 2 The TA. I, 10, 1 2 says that Bhumi or Earth is the wife

and Vyoman or Sky is the husband. — 3 Cp. Bi oomfield, FaR. 153. — 4 OO.

1, 223; Zimmer, ZDA. 19, 164 f., cp. AIL. 42 f.; LRV. 3, 322f.; ZDMG. 32, 3 1 4 f . ;

KRV. note 139; HtRT, IF. 1, 4S1 — 2.

Buhi.er, OO. 1, 214—29; Delbruck, ZYP. 1865, p. 275 f. ; Roth, ZDMG- 24,

302—5 (on RV. 1, 165); OST. 5, 140—2; BRY. 3, 25—30; KRV. 40; BRL 14;

\VC. 56 f. ; HVBP. 80—2; ORV. 226; SBE. 46, 105; IIRI. 103-4.

§ 32. Apah. — The Waters, Apah, are lauded in four hymns of the RV.
(7, 47. 49; 10, 9. 30), as -well as in a few scattered verses. They are also
invoked in many detached verses along with other deities. The personification
is only incipient, hardly extending beyond the notion of their being mothers,
young wives, and goddesses who bestow boons and come to the sacrifice.
They are goddesses who follow the path of the gods (7, 473). Indra armed
with the bolt dug out a channel for them (7, 47L 49'), and they never in-
fringe his ordinances (7, 47L). They are also said to be under the commands
of Savitr (p. 32). They are celestial, as well as flowing in channels, and have
the sea for their goal (7, 49 2). It is implied that they abide where the gods
are and the seat of Mitra and Varuna is (10, 301). They are beside the sun
and the sun is with them (1, 2317). King Varuna moves in their midst, looking
down on the truth and falsehood of men ( 7, 49^). In such passages at least,
the rain-waters must be meant (HRI. 99). But the Naighantuka (5,3) enumerates
the waters among the terrestrial deities only (cp. YN. 9, 26).

Agni is often described as dwelling in the waters (p 92). He is said to
have entered into them (7, 494). As mothers they produce Agni (10, 916,
cp. 2'; AV. 1, 331), one of whose forms is called ‘Son of Waters’ (§24). The
waters are mothers (10, 1710; i,23l6), who are the wives of the world, equal
in age and origin (10, 3010). They are besought to give their auspicious fluid
like loving mothers (10, g2). They are most motherly, the producers of all
that is fixed and moves (6, 507).

The waters cleanse and purify; these goddesses bear away defilement;
the worshipper comes up out of them pure and cleansed (10, 1710). They
are even invoked to cleanse from moral guilt, the sins of violence, cursing,
and lying (1, 23“= 10,9s). They are remedial (6, 507), bestowing remedies
and long life, for all remedies, immortality and healing are contained in them
(10, 95- 7; 1, 23*9-21). They watch over man’s health in the house (HGS.
2,' 4s). They dispose of boons and wealth and bestow excellent strength and
immortality (10, 9s. 301-'). Their blessing and aid is often implored (7, 47L
49I— 4; 10, 9. 30"), and they are invited to seat themselves along with the
Son of waters on the sacrificial grass at the offering of the soma-priest (10,
3o.m. is).

The waters are several times associated with honey. As mothers they
mix their milk with honey (i,23l6). The wave of the waters is rich in honey;
dripping with ghee it became the drink of Indra, whom it exhilerated (7,47'- 2).
Apam napat is besought to give waters rich in honey, by which Indra grew
to heroic strength (10, 304). The waters are invoked to pour the wave, rich
in honey and gladdening the gods, for Indra who released them from con-
finement; the wave which intoxicates, the draught of Indra, which is produced

86 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

in the sky (io, s°7~ 9)* These passages appear to show that sometimes at
least the celestial waters were regarded as containing or identical with the
heavenly Soma, the beverage of Indra. In other passages the waters used in
preparing the terrestrial Soma seem to be meant. When they appear bearing
ghee, milk, and honey, they are accordant with the priests, bearing well-
pressed Soma for Indra (io, 30 13). Soma delights in them as a young man
in lovely maidens; he approaches them as a lover; they are maidens who
bow down before the youth (xo, 30s-5).

OST. 5, 24, note. 343. 345; BRV. 1, 260; D armesteter, Haurvatat et Ameretat
73-4; WC. 56; Sp.AP. 153—5; ORV. 242.

C. TERRESTRIAL GODS.

§ 33. Rivers. — Beside the divine Waters, deified rivers occupy a not
unimportant position in the RV. The whole of one hymn (10,75) celebrates
the Sindhu or Indus with the exception of the fifth verse, in which several
of its tributaries are invoked besides other streams, while in the sixth verse
a number of other rivers are mentioned as affluents of the Indus. Another
entire hymn (3, 33) is devoted to the invocation and praise of the sister
streams Vipas and SutudrI.

The SarasvatT is, however, more greatly celebrated than any other river.
But though the personification in this case goes much further than in the
others, the connexion of the goddess with the river is in the RV. always
present to the minds of the poets. Sarasvatl is lauded in three hymns of
the RV. and in numerous detached verses. SarasvatT, Sarayu, and Sindhu
are invoked as great streams (10, 649) and elsewhere (10, 75s) Ganga,
Yamuna, Sarasvatl, SutudrI, ParusnT, and others known and unknown, altogether
twenty-one, are addressed. Kings and peoples living on the banks of the
SarasvatT are referred to (7, 962; 8, 2118). SarasvatT, an iron fort, flows with
fertile flood, a stream ( sindhu ) surpassing all other waters in greatness; she
alone of rivers appeared pure, flowing from the mountains, from 1 the (celestial)
ocean (7, 95*- 2, cp. 5, 4311). She tears away with her mighty waves the
peaks of mountains, and her immense and impetuous flood moves roaring
(6, 6i2- 8). She is distinguished by greatness among the great, she is the
most active of the active, and is implored not to withhold her milk (6, 6 1 1->).
The poet prays that he may not be removed from her to fields which are
strange (6, 6114). She has seven sisters and is sevenfold (6, 6i10-12). She is
one of seven, a mother of streams2 (7,36s). She is the best of mothers, of
rivers, and of goddesses (2,4il6). She is called pavlravl , an epithet (applied
also to tanyatu, ‘thunder’, in ip, 6513) probably meaning ‘daughter of light-
ning’3, and is said (6, 497) to be the wife of a hero (probably .Sarasvat).
She fills the terrestrial regions and the wide atmospheric space and occupies
three abodes She is invoked to descend from the sky, from the great

mountain, to the sacrifice (5, 4311). The last three passages (cp. also 7, 952)
seem to allude to the notion of a celestial origin, like that of Ganga in post-
Vedic mythology. She is once called asurya or divine (7,96'). The goddess
comes to the sacrifice on the same chariot as the Fathers and seats herself
on the sacrificial grass (10, 17s-9). Even here she must be conceived as the
river goddess, for in the following two verses the waters are invoked to cleanse
from defilement.

She herself is a purifier (1, 310). She is besought to come ‘swelling with
streams’ (6,52s) and, along with the waters, the bestowers of wealth, progeny,

Terrestrial Gods. 33. SarasvatI.

87

and immortality, to grant vitality (10, 3 o'2). She bestows vitality and offspring
(2,41*7) and is associated with deities who assist procreation (10, 1842). She
is also said to have given a son named Divodasa to Vadhryasva (6, 6il).
Her unfailing breast (cp. AB. 4, 1) yields riches of every kind (1, 164*9). She
is often said to bestow wealth, plenty, and nourishment (7, 952; 8, 2117;
9, 6732; 10, 17 s'9), and several times receives the epithet sub/iaga, ‘bountiful’
(i, 89L 7, 954- 6; 8, 2117). As a mother ( amba ) she grants reputation to the
unrenowned (2, 4110). She stimulates, directs, and prospers the devotions of
her worshippers (1, 310- 1 *; 2, 3s; 6, 61*). She is invoked along with the
goddesses of prayer (7, 3711; 10, 6513). She destroys the revilers of the gods,
is terrible, and a Vrtra-slayer (6, 6i3- 7). But to her worshippers she affords
protection and conquers their enemies (7, 95-*- 3; 2, 308; 6, 497).

SarasvatI is often invoked with other deities. Besides Pusan and Indra,
she is particularly associated with the Maruts (3, 5413; 7, 95. 39s. 40*) and is
said to be accompanied by them (2, 308) or to have them as her friends4
(7; 9^2)- She is also once in the RV. connected with the Asvins. When the
latter aided Indra, SarasvatI is said to have refreshed him (10, 1315). With
reference to the same myth the VS. (19, 12) states that when the gods cele-
brated a healing sacrifice, the Asvins as physicians and SarasvatI through
speech ( vacd ) communicated vigour to Indra5. The VS. even speaks of
SarasvatI as the wife of the Asvins (19, 94). SarasvatI is several times asso-
ciated in the eighth and ninth verses of the apri and apra hymns with the
sacrificial goddesses Ida and Bharat! (with whom she forms a triad), and
sometimes also with Mahl and Hotra. This association may have been due
to the sacred character of the river. Allusion is made to Agni being kindled
for sacrifice on the banks of the SarasvatI and Drsadvatl (3, 2 34) 6; and the
AB. (2, 19) refers to a sacrifice performed by Rsis on the SarasvatI. Hence
on the banks of the SarasvatI there were perhaps places of worship of the
Bharatas; in that case, Bharatl, the personified offering of the Bharatas, would
naturally find a fixed place along with SarasvatI in the Apri litany which
accompanied the animal sacrifice7.

Though there is nothing to show distinctly (cp. 7, 3511) that SarasvatI is
ever anything more, in the RV. than a river goddess, we find her identified
in the Brahmanas (SB. 3, 9, 17; AB. 3, 110), with Vac, Speech, and in post-
Vedic mythology she has become goddess of eloquence and wisdom, invoked
as a muse and regarded as the wife of Brahma8. The transition from the
older to the later conception is perhaps to be found in passages like VS.
19, 12 quoted above.

There has been much controversy as to the identity of the stream
of which the goddess SarasvatI is a personification. The name is identical
with that of the Avestan river Haraqaiti in Afghanistan 9, and it may
have been the latter river which was first lauded as the SarasvatI10. But
Roth (PW.), Grass.mann (GW.), Ludwig11, and Zimmer (AIL. 10) are of
opinion, that in the RV. SarasvatI usually and originally meant a mighty
stream, probably the Indus (SarasvatI being the sacred and Sindhu the secular
name), but that it occasionally designates the small stream in Madhyadesa,
to which both its name and its sacred character were in later times trans-
ferred. Max MOller12 believes it to be identical with this small river
SarasvatI, which with the Drsadvatl formed the boundaries of the sacred
region Brahmavarta and which loses itself in the sands of the desert, but
in Vedic times reached the sea. According to Oldham13 a survey of
ancient rivenbeds affords evidence that the SarasvatI was originally a tribu-
tary of the SutudrI (the modern Sutlej)14, and that when the latter left its

88 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Yedic Mythology.

old bed and joined die Yipas, the Sarasvatl continued to flow in the old
bed of the SutudrI.

Sarasvatl has a male correlative named Sarasvat, who after the praises
of the river goddess have been sung in three verses of one hymn (7, 96),
is invoked in the next three by worshippers desiring wives and offspring,
protection and plenty. Here his fertilizing waters and even his exuberant
breast are referred to. In another passage (1, 16452), Sarasvat, here appar-
ently a name of the bird Agni15, is spoken of as refreshing with rain. Roth
(PW.) regards him as a guardian of the celestial waters who bestows fertility.
Hillebrandt'6 identifies Sarasvat with Apam napat (= Soma, the moon)
and Hardy17 expresses a similar view.

1 Cp. BRV. 1, 326. — 2 According to Bergaigne (ibid.) ‘having the (celestial)

ocean for her mother’, owing to the accent. — 3 Roth, Nir. 165b ; FW. ; ,BRV. 1, 327.

— 4 Cp. Marudvrddha as the name of a river (io, 755). — 5 Cp. SB. 12, 7, 3 1 ;

OST. 5, 94 note. — 6 Cp. Manavadharmasastra II, 1 7 f . ; Oldexberg, Buddha 413k

— 7 ORV. 243. — 8 Cp. ZD.MG. 1, 84; 27, 705. — 9 Sp.AP. 105 f. — 1° HRI. 31.

]l Xachrichten des RV. und AV. iiber Geographie etc., Prag 1875—6, p. 13; cp.

PVS. 2, 86. — 12 Vedic Hymns SBE, 32, 60. — 13 JRAS. 25, 49 — 76. — 14 OST.

2, 345. — BRV. 1, 144; 2, 47. — is HVM. 1, 380 — 2. — 17 HYBP. 42 — 3.

OST. 5, 337 — 43; BRV. 1, 325—8; Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 499; HVM. 1,

382 — 3 (celestial Sarasvatl = milky way); HVBP. 98; ORV. 243.

§ 34. PrthivI. — The Earth, PrthivI, being, as has been shown (p. 22),
generally celebrated conjointly with Dyaus, is lauded alone in only one short
hymn of three stanzas in the RY. (5, 84) and in a long and beautiful one
in the AV. (12, 1). The personification is but slight, the attributes of the
goddess being chiefly those of the physical earth. According to the RY. she
abounds in heights, bears the burden of the mountains, and supports the
trees of the forest in the ground ( ksma ). She quickens the soil, for she
scatters rain, and the showers of heaven are shed from the lightning of her
cloud. She is great (ma/iT), firm ( drlha ) and shining ( arjurii ).

The meaning of PrthivI is ‘the broad one’; and a poet of the RV. (2, 152)
alludes to the etymology when he says that Indra upheld the earth ( prthivI )
and spread it out ( paprathat ). The TS. (7, 1, 5) and TB. (1, 1, 3s) in de-
scribing the origin of the earth, expressly derive the name of PrthivI from
the root prath, to extend, because she is extended.

PrthivI is spoken of as ‘kindly Mother Earth’, to whom the dead man in
a funeral hymn (10, 1810), is exhorted to go. When mentioned wirh Dyaus,
PrthivI frequently receives the epithet of ‘mother’ (cp. §§ 1 1. 44).

Bruce, JRAS. 1862, p. 321; OST. 5, 21- 2; BRV. 1, 4 — 5; BDA. 48; Bol-
lensen, ZDMG. 41, 494—5; HVBP. 25 — 6; Thurneysex, IF. 4, 84.

§ 35- Agni. — The chief terrestrial deity is Agni, being naturally of
primary importance as the personification of the sacrificial fire, which is the
centre of the ritual poetry of the Veda. Next to Indra he is the most
prominent of the Vedic gods. He is celebrated in at least 200 hymns of
the RV., and in several besides he is invoked conjointly with other deities.

As his name is also the regular designation of fire, the anthropomorphism
of his physical appearance is only rudimentary, his bodily parts having a
clear reference to the phenomena of terrestrial fire mainly in its sacrificial
aspect. He is butter-backed (5,43<Scc.), butter-faced (3, i,8&c.) and beautiful-
tongued (1, 147). He is butter-haired (8, 492), flame-haired (1, 45s &c.) or
tawny-haired (3, 213), and has a tawny beard (5, 77). He has sharp (8, 493&c.)
or burning jaws (x, 58s &c.), golden (5, 23) or shining teeth (5, 74) and iron
grinders (10, 872). He is once described as footless and headless (4, i").

Terrestrial Gods. 34. PrthivT. 35. Agni.

89

but elsewhere he is said to have a burning head (7, 3') or three heads and
seven rays (1, 146'; 2, 53). He faces in all directions (2, 31 Szc.). His tongue
is often mentioned (8, 61 18 &c.). He is also said to have three tongues
(3, 202) or seven (VS. 17, 79), his steeds also being seven-tongued (3, 62).
A name was later given to each of these seven tongues \ Butter is Agni’s
eye (3, 267); he is four-eyed (1, 3113), thousand-eyed (1, 7912), and thousand-
horned (6, x8). In his hand he bears many gifts for men (1, 721). Like
Indra, he has the epithet sahasra-muska (8, 1932). He is called an archer
(4, 41) or is compared with an archer (1, 7011), who sharpens his flame like
a blade of iron (6, 3s).

He is often likened to various animals, in most cases doubtless with a
view to indicating his functions rather than representing his personal form.
He is frequently called a bull (1, 58s Szc.). He is a strong bull with a mighty
neck (5, 212). As such he bellows (10, 81), abounds in seed (4, 53), and is
provided with horns (5, i8; 6, 1639), which he sharpens (8, 49I->), which he
shakes, and which make him difficult to seize (1, 140°). He is many times
spoken of or alluded to when born as a calf ( vatsa ). He is also often com-
pared with (1, 582 &c.) or directly called a steed (1, 1 493; 6, 126)2. The
tail which he agitates like a horse (2, 44) is doubtless his flame. When puri-
fied by sacrifices he is compared with a groomed horse (1, 605 &c.). Sacri-
fices lead (3, 27), excite, and set him in motion like a hose (7, 71&c.).
He is the horse they seek to tame and direct (2, 5'; 3, 27^). He is kindled
like a horse that brings the gods (3, 27 I4). He is attached to the pole at
places of sacrifice (2, 2 ’) or to the pole of the rite (1, 1437). He is yoked
in order to waft the sacrifice to the gods (10, 517). He is also compared
with (3, 263) or directly called a neighing steed (1, 36s). He is further likened
to a horse as conquering (8,9i12) or causing to escape from dangers (4, 28).
Agni is, moreover, like a bird. He is the eagle of the sky (7, 1 5*) and a
divine bird (1, 16452). As dwelling in the waters he resembles the aquatic
bird hamsa (1, 659). He takes possession of the wood as a bird perches on
a tree (1, 662; 6, 3s; 10, 912). He is winged (1, 58s; 2, 24), his course is
a flight (6, 37. 46 &c.), and he darts with rapid flight to the gods (10, 64).
He is once described as a raging serpent (1, 791).

Agni is besides frequently compared with inanimate objects. Like the
sun, he resembles gold (2, 24; 7, 36). When he stretches out his tongue
(6, 34) he is like a hatchet, to which he is elsewhere also several times com-
pared (1, 1 2 73 &c.). He resembles (1, 1418 Szc.) or is directly called a car
(3, 115), as bringing riches (1, 583; 3, 155) or as being formidable in battle
(1, 666). He seems to be thought of as a car directed by others, for he is
conducted to the sacrifice like a laden car (10, 1763). He is even compared
to wealth (x, 58b. 6o') or to wealth acquired by inheritance (1, 7 3 x).

Wood (2, 76) or ghee (7, 3’) is his food, melted butter is his beverage
(2, 76; 10, 692). He is nourished by ghee poured into his mouth (3, 211;
5, ii3&:c.) and is an eater of oil (AV. 1,7 2). He eats and chews the forests
with sharp tooth (1,1 43s) or eats and blackens them with his tongue (6, 6o'°;
10, 792)- He is all-devouring (8, 4425). He is nourished three times a day
(4, 121, cp. 1, 1402; 7, 113). He is sometimes spoken of as the mouth and the
tongue by which the gods eat the sacrifice (2; 1 13- I4) ; and his flames are spoons
with which he besprinkles or honours the gods (1, 76s; 10, 64). But he is
more frequently asked to eat the offerings himself (3, 211-4. 28,_6). With
upright, god-ward form he strives after the ghee that is offered (1, 127*).
Though the regular offering to him is fuel or butter3, he is sometimes, and
then nearly always with other gods, invited to drink the Soma juice (1, 14*°,

90 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

199. 2 11- 3; 2, 364). In one hymn he is called somagoJ>a, ‘guardian of Soma’
(10, 455- I2). He is invited to come to the sacrifice (xo, 98^ and is often
spoken of as sitting down on the sacrificial grass along with the gods (3, 142;
5, 112. 2 65; 7, 112, cp. 435).

Agni’s brightness is naturally much dwelt upon. He is of brilliant lustre
(2, io2 &c.), brilliant-flamed (6, io3), bright-flamed (7, i5I0&c.), clear-flamed
(8, 4331), and bright-coloured (1, 1401; 5, 23). He has a golden form (4, 31
10, 209). He shines like the sun (1, 1495; 7, 36). His lustre is like the rays
of the dawn and the sun and like the lightnings of the rain-cloud (10, 91 4-5).
He shines even at night (5, 74). Like the sun he dispels the darkness with
his rays (8, 43J2). He is a destroyer of darkness and sees through the gloom
of the night (1, 94s; 7, 92). Kindled he opens the gates of darkness (3, 51).
The earth enveloped in darkness and the sky become visible when Agni is
born (10, 882). For he is kindled at dawn and is the only individual god
who is described as ‘waking at dawn’, usarbudh (though the gods collectively
sometimes receive this epithet).

On the other hand, Agni’s course, path, or track, and his fellies are
black (1, 1417; 2, 46- 7; 6, 6l; 7, 82; 8, 23^), and his steeds make black
furrows (i,i4o4). Driven by the wind he rushes through the wood ( 1 , 5 84-
invades the forests and shears the hairs of the earth (1, 65s), shaving the
earth as a barber a beard (10, 1424).

His flames are like the roaring waves of the sea (1, 44”). His sound
is like the Wind or the thunder of Heaven (5, 25s; 7, 36). He roars like
the thundering Dyaus (10, 454), or Parjanya (8, 91s), or a lion (3, 2'1). He
bellows like a bull when he invades the forest trees, and the birds are terri-
fied at the noise when his grass-devouring sparks arise (1, 9410- “). He
cannot be checked any more than the sound of the Maruts, an army let
loose, or the bolt of heaven (1, 1435).

Agni flames upwards (6,i52). Driven by the wind his flames shoot into
the sky (8, 43 4). His smoke wavers and his flame cannot be seized (8, 231).
His red smoke rises up to heaven (7, 3k 163). His smoke spreads in the
sky (6, 26). Like the erector of a post ( metr ), he supports the sky with his
smoke (4, 62). He touches the ridge of heaven with his crest and mingles
with the rays of the sun (7, 21). He encompasses heaven with his tongue
(8, 6118) and goes to the flood of heaven, to the waters in the bright space
above and below the sun (3, 223). The Agni of Divodasa spread along
mother earth towards the gods and stood on the ridge of the sky (8, 922).
‘Smoke-bannered’ ( dhumaketu ) is a frequent epithet exclusively connected
with Agni.

Agni is borne on an lightning car (3, 14'), on a car that is luminous
(1, 140'), bright (1, 14112), shining (5, 1 IIJ, brilliant (10, i5), golden (4, i8;
or beautiful (4, 24). It is drawn by two or more horses4, which are butter-
backed (1, 146), ruddy ( rohita , arusa), tawny and ruddy (7, 42’), beautiful
(4, 22J, omniform (10, 703), active (2, 42), wind-impelled (1, 9410), mind-yoked
(1, 146). He yokes them to summon the gods (1, 1412; 3, 66; 8, 641). For
he is a charioteer (1, 25^ &c.) of the sacrifice (10, 921 &c.). With his steeds
he brings the gods on his car (3, 69). He comes seated on the same car as
the gods (3, 4“; 7, 111) or in advance of them (10, 702). He brings Varuna
to the offering, Indra from the sky, the Maruts from the air (10, 7011).

According to the ordinary view of the Vedic poets, Agni’s father is
Dyaus, who generated him (10,45s). He 4S ^ie child (s'is'u) of Dyaus (4, 156;
6,492) and is said to have been born from the belly of the Asura5 (3,2 94).
He is often called the son of Dyaus and PrthivI (3, 22. 3". 251; 10, i2. 2?.

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni.

9i

1402). He is also spoken of as the offspring of Tvastr and the Waters, as
■well as of Heaven and Earth (10, 27. 46?), or even simply of Tvastr (i; 95 2) or
of the Waters (10, 916; AV. 1, 331). It is otherwise incidentally said that the
! Dawns generated Agni as well as the Sun and Sacrifice (7, 78^) or Indra-
Visnu generated Agni besides Sun and Dawn (7, 99+), or Indra generated
Agni between two stones (2, 123, cp. i1). Agni is also described as the son
of Ila (3, 293) or as the embryo of the rite (6, 48s). The gods, it is some-
times said, generated him (6, 71; 8, 9117), as a light for the Aryan (1, 59s),
or simply fashioned him for man (10, 461) or placed him among men (1,36*°;
2,43; 6, 1 61; 8,732). At the same time Agni is the father of the gods (1,69*,
cp. p. 1 2). The different points of view which give rise to these seemingly
contradictory statements, are sufficiently clear.

Owing to his slightly developed anthropomorphism, the myths of Agni have
little to say about his deeds, being, outside his main activity as sacrificial
fire, chiefly concerned with his various births, forms, and abodes.

The divergent accounts given of the births of Agni are not inconsistent,
because they refer to different places of origin. His daily terrestrial birth by
friction from the two aranTs or firesticks6 is often referred to (3, 29*. 23*- 3;
7, i1; 10, 79). In this connexion they are his parents, the upper being the
male and the lower the female (3, 293). Or they are his mothers, for he is
said to have two mothers (1, 312)7. The two sticks produce him as a new-
born infant, who is hard to catch (5, 93-4). From the dry (wood) the god
is born living (1, 682). The child as soon as born devours the parents (10,

| 794). He is born of a mother who cannot suckle him (10, 1151). With
reference to this production by friction, men are said to have generated him
(1, 603; 4, i1; 7, i1), the ten maidens8 that produce him (1, 9s2) being the
ten fingers (cp. 3, 23*) employed in twirling the upright drill, which is the
upper aranT. Pramantha, the name of this fire-drill, occuring for the first
time in a late metrical Smrti works, the Karmapradlpa (1, 7$) 10 has, owing to
a superficial resemblance, been connected with npouYjili'j;11. The latter word
has, however, every appearance of being a purely Greek formation, while the
Indian verb math , to twirl, is found compounded only with nis, never with
pra , to express the act of producing fire by friction.

The powerful friction necessary to produce fire is probably the reason
why Agni is frequently called the ‘son ( suiiu. , putra, once yuvan) of strength’
( sahasah ) 12. This explanation is supported by a passage of the RV. stating
that Agni ‘rubbed with strength ( sa/iasa ) is produced ( jay ate) by men on the
surface of the earth’ (6,48s). According to a later text, the kindling of Agni
by friction must not take place before sunrise (M3. 1, 6l°). Being produced
every morning for the sacrifice Agni appropriately receives the very frequent
epithet, exclusively connected with him, of ‘youngest’ (yavistha, yavisthya). His
new births are opposed to his old (3, i20). Having grown old he is born
again as a youth (2, 4$). In this sense, he does not grow old (1, 1282), his
new light being like his old (6, i6!I). Like some other gods, Agni is also
spoken of simply as ‘young’. At the same time he is old. There is no sacri-
ficer older than Agni (5, 3s), for he conducted the first sacrifice (3, 154). He
shone forth after former dawns (i,4410), and the part played by Agni in the
sacrifices of ancestors is often referred to (8, 43 13 &c.). He is thus sometimes
in the same passage paradoxically called both ‘ancienc’ and ‘very young’
<10, 41* 2).

More generally Agni is spoken of as born in wood (6, 3J; 10, 797), as
the embryo of plants (2, 114; 3, 113) or as distributed in plants (10, i2). He
is also said to have entered into all plants or to strive after them (8, 439).

92 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

When he is called the embryo of trees (i, 704) or of trees as well as plants
(2, i1), there may be a side-glance at the fire produced in forests by the
friction of the boughs of trees.

The terrestrial existence of Agni is further indicated by his being called
the ‘navel of the earth’ (1, 592). This expression appears, in the many
passages in which it occurs, to allude to the receptacle of the sacrificial Agni
on the excavated altar or redi ’3. In the Vedic ritual ndbhi or ‘navel’ is the
technical term designating the hollow in the littard vcdi, in which Agni is
deposited14. The earlier use of the term probably suggested the figure, that
the gods made Agni the ‘navel’ or centre of immortality (3, 174). The only
two occurrences in the RV. of the attribute vedisad, ‘sitting on the altar’,
refer to Agni.

Agni’s origin in the aerial waters is often referred to. The ‘Son of
waters’ has, as has been shown (§ 24), become a distinct deity. Agni is also
the ‘embryo’ (garb/ia) of the waters (3, i12- ’3); he is kindled in the waters
(10, 451; AV. 13, 150); he is a bull who has grown in the lap of the waters
(10, 81); he is ocean-girt (8, 915). He is also said to descend from the dhaim
or cloud-island (1, 1445; 10, 4s) and to be the shining thunder dwelling in
the bright space (6, 62). In such passages the lightning form of Agni must
be meant. Some of the later hymns of the RV. (10, 51 — 3. 124) 15 tell a
legend of Agni hiding in the waters and plants and being found by the gods.
This legend is also often related in the Brahmanas'6. In the AV. the Agnis
in the waters are distinguished from those that go on the path of lightning
or from the celestial Agni with the lightning (AV. 3, 2 11- 7 ; 8, 1") and are
said to have dwelt on earth (AV. 12, 137). In one passage of the RV. also
it is stated that Agni rests in all streams (8, 39s, cp. Ap. SS. 5, 21); and in
the later ritual texts Agni in the waters is invoked in connexion with ponds
and water-vessels. Thus even in the oldest Vedic period, the waters in which
Agni is latent, though not those from which he is produced, may in various
passages have been regarded as terrestrial. Oldexberg17 thinks that the
terrestrial waters are chiefly meant in this connexion and doubts whether the
lightning Agni is intended even in the first hymn of the third book18. In any
case, the notion of Agni in the waters is prominent throughout the Vedas.
Water is Agni’s home, as heaven is that of the sun (5, 85*: cp. AV. 13, 150;
19, 33')- The waters are also often mentioned along with the plants or wood
as his abode1^ (2, i1 &c.).

Agni’s origin in heaven is moreover frequently spoken of. He is bora
in the highest heavens (1, 1432; 6, 82). He existed potentially though not
actually in the highest heavens (io,57), and was brought from heaven, from
afar by Matarisvan (§ 25). In such passages Agni doubtless represents lightning;
for lightning is regardtd as coming from heaven as well as from the waters
(AV. 3, 2 1 1 ■ 7 ; 8, i11), and in a Brahmana passage (AB. 7, 72) it is spoken
of as both celestial ( divya ) and aqueous ( apsumat ). When lightning is mentioned
by its proper name vidyut (which occurs hardly 30 times in the RV.) along
with Agni, it is commonly compared with and thereby distinguished from
him20, doubtless as a concrete phenomenon in contrast with the god. The
myth, too, of the descent of fire from heaven to earth, due undoubtedly to
the actual observation of conflagrations caused by the stroke of lightning,
implies the identity of the celestial Agni and lightning. The heavenly origin
of Agni is further implied in the fact that the acquisition of fire by man is
regarded as a gift of the gods as well as a production of Matarisvan; and
Agni’s frequent epithet of ‘guest {a tit hi) of men’ may allude to the same
notion (5, i9 &c.).

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni.

93

In other passages, again, Agni is to be identified with the sun; for the
conception of the sun as a form of Agni, is an undoubted Vedic belief. Thus
Agni is the light of heaven in the bright sky, waking at dawn, the head of
heaven (3,2'+). He was born on the other side of the air and sees all things
(10, iS;4'5). He is born as the sun rising in the morning (10, 886)2'. The
AB. (8, 28 IJ) remarks that the sun when setting enters into Agni and is
produced from him. The same identification is probably alluded to in passages
stating that Agni unites with the light or the rays of the sun (5, 371; 7, 21),
that when men light Agni on earth, the celestials light him (6, 2 ’>), or that
Agni shines in heaven (3, 2712; 8, 4429). Sometimes, however, it is difficult
to decide whether lightning or the sun is intended. The solar aspect of
Agni’s nature is not often mentioned, the sun being too individual a pheno-
menon to be generally conceived as a form of fire. Agni is usually thought
of in his terrestrial form, being compared rather than identified with the sun.
Thus the poet says that the minds of the godly are turned to Agni as eyes
towards the sun (5, 14). At the same time there is frequently a side-glance
at Agni’s other forms, it being therefore in many cases doubtful which of his
aspects is intended.

Owing to the diverse births above described, Agni is often regarded as
having a triple character22, which in many passages is expressly referred to
with some form of the numeral ‘three’. This earliest Indian trinity is important,
for on it is based much of the mystical speculation of the Vedic age23.
Agni’s births are three or threefold (1, 95^; 4, 1'). The gods made him
threefold (10, 88'°). He is threefold light (3, 267), has three heads (1,146'),
three tongues, three bodies, three stations (3, 202). The epithet trisadhast/ia,
‘having three stations’, is predominantly connected with Agni24, and the only
passage in which the word tripastya , ‘having three dwellings’, occurs (8, 39s), it
is an attribute of Agni. The triad is not always understood in exactly the same
way or mentioned in the same order. Thus one poet says: ‘From heaven
first Agni was born, the second time from us (= men), thirdly in the waters
(10, 451, cp. vv. 2- 3). The order of Agni’s abodes is also heaven, earth,
waters in other passages (8, 4416; 10, 27. 46?), while one verse (1, 953) has
the variation: ocean, heaven, waters. Sometimes the terrestrial Agni comes
first: ‘He was first born in houses, at the base of great heaven, in the womb
of this atmosphere’ (4, 1"); ‘the immortals kindled three flames of Agni: of
these they placed one with man, for use, and two went to the sister-world’
(3, 20). A Sutra passage (Ap. SS. 5, 164) distinguishes a terrestrial Agni in
animals, an aerial one in the waters, and a celestial one in the sun. Occa-
sionally the terrestrial Agni comes third. He is one of three brothers of
whom ‘the middlemost brother is lightning ( asna/i ) and the third is butter-
backed’ (1, 164', cp. 1412). ‘Agni glows from the sky, to god Agni belongs the
broad air, men kindle Agni, bearer of oblations, lover of ghee’ (AV. 12, i20, cp.
I3;32Ii 18,4").

The third form of Agni is once spoken of as the highest (10, 13; cp.
5, 33; 1, 722- 4). Yaska (Nir. 7, 28) mentions that his predecessor Sakapuni
regarded the threefold existence of Agni referred to in 10, 88'° as being in
earth, air, and heaven, a certain Brahmana considering Agni’s third mani-
festation, which is in heaven, to be the sun (cp. Nir. 12, 19). This threefold
nature of Agni, so clearly recognised in the RV., was probably the prototype
not only of the posterior triad of Sun, Wind, Fire (8, 1819), which is spoken
of as distributed in the three worlds (10, 1581; AV. 4, 39s) and is implied
in another verse (1, 16444), but also of the triad of Sun, Indra, Fire, which
though not Rigvedic is still ancient. Here Vata or Vayu and Indra have

94 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

taken the place of Agni Vaidyuta, the lightning Agni, as the Brahmanas and
commentators call him. This substitution is perhaps partly due to the transient
nature of lightning and partly to the lack of any name other than Agni for
the personified lightning, which could therefore be expressed only by epithets
or allusions. The triad of Agnis may have suggested and would explain the
division of the sacrificial fire into the three sacrificial fires25 which in the
Vedic ritual are kept distinct from the domestic fire26 and which form an
essential feature of the cult in the Brahmanas V The ritual may have then
reacted on the myth. At any rate, later Hindu literature took the three fires
as representative of the three forms of Agni known to the RV. 28 The three
sacrificial fires may go back to the time of the RV., possibly even to an
anterior period29. Thus Agni is besought to bring the gods and to seat
himself in the three receptacles ( yonisu : 2, 36b cp. 5, n2; 10, 1059).

Doubtless on the basis of the twofold division of the Universe into heaven
and earth, Agni is in several passages said to have two births, being the
only single god spoken of as dvijanman (1, 601. 1402. I492- 3). An upper
and a lower birth are mentioned (2, 93), his abode in lower and upper spheres
is referred to (1, 1283), and the opposition is generally between terrestrial
and celestial fire (3, 54’; 10, 4510), though in one passage at least (8, 4328)
the contrast is between his birth in heaven and in the waters. Agni is sum-
moned from his supreme abode (8, n7) and comes thence to the lower ones
(8,6415). When he is brought from the highest father he rises into the plants
(1, 1414). Here Agni is conceived as coming down in rain and then entering
the plants, out of which he is again produced. The fires, like water, after
descending to earth again rise to heaven (1, 16451). On this distinction of
two forms of fire are based such prayers as that Agni should sacrifice to
himself (10, 76), that he should bring Agni ( 7 , 3 9 5) , or that he should descend
with the gods to the sacrifice (3, 69 &c.). Allied to this distinction is the
notion that Agni was kindled by the gods as contrasted with men3° (6, 23).
The latter notion is due to the assumption that celestial fires must be kindled
by some one and gods must sacrifice like men (cp. AB. 2, 34).

From another point of view, Agni is said to have many births (10, 51).
This multiplicity no doubt primarily refers to the numerous fires kindled on
terrestrial altars. For Agni is very frequently said to abide in every family,
house, or abode (4, 68. 71- 3; 5, 15. 6s &c.). He is produced in many places
(3, 5419) and has many bodies (10, 9810). Scattered in many places, he is
one and the same king (3, S54). Kindled in many places, he is but one
(Val. io2). Other fires are attached to him as branches to a tree (8, 1933).
Thus he comes to be invoked with the Agnis (7, 31; 8, 189. 491; 10, 1416)
or all the Agnis (1, 2610; 6, 126).

The accounts given of Agni’s abodes or birthplaces sometimes involve
cross divisions. Thus his brilliance in heaven, earth, air, waters, and plants
is referred to (3, 2 22) or he is said to be born from the heavens, the waters,
stone, woods, and plants (2, il). Longer enumerations of a similar kind
occasionally occur elsewhere (AV. 3, 21; 12, 119; Ap. SS. 5, 164). When Agni
is said (1, 704, cp. 6, 48s) to dwell in a rock ( adrau ) the reference is probably
to the lightning latent in the cloud (cp. p. 10). The same is probably the
case when he is said (2, i1) to be produced from a stone ( asmanah ) or to
have been generated by Indra between two stones (2, 123); but here there
may lurk an allusion to the production of fire from flint. Animal heat is of
course meant when Agni is said to be in the heart of man (10, 51), or in
beasts, horses, birds, bipeds and quadrupeds (AV. 3, 212; 12, 119. 233; TS.
4, 6, 13). As being the spark of vitality and so widely diffused in nature,

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni.

95

Agni naturally comes to be described as the germ ( garbha ) of what is
stationary or moves and of all that exists (1, 703; AV. 5, 2 57).

The triple nature of Agni gave rise to the notion of three brothers
(1, 1641); while the multiplicity of sacrificial fires may have suggested the
idea of Agni’s elder brothers who are spoken of in the plural (10, 516). The
number of these is later stated to be three (TS. 2, 6, 61). The same are
probably meant by the four Hotrs of the gods, of whom the first three died
(Kath. 25, 7)31. Varuna is once spoken of as Agni’s brother (4, i2). Else-
where Indra is said to be his twin brother (6, 59^) ^2. Indra is indeed oftener
associated with Agni than with any other god and is, with two slight exceptions,
the only god with whom Agni forms a dual divinity (§ 44). It is doubtless
owing to this association that Agni is described as bursting the rock with
heat (8, 46'6) and vanquishing the unbelieving Panis (7, 63). In one entire
hymn (1, 93) Agni is also coupled with Soma (§ 44).

Agni is occasionally identified with other gods, especially with Varuna
and Mitra33 (2, 1 + ; 3, 54; 7, 123). He is Varuna when he goes to the sacri-
fice (10, 85). He is Varuna when he is born and Mitra when he is kindled
(5, 31). Agni in the evening becomes Varuna, rising in the morning he be-
comes Mitra; becoming Savitr he traverses the air, becoming Indra he illumines
the/sky in the midst (AV. 13, 313). In one passage of the RV. (2, i3-7) he
is successively identified with about a dozen gods besides five goddesses. He
assumes various divine forms (3, 387) and has many names (3, 203). Injhim
are comprehended all the gods (3, 3’), whom he surrounds as a felly the
spokes (5, 136).

What is probably the oldest function of fire in regard to its cult, that
of burning and dispelling evil spirits and hostile magic, still survives in the
Veda. Agni drives away the goblins with his light (3, 1 5 1 &c.) 34 and receives
the epithet raksohan, ‘goblin-slayer’ (10, 871). When kindled he consumes
with iron teeth and scorches with heat the sorcerers as well as the goblins
(10, 87 2- 5* ’4), protecting the sacrifice with keen glance (ib. 9). He knows
the races of the sorcerers and destroys them (AV. i,84). Though this function
of dispelling terrestrial demons is shared with Agni by Indra (as well as by
Brhaspati, the Asvins, and especially Soma), it must primarily have belonged
to Agni alone, just as, conversely, that of slaying Asuras or aerial demons is
transferred to Agni (7, 131) though properly peculiar to Indra. This is borne
out by the fact that Agni is undoubtedly more prominent as a goblin-slayer
than Indra, both in the hymns and in the ritual33.

Agni is more closely connected with human life than any other god.
His association with the dwellings of men is peculiarly intimate. He is the
only god to whom the frequent epithet gr/iapati , ‘lord of the house’, is
applied. He dwells in every abode (7,i52), never leaving his home (8,4919).
The attribute ‘domestic’ ( damunas ) is generally connected with him (i,6o4&c.).
This household deity probably represents an old order of ideas; for in the
later elaborate ritual of the three sacrificial fires, the one from which the
other two (the d/iavaniya or eastern and the daksina or southern) were taken,
is called the garhapatya or that which belongs to grhapati. In this connexion
it is interesting to observe that even as early as Rigvedic times there are
traces of the sacrificial fire having been transported30. For Agni is led round
(4, 93. 151), strides round the offerings (4, 153) or goes round the sacrifice
three times (4, 64- 5. 152); and as soon as he is released from his parents,
he is led to the east and again to the west (1, 314).

He is further constantly designated a ‘guest’ ( atit/ii ) in human abodes.
He is a guest in every house (10, 912), the first guest of settlers (5, 82). For

96 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

he is an immortal (a term much more commonly applied to Agni than to
any other god), who has taken up his abode among mortals (8, 601). He
has been established or settled among human habitations (3, 5^; 4, 62). It is
the domestic Agni who caused mortals to settle (3, 117). He is a leader
(3, 25) and a protector of settlers (1, 964), and the epithet vispati, ‘lord of
settlers’ is mainly connected with him.

Thus Agni comes to be called the nearest kinsman of man (7, 151;
8, 49’°), or simply a kinsman (1, 2 63 &c.) or a friend (1, 75' &c.). But he
is oftenest described as a father (6, 15 &c.), sometimes also as a brother
(8, 43i61 1 °, 73 &c.), and even as a son (2, i9) or mother (6, i5j, of his
worshippers. Such terms seem to point to an older order of things, when
Agni was less sacrificial and, as the centre of domestic life, produced an
intimate relation such as is not easily found in the worship of other gods 3?.

The continuity of Agni’s presence in the house would naturally connect
him more closely than any other god with the past. Hence the ancestral
friendship of Agni with his worshipper (1, 7110) is probably more typical of
him than of any other deity. He is the god whom the forefathers kindled,
to whom they prayed. Thus mention is made of an Agni of Bharata (2, 7“
7,84&c.), ofVadhryasva (10, 691), of Devavata (3,233), of Divodasa (8, 922),
and of Trasadasyu (8, 1932)38. The names of ancestors sometimes identified
with Agni are in part those of families to which composers of the RV. be-
longed. Some of these, like Vasistha, seem to have had a historical origin,
while others, like Angiras (§ 54) and Bhrgu (§ 51), are probably mythical
(cp. § 58).

Agni is further brought into close relations with the daily life of man
in the sacrifice. He is, however, not merely a passive receiver of the offering,
but is an intermediary between heaven and earth. He transmits the oblation
to the gods, who do not get exhilarated without him (7, n1). On the other
hand, he brings the gods (3, 142) to the sacrifice as well as takes it to them
(7, 115). He seats them on the strewn grass (1, 3117; 8, 443), to eat the
offering (5, i”&c.). He goes on the paths leading both to the gods (10,98“)
and to earth (8, 72), knowing these paths (6, i6j). He is therefore constantly
and characteristically called a messenger {duta), who knows the paths and
conveys the sacrifice (1, 72") or visits all abodes (4, i8); who flies swiftly
(10, 64), moving between heaven and earth (4, 78. 84; 10, 42), or the two
races, gods and men (4, 22-j); who has been appointed by the gods (5,86&c.)
and by men (10, 46 IO), to be an oblation-bearer ( havya-vah or -vahana,
terms always connected with Agni) and to announce the hymn of the wor-
shipper (1, 2 74) or to bring the gods to the place of sacrifice (4, 82). He is
the messenger of the gods (6, 159) and of Vivas vat (p. 42); but as knowing
the innermost recesses of heaven, as conveying the sacrifice, and bringing
the gods (4, 78. 8!) he is mainly to be considered the messenger of men.
A later text states that Agni is the messenger of the gods, and Kavya Usanas
or Daivya that of the Asuras (TS. 2, 5, 85. n8). Another describes Agni not as
the messenger of, but as the path leading to, the gods, by which the summit
of heaven may be reached (TB. 2, 4, i6).

In consequence of his main function in the Veda of officiating at the
sacrifice, Agni comes to be celebrated as the divine counterpart of the earthly
priesthood. He is therefore often called generically the ‘priest’ ( rtvij , vipra)
or specifically the ‘domestic priest’ ( purohita ), and constantly, more frequently
in fact than by any other name, the ‘offerer’ {hotf) or chief priest, who is
poet and spokesman in one. He is a Hotr appointed by men (8, 491; 10, 7$)
and by gods (6, 16'). He is the most adorable, the most eminent of Hotfs

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni.

97

(10, 2 l. 91s). He is also termed an adhvaryu (3, 5+) and (like Brhaspati,
Soma, and Indra) a brahman or praying priest (4, 94). He combines in himself
the functions, in a higher sense, of the various human priests called by the
above and other specific names (i,946; 2, i2&c.). He is constantly invoked
to honour or worship the gods (3, 2 5 1 ; 7, 113 &c.), while they in their turn
are said to honour Agni three times a day (3, 42). He is the accomplisher
of the rite or sacrifice (3, 33. 2 72), promoting it by his occult power (3, 2 77),
making the oblations fragrant (10, 1512), and causing the offering which he
protects to reach the gods (1, i4). He is the father (3, 34), the king (4,3'),
the ruler (10, 63), the superintendant (8, 4324), the banner (3, 33. 104; 6, 23;
10, 1 5), of sacrifice. In one hymn (10, 51) it is related that Agni grew
weary of the service and refused to fulfil his sacrificial offices, but on being
granted the remuneration he required from the gods, continued to act as
high priest of men3^. Agni’s priesthood is the most salient feature of his
character. He is in fact the great priest, as Indra is the great warrior. But
though this phase of Agni’s character is so prominent from the beginning to
the end of the RV., it is of course from a historical point of view compara-
tively recent, due to those mystical sacerdotal speculations which ultimately
led to the endless sacrificial symbolism of the later ritual texts. From the
ordinary sacrificial Agni who conveys the offering ( havya-vah or - vahana ) is
distinguished the form of Fire which is called ‘corpse-devouring’ ( kravyad :
cp. § 71). The VS. distinguishes three forms, as the Agni who devours raw-
flesh ( amad ), the corpse-devouring or funereal, and the sacrificial Agni (VS.
1, 17, cp. 18, 51). The TS. (2, 5, 86) also distinguishes three, the Agni that

bears the oblation ( havyavahana ), as belonging to the gods, the Agni that

bears the funeral offering ( havyavahana ), as belonging to the Fathers, and the
Agni associated with goblins ( saharahsas ) as belonging to the Asuras.

Agni is a seer (rsi) as well as a priest (9, 6620); he is kindled as an

eminent seer (3, 213); he is the most gracious seer (6, 142); he is the first

seer Angiras (1, 31’)- He is the divine one ( asura ) among the sages (3, 34).
Agni knows the sacrifice exactly (10, 1101') and knows all rites (10, 1222).
Knowing the proper seasons he rectifies the mistakes which men commit
through ignorance of the sacrificial ordinances of the gods (10, 24, 5) He
knows the recesses of heaven (4, 82- 4). He knows everything (10, n1) by
his wisdom (10, 913). He has all wisdom (3, 117; 10, 2 15), which he embraces
as the felly the wheel (2,53) and which he acquired as soon as born (1,96').
He is ‘all-knowing’ ( visvavid ); and the epithets ‘possessed of all knowledge’
( visvavedas ), ‘sage’ ( kavi ), and ‘possessing the intelligence of a sage’ ( kavikratu )
are predominantly applicable to him. He exclusively bears the epithet jatavedas ,
which occurs upwards of 120 times in the RV. and is there (6, 1513) ex-
plained as meaning ‘he who knows all generations’ ( visva veda janima) 4°.
He knows the divine ordinances and the generations of men (1, 701, 3). He
knows and sees all creatures (3, 55’°; 10, 1874) and hears the invocations
addressed to him (8, 43 23). Agni is also a producer of wisdom (8, 918).

Wisdom and prayers arise from him (4, n3). He is an inspirer (10,46s),

an inventor of brilliant speech (2, 94), the first inventor of prayer (6, i1).
He is also said to be eloquent (6, 44) and a singer ( jaritr ).

Agni is a great benefactor of his worshippers. He protects them with a
hundred iron walls (7, 37. 1610, cp. 6, 48s; 1, 1892). He preserves them from

calamities or takes them across calamities as in a ship over the sea (3,20+;

5, 49; 7, 1 2 2). He is a deliverer (8, 49s) and a friend of the man who
entertains him as a guest (4, 410). He grants protection to the worshipper
who sweats to bring him fuel (4, 26). He watches with a thousand eyes the

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 7

98 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

man who brings him food and nourishes him with oblations (io, 79s). He
consumes his worshippers’ enemies like dry bushes (4, 44) and strikes down
the malevolent as a tree is destroyed by lightning (6, 8s, cp. AV. 3, 21 &c.).
He is therefore invoked in battle (8, 4321), in which he leads the van (8, 73s).
The man whom he protects and inspires in battle wins abundant food and
can never be overcome (1,27?). All blessings issue from him as branches from
a tree (6,i3I). He gives riches, which he abundantly commands (i,i3. 3110.
3b4). All treasures are collected in him (10, 66) and he opens the door of
riches (1, 68'°). He commands all riches in heaven and earth (4, 511) or in
earth, heaven, and ocean ( 7 6 7 ; 10, 9 13). He gives rain from heaven (2, 6s)
and is like a water-trough in the desert (10, 41). He is therefore constantly
besought to bestow every kind of boon: food, riches, deliverance from poverty,
childlessness, enemies, and demons4'. The boons which Agni bestows are
rather domestic welfare, offspring, and prosperity, while Indra for the most
part gives power, victory, and glory. Agni also forgives sin42 committed
through folly, makes guiltless before Aditi (4, 124; 7, 93?, cp. p. 121), and averts
Varuna’s wrath (4, 14). He even frees from guilt committed by a man’s
father and mother (AV. 5, 304; TB. 3, 7, i23- 4)

Agni is a divine {asura) monarch ( samraj ), strong as Indra (7, 6 '). His
greatness surpasses that of mighty heaven (1,59s). He is greater than heaven
and earth (3, 62; 10, 88'4), than all the worlds, which he filled when born
(3, 310). He is superior to all the other gods in greatness (1, 682). All the
gods fear and do homage to him when he abides in darkness (6, 97). He
is celebrated and worshipped by Varuna, Mitra, the Maruts, and all the gods
(3, 98. 144; 10, 69°). Agni performed great deeds of old (7, 62). Men tremble
at his mighty deeds (8,923). In battle he procured space for the gods (1,59s)
and he delivered them from curse (7, 132). He is a conqueror of thousands
(sahasrajil: more commonly an attribute of Soma). He drives away the
Dasyus from the house, thus creating a wide light for the Arya (7, 56). He
is a promoter of the Arya (8,92') and a vanquisher of irreligious Panis (7,63).
He receives with some frequency the epithet of ‘Vrtra-slayer’, and two or
three times that of ‘fort-destroyer’ ( puramdara ), attributes primarily appro-
priate to Indra (p. 60). Such warlike qualities, though suitable to Agni in
his lightning form, are doubtless derived by him from Indra, with whom he
is so frequently associated (p. 127).

Although Agni is the son of Heaven and Earth he is nevertheless called
the generator of the two worlds (1, 964, cp. 7, 5;), his ordinance, which does
not perish (2, 83), being followed by heaven and earth (7, 54). He stretched
them out (3, 6s; 7, 54) or spread them out like two skins (6, 83). With his
flame or his smoke he supported the vault of heaven (3, 5’0; 4, 62). He kept
asunder the two worlds (6, 83). He supported earth and heaven with true
hymns (1, 673). He stands at the head of the world or is the head of the
earth at night (10, 88s- 6), but he is also the head and summit (kakud) of
the sky (1, 592; 6, 7'; 8, 44lb). He measured out the air and touched the
vault of heaven with his greatness (6, 82). He measured out the aerial spaces
and the bright realms of heaven (6, 77). He caused the sun to ascend the
sky (10, 1564). The notion that the kindling of Agni exercised a magical
influence on the sunrise seems not to be entirely absent in the RV.43. Such
appears to be the meaning of the poet when he exclaims: ‘ Let us light Agni,
that thy wondrous brand may shine in heaven’ (5, 64). This notion is clearly
stated in a Brahmana passage: ‘By , sacrificing before sunrise he produces him
(the sun), else he would not rise’ (SB. 2, 3, i3, cp. TS. 4, 7, 133). Otherwise
the kindling of Agni and the sunrise are represented merely as simultaneous

Terrestrial Gods. 35. Agni.

99

in the RV.: ‘The sun became visible when Agni was born’ (4, 3”). This
trait of the Agni myth resembles the winning of the sun in the Indra myth,
but the original point of view in the two cases is clearly different. Agni is
further said to have adorned the sky with stars (1, 68s). He created all that
flies, walks, stands, or moves (10, 884). He placed the germ in these beings
(3, 210), in plants, in all beings, and engendered offspring in the earth and
in women (10, 1835). Agni is once spoken of as having generated these
children of men (1, 962); but this is a mere incidental extension of the notion
expressed in the same stanza, that he created heaven, earth, and the waters,
and cannot be interpreted as a general belief in Agni as father of the human
race '*4. Finally, Agni is the guardian (7, 74) and lord (7, 46) of immortality,
which he confers on mortal men (1, 317).

Though agni is an Indo-European word (Lat. igni-s , Slavonic ogni), the
worship of fire under this name is purely Indian. In the Indo-Iranian period the
sacrificial fire is already found as the centre of a developed ritual, tended by a
priestly class probably called Atharvan; personified and worshipped as a strong,
pure, wise god, giver of food, offspring, intellectual power, fame; friendly to
the house, but a destroyer of foes; probably even thought of as having different
forms like lightning or the fire produced from wood45. The sacrificial fire
seems to have been an Indo-European institution also46, since the Italians and
Greeks, as well as the Iranians and Indians had the custom of offering gifts
to the gods in fire. But the personification of this fire, if it then existed,
must have been extremely shadowy47.

The word ag-ni may possibly be derived from the root which in Sanskrit
appears as aj 48, to drive ( ajami , Lat. ago, Gk. aycu), meaning ‘nimble’, with
reference to the agility of the element.

Besides epithets of celestial fire which, like Apam napat, have become
separate names, some epithets of Agni exhibit a semi-independent character.
The epithet V ais vanara40, occurring about sixty times in the RV. and with
two exceptions restricted to Agni, is, apart from some five detached verses,
to be found in fourteen hymns of the RV., in nearly all of which, according
to the native tradition of the AnukramanT, Agni Vais vanara is the deity ad-
dressed. The attribute is never in the RV. unaccompanied by the name of
Agni. It means ‘belonging to all men’ and seems to designate ‘Universal
Agni’, fire in all its aspects, celestial as well as terrestrial. Thus the hymns
addressed to this form of Agni sometimes refer to the myth of Matarisvan
and the Bhrgus, which is connected with the descent of celestial fire to earth
(3, 24; 6, 84), and Agni Vaisvanara is once even directly styled Matarisvan
(3, 2 62). In the Naighantuka (5, 1) Vaisvanara is given as one of the names
of Agni. Yaska in commenting on the epithet states (Nir. 7, 23), that ancient
ritualists ( ydjhikah ) took Agni Vaisvanara to be the sun, while Sakapuni con-
sidered him to be this Agni50. Later on (Nir. 7, 31), he states as his own
opinion that the Agni Vaisvanara who receives praise and sacrifice is this
(i. e. terrestrial) Agni, while the two higher ( uttare ) lights (i. e. the aerial and
the celestial) only occasionally share this designation. f In the ritual texts
Vaisvanara is distinguished as a special form of Agni (ASS. 1,3^; KSS. 23, 31;
(PB. 21, 10“; SB. 1, 5, i,b).

The epithet Tanunapat, generally unaccompanied by the name of Agni,
occurs eight times in the RV. and, with two exceptions (3, 2911; 10, 922)
always in the second verse of the Aprl hymns, which are liturgical invitations
introducing the animal sacrifice and in which fire under various names and
forms is invoked51. The word occurs as an independent name in the Nai-
ghantuka (5, 2). The explanations given by Yaska (Nir. 8, 5) are artificial

ioo III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

and improbable52. It seems to mean 'son of himself’, as spontaneously
generated in wood and cloud. According to Bergaigne’s interpretation, it
signifies ‘the bodily (i. e. own) son’ of the divine father55. Tanunapat as con-
trasted with Matarisvan and Narasamsa is said to be ‘the divine ( asura )
embryo’ (3, 2911). The dawns are said to kiss Agni ‘the domestic priest, the
Tanunapat of the ruddy one’ (10, 922, cp. 5, 58°). Tanunapat is beautiful-
tongued (10, no2). He is besought to take the sacrifice to the gods (1 , 1 32;
10, no2); he distributes the sacrifice rich in ghee and mead (1, 1422, cp.
1882). The gods honour him three times a day, Varuna, Mitra, Agni, every
day (3, 42). Hillebrandt54 (comparing 9, 52) identifies Agni Tanunapat with
Agni Somagopa or the lunar Fire, which he assumes to be a special form of
Agni55.

The somewhat more frequent epithet Nar as am s a which is given as an
independent appellation in the Naighantuka (5, 3) and is unaccompanied by
the name of Agni in the RV., is not restricted to Agni, being twice connected
with Pusan (1, 1064; 10, 645)56. It has the third verse as its fixed place in
the AprI hymns and the second in those which are technically called Apra.
Narasamsa is ‘four-limbed’ (10, 92”) and is the ‘lord of a celestial wife
( gnaspati : 2, 3810). With honey on his tongue and in his hand, he performs
the sacrifice (1, 133/ 5, 52). Three times a day he besprinkles the sacrifice
with honey (1, 1425). He anoints the three heavens and the gods (2, 32).
He comes at the head of the gods and makes the sacrifice pleasant for them
(10, 702). Through his sacrifices worshippers praise the greatness of the gods
(7, 2 2). Soma is said to go between Narasamsa and the celestial ( daivya )
one (9,8b42), which seems to mean, between the terrestrial and the celestial
Agni. As contrasted with Tanunapat and Matarisvan, Agni is called Nara-
samsa when he is born (3, 2911). In one hymn to Brhaspati (10, 1822)
Narasamsa is invoked for protection, and in another he is spoken of as the
sacrificer of the seat of heaven (1, 189). He thus seems in these two passages
to be identified with Brhaspati. The word nCira-samsa is apparently an im-
proper compound (in which the in of the genitive plural has disappeared),
having a double accent and having its parts separated by particles in two
passages (9, 8642; xo, 64^). As the expressions naram sainsa and devanam
sainsa occur (2,34s; 1, 141”) and a poet once calls Agni sainsam ayoh ,
‘Praise of Ayu’ (4, 6”), Narasamsa appears to mean ‘Praise of men’ in the
sense of ‘he who is the object of men’s praise’. Bergaigne expresses the
opinion57 that the exact aspect of Agni represented by Narasamsa, is that of
a god of human prayer, like a second Brhaspati.

1 Mund. Up. 1, 2 4; cp. ZDMG. 35, 552. — 2 Cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50,
425 — 6; SBE. 46, 159. 207. — 3 ORV. 104; SBE. 46, 128. — 4 Cp. BRV. 1, 143; SBE.
46, 144. — 5 BDA. 50 — 1 ; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 69. — 5 Schwab, Das alt-
indische Tieropfer 77- — 8; Roth, Indisches Feuerzeug, ZDMG. 43, 590 — 5. — 7 BRV.
2, 52; PVS. 2, 50. — 5 Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 120; PW. s. v. yuvati and tvastr ; OO.

2, 510. — 9 Jolly in this Encyclopaedia II, 8, p. 25. — 10 KHF. ed. Schrader (1889)

37—9; cp. ZDMG. 35, 561. — 11 KHF. 18; KRV. note 121; HRI. 107. —

12 Roth, ZDMG. 43, 593; ORV. 121. — r3 Cp. HVM. 1, 179 note 4. — '4 Haug,
AB. 2, p. 62. — 15 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 68 — 72; Macdonell, JRAS. 26, 16 ff.

— 16 LRV. 5, 504. — I7 ORV. 1 15. — 18 Cp. GVS. 1, 157—70. — 19 ORV. 113

note 2. — 20 Ibid. 112. — 21 Other passages are 3, 144; 8, 5b5; 10> 88 “• I2;

AV. 13, 1*3; TS. 4, 2, 94. — 22 OST. 5, 206; BRV. 1, 21 — 5; Macdonell, JRAS.

25, 468—70; ORV. 106; SBE. 46, 231. — 2 3 Cp. HRI. 105. — 24 See GW. s. v.

— 25 LRV. 3, 356; BRV. 1, 23. — 26 ORV. 348. — 27 Cp. SB. 2, 1 and Egge-

ling, SBE. 12, 274 ff. — 28 HRI. 106; cp. LRV. 3, 356. — 29 BRV. 1, 23; LRV.

3, 355; Oldenberg, SBE. 30, x, note 1; 46, 362; ORV. 348. — 3° BRV. 1, 103.

— 31 LRV. 5, 504 — 5. — 32 Cp. Sayana; Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 140; MM., LSL. 2,

614. — 33 Cp. BRV. 3, 134 f. — 34 BRV. 2, 217. — 35 ORV. 128. 36 SBE. 46, 361. —

Terrestrial Gods. 36. Brhaspati.

ioi

87 ORV. 132—3. 38 OST. 1, 348—9; cp. SBE. 46, 123. 211. — 39 Mac-

noNELi., JR AS. 26, 12 — 22. — 4° Whitney, AJP. 3, 409; otherwise PVS. 1, 94
and Bloomfield, JAOS. 16, 16. — 41 OST. 5, 218. — 42 Cp. ORV. 299 — 300. —
43 Cp. BRV. 1, 140 ff.; ORV. 109; SBE. 46, 330. — 44 The view of KHF. 69 ff.
— 45 ORV. 103. — 46 Knauer, FaR. 64. — 47 ORV. 102. — 48 PW. ; MM.PhR.
117 (cp. Kirste, WZKM. 7, 97); rejected by Bartholomae, IF. 5, 222. — 49 BRV.
153—6. — 5° Roth, Nir. Erl. 7, 19. — 51 Roth, Nirukta, Introd. 36 f. ; Erl. 117—8.
12 1 — 4; MM.ASL. 463 — 6; Weber, IS. 10, 89—95; GRV. 1, 6. — 52 Roth, Nir.
Erl. 117; cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 10. — 53 BRV. 2, 99 f. — 54 HVM. 1, 339. —
55 Ibid. 330—6. — 56 Roth, Erl. 117 f. ; cp. Sp.AP. 209 f. — 57 BRV. 1, 305—8.

KHF. 1 — 105; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 317—8; OST. 199—220; LRV. 3, 324—5;
KRV. 35 — 7; BRV. 1, 11 — 31.38 — 45. 70—4. 100—1. 139—45; BRI. 9 — n; Sp.AP.
147 — 53 5 v. Schroeder, KZ. 29, 1 93 ff. (cp. BB. 19, 230); WZKM. 225—30;
MM.PhR. 144 — 203. 252 — 302; HVBP. 63—8; ORV. 102—33; HRI. 105 — 12.

§ 36. Brhaspati. — This god occupies a position of considerable pro-
minence in the RV., eleven entire hymns being dedicated to his praise. He
also forms a pair with Indra in two hymns (4, 49; 7, 97). His name occurs
about 120 times and in the form of Brahmanas pati about 50 times besides.
The two forms of the name alternate in different verses of the same hymn
(e. g. in 2, 23). The physical features of Brhaspati are few. He is seven-
mouthed and seven-rayed (4, 504), beautiful-tongued (1, 1901; 4, 501), sharp-
horned (10, 1552), blue-backed (5, 4312), and hundred-winged (7, 977). He
is golden-coloured and ruddy (5, 4312), bright (3, 62'; 7, 9 7 7), pure (7,97 7),
and clear-voiced (7, 97s). He has a bow, the string of which is the rite
(rta), and good arrows (2, 24s; cp. AV. 5, i88,9). He also wields a golden
hatchet (7, 977) and is armed with an iron axe, which Tvastr sharpens (10,
539). He has a car (10, 1034) and stands on the car of the rite, which slays
the goblins, bursts the cowstalls, and wins the light (2, 238). He is drawn
by ruddy steeds (7, 976).

Brhaspati was first born from great light in the highest heaven and with
thunder ( ravena ) drove away darkness (4, 504; cp. 10, 6812). He is the off-
spring of the two worlds (7, 97s), but is also said to have been generated
by Tvastr (2, 2317). On the other hand, he is called the father of the gods
(2, 263), being said to have blown forth the births of the gods like a black-
smith (10, 722).

Brhaspati is a domestic priest1 (2, 249; VS. 20, 11; TS. 6, 4, 10; AB.
8, 2 64), a term almost peculiar to Agni (p. 96). The ancient seers placed
him at their head ( puro-dha ) (4, 501). He is Soma’s purohita (SB. 4, 1, 24).
He is also a brahman or praying priest2 (2, i3; 4, 508), once probably in the
technical sense (10, 1418). In later Vedic texts Brhaspati is the brahman
priest (in the technical sense) of the gods3. He is even called the prayer or
devotion ( brahma ) of the gods (TS. 2, 2, 91 &c.) Brhaspati promotes the
yoking of devotion, and without him sacrifice does not succeed (x, 187). As
a pathmaker he makes good the access to the feast of the gods (2, 236- 7).
From him even the gods obtained their share of sacrifice (2,23'). He awakens
the gods with sacrifice (AV. 19, 631). He himself pronounces the hymn in which
Indra, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, the gods take pleasure (1, 405). He sings
chants (10, 36s). His song ( sloka ) goes to heaven (1, 1904) and metre
(chandas) belongs to him (MS. 1, 9*). He is associated with singers (7, 104;
10,148). He sings with his Triends that cry like Hamsas’ ( 10 , 6 7 J), by whom
the Angirases4 (§ 54) mentioned in the preceding verse (10, 672) seem to be
meant. He is also said to be accompanied by a singing ( rkvat)s host
{gana: 4, 508). This is doubtless the reason why he is called ganapati, ‘lord
of a host’ (2, 231), a term once applied to Indra also (10, 1129).

As the name Brahmanas pati shows, the god is a ‘lord of prayer’. He

io? III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

is also described as the supreme king of prayers, the most famous sage of
sages (2, 231). Mounting the car of the rite he conquers the enemies of
prayer and of the gods (2,23s-8). He is the generator of all prayers (1,190s).
He utters prayer (1, 40s) and communicates prayers to the human priest
(10, 98s7)- Thus he comes later to be called a ‘lord of speech’, vacaspati
(MS. 2, 66, cp. SB. 14, 4, i2s), a term specially applied to Brhaspati as god of
eloquence and wisdom in post-Vedic literature.6

There are several passages in which Brhaspati appears identified with
Agni. Thus ‘the lord of prayer, Agni, handsome like Mitra’ is invoked
(1, 3813). In another passage (2, is ff.) Agni, though identified with other
gods as well, is clearly more intimately connected with Brahmanaspati, as
only these two names are in the vocative. In one verse (3, 26s) both Ma-
tarisvan and ‘Brhaspati the wise priest, the guest, the swiftly-moving’ seem to
be epithets of Agni, while in another (1, 1902) Matarisvan seems to be an
epithet of Brhaspati. Again, by Brhaspati, who is blue-backed, takes up his
abode in the house, shines brightly, is golden-coloured and ruddy (5, 43 12),
Agni must be meant. In two other verses (1, 1819; 10, 1822) Brhaspati seems
to be the same as Narasamsa, a form of Agni (p. 100). Like Agni, Brhaspati
is a priest, is called ‘Son of strength’ (1, 402) and Angiras (2, 2318) as well
(the epithet angirasa belonging to him exclusively), and burns the goblins
(2, 23'4) or slays them (10, 1034). Brhaspati is also spoken of as ascending
to heaven, to the upper abodes (10, 6710). Like Agni, Brhaspati has three
abodes (4, 501); he is the adorable one of houses (7,97s), and ‘lord of the
dwelling’, sadasas pati1 (i,i86; Indra-Agni are once called sadaspatt, 1,21s).
On the other hand, Agni is called brahmanas kavi, ‘sage of prayer’ (6, 1 6S°)
and is besought (2, 27) to make heaven and earth favourable by prayer
( brahmana ). But Brhaspati is much more commonly distinguished from Agni
(2, 25s; 7, io4; 10, 689), chiefly by being invoked or named along with him
in enumerations (3, 20S &c.)8.

Like Agni, Brhaspati has been drawn into and has obtained a firm
footing in the Indra myth of the release of the cows. The mountain yielded
to his splendour, when Brhaspati, the Angiras, opened the cowstall and with
Indra as his companion let loose the flood of water enveloped by darkness
(2, 2318, cp. 1, 56s. 899). Accompanied by his singing host (cp. § 54) he
with a roar rent Vala; shouting he drove out the lowing cows (4, 505). He
won treasures and the great stalls full of cows; desiring waters and light,
the irresistible Brhaspati slays his foe with flames (6, 73s). What was firm
was loosened, what was strong yielded to him; he drove out the cows, he
cleft Vala with prayer; he covered up the darkness and made heaven visible;
the stone-mouthed well filled with honey, which Brhaspati pierced with might,
that the celestials drank, while they poured out together abundantly the
watery fountain (2,24s-4). When Brhaspati with fiery gleams rent the defences
of Vala, he revealed the treasures of the cows; as if splitting open eggs, he
drove out the cows of the mountain; he beheld the honey enclosed by the
stone; he brought it out, having cloven (Vala) with his roar; he smote forth
as it were the marrow of Vala (10, 684 ' 9). He drove out the cows and
distributed them in heaven (2, 2414). Brhaspati fetched the cows out of the
rock; seizing the cows of Vala, he took possession of them (10, 68s). His
conquest of Vala is so characteristic that it became proverbial (AV. 9, 32).
Being in the clouds ( abhriya ) he shouts aloud after the many cows (10, 68'2,
cp. 67 s). These cows may represent the waters, which are expressly mentioned
(2, 23l8; 6, 73s) or possibly the rays of dawn (cp. 10, 67s. 689).

In releasing the cows Brhaspati seeks light in darkness and finds the

Terrestrial Gods. 36. Brhaspati. 103

light; he found the Dawn, light, and Agni, and dispelled the darkness (10,
68*- 9). In shattering the fort, he found the Dawn, the Sun, the Cow (10,
67s). He hid or dispelled the darkness and made visible the light (2, 24^;
4, 504). Brhaspati thus comes to acquire more general warlike traits. , He
penetrated the mountain full of riches and split open the strongholds ofSam-
bara (2, 242). Brhaspati Angirasa, the first-born holy one, cleaver of rocks,
roars as a bull at the two worlds, slays Vrtras ( vrtrani ), shatters forts, over-
comes foes (6, 731- 2). He disperses foes and wins victory (10, 1034). No
one can overcome him in great fight or small (1, 408). He vanquishes the
enemy in battle (2, 23"). He is to be invoked in combats (2, 23^) and is
a priest much praised in conflict (2, 249).

Being the companion and ally of Indra (2, 2318. 24*; 8, 8 5 IS), he is
often invoked with that deity (4, 50'°- 11 &c.). With Indra he is a soma-
drinker (4, 49b 50'°) and, like him, is styled maghavan, ‘bountiful’ (2, 2412).
Indra, too, is the only god with whom he forms a pair (2, 2412; 4, 491-6).
Thus he comes to be styled vajrin, ‘wielder of the bolt’ ( 1,40s) and to be
described as hurling the bolt, the Asura-slaying missile (AV. 11, 10^). He is
also invoked with the Maruts at the same time as Indra (1, 401) and is once
besought to come accompanied by the Maruts, whether he be Mitra, Varuna
or Pusan (10, 981). In one passage he is said to have heard the prayer of
Trita buried in a well and to have delivered him (1, 10517).

Brhaspati favours the man who offers prayer (2, 251) but scourges the
hater of prayer (2, 234). He protects the pious man from all dangers
and calamities, .from curse and malignity, and blesses him with wealth and
prosperity (1, i83; 2, 23+— IO). Possessed of all desirable things (7, io4. 974),
he is opulent, a procurer of wealth, and an increaser of prosperity (1, 182).
He is a prolonger of life and a remover of disease (1, 182). Having such
benevolent traits he is called a father (4, 506; 6, 731).

He is asurya , ‘divine’ (2, 23*), belongs to all the gods (3, 624; 4, 506),
and is the most god like of the gods (2, 24^). As a god he widely extended
to the gods and embraces all things (2, 2411, cp. 8, 61 l8). Mightily he holds
asunder the ends of the earth with his roar (4, 501). It is his inimitable
deed that sun and moon rise alternately (10, 68IQ). He is also spoken of
as stimulating the growth of plants (10, 9 7 I9). Later Brhaspati is brought
into connexion with certain stars. Thus in the TS. (4, 4, io1) he is stated to
be the deity of the constellation Tisya9, and in post-Vedic literature he is
regarded as the regent of the planet Jupiter.

Brhaspati is a purely Indian deity. Both forms of the name occur
throughout the older as well as the later books of the RV. But since appella-
tions formed with pati (like vacas pati, vast os pati , ksetrasya pat'i) to designate
deities presiding over a particular domain, must be comparatively recent as
products of reflexion10, this mythological creation can hardly go much further
back than the beginning of the Rigvedic period. The accentuation of the
word brhaspati shows it to be an improper compound. The prior member
might possibly be a neuter noun in -as11, but the contemporaneous form
brahmanas pati , which is a kind of explanation, indicates that the poets of
the RV. regarded it as the genitive12 of a noun brh , from the same root' as
brahman.

The evidence adduced above seems to favour the view that Brhaspati
was originally an aspect of Agni as a divine priest presiding over devotion,
an aspect which (unlike other epithets of Agni formed with pati , such as
visam pati , grhapati, sadaspati ) had attained an independent character by
the beginning of the Rigvedic period, though the connexion with Agni was

io4 HI. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

not entirely severed. Langlois13, H. H. Wilson14, Max Muller13 agree in
regarding Brhaspati as a variety of Agni. Roth16 was of opinion that this
sacerdotal god is a direct impersonation of the power of devotion. Similarly
Kaegi17 and Oldenberg18 think him to be an abstraction of priestly action,
which has appropriated the deeds of earlier gods. Weber considers Brhaspati
to be a priestly abstraction of Indra, and is followed in this by Hopkins20.
Finally, Hillebrandt21 holds him to be a lord of plants and a personification
of the moon22, representing predominantly the igneous side of that luminary.

As the divine brahman priest, Brhaspati seems to have been the proto-
type of Brahma, the chief of the Hindu triad, while the neuter form of the
word, brahma , developed into the Absolute of the Vedanta philosophy23.

I Cp. ZDMG. 32, 316. — 2 ORV. 396, note 1 ; SBE. 46, 190. — 3 ORV. 382. —
4 Roth thinks they are the Maruts: ZDMG. 1, 77. — S Stars, HVM. 1, 416;
Maruts, Vedainterpretation io. — 6 ZDMG. 1, 77. — 7 Cp. Hillebrandt, Vedaint.
10. — 8 OST. s, 283. — 9 Weber, Die Naksatra 2, 371. — Roth, ZDMG. 1,
72. — 11 HVM. 1, 409. — I2 Macdonell, KZ. 34, 292—6. — 13 RV. Trans. 1,
249. 254. 578. — 14 RV. Trans. I, xxxvii. — 15 Vedic Hymns, SBE. 32, 94. —
16 ZDMG. 1, 73; BW. — 17 KRV. 32. — '8 ORV. 66-8. 381—2; SBE 46, 94.
19 Vajapeya 15. — 20 HRI. 136; cp. Wilson, RV. Tr. 2, ix; BDA. xi. — 21 HVM,
1, 404. 418—9 (cp. 277); cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 49, 173. — 22 Also HVBP. 46 — 7.
— 2 3 BRV. 1, 304; HRI. 136.

Roth, ZDMG. 1, 72 — 80; OST. 5, 272—83; BRV. 1, 299—304; KRV. 73—4;
BRI. 15—6; HVM. 1, 404—25; LRF. 97—8; Pischel, GGA. 1894, p. 420.

§ 37. Soma. — Since the Soma sacrifice forms the main feature of the
ritual of the RV. T, the god Soma is naturally one of the most important deities
of that Veda. All the 114 hymns of the ninth besides 6 in other books, are
dedicated to his praise. He is also celebrated in portions of four or five other
hymns, and as a dual divinity with Indra, Agni, Pusan, or Rudra, in about
six more. The name of Soma, in its simple form and in compounds, occurs
hundreds of times in the RV. Judged by the standard of frequency, Soma
therefore comes third in order of importance among the Vedic gods. Soma
is much less anthropomorphic than Indra or Varuna, the constant presence
of the plant and its juice setting limits to the imagination of the poets who
describe its personification. Consequently little is said of his human form
or action. The marvellous and heroic deeds attributed to him are either
colourless, because common to almost all the greater gods, or else only
secondarily belong to him. Like other gods, he is, under the name of Indu
as well as Soma, invoked to come to the sacrifice and receive the offerings
on the strewn grass2. The ninth book mainly consists of incantations sung
over the tangible Soma while it is pressed by the stones, flows through the
woolen strainer into the wooden vats, in which it is finally offered on a
litter of grass to the gods as a beverage, sometimes in fire (1, 9414; 5, 51;
8, 4311 &c.) or drunk by the priests. The processes to which it is subjected
are overlaid with the most varied and .chaotic imagery and with mystical
fancies often incapable of certain interpretation.

In order to make intelligible the mythology of Soma, the basis of which
are the concrete terrestrial plant and the intoxicating juice extracted there-
from, it is necessary briefly to describe these as well as the treatment they
undergo. The part of the Soma plant which is pressed is called atnsu, 'shoot
or stalk’ (9,67 28). The shoots swelling give milk like cows with their udders
(8, 9 19). As distinguished from the stalk, the whole Soma plant seems to be
intended by atidhas (8,3228; 10,94s &c.), which is said to have come from
heaven (9, 6 1 IO) and to have been brought by the eagle (s,459; 9,686; 10,144s).
The same term is applied to the juice also3 and is distinguished from Indu
the god (9, 5 13; 10, 1153). The juice is also designated by soma (which

Terrestrial Gods. 37. Soma. 105

means the plant as well) and generally by rasa , fluid. In one hymn (1, 187)
the juice is called pitu , the ‘beverage’; and it is often styled ?tiada, ‘intoxi-
cating draught’4. Soma is occasionally also referred to with anna, ‘food’ (7, 9S2;
8, 412; SB. 1; 6, 4s). The term madhn, which in connexion with the Asvins
means ‘honey’ or ‘meacP, comes to be applied, in the general sense of ‘sweet
draught’, not only to milk {pay as) and ghee {g/irta), but especially to the
Soma juice (4, 27s; 8, 69s). Mythologically madhu is the equivalent of Soma
when the latter means the celestial ambrosia ( amrta )5. Conversely, amrta
is frequently used as an equivalent of ordinary Soma (5, 2s; 6, 37s <Src.; VS.
6, 34; SB. 9, 5, i8)6. King Soma when pressed is amrta (VS. 19, 72).
Another expression is somyam 7nadhu , ‘Soma mead’ (4, 26s; 6, 20s). Figu-
ratively the Soma juice is called piyusa (3, 48s &c.), milk (9, 10712), the wave
of the stalk (9, 96s) or the juice of honey (5, 43s). The most frequent figur-
ative name applied to Soma is indu, the ‘bright drop’, another term of
similar meaning, drapsa, ‘drop’, being much less common.

The extraction of the juice is generally described by the root su, ‘to
press’ (9, 62+ &c.), but often also by duh ‘to milk’ (3, 366, 7 &c.). The juice
is intoxicating (1, 125s; 6, 1711. 206) and ‘honied’, madhumat (9, 9714). The
latter expression simply means ‘sweet’, but as applied to Soma originally
seems to have meant ‘sweetened with honey1, some passages pointing to
this admixture (9, 178. 8648. 9711. 10920)7. As flowing from the press, Soma
is compared with the wave of a stream (9, 805) and directly called a wave
(9, 64” &c.) or a wave of honey (3, 471). With reference to the juice collected
in the vat, Soma is spoken of as a sea {arnava-. 10, 1153) and frequently
as an ocean {samudra: 5,47s; 9,64s &c.). The heavenly Soma is also called
a well (; utsa ), which is in the highest place of the cows (5, 45s), which is
placed in the cows and guided with ten reins (i. e. fingers: 6, 4424), or a
well of honey in the highest step ofVisnu (1, 1545).

The colour of the plant and juice, as well as of the god, is described
as brown ( babhru ) or ruddy {aruna), but most frequently as tawny {hari).
Thus Soma is the branch of a ruddy tree (10, 94s); it is a ruddy milked

shoot (7, 9 81) ; the tawny shoot is pressed into the strainer (9, 921). The

colour of the Soma plant or its substitute prescribed in the Brahmanas is

ruddy (SB. 4, 5, io1); and in the ritual the cow which is the price paid in

the purchase of Soma, must be brown or ruddy because that is Soma’s colour
(TS. 6, 1, 67; SB. 3, 3, i14)8-

Soma is described as purified with the hands (9, 8634), by the ten fin-
gers (9, 84. 158 &c.), or, figuratively, by the ten maidens who are sisters
(9, i7. 6s), or by the daughters {naptt) of Vivasvat (9, 145). Similarly, the
maidens of Trita are said to urge on the tawny one with stones as a drop
for Indra to drink (9, 322. 3s2). Soma is also spoken of as purified or
brought by the daughter of the sun (9, i6. 72s. 1133)9. Sometimes it is said
to be purified by prayer (9, 9613. 1135). The priests who press Soma are
Adhvaryus10 (8, 411).

The shoot is crushed with a stone (9, 6719) or pressed with stones
(9, 10710); the plant is pounded to produce the Soma draught (10, 85s).
The stones tear its skin (TB. 3, 7, 131). The stones lie on a skin; for they
‘chew him on the hide of the cow’ (9, 7 94). They are placed on the vedi
or altar (5, 3112): a practice differing from that of the later ritual11. They
are held with hands or arms (7, 221; 9, 794; AV. 11, i10). The two arms
and the ten fingers yoke the stone (5, 434). Hence the stones are said to
be guided by ten reins (10, 94s). Being spoken of as yoked, they are com-
pared with horses (10, 94s). The usual name for the pressing stones is adri

io6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

(generally used with the verb su , to press) or gravan (generally connected
with vad, to speak, or verbs of cognate meaning, and hence showing a greater
tendency to personification 12 than adri). Both terms nearly always occur
either in the singular or the plural, and not in the dual. The stones are
also once respectively called as'na (8, 22), bharitra (3, 367), parvata (3, 35s)
and parvata adrayah (10, 941). The pressing of Soma by means of stones
was the usual method in the period of the RV. But the extraction of the
juice by mortar and pestle, which is also sanctioned by the ritual texts, was
already known to the RV. (1, 2 8 1 4) j and as this method is in use among
the Parsis, it may go back to the Indo-Iranian age.

The pressed drops are poured upon (9, 63 10 &c.) and pass over the
strainer of sheep’s wool (9, 699). For it removes Soma’s impurity, so that
he goes cleansed to the feast of the gods (9, 781). This strainer, which is
very frequently mentioned, passes under various names. It is called a skin
(tvac), hair ( roma?i ), wool {vara), filter ( pavitra), or ridge ( sdnu , as the top
of the contrivance). All these terms are used with or without an adjective
formed from avi , sheep. The word avi itself is sometimes figuratively em-
ployed in this sense. As passing through the strainer Soma is usually called
pavamana or punana , ‘flowing clear’ (from Ypu). The more general term
mrj, ‘to cleanse’, is not only applied to the purification of Soma with the
strainer, but also to the addition of water and milk (9, 86 9 1 2). The
purified (unmixed) Soma juice is sometimes called sudd/ia, ‘pure’, but much
oftener sukra or suci, ‘bright’ (8, 210; 9, 3 3 2 • 1, 5s. 302). This unmixed Soma
is offered almost exclusively to Vayu and Indra, the epithet sucipa , ‘drinking
clear (Soma)’ being distinctive of Vayu (p. 82). This agrees with the later
ritual, where, in the Grahas or draughts for dual divinities, clear Soma is
offered to Vayu and Indra-Vayu, but is mixed with milk for Mitra-Varuna,
and with honey for the Asvins13.

After passing the filter, Soma flows into jars ( kalasa , 9, 603 &c.) or
vats ( drona )14. The streams of Soma rush to the forest of the vats like
buffaloes (9, 331. 92s); the god flies like a bird to settle in the vats (9, 31);
like a bird sitting on a tree, the tawny one settles in the bowls {camu:
9, 72s). Soma is mixed with water in the vat. United with the wave, the
stalk roars (9, 74s). Like a bull on the herd, he rushes on the vat, into
the lap of the waters, a roaring bull; clothing himself in waters, Indu rushes
around the vat, impelled by the singers (9, 76s. 10726). The wise milk him
into the waters with their hands (9, 7 94). Having passed over the wool and
playing in the wood, he is cleansed by the ten maidens (9, 65). Several
other passages refer to the admixture of water with Soma (9, 30s. 534. 868-25).
The Soma drops are said to spread brightness in the streams (9, 7 6 1).
Besides the verb mrj , ‘to cleanse’, which is commonly used to express the
admixture of water (e. g. 9, 6317), a-dhav , ‘to wash’, is also employed (8, 117).
In the preparation of Soma, the pressing ( Y su) comes first, then the mixing
with water (7, 3215; 8, 117. 3 1 5 j AV. 6, 21), just as in the later ritual the
sava?ia, ‘pressure’, precedes the adhavana , ‘washing’. In the bowls Soma is
mixed with milk (9, 86 &c.)15, which is said to sweeten it (8,23)16. In several
passages the addition of both water and milk is mentioned. Thus it is said
that Soma clothes himself in waters, that streams of water flow after him,
when he desires to clothe himself in cows (i. e. milk: 9, 23'4). They press
him with stones, they wash him in water, clothing him as it were in cow-garments,
men milk him out of the stalks (8, 117; cp. 2, 361; 6, 402; 9, 8624— s. 9619).

Soma is recognised in the RV. as having three kinds of admixture
( tryasir : 5, 27s), with milk ( gavasir ), sour milk {dadhyasir), and barley ( yava -

Terrestrial Gods. 37. Soma.

107

sir). The admixture is figuratively called a garment ( vastra , vasas, atkd) 1 7
or a shining robe ( nirnij : 9, 145), the latter term being applied to the strainer
also (9, 70"). Hence Soma is spoken of as decked with beauty (9, 344 &c.)
and as richly adorned (9, 811). Mention is also made, though rarely, ot
mixture with ghee (9, 82s); but neither this addition nor that of water, is a
regular dsirl&.

In the ritual there is a ceremony called apyayana or causing the half-
pressed Soma stalks to swell by moistening them with water afresh. The
beginnings of it are found in the MS. (4, 5 s). The verb d-pya, ‘to swell’,
occurs in the RV. in connexion with Soma (1, 9116-8); 10, 85s) '9; but here
it seems to refer to Soma as identified with the moon. In one other passage,
however, (9, 314) it may have a ritual application. Soma is also said in the
RV. to swell (pi, pinv), like a sea or river (9, 64s. 10712).

Soma is described in the RV. as pressed three times in the day. Thus
the Rbhus are invited to the evening pressing (4, 33” &c.)2°, Indra to the
midday pressing (3, 32 '• 2 ; 8, 371), which is his alone (4,367), while the mor-
ning libation is his first drink (10, 1121).

The abode (sadhastha) of Soma is often referred to2'; once, however,
mention is made of three, which he occupies when purified (9, 1032), the
epithet triscidhastha , ‘having three abodes’, being also applied to him in another
passage (8, 835). These three abodes may already designate the three tubs
used at the Soma sacrifice of the later ritual (TS. 3, 2, i2; KSS. 9, 517. 74; cp.
RV. 8, 28); but Bergaigne (BRV, i, 179) regards them as purely mytholo-
gical. A similar remark applies to the three lakes of Soma which Indra
drinks (5, 297-8; 6, 1711; 8, 710)22. The epithet triprstha , ‘three-backed’, is
peculiar to Soma. Being applied to the juice at least once (7, 37 ') it probably
refers (as Sayana thinks) to the three admixtures, much as the Agni’s epithet
ghrtaprstha alludes to ghee being thrown on the fire23.

Based on the mixture of water with the juice, the connexion of Soma
with the waters is expressed in the most varied ways. Streams flow for him

(9, 313). The waters follow his ordinance (9, 82s). He flows at the head

of streams (9, 8612). He is lord and king of streams (9, 15s. 8633. 892),
lord of spouses (9, 8632), an oceanic ( samudriya ) king and god (9, 10716).
The waters are his sisters (9, 823). As leader of waters, Soma rules over
rain (9, 743). He produces waters and causes heaven and earth to rain
(9, 963). He streams rains from heaven (9, 8s. 491. 9717. io89,I°). The Soma
drops themselves are several times compared with rain (9, 413. 891. 1069)24
and Soma is said to flow clearly with a stream of honey like the rain-charged
cloud (9, 2 9). So too the Pavamana. drops are said to have streamed from
heaven, from air, on the ridge of earth (9, 6 3 27). There are some other
passages in which the soma that is milked appears to refer to rain (8, 710;

9, 744, cp. 10, 3o4)2S. The SB. (11, 5, 4s) identifies the amrta with the

waters. This identification may have given rise to the myth of Soma brought
down to man by an eagle (p. hi)20. But the celestial Soma descending
to earth was doubtless usually regarded as only mixed with rain, and not
confounded with it27.

The waters are invoked to set in motion the exhilerating wave, the
draught of Indra, the sky-born well (10, 309). Soma is the drop which grows
in the waters (9, 8510. 8g2). Hence he is the embryo of the waters (9, 9 7 4 1 i
SB. 4, 4, 521) or their child, for seven sisters as mothers are around the child,
the newly born, the Gandharva of the waters (9, 8636; cp. 10, 135), and the
waters are directly called his mothers (9, 614). Soma is also spoken of as
a youth among the waters or cows (5, 459 ; 9, 9s).

io8 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

The sound made by the Soma juice as it is being purified and rushes
into the vats or bowls, is often referred to. It is compared with that of rain
(9, 4 13). But the language is generally hyperbolical. Thus the sweet drop
is said to flow over the filter like the din of combatants (9, 692). The noise
is constantly designated by various verbs meaning to roar or bellow ( krand ,
nad, ma, ru, vas\ 9, 913. 9 s4 &c.). Even the verb stan, ‘to thunder’, is used
(9, 869) and the wise are described as ‘milking the thundering unfailing stalk’
(9, 7 26). Lightning also is in some verses connected with the purification
of Soma (9, 413. 801. 84b 87s); this in all probability alludes to the purifi-
cation of the celestial Soma and may have referred to the phenomena of
the thunderstorm28.

When Soma is said to roar he is commonly compared with or directly
called a bull. ‘As a bull he bellows in the wood’ (9, 73); ‘the tawny bull
bellows and shines with the Sun’ (9, 26). As the waters, added with or with-
out milk, 29 are figuratively called cows, the relation of Soma to them is
usually that of a bull to cows. He is a bull among the cows (9, 166. 69b
967) or is lord of the cows (9, 7 24). He bellows like a bull traversing the
cows (9, 719) or like a bull towards the cows (9, 717), the cows also bellowing
towards him (9, 802 &c.). He is the bull of heaven as well as of the earth
and the streams (6, 4421). The impetuosity of Soma is also several times
illustrated by comparison with a buffalo ( ma/iisa ). Thus he even comes to
be called an animal {pasu\ 9, 8643). Being a bull among the cow-waters,
Soma is the fertilizer of the waters (10, 36s, cp. 9, 195). He is also (9, 8639)
an impregnator ( retodha ), an epithet especially applied to the moon in the
YV. (e. g. MS. i,6°). Hence he is a bestower of fertility (9, 604. 74s). Soma
being so frequently called a bull ( uksatt , vrsan, vrsabha ) is sharp-horned
( tigmasrnga ), an epithet which in five of its six occurrences in the RV. is
accompanied by a word meaning ‘bull’. Thus the brewed drink ( mantha ) of
Indra is like a sharp-horned bull (10, 86lS). Soma is also said (like Agni)
to sharpen his horns (9, 154. 707)30.

Soma is swift (1, 47) and, in illustration of the speed with which the
pressed juice flows, is very often compared with or designated a steed. Thus
the ten maidens are said to cleanse him like a swift steed (9, 6s). The drop
which intoxicates Indra is a tawny steed (9, 6317). Soma flowing into the
vats is sometimes also compared with a bird flying to the wood (9, 725 &c).

Owing to the yellow colour of the juice, the physical quality of Soma
mainly dwelt on by the poets, is his brilliance. His rays are often referred
to and he is frequently assimilated to the sun. He shines like or with the
sun or clothes himself in its rays (9, 76k 8632; cp. 719). He ascends the car
of the sun and stands above all beings like the sun31- He fills heaven and
earth with rays like the sun (9, 415). When born a bright son, he caused
his parents to shine (9, 93). The daughter of the sun purifies him (9, i6).
Thus it comes to be said of him that he combats the darkness (9, 97), wards
it off with light (9, 8622), or creates bright light, dispelling the darkness
(9, 6 624. 1008. 10812 &c.).

Its mysteriously exhilerating and invigorating action, surpassing that of
ordinary food or drink and prompting to deeds beyond the natural powers,
led to Soma being regarded as a divine drink which bestows immortal life.
Hence it is mythologically called amrta, the draught of immortality. It is an
immortal stimulant (1, 844), which the gods love (9, 8 5 2) and of which, when
pressed by men and mixed with milk, all the gods drink (9, 109*5); for they
hasten to exhileration (8, 218) and become exhilerated (8, 5811). Soma is
immortal (1, 439; 8,48”; 9,3’ &c.); and the gods drank him for immortality

Terrestrial Gods. 37. Soma.

109

(9, 1068). He confers immortality on the gods (1, 916; 9, 1083) and on men
(x, 9 11; 8, 483). He places his worshipper in the everlasting and imperishable
world where there is eternal light and glory, and makes him immortal where
king Vaivasvata lives (9, 1 i37-8) 32.

Thus Soma naturally has medicinal power also. It is medicine for a
sick man (8, hi1?). Hence the god Soma heals whatever is sick, making
the blind to see and the lame to walk (8, 682; 10, 25”). He is the guardian
of men's bodies and occupies their every limb (8, 489), bestowing length of
life in this world (1, 916; 8, 484-"; 9, 46. 916). The Soma draught is even
said to dispel sin from the heart, to destroy falsehood and to promote truth.

When imbibed Soma stimulates the voice (6, 47 9,84+. 95s. 9732), which
he impels as the rower his boat (9, 952). This is doubtless the reason why
Soma is called ‘lord of speech’ vacas pati 33 (9, 26b 1015) or leader of speech,
vaco agriya or agre (9, 73. 6225-6. 8612. 10610). He is also said to raise his
voice from heaven (9, 68s). In the Brahmanas vac, ‘speech’, is described as
the price paid by the gods for Soma34. Soma also awakens eager thought
(6,473). So his worshippers exclaim: ‘We have drunk Soma, we have become
immortal, we have entered into light, we have known the gods’ (8, 483). Thus
he is also spoken of as a lord of thought and as a father, leader, or gener-
ator of hymns35. He is a leader of poets, a seer among priests (9, 966).
He has the mind of seers, is a maker of seers (9, 9618) and a protector of
prayer (6, 523). He is the ‘soul of sacrifice’ (9, 210. 68), a priest ( brahma )
among the gods (9, 966), and apportions to them their slxare of sacrifice
(xo, 85*9). Soma’s wisdom thus comes to be predominantly dwelt upon36.
He is a wise seer (8, 681). He knows the races of the gods (9, 812. 95“.
97?. 1083). He is a wise man-seeing wave (9, 782). Soma with intelligence
surveys creatures (9, 719). Hence he is many-eyed (9, 26s) and thousand-
eyed (9, 601).

Soma stimulated the Fathers to deeds (9, 9611); through him the Fathers
found the light and the cows (9, 9 7 39). Soma is also said to be united with
the fathers (8, 4813) or to be accompanied by them (AV. 18, 412; SB. 2, 6,
14, &c.), the Fathers, conversely, being called soma-loving, ( somya : 10, 146;
AV. 2, 125).

The exhilerating effect of the draught on man was naturally transferred
to the gods, to whom the Soma was offered. The main application of its
intoxicating power is its stimulating effect on Indra in his conflict with the
hostile powers of the air. That Soma strengthens Indra for the fight with
Vrtra, is mentioned in innumerable passages of the RV. (8, 81 17 &c.). In
the intoxication of Soma Indra slays all foes (9, 110) and no one can resist
him in battle when he has drunk it (6, 471). Soma is the soul of Indra
(9, 853), the auspicious friend of Indra (10, 259), whose vigour he stimulates
(9, 762) and whom he aids in slaying Vrtra (9, 6122). With Soma as a com-
panion Indra made the waters to flow for man and slew the dragon (4, 2S1).
Thus Soma is sometimes even called the bolt {vajra) of Indra (9. 72?. 77'
1113). Soma, Indra’s juice, becomes a thousand-winning bolt (9, 473). It
is the intoxicating draught which destroys a hundred forts (9, 48“) and is a
Vrtra-slaying intoxicating stalk (6, 1711). Thus the god Soma is said to be
‘like Indra a slayer of Vrtras and a fort-destroyer’ (9, 884) and comes to
receive half a dozen times the epithet vrtrahan, ‘Vrtra-slaying’, which pri-
marily belongs to Indra37.

When drunk by Indra Soma caused the sun to rise in heaven (9, 8622).
So this cosmic action comes to be attributed to Soma independently. He
caused the sun to shine (9, 2 85. 374), caused the lights of the sky to shine

iio III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. x a. Vedic Mythology.

(9, 859), and produced the sun in the waters (9, 421)38. He caused the sun
to rise, impelled it, obtained and bestowed it, and caused the dawns to
shine39. He makes his worshippers participate in the sun (9, 4s) and finds
light for them (9, 351). He found the light (9, 594) and wins light and
heaven (9, 32). Just as even the sacrificial butter is spoken of as the ‘navel
of immortality’, on which rests the whole world (4, 581,11), the conception
of Soma comes to be extended to that of a being of universal dominion
(9, 86i8-29), who is ‘lord of the quarters’ (9, 1132), who performs the great
cosmic actions of generating the two worlds (9, 901), of creating or estab-
lishing heaven and earth, of supporting heaven, and of placing light in the
sun (6, 442j~4- 473'4)4°-

Being so intimately connected with Indra in the conflict with Vrtra,
Soma comes to be spoken of independently as a great fighter. He is a victor,
unconquered in fight, born for battle (1, 9 1 2I). He is the most heroic of
heroes, the fiercest of the terrible, ever victorious (9, 66,6_7). He conquers
for his worshippers cows, chariots, horses, gold, heaven, water, a thousand
boons (9, 7 84), and everything (8, 681). Without reference to his warlike
character, he is constantly said to bestow all the wealth of heaven and
earth, food, cattle, horses, and so forth (9, 4 5 3 49+. 52 1 &c.). Soma himself
is, occasionally called a treasure ( rayi : 9, 483) or the wealth of the gods
(SB. 1, 6, 4s). Soma can also afford protection from foes (10, 25?). He
drives away goblins (9, 49s) and, like some other deities but more frequently,
receives the epithet of goblin-slayer ( raksohan ). Soma is the only god who
is called a slayer of the wicked (9, 2 86 &c.). In the later Vedic literature
the statement occurs that Brahmans who drink Soma are able to slay at a
glance (MS. 4, 82)41.

Being a warrior, Soma is said to have weapons (9, 9616), which like a
hero he grasps in his hand (9, 7 62) and which are terrible and sharp (9,6i3°.
903). In one passage he is said to have obtained his weapons by robbing
his malignant father of them (6, 4422). He is described as armed with a
thousand-pointed shaft (9, 83s. 864°) and his bow is swift (9, 903).

Soma rides in the same chariot as Indra (9, 87s. 962. 1035). He is
charioteer to the car-fighter Indra (AV. 8 , 823). He drives in a car (9, 3s),
which is heavenly (9, m3). He has light (9, 8 6 45) or a filter for his car
(9, 83s). He is the best of charioteers (9, 6626). He has well-winged mares
of his own (9, 8637) and a team like Vayu (9, 883).

Soma is naturally sometimes connected with Indra’s intimate associates,
the Maruts. They are said to milk the bull of heaven (9, 108”, cp. 541)
and to adorn the child when born (9, 96'7). Like Indra, Soma is attended
by the Maruts (6, 47s) or the troop of the Maruts (9, 6 6 22). The Winds,
too, are said to be gladdening to Soma (9, 3 1 3) and Vayu is his guardian
(10, 85s). Soma forms a pair with Agni, Pusan, and Rudra respectively
(p. 128 — 9). A few times he is mystically indentified with Varuna (9, 77s. 9 54 ;
cp. 733-9; 8, 418).

The Soma plant is once in the RV. (10, 341) described as maujavata,
which according to later statements42 would mean ‘produced on Mount
Mujavat’. Soma is also several times described as dwelling in the mountains
(giristha) 43 or growing in the mountains44 {j/arvatavrdh: 9, 461). Mountains
are also called ‘Soma-backed’ (AV. 3, 2110), a term which, perhaps by sacri-
ficial symbolism, is applied to the pressing stones ( adrayah ) in RV. 8, 52 s.
All these terms point to the abode of the Soma plant being on terrestrial
mountains (cp. especially 9, 82 3). This is confirmed by the statement of the
Avesta that Haoma grows on the mountains48. Since the Soma plant actually

Terrestrial Gods. 37. Soma.

hi

grew on mountains, it is probable that this fact is present to the mind of
the poet even when he says that ‘on the vault of heaven sweet-tongued
friends milk the mountain-dwelling bull’ (9, 85 10 cp. 95'). Terrestrial hills may
also be intended when it is said that ‘Varuna has placed Agni in the waters,
the sun in heaven, and Soma on the rock’ (5, 852), or that ‘Matarisvan brought
the one (Agni) from heaven, while the eagle carried off the other (Soma)
from the rock’ (1, 93s); but here there is more doubt, as ‘mountain’ and
‘rock’ mythologically often mean ‘cloud’ (p. 10).

Though Soma is a terrestrial plant, it is also celestial (10, 1163); in fact
its true origin and abode are regarded as in heaven. Thus it is said that
the birth of the plant is on high; being in heaven it has been received by
earth (9, 6110). The ‘intoxicating juice’ is the ‘child of heaven’ (9, 38s), an
epithet frequently applied to Soma. In one passage, however, he is called
the offspring (jd/i) of the sun (9, 931) and in another Parjanya is spoken of
as the father of the mighty bird (9, 823 cp. 1133). In the AV. the origin
of cunrta is also traced to the seed of Parjanya (AV. 8, 721). When Soma
is called a child (sis'u) simply (9, 9617) or a youth ( yuvan ), this is doubtless
in allusion to the fact that, like Agni, he is continually produced anew46.

Soma is the milk ( piyusa) of heaven (9, 51 2 &c.), is purified in heaven

(9, 8 3 2. 8 6 22 & c.). He flows with his stream to the dear places of heaven
(9, 128). He runs through heaven across the, spaces with his stream (9, t>7)-
He occupies heaven (9, 859), is in heaven (SB. 3, 4, 313), or is the lord of
heaven (9, 8611-33). As bird of heaven he looks down on earth and regards
all beings (9, 719). He stands above all worlds like god Surya (9, 543).
The drops being purified have been poured from heaven, from the air, on
the surface of the earth (9, 6327)47; for he is a traverser of space ( rajastur :

4, 4s4. 1087). Fingers rub him surrounded with milk ‘on the third ridge, in

the bright realm of heaven’ (9, 862?). His place is in the highest heaven
(3) 32l<>; 4)266; 9, 86IS) or in the third heaven (TS. 3, 5, 71 &c.)48. ‘Heaven’,
however, also seems to be frequently a mystical name of the strainer of
sheep’s wool49. This seems to be the case when Soma is spoken of as
being ‘on the navel of heaven, on the sheep-filter’ (9, 124), as traversing
the lights of heaven, the sheep-filter (9, 3 73), as running with Surya in heaven,
on the filter (9, 27S); or when it is said that ‘the bull has occupied heaven,
the king goes soaring over the strainer’ (9, 85® cp. 86s). The term sanu,
‘summit’, so frequently applied to the filter, is suggestive of divah sanu , ‘the
summit of heaven’. Such terms would naturally come to be connected with
the terrestrial Soma, because heaven is the abode of the celestial Soma or
amrta (6, 4423).

Soma has been brought from heaven (9, 6 3 27. 6 6 3°). The myth most
commonly expressive of this belief is that of Soma and the eagle. It was
brought by the eagle (1, 802). The bird brought Soma from that highest
heaven (4, 26s). The eagle brought the Soma or mead ( tnadfiu ) to Indra
(3, 437; 4, 1813). The swift eagle flew to the Soma plant (5, 459); the eagle
tore off the sweet stalk for Indra (4, 2ob). The eagle brought it for Indra
through the air with his foot (8, 719). Flying swift as thought, the bird
broke through the iron castle (cp. 4, 2 7 1), going to heaven he brought the
Soma for the wielder of the bolt (8, 89s). The eagle bore the plant from
afar, from heaven (9, 686. 77b 862+; 10, 114. 99s. 1444). The myth is most
fully dealt with in RV. 4, 26 and 27 s0. In the Brahmanas it is Gayatrl, a
mystical sacerdotal name of Agnis1, that carries off the Soma. In the RV.
the eagle is constantly distinguished from Indra as bringing the Soma to him.
There is only one passage (unconnected with this myth) in which Indra seated

1 12 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

at the Soma offering is called an eagle (io, 99s). ‘Eagle of heaven’ is an
epithet applied to Agni (7, 154: otherwise twice said of the Maruts), the term
eagle is connected with Agni Vaidyuta or lightning (TB. 3, 10, 51 cp. i2,i2),
and Agni is often called a bird in the RV. (p. 89). On this evidence Bloom-
field, who subjects his predecessors’ interpretations of RV. 4, 27 to a search-
ing criticism, with much plausibility explains the carrying off of Soma by
the eagle as a mythological account of the simple phenomenon of the
descent of lightning, darting from the cloud (i. e. the iron castle) and causing
the fall of the ambrosial fluid Soma (i. e. the water of the cloud). At the
same time he refers to a passage of the RV. (1, 93°) in which the descent
of fire and of Soma are mentioned together52. A detail of the myth (pro-
bably a mere embellishment added by the individual poet) is the trait that
as the eagle carried away Soma, the archer Krsanu55 shot at him knocking
out a feather (4, 27s- 4; cp. AB. 3, 25). This trait is related with greater
detail in the Brahmanas. Either a feather or a claw is here stated to have
been shot off. Falling to the ground, it became a parna (pa/as'a ) or a
salyaka tree. The tree hereby acquired a specially sacred character in conne-
xion with the ritual54.

Being the most important of herbs Soma is said to have been born as
the lord of plants (9, 1142), which are also said to have Soma as their king55
(9, 97i8-9)- He receives the epithet vanaspati, ‘lord of the wood’ (1, 916;
9, 1 2 7) and is said to have generated all plants (1, 91 22). In the Brahmanas
plants are connected with Soma, being styled saumya (SB. 12, 1, 12)50.
Irrespectively of his being lord of plants, Soma is often, like other leading
gods, called a king57. He is also a king of rivers (9, 892), a king of the
whole earth (9,97s8), a king or father of the gods (9, 8610. 872. 1094) a king

of gods and mortals (9, 9724), and a king of Brahmans (VS. 9, 40; TS. i,8’°;

MS. 2, 69). He is of course often called a god; but in one passage he is
described as ‘a god pressed for the gods’ (9, 36- 7).

In the post-Vedic literature Soma is a regular name of the moon, which
is regarded as being drunk up by the gods and so waning, till it is filled up
again by the sun. In the Chandogya Upanisad (5, io1) the statement is

found that the moon is king Soma, the food of the gods, and is drunk up

by them58. Even in the Brahmanas the identification of Soma with the moon
is already a common-place59. Thus the AB. (7,11) remarks that the moon
is the Soma of the gods; the SB. (1, 6, 4s), that king Soma, the food of
the gods, is the moon; and in the Kausltaki Br. (7, 10; 4, 4) the sacrificial
plant or juice is symbolical of the moon-god. The mythology of the Brah-
manas already explains the phases of the moon as due to the gods and
Fathers eating its substance, which consists of ambrosia60. Soma, as the
moon, is in the YV. also conceived as having the lunar asterisms, the daughters
of Prajapati, for his wives61. In the AV., moreover, Soma several times
means the moon (7, 8i3'4; 11, 67, &c.). A large number of scholars agree
that even in a few of the latest hymns of the RV. (in the first and tenth
books) Soma is already identified with the moon62. Most of them, however,
hold that Soma as a god is celebrated in the Vedic hymns only as a per-
sonification of the beverage, regarding his identification with the moon as
merely a secondary mythological growth65. The most important of the
passages in which the identification is generally admitted, is that which de-
scribes the wedding of Soma and the sun-maiden Surya (10, 85)64. Here
Soma is spoken of as ‘in the lap of the stars’, (v.2), and it is said that no
one eats of that Soma which the priests know and which is contrasted with
that which they crush (v. 3). The Soma nature of the moon being referred

Terrestrial Gods. 37. Soma.

113

to as a secret known to Brahmans only, shows that it cannot yet have been
a popular notion. The process by which the celestial Soma gradually coa-
lesced with the moon is not difficult to understand. Soma is, on the one
hand, continually thought of as celestial and bright, sometimes as dispelling
darkness and swelling in the waters; on the other hand, it is very often
called a ‘drop’, itidu (6, 4421)65. Comparison with the moon would there-
fore easily suggest itself. Thus Soma in the bowls is said in one passage to
appear like the moon in the waters (8, 718; cp. 1, 1051); and in another,
Soma being described as the drop (drapsa) which goes to the ocean, looking
with the eye of a vulture (10, 1238), is generally admitted to allude to the moon.

Hillebrandt, however, in his Vedische Mythologie not only claims this
identification for a number of other passages in the RV., but asserts that in
the whole of the ninth book Soma is the moon (p. 309) and nowhere the
ordinary plant (p. 326), the ninth book in fact being a book of hymns to
the moon66. Soma, he maintains, means, in the earliest as well as the latest
parts of the whole RV., only the Soma plant or juice on the one hand, and,
as a deity, only the moon on the other (pp. 274. 340. 450). According to
his view, the moon is a receptacle of Soma or amrta and is the god whom
the worshipper means when he presses the draught, which is part of the
lunar ambrosia. Hillebrandt goes even further than this complete iden-
tification of Soma and the moon in the RV. He also asserts that the moon-
god as Soma forms the centre of Vedic belief and cult (p. 277), being the
creator and ruler of the world much more than the sun (p. 313), while Indra
is the most popular Vedic god only next to the moon67 (p. 315).

In opposition to this hypothesis, it has been argued that, in the vast
majority of the references to Soma in the RV., the character of the god as
a personification of the plant and juice is clear and obvious. On the other
hand, while the identification of Soma and the moon is perfectly clear in
the later literature, there is in the whole of the RV. no single distinct and
explicit instance either of the identification or of the conception that the
moon is the food of the gods. It is only in passages where the brilliance
of Soma, so constantly connected with the sun, is vaguely expressed, that
references to the moon can be found. At the same time it is possible that
amid the chaotic details of the imagery of the Soma hymns, there may
occasionally lurk a veiled identification of ambrosia and the moon. Here
and there passages celebrating the luminous nature of Soma or referring to
his swelling ( apydyana ), which affords a parallel to the swelling of the moon,
may allude to such a notion. But on the whole, with the few late excep-
tions generally admitted, it appears to be certain that to the seers of the
RV. the god Soma is a personification of the terrestrial plant and juice68.
It is, moreover, hardly conceivable that all the Vedic commentators, in whose
day Soma and the moon were believed to be one, should not know that
Soma means the moon in the RV. also6^.

It is an undoubted fact that Soma, the Avestan Haoma, was already
prepared and celebrated in the Indo-Iranian period. In the RV. Soma is
described as growing on the mountains or a particular mountain; in the
A vesta it is said to grow on a certain mountain. In the RV. Varuna places
it on the rock; in the Avesta it is placed on the great mountain Haraiti by
a skilful god. In the RV. it is brought by an eagle; in the Avesta it is
distributed from its native mountain by certain auspicious birds. In both it
is king of plants. In both it is a medicine which gives health, long life, and
removes death. As Soma grows in the waters, so Haoma in the waters of
Ardv!-sura7°. The pressing and offering of Soma was already an important

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. g

1 14 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology

feature of Indo-Iranian worship. But while three daily pressings are referred
to in the RV., only two are mentioned in the Avesta (Yasna io, 2). In both
it is stated that the stalks ( ams'u = asu) were pressed, that the juice was
yellow and was mixed with milk (Yasna 10, 13). In both the celestial Soma
is distinguished from the terrestrial, and the beverage from the god. In both
the mythical home of Soma is heaven, whence it comes down to earth. In
both the Soma draught (like the sacrificial fire) had already become a mighty
god and is called a king. As Soma is vrtrahan , so Haoma is verethrajan
and casts missiles ( vadare = Vedic vadhar). Both are light-winning ( svarsa
— hvaresa ) and wise ( sukratu = hukhratu). Both remove the machinations
of the wicked, bestow victory over foes, and confer the celestial world. Both
grant steeds and excellent children. The RV. and the Avesta even agree in
the names of ancient preparers of Soma, Vivasvat and Trita Aptya on the
one hand, and Vlvanhvant, Athwya, and Thrita on the other71. The belief
in an intoxicating divine beverage, the home of which was heaven, may be
Indo-European. If so, it must have been regarded as a kind of honey-mead
(Skt. mddhu , Gk. fii&o, As. medu) brought down to earth from its guardian demon
by an eagle (the Soma-bringing eagle of Indra agreeing with the nectar-bring-
ing eagle of Zeus and with the eagle which, as a metamorphosis of Odhin,
carried off the mead)72. This viadhu or honey-mead, if Indo-European, was
replaced in the Indo-Iranian period by Soma; but may have survived into
the Vedic period, by amalgamating with Soma78.

Etymologically Soma = Haoma means 'pressed juice’, being derived from
the root su — hu , ‘to press’.

1 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 241. — 2 BRV. 1, 182; — 3 HVM. 1, 47. — 4 Anna
= sura SB. 12, 7, 38; cp. HVM. 1, 264. — 5 HVM. I, 518. — 6 KHF. 128 f.;

ZDMG. 32, 301. — 7 HVM. 1, 243 — 4. — 8 Op. cit. 28. — 9 Op. cit. 468 ft.;

ORV. 389. — 10 Hillebrandt, Vedainterpretation 16. — 11 HVM. 1, 182. —
12 Op. cit. 1 5 1. — 13 Op. cit. 206—7. — J4 Windisch, FaR. 141. — 15 HVM.
1, 186. — 16 LRV. 3, 378—9. — I7 HVM. 1, 210. — i8 Op. cit. 229. — »9 Op.
cit. 195. — 20 Op. cit. 256, note 3. — 21 Op. cit. 189. — 22 LRV. 5, 260. —
23 Otherwise HVM. 1, 392—3. — 24 Windisch, FaR. 140. — 25 pvs. 1, 87 — 8;
KHF. 129. 142. 227; KZ. 1, 521 ff. ; GGH. 70. 1 1 5 ; WVB. 1894,4. 13. — 26 HRI.
123 — 4. — 27 BRV. 1, 165. — 28 Op. cit. 1, 170; lightning is associated with rain

in 1, 399; 5, 843; 7, 56 *3 ; 10, 915 cp. 5, 834; Bloomfield, AJP. 7, 470. —

29 BRV. 1, 204. — 3° HVM. 1, 340 thinks the horns are those of the moon. —

31 References in HVM. 1, 601. — 32 KRV. note 308; BRV. I, 192. — 33 BRV.
1, 185; HVM. 1, 349. — 34 Roth, ZDMG. 35, 687; Weber, IS. 10, 360; HVM.
1, 79. — 35 BRV. 1, 300, note 2; HVM. 1, 403. — 36 BRV. I, 185 — 6. — 37 KHF.

105; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 472. — 38 HVM. 1, 387 — 8. — 39 References in HVM.

1, 388. — 4° jCp Haug, ZDMG. 7, 51 1. — 41 ZDMG. 7, 331. 375. — 42 VS. 3, 61
and comm., Ap. aS. 12, 5, XI; YN. 9, 8; cp. AIL. 29; HVM. 1, 63 ff. • — 43 Twice,
also said of Visnu, once of the Maruts. — 44‘Bergfroh’, Hillebrandt, Veda-
interpretation 15. — 45 On the habitat of the Soma plant, see Roth, ZDMG. 38,
134 — 9; MM., Biographies of Words (London, 1888) 222 — 42. — 46 JRAS. 25,437.

— 47 Windisch, FaR. 140. — 48 Also 6, 1, 6»; Kath. 23, 10 in IS. 8, 31; VS. 1,
21 1; TB. 1, 1, 3 m; 3, 2, i'. — 49 HVM. 1, 361, note 3. — 5° Roth, ZDMG. 36,
353 — 60. 384; Ludwig, Methode 30. 66; Koulikovski, Revue de linguistique 18,
1—9; BRV. 3, 322 ff.; PVS. 1,207—16; HVM. 1, 278—9; Bloomfield, FaR. 149 — 55;
ORV. 180 — 1; WVB. 1894, p. 5. — 51 Cp. SB. 3, 9, 4m; KHF. 130 f. 144 f. 172.

— 52 Bloomfield, JAOS. 16, 1 — 24; ORV. 176. 180 thinks there is no reason to

see a natural agent in the bird, or to assume any connexion between the Soma
and the water of clouds. — 53 Sp.AP. 224. — 54 KHF. 159 f. 170. 209; WVB.

1894, p. 5. — 55 Cp. ZDMG. 25, 647. — 56 HVM. 1, 390, note 4. — 57 Op. cit.

317—8. — 58 Deussen, System des Vedanta 415 ff. — 59 WVB. 1894, p. 16—7. —
60 HVM. 1, 296. — 61 Weber, Naksatra 2, 274 ff ; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 49, 470;
on Soma dwelling with Rohinl, cp. Jacobi, FaR. 71, note; R. Brown jr., Academy
42, 439. — 62 HVM. 1, 269 — 63 BRV. 1, 160. — 64 Weber, IS. 5, 178 ff.; WVB.
1894, p. 34; OST. 5, 237; Ehni, ZDMG. 33, 167 — 8; Jacobi, ib. 49, 227; Olden-
berg, ib. 478. — 65 Ehni, 1. c. — 66 Cp. Bloomfield, AJP. 14, 491—3; MM.

Abstract Gods. 38 a. Various Agent Gods.

1 1 5

Fortnightly Review, Oct. 1893, 443 ff. (= Chips 42, 32S— 6 7) — 67 Gubernatis, Myth,
des Plantes 2, 351, Letture sopra la mitol. vedica 106, and PVS. I, 80 (cp. 2, 242)
had called for a complete identification, but without attempting to prove the pro-
position (cp. GGA. 1889, p. 10). — 6« Whitney, PADS. 1894, p. xcixf.; ORV.
599 — 612. — 69 HRI. 117. — 7° Spiegel, Av. Tr. 2, lxxii f. ; Darmesteter, Ormazd et
Ahriman 140. — 71 Yasna IX— X; cp. Sp.AP. 172; HVM. I, 121. 265. 450; ORV.
178; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 485. — 72 ORV. 176. — 73 Op. cit. 178.

Windischmann, Ueber den Somakultus der Arier, Abh. d. Miinchner Akad.
1846, p. 127 ff.; KHF. 105 ff.; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 299; Weber, IS. 3, 466; WVB.
1894, p. 3. 13 — 17; Haug, AB. Introd. p. 61 — 2; OST. 5, 258 — 71; BRV. I, 148
—225 &c. ; BRI. 24; Roth, ZDMG. 35,680—92; Sp.AP. 168-78; HVM. I; ZDMG.
48, 419 f.; E. H. Meyer, IF. 2,161; Knauer, Vedische Fragen, FaR. 61 — 7; HVBP.
68-74.

D. ABSTRACT GODS.

§ 38. Two Classes. — There are in the RV. two classes of deities
whose nature is founded on abstraction. The one class consisting of the
direct personfications of abstract notions such as ‘desire’ is rare, occurring
only in the very latest hymns of the RV. and due to that growth of specu-
lation which is so plainly traceable in the course of the Vedic age. The
other and more numerous class comprises deities whose names primarily either
denote an agent, in the form of a noun derived from a root with the suffix
-tr, such as Dhatr, ‘Creator’, or designate some attribute, such as Prajapati,
‘Lord of Creatures’. This class, judged by the evolution of the mythological
creations of the Veda, does not represent direct abstractions, but appears in
each case to be derived from an epithet applied to one or more deities and
illustrating a particular aspect of activity or character. Such epithets gradually
becoming detached finally attained to an independent position. Thus Rohita,
‘the Red One’ (whose female form is Rohinl), originally an epithet of the
sun, figures in the AV. as a separate deity in the capacity of a Creator1.

A. Various Agent Gods. — The most important of the gods whose
names denote an agent in -tr, is Savitr, who has already been treated
among the solar deities (§ 15). Most of the others are of rare occurrence in
the RV. Dhatr, found in a few passages as an appellative designating priests
as ‘establishes’ of the sacrifice, occurs as the name of a deity about a dozen
times and, with the exception of one indefinite mention in company with a
number of other gods (7, 353), only in the tenth book. In one of these
passages the name is an epithet of Indra (10, 1673) and in another of
Visvakarman (xo, 822). The frequent ascription of the action of establishing
(Y dha) the phenomena of the world to different gods, gradually led to the
conception of a separate deity exercising this particular activity. Thus Dhatr
generally has the independent character of a god who creates sun, moon,
heaven, earth, and air (10, 1903), and is lord of the world (10, 1287). In a
hymn to the Sun, Dhatr is invoked to grant a clear eye (10, 1583). He is
besought with Visnu, Tvastr, Prajapati, to grant offspring (10, 1841) and, by
himself, to bestow length of days (10, 185). He is also prayed to indefinitely
with Visnu and Savitr (10, i8iI— 3) or with Matarisvan and DestrT (10, 8 5 47).
In the Naighantuka (5, 5) Dhatr is enumerated among the gods of the middle
region and by Yaska (Nir. 11, 10) explained as the ‘ordainer of everything’.
In the post-Vedic period, Dhatr is the Creator and Preserver of the world,
being the equivalent of Prajapati or Brahma. The rare name Vidhatr, the
‘Disposer’ is in two passages an epithet, beside Dhatr, once of Indra (xo,
1673) and once of Visvakarman (10, 8 2 2) ; but appears twice in enumerations
of deities to have an independent character (6, 5012; 9,81s). Dhartr, ‘Supporter’,

8*

1x6 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

frequently used (almost exclusively with the genitive of that which is supported)
as an epithet of Indra and other gods, occurs once as an independent name
along with Dhatr and other deities (7, 3 53). Similarly, Tratr, the ‘Protector’,
mostly employed as an epithet of Agni or Indra and, in the plural, of the
Adityas, occurs independently as ‘the Protector God’ in five passages along
with other deities (1, 1067; 4, 55s- 7; 8, 1820; 10, 1287). In Roth’s opinion,
Savitr especially and also Bhaga are intended by this god2. A ‘Leader
God’ ( deva netr) is invoked two or three times in one hymn (5, 50) as a
guide to prosperity in life.

B. Tvastr. — The only deity bearing a name of this type, who besides
Savitr is mentioned with any frequency, is Tvastr. His name occurs about
65 times in the RV., pretty uniformly in the family books (though rarely in
the seventh as well as the eighth), but relatively oftenest in the first and
tenth. No hymn is, however, devoted to his praise.

No part of Tvastr’s physical form is mentioned except his arm or hand,
it being characteristic of him to hold an iron axe in his hand (8, 2 9J). He
is once described as yoking his two steeds to his chariot and shining greatly
(6, 4719). Tvastr is beautiful-armed ( sugabhasti : 6, 499), or beautiful-handed
( supani : predominantly applied to him and Savitr).

He is a skilful workman (1, 859; 3, 5412), producing various objects
showing the skill of an artificer. He is in fact the most skilful of workmen,
versed in crafty contrivances (10, 539). He is several times said (5, 314 &c.)
to have fashioned (j/ taks) the bolt of Indra. He also sharpens the iron axe
of Brahmanaspati (10, 539). He formed a new cup (1, 206) which contained
the food of the asura (i,no3) or the beverage of the gods (1, 1615; 3, 35s).
He thus possesses vessels out of which the gods drink (10, 539). The AV.
(9, 43' c) describes him as an old man bearing a bowl of wealth, a cup full
of Soma. From Tvastr the swift horse was produced (VS. 29, 9), and he
gives speed to the horse (AV. 6, 92 z).

The RV. further states that Tvastr adorned all beings with form (10,
no9). He developes the germ in the womb and is the shaper of all forms,
human and animal (i,i889; 8,91s; xo, 1841). Similar statements are frequently
made in later Vedic texts (AV. 2, 261, &c.), where he is characteristically a
creator of forms (SB. 11, 4, 3J; TB. 1, 4, 71)3. He himself is called omniform
(z nsvarupa) oftener than any other deity in the RV. As fashioner of living
forms, he is frequently described as presiding over generation and bestowing
offspring (3, 49 &c.). Thus he is said to have fashioned husband and wife
for each other from the womb (10, io5; AV. 6, 7 83). He has produced and
nourishes a great variety of creatures (3, 5519). Beasts belong to Tvastr (SB.
3, 7) 311* 8, 311). He is indeed a universal father, for he produced the whole
world (VS. 29, 9).

He is also the ancestor of the human race in so far as his daughter
Saranyu, wife of Vivasvat, becomes the mother of the primeval twins Yama
and Yarn! (10, I71- 2, cp. 5, 4213). Vayu is once said to be his son-in-law
(8, 2621). Tvastr begot Brhaspati (2, 2317). Agni produced by the ten fingers,
is the offspring of Tvastr (1, 952), who, along with Heaven and Earth, the
Waters, and the Bhrgus, generated him (10, 27. 469). It is to be inferred
that Tvastr was also the father of Indra (p. 57). Tvastr is especially a guardian
of Soma, which is called ‘the mead of Tvastr’ (1, 11722). It is in his house
that Indra drinks Soma and presumately steals it, even slaying his father in
order to obtain it (p. 57). The ‘omniform’ Tvastr has a son named Visvarupa
(the Omniform), who is a guardian of cows. The hostility of Indra is directed
against the son in order to win these cows, just as against the father in

Abstract Gods. 38 b. Tvastr.

117

order to gain possession of the Soma. Even Tvastr himself is said to tremble
with fear at the wrath of Indra (1, 8014) and is represented as inferior to
Indra, inasmuch as not even he was able to perform a feat done by Indra
(io, 49to). The TS. (2, 4, I21) tells a story of how Tvastr, whose son had
been slain by Indra, refused to allow the latter to assist at his Soma sacri-
fice, but Indra came and drank off the Soma by force. The Brahmanas often
relate a similar tale (SB. 1, 6, 36, <Src.).

Probably because of his creative agency in the womb4, Tvastr is closely
allied with celestial females ( gnah , janayah) or the wives of the gods, who
are his most frequent attendants (1, 2 29 &c.)5. Tvastr is chiefly mentioned
with gods of cognate activity, Pusan, Savitr, Dhatr, Prajapati. ‘Savitr’ is indeed
an attribute of Tvastr in two passages C3, 5 5 19 ; IO> Io5) in which occurs the
identical collocation devas tvasta savita visvarupah 6, ‘god Tvastr, the omni-
form vivifier’, and in both of which the generative or creative faculty of the
deity is referred to. In the Kausika Sutra, Tvastr is identified with Savitr
and Prajapati7, and in the Markandeya Purana, with Visvakarman and
Prajapati. In the later mythology Tvastr is one of the twelve Adityas
and in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana is once or twice a form
of the sun.

The RV. adds a few rather indefinite traits, which throw no light on
Tvastr’s character. He is said to be the first (1, 1 3 10) or the first-born
[agraja) and one who goes before (9, 59). As a companion of the Angirases
he knows the region of the gods (xo, 709), goes to the place of the gods
(2, i9) between heaven and earth (MS. 4, 149). He is a bestower of blessings
and is possessed of excellent wealth (10, 709. 92”). He is supplicated to
grant riches to his worshippers and to delight in their hymns (7, 3421).
Tvastr also confers long life (10, i8b; AV. 6, 783).

The word is derived from a rare root tvaks, of which only one verbal
form, besides some nominal derivatives, occurs in the RV., and the cognate
of which, thwaks, is found in the Avesta. It appears to be identical in
meaning with the common root taps, which is used with the name of Tvastr
in referring to the fashioning of Indra’s bolt. The meaning therefore appears
to be the ‘Fashioner’ or ‘Artificer’.

Tvastr is one of the obscurest members of the Vedic pantheon8. The
obscurity of the conception is explained by Kaegi9 as due to Tvastr, like
Trita and others, having belonged to an earlier race of gods who were ousted
by later ones; while Hillebrandt thinks Tvastr was derived from a mythical
cycle outside the range of the Vedic tribes. Different explanations have been
offered of Tvastr’s original nature. Owing to Tvastr being called Savitr,
A. Kuhn10 thought that he meant the sun, but seems later11 to have with-
drawn this view. Ludwig12 regards him as a god of the year, while Olden-
berg believes him to be a pure abstraction expressing a definite characteristic
activity13. Hillebrandt holds Kuhn’s earlier view that Tvastr represents the
sun, to be probable14. Hardy also considers him a solar deity15. It does
not indeed seem unlikely that this god, in a period anterior to the RV.,
represented the creative aspect of the sun’s nature. If such was the case the
Rigvedic poets themselves were only very dimly conscious of it. The name
itself would have encouraged the growth of mythical accretions illustrative
of creative skill, the desire to supply the pantheon with a regular divine
artificer being natural enough. Much in the same way it was supplied with
a divine priest in the person of Brhaspati.

The cup of Tvastr has been explained as the ‘bowl of the year’ or the
nocturnal sky. But neither of these could well have been conceived as full

1 1 8 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Yedic Mythology.

of Soma and drunk by the gods. Hillebrandt’s interpretation of it as the
moon is more plausible (cp. p. 133).

1 OST. 5, 395 — 6; V. Henry, Les Hymnes Rohitas, Paris 1891; Bloomfield,
AJP. 12, 429—44; HRI. 209, n. 1. — 2 Roth, PW.; cp. GW.; WC. 9 — 10. — 3 Cp.
PW. s. v. tvastr. — 4 Ibid. — 5 OST. 5, 229. — 6 Roth, Nir. Erl. 144. — 7 Weber,
Omina und Portenta 391 — 2. — 8 GGH. 113 — 6. — 9 KRV. note 13 1. — 1° KZ.
1, 448. — 11 KhF. 109. — >2 LRV. 3, 333 — 5. — *3 ORV. 233. — *4 HVM. 1,
517. — 15 HVBP. 30 — 1.

ZDMG. 1, 522; Geiger, Ostiranische Kultur 304; BRI. 22; BRV. 3, 38 — 64;
HVM. I, 513—35; IF. 1, 8; Ehni, Yama 4 — 16; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 416 f. 248.

§ 39. Visvakarman, Prajapati. — Afe\v other abstract deities originating
in compound epithets and all representing the supreme god who was being
evolved at the end of the Rigvedic period, are found in the RY. As the
name of a god Visvakarman occurs only five times in the RV. and always
in the tenth book. Two whole hymns (10, 81. 82) are dedicated to his praise.
The word also occurs as an attribute once (8, S72) of Indra and once (10,
1704) of the Sun as the 'all-creating’. It is not uncommon as an adjective
in the later Vedas, where it also appears as an attribute of Prajapati (VS.
12, 61). The two hymns of the RV. describe Visvakarman thus. He is all-
seeing, having eyes, as well as a face, arms, and feet, on every side. (In
this the Brahma of later mythology, who is four-faced and four-armed, resembles
him.) He is also provided with wings. He is a seer, a priest, our father. He
is a lord of speech ( vacas pati), swift as thought, beneficent, the source of
all prosperity. He knows all places and beings, and he alone gives their
names to the gods. He is wise and energetic, the highest apparition ( parama
samdrk). He is an establisher (dhatr) and a disposer ( vidhatr ), having pro-
duced the earth and disclosed the sky. It seems likely that the word was
at first attached as an epithet chiefly to the sun-god, but in the later Rigvedic
period became one of the almost synonymous names given to the one god
(10, 8 13) the conception of whom was then being tentatively evolved, and
who as Visvakarman was, owing to the name, mainly thought of in his archi-
techtonic aspect1. Visvakarman in the Brahmanas is expressly identified with
the creator Prajapati (SB. 8, 2, 110. 313, cp. AB. 4, 22). In post-Vedic times
he was conceived as the artificer of the gods.

Prajapati occurs in one passage of the RV. (4, 532) as an epithet of
Savitr, who is spoken of as a supporter of heaven and prajapati of the
world2, and in another, as an epithet of Soma compared with Tvastr and
Indra (9, 59). Otherwise the word is found four times as the name of a
distinct deity, always in the tenth book. The god Prajapati is invoked (10,
8543) to bestow abundant offspring (prajatn), is besought, along with Visnu,
Tvastr, and Dhatr, to grant offspring (10, 1841), and is spoken of as making
cows prolific (10, 1694). As a protector of generation and living beings
Prajapati is also often invoked in the AV.3 In the one hymn devoted to
his praise in the RV. (10, 121), he is invoked by this name only in the last
verse. In this hymn he is celebrated as the creator of heaven and earth,
of the waters and of all that lives; who was born ( fata) as the one lord
{pati) of all that is, the one king of all that breathes and moves, the one
god above the gods; whose ordinances all beings and the gods follow; who
established heaven and earth; who traverses space in the atmosphere; who
embraces with his arms the whole world and all creatures. Here Prajapati is
clearly the name of the supreme god. Though only mentioned once in the
RV. in this sense, he is commonly in the AV. and VS., and regularly in the
Brahmanas, recognized as the chief god. He is the father of the gods, (SB.
11, 1, 614; TB. 8, 1, 34 &c.), having existed alone in the beginning (SB. 2

Abstract Gods. 39. Vis'vak arman, Prajapati. 40. Manyu, Sraddha. 119

2, 41). He created the, Asuras as well (TB. 2, 2, 2^)4. He is also described
as the first sacrificer (SB. 2, 4, 41; 6, 2, 31). In the Sutras Prajapati is identi-
fied with Brahma (AGS. 3, 4, &c.). In the place of this chief god of the
later Vedic theology, the philosophy of the Upanisads put the impersonal
Brahma, the universal soul or the Absolute.

A myth is told in the MS. (4, 212) of Prajapati being enamoured of his
daughter Usas. She transformed herself into a gazelle; whereupon he trans-
formed himself into the corresponding male. Rudra incensed at this aimed
his arrow at him, when Prajapati promised to make him lord of beasts if he
did not shoot (cp. RV. 10, ,6i7). The story is several times referred to in
the Brahmanas (AB. 3, 33; SB. 1, 7, 41; PB. 8, 2I0)s. The basis of this myth
seem to be two passages of the RV. (1, 71s; 10, 6 1 5 7) in which the incest
of a father (who seems to be Dyaus) with his daughter (here apparently the
Earth) is referred to and an archer is mentioned6.

In the refrain of the first nine verses of RV. 10, 121 the supreme god
is referred to as unknown by the interrogative pronoun Ka, Who ? The answer
given in the tenth verse, is that Prajapati alone embraces all beings. This
later led to the employment of Ka not only as an epithet of Prajapati (AB.

3, 227), but as a name, used by itself, of the supreme god (MS. 3, 1 25). In
the TS. (1, 7, 66) Ka is expressly identified with Prajapati7.

In the first verse of RV. 10, 12 1 the supreme god is referred to as
Hirapyagarbha, the ‘Germ of Gold’, the one lord of what exists. This is
the only occurrence of the name in the RV., but it is mentioned several
times in the AV. and the literature of the Brahmana period (cp. p. 13).
Hiranyagarbha is also alluded to in a passage of the AV. (4, 28) where it is
stated that the waters produced an embryo, which as it was being born, was
enveloped in a golden covering. In the TS. (5, 5, i2) Hiranyagarbha is ex-
pressly identified with Prajapati. In the later literature he is chiefly a desig-
nation of the personal Brahma8.

1 OST. 4, 5 — 11; 5, 354— 5; WC. 80 — 5; SPH. 33 — 40. — 2 Cp. Bloomfield,

AJP. 14, 493. — 3 See PW. s. v. prajapati. — 4 Cp. OST. 5, 80 — 1. — 5 ASL. 529;

OST. 4, 45; SBE. 12, 284, n. i; Delbruck, FaB. 24; WVB. 1894, p. 34; Geldner,

FaW. 21. — 6 Cp. BRV. 2, 109 f.; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 78 f. — 7 SPH. 27,11.2;

ASL. 433; IS. 2, 94; SBE. 12, 8. — 8 ASL. 569 f.; OGR. 295; OST. 4, 15 — 18;

5> 3S2- 355; WC. 50 — 1; HVM. 1, 380, n. 1; HRI. 141—2; Geldner, 1. c.

§ 40. Manyu, Sraddha &c. — We have yet to deal with the deifica-
tions of abstract nouns. Manyu, Wrath, a personification suggested chiefly
by the fierce anger of Indra, is invoked in two hymns of the RV. (10, 83.
84). He is of irresistible might and self-existent. He glows like fire, is a
god, who is Indra, Varuna, Jatavedas. He slays Vrtra, is accompanied by
the Maruts, grants victory like Indra, and bestows wealth. United with
Tap as, Ardour, he protects his adorers and slays their, foes. One short
hymn of the RV. (10, 151) is devoted to the praise of Sraddha, Faith1.
She is said to be invoked morning, noon, and night. Through Faith fire is
kindled and ghee offered. Through Faith wealth is obtained. In the Brahmanas
Sraddha is the daughter of the Sun (SB. 12,7,3") or of Prajapati (TB. 2, 3,
io1). Her relationships are still further worked out in the Epics and Puranas.
Anumati, Favour (of the gods), occurs twice as a personification in the
RV. She is besought to be gracious and let her worshippers long see the
sun (10, 596) and her protection is referred to (10, 1673). In the AV. and
VS. she becomes a goddess of love and presides over propagation. The
later ritual connected her with the moon, regarding her as representing the
day before full-moon 2. Aramati, Devotion, Piety, is occasionally personified

i2o III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

in the RV. The name has a counterpart in the Avestic Armaiti, a genius of
earth as well as wisdom 3, but the personification can hardly go back to the
Indo-Iranian period. Sunrta, Bounty4, appears to be personified as a goddess
two or three times in the RY. (i, 403; 10, 1412). Asunlti, Spirit-life, is
personified in one passage of the RV. (10, 59s-6), being besought to prolong
life and grant strength and nourishment5. Nirrti, Decease, Dissolution, appears
about twelve times in the RV. as a personification presiding over death.

Other personifications appear for the first time in the later Vedas. Kama,
Desire, is deified in the AV. (9, 2; 19, 52). Here he is not, as in post-Vedic
literature, a god of love, but a deity who fulfils all desires. His arrows, with
which he pierces hearts, are already referred to (AV. 3, 25'). He is described
as the first who was born (AV. 9, 2 I9). The origin of the conception is most
probably to be traced to the kama ‘desire’, which in a cosmogonic hymn
(p. 13) of the RV. (10, 1294), is called ‘the first seed of mind’6. Kala,
Time, is personified as a cosmogonic force in the AV. (19, 53. 54) 7, and
Skambha, Support, an abstraction postulated by the speculation of the AV.
to uphold the universe created by Prajapati, comes to be praised as the All-
god (AV. 10, 82) 8. Prana, Breath, is also deified and identified with Praja-
pati (AV. 11, 412 &c.)9. Other personified abstractions of a like nature are
to be found in the AV.10 Sri as a personification of Beauty or P'ortune
first appears in the SB. (11, 4, 31)11.

1 Cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 450 f. — 2 ZDMG. 7, 608; IS. 5, 229. — 3 ZDMG. 7,
519; 8. 770; 9. 690—2; Sp.AP. 151. 200—3; HVBP. 91; HRI. 136. — 4 Oldem-
berg, ZDMG. 50, 440. — 5 But cp. MM., JRAS. 2, 460, n. 2. — 6 Weber, IS. 5,
224; 17, 290; ZDMG. 14, 269; OST. 5, 402; SPH. 76—7. — 7 SPH. 78 — 82;
HVBP. 88. — s SPH. 50—9; HRI. 209. — 9 SPH. 35. — >° SPH. 14. — n GGH. 4.

§41. Aditi. — There is one deity who, if rightly interpreted as the
personification of a pure abstraction, like those treated in the preceding
paragraph, occupies an anomalous position in the RV. For the name is not
limited to the latest portion, but occurs throughout the collection. This would
be accounted for by the peculiar manner in which the personification came
about, supposing the explanation offered below to be correct. Otherwise this
deity would have to be classed with abstractions of the epithet type (§ 39).

The goddess Aditi is not the subject of any separate hymn, but is often
incidentally celebrated in the RV., her name occurring nearly eighty times.
Very rarely mentioned alone (8, 1914), she is constantly invoked with her
sons, the Adityas.

She has no definite physical features. She is often called a goddess
(devi), who is sometimes styled anarva, ‘intact’ (2, 406; 7, 404). She is widely
expanded (5, 466), extensive, a mistress of wide stalls (8, 6712). She is bright
and luminous, a supporter of creatures (1, 1 36 3: otherwise said of Mitra-
Varuna only), and belongs to all men (7, io4: also said of Heaven and Earth).
She is invoked at morning, noon, and sunset (5, 693)1.

Aditi is the mother of Mitra andVaruna (8,253; io,36hi326) as well as of
Aryaman (8, 479). Hence she is called the mother of kings (2, 27', cp. v. J),
of excellent sons (3,4“), of powerful sons (8,56”), of heroic sons (AV.3,83;
11, 1"), or of eight sons (10, 72s; AV. 8, 921). She is once said to be the
mother of the_ Rudras, being the daughter of the Vasus and (strange to say)
sister of the Adityas (8, 9015), and the AV. (6, 41) mentions her brothers as
well as her sons. In another passage of the AV. (7, 62 = VS. 21, 5) she is
invoked as the great mother of the devout, the mistress of rta, strong in
might, undecaying, widely extended, protecting, skilfully guiding. Such passages
and the constant invocation of Aditi along with the Adityas, her sons, show

Abstract Gods. 41. Aditi.

1 2 1

that her motherhood is an essential and characteristic trait. Her epithet
pasty a, housewife (4, 553; 8, 27S) may possibly also allude to her mother-
hood. In the Epic and Puranic mythology Aditi is the daughter of Daksa
and mother of the gods in general, and expressly of Vivasvat, the Sun, and
of Visnu in his dwarf incarnation. She is said to be the wife of Visnu in
VS. (29, 60 = TS. 7, 514).

Aditi is several times spoken of as protecting from distress ( amhas ), and
she is said to grant complete welfare or safety (10, 100; 1, 94*5), but she is
more frequently invoked to release from guilt or sin. Thus Varuna (1, 24^),
Agni (4, 124), and Savitr (5, S26), are besought to free from guilt against
Aditi. Aditi, Mitra, and Varuna are implored to forgive sin (2, 2714), Aditi
and Aryaman, to loosen (the bonds ofj sin (7, 9 37). Worshippers beseech
Aditi to make them sinless (i,i6222); praying that by fulfilling her ordinances
they may be without sin towards Varuna (7, 8y7) and that evildoers may be cut
off from Aditi (10, 8718). Hence though other gods, Agni (3, 5410), Savitr
(4, 543), Sun, Dawn, Heaven and Earth (10, 352- 3) are petitioned to pardon
sin, the notion of releasing from it is much more closely connected with
Aditi and her son Varuna, whose fetters that bind sinners are characteristic,
and who unties sin like a rope and removes it (p. 26).

This notion is nearly allied to the etymology of the name. The word
aditi is primarily a noun meaning 'unbinding’, ‘bondlessness’, from di-ti ‘binding’
(= Gk. oe-gi-c), derived from the root da, ‘to bind’. The past passive parti-
ciple of this verb is employed to describe Sunahsepa ‘bound’ ( di-td ) to the
stake (5, 2 7). Hence as a goddess Aditi is naturally invoked to release her
worshippers like a tied ( badd/ia ) thief (8, 6714). The original unpersonified
meaning of ‘freedom’ seems to survive in a few passages of the RV. Thus
a worshipper exclaims, ‘who gives us back to great aditi, that I may see
father and mother’? (1, 241). The Adityas are besought (7, 511) to ‘place
the offering in guiltlessness ( anagastve ) and freedom {adititve)' . The poet
perhaps means the same thing when he prays to Heaven and Earth for ‘the
secure and unlimited gift of aditi' (1, 1855). The word aditi also occurs
several times in the adjectival sense of ‘boundless’. It is thus used as an
attribute twice of Dyaus (5, 59s; 10, 633) and more frequently of Agni (1, 9415;
4, i20; 7, 93j 8, 1914).

The indefiniteness of the name would easily have lent itself to mystical
identifications, and the conception was naturally affected by the theogonic and
cosmogonic speculations found in the more recent portions of the RV. Thus
the gods are said to have been born from Aditi, the Waters, and Earth (10,
63*; cp. p. 14). In the verse immediately following, the ‘boundless’ Sky ( dyaur
aditi), their mother, is said to supply the gods with honied milk. Here there-
fore she appears to be identified with the sky2. Elsewhere (1, 72 AV. 13, 138)
Aditi seems to be identified with the Earth, and this identification is frequent
in the TS. and SB. In the Naighantuka the name is given as a synonym of
earth, and, in the dual, of Heaven and Earth3. In many passages of the
RV., however, she is distinguished from Heaven and Earth by being mentioned
separately along with them (10, 63IO&c.) 4. In another passage (t,89xo) Aditi
represents a personification of Universal Nature: ‘Aditi is the sky; Aditi is
the air; Aditi is the mother, and father, and son; Aditi is all the gods and
the five tribes; Aditi is whatever has been born; Aditi is whatever shall be
bom’ (p. 16; cp. Katha Up. 4, 7).

Though according to the older mythology of the RV. Aditi is the mother
of Daksa as an Aditya (2, 2 7 x9, she is in a cosmogonic hymn (10, 724- 5)
said to be his daughter as well as his mother by the reciprocal generation

122 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

which is a notion not unfamiliar to the RV. (p. 12; cp. 10, 905). In two other
hymns of the tenth book (5". 64s) these deities are connected in such a
way that Aditi can scarcely be the mother of Daksa, but seems rather to be
subordinate to him. Though Aditi is the mother of some of the leading
deities, she plays an inferior part in a few other passages also. Thus she
celebrates, along with her sons Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, the praises of Savitr
(7, 384) and is said to have produced a hymn for Indra (8, i2I+, cp. 5,31s).

Probably as the mother of the luminous Adityas, Aditi is sometimes
connected with light. She is asked for light (4, 25s, cp. 10, 36s), her im-
perishable light is celebrated (7, 8210), and Dawn is called the face of Aditi
(1, 11319). Occasionally Aditi is referred to in general terms which might
apply to other deities. Thus she is implored to protect or bless her wor-
shippers, their children, and their cattle (8, i86, 1, 43 2). She is prayed to

for wealth (7, 402), her pure, intact, celestial, imperishable gifts are suppli-
cated (1, 1853), and the large blessings bestowed by the Maruts are com-
pared with the beneficent deeds of Aditi (1, 16612).

In some passages of the RV. (1, 1533; 8, 9olS; 10, n1 & c.) as well as
in later Vedic texts (VS. 13, 43. 49), Aditi is spoken of as a cow, and, in
the ritual, a ceremonial cow is commonly addressed as Aditi5. Terrestrial
Soma is compared to the milk of Aditi (9, 96IS); and milk only can be
meant6 by the daughter of Aditi who yields to Soma as he flows to the vat
(9, 69s). There may be a similar allusion when priests with their ten fingers
are said to purify Soma on the lap of Aditi (9, 261. 715).

A review of the evidence indicates that Aditi has two and only two
prominent characteristics. The first is her motherhood. She is the mother
of a group of gods whose name represents a metronymic formation from hers.
Her second main characteristic, in conformity with the etymological meaning
of the name, is her power of releasing from the bonds of physical suffering
and moral guilt. Mystical speculation on the name would lead to her being
styled a cow, as representing boundless plenty, or to her being identified with
the boundless earth, heaven, or universe. But how are we to account for so
early a personification of such an abstract idea, and in particular for Aditi
becoming the mother of the Adityas? Bergaigne? thinks the transition to Aditi’s
motherhood is to be found in such an expression as dyaur aditih, the ‘bound-
less sky’, the mother who supplies the gods with milk (10, 633). According
to this view, the rare and secondary adjectival meaning ‘boundless’ would have
developed from being an epithet of the sky, otherwise characteristically regarded
as a father, into an independent female deity. Nor does this explanation
seem to account satisfactorily for the conception of Aditi releasing from
bondage. Another explanation is possible. The expression aditeh putrah ,
sons of Aditi, several times applied to the Adityas in the RV., may in the
pre-Vedic period have simply meant ‘sons of freedom’ (like sahasah putrah,
‘son of strength’: p. 12) as describing a prominent quality of Varuna and
cognate gods. Such an expression would easily lead to the personification
of Aditi as a mother. Similarly SavasT was evolved as a name of Indra’s
mother in the RV. itself from his epithet ‘Son of Might’ ( savasah : p. 12)
and Indra’s epithet saclpati , ‘lord of might’, later led to sacl being personi-
fied as the wife of that god, the compound being interpreted as ‘husband of
Sac!’. The formation of a metronymic Aditya, son of Aditi, would tend to
the limitation of the group comprising her sons. The deified personification
would naturally retain a connexion with the original meaning of existence
free from all fetters, but would assume a few additional fluctuating attributes,
such as brightness, from the Adityas. As mother of some of the leading gods

Abstract Gods. 42. Diti.

123

or of the gods in general, she might occasionally be identified with Heaven
and Earth, the universal parents, and the meaning of the word would en-
courage cosmogonic speculations. Thus Aditi, an entirely Indian goddess, is
historically younger than some at least of her sons.

The opinion that Aditi is a personification of the idea of ‘freedom from
bondage' is favoured by Wallis'* and Oldenberg9. Max Muller10 thinks
that Aditi, an ancient god or goddess, *is the earliest name invented to ex-
press the infinite as visible to the naked eye, the endless expanse beyond
the earth, the clouds, and the sky. Roth at first11 interpreted Aditi to mean
‘inviolability, imperishableness’, denoting as a. personification the goddess of
eternity. Later he explained her as ‘eternity’, the principle which sustains
the Adityas, or imperishable celestial light12. He regards her not as a definite
but only an incipient personification. In the St. Petersburg Dictionary, how-
ever, he explains Aditi as a personification of the boundlessness of heaven
as opposed to the finite earth. Pischel, on the other hand believes Aditi re-
presents the earths. This is also Hardy’s opinion14. Colinet considers
Aditi the female counterpart of Dyaus I5. The Naighantuka gives aditi as a
synonym of prthivi (earth), vac (speech), go (cow), and, in the dual, of dyava-
prthivi (heaven and earth). Yaska defines Aditi as ‘the mighty mother of
the gods’, and following the Naighantuka (5,5) locates her in the atmospheric
region, while the Adityas are assigned to the celestial, and Varuna to both16.

1 OST. 5, 36, note 68. — 2 Op. cit. 5, 39, note 73. — 3 Accoiding to BRV.
3, 90, Aditi in 4, 55 lb =» 7, 624 a is synonymous with dyavaprthivl. — 4 References
in OST. 5, 40 f. — 5 ORV. 206 cp. 72. — 6 Otherwise BRV. 3, 94. — 7 BRV. 3,
90. — 8 \VC. 45 f. — 9 ORV. 204 — 7 cp. SBE. 46, 329. — ^ Vedic Hymns, SBE.
32, 241 ; cp. LSL. 2, 619; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 91. — 11 Nirukta, Erl. 150— 1. —
12 ZDMG. 6, 68 f. ; so also KRV. 59, Hillebrandt, Aditi p. 20. — O PVS. 2, 86.
— 14 HVBP. 94. — *5 Trans, of the 9th Or. Congress 1, 396 — 410. — 16 Roth on
Nir. 10, 4.

Benfey, Hymnen des Samaveda 218 (= Unteilbarkeit); OST. 1, 26; 5, 35 — 53.
55; BRV. 3,88—98; Hillebrandt, Ueber die Gottin Aditi, Breslau 1876; BRI. 19;
Darmesteter, Ormazd p. 82; Colinet, Etude sur le mot Aditi, Museon 12, 81 — 90;
Roth, IS. 14, 392—3; Bloomfield, ZDMG. 48, 552, note i; HRI. 72 — 3.

§ 42. Diti. — The name of Diti occurs only three times in the RV.,
twice along with that of Aditi. Mitra and Varuna are said to behold from
their car Aditi and Diti (5, 62s). Sayana here explains the two as the in-
divisible earth and the separate creatures on it, Roth1, as ‘the eternal and
the perishable’, and Muir2 as ‘the entire aggregate of visible nature’. In a
second passage (4, 2”), Agni is besought to grant diti and preserve from
aditi. Here Sayana interprets the two words as ‘liberal giver’ and ‘illiberal
giver’, Roth as ‘wealth’ and ‘penury’. Bergaigxe3 takes the words to de-
signate the goddesses of the previous passage; but it is more likely that they
are here quite different words, derived from da, ‘to give’, and thus meaning
‘giving’ and ‘non-giving’. This view seems to be favoured by both the con-
text and the order in which the words occur. In the third passage (7, i512)
Diti is mentioned without Aditi, but along with Agni, Savitr, and Bhaga, being
said to give (da) what is desirable ( varyatn ). Diti is named along with Aditi
as a goddess in the later Samhitas also (VS. 18, 22; AV. 15, 184; 16, 67).
Her sons are mentioned in AV. 7, 71. These are the Daityas, who in post-
Vedic mythology are the enemies of the gods. The name of Diti as a
goddess seems to be merely an antithesis to that of Aditi4, formed from the
latter to express a positive sense, as sura, ‘god’, was later (by false etymo-
logy) evolved from asura, ‘demon’.

1 ZDMG. 6, 71. — 2 OST. 5, 42. — 3 BRV. 3, 97. — 4 MM., SBE. 32, 256;
cp. WC. 46.

i24 HI. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

E. GODDESSES.

§ 43. Goddesses. — Goddesses occupy a very subordinate position in
Vedic belief and worship'. They play hardly any part as rulers of the world.
The only one of any importance is Usas, who judged by the statistical stan-
dard ranks as a deity of the third class (p. 20). But, unlike nearly all the
gods, she received no share in the Soma offering1. Next to her comes Sa-
rasvatl (§ 33), who, however, only ranks with the lowest class of deities. A
few other goddesses are praised in one hymn each. PrthivI, hardly sepa-
rable from Dyaus, is praised in one short hymn of three stanzas (§ 34).
Ratrl, Night, is also invoked in one hymn (10, 127). Like her sister Dawn,
she is called the daughter of Heaven. She is not conceived as the dark,
but as the bright starlit night. She shines manifoldly with her eyes. Decked
with all splendour, she fills the valleys and heights, driving away the darkness
with light. At her approach men return home like birds to their nests.
She is invoked to keep away the wolf and the thief, guiding her worshippers
to safety. Night probably became a goddess by way of antithesis to Dawn,
with whom she is invoked in several verses as a dual divinity2 (pp. 48. 129).
Vac, personified Speech, is celebrated in one hymn (10, 125 cp. 71), in
which she describes herself. She accompanies all the gods and supports
Mitra-Varuna, Indra-Agni, and the Asvins. She bends Rudra’s bow against
the unbeliever. Her place is in the waters, the sea. She encompasses all
beings. In another passage (8, 8910- ”) she is called queen of the gods and
divine3. In the Naighantuka (5, 5) Vac is enumerated among the deities
of the atmosphere; and thunder, or madhyamika vac, ‘the voice of the middle
region’, in the terminology of the commentators (Nir. 11, 27), may have
been the starting point of the personification. A legend about Vac frequently
referred to in the Brahmanas is that of Soma being bought back from the
Gandharvas at the price of Vac transformed into a woman (AB. 1, 27).
Puramdhi, whose name occurs about nine times in the RV., is goddess of
Plenty4. She is nearly always mentioned with Bhaga3, two or three times
also with Pusan and Savitr, and once with Visnu and Agni. Parendi, com-
monly regarded as identical with Puramdhi, is generally considered a goddess
of riches and abundance (cp. Yast 8, 38) in the Avesta6. Hillebrandt,
however, thinks Puramdhi is a goddess of Activity7. Another goddess of
abundance is Dhisana, mentioned nearly a dozen times in the RV8. Ila,
Nourishment, is the personification (mentioned less than a dozen times in the
RV.) of the offering of milk and butter, thus representing plenty derived
from the cow. Hence Ida is in the Brahmanas frequently connected with,
though never an actual name of, the cow; and in the Naighantuka (2, 11)
it occurs as one of the synonyms of cow. Owing to the nature of the
offering Ila is called butter-handed (7, 168) and butter-footed (10, 708). As
a personification she generally appears in the Apr! hymns, in which she
usually forms a triad with Sarasvatl and Mahl or Bharat!9. It is doubtful
whether the literal or the personified sense is intended by the phrase ilayas
pade , ‘in the place of nourishment’ (i. e. of the sacrificial fire). Agni is once
called the son of Ila, clearly in allusion to the place of his production
(3> 299’ I0). Pururavas is also said to be her son (10, 9518). She is once
called the mother of the herd ( yiitha ) and connected with UrvasT (5, 41 19).
She is once mentioned with Dadhikravan and the Asvins in reference to the
morning sacrifice (7, 442). In the SB. she is called the daughter of Manu
(1, 8, i8; 11,5, 3s) as well as of Mitra-Varuna (1,8, 127; 14, 9, 427; ASS. 1, 77).
The name of the goddess Brhaddiva occurs four times in hymns to the

43- Goddesses.

Visvedevas. She is called a mother (io, 641 * * * * * * * * 10) and is mentioned with Ila
( 2 , 314; 5, 4119), SarasvatT and Raka (5, 4212). Raka (probably from V rd,
to give) is mentioned only twice in the RV. as a rich and bountiful goddess,
who is invoked with others (2, 32?; 5, 4212). Sinlvall is referred to in two
hymns of the RV. (2, 32; 10, 184). She is a sister of the gods, broad-
hipped, fair-armed, fair-fingered, prolific, a mistress of the family, and is
implored to grant offspring. She is invoked with SarasvatT, Raka, as well
as Gungu (who is only mentioned here). In the AV. (8, 46J) Sinlvall is

called the wife of Visnu. The later Samhitas and the Brahmanas also men-

tion a goddess Kuhu, a personification of the new moon10. Raka and
Sinlvall are in later Vedic texts connected with phases of the moon, the former
being the presiding deity of the actual day of full moon, and the latter, of
the first day of new moon. There is nothing to show that any such connexion
is to be found in the RV11.

A few other goddesses occasionally mentioned in the RV. have already
been incidentally referred to. Prsni, the mother of the Maruts (p. 78) pre-
sumably represents the mottled storm-cloud12. The word is also used as an
adjective in the sense of speckled (cp. 7, io36- IO), in the singular as an
attribute of both bull and cow, and in the plural, of the cows which milk
Soma for Indra (1, 8410- 8, 6 10 710. s83). It thus came to mean ‘speckled

cow’, and finally ‘speckled cloud’. Saranyu occurs once in the RV. (10, 172)

as the name of Tvastr’s daughter, wedded to Vivasvat. The most likely
interpretation seems to be that which identifies her with the sun-maiden
Surya or Usas, the DawnV The word also occurs four times as an adjec-
tive in the RV. meaning ‘swift’. It is an ordinary Sanskrit formation, derived
with the suffix -yu from sarana, speed ( Y sr, to run), like caran-yu
and others.

Goddesses as wives of the great gods similarly play an insignificant
part in the Veda. They are altogether without independent character, simply
representing the spouses whom such gods as Indra must have had. Hardly
anything about them is mentioned but their names, which are simply formed
from those of the gods with the feminine suffix -ani. Thus IndranT is simply
‘wife of Indra’ I+. VarunanI and Agnayl also occur in the RV., but rarely.
RudranT is not found till the Sutras, but she plays a decidedly more import-
ant part in the cult than any of the other goddesses in - ani JS. The wife of
the Asvins is once in the RV. called AsvinT (= Surya: p. 51) l6. The ‘wives
of the gods’ ( devanain patnVi) occasionally mentioned in the RV. have in
the Brahmanas an established place assigned to them in the cult apart from
the gods (SB. 1, 9, 211)17.

1 Bergaigne, Reckerches sur l’histoire de la liturgie vedique, p. 9. — 2 OST.

5, 191; HRI. 79 f. — 3 Weber, IS. 9, 473 ff. ; BRI. 16; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39,

58—9; WC. 85—6; HRI. 142—3. 226. — 4 PVS. 2, 202 — 16; Bloomfield, JAOS.

16, 19; ORV. 63. — 5 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 190. — 6 Darmesteter, Ormazd

et Ahriman 25; SBE. 4, lxx; 23, 1 1 ; Mills, SBE. 31, 25; PVS. 1, 202; Sp.AP.

207 — 9; Colinet, BOR. 2, 245 ; 4, 121 ; Trans. Or. Cong. 1892, 1, 396—420. — 7 Hille-

brandt, WZKM. 3, 188 — 94. 259 — 73; cp. also V. Henry, Vedica, ire serie, p. 1 ff.,

Memoires de la Societe de ling. 9.-8 PVS. 2, 82 ff.; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 120 — 2.

— 9 Weber, IS. 1, 168 — 9; BRV. 1, 325; GGH. 51; ORV. 238.326; SBE. 46, 11.

156. 191. 288; Baunack, KZ. 34, 563. — 10 ZDMG. 9, lviii. — ” IS. 5, 228 ff. —

I2 Cp. Roth on Nir. 10, 39, p. 145. — 13 Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 172 — 88, where

the opinions of his predecessors are stated. — J4 ORV. 172; cp. Leumann, KZ.

32, 299. — 15 ORV. 219. — 16 KRV. n. 148; on Surya and the Asvins cp. Weber,

IS. 5, 178—89; BRV. 2, 486; PVS. i, 13—29; Oldenberg, GGA. 1889, 7—8;

ORV. 241. — 17 On female divinities cp. Hopkins, PAOS. 1889, p. clxii; on Sarama

(above pp. 63 — 4) see below, § 62.

126 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

F. DUAL DIVINITIES.

§. 44. A peculiar feature of Vedic mythology is the celebration in
pairs of a number of deities whose names are joined in the form of a special
kind of dual compound in which both members are dual, accented, and
occasionally separable1. About a dozen gods are thus conjointly praised in
at least sixty hymns of the RV. The name of Indra enters into seven or
more than half of these combinations, but by far the largest number of
hymns — twenty-three, and parts of several others — is addressed, to the pair
Mitravaruna. Eleven are dedicated to Indragni, nine to Indra-vdruna,
about seven to Jndra-vdyu, six to Dydva-prthivi, two each to Indra-soma
and Indrd-brhaspatl, and one each to Indravisnu, I ndra-pusana, Soma-pusana,
Soma-rudra, and Agm-soma. A few other couples, including the names of
nine or ten deities not mentioned above, are invoked in detached verses.
These are Indra-nascitya , Indra-parvata, Indra-marutah, Agtii-parjanya, Par-
janya-vdta (once Vat a -pa rjany a) , Usds and ktd or (less often) Naktosdsd,
Surya-mdsa or Surya-candramdsa.

There can be little doubt that the analogy for this favourite formation
was furnished by DyavaprthivI, Heaven and Earth2, the pair which to
early thought appeared so indissolubly connected in nature, that the myth of
their conjugal union is found widely diffused among primitive peoples 3 and
has therefore probably come down to the Veda from a period anterior to
that immediately preceding the separation of the Indo-European nations. In
the RV. itself this couple is so closely associated that while they are invoked
as a pair in six hymns, not one is devoted to the praise of Dyaus alone
and only one of three verses to that of PrthivT. So hard was it for the
poets to dissociate the two, that even in this hymn PrthivT is praised for send-
ing the rain of heaven from her cloud (5, 843). The dual compound, moreover,
occurs much more frequently than the name of Dyaus as a god. It occurs, in-
cluding the comparatively rare synonyms Dydvaksdma and Dydvdbhumi,
about a hundred times, or more frequently than the name of any other pair.
Heaven and Earth are also called rodasi, the two worlds (spoken of as sisters,
1, 1 85s, owing to the gender of the word), an expression occurring at least
a hundred times in the RV. Heaven and Earth are parents, being often
styled pitara, matara , janitri, and also separately addressed as father and
mother (1, i59I—3. 1602). They are primeval parents (7, 53s; 10, 65s). Their
marriage is referred to in the AB. (4, 27s-6)4. They have made and sustain
all creatures (1, 1592. 1602. 1851). Though themselves footless, they support
much offspring with feet (1, 1852). They are the parents of the gods also;
for to them exclusively belongs, the epithet devdputre, ‘having the gods as
sons’. They are in particular said to be the parents of Brhaspati (7, 97s)
and, with the Waters and Tvastr, to have begotten Agni (10, 27). At the
same time they are in different passages spoken of as themselves created by
individual gods. Thus a poet observes that he who produced heaven and
earth must have been the most skilful artisan of all the gods (1, 1604; 4, 563).
Indra is said to have generated or fashioned them (6, 305; 8, 3d4; 10, 29^. 543).
Visvakarman produced them (10, 812 cp. AV. i2,i6o)s. They received their
forms from Tvastr (10, no?). They sprang from the head and feetofPurusa
(10, 9014). But one poet is puzzled as to how they were produced and which
of the two first came into being (1, 1851; cp. p. 13)6. Many of the epithets
applied to DyavaprthivI are suggested by their physical characteristics. The
one is a prolific bull, the other a variegated cow (1, 1603). They are both
rich in seed (1, 1592; 6, 7o1,2). They yield milk, ghee, and honey abundantly

44- Dual Divinities.

127

(6, 7o,—s), and produce amrta (1,1 59*. 1856). They never grow old (6,70').
They are great (1, 1591) and wide-extended (1, 1602). They are broad and
great abodes (1, 18 5°). They are fair- faced, wide, manifold, with ends which
are far away (1, i856-7). Sometimes, however, moral qualities are attributed
to them. They are wise and promote righteousness (1, 1 591). As father
and mother they guard beings (r, 1602) and protect from disgrace and mis-
fortune (1, 18510). They grant food and wealth (6, 706; 1, 1595) or bestow
great fame and dominion (1, 1605). They are sufficiently personified to be
called leaders of the sacrifice and to be conceived as seating themselves
around the sacrifice (4, 5 6 2'7), as coming to their worshippers along with the
heavenly folk (7, 532), or taking the sacrifice to the gods (2, 4120). But
Heaven and Earth never attained to a living personification or importance
in worship. These two deities are quite coordinate. But in most of the
other couples one of the two greatly predominates, his characteristic qualities
being shared by his companion. Thus Indra-Agni are conjointly called ‘wielders
of the bolt’ and ‘Vrtra-slayers’. Occasionally an attribute of the lesser deity
is predicated of both. Thus Indra-Visnu are together said to have taken
wide strides (6, 695). Frequent association of this kind may lead to a deity
receiving by himself an epithet to which he originally had no right. Thus
Agni when mentioned alone is often called a ‘Vrtra-slayer’. The characteristics
of each member of the pair are, however, in some passages distinguished7.

Next to Heaven and Earth, the pair most frequently named is Mitra-
Varuna. These two deities are invoked conjointly in many more hymns than
are dedicated to their separate praise. As Mitra has hardly any individual
traits, the same attributes and functions belong to the pair conjointly as to
Vanina alone. Scarcely anything need therefore be here added to what
has already been said about Varuna. The couple are conceived as young
men (3, 5 410; 7,62s). Like various other gods, they are spoken of as shining
(. candra ), bright (suci), sunlike ( svardrs ), ruddy ( rudra ), and terrible ( ghora ).
The priority of the name of Mitra in the compound might seem to indicate
that he was originally the more important deity; it is, however, probably due
simply to the tendency to make the shorter word the first member of a com-
pound. This dual invocation goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, for Ahura
and Mithra are thus coupled in the Avesta8.

Indra-Varuna, the two universal monarchs (x, 171), hollowed out the
channels of the waters and set the sun in motion in the sky (7, 82^). They
are vanquishers of Vrtra (6, 682), aid in battle (4, 41”), and grant victory
(1, 177). They cast their mighty bolt against the wicked (4, 414). They
bestow protection and prosperity (1, i77,8J, fame, wealth, and abundance of
steeds (4, 4i2,I°; 6, 688). They are drinkers of the pressed Soma, their car
comes to the sacrifice, and they are invoked to exhilerate themselves seated
on the sacrificial grass (6, 6810-11). In some passages the characteristics of
each member of the pair are distinguished. Thus Varuna is besought to
divert his wrath from his worshippers, and Indra to procure them wide space
(7, S42). Indra is contrasted as the warlike god who slays Vrtra, with Varuna
who supports men in peace and wisdom (6, 683; 7, 82s-6. 85s). The asso-
ciation of the couple Indra-Agni9 is very intimate; for Indra is invoked
conjointly with Agni in more hymns than with any other deity10, while Agni
is otherwise addressed as a dual divinity only in one hymn and two detached
verses with Soma and in one verse with Paijanya. Indra-Agni, the best of
Soma-drinkers (1, 211), come on their car to drink Soma (1, 108'), and are
invited together to come and drink it (7, 93s; 8, 38*- 7-9), to sit down on
the sacrificial grass at the offering, and to exhilerate themselves with the

128 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

pressed draught (i, 1095). They are often called Vrtra-slayers. They are
armed with the bolt (6, 593 &c.), and their lightning is sharp (5, 863). They
are fort-destroyers who aid in battle (x, iog?-5). They together demolished
the 99 forts of the Dasa (3, 126) and are invincible in battle (5, 862). They
released the rivers from their imprisonment (8, 48s) and accomplished heroic
deeds together (1, 1085). They are bountiful (5, 863). All these are traits
characteristic of Indra. Indra-Agni are also called the two priests of sacri-
fice (8, 381), and are wise (8, 403). They are lords of the abode ( sadaspafi )
and drive away the goblins (1, 215). These features are more appropriate
to Agni. The two gods are twin brothers who have one father (6, 592).
They are once called Asvins11 (1, 1094), possibly in allusion to this close
relationship. They bestow food, wealth, strength, cattle, steeds (4, 6ol3_I4).
They are greater than heaven and earth, rivers, and mountains (1, 1096).
The two gods are once contrasted, though not when addressed as a pair;
Indra being said to slay, but Agni to burn, the Dasyus (6, 2 84). The two
hymns (4, 49; 7, 97) addressed to Indra-Br haspati consist chiefly of invi-
tations to drink Soma and of prayers to bestow great wealth abounding in
steeds and to promote devotion. Indra-Vayu are constantly invited to
come and drink Soma (1, 2 3 1—2 &c.), little else being said about them. They
come to the offering with their teams (4, 47 2~4) or in their golden-seated car
(4, 464) and seat themselves on the sacrificial litter (7, 914). They are
thousand- eyed, lords of devotion ( dhiyas pati: 1, 2 33), and lords of might
( savasas pati-. 4, 473). They help in battle (7, 924) and bestow wealth in
steeds, cattle, and gold (7, 906). Indra-Soma perform the warlike exploits
characteristic of Indra or the great cosmic actions so often ascribed to him.
They made the waters flow for man, released the seven rivers, slew the
dragon, depressed the wheel of the sun (4, 281-2; 6, 723). The true work
of the two bountiful gods was that they destroyed their foes and broke open
what was enclosed in the rock (4, 2 84- 5). They performed the first great
deeds in finding the sun and light, dispelling the darkness, causing the sun
to shine, supporting heaven, and spreading out the earth (6, 72'- 2). They
too placed ripe milk in the raw bodies of cows (ib.4). They grant victorious
might to men (ib.5). Indra-Visnu, who are receptacles of Soma, lords of
intoxication ( madapati ), are invited to come with their steeds, to drink Soma,
and to fill their belly with it. The two gods strode out widely in the in-
toxication of Soma, made the air broader, and spread out the spaces for
existence. Ever victorious, they grant wealth, and conduct safely across
dangers. As generators of all prayers, they are besought to hear the in-
vocations of their worshippers (6, 69) I2. Indra-Pusan are invoked con-
jointly in only one short hymn (6, 57), and their names form a dual com-

pound only twice. When Indra made the great waters flow, Pusan was his
companion. With him as a friend, Indra slays Vrtras (6, 562). One of them

drinks Soma and is drawn by two steeds with which he slays Vrtras, while

the other desires gruel ( karambha ) and is drawn by goats. Mention is once
(1, 1622) made of the abode ( pathas ) of Indra-Pusan, to which a goat con-
ducts the sacrificial horse. The two gods are as usual also besought to confer
welfare and booty.

Soma-Pus an (2, 40) drive away darkness and are invoked to quicken
the seven-wheeled five-reined car, yoked by thought, which measures out
space. They are generators of wealth, of heaven and earth, and protectors
of the world (cp. xo, 173), whom the gods made the centre of immortality.
For them Indra is invoked to produce ripe milk in the raw cows. Together
they bestow victory over foes and grant abundance of wealth and food.

44- Dual Divinities.

129

But they are also contrasted. One of them has made his abode high in
heaven, while the other dwells on earth and in air; one generated all beings,
while the other moves seeing everything'3. Soma-Rudra (6, 74) are in-
voked to drive away sickness and decay from the house, to place all remedies
in the bodies of their worshippers, to remove from them all sin, and to
free from the fetter of Varuna. Wielding sharp weapons, they are besought
to have mercy and are implored for prosperity to man and beast. Agni-
Soma are celebrated together for having released the confined streams,
obtained the light, and set the luminaries in the sky. At the same time they
are distinguished, Matarisvan being said to have brought the one from heaven,
and the eagle the other from the rock (1, 93). Their joint help and pro-
tection are invoked, and they are besought to grant cattle, horses, offspring,
health, happiness, and wealth (10, 191. 66?). This pair is mentioned several
times in the AV. In the MS. (3, 71) they are spoken of as ‘two eyes’. The
SB. refers to them as brothers (11, 1, 6'9), also stating that the sun belongs
to Agni and the moon to Soma (1, 6, 3^). In the ritual Agni-Soma seem
never to receive a share in the Soma offering, but only cakes and animal
sacrifices. It is somewhat remarkable that the two great ritual deities, who
form a very frequent couple in the sacrificial literature, should, outside the
one hymn (1, 93) devoted to their praise, be mentioned only twice as a
pair, and that only in the most recent part of the RV. **

A few other pairs are invoked in detached verses only. Agni-Parj anya
are mentioned in one passage (6, 5216). They are together besought to
bestow food and progeny, but are at the same time contrasted, the one being
said to have produced the oblation (ilam) and the other offspring (garbhcnn).
Parjanya-Vata are invoked in four passages. As bulls of earth they are
besought (6, 49s) to impel the watery vapours (purTsani). Along with Indra-
Vayu and other gods, they are invoked as vaporous ( purisina ) bulls (10,659).
In another enumeration they are entreated to bestow abundant food (6, 5012).
They are also once (10, 66 10 cp. Nir. 7, 10) invoked as connected with ‘the
thundering buffalo’ (probably Dyaus15). Dawn and Night are invoked several
times. They are mentioned almost exclusively in Visvedeva or Apr! hymns.
They are rich goddesses (2, 3 1 5 ; 10, 706), divine maidens (7, 26; 10, no6),
daughters of heaven (5, 41?; 10, 706). They are like two wives (1, i22z)
and abound in milk (2, 36). Changing their colour they suckle a single
child who beams between heaven and earth (1, 96s). They are two sisters

who are of one mind but of different colour, whose path is the same and

endless, who, taught by the gods, move alternately and never clash or stand
still (1, 1133). They are the shining mothers of order (1, 1427); they con-
duct with bright rays every offering (5, 417) and weave the web of sacrifice
(2, 36). They are bountiful, much invoked, and sit on the sacrificial grass
(7, 26). They are great and 'well-adorned (10, 361. no6; 1, 137. 1427).
Appearing alternately they arouse all living things (2,31s)16. Sun and Moon
are mentioned five times in the form of sttryamdsd and three times in that
of surydcandramasd. These are the only dual compounds formed with the
name of Surya'7. In most cases the concrete luminaries only are meant.
Thus they are said to move alternately so that we may see (1, 1022). It is
the act of Brhaspati that sun and moon rise alternately (10, 6810). The

Creator fashioned sun and moon (xo, 1903). A poet says, ‘let us go on our

path like sun and moon’ (5, 5115). There is, however, an incipient personi-
fication when the pair is invoked with other deities (10, 643. 92 12. 93s). In a
few passages sun and moon, though not expressly mentioned, are evidently
thought of in their dual character. ‘The two go round the sacrifice like

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 9

130 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

playing children; the one surveys all beings, the other is born again, ordering

the seasons’ (10, 8518). There is no doubt that they are meant by the two

bright eyes of Varuna (8, 419) and by the two eyes of heaven made by the
immortals (1, 7210).

1 KHF. 161 f.; OGR. 297 f. ; HVM. 1, 98. — 2 Sp.AP. 159; cp. ORV. 93.
240. — 3 Tylor, Primitive Culture 322 — 8 (Chapter on Mythology). — 4 Haug
Translation of the AB., vol. 2, 308. — 5 Cp. ibid. 2, 299. — 6 Cp. Nirukta 3, 22;

MM., LSL. 2, 606. — 7 RV. 2, 40 4* 5; 6, 52 "6. 572. 683; 7, 362. 825-6. 839.

842. 853. — 8 OST. 5, 70; Eggers, Mitra 29—31; Oldenberg, ZDMG.

5c, 46. — 9 OST. 5, 220; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 470. — 10 Cp. Fay, AJP. 17,
14. — 11 LSL. 2, 614. — 12 Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 175. — >3 OST. 5, 180; HVM.
1, 456. — 14 Oldenberg, Die Hymnen des Rigveda I, 267; Hillebrandt, GGA.
1890, p. 401; HVM. 1, 458 — 61. — 15 Cp. LRV. 4, 228. — 16 KRV. 52; Olden-
berg, ZDMG. 39, 89; HRI. 79. — 17 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 63.

G. GROUPS OF GODS.

§ 45. The mythology of the Veda recognised a certain number of more
or less definite groups of divine beings, generally associated with some par-
ticular god. The largest and most important of these, the Maruts, whose
number in the RV. is variously stated to be 21 or 180 (p. 78), is, as has
been shown, constantly described as attending Indra in his warlike exploits
(p. 57). The same group under the name of Rudras is occasionally asso-
ciated with their father Rudra (7, io4. 3s6). The number of the Rudras,
treated as, a separate class in the Brahmanas, is stated to be eleven in the
AB. and SB. (p._ 19) but is thirty-three in the TS. (1, 4, n1). The smaller
group of the Adityas, whose number in two passages of the RV. is
seven or eight (p. 43) and in the Brahmanas becomes twelve, is in the RV.
constantly associated either with their mother Aditi (7, io4 <Src.) or with their
chief Varuna (7, 35s &c.). This group is more definite than that of the
Maruts inasmuch as its members have separate names. A third group fre-
quently mentioned in the RV. is more vague than the other two, for they
are neither characterized nor is their number mentioned. That they were
conceived as specially connected with Indra, is shown by two passages in
which Varuna or Aditi with the Adityas, Rudra with the Rudras, and Indra
with the Vasus, are invoked (7, io4. 356). But in later Vedic texts Agni is the
leader of the Vasus1. They are regarded as eight in number in the AB. and
SB. (p. 19), but in the TS. (5, 5, 25) become 333. The three groups of the
Adityas, Rudras and Vasus are invoked together in a few passages of the
RV. (2, 311; 10, 6612 cp. 7, 104. 356)2. The Brahmanas distinguish, as three
kinds of , gods, the Vasus of earth, the Rudras of air, and the Adityas of
heaven (SB. 1, 3, 412; 4, 3, 51). In the Chandogya Upanisad (3, 6 — 10) five
groups are mentioned, the Vasus being connected with Agni, the Rudras with
Indra, the Adityas with Varuna, the Maruts with Soma, and the Sadhyas with
Brahma (cp. RV. 10, 9?- l6)8. There is besides the group of the semi-divine
Angirases who are chiefly connected with Brhaspati (§§ 36, 54) and the
small one of the three Rbhus who are nearly always associated with Indra
(S 46). Finally, a comprehensive group is formed of the Visvedevah or
All-gods, who occupy an important position in the sacrifice, for at least forty
entire hymns of the RV. are devoted to their praise. It is a factitious sacri-
ficial group meant to represent all the gods in order that none should be
excluded in laudations intended to be addressed to all. But the All-gods
are sometimes conceived as a narrower group, being invoked with other
groups, such as the Vasus and Adityas (2, 34)4.

1 IS. 5, 240; BRV. 2, 370; Bloomfield, FaR. 151. — 2 LRV. 6, 147; cp.
Perry, JAGS. 16, 178. — 3 Weber, IS. 9, 6; SPH. 23. — 4 HRI. 137. 143, note 1. 182.

45- Groups of Gods. — H. Lower Deities. 46. Rbhus.

1 31

H. LOWER DEITIES.

§ 46. Rbhus. — Besides the higher gods of the Veda there are a
number of mythical beings not regarded as having the divine nature fully
and originally. The most important of these are the Rbhus. They are cele-
brated in eleven hymns of the RV. and are mentioned by name over a
hundred times. They form a triad. Their individual names, which often
occur, are Rbhu or less commonly Rbhuksan (‘chief of the Rbhus’), Vaja,
and Vibhvan. These three names are several times mentioned together,
sometimes only two of them, while occasionally Rbhu is referred to alone.
They are most often spoken of in the plural as rbhavah, but the plural of
each of their names may designate the triad. Sometimes the plurals of all
three (4, 36D 8, 481) or of only two ( Vaja, Rbhuksanah or Vaja Rbhavah)
appear to be used together pleonastically to indicate the trio. Once the com-
bination Vajo Vibhvan Rbhavah occurs (4, 3 66). Occasionally an indefinite
group seems to be meant, as all (: vis've ) the Rbhus (7, 513), or Rbhu with
the Rbhus, Vibhvan with the Vibhus (7, 482) are invoked. In the latter passage
Rbhu and Vibhvan are evidently thought of as chiefs of groups of the same
name. The three Rbhus are once distinguished as eldest, younger, and
youngest (4, 33s).

The Rhbus are about a dozen times called by the patronymic name of
Saudhanvana, sons of Sudhanvan, ‘the good archer’. They are also once
collectively addressed as the son ( siino ) oflndra (4, 374). In the same verse
they are invoked as ‘children of might’ ( s'avaso napatah), as if a play on the
meaning of napat (also ‘grandson’) were intended, in contrast with the epithet
‘son of might’ ( savasah sunu), which is applied exclusively to Indra. The
epithet s'avaso napatah is almost peculiar to them, being applied to them
five times and otherwise only once to Mitra-Varuna. In one passage (3,60^)
they are spoken of as ‘children of Manu’ {manor napatah) and their parents
( pitara ) are several times mentioned. In one hymn they address Agni as
their brother (1, I6I1* 3).

They are very frequently invoked to come to the sacrifice (4,341,3. 37 ')
and to drink the Soma juice (4, 34L 36“; 7, 481). Being high in heaven they
are besought to come to the Soma in the lower abodes (4, 373). In this they
are generally associated with Indra (3, 6o4-6; 4, 333. 346. 35?), a few times
with the Maruts (1, 20$. in4; 4, 34”), and once with the Adityas, Savitr,
Mountains, and Rivers (4,34s). In other respects also they are closely connected
with Indra. They are Indra-like (4,37s) and Rbhu is like a new Indra (1, iio?).
With Indra they help mortals to victory (4, 37 s) and are invoked with him
to crush foes (7, 483). They are said to have obtained the friendship of
Indra by their skilful work (3, 603; 4, 357, 9); for it is they who fashioned
his steeds. In the hymns devoted to their praise, they are rarely invoked
with gods other than Indra, there being only one such passage (4, 34s) in
which Indra is not mentioned as well. Indra’s connexion with them is indeed
so characteristic, that he is, like the eldest of the triad, called ‘chief of the
Rbhus’ {rbhuksan), a term also two or three times applied to Indra’s asso-
ciates, the Maruts. In some of the Visvedeva hymns they are brought into
connexion with a few other gods, chiefly Tvastr.

The references to the physical aspect or the equipment of the Rbhus
are scanty. They are of sunlike appearance (1, no4). They have a car
(1,161'), which is drawn by steeds (7, 481). Their car is bright, their steeds
are fat; they wear metal helmets and fair necklaces (4, 374). Rbhu is a
possessor of steeds ( as'vin : 4, 37s). The Rbhus are characteristically deft-

I32

III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

handed ( suhastah ) and skilful (apris, suapas-. 4, 331-8 &c.), their skilful deeds
being incomparable (3, 604). They are frequently said to have acquired the
rank of gods in consequence of their marvellous skill. Through their wondrous
deeds they obtained divinity (3, 601). By their skilful deeds they became
gods and immortal, alighting like eagles in heaven (4, 35s). They are men
of the air who by their energy mounted to heaven (1, no6). For their
skilful services they went the path of immortality to the host of the gods
(4, 353), obtaining immortality among the gods and their friendship (4, 33a‘ 4.
3S3- 364). But they were originally mortals, children of Manu, who by their
industry acquired immortality (3, 603; 1, no4). The AB. (3, 302) speaks of
them as men who by austerity ( tapas ) obtained a right to partake of Soma
among the gods. The gods rejoiced so greatly in their work, that Yaja
became the artificer of the gods, Rbhuksan of Indra, and Vibhvan of Varuna
(4, 339). They went to the gods and obtained the sacrifice, or a share of

the sacrifice, among the gods through their skilful work (1, 2o‘-8. i2i6- ?).

Thus the third or evening pressing or libation (. scivana ) belongs to them,
they having obtained it by their skilful work (1, 1618; 4, 3311. 344. 35°).

They are thus sometimes expressly invoked as gods (4, 365. 371).

Like the higher gods, they are besought to give prosperity and wealth
(4, 338. 375), in cattle, horses, heroes (4, 3410), and to grant vigour, nourish-
ment, offspring, dexterity (1, m2). They grant treasures to the Soma presser
(i,207; 4,356). He whom they help is invincible in fight (4, 36°), and Rbhu
and Vaja are besought to give aid and booty in battle (1, 1155).

The same verb taks, to fashion, is generally used with reference to the
manual skill of the Rbhus as to that of Tvastr. The five great feats of dexterity
by which they became gods, are spoken of with pretty uniform frequency
and are all or most of them mentioned in nearly every hymn dedicated to
their praise. They fashioned or made a car (1, hi1. 1613; 4, 33s. 36s),
which is horseless, reinless, three-wheeled, and traverses space (4, 361). The
car which goes round they fashioned for the Asvins (1, 203. 1616; 10, 39 12).
When in a verse (4, 349) which enumerates each of their feats with a single
word, they are said to have fashioned the Asvins themselves, this appears
to be only a loose way of referring to the same exploit.

For Indra they fashioned the two bay steeds ( hari ) which waft him
(4, 3 3 10 &c.). It appears to be only a varied reference to the same feat
when the Rbhus are represented as desiring to make a horse or as having
made one horse after another (1, i6i3-7).

They further fashioned or made a cow (1, 1613; 4, 349), which yields
nectar (1, 203) and is all-stimulating and omniform (4, 33s). This cow they
formed out of hide (1, no8) or extracted ( arimta ) from a hide (1, i6i7&c.j.
They guarded her and formed her flesh (4,334). That they formed this cow
for Brhaspati may be inferred from a verse (1, 1616) which states that Indra
yoked the two bay steeds and the Asvins the car, while Brhaspati drove up
the omniform (cow). A minor feat, only twice referred to and perhaps con-
nected with the foregoing one, consists in their having re-united the mother
with her calf (1, no8, in1).

The Rbhus also rejuvenated their parents (1, 204. in1; 4, 35s), who
were frail and lay like decaying posts (1, no8; 4, 332,3). They made the
two who were old young again (1, 1 6 13* 7). When in the brief enumeration
of their feats already referred to (4, 349), they are simply said to have
fashioned their parents, the same feat is doubtless meant. It was their laudable
fame among the gods, that they made their frail and very old parents young
again so as to walk (4, 36^). In the first verse of the same hymn it is said

Lower Deities. 46. Rbhus.

i33

to have been the great proclamation of their divine power, that they made
heaven and earth to thrive. The latter thus seem to be intended by their
parents.

The exhibition of skill which is most frequently mentioned and appears
to have been thought the greatest, as showing the Rbhus in the character of
successful rivals of Tvastr, consists in their having made the one cup, the
work of Tvastr, into four (1, 206. no3; 4, 352- 3. 36*,). This cup is the
drinking vessel of the gods (1, 1615; 4, 35s) or of the Asura (1, 1103). The
Rbhus were commissioned by the gods through their messenger Agni, to make
the one cup, which was of wood, into four, promising as a reward that they
should receive worship equally with the gods (1, i6i1,2). Tvastr praised
( pa?iayat ) the proposal of the Rbhus to make two, three, or four cups, and
acquiesced ( avenat ) when he saw the four shining cups (4, 33s- 6). But in
another passage it is said that Tvastr, on seeing the four cups, hid himself
among the females and desired to kill the Rbhus for desecrating the drinking
vessel of the gods (1, i6i4- 5), though the Rbhus in a previous verse of the
same hymn (v. ’) disclaim any wish to desecrate it. They are described as
measuring out like a field the one wide drinking vessel ( patra ), desiring
fame among the immortals (i,iio5). The same feat is less definitely referred
to when they are said to have formed or fashioned cups (1, 1619; 3, 602
cp. 4, 355)-

The skill of the Rbhus is incidentally exemplified by the statement
that they fashioned prayer (10, 807), sacrifice (3, 5412), and the two worlds
(4, 349), or that they are supporters of the sky (10, 66 lo).

Another myth connects the Rbhus with Savitr. They are said to have
been round the sky, wind-sped, in swift course (4, 331 cp. 1, 16112). After
much wandering they came to the house of Savitr, who conferred immortality
on them when they came to Agohya (1, no2-3). When, slumbering for
twelve days, they had rejoiced in the hospitality of Agohya, they made fair
fields and directed the streams, plants occupied the arid ground and waters
the lowlands (4, 337). By their skill they made grass on the heights and
waters in the depths, when they slumbered in the house of Agohya (1, 16 111).
Having slept, they asked Agohya as to who had awakened them; in a year
they looked around (ib. I3).

The word rbhu is apparently derived from the root rab/i, to grasp (cp.
2, 38)1, thus meaning ‘handy’, ‘dexterous’. It frequently occurs in the RV.
as an adjective and is several times thus used as an attribute of Indra, Agni,
and the Adityas. It seems to be identical with the German elbe and the
English elf2. Vaja (from the root vaj) means the ‘vigorous one’ 3, and
Vibhvan4 (from vi and the root bhu), ‘the eminent’ (artist). Thus both the
name of the Rbhus and the account given of them in the RV. indicate that
their essential character is that of skilful artificers.

It is clear that they were regarded as not having been gods from the
beginning. Whether their close connexion with Indra has in any way to do
with their original nature is doubtful. It is also uncertain who is meant by
their patronymic Saudhanvana, since the word sudhanvan occurs only twice
in the RV. as an attribute of Rudra and of the Maruts. It is, however, most
probable that their parents who are mentioned so often, represent heaven
and earth5. The notion that they produce fertility is connected with their
sojourn of twelve days in the house of Savitr or Agohya, the sun ‘who
cannot be concealed’6. They have therefore by various scholars7 been taken
to be genii of the three seasons8, which are at a stand-still during the twelve
days of the winter solstice. The cup of Tvastr possibly represents the moon,

i34 HI. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

and the four into which it was transformed by the Rbhus, its four phases.
On the whole it seems probable that the Rbhus were originally terrestrial or
aerial elves, whose dexterity gradually attracted to them various myths illu-
strative of marvelous skill. But the evidence furnished by the RV. is hardly
sufficient to warrant any certain conclusion.

1 Cp. Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. p. 70. — 2 Brugmann, Grundriss 2, 298; cp.
A. Kuhn, KZ. 4, 103 — 20; Wackernagel, KZ. 24, 297. — 3 ‘Riches’ according to
BRV. 2, 407. — 4 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 191. — 5 A. Kuhn, Entwicklungs-
stufen 134; AIL. 366. — 6 WVB. 1894, 37, note 3; according to BRV. 3, 52, ‘from
whom nothing is concealed’. — 7 AIL. 1. c.; LRV. 3, 335; KRV. 53 — 4; HVM.
1, 5*5; HVBP. 100. — 8 According to Weber, 1. c., they are genii of creative
time, past, present, and future; according to BRV. 2, 412, three ancient skilful
sacrificers who acquired immortality and whose number is connected with the triad
of sacrificial fires.

N£ve, Essai sur le Mythe des Ribhavas, Paris 1847; cp. Roth, ZDMG. 2,
126; OST. 5, 226—7; GKR. 1 19 ; GRV. 1, 103; BRV. 2, 403—13; 3, 51 — 5;
GGH. ro8. no; WC. 24 — 6; E. H. Meyer, Germanische Mythologie 124; A11-
zeiger fur deutsches Altertum 13, 31 — 5; ORV. 235 — 6 (cp. L. v. Schroeder,
WZKM. 9, 253).

§ 47. The Apsarases. — Apsaras denotes a kind of nymph that even
in the RV. appears almost completely separated from her physical basis.
The information there obtainable is very scanty, as the name occurs only
five times. The Apsaras smiles at her beloved (the Gandharva mentioned in
the preceding verse) in the highest heaven (10, 1235). Vasistha was born
of the Apsaras (7, 3312) and the Vasisthas are said to have sat close to the
Apsarases (ibid. 9). The Apsarases of the sea are described as flowing to
Soma (9, 78-*), with reference to the water which is mixed with the juice.
The long-haired ascetic with semi-divine powers is spoken of as able to move
on the path of the Apsarases and the Gandharvas (10, 1366). The Apsaras
is also doubtless meant by the aqueous nymph ( apya yosa), the wife of the
Gandharva in the waters (10, 104).

More is said about the Apsarases in the AV, Their abode is in the
waters, whence they come and go in a trice (AV. 2,2^); and they are besought
to depart from the vicinity of men to the river and the bank of the waters
(AV. 4, 373). The goddesses accompanying the Gandharva Visvavasu are
described as connected with clouds, lightning, and stars (AV. 2, 24). They
are expressly called wives of the Gandharvas (AV. 2, 25), and their connexion
with the latter has assumed the character of a formula in the later Samhitas
(VS. 30, 8; AV. 8, g9, &c.)L In the SB. (u, 5, 14) the Apsarases are de-
scribed as transforming themselves into a kind of aquatic bird ( ataya/r. cp.
RV. 9, 59). In the post-Vedic literature they are very often spoken of as
frequenting forest lakes and rivers, espescially the Ganges, and they are found
in Varuna’s palace in the ocean2. The etymological meaning of the word is
most probably ‘moving in the waters’ b

The above evidence indicates that the oldest conception of the Apsaras
is that of a celestial water nymph, already regarded in the RV. as the con-
sort of a genius named Gandharva. In the later Samhitas the sphere of the
Apsarases extends to the earth and in particular to trees. They are spoken
of as inhabiting banyans ( nyagrodha ) and sacred fig-trees ( asvattha ), in which
their cymbals and lutes resound (AV. 4, 374). Elsewhere the same trees as
well as other varieties of the fig-tree ( udumbara and plaksa ) are said to be
the houses of Gandharvas and Apsarases (TS. 3, 4, 84). The Gandharvas and
Apsarases in such trees are entreated to be propitious to a passing wedding
procession (AV. 14, 29)4. In the SB. (11, 6, 1) the Apsarases are described
as engaged in dance, song, and play. Post-Vedic texts even speak of mount-

13S

Lower Deities. 47. The Apsarases.

ains, both mythical and actual, as favourite resorts of these two classes of
beings5. The AV. adds the traits that the Apsarases are fond of dice and
bestow luck at play (AV. 2, 25 &c.), but that they are feared especially as
causing mental derangement, magic therefore being employed against them
(AV. 2, 35 &c.).

The love of the Apsarases, who are of the great beauty6 (cp. SB. 13, 4
37- 8), is enjoyed not only by the Gandharvas, but occasionally even by men
(cp. 10, 959). A myth turning on such a union is related of at least one
individual Apsaras in Vedic literature. The names only of several other
Apsarases are there mentioned. The AV. refers to three, Ugrajit, Ugram-
pasya, and Rastrabhrt (AV. 16, ii81,2), while the VS., ampng several others,
speaks of UrvasI and Menaka (VS. 15, 15 — 19). The SB. (3, 4, i22) also
specifies Sakuntala, the ancestress of the royal family of the Bharatas7 (SB.
I3i 5, 4'3)> as well as UrvasI (SB. n, 5, i1).

The only one of these names occurring in the RV. is that of UrvasI.
That she was there regarded as an Apsaras, appears from the fact that
Vasistha is said in one verse to have been born of UrvasI and, in the next,
of an Apsaras (7, 33”' I2 *). She is once invoked with the streams (5, 4119).
Her name is otherwise only mentioned8 twice in a late and obscure hymn
(10, 9510- I7), which consists of a dialogue between her and her lover Puru-
ravas, son of Ila. She is there described as aqueous (a/yd), as filling the
atmosphere, and traversing space (the latter expression is also applied to the
celestial Gandharva in 10, 1395). She is said to have spent four autumns

among mortals (v. l6) and is besought to return (v. *7). The request is ap-

parently refused; but Pururavas receives the promise that his offspring shall
worship the gods with the offering, while he himself shall enjoy bliss in
heaven (svarga-. v. l8). Several verses of this hymn find their setting in a

continous story told in the SB. (11, 5, 1), which fills in details partly based

on a misunderstanding of the text of RV. It is there related that the Apsaras
UrvasI joins herself with Pururavas, son of Ila, in an alliance, the permanence
of which depends on the condition that she shall never see him naked. The
Gandharvas by a stratagem produce a noise during the night. Pururavas
springs up naked, when he is seen by UrvasI illuminated by a flash of light-
ning. UrvasI vanishes forthwith. Pururavas wanders about in search of her,
till he at last observes her swimming in a lotus lake with other Apsarases
in the form of an aquatic bird. UrvasI discovers herself to him and, in
response to his entreaties, consents to receive him for one night a year later9.
He returns at the appointed time, and on the following day the Gandharvas

grant him the boon of becoming one of themselves by producing fire in a

particular way. Excepting 10, 95, the name of Pururavas, which means
‘calling aloud’, occurs only in one passage of the RV. (1, 314), where Agni
is said to have caused the sky to thunder (vasaya) for the righteous man

(manave) Pururavas. The word may here, however, have the adjectival

sense. Pururavas and UrvasI have by some scholars10 been interpreted as
sun and dawn.

1 See PW. s. v. gandharva. — 2 Holtzmann, ZDMG. 33, 635. 641. — 3 Ex-
plained by YN. 5, 13 by ap-sarinl ; cp. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen I, 183;
GGH. 10; PVS. 1, 79 cp. 183 ff.; Ludwig, Methode 91; otherwise Weber, IS. 13,

135, GW., Bury, BB. 7, 339. — 4 Haas, IS. 5, 394; 13, 136; E. H. Meyer, op.

cit. 13. — 5 Holtzmann, ZDMG. 33, 640 f.; v. Schroeder, op. cit. 67; Mann-

HARDT, Wald- und Feldkulte I, 99 ff. — 6 In the Epic period the Apsarases have

become regular celestial courtesans. — 7 Cp. Weber, IS. 1, 198 — 201; Holtzmann,
ZDMG. 33, 635 f. ; Leumann, ZDMG. 48, 80—2; v. Bradke, ibid. 498 ff. — 8 Cp.
Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 323. — 9 They have a son named Ayu: cp. KHF. 65. 71 ;

136 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

IS. 1, 197; GVS. 1, 283; BRV. 2, 324; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 28. — 10 Weber,
IS. 1, 196; MM., Oxford Essays p. 61; Essays 1, 408 — 10; Chips 4*, 109 f.

Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde 1,432, note 2; KHF. 71 — 8; Roth, Nirukta
155—6; GRV. 2, 488; BRV. 2, 90—6; v. Schroeder, op. cit. 1, 23—39 (cp. WZKM.
9, 253); Oldenberg, ZDMG. 37, 81 ; 39, 52 n. 4. 73—6; GGA. 1890, 420 ff.;
GVS. 1, 243 — 95; Siecke, Die Liebesgeschichte des Himmels, Strassburg 1892
(UrvasI = moon); HRI. 137.

§ 48. Gandharvas. — With the Apsaras or Apsarases are associated
even in the RV., as has been shown, a male being or beings named Gan-
dharva. Of the twenty occurrences of the word in the RV. only three are
in the plural, while of the thirty-two occurrences in the AV. half are in the
plural. The name is found a few times in the Avesta as Gandarewa1 (a
dragon-like monster) and only in the singular. This points to the Gandharvas
as a class having been gradually developed from a single being. In the later
Samhitas they are spoken of as forming a distinct class by the side of Gods,
Fathers and Asuras (AV. 11, 52; TS. 7, 8, 252). Their number is fixed as 27
in some Yajus texts and is even said to be 6333 in the AV. (11, 52)2.
The fact that the conception goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, accounts
to some extent for its obscurity. The evidence of the RV. is, moreover, so
scanty and vague that no certain result as to its definite original character
is attainable. It is worthy of note that the name is found only once in
books II to VII, while in book VIII it occurs twice as that of a being hostile
to Indra. The word seems sometimes to be only an appellative 3. It is
occasionally accompanied by the epithet visvavasu, ‘possessing all goods’
(9, 86j6; 10, i39‘1's; AV. 2, 24; VS. 2, 3). This epithet is in one hymn
used alone to designate Gandharva (10, 8521- 22 cp. 4°- 4I); and in the later
Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and the post-Vedic literature, it frequently occurs
as the name of an individual Gandharva.

In the RV. Gandharva seems to be localized in the high region of air
or sky. He is a measurer of space (10, 1395). He is found in the fathom-
less spaces of air (8, 665). He is heavenly (divya) and stands erect on the
vault of heaven (10, 1237). He is the lover on whom the Apsaras smiles
(ib. 5). His abode is in heaven (AV. 2, 21* 2) and the Blest live with the
Gandharvas (AV.4,34^). In several passages Gandharva is closely connected with
some form of celestial light. Thus he is brought into relation with the sun,
‘the golden-winged bird, the messenger of Varuna’ (10, I236), with the sun-
bird (10, 1772), with the sun-steed (1, 1632), with Soma likened to the sun
(9, 8512). He is further connected with the 27 stars of the moon’s orbit
(VS. 9, 7) and in particular with RohinI (AV. 13, 123). He is possibly also
associated with the rainbow4 in one hymn of the RV. (10, 123). In the VS.
(18, 38 ff.) the Gandharvas are enumerated with Agni, Sun, Moon, and Wind.
In post-Vedic literature one of the names of the mirage is ‘city of the
Gandharvas’ 5.

Gandharva is, moreover, in the RV. often associated (chiefly in the ninth
book) with Soma. He guards the place of Soma and protects the races of
the gods (9, 834 cp. 1, 2214). Observing all the forms of Soma, he stands
on the vault of heaven (9, 8512). Together with Parjanya and the daughter
of the sun, the Gandharvas cherish Soma (9, 1133). Through Gandharva’s
mouth the gods drink their draught (AV. 7, 733). The MS. (3, 810) states
that the Gandharvas kept Soma for the gods, but having allowed it to be
stolen, were as a punishment excluded from the Soma draught. Doubtless
owing to this association with Soma, Gandharva is described as knowing
plants (AV. 4, 41). It is probably as a jealous guardian of Soma that Gan-
dharva in the RV. appears as a hostile being, who is pierced by Indra in

Lower Deities. 48. Gandharvas.

i37

the regions of air (8, 665) or whom Indra is invoked to overcome (8, i11)-
For in a later text Soma is besought to elude the Gandharva Visvavasu in
the form of an eagle (TS. 1,2,9 *)• Soma is further said to have dwelt among
the Gandharvas or to have been stolen by the Gandharva Visvavasu, but to
have been bought from the Gandharvas, as they were fond of females, at the
price of the goddess Vac (AB. 1, 27; TS. 6, 1, 65; MS. 3, 73). The trait of
hostility appears to be old, for in the Avesta (Yt. 5, 38) the hostile Ganda-
rewa, dwelling in the sea Vourukasa, the abode of the white Haoma, is fought
with and overcome by Keresaspa. Moreover, the archer Krsanu, who shoots
at the eagle that carries off the Soma (RV. 4, 27-3), appears to be a Gan-
dharva6, being expressly said to be one in TA. 1, 9b

Gandharva is sometimes connected with the waters. ‘Gandharva in the
waters’ and the ‘aqueous nymph’ are alluded to as the parents ofYamaand
YamI (10, 104). Soma poured into water is called ‘the Gandharva of the
waters’ (9, 863&). Gandharva, connected with the Apsarases, is also said to
dwell in the waters in the AV. (2, 23; 4, 3712). In the Avesta Gandarewa is
a lord of the abyss who dwells in the waters (Yt. 15, 28).

The union of Gandharva with the water nymph is typical of marriage.
He is therefore connected with the wedding ceremony, and the unmarried
maiden is said to belong to Gandharva as well as to Soma and Agni (10,
3^4°— 1). The Gandharva Visvavasu in the first days of wedlock is regarded
as a rival of the husband (ib. 22), and the Gandharvas’ love of women is
prominent in later texts (cp. MS. 3, 73). The Gandharvas and Apsarases thus
preside over fertility and are prayed to by those who desire offspring (PB.
19, 32)-

Of the conception of the Gandharvas being celestial singers, which appears
in the Epics and later, there seems to be no distinct trace in the RV. (cp.
10, 1772. 112).

There are only two or three references to their physical appearance in
the RV. They are wind-haired (3, 386) and Gandharva has brilliant weapons
(10, 1237). The AV. is more definite (especially 4, 37; 8, 61 ff.). Here they
are said to be shaggy and to have half animal forms, being in many ways
dangerous to men. Elsewhere, however, they are spoken of as handsome
(SB. 13, 4, 37- 8). The RV. adds the touch that Gandharva wears a fragrant
( surabhi ) garment (10, 1237), while in the AV. (12, 123) the odour ( gcnid/ia )
of the earth is said to rise to the Gandharvas.

This suggests the derivation from gandha as possible. But such an ety-
mology, even if true, would seem to shed no light on the original conception.
The name has even been identified with Ksv-aupo;; but in order to justify
this equation the aid of popular etymology has to be called in7 as well as
the doubtful epenthesis of zi assumed in the Greek word8. The two con-
ceptions, moreover, appear to have nothing in common. The utmost, from
a review of the evidence, it seems possible to say about the original nature
of the Gandharva is, that he was a bright celestial being, sometimes thought
of as dwelling in the waters with his spouse the Apsaras. Various conjectures
have, however, been made by different scholars. Some regard the Gandharvas
as wind-spirits9, others think that Gandharva represents the rainbow10, or a
genius of the moon11, or Soma12, or the rising sun13, or a cloud-spirit14.

1 Yasht 5, 37; 19, 41 ; cp. Sp AP. 276; Bartholomae, ZDMG. 42, 158. —
2 WVB. 1894, p. 34. — 3 HVM. 1, 427. — 4 Disputed by Bergaigne and Hille-
BRANDT; cp. ORV. 246, note 1. — 5 See P\Y. s. v. gandharva-nagara, -pura. —

6 KHF. 15 1 — 2; WVB. 1894, 7 — 9 (cp. 1888, p. 13, n.); as to Krsanu, cp. also
Weber, IS. 2, 313 — 4; Kuhn in KZ. 1, 523; Roth, ZDMG. 36, 359; BRV. 3, 3off.;
Sp.AP.223— 4; Bloomfield, JAOS. 16,20; ORV. 181. — 7 v. Schroeder, GGH. 73;

1 38 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

Meyer, Indog. Mythen 164 f. — 8 Cp. Brugmann, Grundriss 1, 481. — 9 Mann-
hardt 201; Meyer, op. cit. 1, 219 f. ; v. Schroeder, op. cit. 71; HVM. 1, 446. —

10 Roth, Nir. Erl. 145; GRV. 2, 400; DPV. 253; Kirste, WZKM. 9, 164. —

11 PW.; LRV. 4, 158; HRI. 157. — 12 BRV. 2, 38 ff. — 13 WC. 34. 36 cp.
LRF. 101. — 14 KHF. 153.

A. Kuhn, KZ. i, 513 ff.; Weber, IS. 1, 90; 5, 185. 210; 13, 1 34 f. ; Meyer,
op. cit. 11 — 2.16—8.23.55. 179; BRV. 3, 64 — 7; PVS. 1, 77—81; Sp.AP. 210—15;
HVM. 1, 427 — 66; ORV. 244—9; ZDMG. 49, 178—9.

§ 49. Tutelary Deities. — The name of Vttstos pati occurs only
seven times in the RV., and one hymn of three stanzas (7, 54) is devoted
to his praise. He is there invoked to grant a favourable entry, to remove
disease, to bless man and beast, to confer prosperity in cattle and horses,
and always to afford protection. In the first verse of the hymn immediately
following (7, 551) he is described as a destroyer of disease, who assumes all
forms. He is once (7, 54s) identified with Soma, being addressed as Indu.
In a verse of a hymn to the All-gods (5, 418) he is invoked in immediate
juxtaposition with Tvastr and is perhaps identified with him as the great
artificer. In another verse (8, 1714) he is called a firm pillar, a cuirass of
Soma-pressers, and seems to be identified with Indra. In the only passage
of the tenth book which mentions him, he is spoken of as the observer of
ordinances who, along with prayer {brahma), was fashioned by the gods (10,
6 1 7). According to Geldner1 Rudra is here meant, Vastospati being an
epithet of that god in TS. 3,40, 10L Though identified with various deities in
the above passages, there seems no sufficient reason to suppose that the
name was originally attached to any one particular greater deity as an epithet
(like grhapati to Agni). The Grhya Sutras (AGS. 2, 9^; SGS. 3, 4; PGS.
3, 4') prescribe that Vastospati is to be propitiated when a new house is to
be entered. This, together with the contents of the hymn devoted to his
praise, points to his having been simply a tutelary deity of the house2, as
the name itself ‘Lord of the dwelling’ implies. He thus seems to be one of
the lower order of deities which in primitive beliefs animate, inhabit, or preside
over natural objects such as trees and mountains.

To the same order belongs Ksetrasya pati the tutelary deity of the
field. He is invoked, in the first three verses of 4, 57, to grant cattle and
horses as well as to fill heaven and earth, plants and waters with sweetness L
In a verse of a hymn to the All-gods (7, 35 10) he is besought, along with
Savitr, the Dawns, and Parjanya, to bestow prosperity. In a similar hymn
(10, 66*3), worshippers express a desire to have him as a neighbour. The
Grhya Sutras state that he is sacrificed to or worshipped when a field is
ploughed (AGS. 2, 104; SGS. 4, 13s). In one verse of a hymn addressed to
agricultural deities (4, 5 7°) Slta, the Furrow, is invoked to grant rich blessings
and crops. Slta later appears (PGS. 2, 179) as the wife of Indra (perhaps
because that god is once in the RV. called urvardpati , ‘lord of the field’:
8, 2i3 cp. 4, 577) and bears the patronymic Savitr! (TB. 2, 3, io1). In the
Sutra passage just mentioned the blessings of Urvara, the arable Field, de-
scribed as ‘having a garland of threshing-floors’, are invoked.

1 FaW. 21; V. = Agni, WC. 22. — 2 Cp. Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 343—4. —
3 Perry, Drisler Memorial 241, thinks Pusan is probably meant. Cp. Windisch,
Berichte der k. sachs. Gesellschaft 1892, p. 174; ORV. 254 — 5.

IV. MYTHICAL PRIESTS AND HEROES.

§ 50. Manu. — As the appellation Manu or Manus is often used in
the sense of ‘man’, there is sometimes an uncertainty as to when it has the
value of a proper name in the RV. It appears to have the latter signification

49- Tutelary deities. — IV. Mythical Priests and Heroes. 50. Manu. 139

nearly twenty times in the form of Manu and almost as often in that of
Manus. Manu is five times styled a father, and in two of these passages
more definitely as ‘our father’ (2, 3 3 13 &c., cp. § 9). Sacrificers are spoken
of as the people ( visah ) of Manus (4, 37' Sac.) and Agni is said to abide
among the offspring of Manu (1, 684). Manu was the institutor of sacrifice.
For when he had kindled the fire, he presented the first offering with the
seven priests to the gods (10, 63D. The sacrifice of Manu is the prototype
of the present sacrifice. For the latter is compared to the sacrifice which
Manus offered to the gods (1, 76s). Such comparisons are frequently made
with the adverb manusvat , ‘like Manus’. Worshippers make Agni the accom-
plisher of sacrifice, as Manus did (1, 4411). They kindle Agni like Manus
(5, 21 ' &c.). Like Manus, they invoke Agni who was kindled by Manu (7, 23).
They offer Soma as Manus did (4, 373). Soma is prayed to flow as he once
flowed for Manu (9, 9612). Manu established Agni as alight for all people (1,36 19).
Manu is also mentioned with other ancient sacrificers, with Angiras and Yayati
(1, 3117), with Bhrgu and Aiigiras (8, 4313), with Atharvan and Dadhyanc
(1, 8016), with Dadhyanc, Angiras, Atri and Kanva (1, 1399). The gods
(i,36ioJ, Matarisvan (i,i282), Matarisvan and the gods (io,469J, and Kavya
Usana1 (8, 2317) are said to have given Agni to Manu or to have instituted
him a sacrifice!- for Manu. In the last four passages the word has perhaps
only the appellative meaning of ‘man’.

Indra is said to have drunk Soma beside Manu Vivasvat (Val. 41) or
Manu Samvarani (Val. 31), and to have drunk the Soma of Manus, three
lakes, to strengthen himself for the Vrtra-fight (5, 29'). Soma is said to have
been brought to Manu by the bird (4, 2 64). In the TS. and the SB. Manu
is also frequently described as a celebrator of religious ceremonies.

Manu appears to have been regarded as the son of Vivasvat even in
the RV.; for he is once (Val. 41 cp. 31) called Manu Vivasvat (cp. p. 42). In
the AV. (8, 1024) and the SB. (13, 4, 33), as well as in post-Vedic literature,
he bears the regular patronymic Vaivasvata. Yama also is a son of Vivasvat,
and the first of mortals. Manu is thus a doublet of Yama as ancestor of
the human race2. But Manu is regarded as the first of men living on earth,
while Yama, as first of men who died, became the king of the dead in the
other world. Hence in the SB. (13, 4, 33- 5) Manu Vaivasvata is described
as ruler of men, and Yama Vaivasvata as ruler of the Manes. Yaska (Nir.
12, 10) explains Manu to be the son of Vivasvat, the sun ( Aditya ), and of
Savarna the substitute of Saranyu (cp. 10, 172; p. 125), counting him (Nir.
12, 34) among the divine beings of the celestial region (Naigh. 5, 6).

The SB. (1, 8, iI_I°) relates a legend of how Manu was saved in a ship
from a deluge, which swept away all other creatures, by a fish (in post-Vedic
mythology an Avatar of Visnu). Manu is then said to have become the
progenitor of mankind through his daughter Ida, who was produced from his
offerings. That the story of the flood was known as early as the time of
the AV. is implied in a passage of that Samhita (19, 39s)3. The myth of the
deluge occurs in the Avesta also, and may be Indo-European4. It is generally
regarded as borrowed from a Semitic source5, but this seems to be an un-
necessary hypothesis6.

1 An ancient sage and sacrificer, see § 58 B. — 2 Possibly ancestor of the Aryans
only, as he is in several passages contrasted with Dasyus, cp. OST. 1, 174; Sp.AP.
272. — 3 HRI. 160. — 4 Lindner, Die iranische Flutsage, FaR. 213 — 6. —
5 Burnouf, Bhagavata Purana, preface, H— LLV; Weber, IS. 1, 160 ff.; Sp.AP. 271 — 4;
ORV. 276 note. — 6 MM., India 133 — 8; HRI. 160.

KHF. 21; KZ. 4, 91; Corssen, KZ. 2,32; Weber, IS. 1, 194; ZDMG. 4,302;
18, 286; Roth, ZDMG. 4, 430; ZDMG. 5, 525 ff. ; KZ. 12, 293; 19, 156; Ascoli,

140 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

KZ. 17, 334; Muir, JRAS. 1S63, 410 — 16; 1865, 287 ff.; OST. 1, 162—96; BRV.

I, 62—70; ORV. 275—6; HRI. 143.

§ 51. Bhrgus. — Bhrgu is a name met with twenty-one times in the
RV., besides two occurrences in the adverbial form bhrguvat. It is found
only once in the singular; and appears therefore to have properly designated
a group of mythical beings. Mentioned twelve times in Agni hymns, they
are chiefly connected with the communication of fire to men. Matarisvan
brought Agni as a treasure to Bhrgu (1, 601) or kindled the hidden Agni
for1 the Bhrgus (3, 510). Matarisvan and the gods fashioned Agni for Manu,
while the Bhrgus with might produced him (10, 4b9). The Bhrgus found
Agni lurking in the waters (10, 462); worshipping him in the waters, they
placed him in the abodes of Ayu or man (2, 42 cp. 4). They established Agni
like a friend well-deposited in the wood (6,i52) or as a treasure among men
(1, 586). For Agni is the Bhrgus’ gift (3, 24). Rubbing him they invoked
him with prayer (1, 127?). With songs of praise they caused him to shine
forth (10, 1225) in wood (4, 71). They brought him to the navel (cp. p. 92)
of the earth (1, 1434). While Atharvan established rites with sacrifices, the
Bhrgus showed themselves as gods with their dexterity ( 1 o, 9210). Their skill,
primarily manifested in producing fire, is incidentally spoken of as artistic. For
worshippers make a prayer for Indra or the Asvins as the Bhrgus (made) a
car (4, 1620; 10, 3914).

They are an ancient race. For sacrifices speak of them, together with
the Angirases and Atharvans, as their Soma-loving fathers (10, 146) and in-
voke Agni as the Bhrgus {bhrguvat), the Angirases, and Manu did (8, 4313).
They implore Indra to hear their prayer like those of the Yatis and Bhrgus
(8, 6l8), or to aid them as he did the Yatis, Bhrgus, and Praskanva (8, 39).
The Bhrgus are mentioned, along with the Druhyus and Turvasa, as the foes
of king Sudas (7, 180). In the last three passages their name appears in
the historical character of the designation of a tribe. The Bhrgus are in-
voked to drink soma with all the thirty-three gods, the Maruts, the Waters,
the Asvins, Usas, and Surya (8, 353). They are compared with suns and
said to have gained all their desires (8, 316). In one passage (9, ioi'3) they
are connected with an unknown myth, when worshippers express a wish to
drive away the niggardly, as the Bhrgus the demon {makhavt).

Thus the Bhrgus never designate actually existing priests in the RV., but
only a group of ancient sacrificers and ancestors, to which Bhrgu bears the
relation of chief, just as Angiras does to the group of the Angirases, or
Yasistha to that of the Vasisthas.

The myth of the descent of fire and its communication to man is chiefly
connected with Matarisvan and the Bhrgus. But while Matarisvan brings it
from heaven as lightning, the Bhrgus do not fetch it, but are rather regarded
as kindling it for the establishment and diffusion of the sacrifice on earth.

In the later Vedic literature Bhrgu occurs as the name of a seer re-
presenting a tribe (AV. 5, 191; AB. 2, 207). He arises as a spark from Pra-
japati’s seed and being adopted by Varuna receives the patronymic Varuni
(AB. 3, 341 cp. PB. 18, 91) and is expressly called a son of Varuna (SB.
11, 6, i1)2.

Etymologically the word bhrgu means ‘shining’ from the root bhraj, ‘to
shine’. Bergaigne3 thinks there can hardly be a doubt that bhrgu was
originally a name of fire, while Kuhn4 and Barth5 agree in the opinion that
the form of fire it represents is lightning. Kuhn6 and Weber7 further identify
the Bhrgus as fire-priests with the Greek cpXs-pou.

1 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 243. — 2 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 240 ff. — 3 BRV. 1,

Mythical Priests &c. 51. Bhrgus. 52. Atharvan. 53. Dadhyanc. 141

52—6; cp. Hopkins, JAOS. 16, 280. — 4 KHF. 9—14. — 5 BRI. 10. — 6 KHF.

21—2. — 7 ZDMG. 9, 242. — OST. 1, 170; ORV. 123; HRI. 168.

§ 52. Atharvan. — The name of Atharvan occurs fourteen times in
the RV., thrice in the plural, and is also several times found in the AV.
Atharvan generally appears in the character of an ancient priest. He rubbed
Agni forth (6, 1613) and priests rub Agni as Atharvan did (6, 1517). Agni
produced by Atharvan became the messenger of Vivas vat (10, 215). Atharvan
first established (order) by sacrifices, while the Bhrgus showed themselves
gods by their skill (xo, 9210). By sacrifices Atharvan first extended the paths;
then the sun was produced (1, 83s). Atharvan along with Father Manu and
Dadhyanc practised devotion (x, 8016). Indra is the helper of Atharvan as
well as of Trita, Dadhyanc and Matarisvan (10, 482). The goblin-destroying
Agni is invoked to burn down the fool with divine flame like Atharvan
(10, 8712). The AV. adds some further traits. Atharvan brought a cup of
Soma to Indra (AV. 18, 3s4). A miraculous cow was given to him by Varuna
(AV. 5, 1 1 ; 7, 104). Atharvan is a companion of the gods, is related to them,
and dwells in heaven (AV. 4, 17, &c.). In the SB. Atharvan is spoken of
as an ancient teacher (14, 5, 522. 7, 3 s8).

In the plural the Atharvans are enumerated as Fathers along with the
Angirases, Navagvas, and Bhrgus (10, 146). They dwell in heaven and are
called gods (AV. 11, 613). They destroy goblins with a magical herb (AV.
4, 377)-

In a few passages of the RV. the word atharvan appears to have the
appellative meaning of ‘priest’. Thus it is an attribute of Brhaddiva, the
composer of a hymn (10, 1209 cp. 8). In this sense it seems to be an epithet
of Agni, when a seer is described as pouring the libation on the Atharvan
(8, 9'). The word also means priest when it is said that the Atharvans mix
Soma (9, 42) or that they receive a hundred cows from a patron (6, 47 24).
That this is the original sense is borne out by the fact that the cognate
Avestan word athravan signifies ‘fire-priest’, which is also the etymological sense ;
for atar (for dthar), fire, is the same as the Vedic at/iar- T, which also occurs
in athar-yu, flaming (said of Agni, 7, i1). This old name must then have
been mythologically applied to designate an ancient priestly race of a semi-
divine character, generally represented in the singular by their chief.

1 Brugmann, Grundriss 2, 360; cp. Bloomfield, SBE. 42, xxiu, n. 2; Bar-

THOlomae, IF. 5, 221, rejects the connexion of atar with atharvaiz. — Cp. also

Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde i, 523; KHF. 10; IS. 1, 289 ff.; OST. 1, 160;

BRV.i, 49; HRI. 160, n. 1.

§ 53. Dadhyanc. — Dadhyanc, who is the son of Atharvan (6, 1614;
1, 11612. 11722), is mentioned nine times in the RV. and, with one exception,
only in the ninth, the tenth, and especially the first book. He is a seer who
kindled Agni (6, 1614) and is mentioned with Atharvan, Angiras, Manu, and
other ancient sacrificers (1, 8016. 1399).

The Asvins gave a horse’s head to Atharvan’s son Dadhyanc, who then
proclaimed to them the (place of the) mead ( mad/iu ) of Tvastr (1, 11722).
With the head of a horse Dadhyanc proclaimed to the Asvins the (place of
the) mead (1, 11612). The Asvins won the heart of Dadhyanc; then the
horse’s head spoke to them (1, 1199). Indra is also connected with this
myth. For it is said that, when seeking the head of the horse hidden in
the mountains, he found it in Saryanavat and slew with the bones of Da-
dhyanc ninety-nine Vrtras (1, 84tl h). Indra, besides producing cows from
the dragon for Trita, gave cowstalls to Dadhyanc (and) Matarisvan (10,4s2).
These are probably the cowstalls which Dadhyanc opens by the power of

142 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. t a. Vedic Mythology.

Soma (9, 1084). It is noteworthy that in the only older passage (6, 1614) in
which the name of Dadhyanc occurs, he is the son of the ancient fire-priest
Atharvan and is himself a kindler of fire. Otherwise he is chiefly connected
with the secret abode of Soma and with Indra in the release of the cows.
Owing to his horse’s head and his name he can hardly be altogether disso-
ciated from the steed Dadhikra. The etymological sense of dadhi-anc , ‘curd-
ward’ might signify either ‘possessing’ 1 or ‘fond of’ ‘curdled milk’. In Ber-
gaigne’s opinion Dadhyanc does not differ essentially in origin from Soma2.
The evidence is, however, insufficient to justify any certain conclusion. But
it does not seem an altogether improbable conjecture that Dadhyanc originally
represented the lightning form of fire. The horse’s head would indicate its
speed, the voice with which it speaks, the thunder, its bones, the thunderbolt.
His connexion with the secret abode of Soma, would resemble that of the
eagle with the celestial Soma. The name, too, suggests the curdling effect
of the thunderstorm. In post-Yedic literature the name generally occurs in
the form of Dadhlca, and in the Mahabharata the thunderbolt for slaying
Vrtra is said to have been fashioned out of his bones3.

1 ‘Uni au lait’, BRV. 2, 457. — 2 BRV. 2, 458. — 3 PW. s. v. — Cp. also BRV.

2, 456— 60; GRV. 2,84; Perry, JAOS. ii,138;LRF. 120—2; Oertel, JAOS. 18, 16 — 18.

§ 54. Angirases.1 — Of the more than sixty occurrences of this name
in the RV. about two-thirds are in the plural. Derivatives of the word are
also found there about thirty times. The whole of one hymn (10, 62) is
voted to the praise of the Angirases as a group.

The Angirases are sons of heaven2 (3, 53?; 10, 67s cp. 4, 215). They
are seers who are sons of the gods (10, 624). A single Angiras being
regarded as their ancestor, they are also termed ‘sons of Angiras’ (10, 62 s).
Poets speak of them as ‘fathers’ (ib. 2), ‘our fathers’ (1, 712), or ‘our ancient
fathers’ (1, 6 2 2). They are once mentioned as fathers with the Atharvans
and Bhrgus (10, 1 4e), being especially associated with Yama (ib.3— 5). They
are also in a more general way connected with other groups of divine beings,
the Adityas, Yasus, Maruts (7, 444; 8, 3 s14), or the Adityas, Rudras, Vasus,
as well as the Atharvans (AY. 11, 8’3). Soma is offered to them (9, 62?),
and they are invoked like gods (3, 53 7; 10, 62). They are brah?nan priests

f 7, 421). They found Agni hidden in the wood (5, 1 16) and thought of the

first ordinance of sacrifice (10, 672). It is by sacrifice that they obtained
immortality as well as the friendship of Indra (10, 621).

With the latter deity the Angirases are closely associated. To them Indra
disclosed the cows (8, 5 2 3), for them he opened the stall (1, 513. 1344), and
drove out the cows which were hidden, casting down Vala (8, 148). Accom-
panied by them Indra pierced Vala (2, ii20) and drove out the cows (6, 176).
As their leader Indra is twice called angirastama, chief Angiras (1, 1004. 1303).
Soma (as inspiring Indra) is also once said to have opened the cowstall for
the Angirases (9, 8 6 2 3) . In connexion with the myth of the deliverance of
the cows the song of the Angirases is characteristic. Praised by them Indra

pierced Vala (2, 158), and burst the cowstalls (4, i6'8), slew Vala and opened

his citadels (6, 18s), or dispelled the darkness, spread out the earth, and
established the lower space of heaven (1, 62s). So characteristic is their
singing that the Maruts with their varied songs are said to be like the An-
girases (10, 78s), and the gods are invoked to the offering with the chants
of the Angirases (1, 1072). Hymns addressed by actual priests to Indra are
also several times compared with those of the Angirases (i,62r-2 &c).
Incidentally Indra assumes a less prominent position than the Angirases in
the myth of the cows. Thus the Angirases are said to have emptied the

Mythical Priests &c. 54. Angirases. 55. Virupas &c.

i43

stall containing cows and horses, with Indra as their companion (10, 6 2 7).
Here we have the transition to the omission of Indra altogether, his char-
acteristic action being directly attributed to the Angirases themselves. By the
rite they drove out the cows and pierced Vala (ib. 2), caused the sun to
mount the sky, and spread out mother earth (ib. 3). By the rite they cleft
the rock and shouted with the cows (4, 3"). Singing they found the cows
(1, 622). They burst the rock with their songs and found the light (1, 722).
The Angirases are further connected with the finding of the cows of the
Panis for Indra by Sarama (10, io88- I0), who is said to have assisted Indra

and the Angirases in tracking them (1, 62 3 cp. 72s). The Angirases are

also described alone as having found the cows and steeds of Pani (1, 83*).
Brhaspati, who is connected with the same myth (10, io86-11), receives the
epithet Angirasa when piercing the rock and capturing the cows (6, 731) or
giving cows like Bhaga (10, 682).

Brhaspati is even directly called Angiras when he drives out the cows
and releases the waters with Indra (2, 2318). Otherwise in nearly all the
occurrences of the word in the singular, Angiras is an epithet of Agni, who
is the first seer Angiras (1,31*), the ancient Angiras (10, 9215) or the oldest
(i, 1272) and the most inspired (6, 113) of the Angirases. Agni is several
times also called the chief Angiras (1, 752 & c.). This term is, however, once
or twice applied to Indra, Usas, and Soma. Sometimes Angiras only desig-
nates an ancient priest without direct allusion to Agni, as when ‘the ancient

Angiras’ is mentioned in an enumeration of ancestors (1, 1399) or when
the context shows that in the form angirasvat the singular sense ‘like Angiras’
is meant (1, 453). In one passage (1, 3117), in which the poet exclaims, ‘O
Agni, come to us as to Manus, as to Angiras, o Angiras’, the name designates
both the ancestor and Agni.

According to the tradition found in the AnukramanT of the RV., the
Angirases must have been regarded as an actual priestly family, as the com-
position of the ninth book is attributed to members of it3. Priestly families
also seem to be alluded to in the compound Atharva-angirasah, which occurs
as a designation of the AV. in that Veda itself (AY. 10, 720) and later (SB.
ix, 5, 67 &c.)h

On the whole it seems probable that the Angirases were originally con-
ceived as a race of higher beings intermediate between gods and men, as
attendants of Agni, who is so often described as a messenger between heaven
and earth (p. 96), and that their priestly character was a later development5.
They may possibly have been personifications of the flames of fire as messengers
to heaven (cp. RV. 7, 33). This view is borne out by the etymological connexion
of angiras with the Greek ol^^eKoz, ‘messenger’6. Weber, however, is of
opinion that they were originally priests of the Indo-Iranian period7.

1 KHF. 10; OST. 5, 23; GW.; BRY. 1, 47— S; 2, 308 — 21; WC. 69—72;

ORV. 127 — 8. — 2 Cp. BDA. 45. — 3 Cp. Weber, History of Ind. Lit., Engl. tr.

p. 31. — 4 Cp. BIoomfield, JAOS. 1 7, 180— 2; SBE. 42, xvii — xxvu. — 5 Cp.

Roth, PW.; BRV. 2, 309; cp. HVBP. 109; ORV. 127. — 6 Brugmann, Grundriss

2, 188; HR1. 167. — 7 IS. 1, 291 ff.

§ 55. A. Virupas1. — Closely connected with the Angirases are the
Virupas, whose name is mentioned three times in the plural. The Angirases,
the Virupas, are sons of heaven (3, 53'). The Virupas are seers, sons of
Angiras, born from Agni, from heaven (10, 625-6). Virupa once occurs as
the name of a single being, who sings the praises of Agni. in a stanza (8, 046)
immediately following one in which Angiras is invoked. The name also has
the singular sense in the adverb virupavat , ‘like Virupa’, as is indicated by

144 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

the occurrence in the same stanza (i, 45s) of Priyamedhavat, Atrivat, besides
Angirasvat. The word once occurs in its patronymic form in a verse (10, 14s)
in which Yama is invoked with the Angirases and the Vairupas. As the word
is most usually a simple adjective meaning ‘of variable form’ and, when a
name, is always found in company with that of Angiras or the Angirases, it
would seem to have been hardly more than an epithet of the latter.

B. Navagvas2. The name of these beings occurs altogether fourteen

times in the RV., six times in association with that of the Angirases. The
Navagvas are spoken of as ‘our ancient fathers’ (6, 2 22), or as ‘our fathers’
along with the Angirases, the Atharvans, and the Bhrgus (10, 146). Like the
Angirases, they are connected with the myth of Indra, Sarama, and the cows
of the Panis (1, 623- 4- 457; IO, 108"). Indra with the Navagvas as his

friends sought the cows (3, 39s). Pressing Soma they laud Indra with songs;
they broke open the stall of the cows (5, 2912). In one hymn they are
described as having sung with the pressing stones for ten months (s» 45 7‘ TI)-
In two of its occurrences in the plural the word navagva is a simple adjective,
being in one of these cases an attribute of the rays of Agni (6, 63). It is
also found three times in the singular, when it appears to be an epithet of
Angiras (4, 514; 10, 626) or of Dadhyanc (9, 1084). It apparently means
‘going in (a company of) nine’ 3, designating as a plural noun a group of
nine ancient priestly ancestors.

C. Dasagvas2. This name occurs seven times in the RV., three times
in the singular, and only twice unassociated with that of the Navagvas. The
Dasagvas were the first who offered sacrifice (2, 3412). Indra with the Nava-
gvas sought the cows and with the ten Dasagvas found the sun (3, 39s).
With the Navagvas and the Dasagvas Indra rent the rock and Vala (i,624).
The Navagvas and Dasagvas praise Indra and broke open the stall of the
cows (5, 2912). The dawns shine on the Navagva Angira and the seven-
mouthed Dasagva (4, 514). Dasagva, mentioned with Navagva, is once spoken
of as chief Angiras (10, 62s). Dasagva is described in one passage as having
been succoured by Indra (8, 122). The name, being merely a numerical
variation of Navagva, was most probably suggested by the latter.

D. The seven Rsis4. The ancient seers are represented by a definite
numerical group as ‘the seven Rsis’, who are, however, only mentioned four
times in the RV. One poet speaks of them as ‘our fathers, the seven seers’
(4,42s). They are called divine (10, 13 o7), and in another passage (10, 1094)
the ‘seven ancient seers’ are associated with the gods. The number may
have been suggested by that of the seven technical priests (enumerated in
2, i2), of whom they would, in that case, have been regarded as the proto-
types. In the SB. they become individualized by each receiving a name (SB.
14, 5, 26; Brhadar. Up. 2, 26). In the same Brahmana (2, 1, 24 cp. 8, 1, 10)
they are also regarded as the seven stars in the constellation of the Great
Bear and are stated to have been originally bears5. This identification is
doubtless due partly to the sameness of the number in the two cases and
partly to the similarity of sound between rsi, ‘seer’, and rksa, which in the
RV. means both ‘star’ (1, 2410) and ‘bear’ (5, 563).

Probably the same ancient sacrifices are referred to as the seven priests
{viprali) who with the Navagvas praise Indra (6, 222 cp. 3, 315; 4, 215), or
the seven Hots6 with whom Manu made the first offering to the gods (10, 637).
Similarly the ‘two divine Sacrifices’ {dairy a hotara) mentioned nearly a dozen
times in the RV. seem to have been the celestial counterpart of two tech-
nical priests7.

1 GW. s. v. virupa-, BRV, 2, 307, note 4. — 2 BRV. 2, 145 — 6. 307 — 8. —

Mythical Priests &c. 56. Atri. 57. Kanva.

r45

3 Cp. YN. ii, 19; BRV. 2, 145: ‘having nine cows’. — 4 Roth, PW, ; Oldenberg,

ZDMG. 42, 236; OKV. 276—8. — 5 Weber, IS. 1, 167; Eggeling, SBE. 12,

282, n. 2. — 6 Cp. Hopkins, JAOS. 16, 277 ; ORV. 383— 4; SBE. 46, 189. 322. —

7 ORV. 391; SBE. 46, Ii; cp. BRV. 1, 234—5.

§ 56. Atri. — This is one of the seers of ancient days most frequently
mentioned in the RV. The name occurs there about forty times in the sin-
gular and six times in the plural as a designation of his descendants. Atri
is spoken of as a seer belonging to the five tribes (1,1171) and is mentioned
along with Manu and other ancestors of the human race (1, 399).

Agni is said to have helped Atri (7, 155) as a well as other ancient
seers (1,45s; 10, 150s). Indra also heard the prayer of Atri (8, 367) and
opened the cowstall for him and the Angirases (1, 513). Atri is, however,
chiefly represented as the protege of the Asvins, and the characteristic myth
about him is connected with them. They delivered Atri from the darkness
(6, 5010; 7, 7iS). They rescued him out of a chasm (5,78’) with all his host
(1, 1168. 1173), when they destroyed the wiles of the malignant demon (1, 1173).
The chasm into which he has fallen and from which they deliver him is a
burning one, but they gave him a strengthening draught (1, 1 168. 1187). They
made the burning chasm (1 rbisa ) or his abode (grha) agreeable for him
(10, 399; 8, 6 2 7) ; they prevent the fire from burning him (8, 62s). They res-
cued Atri who was in the heat (10, 80s), they protected him from the heat
with coolness (1, 1196; 8, 62s), and made the burning heat agreeable for him
(i,ii27). Once they are said to have rejuvenated Atri, who had grown
old (10, 143'- 2).

In one hymn Atri is said to have found the sun when it was hidden
by the demon Svarbhanu and to have placed it in the sky (5, 40®- 8). But
in the very next verse (9) this deed is attributed to the Atris collectively.
The AV. also refers , to Atri finding and placing the sun in the sky (AY. 13,
24- -6). in the SB. Atri is a priest who dispelled darkness (4, 3, 421),
originated from Vac (1,4, 513), and is even identical with her (14, 5, 25).

The plural form of the name in the RV. regularly occurs in the last
or one of the last verses of a hymn. The Atris here designate the family
of seers who are the composers of the hymns (5, 39s &c.). The whole of
the fifth book is attributed to the family of the Atris, and about one-fourth
of the occurrences of the name in the singular or plural are found in that book.

The name is perhaps derived from the root ad, to eat, in the sense of
‘devouring’, as the cognate word atrin, a frequent adjective in the RV. used
to describe demons, seems to have this meaning. The word atri 1 itself is
once employed as an attribute of Agni, probably with this signification (2, 85).
Bergaigne2 is even of opinion that, though Atri has become a priest, he
originally represented some form of Agni. The name of Atri is four times
accompanied or, in the next verse, followed by that of Saptavadhri. The
latter is a protege of the Asvins, a seer whom they are invoked to release
from captivity (5, 78s-6), and who is said to have sharpened the blade of
Agni with his prayer (8, 62 s). For Atri Saptavadhri the Asvins made the
burning chasm agreeable (10, 399). The two are therefore probably identical3.

1 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 35. 214. — 2 BRV. 2, 467 — 72. — 3 Op. cit. 467;

Baunack, ZDMG. 50, 266. — Cp. also PW., s. v. Atri; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42,

213; Baunack, ZDMG. 50, 266 — 87.

§ 57. Kanva &c. — The name of Kanva occurs about sixty times in
the RV. as that of an ancient seer and of his descendants, the occurrences
in the singular and plural being nearly equally divided. Kanva is spoken
of as the son of Nrsad (10, 3111) and bears the patronymic Narsada (1, 1178;

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1a. 10

146 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

AV. 4, 192). He is mentioned in an enumeration of ancient ancestors such
as Manu and Angiras (1, 1399). The gods gave Agni to Kanva and others,
who kindled him and were blessed by him (1, 3610- "• *7). Agni helped
Kanva, as well as Atri, Trasadasyu, and others, in battle (10, 505), and is
spoken of as a friend and chief of the Kanvas (10, 1155). Indra conferred
gold and cattle on Kanva, Trasadasyu, and others (Val. i10, 210). The Maruts
bestowed wealth on Kanva along with Turvasa and Yadu (8, 7'8). The Asvins
are several times said to have helped Kanva (1,47s. 1125; 8, 52s. 8 20). He
was blind when succoured by the Asvins (8, 523), who restored his sight
(1, Il87).

Most of the hymns of the eighth book of the RV. are attributed to the
family of Kanva, and poets there speak of themselves as Kanvas. The name
as that of a family is therefore historical. But the ancestor whose name was
transferred to them in reality1 never appears in the RV. as that of a con-
temporary. Roth thinks his origin may have been mythical like that of
Angiras2; and Bergaigne is of opinion that the blind Kanva represents the
sun during the night or, more generally, the hidden Agni or Soma3.

Medhyatithi, a descendant of Kanva, being called by the patronymic
Kanva (8, 240), is mentioned nine times in the RV., occasionally with Kanva
in enumerations of ancestors (1, 3610-11- I7). The name seems to mean ‘he
who has a sacrificial guest (i. e. Agni)’. Priyamedha, whose name occurs
four or five times and is found beside that of Kanva (8, 525), belongs to
the past, but his descendants often speak of themselves in the plural as
Priyamedhas4.

I Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 216—7. — 2 PW. s. v. Kanva. — 3 BRV. 2, 465.—

4 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 217.

§ 58. A. Kutsa1. This warlike hero belonging to the Indra myth is
mentioned nearly forty times in the RV. The name occurs only once in
the plural as a designation of a family of singers who address a hymn to
Indra (7, 25s). Kutsa is four times called by the patronymic Arjuneya, son
of Arjuna (1, 11223 &c.). Mention is made of a son of his, whom Indra
aided in fight against a Dasyu (10, 10511). Kutsa is young and brilliant
(1, 63s). He is a seer, who called upon Indra for aid when plunged in a
pit (1, 106°). Kutsa rides on the same car as Indra (4, 1611; 5, 29?), who
wafts him (5, 318; 8, i11) or takes him as his charioteer (2, 196; 6, 20s).
Kutsa is similar to Indra (4, 1610) and is even invoked with him in a dual
compound as Indrdkutsa , the pair being besought to come on their car (5, 319).

The foe against whom Kutsa is associated with Indra is Susna. Indra
smote Susna for Kutsa (1, 63s. 12 19; 4, 1612; 6, 26s), aided Kutsa against
Susna (1, 5 16), subjected Susna to him (7, 192), or, associated with Kutsa
and the gods, vanquished Susna (5, 29®). Indra is invoked to fight with Kutsa
against Susna (6, 313) or to bring Kutsa as a slayer of Susna (1, 1754).
Indra fights for Kutsa even against the gods (4, 30s- s) or against Gandharva
(8, i11). The conflict with Susna results in the stealing of the wheel of the
sun (1, 1754; 6,31s). For Kutsa pressed by his foes Indra tore off the wheel
of the sun (4, 304) while the other he gave to Kutsa to drive on with (5, 2910).
This miracle of stopping the sun (cp. 1, 12110; 10, 1383) seems to be a
transference of the myth of Indra gaining the sun for human happiness, to
the reminiscence of a semi-historical battle. In winning the sun Indra is said
to have made wide space for his charioteer Kutsa (6, 20s). He is invoked
to crush the fiends with Kutsa and to roll forward the wheel of the sun
(4, 1612). In one passage Indra is said to have subjected other foes than Susna
to Kutsa, viz. Tugra, Smadibha, and the Vetasus (10, 494).

58. Kutsa &c. — V. Animals and Inanimate Objects. 59. General Traits. 147

Kutsa, whom Indra aided and loved (1, 33'4), nevertheless sometimes
appears as his enemy. Thus Indra struck down the heroes of Kutsa, Ayu,
and Atithigva (2, 147), harassed Ayu, Kutsa, and Atithigva (Val. 52), delivered
these three into the hand of the young king Turvayana (1, 53’°), or smote
them to the earth for him (6, i8'3). This seems to indicate the historical
character of Kutsa. For a deity of light would naturally have been regarded
by the Vedic poets as always a friend, and a demon of darkness always as
a foe. Tradition also attributes a number of the hymns of the first and ninth
book of the RV. to a seer Kutsa of the family of the Angirases. Bergaigne,
however, thinks that Kutsa is purely mythical, originally a form of Agni (or
Soma), sometimes seeming to represent the sun. In the Naighantuka (2, 20)
kutsa appears as one of the synonyms of thunderbolt (vajra).

B. Kavya Usana2. The ancient seer Usana is mentioned eleven times
in the RV. He is twice called a sage ( kavi ) and five times receives the
epithet Kavya. He is characteristically wise; for Soma uttering wisdom is
compared (9, 9 7 7) and, owing to his wisdom, is identified with Usana (9, 87^).
Kavya Usana established Agni as the hotr of sacrifice (8, 231'). He is said
to have driven hither the cows, in the same verse in which Atharvan, the
institutor of sacrifice, is referred to as having prepared the path of the sun
(1, 835). He was a protege of Indra (6, 2011), who rejoiced with him (1, 51”)
and who is represented as identifying himself with Usana as well as Kutsa
and others (4, 261). He, was associated with Indra when the latter, along
with Kutsa, vanquished Susna (5, 299). Usana also fashioned for Indra the
bolt for slaying Vrtra (1, 12112; 5, 342 cp. 1, 51'°).

C. Several other ancient seers of a historical or semi-historical character
are mentioned in the RV. Such are Gotama, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Bharad-
vaja and Vasistha3 to whom, or to whose families, the composition of the
second, third, fourth, sixth, and seventh books are respectively attributed.
Agastya is another seer mentioned several times in the RV.4. More or less
historical warriors of the olden time are king Sudas, Purukutsa and his son
Trasadasyu, as well as Divodasa Atithigva5.

Even the most mythical of the ancestors of man or of particular families
treated of in this chapter seem, with perhaps two or three exceptions, to
have been either actual men of bygone days or to have been projected into the
past to represent the first progenitors of actually living men. The deeds attri-
buted to them are partly historical reminiscences, partly aetiological myths,
and partly poetical creations. By association with the gods they are often
drawn into participation in the mythological actions, such as the winning of
the sun, on which the order of nature is founded. Most of what is told
about the priestly ancestors, is intended to furnish evidence of sacerdotal art
and power, which are therefore treated sup ernatur ally. It is not likely that
they represent powers of nature and are faded gods come down to earth6.

1 KHF. 54 ff. ; BRV. 2, 333 — 8; Perry, JAOS. ii, 181; PVS. 1, 24; GVS. 2,

35. 163 ff.; ZDMG. 42, 2ii; ORV. 158—60; JAOS. 18, 31—3. — 2 BRV. 2, 338—41 ;

Sp.AP. 281 — 7. — 3 Cp. BRV. 1, 50—2; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 203 ff.; Oertel,

JAOS. 18, 47—8. — 4 Cp. ZDMG. 34, 589 ff.; 39, 65—8. — 5 Oldenberg, ZDMG.

42, 199 — 247; HRI. in. — 6 Cp. Gruppe, Die griechischen Culte I, 298 ff.; ORV.

2 73—4-

V. ANIMALS AND INANIMATE OBJECTS.

§ 59. General Traits. — Animals enter to a considerable extent into
the mythological creations of the Veda. There are still numerous traces
surviving from a more primitive age, when the line dividing men from animals

10*

148 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

was not definitely drawn (§ 65) and gods might be conceived as having
animal forms also. The higher Vedic gods themselves being anthropomorphic
in character, the supernatural beings of the Veda which have an animal form
belong to a lower order, being semi-divine only or demoniac according as
the animal is useful to man, as the cow, or injurious, as the serpent. More-
over, just as man has attached to him various animals which are serviceable
to him, so the great anthropomorphic gods are naturally surrounded by a
celestial animal world of a similar character. Lastly, actual animals are in
the ritual connected with mythological conceptions of the gods. They are
symbolical representatives intended only as an instrument for the time being
to influence the gods they in some respect resemble. This fetishistic point
of view is probably the faded remnant of a more primitive identification of
gods with visible objects. The part which such animal fetishes play in Vedic
times is, however, no longer great, since the representation of deities by
animals conflicted with the higher conception prevailing of the gods as mighty
men dwelling in heaven and coming invisibly to the sacrifice.

§ 60. The Horse1. — A. Dadhikra. Besides the celestial horses which
draw the cars of the gods, various individual divine steeds occur in Vedic
mythology. One of the most notable of these is Dadhikra, who is celebrated in
four rather late2 hymns of the RV. (4, 38 — 40; 7, 44). The name is men-
tioned there twelve times, interchanging with the extended form Dadhikravan,
which is found ten times. The name hardly ever occurs in other Vedic texts.
Dadhikra is so characteristically a steed that the word is given in the Nai-
ghantuka (1, 14) as a synonym of horse. He is swift (4, 382, 9. 391), being
the first steed at the head of chariots (7, 44“*) and a vanquisher of chariots
(, rathatur ), who speeds like the wind (4, 3 83). The people praise his swift-
ness and every Puru praises him as he runs on a precipice as it were (ib. 9- :).
He bounds along the curves of the paths (4, 40'*). He is also conceived as
winged. For he is called bird-like, his wing being compared with that of
a bird and of a speeding eagle (4, 4o2-3). He is likened to a swooping
eagle and even directly called an eagle (4, 38s- 2). In one passage (4, 403)
he is spoken of as the swan ( hamsa ) dwelling in light, as well as the Vasu
in the air, the priest at the altar, the guest in the house — all epithets
appropriate to various forms of Agni.

Dadhikra is a hero, smites the Dasyus, and is victorious (4, 38I— 7).
His adversaries fear him as the thunder of heaven, when he fights against
a thousand; he wins booty in combats and the tribes cry after him in con-
tests (ib. 8> 5- 4). Making himself ( krniana ) a garland, he tosses the dust and
scatters it from his brows (ib. 6- 7). He belongs to all the tribes, pervades
the five tribes with his power, as Surya the waters with his light, and observes
the assemblies (ib. 2- I0- 4). Mitra-Varuna gave him, the victorious steed, like
shining Agni, to the Purus (4, 39s cp. 3 8 1 * 2_) ; they gave us the horse Da-
dhikra as a blessing for the mortal (ib. 5).

The steed Dadhikravan is praised when Agni is kindled at the dawning
of Usas (4, 393). He is invoked with the Dawns (ib.1. 40'), who are prayed
to turn to the sacrifice like Dadhikravan (7, 4 16). He is regularly invoked
with Usas, nearly as often with Agni, less frequently with the Asvins and
Surya, sometimes with other deities also (3, 20I,S; 7, 44I— 4; 10, 1011); but
Dadhikra is invoked first (7, 441).

The etymological meaning, being uncertain3, cannot be said to throw
any additional light on the original nature of Dadhikra. The second part
of the compound may be a by-form of the root kr, ‘to scatter’, and the
word would then mean ‘scattering curdled milk’, in allusion to the dew or

Animals and Inanimate Objects. 6o. The Horse.

149

rime appearing at sunrise, according to Roth and Grassmann4, who both
think that Dadhikra represents in the form of a steed the circling ball of
the sun. This view is supported by the fact that the deity with whom
Dadhikra is most closely connected is Usas, that the sun is often conceived
as a steed or bird (p. 31) and that he is sometimes regarded as warlike (ib.).
The statement that Dadhikra was given by Mitra and Varuna might be
connected with the notion of the sun being the eye of those deities. Ber-
gaigne thinks that the name of Dadhikra refers rather to lightning, but that
he represents Agni in general, including his solar and lightning forms5.
Ludwig6, Pischel7, v. Bradke8, and Oldenberg9, however, agree in the
opinion that Dadhikra was not a deity, but an actual horse, famous as a
racer or charger, which received divine honours.

It has already been remarked (p. 142) that Dadhyanc is allied to Da-
dhikra in name, and possibly in nature, since he is spoken of as having a
horse’s head.

B. Tarksya. Nearly related to Dadhikra is Tarksya, whose name is
mentioned only twice in the RV. (1, 89s; 10, 1781). One late hymn, con-
sisting of three stanzas (10, 178), is devoted to his praise. He is there
described as a god-impelled mighty steed ( vajin ), a vanquisher of chariots
(cp. 6, 444), swift, and speeding to battle. He is invoked as a gift of Indra.
In the identical words applied to Dadhikra (4, 3 8 1 °) , he is said to have per-
vaded the five tribes with his power, as Surya the waters with his light. That
he was primarily conceived as a steed is shown (v. 2; 1, 896) by his epithet
aristanemi , ‘whose fellies are intact’ (which in VS. 15, 18 appears as an in-
dependent name beside Tarksya and Garuda). In the Naighantuka (1, 14)
the word tarksya occurs as a synonym of ‘horse’. In one or two later
Vedic texts Tarksya is, however, referred to as a bird; and in the Epic and
subsequent literature, he is identical with the swift bird Garuda, the vehicle
of Visnu. It seems on the whole probable that Tarksya originally represented
the sun in the form of a divine steed10. The word seems to be derived
from Trksi, the name of a man, with the patronymic Trasadasyava, once
mentioned in the RV. (8, 2 27). This derivation leads Foy11 to believe that
Tarksya was an actual race horse (like Dadhikra), belonging to Trksi of the
family of Trasadasyu.

C. Paidva. Another mythical steed is that which the Asvins are said

to have brought to Pedu (1, 11910; 7, 715) and which is therefore called

Paidva (1, 1166; 9, 884). The object of the gift was to replace an inferior
horse, as may be inferred from the description of Pedu as aghasva, ‘he who

has a bad horse’ (1, 1166). This steed is several times spoken of as ‘white’,

sveta (1, 1166, 8zc.). He is praiseworthy ( 1 , 1 1 9 lr“; 10, 3910; cp. 4, 3s2) and
is to be invoked (1, 1166) by men, like Bhaga (10, 3910). He is compared
with Indra (1, 11911) and is called a ‘dragon-slayer’, ahihan (1, 1179. 1189
cp. 9, 884), an epithet otherwise peculiar to Indra. He is a conqueror in-
vincible in battles, seeking heaven (1, 11910). Here again the evidence, as
far as it goes, appears to favour the interpretation of the steed of Pedu as
symbolical of the sun12.

D. Etas a. The word etasa , which occurs a few times as an adjective
meaning ‘swift’, more frequently signifies ‘steed’ in the RV. In the plural it
designates the horses of the sun (7, 622; 10, 37^. 497). It occurs about a
dozen times as a proper name in the singular, always connected with the
sun, often with reference to the wheel of the sun. Savitr is the steed (etasa)
who measured out the terrestrial regions (5, 813). The swift god Etasa draws
the bright form of the sun (7, 6614). Yoked to the pole, Etasa moves the

150 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

wheel of the sun (7, 6 .3 2) ; he brought the wheel of the sun (1, 12113; 5, 31").
Indra urged on the steed ( etasa ) of the sun (8, i11 cp. 9,63s). Indra helped
Etasa contending in a race with Surya (1, 6 1 IS). It may be gathered from
stray references to this mythical contest, that Etasa being at first behind takes
up the lost wheel of the sun and fixes it to the car of Surya; he has now
gained the lead, and in the end Surya seems to concede to him the place
of honour before his own car1-*. It appears to be impossible to suggest any
satisfactory interpretation of this myth. It can, however, hardly be doubted
that Etasa represents the steed of the sun.

E. The Horse symbolical of Sun and Fire. That the horse is sym-
bolical of the sun, is indicated by a passage of the RV. in which Dawn is
said to lead a white steed (7, 773), and is suggested by another (1, 1632) in
which the sacrificial steed is said to have been fashioned by the gods out of
the sun 14 . In a particular form of the Soma ritual, the horse also appears to
be symbolical of the sun1®.

Agni, the swift and agile god, is often, as has been shown (p. 89), spoken
of as a steed. In the ritual the horse is symbolical of Agni. A horse is
stationed so as to look at the place where fire is produced by friction.
When the fire is borne towards the east, it is deposited in the track of the
horse which goes in front16. In the ceremony of piling the fire-altar, the
horse is addressed with the verse: ‘In heaven is thy highest birth, in air thy
navel, on earth thy home’ (VS. xx, 12). Such a rite is explained in the SB.
as bringing Agni together with himself'7. The same Brahmana speaks of
lightning as a horse descended from the waters or the clouds (SB. 5, 1, 4s;
7, 5. 218)-

1 Cp. Gubernatis, Zoological Mythology 1, 283 ff. — 2 E. V. Arnold, KZ.

34> 3°3- — 3 Cp. Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. p. 15. — 4 Roth, PW.; GW. s. v. ;

cp. HRI. 55, note 5. — 5 BRV. 2, 456-7; cp. Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 471; MM.,

SBE. 46, 282. — 6 LRV. 4, 79. — 7 PVS. 1, 124; cp. Hillebrandt, Vedainter-

pretation 17 — 18. — 8 ZDMG. 42, 447 — 9. 462 — 3. — 9 ORV. 71; SBE. 46, 282.

— 10 p\v. ; BRV. 2, 498; Hirzel, Gleichnisse und Metaphern im RV. (1890) 27.

62—3; Griffith, Transl. of SV. 69, note i. — ” KZ. 34, 366 — 7. — «2 Cp.

BRV. 2, 51—2. — G BRV. 2, 330 — 3; ORV. 169 f.; cp. PVS. 1, 42; GVS. 2, 161 ff.

>4 Cp. AB. 6, 35 &c.; KHF. 52; Weber, IS. 13, 247, n. 3; Die Naksatra 2, 270.

- 15 ORV. 81. — 16 ORV. 77. — 17 ORV. 80.

§ 61. A. The Bull. — Indra is in the RV. constantly designated a
bull, a term applied much less frequently to Agni, and occasionally to other
gods, such as Dyaus (p. 22). In the AV. (9, 4?) a bull is addressed as Indra,
and in the SB. (2, 5, 3lS) the bull is stated to be Indra’s form1. In the Avesta
the bull appears as one of the incarnations of Verethraghna, the Avestan
Indra2. In one of the sacrifices of the Vedic ritual, a bull also represents
the god Rudra3. A bull plays a part in the obscure and much discussed
myth of Mudgala and MudgalanI (RV. 10, 102)4.

B. The Cow. — Owing to its great utility on earth, the cow naturally
enters largely into the conceptions of Vedic mythology. The beams of Dawn
are personified as cows5, which draw her car (p. 47). The rain-cloud is
personified as a cow, the mother of a (lightning) calf (pp. 10. 12). This
cloud-cow is individualized as Prsni6, the mother of the Maruts (VS. 2, 16),
her milk (6, 48“) and udder being several times referred to (cp. p. 125). The
bountiful clouds are doubtless the prototypes of the many-coloured cowrs
which yield all desires ( kd)nadugha ) in the heaven of the Blest (AV. 4, 34s)
and which are the forerunners of the Cow of Plenty (kamadu/i) so often
mentioned in post-Vedic poetry7. Ida, the personification of the offering of
milk and butter, has a tendency to be regarded as a cow (p. 124). Aditi

Animals and Inanimate Objects. 6i. The Bull &c. 62. The Goat &c. 15 i

also is sometimes spoken of as a cow (p.122). The gods are sometimes
called cow-born, gojatah. The most frequent application of the cow is, how-
ever, in the myth of the kine released from the rock by Indra (pp. 59. 61).

The terrestrial cow herself has already acquired a certain sanctity in
the RV., being addressed as Aditi and a goddess, while the poet impresses
on his hearers that she should not be killed (8, 9o15, 16 cp. VS. 4, 19. 20).
The inviolability of the cow is further indicated by her designation aghtiya,

‘not to be slain’, which occurs sixteen times in the RV. (the corresponding

masculine form aghnya being found only three times). In the AV. the worship
oi the cow as a sacred animal is fully recognised (AV. 12, 4. 5.)8. In the
SB. (3, 1, 221) he who eats beef is said to be born again (on earth) as a
man of evil fame; though beef is allowed to be cooked for guests (SB. 3, 4, i2)9.

1 Cp. MS. I, io*5; TB. 1, 6, 74; Ap. SS. 8, 1 1 *9. — 2 ORV. 76, note 2. —

3 ORV. 82. — 4 Last treated of by V. Henry (with reference to his predecessors)

in JA. 1895 (6), 516 —48. — 5 Cp. Gruppe, op. cit. x, 77. — 5 Cp. Roth, Nir.

Erl. 145; PW. s v. — 7 KHF. 188. — 8 HRI. 156; cp. Bloomfield, SBE. 42,

656. — 9 WVB. 1894, p. 36; HRI. 189; cp. Winternitz, Hochzeitsrituell 33.

§ 62. The Goat &c. — In the RV. the goat is specially connected
with Pusan as drawing his car (p. 35). It also appears there as a divine
being in the form of Aja ekapad, the one-footed Goat (§ 27)1. In the
the later Vedic literature the goat is several times connected or identified
with Agni2.

The ass appears in Vedic mythology mainly as drawing the car of the
Asvins (p. 50)8.

The dog4 is found in the RV. mythologically in the form of the two
brindled hounds of Yama, called Sarameya (p. 173). This name indicates that
they were regarded as descendants5 of Sarama6 (p. 63), the messenger of
Indra. There is nothing in the RV. directly showing that Sarama was there
conceived as a bitch, though in the later Vedic literature she is regarded as
such and by Yaska (Nir. 11, 25) is described as the ‘bitch of the gods’
(dev a sum).

The boar occurs in the RV. as a figurative designation of Rudra, the
Maruts, and VrtraL In the TS. and TB. this animal appears in a cosmo-
gonic character as the form assumed by the Creator Prajapati when he raised
the earth out of the waters. A later development of it is the boar incar-
nation of Visnu8.

In the later Sarnhitas the tortoise is raised to a semi-divine position
as ‘lord of waters’ (VS. 13, 31)9, or, as Kasyapa, often appears beside or
identical with Prajapati in the AV., where he receives the epithet svayambhu ,
‘self-existent’ (AV. 19, 5310)10. In the AB. (8, 2110) the earth is said to have
been promised to Kasyapa by Visvakarman. In the SB. Prajapati is described
as changing himself into a tortoise (7, 4, 35), in which form he produced all
creatures (7, 5, i1)11. This assumed form of the creator became in post-
Vedic mythology the tortoise incarnation of Visnu12. In the TS. (2, 6, 33)
the sacrificial cake ( purodasa ) is said to become a tortoise.

A monkey appears in a late hymn of the RV. (10, 86) as Indra’s
favourite, who is expelled for his mischievousness by IndranT, but is finally
restored to favour (§ 22, p. 64).

Frogs awakened by the rains are in RV. 7, 103 the objects of a pane-
gyric as bestowing cows and long life, and seem to be conceived as possessing
magical powers13. This hymn has, however, been interpreted by Max MCller14
as a satire on Brahmans. Bergaigne interprets the frogs as meteorological
phenomena15.

152 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

1 ORV. 72; SBE. 46, 62; Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 625. 664, who thinks Aja
ekapad is undoubtedly the Sun, with reference to TB. 3, 1, 2 8 (‘Aja ekapad has
risen in the east’, &c.), a passage which, however, is not cogent for the Rigvedic
conception. — 2 ORV. 78. — 3 WVB. 1894, p. 26, n. 2. — 4 Cp. Hopkins, The
Dog in the RV., AJP. 1894, 154—5; Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 500. — s Cp. Whitney,
Sanskrit Grammar2, 1216. — 6 Op. cit. 1166b; Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. § 52a.;
KRV. n. 149; ZDMG. 13, 493—9; 14, 583. — 7 Cp. KHF. 177—8; Entwicklungs-
stufen 136; IS. 1, 272, note; Hopkins, JAOS. 17, 67. — 8 Macdonell, JRAS. 27,
178—89. — 9 Cp. IS. 13, 250. — 10 Cp. SPH. 81. — 11 Cp. IS. 1, 187. — 12 Mac-
donell, JRAS. 27, 166—7. — *3 ORV. 70; Bloomfield, JAOS. 17, 173—9. —
14 ASL. 494 — 5; cp. OST. 5, 436. — x5 BRV. I, 292 &c. ; cp. HRI. 100 — 1.

§ 63. The Bird. — Birds figure largely in Vedic mythology. Soma is
often compared with or called a bird1 (p. 106). Agni in particular is frequently
likened to or directly designated a bird 2, once being spoken of as the eagle
of the sky (p. 89) 3. The sun is also sometimes conceived as a bird (p. 31)4,
twice under the name of garutmat 5. The fact that Visnu’s vehicle in post-
Yedic mythology is Garuda, the chief of the birds, is probably based on the
same notion (cp. p. 39). The main application of the bird in the Veda is
as the eagle which carries off the Soma for Indra and which appears to
represent lightning6. In the Kathaka it is Indra himself who in the form of
an eagle captures the Soma or amrta. Similarly in the Avesta, Verethraghna
assumes the form of Varaghna, the swiftest of birds, and in Germanic mythology,
the god Odhin transforming himself into an eagle, flies with the mead to the
realm of the gods (p. 114)7.

Ominous birds as well as beasts are occasionally connected with certain
gods by whom they are supposed to be sent. Thus in the RV. the owl and
the pigeon are spoken of as messengers of Yama (§ 77)8. In the Sutras
the owl is 'the messenger of evil spirits’; while the beast of prey besmeared
with blood and the carrion vulture are called messengers of Yama9. In the
RV. a bird of omen is once invoked to give auspicious signs (2, 42D).

1 Cp. Benfey, SV. glossary, s. v. syena. — 2 Bloomfield, FaR. 152. — 3 KHF.
29. — 4 v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 356. — 5 GW.; HRI. 45. — 6 bRI. 11. — 7 ORV.
75. — 8 Cp. ZDMG. 31, 352 ff. ; Bloomfield, SBE. 42, 474. — 9 ORV. 76.

§ 64. Noxious Animals. — These generally appear as demons or
show demoniac traits. Demons are sometimes in the RV. referred to with
the generic term mrga, ‘wild beast’ (1, 807; 5, 29b 32J). One demon who
is mentioned three times (2, 1118; 8, 32s6. 662) is called Aurnavabha, ‘Spider-
brood’; another referred to only once (2, 144) is named Urana, ‘Ram’.

The most common animal form applied in this way is the serpent1
(■ ahi = Av. az/ii) 2. This is generally only another designation of the demon
Vrtra, who probably received his name (cp. § 68) as a formidable enemy of
mankind enveloping his prey like a serpent in his coils3. The Vrtra-slayer
Indra, who is also called the serpent-slayer, is said to have slain the serpent
(8, 82s cp. 4, 171); the identity of Ahi and Vrtra is clear where the terms
interchange (1, 321*2-7- 14); and by the ‘first-born of the serpents’ (ib> 4) no
other can be meant than ‘Vrtra, the most Vrtra’ (ib.s). In several passages,
too, the words are in apposition and may be translated ‘the serpent Vrtra’4.
When Ahi is mentioned alone, the results of Indra’s victory over him are
the same as in the case of Vrtra, the god causing the waters to flow, deli-
vering the seven streams, or winning the cows5. The waters are also des-
cribed as encompassed by the serpent, the action being expressed by the
root vr (2, 192) among others. They are similarly said to be swallowed
( Vgras) by the serpent (4, 171; 10, in9). Ahi is armed with lightning
thunder and hail (1, 3213). He is bright, for the Maruts are called ahi-
bhanavah, ‘shining like Ahi’ (1, 1721); and the term ahi is applied to Agni,

63. The Bird. 64. Noxious Animals. 65. Prehistoric Notions. 153

who is described as a ‘raging serpent, like the rushing wind’ (1, 791)5. Soma
is once besought to deliver an enemy to Ahi (7, 1049). The plural of the
word is occasionally used to express a race of demons (9, 884; 10, 1396), of
whom the Ahi is the first-born (1, 32 3* 4).

The serpent, however, also appears as a divine being in the form ot
Ahi budhnya (§ 26), who seems to represent the beneficent side of the char-
acter of Ahi Vrtra.

In the later Samhitas the serpents ( sarpdh ) are found as a class of
semi-divine beings beside the Gandharvas and others. They are spoken of
as being in earth, air, and heaven (VS. 13, 6; cp. TB. 3, 1, i7). They are
often mentioned in the AV.6, one hymn of which (n, 9) is sometimes inter-
preted as an invocation of certain serpent divinities7. In the Sutras offerings
to the serpents of earth, air, and heaven (AGS. 2, i9; PGS. 2, 149) are , pre-
scribed; serpents are satiated along with gods, plants, demons, &c. (SGS.
4> 93- I54l AGS. 3, 41), and blood is poured out for them (AGS. 4, 827). In
this worship the serpent, owing to its hurtfulness, is naturally regarded as
having a demoniac nature, which has to be propitiated. In a similar sense
offerings are sometimes made to ants (KS. 116).

i Cp. Benfey, GGA. 1S47, p. 1484; Gubernatis, Zoological Mythology 2,

392—7; Winternitz, Der Sarpabali, Vienna 1888. — 2 Sp.AP. 257. — 3 Cp. Sp.AP.

261. — 4 BRV. 2, 204. — 5 Griffith, RV. Transl. 1, 133, note 1; Macdonell,

JR AS. 25, 429. — 6 Weber, Jyotisa 94; PW. s. v. sar/a. — 7 Cp. Bloomfield,

SBE. 42, 631—4.

S 65. Survival of prehistoric notions. — The primitive conception
that man does not differ essentially from beast, has left a few traces in the
form of a belief in beings of the werewolf order. These are represented by
the man-tigers (VS. 30, 8; SB. 13, 2, 42) 1 and by the Nagas, human beings
in appearance but in reality serpents, which are first mentioned under this
name in the Sutras2 (AGS. 3, 41). It does not seem likely that the later
serpent worship had any connexion with the myth of the Vrtra serpent, but
its development was probably due rather to the influence of the aborigines.
For on the one hand there is no trace of it in the RV., and on the other
it has been found prevailing very widely among the non-Aryan Indians. The
Aryans doubtless found the cult extensively diffused among the natives when
they spread over India, the land of serpents5.

Similarly, there are possibly in the RV. some survivals of totemism or
the belief in the descent of the human race or of individual tribes or families
from animals or plants. Kasyapa, ‘Tortoise’, the name of a seer (9, 1142)
and of a priestly family (AB. 7, 27), is also frequently found in the AV. and
the later Vedic literature4 as that of a cosmogonic power nearly related to
or identified with the Creator Prajapati. In a passage of the SB. (7, 5, i5)
Prajapati appears in the form of a tortoise ( kurma ). Here it is remarked
that, as kurtna is identical with kasyapa , ‘therefore men say: all beings are the
children of the tortoise {kasyapa)’ . The RV. (7, i8°-J9) mentions as tribal
names the Matsyas (Fishes) s, the Ajas (Goats), and the Sigrus (Horse-radishes).
As names of Vedic _ priestly families also occur the Gotamas6 (Oxen), the
Vatsas (Calves), the Sunakas (Dogs), the Kausikas (Owls), and Mandukeyas7
(Frog-sons). The father of Samvarana (a name occurring in RV. 5, 5 3 IO),
from whom the kings of the Kurus claimed descent, is in the Epic called
Rksa (Bear)8. Hopkins, however, expresses a doubt whether the names of
animals ever point to totemism in the RV.9

1 Cp. the Man-lion incarnation of Yisnu. — 2 Cp. Winternitz, Sarpabali 43.

— 3 ORV. 69, note 2. — 4 PW. s. v. ; IS. 3, 457. 459. — 5 Also mentioned in

154 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

Manu 2, 19. — 6 Superlative of go. — 7 See PW. sub vocibus. — 8 ORV. 85 — 6;

Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 178, note. — 9 PAOS. 1894, p. cliv.

§ 66. Deified Terrestrial Objects. — A. Besides the phenomena and
forces of nature, mostly aerial and celestial, and the earth itself (§ 34), various
natural features of the earth’s surface, as well as artificial objects, are treated
as deities in the RV. It is the worship of inanimate things chiefly regarded
as useful to man1. It is not pantheistic, since each object is regarded as a
separate divinity2, but is rather fetishistic in its character.

Rivers personified as goddesses have already been dealt with (§ 33).

Mountains {parvata ) are often in the RV. conceived as divinely animate,
being invoked as deities nearly twenty times in the plural and four times in
the singular. In this capacity they never appear alone, but only with other
natural objects such as waters, rivers, plants, trees, heaven and earth (7, 34s3, &c.),
or with gods like Savitr, Indra, and others (6, 49 ’4, &c.). They are invoked
as manly, firmly fixed, rejoicing in plenty (3, 542J). Parvata is even three
times lauded with Indra in the dual compound Indraparvata (1, 1223. 1 3 26R
The pair are spoken of as driving in a great car and are besought to come
to the offering (3, 5 3 Here Parvata seems to be a mountain god, conceived
anthropomorphically as a companion of Indra.

Plants ( osadhi ) are also personified as divine. The whole of a long
hymn of the RV. (10, 97) 3 is devoted to their praise, mainly with reference
to their healing powers4. They are called mothers and goddesses (v. 4), and
Soma, to whom trees are subject, is described as their king. In another text
a herb to be used medicinally is spoken of as a ‘goddess born on the
goddess earth’ (AV. 6, 136 1). An animal sacrifice is even offered to plants in
order to remove their obstruction to the attainment of offspring (TS. 2, i,53).

Large trees, called vanaspati , ‘lord of the forest’, are a few times
addressed as deities either in the plural (7, 3 4 23; xo, 64s) or the singular
(1, 908; Val. 64), chiefly along with Waters and Mountains. Later texts refer
to the adoration paid to large trees passed in marriage processions5 (cp. p. 134).

The forest as a whole appears as a deity under the name of AranyanI,
the jungle goddess, who is invoked in RV. 10, 146. Here she is called the
mother of beasts, abounding in food without tillage; and the various uncanny
sounds heard in her dark solitudes are weirdly described. The plant, tree,
and forest deities, however, play a very insignificant part not only in the
RV., but even in the AV. and in the ritual of the lesser domestic sacrifices;
while in the Buddhist literature they seem to have been more closely con-
nected with human life than any other lower deities6.

B. Implements. Another group of inanimate objects susceptible of
personification and worship is formed by various implements of sacrifice. The
deification of these is by Barth7 called by the rather misleading name of
ritualistic pantheism8. The most important of these objects is the sacrificial
post, which under the name of vanaspati and svaru is deified and invoked
in RV. 3, 8. The tree is here described as well-lopped with the axe, as
anointed and adorned by priests; and the posts set up by priests are gods,
and as gods go to the gods (vv. 6 • 9). In the tenth or eleventh verses of the
AprI hymns 10, the post is described as thrice anointed with ghee and being
set up beside the fire is invoked to let the offering go to the gods. In other
verses of the same hymns the sacrificial grass (barhis) is twice (2, 34; 10, 704)
addressed as a god, and more frequently the doors leading to the place of
sacrifice, as goddesses ( devir dvarah).

The pressing stones ( gravan , also adri) are deified in three hymns
(10, 76. 94. 175). They are spoken of as immortal, unaging, and more

66. Deified Terrestrial Objects.

i55

mighty even than heaven”. When pressing they are like steeds or bulls and
the sound of their voice reaches to heaven. They are invoked to drive away
demons and destruction, and to bestow wealth and offspring. In two verses
of the RV. (1, 28s- 6) the mortar and pestle are invoked to resound aloud
and to press Soma for Indra.

The AV. ascribes divine power of the highest order to Ucchista, the
‘remnant’ of the sacrifice (AV. xi, 7) 12 as well as to different sacrificial ladles n.

Agricultural implements named Suna and Sira, probably the ploughshare
and the plough, are invoked in a few verses of the RV. (4, 57s-8), and a
cake is assigned to them at the sacrifice in the ritual (SB. 2, 6, 35).

Weapons, finally, are sometimes deified. The whole of RV. 6, 75 is
devoted to the praise of various implements of war, armour, bow, quiver,
and arrows. The arrow is adored as divine and is besought to grant pro-
tection and to attack the foe (vv. ”• r5- l6). The drum ( dundubhi ) is invoked
to drive away dangers, foes, and demons (vv. 3I); and a whole hymn of
the AV. (5, 20) celebrates its praises14.

C. Symbols. Material objects are occasionally mentioned in the later
Vedic literature as symbols representing deities. Something of this kind
(possibly an image) must be meant even in a passage of the RV., in which
the poet asks, ‘Who will buy this my Indra for ten cows? When he has
slain his foes he may give him back to me’ (4, 2410; cp. 8, i5). References
to idols15 begin to appear in the later additions to the Brahmanas and in
the Sutras l6.

The wheel is in various ritual performances employed as a symbol of
the sun, as representing both its shape and its motion. It is thus used in
the Vajapeya sacrifice17, in the ceremony of laying the sacrificial fire, and
at the solstitial festival'8. In post-Vedic mythology, moreover, one of the
weapons of Visnu is a wheel ( cakra )

Gold or a firebrand was employed as a symbol of the sun, when drawing
water after sunset (SB. 3, 9, 29); gold served the same purpose when the
sacrificial fire was made up after sunset instead of before (SB. 12,4,4°); and
in piling the fire- altar, a disc of gold was placed on it to represent the sun
(SB. 7, 4, D°)2°.

A symbol must have been used, as at a later period, in the phallic wor-
ship which was known in the earliest Vedic period, as is shown by the
occurrence in two passages of the word sisnddevah , ‘those who have a phallus
for their deity’. Such worship was, however, repugnant to the religious ideas
of the RV.; for Indra is besought not to let the s'isnadevah approach the
sacrifice (7, 215), and he is said to have slain the sistiadevah, when he won
the treasure of the hundred-gated fort (10, 99°). In the post-Vedic period
the phallus or linga became symbolical of Siva’s generative power and its
worship is widely diffused in India even at the present day21.

1 HRI. 166. — 2 HRI. 135. — 3 Cp. Roth, ZDMG. 25, 645—8. — 4 Cp.
Darmesteter, Haurvatat et Ameretat 74—6. — 5 ORV. 252; tree-worship also appears
in the Sfltras, where a newly married couple are said to bring offerings to the
udjimbara and to invoke its blessing: WlNTERNITZ, Hochzeitsrituell lot — 2. — 6 ORV.
259 — 61.— 7 BRI. 37, note. — 8 HRI. 135. — 9 Cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 12. 253—5. —
10 Cp. Roth, Nir. xxxvi, Erl. 117—8. 1 2 1 — 4; ASL. 463—6; Weber, IS. 10, 89 — 95;
GRV. 1,6; KRV.n. 126; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 9 — 10. — n HVM. 1, 151. — 12 OST.
5> 396; SPH. 87 — 8. — 13 OST. 5, 398. — x4 Roth, FaB. 99. — *5 The allu-
sion to idols of Agni, seen in RV. 1, 1454-5 by Bollensen (ZDMG. 47, 586), is
inconclusive. — 16 Weber, Omina und Portenta 337. 367 f. ; IS. 5, 149; KRV.
note 79 a; HRI. 251. — 17 Weber, Vajapeya 20. 34 f. — x8 ORV. 88, note 4. —
19 v. Bradke, ZDMG. 40, 356. — 20 ORV. 255—61. 87—92. — 2X v. Schroeder
WZKM. 9, 237; HRI. 150.

156 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

VI. DEMONS AND FIENDS.

§ 67. A. Asuras. — Opposed to the beneficent gods is a body of male-
volent beings called by various designations. Asura is throughout the Vedic
literature the name of the celestial demons who are regarded as the regular
adversaries of the gods in their mythical conflicts and who only rarely appear
as present foes of men (e. g. AV. 8, 6s; KS. 87 16 ; 881)- The term, however,
occurs only a few times in the RV. with the later sense of demon. It is
there found only four times in the plural with this meaning. Indra is invoked
to scatter the godless Asuras (8, 859). Otherwise they are only mentioned in
the tenth book, always as opposed to the gods in general. The gods, it is
said, smote the Asuras (10, 1574 . Agni promises to devise a hymn by which
the gods may vanquish the Asuras (10, 534J. The gods are even said to
have placed faith in the formidable Asuras (10, 1513). The word also occurs
three times as the designation of an individual demon. Brhaspati is besought
to pierce with a burning stone the heroes of the wolfish Asura (2, 304). Indra
shattered the forts of the crafty Asura Pipru (10, 1383) and Indra-Visnu smote
the 100000 heroes of the Asura Varcin (7, 99s). The sense of ‘demon’ is
also found in the epithet asurahan , ‘Asura-slayer’, which occurs three times
and is applied to Indra (6, 221), to Agni (7, 131), and to the Sun (10, 1702).
The older Rigvedic notion of the conflict of a single god with a single demon,
mainly exemplified by Indra and Vrtra, gradually developed into that of the
gods and the Asuras in general being arrayed against each other in two
hostile camps. This is the regular view of the Brahmanas. A new and
frequent feature of the conflicts constantly described in these works is that
the gods are worsted at the outset and only win by artifice. The most
notable illustration of this notion is the myth of Visnu taking his three strides
in the form of a dwarf on behalf of the gods1.

In the Brahmanas the Asuras are associated with darkness (SB. 2,4, 25) 2.
Day belongs to the gods, night to the Asuras (TS. 1, 5, g2). They are, how-
ever, constantly spoken of as being the offspring of Prajapati and as having
originally been equal to and like the gods3. It is perhaps for this reason
that malignant spirits are sometimes included by the term draa (TS. 3 , 5, 41 ;
AV. 3, is5).

In the AV. and later asura means ‘demon’ only; but in the RV. the
word is predominantly a designation of gods, and in the Avesta Ahura
(= asura') is the name of the highest god. Thus the sense of ‘god’ is clearly
the older. An attempt has been made to explain the transition from this
meaning to that of ‘devil’, from national conflicts in consequence of which
the Asuras or gods of extra-Vedic tribes became ‘demons’ to the Vedic Indian4.
There is, however, no traditional evidence in support of this view. The ex-
planation seems rather to be found in the following development within the
Veda itself5. Asura as compared with deva has in its older sense a peculiar
shade of meaning. It is especially applied to Varuna or Mitra-Varuna0,
whose may a or ‘occult power’ is particularly dwelt upon7. But the word
may a in the sense of ‘craft’ is also applied to hostile beings8 and is closely
connected with the bad sense of asura (10, 1245. i383)9. To the Vedic poets
asura must therefore have meant ‘possessor of occult power’ 10 and as such
would have been potentially applicable to hostile beings. In one hymn of
the RV. (10, 124) both senses seem to occur11. Towards the end of the
Rigvedic period the application of the word to the gods began to fall into
disuse. This tendency was perhaps aided by the want of a general word to

Demons and Fiends. 67. Asuras, Panis, Dasas.

i57

denote the higher hostile demoniac power and by an incipient popular etymo-
logy12 recognising a negative in the word and leading to the invention of
sura, ‘god’ (first found in the Upanisads) Ij.

B. Panis. — A group of demons of the upper air, primarily the enemies
of Indra (6, 2 oh 39^, secondarily also of his allies Soma, Agni, Brhaspati,
and the Angirases, are the Panis. In nearly all the passages in which these
demons are named, their cows are either expressly mentioned (xo, 108;
6, 392j or alluded to as the treasure or wealth of the Panis (2, 24s; 9, hi2).
There is a similar reference when Agni is said to have opened the doors of
the Panis (7, g2). In one passage the gods are described as having found in
the cow the ghee hidden by the Panis (4, 5 s4). The Panis are comparatively
powerful, for they are said to be surpassed in might by Indra (7, 5610) and
not to have attained to the greatness of Mitra-Varuna (1, 1519).

The name occurs in the RV. about sixteen times in the plural, but is
also found four times in the singular as representative of the group. Thus
Indra or Agni-Soma are described as having robbed the cows from Pani
(10, 67s; 1, 934), or Soma is invoked to strike down the voracious Pani who
is a wolf (6, 5i'4).

The word pani occurs with considerably greater frequency, and here
oftener as a singular than a plural, in the sense of ‘niggard’, especially with
regard to sacrificial gifts. From this signification it developed the mythological
meaning of demons similar to those who primarily withhold the treasures of
heaven14.

C. The word ddsa or its equivalent dasyu , is also used to designate
atmospheric demons. Its history is the converse of that of Vrtra (§ 68).
Primarily signifying the dark aborigines of India contrasted with their fair
Aryan conquerors, it frequently rises to mythological rank in the RV. as the
line between what is historical and mythical is not clearly drawn. This is
especially the case with individual Dasas, some of whose names even (e. g.
Susna) lend themselves to a mythological interpretation, though others seem
to be those of non-Aryan men (e. g. Illbisa) IS.

Thus both the singular (2, 1210, &c.) and (mostly of dasyu) the plural
(1, 1015) are frequently used to designate foes vanquished by Indra, some-
times beside the name of Vrtra (6, 232, &c.). Hence Indra is sometimes
called dasyuhan, ‘ Dasyu-slayer’ (1, 10012, &c.) and the combat is several
times referred to as dasyuhatya (1, 5i5, 6, &c.). In favour of individual
proteges Indra ‘sent to sleep’ (i. e. slew) 30000 Dasas (4, 3021), bound a
thousand Dasyus (2, 139), or won cowstalls from the Dasyus for Dadhyanc
(and) Matarisvan (10, 482). When Indra’s aid is invoked against both Arya
and Dasa foes (xo, 383, &c.) or when he is spoken of as discriminating
between Aryas and Dasyus or Dasas (1 , 5 1 8 ; 10, 86 ig), terrestrial foes are
undoubtedly meant. This is probably also the case when Indra fights against
the Dasyus in favour of the Aryas (6, 183. 2 52). Owing to the Dasas being
so frequently taken captive by the conquering Aryans, the word ddsa comes
to be used two or three times in the RV. (7, 867; Val. 83) in the sense of
‘servant’, ‘slave’, its ordinary meaning in post-Vedic Sanskrit15. On the other
hand, the Dasyus who endeavouring to scale heaven are cast down by Indra
(8, 1414 cp. 2, 1212), the Dasyu whom he burnt down from heaven (1, 3 3 7),
whom he vanquished from birth (1, 516; 8, 66I~3)) or against whom he aids
the gods (10, 541), must be demons. This is also the case, when Indra
attacks the Dasyu, scattering the mist and darkness (10, 73s), or wins the
sun and the waters after slaying the Dasyus (1, 10018), and when the gods
and the Dasyus are contrasted as foes (3, 29?). A demon must be meant

158 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

by the Dasa who is the husband of the waters (1, 3211; 5, 305 ; 8, 8 5 1 8) ,
which by his victory Indra makes the wives of a noble husband (10, 43s).
The seven forts of the Dasas, which, like those of Vrtra (1, 1742), are called
autumnal (6, 2010 cp. 7, 1039), are doubtless atmospheric.

As the words dasa and dasyu primarily mean ‘malignant foe’ and then
‘demon’ I?, it seems convenient to render them by ‘fiend’. They are frequently
added as a generic term to the names of individual fiends combated by
Indra, being most commonly thus applied to Namuci (5,307- 9, &c.), Sambara
(4, 3014, &c.), Susna (7, 192, &c.), sometimes to Pipru (8, 32*; 10, 1383),
Cumuri and Dhuni (2, 159; 7, 194), Varcin (4, 3015; 6,47s1), Navavastva (10,
496- ?), once to Tvastra (2, 1119) and to the dragon Ahi (2, n2).

1 Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 168 — 77. — 2 HRI. 187. — 3 OST. 4, 52. 58 — 62;
5, 15. 18. 22. 230. — 4 Cp. BDA. 109. — 5 Otherwise BDA. 106. — 6 Op. cit.
120 ff. — 7 BRV. 3, 81 cp. GVS. I, 142. — 8 BRV. 3, 80. — 9 AV. passim; cp.
ORV. 164, note 2. — 1° ORV. 162 — 5; cp. Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman
269 f. The Indo-Iranian meaning was according to BDA. 86 ‘Herr’ (lord). —
11 Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 70, note 2. — 12 On the etymology cp. v. Bradke,
ZDMG. 40, 347 — 9. — 13 Cp. PW. s. v. sura. — *4 Cp ORV. 145; otherwise
HVM. 1, 83 ff. — I5 Cp. Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik I, xxii. —
16 Cp. ‘Slave’, originally = ‘captive Slav’. — l7 Cp. AIL. 109 — 13.

§ 68. A. Vrtra1.. — Of the individual atmospheric demons by far the
most important and the most frequently mentioned is Vrtra, who is the chief
adversary of Indra and for whose slaughter that deity is said to have been
born or grown (8, 7 85; 10, 55). Hence the most distinctive epithet of Indra
is vrtrahan , ‘Vrtra-slayer’. This compound is analyzed in two passages of
the RV. : ‘May the Vrtra-slayer slay Vrtra’ (8, 782) and ‘Vrtra-slayer, slay the
Vrtras’ (8, 1 79). Indra’s conflict with Vrtra is also frequently referred to with
vrtrahatya , ‘slaughter of Vrtra’ and sometimes with vrtraturya , ‘conquest
of Vrtra’.

It has already been shown that Vrtra is conceived as having the form
of a serpent (§ 64). Hence he is without feet or hands (1, 3 27; 3, 308)2.
His head, which Indra pierces, is mentioned several times (1, 52,u; 8, 66.
65s), as well as his jaws, into which Indra strikes his bolt (1, 526). His
hissing or snorting is sometimes referred to (8, 8 5 7 ; 5, 294 cp. 1, 5210. 6110;
6, 1710). He has thunder at his disposal (1, 8012), as well as lightning, mist,
and hail (1, 32H).

Vrtra’s mother is called Danu and is compared with a cow (1, 329).
This name seems to be identical with the word danu , which is several times
used as a neuter meaning ‘stream’ and once as a feminine to designate the
waters of heaven 5. The same term is applied as a masculine, apparently in
the sense of a metronymic, to Vrtra or the dragon (2, 12"; 4, 307), as well
as to the demon Aurnavabha (2,11 l8), and to seven demons slain by Indra
(10, 1206). The regular metronymic Danava is used five times to designate
a demon combated by Indra and doubtless identical with Vrtra. Indra cast
down the wiles of the wily Danava (2, 1110), he struck down the snorting
Danava (5, 29+), to release the waters (5, 321).

Vrtra has a hidden ( ninya ) abode, whence the waters, when released by
Indra, escape overflowing the demon (1, 3210). Vrtra lies on the waters
(1, 1 2 111; 2, 1119) or enveloped by waters at the bottom ( budhna ) of the
rajas or aerial space (1, 526). He is also described as lying on a summit
( sanu ), when Indra made the waters to flow (1, 80®), or as having been cast
down by Indra from lofty heights (8, 319). Vrtra has fortresses, which Indra
shatters when he slays him (10, 89?) and which are ninety-nine in number
(7, 195; 8, 82s).

Demons and Fiends. 68. Vrtra, Vala &c.

159

There can be no doubt that the word vr-tra is derived from the root vr ,
'to cover or encompass’4. Poets several times speak of Vrtra as having en-
compassed the waters, apo varivamsam (2, 142, &c.) or vrtvi (1, 526j, or as
being an encompasser of rivers, nadi-vrt (1, 52s; 8, 1226 cp. 6, 304; 7, 2i3).
These are clearly allusions to the etymology of the name. There is also
evidently a play on the derivation when it is said that Indra ‘encompassed
the encompasser’, vrtram avrnot (3,43s), or that in slaying Vrtra he uncovered
( apa vr) the prison of the waters (x, 3211. 514). A similar notion is implied
in a passage in which the (cloud) mountain ( parvata ) is described as being
within the belly of Vrtra and Indra strikes the streams, placed in a covering
(: vavri ), down declivities (cp. 1, 576). Vrtra is also said to be an encloser
( paridhi ) of the streams (3, 336).

It has been shown above that Indra’s epithet vrtrahan was understood
by the Vedic poets to mean not only ‘slayer of Vrtra’ but also as ‘slayer of
Vrtras’. This plural, which is of frequent occurrence in the RV. and is
always neuter, sometimes appears in passages mentioning the names of various
individual fiends (7, 194; 10, 496). The result of Indra’s conflict with the
Vrtras is the release of the waters (7, 34s) or of the rivers (8, 8518) which
are ‘encompassed’, vrtdn (4, 42?). It is the Vrtras which, as well as the
fiends, he is to smite as soon as born (6, 2 96) and to destroy which he has
been produced by the gods (3, 49’). With the bones of Dadhyanc he slew
99 Vrtras (1, 84's) just as he shatters the ninety-nine forts of Vrtra (7,19s).

The term Vrtras, which is regularly employed with the verb han, ‘to
slay’, also refers to terrestrial foes, as when Aryas and Dasas are distinguished
as two kinds of Vrtras (6, 2210. 33s). There are, moreover, many passages
in which it is quite as applicable to human enemies as to celestial demons.
Then, however, it does not mean simply ‘enemy’, which is amitra (= inimicus)
or satru (cp. 6, 732), but is employed with a side-glance at the demon Vrtra,
much as the English word ‘fiend’ in its present use, when applied to men,
is suggestive of ‘devil’. This relation of meaning is the converse of that in
dasa or dasyu, which first meant ‘foe’ and then ‘fiend’. The use of vrtra in
the plural, as it is then always neuter, can hardly be derived from a generali-
zation of the proper name Vrtra, but must be based on an earlier meaning

such as ‘obstruction’, then ‘obstructor’. In the Avesta verethra means ‘victory’,
which is, however, a secondary development of ‘obstruction’.

In the Brahmanas Vrtra is interpreted as the moon, which is swallowed
by Indra identified with the sun, at new moon5.

B. Vala6. This word occurs about twenty-four times in the RV. and
is regularly connected with the release of the cows by Indra or his allies,
especially the Angirases (§ 54). Vala is a guardian of cows, whom Indra

rent when he robbed Pani of his cows (10, 676 cp. 6, 392). He laments for

his cows when taken by Brhaspati (10, 68'° cp. 676). He has castles which
were forced open by Indra (6, 1815), fences which were pierced by Indra
(1, 52s), and an unbroken summit which was broken by Indra (6, 392). The
TS. (2, 1, 5‘) speaks of Indra having opened the hole (bila) of Vala and
cast out the best beast in it, a thousand others following. There are, how-
ever, several passages in which the word is still unpersonified. The primary
meaning in these cases seems to have been ‘covering’ or ‘cave’ (from the
root vr, to cover). Thus the word is twice (1, 624; 4, 505) used in appo-
sition with phaliga , the receptacle of the (atmospheric) waters (8, 3225) and
appears in the Naighantuka (1, 10) as a synonym of megha , ‘cloud’. Indra
is said to have driven out the cows and opened ( apa var ) the vala (2,14s)
or to have opened ( apdvar ) the aperture (cp. 1,32“) of the vala containing

160 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

cows (i, ii5). The PB. (19, 7) speaks of the cave ( vala ) of the Asuras
being closed with a stone. In several passages the word may have either
the primary or the personified sense (1, 52^ 2, 123; 3, 3410). It has probably
the latter in Indra’s epithet valcunruja, ‘breaker of Vala’, which occurs imme-
diately after vrtrakhada , ‘destroyer of Vrtra’ (3, 4s2 cp. 2, 123). The transition
to the personified meaning appears in a passage (3, 3010) in which Vala is
spoken of as the stable ( vraja ) of the cow and as having opened (vi ara)
for fear before Indra strikes. That the personification is not fully developed,
is indicated by the action of Indra and others, when they attack Vala, being
generally expressed by bhid, ‘to pierce’, sometimes by dr, ‘to cleave’, or ruj,
‘to break’, but not (as in the case of Vrtra) by han , ‘to slay’. The connexion
of the verb bhid with the name of Vala is preserved in valabhid , which is a
frequent epithet of Indra in post-Vedic literature. Here Vala is regarded as
the brother of Vrtra, and the two are associated in Indra’s compound epithet
vala-vrtra-han, ‘Slayer of Vala and Vrtra’.

C. Other demon foes of Indra. Arbuda is mentioned seven times
(twice oxytone, five times proparoxytone) in the RV., always as an adversary
of Indra. He is a wily beast, whose cows Indra drove out (8, 319). Indra
cast him down (2,11“ 144 cp. 8, 32^), trod him down with his foot (i,5i6),
pierced him with ice (8, 32 s) or struck off his head (10, 6712). He is men-
tioned two or three times with Vrtra (or Ahi) and appears to be cognate in
nature to him7.

Visvarupa8, the son of Tvastr, is a three-headed demon slain by both
Trita and Indra, who seize his cows (10, 88, 9). He is mentioned simply by
his patronymic Tvastra in two or three other passages, in which he is de-
scribed as rich in horses and cattle (10, 7 63) and is said to have been delivered
over by Indra *to Trita (2, 1119; cp. pp. 61. 67). In the TS. (2, 5, i1) Visva-
rupa, though related to the Asuras, is spoken of as Purohita of the gods9.
In the Mahabharata (5, 22 f.) the three-heated son of Tvastr and Vrtra
are identical.

Svarbhanu10 is a demoniac ( asura ) being mentioned four times in one
hymn of the RV. (5, 40). He is described as eclipsing the sun with dark-
ness. Indra fought against his wiles and Atri put the eye of the sun (back)
in heaven. This demon is also mentioned several times in the Brahmanas.
In post-Vedic mythology his place is taken by Rahu. The name appears to
mean ‘withholding the light of the sun’.

Ur ana, a demon slain by Indra and described as having ninety-nine
arms, is mentioned only once (2, 144).

i Breal, Hercule 87 — 99; BRV. 2, 196 — 208; ORV. 135 — 6; ZDMG. 50, 665 k —
2 Cp. Agni in 4, I ” cp. 2, 2 3. — 3 BRV. 2, 220 ; cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 123 ; according
to P\V. and GW. the words are distinct. — 4 Cp. Perry, JAOS. ii, 135; Vrtra
= ‘Restrainer’ HRI. 94. — 5 HRI. 197. — 6 PW. ; GW. s. v. vala", BRV. 2, 3 1 9
— 21. — 7 Cp. GW. — 8 Cp. H\M. 1, 519. 531 — 2. — 9 Cp. OST. 5, 230—2. —
10 IS. 3, 164 f.; LRV. 5, 508; BRV. 2, 468; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 42, 213; HYM.
I, 464. 507, n. I; Lanman, FaR. 187 — 90.

§ 69. Individual Dasas. — A. Susna1. This fiend, who is mentioned
about forty times in the RV., is the chief enemy of Kutsa, for or with whom
Indra vanquishes him (4, 1612; 5, 29?, &c.). He is horned (1, 3312). He has
eggs (8, 40 10- ,x), i. e. a brood (cp. 10, 22”), from which it may be inferred
that he is a serpent. He is described as hissing ( svasana : 1, 54s)2. He is
six times spoken of as asusa, a term which is otherwise only once applied
to Agni and perhaps means ‘devouring’ 3 He has strong forts (1, 51”) or a
fort (4, 3013), which is moving (8, 128). Indra releases the waters in shattering
Susna’s forts (1, 51”), obtains the receptacle of waters ( krivi ) in smiting

Demons and Fiends. 69. Susna, Sambara, &c. 161

Susna (Val. 3s), or wins heavenly ( svarvatih ) waters when he destroys the
brood of Susna (8, qo10). The name of Susna is four times accompanied by
the epithet kuyava , ‘causing bad corn or harvest’. In the two passages in
which this word is used independently as the name of a demon (1, 1038.
1043), it may refer to Susna. The result of the conflict between Indra and
Susna is not always the release of the waters, but is alsq the finding of the
cows (8, 8517), or the winning of the sun (cp. § 58). Susna in his conflict
with Indra moves in darkness, is a ‘son of mist’, ?niho napdt, and a Danava
(5, 324). In the Kathaka (IS. 3, 466) Susna is called a Danava who is
in possession of the amrta.

The above evidence seems to point to Susna having been a demon of
drought from the beginning rather than a reminiscence of some historical
human foe. This view is supported by the etymological meaning which must
be either ‘hisser’ (from the root s'vas, s'us) or ‘scorcher’ (from s'us, ‘to dry’).

B. Sambara. The name of this fiend occurs about twenty times in
the RV. He is mentioned along with others, chiefly Susna, Pipru (1, 1012.
1038; 2, 196; 6, 188), and Varcin. ; Indra was re-inforced by the Maruts in
the fight against the dragon and Sambara (3, 47 4). Indra shook the summit
of heaven when he cut down Sambara (i,544). He found Sambara dwelling
in the mountains (2, 12") and struck him down from the mountain (1, 1307;
6, 2 65). He struck down from the great mountain the Dasa ^Sambara, the
son of Kulitara (4, 3014). He struck down from the height Sambara, who
thought himself a little god (7, 1820). Sambara is often said to have forts,
ninety (1,13c7), generally ninety-nine (2, 196, &c.), or a hundred (2, 146, &c.).
The word sambara once occurs in the neuter plural, meaning ‘the forts of
Sambara’4. These Brhaspati is said to have cleft and then to have entered
the mountain rich in treasure (2, 2 42). Indra vanquishes Sambara in the
interest of Atithigva (1, 516), but generally of Divodasa (2, 196, &c.), and
sometimes of both (1, 1307; 4, 263). The two names are usually thought5 to
refer to the same 'person, but this is doubted by Bergaigne6.

C. Pipru. This fiend, mentioned eleven times in the RV., is the enemy
of Indra’s protege (Val. 110) Rjisvan, who offers Soma to Indra and is aided
by him in the conflict (5, 29”; 10, 9911). Indra with Rjisvan (1, ioi1- 2; xo,
1383) or for him (4, 1613; 6, 207) conquered Pipru. The fiend, who has the
wiles of Ahi, possesses forts which are shattered by Indra (1, 515; 6, 207).
When Indra slew the Dasa Pipru as well as some other rarely mentioned
beings, he shed the waters (8, 322). When the sun unyoked his chariot in
the midst of the sky, the Aryan found a match for the Dasa: Indra acting
with Rijisvan, shattered the strong forts of the wily Asura Pipru (10, 1383).
He delivered the wild beast (mrgaya) Pipru to Rjisvan, overthrew 50000
blacks, and rent the forts (4, i6’3). With Rjisvan he drove out those who
have a black brood7 (1, ioi1). Since Pipru is called an Asura as well as
a Dasa, it is doubtful whether he represents a human foe with a historical
foundation, as some scholars think8. The name has the appearance of a
Sanskrit word as a reduplicated derivative of the root par or pr (like si-sn-u
from \P san )9, possibly meaning ‘resister’, ‘antagonist’.

D. NamuciI0is mentioned nine times in the RV. besides several times
in the VS., TB., and SB. He once receives the epithet asura, ‘demoniac’,
in the RV. (10, 1314; SB. 12, 7, i10) and is called an Asura in later Vedic
texts. He is also spoken of as a Dasa in three or four passages of the RV.
(5> 3°7, 8, &c.) and once as ‘wily’ (1, 5 37). In vanquishing Namuci Indra is
twice associated with NamT Sapya as his protege (1, 5 3 7 ; 6, 206). Namuci is
slain like several other demons (2, iq5; 7, 193) 0r struck down (1, 53") by

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1 A. 1 1

1 62 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

Indra. Indra destroyed a hundred castles, slaying Vrtra and Namuci (7, 195).
The characteristic feature about the conflict is that Indra twirls (Y math) off
the head of Namuci (5, 308; 6, 206), while he is said to pierce \rbhid ) that
of Vrtra. Otherwise Indra is described as having twisted ( vartaya ) the head
of Namuci (5, 30?) or to have twisted it off with the foam ofwater (8, 1413). The
Brahmanas also refer to Indra’s cutting off Namuci’s head with the foam of
the waters11. In one passage of the RV. (10. 1 3 5) Indra is described as
having drunk wine beside the demoniac Namuci, when the Asvins aided and
Sarasvatl cured him (cp. p. 87).

The etymology of the name is according to Panini (6, 3, 75) na-muci ,
‘not letting go’. In that case it would mean ‘the demon withholding the waters’ 12 .

E. Dhuni and Cumuri13. The Dasa Cumuri is mentioned six times,
with one exception always along with Dhuni. The closeness of the association
of these two is shown by their names once appearing as a dual compound
(6, 2o'3). Indra sent them to sleep (2, 159; 6, 2013; 7, 194), the same being
said of Cumuri alone (6, 2 66). Along with Sambara, Pipru, Susna, they were
crushed by Indra, so that their castles were destroyed (6, 188). They were
sent to sleep or overcome by Indra (10, 1139) in favour of Dabhlti, who
pressed Soma for him (6, 2013) and who was rewarded by the god for his
faith (6, 26s). Without any mention of the two fiends, Indra is also said to
have sent to sleep for Dabhlti 30000 Dasas (4, 3021) and to have bound
the Dasyus for him without cords (2, 139).

Dhuni means ‘Roarer’ ( ]/ dhvari), the word being frequently also used
in the RV. as an adjective in the sense of ‘roaring, raging’. Cumuri on the
other hand looks like a borrowed aboriginal name’4.

F. Varcin and others. Varcin is mentioned four times, always with
Sambara. He is called an Asura (7, 99s), but he and Sambara together are
termed Dasas (6, 47 2I). Indra is said to have shattered the hundred forts
of Sambara and to have dispersed or slain the 100000 warriors of the Dasa
Varcin (2, 146; 4, 3o'S). The name appears to mean ‘shining’, from varcas ,
‘brilliance’.

Several others, whose names occur only once, are mentioned, along with
Vala, Susna, Namuci and other fiends, as vanquished by Indra. Such are
Drbhlka, Rudhikra (2,i43-5), Anarsani15, Srbinda (8, 32 2), and Illbisa (i,3312).
They probably preserve a historical reminiscence of prominent terrestrial foes.
For the last two of these names have an un-Aryan appearance; nor does it
seem likely that original individual demons should have received names which
do not designate a demoniac attribute like the appellations Vrtra, Vala,
and Susna.

1 KHF. 52 ff.; BRV. 2, 333—8; GVS. 2, 163 ff.; HVM. 1, 516; ORV. 155.
158 — 61. — 2 Cp. Y svas and svasatha applied to Vrtra. — 3 Cp. ORV. 159. —
4 Perhaps through the influence of the neut. pi. vrtrani. — 5 PW., GW., Olden-
berg, ZDMG. 42, 210. — 6 BRV. 2, 342—3. — 7 Acc. pi. fem.: = waters, GW.
s. v. krsnagarbha. — 8 LRV. 3, 149; BDA. 95; ORV. 155. — 9 BRV. 2, 349, but
with the sense of ‘filler’ or ‘rescuer’. — *° LRV. 5, 145; BRV. 2, 345 — 7; Lanman,
JAS. Bengal 58, 28 — 30; Sanskrit Reader 375 b; Bloomfield, JAOS. 15, 143 — 63;
Oldenberg, Gottinger Nachrichten 1893, 342 — 9; ORV. 161. — 11 Bloomfield,
JAOS. 15, 155—6. — 12 Cp. Kuhn, KZ. 8, 80. — *3 BRV. 2, 350; ORV. 157. —
J4 Wackernagel, Altind. Gr. 1, xxii. — >5 Cp. Johansson, IF. 2,45; Perry, who
treats of all the demons combated by Indra, JAOS. 11, 199 — 205.

§ 70. A. Raksases. — By far the most frequent generic name in the
RV. for terrestrial demons or goblins1, enemies of mankind, is raksas. It is
mentioned (upwards of fifty times) both in the singular and plural, nearly
always in connexion with a god, who is invoked to destroy or praised for

Demons and Fiends. 70. Raksases.

163

having destroyed these demons. In two hymns of the RV. (7, 104; 10, 87)
which deal with the Raksases, the much less common terms yatu or yatu-
dhana (strictly speaking ‘sorcerer’) 2 alternate with, and in some verses appear
to be used in the same sense as, raksas. As the latter word designates evil
spirits in general (especially in the YV.), raksas here perhaps expresses the
genus and yatu the species3.

These demons have the form of dogs, vultures, owls, and other birds
(7, 104. 20— 22). Becoming birds they fly about at night (ib. l8). Assuming
the form of a brother, husband, or lover, they approach women and desire
to destroy their offspring (10, 1625). They also lie in wait for women in
the shape of a dog or an ape (AY. 4, 3711). Thus they are dangerous during
pregnancy and childbirth (AV. 8, 6). They prowl around the bride at wed-
dings, and little staves are therefore shot into the air to pierce the eye of
the Raksases (MGS. x, 10). The AV. gives the most detailed account of the
appearance of the Raksases. They have mostly human form, their head,
eyes, heart, and other parts being mentioned; but they have frequently some
kind of monstrous deformity, being three-headed, two-mouthed, bear-necked,
four-eyed, five-footed, fingerless, with feet turned backwards, or with horns on
their hands (AV. 8, 6; HGS. 2, 3?). Blue and yellow or green demons are
also spoken of (AV. 19, 22*-$)*. They are further described as male and
female, having families and even kings (AV. 5, 2212; HGS. 2, 3"); and they
are mortal (AV. 6, 32 2 &.).

The Yatudhanas eat the flesh of men and horses, and drink up the
milk of cows (10, 87i6-i?). In order to satisfy their greed for flesh and blood
the Raksases attack men, usually by entering them. Agni is besought not to
let the Raksas enter (a vis) into his worshippers (8, 4920), and the AV. des-
cribes a demon of disease, which flies about, as entering into a man (AV.
7, 764). These evil spirits seem chiefly to have been regarded as entering
by the mouth, especially in the process of eating and drinking (AV. 5, 2 96-8),
but also by other entrances (AV. 8, 63). When once within they eat and
lacerate a man’s flesh and cause disease (AV. 5, 29s-10). The Raksases are also
said to produce madness and take away the power of eloquence (AV. 6, in3;
HGS. 1, 15S). Human dwellings are invaded by them (KS. 1359). Some of
these spirits are described as dancing round houses in the evening, braying
like donkeys, making a noise in the forest, laughing aloud, or drinking out
of skulls (AV. 8, 610- ”■ 14 ; HGS. 2, 3?).

The time of the Raksases is the evening or night (7, io4i8).s In the
east they have no power, because they are dispersed by the rising sun
(TS. 2, 6, 63). A falling meteor is regarded as an embodiment of a Raksas
(KS. 1269). It is especially the dark time of new moon that belongs to evil
spirits, as to the souls of the dead (AV. 1, 161; 4, 363).

The sacrifice is peculiarly exposed to their attacks. Thus the RV. speaks
of Raksases that have produced taints in the divine sacrifice and of Yatus
that throw the offering into confusion (7, io4l8- 2I). They are haters of prayer
(10, 1823). Agni is besought to burn them in order to protect the sacrifice
from curse (1, 763). The AV. contains a spell meant to nullify the sacrifice
of an enemy through the wiles of Yatudhanas and of the Raksas (AV. 7, 702).
These evil spirits also obtrude themselves at the sacrifice to the dead in the
form of the souls of ancestors (AV. 18, 2 28 cp. VS. 2, 29)6. In post-Vedic
literature this notion of the Raksases (there often also called raksasa) dis-
turbing the sacrifice is still familiar.

Agni, being the dispeller of darkness as well as the officiator at the
sacrifice, is naturally the god who is oftenest opposed to them and who is

ll*

164 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

frequently invoked to burn, ward off or destroy them (10, 873,6, &c.)7. In
this capacity he (as well as some other deities) receives the epithet of
raksohan , ‘Raksas-slayer’.

These evil spirits injure not only spontaneously but also at the insti-
gation of men. Thus the RV. speaks of the ‘yoker of Raksases’, raksoyitj
(6,62°), and refers to the Raksas and the Yatu of sorcerers (7, 10423;
8, 6o20). One suffering from hostile sorcery drives away the Raksases by
sacrificing to Agni Yavistha (TS. 2, 2, 32), and in a hymn of the AV. (2,24)
demons are called upon to devour him who sent them.

As a designation of demons raksas is both masculine as an oxytone and
neuter as paroxytone (in the latter case meaning also ‘injury’). It may be
derived from the root raks to injure 8, which occurs in only one verbal form
in the AV. (cp. also rksa, ‘injurious’). It is, however, possibly connected
with the ordinary root raks to protect9. In this case it must have meant
‘that which is to be warded off’. Bergaigne, however, thinks it may originally
have signified (avaricious) ‘guardian’ of celestial treasure.

B. Pisacas. A third and important class of goblins are the Pisacas.
The name occurs only once in the RV. as a singular in the form of pisaci
( 1 , 1 33s). Indra is here invoked to crush the yellow-peaked ( pisangabhrstim )
watery {amb/irnam) Pisaci and to strike down every Raksas. In the TS.
(2, 4, il) the three hostile groups of Asuras, Raksases, and Pisacas are opposed
to the three classes of gods, men, and Pitrs. The Pisacas would therefore
seem to have been specially connected with the dead. They are frequently
spoken of as kravyad , eaters of raw flesh or corpses (AV. 5, 299 &c.), a
term which may be regarded as a synonym of Pisaca10. Agni is besought
to restore to the sick man the flesh which the Pisacas have eaten away
(AV. 5, 29S). They were thus apparently a kind of ghoul. Pisacas are also
spoken of as shining in water (AV. 4, 209. 3710)11, or infesting human
dwellings and villages (AV. 4, 36®).

A lesser group of demons, mentioned about a dozen times in the RV.
and frequently in later Vedic texts, are the Aratis12, a personification of
illiberality ( a-rati ) and, owing to the gender of the word, always feminine.
A group of ‘injurious’ demons, the Druhs, both male and female, is referred
to about twelve times in the RV. They are Indo-Iranian, their name occurring
in the Avesta as druj (§ 5, p. 8).

Goblins of various kinds are usually conceived as forming an indefinite
crowd, but are sometimes thought of as pairs. The latter constitute a class
named Kimldin, already mentioned in the RV. (7, 10423; 10, 8724)13.

The nature of the spirits which surround the everyday life of man con-
sists in injury, and that of their various species in a particular kind of injury
usually indicated by their names. They are as a whole unconnected with
phenomena or forces of nature, seeming partly at least to be derived from
the spirits of dead enemies14. Less personal than the demons mentioned
above and probably due to a more advanced order of thought, are the hostile
powers which are conceived as a kind of impalpable substance of disease,
childlessness, guilt, and so forth, which flying about in the air produce in-
fection, and to deflect which to enemies is one of the chief tasks of sorcery '5.

Some of these terrestrial spirits are, however, not injurious, but are
regarded as helping at the harvest or weaving long life for the bride, while
others, with Arbudi at their head, assist in battle by striking terror into the
foe (AV. 3,24. 251; 14, i43; n, 912).

1 BRV. 2, 216 — 19; ORV. 262 — 73. — 2 Yatu in the Avesta = ‘sorcery’ and

‘sorcerer’: Sp.AP. 218 — 22. — 3 Cp. ORV. 263, note 1. — 4 Hopkins, AJP. 1883,

Eschatology. 7 1 . Disposal of the Dead. 165

p. 1 78. — 5 ORV. 269. — 6 Cp. Caland, Altindischer Ahnencult, Leiden 1893,
p. 3. 4. — 7 Cp. Hillebrandt, ZDMG. 33, 248—51. — 8 PW., GW. — 9 Cp.
BRV. 2, 218; Whitney, Sanskrit Roots, s. v. raks — ORV. 264 note. — 11 Cp.
Roth, FaB. 97 — 8. — “ Cp. Hili.ebrandt, 1. c. — H Weber, IS. 13, 183 ff. —
■4 ORV. 60—2; cp. Roth, FaB. 98. — '5 Cp. RV. 10, 103 12; KS. 14, 22; IS. 17, 269.

VII. ESCHATOLOGY.

§ 71. Disposal of the Dead. — In the Vedic hymns there is little
reference to death. When the seers mention it, they generally express a
desire that it should overtake their enemies, while for themselves they wish
long life on earth. It is chiefly at funerals that the future life engages their
thoughts. Burial and cremation were concurrent. One hymn of the RV.
(10, 16) describes a funeral by burning, and part of another (10, i8IO— <3)1,
one by burial. The 'house of clay’ is also once spoken of (7, 891). Fathers
burnt with fire and those not burnt with fire (i. e. buried) are referred to
(10, 1514; AV. 18, 2 34). But cremation was the usual way for the dead to
reach the next world. The later ritual (cp. AGS. 4, 1) practically knew only
this method; for besides the bones and ashes of adults, only young children
and ascetics were buried2.

With the rite of cremation therefore the mythology of the future life
was specially connected. Agni takes the corpse to the other world, the fathers,
and the gods (10, i6I— 4. 173). He places the mortal in the highest immor-
tality (1, 317). Through Agni, the divine bird, men go to the highest place
of the sun, to the highest heaven, to the world of the righteous, whither the
ancient, earliest-born seers have gone (VS. 18, 51 — 2). Agni Garhapatya
conducts the dead man to the world of righteousness (AV. 6, 1201). Agni
burns his body and then places him in the world of the righteous (AV. 18, 371).
The Agni that devours the body ( kravyad ) is distinguished from the Agni
that takes the offering to the gods (10, 169). Agni is besought to preserve
the corpse intact and to burn the goat (<z/a)3which is his portion (10, 164).
A goat is also immolated with the sacrificial horse to go before, as the
first portion for Pusan, and announce the offering to the gods ere, it reaches
the highest abode (1, i622-4. i6312- I3). In the ritual (AGS. 4. 2; KSS. 25, 719)
the corpse is laid on the skin of a black goat, and when an animal is sacri-
ficed, it is a cow or a goat5. During the cremation Agni and Soma are
also prayed to heal any injury that bird, beast, ant, or serpent may have
inflicted on it (10, 166).

The dead man was supposed to go with the smoke to the heavenly
world (AGS. 4, 47)6. The way thither is a distant path on which Pusan
protects and Savitr conducts the dead (10, 174). The sacrificial goat which
precedes and announces the deceased to the fathers, passes through a gulf
of thick darkness before reaching the third vault of heaven (AV. 9, s1-3;
cp. 8, i8).

The dead man was provided with ornaments and clothing for use in
the next life, the object of the custom being still understood in the Veda
(AV. 18, 431). Traces even survive (RV. 10, i88-9) which indicate that his
widow and his weapons were once burnt with the body of the husband7. A
bundle of faggots ( kudJ ) was attached to the corpse of the departed to wipe
out his track and thus to hinder death from finding its way back to the
world of the living (AV. 5, 1912 cp. RV. 10, 182. 9716)8.

1 Roth, ZDMG. 8,467—75; cp. BRI. 23—4; v. Schroeder, WZKM. 9, 112 — 3;

Hopkins, PAOS. 1894, p. cum; Caland, Die altindischen Todten- und Bestattungs-

1 66 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

gebrauche, Amsterdam 1896, § 49 — 50. — 2 Roth, ZDMG. 9, 471; Max Muller,
ibid. I — LXXXll; HRI. 27 1 — 3. — 3 Aja is by some taken to mean the ‘unborn’

( a-ja ) part. — 4 Hillebrandt, ZDMG. 37, 521. — 5 MM., ZDMG. 9, iv. v. xxx.
xxxii. — 6 Cp. Chand. Up. 5, 103; Brhadar. Up. 6, 1 *9. — 7 Weber, IStr. 1,66;
Hillebrandt, ZDMG. 40, 711; ORV. 586 — 7. — 8 Roth, FaB. 98 — 9; Bloomfield,
AJP. 11, 355; 12, 4i6.

§ 72. The Soul. — Fire or the grave are believed to destroy the body
only. But the real personality of the deceased is regarded as imperishable.
This Vedic conception is based on the primitive belief that the soul was
capable of separation from the body, even during unconsciousness, and of
continued existence after death. Thus in a whole hymn (10, 58), the soul
( manas ) of one who is lying apparently dead is besought to return from the
distance where it is wandering. There is no indication in the Vedas of the
later doctrine of transmigration; but in a Brahmana the statement occurs that
those who do not perform rites with correct knowledge, are bprn again after
their decease and repeatedly become the food of death (SB. xo, 4, 310).
Besides prana, ‘respiration’, and atman , ‘breath’ (several times the express
parallel of vata , ‘wind’), the usual terms denoting the animating principle are
asu, ‘spirit’, expressing physical vitality (1, ii3l6, 1408), even of animals
(AB. 2, 6), and manas, ‘soul’, as the seat of thought and emotion, which
already in the RV. (8, 89s) seems to be regarded as dwelling in the heart
(krd) 1. Many passages, especially in the AV., show that life and death
depend on the continuance or departure of asu or manas-, and the terms
asuniti, asunita, ‘spirit-leading’ refer to the conduct by Agni of the souls of
the dead on the path between this and the other world (10, 154. 162)2.
Funeral ritual texts never invoke the asu or mafias of the deceased, but only
the individual himself as ‘father’, ‘grandfather’, and so forth. Hence the
soul is not a mere shadow, but is regarded as retaining its perspnal identity.
Though men obtain immortality only after parting from the body (SB. 10, 4, 39),
the corpse plays an important part in the myth of the future state, which is
corporeal. For the body shares in the existence of the other world (10, 16 5;
AV. 18, 226). A body, however, from which all imperfections are absent
(AV. 6, 1203), can hardly have been regarded as a gross material body, but
rather as one refined by the power of Agni (cp. 10, 166), something like the
‘subtile’ body of later Indian speculation. An indication of the importance
of the corpse in connexion with the future life, is the fact that the loss of
a dead man’s bones, which according to the Sutras were collected after
cremation, was a severe punishment (SB. xi, 6, 3“; 14, 6, 928). In one passage
of the RV. (10, 1 63) the eye of the dead man is called upon to go to the
sun and his breath ( atma ) to the wind. But this notion, occurring in the
midst of verses which refer to Agni as conducting the deceased to the other
world, can only be an incidental fancy, suggested perhaps by the speculations
about Purusa (10, 90^), where the eye of the latter becomes the sun and
his breath the wind. In the same passage (also in 10, 58') the soul is
spoken of as going to the waters or the plants, a conception which perhaps
contains the germ of the theory of metempsychosis 3.

Proceeding by the path which the fathers trod (10, 14?), the spirit of
the deceased goes to the realm of eternal light (9, 1 137), being invested with
lustre like that of the gods (AV. 11, i37), in a car or on wings (AV. 4, 344),
on the wings with which Agni slays the Raksases (VS. 18, 52). Wafted up-
ward by the Maruts, fanned by soft breezes, cooled by showers, he recovers
his ancient body in a complete form (AV. 18, 2 21—1 &), and glorified meets
with the fathers who revel with Yama in the highest heaven (10, 14s- I0. i544‘s).
This is spoken of as a return home ( astam : 10, 148). From Yama he

Eschatology. 72. The Soul. 73. Heaven. 74. Heavenly Bliss. 167

obtains a resting place (10, 149), when recognized by Yama as his own
(AV. 18, 2 37).

According to the SB., the ordinary belief is that the dead leaving this
world pass between two fires, which burn the wicked but let the good go
by4. The latter proceed, either by the path leading to the Fathers or by
that leading to the sun (SB. 1, 9, 32, &:c.)5. In the Upanisads there are two
paths for those who know the Absolute, the one (as a consequence of com-
plete knowledge) leading to Brahma, the other to the world of heaven,
whence after the fruit of good works has been exhausted, the spirit returns
to earth for rebirth. Those ignorant of the ‘Self’, on the other hand, go to
the dark world of evil spirits or are reborn on earth like the wicked6.

1 ORV. 525. — 2 The AV. is already acquainted with the breaths or vital

airs familiar to post-Vedic literature: HRI. 1 53. — 3 BRI. 23. — 4 Cp. Kuhn, KZ.

2, 318. — 5 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 237; IStr. 1,20 — 1; OST. 5,314—5; SVL. 1 2 1 ; HRI.

206. — 6 HRI. 227.

§ 73. Heaven. — The abode where the Fathers and Yama dwell, is
situated in the midst of the sky (10, 1514), in the highest heaven (10, 148),
in the third heaven, the inmost recess of the sky, where is eternal light
(9, 1137-9). The AV. also speaks of it as the highest (11,4"), luminous
world (4, 342), the ridge of the firmament (18, 247), the third firmament
(9, 51’8; 18, 43), and the third heaven (18, 24*). In the MS. (1, io'8; 2, 39)
the abode of the Fathers is said to be the third world1. The abode of the
Fathers is in the RV. also spoken of as the highest point of the sun (9, 1139).
The Fathers are united with or guard the sun (10, 1072. 1545), or are connected
with the rays of the sun (1, 109?; cp. SB. 1, 9, 310)2, and suns shine for

them in heaven (1, 1256). They are connected with the step of Visnu

(10, 153), and pious men are said to rejoice in the dear abode, the highest
step of Visnu (1, 1545). As Visnu took his three steps to where the gods
are exhilerated 3, so the sun follows the Dawn to where pious men offer
sacrifice4.

Stars are also said to be the lights of virtuous men who go to the
heavenly world (TS. 5, 4, i3; SB. 6, 5, 4*), and ancient men, especially the
seven Rsis, besides Atri and Agastya, are said to have been raised to the
stars (TA. 1, 11, i2)5.

The RV. mentions a tree beside which Yama drinks with the gods

(10, 1351). This according to the AV. (5, 43) is a fig-tree where the gods

abide in the third heaven (no mention being made of Yama).

1 PVS. 1, 2 1 1. — 2 JAOS. 16, 27. — 3 Cp. Macdonell, JRAS. 27, 172. —

4 Windisch, FaB. 1 18. — S Weber, Naksatra 2, 269; KRV. note 286.

§ 74. The most distinct and prominent references to the future life are
in the ninth and tenth books of the RV., but it is also sometimes referred
to in the first. Heaven is regarded as the reward of those who practise
rigorous penance ( tapas ), of heroes who risk their lives in battle (10, i542_s),
but above all of those who bestow liberal sacrificial gifts (ib.3; 1, 1255; 10, 1072).
The AV. is full of references to the blessings accruing to the latter.

In heaven the deceased enter upon a delectable life (10, 148. 1514. i62-5),
in which all desires are fulfilled (9, 1139-"), and which is passed among the
gods (10, 1 414), particularly in the presence of the two kings Yama and
Varuna (10, 14'). There they unswervingly overcome old age (10, 2721).
Uniting with a glorious body they are dear and welcome to the gods
(10, 148. 165. 561). There they see father, mother, and sons (AV. 6, i2o3),
and unite with wives and children (AV. 12, The life is free from imper-

fections and bodily frailties (10, 148; AV. 6, i2o3). Sickness is left behind

1 68 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

and limbs are not lame or crooked (AV. 3, 28s). It is often said in
the AV. and SB. that the deceased are in that world complete in body
and limbs1.

The dead are in the RV. often spoken of in general terms ( madanti ,
madayante ) as enjoying bliss (10, 1410. x 5 14, &c.). The most detailed account
of the joys of the life in heaven is given in RV. 9, 11 t,1- ". There are
eternal light and swift waters; there movement is unrestrained (cp. TB. 3, 12, 29);
there is spirit food and satiety; there joy, glee, gladness, and the fulfilment
of all desires. The joys here indefinitely referred to, are later explained to
be those of love (TB. 2, 4, 66 cp. SB. 10, 4, 44 ); and the AV. (4, 34s) states
that in the heavenly world there is abundance of sexual gratification. Accord-
ing to the SB.' the joys of the Blest are a hundred times as great as the
highest on earth (14, 7, i32— 3). In the heaven of the Blest, the RV. further
says, the sound of the flute and of songs is heard (10, 1357)2; Soma, ghee,
and honey flow for them (10, 1541). There are ponds filled with ghee and
streams flowing with milk, honey, and wine (AV. 4, 34s-6; SB. n, 5, 64).
There are at hand bright, many-coloured cows yielding all desires {katna-
dug/id/r. AV. 4, 34s). There are neither rich nor poor, neither powerful nor
oppressed (AV. 3, 293). To the celestial life of the Blest in the Samhitas
and Brahmanas corresponds in the Upanisads the lower and transient bliss
of the heaven of the gods which is followed by rebirth, only those who know
the truth attaining to immortality and the changeless joy of unending peace
by absorption into the world-soul3. Thus the life of the righteous dead in
heaven was clearly regarded as one of indolent, material bliss, in which freed
from all frailties they were united with the gods, and which was devoted to
music, drinking, and sensual joys (such as the gods themselves are occasionally
alluded to as indulging in: cp. 3, 536).

Heaven is a glorified world of material joys as pictured by the ima-
gination not of warriors but of priests4. It is the world of the righteous
(10, 164), where righteous and godly men, familiar with rites ( rta ) dwell in
bliss5. There they are united with what they have sacrificed and given
(, istapurta)b , especially reaping the reward of their pious gifts to priests
(10, 1543 &c.)7. In the Brahmanas it is said that those who sacrifice properly
above all attain union and identity of abode with the sun ( aditya ) and with
Agni, but also with Vayu, Indra, Varuna, Brhaspati, Prajapati and Brahma
(SB. 2, 6, 48; 11, 4, 421. 6, 22-3; TB. 3, 10, 116). A certain sage is described
as having through his knowledge become a golden swan, gone to heaven,
and obtained union with the sun TB. (3, 10, 911). In the TS. (6, 6, 92) the notion
occurs that a man by the performance of certain rites can reach heaven
without dying ( jivari) 8.

One who reads the Veda in a particular way is said to be freed from
dying again and to attain identity of nature (satmata) with Brahma (SB. 10,
5, 69). As a reward for knowing a certain mystery a man is born again,
in this world (SB. 1, 5, 314). Thus we have in the SB. the beginnings of the
doctrine of retribution and transmigration. That doctrine (as well as the
doctrine of hell) is not only to be found in the earliest Sutras9, but appears
fully developed in the later Brahmana period, that is to say, in the oldest
Upanisads, the Chandogya, the Brhadaranyaka, and especially the Katha
Upanisad10. In the latter Upanisad the story is related of Naciketas, who
pays a visit to the realm of Death and is told by the latter, that those who
have not sufficient merit for heaven and immortality, fall again and again
into the power of death and enter upon the cycle of existence ( samsara, ),
being born again and again with a body or as a stationary object. He who

Eschatology. 74. Heavenly Bliss. 75. Hell.

169

controls himself reaches Visnu’s highest place. On the other hand, there is
no hell for those not found worthy11.

1 References in OST. 5, 315; cp. AIL. 41 1; HRI. 205. — 2 At the sacrifice
to the Manes music was performed, lutes (vTna) being played (KS. 84, 8). — 3 HRI.
239. — 4 ORV. 532. — si, 1152. 1545; 10, 15 L 174. 1542—5; AV. 6, 95L 1203;
VS. 15, 50. — 6 Windisch, FaB. 115 — 8. — 7 For references to the same idea in
the AV. see OST. 5, 293, note 433; cp. IStr. 1, 20 ff. — 8 Weber, ZDMG. 9,
237 ff.; OST. 5, 317; HRI. 204. — 9 HRI. 175. — 1° HRI. 145, note 4; cp.
v. Schroeder, Indiens Litt. u. Kultur 245; Garbe in this encyclopedia 3,4, p. 15.
— 11 Origin of the myth, TB. 3, 118; cp. SVL. 10, n. I; BRI. 78.

§ 75. Hell. — If in the opinion of the composers of the RV. the vir-
tuous received their reward in the future life, it is natural that they should
have believed at least in some kind of abode, if not in future punishment,1
for the wicked, as is the case in the Avesta2. As far as the AV. and the
Katha Upanisad are concerned, the belief in hell is beyond doubt. The AV.
(2, 143; 5, 193) speaks of the house below, the abode of female goblins and
sorceresses, called naraka /oka 3, in contrast with svarga loka, the heavenly
world, the realm ofYama (12, 436). To this hell the murderer is consigned
(VS. 30, 5). It is in the AV. several times described as ‘lowest darkness’
(8, 224 &c.), as well as ‘black darkness’ (5, 3011) and ‘blind darkness’ (18,33).
The torments of hell are also once described in the AV. (5, 19) and with
greater detail in the SB. (11, 6, i)4; for it is not till the period of the
Brahmanas that the notion of future punishment appears plainly developed5.
The same Brahmana further states that every one is born again after death
and is weighed in a balance6^ receiving reward or punishment according as
his works are good or bad (SB 11, 2, 733; cp. 12, 9, i1). This idea is also
Iranian. ^ Roth8 favours the view that the religion of the RV. knows nothing
of hell, the wicked being supposed to be annihilated by death. Evidence
of the belief in some kind of hell is, however, not altogether wanting in
the RV. Thus, ‘this deep place’ is said to have been produced for those who
are evil, false, and untrue (4, 55). Indra-Soma are besought to ‘dash the
evil-doers into the abyss ( vavre ), into bottomless darkness, so that not even
one of them may get out’ (7, 1043); and the poet prays that ‘she (the
demoness) who malignantly wanders about like an owl concealing herself,
may fall into the endless abysses’ (ib. *7), and that the enemy and robber
may lie below all the three earths (ib.11). But such references are few and
the evidence cannot be said to go beyond showing belief in a hell as an
underground darkness. The thoughts of the poets of the RV., intent on the
happiness of this earth, appear to have rarely dwelt on the joys of the next
life, still less on its possible punishments9. The doctrine of the Brahmanas
is that after death, all, both good and bad, are born again in the next world
and are recompensed according to their deeds (SB. 6, 2, 227; xo, 6, 31), but
nothing is said as to the eternity of reward or punishment io. The notion
also occurs there that those who do not rightly understand and practise the
rites of sacrifice, depart to the next world before the natural term of their
terrestrial life (SB. 11, 2, 733).

The idea of a formal judgment to which all the dead must submit,
seems hardly traceable to the Vedic period. One or two passages of the
RV. in which reference to it has been found11, are too indefinite to justify
such an interpretation. In the TA. (6, 5^) it is said that the truthful and
untruthful are separated before Yama, but that he acts in the capacity of a
judge, is not implied12.

That the belief in a hell goes back even to the Indo-European period,
has been argued by Weber13 on the strength of the equation Bhrgu = cp Xey uoo. 14

170 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

and the fact that the former is described in the SB. as sent by his father
Varuna for pride to see the tortures of hell, and the latter are condemned for
pride to undergo severe tortures in hell. But the similarity of the two legends
is probably only a coincidence, as belief in the torments of hell seems to be
a later development in India15.

1 Zimmer and Scherman, but Hopkins considers this conclusion pedantic. —
2 Roth, JAOS. 3, 345; Geldner, FaYV. 22, thinks that hell is directly referred to
in RV. io, 10 6 by the word vici. — 3 Naraka in AV. and Brahmanas: Whitney,
JAOS. 13, civ. — 4 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 240 ff. — 5 HRI. 175. — 6 Weber, ZDMG.
9, 238; OST. 5, 314 — 5. — 7 Jackson, Trans, of the 10* Or. Congress 2, 67 — 73.
— 8 Roth, JAOS. 3, 3 29—47; cp. also Weber, ZDMG. 9, 238b — 9 Cp. AIL.
4 1 8 ff. ; Scherman, Romanische Forschungen 5, 569 ff.; SVL. 1 2 2 ff. ; KRV. n. 287a;
ORV. 538 ff.; HRI. 147. — 10 Weber, ZDMG. 9, 237—43. — 11 SVL. 152—3. —
I2 ORV. 541-2. — D ZDMG. 9, 242. — H KHF. 23; WVB. 1894, p. 3. — *5 Cp.
Jaiminiya Br. ed. Burnell i, 42 — 4; Oertel, JAOS. 15, 234—8; SVL. 5—8; Spiegel,
Eranische Altertumskunde 1, 458; HRI. 206.

§ 76. The Pitrs. — The blessed dead who dwell in the third heaven

are called Pitrs or Fathers. By this term are generally meant the early or

first ancestors (xo, 15s* IO) , who followed the ancient paths, seers who made
the paths by which the recent dead go to join them (10, 1 42- z- is). They

are connected with the (third) step of Visnu (10, 153 cp. 1, 1545). Two

hymns of the RV. are devoted to their praise (xo, 15. 54).

Their different races are mentioned by name as Navagvas, Vairupas,
Angirases, Atharvans, Bhrgus, Vasisthas (10, i44-6. 158), the last four being
identical with the names of priestly families, to whom tradition attributed the
composition of the AV.1 and of books II and VII of the RV. Among these
the Angirases are particularly associated with Yama (10, I43, 5). The Pitrs
are spoken of as lower, higher, and middle, as earlier and later, and though
not all known to their descendants, they are known to Agni (10, 15'- 2- I3).
The AV. speaks of the Pitrs as inhabiting air, earth, and heaven (AV. 18, 249
cp. RV. 10, 152).

The ancient fathers themselves once offered the Soma libation (10,15s).
They revel with Yama (10, 1410 cp. 1351; AV. 18, 410), and feast with the
gods (7, 7 64). Leading the same life as the gods, they receive almost divine
honours. They come on the same car as Indra and the gods (io, 1510).
They are fond of Soma (somya\ 10, is1* 5 &c.) and sitting on the sacrificial
grass to the south, they drink the pressed draught (ib.5*6). They thirst for
the libations prepared for them on earth, and are invited to come with
Yama, his father Vivasvat, and Agni, and to eat the offerings along with
Yama (ib. 8— ". i44'5). Arriving in thousands they range themselves in order
on the sacrificial ground (10, is10- “). When the Pitrs come to the sacrifice,
evil spirits sometimes intrude into their society in the guise of friends accord-
ing to the AV. (18, 228).

The Fathers receive oblations as their food, which in one passage
(10, 143) is referred to with the term svadha as contrasted with sva/ia, the
call to the gods2; so too in the later ritual the portion of the gods at the
daily pressings was strictly distinguished from that of the Pitrs (SB. 4,
4, 22). They receive worship, are entreated to hear, intercede for and pro-
tect their votaries, and invoked not to injure their descendants for any sin
humanly committed against them (10, i52-5- 6 cp. 3, 5 52). Their favour is im-
plored along with that of the dawns, streams, mountains, heaven and earth,
Pusan and the Rbhus (6, 524. 7510; 7, 3512; 1, 1063). They are besought
to give riches, offspring, and long life to their sons (10, is?*11; AV. 18, 314.
462), who desire to be in their good graces (10, 146). The Vasisthas collec-

Eschatology. 76. The Pitrs. 77. Yama. 171

tively are called upon to help their descendants (7, 331 cp. io, 158); and
individual ancestors, as Turvasa, Yadu, and Ugradeva, are invoked (1, 36 l8).

The Fathers are immortal (AV. 6, 41^) and are even spoken of as gods
(10, 564)3. In the Angirases and similar groups the divine character is com-
bined with that of ancient priests. Cosmical actions like those of the gods
are sometimes attributed to the Fathers. Thus they are said to have adorned
the sky with stars and placed darkness in the night and light in the day
(xo, 68"), to have found the hidden light and generated the dawn (7, 76*
cp. xo, 1071), and in concert with Soma to have extended heaven and
earth (8, 48 13).

Just as the corpse-devouring Agni is distinguished from the Agni who
wafts the sacrifice to the gods (10, 169), so the path of the Fathers is dis-
tinguished from that of the gods (10, 27. 181 cp. 88*s)4. Similarly in the SB.
the heavenly world ( svarga /oka) is contrasted with that of the fathers ipitrloka),
the door of the former being said to be in the north-east (SB. 6, 6, 24),
and that of the latter in the south-east (13, 8, i5)5. The fathers are also
spoken of as a class distinct from men, having been created separately
(TB. 2, 3, 82).

1 The attribution of the AV. to fire-priests, the Atharvans and Angirases, is
historically justified, as the cult of fire is still associated with the AV. in the epic :
cp. Weber, History of Ind. Lit. 148; HRI. 159. — 2 Haug, GGA. 1875, 94; SBE. 42,
660; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 162. — 3 Otherwise HRI. 145, n. I. — 4 Cp. Hiran-
yakesi Pitrmadhhsutra, ed. Caland, Leipzig 1896, p. 55; HRI. 145, n. 4. —
5 The South is in general the quarter of the Manes (SB. 1, 2, 5 *7): this is Indo-
Iranian, cp. Kern, Buddhismus 1, 359; Caland, Altindischer Ahnencult, Leiden
1893, P* 1 78. 180; ORV. 342, n. 2; ZDMG. 49, 471, n. 1; HRI. 190.

$ 77. Yama. — The chief of the blessed dead is Yama. Reflexion on
the future life being remote from the thoughts of the poets of the RV., only
three hymns (10, 14. 135. 154) are addressed to Yama. There is besides one
other (10, 10) consisting of a dialogue between Yama and his sister Yarn!.
Yama’s name occurs about 50 times in the RV. but almost exclusively in
the first and (far oftener) in the tenth book.

He revels with the gods (7, 764; 10, 13s1)- Individual gods with whom
he is referred to, are Varuna (10, 147), Brhaspati (10, 134. 143), and especially
Agni, who as conductor of the dead would naturally be in close relations
with him. Agni is the friend ( kamya ) of Yama (10, 215) and his priest
(10, 5 2 3). A god (10, 5 11) and Yama (who by implication are identical)
found the hiding Agni (ib. 3). Agni, Yama, Matarisvan are mentioned together
as the names of the one being (i,i6 446). Yama is also mentioned in enumer-
ations of gods including Agni (10, 643. 92“).

Thus it is implied that Yama is a god. He is, however, not expressly
called a god, but only a king (9, 1138; 10, 14 passim), who rules the dead
( yam&rajhah : 10, 169). Yama and god Varuna are the two kings whom
the dead man sees on reaching heaven (10, 147). Throughout one of the
hymns devoted to his praise (10, 14) he is associated with the departed
fathers, particularly with the Angirases (vv> s). With them he comes to the
sacrifice and is exhilerated (vv. 3- 4. 158). Later texts (TA. 6, 52; Ap. SS. 16, 6)
make mention of the steeds of Yama, which are described as golden-eyed
and iron-hoofed. He is a gatherer of the people (10, 141), gives the dead
man a resting place (10, i4q; AV. 18, 237) and prepares an abode for him
(10, i813).

Yama’s dwelling is in the remote recess of the sky (9, 1138). Of the
three heavens two belong to Savitr and one to Yama1 (1,35s CP- IO> I236)>
this being the third and highest (cp. § 73). The VS. (12,63) speaks of

172 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

him along with Yam! as being in the highest heaven. In his abode ( sadana 2)
which is the home of the gods ( devamcina ) Yama is surrounded by songs
and the sound of the flute (io, 1357).

Soma is pressed for Yama, ghee is offered to him (10, I417- 1 4), and he
is besought to come to the sacrifice and place himself on the seat (10, 144).
He is invoked to lead his worshippers to the gods and to prolong life (xo, 1414).

His father is Vivasvat (10, 145) with whom Saranyu is mentioned as his
mother (xo, 171). He is also several times called by the patronymic Vai-
vasvata (10, 141, &c.). This trait is Indo-Iranian, for in the Avesta Vlvanhvant,
as the first man who pressed Soma, is said to have received Yima as a son 3
in reward. In the AV. (18, 232 cp. 36i_2) Yama is described as superior to
Vivasvat, being himself surpassed by none.

In their dialogue in the RV. (10, 104) Yama and Yam! call themselves
children of Gandharva and the water nymph ( apyayosa :)4. Yam! further speaks
of Yama (v. 3) as the ‘only mortal’. In another hymn Yama is said to have
chosen death and abandoned his body (10, 134)5. He passed6 to the other
world, finding out the path for many, to where the ancient fathers passed
away (10, 14'- 2). He was the first of mortals that died (AV. 18, 3 ‘3). Here
‘mortals’ can only mean ‘men’, though later even gods are spoken of as
mortal7. As first and oldest of the dead he would easily be regarded as
the chief of the dead that followed him8. He is called ‘lord of settlers’
(; vispati )9, ‘our father’ (10, 135'). Through Yama men come in later texts
to be described as descendants of Vivasvan adityah10 (TS. 6, 5, 62 cp. SB.
3, 1, 34; RV. 1, 1059). Even in the RV. Yama seems to be connected with
the sun; for the heavenly courser (the sun) ‘given by Yama’ probably means
the solar abode granted by Yama to those who become immortal (1, 1632
cp. 83s).

Death is the path of Yama (1, 38s) and once (1, 1654; cp. MS. 2, 56;
AV. 6, 28s1. 931) he appears to be identified with death ( mrtyu )“. Yama’s
foot-fetter ( padbisa ) is spoken of as parallel to the bond of Varuna12 (10,
9716). Owing to such traits and also to his messengers, Yama must to a certain
extent have been an object of fear in the RV. But in the AV. and the
later mythology Yama, being more closely associated with the terrors of death,
came to be the god of death (though even in the Epic his sphere is by no
means limited to hell) V In the later Samhitas Yama is mentioned beside
Antaka, the Ender, Mrtyu, Death (VS. 39, 13), and Nirrti, Decease (AV. 6,
293; MS. 2, 56), and Mrtyu is his messenger (AV. 5, 3o12; 18, 2s7, &c.). In
the AV. Death is said to be the lord of men, Yama of the Manes (AV.
5, 2 4i3-4), and Sleep comes from Yama’s realm (19, 561 &c.).

The word yama has also the appellative meaning of ‘twin’ I4, in which
sense it occurs several times in the RV. (generally in the dual masculine or
feminine), while yama , which is found a few times in the RV., means ‘rein’
or guide’. Yama actually is a twin with Yam! in the RV. (10, 10) ’5. The
sense of ‘twin’ also seems to belong to Yima in the Avesta (Yasna 30, 3).
A sister of Yima is mentioned, not in the Avesta, but in the later literature 16
only, as Yimeh, who with her brother produces the first human couple. At
a later period of Indian literature, when Yama had become the god of
death who punishes the wicked, the name was understood to be derived
from yam, ‘to restrain’ 1 7, but this derivation is not in keeping with the ideas
of the Vedic age.

A bird, either the owl ( uluka ) or the pigeon ( kapota ), is said to be the
messenger (10, 1654 cp. 1 23s) 18 of Yama apparently identified with death.
The messenger of Yama and of death would therefore appear to be the

Eschatology. 77. Yama.

i73

same (AV. 8, 8”). Yama’s regular messengers, however, of whom a fuller
account is given (10, 1410-12), are two dogs. They are four-eyed, broad-
nosed, brindled ( sabala ), brown ( udumbala ), sons of Sarama (sarameya). They
are guardians that guard the path (10, 14”) or sit on the path (AV. 18, 212).
The dead man is exhorted to hasten straight past these two dogs and to
join the fathers who rejoice with Yama (10, 1410); and Yama is besought to
deliver him to them and to grant him welfare and freedom from disease.
Delighting in lives ( asutrp ) they watch men and wander about among the
peoples as Yama’s messengers. They are entreated to grant continued en-
joyment of the light of the sun. Their functions therefore seem to consist
in tracking out among men those who are to die, and in keeping guard on
the path over those who enter the realm of Yama. In the Avesta a four-
eyed yellow-eared dog keeps watch at the head of the Cinvat bridge I0, which
leads from this world to the next, and with his barking scares away the fiend
from the souls of the holy ones, lest he should drag them to hell20. There
does not seem to be sufficient evidence for supposing that the two dogs of
Yama were regarded as keeping out the souls of the wicked, though it is
quite possible that they were so regarded21. If, however. RV. 7, 552- 5 is
rightly interpreted by Aufrecht 22, the object of the dogs was to exclude the
wicked. In the AV. the messengers of Yama, sent by him among men, are
spoken of both in the plural (AV. 8, 21'. 8“j and the dual (AV. 5, 306). Of
the two dogs one is described as sabala , ‘brindled’ and the other as syama,
‘dark’ (AV. 8, i9). The word sabala has been identified with Ksp[3spo; *•*,
but this equation has been called in question24. Bergaigne (i, 93) thinks
the two dogs are simply another form of Yama (as fire) and Yarn!; and the
trait of the later mythology, which represents Yama as coming to fetch the
dead himself, is regarded by him as primary (1,92). Bloomfield23 identifies
Yama’s two dogs with sun and moon26.

The most probable conclusion to be drawn from all the available evidence
seems to be, that Yama represents a mythological type found among the most
diverse peoples, that of the chief of the souls of the departed. This would
naturally follow from his being the mythical first father of mankind and the
first of those that died. The myth of the primeval twins that produced the
human race, Yama and Yarn! = Yima and Yimeh27, seems to be Indo-Iranian.
The attempt to clear Yama of the guilt of incest in RV. 10, 10, shows that
the belief in that incest already existed28. Yama himself may have been
regarded in the Indo-Iranian period as a king of a golden age, since in the
Avesta he is the ruler of an earthly29, and in RV. that of a heavenly para-
dise. That Yama was originally conceived as a man, is the view of Roth
and other scholars30. E. H. Meyer, thinking Yarn! to be a later creation
like IndranI and others, believes that Yama, the twin, originally represented
the soul as the alter ego 3\ A number of other scholars believe that Yama
originally represented a phenomenon of nature. Some think he was a form
of Agni32, the sun33, the parting day34, or the setting sun and thus god of
the dead33. Hillebrandt 36 thinks Yama is the moon, in which dying is
typical, and thus the mortal child of the sun and closely connected with the
Manes. He considers him, however, to have been a moon-god in the Indo-
Iranian period only, but no longer so in either the Avesta or the Veda,
where he is merely king of a terrestrial paradise or of the realm of the Blest.

1 By LRV. 4, 134 regarded as a hell. — 2 * * This abode (also AV. 2, 127; 18

2 56. 37°), which seems always to mean the world of Yama or the place of burial

TA. 6, 7, 26 cp. RV. 10, 18 *3) is understood by PVS. 1, 242 to refer to a ‘chapel

of Yama’. A harmya of Yama, spoken of in AV. 18, 455, is understood by Ehni

174 HI- Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

to mean ‘tomb’ (cp, SVL. 138). — 3 Cp. Roth, ZDMG. 2, 218. — 4 MM., with
Sayana, regards these two as identical with Vivasvat and Saranyu. — 5 The inter-
pretation is doubtful, cp. SVL. 146. — 6 Cp. Roth, Nir. Erl. 138; SVL. 113. —
7 HRI. 128. — 8 KHF. 21; SVL. 137. — 9Vispati is often said of Agni, once
or twice of Indra and Varuna. — Cp. Roth, IS. 14, 393. — n But the passage
may mean ‘Yama (and) Death’. — i2 Cp. Bloomfield, AJP. ii, 354—5. — *3 SVL.
155. — *4 Op. cit. 142, note I. — / '5 Yama and Yarn! mentioned together as in
heaven: TS. 4, 2, 53; VS. 12, 63; SB. 7, 2, i*°; TA. 6, 42. — 16 Spiegel, Era-
nische Altertumskunde 1, 527. — 17 This is also the explanation of Grassmann,
KZ. 11, 13; Leumann, KZ. 32, 301. — 18 SVL. 130, note 3. — 19 There is no
reason to assume such a bridge in RV. 9, 41 2 (cp. SVL. 110) nor a river (Weber,
Indische Skizzen 10) in RV. 10, 63 10 (cp. SVL. ill). — 2° SBE. 42, LXXiv. —
21 AIL. 419; SVL. 127. 152; ORV. 538. — 22 IS. 4, 341 IT.; cp. AIL. 421; KRV.
note 274. — 23 Benfey, Vedica und Verwandtes 149 — 64; Kuhn, KZ. 2, 314;
Weber, IS. 2, 298; MM., Chips 42, 250; LSL. (1891), 2, 595; Selected Essays
(1881), 1, 494; KRV. note 274a; van den Gheyn, Cerbere, Brussels 1883. —
24 Cp. Rohde, Psyche 1, 280, note 1. — 25 JAOS. 1893, p. 163 — 72. , — 26 Kath.
37, 14 (MS. p. 101, note 2), Kauslt. Br. 11, 9 (== day and night); SB. 11, I, 51
tmoon a heavenly dog); on the dogs of Yama cp. also Rajendralala Mitra, PRASB.
May 1881, pp. 94. 96; Indo-Arvans, Calcutta 1881, 2, 156 — 65; Sp.AP. 239 — 40;
HVM. 1, 225. 510 — 1; Casartelli, Dog of Death, BOR. 4, 269 f. — 2 7 Sp.AP.
246. — 28 Roth, JAOS. 3, 335; Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman 106. — 29 Roth,
ZDMG. 4, 420; on traces of Yima having been the first man in the Avesta, cp.
SVL. 148 n. 1. — 3° Roth, ZDMG. 4, 425 ff.; IS. 14, 392; Scherman, Festschrift
fur K. Hofman, Erlangen 1890, p. 573 fF. ; Hopkins, PAOS. May 1881. — 31 Indo-
germanische Mythen I, 229. 232. — 32 KHF. 208; BRV. 1, 89; cp. Weber, Raja-
suva 15, n. I; YN. 12, 10 (Yama = lightning Agni, YamI = voice of thunder);
SVL. 132, n. 2. — 33 BRI. 22 — 3; Ehni, Die urspr. Gotth. d. ved. Yama, p. 26 &c.
— 34 WVB. 1894, p. 1 (Yarn! = night). — 35 MM., LSL. 2, 634 — 7; India 224;
AR. 297 — 8 ; Bergaigne, Manuel Vedique 283 (sun that has set). — 56 HVM. 1, 394ff. ;
IF. 1, 7; also HVBP. 43.

On this chapter cp. also Roth, ZDMG. 4, 417 — 33; JAOS. 342 — 5; Whitney,
JAOS. 3, 327 — 8; 13, cm— vni; OLS. I, 46—63; Westergaard, IS. 3, 402—40;
OST. 5, 284 — 335 ; Donner, Pindapitryajna, 10 — 14. 28; AIL. 408 — 22 ; BRV. 1,85 — 94;
2,96; KRV. 69 — 71; Sp. AP. 243 — 56; Lanman, Sanskrit Reader 377 — 85; SVL.
122 — 61; HVM. 1, 489 — 513; ZDMG. 48, 421; Ehni, Der vedische Mythus des
Yama, Strassburg 1890; Die urspriingliche Gottheit des vedischen Yama, Leipzig
1896; Hopkins, PAOS. 1891, xciv— v; HRI. 128—50. 204—7; MM., PsR. 177—207;
ORV. 524—43; SBE. 46, 29; Jackson, JAOS. 17, 185.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

AB. = Aitareya Brahmana.

AF. = Arische Forschungen.

AGS. = Asvalayana Grhya Sutra.

AIL. = Zimmer’s Altindisches Leben.

AJP. = American Journal of Philology.

Ap. == Apastamba.

AR. == Max Muller’s Anthropological Reli-
gion.

ASL. = Max Muller’s History of Ancient
Sanskrit Literature.

ASS. = Asvalayana Srauta Sfltra.

AV. — Atharvaveda.

BB. = Bezzenberger’s Beitrage.

BDA. = Bradke, Dyaus Asura.

BOR. = Babylonian and Oriental Record.
Br. = Brahmana.

BRV. = Bergaigne, La Religion Vedique.
Dh. S. = Dharma Sutra.

DPV. = Deussen, Philosophic des Veda.
FaB. == Festgruss an Bohtlingk.

FaR. = Festgruss an Roth.

FaW. = Festschrift an Weber (Gurupuja-
kaumudl).

GGA. = Gottinger Gelehrte Anzeigen.
GGH. = Schroeder’s Griechische Gotter
und Heroen.

GKR. = Geldner, Kaegi, Roth, Siebenzig
Lieder des Rigveda.

GRV. = Grassmann’s Translation of the
Rigveda.

GS. = Grhya Sutra.

GVS. = Geldner, Vedische Studien.

GW. = Grassmann, Worterbuch (Rigveda
Lexicon).

HGS. = Hiranyakesi Grhya Sutra.

HRI. = Hopkins, Religions of India.
HVBP. = Hardy, Vedisch-brahmanische
Periode.

HVM. = Hillebrandt, Vedische Mytho-
logie.

IF. = Indogermanische Forschungen.

IS. = Indische Studien.

IStr. = Indische Streifen.

JA. = Journal Asiatique.

JAOS. = Journal of the American Oriental
Society.

JRAS. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society.

Kaus. S. = Kausika Sfitra.

KHF. = Kuhn, Herabkunft des Feuers und
des Gottertranks.

KRV. = Kaegi, Der Rigveda (quoted from
Arrowsmith’s translation).

KS. = Kausika Sutra.

KSS. = Katyayana Srauta Sutra.

KZ. = Kuhn’s Zeitschrift.

LRF. = Ludwig, Ueber die neuesten arbeiten

N.B. The figures in parentheses
Rigveda.

auf dem gebiete der Rgveda-forschung

(1893)-

LRV. = Ludwig, Rigveda Translation.
LSL. = Max Muller’s Lectures on the
Science of Language (ed. 1891).

MGS. = Manava Grhya Sutra.

MM. = Max Muller.

1 MS. = Maitrayani Samhita.

NR. = Max Muller’s Natural Religion.
Nir. = Nirukta.

j OGR. = Max Muller’s Origin and Growth
of Religion.

OLS. = Whitney’s Oriental and Linguistic
Studies.

00. = Benfey’s Orient und Occident.
ORV. = Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda.
OST. = Muir’s Original Sanskrit Texts.
PAOS. = Proceedings of the American
Oriental Society.

PB. = Pancavimsa Brahmana (= TMB.)
PGS. = Paraskara Grhya Sutra.

PhR. = Max Muller’s Physical Religion.
Ps.R. = Max Muller’s Psychological Reli-
gion.

| PRASB. = Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Bengal.

PVS. = Pischel, Vedische Studien.

PW. = Petersburger Worterbuch (B6ht-
lingk and Roth’s larger Sanskrit
Dictionary).

RV. = Rigveda.

SB. = Satapatha Brahmana.

SBE. = Sacred Books of the East.

Sp.AP. = Spiegel, Die Arische Periode.
SPH. = Scherman, Philosophische Hymnen.
SV. = Samaveda.

SVL. — Scherman, Visionslitteratur.

SSS. = Sankhayana Srauta Sutra.

1 TA. = Taittirlya Aranyaka.

TB. = Taittirlya Brahmana.

TMB. = Tandya Mahabrahmana (= PB).
TS. = Taittirlya Samhita.
i Up: = Upanisad.

Val. = Valakhilya.

VS. = Vajasaneyi Sanihita.

WC. — Wallis, Cosmology of the Rigveda.
WVB.= Weber, Vedische Beitrage (Sitzungs-
berichte der Berliner Akademie).
WZKM. = Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde
des Morgenlandes (Vienna Oriental
Journal).

YN. = Yaska’s Nirukta.

YV. = Yajurveda.

ZDA. = Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum.
ZDMG. = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen-
landischen Gesellschaft.

ZVP. = Zeitschrift fur Volkerpsychologie.

without an added abbreviation refer to the

CONTENTS.

Page

Page

I. INTRODUCTION ....

1 I

§ 1. Religion and Mythology

§ 2. Characteristics of Vedic myth-

1

ology

2 l

§ 3. Sources of Vedic Mythology

3

S 4. Method to be pursued .

§ 5. The Avesta and Vedic mytho-

5

!°gy

7

§ 6. Comparative Mythology

II. VEDIC CONCEPTIONS OF THE

8

WORLD AND ITS ORIGIN

8 !

§ 7. Cosmology ....

8:

§ 8. Cosmogony ....

n

9. Origin of Gods and Men

14

HI. THE VEDIC GODS ....

§ 10. General character and classi-

15 !

fication ....

15

A. Celestial Gods ....

21

§ 11. Dyaus

21 |

§ 12. Varuna

22 |

% 13. Mitra

29

§ 14. Surya

30

§ 15. Savitr

“2 O '
J2

S 16. Pusan

35 i

§ 17. Visnu

37

§ 18. Vivas vat

42

•>% 19. Adityas

43

S 20. Usas

46

§ 21. Asvins

49

B. Atmospheric Gods

54

l/% 22. Indra

54

§ 23. Trita Aptya ....

67

§ 24. Aparp napat ....

69

§ 25. Matarisvan ....

71

§ 26. Ahi budhnya ....

72 :

§ 27. Aja ekapad ....

73

1/$ 28. Rudra

74

■ § 29. The Maruts ....

77

$ 30. Vayu-Vata ....

81

S 31- Parjanya

83

§ 32. Apah

85

C. Terrestrial Gods

86

§ 33. Rivers. Sarasvatl

86

§ 34. Prthivi

88

v S 35- Agni

88

S 36. Brhaspati

101

§ 37. Soma

104

D. Abstract Gods ....

1 15

S 38. Two Classes ....

H5

A. Various Agent Gods .

1 15

B. Tvastr

1 16

S 39- Visvakarman, Prajapati .

1 18

S 40. Manyu, Sraddha&c. .

119

§ 41. Aditi 120

s 42. Diti 123

E. S 43- Goddesses 124

F. § 44. Dual Divinities . . . .126

G. § 45. Groups of Deities . . .130

H. Lower Deities 13 1

§ 46. Rbhus 131

§ 47. Apsarases. Urvail . . .134

§ 48. Gandharvas 136

S 49. Tutelary Deities: Vastos

pati, &c 138

IV. MYTHICAL PRIESTS AND

HEROES 138

§ 50. Manu 138

S 51. Bhrgus 140

S 52. Atharvan 14 1

S 53. Dadhyanc 141

S 54. Angirases 142

§ 55. Virupas, Navagvas, Dasagvas,

Seven Rsis .... 143

S 56- Atri 145

§ 57. Kanva &c 145

§ 58. Kutsa, Kavya Usana &c. . 146

V. ANIMALS AND INANIMATE OB-

JECTS ..... .147

§ 59. General Traits .... 147
§ 60. The Horse: Dadhikra, Tark-

sya, Paidva, Etaia, &c. . 148

S 61. A. The Bull. B. The Cow . 150
S 62. The goat, boar, dog, monkey,

tortoise, frogs . . .151

§ 63. The Bird . . . ..152

§ 64. Noxious animals ; serpent, &c. 152
S 65. Survivals of prehistoric notions

about animals . . .153

S 66. Deified terrestrial objects . 154

VI. DEMONS AND FIENDS . . .156

S 67. Aerial demons : Asuras, Panis,

Dasas 156

§ 68. Vrtra, Vala &c 158

§ 69. Susna, Sambara, Namuci, &c. 160
S 70. Raksases, Pisacas and other
, terrestrial demons . . 162

VII. ESCHATOLOGY 165

§ 71. Disposal of the dead . . 165

S 72. The Soul 166

S 73. Heaven 167

S 74. Joys of the future life . . 167

S 75- Hell 169

S 76. The Pitrs or Manes . . .170

§ 77. Yama, King of the Dead . 17 1

NB. The Manuscript was sent in on September 23, 1896.

I. SANSKRIT INDEX.

The references in both Indexes, unless accompanied by §, are to pages.

Amsa 43, 45, 46.

amsu 104, [ 14.

amhas 121.

Agastya 147, 167.

agohya, 35, 133.

Agnayl 125.

Agni § 35 f88 — loo); 2, 7, 10,
11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22,

23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32,

33. 35. 36, 38, 40, 42, 43.

44, 45, 46, 48, 92, 94, 97,

99, 116, 121, 123, 124, 126,
130, 139, 141, 142, 145, 147,
148, 151, 152, 156, 168, 170,
171.

Agni kumara 75, garhaspatya
165, yavistha 164, vaidyuta
94, 112.

A^gni’s aerial form 92; his
ancestral friendship 96; as
a benefactor 97, 98; as a
bird 88; his births 91; his
three births 93; his many
births 94; his brothers 95;
burns goblins 163 — 164; his
car and steeds 90; his ce-
lestial form 92; compared
with inanimate objects 89;
conductor of the dead 165,
166; corpse-devouring 171;
his cosmical actions 98 —
99; demon-dispelling 95;
domestic 95, 96; etymology
of the name 99 ; his father
90; his food 89; is foot-
less and headless 88; for-
gives sin 98; his various
forms 5, 6; his greatness
98 ; hidden 140, 146 ; hymns
to Agni 140; identified with
other gods 95 ; is Indra’s
twin brother 57; contrasted
with Indra 97, 98, 99; his
lightning form 98; his lunar
form 100 ; as a messenger
96; as a priest 96, 97; as
a raksas-slayer 1 66 ; his roar-
ing 90; his seven tongues
89; as a serpent 153; son
Indo-arische Pliilologie. III. :

of Dyaus 21; son of strength
12; as the sun 1 29; his ter-
restrial form 91. 92; in the
waters 57, 70 ; his wisdom
97 ; his youth 91.

Agni associated with Atri 145,
146; with Kanva 145; with
Parjanya 84, 129; with

Soma 95 ; contrasted with
Parjanya 129; with Soma

129.

Agnl-parjanya 126.

Agnl-soma 126.
agraja 117.
agriya 109.
agre 109.
ankusa 55.

Angira 144.

Angiras 96, 97, 102, 139; as
an epithet of Agni 143, 146.
Angirasah§ 54(142— 143); 15,
44, 61, 64, 67, 101, 117,

130, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145,
147, 159, 170, 171 ; as an-
cient fathers 142; as foes
of the Panis 157 ; their song
142; are sons of Dyaus 21.

angirastama 142.
angirasvat 143, 144.
aghasva 149.
aghnya 1 51.

J/aj 99.
aja 74.

Aja ekapad § 27 (73—74); 7°,
72, 151.
ajana 73.
ajara 58.

Ajah 153.
ajasva 36.

Ajaikapad 73.
atithi 92, 95.

Atithigva 64, 147.
atka 107.

Atrayah 145.
atri 145.

Atri § 56 (145); 15, 53, 139,
160, 167 ; finds the sun 145 ;
etymology of the name 145.
atrin 145.

A

atri vat 144.
atharyu 141.

Atharvan § 52 (141); 139, 147 ;

identified with Agni 141.
Atharvaveda 4.
Atharvaiigirasah 143.
Atharvanah 140, 141, 142, 170.
j/ad 145-

Aditi §41(120 — 123); 13, 14,
16, 33, 44, 45, 46, 56, 12 1,
123, 130, 150, 151; her two
main characteristics 122;
associated with Daksa 121,
122; etymology of her name
121; frees from guilt 121 ;
identified with the universe
121; her motherhood 122;
her sons 13.
adititva 121.

Aditeh putrah 122.

adri 10, 60, 94, 105, 106, 154.

adhvaryu 97, 105.

anarva 120.

Anarsani 162.
anavadya 45.
anastapaSu 36.
anastavedas 36, 37.
anas 63.
anagastva 12 1.
animisa 45.

Anukramanl 99, 143.

Anumati 119.

Antaka 1 72.
antariksa 10, 72.
andhas 104.
anna 105.
ap 69, 159.
apas 132.

Apam napat §24 (69 — 7°); 72,
73, 85, 88, 99; identified
with Agni 70, with Savitr
33; is the Avestic Apam
napat 8.

Apala 64.
apya 61.

apya 35: — yosa 134, 172.
Apsaras 136, 137.

Apsarasah § 47 (134 — 135)-
apsujit 59.

*

178 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

apsumat 92.
abja 73.
abhra 60, 83.
abhriya 102.
amati 32.
amitra 159.

amrta 105, 107, 108, ill, 113,
127, 151, 161.
amba 87.

Ambika 74.
ambbrna 164.
aranl 72, 91.

Aranyanl 154.

Aramati 119.

Aratayah 164.
arati 164.
arista 45.
aristanemi 149.
aruna 82, 105.
arusa 75.
arjuna 88.

Arjuna 146.
arnava 105.
arnas 59.

Arbuda 61, 67, 160; his cows
160.

Arbudi 164.

Aryaman § 19 (43); 16, 23,
24, 25, 29, 30, 33, 34, 44,
45, 46, 120.
aryamya 45.
avi 106.
avrjina 45.

Asani 75.
asusa 160.
asna 93, 106.
asman 55, 94.
asva 79.
asvattha 134.
asvin 1 3 1 .

Asvinl 51, 128.

Asvinau § 21 (49—54); 16, 20,
24,32.36, 40,41,42,43,48,
106, 124, 125, 132, 141, 149,
151, 162; their physical
basis 53; their locality 50;
are red-white 51 ; originally
perhaps separate 49; are
matutinal gods 51 ; perhaps
morning and evening star
53 ; are succouring gods 5 1 ;
are divine physicians 51;
come to the sacrifice three
times a day 50; ancient
explanations of their nature
53; are sons of Dyaus 21,
51: sons of Vivasvat and
Saranyu 51 ; their wife 5 1 ;
their sister 51; their ships
or boat 52; associated with
Atri 145, with Kanva 146,
with Savitr 50, with Usas
50; identified with Indra-
Agni 128.
asat 13.

Asikni 81.

asu 1 66.
asutrp 173.
asunlta 166.
asunlti 166.

Asunlti 120.

asura 22, 24, 32, 36, 58, 75,
79, 84, 97, 98, 116, 123,
156; means both god and
demon 156; identical with
the Avestic ahura 7.

Asura 90, 133, 161, 162.
asuralian 156.

Asurah § 67 A; 5, 39, 41, 57,
61, 95, 96, 97, 119, 136,
160; offspring of Prajapati
156; connected with dark-
ness 156.

Ahalya 65.

ahi 58, 64, 73, 152, 153.

Ahi 158, 160, 161 ; identical
with Vrtra 73.

Ahi budhnya 70, 72, 153.
ahibhanu 78, 152.
ahihan 149.

Aghrni 35, 36.
angirasa 102, 103, 143.
atayah 1 34.
ata II.

j atm an 166; connected with
wind 166,
aditeya 30.

Aditya 29, 42, 139, 188.
Adityah § 19 (43—46); 5, 14,
15, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 28,

30, 34, 42, 116, 117, 120,
121, 130, 142; sons of
Dyaus 21.

| a-dhav 106.
adhavana 106.

Apah § 32 (85 — 86); identical
with Avestic apo 7.

Aptya 70; etymology of the
word 69.
a-pya 1 07.
apyayana 107, 1 13.
apra 87, loo.

aprl 87, 99, loo, 124, 129, 154.
amsd 97.
ayasa 55.

Ayu 100, 135 n. 9, 140, 147.
ayudha = sun 31.

Arjuneya 146.
arya 62, 98.
j asir 107.
asuheman 70.
asura 100, 160, 161.
ahavanlya 95.

Ida 139, 150.
indu 66, 105, 113.

Indu 104, 106, 138.

Indra § 22 (54 — 66); 6, 10, 11,
12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 24, 26,

31, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 4i,
42, 43, 45- 48, 53, 115, n6,

118, 1 1 9, 126, 130, 131, 138,
141, 142, 144, 147, 149, 151,
154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 161,
162, 168, 170; associated
with Agni 57, 60, 67, 95,

102, 124, 126, 127, 128,
with the Asvins 126, with
Kutsa 146, with Parvata
126, with Pusan 37 , 126,
128, with Brhaspati 101,

103, 126, 128, with the
Maruts 57, 60, 126, with
Varuna 126, 127, with Vayu
82, 106, 126, 128; with
Visnu 57, 60, 91, 126, 127,
128, 156, with Soma 60,
126, 128, 169; as an Aditya
44; god of battle 62 ; be-
stower of riches 63; his birth
56; hisbolt6,56,57;brother
of Agni 57, of Pusan 57;
his car 55; his leading char-
acteristics 64— 65 ; contrast-
ed with Agni 128; contrast-
ed with Varuna 20, 64, 65,
127; as a demon in the
Avesta 8, 66; etymology of
the name 66; his father 56;
slays his father 18, 57; his
physical features 54 — 55 ;
his food 56 ; fights against
the gods 18, 57, 146; his
gigantic size 57 — 58; his
greatness 58; as a helper
62 ; immoral and capricious
traits 18, 19, 65; his intoxi-
cation 65 ; identified with
Manu5 7 ; his steeds55 ; threa-
tens the Maruts 18,81; his
mother 56; clips the wings of
the mountains 62; settles the
mountains 62 ; his parents
12; releases the cows of
the Panis 59 ; produces Agni
57; produces heaven and
earth 62 ; produces the sun
61 ; is produced from the
mouth of Purusa 57; scep-
ticism as to his existence
65; son of truth 12; his
steeds 55 ; releases the
streams 59; supportsheaven
and earth 62; identified
with Surya 57; transference
to him of Varuna’s preemin-
ence 20, 65 — 66; shatters
the car of Usas 18, 48, 63;
his weapons 55 ; his wheel
61, 64; his wife 57, 125;
as winner of light 61; as
winner of Soma 62.

Indra-nasatya 126.

Indra-vayu 126.

Indra-kutsa 146.

Indragm 126.

Indra-parvata 126, 154.

I. Sanskrit Index.

i79

Indra-pusana 126.
Jndra-brhaspatt 126.
Indra-varuna 126.

Indra-visnu 126.

Indra-soma 126.
Indranl57,64, 78, 125, 151,173.
Illbisa 157, 162.
ista-purta 168.
ila 129.

Ila 87, 91, 124, 135.
ilayas pade 124.

liana 75.

Uksan 108.

Ugrajit 135.

Ugradeva 75.

Ugrampasya 135.

Ugradeva 171.
ucchista 155.
uttara 99.
utsa 60, 105.
udamegha 52.
udumbara 134.
udumbala 1 73.

Uma 74.

Urana 61, 152, 160.
uru 45.
urukrama 37.
urugaya 37.

Urvara 138.
urvarapati 138.

Urvasl 15, 124, 135.
uluka 172.
usarbudh 90.

Usas S 20 (46—49); 2, 8, 19,
20, 21, 31, 34, 38, 40, 43,
124, 125, 148, 150; daughter
of heaven 21, 48; etymo-
logy of the name 49 ; her
kine and steeds 18, 47; as-
sociated with Surya 48.
Usasanakta 48, 126.
usriya 62.

Udhar 60.

J/r with vi 160.
rkvat 101.
rksa 144, 164.

Rksa 153.

Rgveda 3.
rjisvan 72.

Rjisvan 161.

Rjrasva 52.

rta 11, 13, 26, 101, 120, 168;

= asa 7.
rtavan 45.
rtvij 96.
rbisa 145.

Rbhavah § 46 (131 — 134); II,

’ 32, 44, 5°, 56> 107, 130,
170; associated with Agni
131 ; with Indra 131, 132,
with other deities, ibid. ,
with Savitri33, withTvastr
131, 132, 133; their car

and steeds 131 ; became im-
mortal 132; their origini33;
their parents 131, 132,
133; their skill 132.

Rbhu 131.

rbhu, etymology of 133.
rbhuksan 13 1.

Rbhuksan 73, 13 1, 132.
Rsayah, sapta 144.
f?i 97,' 144-
rsti 79.

Ekata 68, 69.
ekapad 73.

Ekastaka 56.

Etasa 30, 149 — 150.
emusa 41.

Emusa 41.
evaya 38.
evayavan 38.
esa 38.

Aitareya Brahmana 4.

Ojas 39.
osadhi 154.

Aurnavabha 38, 152.

Ka = Prajapati 119.
kakud 98.
kakuha 50.

Kakslvat 52.

Kanva §57(145— 146)515, 139.
kapota 172.

Kamadyu 52.

! karambha 36, 128.
karambhad 36.

I karambhin 37.

Karmapradlpa 91.
kalasa 106.

Kali 52.

, kavandha 60.
kavi 97, 102, _147-
kavikratu 97.
kavyavahana 97.

Kasa 56.

Ivasyapa 15:, 153.

Kathaka 41, 57.

Kama 13, 14, 120; his arrows
120.

kamadugha 150, 168.
kamaduh 150.
kamya 17 1.

Kala 120.

KavyaUsana 55, 96, 139, 147-
kimldin 164.

Kutsa § 58 (146 — 147); 160;

associated with Indra 146.
kuyava 161.

Kuravah 153.

Kulitara, son of 64, 161.
kusa 41.

Kusikah 63.

Kuhu 125.
kudi 165.
kupa 67.
kurma 153.

|kr 148

Krsanu 74, 112, 137 = Kere-
sani 8.

I Krsna 52.
kosa 60, 83.

Kausika 62.

Kausikasutra 4, 117.
i Kauiikah 1 53.
kaustubha 39.
j/krand 108.
kravyad 97, 164, 165.
krivi 160.
ksatriya 45.
ksam 9.
ksa 9.

ksetrasya pati 138.
ksonl 9.
ksma 88.

Khadi 79.
khila 40.

Ganga 86.
gana 77, 101.
ganapati 101.
gandha 137.

Gandharva 8, 15, 134, 146,
172; his hostility 137; as-
sociated with Soma 136;
with the Waters 137.
gandharva-nagara 137, note 5.
Gandharvah § 48 (136 — 1374 ;
107, 124, 135, 153; their
appearance 137; connected
with marriage 1 37 ; as guar-
dians of Soma 136.

Garuda 39, 149, 152.
garutmat 39, 152.
garjanmegha 85.
garbha 70, 92, 95, 129.
gavasir 106.
gavisti 63.

Gayatrl, asanameof Agni 11 1.
garsteya 56.

garhapatya 95; agni —73.
giri 60.
giriksit 39.
giristha 39, no.

Gunga 125.

gr?ti 56.

grha 145.

grhapati 95, 103, 138.
go 60, 123.
gojata 151.

Gotama 147.

Gotamah 153.
gopati 63.
gomatr 78.

Gautama 65.
gnah 117.
gnaspati loo.
gma 9-
V gras 152.
gravan 106, 154.

Ghrta 105.
ghrtaprstha 107.

180 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. i a. Vedic Mythology.

ghora 127.

Ghosa 52.

Cakra 155.
candra 127.
camfl 106.

Caraka Brahmana 41.
caranyu 1 25.

Cumuri 158, 162; associated
with Dhuni 162.

Cyavana 51.

Chan das 101.
Chandogyopanisad 14.

yjan 57.
janayah 117.
janitrl 126.
janima 97.
jaritr 60, 97.
jalasa 76.
jalasabhesaja 76.
ja III.
jata 1 1 8.

jatavedas 97, 1 1 9.
jami 48.
jivan 168.

ytaks 72, 1 1 6, 1 17, 132.

T anunapat 7 1 , 99 — 100.
tanyatu S6.

tapas 13, 17, 132, 167.

Tapas 119.
tavas 58.

Tarksya 149.
tigmasriiga 108.

Tisya 103.

Tugra 52, 146.
tura 58.

Turvasa 64, 140, 146, 171.
Turvayana 147.

“J/tr 68.

-tr (suffix) 115.

Trksi 149.

Trtsavah 64.

Trasadasyu 146, 147; Agni
of — 96.

Tratr 116.

Trasadasyava 149.
trita 69.

Trita § 23 (67—69); 6, 43,
64, 71, 73, 80, 103, 117,
141; — Aptya 8, 14, 45,

47, 66, 67; associated

with Agni 67; his abode
67; his fingers 17; his
maidens 67, 105 ; associated
with the Maruts 67; is
remote 68; as a Soma-
presser 67.
tripastya 93.
triprstha 107.
trisadhastha 38, 93, 107.
trini 69.

Tryambaka 74.
tryasir 106.
ytvaks 117.
tvac 106.

Tvastr § 38 B; II, 12, 19,
23, 34, 55, 56, 58, 82, 91,
ioi, 1 1 5, 118, 126, 138,
141 ; associated with Indra
1 16, 117, with the Rblius
133; his cup 116, 117, 13s;
his daughter 125; etymo-
logy of the name 117; his
mead 52 ; as a shaper of
forms 116; his skill 116;
his son 160; liissteeds I l 6.
Tvastra 158.

Daksa 12, 13,43,44,46,121.
daksa 12, 46.
daksapitr 46.
daksasya pitr 46.
daksina 95.

Dadhikra 142, 148, 149.
Dadhikravan 124, 148.
Dadhlca 142.

Dadhyanc § 53 (142 — 143);
52, 71, 139, 141, 144, 149,
157; his bones 159; ety-
mology of the name 142;
as an ancient fire-priest!42.
dadhyasir 106.

Dabhlti 162.
damunas 33, 95.
darbha 15.

Dasagvah 80, 144.
dasma 36.
dasmavarcas 36.

Dasyavah 62, 64,98, 148, 162.
dasyu 146, 157, 158, 159.
dasyuhatya 157.
dasyuhan 157.
dasra 36, 49.

]/da 121, 123.

Danava 59, 158, 1 6 1 .

Dana vi 57.
danu 158.

Danu 158.

dasa 157, 158, 159.

Dasa 40, 158, 161, 162.
Dasah§69(i6o— 162); 64,157.
dita 121.
diti 121, 123.

Diti § 42 (123).
div 8, 9, 10.

Divodasa 87, 90, 1 6 1 ; Agni
of — 96; — Atithigva 147.
divya 92, 136.
disah 9.
dlrghadhl 45.
dundubhi 1 55.

Durga 73.
durgrbhisvan 72.
j/duh 105.
dflta 96.

Rdr 160.
drdha 88.
drti 83.

Drbhlka 162.

Drsadvatl 87.
deva 8, 34, 156.

devaputra 126.
devamana 1 72.

Devavata, Agni of 96.
devasunl 151.
devah 5.
devl 120.
devir dvarah 154.

Destrl 115.

Daityah 123.
daivya 100.

Daivya 96.
daivya hotara 144.
Dyavaksama 126.
DyavaprthivI 9, 20, 21, 123,
126.

DyavabhumI 126.
dyaur aditih 121, 122.

Dyaus pitar 8.

Dyaus § II (21 — 22); 2, 12,
19, 25, 27, 28, 30, 53, 61,
83, 88, 121, 123, 124, 126,
129; has a bolt 22; as a
bull 21; as a father 8, 21,
22 ; as father of Indra
21; conceived as feminine
22; his incest 1 19 ; associ-
ated with Prthivi 90; roars
21, 22; thunders 90; iden-
tical with Zeus 8.
drapsa 105, 113.
drapsin 80.
druh = druj 8.

Druh 164.
druhah 61.

Druhy avail 140.
drona 106.

Dhanu 92.

Dhartr 115.
ydha 115.

dhatr II 8.

Dhatr 13, 43, 116, 1 17, ll8.
dhiyas patl 128.

Dhisana 1 24.

Dhuni 158, 162.
dhumaketu 90.
dhrtavrata 45.
dhena 61.
ydhvan 162.

Naktosasa 48, 126.

Naciketas, story of 168.

nadivrt 159.

napat 131.

napata savasah 46.

naptl 105.

nabhasvat 83.

Naml Sapya 16 1.

Namuci 64, 158, 161 — 2; ety-
mology of the name 162.
narasamsa 100.

Narasamsa 36, 71, 100, 102.
navagva 144.

Navagvah 14 1, 1 44, 170-
Navavastva 158.
naka 8.

Nagah 153.

I. Sanskrit Index.

181

nadya 70.
nabhi 42, 92.
naraka loka 169.

Narsada 145.

Nasatya 49.
ninya 158.
niyutvat 82.

Nirrti 172.
nirnij 107.
niska 74.

Nistigrl 56.
nrtu 58.

Nrsad 145.
netr 116.

Naighantuka 19, 25, 33, 45,
4 8, 54, 68, 73,99, 100, 1 15,
12 1, 123, 124, 147, 148, 149,
159.

nyagrodha 134.

Pajra 52. ,

padblsa 172.

Panayah 95, 98, 143, 144, 1 57 5
their cows 63 ; as foes of
Brhaspati 157; as foes of
Indra 157.
pani 157.

Pani 157, 159.
patatrin 50.

pati 51, 118; names formed
with 103, 138.
patmr devanam 125.
pada 50.

Vpan 133.
payas 105.

Paramesthin 57.

Paravrj 52.
parijman 50.
paridhi 159.
parisayana 59.

Parusnl 64, 86.

Parjanya § 31; [5> 20, 37,
90, 136, 138, addenda, line
30; his car 83; etymology
of the name 84 ; as father
84; as father of Soma ill;
as fructifier 84; his identity
with Perkunas doubtful 8 ;
resembles Indra 84 ; resem-
bles Dyaus 84 ; son of Dyaus
2 1 ; subordinate to Mitra-
Varuna 84; his wife 84.
Parj anya-vata 126.
parna (tree) 112.
parvata 10, 55, 60, 106, 159.
Parvata 154.
parvatavrdh no.
palasa 112.
pavamana 106.

Pavamana 107.

pavitra 106.

pasu 47; = Soma 108.

Pasupati 75-

pasupa 37.

pastya 121.

Panini 162.

| patra 133.
pathas 38, 128.

Parvatl 74.
pavaka 81.
paviravl 86.

Favlravi 73.
pasa 26.

I pi 107.

Pitarah § ?6; 164; classes of
170; cosmical actions of
171 ; worship of 170.
pitara 126, 131.
pitu 105.
pitrloka 1 7 1,
pinv 107.

Pipru 156, 158, 161, 162; ety-
mology of the name 161;
his forts 161.
pisangabhrsti 164.

Pisacah 164.
pisaci 164.
plyusa 105, ill.
putra 69.
punana 106.
pur 60.
puramdara 98.
puramdhi 37, n. 5-
Puramdhi 124.
purlsa 129.
purisin 129.

Purukutsa 147.
purudrapsa 80.

Purumitra 52.

Purusa 13, 15, 31, 166; hymn
to 82.

purusasukta 12, 57.

Pururavas 124, 135.
puruvasu 37.
purodasa 151.

purohita 96; = the sun 31.
Purohita 160.

Vpu? 37.

pustimbhara 36, 37.

)pu 106.

Puru 148.
ptirbhid 60.
purvya 58.

Pusan § 16; 12, 15, 20, 33,
40, 82, 100, 117, 124,151,
165, 170; his car 35; con-
ducts the dead 35 ; protects
the dead 165; etymology
of the name 37; his goats
18; is son of the Asvins

51; is Surya’s messenger

30; is toothless 35.
l/pr 161.
prthivi 9, 123.

PrthivI S 34; 2, 19, 21, 22,
124, 126.

Prsni 73, 74, 7s, >25, I5°-

prsnimatr 78.

prsati 79.

prsadasva 79.

prstha 9, 68.

Pedu 52, 149.

Paidva 149.
praja 118.

prajapati 118; = Savitr 33.
Prajapati § 39; 4, 5, 13, 14,
16, 17, 19, 28, 41, 46, 56,
57, 115, 117, >20, 140, 151,
153, 168; identified with
Savitr 33; and Usas 119.
)/prath 88.
pradisah 9.
prapathya 36.
pramantha 91.
prasava 34.
prasavitr 33, 34.
prasnta 48.

Praskanva 140.
prana 166.

Prana 14, 120.
prataritvan 72.

Prasaha 57.

Priyamedha 146.
priyamedhavat 144.
priya (Usah) 48.
plaksa 134.

Phaliga 159.

Baddha 121.

Babhru 74, 105.
barhis (deified) 154.
bila 159.
budhna 73, 158.
Brhadaranyakopanisad 14.
Brhaddiva 1 4 1 .

Brhaddiva 124.
brhaspati, etymology of 103.
Brhaspati § 36; 11, 13, 20,
24, 32> 38> 48, 71, 83, 100,
117, 126, 129, 130, 132, 143,
156, 159, 161, 168, 171 ; his
three abodes 102; identified
with Agni 102 ; his car and
steeds 101; his cosmical
actions 103; releases the
cows 102; as a light-winner
103; his origin 103; asso-
ciated with the Maruts 103;
associated with singers 101,
102; his song 101 ; as apuro-
hita 101; his weapons 101.
brahma 138.

Brahman, 13, 14, 101, 104,

1 19, 167.

brahman 97, 101, 102, 103,
104, 142.

Brahmanas pati § 36; 13, 14,
101.

Brahma 87, 104, 115, 11S,
119, 130, 168.

Brahmavarta 87.

Brahmana 81, 93, 94.

Bhaga § 19; 37, 44, 45, 4S,

1 1 6, 123, 124, 149; his eye
45 ; his path 45 ; his sister
45; = bagha 7, 8.
bhaga 45, 46.

1 82 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. ia. Vedic Mythology.

bhagavat 45.

1 bhaj 45.
bhadrajani 78.

Bharata 96.

Bharatah 87, 135.

Bharadvaja 147.
bharitra 106.

Bhava 75.

Bhagavata Purana 1 1 7.
bhajayu 46.

Bharati 87, 124.

| bhid 160, 162.

Bhujvu 52.

]/bhu with vi 133.
bhumi 9.
bhuryaksa 45.

Bhrgavah §51; 80, 99, 116,
141, 142, 170; ancient fire-
priests 140.

Bhrgu 71, 96, 139, 140;

= cp/.sY’iat 169.
bhrguvat 140.

I bhraj 140.

Makha 140.
maghavan 63, 103.
maghonl 48.

Matsyah 153.
y/math 91, 162.
y/mad 168.
mada 105.
madapati 128.

madhu 49, 52, 105, 111, 114,

141.

Madhukasa 44.
madhupa 50.
madhumat 105.
madhuvaliana 49.
madhuyu 50.

Madhyadesa 87.
manas 13, 166.
manu 135.

Manu § 50; 12, 15, 41, 42,

43. HO, 141, 144, 145, 146;
as first ancestor 139; as
first man 14; as first sac-
rificeri39; called Vivasvat
139-

manusvat 139.

Manus 138, 143.

Manor napatah 131.
mantha 108.

Manyu § 40.
y/mar 81.

Marutah § 29; 2, 11, 12, 18,
20, 23, 25, 37, 38, 40, 44,
76, 119, 122, 130, 142, 146,
150, 151, 152, 161, 166;
their brilliance 78; their
cars 79; etymology of the
name 8 1 ; as allies of Indra
80 — 81 ; as hostile to Indra
81; associated with light-
ning 78; malevolent traits
in their character 8 1 ; as
priests 80; as shedders of

rain 79, 80; their remedies
81; their roaring 79; as
Soma drinkers 80; sons of
Dyaus 21; sons of Rudra
78; their steeds 18, 79;
associated with Trita 67.
marutvat 57.
marutvata 80.
marudgana 57.

Marudvrdha 80, 88.
marya 78.

Mahadeva 75, 76.
Mahabharata 41, 85, 117, 142,
160.

mahisa (= Soma) 108.
mahl 88.

Main 87, 124.
y/ma 71, 108.

Mandukeyah 153.
matara 126.
mataribhvari 72.

Matarisvan § 25; 16, 42, 92,
99, 100, 102,111,115,129,
139, HO, 141, 157, 171;
etymology of the name 71;
as a name of Agni 71, 72.
matr 71, 72.
madhyamika vac 124.
madhvl 50.
maya 24, 156.
mayin 24.
maruta 40

Markandeya Purana 11 7.
Martanda 13, 43, 44.

Mitra S 13; 7, 16, 20, 23, 24,
25» 27, 33, 34, 40, 43, 44,
45, 46 ; etymology the name
30; identical with the Aves-
tan Mithra 7.

Mitra-Varuna 12, 15, 16, 85,
106, 120, 124, 127, 131, 148,
156, 157; their eye 23;
associated with other gods
31;

Mitruvaruna 126.
mitrya 45.
miho hapat 161.
mldhvas 75.

Mudgala 150.

Mudgalanl 150.

Mujavat 110.
mrga 152.
mrgaya 161.
mrj 106.
mrtyu 1 72.
megha 83, 159.
metr 90.

Medhyatithi 146.

Menaka 135.
maujavata 110.

Yajurveda 4, 26.
yajna (= yasna) 7.

Yatayah 140.

Yadu 64, 146, 171.
y'yam 172.

yama 172.
yama 172.

Yama § 77; 16, 19, 20, 27,
42,43, 68,71, 139, 142, 144,
151, 152, 166, 167, 169,170;
his abode 1 7 1 ; his foot-fetter
172; his messengers 152;
172, 173; the first mortal that
died 172; his path 172; his
steeds 1 7 1 ; connected with
the sun 172; associated with
Yarn! 116, 137, 1 7 1, 172,
173; identical with the
Avestan Yima 8; has the
patronymic Vaivasvata 15.
yamarajan 171.

Yamuna 86.

Yayati 139.
yavasir 106.
yavistha 91.
yavistyjya 91.
yajnika 99.
yatayajjana 29.
yatu 8, 163, 164.
yatudhana 163.

Yaska 15, 19, 33, 34, 37,38,
39, 45, 49, 53, 68, 72, 73,
93, 99, 115, 123, 139, 151.
yuvan (= Soma) ill.
yiltha 1 24.
yojana 47.
yoni 94.

y, raks 164.
raksas 162, 164.

Raksasah § 70; 61 ; their
appearance 163.
raksoyuj 164.
raksohan 95; 110, 164.
rajas 9, 10, 73, 158.
rajastur ill.
rathatur 148.
rathestha 55.
y/rabh 133.
rayi 110.
rava 101.
rasa 105.

Rasa 63.
y/ra 125.

| Raka 125.
raksasa 163.

Rajanya 13.

Ratrl 124.

Ramayana 41.

Rastrablirt 135.
j rasabha 50.

Rahu 160.
y ru 108.
y/ruj 160.
y, rud 77.

rudra 49, 75, 77, 127.

Rudra § 28; 12, 16, 20, 35,
73, 74, 119, 124, l3°> ‘38,
151; identified with Agni
75, 77; his colour 74; his
injurious features 18; con-

I. Sanskrit Index.

183

trasted with Indra 77 ; his
malevolence 75; as father
of the Maruts 74> 78; is
mountain-dwelling 74; his
physical features 74; his
remedies 76; is clothed in
a skin 74 ; his repulsive
traits 76; his weapons 74.
rudra-vartani 49.

Rudra-Soma 76, 129.

Rudranl 125.

Rudrah 5, 44, 74, 120, 130,
142; are eleven in number

I9‘.

Rudriyah 74, 78.

Rudhikra 162.
retodha 108.

Rebha 52.
rocana 9.
rodasl 9, 126.

Rodasl 78.
roman 106.

RohinI 115, 136.
rohita 82.

Rohita 14, 17, 115.

Liiiga 155.
j/vaj 133.

vajra 55, 79, 109, 147.
vajradaksina 35.
vajrabahu 55.
vajrabhrt 55.
vajrahasta 55.
vajrin 55, 103.
vajrivat 55.
vatsa 84.

Vatsah 153.
vadhar 114.
vadhflyu 51.

Vadhryasva 87 ; Agni of — 96.
vanaspati 154; (=Soma)lI2.
Vandana 52.
vara 51.

Varuna § 12 ; 3, 6, 11,16,17,
18, 19, 29, 30, 33, 34, 40,
42, 43, 44,46,48, 119, I3°»
168, 171, 172; his abode
23 ; identical with the
Avestan Ahura Mazda 8;
his car 23 ; etymology of
the name 28 ; his face 23 ;
as father of Bhrgu 170;
his fetters 26; contrasted
with Indra 28; he and Surya
subordinate to Indra 58 ;
his messenger 136; his
natural basis 27; connected
with night 25, 29, with rain
25, with waters 25, 26;
his omniscience 26; as up-
holder of order 24; iden-
tical with Uupavos 8; as a
punisher of sin 26; his spies
23, 24 ; associated withYama

167.

Varunani 125.

varcas 162.

Varcin 40, 156, 158, 161, 162.
vartaya 162.
vartis 50.
varsa 59.

Vala § 68B; 63, 64, 102, 142,
143. 144, 159, 162; his
castles 159.
valamruj 160.
valabhid 160.
valavrtrahan 160.
vavra 67, 169.
vavri 159.

Vasa 83, 84.

Vasatkara 19.

Vasavah 5. 33. 44, 120, 130,
142; are eight in number 19.
Vasistha 15, 64, 96, 134, 135,
140, 147-

Vasisthah 47, 170.

Vasu 148.
vasupati 63.
vastra 107.
j/va 82.
vac 109, 123.

Vac 87, 124, 137, 145.
vacas pati 109, 118.

Vaja 131, 132, 133.

Vajapeya 155.
vajin 149.
vata 72, 166.

Vata 25; as a healer 82; his
steeds 55.

Vata-Parjanya 82, 84.
Vata-parjanya 126.

Vamadeva 147.

Vayu 2, 12, 20, 72, 78, no,
II 6, 168; his car and steeds
82; as Indra’s charioteer
55; as a soma-drinker 56;
identical with the Avestan
vayu 7.

Vayu-Vata § 30 (81—83).
vara 106.

Varuni 140.
varya 123.
yvas 108, 135.
vasas 107.

Vastospati 138.
vi-kram 37, 38.
vidyut 78, 92.
vidhartr 45.
vidhatr 1 18.

Vidhatr 115.

Vipas 63, 86, 88.
vipra 96, 144.
vibhaktr 45.
vibhavah 131.

Vibhvan 131, 132, 133.
Vimada 52.
vimuco napat 35, 36.
vimocana 36.
virupavat 143.

Virupah § 55.

Vilistenga 57.
vi-vas 43.

Vivasvat § 18; 6, 12, 14, 15,
43. 44, 71, 1 14, 1 16, 121,
I25, 139> 170, 172; his
arrow 42, 43 ; his daughters
42, 105; his messenger 42,
72; his messengers 96, 14 1 ;
identical with the Avestan
Vivanhvant 8.
vis 39, 139-
vispati 96, 172.

Vispala 52.

Visvaka 52.
visvakarman 31.

Visvakarman § 39; 1 1 5, 117,
118, 126, 151.
visvarOpa 34, 116, 11 7.
Visvarupa 12, 61, 116, 160;
his cows 160; as son of
Tvastr 67.
visvavid 97.
visvavedas 37, 97.

Visvamitra 147.
visvavasu 136.

Visvavasu 134, 136, 137.
Visve devah § 26; 14, 16, 72,
82, 84/125, 130, 131;

hymns to the — 129.
vistap 9.

Visnapu 52.

Visnu § 17; 4, 9, 10, 11, 16,
20, 35, 37,44, 45, US, ”8,
121, 124, 149, 151; Ava-
tars of — 14, 41, 139, 151;
as a dwarf 39, 41, 156;
his friendship for Indra 39;
his head becomes the sun

39, 41 ; as lord of mountains
39; identified with the sa-
crifice 40, 41 ; his highest
place 169; his highest step
18, 105; his highest step
as abode of the fathers 167 ;
his steps 38; his three steps
29,156; his third step 170;
his wife 125.

visnupada 39.
vlra 78.

]/vr 152, 159; with apa 159.
vrksa 52.
vrta 159.

vrtra (masc.) 159, (neut.)i59;

etymology of the word 159.
Vrtra § 68; 6, 18, 21, 31, 39,

40, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67,

73, 80, 81, 119, 127, 147,
151, 152, 153, 156, 157, 158,
160, 162; his belly 159;
his forts 158, 159; his

mother 6; identified with
the moon 57, 159; asso-
ciated with Indra 158.

vrtrakhada 160.
vrtraturya 158.
vrtrahatva 158.
vrtrahan6o, 66, 109, 114, 158,

’ 159-

184 III. Religion, weltl. Wissensch. u. Kunst. ia. Vedic Mythology.

Vrtrah 103, 141, 158, 159.
vrtvi 1 59.
j'vrdh 60, 72.

]/vrs 59.
vrsan 108.
vrsabha 108.

Vrsakapi 64.
vrsti 59-
vrstimat 83.

Vetasavah 146.

Vedanta 104.
vedi 92, 105.
vedisad 92.

Vven 133.
vaibhuvasa 69.

Vairupah 144, 170.
Vaivasvata 12, 42, 109, 139,
172.

Vaisya 13.

Vaisvanara 71, 99.

Vyamsa 64.
vyoman 9.
vraja 160.

Samsa 100.

Sakuntala 135.
sakra 58.
sacl 58.

Sacl 57, 122.
saclpati 58, 122.
sacivat 58.
satakratu 58.

Satapatha Brahmana 4.
satarudriya 77.
satru 159.
sabala 173.
sambara (neuter) 161.
Sambara 40, 64, 80, 103, 158,
161, 162 ; his forts 161, 162.
Savu, cow of 52.
sardhas 77-
Saryanavat 141.

Sarva 75.
salyaka 112.
savasah putrah 122.
savasah sunuh 131.
savasas patl 128.
savasl 12, 122.
savaso napatah 131.

Sakapuni 38, 93, 99.
Satyavaninah 68.

Sigravah 153.
sipra 55.
siprin 55.
siva 75, 77.

Siva 4, 73. 74, 76, 155.

sisu 72, 90; (= Soma) ill.

sisnadevah 155.

sukra 106.

suci 45, 126, 127.

sucipa 82, 106.

Sutudrl 86, 87, 88.
suddha 106.

Suna 155.

Sunahsepa 121.
ysus 161.

SusnaS69A; 146, 147, 157,
158, 162; his brood 160,
161 ; his eggs 160; his forts
160; his horns 160.
sudra 13.
sura 58.
syama 173.
syava 52.

Sraddha 119.

Sri 1 20.
svas 72, 16 1.
svasana 160.
sveta 149.

Samvarana 153.

Samsara 168.
sat 13.
satpati 58.

sadana (of Vivasvat) 42.
sadasas pati 102.
sadaspati 102, 103.
sadaspatl 128.
sadhastha 107.
samdrk (parama) 1 1 8.
Saptavadhri (Atri) 52, 145.
sabardugha 82.
samudra 52, 72, 105; = cele-
stial waters 10.
samudriya 107.
samraj 98.
sarana 125.

Saranyu 42, 5 1, 1 16, 125, 139,
172.

Sarama 63, 1 25 (note 17), 143,
144, 151, 173.

Sarayu 86.

Sarasvat 86, 88.

Sarasvati 12, 73,78,86 — 88;
124, 125; associated with
the Asvins and Indra 87 ;
associated with Indra 162;
associated with the Maruts
87; as a sacred river 87.
sarpah 153.
salila 72-
sava 34, 48.
savana 106, 132.

Savarna 139.

Savitr § 15; 10, 11, 15, 16,
17, 19, 20, 23, 26, 29, 35,
37, 38, 44, 45, 48, 55, 57,
70, 72, 73, 85, 115, 116,117,
118, 122, 123, 124, 138, 149,
154, 171; his arms 32; his
car and steeds 32 ; conducts
the dead 165; connected
with evening as well as
morning 34; etymology of
the name 34; he is golden
32; play on the name 34;
is called prajapati 13; iden-
tified with Bhaga 33, with
Prajapati II 7, Surya 33,
Tvastrii7,Visvakarmant 17.
saharaksas 97.
sahas 91.

sahasah putrah 9, 122.
sahasrajit 98.
sahasramuska 89.
satmata 168.
sadana 172.
sadhya 1 30.

sanu 39, 68, io5, 111, 158.
Samaveda 4.

Sayana 28, 33, 41, 43, 68, 69,
107, 123.

Sarameya 151, 173.

Sinivali 1 25.
sindhu 86, 87.

Sindhu 81, 86.
sindhumatr 51, 78.

Sira 155.
sisnu 161.
ysu 105, 106, 114.
sukratu 114.
sugabhasti 11 6.
sudaksa 46.
sudanu 80.
sudas 64, 140, 147.
sudhanvan 133.

Sudhanvan 131.
suparna 39.
supani 1 16.
subhaga 87.
sura 123, 157.
surabhi 137.
susipra 55.
susravas 64.
suhasta 132.
ysu 34, 72.
sunu daksasya 46.
sunrta 120.

Sflrya § 14; 2, 15,16,20,23,
33, 34, 35, 38, 40, 44, 48,
148, 149, 150; as a form
of Agni 30; his daughter
51; is a son ofDyaus 21;
his eye 30; vanquished by
Indra 31 ; measures days
31 ; his messenger 35 ; is a
spy 30; his steeds 30, 55;
his wife 30.
suryarasmi 32.

Surya 50, 51, 125; associated
with Soma 112.
Suryacandramasa 126, 129.
Suryamasa 126, 129.

Srbinda 162.

Slta 138.

Sena 57.
soma 104.

Soma § 37; 2, 6, 9, 10, 12,
14, 17, 18, 20, 23, 25, 26,
35, 38, 40. 42, 43, 46, 47,
48, 50, 72, 125, 130, 134,
137, 138,139, 146, 147, 152,
153, 162, 168, 170,171,172;
as bestower of wealth no;
bought with Vac 109; as
a brahma priest 109; his
brilliance 108; brought by
an eagle m — 112; his car

I. Sanskrit Index.

185

and steeds no; is celestial
III; his colour 105; his
cosmical actions 109 — no;
etymology of name 114;
as drink of immortality
108; as a fighter no; first
draught of — 82 ; as food
of the gods 112; the gods
fond of — 108; Indra’s ex-
cessive indulgence in — 56;
his healing power 109; as a
king 112, as king of plants
154; magical power of —
no; mixed with milk 106;
mixed with water 106;
identified with the moon
107, 112, 113, 129; grows
on mountains no, III;

— offering 16, 124; rape
of — 63; his roaring 108;

— sacrifice 4, 18; stimulates
Indra 56, 109; stimulates
thought 109; stimulates the
voice 109; three or thirty-
three lakes of — 56; hiswea-
pons no; his wives 112;
associated with the Fathers

i09,withtheMaruts 1 10, with
Parjanya 84, with Pusan
37, 128, 129, with rain 107,
withRudra 129, with waters
86, 107 ; compared with
rain 83, with Surya 10S,
ill; identified with Varupa
no; identical with the
Avestan haoma 7; — Pava-
mana 6.

somagopa (Agni) 90, no.
somapa 56.
somapavan 56.

Soma-pusana 126.

Soma-rudra 126.
somya 105, 109, 170.
Saudhanvana 13 1, 133.
SautramanI 56.
saumya n 2.
skambha n.

Skambha 14, 120.

Skambhana 1 1.

J/stan 108.
stanayitnu 83.

Smadibha 146.
svadha 1 70.
svapas 132.

svayambhu 15 1.

svar 31, 48.

svaru 154.

svarga 135.

svarga loka 169, 17 1.

svardrs 127.

svarbhanu 145, 160.

svarvat 161.

svarsa 114.

svaha 170.

Hamsa 101, 148; = Agni 89.
]/han 159, 160.
hari 55, 103.
haritah 30.
harl 55, 132.
havyavah 96, 97.
havyavahana 96, 97.
Hiranyagarbha 13, i4; = Pra-
japati 119.
hiranyaya 43.
hiranyavartani 49.
Pliranyahasta 52.
hrd 166.

Hotarah (of the gods) 95.
hotr 96, 147; = zaotar 7.
Hotra 87.

II. GENERAL INDEX.

Aborigines of India 153, 157.
agricultural implements dei-
fied 155.

Ahura 156; — Mazda 20, 28,
32, 45. 68.
alter ego 173.

Amesa spentas 28.
Amsaspands 40.
agent gods S 3§ ( 1 1 5 — 1 1 8).
«YYeX°; 143-
ancestors 141, 142, 170.
ancestor-worship 4.
animal-sacrifice 154.
animals, mythological § 59 —
64 (‘47 — 153); noxious S 64
152 — 3); symbolical 148.
anthropomorphism 17,88,91,
104, 148; degrees of — 2.
ants 153, 165.

Apam napat 68, 70.
ape 163.

archer 116, 1 19, 137 ; as a
designation of Agni 89.
archers 74, 79.

ArdvI-sura 1 13.

Armaiti 121.
armour 155.
arrows deified 155.

Aryan 161.

Aryans 1 5 7.

Aryas and Dasas 1 57, 159.
ascetic 134.

ass 151 ; — of the Asvins 50.
asu 114.

asura-slaying 103.

Atar 7, 141.
athravan 141.

Athwya 8, 43, 68, 114.
atmospheric gods 54 — 86.
attributes transferred 127.
Aufrecht 173.

Aurora 8, 49.
avatar of Visnu 41.

Avesta 7, 20, 27, 28, 30, 31,
37, 40, 45, 49, 66, 68, 70,
87, 113, 114, 1 17, 124, 127,
136, 137, 139, Hi, 152, 156,
159, 164, 169, 172, 173;
its relation to Vedic mytho-
logy S 5 (7—8).

axe, of Brahmanas pati 116;

of Tvastr 116.

Azhi 152; — dahaka 68.

Bagha 7, 45.

balance, in which the dead
are weighed 169.

Barth 140, 154.
bear 144, 153.
beast 165.
bee 50.
beef 151.

Benfey 66, 81.

Bergaigne 26, 38, 43, S3, 61,
63, 74, 100, 107, 122, 123,
140, 145, 146, 147, 149, 151,
161.

Bird 139, 148, 149, 152, 163,
172; = Agni 89, 152, 165;
= Soma 106, 108, 152;

— sun 9, 31, 152.

Birds, aquatic 134, 135; as

steeds 50.

Bloomfield 74, 112, 173.
boar 67, 75, 151; cosmogonic

— 14, 41, 151 ; = Vrtra 41.
boars 79.

body in heaven 166.
bogu 45.

Bollensen 53.
bolt, Indra’s 18.
bones, of Dadhyanc 142; of
the dead 165, 166.
bow SS; deified 155.
v. Bradke 64, 66, 149.
Brahman 13.

Brahmans, secret of 113.
Brahmanas 4, 5, 6, 13, 17,
25, 29, 31, 33, 37, 38, 39,
40, 41, 43, 44, 68, 69, 72,
76, 87, 92, 109, 111, 112,
117, 118, 1 19, 124, 125, 130,
136, 155, 156, 159, 160, 168,
169.

Buddhist literature 154.
buffalo 18, 129.
buffaloes 40, 41, 56, 106.
bull 75, 80, 83, 84, 125;
= Agni 88, 90, 92, 150;
= Dyaus 120, 150; =Indra
150, connected with Indra
l8; = Rudra 150; = Soma
106, 108; = sun 31 ; — in
mythology S 61 A (150).
bulls 56, 129.
burial 165.

Cake, offering of 56.
calf = Agni 89 ; = lightning
12, 150.

car, of the Asvins 50, 51,52,
of Indra 55, of Usas 18, 47,
of the gods 18; = the sup
31 ; three-wheeled — 50.
castes, four 13.
cave 159, 160.

Cinvat bridge 173.
claw of the Soma eagle 112.
clothing of the dead 165.
cloud 88, 107, 112.
clouds 10, 59, 60, 78, 134.
cloud-spirit 137.

Colinet 123.
commentators 124.
Comparative Mythology % 6
(«)•.

cosmical functions of Vedic
gods 15.

cosmogonic hymns 13, 46.
cosmogonic paradox 12, 46.
Cosmogony S 8 (11 — 14).
Cosmology § 7 (8 — 1 1).
cow 56, 70, 78, 82, 122, 124,
125, 148; = Aditi 122;
= Prthivl 126; = raincloud
10, 12, 150; sacrificial —
165; sanctity of — 151;

— ofPlenty 150; — of Rbhus
132; — in mythology 150;
raw — 62.

cows 10, 107, 116, 141, 142,
144, 147, 152, 157, 159, 161,
168; =beamsofdawn59,6i,
150; = waters 59,61, 108;

— of light 47, of Vala 102.
craft 156.

cremation 165.
cymbals 134.

Dahaka 69.

Darmesteter 70.

Dawn 14, 15, 30, 45; asso-
ciated with Aditi 122, with
cows 61, with Indra 61,
with night 129; her car 18.
dawns 138.

dead, souls of the 163, 164.
death 168.

deities, lower 131 — 138; agri-
cultural 138; tutelary § 49
(138).

deluge 139.

demons 4, 18, 152, 156 — 164;

— of the mountains 60.
descent of fire 140.

II. General Index.

187

Beat? 121.
devil 156, 159.
dew 148.
dice 135.

A10; xoiipoi 53.
dog 151; four-eyed — 173.
dogs 163, 173; — ofRudra 76.
donkeys 163.
doors, sacrificial 154.
druj 8, 164.
drum, deified 155.
dual divinities §44 (126 — 130),
15 — 16.

Eagle 71, 104, ill, 113, 137,
148; = Agni 89, 1 12;

= Indra 112, 152; = Ma-
ruts 112; = sun 31; car-
ries off Soma 63, 1 12, 152;

— of Zeus 1 14.

Earth 15, 121; is circular 9;

as a mother 8, 12.
east, connected with Agni
34; as region ofthegods76.
’HsXto; 32.
egg, cosmogonic 14.
elbe 133.
elephants 58, 79.
elf 133.
elves 134.

Hcb; 8, 49.
epenthesis 137.

Epic 39, 149, 153, 172.

Epics 119, 121, 137.
eschatalogy 165 — 173.
eternity of reward and punish-
ment 169.

etymological equations in my-
thology 5.

etymology, popular 157.
evil dreams 47.
evil spirits 47.
extra-Vedic tribes 156.
eye == sun 38; associated
with the sun 166; — of j
Mitra and Varuna 23, 149; '

— of the gods (= sun) 48.

Father Heaven 22.

Fathers 11, 12, 48, 86, 136,
165, 166, 167, 170; as a
distinct class 171 ; path of
the — 171.

feather of the Soma eagle 112.
felly = the sun 31.
fetishistic animals 148.
fetishistic worship 154.
fiend 158.
fingers in.

fire 15; domestic — 94.
fire-altar 155.
fire-cult 7.
fire-drill 91.

fires that burn the wicked 167.
fish 41, 139.
flesh-eating goblins 163.

flood 41 ; Indo-Iranian 139.
flute 168, 172.
forest, deified 154.
forts, autumnal 158.
fort-destroyer 109; 127.

Foy 149.

friction, fire produced by 91.
frogs 83, 151.
funerals 165.
future life 165, 171.

Gandarewa 8, 136, 137.
Ganges 134.
garland 1 48.

Geldnek 53, 138.
gem = the sun 31.

Gemini 53.

Germanic mythology 152.
ghee 107, 168, 172; = rain 25.
goat 74, 1 5 1 ; sacrificial — 165 ;

skin of — 165.
goats 128; — of Pusan 35.
goblins 162.
god of battle 54.
gods 5; abode of the — 18; I
abstract — 115 — 123; — and
Asuras 156; — andDasyus
157; — and demons 40;
equipment of the — 18; j
food of — 18; generations |
of — 17; gradation in rank
of — 20; groups of — §45
(130); number of — 19;;
offspring of Vivasvat 42; |
origin of — § 9 (14); re-
lative importance of — 20 ;
— come to the sacrifice 18.
gold = sun 155.
Goldstucker 53.
grain, offering of 56.
Grassmann 73, 77, 87, 149.
Great Bear 144.
groups of gods 5.

Hail 158.

Haoma 43, 68, 113, 114, 137.
Haraiti 113.

Haraqaiti 87.

Hardy 69, 70, 74, 88, 117, 123.
heaven § 73 (167); 150; as
abode of Soma ill, 1 14 ; |
highest — 165, 166, 167;
path to — - 166, 167; — of
priests 168; as reward of
virtue 167; third — 167,

171.

Heaven and earth 1 16,121,123,
154; distance between —
9, 10; as universal parents j
8, 14, 15, 126.

Heavenly bliss §74 (167 — 8).
Helena 53.

hell § 75 (169—170); 172,
173; darkness of — 169;
doctrine of — 168; torments
of — 169, 170.

henotheism 16 — 17.

Henry 74.

i Hillebrandt 26, 69, 70, 88,
100, 104, 117, 118,124,173;
his lunar theory 113.
honey 102, 168 ; associated
with the Asvins 49, with
the waters 85.

Hopkins 53, 104, 1 53.
horns of Soma 108.
horse 132; head of a —
I4f 149; — in mythology
§ 60 (148 — 50); sacrificial —
165 ; = sun 48.
horses of the Asvins 50.
|/hu 114.
hukhratu 114.
hvare 3 i .

Ice 160.

identifications of different
gods 16.
idols 155.
ignis 99.
image 155.
images 18.

immortality, acquired by the
gods 17; navel of — no.
implements, deified 154.
inanimate objects, deification
of 2, 4.
incest 173.

Indo-European period 8, 20,
45, 66, 85, 169.
Indo-Iranian period 7, 20, 28,
43. 45> 66, 68, 70, 106,
113 — 114, 120, 127, 136,
143. 1 73-
Indus 86.

iron leg of Vispala 52.

Judgment 169.

Jupiter (planet) 103.

Kaegi 104, 117.
Kathenotheism 16.

KsvTa'jpo? 137.

Kep^spo? 173.

Kuhn 39, 81, 117, 140.

Langlois 104.

Lettic myth 53.
life after death 4.
lightning 12, 15, 16, 56, 59,
61, 67, 69, 70, 73, 75, 76,
77, 78, 81, 83, 84, 88, 90,
92, 112, 128, 134, 135, 140,
142, 149, 152, 158; as a
form of Agni 92, 93, 94;
associated with Soma 108.
lion 58, 79, 83, 90.

Ludwig 87, 117, 149.
lutes 134.

Magical effect of kindling
fire 98.

1 88 III. Religion, vveltl. Wissensch. u. Kuxst i a. Vedic Mythology.

magical rites 8.
man and beast 153.
man-tigers 153.

Manes 172, 173.

Mannhardt 53.
marriage processions 154.
Max Muller 16, 70, 87, 104,
123, 151.

mead, Indo-European 114.
measuring the earth 11.
medu 1 14.

men and animals 148.
men, origin of 14.
messengers 143, 172, 173.
metamorphoses 134,151,163.
metempsychosis, germ of 166.
meteor 163.

method in mythology § 4

(s— 7).

piilu 114.

Meyer 81, 173.

milk 168; = rain 10, 80;

= water 86; ripe — 62.
milky way 88.
mirage 136.
mist 158.

Mithra 30, 37, 44, 127.
monkey 64, 151.
monotheism, a kind of 4 ;

polytheistic — 16, 17.
moon 31, 48, 69, 70, 73, 74,
88, 104, 108, HI, 118, 136,
137, 159. 173; = Soma
1 12; phases of the — 112,
I25> 133. 134; waning of
the — 112.
morning star 53.
mortar and pestle 106; dei-
fied 155.

mother earth 22, 88, 90.
mothers, Agni’s two 91;

Waters as — 85.
mountain = cloud ill, 159.
mountains 135, 161 ; aerial —
10; — deified 154.

Muir 123.

Mvriantheus 53.
mythological conceptions, re-
lative ages of 20.
mythology, comparative § 6
(8); definition of — § I ;
characteristics of Vedic
§ 2 (2 — 3); post-Vedic —
86, 87.

myths, primary and secondary
traits in 6.

Names, un-Aryan 162.
niggard 157.

night 12, 48; time of goblins
163; associated with morn-
ing 124.

north, region of Rudra 76.
north-east 171.

Odhin 83, 1 52 ; as an eagle 114.

ogni 39.

Oldenberg 28, 34, 39, 43,
44, S3. 60, 70, 77, 92, 104,
117, 123, 149.

Oldham 87.

omen, birds and beasts of
152.

origin of various deities iden-
tical 3, 15.

ornaments of the dead 165.
Oupavo;, 28, addenda, line 10.
owl 152, 163, 169. 172.

Pantheism 4, 13, 16, 154;

‘ritualistic’ — 154.
paradise, earthly 173 ; heaven-
ly 173-

paradox 12, 46, 91, 121, 122.
Parendi 124.

parentage, mythological appli-
cations of 11, 12.

Parsis 106.

Perkunas 84, addenda, line 31.
Perry 69.

phallic worship 155.
v'/.Bfjai 140.
pigeon 152, 172.

Pjschel 57, 58, 62, 69, 77,
123, 149-

plants 84, 154; deified 154.
points of the compass 9.
post-Vedic literature 102, 136,
139, 142, 160, 163; — mytho-
logy 1 18, 155 ; — poetry 150;
— period 155; — Sanskrit
157; — Soma 112.
prehistoric notions about ani-
mals s 65 (153).
pressing-stones 105, no, 144,
154-

pressings of Soma 1 14.
priest, Atharvan 7, 141;

Adhvaryu 107; Hotr 7, 96,
147-

priests and heroes, mythical
I37 — I47-

Prometheus 72, 91.
punishment, future 169.
Puranas 39, 41, 119, 121.

Quail 52.

quiver, deified 155.

Rain 24, 59, S3, 88; names
of — 8i, n. 2.
rainbow 136, 137.
rain-cloud 83, 85, 90; names
of - 83.
rain-clouds 60.
rain-god 85.
rain-waters 85.
rays = steeds of the sun 31.
rebirth 167, 168.
religion, definition of § 1 (i).
retribution, doctrine of 168.

rivers, deified §33 (86 — 88);
154-

rock = cloud in.

Roth 28, 44, 53, 65, 69, 73,
87, 88, 104, 116, 123, 146,
149. 169, 173-

Sacrifice, attacked by goblins
163; celestial — 167.
sacrificial fire 99; — fires 47;

— gifts 1 67, 1 68 ;— horse35 ;

— implements 1 54; — ladles
!55; — post 154.

Satires on Brahmans 151.
Sayuzhdri 68.

Schmidt, Joh., addenda,! 10,
29.

V. SCHROEDER 70, 77, 8 1.
Semitic legend 139.
serpent 72, 148, 152, 153,
158, 160, 165; = Agni 89.
serpent-slayer 152, 153.
seven, hotrs 144; — priests
139, 1441 — R?is 144, 167;

— stars 144.

sheep 36; wool of — 106.
sin, pardoned by various gods
121.

sleep 172.
solar year 39.
solstitial festival 155.
soma-backed no.
soma-drinker (Agni) 16.
soma-drinkers 127.
soma-eagle 69, 107, 114, 142,
152.

soma-strainer 106, ill.
soma vat 106.

son, figurative use of the word
12; — of strength 102; — of
waters 85.

song 168, 1 72 ; — ofthe Angiras-
es 142; — of the MarutsSo.
sorcerers 95.

Soul § 72 (166 — 167); — ofthe
dead 48, 81.

south, connected with the
Fathers 1 70, with Soma 34.
south-east 171.

Spiegel 70.

spirits, friendly 164; dark
world of evil — 167.
stallion 80.

stars 10, 103, 112, 134, 136,
144, 167. 171-

steed i48;=Agni 89;=light-
ning 150; - Soma 108;
= sun 31.
steeds of Indra 55; of Apani
napat 70.

steps of Visnu 37, 38, 39.
stone, burning 156; =sun3i.
storm-cloud 125.
storm-gods 81.
strainer, Soma 106, III.
stratagem of the gods 156.

II. General Index.

189

sun 15, 148; as a cosmogonic
agent 13; as a form of
Agni93; daughter of the —
S3, 105, 10S, 119; eye of
the — 160 ; as abode of
the Fathers 167; coupled
with the moon 129, 173;
its whereabouts at night
10; restoration of the —
51, S3, 61; rising — 43,
137; steeds of the — 12;
wheel of the — 56, 63.
sun-bird 39, 136.
sunrise, Agni produced at 91.
sunset 155; unimportant in
Vedic worship 53.
sun-steed 136.

supersession of Varuna by
Indra 28.

Sutlej 87.

Sutras 36, 75, 76, 119, 125,
I52. 1 53» I55> 166, 168.
swan, golden 168.
symbolical steed 150.
symbols 155.

Temples, unknown in Rgveda
18.

ten fingers 105, 116, 122.
ten maidens= fingers9i, 106.
terrestrial gods 86 — 114.
terrestrial objects deified 154.
third daily Soma pressing 132.
Thraetaona 68.
three Agnis 94; — classes of
beings 164; — daily invoca-
tions 119,120; — dailyoffer-
ings 89; — daily Somapress-
ings 107; — earths 169;

— lakes ofSoma 107, 139;

— sacrificial fires 94, 95 ; —
Soma-tubs 139 ; — worlds 41.

three-headed demon 61, 64,
67,68, 160; — goblins 163.
three-wheeled car 132.

Thrita 8, 43, 68, 114.
thunder 59, 84; — of the Mar-
uts 80.

thunder-god 54.
thunderstorm 108.

Thwaks 117.

time of the Asvins’ appearing
50.

tortoise 41, 151, 153.
totemisnv 153.
track of death 165.
transmigration 166, 168, 169.
tree, celestial 167.
trees 134, 154.
triad of gods 5, 19, 54, 69,
93; — of sacrificial god-
desses 87; — of worlds 9.
triple character of Agni 93.
Tfuto; 69.
twin 172.

twins, Asvins 49; primaeval
173-

two births of Agni 94 ;
— classes of abstract gods
115; — eyes = sun and

moon 130.

Universe, mechanical produc-
tion of 11; three divisions
of 8, 11, 14.

Upanisads 119, 167, 168.

Vadare 114.

Varaghna 152.

Vedic commentators 113.
Vedic gods, beneficent 18;
their character § 10 (15 —
19); classified 19 — 21; their
common features 15; their
number 17, 19; originally
mortal 17; subordinate to
one another 16.

Vedic mythology, sources of

S 3 (3—5)-

verethra 159.

Verethraghna 8, 66, 150, 152.
verethrajan 114.

Vlvanhvant 43, 114, 172.
Vourukasa 137.

Vrtra-slayer 87, 98, 109, 152;
= Agni 16; = sun 31.

Vrtra-slayers 127, 128; = As-
vins 51.

Vrtra-slaying 6, 80.
vulture 152.
vultures 163.

Wallis 123.

water-nymph 15, 134, 137,
172.

Waters 10, 91, 116, 121, 126,
152, 154, 158, 159, 161 ;
aerial 59; associated with
Agni 92; in cosmogony 14;
as mothers 12, 69, 85, 107;
purifying and healing 85,
son of — - 12; as wives of
Varuna 26.

Weapons, deified 1 5 5 ; — of the
dead 165; — of the Maruts79.
Weber 53, 77, 104, 140, 143,
169.

wedding hymn 35
wedding procession 134.
weddings 163.
were-wolf 153.
west, connected with Savitr 34.
wheel = sun 31, 155; — of
the sun 146; — ofVisnu 155.
Whitney 65.
widow-burning 165.

Wilson 77, 104.
wind 72.
wind-spirits 137-
wine 168.
winged steed 148.

Wodan 83.
wolf 52, 157.
wolves 75.

wood, cosmogonic II.
world-giant 13, 15, 82.
world-soul 168.

Yima 43, 172, 173.

Yimeh 172, 173.

Zarathustra 7.

Zs'j; 27.

Zimmer 87.

-

ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA.

P. I, ast line, for Oxford Essays II read Oxford Essays, 1856 (= Chips \2, 1 — 154).

— T. 2, 1. 1 add Contributions to the Science of Mythology, 2 vols. London, 1897. —
F. 5, 1.5 from below for pove read prove. — P. 8, 1. 4 /£>rVerctliragna read Verethraghna.

— P. 12, 1. 7 from below, for visvarupa read visvarupa\ 1. 23: on this paradox cp. WC.
41. — P. 15, 1. 10 from below for Prajanya read Parjanya. — P. 17, I. 14 from below
add: The notion of an infinite number of cosmic ages is already to be found in the
AV. (10, 839-4°), cp. Jacobi, GGA. 1895, p. 210; Garbe in this Encyclopedia 3, 4 p. 16.

— P. 21, note 22 for fournished read furnished. — P. 22, 1. 14 as animat : cp. I’AOS.
1S95, P- 138. — P. 28, note 2 add but cp. RV. xo, 1271 and Bloomfield, JAOS. 15,
170; SBE. 42, 391. — P. 29, note 21 add Joh. Schmidt writes to the effect that till the
relation of the Aeolic opavo; and (hpavo; to oupavos has been determined, it is im-
possible to say whether Varuna is connected with oopavo? or not. — P. 29, § 13, 1. 4
for bruvdnah read bruvdnah. — P. 33, 1. 25 for stimultae read stimulate. — P. 35, 1. 4
add Bloomfield, AJP. 14, 493. — P. 37, § 16, last line of notes, after Perry add
JAOS. XX, 190 — 1. — P. 39, 1. 19 for mythology read mythology11. — P. 41, 1. 28 for
IS. XI read IS. XII. — P.42, 1. 5, note 4 add cp. Macdonell, GGA. 4897, p. 47 — 8. —
P. 42, 1. 17 add On Visnu’s obscure epithet sipivista cp. OST. 4, 87 f. ; LRV. 1, X62;
4, 153; KRV. note 214. — P. 44, 1. 6: On Surya and Savitr as an Aditya cp. JAOS.
18, 28. — P. 44, 1. 21 for Adityas read Adityas. — P. 46, ixote 9 add Cp. Wurm, Gesch.
d. ind. Rel. p. 29. — P. 46, 1. 5 for feast’ read feast. — P. 50, delete note 9. —
P. 54, note 22 add cp. JAOS. 16, 21 — 2; 1. 33 add Hopiuns, PAOS. X894, CXLIX— cl. —
P. 55, 1. 15: On Indra’s weapons cp. Perry, JAOS. 11, 138. 498. — P. 55, 1. 21 : on dyasa
cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 278. — P. 66, note 11 add cp. LRF, 142 — 3; note 33 add cp.
WiNTERNXTZ, Hoclizeitsrituell 43. 46; Oertel, JAOS. x8, 26 — 31; note 3 add BRV. 3,
200 — 7; note 42 add cp. ZDMG. 9, 687. — P. 69, note r° add cp. IIillebrandt, Veda-
interpretation 13. 19; and two lines below before LRV. 3, 355—7 add Westergaard,
IS. 3, 414—24. — P. 80, !. 9 for Marudvrddha read Marudvrdha (also p. 88, note 4). —
P. 84, 1. 8 from below: On points of resemblance between Indra and Parjanya cp.
Hopiuns, PAOS. 1894 (Dec.), 36—9. — P. 85, note 4 add Joh. Schmidt writes that he
regards the equation Parjanya = Perkunas as quite wrong, since Lith. u can only corre-
spond to Sansk. u. Leskien also considers this equation untenable (communication through
Bohti.ingk). It is, however, accepted by Wackernagel, Altindische Grammatik §§ 52.
'.00 b. — P. 88, note 11 add cp. Bollensen, ZDMG. 41, 499. — P. 114 delete note 41. —
P. 169, note 6 add Haug, GGA. 1875, p. 96.

Indo-arische Philologie. III. 1 a.

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PK114 .G88v. 3:1:1
... Vedic mythology