Full text of "The Victoria history of the county of Essex. [Edited by H. Arthur Doubleday and William Page]"

GOL,D\VIN SMITH
HARRIE.TSJ>\ITM

TTbe Dtctotia 1FMstor\> of the
Counties of JStiQlanb

EDITED BY H. ARTHUR DOUBLEDAY
AND WILLIAM PAGE F.S.A.

A HISTORY OF
ESSEX

VOLUME I

A HISTORY OF ESSEX IN
FOUR VOLUMES EDITED
BY H. ARTHUR DOUBLEDAY
AND WILLIAM PAGE F.S.A.

THE

VICTORIA HISTORY

OF THE COUNTIES
OF ENGLAND

ESSEX

WESTMINSTER
ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE

AND COMPANY LIMITED

This History is issued to Subscribers only

By Archibald Constable W Company Limited

and printed by Butler iff Tanner of

Frame and London

INSCRIBED

TO THE MEMORY OF

HER LATE MAJESTY

QUEEN VICTORIA

WHO GRACIOUSLY GAVE

THE TITLE TO AND

ACCEPTED THE

DEDICATION OF

THIS HISTORY

THE ADVISORY COUNCIL
OF THE VICTORIA HISTORY

Hit GRACE THE
BEDFORD, K.G.

Praident of tbi Zoological Society

His GRACE THE DUKE OP DEVON-
SHIRK, K.G.

Chancellor of tbi Univeriily of Cam-
bridge

His GRACE THE DUKE OF

RUTLAND, K.G.
His GRACE THE DUKE OF

PORTLAND, K.G.

His GRACE THE DUKE OF
ARGYLL, K.T.

THE MOST HON. THE MARQUESS
OF SALISBURY, K.G.

Chancellor of tbi Univtrtity of Oxford

THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF
ROSEBERY, K.G., K.T.

THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF
COVENTRY

President of tbi Royal Agricultural
Society

THE RT. HON. Tm VISCOUNT
DILLON

President of tbi Society of Antiquaries

THE RT. HON. THE LORD LISTER

Late President of tbi Royal Socitty

THE RT. HON. THE LORD AL-
TERSTONE, G.C.M.G.

Lord Cbief Justice

General

DUKE OF THE HON. WALTER ROTHSCHILD, COL. DUNCAN A. JOHNSTON

M.P.

SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART.,
LL.D., F.S.A., ETC.

Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence,
Oxford

SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON,
K.C.B.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A.,

ETC. Director of the British Museum

SIR CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.S.A.

President of the Royal Geographical
Society

SIR HENRY C. MAXWELL-LYTE,
K.C.B., M.A., F.S.A., ETC.

Keeper of tbi Puttie Records

COL. SIR J. FARQUHARSON, K.C.B.
SIR Jos. HOOKER, G.C. S.I. , M.D.,

D.C.L., F.R.S., ETC.
SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D.,

F.R.S., ETC.

REV. J. CHARLES Cox, LL.D.,

F.S.A., ETC.
LIONEL CUST, ESQ., M.A., M.V.O.,

F.S.A., ETC

Director of the National Portrait Gallery

ALBERT C. L.G. GUNTHER, M.A.,
F.R.S., M.D., PH.D.

Late President of the Linnean Society

Director General of tbi Ordnance Survey

PROF. E. RAY LANKESTER, M.A.,
F.R.S., ETC.

Director of tbi Natural History
Museum, Soutb Kensington

REGINALD L. POOLS, ESQ., M.A.

University Lecturer in Diplomatic,
Oxford

F. YORK POWELL, ESQ., M.A.,
F.S.A., ETC.

Regiut Profeuor of Modern History,
Oxford

J. HORACE ROUND, ESQ., M.A.

WALTER RYE, ESQ.

W.H.ST. JOHN HOPE, ESQ., M.A.

Auiitant Secretary of rbe Society of
Antiauaria

Among the original members of
the Council were

THE LATE DR. MANDELL CREIGH-
TON, BISHOP OP LONDON

THE LATE DR. STUBBS, BISHOP OF
OXFORD

THE LATE LORD ACTON and
THE LATE SIR WILLIAM FLOWER

Editor, of the Series { H ,; ] ARTHUR DouB " D * Y

WILLIAM PAGE, F.S.A.

GENERAL ADVERTISEMENT

The VICTORIA HISTORY of the Counties of England is a National Historic Survey,
which, under the direction of a large staff comprising the foremost students in science, history,
and archarology, is designed to record the history of every county of England in detail. This
work was, by gracious permission, dedicated to Her late Majesty Queen Victoria, who gave it
her own name. It is the endeavour of all who are associated with the undertaking to make it
a worthy and permanent monument to her memory.

Rich as every county of England is in materials for local history, there has hitherto been
no attempt made to bring all these materials together into a coherent form.

Although from the seventeenth century down to quite recent times numerous county
histories have been issued, they are very unequal in merit ; the best of them are very rare
and costly ; most of them are imperfect and all are now out of date. Moreover they were
the work of one or two isolated scholars, who, however able, could not possibly deal adequately
with all the varied subjects which go to the making of a county history.

VII

In the VICTORIA HISTORY each county is not the labour of one or two men, but of
several hundred, for the work is treated scientifically, and in order to embody in it all that
modern scholarship can contribute, a system of co-operation between experts and local students
is applied, whereby the history acquires a completeness and definite authority hitherto lacking
in similar undertakings.

THE SCOPE OF THE WORK

The history of each county will be complete in itself, and its story will be told from the
earliest times, commencing with the natural features and the flora and fauna. Thereafter will
follow the antiquities, pre-Roman, Roman and post-Roman ; a new translation and critical
study of the Domesday Survey ; articles on political, ecclesiastical, social and economic history ;
architecture, arts, industries, biography, folk-lore and sport. The greater part of each history
will be devoted to a detailed description and history of each parish, containing an account of
the land and its owners from the Conquest to the present day. These manorial histories will
be compiled from original documents in the national collections and from private papers. A
special feature will be the wealth of illustrations afforded, for not only will all buildings of
interest be pictured, but the coats of arms of past and present landowners will be given.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

It has always been, and still is, a reproach to us that England, with a collection of public
records greatly exceeding in extent and interest those of any other country in Europe, is yet
far behind her neighbours in the study of the genesis and growth of her national and local
institutions. Few Englishmen are probably aware that the national and local archives contain
for a period of 800 years in an almost unbroken chain of evidence, ' not only the political,
ecclesiastical, and constitutional history of the kingdom, but every detail of its financial and
social progress and the history of the land and its successive owners from generation to
generation.' The neglect of our public and local records is no doubt largely due to the fact
that their interest and value is known to but a small number of people. But this again is
directly attributable to the absence in this country of any endowment for historical research
such as is to be found among other cultured nations. The government of this country has
always left to private enterprise work which our continental neighbours entrust to a government
department. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that although an immense amount of
work has been done by individual effort, the entire absence of organization among the workers
and the lack of intelligent direction has robbed the results of much of their value.

In the VICTORIA HISTORY, for the first time, a serious attempt is made to utilize our
national and local muniments to the best advantage by carefully organizing and supervising
the researches required. Under the direction of the Records Committee a large staff of experts
is engaged at the Public Record Office in calendaring those classes of records which are most
fruitful in material for local history, and by a system of interchange of communication among
local editors each county gains a mass of information which otherwise would be lost.

THE RECORDS COMMITTEE

SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B. C. T. MARTIN, B.A., F.S.A.

SIR HENRY MAXWELL-LYTE, K.C.B. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A.

W. J. HARDY, F.S.A. S. R. SCARGILL-BIRD, F.S.A.

F. MADAN, M.A. W. H. STEVENSON, M.A.

F. MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. G. F. WARNER, M.A., F.S.A.

Many archaeological, historical and other societies are assisting in the compilation of this
work ; and local supervision and aid are secured by the formation in each county, of a County
Committee, the president of which is in nearly all cases the Lord Lieutenant.

The names of the distinguished men who have joined the Advisory Council are a
guarantee that the work will represent the results of the latest discoveries in every department
of research. It will be observed that among them are representatives of science ; for the
whole trend of modern thought, as influenced by the theory of evolution, favours the intelli-
gent study of the past and of the social, institutional and political developments of national
life. As these histories are the first in which this object has been kept in view, and modern
principles applied, it is hoped that they will form a work of reference no less indispensable
to the student than welcome to the man of culture.

viii

Family History will, both in the Histories and in the supplemental volumes of chart
pedigrees, be dealt with by genealogical experts and in the modern spirit. Every effort will be
made to secure accuracy of statement, and to avoid the insertion of those legendary pedigrees
which have in the past brought discredit on the whole subject. It has been pointed out by the
late Bishop of Oxford, a great master of historical research, that ' the expansion and extension
of genealogical study is a very remarkable feature of our own times,' that 'it is an increasing
pursuit both in America and England,' and that it can render the historian useful service.

Heraldry will also in this Series occupy a prominent position, and the splendours of the
coat-armour borne in the Middle Ages will be illustrated in colours on a scale that has never
been attempted before.

The general plan of Contents, and the names of the Sectional Editors (who will
co-operate with local workers in every case) are as follows :
Natural History.

Geology. By CLIMSNT Run, F.R.S, HORACE B. WOODWAD, F.R.S, ind others
Paleontology. Edited by R. LvDirjcn, F.R.S, etc.

^Contributions by G. A. BOULINGIR, F.R.S, F. O. PICKARD-CAMIRIDGI, M.A, H. N. DIION, F.L.S.,
Flora I G. C. DRUCI, M.A, F.L.S, WALTIR GARITANG, M.A, F.L.S, HI.II.T COM, F.L.S, F.E.S,
Fauna 1 R - ' POCOCK, RET. T.R. R. STIRRING, M.A, F.R.S., etc., B. B. WOOOWAIO, F.G.S, F.R.M.S,

V. etc., and other Specialists
Prehistoric Remains. Edited by W. BOYD DAWKINI, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S, F.S.A.

Roman Remains. Edited by F. HAVIRFIILD, M.A., F.S.A.

Anglo-Saxon Remains. Edited by C. Huci-i.it READ, F.S.A, >nd REGINALD A. SMITH, B.A.

Ethnography. Edited by G. LAURENCE Gouui, F.S.A.

Dialect. Edited by JOSEFH WRIOHT, M.A, Ph.D.

Place Names \

Folklore V Contributed by Various Authorities

Physical Types I
Domesday Book and other kindred Records. Edited by J. HORACE ROUND, M.A.

Architecture. By Various Authorities. The Sections on the Cathedrals and Monattic Remains Edited by

W. H. ST. JOHN HorE, M.A.

Ecclesiastical History. Edited by R. L. Foot*, M.A.
Political History. Edited by W. H. STEVENSON, M.A, J. HORACE ROUND, M.A, PROF-. T. F. Tour, M.A.,

JAMU TAIT, M.A., ind C. H. FIHTH, M.A.
History of Schools. Edited by A. F. LEACH, M.A, F.S.A.
Maritime History of Coast Counties. Edited by J. K. LAUGHTON, M.A., and M. OrriNHiiu

Topographical Accounts of Parishes and Manors. By Various Authorities

History of the Feudal Baronage. Edited by J. HORACE ROUND, M-A, and OSWALD BAIION, F.S.A.

Family History and Heraldry. Edited by OSWALD BAON, F.S.A.

Agriculture. Edited by SIR ERNEST CLARKE, M.A, Sec. to the Royal Agricultural Society

Forestry. Edited by JOHN NISIET, D.Oic.

Industries, Arts and Manufactures

Social and Economic History [ By Various Authorities

Persons Eminent in Art, Literature, Science

Ancient and Modern Sport. Edited by the Duct or BIAUI-OIT

Hunting 1

Shooting > By Various Authorities

Fishing, etc. J

Cricket. Edited by HOMI GORDON

Football. Edited by C. W. ALCOCK
Bibliographies
Indexes
Names of the Subscribers

ILLUSTRATIONS

Among the many thousands of subjects illustrated will be castles, cathedrals and churches,
mansions and manor houses, moot halls and market halls, family portraits, etc. Particular
attention will be given to the beautiful and quaint examples of architecture which, through
decay or from other causes, are in danger of disappearing. The best examples of church
brasses, coloured glass, and monumental effigies will be depicted. The Series will also contain
1 60 pictures in photogravure, showing the characteristic scenery of the counties.

)By Vario

CARTOGRAPHY

Each History will contain Archaeological, Domesday, and Geological maps ; maps show-
ing the Orography, and the Parliamentary and Ecclesiastical divisions ; and the map done by
Speed in 1610. The Series will contain about four hundred maps in all.

FAMILY HISTORY AND HERALDRY

The Histories will contain, in the Topographical Section, manorial pedigrees, and
accounts of the noble and gentle families connected with the local history ; and it is proposed
to trace, wherever possible, their descendants in the Colonies and the United States of
America. The Editors will be glad to receive information which may be of service to them
in this branch of the work. The chart family pedigrees and the arms of the families
mentioned in the Heralds' Visitations will be issued in a supplemental volume for each county.

The Rolls of Arms are being completely collated for this work, and all the feudal coats
will be given in colours. The arms of the local families will also be represented in connection
with the Topographical Section.

In order to secure the greatest possible accuracy in the descriptions of the Architecture,
ecclesiastic, military and domestic, a committee has been formed of the following students of
architectural history, who will supervise this department of the work :

ARCHITECTURAL COMMITTEE

J. BILSON, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. W. H. ST. JOHN HOPE, M.A.

R. BLOMFIELD W. H. KNOWLES, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

HAROLD BRAKSPEAR, A.R.I.B.A. J. T. MICKLETHWAITE, F.S.A.

PROF. BALDWIN BROWN ROLAND PAUL

ARTHUR S. FLOWER, F.S.A., A.R.I.B.A. J. HORACE ROUND, M.A.

GEORGE E. Fox, M.A., F.S.A. PERCY G. STONE, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

J. A. GOTCH, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. THACKERAY TURNER

A special feature in connection with the Architecture will be a series of coloured ground
plans showing the architectural history of castles, cathedrals and other monastic foundations.
Plans of the most important country mansions will also be included.

The issue of this work is limited to subscribers on/y, whose names will be printed at the end of
each History.

THE

VICTORIA HISTORY

OF THE COUNTY OF

ESSEX

VOLUME ONE

WESTMINSTER
2 WHITEHALL GARDENS

1903

v, !

Counts Committee for Eeaey

THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF WARWICK

Lord Lieutenant^ Chairman

THE RT. HON. THK LORD CLAUD J.
HAMILTON

THE RT. REV. THE LORD BISHOP OF ST.
ALBANS

THE RT. HON. THE LORD RAYLEIGH

THE RT. HON. THE LORD HAWKESBURY

THE RT. HON. SIR JOSEPH C. DIMSDALE,
BART., M.P.

THE RT. HON. JAMES ROUND, M.P.

THE HON. CHARLES HEDLEY STRUTT, M.P.

SIR THOMAS L. H. NEAVE, BART.

SIR WALTER GILBEY, BART.

SIR JAMES BLYTH, BART.

SIR EDMUND DU CANE, K.C.B.

ADMIRAL SIR WILLIAM G. LUARD, K.C.B.

SIR H. SEYMOUR KING, K.C.I.E., M.P.

THE RT. REV. THE BISHOP OF COLCHESTER

THE RT. REV. THE BISHOP OF BARKING

THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF CHELMS-
FORD

THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF COL-
CHESTER

THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF HARWICH

THE WORSHIPFUL THE MAYOR OF MALDON

COL. GEORGE BRAMSTON ARCHER-HOUBLON,

J-P.

JAMES BAILEY, ESQ., M.P., J.P.
THOMAS BARRETT-LENNARD, Esq.,J.P.,D.L.
THE REV. R. E. BARTLETT, M.A.
G. F. BEAUMONT, ESQ., F.S.A.
CHARLES E. BENHAM, ESQ.
W. GURNEY BENHAM, ESQ., J.P.
G. S. BOULGER, ESQ., F.L.S., F.G.S.
E. N. BUXTON, ESQ.
FREDERIC CHANCELLOR, ESQ., F.R.I. B.A.
MILLER CHRISTY, ESQ., F.L.S.
R. BEALE COLVIN, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
GEORGE COURTAULD, ESQ., J.P.
THE REV. CECIL DEEDES, M.A.

CLAUDE E. EGERTON-GREEN, ESQ., M.A.,

J.P., D.L.

E. A. FITCH, ESQ., F.L.S., F.E.S.
JOHN LEWIS FFYTCHE, ESQ., F.S.A., J.P., D.L.
THE REV. F. W. GALPIN, M.A., F.L.S.
A. R. GODDARD, ESQ.
I. C. GOULD, ESQ.

HORACE G. EGERTON GREEN, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
HUGH E. HOARE, ESQ.
THOMAS VINCENT HOLMES, ESQ., F.G.S.,

M.A.I.

DAVID HOWARD, ESQ., D.L.
ELIOT HOWARD, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
HENRY JOSLIN, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
COMMANDER KELSO, R.N., J.P., D.L.
THE REV. J. W. KENWORTHY
FRANK LANDON, ESQ.
HENRY LAVER, ESQ., F.S.A., F.L.S.
COL. A. R. M. LOCKWOOD, M.P., J.P.
GEORGE ALAN LOWNDES, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
JAMES H. A. MAJENDIE, ESQ., M.P., J.P., D.L.
WILSON MARRIAGE, ESQ., J.P.
R. MELDOLA, ESQ., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S.
MAJOR F. L. NATHAN, R.A.
W. NOCTON, ESQ., J.P.
THE REV. CANON C. F. NORMAN, M.A., J.P.
CHRISTOPHER W. PARKER, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
JAMES N. PAXMAN, ESQ., J.P.
J. TIMBRELL PIERCE, ESQ., F.R.G.S., J.P., D.L.
THE REV. LEWIS N. PRANCE, M.A.
J. HORACE ROUND, ESQ., D.L.
A. W. RUGGLES-BRISE, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
J. C. SHENSTONE, ESQ., F.L.S.
CHARLES BROGDEN SPERLING, ESQ., J.P., D.L.
C. F. D. SPERLING, ESQ., J.P.
COL. NEVILL TUFNELL, J.P., D.L.
COL. J. L. TUFNELL-TYRELL, J.P., D.L.
W. CHAPMAN WALLER, ESQ., F.S.A.
JAMES F. T. WISEMAN, ESQ.

xiii

CONTENTS OF VOLUME ONE

Dedication .......

The Advisory Council of the Victoria History .
General Advertisement . . . . .

The Essex County Committee .

Contents .......

List of Illustrations . . . . . . .

Preface

Natural History

Geology ....

Palaeontology

Botany ....

Zoology
Marine

Mollusca (Snath, etc.)

Insecta (Insects)

Myriapoda (CentifeJei) . .

Arachnida (Spiders) . . .

Crustacea (Crabs, etc.) . ,

Pisces (Fishes) ,

Reptilia (Reptiles) and
Batrachia (Batrachiani) . ,
Aves (BitJi) .

Mammalia (Mammals) . .
Early Man

Ancient Earthworks . ,

Anglo-Saxon Remains

Introduction to the Essex Domesday

Text of the Essex Domesday

Index to the Essex Domesday . ,

PAGE
V

VII

vii
xiii

xvii
xix

By H. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S.

By RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.

By J. C. SHENSTONE, F.L.S. .

By WALTER GARSTANC, assisted by H. C. SORBY,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. . . .

By B. B. WOODWARD, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. . .
By W. HARWOOD . . . . . '

By R. I. POCOCK . . . . . . -

By F. O. PICKARD-CAMBRIDCE, M.A. . . .

By the Rev. T. R. R. STEBBINC, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.L.S ..... . .

By H. LAVER, J.P., F.S.A., F.L.S., M.R.C.S. .

,, . .

By MILLER CHRISTY, F.L.S ......

By H. LAVER, J.P., F.S.A., F.L.S., M.R.C.S. .

By GEO. F. BEAUMONT, F.S.A., and I. CHALKLEY

GOULD . . . . . . . .

By I. CHALKLEY GOULD .....

By REGINALD A. SMITH, B.A .....

By J. HORACE ROUND, M.A. . . .

193

196

204
220

230
232
254

261
275
315
333
4*7
$79

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAC

Canvey Island. By WILLIAM HYDE fhatiifieee

Palaeolithic Weapons from the Lea Valley \

full-pafe flatr, fadne 262
Neolithic Celts from Inworth and Stisted j

Weapons from Walton, Shoebury, Dovercourt, near Stansgate and

Colchester .......... 264

Pottery from Chcsterford, Great Clacton, Great Oakley and Colchester 265

Pcnannular Armlet and Palstave from Shoebury ..... 266

Palstaves from Shoebury and Pleshcy . . .}

. full-Met plate, faang 266
Bronze Socketed Celts from Hatfield Broad Oak J

Bronze Spearheads from Plaistow Marshes, Walthamstow, and

Hatfield Broad Oak 267

Handles of a Bronze Cauldron from Hatfield Broad Oak .

Part of the Box of a Chariot Wheel, with Nails, found at Shoebury 268

Parts of the Rim of a large Vessel from Hatfield Broad Oak

Late Celtic Vessels, etc 269

Implements from Site of Fascine Dwellings

270
View of the Site of Fascine Dwellings at Braintrcc

Loughton Camp .......... 277

Ambresbury Banks ..........

Ring Hill Camp, Littlebury ..... 280

Uphall Entrenchments, near Barking .... .281

Wallbury Camp * 8 *

Pitchbury Ramparts, Great Horkesley ....
Shoeburyness ..........

Witham Bury .288

Bcrden Mound ........... * 8 9

Great Canfield *9

Covering .292

Great Easton .293

Mound in Castle Grove, Elmdon *94

Hedingham Castle 2 94

Ongar Castle *97

Pleshey 2 9 8

Rayleigh Mount

Rickling 3"

Stansted . . 3'

xvii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Stebbing Mount .......

Sections of a Denehole and Ground Plan of Chambers
Anglo-Saxon Objects ......

Bronze Pan from Broomfield .....

Iron Standing-Cup .......

Pottery Vase .......

Turold

Milking Ewes
Wallasea Island
Canvey Island

PAGE

. 3 z

39
coloured plate facing 322

. 3"

323

3H
full-page plate facing 342

3 6 9

LIST OF MAPS

Geological Map
Botanical Map
Pre-Historical Map.
Earthworks Map
Anglo-Saxon Map .
Domesday Map

between xxii, I

30, 31
260, 261

274. 275
3H 315
426, 427

XVlll

PREFACE

only complete history of Essex hitherto issued is that of
Philip Morant, published in 1768 and reprinted in i8i6. 1 It
may perhaps be reasonably claimed that the county is entitled to
a newer history and one more complete than could be compiled in the
eighteenth century.

The aims of the series of which the Victoria History of Essex forms
a part are to be found in the General Advertisement printed in this
volume.

It has been found impossible in the present instance to adhere to
chronological order in the sequence of the articles included in this volume.
It is hoped to print the section on the Romano-British Period in the
second volume.

Whilst the editors cannot as a rule make special reference to the
services of contributors, they feel in the present instance it is only right
to acknowledge their great indebtedness to Mr. J. Horace Round, not only
for the infinite pains he has expended under adverse circumstances of
health on the Domesday section, which in the case of Essex is one of
peculiar difficulty, but also for the valuable help he has given to others in
the preparation and revision of their articles.

* It would appear that Morant did little more than edit materials collected by previous students of
Essex history (see 'Historians of Essex,' Enex Review, iii. 27-41, 138-53).

XIX

A HISTORY OF
ESSEX

TH STORY OF ESSEX

GEOLOC

ff VEX ! v W-..-

n,.,,.,,,, ,:,!,:

'-- ,

,^#?

'^^m^^kA*'"^' fU*'A-' ^7- baVroRD^

TV. Eouilnn^i Geogi-npluc.1 Imtituic

THE VICTORIA HISTORY 01

UAL MAP.

EXPLANATION OF COLOURING

RECENT 1 .IHnnnin

IMI, Mf4MMk. II ..JM* "rf

/(-.I /...; ,.,..! M.llwl /'.

County Boundary shown that

HE COUNTIES OF ENGLAND

GEOLOGY

ESSEX occupies a large part of the irregular tract which is known
to geologists as the London Basin, and which has for its frame-
work the great Chalk formation. The southern rim of this
Basin rises in the North Downs of Kent, whence the Chalk
slopes gradually to the borders of the Thames at Erith and Gravesend,
comes to the surface in south Essex at Purfleet and Grays, and then sinks
below ground over the greater part of the county. The northern rim of
the Basin appears in the downs of Dunstable, Luton and Royston, and
in the uplands of Heydon and Saffron Walden in Essex.

The contour of the Chalk Basin is to some extent modified by slight
undulations and fractures along the Kentish side of the Thames between
Greenwich and Erith, so that while the curvature is for the most part
gentle, the inclination becomes somewhat steeper on the southern side of
Essex. Hence at Dagenham, Rettenden and Southend the Chalk is
about 400 feet below ground, at Chelmsford it is about 360 feet, and
thence northward it more gradually approaches the surface. Near Hey-
don however there are some striking evidences of local disturbance, to
which further reference will be made.

Resting in the hollow of the Basin, and conforming generally with
its curvature, is a series of Eocene strata, the most important of which is
the London Clay. The succeeding deposits include small outlying tracts
of Crag, but they consist chiefly of the irregular and variable accumu-
lations grouped as ' drift.' These lie scattered over the uplands in the
form of gravel and Boulder Clay, and are spread along the river valleys in
the form of gravel, brickearth and alluvium.

The structure of the ground is thus comparatively simple, but there
are difficulties in the determination of the relative ages of some of the
scattered superficial deposits. There are grave difficulties also when
it is sought to decipher the underground rocky structure beneath the
Chalk and other Cretaceous strata. The problem is of the highest
interest and practical importance, but it raises questions which deep
borings alone can solve.

Although the county is essentially a flat one, and especially along
the river and sea coasts which are bordered by marshes, yet inland there
is an abundant variety of soil, and these regions are very pleasantly diver-
sified with arable land and pasture, with woodlands, commons and well-
timbered hedgerows. Indeed to quote an old agricultural work, ' Every
species of soil, from the most stubborn to the mildest loam, is to be
found.' 1

1 General firm of A 'grit. ofEtiex, by Messrs. Griggs, 410 (Lond. 1794), p. 7.
I I '

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

To the geologist the richly fossiliferous strata of the Red Crag at
Walton-on-the-Naze, and the Pleistocene valley -deposits with their
many notable remains of mammalia and mollusca, have attracted a large
share of attention.

Our knowledge of Essex geology, due chiefly to the labours of
Prestwich, Searles V. Wood, jun., Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr.
W. Whitaker, has been augmented by the workers of the Essex Field
Club and of the Geologists' Association, and notably by Mr. T. V.
Holmes. 1

The following is a Table of the Formations met with in Essex, the
names in italics referring to those not exposed at the surface :

Period

Formation

Character of the strata

Approximate
thickness
in feet

Alluvium

Silt, peat, clay

2O to 50

Recent to

Blown Sand

Fine sand

about 1 5

Neolithic

Marine Sand and Shingle .

Sand with shells and pebbles of
flint, quartz, etc

about 10

Brickearth

Loam

i o to 30

Valley Gravel

Sub-angular flint gravel . .

10 to 50

Pleistocene

Boulder Clay

Chalky clay, with flints and

Palaeolithic

erratics

2O to 70

and

Glacial Loam

Loam

10 to 15

Glacial

Glacial Gravel and Sand

Sub-angular gravel with flints,
quart/.itc, etc

20 to 75

Older Plateau Gravel . . .

Pebbles of flint and quartz .

5 to 12

Red Crag .

Red shelly sand and gravel,

Pliocene

laminated clay, phosphatic
nodules and ironstone .

5 to 21

Bagshot Beds

Sand and pebble beds .

20 to 40

London Clay

Brown and blue clay with

400

Eocene

Blackheath or Oldhaven Beds .

Sand with shells and flint

i o to 50

Woolwich and Reading Beds .

Mottled clay, sand, and flint

25 to 80

Thanet Beds

Grey sand and sandy clay .

10 to 85

Upper Chalk

Chalk with flints ....

400 to 450

Middle Chalk

Bedded chalk with few flints .

200

Upper

Blocky chalk with curved

Cretaceous

Upper Greenland

jointing, and marl
Green sand and brown loam .

120
7O

Gault

5O to I7O

S'tlurion ^ (or older)

unknown

1 See Bibliography in Whitaker's 'Geology of the London Basin,' Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. i. (1872)
p. 393 ; and Geology of London, vol. i. (i 889) p. 87 ; also ' List of Works on the Geology, etc., of Essex,'
by W. Whitaker and W. H. Dalton, Essex Nat., vol. iii. (1889) pp. 61-84.

GEOLOGY

PALAEOZOIC ROCKS

The question whether productive Coal Measures are likely to occur
at a workable depth beneath Essex is one which has aroused keen interest
of late years. So long ago as 1858 a boring at Harwich proved the
occurrence of a dark slaty rock beneath the Gault, at a depth of 1,029 ^ eet
from the surface. 1 It was then thought that this rock, which was pene-
trated to a depth of 69 feet, was of Lower Carboniferous age owing to
the supposed occurrence in it of the fossil mollusc Posidonomya. The
specimen was however re-examined in 1896 by Prof. W. W. Watts, and
he came to the conclusion that, while the rock itself was not at all like
that of any known British Carboniferous rock, the supposed fossil was an
inorganic structure. 1

A somewhat similar dark slaty rock was touched at a depth of 994
feet in a trial boring in Suffolk, at Stutton on the northern side of the
Stour estuary ; and again in a further trial in Essex, at Weeley between
Colchester and Walton-on-the-Naze, where the old rock was reached at
a depth of 1,094 feet. 8

These two trials in search of Coal Measures were made after due
deliberation with the highest geological authorities. That they were
unsuccessful is an indication, not that the chances of obtaining coal
beneath Essex are hopeless, but that scientific knowledge is insufficient
to tell precisely where concealed coal-basins occur. Nevertheless en-
terprise need not be damped. There is always a possibility of finding
coal where the strata at the surface are newer than the Coal Measures ;
but as the older rocks were bent and fractured and largely eroded before
the Secondary and Tertiary strata were spread over them, it is evident
how speculative must be the search for Coal Measures under these
circumstances. Were the exposed coalfields to be covered up with a
mantle of Chalk, we should have no certain guide from one successful
boring as to the nature of the deep-seated rocks at a distance of a few
miles, because there is no regularity in the preservation of coal-basins.
Again if rocks much older are proved in a boring, it is quite possible
that Coal Measures may exist near by, because in south Staffordshire,
Leicestershire and Warwickshire the older Palaeozoic rocks occur in
juxtaposition with productive Coal Measures.

It has lately been suggested by Prof. W. J. Sollas that Enfield Lock,
just across the Lea on the Hertfordshire side, is a likely place for a
successful trial. It may be so, but there is no information that would
prove that it is a more promising site than any other unproved locality
in Essex or Hertfordshire. 4

In Essex several deep borings have been made in search of water.
Thus at Wickham Bishop a boring was carried to a depth of 1,180 feet,

1 Prestwich, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sot., vol. xiv. p. 252.

* Ann. Report of Geol. Survey for 1896, p. 5. Whitaker, Ref. Brit. Ante, for 1895.

4 For further information on the underground rocks see Whitaker, Geology of LenJen, vol. i. p. 10.
(In this work full references are made to the suggestions of Godwin-Austen, Prestwich and others on
the older deep-seated rocks.)

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

including 703 feet of Chalk (base not reached). It is probable that the
thickness of the Eocene strata was here to a certain extent duplicated by
a reversed fault or fold. 1 At Loughton a boring was made to a depth of
1,100 feet into Gault ; and at South Shoebury another was carried 1,048
feet, probably into Lower Chalk. An old boring at Saffron Walden was
carried to a depth of a little over 1,000 feet, but the details of the strata
cannot now be interpreted with certainty. In all of these borings, if we
except the Palaeozoic rock, the oldest formation whose age has been
proved is the Gault.

GAULT AND UPPER GREENSAND

The Gault consists of stiff blue and grey clay and marl, which was
proved to have a thickness of 172 feet in the deep boring at Loughton.
It was found below Harwich and Weeley, and is probably everywhere
present beneath the Chalk under Essex ; but it evidently becomes
thinner towards the north-east, as it was only 50 or 60 feet thick at
Harwich.

There is evidence of the presence of Upper Greensand beneath a
portion of Essex along the Lea valley. Mr. Whitaker has remarked
that this formation was found beneath the Chalk at Cheshunt, and was
met with in the deep well at Loughton, the thickness being about 30
feet. Below the Gault at Loughton there was sand, which may possibly
represent Lower Greensand. 2

CHALK

The Chalk appears at the surface over a comparatively small portion
of Essex, but where it does occur its presence is usually indicated by pits
and lime-kilns.

The Lower Chalk in Cambridgeshire includes at its base the well-
known bed of phosphatic nodules and phosphatized fossils termed the
' Cambridge Greensand,' but whether or not this bed occurs underground
in the northern part of Essex is unknown. Above is the Chalk Marl, a
mass of grey marl 50 or 60 feet thick, which yields Ammonites variant,
Inoceramus latus and other fossils. Still higher we come to the Tottern-
hoe Stone, a hard band of somewhat sandy rock, which north of Heydon
is a noted water-bearing stratum, strong springs being thrown out at its
junction with the Chalk Marl. The Totternhoe Stone is characterized
by Rbynchonella mantelliana, Kingena lima, Pecten orbicularis and P. Jissi-
costata. The uppermost portion of the Lower Chalk comprises a mass
of grey chalk or clunch which yields Belemnitella (Actinocamax) plena and
Ho/aster subglobosus? These portions of the Chalk do not appear at the
surface in Essex, but they no doubt occur everywhere below ground.

The Middle Chalk, which is exposed north of Heydon, at Great

1 See Whitaker, Trans. Essex Field Club, vol. iv. pp. 149, 1 68.

2 Ibid. vol. iv. pp. 158, 159 ; and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Ivi. p. Ixxv. ; and Jukes-Browne,
Cretaceous Rocks of Britain, vol. i. p. 370.

3 See W. Hill and A. J. Jukes-Browne, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue., vol. xlii. p. 216.

GEOLOGY

Chesterford, Hadstock, and Sturmer near Haverhill, includes at its base
the Melbourn Rock, named from the Cambridgeshire village of Mel-
bourn. This is a hard rocky chalk with marly and nodular layers, about
ten feet in thickness. The mass of the Middle Chalk above is well
bedded in layers that appear to be lenticular or wedge-shaped, and it has
but few flints. Among the fossils are Rhynchonella cuvieri, Terebratulina,
and Ho/aster subglobosus. The last-named fossil is found also in a band
of hard cream-coloured limestone with green coated nodules and grains
of glauconite, known as the Chalk Rock, which separates the Middle
from the Upper Chalk. The Chalk Rock has been observed in several
places in the northern portions of the county.

Between Heydon and Chishall the Chalk is locally disturbed, and
instead of the normal southerly or south-easterly dip at a gentle angle,
the strata are inclined at an angle of 25 N.N.W., and the flints are
fractured. This high dip increases to the south-west in Hertfordshire.
Whether the disturbance is due to faulting or to the surface derange-
ments produced by glacial agents has not been satisfactorily determined.
That glacial action has been potent is manifest from the deeply excavated
trough near Newport, to which reference will be made.

The Upper Chalk, which lies about 43 feet below the surface
near the Thames at Beckton, appears above ground at Grays and Purfleet
in south Essex ; and in the north it may be seen at Farnham and
Clavering in the Stort valley, at Quendon, Newport, Audley End and
Saffron Walden in the Cam valley, and eastwards at Great Yeldham and
Middleton, near Sudbury. It consists of soft chalk with layers of flints,
and yields remains of the saurian Leiodon (allied to Mosasaurus), of fishes
such as Ptycbodus polygyrus, molluscs including Inoceramus and Lima,
brachiopods such as Terebratula carnea, the echinoderms Cu/aris and
Goniaster, as well as crinoids and corals.

At Purfleet, Grays and West Thurrock the Chalk has been largely
used in the manufacture of whiting, lime and cement.

At Hangman's Wood a remarkable series of excavations known as
Deneholes occur. These are shafts carried through about 50 or 60 feet
of gravel and Thanet Sand, and 20 feet or more into the Chalk, but
as their interest is mainly archaeological they will be described else-
where.

There is no doubt that the Chalk has been used 'from time im-
memorial ' for chalking the land, and more extensively in old days.
Arthur Young in 1768, after remarking on the badness of the road
between Billericay and Tilbury, observed that ' to add to all the infamous
circumstances, which concur to plague a traveller, I must not forget
the eternally meeting with chalk-waggons.' He mentioned also that
Chalk was brought from Kent by sea to Maldon. 1

At Stifford the Chalk has not only been worked in open pits, but
also by means of shafts or ' chalk-wells,' evidence of which was brought

1 A Six Wteki Tour through the Southern Counties, p. 72 ; see also hi General P'ten eftbe Agritulture
of Essex, vol. ii. (1807) p. 206.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

to the notice of Mr. T. V. Holmes through subsidences having occurred
on account of the old workings. In these cases the Chalk was reached
at a depth of about 12 feet, 1 and was probably dug for agricultural
purposes.

The Chalk itself has little direct influence on the agriculture, but
open down-like tracts occur near Saffron Walden, and the soil generally
on the uplands bordering the Cam valley and extending to Heydon is dry
and more or less ' hurrocky,' that is mixed chalky and gravelly. 2 Along
the Cam valley below Newport many springs issue and there are good
watercress beds. In very wet weather the valley is liable to be flooded
from the drainage off the clay uplands.

During excavations at Grays a former proprietor, Richard Meeson,
opened up some copious springs which were afterwards utilized for
the water supply of a considerable district. 3

The Chalk indeed is of the greatest importance as a water-bearing
formation, and from it supplies are obtained in many a well in Essex.
The rain falling on the North Downs and on the downs in Hertfordshire
and Cambridgeshire descends into the trough of Chalk which underlies
Essex. Here the water is pent up beneath the mass of Tertiary strata,
chiefly London Clay, and borings carried into the Chalk yield a varying
supply. There is no doubt that the Chalk below sea-level is saturated,
and this plane of saturation rises inland to some extent with the rise
of the land and the amount of rainfall ; but when covered by a great
thickness of Tertiary strata the Chalk itself is firmer and closer than it is
near the surface. There are fewer fissures, and therefore a free supply at
a great depth is not to be depended upon. Water may be pumped faster
than it can be replaced. Saturated Chalk of course acts like an im-
pervious stratum, and the additions flow away in springs. Thus overflows
from this Basin escape at the surface on the margin of the Tertiary strata,
as at Benfield Springs near Bishops Stortford on the north, and at Grays
and Purfleet on the south. On the far northern side of the Chalk Basin
there is a copious outflow beyond Heydon along the outcrop of the
Totternhoe Stone, and numerous springs issue at and below Newport
in the Cam valley. Pumping from deep wells takes so much from
the body of the Chalk, and the amount is naturally lost to the springs.

THANET BEDS

Overlying the Chalk there is generally to be found a mass of pale
and greenish-grey sand and sandy clay. This formation known as the
Thanet Beds contains at its base a layer of green-coated flints, which
appear to have originated from the dissolution of the upper layers of
Chalk in which the flints were formerly embedded.

The strata are exposed between Purfleet and Aveley, at StifFord,

1 Essex Nat., vol. iii. p. 183.

8 C. Vancouver, General View of the Agriculture of Essex (1795) pp. 104, 105.
3 Prestwich, Quart. Jount. Geol. Sac., vol. xxviii. p. xliii. ; see also Minutes of Evidence, Roy. Comm.
on Metrop. Water Supply, 1893.

GEOLOGY

Chadwell and West Tilbury. They have been opened up in pits north
of Grays Thurrock station, and have been seen to a thickness of 53
feet by Mr. T. V. Holmes in one of the Deneholes in Hangman's Wood,
north of Little Thurrock. Being in this area largely covered by valley
gravel they have but little direct influence on the soil. Eastwards and
westwards they are concealed beneath the alluvial deposits bordering the
Thames, but over a great part of Essex they have been proved in borings
and sinkings as at Stratford, Loughton and elsewhere.

Along the northern margin of the county their presence has not
everywhere been determined, and they have not been separated from the
Woolwich and Reading Beds on the Geological Survey map, because in
that area the strata are largely concealed by Glacial Drift, and it is known
that although they occur at Sudbury, the Thanet Beds are not present to
the north-west of the London Basin.

WOOLWICH AND READING BEDS

The Woolwich and Reading Beds comprise mottled clay, laminated
clay and sand, also shelly clays and lignite, and usually at the base
greenish-grey sand with flint pebbles. In composition and thickness
this formation is as usual variable, and it is known better in Essex from
the records of well-sections than from the surface exposures. The thick-
ness varies from 25 to 60 feet or more.

The beds occur beneath the valley gravels at West Ham and also
at Beckton, and they come to the surface from near Wennington to
Aveley, Stiffbrd, Orsett and Stanford-le-Hope, where they may be seen
here and there in temporary excavations.

Along the northern outcrop they appear at Roydon, and near Farn-
ham and Stanstead Montfitchet. Near Elsenham and Debden they
probably occur further north than the map indicates. They are seen
again north of Thaxted and at Castle Hedingham.

Among the fossils Melania inquinata, Cerithium funatum^ Cyrena cunei-
formis and Osfrea bellavacina indicate estuarine conditions.

BLACKHEATH OR OLDHAVEN BEDS

The Blackheath (or Oldhaven) Beds consist locally of grey sands
with flint pebbles, and contain marine shells like those of the London
Clay, but they have been somewhat doubtfully recognized by Mr.
Whitaker in borings in south Essex. Thicknesses of 1 1 feet at Barking
Side, 50 feet at Stanford-le-Hope and 37 feet at Shoeburyness are thus
assigned to this formation, 1 which is well represented south of the
Thames in the pebble-beds of Blackheath, and in the sands of Oldhaven
or Bishopstone Gap.

The occurrence of flint pebbles in the Blackheath Beds shows that
in some areas the Chalk must have been upraised to form cliffs. This
may have been in the area of the Weald from which the Chalk has since
been removed.

1 See Whitaker, Grt/egy ef LoaJon, vol. i. p. 233.
7

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

The soils furnished by these Lower Eocene strata between the
Chalk and London Clay are on the whole loamy, being mixed soils
of sand and clay. The formations themselves exercise no marked
influence on the scenery.

LONDON CLAY

The London Clay occupies a large part of the surface of Essex,
more especially in the south, and where well developed it is upwards of
400 feet thick.

It is naturally exposed in the cliffs at Southend, Shoeburyness and
Clacton-on-Sea, where it is capped by valley gravels, and it is seen again
in the cliffs at Frinton, Walton-on-the-Naze, and also at Harwich. It
occurs at the surface over considerable areas along the valley of the
Crouch, around Langdon Hill, over Hainault and Epping Forests and
near Waltham Abbey.

In north Essex the London Clay is exposed along the Stour valley
below Middleton ; along the Colne valley from Castle Hedingham and
Gosfield ; along the Pant and Blackwater valleys from Wethersfield ; and
along the Pods Brook, Ter and Chelmer valleys at Braintree, Terling,
Thaxted and Dunmow. In the Stort valley it occurs in a few places
along the Essex borders.

The formation where it appears at the surface is a stiff brown clay,
which soaks up a good deal of water in wet weather, and shrinks and
cracks in very dry weather. Where dug from a depth it is bluish-grey
in colour, and in this unweathered portion of the deposit, or in the
cement-stones, the fossils which characterize the London Clay are more
usually found. These include mammals allied to the hyrax and tapir,
some remarkable birds, turtles, a large serpent, sharks and other fishes,
crabs and lobsters, as well as mollusca such as the Nautilus, Foluta,
Cypraa, and a boring-shell or ' ship-worm ' called Teredina. Among
plant-remains there are fruits and seeds of palms, euphorbias, mimosa?
and acaciae.

Towards the base of the London Clay there are occasional flint
pebbles and also hard and impersistent bands of calcareous sandstone,
yielding Aporrhais sowerbyi, Natica, Cytherea orbicularis, Panopcea and
Pectunculus. 1 Blocks of this rock were obtained during an excavation at
the gasworks at Beckton.

As a rule however the London Clay rarely yields any fossils, and one
may examine many a brick-pit or railway-cutting without finding a single
specimen. The presence of selenite (or of moulds of its crystals) may
have arisen from the decomposition of iron-pyrites and of calcareous
organisms : hence in this and other formations the mineral may indicate
the former occurrence of fossils. 2

The London Clay is characterized by nodules of argillaceous lime-
stone known as cement-stones or septaria. These may be seen in the

1 See also Prestwich, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sac., vol. vi. p. 262.
8 See P. M. Duncan, ibid. vol. xxii. p. 12.

GEOLOGY

cliffs at Clacton, and many were formerly dredged to the south of
Harwich for the manufacture of Roman cement. The cracks or septa
arc filled with calc-spar, and sometimes contain pyrites or ' copperas.' '
The septaria no doubt originated from the segregation of the more
calcareous portions of the clayey mud after the deposition of the London
Clay. Morant says these nodules were used in the walls of Colchester.

The London Clay has been extensively dug for brick-making and
especially for tile-making, as at Buckhurst Hill, Loughton and elsewhere.
The loamy beds which occur at the junction with the Bagshot Beds, as
at Brentwood, near Theydon Bois and on Epping Plain, are very suitable
for brick-making.

The soil is naturally thin and tenacious, and has been described as a
cold, heavy and wet clay on tile-earth ; but it is ameliorated on the
slopes where the higher grounds are covered by Bagshot Sands or drift
gravels. On the stifFer grounds of Epping Forest the oak and hornbeam
find a congenial soil.

BAGSHOT BEDS

Overlying the London Clay, and connected with it by alternations
of sand, loam and clay, are the Bagshot Beds. These consist in mass
of fine buff-coloured sand with thin layers of pipeclay, overlaid in
places by pebble-beds which are mainly composed of flint pebbles. The
occurrence of zircon among the minute materials of the Bagshot Sands
at High Beech was detected by Mr. A. B. Dick.* The formation occurs
in outliers, which are but remnants of a wide-spread deposit. These
outliers constitute some of the higher and more picturesque tracts, as
at Epping and High Beech (362 feet), Brentwood, Warley (360 feet),
Billericay, Stock, Langdon Hill (385 feet), Rayleigh and a few other
localities. The land is less cultivated than on other formations, and
commons, village greens and much woodland help to diversify the scenes.

From the fact of this gradual passage from the London Clay into
the Bagshot Beds there has arisen considerable difference of opinion with
regard to the boundary line that should be drawn on geological maps to
separate the two formations. Those who, like S. V. Wood, jun., take
the first prominent bed of sand in the ascending series to indicate the
Bagshot Beds, would mark much larger areas of that formation, notably
along the high grounds from High Beech to Epping, and between
Theydon Mount and Northweald Basset. On the other hand those who
in the downward succession take the first mass of clay to belong to
the London Clay indicate much smaller areas of Bagshot Beds. In the
one case we have to map clay in the Bagshot Sand, and in the other sand
in the London Clay. Absolute consistency is not however to be obtained,
and the difficulties met with in deciding about a boundary near Epping
are encountered also near Brentwood and Rayleigh.

Some casts of shells, apparently Turritella, Natica and Valuta were

1 Hence perhaps the name Copperas Bay, west of Harwich. Copperas (sulphate of iron) is manu-
factured from pyrites. See also P. Morant, Hilt, and Antiq. f Etiex (1768), vol. i. p. 500.

1 Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. p. 523.
I 9 2

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

found at Mill Green, north of Frierning, by Messrs. H. W. Monckton
and R. S. Herries.

Overlying the Bagshot Sands in some of the outliers there are pebble-
beds composed almost wholly of flint, and these belong to the Bagshot
Beds. The best section, to which attention was first drawn by S. V.
Wood, jun., was at Langtons in South Weald Park near Brentwood.
The pebble-bed was fifteen feet thick, and overlaid by about six feet of
rearranged pebbly gravel, largely derived from the beds below. Other
sections of the pebble-beds have been noted at Warley, Billericay and
Stock, where also there are reconstructed pebbly gravels above the
Bagshot Beds. 1

While the Chalk indicates marine conditions of considerable depth
and at a distance from any land, the succeeding Thanet Sands were formed
in a shallow sea probably within the influence of the great Eocene river
which directly brought succeeding sediments. There is a great break
between the Chalk and Thanet Sand, as indicated in some areas by the
destruction of the Chalk and its layers of flints, and everywhere by the
change in the life of the periods : though locally the break is unaccom-
panied by any discordance in the stratification of the two series.

During the period of the Thanet Sand there is no evidence, as Mr.
J. Starkie Gardner points out, that any elevated Chalk coast-line came
locally into contact with the waves. 2 After the deposition of the Thanet
Beds the region underwent some elevation and came under the influence
of freshwater and estuarine conditions.

The Woolwich and Reading Beds indicate a temperate climate,
which however was gradually changing towards the sub-tropical condi-
tions which subsequently prevailed. The period was one dominated by
the great Eocene river, and it was followed by subsidence which, as Mr.
Gardner remarks, ushered in the Blackheath and London Clay deposits.

The fossils of the London Clay indicate that the climate during its
formation was almost tropical, while the deposit itself must have been laid
down slowly and quietly in the wide estuary of the Eocene river. The
succeeding Bagshot Sands were deposited in shallower water, probably
estuarine in the Essex area, but passing westwards into freshwater beds
with many plant-remains of sub-tropical character.

The various Eocene strata up to the Bagshot Beds were spread over
the entire area of Essex, and while as before mentioned some tracts of
Chalk in the south of England were suffering denudation in Eocene times,
yet later on in Oligocene and Miocene times the region was generally raised
above water for an extended period. It was then that the curvature of
the London Basin was produced, a disturbance accompanied by eleva-
tion and followed by immense destruction of the land. Surface agents in
the shape of rain and rivers began to erode channels and to wear away

1 See H. B. Woodward, in Whitaker's Geology of London, vol. i. pp. 270-279 ; Prestwich, Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi. p. 165 ; H. W. Monckton and R. S. Herries, Pnc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. pp.
1 8 and Ixv. ; vol. xii. p. 108 ; and Monckton, Nature, June 26, 1890.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxix. p. 202.

GEOLOGY

the strata a process which continued into the Pliocene period, when
the north-eastern portions of the area were submerged and received banks
of the shelly sand known as Red Crag. How far this Pliocene submer-
gence extended it is difficult to say, for although there are some high-level
or plateau deposits of pebble-gravel which may date back to Pliocene
times, there is no evidence from fossils to prove the point 1 (see p. 12).
Prior to the Glacial period the more prominent physical features
of the country had been formed, as the Bagshot Beds must have been
largely removed, only scattered outliers remaining on an irregular found-
ation of London Clay ; and Mr. T. V. Holmes has pointed out that
as a thickness of 400 feet of London Clay (nearly the full thickness) has
been proved at Dagenham, it is probable that some outliers of Bagshot
Beds may have diversified the surface in that neighbourhood just prior
to the formation of the Thames valley. 4

RED CRAG

The Red Crag is one of the more attractive of geological formations,
mainly because fossils are readily to be obtained and partly because the
exposures occur for the most part in pleasant places. In Essex the most
famous locality is Walton-on-the-Naze.

As early as 1703 the fossils of Harwich cliff were noticed by
S. Dale,* and they were more prominently brought before the public in
the descriptions and figures published in his appendix to Silas Taylor's
History and Antiquities of Harwich and Dovercourt* From this account
we learn of an outlier of the shelly Crag that has since been destroyed
by the ravages of the sea.

Attention was drawn to another outlier at Beaumont, by John
Brown of Stanway, while small tracts occur between Harwich and
Little Oakley, at Mistley, and again in the country from Langham to
near Boxted. Some of these remnants of the Crag have been noticed
at the surface, others have been detected from the material brought up
in occasional borings or well-sinkings. A phosphatic nodule-bed at the
base of the Crag was at one time worked at Wrabness and also at
Walton-on-the-Naze.

The Red Crag in Essex is regarded as the oldest portion of the
formation, and from its development at Walton-on-the-Naze, it has been
termed the Waltonian stage by Mr. F. W. Harmer. 6 He observes that
the majority of the characteristic shells found in it are either extinct or
south-European forms : they include Cyprcea ave/fana, Voluta lamberti,
Purpura tetragona, Trophon (Neptunea) contrarius, and many others. A
band of clay above the shelly Crag at Walton has been regarded as a
representative of the Chillesford Clay of Suffolk, but this correlation is
questioned by Mr. Harmer.

1 See Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. pp. 290, 494. * Eitex Nat., vol. vi. p. 145.

Phil. Trans., vol. xxiv. (1704) p. 1568, in a letter to Edward Lhwyd, 1703.
1730, ed. 2, 1732.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Sot., vol. Ivi. p. 709 ; see also C. Reid, ' Pliocene Depotiu of Britain, Mtm.
Geol. Survey, 1890.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Most of the shells appear to have belonged to animals which lived
on the spot : they do not bear evidence of having been shifted and rolled as
in later stages of the Red Crag. The Crag at Little Oakley is regarded
by Mr. Harmer as a slightly newer stage than that at Walton. He has
lately reopened the pit at Beaumont and obtained a fine series of fossils.

Occupying such small areas the Crag has no particular influence on
the scenery and very little on the soils. As a rule the land is fertile,
and the deposit itself when very shelly has been dug for marling ground
deficient in lime.

The Pliocene period affords evidence of temperate conditions which
were slowly changing towards the more rigorous climate of the Pleisto-
cene. At the close of the period England was still united across the
Straits of Dover with the continent. 1

There are several tracts of pebbly gravel in Essex, some mainly
derived from the old Bagshot pebble-beds as at High Beech, near Brent-
wood, Langdon Hill and Hadleigh, some derived probably from earlier
Eocene pebble-beds.

These are most largely formed of pebbles of flint and quartz, and
in this respect they differ from the more mixed gravels of the other high
grounds, which contain quartzites, various igneous rocks, and likewise
fossils derived from many older formations, and which are definitely
connected with the Glacial period.

Some patches of pebbly gravel seen in the clifF at Walton-on-the-
Naze, also near Marks Tey, Witham, Braintree and Thaxted, and near
Epping, have been regarded as Westleton Beds by Prestwich, 2 who took
the name from the village of Westleton in Suffolk, and regarded the beds
as the base of the Glacial series. The age of the Westleton Beds of
Westleton is not undisputed : they may belong to the Glacial period. 3
Hence it will be best not to attempt any full discussion of this vexed
question, but to be content here to remark that as Prof. T. M'K.
Hughes, S. V. Wood, jun., Prestwich, Mr. Whitaker and others have
pointed out there may be gravels of Pliocene (or Pre-Glacial) age which
were spread over the country and partially denuded prior to the great
glaciation which came about in later times. To S. V. Wood, jun., we
are particularly indebted for a knowledge of the Drift deposits of East
Anglia. He was the first to commence their detailed and systematic
study in Essex, and in 1867 he presented to the Geological Society copies
of the Ordnance Sheets i and 2 (Old Series) on which he had surveyed
the geology including the various superficial deposits. The maps were
accompanied by a MS. Memoir on the Structure of the Glacial and Post-
Glacial Beds in southern Essex.

1 See Reid, Origin of the British Flora, pp. 34, etc.

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi. pp. 128, 162, etc., and Geol. Mag., 1898, p. 404 ; Monckton
and Herries, Free. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. p. 18 and p. Ixv. and vol. xii. p. 108 (where further references
are given).

3 H. B. Woodward, Geol. Mag., 1882, p. 452 ; and Geol. England and Wales, ed. 2, p. 505.

GEOLOGY

GLACIAL DRIFT

Glacial Drifts and especially Boulder Clay occupy a large portion of
the surface of Essex and form some of the more fertile agricultural areas.
The Boulder Clay is a tough unstratified clayey deposit of irregular
thickness, containing numerous rounded fragments of Chalk of all sizes
from that of a pea to large blocks ; hence it is known as the Chalky
Boulder Clay. It contains also numerous unworn and angular fragments
of flints, and pebbles of various rocks, fossils and rocks derived from
different formations, together with schists, granites and greenstones. 1
Essentially however it is a chalky clay, the soil being a ' strong loam '
which forms good land for wheat, barley and beans. This loam is a de-
calcified portion of the Boulder Clay which in places resembles the soil on
the London Clay, but is usually stony and very much thicker. Among
the more abundant fossils are Gryphcea dilatata derived from the Oxford
Clay, Belemnites abbreviatus from the Corallian, and Lucina minuscula
from the Kimeridge Clay.

The Boulder Clay lies somewhat irregularly on the strata beneath,
chiefly London Clay and Chalk ; and there are remarkable instances of
glacial erosion which took place prior to or during the Glacial epoch.
Thus a deep gorge filled with Drift occurs along the Cam valley, partly
in Essex and partly in Cambridgeshire. The evidence derived from
well-borings has been published by Mr. Whitaker,* who notes the
extraordinary thickness of Glacial Drift at Newport (340 feet), Wenden
(272 feet), Littlebury (214 feet), and Great Chesterford (156 feet). It
appears probable that this great trench was excavated and subsequently
filled up during the time of most intense glaciation, and that possibly the
disturbed Chalk near Chishall (previously noticed) may then have been
tilted like the Chalk in several localities in Norfolk. Boulder Clay
occurs on the Chalk uplands in the north-western part of the county
in the neighbourhood of Heydon, Chrishall, and also around Debden and
Broxted. Further south it forms a more or less continuous sheet at
Hatfield Forest, Hatfield Broad Oak, High Easter and the Rodings.
Eastwards it is broken up by valleys which divide the high grounds
near Thaxted, Dunmow, Braintree, Halstead and Coggeshall.

To the south the Boulder Clay extends to Chelmsford and Chipping
Ongar and in patches to the heights, as at Havering-atte-Bower, over-
looking the Thames valley. Its presence in this valley was unsuspected
until in the making of the railway near Hornchurch a mass of tough
Chalky Boulder Clay fifteen feet thick was found by Mr. T. V. Holmes to
underlie one of the higher tracts of Thames valley gravel. 1 This dis-
covery is of the greatest interest as it was the first instance where Boulder
Clay had been seen in connection with the Thames valley gravel. As
Mr. Holmes points out it does not prove that the Thames valley was

Sec Rev. A..W. Rowe, 'On the Rocb of the Essex Drift,' Quart. Jour*. Geol. Sec., vol. xliii. p. 35 1.

* Quart. Journ. Gtol. Sac., vol. xlvi. p. 333.

3 Ibid. vol. xlviii. p. 365 ; and Euex Nat., vol. vii. p. I.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

pre-glacial, but that an old hollow or valley was subsequently cut into
during the excavation of the Thames valley. River gravel also overlies
Boulder Clay in the Blackwater valley near Kelvedon.

Underlying the valley gravel at Romford, Mr. Holmes has observed
a deposit of silt and sand with pebbles of Chalk, and flint, evidently of
subsequent date to the Boulder Clay from which it was largely derived. 1
He looked upon it as evidence of an ancient silted-up stream whose
course he would trace between Warley, Billericay and Maldon on the
north and west, and Laindon, Rayleigh and Althorne on the south and
east, and into the valley of the Blackwater below Maldon. In any case
this silted-up channel, like that in the Cam valley, belongs to a more
ancient period than the present Thames valley ; but whether these old
valleys which are occupied by Boulder Clay were pre-glacial valleys, or
were scooped out by ice-action during the Glacial period may fairly be
questioned. There is however no doubt that the main features of the
country were formed prior to the glaciation, and therefore we should
expect here and there to find traces of old valleys.

When the Ice age was brought about the surface of the land had
long been subject to subaerial waste, the Chalk-tracts were covered with
clay-with-flints, and there was generally much weathered material or soil
over the land. Before any great movement of ice took place, the accu-
mulation of snow led to the formation of much ice, and to the base of
this the soil and weathered sub-strata were frozen.

Eventually, when movement set in and there was coalescing of
great sheets of ice which traversed regions of Jurassic rock and Chalk,
the base of the ice tore off the frozen soil and debris^ and in some cases
great strips of the strata ; in other cases impinging against higher ground
the formations were locally disturbed, as may have been the case near
Heydon.

The debris thus removed would rise by overthrusts into higher hori-
zons in the ice, and be then carried forward and widely distributed and
commingled with local detritus during alternate recessions and readvances
of the ice-margin ; the Boulder Clay being deposited, to a large extent, by
the melting of the ice, as indicated many years ago by Mr. J. G. Good-
child in his account of ice-work in Edenside.

The abundant chalky detritus was no doubt carried along minor
planes of movement in the ice, the chalk lumps being scored by frac-
tured flint, and the material being transported far and wide at higher
levels in the ice than the bulk of the more local material. In certain
instances the soil frozen to the base of the ice-sheet was little if at
all moved, being overridden by subsequent ice-movements ; and much
Boulder Clay must also have been overridden after deposition, owing to
its exceedingly tough character. 2

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue., vol. 1. p. 443 ; and ' Notes on the Ancient Physiography of South
Essex,' Essex Nat., vol. ix. p. 193.

2 See H. B. Woodward, Geol. Mag., 1897, p. 485 ; J. E. Marr, ibid. 1887, p. 262 ; and J. Geikie,
The Great Ice 4ge.

GEOLOGY

The intercalation of sand and gravel with the Chalky Boulder Clay
is best explained as a marginal phenomenon produced at different stages
in the advance and retreat of the ice-sheet.

In the ancient hollow along the Cam valley the Boulder Clay was
seen to be much mixed with sand and gravel in alternate irregular
masses. This is also the case at Elsenham and elsewhere. Gravel over-
lies Boulder Clay in some places on the higher ground, although not to
any considerable extent, as at Mountnessing and near Chipping Ongar.

Loam also associated with the Boulder Clay occurs over a large area
in north-eastern Essex ; it rests mostly on gravel and sand, and from its
mode of occurrence it might be taken to replace the Boulder Clay. It thus
extends over the heaths of Boxted, Ardleigh, Crockleford and Elmstead,
and around Wicks and Great Bentley, where the soil a ' fertile loam '
is regarded as good turnip-land.

Minor patches of loam occur on the Boulder Clay between Peb-
marsh and Twinstead, at Finchingfield, south of Terling, and on Hat-
field Heath : in such situations the loam is usually a decalcified portion
of the Chalky Boulder Clay.

In former days the Boulder Clay was much used for claying or
marling the ground for agricultural purposes ; hence numerous old pits,
now for the most part ponds, may be noticed in the fields.

Sands and gravels occur beneath the main mass of Boulder Clay,
but their occurrence though widespread is uncertain. They were distri-
buted during the earlier stages of the period of great glaciation, and
occasionally, as in Hertfordshire, seams of Boulder Clay occur in the
gravel. They may outcrop between Boulder Clay and London Clay on
one side of a valley and be absent from the other side. Hence in sink-
ing a well through Boulder Clay supplies of water cannot always be
depended upon, although in many localities a good supply is obtained.

These sands and gravels occur along the Cam valley at Quendon,
along the Stort Valley at Clavering, Harlow and Roydon, below Sudbury
in the Stour valley, along the Colne from Great Yeldham to Halstead and
Gosfield, along the Pant from Radwinter, the Pods Brook from its source
near Great Bardfield, and the Chelmer in places from Thaxted.

In some of these valleys, as along the Chelmer, it is not easy to
separate the Glacial gravels from the newer valley gravels which are
principally derived from them. Occasionally, as near Roxwell, the
gravel is cemented into a conglomerate.

Gravel extends over the high grounds of Danbury, being perhaps
in part the wreck of an outlier of older pebbly gravel. Towards the
south and west Boulder Clay is intercalated with the gravel, while on
the east, at Maldon and on Hazeleigh Common, Boulder Clay over-
lies it.

Glacial gravel occurs around Colchester, at Brightlingsea and St.
Osyth ; and there are patches on Mersea Island, at Tolleshunt and on
Tiptree Heath. Some of these tracts of gravel are not clearly to be
separated from the range of old valley gravels which in east Essex

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

fringe the marshes near Burnham. Again, in the western portion of
the county, near Loughton, on Buckhurst Hill and north of Chigwell,
there are gravels which it is exceedingly difficult to distinguish from
neighbouring gravels on a slightly lower level which seem to form part
of the true valley gravels. Some of these deposits may indeed represent
stages in the denudation of the country which followed the recession of
the ice-sheet.

While the action of land-ice was partly to efface the old scenery by
thick accumulations of Drift, it tended also to degrade and soften the
bolder features ; but these to some extent have reappeared through the
influence of subsequent denudation.

The passing away of icy conditions, the melting away of the land-
ice which enveloped so much of the ground, must have been attended
by the formation of torrential streams which initiated the present lines
of drainage. Along the Stour, Colne and Blackwater, and along the
Lea and Thames, we find evidence of later Pleistocene gravels and brick-
earths, to which attention must now be directed. Along the Crouch
however we find no such ancient deposits. Rising in the hills of Lang-
don and Billericay, it drains an area of London Clay comparatively free
from the Glacial gravels, which in other valleys afforded material ready-
made for the accumulations of valley gravel. The Crouch may indeed
have existed in Pleistocene times, and have simply eroded without depo-
siting much material along its course : but there is no evidence to show
that this was the case.

VALLEY GRAVEL AND BRICKEARTH

The deposits of valley gravel and brickearth are old accumulations
of the 'rivers and their tributaries, and they occupy grounds higher than
the Alluvium, but often extend beneath it.

The more important tracts of valley gravel and brickearth are those
which occupy the Thames valley. They occur from Leyton and Strat-
ford to Barking, Romford and South Ockendon, in a belt which in
places is four or five miles broad, and rises 100 feet above the river.
These deposits belong to the earliest system of drainage along the pre-
sent valleys, and to a period when palaeolithic man co-existed with a
fauna many of the members of which are either extinct or no longer
inhabitants of this country.

The mammalian remains have been met with in notable abundance
at Ilford and Grays, not because these were exceptionally favoured places
of entombment, but because the brickearth at Ilford and the Chalk below
the brickearth at Grays have been very extensively worked, and for many
years the remains were carefully looked after by the late Sir Antonio
Brady at Ilford and by Richard Meeson at Grays.

Sir A. Brady observed that the bones near Ilford were mostly found
in the sands and gravels and in a very decayed condition, but they were
better preserved in the brickearth. The chief locality was the Uphall

GEOLOGY

brickfield, on the right hand side of the lane leading from Ilford to
Barking, a spot about twenty-eight feet above the river Thames. 1

The mammals include fine examples of the mammoth or Elepbas
primigenius, also E. antiquus, the hippopotamus, three species of rhino-
ceros, the Irish elk, bison, urus, red deer, brown bear, grisly bear, wolf
and many others. A few flint implements have likewise been found.
Occasional remains of birds and fishes, and numerous land and freshwater
mollusca also occur in the brickearth, a deposit laid down under more
tranquil conditions than the gravel, and due largely to the destruction of
Eocene beds and Drift sands and loams.

The gravel has been derived mainly from pre-existing gravels
formed of flint, with less abundant quartz and quartzite. The flint
pebbles were derived from Eocene pebble-beds, and the sub-angular
flints, quartz and quartzite mainly from the Boulder Clay or from old
plateau or Glacial gravels which border the Thames valley from near
Great Marlow to Rickmansworth, Hendon and Finchley. Occasional
greywethers occur, as at Grays. 1

The sheets of gravel and brickearth which extend from Southend
and Shoeburyness northwards to Great Wakering, Burnham, Southmin-
ster and Bradwell, and occur also on Osea Island, may originally have
been connected with the tracts around Clacton and Little Holland. In-
deed, it is considered that in old times the Thames turned northwards
along the eastern margin of Essex, receiving the Blackwater as a tribu-
tary. In this region its right bank has been wholly lost by the subse-
quent waste of the land on that side. Thus the Thames was a much
mightier river than it is now, but when we contemplate the broad ex-
panse occupied by the old valley gravels and brickearths, we need not
conclude that the river ever occupied, unless in seasons of flood, the
entire area. Its tendency has been to alter its course, and, as pointed
out by Mr. Whitaker, for the most part to diverge towards the south,
so as to cut against the Kentish shores, while leaving broad tracts of
loam and gravel to the north. 8 It is difficult to say whether the land
was higher or lower during the earlier stages of the formation of these
valley deposits, if we accept the view that the lower terraces are of later
age where the river cut deeper into the valley. On this subject opinions
differ. The land originally may have been much higher, and the river,
more or less torrential, cut deeper and deeper into its valley before reach-
ing a base-level of erosion.

In other valleys there are deposits of river gravel, as along the
Colne at Dedham village, and the Cam at Wenden and Great Chester-

1 See Catalogue of the Pleistocene Vertebrata from the neighbourhood of Ilford, Etiex, in tin Colkction of Sir
Antonio Brady, by William Davies, 8vo, London, 1874 ; also Henry Woodward, Geol. Mag., 1864, p.
241, 1868, p. 540 ; and M. A. C. Hinton, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 177.

1 For details relating to Grays see B. B. Woodward, Proc. Geol. AIIOC., vol. xi. pp. 363, 364
(herein are references to the labours of all previous workers) ; see also Prestwich, Geol. Mag., 1898,
p. 409.

* For a review of the literature of the Thames Valley Drift and of the origin of the Thames, see
Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. pp. 353, 496 ; Ramsay, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sot., vol. xxviii. p. 148 ;
Prestwich, ibid. vol. xlvi. p. 155 ; J. W. Gregory, Natural Science, vol. v. p. 97.

i 17 3

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

ford. Elsewhere in Essex there are sheets of valley gravel and brick-
earth that have yielded interesting fossil remains, to which attention has
been directed by the late John Brown of Stan way, by the Rev. Osmond
Fisher, and others. Such deposits occur at Great Clacton, at Lexden,
Copford and Marks Tey to the west of Colchester, at Kelvedon, Wit-
ham and Chelmsford, and again at Great Yeldham. They comprise
brickearth, peaty clay, and shell marl, with remains of mammalia, land
and freshwater mollusca, and occasionally of beetles and plants. Among
the mollusca the more noteworthy are Corbicula fluminalis which has
been found at Clacton, Grays and Ilford, Unto littoralis found at Clacton
and Grays, and Paludestrina marginata found at Copford, Clacton and
Grays. 1 These are extinct in Britain ; the majority however belong to
species still existing in the district. A few plant-remains have been
obtained at Grays : these include the ivy, and as remarked by Mr. C.
Reid, they indicate a temperate climate with mild winters. 2

In places the brickearth, as at Grays, exhibits a disturbed not to
say contorted surface, recalling features that are seen in glaciated districts
where the Chalky Boulder Clay rests on beds which have been disturbed
during the process of its formation.

The discovery at Hornchurch (previously mentioned) where Boul-
der Clay underlies the Thames Valley Drift, proves that these superficial
disturbances are of later date than the main glaciation. They may have
arisen in part from the effects of river-ice, in part from the later influ-
ences of freezing and thawing and slipping of the soil. 3

At Wanstead Mr. Martin Hinton has observed in the ' High-Ter-
race Drift ' much contorted gravel overlain by undisturbed gravel,
affording ' evidence of the rivers having been frozen in winter ; and, on
the breaking up of the ice, of huge ice-rafts floating down, contorting
the deposits in process of formation wherever they grounded.' In the
' Low-Terrace Deposits ' at Ilford the brickearth and overlying gravel
and sand are also in places remarkably contorted, evidently by ' the
crushing action of ice.' 4

RECENT DEPOSITS

The Alluvium is the tract of marshland bordering the rivers, and is
in some cases six or seven feet below the level of high-water at spring-
tides, It comprises some of the most recent deposits, and is a variable
series of muds or silts, clays, shell-marls and peaty deposits with sand and
gravel, attaining a thickness of fifty feet at Thames Haven and more

1 See B. B. Woodward, ' On the Pleistocene (Non-Marine) Mollusca of the London District,'
Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. p. 335 ; and A. S. Kennard and B. B. Woodward, 'The Post-Pliocene Non-
Marine Mollusca of Essex,' Essex Nat., vol. x. p. 87, and Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 282. In these
articles references are given to other papers. See also J. P. Johnson and G. White, Essex Nat., vol. xi.

P- '57-

8 Quart. Journ. Geol. Sue., vol. liii. p. 464.

3 See O. Fisher, ' On the Warp (of Mr. Trimmer),' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 553 ; and
'On the Ages of the "Trail" and "Warp,"' Geol. Mag. 1867, p. 193 ; see also F. C. J. Spurrell,
' History of Rivers and Denudation,' Proc. West Kent Nat. Hist. Soc., 1886.

4 M. A. C. Hinton, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi. p. 271.

GEOLOGY

elsewhere. As might be expected the deposits are of an estuarinc char-
acter where they border the Thames, the wide mouths of the Crouch,
Blackwater and Colne, and the inlets between Walton-on-the-Naze and
Harwich. Scrobicularia plana and Tellina balthica occur in the tidal
clays. 1

Along the left bank of the Lea there is a variable breadth of Allu-
vium forming a succession of marshes. At Walthamstow during excav-
ations for the filter-beds and reservoirs of the East London Waterworks
Company in 186869, man y interesting remains were found and described
by Dr. Henry Woodward. Besides numerous land and freshwater shells
of existing species, many bones of mammalia and a few of birds and
fishes were obtained. There were skulls and portions of skeletons of
man, of prehistoric and later age, as well as implements of stone, bone,
bronze and iron. There were remains of dog, fox, horse, wild boar, red
deer, reindeer, roebuck, elk, urus and short-horned ox, also remains of
beaver in considerable abundance. As remarked by Dr. Woodward, the
work and enjoyment of the beaver is to construct dams, forming large
deep and clear pools of water, with a series of small waterfalls at in-
tervals. 8

From Felstead, Chignal St. James, Roxwell and other localities in
Essex many land and freshwater mollusca have been obtained from shell-
marl and other alluvial deposits. 8

Along the borders of the Thames valley many interesting sections
have been recorded. Thus an excavation made in 1890 for a new gas-
holder at Beckton, North Woolwich, showed the following strata :

ft. in.

{Soil i 6
Clay 26
Mud 14 o
Peat 20
Mud 10

Valley Gravel. Ballast (gravel and sand) 200

Basement-bed of London Clay and Woolwich and Reading Beds.

The peat yielded much wood, including bog-oak, while in the
Alluvium down to a depth of twenty feet there were found human
remains and bones of ox [Bos taurus, var. prim/genius and var. longifrons\ t
red deer, wild boar, dolphin and whale. 4

In other localities remains of birch, alder, hazel and yew have been
recognized.

From the mouth of the Lea eastwards there is indeed a succession of

1 See F. C. J. Spurrell, On the Estuary of the Thames and itt Alluvium,' Prac. Ceo/. Attec., roL
xi. p. 210 ; H. Robinson, Prac. Init. C. ., vol. xv. p. 196.

1 Geol. Mag., 1869, p. 385 ; and 'The Ancient Fauna of Essex,' Trout. Eistx FitU Club, vol.
iii. p. 1. See also Holmes, Enex Nat., vol. xii. p. I.

M. Christy, Enex Nat., vol. iii. p. I ; J. French, ibid. p. 1 1 ; A. S. Kennard and B. B. Wood-
ward, ibid. vol. x. p. 87. For other fossils from alluvial deposits, see Whitaker, Geologj of Undo*, vol.
i. p. 476.

* The section was examined by Mr. T. V. Holmes and the writer, and the bone* were identified
by Mr. E. T. Newton.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

broad levels, and on those of Plaistow and East Ham, where the land is
comparatively cheap, the population has greatly increased despite the
naturally undesirable character of the situation. The Gas-Light and
Coke Company have created the village of Beckton, and other manu-
factories have attracted many workers.

The marshland disappears for a space at Purfleet and again at Grays,
where the Thames in its windings almost touches the higher grounds of
valley gravel. At Tilbury Fort there is again a wide spread of Allu-
vium, to which attention has been specially directed because at the base
of the clays and peaty beds at a depth of a little over thirty feet there
was found a human skeleton of prehistoric, but not, as was originally
supposed, of palaeolithic age. The beds above included peat and tidal
clay, and the peat contained roots of birch and hazel, and remains of
reeds, ferns and mosses. Above the uppermost layer of peat were
evidences of Roman occupation. 1

At Thames Haven and Canvey Island there is a broad tract of
marshland, consisting of fifty feet of clay, silt, sand and peat.

Marshlands border east Essex at Wakering, including Foulness and
other islands, and northwards they extend along the Crouch valley below
Rettenden, and from Burnham to Bradwell on the borders of the river
Blackwater. On the opposite side Tollesbury Marsh is continued to the
spit known as Shingle Head Point.

At the mouth of the Colne St. Osyth marsh extends towards Clacton-
on-Sea, where the peaty portion of the Alluvium, clay with plant-
remains, and stools and prostrate trunks of trees, exposed at low-tide, has
given rise to a submerged forest. On the south side the marshes are
bordered by a ridge of shingle and sand, ' which rises above the level
of the highest tides, and still continues to increase in width although
freely used for road-metal and ballast.' 2

South-west of Clacton there are thin fringes of Blown Sand, and
there is a tiny patch at Stour Point between Walton-on-the-Naze and
Harwich. Harwich itself appears to be built partly on marine sand.

These alluvial tracts comprise not only the old embanked areas below
high-water mark, including islands and other tracts of excellent loamy
soil adapted for grazing as well as arable ground, but they include also
salt marshes or saltings which rise ten feet and more above Ordnance
Datum. The spring tides cover these salt marshes, and by leaving thin
films of sediment, tend gradually to raise their level, until in the end the
sea may be excluded. As the saltings continually widen seaward, fresh
strips have been from time to time enclosed. 3 The trouble with all these
marshlands has been the want of fresh water in dry seasons, but deep
wells carried through the London Clay have provided a remedy.

1 Holmes, Trans. Essex Field Club, vol. iv. (1885) ; Owen, Prof. Roy. Sue., vol. xxxvi. p. 136 ; and
Antiquity of Man as deduced from the Discovery of a Human Skeleton, etc., at Tilbury, 1884; see also
Spurrell, Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi. p. 224.

* W. H. Dalton, 'Geology of Colchester,' Geol. Survey, 1880, p. 11.

8 W. H. Dalton, Geol. Mag., 1876, p. 492.

GEOLOGY

The age of the older embankments is unknown, but Mr. Spurrell
says there are none below Purfleet so old as the Roman period ; ' and the
fact that the marshes so protected are now in many places below the
level of high-tide is attributed by Mr. Whitaker to the drying and con-
traction of the alluvial deposits since they were preserved from inundation.*

The drainage off the alluvial tracts before they were embanked led
to the formation of irregular islands, which have retained their outlines
since they were protected. Some like Canvey and Foulness are wholly
alluvial and recent. Others like Osea and Northey in the Blackwater
valley, are formed partly of London Clay and partly of Gravel or Allu-
vium. In the Crouch valley there are ancient islets of London Clay no
longer surrounded by water, but enclosed by marshland. Bricks arc
made from the alluvial clay on Bridgemarsh Island south of Latch-
ingdon.

Although the tidal waters of the Thames ascend as far as Richmond
and Teddington, nevertheless its estuary is sometimes taken to mean that
portion east of a line drawn between Southend and Sheerness, onwards to
the bank known as the Kentish Knock. The area off Essex is composed
of broad banks and shoals of sand and mud with shells, trending north-
east and divided by channels known as 'deeps' which are connected with
the Thames, Crouch and Blackwater. Some of the isolated banks as
well as the broad foreshore known as the Maplin Sands are dry at low-
water. The Maplin Sands, though shifting sands, are mostly firm when
uncovered, although there are muddy tracts near the shore. The condi-
tion of the estuary is regarded by Capt. T. H. Tizard as due to the action
of the sea in casting up banks, and of the tidal flow in cutting channels
through the banks thus formed.* Changes in the depths of channels and
banks are continually in progress, and their forms are liable to more
abrupt alterations during gales.

The presence of peaty beds in the Alluvium indicates that the land
has subsided some twenty feet or more, and consequently that the tidal
waters are enabled to extend higher up than was formerly the case.
As the Rev. O. Fisher has remarked, ' The tidal rivers are evidently
nothing more than a continuation of the valleys beneath the sea-level.' '
The estuarine character of the waters is favourable to the cultivation of
oysters, and the Colne, Crouch and Blackwater form famous grounds for
the Colchester and Burnham ' natives.' Nevertheless there has been
much silting up of the tidal creeks, and Maldon in old times was a more
important port than it is now.

Much waste is going on along the coast between Harwich and
Southend, waste which has in places been greatly accelerated by land-
slips. The greater losses have taken place between the mouth of the

1 See C. Vancouver, General new of the Agriculture of Enex (1795) 5 and Spurrell, 'Early Sites
nd Embankments on the Margins of the Thames Estuary,' Artb. Jcnr*., vol. xliii. p. 269.

* GuiJe to Geol. LonJm, ed. 5. (1889), p. 78.

* Nature, April 10, 1890, p. 539; see also J. B. Redman, ' The River Thames,' Pne. Intl. C. S.,
vol. xlix. p. 67.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xvii. p. I.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Colne and Harwich. Mr. Redman observed in 1864, that ' At Holland
the mere basements of the east buttresses of the church are left, indicat-
ing the site of the ruins. Here, on a mile of frontage, three acres of
land have been lost in eight years, equal to a recession of one yard per
annum.' 1 In January, 1901, an extensive landslip took place at Frinton,
when hundreds of tons of the cliff fell away on to the foreshore and
into the sea.

That land is elsewhere growing by the process of reclamation has
been indicated, but in this respect it is only a partial recovery of lost
ground. That the sea has in comparatively recent times burst over the
present artificial bounds is indicated by the marine beach-deposits of
shelly sand and shingle which are found on Shoebury Common. Similar
patches occur in Foulness Island, and in the marshes east of Burnham
and Southminster, Tillingham and Bradwell.* Among the shells the
periwinkle, mussel, and more especially the common cockle are to be
found. Formerly the shelly deposit at Tillingham was dug for manur-
ing the land.

In early times the settlers being dependent on ready local supplies of
drinking-water from wells and springs fixed their habitations on the
Thames valley gravels or on the Bagshot Sands or Glacial gravels, or on
the Chalk. Settlements on the areas of London Clay were rare, until
with the finding of artesian water abundant supplies could be obtained
below ground and transmitted from a short distance.

It is noteworthy that along the western side of the Lea valley in
Hertfordshire and Middlesex a number of important villages grew up on
the broad tracts of valley gravel, while on the eastern and more clayey
side in Essex the villages are few and far between, Waltham Abbey being
the only place of particular note, and this is situated on gravel. The
same remarks apply to large areas of London Clay between Brentwood
and Rayleigh. Over great part of Essex however gravelly and sandy
beds occur here and there in the Boulder Clay, and these throw out
springs, some of which, however, are far from permanent, failing in dry
summer weather. The larger independent masses of Glacial sand and
gravel afford more enduring supplies.

Among the noteworthy permanent springs is one known as Crom-
well's Well, at Maldon, which issues from the Glacial gravels ; but there
are numerous others, not the least important being those which issue
from the Chalk (see p. 6).

An old writer mentions a chalybeate spring at Witham, and another
spring that issues from a hill (probably Chadwell) two miles from the
river at Tilbury, remarking that 'It makes excellent Punch, and is ex-
tremely good for Tea.' 3 Other mineral springs have been noted at
Woodford, Chigwell, Brentwood and North Upminster.

1 J. B. Redman, ' The East Coast between the Thames and the Wash Estuaries,' Pnc . Inst. C. .,
vol. xxiii. p. 1 86 ; see also W. H. Dalton, Geol. Mag. 1876, p. 492.

2 See Whitaker, Geology of London, vol. i. p. 478.

3 R. Russel, Dissertation on Sea Water, etc., ed. 5 (1769), p. 293 ; see also Morant, Hist, and Antij.
of Essex (1768), vol. i. pp. 39, no, 164.

GEOLOGY

Essex possesses one mineral water which attained a temporary
reputation. This was at Hockley Spa, where a permanent spring issues
from the base of the Bagshot Sand. Here about sixty years ago an
endeavour was made ' to establish a Spa with pump-rooms, and a woman
was employed to dispense them, whose strong healthy appearance visitors
were led to believe was the result of the medicinal effects of the water,'
but ' the speculation proved a failure.' 1 Dr. A. B. Granville, writing in
1841, gives an account of the discovery of the mineral water, and states
that it contained sulphates of magnesia and lime, carbonate of lime, and
chloride of sodium. 1

With the growth of population the supplies of water from shallow
sources have in many cases become not only inadequate, but also con-
taminated ; and even when the supply remains sufficient for a small
country village the danger from pollution is great, especially if any
serious illness arises.

The whole aspect of Essex appears geologically to be one of some-
what sluggish repose despite the constant waste of the ground by rain
and rivers and sea. The force of the breakers is however broken by the
shallow ground which borders a great part of Essex.

Nevertheless geological action occasionally makes itself manifest in
a more startling manner. In 1884 a remarkable earthquake was felt
especially in the country between Colchester and the mouth of the
Blackwater ; and according to the detailed investigations made by
Prof. R. Meldola and Mr. W. White it was ' the most serious that
has happened in the British Islands for about four centuries.' They
state that the number of buildings damaged by the shock was between
1,200 and 1,300, including 20 churches and 11 chapels, and that the
main axis of damage had a general direction from north-east to south-
west, extending from Wivenhoe to Peldon. The effects produced may, in
their opinion, have resulted from the rupture of deep-seated rocks under
strain or pressure, such as the sudden production or extension of a line
of faulting ; and the localization of the damage was probably due to the
disturbance having originated under a clay area. 3

i H. W. Bristow in Whitaker's Geo/egy of London, vol. i. p. 26 1.

* The Sfai of England, vol. iii. p. 606.

'Report on the East-Anglian Earthquake of April zznd, 1884,' Essex Field Club Special Memoirs,
vol. i. (London, 1885).

PALEONTOLOGY

AS regards the past history of vertebrated animals (with which
alone we are concerned on the present occasion) interest in Essex
is chiefly concentrated on the wonderful series of mammalian
remains which have been obtained from the Pleistocene gravels
and brickearths of various localities in the Thames valley, and more
especially at Ilford and Grays, as well as those from approximately
contemporaneous deposits in other parts of the county, notably Clacton.
From the brickearth at Grays has been obtained the sole evidence of the
former occurrence of monkeys in the British Isles ; the so-called Macacus
eoccenus from the Eocene of Suffolk being described on the evidence of a
tooth which was subsequently ascertained to belong to the undermen-
tioned Hyracotherium leporinum. A considerable amount of interest like-
wise attaches to the remains of mammals from the valley of the Lea at
Walthamstow ; but as these, on account of their later age, belong to
existing species, their importance is far less than the remains from the
brickearths. In this connection it may avoid confusion to mention that,
in addition to this particular series of remains, certain other mammalian
fossils, notably teeth of the mammoth, have been obtained at Waltham-
stow which appear to belong to an older deposit, approximately equivalent
to the valley gravels and brickearths of other parts of the county.

Another important element in the palaeontological history of the
county is represented by the vertebrate remains from the London Clay of
Harwich, the majority of these belonging to extinct types of turtles,
although at least one species of mammal has been recorded from this
locality, while a second is represented by a specimen dredged off the
coast between Harwich and St. Osyth. Although the Red Crag occurs
in the county, it has very few vertebrate fossils in comparison with those
found in the same formation in Suffolk.

Since the nature of these various Tertiary formations, as well as the
localities where they occur, are mentioned in the chapter on geology, no
further reference is required in this place.

The mammalian remains from the alluvium of the marshes at
Walthamstow were first described by Dr. H. Woodward, 1 but some
emendations on the list of species then given have been made subse-
quently. The species include the dog (Canis familiar -is), horse (Equus

1 Geological M agazint, vi. 385 (1869).
I 25 4

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

caballus]^ wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roebuck (Cap-
reolus capreolus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus], elk (Alces machlis), Celtic
shorthorn (Bos taurus), wild ox (Bos taurus primigenius], goat (Capra
bircus) and beaver (Castor fiber). The Celtic shorthorn, it may be ob-
served, is frequently alluded to as Bos longifrons or Bos taurus longifrons ;
but since it is believed to be only a domesticated breed it has no more
claim to a distinct name (other than Bos taurus) than has the modern
shorthorn or any other existing breed. The alluvial marshes extend
some way along the Lea valley, the British Museum possessing a fine
pair of red deer antlers dug up at Edmundsea near Waltham Abbey.
Remains of the Celtic shorthorn have also been recorded from Audley
End, Clacton and Walton.

The Walthamstow deposits have also yielded a wing-bone of a
species of sea-eagle. This specimen, now in the British Museum, was
at one time regarded by the present writer * as probably belonging to the
Pacific HaliaStus pelagicus. The recent skeleton in the British Museum
on which the determination was made has however been found to have
been wrongly named, and the Walthamstow specimen probably belongs
to the European H. albicilla.

Remains of existing species of mammals have been found in the
prehistoric deposits of other places in the county, but there would be no
advantage in alluding to them in detail. Reference is made in the
chapter on geology to the occurrence in the alluvium of Beckton,
Woolwich, of remains of the wild boar, red deer, Celtic shorthorn, wild
ox, dolphin (Delpbinus delpbis) and a whale. It may be added that from
the marshes of East Ham have been disinterred remains of the bottle-
nosed whale (Hyperob'don rostratus), a species which is one of the most
common cetacean visitors to the British shores. A skull and vertebra?
(now in the British Museum) of the blackfish (Globicepbalus me/as) have
been dug up in the marshes at Barking Creek. Teeth of the sperm-whale
(Physeter macrocephalus) have also been recorded from the estuarine
turbary of the county.

Passing on to the consideration of the vertebrate remains from the
brickearths, valley gravels and other deposits which, from containing a
percentage of extinct mammals, may be regarded as of Pleistocene rather
than prehistoric age, it may be mentioned in the first place that many
of these are not strictly contemporaneous with one another. Evidence
of this is afforded by a difference in the mammalian fauna. At Chelms-
ford 2 for instance we have the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros and
the hippopotamus, whereas at Great Yeldham 3 the hippopotamus is
wanting and the woolly rhinoceros replaced by the slender-nosed species,
the mammoth being common to both deposits.

The most interesting of all these animals is the Essex monkey, the
sole evidence of whose former existence is a single upper molar tooth in
a fragment of the jaw which was obtained from Grays, and is now in the

1 Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus. p. 23 (1891). z See E. T. Newton, Essex Naturalist, ix. 16 (1895).

8 See Holmes, ibid. 115 (1896).

PALEONTOLOGY

British Museum. It was described by Sir Richard Owen in 1846 under
the name of Macacus pliocenus.

Of Carnivora, the first on the list is the cave-lion (Felis leo speleca),
of which remains have been obtained both at Ilford and Clacton, the
specimens obtained by Sir A. Brady from the former locality including
part of the lower jaw and one of the bones of the foot. The wild cat
(F. catus) is known by a lower jaw from Grays preserved in the museum
at Oxford. The extinct European race (Hyana crocuta spelaa) of the
spotted hysena, a species now restricted to Africa, has been met with in
the Pleistocene deposits of Grays and Walton ; and remains of the wolf
(Cams lupus) occur at Grays, and those of the fox (C. \Vulpes~\ wipes)
both at Grays and Ilford. Bones of the otter (Lutra lutra) have
likewise been discovered at Grays. Remains of bears are recorded from
Grays, Great Yeldham, Ilford and Walton ; some of these certainly be-
long to the common European brown bear (Ursus arctus), but others
have been assigned to the American grizzly bear. In view however of
the numerous forms more or less closely allied to the typical brown bear
which have recently been recognized in northern Asia and North
America this determination is extremely doubtful. In his British Fossil
Mammals and Biro's Sir R. Owen expressed the opinion that certain
ursine remains from Clacton and Grays might pertain to the great -cave-
bear (7. spelaus), but this also requires confirmation.

A jaw of some species of shrew (Sorex) from Grays seems to be the
only known representative of the Insectivora in the Essex Pleistocene.
Allusion has already been made to the occurrence of remains of the
beaver at Walthamstow, and evidence of the presence of the same
animal at Ilford and Grays has likewise been obtained. The beds at the
former locality have yielded remains of two other rodents, namely the
water-vole (Microtus amphibius) and the common field-vole (M. agrestis). 1
The common mouse (Mus musculus) is recorded from Copford, where
have likewise been obtained molar teeth of a large undetermined beaver-
like rodent.

The list of Ungulate, or hoofed, mammals from these deposits is
very large indeed. From Clacton have been obtained antlers of a
fallow deer which has been regarded as distinct from the ordinary
European species and named Ceruus browni, in honour of the late Mr.
John Brown of Stanway, who did so much to advance our knowledge of
the fossil mammals of the Essex coast. Remains of the giant fallow
deer (C. giganteus), so constantly miscalled ' Irish elk,' have been obtained
from Audley End, Grays, Ilford and Walton-on-the-Naze. Of the red
deer remains have been recorded from Clacton, Colchester, Grays, Great
Yeldham and Walton, and those of the roe from Grays and Great
Yeldham. The bison (Bos [Bison] priscus) is known from the coast,
Ilford, Walton and possibly Chelmsford. Magnificent skulls of the wild
ox were obtained by Sir Antonio Brady from Ilford, so large indeed that
they were regarded as belonging to a peculiar species, for which the

1 Sec Hinton, Entx Naturafut, xi. 169 (1899).
27

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

name Bos glganteus was suggested by Sir R. Owen. Its remains have
likewise been found at Clacton, Grays, Great Yeldham and Walton. In
addition to its occurrence at Walthamstow, the wild boar has been
recorded from Clacton, Colchester and Grays, although, curiously enough,
none of its remains were obtained by Sir A. Brady from Ilford. Of the
extinct European race of the hippopotamus {Hippopotamus amphibius
major) teeth and bones have been found in considerable numbers at
Chelmsford, Grays, Ilford and Walton.

The wild horse (Equus caballus fossilis) appears to have been widely
distributed over the county, its remains being recorded from Audley
End, Clacton, Grays, Ilford, Saffron Walden and Walton. Of much
greater interest are the remains of rhinoceroses from the Essex deposits,
these being more varied and occurring in greater perfection than perhaps
in any other English county. They have been assigned to three species.
Of the woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros antiquitatis), which was a two-
horned species closely allied to the so-called white rhinoceros of Africa,
remains have been recorded from Chelmsford, Clacton, Ilford and
Walton. The second species, R. leptorhinus, which differs by the form
of its cheek-teeth but has a similar bony partition dividing the two
nostrils, occurs at Clacton, Grays, Great Yeldham, Ilford and Walton.
It is represented in the British Museum by no less than four Essex
skulls, two of which are from Walton and the others respectively from
Grays and Clacton. The Clacton skull, which is figured in Sir R.
Owen's British Fossil Mammals and Birds, has been the subject of much
controversy. The third form, R. mercki or R. megarhinus, has teeth very
similar to the last, with which indeed some have thought it to be
identical ; but, according to a recent publication by Professor H. F.
Osborn, it is perfectly distinct. It appears to have no partition between
the nostrils. Its remains occur at Grays, Ilford and Walton, many of
the molar teeth from the two former localities having been described
by Professor W. B. Dawkins.

Teeth and bones of the mammoth (Elepbas primigenius), a near rela-
tive of the Indian elephant, have been obtained in great numbers from
the Ilford pits, which have likewise yielded a nearly entire skull, with
the tusks, of the same species, which is now preserved in the British
Museum. Mammoth remains have likewise been recorded from Chelms-
ford, Clacton, Grays, Great Yeldham, Harwich, Hedingham, Ilford,
Isle of Dogs, Walthamstow and Walton. Neither is evidence wanting
of the former presence in the county of the straight-tusked elephant
(E. antiquus), its remains, although less abundant than those of the
mammoth, occurring at Clacton, Grays, Harwich, Ilford, Saffron Walden
and Walton. Of the older southern elephant (E. meridionalis] no remains
appear to have been obtained on land within the confines of the county,
although its molar teeth have been dredged up off the coast.

Vertebras provisionally assigned to the bottle-nosed dolphin (fTursiops
tursio) are known from the brickearth at Grays.

One bird alone appears to have been identified as occurring in the

PALEONTOLOGY

Essex Pleistocene, this being the wild swan (Cygnus musicus), of which
the British Museum possesses a leg-bone from Grays.

A few fish remains have been obtained from the brickearths of
Essex, mainly from Grays, and have been provisionally assigned to the
following species, 1 viz. the pike (Esox lucius), ruff (Acerina vu/garis),
roach (Leuciscus rutilus), dace (L. dobula), rudd (L. erythophthalmus) t
and eel (Anguilla vu/garis). With the exception of the first, which also
occurs at Copford and Ilford, all these forms are known from the
deposits at Grays.

Mammalian remains from the Red Crag at Walton and other
localities where the same formation occurs in the county appear to be
exceedingly rare. Fragments of the tusks of the Crag walrus (Odobanus
huxleyi) are however recorded from Essex.

At the time when the ' cement stones,' or septaria, of the London
Clay were collected in the neighbourhood of Harwich, these when
broken were occasionally found to be formed round part of a mammalian
skeleton or the shell or skull of a turtle. In the winter of 1856-7 a
portion of such a nodule containing bones, which had been obtained
near Harwich, was brought to Sir R. Owen, who described the skull
and other remains found therein as those of a new genus of mammal,
under the name of Pliolophus vulpiceps. Subsequently however they
were identified by Sir W. H. Flower with a mammal previously
described by Owen from the London Clay of Kent as Hyracotberium
leporinum. The animal in question, which was about the size of a fox ;
was one of the ancestral types of the horse. The Essex specimen is in
the British Museum.

Of even greater interest is a fragment of the lower jaw of a much
larger mammal in the same collection containing two teeth, which was
dredged off the Essex coast between St. Osyth and Harwich some time
previous to the year 1846, and appears to have been derived from the
London Clay. This specimen is described and figured in Owen's British
Fossil Mammals and Birds under the name of Coryphodon eoceenus, and
forms the type of both the genus and the species. For many years the
affinities of the Coryphodon were unknown, but from the evidence of
complete skeletons obtained in North America it is now ascertained to
have been a large hoofed mammal of very primitive type allied to the
wonderful horned Uintatherium of the North American Eocene.

Skulls and shells of large marine turtles belonging to the extinct
genus Lytoloma are not uncommon in these Harwich cement stones, and
there is a considerable series of such specimens in the British Museum.
Some of these remains belong to L. crassicostatum, of which the type
specimen is from Harwich, and was originally described by Sir R. Owen
as Chelone crassicostata. The second species, originally described by the
same palaeontologist on the evidence of a skull from Harwich, is L.
planimentum.

From the Chalk of Essex remains belonging to those gigantic

1 See E. T. Newton, Geol. Mag. Dec. 4, viii. 51 (1901).
29

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

extinct marine lizards known as Mosasauria are occasionally met with,
some of these belonging to Liodon anceps, while others indicate a species
more nearly allied to, if not identical with, the typical genus Mosasaurus,
whose remains are so abundant in the Upper Cretaceous formation of
Belgium.

Very few species of fishes appear to have been hitherto recorded
from the Chalk of Essex. These include Ptychodus polygyrus^ a common
species of a well known Cretaceous genus of pavement-toothed rays,
teeth of which have been found both at Grays and Purfleet. Three
species of sharks are known, all from Grays, namely Scapanorhynchus
subulatus, Corax falcatus and Oxyrbina mantelli, the latter being repre-
sented in the British Museum collection by an associated series of fifty-
seven teeth and some vertebra from Grays. All are common Cretaceous
forms. The same locality has also yielded teeth of Enchodus leivesiensis,
an extinct barracuda-like fish with large teeth, originally named on the
evidence of remains from the Sussex Chalk.

HISTORY OF ESSEX

BOTANICAI

THE VI CTORIA HI STORY OF

HSTRICTS.

LIST OF BOTANICAL DISTRICTS

I Saffron Walden * . Brentuioott

II. Halttead VI. Southend

III. CM../M VII.

IV. f oo/oo VIII. Colctltitir

E COUNTIES OF ENGLAND

BOTANY 1

PLANTS first became of interest to man on account of their value
as food, their medicinal virtues or the poisonous properties
possessed by so many of them. Hence the first steps in the
building up of our science consisted in attempts to describe
plants with a degree of accuracy which would enable students to
recognize those which could be utilized for food or medicine, or which
should be avoided because of their poisonous character. Attempts of
this kind slowly developed into the vast subject now known as vegetable
biology.

Owing no doubt to the fact that the metropolis, the home of many
of the earlier English writers, is only a few miles from the borders of
Essex, the history of the botany of our county is practically coterminous
with that of the science tn Britain. Hence we must seek the early
records of the Essex flora in the works of William Turner, the father of
English botany, and in those of Gerard, Johnson, Parkinson, How,
Robert Turner, Merrett, Ray, Morison and Dale.

Since a brief outline of the botany of Essex is all that space permits
of in this article, and an account of the ' History of the Botany of Essex,'
by Professor G. S. Boulger is now appearing in the Essex Naturalist, I
wish to refer my readers to that publication for details of this interesting
subject.

William Turner was born in Northumberland between 1510 and
1515. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Like many
who adopted the principles of the Reformation of that period, Turner
spent a portion of his time in prison and in foreign travel. His herbal,
which was written just three centuries before the publication of Gibson's
flora, contains the first records of Essex plants, viz. Ruscus aculeatus, a
7V/W, a hellebore and mistletoe.

' Butcher's broom (Ruscus aculeatus); he says, ' groweth verye
plenteously in Essex.' The ' Lind tre,' he tells us, ' groweth very
plenteously in Essekes in a parke within two miles of Colichester, in
the possession of one maister Bogges,' but whether he alludes to the

1 I desire here to express my indebtedness to the following correspondents : Professor G. S.
Boulger, F.L.S. ; Dr. M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D. ; Mr. Philip Lake, M.A. ; Mr. E. E. Turner.
I am under special obligations to Mr. E. M. Holmes, F.L.S., for looking over MS. and proofs, and
for revising and rearranging portions of the cryptogamic flora of Essex.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

indigenous or to the planted species is uncertain. Of hellebore he
says, ' I dare not saye that ever I found the righte black hellebor, but
thys I dare holde, that a man for defaut of it, may use verye well that
kinde of bear foot that goeth every yeare into the grounde, whereof
groweth greate plentye in a parke besyde Colchester.' Of the mistletoe
he tells us that it grows more plentifully than elsewhere.

Essex perhaps owes more to John Gerard than to any other early
botanist.

Gerard was born at Nantwich in Cheshire in 1545. He was
educated in a neighbouring school, but at an early age he studied medi-
cine and travelled in Denmark, Poland, Sweden and Russia. In 1577
he had charge of the gardens of Lord Burleigh in the Strand and at
Theobalds in Hertfordshire, and at one time he had a house and garden
of his own in Holborn. In 1597 he became a warden of the Barber-
Surgeons Company, and issued his celebrated herbal, which was illus-
trated by i, 800 woodcuts, mostly reproduced from the Eicones Stirpium
of Taberncemontanus. This herbal records about seventy-five Essex plants.

I must not pass from these pioneers in botanical science without
referring to Ray, who filled an important place among the great founders
of botany and zoology. To his works Linnaeus, BufFon, Jessieu, Brown,
De Candolle and others were largely indebted. Ray was born at Black
Notley near Braintree. The son of a blacksmith he studied at Cam-
bridge, entering at St. Catharine College and subsequently at Trinity
College. He was elected a fellow of Trinity in 1649. He was
appointed Greek lecturer of his college, and at the age of twenty-five
he was made mathematical tutor. He finally settled in our county, and
the house he lived in was destroyed by fire quite recently. The county
may well be proud to have given birth to this great man.

More recent records of Essex botany are to be found in a catalogue
of plants in Cough's edition of Camden's Britannia, in Warner's Plantce
Woodfordiensis (pub. 1771), Watson's Botanical Guides, in the Phytologist,
in Smith's English Flora, Withering's works and several herbaria which
are preserved in the British Museum, and finally in Gibson, who,
assisted by a band of workers, published the first complete Essex Flora
in 1862, a work which will compare favourably with any county flora
since published.

During the last twenty years many lists of plants found in the
county have been published in the journal of the Essex Field Club
(Essex Naturalist, edited by W. Cole). The plants thus added to the
records of the Essex flora are chiefly those belonging to the so-called
critical genera, which were not recognized as species in Gibson's day,
and casuals, some of which may establish themselves as permanent resi-
dents. The cryptogamic plants included in this article are almost
entirely derived from the above journal, and afford an example of the
value of such publications. That the contributors include the names of
Mr. E. A. L. Batters, Dr. M. C. Cooke, the Rev. James Crombie,
Messrs. English, E. M. Holmes, G. P. Hope, Worthington Smith

BOTANY

and E. G. Varenne is sufficient guarantee of the trustworthiness of those
records.

There is no reason to suppose that the flora of the county has
changed since the publication of Gibson's Flora. I have botanized
through that portion of the county which forms Gibson's district 8,
Mr. E. E. Turner of Witham has done much work in district 7, and
the Rev. J. T. Powell has contributed a paper to the Essex Naturalist
(vi. i) on the existing flora of Epping Forest. I do not know of
any species of flowering plants which have been certainly lost to us.
Ft/ago gallica has not been found for some years, owing to the field from
which it was formerly collected having been left uncultivated.

In some districts of the county, more especially near the metro-
polis, the rapid growth of town threatens the early destruction of the
flora. Such abundant plants as the primrose and the wild hyacinth are
said to have been almost exterminated in some neighbourhoods, and the
advent of the bicycle has unfortunately extended the range through
which this destruction may take place.

DISTRIBUTION

The chief forces which influence the distribution of plants may be
generalized as follows. When we travel north and south we observe
considerable change in the flora, and though such changes are not very
marked in a small country like England, the distinction between the
flora of the tropical, subtropical, temperate and arctic latitudes has always
greatly impressed travellers. Again, as we travel east and west a less
marked change may be noted. In the latter case the difference in the
climatic conditions is not great. In so small an area as that of Essex
these changes may be neglected.

When we climb a mountain, plants which were abundant at the
lower levels gradually disappear and new ones take their place. The
highest ground in Essex does not greatly exceed 400 feet above the sea ;
we should therefore not expect to meet with representatives of the
mountain flora, but strange though it may seem our coast produces
several plants which are also found high up on mountains, though they
do not grow at intervening altitudes.

The most potent agent in regulating the distribution of plants is
undoubtedly climate. The difference between tropical, subtropical,
temperate and arctic vegetation is so marked that geologists do not
hesitate to tell us that England was once a tropical and later an arctic
country, because they find remains of tropical and arctic flora in different
strata underlying our eastern counties.

England was once part of the continent of Europe, and during at
least a portion of that time was clothed by arctic plants ; these however
gave place to our modern flora, which is similar in character to the
flora of Europe, and is therefore no doubt derived from the adjacent
continent.

i 33 5

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

The meteorological conditions of a district have a most important
influence upon the flora, plants being peculiarly sensitive to drought or
excessive moisture in the atmosphere, and also to winds and other
atmospheric conditions.

Perhaps next to climate the geological formations on the surface of
the earth have the most potent influence upon the distribution of plants,
and botanists can frequently identify a geological formation by plants
which occur on its surface. In the county of Essex the distribution of
plants is mainly determined by geological conditions.

All plants are more or less adapted to their environment. Hence
in those districts where the field boundaries are constructed of stone
certain plants become more or less rare which elsewhere are com-
paratively common ; and in counties from which stone is absent those
plants which delight in stone walls are rare or absent. Again, if a wood
is converted into arable land or pasturage, plants which need the shade
and other forms of vegetable life peculiar to woodland country soon
disappear. Pasturage, heath land, cultivated land and river banks have
each their peculiar inhabitants.

In order to show clearly the distribution of plants over any area it
is necessary to divide it into districts. When possible it is better that
these districts should coincide with the geological formation, or when
this is impossible with the natural features of the country. Reference
to the geological map of Essex will show that the surface geological
formations are so scattered that any division of the county coinciding
with the geological structure is practically impossible.

Watson in his Cybele Britannica has subdivided Great Britain into
its river beds, and although the distribution of plants does not in all
cases coincide with river beds this system has many practical advantages.
Professor G. S. Boulger has suggested the adoption of this system for
the county of Essex, 1 and has worked out the districts of Essex on that
basis ; but I do not think that for practical purposes this arrangement is
as convenient in this county as the purely artificial divisions adopted by
Gibson. Therefore in the list of Essex flowering plants here given
Gibson's divisions have been adhered to.

As the geology of Essex is fully dealt with elsewhere it is only
necessary here to summarize those features of the surface geology of our
county which influence the flora.

Essex occupies a large part of an irregular tract known as the
London basin, which has for its foundation the great chalk formation,
and the chalk comes to the surface at Purfleet and Grays in south Essex ;
at Quendon, Newport, Audley End and Saffron Walden in north Essex ;
and at Great Yeldham and Middleton eastwards.

London clay, which lies upon the chalk, is a very stiff bluish-grey
clay, brown on its surface ; it shrinks and cracks in dry weather, but
absorbs much water in wet weather. It occupies a large part of the
county, and is exposed over considerable areas.

1 Transactions of the Essex Field Club, ii. 69.
34

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Overlying the London clay we have various formations consisting
of sands and gravels. Amongst these are: (i) Bagshot beds, which
constitute some of the higher and more picturesque tracts, as at High
Beech, Brentwood, Warley, Billericay, Stock, Langdon Hill and Ray-
leigh ; (2) the glacial gravels occurring at Quendon, at Clavering, at
Harlow and at Roydon, along the Colne from Great Yeldham, Halstead,
Gosfield, Great Bardfield, Thaxted, over the high grounds of Danbury,
around Colchester, Brightlingsea and St. Osyth, in patches at Mersca
Island and Tolleshunt, and at Tiptree Heath ; (3) valley gravel in the
Thames valley.

Boulder clay, another glacial drift formation, occupies a large
portion of the surface of Essex.

Bordering on our rivers we have large tracts of alluvium recently
deposited, forming extensive marshlands. These marshlands near the
sea and riverine estuaries are either covered at high tides, when they are
known as saltings, or the sea water permeates them, when they may be
described as brackish marshes. We have also on the edges of the sea
coast considerable stretches of shingle and sand. The long stretches
of sea wall protecting the coast have a characteristic though limited
flora.

It will therefore be evident that Essex has an abundant variety of
soil, and is very pleasantly diversified with arable land and pasture, with
woodlands, commons and well timbered hedgerows. It includes every
species of soil from the most stubborn to the mildest loam.

For our present purposes we may group the geological formations
as follows :

1 . Chalk and Boulder Clay, which contains much chalk.

2. London Clay.

3. Gravels and Sands.

4. Alluvium.

5. Marine.

Though chalk only comes to the surface over a small area in the
county the chalk flora extends over a considerable portion of its surface,
for the Essex boulder clay usually contains so much chalk that the chalk
loving plants may always be met with upon this formation. It is upon
this strata that the traveller's joy (Clematis Vitalba] flourishes more
particularly. Both the green hellebore and the foetid hellebore also
occur as natives upon the boulder clay. Berberis vu/garis is found at
Saffron Walden on the chalk, also the common rockrose (Helianthemum
uulgare), which plant also occurs at other stations. The hairy violet
(Viola hirta) is common both upon the chalk and upon the boulder
clay. The following chalk plants are included in our flora : the buck-
thorn (Rhamnus c atharticus) , ladies' fingers (Anthyllis Vu Ineraria) , the
wild liquorice (Astragalus glycypbyllos), the purple milk-vetch (A. hypo-
glottis'), the dropwort (Spiraea Filipendula), the salad burnet (Poterium
Sanguisorba], common hare's ear (Bupleurum rotundifoliuni) , dwarf thistle
(Carduus acau/is), yellow-wort (Cblora perfoliata), autumnal gentian

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

(Gentiana amarelld), deadly nightshade (Atropa Belladonna), the dwarf
orchis (Orchis ustulatd), the pyramidal orchis (O. pyramidalis), the green
man orchis (Aceras anthropophord) , bee orchis (Opbrys apiferd), spider
orchis (O. araniferd), the fly orchis (O. musciferd), large white helle-
borine (Cephalanthera pat/ens), and other chalk plants.

London clay is perhaps remarkable for the limited character of its
flora. In the summer the surface dries and becomes so hard that a pick
can scarcely penetrate it, whilst below it retains much moisture. It
favours those plants which send their roots deep into the soil, e.g. colts-
foot (Tussilago Farfard), which is common on undrained London clay.
Thymus Chamcedrys also favours this formation, whilst wild oat (Avena
fatud] is peculiarly abundant on it.

The gravels and sands possibly stand next to chalk for the variety
of characteristic plants which these soils produce in the county. The
following may be mentioned as characteristic of these formations : the
interesting mouse's-tail (Myosurus minimus), the small-flowered ranunculus
(Ranunculus parviflorus) , flixweed (Sisymbrium Sophia], swine's cress (Sene-
biera Coronopus), lesser swine's cress (S. didymd), dog violet (Viola canind),
Deptford pink (Dianthus Armerid), English catchfly (Silene anglicd), purple
sandwort (Spergula rubrd), trailing St. John's wort (Hypericum humifusum),
upright St. John's wort (H. pulchrum), allseed (Radio/a millegrand), needle
whin (Genista anglicd), hare's foot trefoil (Trifolium aruense), lesser trefoil
(T. minus), slender trefoil ( T. Jiliforme), annual knawel (Scleranthus annuus),
purple-tipped cudweed (Filago apiculatd), field cudweed (F. minima),
narrow-leaved cudweed (F. Gallicd), slender-flowered thistle (Carduus
tenuiftorus), common sheep's scabious (Jasione montand), downy hemp
nettle (Galeopsis ochroleucd), and the pretty little orchid 'lady's tresses'
(Spiranthes autumnalis] .

The riverside and alluvium flora is well represented ; amongst these
plants we have the common meadow-rue (Thalictrum flaiium), greater
spearwort (Ranunculus Lingua), white water lily (Nymphcea alba), yellow
water lily (Nuphar luteuni), bitter ladies' smock (Cardamine amard), purple
loosetrife (Lythrum Salicaria, L.), the willow herbs (Epilobium), common
hare's-tail (Hippuris vu/garis), whorled water-milfoil (Myriophyllum verti-
cillatum), spiked water -milfoil (M. spicatum), meadow-sweet (Spiraea
Ulmarid), common marsh wort (Helosciadium nodiflorum), the very poisonous
water drop worts (CEnanthe), common valerian (Valeriana qfficinalis), small
teasel (Dipsacus pilosus], hemp agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum), bur
marigold (Bidens tripartita and B. cernud), yellow rattle (Rhinanthus
Crista-galli), most species of the mints (Mentha rotundifolia, M. aquatica,
M, syhatica, M. viridis, M. piperita, M. pratensis, M. sativa), scullcap
(Scute llaria galericulatd), water violet (Hottonia palustris), yellow loosestrife
(Lysimachia vu/garis), great water dock (Rumex Hydrolapathum), yellow
flag (Iris pseudacorus], great flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus), sweet
flag (Acorus Calamus), all the duckweeds (Lemnd), and bullrush (Scirpus
lacustris) .

Essex possesses a very representative marine flora. There are

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stretches of sand and shingle, upon which the following plants occur :
horned poppy (Glaucium /uteum), sea rocket (Cakile maritima), sea kale
(Crambe maritima), saltwort (Salsola Kali), various species of orache
(Atrip/ex) and sea spurge (Euphorbia Par alia*).

Our saltings are very extensive and their flora includes scurvy grass
(Cocblearia anglica, C. officinalis, C. Danica), golden samphire (Inula
critbmoides), thrift (Armeria maritima), sea lavenders (Statice Limonium, S.
rariflora and S. occidentalis) , marsh samphires (Salicornia herbacea, S. radi-
cans), sea aster (Aster Tripolium), sea blite (Suceda maritima).

Upon our sea walls and waste ground near the sea we find whitlow
pepperwort (Lepidium Draba), broad-leaved pepperwort or cress (L. lati-
folium), smooth sea heath (Frankenia Icevis), sea campion (Silene maritima'),
marsh-mallow (Altbaa officinalis), Alexanders (Smyrnium Olusatrum), sea
wormwood (Artemisia maritima), sea lettuce (Lactuca saligna), shrubby sea
blite (Suada fruticosa), shrubby sea purslane (Obione portulacoides), sea
dock (Rumex maritimus), asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), round fruited
rush (Juncus Gerardf), wild celery (Apium graveo/ens). Common mus-
tard (Brassica sinapioides) is said to be a native of our coast, and upon
sandy ground near our coast Medicago minima, M. maculata and M. denti-
culata occur.

The very extensive brackish marshes, covering thousands of acres,
do not produce a great variety of plants ; but the rare Vicia lutea has
been found upon them, and the uncommon Trifolium maritimum also
occurs.

The very interesting grass vetch, Lathyrus Nissolia, grows in con-
siderable quantities on some of these marshes. In the dikes, or at the
edges of the dikes bounding the marshes, the following plants are
abundant : Slender hare's ear (Bupleurum tenuissimum), salt marsh club
rush (Scirpus maritimus) and tassel pondweed (Ruppia maritima).

Drainage and enclosure have been carried out in Essex so exten-
sively that the bog flora has been almost exterminated, but boggy places
remain at Danbury, at Warley and in Epping Forest, hence we have the
following representatives of the bog flora : Drosera rotundifolia, Parnassia
palustris, Hypericum elodes, Eriophorum angustifolium and E. latifolium.

The old walls of Essex afford us the wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri),
the Spanish catchfly (Silene Otites), which latter was planted on the walls
in Colchester by a lepidopterist as a food plant for larvae, and has been
well established for twenty years. The rue-leaved saxifrage (Saxifraga
tridactylites), viper's bugloss (Ecbium vu/gare), mother of thousands
(Linaria Cymbalaria), wall pellitory (Parietaria offidnalis) and wall veron-
ica (Veronica arvensis). There is an abundant wood flora, waste ground
flora, hedge flora and cornfield flora, but space will not permit the
enumeration of the species which favour these situations.

It will thus be evident that if Essex is not so rich in rarities, nor in
the actual number of species as some of the southern counties of England,
it nevertheless ranks high as a field for botanical research, and affords an
abundant variety of species for the lover of wild plants.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

RARE AND INTERESTING PLANTS

Among the rare plants of Essex may be mentioned Bupleurum
falcatum, an interesting plant which appears to be truly indigenous, and
is confined in Britain to one situation in Essex, where it is very plenti-
ful and extends over an area of several square miles. It was discovered
by Corder in 1831. Another is Lathyrus tuberosus ; this beautiful plant
is still plentiful in the Essex locality. It was first noticed by O. Corder
in 1859, but is figured in Gerard's herbal of 1597, and specimens occur
in some old herbaria, but previous to Mr. Corder's rediscovery it was
confused with L. macrorhizus. It occurs nowhere else in England.
L. birsutus occurs in only a few other counties in Britain. It has been
known in Essex since 1861. Galium Vaillantii was discovered in Britain
by Gibson in 1844 in a field in Essex. It is spread over a large dis-
trict, where it is abundant in fields, more particularly in those planted
with potatoes.

Besides the above we have the following plants which are only
found in two or three of Watson's subprovinces : Fi/ago galllca (this
plant has not been collected for some five years, but probably still occurs),
Primula elatior, Cbenopodium botryoides, Peucedanum qfficinale, Crepis fcetida,
Medicago falcata, Barbarea stricta, Diotis maritima (probably now lost).

The following plants should also be mentioned as amongst the
rarer plants of Essex : (Enantbe pimpinelloides, Galium Anglicum, Hypo-
chceris maculata, Lactuca Scario/a, L. saligna, Cynoglossum montanum,
Scropbularia verna/is, Melampyrum aruense, Galeopsis ocbroleuca, Suceda
fruticosa, Aceras Anthropophora, Ceratopbyllum submersum, Fritillaria
Me/eagris, Lepidium latifolium, Vicia gracilis, Actinocarpus Damasonium,
Carex elongata, Pbleum Boehmeri, Polypogon Monspeliensis, Trifolium ochro-
leucum, Spartina stricta, Salicornia radicans, Limnanthemum peltatum.

One of the most interesting plants of Essex, and indeed of England,
is Primula elatior, the true oxlip. This must not be confounded with
the hybrids between the cowslip and the primrose so often mistaken for
the oxlip. The true oxlip is a very beautiful primula. It is very diffi-
cult to give any specific characters by which it can be distinguished
from its relations. The peduncle is more slender, the calyx Jits more
tightly to the corolla tube, the form of the umbel is peculiarly graceful,
the pedicels varying in length so that the flowers are arranged one over
the other, all facing in one direction, the petals of a pale buff colour quite
distinct from that of other primulas. The free portions of the petals
are peculiarly regular in outline and never overlap one another, whilst
the folds or boxes in the neck of the corolla, present in all other species
of primrose, are absent from the true oxlip.

This plant is confined to an area of our county where it borders
upon Suffolk, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, extending into those
counties. It covers a stretch of country some 475 square miles in
extent, having an irregular outline. There are some outlying patches,
one in Cambridgeshire, one in Suffolk and one in Norfolk. Within the

BOTANY

district where it grows it entirely replaces the primrose and is even more
abundant. On the borders of the district, which in some parts divides
woods into two portions, there is usually a narrow belt of country which
is occupied by hybrids between the primrose and the true oxlip. Mr.
Miller Christy suggests that the primrose, which is the more hardy
plant, is gradually destroying the oxlip by hybridization and replacing
it. I have visited the oxlip country upon several occasions with Mr.
Miller Christy, and think that there is much to support his view. It
will be interesting if botanists of a later period note the boundary" line
between the oxlip and the primrose country, and observe whether the
habitat of the former has been reduced. Mr. Miller Christy gives a
carefully prepared map of the oxlip country in his paper. 1 The oxlip is
confined to the boulder clay.

Another interesting plant of Essex is the sea holly (Eryngium mari-
timum). A candy was prepared from the roots of this plant for which
the town of Colchester was formerly celebrated, and in the chamber-
lain's accounts for the borough items frequently appear for purchasing
the roots to present to royal and other distinguished persons. It was
first prepared by one Robert Buxton, an alderman of the borough, during
the Civil War, and its manufacture was continued down to some forty
years ago. 1

The coast flora of Essex presents points of interest and should afford
opportunities for scientific work to our county naturalists. The climatic
conditions and the nature of the soil is rendered quite different from
the climate and the soil of the inland portions of the county by the
presence of salt, and consequently the character of the flora is quite
distinctive. A thorough investigation of the variation of the coast
plants and of their nearest allies growing inland would, I am sure, be
profitable.

The action of the salt water and atmosphere favours those plants
known to botanists as xerophytes, as it reduces the amount of transpira-
tion. Hence there is a similarity between the coast flora and that of
rocky or dry situations ; but in the one case we have an abundance of
water under conditions which reduce the amount of transpiration, in the
other we have at times a dearth of water, and consequently those plants
thrive which retain the water in their tissues. We find therefore that
whilst the plants which favour our coast line are similar in character to
those which we find in dry and rocky inland situations, yet they show
distinct variations from the latter and are known as halophytes.

On our sandy shores Silene maritima frequently occurs ; it is con-
sidered by some a mere variety of S. Cucubalus, the latter growing in
sandy and chalky situations ; thus we have two very near relations both
having the characters of xerophytes, but one confined to the coast and
the other to the inland districts of the county ; but strange as it may

1 The Primula elatior in Great Britain,' Journal of the Ltnnxan Society, 1 897.
A full account of this manufacture will be found in the Eiiex Naturalist, 'Report on the Flower-
ing Plants of Essex,' J. C. Shenstone, February, 1897.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

appear the marine species occurs also high up on mountains. Common
thrift (Armeria marifima), which grows abundantly on our saltings, covered
at every tide by salt water, also flourishes high up on mountains, where
the conditions of soil and climate must be very different ; in fact it is
difficult to imagine localities affording wider differences. In the sea
plantain (Plantago maritima) and scurvy grass (Cochlearia officinalis] we
have also two plants which flourish on our saltings and high up on
mountains.

The species of Atriplex on our coast should also provide material for
investigation. On our sandy shores there is a wide range of variations,
and inland another series of variations. The sandworts (Spergularia)
give four forms : S. rubra^ growing in hot, sandy, inland situations ;
S. sa/igna, found in muddy or rocky situations by the sea ; S. media,
occurring on muddy sea marshes; and lastly a species found only in
rocky places by the sea, S. rupestris. It is scarcely necessary to say that
this latter does not occur in Essex. These plants are so closely related
that botanists do not agree in dividing them into species and varieties,
but the inland forms are quite distinct from the marine forms. It will
thus be seen that the coast flora of Essex offers problems of great
scientific interest.

Insectivorous plants mostly occurring in bogs are represented in
the county, though rare. We have the sundew (Drosera rotundifolia),
the great bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), rue-leaved saxifrage (Saxi-
fraga tridactylites), and that remarkable plant the tooth wort (Lathraa
squamaria), which obtains its vegetable diet from the roots of plants to
which it attaches itself, and its animal nourishment by catching small
insects in its scale-like leaves, folded back at the edges to form traps for
unwary insects. The plant only needs to come above the ground in the
spring to form flowers and seeds, not requiring green leaves like other
plants.

Orchids remarkable for the mechanism of their flowers by which
their fertilization is accomplished are well represented in the county,
though not so abundant as in some of the southern counties of England.

The poisonous plants growing in the county are both of scientific
and also of practical interest to the farmer and country resident. They
may be summarized as follows : The poppy, which is unwholesome,
though not so deadly as those species favouring hot climates ; the com-
mon celandine, which is an acrid and violent irritant ; the soapwort ; the
Deptford pink ; the white campion, the red campion, and most plants
of the natural order Caryophylleas, which contain the active principle
saponine and are therefore either poisonous or unwholesome. Fortunately
saponine is destroyed by heating, hence flour made from corn containing
seeds of these plants is rendered harmless by cooking. Holly berries
cause violent irritation of the bowels. The leafless vetchling (Latbyrus
ap/jaca), the rough-podded vetchling (L. birsutus], and the broom (Cytisus
Scoparius) are the only British plants of the pea-flower tribe which have
been known to possess deleterious qualities, causing violent headache

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and vomiting. Many species of the rose family contain emulsin and
amygdalin, and when the seeds are bruised these substances react and
the deadly prussic acid is formed. The kernel of the sloe also contains
these principles. Cattle have been poisoned by browsing on the leaves
of the bird cherry, and the berries of the mountain ash have been known
to cause symptoms of poisoning to children who have eaten them.

Common bryony is a powerful and highly irritant purgative. The
natural order Umbelliferaj affords perhaps some of the most virulent of
British poisonous plants. There are found in Essex the hemlock (Conium
maculatum), the water hemlock (Cicuta vtrosa), the water dropwort
((Enant6ejistu/osa),the parsley dropwort (CE. pimpinelloides), the hemlock
dropwort (CE. crocatd), the fineleaved dropwort (CE. Pbellandriuni), and
the fool's parsley (SEthusa Cynapiuni), all of which have caused fatal
poisoning; and to these may be added the wild parsnip (Pastinaca satrva),
though the cultivated plant is such a useful vegetable. Ivy has purga-
tive and emetic properties, and common elder and honeysuckle are both
unwholesome.

The composite plants only afford us wormwood, containing an oil
which is a narcotic poison, but the plant can scarcely be considered
dangerous.

Privet berries have certainly caused fatal poisoning, and in the root
and herbage of great bindweed we have a strong emetic and purgative.

The nightshade family is perhaps the most poisonous of all our
orders of plants. Most if not all the plants of this order contain some
one of the alkaloids known as the mydriatic alkaloids, though curiously
the potatoes and tomatoes, both belonging to this order, are valuable
vegetables. Potatoes are said to be poisonous when uncooked. We
have in the county the following plants of this order: Bitter-sweet
(Solatium Dulcamara), common nightshade (S. nigrum), deadly night-
shade (Atropa Belladonna), thorn-apple (Datura Sframomium), the
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), most of which are still used in medicine.
The foxglove is both very poisonous and much valued in medicine.
The bark of the mezereon (Daphne Mezereum) and of the spurge laurel
(D. Laureola) both afford us strong blistering agents. The spurges
and perennial mercury are powerful irritant poisons. The poisonous
properties of the yew are too well known : the branches in a half-
faded condition are even more deadly than when fresh. It is stated that
yew berries are not poisonous ; it is however wisest to leave them
untasted. The wild hyacinth and herb Paris are very acrid. The
meadow saffron is a narcotic irritant poison and is still used in medi-
cine. The wild arum is very acrid, but the poison is destroyed by heat
and the roots formerly provided a wholesome farina called Portland
arrowroot, the manufacture of which was discontinued in 1853. Black
bryony (Tamus communis) was formerly a favourite internal medicine,
but was discontinued as it was found to be dangerous in its action.
It is still used when grated as an application to blackened eyes.

Common rye grass is apt to be attacked by a fungus known as ergot,

4i 6

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

which is poisonous but useful in medicine. The darnel grass is the
only British grass which is said to be poisonous.

A LIST OF BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS FOUND IN ESSEX
Showing the districts in which they are found. 1

Clematis Vitalba, L. 8 1-8
Thalictrum saxatile, Bab. I

flavum, L. i 8
Anemone Pulsatilla, L. I

nemorosa, L. 1-8
[Adonis autumnalis, L.] 1-5
Myosurus minimus, L. z 8
Ranunculus heterophyllus, Fries. I, 6, 7

peltatus, Fries. 4, 7, 8

var. floribundus, Bab. 4
Hiern. Mon. 8

truncatus, Dumort. 8
penicillatus, Dumort. 8

confusus, Godr. 6, 8

Baudotii, F. Godr. 8

trichophyllus, Chaix. I, 4, 7, 8

Drouetii, F. Schultz. i, 4, 8

fluitans, Lam. i, 4

circinatus, Sibth. 18

hederaceus, L. 18

Lingua, L. i

Flammula, L. 18

auricomus, L. 1-8

sceleratus, L. 18

acris, L. 1-8

repens, L. i 8

bulbosus, L. 1-8

hirsutus, L. 2, 4-8

arvensis, L. 1-8

parvi floras, L. 1-4, 68

Ficaria, L. 1-8
Caltha palustris, L. 1-8
Helleborus viridis, L. i, 3, 4

fcetidus, L. i, 3-5, 7
Aquilegia vulgaris, L. 13
Delphinium Ajacis, Reichb. I, 4, 6, 8
[Aconitum Napellus, L.] i, 3
Berberis vulgaris, L. I, 3, 4, 7
Nuphar luteum, Sm. 1-8
Nymphsea alba, L. 1-8

Papaver Argemone, L. 1-4, 6-8

hybridum, L. i, 6, 8

Rhceas, L. 1-8

dubium, L. 1-8

Lecoqii, Lamotte. 2, 5
[ somniferum, L.] i, 5
Glaucium luteum, Scop. 6-8
Chelidonium majus, L. 1-8

1 The numbers refer to corresponding numbers
marked upon the map, and indicate the districts
in which the species occur. Those species enclosed
in brackets are probably casuals. A hyphen be-
tween two numbers indicates that the intermediate
numbers are to be included.

8 The arrangement and nomenclature followed
in this list is that of the Students' Flora of the
British Islands, ed. 3 (1884), by Sir J. D. Hooker.

Fumaria capreolata, L. 4, 5, 8

officinalis, L. 1-8

densiflora, DC. i

parviflora, Lamk. i

var. Vaillantii, Loisel. i
Corydalis claviculata, DC. 3, 4, 8
[ lutea, DC.] i, 3, 4, 7, 8
[ solida, Hook.] i
Cheiranthus Cheiri, L. i, 3, 4, 6, 8
Nasturtium officinale, Br. 18

sylvestre, Br. 3, 4, 6

palustre, DC. 1-8

amphibium, Br. 3, 4, 6, 7
Barbarea vulgaris, Br. 1-8
[ praecox, Br.] 1-4, 7, 8
Arabis stricta, Huds. 5

perfoliata, Lamk. 3, 4, 8
Cardamine hirsuta, L. 1-8

var. sylvatica, Link. 3, 5, 7

pratensis, L. 1-8

amara, L. 25, 7
Sisymbrium Thaliana, Hook. 1-8

Irio, L. 3

Sophia, L. 1-8

officinale, Scop, i 8

Alliaria, Scop. 1-8
Erysimum Cheiranthoides, L. i 8
Brassica oleracea, L. 6

campestris, L. 4, 6, 8

sinapioides, Roth, i, 2, 4-8

sinapistrum, Boiss. 1-8

alba, Boiss. 17
Diplotaxis muralis, DC. 5-8

tenuifolia, DC. 4, 5, 8
Erophila vulgaris, DC. 1-8
Alyssum calycinum, L. i, 4, 7

maritimum, L. 4, 5, 8
Cochlearia officinalis, L. 6-8

Danica, L. 8

Anglica, L. 4-8

Armoracia, L. 1-8
Camelina sativa, Crantz. i, 4-6
Capsella Bursa-Pastoris, Mcench. i 8
Senebiera didyma, Persoon. i, 3, 4

Coronopus, Poiret. 18
Lepidium latifolium, L. 4-8

ruderale, L. 3, 5-8

campestre, Br. z-8
[ Draba, L.] 1,3,6,7
Thlaspi arvense, L. 1-4, 6-8
Iberis amara, L. 1,2
Teesdalia nudicaulis, Br. 4, 8
Isatis tinctoria, L. 1,4
Crambe maritima, L. 8
Cakile maritima, Scop. 6-8
Raphanus Raphanistrum, L. 1-8
Reseda lutea, L. 1-6, 8

Luteola, L. 1-8

BOTANY

Helianthemum vulgare, Garrtn. 1-4, 6
Viola palustris, L. J

odorau, L. 18

- hirta, L. 1-4, 6, j

canina, L. 7, 8

- sylvatica, Fries. 1-8

tricolor, L. 1-8
Polygala vulgaris, L. 1-8

var. deprcssa, Wend. 5
Frankenia Izvis, L. 6-8
Dianthus Armcria, L. 1-4, 6, 7
[ deltoides, L.] 3
[ plumarius, L.] 4
Saponaria Officinalis, L. 15, 8
Silene Cucubalus, Wibel. 1-8

maritima, With. 6-8
[ conica, L.] 8

Gallica, L. 8

var. Anglica, L. 2, 8
[ Otites, L.] 8

noctiflora, L. I, 3, 4
Lychnis Flos-cuculi, L. 1-8

diurna, L. 1-8

vespertina, Sibth. 18
Githago scgetum, Dcsf. 1-8
Cerastium quaternellum, Fenzl. 3-8

tetrandrum, Curtis. 5, 6, 8

semidecandrum, L. 1,4, 68

glomeratum, Thuillier. 1-8

triviale, Link. 1-8

arvense, L. I, 3, 4, 6
Stellaria aqaatica, Scopoli. 18

- media, Vill. 1-8

Holostea, L. 1-8

palustris, Ehrh. 3, 4

graminea, L. 18

uliginosa, Murr. 1-8
Arenaria tenuifolia, L. I

trinerva, L. 1-8

serpylli folia, L. 1-8

var. leptoclados, Guss. I, 5, 6

peploides, L. 6-8
Sagina apetala, L. 1-8

ciliata, Fries. 5, 7

procumbcns, L. 1-8

nodosa, Frenzl. 3

- maritima, Don. 6, 7
Spergula arvensis, L. 1-8
Spergularia rubra, Pers. I, 3-8

- salina, Pers. 4-8

var. medium, Fries. 5-8
Montia fontana, L. 2-8
Claytonia perfoliata, Don. 3, 8
Tamarix Gallica, L. 6, 8
Hypericum Androsxmum, L. 1-8

quadrangulum, L. 1-8

perforatum, L. 1-8

humifusum, L. 1-8

pukhrum, L. 1-8

hirsutum, L. 18

- Elodes, Huds. 4, 5
Althaea oificinalis, L. 5-8
Malva sylvestris, L. 1-8

rotundifolia, L. 1-8

moschata, L. 1-8

[Lavatera arborea, L.] 6
[Tilia europaca, L.] 1-8.

parvifolia, Ehrh. 1-5, 7, 8
[ platyphyllos, Scop.] 1-8
Linum catharticum, L. 1-8

- perenne, L. i

angustifolium, Huds. 2, 5, 6, 8
[ usitatissimum, L.] 1-4, 6, 7
Radiola linoides, Gmel. 3, 4, 7, 8
Geranium sanguineum, L. I

- pratense, L. 1-3, 6

[ pyrcnaicum Burm. f.] 1-4, 7

- molle, L. I, 3-8

rotundifblium, L. 4

pusillum, L. 18

columbinum, L. 1-3, 58

dissectum, L. 1-8

Robert ianum, L. 18

lucidum, L. 1-4, 6-8
Erodium cicutarium, L'Hcrit. 1-8
[ moschatum, L'Hcrit.] 1, 4, 8
Oxalis Acetosella, L. 1-8
Impatiens parviflora, DC. I, 4, 8
Ilex Aquifolium, L. 1-8
Euonymus europxus, L. 1-8
Rhamnus catharticus, L. 1-7

Frangula, L. 2-8
Acer campestre, L. 18

pscudoplatanus, L. 18
Genista tinctoria, L. I, 3-8

- Anglica, L. 3-5, 7, 8
Ulex europxus, L. 1-8

nanus, Forster. 4, 5
Cytisus Scoparius, Link. 1-8
Ononis spinosa, L. I 8

Trigonella ornithopodioides, DC. 3, 4, 7
Mcdicago falcata, L. 1-8

- saliva, L. I, 3

lupulina, L. 1-8

- denticulata, Willd. I, 6-8

- maculata, L. 2-8

- minima, Desr. 4, 6, 8
Melilotus altissima, Thuill. 1-7

- alba, Desr. i, 4, 7, 8

- officinalis, Desr. I, 7, 8
Trifolium subterraneum, L. 3-8

- arvense, L. 1-8

ochroleucum, L. 1-3, 5-7

- pratense, L. 1-8

medium, Huds. 17

maritimum, Huds. 4-8

striatum, L. i-K

- scabrum, L. I, 5-7

glomeratum, L. 6

hybridum, L. I, 3

- repcns, L. 1-8

fragifcrum, L. 1-8

- procumbens, L. 1,2, 4-8

dubium, Sibth. 1-8

filiforme, L. 1-8
Anthyllis Vulneraria, L. I
Lotus corniculatus, L. 1-8

tenuis, Waldst. and Kit. I, 3-8

uliginosa, Schlc. 1-8
Astragalus glycyphyllos, L. 1-3, J

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Astragalus hypoglottis, L. i
Ornithopus perpusillus, L. 38
Hippocrepis comosa, L. i
Onobrychis sativa, Lamk. i, 3-5
Vicia tetrasperma, Moench. 1-8

gracilis, Loisel. i, 6

hirsuta, Koch. 1-8

Cracca, L. 1-8

sepium, L. 1-8

lutea, L. 8

sativa, L. 1-8

angustifolia, Roth. 1-4, 6-8

bithynica, L. 2, 3, 6
Lathyrus Aphaca, L. 1-4, 6

Nissolia, L. 1-8

hirsutus, L. 46

pratensis, L. 1-8

sylvestris, L. I, 3, 4, 6

tuberosus, L. 3

macrorrhizus, Wimm. 37
Prunus communis, Huds. i 8

insititia, L. 1,2, 4-8

cerasus, L. J, 2, 4, 7, 8

Avium, L. 1-3, 6-8
Spiraea Ulmaria, L. i 8

- Filipendula, L. i, 4
Rubus Idaeus, L. 1-8

suberectus, Anders.

var. plicatus, W. & N. 5, 8
affinis, W. & N. i, 4, 7

rhamnifolius, W. & N. 1,2, 4, 5, 7, 8

Lindleianus, Lees. 2, 4, 5, 7, 8

corylifolius, Sm. 17

var. Balfourianus, Blox. 7
althaeifolius, Bab. 7

csesius, L. i 8

discolor, W. & N. 1-8

var. thyrsoideus, Wimm. 7

leucostachys, Sm. i, 2, 4, 7

villicaulis, Weihe. I, 7

umbrosus, Arrh.

var. carpinifolius. 2, 4

macrophyllus, Weihe. 5, 7, 8

Sprengelii, Weihe. 4

dumetorum, Weihe.

var. nemorosus, Hayne. i, 7
diversifolius, Lind. 4

radula, Weihe. 7

var. rudis. 2, 7, 8

Bloxamii, Lees.

var. scaber, Weihe. 7
fusco-ater. Weihe. 2, 7

Ko:hleri, Weihe. I, 2, 4, 7

hystrix, Weihe. 4

var. rosaceus, Weihe. 4

pallidus, Weihe. 2, 4, 5, 7

var. hirtus, Weihe. 5, 7

glandulosa, Bell. I, 4, 5, 7, 8

saltum, Focke.

var. Guntheri, Weihe. 5, 7

pyramidalis, Kaltenb. 4
Geum urbanum, L. 1-8

rivale, L. I, 2

var. intermedium, Ehrh. i
Fragaria vesca, L. 1-8

Fragaria elatior, Ehrh. 2, 3
Potentilla Comarum, Nestl. 7, 8

Tormentilla, Scop, i 8

reptans, L. 18

Fragariastrum, Ehrh. 18

argentea, L. 28
Alchemilla arvensis, Lamk. 1-8

vulgaris, L. 13
Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. 1-8

odorata, Mill. 6
Poterium Sanguisorba, L. I, 46

muricatum, Spach. i, 2
Rosa spinossima, L. 5, 6, 8

tomentosa, Sm. i 8

rubiginosa, L. 1-8

micrantha, Sm. I, 3-8

inodora, Freis. I, 4, 7

canina, L. 1-8

lutetiana, Leman. 8

surculosa, Woods, i, 4

sphaerica, Gren. 8

sarmentacea, Woods, i, 4, 5

urbica, Leman. 4, 5

frondosa, Steven. 4

Andevagensis, Bast. 8

verticillacantha, Merat. 8

collina, Jacq. 8

decipiens, Dumort. 8

arvensis, Huds. 1-8

systyla, Woods. 1-4, 7
Pyrus communis, L. 1-7

Malus, L. 1-8

- torminalis, Ehrh. 1-4, 6-8
[ Aria, Sm.] 7

Aucuparia, Gaertn. i, 3-8
Crataegus Oxyacantha, L. 18
Saxifraga tridactylites, L. 18

granulata, L. i, 3-8
Chrysosplenium alternifolium, L. 2-4, '
oppositifolium, L. i 6, 8
Parnassia palustris, L. I, 3, 4

[Ribes Grossularia, L.] 1-4, 6, 7

- rubrum, L. 1,2, 4, 5, 7, 8

nigrum, L. 15, 7, 8
Sedum Telephium, L. 1-3, 7, 8

var. Fabaria, Koch. 7

album, L. i, 3, 7

dasyphyllum, L. 1,2
acre, L. 1-8

reflexum, L. i, 3-8
Sempervivum tectorum, L. 1,2, 4-8
Drosera rotundifolia, L. 3-5, 7, 8
Hippuris vulgaris, L. 1,2
Myriophyllum verticillatum, L. 1-5, 7

alterniflorum, L. 3, 4, 7

spicatum, L. 18
Callitriche verna, L. 1-8

platycarpa, Kuetz. i , 2, 4-7

pedunculata, DC. I, 4, 8
Lythrum Salicaria, L. 1-8
Peplis Portula, L. 1-8

Epilobium angustifolium, L. 1-5, 7, 8

- hirsutum, L. 18

- parviflorum, Schreb. 1-8

montanum, L. 1-8

BOTANY

Epilobium roseum, Schreb. I 8

tetragonum, L. 18

obscurum, Schreb. 2, 3, 5, 8

- palustrc, L. i, 3-8
[CEnothera biennis, L.] 8
Circza lutetiana, L. 18
Bryonia dioica, L. 18
Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L. 3-8
Eryngium maritimum, L. 68
Sanicula europsea, L. 1-8
Conium macul.it um, L. 1-8
Smyrnium Olusatrum, L. I, 3-8
Buplcurum rotundifolium, L. I, 3-5

falcatum, L. 3

- tenuissimum, L. 48
Apium graveolens, L. 1,3-8

nodiflorum, Reichb. 1-8

var. repens, Koch. 37

- inundatum, Reichb. I, 3-8
[Carum Carui, L.] 2, 6, 7

- segetum, Benth. I, 3-8

- Petroselinum, Benth. I, 3, 4, 7, 8
Sison Amomum, L. I 8

Slum latifolium, L. 4, 8

angustifolium, L. 18
.<gopodium Podagraria, L. 1-5, 7, 8
Pimpinella Saxifraga, L. 1-8

- major, Huds. i, 3, 5
Conopodium denudatum, Koch. 1-8
Scandix Pecten-Veneris, L. 1-8
Chzrophyllum temulum, L. 1-8
Anthriscus vulgaris, Pers. 14, 6-8

sylvestris, Hoffm. 1-8

- Ccrcfolium, Hoffm. 4, 7
[Crithmum maritimum, L.] 8
CEnanthe fistulosa, L. 14, 6-8

pimpinelloides, L. 7

Lachenalii, Gmel. 5-8

crocata, L. 4-6

phellandrium, Lamk. 28

- fluviatilis, Colera. 1-5, 7, 8
yEthusa Cynapium, L. 1-8
Silaus pratensis, Besser. 1-8
Angelica sylvestris, L. 1-8
Peutedanum officinale, L. 8

- palustre, Mcench. 4
Pastinaca sativa, L. 1,2, 4-8
Heracleum Sphondylium, L. 1-8
Daucus Carota, L. 1-8
Caucalis daucoides, L. 1,5

latifolia, L. 3

Anthriscus, Huds. 1-8

- nodosa, Scopoli. 1-8
Hedera Helix, L. 1-8
Corn us sanguinea, L. 1-8
Viburnum Lantana, L. I, 36

- Opulus, L. 1-8
Sambucus Ebulus, L. 1-8

nigra, L. 18

Adoza Moschatellina, L. 1-8
Lonicera Periclymenum, L. 1-8

Caprifolium, L. I, 2, 7

Xylosteum, L. I, 3, 4
Galium verum, L. 1-8

Cruciata, Scopoli. l, 3, 4, 6, 8

Galium palustre, L. 1-8

uliginosum, L. 1-5, 7

saxatile, L. 3-8

Mollugo, L. 1-8

var. erectum, Huds. i

Aparine, L. i 8

var. Vaillantii, DC. I

tricornc, With. 1-7.

Anglicum, Huds. I
Asperula odorata, L. 1-4, 6-8

- cynanchica, L. I, 3, 5
Sherardia arvensis, L. 1-8
Valeriana dioica, L. 1-5, 7, 8

officinalis, L. 1-6, 8

var. sambucifolia, Milan, i, z, 4, 5, 7
Valerianella olitoria, Mcench. 1-8

- carinata, Loisel. 3, 4, 7, 8

- Auricula, DC. 7, 8.

- dentata, Poll, i, 3-8
Dipsacus sylvestris, L. 1-8

- pilosus, L. 1-8
Scabiosa succisa, L. 1-8

Columbaria, L. i, 4, 5, 8

- arvensis, L. 1-8

Eupatorium cannabinum, L. 1-4, 6-8
Aster Tripolium, L. 4-8
Erigeron acre, L. I, 5, 6, 8

- Canadense, L. 4, 5, 8
Bell is perennis, L. 18
Solidago Virgaurea, L. 27
Inula Conyza, DC. 1-3, 5-8

- crithmoides, L. 6-8

[ Helenium, L.] i, 3, 4, 6
Pulicaria dysenterica, Gaertn. i, 2, 4-8

- vulgaris, Gaertn. 3, 4, 6-8
Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L. 18

- uliginosum, L. 1-8
[Antennaria margaritacea, Br.] 2
Filago Germanica, L. 1-8

var. spathulata, Presl. i, 6-8
apiculata, G. E. Sm. 5, 7, 8

- minima, Fries. 3-5, 7, 8

- Gallica, L. 2, 8
Bidens cernua, L. 1-8

- tripartita, L. i 8
Anthemis arvensis, L. 25, 7, 8

- Cotula, L. 1-8

nobilis, L. i, 3-8
Achillea Ptarmica, L. 1-8

- Millefblium, L. 1-8
Diotis marititna, Cass. 7
Matricaria Chamomilla, L. 2, 4-8

- inodora, L. 1-8
Chrysanthemum segetum, L. 1-8

Leucanthemum, L. 1-8

- Parthcnium, Pen. 1-8
Tanacetum vulgare, L. 1-8
Artemisia vulgaris, L. 1-8

Absinthium, L. 1-8

maritima, L. 5-8

var. Gallica, Willd. 6-8
Pctasites vulgaris, Desf. 1-4, 6-8
Tussilago Farfara, L. 18
[Doronicum Pardalianches, L.] i

plantagineum, L. 1,3

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Senecio vulgaris, L. 1-8

sylvaticus, L. 2-8

viscosus, L. 4

Jacobaea, L. 1-8

erucifolius, L. 1-8

aquaticus, L. 1-8

campestris, DC. I
Arctium Lappa, L.

var. majus, Schkuhr. i, z, 48
tomentosum, Bab. 4, 5
minus, Schkuhr. 1-8
intermedium, Langc. I, 37

Carlina vulgaris, L. I, 38

Centaurea nigra, L. 18

Scabiosa, L. I 8

Cyanus, L. I 8

Calcitrapa, L. 2, 4-6

solstitialis, L. i 6, 8
Serratula tinctoria, L. 1,4
Carduus nutans, L. i, 3-6, 8

crispus, L. 1-8

var. acanthoides, L. i, 4, 7, 8

pycnocephalus, L. 3-8
Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. 18

eriophorus, Hoffm. 13

acaulis, Hoffm. 15, 7

dubius, Willd. i

arvensis, Hoffm. 18

palustris, Hoffm. 1-8

pratensis, Willd. 4
Onopordium Acanthium, L. 1-8
Silybum Marianum, Gaertn. 1-8
Cichorium Intybus, L. i 8
Arnoseris pusilla, Gaertn. 2-4, 8
Lapsana communis, L. 1-8
Picris hieracioides, L. 1-7

echioides, L. 1-8
Crepis virens, L. 18

biennis, L. 1-7

foetida, L. i, 3, 5

taraxacifolia, Thuill. 5, 6
[ setosa, Haller fil.] i , 8
Hieracium Pilosella, L. 1-8

umbellatum, L. 3-5, 7

boreale, Fries. 2-5, 7, 8

tridentatum, Fries. 3, 7, 8

vulgatum, Fries. I, 3-5, 7, 8
Hypochoeris radicata, L. 1-8

maculata, L. I
Leontodon hirtus, L. [-8

hispidus, L. 1-8

- autumnalis, L. 1-8
Taraxacum officinale, Web. 1-8
Lactuca virosa, L. i, 38

- Scariola, L. 5, 6

saligna, L. 5, 6

muralis, Fresen. 4, 8
Sonchus arvensis, L. 18

palustris, L. 4

oleraceus, L. i 8

sub-sp. asper, Hoffm. 18
Tragopogon pratensis, L. 1,3-7
var. minor, Fries. 1-8

porrifolius, L. 2, 4-8
Jasione montana, L. 2-8

Wahlenbergia hederacea, Reichb. 4

Campanula rotundifolia, L. 1-8

[ Rapunculus, L.] 3, 4

[ patula, L.] 2, 3

[ rapunculoides, L.] I

Trachelium, L. 15

glomerata, L. 14
Specularia hybrida, DC. 18
Vaccinum Myrtillus, L. 3, 4

Vitis-Idaea, L. 4

Oxycoccos, L. 4
Erica Tetralix, L. 3-8

cinerea, L. 4, 5, 7, 8
Calluna vulgaris, Salisb. 2-8
Hypopitys multi flora, Scop, i, 3, 4
Armeria maritima, Willd. 5-8
Statice Limonium, L. 58

sub-spec, rariflora, Drejer. 5-8

auriculaefolia, Vahl. 8
Primula vulgaris, Huds. i 8

elatior, Jacq. 13

veris, L. 1-8

Lysimachia vulgaris, L. 3, 4, 7, 8

nemorum, L. 18

Nummularia, L. 1-8
Glaux maritima, L. 48
Centunculus minimus, L. 4, 6, 7
Anagallis arvensis, L. i 8

var. ccerulea, Schreb. 2-4, 6-8

tenella, L. i, 3-5, 7
Hottonia palustris, L. 2-8
Samolus Valerandi, L. I, 3-8
Ligustrum vulgare, L. 1-8
Fraxinus excelsior, L. i 8
Vinca minor, L. 1-8

major, L. i 8
Chlora perfoliata, L. 1-8
Erythrasa Centaurium, Pers. 14, 7

pulchella, Fries. 5, 6
Gentiana Amarella, L. 1-3
Menyanthes trifoliata, L. i 8
Limnanthemum peltatum, Gmel. 4
[Polemonium cceruleum, L.] i, 4
Echium vulgare, L. 1-8

Borago officinalis, L. i, 3, 4, 6-8
Symphytum officinale, L. 18

tuberosum, L. 5, 8
Anchusa arvensis, Bieb. 1-8

sempervirens, L. 2, 4, 7, 8
Lithospermum officinale, L. I, 3-8

arvense, L. i 8
Myosotis palustris, With. 18

caespitosa, Schultz. 18

sylvatica, Hoffm. i, 2, 4, 6, 8

arvensis, Hoffm. 1-8

collina, Hoffm. 1-4, 6-8

versicolor, Reichb. 28
[Asperugo procumbens, L.] 5
Cynoglossum officinale, L. I, 3-8

montanum, Lamk. 4, 5, 7
Convolvulus arvensis, L. 1-8

sepium, L. 18

Soldanella, L. 6-8
Cuscuta europaea, L. I, 2, 4

Epithymum, Murr. 46, 8

BOTANY

Cuscuta Epilinum, Weihe. I

Trifolii, Bab. 1-3, 6-8
Hyoscyamus niger, L. I, 3-8
Solarium Dulcamara, L. 18

nigrum, L. 18

Atropa Belladonna, L. I, 4, 7, 8
Plantago major, L. I 8

media, L. I 8

lanceolata, L. 1-8

maritima, L. 48

Coronopus, L. I, 3-8
Littorella lacustris, L. 4
Verbascum Thapsus, L. 1-8

nigrum, L. I, 36, 8
[ Blattaria, L.] 4, 7

Linaria Cymbalaria, Mill. 1-6, 8

spuria, Mill. 1-8

Elatine, Mill. 1-8

vulgaris, Mill. 1-7

minor, Desf. 18
Antirrhinum Orontium, L. I, 4, 7, 8

- majus, L. i, 4-6
Scrophularia nodosa, L. 1-8

- aquatica, L. 1-8

- vernal is, L. I, 3, 8
Limosella aquatica, L. 4
Digitalis purpurea, L. I, 3-8
Veronica agrestis, L. 1-8

sub-sp. polita, Fries. 1-8

Buxbaumii, Ten. I 8

- hederxfolia, L. 1-8

arvensis, L. 1-8

jcrpyllifolia, L. 1-8

officinalis, L. 1,2, 48

Chamzdiys, L. I 8

- montana, L. 1-8

- scutellata, L. 1-5, 7, 8

Beccabunga, L. 1-8

- Anagallis, L. 1-8
Bartsia Odontites, Huds. 1-8
Euphrasia officinalis, L. 1-8
Rhinanthus crista-Galli, L. 1-8
Pedicularis palustris, L. 15, 8

sylvatica, L. 2-8
Melampyrum pratense, L. 2-8

arvense, L. I, 3

cristatum, L. I, 2
Lathrza Squamaria, L. 2
Orobanche major, L. 2-5, 7, 8

- elatior, Sutt. 1-3, 7

minor, Sutt. I, 2, 6-8
Utricularia vulgaris, L. 2-5, 7

sub-sp. neglecta, Lehm.
Verbena officinalis, L. 1-8
Mentha sylvestris, L. 1-8

rotundifolia, L. 1-5, 7

viridis, L. 1-5, 7

pi peri ta, Huds. 1-8

aquatica, L. 1-8

sativa, L. 1-8

rubra, Sm. 8

pratcnsis, Sole. I, 2, 4, 5, 7

arvensis, L. 18

- Pulegium, L. I, 4, 5, 7,8
Lycopus europxus, L. 1-8

Origanum vulgare, L. 1,2, 4-6
Thymus Serpyllum, L. I 8

Chamaedrys, Fries, i, 5-8
Calamintha officinalis, Moench. 1-6, 8

Nepeta, Clairv. i, 3-8

Clinopodium, L. 1-7

Acinos, Clairv. i, 8
Melissa officinalis, L. 14, 68
Sal via Verbenaca, L. 1-8
Nepeta Cataria, L. 1-8

Glechoma, Benth. 1-8
Prunella vulgaris, L. 1-8
Scutellaria galericulata, L. 1-8

minor, L. 3
Marrubium vulgare, L. i, 3-8
Stachys sylvatica, L. 1-8

palustris, L. 18

- ambigua, Sm. 14, 7

- arvensis, L. i, 3-8

- Betonica, Benth. 1-8
Galeopsis Ladanum, L. i 8

- dubia, Leers. 8

- Tetrahit, L. 1-8

sub-sp. speciosa, Miller, i, 4, 7
Lamium purpureum, L. i-S

sub-sp. hybridum, Vill. 1-3, 6-8

- amplexicaule, L. 1-5, 7, 8

- album, L. 1-8

- Galeobdolon, Crantz. 1-8
Ballota nigra, L. 1-8
Tcucrium Scorodonia, L. i, 3-8
Ajuga reptans, L. 1-8

- Chamzpitys, Schreber. 5
Scleranthus annuus, L. 1-8
Chenopodium Vulvaria, L. 4-8

- polyspermum, L. 1-8

album, L. 1-8

- ficifolium, Sm. i, 2, 4-7

- urbicum, L. 37

- hybridum, L. 2, 4, 7

- murale, L. 17

- rubrum, L. i, 3-8

var. botryoides, Sm. 6, 7

- glaucum, L. 4, 7, 8

Bonus-Henricus, L. 1-4, 6-8
Beta maritima, L. 4-8
Atriplez erecta, Huds. 1-8

- angustifolia, Sm. i 8

triangularis, Willd. 1-6, 8

hastata, L. 1-8

- Babingtonii, Woods. 6, 8

marina, L. 5, 6, 8

- laciniata, L. 68

- portulacoides, L. 5-8
Salicornia herbacea, L. 4-8

rad leans, Sm. 6-8
Suaeda maritima, Dumort. 5-8

fruticosa, Forsk. 6-8
Salsola Kali, L. 6-8
Amaranthus Blitum. i, 3-6, 8
Polygonum Bistorta, L. 1-4, 6, 8

amphibium, L. 1-8

lapathifolium, L. 18

maculatum, Dyer & Trimen. 1-5, 7, 8

Pcrsicaria, L. 1-8

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Polygonum mite, Schrank. 4, 5

Hydropiper, L. 1-8

minus, Huds. 35

aviculare, L. 1-8

Convolvulus, L. 18
Rumex obtusifolius, L. I 8

- acutus, L. i, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8

pulcher, L. 1-8

maritimus, L. 5, 8

palustris, Sm. 4, 5

crispus, L. 1-8

sanguineus, L. 1-8

conglomerates, Murray. 1-8

Hydrolapathum, Huds. I 8

- Acetosa, L. 1-8

Acetosella, L. 1-8
[Aristolochia Clematitis, L.] 5
Daphne Laureola, L. 1-7

[ Mezereum, L.] i, 7
[Hippophae rhamnoides, L.] 6
Viscum album, L. 1-4, 6, 7
Thesium linophyllum, L. i
Euphorbia Helioscopia, L. 18

platyphyllos, L. 17

amygdaloides, L. 1-8
[ dulcis, L.] 8

- peplus, L. i8

exigua, L. 1-8

Paralias, L. 6, 8

- Cyparissias, L. 1,4

[ Lathyris, L.] 1-3, 5
Mercurialis perennis, L. 1-8

- annua, L. i, 4, 6, 8
Ulmus montana, Sm. 1-8

campestris, Sm. 1-8

suberosa, Ehrh. I, 36, 8

glabra, Mill. 1-7
Urtica urens, L. 18

dioica, L. 18

pilulifera, L. 4, 68
Parietaria officinalis, L. 18
Humulus Lupulus, L. 1-8
Betula alba, L. i, 3-5, 7, 8

sub-sp. glutinosa, Fries. 1-3, 5, 6
Alnus glutinosa, Gaertn. i 8
Quercus Robur, L. 1-8

sessiliflora, Salisb. i, 3, 4, 7
Fagus sylvatica, L. 1,2, 47
Corylus Avellana, L. 1-8
Carpinus Betulus, L. 1-7
Populus alba, L. 1-7

sub-sp. canescens, Sm. I, 35

tremula, L. 1-8

- nigra, L. i, 3-5, 7
Salix triandra, L. 1-4, 8

var. Hoffmanniana, Sm. I, 35, 7
undulata, Ehrh. i, 4

fragilis, L. 1,2, 46, 8

var. decipiens, Hoffm. i, 3, 5

Russelliana, Sm. i, 2, 4, 5

alba, L. 1,2, 4-8

var. vitellina, L. i, 47

Caprea, L. 1-8

sub-sp. cinerea, L. 17
sub-var. aquatica, Sm. i, 46

Salix Caprea, sub-var. oleifolia, Sm. I, 3-5

aurita, L. I, 3-5, 7, 8

repens, L. 3-5, 7, 8

incubacea, Sy. 3, 4

viminalis, L. i, 4, 5, 7, 8

Smithiana, Willd. i, 4, 5, 7

stipularis, Sm. 4, 7

ferruginea, G. And. I

acuminata, Sm. l, 2, 7

purpurea, L. 4, 7

sub-sp. rubra, Huds. i, 4

var. Helix, L. i, 4, 7, 8
Ceratophyllum demersum, L. 1-4, 6-8

sub-sp. submersum, L. 4, 6, 7
[Pinus sylvestris, L.] 1-8
Juniperus communis, L. I, 4, 8
[Taxus baccata, L.] i, 4, 5
Hydrocharis Morsus-Ran*, L. 2, 4-6, 8
Stratiotes aloides, L. 2
Elodea Canadensis, Michx. 3, 8
Neottia Nidus-avis, L. i 8
Listera ovata, Br. 1-8
Spiranthes autumnalis, Rich. 18
Epipactis latifolia, Sw. I, 3-8

var. media, Fries, l, 2, 4, 5, 7

palustris, Sw. 14
Cephalanthera pallens, Rich. I, 4
Orchis mascula, L. 14, 6-8

latifolia, L. 1-3, 7

sub-sp. incarnata, L. i, 3, 4

maculata, L. 1-8

Morio, L. 1-4, 6-8

ustulata, L. i, 2

pyramidalis, L. i, 3-6

Aceras anthropophora, Huds. 2, 3, 6
Ophrys apifera, Huds. 1-5, 7, 8

aranifera, Huds. i, 2

muscifera, Huds. i, 3, 7
Herminium Monorchis, Br. 1,3
Habenaria viridis, Br. i, 3

conopsea, Benth. i, 3, 4

bifolia, Br. i, 4, 7

sub-sp. chlorantha, Bab. 1-3, 5-8
Iris pseudacorus, L. 1-8

foetidissima, L. i, 36

Narcissus pseudo-narcissus, L. i, 3, 4, 6-8

[ biflorus, Curt.] I, 4

[Galanthus nivalis, L.] 1,3

[Leucojum aestivum, L.] 4

Tamus communis, L. 1-8

Ruscus aculeatus, L. 3-8

Asparagus officinalis, L. 6, 8

Polygonatum multiflorum, All. 4

Convallaria majalis, L. 2-8

Allium vineale, L. 14, 6-8

oleraceum, L. I, 3
Muscari racemosum, Miller. 3, 4
Scilla nutans, Sm. 1-8
Ornithogalum umbellatum, L. i, 3, 8
[Lilium Martagon, L.] i
Fritillaria Meleagris, L. i, 3, 4
[Tulipa sylvestris, L.] 3
Colchicum autumnale, L. i

Paris quadrifolia, L. 14, 7
Juncus effusus, L. 1-8

BOTANY

June us effusus, var. conglomeratus, L. 1-8

glaucus, Ehrh. 1-8
. diffusus, L. 2, 4, 7

maritimus, Sm. 2, J-8

squarrosus, L. 3-8

compressus, Jacq. I, 4-8

sub-sp. Gerardi, Loisel. $-8

obtusiflorus, Ehrh. I, 3-5, 7

articulatus, L. 1-8

sub-sp. supinus, Moench. 3-5, 7, 8

lamprocarpus, Ehrh. 1-8

- bufonius, L. 18

Luzula maxima, DC. 2-5, 7, 8

vernalis, DC. 1-8

- Forsteri, DC. 4, 6

campcstris, Willd. 1-8

var. crecta, Desv. 1-8
Sparganum ramosum, Huds. 1-8

simplex, Huds. 1-7

minimum, Fries. I, 3
Typha latifolia, L. 1-8

angustifolia, L. 2-8
Arum maculatum, L. 1-8
Acorus Calamus, L. 3, 4
Lemna minor, L. 1-8

trisulca, L. 18

gibba, L. 2-8

- polyrhiza, L. 1-8
Alisma Plantago, L. 1-8

ranunculoides, L. I, 4, ;, 7
Damasonium stellatum, Pen. 4, 5
Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. 1-8
Butomut umbellatus, L. 1-8
Triglochin palustre, L. 1-4, 6-8

maritimum, L. 4-8
Potamogeton n a tans, L. 1-8

polygonifolius, Pourr. 4, 5, 7, 8

rufescens, Schrad. 2, 3, 7

heterophyllui, Schreb. 4

lucent, L. 1-4, 6-8

przlongus, Wulfen. 3, 6, 7

perfoliatus, L. 3, 4, 7, 8

crispus, L. 1-8

dens us, L. 1-4

zosterzfolius, Schum. 3

obtusifolius, Mert. & Kock. 3, 4

pusillus, L. 1-4, 7, 8

pectinatus, L. 2-4, 68

sub-sp. flabellatus, Bab. 7
Ruppia maritima, L. 6-8

sub-sp. rostellata, Kock. 5-8
Zannichellia palustris, L. I, 4-8
Zostera marina, L. 6-8

var. angustifolia, Symc. 6, 8
Heleocharis palustris, Br. 1-8

multicaulis, Sm. 3, 4, 7, 8

acicularis, Sm. 4
Scirpus lacuitris, L. 1-8

Tabcrnzmontani, Gmel. 2, 6-8

maritimus, L. 2, 48

sylvaticns, L. 1-5, 7, 8

setaccui, L. 1-8

- fluitans, L. 3-5, 7, 8

caetpitosus, L. 5, 7

pauciflorus, Lightf. 3, 4

Scirpus Caricis, Retz. 18
Eriophorum polystachion, L. I, 3-5, 8

sub-sp. latifolium, Hoppe. 1-3
Schcenus nigricans, L. 5
Carex pulicaris, L. I, 3, 4
[ dioica, L.] 3

divisa, Huds. 4-8

disticha, Huds. I, 3, 4, 6-8

arenaria, L. 68

paniculata, L. 1-8

teretiuscula, Good. 4

muricata, L. 1-8

sub-sp. divulsa, Good. 1-8

vulpina, L. 1-8

echinata, Murr. I, 3-8

- re m ota, L. 1-8

- axillaris, Good. 1-8

- leporina, L. 1-5, 7, 8

- elongata, L. 2

- acuta, L. I, 3, 4, 6-8

- stricta, Good. I, 3-5

- Goodenovii, Gay. I, 3-5

glauca, Murr. 1-8

pallescens, L. 1-8

panicea, L. I, 3-5, 7

pendula, Huds. 1-8

- pnecox, Jacq. 1-8

- pilulifera, L. I, 3-8

hirta, L. 1-8

extensa, Good. 8

flava, L. i, 3-7

sub-sp. CEdcri, Ehrh. 1, 3-7

- distans, L. I, 3, 5-8

- fulva, Good. I

bincrvis, Sm. I, 38

- Isevigata, Sm. 3, 5-7

sylvatica, Huds. 1-8

- strigosa, Huds. 1-5, 7

vesicaria, L. 2-5

- ampullacea, Good. I, 3, 4

Pseudocyperus, L. 1-7

paludosa, Good. 1-8

riparia, Curtis. 1-8
Setaria viridis, Beauv. 8
Spartina stricta, Roth. 6-8
[Phalaris Canariensis, L.] I, 3, 4, 6-8

- arundinacea, L. 1-8
Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. 1-8
Alopecurus agrestis, L. 1-8

pratensis, L. 1-8

geniculatus, L. 18

sub-sp. fulvus, Sm. 1-4, 6, 7
bulbosus, Gouan. 5, 8
M ilium efFusum, L. 1-8
Phleum pratense, L. 1-8

arenarium, L. 6-8

phalaroides, Koel. I
Agrostis canina, L. 1-8

vulgar! , With. 1-8

var. pumila, L. i, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8

alba, L. 1-8

Polypogon Monspeliensit, Desf. 4-6

littoralis, Sm. 5
Calamagrostis Epigejos, Roth. I, 3-8

lanccolata, Roth. 6-8

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Gastridium lendigerum, Gaud. 2, 3, 5-8
Apera Spica-venti, Beauv. 4 ,

interrupta, Beauv. 7
Ammophila arundinacea, Host. 68
Aira caryophyllea, L. I 8

pracox, L. I, 3-8
Deschampsia flexuosa, Trin. 3-6

caespitosa, Beauv. 1-8
Holcus lanatus, L. 18

moll is, L. 1-8
Trisetum flavescens, Beauv. 18
Avena fatua, L. 1-8

[ strigosa, Schreb.] I, 5

pratensis, L. I

pubescens, Huds. i, 4
Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. 1-8
Triodia decumbens, Beauv. i, 3-8
Phragmites communis, Trin. 1-8
Cynosurus cristatus, L. 18

Koeleria cristata, Pers. I, 5, 6
Molinia caerulea, Moench. I, 3-8

var. depauperata, Lind. 7, 8
Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. 18
Melica uniflora, Retz. 18
Dactylis glomerata, L. 18
Briza media, L. I 8
Poa annua, L. 1-8

pratensis, L. I 8

couipressa, L. 1-6

trivialis, L. 18

nemoralis, L. 1-8
Glyceria aquatica, Sm. 18

fluitans, Br. 1-8

plicata, Fr. 1-3, 5, 7, 8

maritima, Wahlb. 4-8

Borreri, Bab. 48

distans, Wahlb. 4-8

procumbens, Dumort. 4-8
Festuca elatior, L. 16, 8

pratensis, Huds. 1-8

gigantea, Vill. 1-8

ovina, L. 1-8

sub-sp. duriuscula, L. 1-8
rubra, L. i, 3-8

Myuros, L. I, 3-8

sub-sp. sciuroides, Roth. 1-8

uniglumis, Sol. 6, 7

rigida, Kth. 1-8

loliacea, Huds. 1-8
Bromus asper, Murr. 1-8

erectus, Huds. I, 6

sterilis, L. 1-8

moll is, L. 18

racemosus, L. i, 4, 6, 8

commutatus, Schrad. 1-8

secalinus, L. 14, 7, 8

arvensis, L. 1,6

Brachypodium sylvaticum, R & S. 1-8

pinnatum, Beauv. I, 3
Lojium perenne, L. 18

temulentum, L. 1-4, 6, 8
Agropyrum caninum, Beauv. 1-8

repens, Beauv. i 8

sub-sp. pungens, R. & S. 5

acutum, R. & S. 8

junceum, Beauv. 58
Lepturus filiformis, Trin. 8

var. incurvatus, Trin. 5-8
Nardus stricta, L. i, 38
Hordeum sylvaticum, Huds. I, 2

pratense, Huds. i 8

murinum, L. 1-8

maritimum, With. 5-8
Elymus arenarius, L. 6, 7
Pteris aquilina, L. 1-8
Lomaria Spicant, Desv. 3-8
Asplenium Ruta-muraria, L. 1,37

Trichomanes, L. 1-8

Adiantum-nigrum, L. 18

Filix-fcemina, Bernh. 2-8

Ceterach, L. i, 4, 5
Scolopendrium vulgare, Sm. i 8
Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh.

[var. alpina, Desv.] 4
Aspidium aculeatum, Sw. 1-5, 7, 8

lobatum, Sw. 17

- angulare, Willd. 3-8
Nephrodium Filix-mas, Rich, i 8

spinulosum, Desv. 1-5, 7, 8

sub-sp. dilatatum, Desv. 28

Thelypteris, Desv. 3, 4

Oreopteris, Desv. 35, 7
Poly podium vulgare, L. 18
Osmunda regalis, L. 3-6, 8
Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. 15, 7, 8
[Botrychium Lunaria, Sw.] 8
Equisetum arvense, L. 18

maximum, Lamk. 18

sylvaticum, L. 3-5, 7, 8

palustre, L. 1-6, 8

limosum, L. 1-8
Lycopodium clavatum, L. 35

inundatum, L. 4, 7
Pilularia globulifera, L. 4
Nitella flexilis, C. Ag. 1,5

syncarpa, Kuetz. 7

translucens, C. Ag. 7

gracilis, C. Ag. 2

Chara polyacantha ?, Braun. I

vulgaris, L. I, S, 7

hispida, L. I, 3, 6, 7

aspera, Willd. i

fragilis, Desv. 7

MOSSES (Musci)

The mosses of Essex have by no means been thoroughly investi-
gated. The only records available are the list prepared from the col-
lections of the late Mr. E. G. Varenne of Kelvedon (Essex Naturalist,
v. i) and other notes issued at intervals in the same publication, and

BOTANY

specimens collected by myself near Colchester. There is a herbarium
of mosses collected by the late Mr. J. English in Epping Forest and its
vicinity in the possession of the museum of the Essex Field Club at
Stratford, but unfortunately it will not be available in time for use for
this publication.

The county, as far as explored, is comparatively rich in species
occurring in bogs, and such as are found at ordinary elevations in woods,
heaths, clayey and sandy soils, and in maritime situations ; but it is
chiefly deficient, as might be expected, in species which occur on sub-
alpine and alpine districts, and on limestone or granitic rocks.

The occurrence of several species characteristic of calcareous soil,
such as Weissia crispa, Pottia /anceo/ata, Anomodon viticu/osus, Campto-
tbecium lutescens, Eurbynchium tenellum and Hypnum molluscum, render it
probable that the calcareous districts in the north of the county would,
on further exploration, yield many more species.

One moss found in Essex has a special interest, since it is only
found, so far as is known, in two other counties in England, viz.
Somersetshire and Sussex, and is rare and local on the continent. This
is Zygodon Forsteri, which was first found in this country on a felled tree
in a timber yard in Walthamstow early in the last century, and was not
again seen in Essex until detected in Epping Forest by Mr. E. M.
Holmes a few years ago and shortly afterwards in another locality in the
Forest by Mr. H. N. Dixon. The exact Sussex locality is unknown,
so that Essex can boast of possessing one of the rarest of British mosses.

Other rare species found in the 'county are Pottia Wiltoni and
Zygodon conoideus, Ortbotricbum pollens and Hypnum giganteum.

Comparatively few species of Sphagna are recorded, but the list
of species of this genus will probably be largely increased by further
investigation.

Sphagnum cymbifolium, Ehrh. Dicranella cerviculata, Schimp.

- squarrosulum, Nees & Hornsch. varia, Schimp.

rigidum, Schimp. Dicranoweisia cirrhata, Lindb.

subsecundum, Nees Campylopus pyriformis, Brid.

var. contortum, Schimp. - fragilis, Bruch. & Schimp.

acutifolium, Ehrh. Dicranum Bonjeani, De Not.

var. purpureum, Schimp. scoparium, Hedw.

intermedium, Hoffm. Leucobryum glaucum, Schimp.
Tetraphis pcllucida, Hedw. Fissidens exilis, Hedw.
Catharinea undulata, Web. & Mohr. viridulus, Wahl.
Polytrichum nanum, Neck. incurvus, Starke

- abides, Hedw. bryoides, Hedw.

- piliferum, Schreb. taxifolius, Hedw.

- juniperinum, Willd. Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw.

- formosum, Hedw. - pulvinata, Smith

commune, Linn. Rhacomitrium canescens, Brid.
Pleuridium axillare, Lindb. Acaulom muticum, C. Muell.

subulatum, Rabenh. Phascum cuspidatum, Schreb.

- alternifolium, Rabenh. Pottia Heimii, C. Muell.
Ditrichum homomallum, Hampe. truncatula, Lindb.
Ceratodon purpureus, Brid. intermedia, Fuernr.
Dicranella hcteromalla, Schimp. Wilsoni, Bruch. & Schimp.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Pottia minutula, Fuernr.

Starkeana, C. Muell.

lanceolata, C. Muell.
Tortula pusilla, Mitt.

ambigua, ^ngstr.

abides, De Not.

atrovirens, Lindb.

cuneifolia, Roth.

marginata, Spruce

muralis, Hedw.

mutica, Lindb.

laevipila, Schwaegr.

intermedia, Beck.

ruralis, Ehrh.

papillosa, Wils.
Barbula rubella, Mitt.

fallax, Hedw.

rigidula, Mitt.

Hornschuchiana, Schultz.

revoluta, Hedw.

unguiculata, Hedw.
Weisia crispa, Mitt.

microstoma, C. Muell.

viridula, Hedw.

mucronata, Bruch. & Schimp.
Cinclidotus Brebissoni, Husnot.
Zygodon viridissimus, Brown

conoideus, Hook. & Tayl.

Forsteri, Wils.
Ulota Bruchii, Horrisch.

crispa, Brid.
Orthotrichum anomalum, Hedw.

leiocarpum, Bruch. & Schimp.

Lyellii, Hook. & Tayl.

affine, Schrad.

Sprucei, Mont.

stramineum, Hornsch.

tenellum, Bruch.

pallens, Bruch.

pumilum, Dicks.

diaphanum, Schrad.
Ephemerum serratum, Hampe.
Physcomitrella patens, Bruch. & Schimp.

pyriforme, Brid.
Funaria fascicularis, Schimp.

hygrometrica, Sibth.
Aulacomnion palustre, Schwaegr.

androgynum, Schwaegr.
Bartramia pomiformis, Hedw.
Philonotis fontana, Brid.
Leptobryum pyriforme, Wils.
Webera nutans, Hedw.

carnea, Schimp.
Bryum pendulum, Hornsch.

inclinatum, Bland.

pallens, Swartz.

bimum, Schreb.

intermedium, Brid.

caespiticum, Linn.

capillare, Linn.

Bryum erythrocarpum, Schwaegr.

atropurpureum, Web. & Mohr.

argenteum, Linn.
Mnium affine, Bland.

undulatum, Linn.

hornum, Linn.

punctatum, Linn.

subglobosum, Bruch. & Schimp.
Fontinalis antipyretica, Linn.
Cryphaea heteromalla, Mohr.
Neckera complanata, Huebn.
Homalia trichomanoides, Brid.
Leucodon sciuroides, Schwaegr.
Porotrichum alopecurum, Mitt.
Leskea polycarpa, Ehrh.
Anomodon viticulosus, Hook. & Tayl.
Thuidium tamariscinum, Bruch. & Schimp.
Pylaisia polyantha, Bruch. & Schimp.
Isothecium myurum, Brid.

Pleuropus sericeus, Dixon

Camptothecium lutescens, Bruch. & Schimp.

Brachythecium albicans, Bruch. & Schimp.

rutabulum, Bruch. & Schimp.

velutinum, Bruch. & Schimp.

purum, Dixon

Eurhynchium piliferum, Bruch. & Schimp.

praelongum, Bruch. & Schimp.

Swartzii, Hobkirk

pumilum, Schimp.

tenellum, Milde

myosuroides, Schimp.

striatum, Bruch. & Schimp.

rusciforme, Milde

murale, Milde

confertum, Milde

megapolitanum, Milde
Plagiothecium denticulatum, Bruch. &

Schimp.

sylvaticum, Bruch. & Schimp.
Amblystegium serpens, Bruch. & Schimp.

irriguum, Bruch. & Schimp.

filicinum, De Not.

Hypnum riparium, Bruch. & Schimp.

stclla turn, Schreb.

aduncum, Hedw.

flu i tans, Linn.

uncinatum, Hedw.

intermedium, Hedw.

commutatum, Hedw.

cupressiforme, Linn.

resupinatum, Schimp.

molluscum, Hedw.

stramineum, Dicks.

cordifolium, Hedw.

giganteum, Schimp

cuspidatum, Linn.

Schreberi, Willd.

Hylocomnium splendens, Bruch. & Schimp.

squarrosum, Bruch. & Schimp.

triquetrum, Bruch. & Schimp.

BOTANY
SCALE-MOSSES, LIVERWORTS AND CRYSTALWORTS

The list of Essex Hepaticas includes only the commonest species,
with the exception of Trichocolea tomentella and Ptilidium ci/iare, which
are characteristic of subalpine boggy woods and moorlands, and where
they occur there must almost certainly be other unrecorded species.
The genera Kanft'a, Cephalozia, Lejeunia, yungermannia, Reboulia and
Zegatella are almost certain to occur in the county. The list must
therefore be considered an imperfect one.

Frullania dilatata, Dumort Plagiochila asplenioides, Dumort

Radula complanata, Dumort Aplozia crenulata, Dumort

Porella platyphylla, Carr & Pears inflata, Huds.

Ptilidium ciliare, Nees Nardia scalaris, Carr

Trichocolea tomentella, Ehrh. Pellia epiphylla, Corda

Lepidozia reptans, Dumort Metzgeria furcata, Dumort

Scapania undulata, Dumort Aneura multifida, Dumort

nemorosa, Dumort Marchantia polymorpha, Necs
Diplophyllum albicans, Dumort Lunularia vulgaris, Mich.
Lophocolea bidentata, Dumort Riccia glauca, Linn.

heterophylla, Dumort Ricciella fluitans, Braun.

LICHENS (Lichenes]

The Epping Forest district of Essex and the neighbourhood of
Kelvedon are the only portions of the county from which the lichen
flora has been at all fully recorded. It is therefore difficult to estimate
what wealth of lichens the county possesses, for there are other districts,
such as Hatfield Forest and some well wooded portions of the county,
worth investigating.

Lichens occur more particularly upon trees and upon rocks. The
majority of lichens are of extremely slow development, remaining
latent except when the moisture and other conditions of the atmosphere
are favourable. It is therefore upon comparatively old trees and in
situations suitable to their requirements that one would expect to find
interesting species. Owing to the former bad management of the
Epping Forest, the Rev. J. M. Crombie tells us in 1883 that its lichen
flora was not so good as it would be under better conditions, and that
the species had diminished in numbers since the time when he first
visited it, but I am informed that under the new management of the
forest the lichen flora is improving.

Granitic sandstone and calcareous rocks which some lichens love
so well do not occur in the county ; it is therefore only upon the
stonework and upon the brickwork of old buildings that these species
are represented.

The first records of lichens are in Turner and Dillwyn's Botanist's
Guide, published in 1805, where fifteen species are enumerated. The
next list was by Mr. Edward Forster, to whom the county owes so much.
More recently the Rev. James M. Crombie has brought our knowledge
up to date. 1

1 On the Lichen Flora of Epping Forest and the causes of its recent diminution,' Transactlmu
Eiiex Field Club, iv. 54, 1886.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

The late Mr. E. G. Varenne 1 has also left us many records of
lichens. It is from these records that the following list is compiled :

Collema furvum, Ach.

pulposum, Ach.

crispum, Ach.

cheileum, Ach.
Collemodium biatorinum, Nyl.

microphyllum, Nyl.
Leptogium tenuissimum, Koerb.

pusillum, Nyl.

palmatum, Mont.

lacerum, Gray

sub-sp. pulvinatum, Nyl.
Sphinctrina turbinata, Fr.
Calicium chrysocephalum, Ach.

aciculare, Fr.

trichiale, Ach.

melanophaeum, Ach.

var. ferrugineum, Schasrb.

hyperellum, Ach.

trachelinum, Ach.

quercinum, Pers.

curtum, Turn. & Bott.

subtile, Pers.
Coniocybe furfuracea, Ach.
Trachylia tigillaris, Fr.

tympanella, Fr.

stigonella, Fr.
Bseomyces rufus, DC.

roseus, Pers.
Cladonia alcicornis, Floerke

pyxidata, Fr.

f. epiphylla, Nyl.

var. chlorophaea, Flcerke

fimbriata, Fr.

var. tubaeformis, Fr.
f. exigua, Cromb.
var. carneopallida, Nyl.
sub-sp. fibula, Nyl.
var. subcornuta, Nyl.
f. nemoxyna, Nyl.

gracilis, Hoffin.

furcata, Hoffm.

var. spinosa, Hook,
sub-sp. racemosa, Nyl.

pungens, Flcerke

squamosa, Hoffm.

sub-sp. adspersa, Nyl.

coccifera, Schaer.

f. cornucopioides, Fr.

digitata, Hoffm.

caespiticia, Flcerke

macilenta, HofFm.

var. scolecina, Nyl.
maidenta, Hoffm.
scabrosa, Nyl.
coronata, Nyl.

Cladonia macilenta, var. ostreata, Nyl.

flcerkeana, Fr. ; f. trachypoda, Nyl.

bacillaris, Nyl.
Cladina sylvatica, Nyl.

f. tenuis, Lamq.

rangiferina, Nyl.

uncialis, Nyl.
Usnea hirta, Hoffm.

ceratina, Ach. ; var. scabrosa, Ach. ;

f. ferruginascens, Cromb.
Alectoria jubata, Nyl.
Evernia furfuracea, Fr.

prunastri, Ach.
Ramalina calicaris, Hoffm.

farinacea, Ach.

fraxinea, Ach.

f. ampliata, Ach.

fastigiata, Ach.

-pollinaria, Ach.

evernioides, Nyl.

Cetraria aculeata, Fr. ; f. hispida,

Cromb.

Platysma glaucum, Nyl.
Sticta pulmonaria, Hook.
Peltigera canina, Hoffm.

spuria, Leight.

polydactyla, Hoffm.
Parmelia caperata, Ach.

subaurifera, Nyl.

exasperata, Nyl.

physodes, Ach.

f. labrosa, Ach.

reddenda, Stirt.

perlata, Ach.

Borreri, Turn.

fuliginosa, Nyl.

var. laetevirens

acetabulum, Dub.

saxatilis, Ach.

sulcata, Tayl.
Physcia parietina, De Not

var. aureola, Nyl.
lychnea, Ach.
polycarpa, Ehrh.
cinerascens, Leight.

ciliaris, DC.

pulverulenta, Nyl.

sub-sp. pityrea, Ach.
var. angustata, Nyl.

stellaris, Nyl.

var. leptalea, Nyl.
sub-sp. tenella, Nyl.

aipolia, Nyl.

caesia, Nyl.

erosa, Leight.

1 'Cryptogamic Flora of Kelvedon and its neighbourhood,' Essex NaturaRst, v. i, 1891.

BOTANY

Physcia astroidea, Nyl.

obscura, Nyl.

ulothrix, Nyl.

var. virella, Crotnb.

adglutinata, Nyl.
Pannaria nebulosa, Nyl.
Squamaria saxicola, Sm.
Placodium murorum, Lcight.

decipiens, Leight.

callopismum, Mudd.

miniatum, Hoffm.

chalybzum, Mudd.

citrinum, Ach.

f. granulosa, Cromb.
Lecanora vitellina, Ach.

var. coruscans, Cromb.

epixantha, Nyl.

- laciniosa, Nyl.

- glaucocarpa, Ach.

pruinosa, Nyl.

squamulosa, Nyl.

fuscata, Nyl.

cinerca, Somm.

sarcopis, Ach.

varia, Ach.

atra, Ach.

circinata, Ach.

sulphurea, Ach.

symmicta, Ach.

oresthea, Ach. ; var. subli vescens, Nyl.

expallens, Ach.

subfusca, Nyl.

var. campestris, Nyl.

allophana, Ach.

parisiensis, Nyl.

rugosa, Nyl.

sub-sp. chlarona, Nyl.

intumescens, Koerb.

atrynea, Nyl.

cpibryon, Ach.

galactina, Ach.

sub-sp. dispersa, Nyl.

Hageni, Ach.

var. pallidior, Larb.

calcarea, Somm.

f. concreta, Schzr.

gibbosa, Nyl.

f. vulgaris, Th. Fr.

parella, Ach.

turned, Sm.

pallescens, Nyl.

irrubata, Nyl.

sub-sp. calva, Nyl.

angulosa, Ach.

albella, Ach.

aurantiaca, Nyl.

sub-sp. crythella, Nyl.
var. inalpina, Nyl.

ferruginea, Nyl.

f. corticola, Leight.

Lecanora cerina, Ach.

f. cyanolepra, Nyl.
var. stillicidiorum, Nyl.
sub-sp. chlorina, Nyl.

angulosa, Ach.

var. sordidescens, Flcerke

pyracea, Nyl.

sub-sp. holocarpa, Nyl.

lutea-alba, Nyl.

teicholyta, Ach.

phlogina, Nyl.

sophodes, Ach.

f. roboris, Duf.
f. exigua, Ach.
f. metabolica, Ach.
f. lecideoides, Nyl.

erysibe, Nyl.

f. cinereo-fusca, Cromb.

- syringea, Ach.

coccinea, Cromb.

conizaea, Nyl.

conizacoides, Nyl.
Pertusaria dealbata, Nyl.

communis, DC.

melalcuca, Dub.

- Wulfenii, DC.

lutescens, Lamy.

vclata, Nyl.

f. aspergilla, Cromb.

amara, Nyl.

globulifera, Nyl.

pustulata, Nyl.

- leioplaca, Schser.

- coccodes, Nyl. ; f. bacillosa, Nyl.
Phlyctis agelza, Koerb.

argena, Koerb.
Thelotrema lepadinum, Ach.
Urceolaria scruposa, Ach.
Lecidea Friesii, Ach.

ostreata, Hoffm.

fuliginosa, Tayl.

- dispansa, Nyl.

- crustulata, Ach.

flexuosa f. zruginosa, Borr.

- sphaeroides, Dicks.

decolorans, Floerke

- quernea, Dicks.

- enteroleuca, Ach.

minuta, Schzr.

- tenebricosa, Ach.

parasema, Ach.

var. tabescens, Koerb.
flavens, Nyl.
elzochroma, Ach.

uliginosa, Schrad.

f. fuliginosa, Fr.

coarctata, Sm.

f. elacista, Ach.
f. involuta, Tayl.
f. globulosa, Sm.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Lecidea coarctata, f. ornata, Smrf.

fuscoatra, Ach.

f. fumosa, Ach.
f. meiosporiza, Nyl.

sub-Kochiana, Nyl.

Taylori, Salw.

contigua, Fr.

confluens, Leight.

canescens, Dicks.

disciformis, Fr.

myriocarpa, DC.

f. chloropolia, DC.
f. pinicola, Ach.
f. leprosa, DC.
f. quercicola, Rabh.
f. saprophila, Ach.

nigritula, Nyl.

chalybeia, Borr.

grossa, Pers.

Lightfootii, Sm.

anomala, Fr.

tricolor, With.

Ehrhartiana, Ach.

Caradocensis, Leight.

incompta, Borr.

alboatra, Hoffm.

f. populorum, Mass.
f. epipolia, Ach.

Dilleniana, Ach.

aromatica, Sm.

umbrina, Ach.

milliaria, Fr. ; f. terrestris, Fr.

endoleuca, Nyl.

premnea, Ach.

phacodes, Kcerb.

sabuletorum, Floerke

rubella, Ehr.

effiisa, Sm.

contigua, Ach.

petraea, Wulf.

f. fuscescens, Leight.

tantilla, Nyl.

parmeliarum, Smrft.

parasitica, Flcerke
Opegrapha herpetica, Ach.

f. vera, Leight.
f. rubella, Pers.
f. rufescens, Pers.

atra, Pers.

f. denigrata, Ach.
f. nigrita, Leight.
f. parallela, Leight.
f. hapalea, Ach.
f. arthonoidea, Leight.

Turneri, Leight.

saxicola, Ach.

var. Chevallieri, Leight.

varia, Pers.

f. pulicaris, Leight.
f. notha, Ach.

Opegrapha varia, f. diaphora, Ach.
f. tigrina, Ach.
f. tridens, Ach.

vulgata, Ach.

f. vulgata, Ach.
f. stenocarpa, Ach.
f. subsiderella, Nyl.

lyncea, Sm.
Stigmatidium crassum, Dub.
Arthonia lurida, Ach.

vinosa, Leight.

punctiformis, Ach.

astroidea, Ach.

epipasta, Ach.

Swartziana, Ach.

cinnabarina, Wallr.

var. kermesina, Nyl.

f. rosacea, Turn. & Borr.

f. marginata, Turn. & Borr.

var. pruinata, Del.

f. dubia, Turn. & Borr.

var. anerythraea, Nyl.

f. detrita, Turn. & Borr.

pruinosa, Ach.

anastomosans, Ach.
Graphis elegans, Sm.

scripta, Ach.

f. minuta, Leight.
f. varia, Leight.
f. horizontalis, Leight.
var. pulverulenta, Ach.
f. betuligna, Ach.
var. serpentina, Ach.

dendritica, Ach.

f. Smithii, Leight.
f. obtusa, Leight.

inusta, Ach.

f. vera, Leight.

f. simpliuscula, Leight.

f. macularis, Leight.

sophistica, Nyl.

f. flexuosa, Leight.

f. radiata, Leight.

f. divaricata, Leight.

var. pulverulenta, Sm.

dendriticoides, Leight.
Endocarpum hepaticum, Ach.

f. trapeziformis, Zoega.
Mycoporum miserrimum, Nyl.
Verrucaria papillosa, Ach.

mutabilis, Borr.

mauroides, Schaer.

nigrescens, Pers.

plumbea, Ach.

fucella, Turn.

glaucina, Ach.

macrostoma, Duf.

viridula, Schrad.

rupestris, Schrad.

var. muralis, Ach.

BOTANY

Verrucaria, var. subalbicans, Leight. Verrucaria Salweii, Leight.

calciseda, DC. rugulosa, Borr.

gemmata, Ach. chlorotica, Ach.

conformis, Nyl. nitida, Weig.

epidermidis, Ach. glabrata, Ach.

var. analepta, Ach. albissima, Ach.

f. fallax, Nyl. - epipolytropa, Mudd.

var. cinereopruinosa, Schaer. - hymenogonia, Nyl.

punctiformis, Ach. Melanotheca gelatinosa, Chev.

biformis, Borr.

FRESHWATER ALG^E

Probably Essex is one of the best counties in England for fresh-
water algae. It has plenty of small ponds, pools, streams, fresh and
brackish ditches, and other conditions so favourable to their growth.
Dr. M. C. Cooke writes to me that the Epping Forest district is the
best anywhere around London. Of course such species as are to be
found only on rocks and in mountainous districts are absent from Essex.

The Conjugate and Conferva are well represented, also the Zygne-
macea, Desmidiacea and (Edogoniacece. Dr. Cooke has never found
CEdogonium crassiusculum anywhere else, nor does he recollect receiving
(E. plirviale from any other locality.

He says : ' As to species of interest, I fancy that the constant and
perennial excursions of the Quekett Club will show that there is always
the prospect of something worth going after if it is only Volvox and
Gom'um, and Eudorina, the latter especially. For myself, I have never
been disappointed in a trip to the Forest district when in search of
alga?, having always managed to secure something new, or comparatively
interesting.'

The following list is by Dr. M. C. Cooke 1 and includes records
by himself, Dr. Hassall, E. G. Varenne, Mr. C. E. Mainland, and
the excursion lists of the Quekett Microscopic Club. They are from
the Epping Forest district and from Kelvedon. No doubt this list
would be very considerably extended if the whole county had been
explored.

Plcurococcus vulgaris, Menegh Pediastrum Boryanum, Menegh

Palmella hyalina, Rabenh. rotula, A. Br.

Mooreana, Harv. Hydrianum heteromorphum, Reinsert.
Porphyridium cruentum, Nzg. Chlamydococcus nivalis, A. Br.
Tetraspora bullosa, Ag. Volvox globator, Ehr.

lubrica, C. Ag. minor, Stein.

gelatinosa, Desv. Gonium pectorale, Muell.
Apiocystis Brauniana, Naeg. Eudorina elegans, Ehrenb.
Raphidium falcatum, Cooke Sphaerozosma secedens, De Bary
Protococcus viridis, C. Ag. Hyalotheca dissiliens, Breb.
Chlorococcum gigas, Grun. mucosa, Ehrenb.
Scenedesmus obtusus, Meyen Desmidium Swartzii, Ag.

acutus, Meyen Docidium Ehrenbergii, Ralfs.

quadricauda, Brcb. nodulosum, Brb.
Hydrodictyon utriculatum, Roth. baculum, Breb.

1 Eiitx Naturalist, vii. 1 70.
i 57 8

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Closterium Lunula, Ehrenb.

acerosum, Ehrenb.

gracile, Breb.

Ehrenbergii, Menegh

moniliferum, Ehrenb.

Jenneri, Ralfs

Leibleinii, Kuetz.

Dianse, Ehrenb.

striolatum, Ehrenb.

intermedium, Ralfs

lineatum, Ehrenb.

rostratum, Ehrenb.

setaceum, Ehrenb.

linea, Perty.

Penium margaritaceum, Breb.

digitus, Brb.

closteroides, Ralfs

Brebissonii, Ralfs
Mesotaenium Braunii, De Bary
Tetmemorus Brebissonii, Ralfs

granulatus, Ralfs
Spirotaenia condensata, Breb.
Micrasterias denticulata, Breb.

rotata, Ralfs
Euastrum oblongum, Ralfs

crassum, Kuetz.

affine, Ralfs

ansatum, Ehrenb.

circulare, Hass.

elegans, Kuetz.

inerme, Lund.
Cosmarium cucumis, Corda

Meneghinii, Brb.

Brebissonii, Menegh

margaritiferum, Menegh

botrytis, Menegh
Xanthidium armatum, Br6b.
Arthodesmus octocornis, Ehrenb.

incus, Hass.

convergens, Ehrenb.
Staurastrum dejectum, Brdb.

cuspidatum, Breb.

orbiculare, Ralfs

muricatum, Brib.

punctulatum, Br6b.

alternans, Br6b.

polymorphum, Breb.

Arachne, Ralfs
Zygnema cruciatum, C. Ag.

Vaucherii, C. Ag.

var. stagnale, Kirchn.

anomalum, Cooke
Spirogyra crassa, Kuetz.

nitida, Link.

orthospira, Naeg.

setiformis, Kuetz.

orbicularis, Hass.

bellis, Crouan

porticalis, Cleve

condensata, Kuetz.

Spirogyra longata, Kuetz.

flavescens, Kuetz.

insignis, Kuetz.

quadrata, Petit

Weberi, Kuetz.

tenuissima, Kuetz.
Zygogonium ericetorum, Kuetz.
Mesocarpus parvulus, De Bary.

scalaris, Hass.

pleurocarpus, De Bary
Staurospermum gracillimum, Kuetz.

capucinum, Kuetz.

viride, Kuetz.
Botrydium granulatum, Grcv.
Vaucheria aversa, Hass.

sericea, Lyngb.

Dillwynii, C. Ag.
- sessilis, DC.

geminata, DC.

var. racemosa, Walz.

hamata, Lyngb.

terrestris, Lyngb.
Prasiola crispa, C. Ag.
Enteromorpha intestinalis, Link.
Microspora floccosa, Thur.

vulgaris, Rabenh.

fugacissima, Rabenh.
Chaetomorpha Linum, Kuetz.
Conferva bombycina, C. Ag.
Cladophora crispata, Kuetz.

glomerata, Kuetz.

flavescens, Kuetz.

fracta, Kuetz.
CEdogonium vernale, Wittr.

paludosum, Kuetz.

Rothii, Pringsh.

pluviale, Nordst

flavescens, Kuetz.

crassiusculum, Wittr.

capillare, Kuetz.

Boscii, Breb.

hexagonum, Kuetz.

fasciatum, Kuetz.

longatum, Kuetz.

sphasricum, Kuetz.

Muelleri, Kuetz.
Bulbochaete setigera, C. Ag.
Hormiscia zonata, Aresch.
Ulothrix tenuis, Kuetz.

tenerrima, Kuetz.

radicans, Kuetz.
Chroolepus aureum, Kuetz.
Stigeoclonium thermale, A. Br.

nanum, Kuetz.
Draparnaldia glomerata, C. Ag.

plumosa, C. Ag.
Chaetophora pisiformis, C. Ag.

tuberculosa, Hook.

elegans, C. Ag.

endivcasfolia, C. Ag.

BOTANY

Coleochaete scutata, Breb.
Aphanothece prasina, A. Br.
Nostoc commune, Vauch.
Anabaena Hassalii, Wittr.
Cylindrospermum macrospermum, Kuctz.
Spirulina Jenneri, Kuetz.

oscillarioides, Kuetz.
Oscillatoria amphibia, C. Ag.

tenuis, C. Ag.
Sympluea muscorum, Gom.

Symploea limosa, C. Ag.

nigra, Vauch.
Phormidium autumnale, Gom.
Microcoleus terrestris, Desmaz.
Gloiotrichia natans, Rabenh.

Pisum, Thur.
Batrachospermum moniliforme, Roth.

vagum, C. Ag.

ectocarpum, Sirod.

Dillenii, Bory.

MARINE ALG^E

The flat muddy coast of the county, without any natural rocks
capable of affording a stable anchorage, is not a favourable locality for
seaweeds, hence the list of Essex seaweeds is not large.

A list of the marine algae of Essex has been compiled by Mr.
E. A. L. Batters, chiefly from the herbarium of Mr. G. P. Hope, 1 and
it is from this source that I have obtained the following list. A few
species are added from a list of seaweeds quite recently collected by
Dr. H. C. Sorby and named by Mr. E. M. Holmes.

So far as is at present known the marine flora of Essex consists
of 158 species included in 95 genera, and is marked as much by the
absence of many species common and abundant elsewhere as for the
presence of a few which are very rarely met with on the shores of our
islands. As examples of the latter class, Ectocarpus erectus, Phyllitis
Jiliformis, Scinaia furcellata and Grateloupia Jilicina may be mentioned ;
while as examples of the former, Calotbrix confervico/a, Desmarestia
acu/eafa, Dictyosiphon fceniculaceui^ Asperococcus echinatus, Spbacelaria
cirr&osa, Chordaria Jiagelliformis, Leatbesia difformis^ Laminaria digitata^
Saccorhiza bulbosa, Pehetia canaliculata^ Chantransia secundata^ Gelidium
crina/e, Gigartina mammillosa, Callopbyllis /aciniata, Lomentaria c/ave//osa,
Nitophyllum punctatum, Ceramium echionotum, C. acanthonotum^ C. ci/iafum,
Polysiphonia fastigiafa, all of them common species, are ' conspicuous by
their absence ' from the flora of Essex.

The marine flora of Essex is southern in its character. The
following have been recorded :

Gloeocapsa crepidinum, Thur.
Aphanocapsa marina, Hansg.
Dermocarpa prasina, Born.
Hyella caespitosa, Born. & Flah.
Spirulina subsalsa, CErsted
Oscillatoria corallina, Gom.
Lyngbya semiplena, J. Ag.

aestuarii, Liebman.
Symploea hydnoides, Kuetz.
Microcoleus chthonoplastes, Thur.
Calothrix scopulorum, C. Ag.

pulvinata, C. Ag.

- confervicola, C. Ag.
Isactis plana, Thur.

Rivularia atra, Roth.
Mastigocoleus testarum, Lagerh.
Anabaena variabilis, Kuetz.
Chlorochytrium inclusum, Kjellm.
Monostroma laceratum, Thur.
Enteromorpha ramulosa, Hook.

- erecta, J. Ag.

clathrata, C. Ag.

canaliculate, Halt.

percursa, Harv.

compressa, L.

intestinalis, L.

- Linza, J. Ag.

tubulosa, Kuetz.

1 Enex Naturalist, viii. i, and species recorded by E. M. Holmes in the same publication.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Enteromorpha minima, Naeg.
Ulva latissima, J. Ag.
Epicladia Flustrae, Reinke
Urospora penicilliformis, Aresch.

flacca, Holm. & Batt.
Chaetomorpha aerea, Kuetz.

Melagonium, Kuetz.

Linum, Kuetz.

litorea, Holm. & Batt.

tortuosa, Kuetz.
Rhizoclonium riparium, Harv.
Cladophora rupestris, Kuetz.

Hutchinsias, Kuetz.

utriculosa, Kuetz.

glaucescens, Harv.

fracta, Kuetz.

albida, Kuetz.
7 uncialis, Harv.
Bryopsis plumosa, C. Ag.
Vaucheria sphaerospora, Nordst.
Punctaria plantaginea, Grev.
Ectocarpus erectus, Kuetz.

Crouani, Thur.

confervoides, Le Jol.

siliculosus, Lyngb.

granulosus, C. Ag.

tomentosus, Lyngb.
Pylaiella litoralis, Kjellm.
Elachista fucicola, Aresch.
Sphacelaria plumigera, Holmes
Stypocaulon scoparium, Kuetz.
Cladostephus verticillatus, C. Ag.

spongiosus, C. Ag.
Myrionema strangulans, Grev.
Hecatonema reptans, Saur.
Ralfsia verrucosa, Aresch.

clavata, Crouan
Phyllitis filiformis, Batt.
Scytosiphon lomentarius, Endl.
Chorda Filum, Stackh.
Laminaria saccharina, Lamour.
Cutleria multifida, Grev.
Fucus ceranoides, L.

vesiculosus, L. ; f. spiralis, L.

f. Baltica, J. Ag.

platycarpus, Thur.

serratus, L.
Ascophyllum nodosum, Le Jol.

f. scorpoides, Hauck.
Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb.
Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb.
Dictyota dichotoma, Lamour.
Taonia atomaria, J. Ag.
Padina pavonia, Gaillon.
Porphyra laciniata, C. Ag.

f. typica, Holm, and Batt.

linearis, Grev.

leucosticta, Thur.
Bangia fusco-purpurea, Lyngb.
Scinaia furcellata, Bivona.

Harveyella mirabilis, Reinke
Chondrus crispus, Stackh.
Phyllophora rubens, Grev.

membranifolia, J. Ag.
Gymnogongrus Griffithsias, Mart.

Norvegicus, J. Ag.
Ahnfeltia plicata, Fr.
Actinococcus aggregatus, Schmitz.

peltaeformis, Schmitz.
Colacolepis incrustans, Schmitz.
Sterrocolax decipiens, Schmitz.
Cystoclonium purpurascens, Kuetz.
Catenella Opuntia, Grev.
Gracilaria confervoides, Grev.
Calliblepharis ciliata, Kuetz.
Rhodymenia palmata, Grev.
Lementaria clavellosa, Gaill.
Chylocladia kaliformis, Grev.

f. squarrosa, Harv.
Plocamium coccineum, Lyngb.
Nitophyllum laceratum, Grev.
Delesseria alata, Lamour.

Hypoglossum, Lamour.

sinuosa, Lamour.

sanguinea, Lamx.
Bostrychia scorpioides, Montg.
Rhodomela subfusca, C. Ag.
Laurencia hybrida, Lam.

pinnatifida, Lamx.
Chondria dasyphylla, C. Ag.
Polysiphonia urceolata, Grev.

elongata, Harv.

atro-rubescens, Grev.

nigrescens, Grev.

affinis, Moore
Brongniartella byssoides, Bory
Dasya coccinea, C. Ag.
Spermothamnion Turneri, Aresch.
Griffithsia setacea, C. Ag.

corallina, C. Ag.
Halurus equisetifolius, Kuetz.
Pleonosporium Borreri, Naeg.
Rhodochorton Rothii, Naeg.

floridulum, Nag.
Callithamnion polyspermum, C. Ag.

roseum, C. Ag.

corymbosum, C. Ag.

pseudobyssoides, Crouan
Plumaria elegans, Schmitz.
Antithamnion Plumula, Thur.
Ceramium tenuissimum, J. Ag.

Deslongchampsii, Chauv.

strictum, Harv.

diaphanum, Roth.

rubrum, C. Ag.

flabelligerum, J. Ag.
Grateloupia filicina, C. Ag.
Dumontia filiformis, Grev.
Dilsea edulis, Schmitz.
Fastigiaria furcellata, Stackh.

BOTANY

Polyides rotundus, Grev.
Cruoriella Dubyi, Schmitz.
Hildenbrandtia prototypus, Nardo.
Melobesia membranacea, Lamour.
corticiformis, Kuetz.

Melobesia Corallinae, Crouan
Lithophyllum Lenormandi, Rosan
Corallina officinalis, L.

rubens, L.

corniculata, L.

FUNGI

It is difficult to compare the cryptogamic flora of one county with
that of another, because cryptogamic botanists are few and the record of
cryptogamic plants for all counties is very incomplete.

Probably the Epping Forest district is one of the most thoroughly
investigated of England. For many years a large party of members of
the Essex Field Club have explored the Forest each autumn in search of
fungi. Messrs/ English and Worthington Smith have also collected
fungi in this county. In spite of these many workers, Dr. M. C. Cooke
says that it may be taken for granted that the mycology of the Forest
has been by no means exhausted.

Altogether 406 species of Hymenomycetous fungi have been re-
corded in Epping Forest. 1 This is a good record, as only 1,338 species
are recorded as occurring in Great Britain. It is evident that Essex is
not an unfavourable county for the development of fungi. Several
species new to Britain have been first detected in Epping Forest.

E. G. Varenne contributed a list of the cryptogamic plants in the
neighbourhood of Kelvedon, 8 a part of Essex which is possibly more in
character with the county generally than the Epping Forest.

A short list of Ustilaginei and ./Ecidiomycetes was also contributed
by M. C. Cooke.* Of these Delitschia insignis, Mont., and Sporodesmium
pyriforme, Corda, are new to Britain.

The following is a list of the Essex fungi, found mostly in the
Epping Forest and in the neighbourhood of Kelvedon. A few were
observed by myself in the neighbourhood of Colchester.

Agaricus (Amanita) phalloides, Fr.

vernus, Bull.

mappa, Fr.

muscarius, Fr.

pantherinus, Fr.

strobiliformis, Fr.

excelsus, Fr.

rubescens, Fr.

spissus, Fr.

nitidus, Fr.

vaginatus, Fr.

var. nivalis, Grev.

strangulatus, Fr.

Agaricus (Lepiota) procerus, Scop.

rachodes, Vitt.

excoriatus, Schaeff.

acutesquamosus, Weinm.

cristatus, A. & S.

carcharias, Pers.

granulosus, Batsch.

(Armillaria) constrictus, Fr.

melleus, Vahl.

mucidus, Schrad.
(Tricholoma) sejunctus, Sow.

portentosus, Fr.

resplendens, Fr.

1 The arrangement and nomenclature followed in this list is that of the Handbook of British Fungi,
by M. C. Cooke (1871), and of the British Uredinett and Uiti/agiaete by Chas. B. Plowright (1889).

* ' Hymenomycetal Fungi of Epping Forest,' by M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., Essex Naturafut,
iii. 248.

8 Essex NaturaKst, v. 2 1 .

* Ibid. i. 1 84, and 'Recent Additions to the Fungi of Epping Forest,' by Geo. Massee, F.L.S., in
3>3-

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Agaricus (Tricholoma) acerbus, Bull.

nictitans, Fr.

,, fulvellus, Fr.

flavo-brunneus, Fr.

albo-brunneus, Pers.

ustalis, Fr.

rutilans, SchaefF.

variegatum, Schaeff.

columbetta, Fr.

scalpturatus, Fr.

imbricatus, Fr.

vaccinus, Pers.

terreus, SchaefF.

saponaceus, Fr.

cuneifolius, Fr.

carneus, Bull.

gambosus, Fr.

civilis, Fr.

personatus, Fr.

nudus, Bull.

grammopodius, Bull.

subpulverulentus, Pers.

sordidus, Fr.
(Clitocybe) nebularis, Fr.

clavipes, Pers.

odorus, Bull.

cerussatus, Fr.

phyllophilus, Fr.

dealbatus, Sw.

elixus, Sow.

gallinaceus, Fr.

rumosus, Pers.

maximus, Fr.

infundibuliformis, SchaefF.

flaccidus, Fr.

geotrupus, Bull.

inversus, Fr.

catinus, Fr.

ericetorum, Bull.

cyathiformis, Fr.

brumalis, Fr.

metachrous, Fr.

ditopus, Fr.

fragrans, Sow.

obsoletus, Batsch.

bellus, Fr.

laccatus, Fr.
(Collybia) radicatus, Bull.

platyphyllus, Fr.

fusipes, Bull.

maculatus, A. & S.

distortus, Fr.

butyraceus, Bull.

velutipes, Curt.

confluens, P.

cirrhatus, Schum.

tuberosus, Bull.

psathyroides, Cke.

dryophilus, Bull.

ocellatus, Fr.

Agaricus (Collybia) muscigenus, Schum.

,, atratus, Fr.

laceratus, Lasch.
(Mycena) elegans, Pers.

purus, Pers.

adonis, Bull.

lacteus, Pers.

gypseus, Fr.

rugosus, Fr.

galericulatus, Scop.

var. calopus, Fr.

polygrammus, Bull.

parabolicus, Fr.

tintinnabulum, Fr.

pullatus, Berk. & Cke.

leptocephalus, Pers.

alcalinus, Fr.

ammoniacus, Fr.

metatus, Fr.

tenuis, Bolt.

filopes, Bull.

amictus, Fr.

vitilis, Fr.

haematopus, Fr.

sanguinolentus, Fr.

galopus, Fr.

leucogalus, Cke.

epipterygius, Fr.

clavicularis, Fr.

roridus, Fr.

corticola, Schum.

capillaris, Schum.

griseus, Fr.

fibula, Bull.

var. Swartzii, Fr.
(Omphalia) hydrogrammus, Fr.

pyxidatus, Bull.

oniscus, Fr.

demissus, Fr.

pseudoandrosaceus, Bull
(Pleurotus) corticatus, Fr.

dryinus, Pers.

spongiosus, Fr.

petaloides, Bull.

,, Leightonii, Berk.

., ulmarius, Bull.

ostreatus, Jacq.

var. euosmus, Berk.

acerosus, Fr.

septicus, Fr.

mastrucatus, Fr.

Leightoni, Berk.

chioneus, Berk.

acerinus, Fr.

mitis, Pers.

limpidus, Fr.
(Volvaria) medius, Schum.
(Pluteus) cervinus, SchaefF.

umbrosus, Pers.

nanus, Pers.

BOTANY

Agaricus (Entoloma) sinuatus, Fr. Agaricus (Galera) mniophilus, Fr.

lividus, Bull. (Tubaria) furfuraceus, P.

prunuloides, Fr. var. trigonophyllus, Fr.

Saundersii, Fr. stagninus, Fr.

jubatus, Fr. (Crepidotus) mollis, Schaeff.

sericellus, Fr. (Psalliota) arvensis, SchaefF.

sericeus, Bull. cretaccus, Fr.

nidorosus, Fr. campestris, Fr.

(Clitopilus) prunulus, Scop. sylvaticus, Schaeff.

orcella, Bull. (Stropharia) aeruginosus, Curt.

carneo-albus, With. albocyaneus, Dcsmaz.

(Nolanea) pascuus, Pers. inunctus, Fr.

pisciodorus, Ces. coronillus, Bull.

subglobosus, A. & S. squamosus, Fr.

(Claudopus) cuosmus, Berk. thraustus, Kalchbr.

variabilis, Pers. Worthingtonii, Fr.

(Pholiota) tcrrigenus, Fr. merdarius, Fr.

prsecox, Fr. stercorarius, Fr.

radicosus, Bull. semi-globatus, Batsch.

comosus, Fr. spintrigcr, Fr.

squarrosus, Mucll. (Hypholoma) sublateritius, Schceff.

var. Muelleri, Fr. epixanthus, Fr.

var. verruculosuSjLasch. fascicularis, Huds.

durus, Bolt. dispersus, Fr.

spectabilis, Fr. storea var. ccespitosus,

adiposus, Fr. Cookc

mutabilis, SchaefF. lachrymabundus, Fr.

marginatus, Batsch. vclutinus, Pers.

(Inocybe) pyriodorus, P. pyrotrichus, Holmsk.

maritimus, Fr. Candolleanus, Fr.

lacerus, Fr. append iculatus, Bull.

perlatus, Cke. (Psilocybe) hydrophilus, Bull.

fastigiatus, Schaeff. ericseus, Pers.

rimosus, Bull. udus, Pers.

asterosporus, Q. semilanceatus, Fr.

eutheles, B. it Br. spadiceus, Fr.

destrictus, Fr. (Psathyra) foenisecii, Pers.

geophyllus, Sow. conopileus, Fr.

(Hebeloma) fastibilis, Fr. corrugis, Pers.

mesopheus, Fr. fibrillosus, Pers.

sinapizans, Fr. pennatus, Fr.

crustuliniformis, Bull. semivestitus, Berk.

(Flammula) decipiens, Sm. (Panseolus) separatus, Fr.

gummosus, Lasch. fimiputris, Bull.

spumosus, Fr. phalenarum, Fr.

,, carbonarius, Fr. retirugis, Fr.

,, alnicola, Fr. sphinctrinus, Fr.

flavidus, SchaefF. campanulatus, L.

inopus, Fr. papilionaceus, Bull.

hybridus, Fr. caliginosus, Jungh.

(Naucoria) centunculus, Fr. (Psathyrella) trepidus, Pers.

melinoides, Fr. disseminatus, Pers.

pediades, Fr. pronus, Fr.

semiorbicularis, Bull. Coprinus comatus, Fr.

carpophilus, Fr. ovatus, SchaefF.

(Galera) tcner, SchaefF. atramentarius, Fr.

ovalis, Fr. picaceus, Bull.

rubiginosus, P. niveus, Pers.

hypnorum, Batsch. micaccus, Bull.

var. sphagnorurn, Fr. aratus, Berk, it Br.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Coprinus radians, Desmaz.

deliquescens, Bull.

congregatus, Bull.

radiatus, Bolt.

plicatilis, Curt.
Bolbitius Boltoni, Pers.

fragilis, Fr.

Cortinarius (Phlegmacium) varius, Fr.

cyanopus, Fr.

largus, Fr.

Riederi, Weinm.
infractus, Fr.

multiformis, Fr.

talus, Fr.

glaucopus, Schaeff.

purpurascens, Fr.

var. subpurpur-

escens, Bat.

turbinatus, Bull.

decoloratus, Fr.

decolorans, Pers.

(Myxacium) collinitus, Fr.

elatior, Fr.
(Inoloma) argentatus, Pers.
violaceus, Linn.
albo-violaceus,

Pers.

bolaris, Pers.
pholideus, Fr.
(Dermocybe) ochroleucus, Schaeff.
decumbens, Pers.

tabularis, Bull.

camurus, Bull.

caninus, Fr.

anomalus, Fr.

lepidopus, Cke.

cinnabarinus, Fr.
sanguineus, Wulf.
cinnamomeus, L.
orellanus, Fr.

(Telamonia) torvus, Fr.

evernius, Fr.

armillatus, Fr.

hinnuleus, Fr.

brunneus, Fr.

hemitrichus, Fr.

rigidus, Fr.

paleaceus, Fr.

scutulatus, Fr.

(Hydrocybe) dilutus, Pers.

saturninus, Fr.

renidens, Fr.

dolabratus, Fr.

rigens, Pers.

decipiens, Pers.

germanus, Fr.

obtusus, Fr.
Gomphidius glutinosus, Schaeff.

maculatus, Scop.
Paxillus involutus, Batsch.

Paxillus atrotomentosus, Batsch.

Alexandri, Gill.
Hygrophorus chrysodon, Batsch.

eburneus, Bull.

cossus, Sow.

penarius, Fr.

pratensis, Pers.

virgineus, Wulr.

russo-coriaceus, Berk. & Br.

Colemannianus, Blox.

laetus, Fr.

ceraceus, Wulf.

coccineus, Schaeff.

miniatus, Fr.

turundus, Fr.

conicus, Scop.

calyptrae formis, Berk.

chlorophanus, Fr.

psittacinus, Schaeff.
Lactarius torminosus, Fr.

turpis, Fr.

controversus, Fr.

insulsus, Fr.

blennius, Fr.

trivialis, Fr.

pyrogalus, Fr.

chrysorrhoeus, Fr.

pergamenus, Fr.

piperatus, Fr.

vellereus, Fr.

deliciosus, Fr.

pallidus, Fr.

quietus, Fr.

aurantiacus, Fr.

rufus, Fr.

glyciosmus, Fr.

fuliginosus, Fr.

lilacinus, Lasch.

volemum, Fr.

serifluus, Fr.

mitissimus, Fr.

subdulcis, Fr.

cimicarius, Batsch.

camphoratus, Fr.

subumbonatus, Lindgr.
Russula nigricans, Fr.

adusta, Fr.

delica, Fr.

furcata, Fr.

rosacea, Fr.

maculata, Quel.

granulosa, Cke.

depallens, Fr.

lactea, Fr.

var. incarnata, Quel.

virescens, Fr.

cutefracta, Cke.

lepida, Fr.

rubra, Fr.

var. mitis, Cke.

BOTANY

Russula xerampclina, Fr.

Linnaci, Fr.

vesca, Fr.

cyanoxantha, Fr.

heterophylla, Fr.

consobrina, Fr.

var. sororia, Fr.

foetens, Fr.

fellea, Fr.

subfoetens, Sm.

emetica, Fr.

- fallax, Schaeff.

pectinata, Fr.

ochroleuca, Fr.

citrina, Gillet

fragilis, Fr.

var. violacea, Pcrs.

integra, Fr.

Armeniaca, Ckc.

alutacea, Fr.

lutea, Fr.

Chameleontina, Fr.
Cantharellus cibarius, Fr.

aurantiacus, Fr.

tubaeformis, Fr.

infundibuliformis, Fr.
Nyctalis asterophora, Fr.

parasitica, Fr.
Marasmius urens, Fr.

peronatus, Fr.

oreades, Fr.

fuscopurpureus, Fr.

terginus, Fr.

erythropus, Fr.

cohaerens, Fr.

ramealis, Fr.

rotula, Fr.

androsaceus, Fr.

Hudsoni, Fr.

- cpiphyllus, Fr.
Lentinus lepideus, Fr.

cochleatus, Fr.
Pan us torulosus, Fr.

- stypticus, Fr.

farinaceus, Fr.
Lenzites betulina, Fr.
Boletus elegans, Schum.

flavus, With.

bovinus, Fr.

tenuipes, Cke.

bad i us, Fr.

piperatus, Bull.

chrysenteron, Fr.

subtomentosus, Linn.

var. radicatus, Qucl.

rubinus, Sm.

versicolor, Rostk.

parasiticus, Fr.

calopus, Fr.

pachypus, Fr.

Boletus candicans, Fr.

edulis. Bull.

impolitus, Fr.

aestivalis, Fr.

satanas, Fr.

luridus, Fr.

purpureus, Fr.

eyrthropus, Fr.

laricinus, Fr.

versipellis, Fr.

duriusculus, Schulz.

scaber, Fr.

felleus, Bull.
Fistulina hepatica, Fr.
Polyporus Schweinitzii, Fr.

rufescens, Fr.

squamosus, Huds.

picipes, Fr.

varius, Fr.

elegans, Fr.

um be Hat us, Fr.

intybaceus, Fr.

giganteus, Fr.

sulphureus, Fr.

imbricatus, Fr.

cxsius, Fr.

chioncus, Fr.

adust us, Fr.

adiposus, B.

cuticularis, Fr.

hispidus, Fr.

dryadeus, Fr.

betulinus, Fr.

fulvus, Fr.

salignus, Fr.
Fomes lucidus, Fr.

applanatus, Fr.

fomentarius, Fr.

igniarius, Fr.

roseus, Fr.

annosus, Fr.

fraxineus, Fr.
Polystictus perennes, Linn.

radiatus, Fr.

fibula, Fries

versicolor, Fr.
Poria vaporaria, Fr.

medula-panis, Fr.

vulgaris, Fr.
Trametes gibbosa, Fr.

mollis, Somm.
Dzdalea quercina, P.

confragosa, Fr.

unicolor, Fr.
Merulius tremellosus, Fr.

corium, Fr.
Hydnum repandum, Fr.

zonatum, Fr.

erinaceum, Fr.

cirrhatum, Fr.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Hydnum diversidens, Fr.

ferruginosum, Fr.
Sistotrema confluens, Fr.
Radulum quercinum, Fr.

fagineum, Fr.
Grandinia granulosa, Fr.
Craterellus cornucopioides, Fr.

crispus, Fr.

Thelephora multizonata, Berk. & Br.

caryophyllea, Fr.

anthocephala, Fr.

clavularis, Fr.

palmata, Fr.

laciniata, P.

cristata, Fr.

Crustacea, Fr.
Stereum purpureum, Fr.

hirsutum, Fr.

spadiceum, Fr.

sanguinolentum, Fr.

rugosum, Fr.
Hymenochoete rubiginosa, Fr.

tabacina, Fr.
Peniophora quercina, Cke.

incarnata, Fr.
Corticium laeve, Fr.

serum, Fr.

comedens, Fr.

sebaceum, Fr.
Coniophora puteana, Fr.

olivacea, Fr.

cellare, Pers.
Phlebia radiata, Fr.

merismoides, Fr.
Auricularia mesenterica, Fr.
Cyphella Curreyi, Berk. & Br.

villosa, Pers.
Clavaria amethystina, Fr.

fastigiata, Fr.

coralloides, Fr.

cinerea, Fr.

cristata, Fr.

rugosa, Fr.

aurea, Schaeff.

grisea, Pers.

fusiformis, Sow.

inaequalis, Fr.

fragilis, Holms.

vermicularis, Scop.

pistillaris, Linn.

contorta, Holms.
Calocera viscosa, Fr.

cornea, Fr.
Typhula phacorhiza, Fr.
Pistillaria quisquiliaris, Fr.
Tremella foliacea, Pers.

mesenterica, Retz.

albida, Huds.
Exidia glandulosa, Fr.
Dacryomyces deliquescens, Duby.

Dacryomyces stillatus, Nees

chrysocoma, Bull.
Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch.

saccatum, Vahl.
Didymium physarioides, Fr.
Arcyria punicea, Pers.
Cyathus striatus, Hoffm.

vernicosus, DC.
Phoma radula, Berk. & Br.

depressum, Berk. & Br.
Leptothyrium Ribis, Lib.

Juglandis, Lib.
Dothiora sphaeroides, Fr.
Piggottia astroidea, Berk. & Br.
Discclla carbonacea, Berk. & Br.
Torula ovalispora, Berk.

pulvillus, Berk. & Br.

pulveracea, Corda
Sporidesmium pyriforme, Corda
Sterigmatocystis dubia, Sacc.
Phragmidium mucronatum, Link.

bulbosum, Sch.

gracile, Grev.

Fragariastri, DC.

Potentillae, Schrcet.
Triphragmium Ulmarias, Link.
Puccinia Graminis, Pers.

arundinacea, Hedw.

striola, Link.

coronata, Corda

Polygonorum, Link.

bupleuri, DC.

Menthae, Pers.

Vincae, Berk.

sparsa, Cooke

Compositarum, Sch.

syngenesiarum, Link.

Malvacearum, Corda

discoidearum, Link.

glomerata, Grev.

albescens, Plowr.

Tragopogi, Wint.

umbelliferarum, DC.

Apii, Corda

Anemones, Pers.

Violarum, Link.

Lychnidearum, Link.

Epilobii, DC.

Prunorum, Link.

Circaeae, Pers.

pulverulenta, Grev.

Hydrocotyles, Cke.

acuminata, Fckl.

Centaufeae, DC.

Lapsanae, Fckl.

obtegens, Tul.

amphibii, Fckl.

Xrailii, Plow.

Primulae, Wint.

Variabilis, Grev.

BOTANY

Puccinia Caricis, Schum.
Tilletia caries, Tul.

striae formis, Schroet.
Ustilago carbo, Tul.

longissima, Tul.

hypodytes, Fr.

Salveii, B. & Br.

utriculosa, Tul.

receptaculorum, Fr.

antherarum, Fr.
Uromyces Fabz, Pcrs.

Betz, Wint.

apiculosa, Lev.

Ficariz, Wint.

Geranii, Wint.

Trifolii, DC.

Valerianz, Schum.

avicularae, DC.

Rumicum, Lev.

Scillarum, Grev.

Poz, Raben.
Coleosporium Tussilaginis, Lev.

Campanulas, Lev.

Senecionis, Lev.

Rhinanthaccarum, Lev.
Schinzia Alni, Woron.
Gymnosporangium Sabinz, Wint.

clavariz forme, Wint.
Mclampsora Populina, Lev.

Salicina, Lev.

Euphorbiz, Cast.

Tremulz, Tul.
Cystopus candidus, Lev.

cuhicus, Str.

CEdocephalum fimetarium, Sacc.
Tubercularia granulata, Pers.
Fusidium griscum, Link.
Helminthosporium Tiliz, Fr.
Macrosporium Sarcinula, Berk.

Cheiranthi, Fr.

Brassicz, Berk.

concinnum, Berk.
Cladosporium dendriticum, Wallr.

epiphyllum, Nees
Peronospora infestans, Mont.

pangliformis, Berk.

Urticz, Casp.

Schliedeniana, De Bany.
Polyactis vulgaris, Link.

fascicularis, Corda

Oidium concentricum, Berk. & Br.

Erysiphoides, Berk.

Pilobolus crystallinus, Pers.
Sphzrotheca Castagnei, Lev.
Uncinula adunca, Lev.

bicornis, Lev.
Phyllactinia guttata, Lev.
Podosphzria Kunzei, Lev.

clandestina, Lev.
Microsphzria Grossulariz, Lev.

Mougeotii, Lev.

penicillata, Lev.

Martii, Link.

Montagnei, Lev.

Tortilis, Link.

communis, Schl.
Erysiphe lamprocarpa, Lev.

Martii, Link.

Montagnei, Lev.

tortilis, Link.

communis, Schl.
Peziza salmonicolor, Br.

aurantia, Fr.

coccinea, Jacq.

domestica, Sow.
Lachnea crucipila, Cooke
Mollisia cinerea, Karst.
Helotiun virgultorum, Fr.
Orbilia xanthostigma, Pers.
Ascobolus furfuraceus, Pers.

venosus, Berk.

glaber, Fr.

Rhyparobius sexdecemsporus, Crouan
Ascophanus granuliformis, Bornet
Patellaria lignyota, Fr.
Claviceps purpurea, Tul.
Rhytisma acerinum, Pers.
Hysterium angustatum, A. & S.
Epichloe typhina, Berk.
Polystigma rubrum, Pers.
Dothidea Ulmi, Fr.

trifolii, Fr.
Diatrype quercina, Tul.

verruczformis, Fr.
Massaria Curreyi, Tul.
Sphzria apotheciorum, Mass.
Sordaria decipiens, Wint.

coprophila, De Not

curvula, Fr.
Sporormia intermedia, De Not

minima, Anersw.
Delitschia insignis, Mouton
Gymnoascus Recsii, Baran.

ZOOLOGY

MARINE ZOOLOGY

DURING the summer months for the last twenty years I have
lived on board my yacht the Glimpse more or less in Essex
waters, and have devoted much of my time to the study of the
marine animals, either by dredging or collecting on shore. I
have also done much from the deck of the yacht, which has enabled me
to obtain various specimens floating in the tide.

Having thus had a somewhat unusual experience, I venture to do
the best I can for my subject, although I feel that it is very incomplete,
and that a great deal remains to be learned both as to specific identity
and local distribution.

If in years gone by I had known that it would have been my lot
to write an essay on the marine invertebrata of the coast of Essex I
should have collected the necessary material and studied several groups
of animals which I have almost entirely neglected. My aim has chiefly
been to find out how to kill certain animals in a fully expanded condition,
and permanently to preserve them with their natural colours, either as
transparent lantern slides, mounted in Canada balsam, or kept in glass
vessels in undiluted glycerine. Animals not suited for these purposes
have been almost entirely neglected, and I have directed far more
attention to experiments with species easily procured than to making
a complete and accurately named collection of those living on the coast.
Though I have a large amount of the above-named preparations, show-
ing the general character of the animals extremely well, they are some-
times not suitable for specific identification, since they cannot be turned
about or dissected, and the characteristic structure may be lost or hidden.
In connection with the distribution of the animals along the coast
it must be borne in mind that living on the yacht has led to the special
study of places where the anchorage was secure and where we could
obtain what is necessary, and to the neglect of other localities open to
objection from a yachtsman's point of view. Since my collecting has
thus been done from the side of the water the rarity or abundance of
particular species may probably appear different to what it would be to
any one collecting from the shore. There are also great changes from

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

year to year, so that what was common at one time may be rare at
another, and particular species may have ceased to occur in one locality
and have established themselves in another.

In addition to the animals I have collected myself I give the
Hydroids, Polyzoa, etc., collected near Harwich by Mr. S. P. Hope,
lent to me by Mr. William Cole, and identified by Mr. Walter Garstang ;
and those of various groups collected near Brightlingsea by Mr. H. W.
Unthank, as described in his paper, ' Natural History Work at Brightling-
sea,' published in the ^Journal of the Essex Technical Laboratories, No. 19,
April, 1896, pp. 20610. These additions are more especially valuable
because they give a number of species in groups of animals to which
I have paid little attention. I also give a very complete and well-
arranged list of the Mollusca drawn up by Mr. William Cole.

In concluding this introduction I must express my best thanks to a
number of friends who have assisted me in identifying the various species.
These belong to so many groups, and my time has been so much taken
up with other matters, that I did not feel confident in my own determina-
tion. My thanks are especially due to Mr. Walter Garstang, who has
examined and named many of the sponges, Ccelenterata, Nemertians,
Chsetopoda and Polyzoa. Professor Herdman has assisted me in naming
the Ascidians and Nudibranchs. The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing has
examined some of my crustaceans ; and my Sheffield friends, Professor
Denny, Mr. Arnold T. Watson and Mr. E. Howarth, have assisted me
over sundry animals. I hope therefore that on the whole the names are
correct, but fear that some may not be, owing to the want of suitable
specimens collected and preserved for this special purpose. The diffi-
culties are also apparently increased by the probable existence of varieties
differing from the recognized types, owing to local conditions and other
causes. In several cases species which at one time were extremely com-
mon and in some respects have been well preserved could not lately be
procured for exact specific identification. I may also here say that in
the Essex district some of the animals are abnormally small, as if dwarfed
by unfavourable conditions. In some cases also only single specimens
have been found, and it is uncertain whether they are full-grown
animals. On the whole there are ten or a dozen doubtful identifica-
tions.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE COAST

Before describing the various animals it seems to me desirable to
give a short account of the chief characters of the coast, along the whole
of which I have passed more or less frequently, since they must have
such a great influence on the kind of animals found along it.

My knowledge of the Thames is chiefly confined to the vicinity of
Erith and Greenhithe, at both which places I lived on the yacht for
some weeks in 1882. Though the free-swimming animals and plants
are of much interest, the district cannot be looked upon as marine ; and
I do not know exactly how far the influence of fresh water extends,

MARINE ZOOLOGY

which must vary much with the season. Passing down the river to
beyond Shoeburyness there is the large flat tract of the Maplin Sands,
in some parts 3! miles wide at low water. I have examined this
imperfectly off Havengore and at the east end of Foulness. In the
Swin, off the Maplin Sands, the water is deeper than anywhere else
along the coast of Essex, but yet its maximum depth is only 1 3 fathoms,
maintained by the strong tidal currents. Passing westwards along the
northern side of Foulness we have the estuaries of the Crouch and
Roche, as well as sundry channels and creeks, all having muddy shores,
but no extensive flat tracts left dry at low water. In these estuaries and
creeks oyster culture is of such importance that hundreds of men are
employed, and some of the river beds are worth one hundred times as
much as the adjoining meadow land. I am best acquainted with the
Crouch, having remained in it off Burnham many times for weeks.
When there in summer I have found the low water more salt than the
high water, which is an unusual thing in an estuary ; and the water at
Battle Bridge, 12 miles from the mouth, more salt than the North Sea,
no doubt owing to small rainfall and great evaporation. North of
Foulness to the estuary of the Blackwater is a sandy tract left dry at
low water for a width of a mile, which I have never examined for
marine animals. In the estuary of the Blackwater, often called ' Pont,'
I have examined the shores near Bradwell, and have dredged off an island
called Osea. Between the Blackwater and the Colne are sundry creeks
near West Mersea, and a tract of more or less sandy mud, left dry at
low water for a width of ^ mile, the east end of which I have examined
to some extent. I have lived in the estuary of the Colne for weeks at
a time almost every year for more than twenty years, and have examined
the shores and creeks in every direction, and dredged and trawled in the
open water off Mersea. On the east side of the Colne, both above and
below Brightlingsea, there is good ground for collecting at low water from
a boat or in long waterproof boots. Between the Colne and Walton-on-
Naze is a long extent of coast with narrow sands, which I have never
examined. The open water off this, in the Wallet, is seldom more than
6 fathoms deep, which is no more than in some of the estuaries. On
one occasion I dredged in this near the Gunfleet Bank, but in many
places the ground is too full of large stones for dredging purposes. The
creeks on the east side of Walton-on-Naze are very good collecting
ground. In 1889 I remained some time in what is marked on the
charts as ' Walton Channel,' but I know nothing of its present condition,
since the sewage discharge from Walton was so objectionable that I have
not gone there again. But for this it would be the best place on the
coast for collecting, since there is no oyster culture and no disturbance
by steamboats. East of the Naze is a tract of coast which I have never
examined, except near Harwich. Both outside and inside the harbour
is or was excellent collecting ground in fine calm weather, but when it
is windy little or nothing can be done. Passing up the Stour are vast
tracts of mud, covered with Zostera marina, which are left dry at low

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

water in some places for a mile in width ; but my more intimate know-
ledge of the upper part is confined to near Mistley, where I have often
collected and dredged, though it is too far up to be satisfactory.

It will thus be seen that though I have fairly well studied some
districts there are large tracts which I have never examined, on account
of being too far from any convenient anchorage. It must also be borne
in mind that my account of the marine invertebrata of Essex has been
made much less complete than it would have been owing to difficulties
connected with the oyster fisheries. One cannot dredge in some most
suitable and convenient places, and in some cannot even use a small light
trawl. In some no one is, or was, allowed to collect on the shore at low
water, or to dredge even where there are no oysters. If special facilities
had not been conceded to me this article could not have been written.

The total length of the coast, including the chief estuaries and
creeks, is considerably over 200 miles, and it would take a long time to
examine properly the whole. Some of the animals found are so rare
and so local that possibly many more species occur than I have been
able to collect, though there may not be so much variation along the
exposed coasts as in the estuaries. These play a most important part,
since the total length of their shores is fully three times that of the more
open coast. In summer the water is not much less salt than in the sea,
and in some special cases even more salt. The extremes of temperature
are also great, since there is relatively such a large extent of very shallow
water and of mud banks left dry when the tide is low. In summer
in the Orwell I have known it as high as 74, and in winter some of
the estuaries are occasionally filled with masses of ice. The conditions
are therefore very unsuitable for certain kinds of animals, and they
probably explain why some common species are of smaller size than
elsewhere. At the same time there is a tendency for the colder water to
sink and pass out to sea, and for the warmer to remain in the estuaries
and creeks, and therefore in the long run for these to have a higher
temperature than the more open water. This is probably one great
reason why some parts of the Essex district are so admirably fitted for
oyster culture, since the proper development of spat depends so much on
a sufficiently high temperature.

Along the coast of Essex there are thus no quiet deep water, and no
rocks, and no clear rock-pools, but strong currents and great stretches
of gravel, sand and mud ; so that the animals found are necessarily of a
restricted character. At the same time these circumstances seem favour-
able for certain kinds, and some are common which may be very rare in
other districts.

The coast of Essex is thus peculiar, and estuarine conditions must
have great influence as compared with the coast of Norfolk. The
following table shows the number of species of such groups of animals
as seem to have attracted a fair amount of attention in both counties.
Those of Norfolk are taken from a proof of a portion of the Victoria
History lent to me by Mr. Walter Garstang. This did not include the

MARINE ZOOLOGY

Crustacea or the Mollusca. Those of Essex are from my own list,
including those collected by Mr. Hope and Mr. Unthank :

In Essex

In both Essex and
Norfolk

In Norfolk

Hydrozoa

1-7

Actinia

Medusae

Echinoderms

/
2

Chztopoda

Polyzoa

Simple Ascidians ....

9
97

5
86

It will thus be seen that there is a remarkable difference, and that
whilst fifty-eight species found in Essex are not found in Norfolk, and
forty-seven in Norfolk not in Essex, there are only thirty-nine common
to both. These results are no doubt in part due to imperfect collecting,
but yet, I think, still more to the materially different characters of the
coasts.

MARINE AND FRESHWATER PLANKTON

During the years 1882 to 1889, from the early part of May to the
middle of September, I carried out continuous observations of the num-
ber of small free-swimming animals per gallon of water. The method
adopted was to collect the water near the surface, half way down and
near the bottom, in a bottle sunk empty, and filled by pulling out the
cork. Usually 2\ gallons were collected, and passed through a fine
sieve, not allowing any animal larger than ^ of an inch in diameter to
pass. The material so separated was then washed out by pouring a
few ounces of sea water on the back of the sieve, care being taken that
none of the animals should be killed by drying. I had a glass trough
3 inches deep, i inch broad, and | inch from front to back, into which
the water containing the animals was poured, and the number of the
various kinds counted, the process being repeated until the whole had
been examined. The different sorts could in general be easily dis-
tinguished by their different form or manner of swimming. It would
be out of place to go into detail, but it seems desirable to give some
of the general results which, though never printed, were repeatedly
described by me in public lectures at a time when this subject had
attracted little or no attention.

In the following tables I give the number of the animals per
10 gallons of water, but omit those which on an average do not amount
to one in that quantity. These were determined from my first three years'
observations, and might be somewhat modified by the later, which have
not yet been adequately discussed. As might be expected larval forms
play a very important part.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

TABLE I

Excess of density per 1000 .

i-i

8-8

12-9

18-8

22-0

24-5

25-3

26-0

26-5

Larval fish

Larval Ascidians .
Appendicularia .
Copepoda

171

I J.I 2

124.

7
86

108

204

2
2
IOC

Larval Copepoda .
Cladocera

3
8

348

2OO

124

355

Ostracoda

Larval Balani ....
Larval Chjetopoda
Rotifera

I A.

18
4

149

A.Q

43
33

i
8
8

Cyphonautes, etc. .
Small Medusae ....
Noctiluca

1 /
29

2
I

880

5012

7 W
I

5
i
612

7
383

Totals in 10 gallons .

521

1624

316

1259

5397

753

852

543

TABLE II

Surface

4 feet

Bottom

High

Low

Ascidians

Copepoda

I A.O

e-j

A.1

Larval Copepoda

172

8<5

Q4.

118

Larval Balani

Larval Chaetopoda
Rotifera

'3
58

I "JO

8
3

H
1 02

Noctiluca

24.O

7OI

24.2

672

Totals

eon

q6q

601

77o

1018

TABLE III
Totals in 10 gallons

( Clear rivers IO

, I Heybridge canal 50

Freshwater \ ,-, , -t , j i-

Heybndge basin and ditches 270

\. Weedy stagnant ponds I 73

Mean for sea water including the estuaries . . 2060

One great object I had in view was to trace the changes in passing
from freshwater conditions down to the sea. The density of the water
was therefore determined by observing the excess in weight of the
measure of 1,000 grains of fresh water, which is given in the upper
line of Table I. In preparing this table I made no distinction between
Essex, Suffolk or Kent ; and the results are derived from observations
made in the Crouch, Roche, Blackwater, Colne, Stour, Orwell, Aide,
Bentley and Medway.

As will be seen from Table I. there is a most striking difference in
the character and number of the different animals as we proceed from
freshwater conditions to the open sea, but there are very few kinds
more numerous in this than where the water is less salt. On the
whole there are most in the somewhat sheltered estuaries, where the

MARINE ZOOLOGY

excess of density is about 23 or 24. This fact is of much interest
in connection with the culture of oysters, which is such an impor-
tant industry in Essex, since it is in such localities that they are laid
down to fatten ; and although they probably do not feed on some of the
animals included in the table, it seems almost certain that there is a
corresponding excess of the more minute animals and plants on which
they do feed. The relatively great number of larval Balani and Ascidians
is also to be noticed, and agrees with the fact that the bottoms of vessels
become so much covered with them when lying long in such water.
It will also be seen that there is a well marked secondary maximum
where the excess of density is about I2|, due almost entirely to the
great development of Copepoda.

Table II. shows the distribution of some of the minute animals
from the top to the bottom, and also according to the state of the
tide.

Table III. shows what a remarkable increase occurs in the number
of free-swimming animals as we proceed from clear running rivers to
more stagnant water, in which they have time to multiply. This fact
was confirmed in a striking manner by my observations in the rivers and
broads of Norfolk. As will be seen, the mean number in the sheltered
estuaries and the more open water just outside them is comparable to
that in the stagnant freshwater ponds, probably because it also is not so
changed, by the introduction of plankton-free water, as to prevent the
accumulation of the animals.

THAMES

In August and September of 1882 I lived at anchor for about six
weeks at Greenhithe and Erith, carrying out researches for the Board of
Works in connection with the main drainage of London. For this
purpose it seemed important to study the Entomostraca and the free-
swimming organisms, since the combination of various facts indicated
that minute animals and plants played a very, important part in removing
sewage from the river. Though the Thames in the district studied
cannot be looked upon as sea water, yet it forms such a long stretch of
coast in Essex that it seems desirable to describe some of the observed
facts, it being of course understood that they relate only to a particular
season of the year. The extraordinary strength of the tidal currents, and
the great amount of mud held in suspension, make this river very unlike
any other in Essex.

Table IV. shows the mean number of Entomostraca and larval
shrimps in 10 gallons of water, combining half flood with high water
and half ebb with low water, and shows well the variation in the num-
bers of these animals which are more especially characteristic of fresh
water and salt water, the extreme variations being at Erith combined
half ebb and low, and at Greenhithe combined half flood and high.
One effect of this great and constant change in the character of the water

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

is that few kinds of animals can establish themselves permanently, which
is very unlike what occurs in other tidal estuaries in the county.

TABLE IV

Half flood and high

Half ebb and low

At Er'ith

1-4.

14*0

At Greenhitbe

2"?

5'4

1-8

1-2

Mean of all per 10 gallons

6-6

I. PROTOZOA

Noctiluca mlliaris.

This varies greatly in numbers at different
places and in different seasons. Sometimes
there are few, but on one occasion I found
that the average number in the water of
Harwich harbour, from the surface to the
bottom, was about 4,000 per gallon.

II. PORIFERA (Sponges)

The best locality in the county seems to be
the creeks east of Walton-on-Naze. The
following species have been identified, but
probably others occur, which have been ob-
tained in the Orwell.

I. CALCAREA

1. Leucosolenia lacunosa, Johnston.
Dredged in the Wallet by Mr. H. W.

Unthank.

2. Leucosolenia botryoides, Ellis & Sol.

Pin Mill on the Orwell ; also dredged in
the Wallet by Mr. Unthank.

3. Sycon coronatum, Ellis & Sol.

In the creek east of Walton-on-Naze and
in the Colne. Mr. Unthank records it from
the Wallet.

4. Sycon compressum, Auctt.

The only place in the county where I have
found this species is in the creek east of
Walton-on-Naze.

II. SILICEA

I. Cbalina oculata, Pallas.

Possibly all my preserved specimens have
been collected just outside Essex, but it is
almost certain that it occurs at Harwich and
Walton.

2. Halichtmdria panicea, Pallas.

This occurs in the Colne, but not abund-
antly, and I think I have seen it near Harwich
and at Walton.

3. Isodictya fucorum (Bowerbank).
Dredged in the Wallet by Mr. Unthank.

4. Isodictya palmata ? (Bowerbank).
Dredged in the Wallet by Mr. Unthank.

5. C liana celata (Grant).

This sponge does some injury to the
oysters. My friend, the late Mr. Fred.
Wiseman, told me he had found that by
keeping the shells dry for a time the sponges
could be killed, and the oysters restored to a
healthy state.

I have found several other species not yet
identified, and probably many more occur,
since some seem to be very local, and not to
be met with every year.

III. CCELENTERATA

(Jellyfish, Sea Anemones, etc.}

I. HYDROZOA
i. HYDROID ZOOPHYTES

I have never made any effort to collect
the more minute species, and the list would
have been much more incomplete than it is
if Mr. Wm. Cole had not lent me a collection
made by Mr. Hope near Harwich, the species
of which are distinguished by his name. They
have been identified by Mr. Walter Garstang.

1. Coryne vaginata, Hincks.

Taken by Mr. S. P. Hope in Essex waters
near Harwich in June and July.

2. Syncoryne eximia.

Off Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank).

MARINE ZOOLOGY

3. Tubularia larynx y Ellis & Sol.

My specimens have usually been obtained
from the bottom of my yacht, and dead ones
are so often seen in such situations that the
species must be common all along the coast.
Small groups are also occasionally dredged off
Mersea.

It is interesting to note that the original
description of this species (1755) was probably
based on Essex specimens, since Ellis refers
to the abundance of the ' windpipe coralline '
' near the mouth of the Thames, adhering to
other marine bodies, and often to the bottoms
of ships.'

4. Tubularia indivisa.

Mr. Unthank gives this as found off
Brightlingsea. Unfortunately in 1901 I was
unable to obtain any specimens in order to be
sure that I had found this species as well as
T. larynx.

5. Eudendrium ramosum.

Off Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank).

6. Okelia gelatinosa (Pallas).

Several fine specimens in my collection from
the Orwell, and there can be little doubt as
to its occurrence in Essex waters.

7. Clytia jahnstoni (Alder).

Off Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank).

8. Haledum halednum, Linn.

The specimens collected were probably
dredged off Mersea.

9. Sertularella po/yzoniai (Linn.).
Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich.

O. Sertularia putni/a, Linn.

Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich at all
seasons. The specimens show considerable
variation in the thickness of the stems and
attenuation of the internodes, some having all
the characters of HassaU's species gracilis,
which Mr. Hope thinks should probably be
regarded as a variety of pumila.

1 1. Sertularia operculata, Linn.
Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich.

12. Sertularia abietina, Linn.

Found by Mr. Hope near Harwich.

13. Sertularia argentea, Ellis & Sol.
Near Harwich (S. P. Hope).

14. Hytlrallmania falcata (Linn.).

Near Harwich (S. P. Hope), and often
dredged off Mersea and in other localities of

Essex.

15. Antennularia antennina (Linn.).

Near Harwich (S. P. Hope), and dredged
in various other localities.

1 6. Plumularia setacea (Ellis).

Specimens bearing gonophores from the
Orwell, and probably occurs also in the
neighbouring estuaries of Essex.

17. Plumularia echinulata, Lamarck.

This appears to be a common species in
Essex waters. Specimens taken near Harwich
by Mr. Hope in June and October bear
gonophores, and are attached to pieces of
filamentous weeds and Zostera.

2. MEDUSJE

The smaller medusae (Hydromedusar) are
produced by lateral budding from various
Hydroid stocks, e.g. Syncoryne, Obelia.

The larger medusae (Discomedusae) do not
always exhibit a similar alternation of stages
in their life history, but Aurella and Chrysaora
are known to be produced by a remarkable
process of successive fission from minute
Hydra-like polyps which form extensive
colonies on old oyster shells and similar
objects.

A. Hydromeduste

1. Phia/idium, sp. var.

Caught in a tow-net in the Wallet, but
not well preserved. Probably many other
species could be obtained if carefully looked for.

B. Discomeduste

2. Chrysaora isosceles (Linn.).

I have collected this in the Crouch at
Burnham and in the Stour at Mistley, but
more off Harwich than elsewhere, though I
have never seen many. The colour seems to
vary a good deal in different years, the upper
surface being sometimes beautifully striped
with brown, and sometimes scarcely marked
at all. In 1899 I saw off Felixstowe one
estimated to have a disk a foot in diameter
and the appendages five or six feet long, but
such are extremely rare.

3. Cyanea capillata (Linn.).

This species occurs in nearly all localities,
but is seldom or never very abundant. It
grows to be more than a foot in diameter,
and the tentacles are some few yards in
length when fully extended. The usual
colour is a creamy white, varying to a sort of
orange colour. In 1901 I caught a specimen
which seemed to differ from the above in
having much shorter tentacles, but it was
accidently destroyed before having been

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

sufficiently examined to decide whether it was
a different species or only a variety.

4. Cyanea lamarckii.

In July, 1888, this was very abundant in
the Aide at Shingle Street, and I think I have
seen it, or an unusually blue C. capillata, in
the Stour or Colne, but so many years ago
that I am not certain, and the specimens
were not caught and examined carefully. In
any case it seems to occur only now and
then.

5. Cyanea imporcata, A. M. Norman.

On July 26, 1884, I caught in the Colne
off Mersea a medusa of a beautiful purple-
blue colour. At that time I was studying the
spectra of the colouring matters of marine
animals, and after making a careful drawing
I destroyed the specimen in studying the
pigment, not knowing that it was such a rare
species. In the seventeen subsequent years
I have looked in vain for another specimen.
On sending my drawing to Mr. Garstang, he
recognised it as a Cyaneid medusa, on account
of the sixteen radial gastric pouches indicated
in my figure, the deep and much folded oral
membranes, the absence of marginal tentacles
and the presence of eight crescentic groups of
tentacles attached to the under side of the
disk at some distance from the edge. The
tentacles are seen to be of various lengths,
but many exceed twice the length of the oral
appendages. The medusa, on the other hand,
differs from the common Cyanete of our coasts
in the cup-shaped disk, the diameter of which
is less than twice the height. In this re-
spect the medusa closely resembles the Cyanea
imporcata of Norman (Nat. Hist. Trans.
Northumberland and Durham, 1865, i. 58
60, pi. xi.), of which only a single specimen
has hitherto been recorded, and that also in
the North Sea, between the Dogger Bank
and Newcastle. Mr. Garstang believes the
two to belong to the same species, although
my specimen was probably devoid of the super-
ficial markings on the disk which Norman
figured, and which he tentatively but errone-
ously described as radiating and secondary
canals. Possibly the species inhabits the
deeper waters to the north of our islands,
from which region stray specimens have
drifted from time to time down our east
coast. Further information is much to be
desired to clear up several doubts connected
with this species, which is evidently very
rare in the English seas.

6. Aurelia aurita (Linn.)

Though there seems to be a great variation

in number in different years, yet on the
whole this is by far the most common medusa
on the coast. Occasionally it is extremely
abundant. By far the larger number are
under 6 inches in diameter, but those of at
least double that size are sometimes numerous
in the latter part of the season. I have col-
lected and preserved a considerable number
of abnormal varieties, differing much in the
number of the different organs.

1 . Rhizostoma octopus. Linn.

I have occasionally seen very fine speci-
mens in the Wallet and in the Swin. I have
collected many small ones in the Crouch at
Burnham and one in the Colne, but none in
any other of the Essex estuaries.

II. CTENOPHORA

Jellyfish devoid of a muscular umbrella and
provided with eight vertical (meridional) rows
of iridescent paddles.

Pleurobrachia pileus, Modeer.

Formerly common at most places, but
during the last few years has become less and
less abundant, and in 1900-1 comparatively
scarce. The best way to preserve it is to
take it out of the water by means of a sieve,
and put it at once into diluted formalin.
Trawled or dredged specimens are almost
worthless. I have a mounted specimen which
had been swallowed by another only a little
larger.

III. ANTHOZOA
(Sea Anemones and Corals')

Nomenclature : Gosse, British Sea Ane-
mones and Corals (1860).

1. Alcyonium digitatum, Linn.

The only locality in which I have found
this is in the open water off Harwich, never
having dredged it in the estuaries. Mr. Un-
thank has met with it in the Wallet.

2. Actinoloba dianthus, Ellis.

The white, the flesh-coloured and the
brown varieties all occur abundantly in the
Crouch at Burnham, attached to large stones
on the south shore, and can be easily ob-
tained when the tide is very low. Some
years ago I found some on the oyster beacons
in Pyefleet, but I have not seen any for
several seasons. The white and the flesh-
coloured varieties are abundant on the timber
of the pier at Harwich, but are exposed only
when the tide is very low. By using men-
thol it may be killed and preserved in a fully
expanded condition.

MARINE ZOOLOGY

3. Sagartia viduata (O. F. Mailer).

This is common in the Crouch at Burn-
ham on the south shore, but seen only when
the tide is low. It can be killed in an ex-
panded state by using menthol.

4. Sagartia troglodytes.

What are probably young or somewhat
small individuals of this species are common
in the Orwell, a short distance outside Essex.

5. Ttalia crassicornis (O. F. Mtlllcr).

I have occasionally caught this in the
Crouch when trawling, and it is often dredged
in the more open sea. I have collected a fair
number of specimens at low water on both
the east and west shores of the Colne near
Brightlingsea. In 1901 it was very abundant
on the shore off Harwich, near the level of
extreme low water.

6. Halcampa chrysanthellum (Gosse).

Found in sandy gravel near the mouth of
the Colne, but the colour of the disk differs
somewhat from the Cornish specimens de-
scribed by Gosse.

Though Actinia mesembryanthemum is so
common on the coast of Kent, I have never
seen one in Essex.

IV. NEMERTINEA

1. Lineui obscurus, Desor.

The only place where I have found this is
in the mud at Mistley.

2. Amphiporus lactifloreus, Johnston.

I have found only one specimen, which was
obtained in the Orwell a short distance out-
side Essex.

V. NEMATODA (?)

Nectontma (?)

I have never seen more than one specimen,
which was caught wriggling about at the sur-
face in the Stour off Harwich. It is 11$
inches long and ^ inch thick and full of eggs,
and is almost certainly a fish parasite which
had escaped from its host when mature.

VI. ANNELIDA
I. POLYCH^ETA

I. Aphrodita aculeata (Linn.).

This used to be fairly common in the Stour
off Harwich, but lately I have not obtained
it there. It is much more common in the
Wallet near the Gunfleet bank.

2. Lepidonotus squamatus, Linn.

This occurs commonly in most parts of the
district. It is often found in the tubes of
Amphitrite Johnstons.

3. Nereis diver sicoler, Mull.

Very abundant in the mud banks of St.
Osyth's creek and found in most other Essex
estuaries, though comparatively rare in the
Crouch. In some places it is much coloured
by a fugitive green pigment, and in others
coloured red by the great amount of hemo-
globin which is comparatively absent in others.
In some places almost at high water mark and
up the estuaries far from the sea it is abundant
to the exclusion of other similar animals.

4. Nereis cultrifera (Grube).

Common in particular places in sandy mud
near low water mark at the mouth of the
Colne and off Harwich.

5. Nereis pt/agica, Linn.

All the specimens I have procured were
dredged outside Harwich harbour, where it
occurred amongst the sandy tubes built by
Sabellaria spinulosa.

6. Nereis dumerilii y Aud. & M. Edw.
Readily distinguished from the three other

species by having very long tentacular cirri.
I have always found it in tubes built amongst
alga. When kept in a small aquarium it
built a semi-transparent tube open at both
ends and came out and ate Ulva and returned
to its tube. It laid very many eggs without
passing into the Hettranereis condition. What
I believe was the same species passed into that
condition in my larger aquarium, but they
may have been males. Though I have lived
in the Orwell and Stour for a total period of
between one and two years I seldom if ever
saw Heteronereis except in the early morning
of July 1 6, 1898, when males of about 2
inches long were swimming on the sur-
face in Harwich harbour in such numbers
that I estimated them at something like a
million. When dried and mounted in Canada
balsam this species differs from all the others
in turning deep brown, but this does not hap-
pen in the case of the male Heteronereis.

7. Nephthys hambergii (Cuvier).

Common in the more or less sandy mud
exposed at low water in the Colne and near
Harwich but much rarer near Burnham.
It varies considerably in colour owing to the
greater or less amount of hzmoglobin and of
a brown pigment.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

8. Nephthys cteca (Fabr.).

Much larger than the above and not so
common, but occurs in sandy mud at the
mouth of the Colne and off Harwich.

9. Phyllodoce maculata (?) (Johnston).

Only one specimen has been found, which
occurred in the sandy mud at low water off
Harwich.

10. Glycera capitata(l) (Oerst.).
Apparently rare in the Essex district since I

have found only two specimens which oc-
curred in the mud of the Crouch at Burnham
and corresponded with the figures given at
plate xvb of the Brit. Mus. Catalogue (1865).

1 1 . Syllis armillaris (Mull.).

Possibly not uncommon but easily over-
looked from being so small. It is interesting
from the manner in which it divides into two
or more individuals.

12. Goniada maculata (?) (Grube).

Only one specimen was found in the sandy
mud near the mouth of the Colne. It seems
to agree with the description in the Brit.
Mus. Catalogue (1865).

13. Nerine foliosa (Aud. & M. Edw.).
Occurs in the sandy mud near the mouth

of the Colne near low water, but it is almost
impossible to obtain perfect specimens.

14. Nerine cirratulus (Delle Chiaje).
Common in sandy gravel near Mersea

stones much above low water mark.

15. Scoloplos armiger (O. F. Muller).
Occurs in considerable numbers in gravelly

sand at the mouth of the Colne.

1 6. Cirratulus cirratus (Malmgren).

Found in sandy mud near low water mark
at the mouth of the Colne, but not common,
and the specimens small.

17. Flabelligera affinis (Sars).

Though all my specimens have been ob-
tained in the Orwell, yet when floating as it
often does in the tide it must have sometimes
passed into Essex.

1 8. Notomastus latericeus (Sars).

Occurs in sandy mud near the mouth of
the Colne and off Harwich.

19. Arenicola marina, Linn.

This is very abundant in sandy gravel near
the mouth of the Colne and off Harwich, and
dug extensively for bait.

20. Lanice conchi/ega, Pall.

I have found this over nearly the whole
district. It occurs in large numbers on the
east side of the Colne below Brightlingsea
near low water mark.

21. Amphitrite Johnston! (Holmgren).
Common in particular places in sandy mud

near the mouth of the Colne.

22. Nicolea zostericola, Orst.

This used to be very common in the
Orwell just outside Essex, but was not found
in 1901.

23. Polycirrus aurantiacus, Grube.

This is common at the mouth of the Colne
in sandy gravel at about half-tide level, but
only in restricted areas, where it occurs along
with Phascolosoma. It seems surprising that
such a long tender animal can move about in
such coarse rough material.

24. Melinna cristata, Sars.

Occurs in the sandy mud near the mouth
of the Colne, but all the specimens found
were of small size.

25. Pectinaria belgica, Pallas.

I have never found this alive, but empty
tubes are common off Mersea.

26. Terebe Hides strcemii.

This interesting species, of which only one
specimen had been found in British waters,
over a hundred years ago, in Scotland, used to
be fairly common in the Orwell near Pin Mill,
a few miles outside Essex, but was rare in
1901.

27. Sabellaria spinulosa, Leuck.

I have dredged this off Harwich and off the
Colne, and it must be common in many other
places in the more open water but not in the
estuaries. It builds the sandy tubes locally
called ross,

28. Sabella pavonina, Sav.

This is more or less common over the
whole district and occurs in enormous num-
bers along the east side of the Colne above
Brightlingsea Creek at the level of low water.
Some years ago I found in that district a con-
siderable number of what was either a dwarfed
variety or a somewhat different species not
met with lately.

II. GEPHYREA

I. Phascolosoma, sp.

I have never found this except in one small
tract of sandy gravel at about half-tide level

MARINE ZOOLOGY

on the east shore of the Colne just below the
mouth of Blake-stone Hole. This tract is
kept constantly wet and soft by water oozing
out, and the animals are so abundant that
several are often found in each spadeful of
material. A number of these have been ex-
amined by Mr. A. E. Shipley, and though he
cannot identify them with any named species
he does not like to give them a new specific
name.

2. Priapulus caudatus.

This occurs in small numbers at most
stations along the coast in mud banks left dry
at low water. I have specimens with tails
one and a half times as long as the body.
Occasionally there are two tails.

VII. ARTHROPODA
I. COPEPODA

A considerable amount of material was
collected but had deteriorated too much by
long keeping before being properly examined.
When the material was fresh I identified the
following species with more or less certainty,
but probably many others occur in the dis-
trict :

1. Dactylopus titboides.

2. Dias longirtmis.

3. Harpacticus c he lifer.

4. Laophontt curticauda,

5. longicaudata.

6. simi/is.

J. Psrudocalanus elongatut.
8. Timor a longicornis.

II. PANTOPODA (Sea Spiders)

1. Pycnogonum Httorale (StrOm.).

An occasional specimen collected at most
stations, but it was very abundant in the
Crouch at Burnham, living amongst the ten-
tacles and on the bodies of the Actinia?, and I
think even inside them without apparent in-
jury.

2. Nymphon rubrum (Hoda.).

A few specimens found in most places, but
not so fine or abundant as in the Deben in
Suffolk.

VIII. MOLLUSCA

On the whole I have paid but little atten-
tion to the shells, one reason being that they
are not of much interest in connection with
my special studies, and another being that it
seems to me to be a poor district except for a
limited number of species, the individuals of
which are extremely abundant. I have often

been surprised to find so very few species in
dredging, and at the great number of dead
shells in many places where the living animals
arc rare or altogether absent. In some cases
this may be due to the extra amount of fresh
water at flood time now that the land is better
drained, and in others to sewage discharge or
to the operations connected with oyster cul-
ture. The following list is given mainly to
show what are the commonest species, not
including those of small size. It might have
been made much longer by including dead
shells of species which must have lived in the
district not many years ago. I mention only
those found near the coast alive or very
recently dead. The names adopted are those
recommended by the Conchological Society.

I. AMPHINEURA

1. Craspedochilui onyx (Spengl.).

2. Acantboc hitei fascicularis (Linn.).

In the Colne district and probably else-
where.

II. LAMELLIBRANCHIA

1. Nucula nucleus (Linn.).
Dredged off Essex.

2. Mytilui eJu/is, Linn.

Common along the coast and largely
dredged for manure.

3. Ostrea edulit, Linn.

Naturally common, and its culture is the
chief industry in some localities. Enormous
numbers of dead shells occur where the living
animals are seldom, if ever, found, which
may have been exposed at the bottom for a
very long period ; since, unlike some shells,
they decompose very slowly. I often think
that many of these dead shells are of more
elongated shape than the modem living
varieties. These also vary, and those who
have paid much attention to the subject can
recognize them as coming from particular
localities, and how they have been moved
from one to another. The large oysters
dredged in the North Sea differ greatly from
those of the Essex estuaries. The contrast
between the comparatively young and well-
fed Colchester and Burnham natives, and
some of the very old oysters I have occa-
sionally dredged from places little, if ever,
disturbed is very remarkable. Instead of
having large fat animals and thin shells, the
animals may be relatively small, and the shell
a solid, heavy mass, something like i $ inch in
thickness.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

The question of the food of the oysters in
different localities is one of great importance,
and may vary so much as to account for the
difference in flavour, and why they become
green in some localities and not in others, and
lose that colour when moved elsewhere.
This question of the food can be properly
studied only on the spot, by examining the
contents of the stomachs immediately after
the animals have been taken out of the water
in which they have lived, before the food has
been digested.

Large numbers of the French oysters and
of the specifically distinct Portuguese and
American have been laid down in particular
localities. Mr. T. Newman, the manager of
the Colne fishery, informs me that the Portu-
guese have reproduced, though not in such a
manner as to be of commercial value ; but
the general temperature of the water is too
low for the successful reproduction of the
American or for that of the somewhat delicate
French variety of our native species, which
unfortunately for the same reason often fails
to arrive at maturity, to the great loss of those
interested in the fishery.

4. Scrobicularia plana (Da Costa).

Occurs in great numbers in Pye Fleet and
in some other estuaries. It is interesting to
keep it alive in an aquarium at the bottom of
which is a depth of 2 or 3 inches of mud,
and to see how it projects its longer syphon
to an extent of 5 inches and scoops up the
mud, which it swallows and afterwards ejects.
It may be killed with the syphons elongated
by keeping it in a vessel from which all air is
carefully excluded.

5. Macoma balthica (Linn.).

Common in the mud of the estuaries. I
have kept it alive in an aquarium with a mud
bottom and bred hundreds of small ones, so
that the surface of the mud seemed alive with
the protruded syphons. Some grew to be
\ inch in diameter in three or four months.

6. Tellina tenuis (Da Costa) and

7. Tellina fabula, Gronovius.

These also occur, but are not so common
as Macoma balthica.

8. Mactra stultorum, Linn.

Not common but has been seen.

9. Tapes aureus (Gmelin).

This may be obtained alive from the mud
off Mersea when left dry at low water, being
fairly abundant.

10. Cardium edule, Linn.

Common in many localities. Some years
ago it was very abundant in the sandy mud
off Foulness, but living individuals were com-
paratively rare in 1894, after the previous
very severe winters.

1 1 . Mya arenaria, Linn.

This is very common in most of the estu-
aries, and judging from the great number of
dead shells in the living position it seems to
have been still more common in some locali-
ties than it now is.

12. Mya truncata, Linn.

Probably lives off Mersea since the shells of
recently dead individuals are not uncommon.

13. Borneo Candida (Linn.).

Abundant in Blakestone Hole near Bright-
lingsea and in the mud above Harwich.

III. GASTROPODA PROSOBRANCHIA

1. Gibbula cineraria (Linn.).
Common in various places.

2. Littorina littorea (Linn.).

This is so extremely abundant on the mud
flats left dry at low water that it must out-
number all other associated mollusca com-
bined. Many men and boys are employed in
collecting it for food.

3. Littorina obtusata (Linn.).

Found in sundry places, but not abun-
dantly.

Rissoa and Zippora.

These small shells are common in the
estuaries, and dead ones sometimes collect in
vast numbers on the shores. My specimens
seem to be chiefly

4. Rissoa inctmspicua, Alder.

5. Zippora membranacea, J. Adams.
Probably others could be found by careful

searching.

6. Buccinum undatum, Linn.

This is more or less common all along the
coast and dredged at almost every station.

7. Purpura lapillus (Linn.).

This is commonly known as the 'dog
whelk,' and is collected and destroyed on
account of the damage it does in the oyster
grounds, by killing the animals.

MARINE ZOOLOGY

8. Nasia reticulata (Linn.).

I have found this in the Colne and I think
elsewhere, but it is not abundant.

IV. GASTROPODA OPISTHO-
BRANCHIA

1. Acer a tullata, M tiller.

This must be common in the upper part
of the Stour, and I think I have collected it
in the Colne.

2. Philine aperta (Linn.).

Common off Mersea and met with in most
other places.

Nudibranchiata

1. Galvina cingu/ata t var. vittata (?)
Specimens dredged off the Gunflcet bank

in 1895, but not preserved or identified, were
as far as I can remember more like E. vittata
than any other figured by Alder and Han-
cock.

2. Facelina coronata, Forbes and Goodsir.
Some years ago this was not uncommon at

a depth of a few fathoms off Mersea but
always of small size, and lately has been rare.
In 1889 good specimens were common in the
creek east of Walton-on-Naze. Specimens
carefully dried on glass, and well soaked with
gum arabic to protect them from the solvent
action of the Canada balsam in which they
were afterwards mounted, have kept their
colour well for ten years, and are in every
way satisfactory.

3. Fiona marina (Forskal).

Many years ago I dredged in Harwich
harbour a Nudibranch which I did not
again find until 1901, when I obtained two
in the Orwell, a short distance outside Essex.
They seem to differ from the figures in Alder
and Hancock's Ray Society's monograph only

in being smaller, which is not surprising,
since the two which they had found were
obtained off Falmouth.

4. Acantkodoris pilota (Mailer).

This is common amongst the Fuci on the
banks of the Crouch at Burnham, and is also
dredged off Mersea. By proper management
both the form and colour may be well pre-
served in undiluted glycerine.

5. Goniodoris castanea, Aid. & Han.

I obtained in the Orwell a specimen of
this which corresponds with the figure of the
only specimen which Alder and Hancock had
found, and is quite unlike any other.

///. Cephalopoda

1. Sepia offtcinafisy Linn.

In 1899 I caught a number of small speci-
mens off Mersea, but had never seen one
before. They are rather too young for
accurate determination, but probably belong to
this species.

2. Sepio/a at/antica, D'Orb.

Eleven years ago this was very abundant
in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze, and
not uncommon at all other stations, but
latterly has become more and more rare.

3. Loligo media (Linn.).

Some years ago this was fairly common in
the Stour near Harwich, but latterly it has
become more and more rare. This has been
kindly identified for me by Mr. W. E. Hoyle.

At my request Mr. Wm. Cole has very
kindly supplied me with the following list of
the marine testaceous mollusca of the Essex
coast, which have come under his notice in
connection with the Essex Field Club and
the museum at West Ham. It will show
the species which occur outside the district
which I have more especially studied.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

LIST OF THE MARINE MOLLUSCA

No.

Name

Estuaries
of Orwell
and Stour

River
Colne

River
Black-
water

River

Crouch

Other localities

12
15

AMPHINEURA

Craspedochilus onyx (Spengl.)
( = Chiton cinereus) .
Acanthochites ( = Chiton) fasci-

2,4

I
I

19
46
60

PELECYPODA

Nucula nucleus (L.) ....
nitida, G. B. Sowerby . . .
Anomia ephippium, L

2,4

2. 4.

I
I
I
I

5
<5

Clacton (8)

61
62

Volsella ( = Modiolus) modiolus, L.

66
69

Modiolaria marmorata (Forbes) .
discrepans (Leach) ( = nigra) .

4
2, 4.

I
I

5
5

/ /

79
81

117

Pecten maximus (L.) ....
Chlamys ( = Pecten) varius (L.) .

2,4

1 * J
142

Syndosmya ( = Scrobicularia) alba
(Wood)

145

Scrobicularia plana (Da Costa)
( piperita^ .

7, IO

Foulness (8)

154
I 5 6
I 60

Tellina tenuis (Da Costa) .
Macoma (Tellina) balthica (L.) .
Mactra stultorum, L

I
I

Foulness (8)
Foulness (8)

162
164
I 7 8

I7Q

Spisula ( = Mactra) solida (L.)
subtruncata (Da Costa)
Tapes aureus (Gmelin) ....
virgineus (L.)

s7 9

I
I
I
I

180
181

pullastra (Montagu)
decussatus (L.)

2,4
A.

8,9

[Mount Sales
J Burnham Mar.

1 86
189

IQ2

Cardium echinatum, L.
exiguum, Gmelin ....
edule, L

2 A

/
IO

I
I
I

5
5

(8)

Walton N. (8)
Foulness (8)

I9O

Mya arenaria, L

*J t

2 A.

Foulness (8)

2OO

truncata, L. .

8 10

C IO

207
2OQ

Ensis ( = Solen) ensis (L.) .
Solen vagina, L

8,9,10

j, 1VJ

212

Saxicava rugosa (L.)

Foulness (8, 9)

NOTE. The numbers in the first column correspond with those in the ' List of British Marine
Mollusca and Brachiopoda' given in the Journal of Conchohgy (1901), x. 9. The numbers in columns
three to seven refer to the following :

7. Dr. Sorby, Essex 'Naturalist, x. 166.

8. W. Dalton, MS. Catalogue.

i. W. Crouch, Essex 'Naturalist, ii. 248.

2. W. Crouch

3. E. A. Fitch

4. W. Crouch

5. W. Crouch

6. Dr. Sorby

iv. 169.
v. 145-52.
v. 244.
vi. 81-92
v. 259.

9. Dalton Collection, Essex Museum Nat. Hist.

10. Cole

1 1 . Colchester

1 2. W. Crouch.

MARINE ZOOLOGY

No.

Name

Estuaries
of Orwell

and Stour

River
Colne

River
Black-
water

River
Crouch

Other localities

21 C

Pholas dactylus L. . .

7. IO

Foulness (8 9)

216

221
222

Barnea ( = Pholas) Candida (L.) .
Teredo norvegica, Spengler
navalis, L

/> *
10

3
c

227

fiinbriata, JefF.

Clacton (8)

239
265

274.

Thraciafragilis,Penn.(= papyracea)

SCAPHOPODA
Dentalium entalis, L

GASTROPODA
Patella vulgata, L. ....

I
I

3
3

*/4-
2 9 5
296

207

Gibbula ( = Trochus) majus (L.) .
- tumida (Montagu) ....

- cineraria (L.)

2 A.

8,9

I
I

fT. cinereus,

298
305

- ( = Trochus)umbilicata(Mont.)
Calliostoma ( = Trochus) zizyphi-
nus (L.} .

(Foulness (8)
Walton (8, n)

324
326

327
328

77O

Lacuna crassior (Montagu) . .
- parva (Da Costa) ( = puteolus)
- pallidula (Da Costa) . . .
Littorina obtusata (L.) ....
rudis (Maton)

2. 4.

6
8
6

JJ"

>
771

v. tenebrosa, Mont. . .
- littorea (L.) ....

Foulness (8)
Foulness (8)

Jj'

- littoralis

Foulness (8)

346

Zippora ( = Rissoa) membranacea,
v. labiosa, Mont. ( = membra-
nacea)

6 8,0

359

37'

Paludestrina ( = Hydrobia) stagna-
lis (Baster), ( = ulvse) . . .
Truncatella truncata (Mont.) .
subcylindrica

6,8
6
8,9

Foulness (8)

374
38'
389
454

Crepidula (fornicata, L.) . . .
Natica catena (Da Costa) . . .
Velutina laevigata (Penn.) . . .
Turbonilla ( = Odostomia) lactea
(L.) .

6, 10

3
5

Foulness (8)

489

495
508

5'5
518

5i9
53'
553

554

572
580

Buccinum undatum, L.
Neptunea ( = Fusus) antiqua (L.).
Ocinebra ( = Murex) erinacea (L.)
Purpura lapillus (L.) ....
Nassa reticulata (L.) ....
incrassata (Strom.) ....
Bela ( = Pleurotoma) rufa (Mont.)
Tornatina ( = Utriculus and Cyli-
chna truncatula (Bruguiere) .
obtusata (Mont.) ....

OPISTHOBRANCHIA

Accra bullata, Mailer ....
Philine aperta (L.)

2,4

4
4
2,4

2 A.

8, 10

10
IO

i
i

3
3

Walton (8)
Walton (8)

Foulness (8)

/C. truncata,
\Foulness (8)
Foulness (8)

* T

MARINE ZOOLOGY

No.

Name

Estuaries
of Orwell
and Stour

River
Colne

River

Black-
water

River
Crouch

Other localities

f>ni

NUDIBRANCHIATA

614

6 3 S

636

648
658

Cratena ( = Eolis) concinna (Alder
and Hancock)
Facelina( = Eolis) coronata, Forbes
and Goodsir
drummondi, Thomson . . .
Doto coronata (Gmelin) . . .
Archidoris ( = Doris) tuberculata
(Cuvier)

5
5
5

674

Acanthodoris ( = Doris) pilosa
(Mall )

700

707
710

Alexia ( = Melampus) denticulata
van myosotis (Drap.) . . .

CEPHALOPODA

Loligo forbesi (Steenstrup) .
Sepia officinalis, L

10
IO

Foulness (8)

Petricola pholadiformis ....

[A North American species ; has
been introduced recently, and is
spreading both here and on the
North Kent coast]

IX. POLYZOA

1. Gemellaria loricata. Linn.
Brightlingsea (H.W.U.), Harwich (G.P.H.).

2. Scrupocellaria reptans, Linn.
Harwich (G.P.H.).

3. Bicellaria ciliata, Linn.
Brightlingsea, Orwell.

4. Bugula plumosa, Pallas.
Brightlingsea.

5. Notamia tursaria, Linn.
Brightlingsea.

6. Flustra foliacea. Linn.

Met with in the open water, but not
common.

7. Flustra papyracea. Ell. & Sol.
Harwich (G.P.H.).

8. Membranipora lacroixii, Audouin.
Common on old mussel shells, etc. Orwell,

Brightlingsea. The larva Cyphonantes is
abundant.

9. Membranipora pilosa y Linn.
Brightlingsea (H.W.U.), Harwich (G.P.H.).

10. Membraniporella melo/antba, Busk.
Dredged in the Orwell (Harmcr).

1 1 . Schizoporella linearis, Hassall.
Brightlingsea.

12. Crisia eburnea, Linn.

Often growing on other forms, especially
Hydrallmania falcata and Flustra foliacea,
Brightlingsea (H. W. Unthank).

13. Alcyonidium ge/atinosum, Linn.

So extremely abundant in some of the
estuaries that the bottom must to a large
extent be covered by it. By the local fisher-
men it is called 'pipe-weed.'

14. Alcyonidium mytili, Dalzell.

A whitish or yellowish incrustation on
stones and shells. Brightlingsea (H.W.U.).

15. Alcyonidium birsutum, Fleming.

1 6. Flustrella bispida, Fabr.

17. Vesicularia spinosa, Linn.
Common ; Brightlingsea, Orwell.

1 8. Amathia lendigera, Linn.
Brightlingsea (H.W.U.), Harwich (G.P.H.).

1 9. Bowerbankia pustulosa, Solander.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

20. Anguinella palmetto, V. Ben.
Common ; Dovercourt, Orwell (Harmer).

21. Valkcria uva (var. cuicuta).
Harwich (G. P. Hope).

22. Pedicel Una cernua, Pallas.
Brightlingsea.

X. ECHINODERMATA

1. Echinus mi/iarii, Linn.

This is extremely abundant in Harwich
harbour, and less so in the open water off
Mersea.

2. So/aster pappasus (Fabr.).

Fairly common at all the places I have
examined. Though some specimens are of a
fine red colour, there is considerable variation,
due to the varying amount of several different
pigments.

3. Asterias rubens, Linn.

This is common all along the coast, and
dredged in large quantities for manure.

4. Ophiura ciliaris, Linn.

Extremely abundant in the open water
near the mouth of the Colne, and common in
many other localities.

5. Ophiothrix jragilis (O. F. Mailer).

This is fairly common in Harwich har-
bour, though it cannot be said to be abun-
dant.

6. Synapta inherent, O. F. Muller.

I do not remember ever finding this in
Essex, but at one time it was common in a
restricted area in the Orwell, a few miles
outside the county.

7. Ciuumaria, sp. (?)

At one time a Holothurian, something like
a Cucumaria, was fairly common in the Stour
off Parkeston, but lately I have dredged for it
in vain. Unfortunately all my early speci-
mens seem to have been destroyed, and only
the tentacles and digestive organs preserved,
mounted as a lantern slide. This may be an
abnormal specimen, since it shows only eight
tentacles, which are of dark brown colour,
and until other specimens have been found
identification is impossible.

8. Thyme fisus, O. F. Mflller.

Many years ago I dredged this in Harwich
harbour, and lately in the Orwell, but in each
case only one specimen.

XI. TUNICATA (Sea-squirts)

1. Styelopsis grossulariay Van Beneden.

This flesh-coloured ascidian is very common
all along the coast and in the estuaries,
attached to stones, shells and algae.

2. Polycarpa cantata, Alder.

Small specimens occur in the Stour, and
larger in the creek east of Walton-on-Naze,
often so covered with attached sand as to
look like a ball of hardened sand.

3. Polycarpa pomaria, Savigny.

Much less common than the other species.

4. Aiddiella aspersa, O. F. Muller.

5. Ascidiella virginea, O. F. Muller.

These two species occur in greater or less
abundance all along the coast, and in the
estuaries ; in some cases fixed objects being
covered by them.

6. Ascidia plebeia, Alder.

Found in the Stour near Harwich, but not
common.

7. Atcidia producta, Hancock.

Fairly common in some parts of the Colne,
often much attached along its side to algse.

8. Clona intestinalis, Linn.

Though less abundant than the above
named Ascidia, this is also common all along
the coast.

9. C/ave/ina lepadifirmis, O. F. Muller.
This occurs in bunches of many individuals

on the east bank of the Colne below Bright-
lingsea and at Walton-on-Naze.

Compound ascidians. These are sometimes
difficult to preserve for future identification.
Much remains to be learned about their
colouring matters.

10. Botryllus, spp.

Specimens of this genus are common along
the coast. The exact species cannot be
properly identified from preserved specimens,
but amongst them appear to be probably
B. ichlosseri and polycyclus. The colours are
various and due to a mixture of two or three
different pigments. The blue one is changed
into a deep red one by formalin. The
yellow and flesh-coloured specimens turn to
a dirty dark brown in alcohol, owing to the
formation of a new pigment by oxidization ;
but by careful management they may be
fairly well preserved in undiluted glycerine.

1 1 . Botrylloidei rubrum, M. Edw.

This is found below Brightlingsea and on

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

the pier at Harwich. Mounted in Canada
balsam specimens show the structure well, and
have retained the natural colour for a good
many years.

12. Botrylloides leachii, Sav.

Common in the Orwell just outside Essex,
and I think I have also found it in the Stour.
By proper management both the form and
natural colour may be well preserved in un-
diluted glycerine.

13. Polyclinum aurantium.

In 1889 fine specimens were common in
the creek east of Walton-on-Naze. Sections
mounted in Canada balsam show the structure

very well, and have retained the natural
orange colour for many years without any
apparent change.

14. Didemnum,

15. Leptoclinum, and

1 6. Diplosoma.

Some species of these genera occur in the
Orwell, just outside Essex, and probably
could be found in the Stour and in the
creeks near Walton-on-Naze.

17. Oikopleura, sp.

Appendicularians are common in sievings
of the sea water all along the coast.

MOLLUSCS

A coastal county with numerous estuaries, marshes, streams, and
many woodlands and heaths, Essex is an ideal spot from the molluscan
point of view.

Accordingly we find that out of a possible 139 species for the whole
of the British Islands 1 10 are now living in the area while 10 more have
been met with in the numerous Post-pliocene deposits, viz. Vitrea
excavata, Helicella cartusiana^ Acanthinula lamellata, Pupa ang/ica, Vertigo
minufissima, V. a/pesfris, V. angustior, Clausilia rolphii, Succinea oblonga and
Acicula line at a.

Some of these, and one or two more slugs, may yet be discovered in
the county. In addition the Post-pliocene deposits have yielded the
following which no longer live in this country, viz. Pyramidula ruderata^
Eulota fruticum, Paludestrina marginata, Unto littoralis and Corbicula
fluminalisy with two entirely extinct forms Vivipara clacktonensis and
Pisidium astartoides.

The notable absentees from the list are consequently the species
peculiar to the south-western portions of England.

The principal sources of information are papers by Mr. W. M. Webb,
A. S. Kennard and B. B. Woodward in the Essex Naturalist, vol. x. 1897.

A. GASTROPODA

I. PULMONATA Anon ater (Linn.)

a. STYLOMMATOPHORA ' horten " s > .f* r> . .

circumscrtptuS) John.

Teitactlla kaliotidea, Drap. Sisted, Widford subfuscus (Drap.). Warley

scutulum, Sby. Buckhurst Hill ; Wanstead Punctum pygmaum (Drap.)

Limax maximus, Linn. Pryamidula rupeitris (Drap.). Barking Side

flavin^ Linn. - rotundata (Mall.)

arborum, Bouch.-Chant. Saling ; Chignal ; Helicella virgata (Da C.)

Weald Hall Park, Brentwood ; Ingrave itala (Linn.)
Agriolimax agrestis (Linn.) captrata (Mont.)

LeviSj Mflll. Wanstead ; Warley ; Hal- cantiana (Mont.)

stead ; Chelmsford Hygromia fusca (Mont.). Saffron Walden
Amalia sowerbii (Fer.). Barking Side ; Chelms- granulate (Aid.)

ford ; Brentwood hispida (Linn.)

Vitrina pellucida (Mall.) rufesctns (Penn.)

Vitrea crystallina (Mall.) Acanthinula aculeata (Mflll.)

alliaria (Miller) Vallonia pulthella (Mall.)

glabra (Brit. Auct.) Helicigona lapicida (Linn.)

cellaria (Mall.) arbuitorwn (Linn.)

nitidula (Drap.) Helix aspersa, Mall.

pura (Aid.) pomatia. Linn. Great Bardfield ; Chappel ;

radiatula (Aid.) Chalkney Wood ; Witham ; Chignal

nitida (Mall.) Smealey

fuhia (Mall.) nemoralit, Linn.

I 89 12

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Helix bortensis, Mttll.

Buliminus montanus (Drap.). ' Essex ' (Brit.
Mus.)

etscurus (Mall.)
Cocblicopa lubrica (Mall.)
Azeca tridens (Pult.)
Ctectlianella acicula (Mall.)
Pupa cylindracea (Da C.)

muscorum (Linn.)
Sphyradium edentulum (Drap.)
Vertigo anti-vertigo (Drap.)

substriata (Jeff.)

pygm* a (Drap.)

moulinsiana (Dup.). Roydon

pusilla, Mull. Bardfield (?)
Balea pervena (Linn.)
Clausilia laminata (Mont.)

bidentata (Strom.)
Succinea putris (Linn.)

elegans y Risso.

b. BASOMMATOPHORA
Carychium minimum, Mall.
Melampus denticulatus (Mont.). River Colne,

Wyvenhoe
Alexia myosotii (Drap.). Grays ; Purfleet ;

Dovercourt
Leuconia bidentata (Mont.). Brightlingsea ;

Dovercourt

Ancylus ftuviatilis, Mall.
Velletia lacuitris (Linn.)
Limntea auricularia (Linn.)

pereger (Mall.)

palustris (Mull.)

truncatula (Mall.)

stagnalis (Linn.)

glabra (Mall.). Woodford ; Barking Side ;

Colchester

Planorbis corneus (Linn.)

albus, Mull.

g/aber, Jeff. Carswell Pond ; Dagenham

nautileus (Linn.)

carinatus, Mall.

marginatus, Drap.

vortex (Linn.)

spirorbis, Mall.

contortus (Linn.)

fontanus (Lightf.)

lineatus (Walker)
Physa fontinalis (Linn.)

hypnorum (Linn.)

II. PROSOBRANCHIATA

Paludestrina confusa (Frau.). Becton (probably
now extinct)

jenkinsi (Smith). Becton ; Rainham ;

Tilbury

ventrosa (Mont.). Coldharbour Point to
Tilbury ; Thurrock Marsh ; between
Walton and Thorpe-le-Soken

stagnalis (Bast.). Grays ; Tilbury ; Wy-

venhoe ; Colchester
Bithynia tentaculata (Linn.)

leachii (Shepp.)
V'mipara vivipara (Linn.)

contecta (Millett). Old River Lea ; Col-

chester ; River Stour
Valvata piscina/is (Mall.).

cristata, Mttll.

Assiminea grayana, Leach. Grays and other
spots along the Thames ; River Colne,
Colchester. (Becoming extinct)

Pomatias elegans (Mull.). Felstead ; Coggles-
hall ; Saffron Walden ; Wicken Bon-
hunt ; Belchamp

Neritina flwviatilii (Linn.).

B. PELECYPODA

Dreissensia polymorpha (Pall.). River Lea
Unto pictorum (Linn.)

tumulus, Retz.
Anodonta cygneea (Linn.)

Spharium rivicola (Leach). River Stort

corneum (Linn.)

male (Fir.). Woodford

Spkterium lacustre (Mall.)
Pisidium amnicum (Mall.)

pusillum (Gmel.)

nitidum, Jenyns. Colchester

fontinale (Drap.)

milium (Held.). Lea Marshes

INSECTS

Entomology, though the most extensive of all the domains of
natural history, would not at one time have occupied the space which
is accorded to it here; but knowledge has been making rapid strides
in recent years, and it is hoped that the information now given will
be of value as well to the student of economic entomology as to the
collector.

In compiling the lists that follow, the entomologist has been at a
great disadvantage as compared with some of his fellow contributors, for
in several other branches of natural history admirable and exhaustive
monographs have already been published, whereas as far as can be
ascertained the only complete list of any of the Essex insects is Mr.
Fitch's list of the butterflies, which appeared in the Essex Naturalist
for March, 1891, et seq. In the same publication (iii. 123) there is a
long annotated list of * The Lepidoptera of Leigh and its Neighbour-
hood ' by the late Mr. Howard Vaughan, and Mr. F. G. Whittle
published a similar list of the ' Lepidoptera of South-east Essex ' in
Science Gossip for 1899, vol. v. n.s.

Besides these sources of information there are innumerable short
lists and records of individual captures scattered through the entomo-
logical literature of the past century, and for many years Mr. Fitch
has been making notes of these ; but as pressure of other work has pre-
vented him from completing his contemplated list of the insect fauna
of the county, he has very kindly placed the whole of his material
at the disposal of the writer, and from this many interesting particu-
lars have been obtained ; but as a general rule it has been thought
preferable to rely upon the more recent observations of competent
living authorities whose accuracy need not be questioned. 1

If it be noticed that a very large proportion of the records are
from certain limited localities, it is because these have been more
assiduously and thoroughly worked than other parts of the county,
and not because the species mentioned are confined to them, for nearly
all would probably be found if well looked for in other places where
sufficient food supplies and other favourable conditions exist.

1 For local lists and assistance in other ways the writer wishes to acknowledge the courtesy and
kindness of Mr. F. C. Adams, F.E.S. ; Mr. Percy Adams ; Rev. E. N. Bloomfield, M.A., F.E.S. ;
Mr. Malcolm Burr, F.Z.S., F.L.S., F.E.S. ; Mr. G. C. Champion, F.E.S. ; Mr. F. B. Jennings, F.E.S. ;
Mr. W. J. Lucas, B.A., F.E.S. ; Mr. R. McLachlan, F.R.S., etc. ; Rev. F. D. Morice, M.A. ;
Mr. L. B. Prout, F.E.S. ; Mr. Percy Reid, F.E.S. ; Mr. C. R. V. Perkins, B.A. ; Mr. A. Thurnall ;
Mr. G. H. Verrall, F.E.S. ; Mr. W. West.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Owing to the unsatisfactory condition of natural history nomencla-
ture and the frequent mistakes made by early writers and observers
many ancient records are of more than doubtful value, and where any
such have been used the authorities for them have been given, but as a
rule they have been ignored.

All reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy and
completeness, and insufficient and unsatisfactory as some of the lists are,
it is yet hoped that on the whole they will compare not unfavourably
with those of other counties, and that they very fairly represent the
extent of our knowledge at the present day.

ORTHOPTERA

Our list of British Orthoptera is a very short one, and of the few
recorded as having been met with a large proportion must be regarded
as casual immigrants or naturalized foreigners. In Essex little attention
seems hitherto to have been paid to these insects, but those named below
have been identified in the Colchester district, and doubtless several more
will be found there and elsewhere in the county when they are
sytematically sought for.

FORFICULARIA

Earwigs

The Lesser Earwig (Labia minor] may occasionally be found in
some numbers in manure heaps, but does not generally obtrude itself
upon our notice after the manner of its larger relative.

The Common Earwig (Forficula auricularia) is much too common,
and is one of the most troublesome insect pests we have, as scarcely any-
thing comes amiss to it in the way of food, and no place seems to be
secure from its invasion. It varies considerably, especially in the length
of the forceps, and formerly some of its varieties were described as
distinct species.

Forficula /esnei, Finot., has only recently been identified as British,
though it probably existed previously as an old inhabitant under another
name. It is far from common, but seems to be well distributed and may
be beaten from trees and bushes and shaken out of rubbish in damp
places.

BLATTODEA

Cockroaches

FjCtobiida. Ectobia panzeri, Steph., is not uncommon in several
places on our coast sands. The variety nigripes, Steph., is of much less
frequent occurrence.

Pbyllodromiidez. Phyllodromia germanica, L., was formerly excessively
abundant in one of the principal hotels in Colchester, where it was said
to have been introduced in officers' luggage. Mr. G. F. Mathew
reports it as common at Dovercourt.

INSECTS

Periplanetidee. The Common Cockroach (Blatta orientalis) is such a
well-known and widely distributed household pest that few can have
failed to make its acquaintance.

ACRIDIODEA

Grasshoppers

Truxalidce. Stenobothrus rufipes, Zett., seems to be fairly well distri-
buted, but has not hitherto been noticed in any great numbers.

S. bicolor^ Charp., is very abundant in all directions and appears to
be the commonest member of the family.

5. elegans, Charp., is considered scarce and local, but may sometimes
be met with rather freely on our coast sands in August.

S. parallelus, Zett., has been found and is probably common, but as
it has only partially developed wings and elytra, it is likely to be passed
over by the inexperienced collector as an immature form.

Gomphocerus macu/afus, Thunb. A pretty little species with clubbed
antenna?, much smaller than any of the above, is common in dry places.

QLdipodidee. Pachytylus danicus, L. This conspicuous locust is not a
native of Britain but only a casual straggler to our shores. 'Locusts' have
been reported from Colchester, Epping and Southend, under the names
of Gryllus or Pachytylus migratorius and P. cinerascens, but apparently
they were all referable to one species, which in accordance with the law
of priority is now known as P. danicus.

Tettigidce. Tettix bipunctatus, L., frequently turns up unexpectedly,
especially in open spaces in woods, and would probably prove a common
insect if systematically sought for.

LOCUSTODEA

Locusts

Pbaneropteridce. Leptopbyes punctatissima, Bosc., has been found near
Colchester, and is probably as generally common throughout the county
as it is in other parts of England.

Meconemidce. Meconema varium, Fabr. This pretty green insect is
generally common, especially about oak trees, from the boughs of which
it may be freely beaten in the autumn. It is also frequently found in a
semi-torpid state on the boles of the trees as soon as the nights become
colder.

Conocephalida. Xiphidium dorsale, Latr., is considered rare in this
country, but may frequently be found in grassy places, especially on
certain of our sea walls. As a rule it is a micropterous insect, that is,
its elytra and wings are only partially developed, and it is therefore quite
incapable of flight ; but in August, 1899, two examples of a form with
fully developed wings and elytra were met with near Clacton-on-Sea,
and one of them was disporting itself in the air somewhat after the
manner of a dragonfly. No previous record of such a form is known,
and these may have been examples of a rare local variety or of a new

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

species. Others were searched for in 1 900 but only ordinary specimens
were found.

Locustidce. Locusta viridissima, L., is the largest of our indigenous
Orthoptera, and it may appear strange to some that the creatures we
have so long known as locusts should be placed with the grasshoppers,
while this giant grasshopper is classed with the locusts ; but it must be
remembered that those who are responsible for the present classification
of the Orthoptera are not responsible for their popular English names.
This conspicuous insect is sometimes brought to the entomologist as a
great curiosity, but to him it is generally a very familiar object, for it is
often common in his hunting grounds, though the ordinary passer-by
may fail to see it.

Decticidce. Tbamnotrizon dnereum, L. This large brown species is
frequently found in nettles and other herbage in the autumn and in the
larva stage earlier in the year ; it is very plentiful in some of the lanes
about Colchester.

Platycleis grisea, Fabr., is very much more local and has so far only
been found on the sea coast among rest harrow.

GRYLLODEA

Crickets

Gryllldce. The House Cricket (Gryllus domesticus] is very common
in bakehouses, where it excavates extensive burrows between the brick-
work near the oven and increases and multiplies prodigiously. Its shrill
chirp is also a familiar sound in many an English house that has been a
home for several generations, though it appears to be incompatible with
new houses and the methods of the modern builder.

Gryllotalpidrt. The Mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpai) is very
rare in the county. Two specimens have been found near Colchester,
Mr. Fitch has secured two or three near Maldon, and it has also been
reported from Dovercourt by Mr. G. F. Mathew, and from the Southend
district. As it makes an effective illustration it is often figured in
books on injurious insects, whereby an erroneous impression is apt
to be conveyed, for though on the continent it really seems harmful
sometimes, the British collector always considers it a good find.

NEUROPTERA

ODONATA

Dragonflies

There are some who affect to despise popular science, and who
especially object to the employment of trivial names for our native
animals and plants. But happily for our literature and especially for
our poetry the popular names of many of our wild flowers, birds and
insects, were definitely fixed long before the scientific pedant appeared
upon the scene. And any one who has watched the larger Odonata
hawking for their prey and has marked their rapid evolutions among

INSECTS

their helpless victims, must admit that the term ' dragonflies ' came as a
happy inspiration to the person who first employed it ; since in their
relation to their fellow insects these powerful and voracious creatures are
well calculated to produce a vivid conception of ' the dragons of the
prime.' They are so well known that no description of them and their
methods can be needed here. We have some forty British species, of
which about three-fourths have been found in the county.

Leucorrhinia dubia, Lind., is generally accounted a northern species,
but has been reported by the late Mr. Henry Doubleday as occurring,
though rarely, on Coopersale Common near Epping.

Sympetrum strio/afum, Charp., is abundant in many places about
Colchester. It has also been reported from Wanstead and Epping and
probably occurs freely throughout the county.

S. Jtaveolum, L., is as a rule rare, but has occurred recently at
Colchester and St. Osyth, and according to Mr. Doubleday was formerly
periodically common about Epping.

S. sanguineum, Miill., seems to have a much more restricted range
than its commoner relative S. strio/atum, with which it may frequently be
found on the coast at St. Osyth and elsewhere. It has also occurred at
Epping.

S. scotium, Don. 'Epping, about old gravel pits ' (H. Doubleday).

Libellula depressa^ L. This handsome insect is one of the earliest
to appear, and is generally distributed and usually common, but also very
wary and more frequently seen than captured. The variety hageni is
much scarcer.

L. quadrimaculata, L., appears to occur pretty regularly in many
places in Britain, but is a migratory species of which large swarms
are occasionally reported. Such a swarm was observed off the
Essex coast in June, 1888. In June, 1900, for one day only, many
specimens were seen at Wivenhoe, but most contrived to elude capture.
Colchester and Epping are other localities for it, and the var. prcenubila
has been met with near Clacton-on-Sea.

L.fuha, Miill. Very rare, but Doubleday reports it from Ongar
Park woods and a single specimen has occurred at Colchester.

Cordulia cenea, L., is extremely local, the only records being Cooper-
sale Common (Doubleday) and Woodford (Harcourt Bath).

Gomphus vu/gatissimus, L., is also very local and is only reported by
Mr. Doubleday from High Beech and elsewhere near Epping.

Anax imperator, Leach, the largest European dragonfly, is now a
rarity in the county, though like several others it seems to have been
less uncommon in the Epping district formerly. A single specimen
was captured in the High Woods at Colchester several years ago, but no
others have since been seen.

Erachytron pratense, Miill., is widely distributed but seldom met
with ; it has occurred at Colchester, Epping and St. Osyth.

Mschna mixfa, Latr., is considered a rare and local insect, but during
the past two years has extended its range and appeared in larger

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

numbers ; owing however to its cautious habits, lofty flight and extreme
rapidity of movement, its capture is attended with some difficulty. It
is now well distributed in the Colchester district, and as all the inland
examples seem to be mature, while the majority of those found on the
coast are immature, this may afford a clue to a fuller knowledge of its
earlier stages than we at present possess.

flL. cyanea, Miill., is by far the commonest as well as one of the
handsomest and most widely distributed of its family.

SE. grandis, L., though recorded only from Colchester, Epping,
Wanstead, and St. Osyth, is so powerful on the wing that he would be
rash who ventured to set bounds to its local distribution, and probably it
is acquainted with every parish in the county.

The Demoiselle Dragonflies (Calopteryx virgo and C. splendent) both
occur ; the former appears in the Epping list and is not uncommon
near Birch Park. The latter abounds beside ditches and streams in all
directions.

Lestes dryas, Kirby, is one of our rarest species. A single specimen
was taken by Mr. C. R. Briggs near Leigh in 1891.

L. sponsa, Hansem, occurs at Epping (Doubleday) and Wanstead
(F. A. Walker), and has recently been found at St. Osyth.

[i/. virens, Charp.] is doubtfully British, and its only claim to
appear in our list is that Mr. Doubleday believed several specimens had
been taken by himself at Epping.

Platycnemis pennipes, Pall., is also recorded from Epping by Double-
day, and there is a later record by Mr. C. R. Briggs.

Erythromma naias, Hansem. Epping (H. Doubleday), Wanstead
(F. A. Walker).

Pyrrhosoma nymphula, Sulz. (minium, Charp.), is common at Colchester,
Birch, Epping, and in many other localities.

P. tenellum, Vill., formerly occurred at Epping, but there is no
evidence of any recent captures.

Ischnura pumi/io, Charp., was stated by Doubleday in 1871 to be
' rare about the red gravel pits in the Epping district.'

L e/egans, Lind., is very common in the county, especially beside
marsh ditches near the coast.

Agrion pulchellum, Lind. 'Epping, not common ' (Doubleday).

A. puella^ L., is very common everywhere.

Enallagma cyathigerum, Charp., has probably been generally over-
looked by Essex naturalists, as it is widely distributed elsewhere, and
should occur in many places besides Epping.

The other sections of the Neuroptera occurring in this country
include the diminutive Psocidte, which are among the smallest British
insects, the Perlidte or Stoneflies, and the Ephemeridae or Mayflies. These
are known as Pseudo-Neuroptera. The curiously constructed Snake and
Scorpion flies and the beautiful golden-eyed Lacewings are classed as
Neuroptera Planipennia, and the Caddisflies as Trichoptera.

All the species included in the following list have been found in the

INSECTS

Colchester district, except a few recorded by Mr. J. J. King from
Epping Forest. Hitherto these insects have received little attention
from Essex entomologists, or many others would have been identified.

PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA

Psocus, Latr.

longicornis, Fabr. Colchester, Epping

nebulosus, Steph. Colchester

variegatus, Fabr. Epping

fasciatus, Fabr. Colchester
Stenopsocus, Hag.

immaculutus, Steph. Epping

cruciatus, L. Colchester, Epping
Czcilius, Curt.

- vittatus, Dalm. Epping
Peripsocus, Hag.

phaeopterus, Steph. Epping
Elipsocus, Hag.

unipunctatus, Mull. Colchester, Epping

hyalinus, Steph. Epping
PERLIDJE

Leuctra, Steph.

geniculata, Steph. Colchester
Nemoura, Latr.

variegata, Oliv. Colchester
EPHEMERIDA:

Ephemera, L.

,, . ,
Ctkh " ter

Epping

OSMYLID.*

Osmylus, Latr.

chrysops, L.
Sisyra, Burin.

fuscata, Fabr. Colchester, Loughton
HEMEROBIID^E

Micromus, Ram.

variegatus, Fabr. "
-pagarTus,!,

Hemerobius, L.

elegans, Steph.

micans, Oliv. )

- humuli, L. }

subnebulosus, Steph.

stigma, Steph.

concinnus, Steph.
CHRYSOPID.*

Chrysopa, Leach

flava, Scop. ) _, . ,

- vittata,Wesm.} C ' /<r *'''' r

- alba, L. Colchester, Epping

- tenella, Schn. \

- vulgaris, Schn. j- Colchester

- septempunctata,Wesm. J

eph. 1

. J

Calchtster

Colcheste

vulgata, L. \
1J

Colchester

danica, Moll.
Leptophlebia, Westw.

submarginata, Steph. Colchester
Cloeon, Leach

dipterum, L. Colchester, Epping

NEUROPTERA-PLANIPENNIA

- aspersa, Wesm.

- ventralis, Curt

. 1
.}

_ .
Epp.ng

CMater

Sialis, Latr.

lutaria, L. Colchester
RAPHIDIID^

Raphidia, L.

notata, Fabr. 1

' . o , }

xanthostigma, Schum.J

/-. / 1

Colchester

Nothochrysa, McLach.

capitata, Fabr. Colchester
CONIOPTERYGID.S

Coniopteryx, Curt.

tineiformis, Curt. \
- aleyrodiformis, Steph./

PANORPID^:
Panorpa, L.

communis, L.

germanica,

> Colchester, Epping

TRICHOPTERA

PHRYOANEID^
Phryganea, L.

grand is, L. 1

striata, L. I Colchester

minor, Curt. J

LlMNOPHILIDJE

Colpotaulius, Kol.

- incisus, Curt. Colchester
Grammotaulius, Kol.

- atomarius, Fabr. Colchester, Epping
Glyphotaslius, Steph.

pellucidus, Retz. Colchester

LIMNOPHILID^ (continued)
Limnophilus, Leach

rhombicus, L.

marmoratus, Curt.

lunatus, Curt. \ Colchester

politus, McLach.

griscus, L.

affinis, Curt. Colchester, Epping

auricula, Curt. 1 ,, . ,

_ vittatus, Fab. CMester

centralis, Curt. 1 /-, , i ,. .

>, } Colchester, Epptnr

sparsus, Curt. J

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Colchester

LIMNOPHILID^ (continued)

Limnophilus fuscicornis, Ramb. Ded-

ham
Anabolia, Steph.

nervosa (Leach) Curt. Colchester
Stenophylax, Kol.

stellatus, Curt. \

concentricus, Zett. J
Micropterna, Stein.

sequax, McLach. Colchester
Halesus, Steph.

digitatus, Schrank. Colchester
Chsetopteryx, Steph.

villosa, Fab. Colchester
SERICOSTOMATID.S:

Sericostoma, Latr.

personatum, Spence. Colchester
Notidobia, Steph.

ciliaris, L. Colchester
LEPTOCERID^

Molanna, Curt.

LEPTOCERID^; (continued)

Molanna angustata, Curt. Colchester
Leptocerus, Leach

senilis, Burm. "1

cinereus, Curt. J
Mystacides, Latr.

- lng'cornis, L. } ^^

azurea, L. J
HYDROPSYCHID^

Hydropsyche, Pict.

instabilis, Curt. \

angustipennis, Curt. J
Polycentropus, Curt.

flavo-maculatus, Pict. Colchester
Cyrnus, Steph.

trimaculatus, Curt.
Tinodes, Leach.

waeneri, L.

R.HYACOPHIUD.ffi

Agapetus, Curt.

fuscipes, Curt.

Colchester

HYMENOPTERA
ACULEATA

The order Hymenoptera is an extensive one, consisting of insects
which as a rule have four membranous wings, though certain among
them are wingless. In the Aculeate section, which comprises ants, sand
wasps, wasps and bees, the female is provided with a sting, which, being
connected with a poison bag, constitutes a formidable weapon of offence
or defence. The solitary species consist of fully developed males and
females only, but in the social species ants, hive bees and humble bees
there are also undeveloped females, known, and very fittingly known,
as workers, on whose labour depends the welfare of the community.

In recent years, owing principally to the admirable work which has
been done in them by Mr. Edward Saunders, these insects have received
more attention than was accorded to them formerly, and as a conse-
quence their local distribution is much more fully understood and addi-
tional species are being frequently added to our list.

The late Mr. Frederick Smith, author of A Catalogue of British Bees
in the British Museum, occasionally collected at Southend, and more re-
cently the Colchester district has been pretty well worked, though it is
probable that additional species will for a long time result from further
investigation, for while some are excessively local or very erratic in their
appearances, others more given to wandering are constantly on the look
out for suitable places in which to found fresh colonies ; and seeing that
their habitations are constantly liable to adverse influences either by the
dense growth of vegetation, the ravages of mankind, or other causes, the
Aculeate fauna of a particular district may be materially modified in the
course of a few years.

Where no locality is given in the list that follows the Colchester
district is to be understood, and this includes not only the neighbourhood

INSECTS

of the town but also the sea coast between the mouth of the Colne and
Walton-on-the-Naze. Among the more interesting species the Great
Wood Ant (Formica rttfa) may be mentioned, for though excessively
abundant in some of our larger woods, it is worthy of notice for the
important part it plays in the destruction of other insects. Sometimes
about the end of May the caterpillars of certain moths occur in such
prodigious numbers that they completely strip the oaks and other large
trees, and then descending upon the underwood speedily effect a similar
clearance there. Not long ago the High Woods at Colchester were for
a time so denuded of their leaves at the beginning of June that they
appeared almost as bare as they had been during the previous winter,
but there was one corner, which at a distance seemed to be marked off
from the rest by a sharp boundary line, within which the foliage had
not suffered. Closer investigation revealed the fact that the ground
under the trees was covered with ants, multitudes of which were busily
engaged descending the boles with caterpillars in their mouths or ascend-
ing them for fresh burdens.

The House Ant (Monomorium pbaraonis), a very minute species, is
exceedingly troublesome in those houses in which it effects a settlement,
as some Colchester householders can testify. Mr. Gervase F. Mathew
also reports it as a pest in houses at Dovercourt. The rare Ponera punc-
tatissima has been found in a bakehouse at Colchester ; and another ant
worthy of mention is Solenopsis fugax, which lives in galleries in the walls
of other ants' nests. Mr. F. Smith took this at Southend. Mutilla euro-
peea is a very handsome insect, which is parasitic in the nests of humble
bees ; it is always scarce, but the apterous female may sometimes be
found on our coast sands, while the winged male is occasionally captured
on umbelliferous flowers. Methoca ichneumonides and the scarce Pompilus
unicolor are also reported from Southend by Mr. F. Smith, while P.
bicolor^ P. comobrinus, P. minutulus and P. ivesmae/i, which, according to
Mr. Saunders, ' are among the desiderata of most of us,' are found in
the Colchester district, where also Pseudagenia carbonaria (punctum) and
Agenia hircana may be occasionally met with. Tachytes unicolor has only
been found on the coast, where hitherto it has apparently been confined
to a patch of sand a few yards square. Ceratophorus morio is extremely
rare, only three specimens having so far been met with ; and Mimesa
equestris and M. dahlbomi have hitherto proved as scarce here as in other
parts of the country. Gorytes campestris is an uncertain insect, and some
years may be sought for to little purpose, but in 1900 it was found in
larger numbers than usual on umbelliferous flowers. Hoplisus bicinctus, a
very beautiful and elegant species, is apparently also local and rare, few
collectors having ever met with it, but it may sometimes be found run-
ning over leaves in August ; while Nysson frimacu/afus, another scarce
species with a similar habit, may occasionally turn up if Hoplisus is
looked for in vain. Didineis lunicornis has twice been captured at Col-
chester, and the very rare Philanthus trlangulum is recorded from Snares-
brook by Mr. F. Smith. Cerceris ornata in recent years seems to have

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

been having a very good time, for while its old settlements have been
considerably extended many new ones have been formed ; it provisions
its nest with bees of the genus Ha/ictus, and may often be seen dragging
its victims down its burrows in trodden paths in the late summer. It is
a handsome insect with bright yellow markings, but in 1899 an example
was captured near Donyland Heath in which the yellow was replaced by
white. This is apparently a very rare if not an altogether unique form.
Cerceris quadricincta has only been reported from Kent and Essex. At
Colchester it seems to be mainly an urban insect, for it forms its
burrows in the public streets, where, owing to alterations, two colonies
have been destroyed recently ; it is very partial to mignonette flowers.
Oxybelus mucronatus has occurred at Alresford, where a single specimen
was found in 1900.

In the extensive genus Crabro, C. tibialis, C. clampes and C. capitosus
are occasionally noticed ; and the very rare C. signatus has been taken at
Colchester and St. Osyth, where C. lituratus is also to be found in favour-
able seasons, for it does not occur regularly. This seems to be a very
local species, as it has rarely been recorded from other parts of the
country.

The Hornet (Ye spa crabrd) cannot be called a rarity, but is neither
common or generally distributed. Probably it was much commoner
formerly than it is now, as the violent antipathy which exists against it
in the rustic mind leads to its speedy extirpation when it can be attacked
with impunity. It may not be generally known that this powerful insect
sometimes carries on its operations by night as well as by day, and occa-
sionally comes freely to ' sugar ' placed on the trees to attract moths.
V. norvegica is a much scarcer insect in this part of the country, but has
been found at St. Osyth, and in 1893 a nest was discovered in a thick
hedge at Lexden.

In the genus Odynerus several good species occur, including O.
crassicornis, of which only two recent British examples are known, and
O. reniformis, which has only been reported from two other localities in
Surrey. O. fictus, O. melanocephalus and O. gracilis are also far from
common species.

Among the bees Colletes succincta is worthy of notice. In other
parts of the country it seems to frequent heath flowers, but with us it is
exclusively a coast species, and confines itself to the flowers of maritime
plants, the sea holly and starwort being especial favourites. Extensive
colonies exist at several places between the Colne and Stour, and the
males have a curious habit of congregating together late in the afternoon
on flower heads of the marram grass, ragwort and other plants, where
they form dense masses that are often conspicuous at a distance. Occa-
sionally a female may be found among them, but this is exceptional.

Prosopis pictipes, though* usually regarded as scarce and local, has
been found rather freely on several occasions in a garden at Colchester in
flowers of geranium and campanula. The red bodied genus Sphecodes
is well represented, S. rubicundus, S. spinulosus, S. puncticeps and the rare

100

INSECTS

S. ferruginatus being the most noteworthy species. At sallow flowers in
the spring Andrena bimaculata, A. rosa var. spinigera, A. dorsata and
many others are found. The scarce and local A. fasciata has occurred
at Dovercourt, but only one example was seen. 'Its near relative, A.ful-
-uicrus, was for many years scarce near Colchester, but recently extensive
colonies have been found, and it is now quite a common insect. A.
pilipes also, which was for long represented by a single specimen, has
during the past two years been turning up in all directions.

The beautiful A. cineraria, one of the early spring bees, is found
near Walthamstow. A. hattorfiana, the finest species of the genus, has
been met with at Alresford, Donyland and Lexden. As a rule only the
black form is found, but one year nearly all the specimens seen were
highly coloured red ones. A. cetii is another very local and extremely
variable insect, though in this the red forms predominate. It is occa-
sionally found at Aldham and Alresford, but more frequently at Colches-
ter. It seems to be somewhat uncertain in its appearances, and may
often be looked for to little purpose. A. rosce is also generally scarce in
its summer form, but during the past year or two has occurred pretty
freely at bramble flowers, while A. nigriceps has been far from scarce on
ragwort. Of the rare A. tridentata only a single specimen has so far
been found, but A. fucata and A. fufaago seem to occur regularly. A.
fafwfiirwM seen in prodigious numbers in 1898, especially on the sea
walls at St. Osyth, where its males were observed congregating together
after the manner of Colletes succincta, their bright yellow faces rendering
the masses they formed very noticeable and curious objects. The genus
Nomada, which is largely parasitic on Andrena, is naturally also well
represented, N. armata and N. obtusifrons being its most noteworthy
species as regards rarity; but N. sexfasciata seems also to be strangely
rare in north Essex, seeing that the Long-horned Bee (Eucera longicornis)
to which it is attached is abundant. Only a single specimen of the
parasite has been discovered, at Walton-on-the-Naze. Mr. Smith how-
ever formerly found it in some numbers near Southend. The little Blue
Bee (Ceratina cyanea) seems to be seldom met with in other parts of the
country ; it is not infrequent on daisies in the spring and on composite
flowers later in the year. The Rose-cutter Bees are well in evidence
throughout the summer. Megachile maritima is principally a coast
species, while M. circumcincta and M. ligniseca are found inland. The
scarcer M. versicolor, which has only recently been reinstated in our list,
was also met with in August, 1900.

Osmia pilicornis is a rare species ; two females were captured in
1883, but others have since been sought for in vain. O. bicolor, which
forms its cells in empty snail-shells, is occasionally met with at Lexden
but more frequently at Aldham, where there is a fairly strong colony.
The genus Stelis, which is parasitic on Osmia, is represented by 5. ater-
rima and S. phceoptera, the latter being much the rarer. Melecta luctuosa,
which is the ' cuckoo' of Anthophora retusa, is very rarely met with,
though its 'host' from being a rarity has recently become quite

101

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

common.

A. furcata, which forms its cells in decaying posts, though
far from common, may often be heard even before it is seen busily
engaged among the flowers of Stacbys syhatica and other labiates. The
velvet coated humble bees and their parasites of the genus Psitbyrus,
which so closely resemble them, may be met with in all parts of the
county during the warmer portion of the year ; but two species are
very rare. Of Bombus lapponicus only a single specimen, which was cap-
tured on a sea holly flower at St. Osyth, has been found ; it is a moun-
tain species, and as far as can be ascertained no other specimen has been
recorded from the south of England. B. cullumanus has only been found
at Southend, where the late Mr. Frederick Smith took six examples
many years ago.

A LIST OF THE ACULEATE HYMENOPTERA OCCURRING IN THE

COUNTY

HETEROGYNA

FORMICIDJE

Formica, L.

rufa, L.

fiisca, Latr.

race i. cunicularia, Latr.
Lasius, Fabr.

fiiliginosus, Latr.

niger, L.

race i. alienus, Forst

flavus, De Geer
PONERID.*

Ponera, Latr.

punctatissima, Rog.
MYRMICID.S:

Leptothorax, Mayr.

tuberum, Fabr. race Nylanderi, Ffirst
Myrmica, Latr.

rubra, L.

race laevinodis, Nyl.

,, ruginodis, Nyl.

scabrinodis, Nyl.

lobicornis, Nyl.
Solenopsis, Westw.

fugax, Latr.
Monomorium pharaonis, L.

FOSSORES
MUTILLID.S
Mutilla, L.

europaea, L.

rufipes, Latr.
Myrmosa, Latr.

melanocephala, Fabr.
Methoca, Latr.

ichneumon ides, Fabr. Southend (F. Smith)

TlPHIID-ffi

Tiphia, Fabr.

femorata, Fabr. Colchester, Southend

SAPYGID.*:
Sapyga, Latr.

quinque punctata, Fabr.
POMPILID^

Pompilus, Fabr.

unicolor, Spin.

bicolor, Lep.

rufipes, L.

cinctellus, Spin.

plumbeus, Fabr.

consobrinus, Dahlb.

minutulus, Dahlb.

spissus, Schiodte

chalybeatus, SchiSdte

gibbus, Fabr.

unguicularis, Thorns.

wesmaeli, Thorns.

pectinipes, V. de Lind.
Salius, Fabr.

fuscus, L.

afBnis, V. de Lind. Soutbend (F.

Smith)

exaltatus, Fabr.

pusillus, Schiodte.

parvulus, Dahlb.
Calicurgus, Lep.

hyalinatus, Fabr.
Pseudagenia, Kohl.

carbonaria, Scop.
Agenia, Schiodte.

hircana, Fabr.
Ceropales, Latr.

maculata, Fabr.
SPHEGID^E

Astatus, Latr.

boops, Schr.
Tachytes, Pz.

unicolor, Pz.

pectinipes, L.

102

INSECTS

SPHEGID^C (continued)
Trypoxylon, Latr.

figulus, L.

claviccrum, Lep.

attenuatum, Smith
Ammophila, Kirb.

sabulosa, L.

- lutaria, Fabr. St. Osyth and Southmd
Stigmus, Jur.

solskyi, Moraw.
Pcmphredon, Latr.

lugubris, Latr.

shuckardi, Moraw.

wesmaeli, Moraw.

lethifcr, Shuck.

morio, V. dc Lind.
Diodontus, Curt.

minutus, Fabr.

tristis, V. dc Lind.
Passakecus, Shuck.

corniger, Shuck.

insignis, V. de Lind.

monilicornis, Dhlb.
Mimesa, Shuck.

equestris, Fabr.

bicolor, Fabr.

dahlbomi, Wesm.
Psen, Latr.

pallipes, Pz.
Gorytes, Latr.

tumidus, Pz.

mystaceus, L.

campestris, L.
Hoplisus, Lcp.

quadrifasciatus, Fabr.

bicinctus, Rossi
Nysson, Latr.

spinosus, Fabr.

trimaculatus, Rossi

- dimidiatus, Jur.
Didineis, Wesm.

lunicornis, Fabr.
Mellinus, Fabr.

arvensis, L.
Philanthus, Fabr.

triangulum, Fabr.

Smith)
Cerceris, Latr.

- ornata, Schaeff.

quadricincta, Pz.

arenaria, L.

interrupta, Pz.

labiata, Fabr.
Oxybelus, Latr.

uniglumis, L.

mucronatus, Fabr.
Crabro, Fabr.

tibialis, Fab.

clavipes, L.

leucostomus, L.

SPHEGID.C (continued')

Crabro pubescens, Shuck.

capitosus, Shuck.

podagricus, V. de Lind.

palmarius, Schreb. Southmd

palmipes, L.

varius, Lep.

wesmaeli, V. de Lind.

elongatulus, V. de Lind.

quadrimaculatus, Dhlb.

signatus, Pz.

vagabundus, Pz.

cephalotes, Pz.

chrysostomus, Lep.

vagus, L.

cribrarius, L.

interruptus, De G.

lituratus, Pz.

- albilabris, Fabr.
Entomognathus, Dahlb.

brevis, V. de Lind.

DIPLOPTERA

VESPIDJE
Vespa, L.

- crabro, L.

vulgaris, L.

germanica, Fabr.

rufa, L.

sylvestris, Scop.
norvegica, Fabr.

Snaresbrook (F.

Odynerus, Latr.

spinipes, L.

- melanocephalus, Gmel.

- reniformis, Gmel.

- callosus, Thorns.

- parietum, L.

- pictus, Curt.

- trimarginatus, Zett.

- trifasciatus, Oliv.

prietinus, L.

- antilope, Pz.

- crassicornis, Pz.

- gracilis, Hrulld-
sinuatus, Fabr.

ANTHOPHILA

OBTUSILINGUES
COLLETID.*
Colletes, Latr.

- succincta, L.

- fodiens, Kirb.

- picistigma, Thorns.

marginata, Smith

daviesana, Smith
Prosopis, Fab.

communis, Nyl.

signata, Pz.

hyalinata, Smith

103

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

COLLETIDX (continued)
Prosopis confusa, Nyl.

brevicornis, Nyl.

pictipes, Nyl.
ACUTILINGUES
ANDRENIDJE

Sphecodes, Latr.

gibbus, L.

subquadratus, Smith

spinulosus, v. Hag.

puncticeps, Thorns.

pilifrons, Thorns.

- similis, Wesm.

- rubicundus, v. Hag.

- ferruginatus, Schenck.
- hyalinatus, Schenck.

variegatus, v. Hag.

dimidiatus, v. Hag.

affinis, v. Hag.
Hal ictus, Latr.

rubicundus, Christ.

xanthopus, Kirb.

leucozonius, Schrank.

quadrinotatus, Kirb.

- sexnotatus, Kirb.

- cylindricus, Fabr.

- albipes, Kirb.

- subfasciatus, Nyl.

- villosulus, Kirb.

breviceps, Saund.

punctatissimus, Schenck.

nitidiusculus, Kirb.

minutissimus, Kirb.

tumulorum, L.

- smeathmanellus, Kirb.

- morio, Fabr.

- leucopus, Kirb.
Andrena, Fabr.

albicans, Kirb.

pilipes, Fabr.

bimaculata, Kirb.

- rosse, Pz.

- v. trimmerana, Kirb.

- v. spinigera, Kirb.

- nitida, Fourc.

cineraria, L.

fulva, Schr.

- clarkella, Kirb.

nigroaenea, Kirb.

gwynana, Kirb.

v. bicolor, Fabr.

angustior, Kirb.

praecox, Scop.

varians, Rossi

ambigua, Perk.

- helvola, L.

- fucata, Smith

- nigriceps, Kirb.

tridentata, Kirb.

denticulata, Kirb.

ANDRENID.S: (continued)
Andrena fulvicrus, Kirb.

fasciata, Nyl.

hattorfiana, Fabr.

cetii, Schr.

cingulata, Fabr.

albicrus, Kirb.

chrysoceles, Kirb.

- coitana, Kirb.

- fulvago, Christ.

- humilis, Imhoff.

labialis, Kirb.

minutula, Kirb.

nana, Kirb.

dorsata, Kirb.

similis, Smith

- wilkella, Kirb.

afzeliella, Kirb.
Cilissa, Leach

haemorrhoidalis, Fabr.

leporina, Pz.
Dasypoda, Latr.

hirtipes, Latr.
Nomada, Fabr.

obtusifrons, Nyl.

solidaginis, Pz.

sexfasciata, Pz.

succincta, Pz.

lineola, Pz.

alternata, Kirb.

jacobaeze, Pz.

ruficornis, L.

bifida, Thorns.

borealis, Zett.

ochrostoma, Kirb.

armata, H. SchfF.

ferruginata, Kirb.

fabriciana, L.

flavoguttata, Kirb.

furva, Pz.
APID.S

Epeolus, Latr.

productus, Thorns.

rufipes, Thorns.
Ceratina, Latr.

cyanea, Kirb.
Chelostoma, Latr.

florisomne, L.

campanularum, Kirb.
Ccelioxys, Latr.

rufescens, Lep.

elongata, Lep.

acuminata, Nyl.
Megachile, Latr.

maritima, Kirb. St. Osyth, Soutbend

willoughbiella, Kirb.

circumcincta, Lep.

- ligniseca, Kirb.

- centuncularis, L.

versicolor, Smith

104

INSECTS

APID/E (continued} APID.AE (continued]

Megachile argentata, Fabr. St. Osyth, Psithyrus, Lep.

Southcnd rupestris, Fabr.

Osmia, Pz. vestalis, Fourc.

rufa, L. barbutellus, Kirb.

pilicornis, Smith campestris, Pz.

cacrulcscens, L. quadricolor, Lcp.

fulvivcntris, Pz. Bombus, Latr.

bicolor, Schr. venustus, Smith

spinulosa, Kirb. agrorum, Fabr.
Stelis, Pz. hortorum, L.

aterrima, Pz. v. harrisellus, Kirb.

phoeoptera, Kirb. latreillellus, Kirb.
Anthidium, Fabr. sylvarum, L.

manicatum, L. derhamellus, Kirb.
Eucera, Scop. lapidarius, L.

longicornis, L. lapponicus, Fabr.
Mclecta, Latr. pratorum, L.

luctuosa, Scop. cullumanus, Kirb. Seuthend (F. Smith)

armata, Pz. tcrrestris, L.
Anthophora, Latr. v. lucorum, Smith

retusa, L. Apis, L.

pilipes, Fabr. mellifica, L.

furcata, Pz.

PHYTOPHAGA

The Phytophagous Hymenoptera comprise the Sawflies (Tenthre-
dinida] and their allies, and the great majority of the Gallflies (Cynipidce).

The females of these insects have the ovipositor modified into a saw
or borer, and in some cases into an instrument which combines the
properties of saw, lance and file all in one ; for they vary considerably in
their structure according to the work which they have to do, such
species as deposit their ova in hard woody substances requiring stronger
implements than those which simply make incisions between upper and
lower leaf surfaces. As the name implies they are as a rule plant feeders
in the larval state, and the majority feed up during the summer and
autumn and appear in the perfect state during the following spring, but
some are to be met with much later in the season, and Emphytus serotinus
is often abundant on herbage under oak trees during fine weather in
October. The early species may be found on leaves and at the flowers
of various plants, the Umbelliferce being especially attractive to them.
Angelica sy/vestris is also a great favourite with those which appear in the
late summer and autumn. So far as our present knowledge goes, we
have about 400 Sawflies in Britain, but many of them are extremely local
or excessively rare, and as the great majority of the individuals are
females they are not nearly so much in evidence as many other insects,
and consequently they rarely do much damage to vegetation in ordinary
seasons. Occasionally however certain among them appear in immense
numbers and prove harmful to particular crops. Prominent among these
is the Turnip Sawfly, Athalia spinarum, of which vast migratory swarms
sometimes invade our shores, and dispersing themselves over considerable
tracts of country proceed to lay their eggs on the turnip leaves, and the
i 105 14

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

resulting larvas, which are speedily developed, are so numerous and
voracious that they soon make extensive clearances in all directions. In
17823 many thousands of acres were destroyed by them, and in 18356
our own county suffered very severely from their ravages. At a later
period they devastated the fields in the neighbourhood of Tollesbury, but
happily their visits are few and far between, and during many recent
years entomologists who have been desirous of obtaining specimens for
their cabinets have sought for them in vain, though a few were obtained
in Essex, Suffolk and elsewhere in 1900. It is said to feed also on
charlock and to prefer that plant to turnip when there is a sufficient
supply.

The Gooseberry Sawfly (Pteronus ribesii) is also occasionally very
destructive to the currant and gooseberry crop. A few years ago it
entirely denuded all the bushes about Colchester of their leaves, but the
disease speedily produced its own remedy, for so numerous were the
larvae that they consumed all the available food long before they reached
maturity, and apparently the whole brood perished from starvation.
After leaving the naked bushes they wandered about seeking vainly for
food elsewhere, and at this time the pathways in the neighbourhood of
market gardens were black with their dead bodies, which for several days
emitted a sickly odour that compelled attention.

Another species (Hoplocampa testudinea) deposits its eggs in the
apple blossom, and the larvas feed in the young fruit, causing it to fall
when about half-grown. Probably the damage thus done is generally
set down to the Codling Moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) for both feed after
a similar fashion ; the Sawfly however does not seem to be very
abundant, at least in north Essex, and has only been found there in the
early summer fruit. As soon as the fruit falls to the ground the larvae
proceed to make themselves scarce, so that many apples may be opened
and few larvas found, and as these are by no means easy to rear, the insect
is very scarce in collections and probably few entomologists have ever
seen it.

The Corn Sawfly (Cephus pygmceus) is another insect with an evil
reputation on the continent, its larvas feed in the interior of corn stems,
but any damage they may do in this country is seldom if ever brought
home to them, though seeing how very abundant the perfect insect is in
our own fields in the early summer, one would think it must be to some
extent injurious. The two species of Sirex (S. gigas and S. juvencus) are
large handsome insects with powerful ovipositors adapted for boring into
the solid wood of fir trees, to which they are accused of being very
destructive. In this country they are far from common, and though
they are sometimes met with about Colchester they never there attack
healthy standing trees, but only such as are dying or have been felled.
No doubt they do attack larch and spruce posts and take possession of
any trees that have been left unduly long on the ground after they have
been felled, and speedily render these good for nothing but firewood.
Many of the Sawflies are very beautiful, and the problems connected

1 06

INSECTS

with their life history are so intensely interesting that they are well
worthy of far greater attention than they have hitherto received. It has
been already stated that the females greatly outnumber the males, but in
many cases the males are quite unknown and in some species only females
are believed to be produced. Parthenogenesis is extremely common
among them, and though in some instances ova deposited by virgin females
have produced males, as a rule such ova produce only females, and it has
been abundantly proved that these possess the faculty of reproducing their
like without any male assistance for an indefinite number of generations.

Among the more noteworthy species found in the county, attention
may be drawn to those of the very handsome genera Lyda, Abia and Arge ,
which are well represented. Three species of Do/erus (D. rugu/osus,
D. fumosus and D. gibbosus) are as yet only known as British from
examples captured near Colchester, where Loderus palmatus is occasionally
found. The rare Macrophya rufipes is also worthy of mention, and
Allantus jlavipes is from a collector's point of view a good insect, as it is
not often obtained in Britain and is scarce elsewhere. Several specimens
were found on charlock flowers near Langham Lodge Wood many years
ago, but none have occurred recently. The male of Strongylogaster cingu-
latus is accounted a rarity though the female is abundant, but one day in
the spring of 1899, in Donyland Wood, several males were captured
before any females had been seen, which is contrary to Mr. Cameron's
experience, as he states that though he has bred hundreds of females he
only succeeded in getting one male, which curiously enough appeared
some days after all the females of the same batch had emerged. As two
of his virgin females produced fertile eggs he concludes that partheno-
genesis plays a constant r61e with this species. Allantus zona is another
scarce species which has occurred at St. Osyth.

The Gallflies (Cynipida) form those abnormal growths upon trees
and plants of which the oakapple, the marble and woody galls of the oak,
and the moss-like Bedeguar gall of the rose are familiar and conspicuous
examples, but all gall-producing insects are not Hymenopterous, as many
of them belong to other orders, such as the Gall-gnats (Cecidomyida)
among the Diptera and certain of the Aphides and beetles.

The facts and problems connected with the reproduction of the
Cynipidce are even more interesting and complicated than in the case of
the Tenthredinida, and though it is impossible to go fully into them here,
it may be briefly stated that some insects which were formerly believed
to be distinct are now known to be different forms of the same species,
which inhabit totally dissimilar galls and appear at different times of the
year, the earlier brood consisting of both males and females and the later
brood of females only, which lay fertile eggs and produce the bisexual
brood of the following season.

But besides this alternation of generations, there are other species
which are well known to be single brooded and which consist of females
only, for though they have been bred by hundreds of thousands by
different investigators, all endeavours to discover the males have been

107

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

unavailing, and among other theories it has been suggested that in their
case males formerly existed, but owing to the increase in the faculty of
virgin reproduction they have ceased to be produced, being no longer

necessary.

There is a very able and valuable paper on the ' Galls of Essex ' by
Mr. Fitch in the Transactions of the Essex Field Club (ii. 98-156),
which deals with all the gall-feeding insects, and to which the reader
who desires further information can be confidently referred.

In the following list of T'enthredinidce some names will be found
which do not appear in Cameron's Phytophagous Hymenoptera. Certain of
these belong to species which were not known as British when that work
was written, and in other cases it has been deemed advisable to follow
the more recent classification and nomenclature of Konow, which is
partially adopted in Cameron's fourth volume. Some of the Sawflies are
extremely difficult to determine correctly, and all such have been sub-
mitted either to the Rev. F. D. Morice or Pastor Konow, to whom we
are indebted for much of the most recent work done in the group here
and on the continent. All the Tenthredinidte named below have been
found in the Colchester district with one exception, for which the
locality is given. The list of Cynipidee is taken from Mr. Fitch's ' Galls
of Essex.'

A LIST OF THE PHYTOPHAGOUS HYMENOPTERA OCCURRING IN

THE COUNTY

TENTHREDINID^E
LYDIT/E

Lyda, Fabr.

flaviventris, Retz.

inanita, Vill.

sylvatica, L.

hortorum, Klug.

cingulata, Latr.

pallipes, Zett.

albopicta, Thorns.

depressa, Schr.
Cephus, Latr.

phthisicus, Fabr.

pygmaeus, L.

tabidus, Fabr.

pusillus, Steph.
Macrocephus, Schlecht.

satyrus, Pz.
SIRICET.*:

Xiphydria, Latr.

dromedarius, Fabr.
Sirex, L.

juvencus, L.
- gigas, L.

TENTHREDINET.S
Cimbex, Ol.

lutea, L.

femorata, L.
Trichiosoma, Leach

vitellinae, L.

TENTHREDINETVE (continued)
Trichiosoma betuleti, Klug.
Ahia, Leach

fasciata, L.

sericea, L.
Arge, Schr.

enodis, L.

gracilicornis, Klug.

fuscipes, Fall.

ustulata, L.

pagana, Pz.

cyanocrocea, FOrst.
- rosae, De Geer

Lophyrus, Latr.

sertiferus, Fourc.
Cladius, 111.

pectinicornis, Fourc.
Trichiocampus, Htg.

viminalis, Fall.

rufipes, Lep.

eradiatus, Htg.
Priophorus, Latr.

padi, L.
Leptopus, Htg.

luridiventris, Fall.
Hemichroa, Steph.

alni, L.

rufa, Pz.
Dineura, Dhlb.

stilata, Klug.

1 08

INSECTS

TENTHREDINETVE (continued)
Cryptocampus, Htg.

amerinse, L.
Pontania, Costa

leucosticta, Htg.

vallisnicrii, Htg.

xanthogastra, FOrst.
Pteronus, Jur.

pa v id us, Lcp.

- miliaris, Pz.

salicivorus, Cam.

curtispinus, Thorns.

vircscens, Htg.

melanaspis, Htg.

nigricornis, Lep.

hortcnsis, Htg.

myosotidis, Fabr.

leucotrochus, Htg.

ribcsii, Scop.

melanocephalus, Htg.

salicis, L.
Amauronematus, Knw.

histrio, Lep.

leucolenus, '/add.

- viduatus, Zett.
Croesus, Leach

septentrionalis, L.

- latipes, Vill.

varus, Vill.
Holcocneme, Knw.

crassa, Fall.

corruleocarpa, Htg.

- lucida, Pz.
Nematus, Jur.

abdominalis, Pz.
luteus, Pz.

- acuminatus, Thorns.
Pachynematus, Knw.

capreae, Pz.

einersbergensis, Htg.

xanthocarpus, Htg.
Pristiphora, Latr.

betulae, Retz.

quercus, Htg.

appendiculata, Htg.

- ruficornis, Ol.
Eriocampoides, Knw.

cinxius, Klug.

varipes, Klug.

annulipes, Klug.

limacinus, Rctz.
Hoplocampa, Htg.

cratzgi, Klug.

pectoralis, Thorns.

- testudinea, Klug.
Mcsoneura, Htg.

verna, Klug.
Periclista, Knw.

melanocephala, Fabr.
Pareophora, Knw.

TENTHREDINET.* (continued)
Pareophora nigripes, Klug.
Tomostethus, Knw.

nigritus, Fabr.

- fuliginosus, Schr.

dubius, Gmel.

luteiventris, Klug.
Blennocampa, Htg.

assimilis, Fall.

- pusilla, Klug.

subcana, Zadd.

tenuicornis, Klug.
Monophadnus, Htg.

geniculatus, Htg.

ruficruris, Brull6

albipes, Gmel.
Kaliosysphinga, Tischb.

ulmi, Sundev. Stratford (Healy)
Athalia, Leach

- ancilla, Cam.

spin arum, Fabr.

rosae, L.

- lugens, Klug.

- annulata, Fabr.
Selandria, Klug.

serva, Fabr.

- sixii, Voll.

- stramineipes, Klug.

- aperta, Htg.
Thrinax, Knw.

macula, Klug.
Strongylogaster, Dhlb.

cingulatus, Fabr.
Eriocampa, Htg.

- ovata, L.
Pcecilosoma, Thorns.

pulverata, Retz.

carbonaria, Knw.

- immersa, Klug.

- submutica, Thorns.

- excisa, Thorns.

- tridens, Knw.
Emphytus, Klug.

- succinctus, Klug.

- cinctus, L.

- togatus, Fabr.

rufocinctus, Retz.

calceatus, Klug.

tibialis, Pz.

serotinus, Klug.

grossulariz, Klug.
Taxonus, Htg.

glabratus, Fall.

equiseti, Fall.

agrorum, Fall.
Dolerus, Jur.

fulviventris, Klug.

madidus, Klug.

puncticollis, Thorns.

gonager, Fabr.

109

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

TENTHREDINETVE (continued)
Dolerus picipes, Klug.

nigritus, Mttll.

fumosus, Zadd.

coruscans, Knw.

gibbosus, Htg.

niger, Klug.

haematodes, Schr.

rugulosus, v. D. Torre.

asneus, Htg.
Loderus, Knw.

palmatus, Klug.

vestigialis, Klug.
Rhogogastera, Knw.

picta, Klug.

viridis, L.

punctulata, Klug.

lateralis, Fabr.

aucupariae, Klug.
Tenthredopsis, Costa

coqueberti, Klug.

var. cordata, Fourc.
var. microcephala, Lep.
var. femoralis, Steph.
var. caliginosa, Steph.
var. nigricollis, Cam.

nassata, L.

raddatzi, Knw.

dorsalis, Lep.

excisa, Thorns.

litterata, Geoff.

campestris, L.

dorsivittata, Cam.
Pachyprotasis, Htg.

variegata, Klug.

antennata, Klug.

rapae, L.
Macrophya, Dhlb.

rustica, L.

rufipes, L.

punctum-album, L.

ribis, Schr.

albicincta, Schr.

12-punctata, L.

blanda, Fabr.

neglecta, Klug.
Allantus, Jur.

maculatus, Fourc.

bicinctus, L.

vespa, Retz.

scrophulariae, L.

zona, Klug.

cingulum, Klug.

arcuatus, Forst

flavipes, Fourc.
Tenthredo, L.

rufiventris, Pz.

atra, L.

var. dispar, Klug.

livitla, L.

TENTHREDINET.S: (continued)
Tenthredo solitaria, Scop.

mesomela, L.

CYNIPID^

Rhodites, Htg.

eglanterise, Htg.

rosae, L.
fnervosa, Curt.

~ \rosarum, Gir.
Aulax, Htg.

glechomae, Htg.
frhosadis, Htg.
\papaveris, Perris.

hieracii, Bouch6.
Xestophanes, F5rst

potentillae, Vill.
Diastrophus, Htg.

rubi, Htg.
Andricus, Htg.

ostreus, Gir.

_ ffecundatrix, Htg.

\gemmae, L.
_/globuli, Htg.

\inflator, Htg.
_fradicis, Fabr.
~\noduli, Htg.

sieboldi, Htg.

corticis, L.
fcollaris, Htg.
\curvator, Htg.
framuli, L.
\autumnalis, L.

quadrilineatus, Htg.
_ fcirratus, Adler.

\callidoma, Gir.

solitarius, Fonsc.

albopunctatus, Schlecht.
Cynips, Htg.

kollari, Htg.
Trigonaspis, Htg.

_fmegaptera, Pz.

\renum, Gir.
Biorhiza, Westw.
fterminalis, Fabr.
\aptera, Fabr.
Dryophanta, Ffirst

folii, L.

divisa, Htg.

agama, Htg.
Neuroterus, Htg.

Jlenticularis, Oliv.

\baccarum, L.
_ ffumipennis, Htg.

\tricolor, Htg.
_ flaeviusculus, Schr.

\albipes, Schr.
_ fnumismatis, Oliv.

\vesicatrix, Schlecht.

INSECTS

ENTOMOPHAGA

Ichneumons and their Allies

This group comprises several thousands of species, of which,
though some are of moderate size, the great majority are very small
.and obscure, and in the present imperfect state of our knowledge the
study of most of them is attended with considerable difficulty ; for while
many are excessively variable, others though abundantly distinct are
superficially so much alike, and their specific distinctions are so minute
and so easily overlooked, that only a very few experts are able to deter-
mine them with certainty.

They are divided into several sections, which include the Cbrysididte,
the Icbneumonidcf, the Braconida, the E-vaniidee, the Chalcidida and the
Proctotrupida. As a rule they are parasitic upon other insects, a large
proportion of them passing their earlier stages in the larva? of the Lepi-
doptera. The Chrysididce or Ruby-tailed flies are not very numerous in
Britain, and their proper place is perhaps rather with the Aculeata than
the Entomophaga. They prey upon certain of the bees and wasps, laying
their eggs in the burrows of their victims after the manner of the cuckoo
bees. They are extremely beautiful insects, being resplendent with
brilliant blue, green, crimson, burnished copper and other gorgeous
colours. The Ichneumonidce, Eraconidce and E-vaniida deposit their eggs
principally upon or in the larva? and ova of the Lepidoptera, but they
attack other insects and also spiders ; and upon the efficient discharge
of their important functions the welfare of the world depends to a far
greater extent than the world generally is at present aware of. For if
all insects were allowed to increase without let or hindrance, they would
multiply at such a prodigious rate that every green leaf would speedily
be devoured by them. It is quite true that other agencies, such as
insectivorous birds, are also at work in keeping them in check, but it is
probably not going too far to say that the birds are but the Sauls who
slay their thousands while the ichneumons are the Davids who slay their
tens of thousands. Nay, it is highly probable that by far the larger
portion of those larva? which are consumed by birds would perish in any
case from the attacks of ichneumons, and more than possible that in
many instances the attacks of birds, though immediately fatal to multi-
tudes of individual larvae, may be ultimately beneficial to the species to
which they belong by the wholesale destruction of its far more inveterate
and insidious foes.

But while of the innumerable larva? that emerge from the egg very
few escape from the attacks of the ichneumon, Nature is also careful of
her children in more ways than one ; for when a parasite becomes so
numerous as to threaten the extinction of a race, it is very frequently
itself preyed upon by a hyper-parasite, which attacks it after a similar
fashion.

The Chalcididee are for the most part extremely minute brilliantly
coloured insects, with habits similar to those of the Ichneumonidcc. The

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Proctotrupidce are still smaller and of soberer hues. They also appear to
be largely parasitic, but with regard to the transformations of many of
them more seems to be at present conjectured than is actually known.

Of course it is quite impossible to deal adequately with this impor-
tant class of insects in a few brief paragraphs, and unfortunately we have
at present no reliable monograph on any of its component sections.
Much was done among the Ghalcidida, etc., by the late Mr. Francis
Walker at Wanstead, who left behind him voluminous notes, which are
now in Mr. Fitch's possession ; but they require very careful revision
before publication. Many pages could have been filled with Walker's
names, but a mere list of names where no intelligible and reliable pub-
lished accounts and descriptions exist would be .worse than useless.
Mr. Fitch, in conjunction with the late Mr. Bridgman, commenced a
series of valuable outline descriptions of the Ichneumonida in the Entom-
ologist for February, 1880, and continued them at intervals for several
years, but unfortunately circumstances for a time prevented their com-
pletion. It is to be hoped that Mr. Fitch, who is still our leading
British authority on the Entomophaga, and who is abundantly supplied
with material and well equipped for the task in every way, will at no
distant date be able to resume his labours, and obtain for this branch of
British Entomology the high position which a few years ago it seemed
so likely to take, and which of late it has appeared in such imminent
danger of losing.

In the following list of Ichneumonidce the species marked M. have
only been identified from the Maldon district by Mr. Fitch. The others
have all been obtained near Colchester, many being common to both
districts. For the incompleted list of Braconidee Mr. Fitch is solely
responsible.

A LIST OF THE ENTOMOPHAGOUS HYMENOPTERA OCCURRING IN

THE COUNTY

CHRYSIDIDJE
Cleptes, Latr.

semiauratus, L.

nitidulus, Fabr. Btnfleet (Billups)
Homalus, Pz.

auratus, L.

caeruleus, Dahlb.
Hedychrum, Latr.

lucidulum, Fabr.

ardens, Curtis
Chrysis, L.

ignita, L.

viridula, L.

cyanea, L.

PUPIVORA. ICHNEUMONID^:

ICHNEUMONIDES

Chasmodes, Wesm.

motatorius, Fabr.
Ichneumon, L.

ICHNEUMONIDES (continued)
Ichneumon bilineatus, Gmel.

sinister, Wesm.

leucocerus, Gr.

lineator, Fabr.

impressor, Zett.

derasus, Wesm.

castaneiventris, Gr.

fuscipes, Gmel. M.

periscelis, Wesm.

pistorius, Gr.

trilineatus, Gmel.

multiannulatus, Gr.

molitorius, L.

tempestivus, Holmgr. M.

vaginatorius, L.

xanthorius, Ffirst

confusorius, Gr.

suspiciosus, Holmgr.

gracilentus, Wesm. M.

112

INSECTS

ICHNEUMONIDES (continued)
Ichneumon luctatorius, L.

latrator, Fabr.

multipictus, Gr.

primatorius, FOrst. M.

gracilicornis, Gr.

- caloscelus, Wesm.

- variegatorius, Pz.

qu;tsitorius, L. M.

analis, Gr.

- saturatorius, L. M.

- faunus, Gr.

nigritarius, Gr.

fabricator, Fabr.

curvinervis, Holmgr.

pallidifrons, Gr.

varipes, Gr.

Ian i us, Gr.

leucomelas, Gmel. M.

vestigator, Wesm.

lepidus, Gr.

octoguttatus, Gr.

anator, Fabr. M.

ruficeps, Gr.

albifrons, Stc.

obator, Desv.
Hoplismenus, Gr.

perniciosus, Gr.
Limerodes, Wesm.

arctiventris, Boie.
Amblyteles, Wesm.

palliatorius, Gr. M.

armatorius, FOrst

oratorius, Fabr.

flavocinctus, Desv.

notatorius, Fabr.

subsericans, Gr.

crispatorius, L.

glaucatorius, Fabr.

occisorius, Fabr.

negatorius, Fabr.

uniguttatus, Gr.

castanopygus, Ste.

castigator, Fabr.

fbssorius, Gr.

divisorius, Gr.

messorius, Gr.

funereus, Fourc.

proteus, Christ. M.

fusorius, L.

alticola, Gr.
Trogus, Pz.

lutorius, Fabr. M.

exaltatorius, Pz. M.
Eurylabus, Wesm.

torvus, Wesm.

dims, Wesm. M.

tristis, Gr.
Platylabus, Wesm.

rufus, Wesm.

ICHNEUMONIDES (continued)
Platylabus orbitalis, Gr.

tricingulatus, Gr.

dimidiatus, Gr.

nigricollis, Wesm. M.
Herpestomus, Wesm.

brunnicornis, Gr.
Colpognathus, Wesm.

celerator, Gr.
Diccelotus, Wesm.

pumilus, Gr.
Phseogenes, Wesm.

melanogonus, Gmel. M.

scutellaris, Wesm.

calopus, Wesm. M.

fulvitarsis, Wesm. M.

ischiomelinus, Gr.
Alomyia, Pz.

debellator, Fabr.
CRYPTIDES

Stilpnus, Gr.

gagates, Gr. M.

pavoniae, Scop. M.
Phygadeuon, Gr.

variabilis, Gr. M.

fumator, Gr. M.

troglodytes, Gr. M.

jejunator, Gr. M.

- vagans, Gr. M.

- erythrogaster, Gr. M.

hopei, Marshall

vagabundus, Gr.

cinctorius, Fabr.

quadrispinus, Gr.

- abdominator, Gr. M.

- jucundus, Gr. M.

procerus, Gr.
Cryptus, Fabr.

viduatorius, Fabr.

- tarsoleucus, Schr.

- moschator, Fabr.

cyanator, Gr.

parvulus, Gr.

- anatorius, Gr. M.

- attentorius, Schaef.

- titillator, Gr.

albatorius, Vill.

dianae, Gr.

obscurus, Gr.

- analis, Gr. M.

leucotarsus, Gr.

- peregrinator, L. M.

migrator, Fabr.

cimbicis, Tschck.

pygoleucus, Gr. M.

signatories, Fabr. M.
Mesostenus, Gr.

obnoxius, Gr. M.

ligator, Gr.
Hemiteles, Gr.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

CRYPTIDES (continued)

Hemiteles furcatus, Tasch. M.

tenebricosus, Gr. M.

micator, Gr. M.

oxyphimus, Gr. M.

crassicornis, Gr. M.

similis, Gr. M.

fiilvipes, Gr. M.

formosus, Desv.

bicolorinus, Gr. M.

sstivalis, Gr. M.

areator, Pz.

inimicus, Gr. M.

floricolator, Gr. M.

fragilis, Gr.

cingulator, Gr. M.
Cecidonomus, Bridg.

westoni, Bridg. M.

gallicola, Bridg. M.
Orthopelma, Tasch.

luteolator, Gr. M.
Agrothereutes, Ffirst

hopei, Gr.
Aptesis, Ffirst

nigrocincta, Gr.
Hemimachus, Ratz.

rufocinctus, Gr. M.

fasciatus, Fabr.
Pezomachus, Gr.

tener, Ffirst. M.

ochraceus, FSrst. M.

corruptor, FOrst. M.

viduus, Forst

transfuga, Ffirst

insolens, Ffirst. M.

xylocophilus, Ffirst

analis, Ffirst. M.

nigricornis, Ffirst

intermedius, Ffirst
OPHIONIDES

Henicospilus, Ste.

merdarius, Gr. M.

ramidulus, L.

combustus, Gr.

repentinus, Holmgr.
Ophion, Fabr.

obscurum, Fabr.

luteum, L.

minutum, Kriechb. M.

ventricosum, Gr.
Schizoloma, Wesm.

amicta, Fabr.
Heteropelma, Wesm.

calcator, Wesm.
Anomalon, Jurine

xanthopus, Schr. M.

mirabile, Desv.

bellicosum, Wesm. M.

cerinops, Gr.

fibulator, Gr.

OPHIONIDES (continued)

Anomalon tenuitarsum, Gr.

clandestinum, Gr. M.

anomelas, Grav.

cylindricum, Bridg. M.

melanobatum, Gr. M.
Agrypon, FOrst

flaveolatum, Gr.

tenuicorne, Gr.

canaliculatum, Ratz.
Trichomma, Wesm.

enecator, Rossi
Paniscus, Schr.

cephalotes, Holmgr. M.

virgatus, Fourc.

testaceus, Gr.

tarsatus, Brischke.

fuscicornis, Holmgr. M.
Absyrtus, Holmgr.

luteus, Holmgr.
Campoplex, Gr.

mixtus, Gr.

bucculentus, Holmgr. M.

erythrogaster, Ffirst. M.

carinifrons, Holmgr.

falcator, Thunb. M.

ebeninus, Gr.

oxyacanthae, Boie. M.

tenuis, Ffirst. M.

eurynotus, Ffirst. M.

punctatus, Bridg. M.

costulatus, Bridg. M.
Sagaritis, Holmgr.

zonata, Gr.

postica, Bridg. M.
Casinaria, Holmgr.

orbitalis, Gr. M.

vidua, Gr. M.
Limneria, Holmgr.

crassicornis, Gr.

elishae, Bridg. M.

ensator, Gr.

erucator, Zett. M.

exareolata, Ratz. M.

faunus, Gr. M.

geniculata, Gr.

interrupta, Holmgr. M.

longipes, Milll.

majalis, Gr.

mutabilis, Holmgr.

rapax, Gr.

rufipes, Gr. M.

ruficincta, Gr.

tibialis, Gr. M.

vestigialis, Ratz. M.

vulgaris, Tschck. M.

virginalis, Gr. M.
Atractodes, Gr.

bicolor, Gr.
Exolytus, Holmgr.

114

INSECTS

OPHIONIDES (continued)
Exolytus laevigatus, Gr.
Mesochorus, Gr.

sylvarum, Hal.

(?) pic til is, Holmgr.
Collyria, SchiOdte

calcitrator, Gr.
Exetastes, Gr.

osculatorius, Fabr.

guttatorius, Gr.

alhitarsus, Gr.
Banchus, Fabr.

variegator, Fabr.

falcator, Fabr.

moniliatus, Gr.
TRYPHONIDES

Mesoleptus, Gr.

insolens, Gr.

sternoleucus, Gr.
Catoglyptus, Holmgr.

fuscicornis, Gmcl.
Euryproctus, Holmgr.

atomator, Gr.
Perilissus, Holmgr.

przrogator, Gr.
Mcsoleius, Holmgr.

aulicus, Gr.

caligatus, Gr.

alacer, Gr.

niger, Gr.

insolens, Gr.
Trematopygus, Holmgr.

procurator, Gr.
Tryphon, Fallen.

elongator, Fabr.

rutilator, L.

trochanteratus, Holmgr.
Eumesius, Westw.

albitarsus, Cur.
Polyblastus, Hart.

vari tarsus, Gr.
Acrotomus, Holmgr.

lucidulus, Gr.
Cteniscus, Hal.

mesoleptoides, Stc.

apiarius, Gr.
Colpotrochia, Holmgr.

elegantula, Schr.
Exochus, Gr.

alpinus, Zctt.
Bassus, Fabr.

lartatorius, Fabr.

nigritarsus, Gr.
Metopius, Pz.

dissectorius, Pz.

PlMPLIDES

Rhyssa, Gr.

persuasoria, L.
Ephialtes, Gr.

imperator, Kriechb.

PlMPLIDES (continued)
Ephialtes rex, Kriechb.
Perithous, Holmgr.

mediator, Fabr.

varius, Gr.
Pimpla, Fabr.

instigator, Fabr.

examinator, Fabr.

turionellse, L.

rufata, Gmel.

flavonotata, Holmgr.

roborator, Fabr.

scanica, Vill.

oculatoria, Fabr.

arctica, Zett.

graminellas, Schr.

stercorator, Fabr.

brevicornis, Gr.
Glypta, Gr.

monoceros, Gr.

ceratites, Gr.

lugubrina, Holmgr.

incisa, Gr.

bifoveolata, Gr.

rubicunda, Bridg.
Lampronota, Hal.

caligata, Gr.
Lissonota, Gr.

parallela, Gr.

decimator, Gr.

bellator, Gr.

cylindrator, Vill.

sulphurifera, Gr.

semirufa, Desv.
Meniscus, Schifidte

setosus, Fourc.

impressor, Gr.

hi li neat us, Gr.

murinus, Gr.
Phytodiaetus, Gr.

plantarius, Gr.

segmentator, Gr.

BRACONID^E

Bracon, Fabr.

pectoralis, Wesm.

erythrostictus, Marshall

minutator, Fabr.

fiilvipes, Nees

longicollis, Wesm.

variegator, Nees

stahilis, Wesm.

brevicornis, Wesm.

erraticus, Wesm.

Isevigatus, Ratz.

mediator, Nees

fuscicoxis, Wesm.

tornator, Marshall

satanas, Wesm.

epitriptus, Marshall

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

HUACONID./K (continued)

Hi:io>n pi'.rtri missus, Marshall

- colpophorus, Wcsm.

discoidcus, Wcsm.

- rcgularis, Wcsm.

Icn-l.rlhi, VVcsm.

- otiosus, Marshall

- variator, Nees

- obscurator, Nccs

- anthracinus, Nees
bisignatus, Wcsm.

Phanomcris, FOrst

- fragilis, Hal.
Bathystomus, Forst

- f'uncstus, Hal.
Rhysipolis, Forst

- mediator, Hal.
Rhyssalus, Hal.

indagator, Hal.
Colastes, Hal.

- braconius, Hal.
Oncophanes, Fflr&t

- lanccolator, Nees
Spathius, Nccs

- cxarator, L.
Hecabolus, Curt.

- sulcatus, Curt.
i 'i rloi.lf., Wcsm.

- melanotus, Wcsm.
Chrcmylus, Hal.

- rubiginosus, Nees
Hormius, Nccs

- moniliatus, Nees
Clinoccntrus, Hal.

- cxsertor, Necs
Pelecystoma, Wcsm.

- lutea, Nccs
Rhogas, Necs

- irrcgularis, Wcsm.

tristis, Wesm.

- bicolor, Spin.

- nigricornis, Wcsm.

circumscriptus, Nccs

- armatus, Wcsm.

- tcstaccus, Spin.
Sigalphus, Latr.

floricola, Wcsm.

- obscurcllus, Nccs

- lutcipcs, Thorns.
Chclonus, Jurine

- lll.lllllus, L.

- submuticus, Wcsm.

- wcsmaclii, Curt.

carbonator, Marshall

- oculator, Fabr.

- cancsccns, Wcsm.

parcicornis, Sch.lrT.

sulcatus, Nccs

latrunculus, Marshall
Ascogastcr, Wcsm.

HRACONID.* (continued)

Ascogastcr instabilis, Wesm.

- annularis, Necs

- rufipcs, Latr.

- rufideus, Wcsm.

- varipes, Wesm.

- armatus, Wcsm.

- quadridcntatus, Wesm.
Mirax, Hal.

- spartii, Hal.
Accelius, Hal.

- sulii.iM i.itus, Hal.
A pan teles, Forst

ruficrus, Hal.

ordinarius, Ratz.

congcstus, Nccs

- anal is, Nccs

- rubripes, Hal.

glomeratus, L.

- scriccus, Nccs

- spurius, Wcsm.

- jucundus, Marshall

caise, Bouchd

junipcratac, Bouch6

- difficilis, Nccs

- l.-rtus, Marshall

- falcatus, Nccs

- cultrator, Marshall

- ultor, Rcinh.

- xanthostigmus, Hal.

- cmarginatus, Nees

- albipcnnis, Necs

- impurus, Necs

- conifcrae, Hal. ?

- longicaudis, Wcsm.

- abjcctus, Marshall

- pallidipcs, Rcinh.

- bicolor, Nees

- latcralis, Hal.

- fulvipes, Hal.
Microplitis, Forst

- spinolae, Necs

- lit rll.ll.l-. Unlit llr

- tristis, Nccs

- dolens, Marshall

- spcctabilis, Hal.

mediator, Hal.

- tubcrculifera, Wesm.
Microgastcr, Latr.

- alvcarius, Fabr.

- conncxus, Necs

- tiro, Rcinh.

- russatus, Hal.

rugulosus, Necs

subcompletus, Nccs

globatus, Necs

tibialis, Nccs
Earinus, Wcsm.

gloriatorius, Pz.
Microdus, Necs

i K.

INSECTS

BRACONIDA (continutd)
Microdus cingulipes, Nces

mediator, Nces
Orgilus, Hal.

obscurator, Nccs
Euphorus, Nces

pallidipes, Curt.

similis, Curt.

- intactus, Hal.

- apicalis, Curt.
Microctonus, Wcsm.

- cultus, Marshall
Meteorus, Hal.

albiditarsus, Curt.

chrysophthalmus, Nces

caligatus, Hal.

ictericus, Nees

obfuscatus, Nccs

- jaculator, Hal.

BRACONIDX (cntinut<i)
Mcteorus atrator, Curt.

albicornis, Ruthe

abdominator, Necs

micropterus, Hal.

pulchricornis, Wcsm.

scutellator, Nees

unicolor, Wcsm.

censors, Ruthe

ictericus, Nces
Protcrops, Wcsm.

- nigripennis, Wcsm.
Zele, Curt.

testaceator, Curt.

M .u i ... rut i us. Curt.

thoracicus, Nee
KVANIIIK*:

Foenus, Fabr.

Msectator, L.

Colthttttr

COLEOPTERA

Beetles

Though the Colcoptcra of Essex have not received anything like so
large a share of attention from entomologists as the Lepidoptera, owing
to its proximity to London, the county, and especially its southern por-
tion, has at various times attracted many of our best workers, who have
found within it a considerable number of the rarer and more interesting
British species ; and more recently the north-eastern portion has been
extensively investigated with some notable results.

As the order is such a very large one, and as very many of the
species included in it are exceedingly minute, it is impossible at present
to supply a complete county list ; but from that which follows anybody
competent to form an opinion will sec that much good work has been
done, and that the workers have not been without their substantial
reward.

Unfortunately, owing to the curtailment of the ancient forests of
Epping and Hainault, the total disappearance of extensive woods and
heaths elsewhere, and the sweeping changes that have been going on in
all directions, many good insects which probably occurred in the county
formerly have not been found in recent years ; and seeing that the
accounts which have come down to us concerning them arc now con-
sidered to belong rather to the domain of tradition than of history, they
cannot be suitably dealt with here. But among the more noteworthy
species which ought to be mentioned arc Dyscbirius txttnsus, which has
recently been found on the coast near Clacton-on-Sea. The two hand-
some species of Panageeui^ crux-major and quadripuitulatm, are also occa-
sionally met with, the former at Colchester and the latter on coast sands.
The rare Stenolophus elegans^ Harpalus melancholicus and H. servus have
occurred at Southend, and the last has also several times been taken at

117

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

St. Osyth. The scarce Sphodrus leucophthalmus is occasionally found in
cellars and outhouses at Colchester, and the extremely local Avtophorus
imperialis frequents marshy places near the mouth of the Colne, and has
also been obtained at Ilford and Dagenham. Bracbinus sclopeta has now
been relegated to the list of doubtful British species, as it has not been
captured for many years ; but it is stated on the authority of Mr. Hope
to have been taken at Southend, and there seems to be no reason why
it should not turn up again. Hydropbilus piceus, one of the very largest
of our British beetles, is found in the Epping district. Spercheus emar-
ginatus was taken in some numbers by Mr. Billups near West Ham in
1878, only two or three British examples being previously known. Un-
fortunately the locality has since been destroyed. Aleochara ruficornis
and Microglossa gentilis have been taken in and near nests of Lasius fuli-
ginosus at Colchester, and the extremely rare Myrmedonia bawortbi has
once been obtained in the same locality and also at Southend. In the
extensive family Homalota a reference to the list will show that many of
the better species are found in various parts of the county. Sticboglossa
semirufa is at present unique as British, a single specimen having been
beaten from oak at Colchester in 1898. Tachinus elongates and Mega-
cronus inclinans are also found at Colchester. Velleius dilatatus^ one of
the rarest of our native Stapbylinidez, was captured at Wanstead by Mr.
Willoughby, and exhibited at a meeting of the Entomological Society
on February 5, 1849.

A single specimen of Emus fa'rfus, captured at Southend, was shown
at the Entomological Society's meeting on October 3, 1859. The
extremely rare and handsome Ocypus cyaneus has several times been
captured at Colchester, and O. pedator has been obtained at Southend.
Phllonthus addendus and P. ebeninus^ var. corruscus, are occasionally found
near Colchester. Mr. Waterhouse captured P. fuscus at Southend in
September, 1858, and P. punctus has been taken in ditch rubbish at
St. Osyth and Southend.

The scarce Hister marglnatus has occurred in ants' nests at Colches-
ter. Anisotoma cinnamomea was recorded by Curtis from Saffron Walden,
and A. grandis has been taken at Colchester. Trichopteryx brevicornis has
only been found in Essex, Mr. Billups having taken several specimens in
the West Ham marshes on November 29, 1883. T. guerinii has also
been found in the same locality, and T. ambigua at Loughton. Single
specimens of Gnorimus nobilis were obtained at Colchester in 1899 and
1900, and Mr. West has also taken this fine insect in south Essex.
Agriotes sordidus was first discovered as British by Mr. T. V. Wollaston,
who took it at Southend.

Prionus coriarius is frequently met with on the wing or at rest on
trees near Colchester. Hylotrupes bajulus is stated in Fowler's British
Coleoptera to have occurred at Epping. Clytus arcuatus was obtained at
Loughton by Dr. Power, and has also been reported from Epping and
Hainault. Callidium sanguineum, which is now considered doubtfully
British, was recorded by Mr. S. Stevens as having been captured in an

118

INSECTS

outhouse at Plaistow by Mr. Hindley. Obrium cantharinum was bred in
some numbers by Dr. Power from aspen bark obtained at Wanstead ; it
has also been taken at Epping and Leytonstone. Molorchus minor is occa-
sionally found in the Colchester district, but is decidedly rare ; and
Strangalia quadrifasciata is frequently met with in certain woods in the
Tendring Hundred. 5. revesfita has been beaten from oak in Hainault
Forest (Zoologist, ii. 414). Mesosa nubila has severalt imes been taken in
the woods at St. Osyth. Saperda carcbarias occurs very sparingly at Col-
chester, and Phytcecia cylindrica at Aldham.

Orsodacna lineola and 0. cerasi occur pretty regularly in one restricted
locality at Colchester, where the very rare Zeugopbora flavicollis was
obtained in 18967. The handsome Cryptocephalus sex-punctatus and
Crepidodera nitidula have also been found on two or three occasions in
fair numbers in the Colchester and St. Osyth woods, but are always very
local and generally extremely scarce. Helops caruleus is not often met
with, but a single decaying tree occasionally yields a large number of
specimens, as was the case with a mulberry tree in a Colchester garden,
and an elm tree embedded in the sand on the Clacton coast. Cistela
ceramboides was obtained at Colchester in 1900. Tetratoma desmaresti was
found by Mr. E. W. Janson in Hainault Forest in 18457. Meloe
rugosus was taken in some numbers by Mr. Frederick Smith and the
Rev. H. S. Gorham at Southend, and also by Dr. Power at Prittle-
well.

Lytta vesicatoria, familiarly known as the Spanish Fly or Blister
Beetle, is very rarely met with, but in 1837 appeared in immense num-
bers in the Colchester district, when it is said that every ash tree was
swarming with specimens. In much more recent years the species was
again taken rather freely by Mr. J. G. Grapes at Donyland, but other
entomologists have assiduously searched for it to no purpose. 1 Platyr-
rhinus latirostris was captured in Hainault Forest in 1843, and Choragus
sheppardi has been taken at Southend. Three or four specimens of the
very rare Cleonus albidus have been captured on the coast sands, but none
have been seen recently. The family Bagous contains a number of rare
species, and of these B. fefro, B. cylindrus^ B. argillaceus, B. litnosus and
B. subcarinatus are all found in the county. Balaninus cerasorum may
occasionally be obtained on birch and alder in the Colchester district.
And lastly Larinus sco/ymt, a large and conspicuous south European
insect, was captured at Colchester in 1900, and is recorded here as
in case of its re-occurrence in Britain the date of its first appearance
will be interesting.

It would be possible to extend these notes indefinitely, but the sub-
ject is much too extensive to be treated exhaustively in what purposes to
be simply a local list.

1 This fine insect again occurred in considerable numbers near Colchester in 1901.

119

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

A LIST OF THE COLEOPTERA OCCURRING IN THE COUNTY

ClCINDELIDJE

Colchester

Loughton (W.

Colchester

Cicindela campestris, L.
CARABID.S

Cychrus rostratus, L.
Carabus catenulatus, Scop.

nemoralis, Mull.

violaceus, L.

granulatus, L.

monilis, Fabr.
Calosoma inquisitor, L.

West)
Notiophilus biguttatus, Fabr.'

substriatus, Wat.

4-punctatus, Dej.

aquaticus, L.

palustris, Duft.

rufipes, Curt.
Leistus spinibarbis, Fabr.

fulvibarbis, Dej.

ferrugineus, L.

rufescens, Fabr.
Nebria brevicollis, Fabr.
Blethisa multipunctata, L.

Brit. Col.)
Elaphrus cupreus, Duft. \

riparius, L.
Loricera pilicornis, Fabr. [
Clivina fossor, L. /
Dyschirius thoracicus, Rossi.

nitidus, Dej.

extensus, Putz.

aeneus, Dej.

globosus, Herbst. Colchester
Broscus cephalotes, L. Essex coast
Panagaeus crux-major, L. Colchester

quadripustulatus, Stm.
Badister bipustulatus, Fabr.

sodalis, Duft. Boxted
Chlaenius vestitus, Payk.l

nigricornis, Fabr.
Oodes helopioides, Fabr. J

Stenolophus skrimshiranus, Steph. Essex
coast

elegans, Dej. Tilbury (Janson)

vespertinus, Pz. Essex coast
Acupalpus exiguus, Dej. ~\

var. luridus, Dej. V Colchester

meridianus, L.

consputus, Duft. Essex coast
Bradycellus distinctus, Dej. West Bergholt

verbasci, Duft. \ n , , .

u i- r- r Colchester

harpahnus, Dej. J

similis, Dej. Great Horkesley
Harpalus sabulicola, Pz. Colchester

rotundicollis, Fairm. Essex coast

punctatulus, Duft. Colchester

rupicola, Sturm. Walton (Champion)

puncticollis, Payk. Essex coast

Essex (Fowler,

Colchester

Clacton-
on-Sea

CARABID.S: (continued)

Harpalus rufibarbis, Fabr."l

ruficornis, Fabr. j- Colchester

aeneus, Fabr.

consentaneus, Dej. Essex coast

rubripes, Duft. Colchester and Essex

coast

latus, L. Colchester

melancholicus, Dej. Banks of the

Thames (W. West)

tardus, Pz. Colchester

servus, Duft. St. Osyth and Southend

anxius, Duft. Essex coast

serripes,

ignavus,

picipennis, Duft. Essex (Dawson, Geod.

Brit.)

Dichirotrichus obsoletus, Dei. 1 ~

, D , J \ Lssex coast

pubescens, rayk.

Anisodactylus pceciloides, Steph. Walton-

on-Naze (Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Zabrus gibbus, Fabr. Colchester and Boxted
Stomis pumicatus, Pz. \

Platyderus ruficollis, Marsh.
Pterostichus cupreus, L.

versicolor, Sturm

\ St. Osyth

Essex coast
Colchester

Colchester

s, Sch. \
is, Duft. J

Colchester

madidus, Fabr.
vulgaris, L.
nigrita, Fabr.
minor, Gyll.

Colchester

strenuus, Pz.

picimanus, Duft.

inaequalis, Marsh.

vernalis, Gyll.

striola, Fabr.
Amara apricaria, Sturm

spinipes, Auct. /

convexiuscula, Marsh. Essex coast

bifrons, Gyll. ]

ovata, Fabr. J- Colchester

similata, Gyll.J

tibialis, Payk. Essex coast

lunicollis, Schiod

iamiliaris, Duft.

lucida, Duft.

trivialis, Gyll.

communis, Pz. > Colchester

continua, Thorns.

plebeia, Gyll.
Calathus cisteloides, Pz.

fuscus, Fabr.

mollis, Marsh.

melanocephalus, L.

piceus, Marsh. ^
Taphria nivalis, Pz.

Pristonychus terricola, Herbst \ Colchester
Sphodrus leucophthalmus, L.
Anchomenus angusticollis, Fabr

Essex coast

120

INSECTS

Colchester

CARABID^ (continued)

Anchomenus dorsalis, Mall.

albipes, Fabr.

oblongus, Sturm

marginatus, L.

sexpunctatus, L. Epping (E. Doubleday)

parumpunctatus, Fabr.

atratus, Duft.

viduus, Pz.

var. moestus, Duft.

micans, Nic.

fuliginosus, Pz.
- gracilis, Gyll.

thoreyi, Dej.

puellus, Dej.
Olisthopus rotundatus, Payk.
Lymnaeum nigropiceum, Marsh. Southend

(Janson)
Bembidium rufescens, Gu6r.'

obtusum, Sturm

guttula, Fabr.

mannerheimi, Sahl.

biguttatum, Fabr.

riparium, Ol.

zneum, Germ.

fumigatum, Duft. Dagenham (Hudson-

Beare)

clarki, Daws. Essex coast
articulatum, Pz. Loughton (Lewcock)

Colchester

CARABID.* (continued)
Demetrias atricapillus, L.
Dromius linearis, Ol.

agilis, Fabr.

meridionals, Dej.

quadrimaculatus, L.

quadrinotatus, Pz.

melanocephalus, Dej.

nigriventris, Thorns.
Blechms maurus, Sturm
Metabletus foveola, Gyll.

truncatellus, L.

obscuro-guttatus, Duft.J
Lionychus quadrillum,

Dutt.
Polystichus vittatus,

Brull.
Brachinus crepitans, L. Colchester

sclopeta, Fabr. Southend (Hope)
HALIPLIDJE

Brychius elevatus, Pz. Colchester
Haliplus fulvus, Fabr. Donyland

variegatus, Sturm. Rainham (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

ruficollis, DeG. Colchester
fluviatilis, Aube. North Woolwich

(West)
Cnemidotus impressus, Fabr. Donyland

Colcheste

Essex coast

Colchester

Southend (Fowler,
Brit. Col.)

mnmum, Fabr. Essex coast

normannum, Dej.

gilvipes, Sturm

lampros, Herbst.

nitidulum, Marsh

quadriguttatum, Fabr.

quadrimaculatum, Gyll.-

lunatum, Duft. Rainham (Lewcock)

concinnum, Steph. \

femoratum, Sturm V Colchester

littorale, Ol.

pallidipenne, 111. Essex coast (Dawson,

Geod. Brit.)

ephippium, Marsh. St. Osyth

flam mu la turn, Clairv. Colchester

varium, Ol. Essex coast

paludosum, Pz. North Woolwich (West)
Tachypus flavipes, L. Colchester
Trechus discus, Fabr. Boxted

lapidosus, Daws. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

minutus, Fabr. \
Patrobus excavatus, Payk.J
Pogonus littoralis, Duft.

chalceus, Marsh.
Masoreus wetterhalii, Gyll. J
Odacantha melanura, Payk. I/ford (Cham-
pion)

Lebia chloroccphala, Hoff. Colchester
ACtophorus imperialis, Germ. 1 Colne
Demetrias unipunctatus, Germ./ marshes

Colchester

Essex coast

Pelobius tardus, Herbst. Donyland
DYTISCID^B

Noterus clavicornis, DeG. Boxted

sparsus, Marsh. Colne marshes
Laccophilus interruptus, Pz. Boxted
Bidessus geminus, Fabr. North Woolwich

(West)

Hyphydrus ovatus, L. \
Coelambus inaequalis, Fabr. f

decoratus, Gyll. North Woolwich

(West)

- confluens, Fabr.

parallelogrammus, Ahr.

impressopunctatus, Sch.
Deronectes depressus, Fabr.

1 2-pustulatus, Fabr.
Hydroporus pictus, Fabr.

granularis, L.

- rivalis, Gyll. Hainault (J. S. Nor-

man)

- halensis, Fabr. \

dorsalis, Fabr. /

umbrosus, Gyll. Hainault (J. S. Nor-

man)

angustatus, Sturm
gyllenhali, SchiOd.
palustris, L.
erythrocephalus, L.
longulus, Muls.
memnonius, Nic.
nigrita, Fabr.

Colchester

121

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Colchester

DYTISCIDJE (continued)

Hydroporous discretus, Fairm. Birdbrook
(Power)

pubescens, Gyll.

planus, Fabr.

lituratus, Fabr.
Agabus biguttatus, Ol.

paludosus, Fabr.

nebulosus, Forst.

conspersus, Marsh.

femoralis, Payk. Walthamstow (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

abbreviates, Fabr. Hainault (J. S. Nor-

man)

HYDROPHILID^: (continued)

Limnebius truncatellus, Thorns. 'I

sturmii, Gyll.

Colchester

chalconotus, Pz.

bipustulatus, L.
Ilybius fuliginosus, Fabr.)

fenestratus, Fabr. Epping (E. Double-

day)

ater, De G. 1 ,-, , ,

,., , J- Colchester

obscurus, Marsh. J

Copelatus agilis, Fabr. ] p .

Rhantus exoletus, Forst. V A? r ui j \
c ' , (E. Doubleday)

pulverosus, Steph. J

notatus, Berg. North Woolwich (West)

adspersus, Fabr. Epping (E. Double-

day)

Colymbetes fuscus, L. Colchester
Dytiscus punctulatus, Fabr. Epping (Lew-
cock)

marginalis, L. "j

circumflexus, Fabr. J- Colchester
Acilius sulcatus, L. J

GYRINID.S:

Gyrinus elongatus, Aub6. Harwich (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)

marinus, Gyll. Colchester
HYDROPHILID.S:

Hydrophilus piceus, L. \ North Woolwich
Hydrous caraboides, L. J (West)
Hydrobius fuscipes, L. Colchester

oblongus, Herbst 1

T> o , i r Lssex coast

raracymus nigroaeneus, Sahl. J

Anacasna limbata, Fabr. "|

globulus, Payk. \ Colchester
Philhydrus testaceus, Fabr.J

maritimus, Thorns. Essex coast

nigricans, Zett.

melanocephalus, Ol.

coarctatus, Gredl.
Cymbiodyta ovalis, Thorns.
Helochares lividus, Forst.
Laccobius sinuatus, Mots.]

alutaceus, Thorns. J- Colchester
- bipunctatus, Fabr. J

Berosus luridus, L. Epping (E. Doubleday)

affinis, Brulle\ Rainham (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

spinosus, Stev. Essex coast

Colchester

Donyland

papposus.

Muls.

- Colchester

West Ham

Colchester

nitidus, Marsh.
Spercheus emarginatus, Schall.

(Billups)
Helophorus rugosus, Ol.

nubilus, Fabr.

intermedius, Muls. Walton-on-Naze

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)
aquaticus, L. Colchester
dorsalis, Marsh. North Woolwich

(West)

aeneipennis, Thorns. Colchester

affinis, Marsh. Northey Isle (Janson)

brevipalpis, Bedel.
Hydrochus angustatus, Germ. I
Octhebius marinus, Payk. \ Colchester

pygmaeus, Fabr.

bicolon, Germ.

rufimarginatus, Steph. Birdbrook (Ent.

xvii. 1 60)

exaratus, Muls. Essex coast

aeneus, Steph. Birdbrook (Power)

asratus, Steph. Southend (Ent. xvii.

1 60)

punctatus, Steph. Essex coast
Hydraena testacea, Curt. Epping (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

riparia, Kug. Colchester

nigrita, Germ. Epping
Cyclonotum orbiculare, Fabr. 1
Sphaeridium scarabaeoides, Fabr. V Colchester

bipustulatum, Fabr.

Cercyon littoralis, Gyll. Essex coast

depressus, Steph. North Woolwich

(West)

haemorrhous, Gyll.

haemorrhoidalis, Herbst

obsoletus, Gyll.

flavipes, Fabr.

lateralis, Marsh.

melanocephalus, L.

unipunctatus, L.

quisquilius, L.

nigriceps, Marsh. > Colchester

pygmaeus, 111.

terminatus, Marsh.

analis, Payk.

lugubris, Payk.
Megasternum boletophagum,

Marsh.
Cryptopleurum atomarium,

Fabr.
STAPHYLINID.S

Aieochara ruficornis, Grav.]

fuscipes, Fabr. j- Colchester
- lata, Grav.

brevipennis, Grav. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

122

INSECTS

Colchester

Birdbrook

Colchester

Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

(Fow-

STAPHYLINID.* (continued)
Aleochara bipunctata, Ol. ^

cuniculorum, Kr.

lanuginosa, Grav.

succicola, Thorns.

nitida, Grav.

grisea, Kr.

algarum, Faur.

obscurella, Er.
Microglossa suturalis, Sahl.

nidicola, Fairm.

gentilis, Mark. Colchester,

(Power)
Oxypoda spectabilis, Mark.

vittata, Mark.

opaca, Grav.

alternans, Grav.

exoleta, Er.

lentula, Er.

umbrata, Grav.

nigrina, Wat.

longiuscula, Er.

recondita, Kr.

Col.)

hzmorrhoa, Mann. Colchester

waterhousei, Rye. Weit Ham

Icr, Brit. Col.)

annularis, Sahl. Colchester

brachyptera, Steph. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Thiasophila angulata, Er. Southend (Gor-
ham)

inquilina, Mark. Birdbrook (Power)
Ischnoglossa corticina, Er.l
Stichoglossa semirufa, Er. V Colchester
Ocyusa maura, Er.

picina, Aub. Dagenham (Hudson-

Beare)
Phlceopora reptans, Grav.

corticalis, Grav.
Ocalea badia, Er.
Ilyobates nigricollis, Payk.
Calodera nigrita, Mann.

riparia, Er.

zthiops, Grav.
Chilopora longitarsis, Steph.
Atemeles emarginatus, Payk.
Myrmedonia haworthi, Steph.

Southend (Gorham)

collaris, Payk.

limbata, Payk.

funesta, Grav.

humeralis, Grav.

lugens, Grav.

laticollis, Mark.
Astilbus canaliculatus, Fabr.
Callicerus obscurus, Grav.

rigidicornis, Er.

Notothecta confusa, Mark. Birdbrook
(Power)

Colchester

> Colchester

Colchester

Colchester,

STAPHYLINID.* (continued)
Alianta incana, Er. )
Homalota gregaria, Er. /

luteipes, Er. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

fallax, Kr.

luridipennis, Mann.

gyllenhali, Xhoms.

hygrotopora, Kr.

elongatula, Grav.
volans, Scrib.
vestita, Grav.

silvicola, Fuss. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.
Col.)

vicina, Steph. Colchester

pagana, Er. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.
Col.)

graminicola, Gyll. Colchester

halobrectha, Sharp. Northey Isle (O.
E. Jansen)

puncticeps, Thorns. )

occulta, Er. /

fungivora, Thorns. Loughton (Cham-
pion)

nigella, Er.

angustula, Gyll.

- linearis, Grav.

- pilicornis, Thorns.

circellaris, Grav.

asgra, Heer

- immersa, Heer

cuspidata, Er.

gemina, Er.

- analis, Grav.

decipiens, Sharp. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

soror, Kr. Loughton (Champion), Col-

chester

- depressa, Gyll.

hepatica, Er.

- aeneicollis, Sharp \- Colchester

- euryptera, Steph.

trinotata, Kr.

xanthopus, Thorns. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

triangulum, Kr. "1

fungicola, Thorns./

ignobilis, Sharp. Loughton (Champion)

coriaria, Kr. Colchester

sodalis, Er. Loughton (Champion)

palustris, Kies. Northey Isle (Janson)

corvina, Thorns. Loughton (Cham-
pion)

atomaria, Kr. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.
Col.)

autumnal is, Er. "I

sericea, Muls. /

indubia. Sharp. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.
Col.)

atricolor, Sharp. Colchester

Colchester

123

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

STAPHYLINID^; (continued')

Homalota inquinula, Grav. Southend
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

nigra, Kr. Colchester

sordidula, Er. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

canescens, Sharp. Loughton (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

villosula, Kr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

cinnamoptera, Thorns."! Loughton

cadaverina, Bris. J (Champion)

marcida, Er. Colchester

intermedia, Thorns. Epping (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

longicornis, Grav.l

sordida, Marsh. J- Colchester

testudinea, Er. J

muscorum, Bris. Loughton (Champion)

laticollis, Steph. Colchester

montivagans, Woll. Birdbrook (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

fungi, Grav. 1 n , ,

/-i I u-i- T? r Colchester

Gnypeta labilis, Er.J

Xenusa uvida, Er. 1 ,-,

- sulcata, Kies. } Es "* ""
Falagria sulcata, Payk. Colchester

sulcatula, Grav. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

thoracica, Curt. Southend (Gorham)

obscura, Grav.
Autalia impressa, Ol.

rivularis, Grav.
Encephalus complicans, Westw.
Gyrophaena affinis, Mann.

minima, Er.

Isevipennis, Kr.

lucidula, Er.

strictula, Er.
Agaricochara laevicollis, Kr.

Euryusa laticollis, Heer. Loughton (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)

Leptusa rumida, Er.

Sipalia ruficollis, Er.

Bolitochara bella, Mark. |

Phytosus spinifer, Curt.

Diglossa mersa, Hal. Southend (Fowler,
Brit. Col.)

Hygronoma dimidiata, Grav."|

Oligota pusillima, Grav. j- Colchester

punctulata, Heer.

flavicornis, Lac. Wanstead (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
Myllaena dubia, Grav. Colchester

intermedia, Er. Essex coast

brevicornis, Matth. Colchester
Gymnusa brevicollis, Payk. Loughton (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)

Hypocyptus discoideus, Er. Dagenham
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

Colchester

STAPHYLINID^ (continued)
Conosoma littoreum, L.

pubescens, Grav.

immaculatum, Steph.

pedicularium, Grav.

lividum, Er.
Tachyporus obtusus, L.

pallidus, Sharp.

chrysomelinus, L.

hypnorum, Fabr.

pusillus, Grav.

brunneus, Fabr.
Cilea silphoides, L.
Tachinus humeralis, Grav.

rufipes, L.

subterraneus, L.

marginellus, Fabr. Colchester

elongatus, Gyll.
Megacronus analis, Fabr.

inclinans, Grav.
Bolitobius lunulatus, L.

trinotatus, Er.

pygmaeus, Fabr.
Mycetoporus splendens,

Marsh.

lepidus, Grav.

longulus, Mann.

angularis, Rey.

clavicornis, Steph.

splendidus, Grav.
Habrocerus capillaricornis,

Grav.
Heterothops binotata, Er. Essex coast

dissimilis, Grav. \

quadripunctula, Gyll./

Velleius dilatatus, Fabr. Wanstead (Whit-
tingham)

Quedius microps, Grav. Loughton (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)

lateralis, Grav. "1

mesomelinus, Marsh. J- Colchester

var. fageti, Thorns. J

brevicornis, Thorns. Birdbrook (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

cruentus, Ol. Colchester

scitus, Grav. Birdbrook and Loughton

(Power)

cinctus, Payk. ^

brevis, Er.

fuliginosus, Grav.

tristis, Grav.

molochinus, Grav.

picipes, Mann.

nigriceps, Kr. Colchester

fumatus, Steph.

maurorufus, Grav.

umbrinus, Er.

suturalis, Kies.

scintillans, Grav.

rufipes, Grav. j

Colchester

124

INSECTS

Colchester

STAPHYLINID.* (continued)
Quedius attenuatus, Gyll. 1

semiaeneus, Steph.

boops, Grav.
Creophilus maxillosus, L.

Emus hirtus, L. Southend (Haward)
Leistotrophus nebulosus, Fabr.

murinus, L.

Staphylinus pubescens, DeG. North Wool-
wich (West)

stercorarius, Ol.

cassareus, Ceder.
Ocypus olens, Mall.

similis, Fabr.

cyaneus, Payk.

brunnipes, Fabr.

- fu scat us, Grav.

cupreus, Rossi

pedator, Grav. Southend (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

ater, Grav. Essex coast

morio, Grav.

compressus, Marsh.
Philonthus splendens, Fabr.

laminatus, Creutz.

seneus, Rossi

proximus, Kr.

addendus, Sharp.

carbonarius, Gyll.

- decorus, Grav.

- politus, Fabr.

varius, Gyll.

var. bimaculatus, Grav.

marginatus, Fabr.

albipes, Grav.

umbratilis, Grav.

cephalotes, Grav.

fimetarius, Grav.

sordidus, Grav.

- fuscus, Grav. Southend, 1858 (Water-

house)

ebeninus, Grav.

var. corruscus, Grav.

debilis, Grav.

sanguinolentus, Grav.

crucntatus, Gmel.

longicornis, Steph.

varians, Payk.

agilis, Grav.

ventralis, Grav.

discoideus, Grav.

quisquiliarius, Gyll.

var. dimidiatus, Er.

splendidulus, Grav. "1

thermarum, Aubc J

micans, Grav. \

nigritulus, Grav. I Colchester

trossulus, Nord. J

punctus, Grav. North Essex coast,

Southend district (West)

Colchester

Essex coast

Colchester

I Colchester

Colchester

STAPHYLINID.* (continued)
Cafius xantholoma, Grav. \

sericeus, Holme. J
Xantholinus fulgidus, Fabr. Birdbrook

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

glabratus, Grav. ")

punctulatus, Payk. J

tricolor, Fabr. Essex coast

linearis, Ol. Colchester
Leptacinus parumpunctatus, Gyll. Bird-
brook (Fowler, Brit. Col.)

batychrus, Gyll.

linearis, Grav.

formicetorum, Mark.
Baptolinus alternans, Grav.
Othius fulvipennis, Fabr.

melanocephalus, Grav.

myrmecophilus, Kies.
Lathrobium elongatum, L.

boreale, Hoch.

fulvipenne, Grav.

brunnipes, Fabr.

longulum, Grav.

punctatum, Zett. llford (Champion)

terminatum, Grav.

multipunctum, Grav.
Achenium depressum, Grav.

humilc, Nic.

Cryptobium glaberrimum, Herbst. Essex

coast
Stilicus mfipes, Germ.^

orbiculatus, Er. > Colchester

affinis, Er.

Scopxus sulcicollis, Steph. Southend (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)
Medon fusculus, Mann. Essex coast

propinquus, Bris.

obsoletus, Nord. > Colchester
Lithocharis ochracea, Grav.J

Sunius filiformis, Latr. Southend (Gor-
ham)

intermedius, Er. \

angustatus, Payk. > Colchester
Paederus littoralis, Grav.J

riparius, L. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)
Evzsthetus scaber, Thorns.^

ruficapillus, Lac.
Dianous coerulescens, Gyll.
Stenus bipunctatus, Er.

bimaculatus, Gyll.

juno, Fabr.

speculator, Er. ) Colchester

providus, Er.

buphthalmus, Grav.

incrassatus, Er.

melanarius, Steph.

circularis, Grav.

declaratus, Er.

carbonarius, Gyll. llford (Champion)

125

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

STAPHYLINID^E (continued]
Stenus argus, Grav. )

brunnipes, Steph.

subaeneus, Er.

ossium, Steph. > Colchester

fuscicornis, Er.

impressus, Germ.

aerosus, Er.

erichsoni, Rye. Dagenham (Hudson-

Beare)

pallipes, Grav.

flavipes, Steph.

pubescens, Steph.

binotatus, Ljun.

canescens, Ros.

bifoveolatus, Gyll.

nitidiusculus, Steph.

picipennis, Er. Colchester

picipes, Steph.

cicindeloides, Grav.

similis, Herbst

solutus, Er.

tarsalis, Ljun.

paganus, Er.

latifrons, Er.

fornicatus, Steph. Loughton (Fowler,

Brit. Col.}

Oxyporus rufus, L. Colchester
Bledius spectabilis, Kr. Essex coast

longulus, Er. Southend (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

opacus, Block. Essex coast

atricapillus, Germ. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
Platystethus arenarius, Fourc.'

cornutus, Gyll.

capito, Heer
Oxytelus rugosus, Grav.

insecatus, Grav. \ Colchester

sculptus, Grav.

laqueatus, Marsh.

inustus, Grav.

sculpturatus, Grav.

maritimus, Thorns.

Essex coast

nitidulus, Grav.

complanatus, Er.

tetracarinatus, Block.
Haploderus ccelatus, Grav.
Trogophkeus bilineatus, Steph.

rivularis, Mots.

elongatulus, Er.

fuliginosus, Grav.

foveolatus, Sahl.

Colchester

corticinus. Grav.

Essex coast
Colchester
Mull.

Syntomium aeneum, Mull. Colchester,
Southend (Gorham)

Coprophilus striatulus, Fabr. Col-
chester

Acrognathus mandibularis, Gyll. Epping
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

STAPHYLINIDJE (continued)
Deleaster dichrous, Grav.
Lesteva longelytrata, Goeze

pubescens, Mann.

sicula, Er.

Acidota cruentata, Mann. ; Colchester
Olophrum piceum, Gyll.
Lathrimaeum atrocephalum,
Gyll.

unicolor, Steph.

Micralymma brevipenne, Gyll. Essex

coast

Philorhinum sordidum, Steph.
Coryphium angusticolle, Steph.
Omalium rivulare, Payk.

riparium, Thorns.

exiguum, Gyll.

oxyacanthas, Grav.

excavatum, Steph.

cassum, Grav.

nigriceps, Kies. \ ^ , ,

1 r ' ) Colchester

runpes, rourc.

iopterum, Steph.

concinnum, Marsh.
Hapalaraea pygmasa, Gyll.
Anthobium torquatum, Marsh.
Proteinus ovalis, Steph.
Megarthrus affinis, Mill.

sinuatocollis, Lac.
Phloeobium clypeatum, Mtlll.

PSELAPHID.*

Pselaphus heisei, Herbst

Tychus niger, Payk.

Bythinus puncticollis, Denny \ Colchester

bulbifer, Reich.

curtisi, Denny

Batrisus venustus, Reich. Loughton (Cham-

pion)
Bryaxis sanguinea, L. Colchester

waterhousei, Rye. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

fossulata, Reich. Colchester

helferi, Schmidt. Essex coast

haematica, Reich. "1 , ,

\ Colchester

juncorum, Leach J

impressa, Pz. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)
Bibloporus bicolor, Denny. Loughton

(Champion)
Euplectus karsteni, Reich. Loughton (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

signatus, Reich. "I

sanguineus, Denny j- Colchester

piceus, Mots.

Colchester

Neuraphes elongatulus, Mtlll. "j

angulatus, Mall. }

sparshalli, Denny

Scydma?nus godarti, Latr. Loughton (Cham-
pion)

126

INSECTS

Colcheste

SCYDM/ENID* (continued)

Scydmznus scutellaris, Moll. \

collaris, Moll. J

power!, Fowler. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

exilis, Er. Loughton (Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Eumicrus tarsatus, Mall.

Eutheia schaumi, Kies.

plicata, Gyll.
Cephennium thoracicum, Mttll.j

SILPHIDX

Calyptomerus dubius, Marsh. '
Agathidium nigripenne, Kug.

atrum, Payk.

seminulum, L.

Izvigatum, Er.

marginatum, Sturm.

varians, Beck.

convexum, Sharp.

Colchester

nigrinum, Sturm. Colchester, Loughton

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Amphicyllis globus, Fabr."|
Liodes humeralis, Kug. j- Colchester

orbicularis, Herbst

Anisotoma cinnamomea, Er. Saffron IPal-
den (Curtis)

oblonga, Er. (grandis,

Fairm).

dubia, Kug. Colchester

punctulata, Gyll.

calcarata, Er.

curvipes, Schmidt. Northey Isle (O.

Janson)

Colenis dentipes, Gyll. Colchester
Hydnobius strigosus, Schmidt. Birdbrook

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Necrophorus humator, Fabr.'

mortuorum, Fabr.

vestigator, Heer Colchester

ruspator, Er.

vespillo, L.

Silpha tristis, 111. Southend (Fowler, Brit.
Col.)

obscura, L.

quadripunctata, L.

opaca, L.

thoracica, L.

rugosa, L.

sinuata, Fabr.

dispar, Herbst

atrata, L.

var. brunnea, Herbst Colchester
Choleva cisteloides, FrOhl.

agilis, 111.

velox, Spence

wilkini, Spence

anisotomoides, Spence
- fusca, Pz.

nigricans, Spence

morio, Fabr.

Colchester

Harwich (Fowler,
Southend (Fowler,

SILPHID.AE (continued)

Choleva grandicollis, Er.
nigrita, Er.
tristis, Pz.
kirbyi, Spence

chrysomeloides, Pz.

fumata, Spence

watsoni, Spence
Ptomaphagus sericeus, Fabr.
Colon serripes, Sahl.

- brunneum, Latr. Wrabness (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
HISTERID.S

Hister quadrimaculatus, L. Essex
coast

merdarius, Hoff. Epping Forest (F. B.

Jennings)

cadaverinus, HofF.
fpurpurascens, Herbst

~\ var. niger, Er.

marginatus, Er.

neglectus, Germ.

Brit. Col.)

bissexstriatus, Fabr.

Brit. Col.)

12-striatus, Schr. "j

bimaculatus, L. f Colchester
Carcinops minima, Aubi J

Paromalus flavicornis, Herbst. Southend

(Gorham)
Dendrophilus punctatus, Herbst. Hainault

(Norman)

- pygmsus, L. )

Saprinus nitidulus, Payk. J- Colchester

zeneus, Fabr.

immundus, Gyll. Loughton (West)

virescens, Payk. Colchester

rugifrons, Payk. Southend, Harwich

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

maritimus, Steph. Essex coast
Abraeus globosus, HofF. Near Maldon

granulum, Er. IPalthamstow (Jan-

son)
SCAPHIDIIDJE

Scaphidium quadrimaculatum,]

Ol. [ Colchester

Scaphiosoma agaricinum, L. J
TRICHOPTERYGID.S

Trichopteryx brevicornis,| ^ Ram

Mots " .... (Billups)

guerinn, All.

ambigua, Matth. Loughton (West)
Actidium coarctatum, Hal. Walton-on-

Naze (Champion)

Ptenidium fuscicorne, Er. I n , ,

. Y Colchester

evanescens, Marsh. J

CORYLOPHID^

Orthoperus kluki, Wank. Loughton (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)
Sericoderus lateralis, Gyll. Colchester

127

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

COCCINELLIDJE

Subcoccinella 24-punctata, L. Colchester,

Southend

Hippodamia variegata, Goeze. Colchester
Anisosticta I g-punctata, L. Essex coast
Adalia obliterata, L. Birch

bipunctata, L. Colchester
Anatis ocellata, L. Essex coast
Coccinella decempunctata,

n-punctata, L.

7-punctata, L.
Halyzia 14-guttata, L.

conglobata, L.

22-punctata, L.
Micraspis i6-punctata, L.
Hyperaspis reppensis, Herbst f Colchester
Scymnus nigrinus, Kug.

pygmaeus, Fourc.

frontalis, Fabr.

suturalis, Thunb.

testaceus, Mots.

haemorrhoidalis, Herbst

capitatus, Fabr.

minimus, Rossi. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Chilocorus similis, Rossi
Exochomus quadripustulatus, L. [

Colchester

Rhizobius litura, Fabr.
Coccidula rufa, Herbst

scutellata, Herbst
ENDOMYCHID^E

Symbiotes latus, Redt. Southend (Gorham)
Mycetaea hirta, Marsh.
Alexia pilifera, Mall.
Lycoperdina bovistae, Fabr.
Endomychus coccineus, L.
EROTYLID.S:

Dacne humeralis, Fabr.

rufifrons, Fabr.
Triplax russica, L.
Cyrtotriplax bipustulata, Fab:

PHALACRIDJE

Phalacrus corruscus, Payk. Colchester

brisouti, Rye. Rainham (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

caricis, Sturm. Boxted

Olibrus corticalis, Pz.) , ,

T-. , \ Colchester

aeneus, va.br. }

bicolor, Fabr. Harwich (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

millefolii, Payk. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
Eustilbus testaceus, Pz. Colchester

oblongus, Er. Essex coast

MlCR.OPEPLID.ffi

Micropeplus staphylinoides,"!

Marsh. I Colchester

margaritae, Duv.
NITIDULID.S:

Brachypterus urticae, Fabr. Colchester

NITIDULID^E (continued)
Cercus pedicularius, L. \

bipustulatus, Payk. ( Colchester

rufilabris, Latr. )

Epurasa decemguttata, Fabr. Birdbrook
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

asstiva, L.

melina, Er.

florea, Er.

deleta, Er.

obsoleta, Fabr.

pusilla, Er.

Micrurula melanocephala, Marsh. Lough-
ton (Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Nitidula bipustulata, L.

rufipes, L.

quadripustulata, Fabr.
Soronia punctatissima, 111.

grisea, L.
Amphotis marginata, Er.
Omosita colon, L.

discoidea, Fabr.
Thalycra sericea, Sturm.
Pocadius ferrugineus, Fabr.
Pria dulcamaras, Scop.
Meligethes rufipes, Gyll.

lumbaris, Sturm. Loughton (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

fulvipes, Bris. Southend (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

aeneus, Fabr.
viridescens, Fabr.
ovatus, Sturm.

picipes, Sturm. ,-, , , .

.-, > Colchester

erythropus, Gyll.

Cychramus luteus, Fabr.
Cryptarcha strigata, Fabr.

imperialis, Fabr.

Ips quadriguttata, Fabr.) Hainault

quadripustulata, L. j (Norman)
TROGOSITID^

Tenebrioides mauritanicus, L. Colchester
COLYDIID.E:

Aglenus brunneus, Gyll. Birdbrook (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)

Orthocerus muticus, L. Essex coast
Ditoma crenata, Fabr. Hainault (Norman)
Cicones variegatus, Hellw. Loughton
(Champion)

Cerylon histeroides, Fabr.~> n , ,
', . cur Colchester

ferrugmeum, Steph. )

CUCVJIDJE

Rhizophagus perforatus, Er."!

ferrugineus, Payk. j- Colchester

bipustulatus, Fabr.

Pediacus dermestoides, Fabr. Loughton
(Power)

Lasmophloeus bimaculatus, Payk. Lough-
ton (Fowler, Brit. Col.)

pusillus, Sch6n. Maldon (Fitch)

128

INSECTS

Colcheste

Hainault Forest

> Colchester

CUCUJID.* (continued)

Psammcechus bipunctatus, "1

Fabr. V Colcheiter

Silvanus surinamensis, L. J

unidentatus, Fabr. Hainault (Norman)
MONOTOMID.*

Monotoma formicetorum,'
Thorns.

spinicollis, Aub

picipes, Herbst

sub-4-foveolata, Wat.

(E. W. Janson)
LATHRIDIID.*

Anommatus 12-striatus, Mull."!
Lathridius lardarius, DeG. j- Colchester
Coninomus nodifer, Westw. J

carinatus, Gyll. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Enicmus minutus, L.) /-, , ,

.-(. } Colchester

transvcrsus, Ol. j

rugosus, Herbst. Loughton (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

testaceus, Steph.
Cartodere ruficollis, Marsh.

elongata, Curt.
Corticaria pubescens, Gyll.

crenulata, Gyll.

denticulata, Gyll. ;

serrata, Payk. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

elongata, Humm. Colchester
Melanophthalma transversalis, Gyll. South-
end (Fowler, Brit. Col.)

fuscula, Humm.l /> , ,
,,.'.-, } Colchester

rulvipes, Com. J

CRYPTOPHAGID.*

Telmatophilus caricis, Ol. St. Osyth

typhae, Fall. "I
Antherophagus nigricornis, j- Colchester

Fabr. J

pallens, Gyll. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

Cryptophagus lycoperdi, '
Herbst

setulosus, Sturm

pilosus, Gyll.

saginatus, Sturm

umbratus, Er.

scanicus, L.

bad i us, Sturm

den tat us, Herbst

distinguendus, Sturm
- bicolor, Sturm

Micrambe vini, Pz.

Caenoscelis ferruginea, Sahl. Birdbrook

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Atomaria fimctarii, Herbst

barani, Bris.

nigriventris, Steph.

umbrina, Er.

> Colchester

Colcheste

Colchester

CRYPTOPHAGID.* (continued)

Atomaria linearis, Steph. Colchester and
Maldon

fuscipes, Gyll.

peltata, Kr.

fuscata, SchOn.

atra, Herbst

atricapilla, Steph.

berolinensis, Kr.
mesomelas, Herbst
gutta, Steph.

apicalis, Er. Essex coast

analis, Er. \

ruficornis, Marsh./

versicolor, Er. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

Ephistemus gyrinoides, Marsh. Colchester
MYCETOPHAGID^

Typhsea fumata, L. Colchester
Triphyllus suturalis, Fabr. West Bergholt

punctatus, Fabr. Boxted

Litargus bifasciatus, Fabr. Loughton (West)
Mycetophagus quadripustulatus, L. St. Osyth

piceus, Fabr. Donyland

atomarius, Fabr. Effing (F.

Jennings)

populi, Fabr. Effing (G. Stockley)

quadriguttatus, Mall. Colchester

multipunctatus, Hellw. Donyland
BYTURID^

Byturus tomentosus, Fabr. Colchester
DERMESTID.S

Dermestes vulpinus, Fabr.") , ,

} Colchester

munnus, L.

undulatus, Brahm. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

lardarius, L. West Bergholt
Attagenus pellio, L.

Megatoma undata, Er. i ~ ,
T^. . T, ,' \ Colchester

I iresias serra, rabr.

Anthrenus claviger, Er.

BTULHIDJB

Byrrhus pilula, L.

fasciatus, Fabr.
Cytilus varius, Fabr.
Simplocaria semistriata, Fabr.
Limnichus pygmaeus, Sturm. Harwich

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Aspidiphorus orbiculatus, Gyll. Colchester

Colchester

Elmis zeneus, Mull.l

volkmari, Pz.

cupreus, Mull. West Bergholt
Parnus prolifericornis, Fabr. Essex coast

auriculatus, Pz. Colchester
HETEROCERIDJE

Heterocerus flexuosus, Steph. Essex coast

laevigatus, Pz. Colchester

sericans, Kies. )

f*, \ Essex coast

obsoletus, Curt. J

129

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

LUCANIDJE

Lucanus cervus, L. "1 , ,

r-. 11 i j T } Colchester

Dorcus parallelepiped us, LJ

Colchester

/o , , .

Colchester

bten (West)

Onthophagus nutans, Fabr. Loughton
(West)

coenobita, Herbst. Essex coast

vacca, L. Epping (F. B. Jennings)

nuchicornis, L. Donyland
Aphodius erraticus, L.

subterraneus, L.

fossor, L.

haemorrhoidalis, L.

foetens, Fabr.

fimetarius, L.

- ater, DeG.

constans, Duft. Epping Forest (F. B.

Jennings)

granarius, L. \

nitidulus, Fabr./

sordidus, Fabr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

rufescens, Fabr.

lividus, Ol.

porcus, Fabr.

pusillus, Herbst

- merdarius, Fabr.

inquinatus, Fabr.

tessulatus, Payk. Hainault Forest (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

conspurcatus, L.I T ,

T> r Lought

sticticus, Pz. J

punctato-sulcatus, Stm. Colchester

contaminatus, Herbst. Essex coast

zenkeri, Germ. Epping (F. B. Jen-

nings)

luridus, Fabr. \

rufipes, L. V Colchester

depressus, Kug.J

Heptaulacus testudinarius, Fabr. Loughton

(West)

^gialia arenaria, Fabr. Essex coast
Geotrupes typhoeus,

spiniger, Marsh.

stercorarius, L. \ Colchester
Trox sabulosus, L.

scaber, L.

Hoplia philanthus, Ftiss. Donyland

Serica brunnea, L. "I

Rhizotrogus solstitialis, L. j- Colchester

Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.J

Phyllopertha horticola, L. Donyland

Cetonia aurata, L. Colchester

Gnorimus nobilis, L. Colchester, Black-wall

(West)
BUPRESTID.S:

Agrilus angustulus, 111. Colchester

Aphanisticus pusillus, Ol. Southend (Fow-
ler, Brit. Col.)

Trachys troglodytes, Gyll. Loughton (West)

Colchester

THROSCID.S:

Throscus carinifrons, Bonv. Colchester

obtusus, Curt, llford (Champion)
EUCNEMIDJE

Melasis buprestoides, L. Colchester
ELATERID^E

Lacon murinus, L. Essex coast
Cryptohypnus riparius, Fabr. Colchester
Elater praeustus, Fabr. Hainault (Norman)

sanguinolentus, Schr. Epping (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

miniatus, Gorham. Hainault (Norman)

balteatus, L. Donyland

Ischnodes sanguinicollis, Pz. Hainault

(Norman)
Melanotus rufipes, Herbst "j

Athous niger, L. .-, , ,

i iv /^i r Colchester

longicollis, Ol.

haemorrhoidalis, Fabr. '

vittatus, Fabr. St. Osyth
Limonius minutus, L.
Agriotes sputator, L.

obscurus, L.

lineatus, L.

sordidus, 111. Southend (Wollaston)

sobrinus, Kies.

pallidulus, 111.
Dolopius marginatus, L.
Corymbites pectinicornis, L.

tessellatus, Fabr.
- quercus, Gyll.

var. ochropterus, Steph.

holosericeus, Fabr.
- metallicus, Payk.

bipustulatus, L. Wrabness (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Campylus linearis, L. Donyland
DASCILLID.S:

Helodes minuta, L. West Bergholt
Microcara livida, Fabr.
Cyphon coarctatus, Payk.

variabilis, Thunb.

padi, L.

Scirtes hemisphaericus, L..

orbicularis, Pz. Dagenham (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
MALACODERMIDJE

Lampyris noctiluca, L. Colchester

Silis ruficollis, Fabr. Dagenham and Epping

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Podabrus alpinus, Payk.^
Telephorus fuscus, L.

rusticus, Fall.

lividus, L.

pellucidus, Fabr.

nigricans, Mull.

lituratus, Fabr. Essex coast

bicolor, Fabr. \

haemorrhoidalis, Fabr./

oralis, Germ. Essex coast

Colchester

t- Colchester

Colchester

130

INSECTS

caast

Essex coast

MALACODERMID.* (continued)

Telephorus flavilabris, Fall. Colchester

thoracicus, Ol. Northey Island (O. E.

Janson)
Rhagonycha fuscicornis, Ol.\

fulva, Scop.

limbata, Thorns.

pallida, Fabr.
Malthinus punctatus, Fourc.

fasciatus, Ol. ) Colchester

frontalis, Marsh.
Malthodes marginatus, Latr.

minimus, L.
Malachius xneus, L.

bipustulatus, L.

viridis, Fabr.

marginellus, Ol.

Axinotarsus pulicarius, Fabr. Colchester

ruficollis, Ol. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)
Anthocomus rufus, Herbst. Colne marshes

fasciatus, L. \
Dasytes flavipes, Fabr. >- Colchester

aerosus, Kies.
Psilothrix nobilis, 111. \
Dolichosoma lineare, Rossi J
Haplocnemus nigricornis, Fabr. St. Osyth,

Birch
CLERIDJE

Tillus elongatus, L. Colchester
Opilo mollis, L. Loughton (West)
Thanasimus formicarius, L. Hainault

(Norman)
Necrobia ruficollis, Fabr.

violacea, L.

rufipes, De G.
Corynetes coeruleus, De G.

PTINID.S

Ptinus germanus, Fabr. Colchester

lichenum, Marsh. Hainault (Norman)
- fur, L. I

Niptus hololeucus, Fald. > Colchester
Hedobia imperialis, L. J
Dryophilus pusillus, Gyll. Birch
Priobium castaneum, Fabr. \
Anobium domesticum, Fourc. I
Xestobium tessellatum, Fabr. r Colchester
Ernobius mollis, L.
Ochina hederz, Mall. /

Dorcatoma chrysomelina,'

Sturm. Southend

flavicornis, Fabr. (Gorham)
Anitys rubens, HofF.

LYCTIDA

Lyctus canaliculatus, Fabr. Colchester

Colchester

Cis boleti, Scop. )

villosulus, Marsh, j

micans, Fabr. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

CISSID.* (continued)

Cis hispidus, Payk. Essex (Fowler, Brit.
Col.)

bidentatus, Ol. \

alni, Gyll. V Colchester

nitidus, Herbst J

festivus, Pz. Ulting near Maldon

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

fuscatus, Mell. Colchester
Ennearthron affine, Gyll. Loughton (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

cornutum, Gyll. ) /-, ; , ,
n I L i /- ii f Colchester
Ottotemnus glabnculus, Ciyll. )

CERAMBVCID/E

Prionus coriarius, L. Colchester
Aromia moschata, L. Near Chelmsford
Hylotrupes bajulus, L. Epping (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
Callidium violaceum,L. Hainault (Norman)

variabile, L. Colchester

alni, L. Hainault (Norman)

sanguineum, L. Plaistow (Hindley,

recorded by S. Stevens)
Clytus arcuatus, L. Loughton (Power)

arietis, L. Colchester

mysticus, L. Loughton and Chingford

(West)

Gracilia minuta, Fabr. Essex coast
Obrium cantharinum, L. ff^anstead (Power),

Epping and Leytonstone (Stephens)

Molorchus minor, L. )

T? u f
Rhagium inquisitor, rabr. )

bifasciatum, Fabr. Great Horkesley
Toxotus meridianus, Pz. West Bergholt
Leptura scutellata, Fabr. Epping and

Hainault (Fowler, Brit. Col.)

livida, Fabr. Colchester

Strangalia quadrifasciata, L. Colchester
district

revestita, L. Hainault (Norman)

armata, Herbst. Colchester

attenuata, L. Southend (Stephens, Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

nigra, L. Hainault (Norman)

melanura, L.
Grammoptera tabacicolor,

De G.

ruficornis, Fabr.
Leiopus nebulosus, L.
Pogonochaerus bidentatus, Thorns.

- dentatus, Fourc. Colchester
Mesosa nubila, Ol. Colchester district
Saperda carcharias, L. j Ctlthatn .

populnea, L.

Tetrops przusta, L. Colchester
Phytoecia cylindrica, L. Aldham
BRUCHIDA

Bruchus rufimanus, Roh. Colchester

luteicornis, 111. Southend and Maldon

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

t Colchester

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

r , , .

Colchester

BRUCHID.S: (continued)
Bruchus loti, Payk. j

villosulus, Fabr. /
CHRYSOMELIDJE

Orsodacna cerasi, L. 1

lineola, Pz.

var. humeralis, Latr.J
Donacia dentata, Hoppe. Effing (Keeley)

versicolorea, Brahm. Loughton

(West)

dentipes, Fabr. Effing (Keeley)

- limbata, Pz. Northey Isle (O. E.

Janson)

bicolora, Zsch. "j

thalassina, Germ. J- Effing (Keeley)

impressa, Payk. J

simplex, Fabr. Colchester

vulgaris, Zsch. Effing (Keeley)

clavipes, Fabr. )

semicuprea, Pz. )

- cinerea, Herbst. Effing (Keeley)

sericea, L. Colchester

braccata, Scop. Essex coast

affinis, Kunze. Effing (F. B. Jenn-

ings)

Haemonia curtisi, Lac. Essex coast
Zeugophora subspinosa, Fabr. ^

flavicollis, Marsh.
Lema cyanella, L.

lichenis, Vcet.

melanopa, L.
Crioceris asparagi, L.
Clythra quadripunctata, L.
Cryptocephalus sexpunctatus,

bipunctatus, L. var. line-

ola, Fabr. j

aureolus, Suffr. ">

parvulus, Mall. /

moraei, L. Colchester

bilineatus, L. Essex coast

fulvus, Goeze >

- pusillus, Fabr.

labiatus, L.
Timarcha tenebricosa, Fabr.

violaceonigra, De G.
Chrysomela marginalis, Duft. >

marginata, L. Southend (Champion)

banksi, Fabr.

staphylea, L.

polita, L.

- orichalcia, Mall.

haemoptera, L.

varians, Schall.

menthastri, SufFr.

- hyperici, Forst.

Melasoma longicolle, SufFr. \ c n ,
Phytodecta rufipes, De G. J c

olivacea, Forst. Colchester
Gastroidea viridula, De G. Dedham

> Colchester

Colchester

>- Colchester

CHRYSOMELID^ (continued)
Gastroidea polygon!, L.
Plagiodera versicolora, Laich.
Phaedon tumidulus, Germ.

armoraciae, L.

- cochleariae, Fabr.
Phyllodecta cavifrons, Thorns.

vitellinae, L.
Hydrothassa aucta, Fabr.

marginella, L.
Prasocuris junci, Brahm.

phellandrii, L.
Luperus nigrofasciatus, Goeze

rufipes, Scop. Dedham
Lochmasa capreas, L. A

suturalis, Thorns.

crataegi, Forst. J- Colchester
Gallerucella viburni, Payk.

sagittariae, Gyll. J

calmariensis, L. Boxted

tenella, L. Effing (Lewcock)
Adimonia tanaceti, L. Effing (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Sermyla halensis, L. Colchester
Longitarsus absinthii, Kuts. Essex coast

dorsalis, Fabr. Southend (Power)

castaneus, Duft.

luridus, Scop.

suturellus, Duft, var. fusci-

collis, Steph.
atricillus, L.
melanocephalus, All.

- suturalis, Marsh. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

- nasturtii, Fabr. Colchester

ballotae, Marsh. Walton-on-Naze (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

femoralis, Marsh. "1 n , ,

... U f Colchester

pusillus, (jyll. J

jacobasas, Wat. Essex coast

gracilis, Kuts. Colchester

laevis, Duft. Essex coast

pellucidus, Foudr. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Haltica lythri, Aube". Southend (Fowler,
Brit. Col.)

coryli, Brit. Col.

pusilla, Duft.
Hermaeophaga mercurialis,

Bergholt
Phyllotreta consobrina, Curt/

punctulata, Marsh.

atra, Payk.

cruciferae, Goeze

undulata, Kuts.

nemorum, L.

ochripes, Curt.

exclamation is, Thunb.
Aphthona nonstriata, Goeze. Wivenhoe

venustula, Kuts. Colchester

\ Colchester

Fabr.

Wat

Colchester

132

INSECTS

Colchester

Gyll. Loughton

Colchester

CHRYSOMELID.* (continued)

Aphthona atrocoerulea, Steph. Colchester

virescens, Foudr. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Batophila rubi, Payk. West Bergholt
Sphaeroderma testaceum, Fabr.

cardui, Gyll.
Apteropeda orbiculata, Marsh.
Podagrica fuscicornis, L.
Mantura rustica, L.

obtusata, Gyll.
Crepidodera transversa, Marsh.

fcrruginea, Scop.

rufipes, L.

ventralis, 111. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

nitidula, L.

helxines, L.

chloris, Foudr.

aurata, Marsh.

smaragdina, Foudr.
Hippuriphila modeeri, L. (
Chaetocnema aridula,

(Champion)

- hortensis, Fourc. \

Plectroscelis concinna, Marsh. /
Psylliodes chrysocephala, L. Essex coast

napi, Koch. Colchester

cuprea, Koch. West Bergholt

affinis, Payk. Colchester

marcida, 111. Harwich, Southend (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

picina, Marsh. Colchester

Cassida murraea, L. Plaistow marshes
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

nebulosa, L. Colchester

vibex, Fabr. Essex coast

sanguinolenta, Fabr. Southend^

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

vittata, Vill.

nobilis, L.

flaveola, Thunb.

viridis, Fabr.

hemisphaerica,

(West)
TENEBRIONID.*

Blaps mucronata, Latr. Colchester
Crypticus quisquilius, L.
Heliopathes gibbus, Fabr.
Opatrum sabulosum, Gyll.
Microzoum tibiale, Fabr.
Phaleria cadaverina, Fabr.

Heledona agaricola, Fabr. 1 /-. f i

c . -. r . t Co/chester

Scaphidema metallicum, Fabr. J

Alphitophagus quadripustulatus, Steph.

Maldon (Fowler, Brit. Col.)
Tenebrio molitor, L.

obscurus, Fabr.
Gnathocerus cornutus, Fabr.
Tribolium confusum, Duv. .

Epping

Colchester

Herbst. Loughton

Essex coast

Colchester

TENEBRIONID.S (continued)

Palorus melinus, Herbst. Birdbrook (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

Hypophkeus bicolor, Ol. West Bergholt
Helops cceruleus, L. Colchester

pallidus, Curt. Essex coast

striatus, Fourc. Colchester
CISTELID.S

Cistela luperus, Herbst. Wrabness (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)
- ceramboides, L. | ^

murma, L. J
Eryx ater, Fabr. Wivenhoe
Mycetochares bipustulata, 111. Epping

(F. B. Jennings)
LAGRIID.K

Lagria hirta, L. Colchester
MELANDRYID.K

Tetratoma fungorum, Fabr. Boxted

desmaresti, Latr. Hainault (Edward

Janson)

ancora, Fabr. Loughton (West)
Orchesia micans, Pz. Colchester
Clinocara tetratoma, Thorns. Birdbrook

(Power)

Hallomenus humeralis, Pz. "j
Conopalpus testaceus, Ol. > Colchester
Melandrya caraboides, L. J
Abdera quadrifasciata, Steph. Hainault

Salpingus castaneus, Pz. Colchester
Lissodema quadripustulata, Marsh. South-
end (Gorham)
Rhinosimus ruficollis, L. "j

- viridipennis, Steph. j- Colchester

planirostris, Fabr.
OEDEMERID^:

Oedemera nobilis, Scop. West Bergholt

Nascerdes melanura, Schmidt ) ^ .
T , \ Colchester

Ischnomera ccerulea, L.

PYROCHROIDJE

Pyrochroa coccinea, L. Epping (Fowler,
Brit. Col.)

serraticornis, Scop. Colchester
MORDELLID.S

Mordellistena abdominalis, Fabr. Wrab-
ness (Fowler, Brit. Col.)

- humeralis, L. \

- brunnea, Fabr. J- Colchester

pumila, Gyll. J

brevicauda, Boh. Essex coast
Anaspis frontalis, L. '

pulicaria, Costa.

geoffroyi, Mall.

ruficollis, Fabr.

flava, L.

subtestacea, Steph.

maculata, Fourc. ,
RHIPIDOPHORID^

Metoecus paradoxus, L. Colchester

f Colchester

133

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

ANTHICIDJE

Notoxus monoceros, L. 1 c
... ... .i, * hssex coast

Anthicus humihs, Germ. J

floralis, L. Colchester

instabilis, Schmidt. Essex coast

angustatus, Curt. Wrabness, Southend

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

antherinus, L. Colchester
XYLOPHILIDJE

Xylophilus populneus, Fabr. Colchester

M.ELO1DJE

Meloe proscarabaeus, L.\
var. cyaneus, Muls. J

cicatricosus, Leach.

Brit. Col.)

rugosus, Marsh. Southend (Smith

Gorham), Prittlewell (Power)
Lytta vesicatoria, L. Colchester
ANTHRIBID.S:

Brachytarsus varius, Fabr. Colchester
Platyrrhinus latirostris, Fabr. Hainault

(Norman)
Choragus sheppardi, Kirby.

CURCULIONIDJE

Apoderus coryli, L. "j

Attelabus curculionoides, L.
Byctiscus betuleti, Fabr. J

populi, L. St. Osyth
Rhynchites cupreus, L.

Southend (Fowler,

and

Southend

Colchester

aequatus, L.

Colchester

aeneovirens, Marsh.

cceruleus, De G. West Bergholt

minutus, Herbst. Colchester

interpunctatus, Steph. \ Loughton

pauxillus, Germ. J (Lewcock)

nanus, Payk. \

sericeus, Herbst ] Colchester

pubescens, Fabr. J

DeporaUs megacephalus, Germ. Wrabness
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

betulae, L. 1 /-. / ;

. . r< L r Colchester

Apion pomonae, Fabr. J

craccas, L. Dagenham (Fowler, Brit. Col.)

subulatum, Kirby. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

ulicis, Forst. Colchester

genistae, Kirby. Epping (Lewcock)

fuscirostre, Fabr.

malvae, Fabr.

urticarium, Herbst

miniatum, Germ.

haematodes, Kirby

rubens, Steph.

pallipes, Kirby. Birdbrook (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

rufirostre, Fabr. 1

diffbrme, Germ. V Colchester

varipes, Germ. J

laevicolle, Kirby. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Colchester

CURCULIONID^E (continued)

Apion schfinherri, Boh. Southend (Rye and
Gorham)

apricans, Herbst. Colchester

bohemani, Thorns. Essex coast

trifolii, L.

dichroum, Bedel

nigritarse, Kirby

stolidum, Germ.

hookeri, Kirby

asneum, Fabr.

radiolus, Kirby

onopordi, Kirby

carduorum, Kirby

virens, Herbst

pisi, Fabr.

aethiops, Herbst

ebeninum, Kirby

striatum, Kirby

immune, Kirby

ervi, Kirby

vorax, Herbst

unicolor, Kirby

livescerum, Gyll. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

loti, Kirby

seniculum, Kirby

simile, Kirby } Colchester

pubescens, Kirby

curtisi, Walt.

limonii, Kirby. Essex coast

sedi, Germ. Southend, Harwich (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

marchicum, Herbst

affine, Kirby

violaceum, Kirby

hydrolapathi, Kirby

humile, Germ.
Otiorrhynchus raucus, Fabr.

scabrosus, Marsh.

ligneus, Ol. Essex coast

picipes, Fabr.

sulcatus, Fabr.

ovatus, L.
Trachyphloeus aristatus, Gyll.

scaber, L.

scabriculus, L. ~\ Southend

spinimanus, Germ. J (Gorham)

alternans, Gyll. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Caenopsis waltoni, Schon. Great Horkesley
Strophosomus coryli, Fabr.

capitatus, De G.

retusus, Marsh.

faber, Herbst
Exomias araneiformis, Schr.

Omias mollinus, Boh. Southend (Gorham)
Sciaphilus muricatus, Fabr. Colchester
Tropiphorus carinatus, Mull.\ West

tomentosus, Marsh. J Bergholt

Colchester

134

INSECTS

coast

Colchester

CURCULIONID.S (continued)
LiophUeus nubilus, Fabr. '
Polydrusus micans, Fabr.

tereticollis, De G.

pterygomalis, Boh.

flavipes, De G. Loughton (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

cervinus, L. Colchester

chrysomela, Ol. 1 r.

"J , \ Essex

connuens, Steph. )

Phyllobius oblongus, L.

calcaratus, Fabr.

urticas, De G.

- PF', L.

argentatus, L.

maculicornis, Germ.

pomonae, Ol.

viridiaeris, Laich.

Tanymecus palliatus, Fabr. Marts

Tey

Philopedon geminatus, Fabr. Essex coast
Barynotus obscurus, Fabr. Colchester

elevatus, Marsh. \ res * n LI*

- , V West Bergholt
Alophus tnguttatus, fabr.J

Sitones cambricus, Steph.

regensteinensis, Herbst

tibialis, Herbst

hispidulus, Fabr.

humeralis, Steph.

flavescens, Marsh.

puncticollis, Steph.

lineatus, L.

Hypera punctata, Fabr. f Colchester

rumicis, L.

pollux, Fabr.

polygon!, L.

variabilis, Herbst

murina, Fabr.

plantaginis, De G.

trilineata, Marsh.

nigrirostris, Fabr.
Cleonus sulcirostris, L. \ p

- albidus, Fabr. I 1
Liosoma ovatulum, Clairv. ) West

var. collaris, Rye. J Bergholt

oblongulum, Boh. Wrabneu (J. J.

Walker)

Liparus coronatus, Goeze
Orchestes quercus, L.

alni, L.

ilicis, Fabr.

avellana?, Don. 1 ,,... , r ..

fagi, L. J Eppmg ( Lewcock )

rusci, Herbst

stigma, Germ.

salicis, L.

Rhamphus flavicornis, Clairv. \ Colchester
Orthocaetes setiger, Beck.
Grypidius equiseti, Fabr.
Erirrhinus scirpi, Fabr.

coast

Colchester

Colcheste

Colchester

(J- J-

Colchester

CURCULIONIDJE (continued)

Erirrhinus bimaculatus, Fabr. Dagenham
(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

acridulus, L.
Thryogenes festucae, Herbst

nereis, Payk.
Dorytomus vorax, Fabr.

tortrix, L.

hirtipennis, Bedel. Birdbrook (Power)

validirostris, Gyll. '

maculatus, Marsh.

pectoralis, Gyll.
Tanysphyrus lemnas, Fabr.
Bagous alismatis, Marsh.

petro, Herbst. Harwich

Walker)

cylindrus, Payk. Essex coast

argillaceus, Gyll. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

limosus, Gyll.

tempestivus, Herbst ! Essex coast

subcarinatus, Brit. Coll. J
Anoplus plantaris, Naez.

roboris, Suffr.
Tychius venustus, Fabr.

meliloti, Steph.

tibialis, Boh. Southend (Fowler, Brit.

Col.)

Miccotrogus picirostris, Fabr. Colchester
Sibinia arenarias, Steph. Harwich (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
Miarus companulae, L. Colchester

plantarum, Germ. Birdbrook (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)
Gymnetron beccabungae, L. Colchester

rostellum, Herbst

pascuorum, Gyll.

- antirrhini, Payk. \ Colchester

Mecinus pyraster, Herbst )

collaris, Germ. Essex coast
Anthonomus ulmi, De G. West Berg-
holt

pedicularius, L. Colchester

rubi, Herbst. West Bergholt
Cionus scrophulariae, L.

hortulanus, Marsh.

blattariae, Fabr.

pulchellus, Herbst
Orobitis cyaneus, L.
Cryptorrhynchus lapathi, L.
Acalles ptinoides, Marsh.

turbatus, Boh.
Cxeliodes rubicundus, Herbst

quercus, Fabr.

ruber, Marsh.

erythroleucus, Gmel.

cardui, Herbst

quadrimaculatus, L.

exiguus, Ol. IPalton-en-Naze, South-

end (Gorham)

Colchester

135

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

Colchester

CURCULIONIDJE (continued')
Poophagus sisymbrii, Fabr.

nasturtii, Germ.
Ceuthorrhynchus assimilis,

Payk. \ Colchester

cochleariae, Gyll.

erysimi, Fabr.

contractus, Marsh.

cyanipennis, Germ. ) Southend

chalybaeus, Germ. ) (Gorham)

quadridens, Pz. Colchester

geographicus, Goeze. Purfleet (Fow-

ler, Brit. Col.)

pollinarius, Forst. Colchester

viduatus, Gyll. Ilford (Champion)

pleurostigma, Marsh. Colchester

verrucatus, Gyll. Southend (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

rugulosus, Herbst

melanostictus, Marsh.

asperifoliarum, Gyll.

chrysanthemi, Germ.

triangulum, Boh. Wrabness (J. J.

Walker)

litura, Fabr. j
Ceuthorrhynchideus floralis, \ Colchester

Payk. j

pyrrorhynchus, Marsh. Southend (Gor-

ham)

melanarius, Steph.

troglodytes, Fabr.
Amalus haemorrhous, Herbst
Rhinoncus pericarpius, L. Y Colchester

gramineus, Herbst

perpendicularis, Reich.

castor, Fabr.

bruchoides, Herbst. Northey Isle (O. E.

Janson)

Litodactylus leucogaster, Marsh. Colchester
Phytobius comari, Herbst. Dagenham

(Fowler, Brit. Col.)

waltoni, Boh. Loughton (Lewcock)

quadrituberculatus, Fabr. Colchester

canaliculatus, Fabr. Loughton (Fowler,

Brit. Col.)

Limnobaris t-album, L. ") , ,

. . . . ,, ' > Colchester

Bans picicorms, Marsh. J

CURCULIONID^E (continued)
Baris lepidii, Germ.

ham)
Balaninus venosus, Grav.

nucum, L.

turbatus, Gyll.

betulae, Steph.

villosus, Fabr.

salicivorus, Payk.

pyrrhoceras, Marsh.
Magdalis armigera, Fourc.

Southend (Gor-

cerasi, L.

pruni, L.
Calandra granaria, L.

oryzae,

Colchester

Rhyncolus lignarius, Marsh.

ater, L. Walton-on-Naze (W. G.

Blatch)
Stereocorynes truncorum, Germ. Epping

(W.G. Blatch), Leytonstone(Gorhzm),

Wanstead (Power)
Caulotrypis aeneopiceus, Boh. Loughton

(West)

Codiosoma spadix, Herbst. Essex coast
SCOLYTIDJE

Scolytus destructor, Ol.

pruni, Ratz. Colchester

rugulosus, Ratz.

Hylastes cunicularius, Er. Birdbrook
(Fowler, Brit. Col.\ Southend (Gor-
ham)

angustatus, Herbst. Epping (G. Stock-

ley)

palliatus, Gyll. Birdbrook

Brit. Col.)

Hylastinus obscurus, Marsh.
Hylesinus crenatus, Fabr.

fraxini, Pz.
Phloeophthorus rhododactylus,

Marsh.

Xylocleptes bispinus, Duft.
Dryocaetes villosus, Fabr.
Tomicus nigritus, Gyll.
Xyleborus saxeseni, Ratz.

ler, Brit. Col.)
STYLOPID^

Stylops melittae, Kirby. Colchester

(Fowler,

Colchester

West Bergholt
Colchester
Loughton (Fow-

LEPIDOPTERA

RHOPALOCERA

Butterflies

The Swallow-tail (Papilio machaon) is met with occasionally, espe-
cially on the coast Southend, Shoebury, Tillingham, Walton-on-the-
Naze and Maldon are recorded localities ; but whatever may have been
the case formerly it cannot now be considered a native of the county,

136

INSECTS

the few examples noticed being doubtless immigrants from the continent,
stragglers from the fens, or released captives.

The Large, Small and Green-veined Whites (Pieris brassica, P.
rapee and P. napi) abound in every direction. About twelve years ago
more than a dozen larva? of the Large White were seen busily engaged
feeding on savoys near Colchester on Christmas Day.

The Chequered or Bath White (P. daplidice] is a very rare immi-
grant, but has been taken at Berechurch by the late Dr. Maclean, at
Colchester by Mr. Norman Halls, at Epping by Mr. Walter Nash and
at Southend by Mr. V. E. L. Young.

The Orange Tip (Eucblo? cardamines) occurs freely throughout the
county, and occasionally very beautiful and striking varieties are bred or
captured. In 1899 a form with lemon instead of orange tips was bred
at Colchester, where during the previous summer many larva? were
found in company with those of the Large and Small Whites, feeding
on the seed vessels of the charlock in cornfields.

The Wood White (Leucophasia sinapis), according to Dr. Maclean,
was common in several woods near Colchester in the early years of the
past century ; it also occurred freely near Epping in 1839 (J. English),
but has rarely been seen in recent years, one at Donyland, one at
Coggeshall and one in Ongar Park Woods being the only trustworthy
records.

The Clouded Yellow (Co/ias edusa) is generally scarce, but occa-
sionally occurs in the greatest profusion. In 1877 it appeared to be the
commonest butterfly throughout the county, and was fairly common in
1892 and 1900. The pale variety of the female (be lice) and interme-
diate forms occur sparingly with the type in favourable seasons.

The Pale Clouded Yellow (C. hyale] is usually much scarcer than
its deeper coloured relative, but in 1900 the reverse was the case. Both
are very uncertain in their appearances, but as a rule hyale is absent for
much longer periods than edusa. It was plentiful in 1857, 1868 and
1875, and was then scarcely seen till 1892, after which it quite dis-
appeared as an Essex species till 1 900, when it probably occurred in
larger or smaller numbers in every clover and lucerne field in the
county. In 1901 it again appeared sparingly in the northern and more
commonly in the southern districts.

The Brimstone (Gonopteryx rhamni) is common and generally dis-
tributed. Hibernated specimens sometimes appear very early in the
year if the weather be mild, and one was once observed on the wing in
the High Woods at Colchester on Christmas Day.

The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (Argynnis selene) is fairly com-
mon and sometimes abundant in flowery places in woods. The first
brood appears at the end of May, but is more numerous in June ; and
in some localities there is frequently a second brood in August, the
examples of which are far fewer in number and smaller in size.

The Pearl-bordered Fritillary (A. euphrosyne) frequents similar
places, but is more often found, and as a rule in larger numbers ; but
i 137 18

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

both species have their good and bad seasons, and a year of unusual
abundance is frequently followed by a period of comparative scarcity.

The Queen of Spain Fritillary (A. latona) is a migratory species
which is seldom met with. According to Haworth only six British
specimens were known previous to 1818, when it occurred in some
numbers and was taken in many places, including Colchester (probably
by the late Dr. Maclean and Mr. L. Brock, who obtained specimens at
Berechurch). Several others were taken at Colchester from 1857 to
1868. It has also been reported from Braintree by Mr. B. Holland;
from Southend, where three were captured, by Mr. J. Russell ; and
from Rainham by Mr. F. Venables. A single specimen which occurred
at St. Osyth on September 14, 1881, appears to have been the last
found in the county.

The Dark Green Fritillary (A. aglaia] is recorded by old authors
as occurring near Colchester, at Lexden Heath, Dedham Birch Wood,
Bromley Thicks, and woods at West Bergholt ; but all these localities
have undergone extensive changes, and if aglaia ever was a north Essex
species it must have long ago disappeared ; and there are no trustworthy
records from any other quarter, for though examples are occasionally
reported they always prove to be the next species.

The High-brown Fritillary (A. adippe] is common at Colchester
and in several of the larger woods in the north-east of the county, but
seems scarce in the south, though the Rev. G. H. Raynor says it is not
uncommon at Brentwood and occurs sparingly at Hazeleigh and Wood-
ham Mortimer. It is also reported from the Southend district, and
appears formerly to have been frequently taken at Epping and Hainault.

The Silver-washed Fritillary (A. papbia) is much more restricted
in its range about Colchester than adippe^ but is common in several
woods, including those at Donyland and St. Osyth. Mr. G. F. Mathew
reports it from the Harwich district, Mr. Raynor from Hazeleigh and
Warley, and Professor Meldola from Leyton. It has practically dis-
appeared from Epping Forest, where it formerly abounded.

The Greasy Fritillary (Melitcea aurinia) was formerly found in
several localities near Epping, but since June, 1872, 'when three speci-
mens were taken near the Robin Hood,' no others have been seen. In
Newman's British Butterflies Colchester is quite erroneously given as a
locality for the species, and in the same work Mr. W. R. Jeffrey is
made responsible for its occurrence at Saffron Walden.

The Heath Fritillary (M. athalid] according to tradition was
formerly found in several woods in north Essex, but in the latter half of
the past century it was practically confined to those ' woods bordering
the road from Colchester to Ipswich,' where Mr. Edward Doubleday
found it many years previously. In his day they were 700 acres in
extent and constituted one of the very best localities for insects in the
country, but now they are reduced to about 120 acres, which are strictly
preserved. In one of the woods athalia abounded till about 1890,
when, as more cover was required for game, the underwood was allowed

138

INSECTS

to grow over its whole extent, and no fresh clearance was made for
several years. The glades were also kept closely clipped and mown,
which resulted in the total disappearance of all the sun-loving plants,
including the Melampyrum and Digitalis on which the larva? of athalia
feed, nor were any bramble or other flowers left for the perfect insects.
Consequently the species was literally starved out and completely exter-
minated ; for though at the commencement of its evil days stragglers
might be met with miles away from their native home, it is to be feared
that none of them succeeded in establishing a new colony elsewhere,
which is greatly to be regretted, as the Essex form of this beautiful
insect was larger and more richly coloured than any occurring else-
where.

The Comma (Vanessa C-album) seems to have abounded at Epping
in the early part of the nineteenth century, but only occasional stragglers
have been met with in the county in more recent times. About 1850
several specimens were captured near Colchester by the late W. Tillaney.
Mr. Jeffrey records it from Saffron Walden, and Mr. R. E. Stuart cap-
tured an example at Mundon, near Maldon, in 1871.

The Large Tortoiseshell (V. polycbloros) is very widely distributed
and frequently common, though it seems to have its adverse periods.
The larvae most frequently feed on elm, but may also be found on sallow,
osier, cherry, pear, etc., and Mr. J. A. Tawell once found a brood at
Earles Colne feeding on nettle.

The Small Tortoiseshell (V. urticce) abounds everywhere from early
spring till late autumn, and has been seen flying briskly along the streets
in Colchester on an exceptionally warm day in January.

The Peacock (V, id) is very common in some seasons. In 1900
the nettles about Colchester were black with the larvae in the early part
of July, and in August the perfect insects visited the clover fields in
enormous numbers.

The Camberwell Beauty (V. antiopa) is usually very rare and cannot
be considered a native of Britain, but from the numerous records it seems
to have been at some time noticed in all parts of the county. In 1872
it was comparatively common, but has been extremely rare since. A
single specimen was taken at Middlewick, Colchester, in 1880. Single
specimens were also taken at Hornchurch, near Dunmow, and at
Chelmsford in 1900, and one was seen near Chelmsford on September
7, 1901.

The Red Admiral (V. atalanta] is common and generally distributed,
and has been exceptionally abundant in recent years.

The Painted Lady (V. cardui) is an erratic insect, as uncertain in
its appearances as are the 'Clouded Yellows.' After being extremely
rare or entirely absent for long periods it will suddenly turn up in great
abundance everywhere. Whether it often hibernates in the perfect
state in this country is doubtful, but there can be no doubt that most of
the specimens found here in the autumn are the progeny of immigrants
which reach our shores earlier in the year.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

The White Admiral (Limenitis sibylla) is found in most of the larger
woods in north Essex, and in the closing year of the past century was
very abundant in some of them. It seems however to be scarce in the
other districts. Mr. Fitch reports a single specimen from Hazeleigh
in 1899, Mr. Jeffrey gives Saffron Walden as a locality, and formerly it
occurred in Epping Forest. As the larvas feed on the honeysuckle that
grows among the tallest underwood, it follows that large numbers of
them must perish every winter when the annual clearances are made,
and where these are unusually extensive and continued for three or four
years the species may be reduced to the verge of extinction ; and this is
probably the main cause of the fluctuation in its numbers in restricted
localities.

The Purple Emperor (Apatura iris) doubtless suffers from the same
cause. The larvae hibernate upon the sallow, and in some of its most
favoured haunts there are only a few scattered bushes, and when these
are cut the larva? necessarily perish. In many woods sallows abound,
and there the struggle for existence is carried on under more favourable
conditions ; but in these days the species must always be much scarcer
than it was formerly when thousands of acres of grand old trees stood
where only a few miserable sticks stand to-day. For the green woods of
England have disappeared in all directions, and their beautiful wild
flowers, birds and insects have to a very considerable extent gone with
them. But even under the most favourable circumstances this butterfly
was always more or less sporadic. In 1855-6 it was common in the
Colchester district, and again for two or three years in the early eighties
was comparatively common ; but since then it has become exceedingly
rare, not only in Essex but also in Kent, where it occurred freely about
the same time. There its disappearance has been attributed to the
rapacity of collectors, but here it cannot have been due to this cause,
for certainly not more than five per cent, of the specimens seen were
captured, as far as can be ascertained. It seems to have occurred in all
the larger Essex woods in past years, and doubtless still exists in some of
them, and may again recover its lost ground for a time in the near
future.

The Marbled White (Melanargia galated] was formerly abundant
near the wood on Mersea Island, but disappeared with the wood many
years ago. Hartley Wood, St. Osyth, also produced it in great plenty ;
but only a small remnant of that wood is still standing, and to the few
entomologists of this generation who have visited it galatea is only a
tradition not a memory. It still occurs pretty freely in south Essex,
where it is found at Laindon, on Canvey Island, on the slopes near Had-
leigh Castle and elsewhere, but has disappeared from several other
districts. In 1858-9 specimens were found on the railway embank-
ment at Lexden, and much more recently a single example was captured
on the railway near Wivenhoe ; but whether these were stragglers from
the south or from an undiscovered colony which may possibly still exist
in the north is a moot point.

140

INSECTS

The Speckled Wood (Pararge egeria) was common in the eastern
counties in the middle of the past century, but ere its close had vanished
completely from nearly all its former haunts, though Mr. B. G. Cole
found it still common in Epping Forest about 1890. Why it dis-
appeared is a mystery, for it was common in nearly every copse and
shady place, and abounded in some woods where it was quite unmolested
by collectors.

The Wall (P. megcera) is common everywhere in grassy places,
though the spring brood is usually much less numerous than that which
appears at the close of the summer.

The Grayling (Satyrus seme/e) is with us very rare and local.
Stragglers turn up occasionally, and have occurred at Dedham and
Colchester, where after an interval of many years a single specimen was
found on September 9, 1900. Probably it abounded on some of the
extensive heaths and moors that surrounded Colchester in past times.

The Large and Small Meadow Browns (Epinephele janira and .
fit&onus), the Wood Ringlet (E. byperanthus] and the Small Heath
(Ccenonympha pamphilus) are all abundant and widely distributed.

The Brown Hair-streak (Thecla betula) is common some seasons in
Epping Forest, but scarce elsewhere. It is recorded from Hazeleigh by
Mr. Raynor and from Mundon Furze by Messrs. Raynor, Fitch and
others. Previous to 1860 it was found sparingly on blackthorn hedges
to the north of Colchester and at Langham, but has not been seen there
in recent years.

The White Hair-streak (T. iv-album) appears to be found wherever
the wych-elm grows, and is so very generally distributed that it is need-
less to mention any special localities. In favourable seasons it is fairly
common, and sometimes abounds.

The Purple Hair-streak and the Green Hair-streak (T. quercus and
T. rubt) are common and generally distributed, the former in oak woods
and the latter in rough places where broom and furze grow freely.

The Small Copper (Polyommatus phloeas) is generally common during
the summer, especially on the coast. Silvery white, pale golden, nearly
black, black-banded and other varieties have at various times been found.

The Silver Studded Blue (Lycana agon) occurs freely in one or two
places in the Epping district, to which it seems to be entirely restricted.

The Brown Argus (L. astrarche) has recently become one of our
commonest butterflies. Previous to 1896 it was quite a rarity in the
neighbourhood of Colchester, but in that year many thousands of speci-
mens might have been taken ; for they abounded in all directions, and
the species has continued to hold its ground since, though in lesser
numbers. Mr. Fitch had previously taken it commonly at Purleigh
and on Osey Island, and Mr. Raynor at Warley, and it is probably at the
present time generally common in the county.

The Common Blue (L. icarus] is abundant everywhere, especially
on the coast, where vast numbers may be seen at rest on grass stems
towards the close of the day.

141

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

The Clifden or Dartford Blue (L. bellargus) is stated by Mr. Joseph
Clarke to have certainly been taken once or twice near Saffron Walden,
where there are old specimens in the museum presumably of local
origin.

The Chalk-hill Blue (L. corydori) is rare in Essex though common
elsewhere. Previous to 1860 it occasionally occurred on the railway
embankments near Colchester, while several specimens were once met
with in the High Woods, though none had been found there previously
or have been seen since. It seems to have been common near Epping
about 1859, and single specimens were taken in 1885 and 1892. The
latest records are one example at Havering-atte-Bower by Miss Ger-
trude Pemberton-Barnes in 1899, and one at Great Horkesley in 1901.

The Azure Blue (L. argiolus) is widely distributed, but often scarce
in some districts; but in 19001 it appeared in far greater numbers
than had ever been observed before, and seems to have abounded every-
where.

The Mazarine Blue (L. semiargus) appears to be almost extinct in
England, but is reported by Mr. Joseph Clarke to have been formerly
taken near Saffron Walden.

The Small Blue (L. minima) is reported from the Epping district by
Messrs. J. A. Clarke and W. Machin, and Mr. Joseph Clarke records a
single specimen captured by himself ' a mile south of Walden.'

The Duke of Burgundy (Nemeobius lucina) is uncommon and local.
It is however sometimes met with in several woods in the Tendring
Hundred. Mr. Raynor finds it sparingly at Woodham Ferris, and
Mr. Howard Vaughan found it at Eastwood near Southend.

The Grizzled Skipper (Syrichtbus mafoce) is widely distributed and
common in many places.

The Dingy Skipper (Nisoniactes tages) seems to have always been
considered a common insect in Epping Forest, where Professor Meldola
and Mr. W. Cole found it in abundance in 188990 ; but previous to
1893 only a single example had occurred in the Colchester district. In
that year several were found in the High Woods, and since then it has
been quite common. Mr. G. F. Mathew states that it also occurs near
Harwich.

The Small Skipper (Hesperia thaumas] is abundant everywhere in
rough grassy places.

The Essex Skipper (H. lineola) is common all along the coast, but
does not seem to be found far inland. Before 1890 it was mixed up in
our collections with the previous species, of which it was considered to
be a variety, till Mr. Hawes when looking over the plates of Lang's
Rhopalocera Europte found it to be distinct.

The Large Skipper (H. syhanus) is the most generally distributed
species of the family, and is common everywhere from the end of May
till August.

The Silver-spotted Skipper (H. comma) is reported from Danbury
by Mr. Fitch, who states that three examples were taken there on

142

INSECTS

August 2, 1884, and there are specimens in the Saffron Walden Museum
which Mr. Joseph Clarke says were caught in that neighbourhood. It
does not seem to have occurred elsewhere in the county.

HETEROCERA

Moths
SPHINGES AND BOMBYCES

The Death's Head Hawk Moth (Acherontia atropos) is usually
scarce, but occasionally the larvae and pupae are found in some numbers.
In 1900 it was exceptionally common throughout the county. The
Convolvulus Hawk (Sphinx convo/vu/i) seems to be found in larger or
smaller numbers every season ; from its powerful flight no limit can
be set to its range, and if looked for at dusk on a warm September
evening it would probably be found everywhere. The Privet Hawk
(S. /igustri) is also of general occurrence, and in the larva state frequently
common on privet, lilac, ash and other trees. The Bedstraw Hawk
(Deilephila galii) is nearly always rare, but occasionally occurs in some
numbers. In 1888 its larvas abounded on various species of Galium all
along the coast in August and September, and many Were found dead
on the sands when the nights became cold. In previous seasons it has
been found on Glarkia and (Enothra at Colchester, and has been recorded
from several other localities. The last occurred in 1895 when five
larvae were found between Brightlingsea and Clacton-on-Sea. The
Striped Hawk (D. Iruornica) is an occasional migrant like the last, but
is always very rare. Colchester, Mistley, Upton Park, Walton-on-the-
Naze and Walthamstow are recorded localities. The Silver Striped
Hawk (Chcerocampa ce/erio), another rare migrant, has repeatedly occurred,
larvae having been found feeding on vine at Colchester, Coggeshall and
Chelmsford, and perfect insects at Great Baddow, Chelmsford, Harwich,
Walton-on-the-Naze and other places. The Small Elephant Hawk
(C. porcellus) is very widely distributed, especially near the coast.
The Large Elephant Hawk (C. elpenor) is occasionally found rather
freely in the larva state on willow-herb and bedstraw in damp meadows
at Colchester and sometimes in gardens on Clarkia and fuchsia, and
doubtless occurs under similar conditions throughout the county. The
Eyed, Poplar and Lime Hawk Moths (Smerinthus oce//atus, S. populi
and S. tilice) are generally common among the trees and shrubs upon
which their larvae respectively feed. The Humming Bird Hawk
(Macroglossa stellatarum) occurs everywhere, and though usually scarce
and sometimes absent from some districts for long periods is occa-
sionally quite common, as was the case in 1899 and 1900. The
Broad-bordered Bee Hawk (M. fuciformis) seems to be found in all
woods where bugle and campion flowers abound ; its larva feeds on
the honeysuckle and may sometimes be found in hedges. The Narrow-
bordered Bee Hawk (M. bombyliformis), the larva of which feeds on
Scabiosa succisa, is extremely rare and local. A single specimen was

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

captured at Colchester in June, 1896. Mr. H. C. Cole has found it
at High Beech, and Mr. Doubleday formerly took it at Epping.
Little dependence can be placed in other records, as the specific name
of each of these two species is often erroneously applied to the other.

The Poplar Hornet Clearwing (Trochilium apiformis] was commoner
some years ago than it is now. Its larva feeds on the solid wood of the
black and balsam poplar and aspen, preferring trees that are in the full
vigour of their growth ; but so many poplars have been felled and so
few planted in recent years that it is no longer an easy species to obtain.
The Sallow Hornet Clearwing (T. crabroniformis) occurs everywhere
where sallows and osiers abound, but though the holes in the stems from
which it has emerged are very much in evidence, the perfect insect is
generally much more difficult to discover. The Dusky Clearwing (Sesia
tabaniformis] can scarcely be considered a British insect in these days, and
its only claim to a place in our list rests on its capture at Epping by
Mr. H. Doubleday in 1839. The White-barred Clearwing (S. sphegi-
formis) is also extremely rare and local, but has been taken in south
Essex by Mr. J. A. Cooper in 1890 and by Mr. Thurnall in 1888.
The Currant Clearwing (S. tlpuliformis] is common in gardens, where
its larvae are said to be very injurious ; but however this may be
elsewhere, certain old currant bushes at Colchester which have been
affected for more than forty years were producing their usual prolific
crop of fruit quite recently. The Yellow-belted Clearwing (S. asilifor-
mis) is found in the larva state nearly everywhere in oak stumps where
the trees have been felled the previous year. The Red-belted Clear-
wing (S. myopiformis) is often common in gardens and orchards, and
is probably the greatest enemy of the apple grower that exists ; for
though the Codling Moth takes heavy toll of the fruit this insect
often slowly but surely destroys the trees themselves. The Large Red-
belted Clearwing (S. culiciformis) affects freshly cut birch stumps, and
would be very common but for the woodpeckers ; it seems to occur in
all woods where birch grows freely. A white-belted variety has been
captured at Colchester. The Red-tipped Clearwing (S. formiciformis) is
local and less frequently found now than when osiers on the pith of
which the larvas feed were more extensively cultivated. It occurs at
Colchester, Mark's Tey and Coggeshall, and probably elsewhere where
old osier grounds still exist. The Six-belted Clearwing (S. ichneumoni-
formis] occurs sparingly at Southend, where Mr. Whittle met with it
in 1900. The Rev. C. R. N. Burrows also finds it at Benfleet, and it
has been seen on Northey Island. The Fiery Clearwing (S. cbrysidiformis)
formerly occurred near Southend, but does not seem to have been
found since 1860, which was probably the most disastrous year experi-
enced by Lepidoptera in recent times. The Green Forester (Ino statices)
is found in the Epping district, and has been taken at Warley by
Mr. Willament.

The Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet (Zygcena trlfolii) is reported
from Epping and Hainault by Mr. Machin and from Warley Gap by

144

INSECTS

Mr. Willament. The Narrow-bordered Five-spotted Burnet (Z. loniceree)
is also recorded from Hainault by Mr. Machin. The Six-spotted Burnet
(Z. JUipendulce) occurs in many places, including Southend, Warley Gap,
Maldon, Clacton and Walton-on-the-Naze. The pale yellow form has
been captured at Leigh, and quite recently there was a large colony
near Colchester which produced very beautiful pink, orange and terra
cotta forms. Owing to changes effected since 1896 it is to be feared
that this colony is now practically extinct.

Sarothripus undulanus is scarce and local. A few were taken at
Mucking by Mr. Burrows in 1900, and examples have been captured at
Colchester and St. Osyth.

Earias chlorana is sometimes common among osiers.

The Green Silver-lines (Hylophila prasinana) is of general occurrence
among oak, birch and beech, and the Scarce Silver-lines (H. bicolorana)
though far from common is widely distributed in parks and oak woods.

The Short-cloaked (No/a cucullatella) is common among white-
thorn and blackthorn and also about fruit trees.

The Small Black Arches (N. strigula} is scarce and local, but has
been found at Brentwood and Hazeleigh by Mr. Raynor, at Southend by
Mr. Howard Vaughan, near Harwich by Mr. Mathew, and also at
Colchester and St. Osyth. The Least Black Arches (N. confusalis) is
found sparingly in the same localities and seems to be more generally
distributed.

Nudaria senex is found at Dovercourt by Mr. Mathew, at Mucking
by Mr. Burrows, and at Halstead by Mr. Percy Adams, and is also
recorded from Epping and Leigh. N. mundana has occurred sparingly
at Colchester, Mucking and St. Osyth.

The Dew Moth (Setina irrorella} was reported by Mr. Edward
Doubleday to have been found commonly in the larva state on Lichen
caninus at Mersea and St. Osyth many years ago. There are no other
records for the county, and this may have been a mistake ; for though
the larva of an allied species (Lithosia complana) has been frequently
obtained since on Lichen caninus at St. Osyth no irrorella have been
found.

The Rosy Footman (Calligenia miniata) is fairly common in woods.
A yellow form has been twice met with at Colchester. The Four-dotted
Footman (Lithosia mesomella) is widely distributed, but not generally
common. The Orange Footman (L. sororcula) was common for a
period some twenty-five years ago, but afterwards became very scarce ;
it has again occurred rather more frequently during the past three or
four years, and in 1899 Mr. Raynor met with it in some numbers at
Hazeleigh. The Dingy Footman (L. griseola) is of frequent occurrence
in many places, and its variety, L. Jiava (stramineola, Dbl.), is recorded
from the Epping and Harwich districts. The Common Footman (L.
lurideola) is of general distribution, but is seldom so common as to be
abundant. The Scarce Footman (L. complana) is more local, but not
really scarcer where it occurs than the last species ; it seems to be more
i 145 19

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

frequently met with on or near the coast than inland. The Large Foot-
man (L. quadra} has been taken among other places at Colchester,
Harwich and Hazeleigh, but was always rare, and has not been found
recently. The Red-necked Footman (L. rubricollis), like most members
of its family, is a somewhat uncertain species. It was at one time
very abundant at Langham and Little Bentley, but is not of frequent
occurrence now, though it may still be occasionally found in some
woods in the Tendring Hundred. The Crimson-speckled Footman
(Deiopeia pulchella) is a rare migrant which was captured at Epping
in 1846, at Southend in 1882, and at St. Osyth, where Mr. Fitch
found two specimens on June 6, 1892.

The Cinnabar (Euchelia jacobcece] occurs sparingly in many places,
but seems only to be well established and common in two or three
localities in the Epping and Southend districts.

The Clouded Buff (Nemeophila russuld) is scarce and local, but has
been taken in Epping Forest by Professor Meldola, at Eastwood by
Mr. Whittle, and near Brentwood by Messrs. Burrows and Raynor. It
formerly occurred sparingly near Colchester, but has not been seen since
1867. '

The Wood Tiger (N. plantaginls] was not uncommon twenty years
ago in one of the St. Osyth woods, but has died out or gone elsewhere.

The Common Tiger (Arctia cajd) was until recently extremely
common everywhere, but for several years has been very uncommon in
the northern part of the county. The last time the larvas abounded they
were largely infested with ichneumons, and it may very probably be to
this cause that their present scarcity is due. The Cream-spot Tiger (A.
villica] is now much commoner than it was formerly, especially on the
coast, where the larvae in some seasons abound. Several specimens of a
very beautiful and striking variety have been obtained by Mr. Mathew at
Dovercourt, and other fine forms have been bred from larva? found else-
where. The Ruby Tiger (Spilosoma fuliginosa) appears to be scarce and
local, for it is only reported for the Colchester district in recent years,
though there are old records of its occurrence at Epping and Witham.
The Muslin Moth (S. mendicd) is found sparingly all over the county.
The Buff Ermine (S. lubricipedd] and the White Ermine (S. menthastri)
are generally common, but the Water Ermine (S. urticce) is scarce and
local. It has occurred at Colchester and Frinton. The Ghost (Hepialus
humult) is common in grassy places everywhere. The Wood Swift (H.
sylvanus) may sometimes be found on the coast, but more frequently
among bracken in woods. The Common Swift (H. lupulinus) abounds in
all directions, and the Golden Swift (H. hectus) is common for a few
minutes about sunset in damp places in woods. The Goat Moth
(Cossus ligniperda], though still common, is less abundant than formerly,
as large numbers of infested trees have been removed and the wood-
peckers have been unremitting in their attentions to those that still re-
main. The Wood Leopard (Zeuzera pyrina] is far from common generally,
but occurs sparingly in many places, including Colchester, Ilford, Maldon

146

INSECTS

and St. Osyth. Heferogenea limacodes (testudo) is fairly common in many oak
woods, but does not seem to frequent those near Harwich and St. Osyth.
H. asella is very local, but is widely distributed in the Epping Forest
district, and single examples have occurred at Colchester and Little Bent-
ley. The Brown-tail (Porthesia cbrysorrbaea) is a very uncertain insect.
It suddenly became extremely abundant for a short period about twenty-
five years ago, after which it entirely disappeared and was supposed to
be extinct ; but during the past three years it has again been found com-
monly near Colchester, and Mr. Mathew has also found it plentifully
near Harwich. The Yellow-tail (P. similis) abounds everywhere. The
White Satin (Leucoma salicis) is widely distributed and frequently com-
mon about poplars and willows, but of somewhat irregular occurrence.
It is probably to a large extent a migratory species, as Mr. Kerry reports
it coming in from the sea in thousands at Harwich on June 27, 1878.
The Black Arches (Psilura monacha) occurs freely in oak woods. The
Dark Tussock (Dasychira fascelina) was formerly common on the railway
embankments between Colchester and Mark's Tey, where the larvae fed
on broom and sallow, but since the system of firing the herbage has been
regularly practised it has disappeared with many other species, though
possibly stragglers may still linger somewhere in the district. It has also
occurred sparingly at Great Bentley and Southend. The Light Tussock
(D. pudibunda) is common throughout the county. The Scarce Vapourer
(Orgyia gonostigma) is found in the neighbourhood of Brentwood, where
Mr. Raynor says it is very local. It has also occurred at Danbury. The
Common Vapourer (O. antiqua) abounds everywhere, and may sometimes
be seen flying even in the main streets of the more populous towns.
The Pale Eggar (Tricbiura crateegi) is very generally distributed, but
seems to be nowhere common. The December Moth (Pcecilocampa
populi) must have received its English name from a belated specimen,
as it usually appears in November, when the male comes rather freely
to light. It is of general occurrence, but both this and the last species
have been scarce of late. The Small Eggar (Eriogaster lanestris] some-
times occurs in extreme abundance, and the webs of its gregarious
larva? may be seen in all directions. A few may be found almost any
year, but occasionally they are scarce for indefinite periods. The Lackey
(Eombyx neustria) is of similar habits to the last, and the same account
will serve equally well for it. The Coast Lackey (B. castrensis] inhabits
the salt marshes, from which its ova are frequently borne by the tides to
the higher levels of the sea walls and coast sands. Though sometimes
difficult to find, they are extremely abundant in favourable seasons such
as 1899 and 1900 and occur in suitable places all along the coast from
Southend to Harwich. The Fox Moth (B. rubi) is often abundant on
the coast and elsewhere in the larva state in the late autumn, and the
perfect insect may sometimes be seen flying over rough uncultivated
places in June. The Oak Eggar (B. quercus) is generally common, but
there are often periods of scarcity during which its larvae may be looked
for to very little purpose. The Drinker (Odonestis potatoria) was ex-

147

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

tremely common before the great drought of 1893, but smce then has
been very scarce, at least in the Colchester district. As it has been
found in immense numbers in the Fens of late, it may perhaps have
forsaken its former sunburnt haunts for a time for more congenial sur-
roundings. The Lappet (Lasiocampa quercifolia), though far from common,
is widely distributed, and may be sought for with a good chance of suc-
cess in any district where sloe abounds. The Emperor Moth (Saturnia
pavonia) is frequently met with in the larva state, and being gregarious
and polyphagous it is easy to obtain a good supply of the perfect insect.
The Scalloped Hook Tip (Drepana lacertinarid) has of late been absent
from Dedham and St. Osyth, where it was at one time not uncommon.
It has also been found at Warley and Epping, and probably occurs
periodically in most birch districts. The Pebble Hook Tip (D. falca-
taria) is common, and speedily avails itself of fresh opportunities for
extending its boundaries. The Oak Hook Tip (D. binaria) is generally
distributed among oaks, and seems to have been commoner recently than
it was formerly. The Beech Hook Tip (D. cultrarid] is found in some
numbers in Epping Forest and also more sparingly at Brentwood, but
has been assiduously sought for in vain in north Essex. The Chinese
Character (Cilix glaucata) abounds everywhere. The Sallow Kitten
(Dicranura furcula) and the Poplar Kitten (D. bifidd] are of general
occurrence but cannot be called common, the latter being much the
scarcer of the two. The Puss (D. vinuld) is common everywhere. The
Lobster (Stauropus fagi) is scarce, but seems to be found in all parts of
the county, especially where beech grows freely, as at Epping and Brent-
wood, but it also occurs in most of the larger woods. The Dusky
Marbled Brown (Glyphisia crenata) is extremely rare in Britain, but two
specimens were captured by Mr. H. Doubleday in Ongar Park Woods in
1839 and 1841. The Pale Prominent (Pterostoma palpina) is found
sparingly among poplars and willows. The Coxcomb Prominent
(Lophopteryx cametina) is common everywhere. The Maple Prominent
(L. cuculla) is scarce and local, but occurs pretty regularly on the boulder
clay to the north-west of Colchester. The Birch Prominent (L. car-
melita) has only been recorded from the Epping district, where Mr.
Doubleday occasionally met with it many years ago. The Swallow
Prominent (Notodonta dictcea) is fairly common among poplars, and the
Lesser Swallow Prominent (N. dictczoides), though scarce, is sometimes
found at Epping, Colchester, St. Osyth and elsewhere. The Iron
Prominent (N. dromedaritts) will frequently be found if well looked for on
birch and alder, from which its larva may be beaten in the autumn.
The Three Humped Prominent (N. trilopbus) is one of our greatest
rarities. The only known Essex specimen was bred by Mr. J. W.
Douglas on August 10, 1842, from a larva found on aspen at St. Osyth.
The Pebble Prominent (N. ziczac) is common in the larva state on
aspen, poplar and sallow. The Great Prominent (N. trepida], the Lunar
Marbled Brown (N. chaonid] and the Marbled Brown (N. trimacula) are
found in parks and oak woods ; they are widely distributed but always

148

INSECTS

scarce. The Buff Tip (Pbaleria bucephala) is found everywhere and often
in superabundance. The Chocolate Tip (Pygcera curtula) occurs freely in
the larva state on aspen, and the Small Chocolate Tip (P. pigra] abounds
on aspen and sallow. The Buff Arches (Thyatira derasa) and the Peach
Blossom (T. batis) occur generally among brambles, but are not usually
found in large numbers. The Figure of Eighty (Cymatophora octogesima)
is scarce but cannot be considered local, as nobody acquainted with its
habits need despair of finding it in any part of the county where poplars
abound. The Poplar Lutestring (C. or) is of general occurrence among
aspens, especially in woods. The Lesser Satin Lutestring (C. duplaris)
may be found flying among birches at dusk in June. The Lesser Lute-
string (Asphalia diluta) comes freely to ' sugar ' in the autumn. The
Yellow Horned (A. Jia-vicornis) is to be looked for on birch twigs and
stems on mild days in March, but though very widely distributed, it
seems to be less common in Essex than in some other counties. The
Frosted Green (A. ridens), being attached to the oak, occurs in all the
well wooded districts, but is not nearly so common in our county as in
the New Forest.

NOCTUM
BRYOPHILID^
Bryophila perla is generally common on old walls.

BOMBYCOID^:

Moma orion is widely distributed in oak woods, especially near
Colchester and in the Tendring Hundred. Demas coryll is fairly com-
mon among birch and beech. Acronycta tridens and A. psi are generally
distributed, the former being the scarcer, but both have been much less
common since 1893 than they were previously. A. leporina is far from
common. It was formerly found occasionally near Colchester, and has
more recently occurred at Brentwood and Epping. A. aceris was a
common Colchester insect some years ago, but gradually decreased in
numbers and at last entirely disappeared. Larva? were always to be
found on two old sycamores that formerly stood in the Abbey Field, and
it was after their removal that the period of scarcity set in. It still
occurs in several localities in south Essex. A. megacephala is generally
common about poplars. A. alni is very rare, but has occurred at
Colchester and Wormingford. A. ligustri is scarce at Alresford and
Colchester, but doubtless has a wide distribution among ash and privet.
A. rumicis and Diloba cceruleocephala abound everywhere.

LEUCANIIDjE

Leucania conigera during the recent period of extreme agricultural
depression swarmed at thistle flowers, which then abounded in some of
the forsaken fields, but since these have again come under the plough
the insect has been much less numerous. L. vitellina is unique for
the county, and has only recently obtained a place in our list, a single
specimen having been taken by the Rev. W. Claxton at Navestock in

149

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

September, 1900. L. turca does not seem to occur in north Essex, but is
found in the Epping district, and Mr. Raynor says it is periodically
common at Brentwood. L. lithargyria occurs freely everywhere. L.
obsoleta is scarce and local, but has been taken in the Southend district by
Mr. Whittle and others, and at Rainham and Mucking by Mr. Burrows.
L,. littoralis is found by Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt, and occurs sparingly
at Clacton-on-Sea. L. impudens (pudorina, Hb.) has been taken by Mr.
Whittle near Southend. L. comma sometimes comes pretty freely to
' sugar.' L. straminea is not common, but occurs generally on the coast
and probably elsewhere among reeds. Mr. Cansdale used to find it at
Witham. L. impura and L. pallens are generally common. L. favico/or,
a comparatively recent addition to the British list, was discovered by
Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt, and a single specimen has been taken by
Mr. Whittle at Great Wakering. These are the only captures at present
recorded. Calamia phragmitidis is of general occurrence among reeds, in
the stems of which its larvae feed. Senta maritima (u/v<z, Hb.) is scarce
and local, but is included in Mr. Howard Vaughan's Leigh list, has
been taken near Alresford, and Mr. Burrows reports it from Mucking,
where it seems to occur more freely than elsewhere in the county.
Ccenobia rufa (despecta, Tr.) occurs in the Harwich district, and is also
found at Epping and Hainault. Taplnostola fufoa occurs in swampy
meadows among rushes in the Colchester and Southend districts, and
probably has an extensive range. Nonagria arundinis (typhce, Hb.) is of
general occurrence among Typba latifolia and T. angustifolia, N. gemini-
puncta is found among reeds at Alresford, Harwich, Mucking and
Witham, and doubtless at many other places. N. neurica is generally
scarce and local, but has been found at Benfleet by Mr. Whittle, near
Harwich by Mr. Mathew, and at Rainham and Mucking by Mr.
Burrows. Calamia lutosa has a wide distribution among reeds and is not
uncommon in some coast localities.

APAMEID^:

Gortyna ochracea (Jtavago, Esp.) is found in all directions, its larvae
feeding in the stems of thistles and many other plants. A very fine form,
differing materially from all other British specimens, has been found on
the coast between Harwich and Walton-on-the-Naze. Hydraecia nictitans
is of general occurrence and is extremely variable, especially the coast
forms, which are generally larger and paler than those found inland. H.
micacea may often be seen at suburban gas lamps, and its larvae and pupa?
may sometimes be found by ' raking ' at the roots of maritime plants.
Axylia putris, Xylophasia rurea, X. lithoxylea and X. monoglypba (polyodon,
L.) are of general occurrence and as a rule common. X. hepatica is
somewhat scarcer and more local. X. scolopacina has been found in the
Harwich district and occasionally occurs at Colchester, but is decidedly
scarce. Dipterygia scabriuscula (pinastri, L.) is generally distributed and
comes rather freely to 'sugar.' Aporophyla australis was once bred from a
larva found on the St. Osyth coast. Neuria reticulata (saponaria, Esp.)

150

INSECTS

occurs sparingly in many places, and has been met with in some numbers
by Mr. Burrows at Mucking. Neuroma popularis comes freely to 'light,'
and often knocks for admittance at the windows of country houses late in
the evening. Cbareeas graminis has the reputation of being extremely
injurious in the larva state to pastures, but though common in many
parts of the county, the Essex farmers do not appear so far to have traced
any extensive ravages home to it. Cerigo matura (cytherea, Fb.) is also a
grass feeder, which occasionally comes to ' sugar ' in some numbers, but
seems to be commoner in the Maldon and Stanford-le-Hope districts
than further north. Luperina testacea and L. cespitis are attracted by
'light,' and both may be found at rest on grass culms after dark, the latter
being very much scarcer than the former. Mamestra abjecta is a coast
species which is found in suitable localities along all the coast line from
Southend to the mouth of the Stour, where Mr. Mathew has met with
it in some numbers and in great variety. Mr. Burrows has also taken it
freely at Mucking and Rainham and Mr. Laver at Tollesbury. M.
sordida (ancefs, Hb.) is occasionally common at * sugar.' M. albicolon is
sometimes found at Dovercourt and elsewhere on coast sands. One year
the larvse were by no means uncommon at St. Osyth, but none have
occurred there recently. (M.furva was recorded by the late Mr. Edward
Doubleday to have been exceedingly common at Epping in 1832, fre-
quenting the flowers of the raspberry, but probably this was an error of
determination, as the northern species we now know as furva would not
be likely to occur so far south.) M. brassicee and M. persicarice are
common garden insects, the former the well known Cabbage Moth
being really an 'injurious insect,' which is more than can be said for
some other species that are frequently so designated. Apamea basilinea is
also common, and is said to be very destructive in corn fields. A.
gemina is sometimes plentiful at 'sugar' and flowers, especially those of
the common rush. A. unanimis is frequently found in the larva state
beside rivers and ditches. A. ophiogramma seems to occur rather freely
some seasons in south Essex, but not north of the Maldon district ; it
has been found at Brentwood, Rainham, Mucking and Woodford. A.
leucostigma (var.forosa, Hb.) has been taken in some numbers and in great
variety at rush flowers at Colchester. A. didyma occurs everywhere,
often in very great abundance. Miana strigilis, M. fasciunc ula and M.
bicoloria (furuncu/a, Tr.) are common generally. M. literosa is scarcer
and more local, especially in the north, but has been found in greater
numbers on the south coast. M. arcuosa is common at Colchester, and
probably occurs in most places among Aira caspitosa.

CARADRINID^E

Grammesia trigrammica (tri/inea, Bork.) frequently swarms at ' sugar,'
and fine varieties may be met with. Caradrina morpheus, C. a/sines,
C. taraxici (blanda, Tr.), C. quadripunctata (cubicularis, Bork.) and Rusina
tenebrosa are all more or less common generally, but like other common
species they sometimes have their adverse periods.

151

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

NOCTUID^:

Agrotis vestigialis (valligera, Hb.) is found on the coast sands, but
not commonly. A.puta and A. suffusa sometimes occur freely at ' sugar.'
A. saucia is usually scarce but occasionally somewhat common. A.
segetum and A. exclamationis are too abundant in fields and gardens,
where they are among our most destructive insects. A. corticea is often
found at lime blossom at Colchester and Maldon, and Mr. Burrows
has taken it freely at Mucking. A. ripcz occurs at Harwich, Walton,
Clacton and St. Osyth, where A. cursoria is also to be met with
occasionally. A. nigricans is more of a field and garden insect, and is
frequently found on flowers at dusk. A . tritici is somewhat common on
the coast sands. A. aquilina, which is held by many authors to be a
form of tritici, is found sparingly at Colchester at 'sugar' and lime blossom.
A. strigula (porphyrea, Hb.) was formerly common at Dedham, and is
found at Brentwood, Epping, and probably in most places where any
extent of heather still exists. A. prcecox has once been found at rest on
a house at Colchester, and once in the larva state near Clacton-on-Sea.
A. obscura (ravida, Hb.) occurs sparingly at Colchester, Maldon, Brent-
wood, Stanford-le-Hope and Southend. It has been reported ' abundant
in Essex,' but such is not the experience of resident entomologists. Noctua
glareosa is far from common, but has been found at Epping and Brent-
wood. Professor Meldola has met with it at Woodford, and it is occa-
sionally taken at Colchester. N. augur, N. plecta and N. c-nigrum are
generally distributed. N. ditrapezium is very local and is only recorded
from Brentwood, where Mr. Raynor formerly obtained it occasionally.
N. triangulum is common and of general occurrence. N. stigmatica
(rhomboidea, Tr.) has a wide distribution but is decidedly scarce. N.
brunnea and N.jestrva are common in woods. N. dahlil has been recorded
as occurring in the county by Mr. J. W. Tutt. N. rubi comes freely to
'sugar.' N. umbrosa and N. baja are widely distributed but not very
common. N. castanea (neglecta, Hb.) has been taken at Wanstead by
Mr. Machin. N. xanthographa is extremely abundant everywhere.
Triphcena ianthina is moderately common and generally distributed. T.
fimbria is found rather freely in the larva state in most woods in the
spring, and the perfect insect comes to ' sugar ' later in the year.
f. interjecta is widely distributed, and may sometimes be seen flying
wildly about hedges after 4 p.m., but has been scarcer of late, and is now
more poorly represented in collections than the other species. T. comes
(orbona, Fb.) and T. pronuba are common everywhere.

AMPHIPYRID^E

Amphipyra pyramided, A. tragopogonis, Mania typica and M. maura are
all so generally common that it is unnecessary to give localities for them.

OR.THOSIID.fl;

Panolis piniperda is somewhat scarce, but occurs at Birch, Colchester
and Brentwood, and is probably well distributed among Scotch fir.

152

INSECTS

Pachnobla rubricosa is sometimes found at sallow and sloe blossoms, but is
far from common. Tceniocampa gothica and T. incerta (instabilis, Esp.) are
abundant. T. opima is rare, but has been found at Wanstead by Mr.
Machin and at Southend by Mr. Whittle, and was bred from a Colchester
larva in April, 1901. T. populeti is widely distributed among aspen. T.
stabilis is abundant. T. gracilis is of general occurrence. T. mimosa is
usually scarce but is found in many oak woods, where its gregarious larvae
are occasionally common. 7*. munda is more frequent among elm ; it is
widely distributed but scarce. T. pufoerulenta (cruda^ Tr.) abounds every-
where. Orthosia suspecta is very local. It is reported from Brentwood by
Mr. Raynor and from Rainham by Mr. Burrows. O. upsilon, O. /ota, O.
maci/enta, Anchocelis rufina and A. pistacina are all generally common.
A. lunosa is found pretty freely at ivy blossom and suburban gas lamps.
A. litura and Cerastis vaccinii are found everywhere. C. ligula (spadicea
Hb.) is much scarcer, at least in the Colchester and Southend districts.
Scopelosoma satellitia is common throughout the county. Oporina croceago
is scarce and local, but has occurred at Danbury, and has been taken at
Epping by Mr. Oldham, at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor, and at Wor-
mingford by Mrs. Bull. Xanthia citrago is well distributed among lime
trees. X.fuhago (cerago, Fb.) and X.jlavago (si/ago, Hb.) are common,
especially the former ; the larva? may be beaten from sallow catkins in
the spring and the perfect insects from yellow leaves in the autumn. X.
aurago is very scarce in the northern part of the county, but is more
frequently met with in the south. It has occurred at Colchester and
also in the Epping, Brentwood, Maldon and Stanford-le-Hope districts.
X. gi/vago may be beaten freely some seasons from the seeds of the wych
elm. X. ocellaris is extremely rare, single specimens only having been
captured by Mr. Percy Reid at Peering Bury near Kelvedon, and by
Mr. Whittle at Southend. X. circellaris (ferruginea, Esp.) is common
everywhere. Cirrhcedia xerampelina is apparently local and scarce, but has
been taken at Colchester, Epping, Maldon and Southend.

COSMIID^E

Tetbea subtusa is frequently found among black poplar and aspen,
but has been less common recently than it was formerly. T. retusa is
much scarcer and more local, but has been taken at Epping, Harwich,
Layer Marney and Rainham. Cosmia paleacea (fu/vago, Hb.) was once
captured at Hazeleigh by the Rev. G. H. Raynor, which seems to be
the only record. Dicycla oo has sometimes been found freely in many
places in south Essex, but is of very rare occurrence in the northern
districts. Epping, Hainault, Brentwood, and Rainham seem to have
been the most favoured localities, but it has been taken at Coggeshall, and
by Mr. Percy Adams at Halstead. Calymnia trapezina is very common
throughout the county. C. pyralina is rare and local. Mr. Raynor has
met with it at Brentwood and Hazeleigh, Mr. Garrow at Leytonstone,
and it has also been found by Mr. Burrows and Mr. Whittle. C. diffinis
and C. affinis have a wide distribution and are not uncommon in some
elm districts.

I 153 20

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

HADENID^

Eremobia ochroleuca was common and generally distributed in the
county some twenty years ago, and after remaining more or less common
for several seasons completely disappeared. During the past two years it
has reappeared in the Southend and Maldon districts, and will very pos-
sibly soon be common again for a period. It is probably a migratory
species which has so far failed in its endeavours to become a permanent
resident. Diantbcecia nana (conspera, Esp.) was taken at Epping by Mr.
H. Doubleday. D. capsincola is common everywhere among Lychnis.
D. cucubali and D. carpophaga are not uncommon. The larvae may some-
times be found on Silene inflata and S. maritima^ but the former has not
been seen for several years. Hecatera chrysozona (dysodea, Hb.) was for-
merly very common about Coggeshall, where its larvae fed on lettuce
flowers and seed, but the particular species of lettuce it mostly favoured
is little cultivated there now and the moth is proportionately scarce. It
has also occurred at Colchester, and larvae have been found on wild lettuce
(Lactuca virosa) at Walton-on-the-Naze. H. serena is generally common,
especially in the larva state on flowers of Crepis wrens. Polia Jiavicincta
is often found at rest on walls and palings in the autumn. Epunda
lutulenta is scarce and local, but in 1898 was taken in some numbers by
Mr. Burrows at Mucking. Cleoceris viminalis may often be taken freely
in the larva state on sallow. Miselia oxyacanthce^ Agriopis aprilina,
Euplexia lucipara and Phlogophora meticulosa are common and occur
throughout the county. Aplecta prasina (herbida y Hb.) seems to be scarce.
Mr. Raynor took it at Warley, and it has several times been found at
Colchester. A specimen bred there in a warm room on January 10,
1 90 1, was perhaps the first British Noctua to appear in the new century.
A. occulta is a very uncertain and local species, but has been taken by
Professor Meldola near Woodford, by Mr. Doubleday at Epping, and also
at Colchester and Hazeleigh. A. nebulosa is frequently found on the boles
of trees in woods and comes freely to ' sugar.' A. tincta is rare. Mr.
Doubleday records it for Epping, and it has also been taken at Hazeleigh
and Woodford. A. advena, though not common, is often taken at ' sugar,'
and is very partial to dogwood flowers. Hadena adusta, H. frotea, H.
dentina and H. trifolii occur generally. (H. atriplicis is given as an Essex
species in Newman's British Moths.} H. dissimilis (suasa, Bork.) is found
in many places on the coast, including Benfleet, Dovercourt, Northey
Island and St. Osyth. H. o/eracea, H. pisi and H. thalassina are generally
distributed and common. Some of the Essex forms of H. pisi are very
beautiful. H. contigua is extremely local ; it was frequently found at
Dedham up to 1890. H.genistce is generally distributed though far from
common.

XYLINID^E

Xylocampa areola (lithoriza, Bork.) is generally to be found on posts
and tree trunks in April. Xylomiges conspicillaris is a rarity in Britain, and
only two specimens have been met with in Essex, one at Danbury and
the other at Brentwood, both by Mr. Raynor. Calocampa vetusta is not

INSECTS

of frequent occurrence, but has been found at Colchester, Epping and
Southend. C. exoleta is commoner and more widely distributed, and
comes to 'sugar' late in the autumn. Xylina ornithopus (rbizolitba, Fb.) is
occasionally found near Colchester and probably throughout the county.
X. semibrunnea and X. soda (petrificata, Fb.) are scarce and local. Both
were taken at Temple Mills by Mr. Machin, and Mr. Raynor has met
with the former at Hazeleigh. Asteroscopus sphinx (cassinea, Hb.) is very
generally distributed but not common ; it comes to 'light' in November.
Cucullia verbasci is common in the larva state on mullein and figwort,
but the perfect insect is seldom found. The larvae of C. asteris have been
taken in some numbers by Mr. F. J. Hanbury at Benfleet, by Mr. Whittle
at Southend, and by Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt. C. chamomillce is
common some seasons in the larva state in many parts of the county, but
is very irregular in its appearances. C. umbratica may often be found at
rest on posts, rails and park palings, and hovering over honeysuckle
flowers at dusk.

GONOPTERID.E

Gonoptera libatrix occurs everywhere among willows and poplars.

Habrostola tripartita (urtica, Hb.) is generally distributed but not
common among nettles. H. triplasia is recorded from Brentwood,
Epping, Harwich, and Maldon, but has not so far been found at Col-
chester. Plusia monefa, which has in recent years invaded England and
established itself in several counties, has only once been found in Essex,
a single specimen having been captured by Mr. C. Oldham at Woodford.
P. chrysitis is found everywhere among nettles. P.festucce is scarce, but
has occurred at Benfleet, Colchester, Maldon and St. Osyth. P. iota,
though widely distributed, is generally scarce. It was however common
at honeysuckle flowers at Chingford in 1892. P. pulchrina is found
sparingly at West Bergholt and St. Osyth, and Mr. R. Miller Christy
has taken it at Chignal St. James. Probably it has a wide range else-
where in the county. P. gamma is ubiquitous and often occurs in
myriads. On August n, 1900, the coast near Clacton-on-Sea swarmed
with specimens, which rose in clouds at nearly every step for several
miles. They were especially abundant on sea lavender flowers. A very
fine melanic example much larger than the type was met with.

HELIOTHID.&

Anarta myrtilll probably occurred on most of the extensive heaths
and moors in the county previous to their enclosure. It was still to be
found sparingly on Tiptree Heath a few years ago. Heliaca tenebrata
(arbuti, Fb.) may frequently be seen in flowery places in May, especially
among buttercups. Heliothis dipsacea was not uncommon on the northern
part of the coast sands up to the great drought of 1893, since which it
has been very rare. A single specimen has been taken in the High
Woods at Colchester. H. peltigera is rare, but was formerly found

155

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

occasionally with dipsacea. H. armigera is a scarce migrant, worn speci-
mens of which once appeared in some numbers in a clover field at
Colchester. Ghariclea umbra (marginata, Fb.) is found on the coast, and
also in inland woods, where its larva? feed on the young shoots of hazel
and birch.

ACONTIID.E;

Agrophila trabealis (sulphuralis^ Lin.) cannot be considered a native of
the county, but was once found at Temple Mills by Mr. Machin.
Acontia luctuosa has been taken at Grays and Benfleet, and occurred some-
what freely in 1900 at Maldon and Mucking. It has not been met with
in north Essex.

ERASTRIID/E

Erastria venusfu/a is a very local species, but has occurred rather
freely in several parts of Epping Forest and also at Warley. E.fasciana
(Juscula, Bork.) is a widely distributed woodland species, sometimes occur-
ring in fair numbers, but often scarce for long periods.

POAPHILID.E

Phytometra viridaria (cenea, Hb.) is found commonly at Epping. It
frequents open spaces in woods and was plentiful at Dedham previous to
1890.

EUCLIDIID^:

Euclidia mi is common on the coast, but had not been seen in the
neighbourhood of Colchester till much of the land for a time became
derelict, during which period it established itself in several fresh locali-
ties where it still continues common. E. glyphica is of frequent occur-
rence at Epping and Southend, but is not found in the northern part of
the county.

CATEPHIIDjE

Catephla alchymlsta is one of the rarest of the British Lepidoptera,
and is unique as regards the county. A single example was found at rest
on an oak tree near Colchester by W. Tillaney on June 9, 1875.

CATOCALID^

Catocala fraxlnl is also a rarity. Two specimens were captured at
Southend by Mr. Hope in 1846, and one was taken at Colchester in
September, 1869. C. nupta is common and generally distributed. An
example of the rare variety ccerulescens was once taken by Mr. Laver at
Colchester. C. promissa and C, sponsa are both rare. A larva of the
former was once beaten from oak in Langham Lodge Wood, and the
latter was taken at Hainault by Mr. Machin.

AVENTIID^E

Aventia flexula is scarce, but has been found at Colchester, Halstead,

Hazeleigh and Langham.

156

INSECTS

TOXOCAMPIDjE

T'oxocampa pastinum is local, and is only recorded from Leigh, where
a few specimens were taken by Mr. Howard Vaughan.

BOLETOBIID^E

Boletobia fuliginaria, the latest addition to our list, was captured at
Hale End, Walthamstow, by Mr. R. W. Robbins on July 29, 1901.

HERMINIID^E

Rivula sericealis is found in the Colchester, Maldon, Rainham and
Southend districts. Zanclognatha grisealis and Z. tarsipennalis are of
general occurrence. Z. emortualis is excessively rare, and has only been
found at High Beech and Loughton. Herminia cribralis has been taken
at Leigh and also in some numbers at Mucking, and a single specimen
has occurred at Walton-on-the-Naze. H. derrvalu is sometimes found
in fair numbers, but is extremely local in the Colchester district ; and
two specimens were captured by Mr. Pryor at Leigh in 1870. Pechy-
pogon barbalis is generally distributed and common in woods.

HYPENID^E

Hypena rostralis abounds among hops, and H. proboscidalis is
common everywhere among nettles. Hypenodes albistrigalis and H.
costeestrigalis are found at Epping, and Mr. Raynor has met with the
former at Brentwood and the latter at Hazeleigh.

BREPHIDES

Brephos parthenias is found at Colchester, Epping, St. Osyth, Messing,
Wrabness and probably in most large woods among birch. In 1846 it
was captured at Epping as early as February 28. B. notha is usually
scarcer and more local, but occurs in many woods, including those at
Epping, Ongar, Messing, Wrabness and St. Osyth.

GEOMETRY
UROPTERYGIDJE
Uropteryx sambucaria is of general occurrence.

ENNOMID^:

Epione apiciaria is widely distributed but not common. E. advenaria
was recorded as rare at Eastwood near Southend by Mr. Howard
Vaughan. Rumia luteolata (cratagata, L.) and Venilia maculata are gener-
ally common. Angerona prunaria is found frequently in many woods,
but has not recently been seen in the Colchester district, where it was
formerly common, for several years. Metrocampa margaritaria is found in
woods and lanes everywhere. Ellopia prosapiaria (fasciaria, Schiff) occurs
sparingly at Birch, Colchester and near Harwich, and probably among
Scotch fir generally. Eurymene dolabraria and Pericallia syringaria are
widely distributed but are not common. Selenia bilunaria (illunaria, Hb.)
abounds everywhere. S. lunaria though found in many places is nowhere
common. S. tetralunaria (ittustraria, Hb.) is extremely local. It occurs

157

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

at Epping and Hainault, and Mr. Mathew reports it for the Harwich
district, but it does not seem to have occurred elsewhere in north Essex.
Odontopera bidentata and Crocallis elinguaria occur in all parts of the county,
the latter being much the commoner. Eugonia autumnaria has once been
taken at Shoeburyness by Mr. Whittle. Another example was captured
by Mr. Mathew at Dovercourt on Oct. 4, 1901. E.alniaria (fi/iariayEork.)
comes freely to 'light.' E. fuscantaria is scarce, but is found at Colchester,
Harwich, and probably generally in the ash districts. E. erosaria and E.
quercinaria (angu/aria, Bork.) are found in many oak woods, the former
being much the scarcer. Himera pennaria may be found everywhere, and
comes freely to suburban gas lamps in the late autumn.

AMPHIDASYD^:

Phigalia pedaria (pi/osaria, Hb.) is frequently found on the trunks of
trees in January if the weather be mild, and is of general occurrence.
Nyssia hispidaria occurs similarly in February and March, but is much
scarcer and more local. Biston birtaria is generally common, especially
about elms and at gas lamps. Amphidasys strataria (prodromaria, Schiff.)
is frequently found on the boles of oak during mild weather in the spring.
A. betularia is generally distributed and common ; the black variety
doubledayaria and intermediate forms are occasionally captured or bred.

BOARMIIDjE

Hemeropbila abruptaria is of frequent occurrence at rest on walls and
palings. Cleora lichenaria was formerly common in the Colchester dis-
trict especially at Birch and Layer-de-la-Haye but has disappeared in
recent years. Boarmia repandata and B. gemmaria (rhomboidaria, Hb.) are
found everywhere. B. abietaria and B. cinctaria occur about Epping and
Ongar. B. roboraria was formerly frequently obtained on the oak trees
at Langham Lodge Wood, but has since been vainly sought for in the
few acres that remain of that once grand hunting ground. A single
specimen was obtained at Colchester in 1897, and it also occurs at
Hainault, St. Osyth and Warley. B. comortaria is also recorded from
Hainault by Mr. Machin, and was at one time common at St. Osyth.
Tepbrosia consonaria, T. crepuscularia and T. biundularia are Epping insects
crepuscularia being also recorded from the Harwich district by Mr.
Mathew, and a single specimen of T. biundularia was found at Colchester
in May, 1901. T. luridata (extersaria, Hb.) though very far from com-
mon has an extensive range, and probably occurs in all large woods.
T. punctulata is moderately common among alder and birch at Colchester
and doubtless elsewhere.

GEOMETRID^E

Pseudoterpna pruinata (cytisaria, Schiff.) is of general occurrence
among broom and furze. Geometra papilionaria is scarce, but is found in
many places among alder, birch and hazel. G. vernaria is somewhat
local but not uncommon among Clematis vitalba. Pborodesma pustulata
(bajularia, Schiff.) is to be found in nearly all oak woods, and in recent

158

INSECTS

seasons has occurred in larger numbers than usual. P. smaragdaria the
Essex Emerald was for many years a great rarity, Southend, South-
minster and St. Osyth being its only recorded British localities ; but since
the discovery of its food plant it has been found freely all along the coast
from Southend to St. Osyth, which is the present known limit of its
northern range. It is to be feared that this beautiful insect has been
much too keenly ' worked for ' of late by the London and other
collectors, who. should remember that though common at present its
range in Britain is very restricted, and that altogether apart from direct
human agency its struggle for existence must sometimes be severe.
During a recent dry season at St. Osyth nearly all the food plants had
been bitten or trodden down by cattle, and most of the larvas must
necessarily have perished. lodis lactearia and Hemitbea strigata (t&ymiaria,
Gn.) are common in woods and lanes everywhere.

EPHYRID^E

Zonosoma porata and Z. punctaria occur freely among scrub oak and
are widely distributed. After a long period of scarcity they are again
common at Colchester. Z. linearia (fri/inearia, Bork.) is plentiful among
beech at Epping. Z. annulata (omicronaria, Hb.) occurs freely in many
places especially on the boulder clay among maple. Z. pendularia is
local and not common now, though it was formerly plentiful at Dedham
and St. Osyth.

ACIDALIID^

Asthena luteata is common among maple and is frequently found
among alder. A. candidata abounds everywhere. A. blomeri was once
captured by the Rev. C. R. N. Burrows at Wanstead this must have
been a straggler from some other county. Eupisteria obliterate (beparata,
Haw.) is rather common in the Colchester district and doubtless occurs
generally among alder. Acidalia ochrata is extremely local, being only
found at Southend and St. Osyth. A. dimidiata (scufu/afa, Bork.) and
A. bisetata are common. A. trigeminata is scarcer, but may be disturbed
from underwood and hedges, and captured on the wing at dusk in many
localities. A. rusticata is a recent addition to the county list, and has
only been found by Mr. Burrows and Mr. Whittle, who took it in the
Southend district. A. dilutaria (inter jectaria, Bdv.) and A. virgu/aria
(incanaria, Hb.) are generally common. A. ornata was once captured
at Leigh by Mr. Walker, who took a single specimen in 1893. A.mar-
ginepunctata (promutata, Gn.) is widely distributed and often common.
A. subsericeata is somewhat scarce, but has been found more freely in the
southern than in the northern portion of the county. A. immutata occurs
at Southend and Leigh. A. remutaria and A. imitaria are generally com-
mon. A. emutaria occurs sparingly in many coast localities. A. aversafa
abounds everywhere. A. inornata is found frequently in woods. A. emar-
ginata is very common, and Timandra amataria may be met with every-
where, especially in damp places in woods.

159

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

CABERID.E

Cabera pusaria is found commonly in all parts of the county ; its
variety rotundaria is extremely scarce. C. exanthemata abounds among
sallows. Bapta temerata is far from common, though it is very widely
distributed. B. bimaculata (taminata, Hb.) has been taken in Epping
Forest by Messrs. Clark, Machin and Prout. Aleucis pictaria was
originally discovered at Colchester in 1 842, and was for many years
supposed to be a great rarity, but is now known to occur freely among
blackthorn in several English counties.

MACARIID^E

Macaria notata is scarce and local, but has occurred at Dedham, Lang-
ham, St. Osyth, Brent wood and South end. M. liturata was somewhat
common at Langham and Colchester before the larches on which it fed
were cut down. Halia vauaria is moderately common in gardens among
currant.

FIDONIID-ffi

Strenia clathrata and Panagra petraria are generally common. Nu-
meria pufoeraria is frequently found among hazel in woods. Fidonia lim-
baria (conspicuafa, Schiff.) was formerly fairly common among broom on
the railway embankments and in the cuttings at Lexden and Stanway,
but owing to the practice which has prevailed in recent years of firing
the herbage this excessively local insect has been exterminated there and
now seems in imminent danger of disappearing from Britain. Dr. Batters-
hall Gill records it from Grays in 1869. Emafurga atomaria may probably
still occur where any extent of heather is left. It was found in some
numbers at Layer-de-la-Haye a few years ago, and Mr. Burrows reports
it as occurring in the Stanford-le-Hope district. Bupalus piniaria is found
among Scotch fir at Alresford, Birch and Brentwood, and is probably of
general occurrence. Minoa murinata (euphorbiata, Fb.) is scarce and local,
but has been found in the Southend and St. Osyth woods. Scoria lineata
(dealbata^ Lin.) was found freely on the slopes at Leigh by Mr. Bouchard
and Drs. Boswell Syme and Battershall Gill previous to 1860, but is
now extinct there. A single specimen was captured by Captain B.
Blaydes Thompson at Burnham-on-Crouch on July 25, 1900. Sterrha
sacraria is a rare migrant which was once captured near Reed Hall,
Colchester. Aspilates ochrearia (citraria, Hb.) is common on the sea
walls and coast sands in the northern part of the county. A. giharia
occurs at Southend.

ZERENID^E

Abraxas grossulariata sometimes abounds among currant and goose-
berry bushes in gardens and also on blackthorn hedges. Very beautiful
yellow and other forms are sometimes met with. A. syhata (u/mafa, Fb.)
is found rather freely at Laindon, and Messrs. B. G. Cole and C. Oldham
have taken it in Epping Forest. Ligdia adustata and Lomaspilis marginata
are common everywhere.

1 60

INSECTS

LIGUDJE
Pacbycnemia bippocastanaria, ' Rochford, Essex ' (Stephens, ////. iii

269).

HYBERNIID^E

Hybernia rupicapraria, H. leucophearia and H. marginaria (firogemmaria,
Hb.) are common in the early months of the year, and H. aurantiaria and
H. defoliaria come freely to ' light ' in mild November weather, especially
when it is somewhat foggy. Anisopteryx eescularia is fairly numerous,
especially among elm.

LARENTIIDiE

Cbeimatobia brumata abounds everywhere. C. boreata is much scarcer
and more local, but is found at Epping, Harwich and St. Osyth. Oporabia
dilutata and Larentia didymata are generally common. L. multistrigaria is
recorded for Epping, Wanstead and Hazeleigh. L. viridaria (pectinitaria,
Fues.), Emme/esia affinitata and E. alchemillata are of frequent occurrence
in woods and lanes. E. albulata has been taken at Brent wood and Dod-
dinghurst by Mr. Raynor and at Maldon by Mr. Fitch ; it also occurs
at Epping. E. decolorata is generally distributed among Lychnis vesper-
tina. E. unifasciata is sometimes common in the larva state in north
Essex on Barfsia odontites. Eupitbecia venosata occurs near Braintree,
Colchester, Danbury, and probably in most places where Silene injiata
grows. E. consignata is very rare, but Mr. Machin has found it at
Epping and Loughton. E. linariata is common some seasons among
Linaria vu/garis, but in other years may be looked for in vain. E.
pulcbellata occurs freely in the Colchester district, and probably every-
where where Digitalis grows. E. oblongata (centaureata^ Fb.) is to be met
with everywhere. . succenturiata is found in the Colchester, Maldon
and Harwich districts. E. subfuhata is sometimes common among
yarrow, but has been scarce during the dry seasons we have experienced
recently. E. scabiosata (subumbrata^ Gn.) is found on the coast at South-
end, Shoeburyness and St. Osyth. E. plumbeolata occurs in many woods
in June among Melampyrum. E. isogrammaria is abundant among Clematis.
E. egenaria^ a very rare insect about which little seems to be known,
has been taken at Loughton. E. satyrata is reported from the Harwich
district by Mr. Mathew. E. castigata is generally common. E. trisig-
naria seems only to have been noticed at Colchester, where it is a great
rarity. E. virgaureata has been recorded from Epping by Messrs.
Doubleday, Machin and A. H. Waters. E.fraxinata occurs sparingly
at Colchester. E. pimpinellata is sometimes common, especially on the
boulder clay among Pimpinella saxifraga. E. irriguata was formerly found
at Epping by Mr. Doubleday. E. innotata has been bred by Mr. W.
Warren from larva? found at Shoeburyness. E. nanata was common
among heather at ' Crockleford Hangings ' near Colchester a few years
ago. This locality is now strictly preserved and is inaccessible to
naturalists, but the species is probably widely distributed in the county.
E. subnotata is common among Chenopodium. E. "uulgata is generally com-
mon. E. albipunctata was common a few years ago on the flowers and

I I6l 21

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

seeds of Angelica, but has been scarce recently. E. absinthiata is common.
E. minutata has occurred at Epping and Dedham, and probably is generally
distributed on heath. E, assimilata is sometimes common among currant
and hop. E. tenuiata has occurred at Epping, Harwich, Southend and
St. Osyth. E. subciliata is recorded from Leigh as ' rare ' by Mr. Howard
Vaughan. E. lariciata is not uncommon among larch in the Colchester
district. E. abbreviata is found generally on oak boles and boughs and
also at sallow flowers. E. dodoneata has been taken at Epping by Dr.
Gill, at Loughton by Mr. Machin, and near Harwich by Mr. Mathew,
but is a scarce insect in the county and far from common elsewhere.
E. exiguata is generally distributed. E. sobrinata is not uncommon at
Donyland, and has been captured at Woodford by Mr. E. B. Bishop.
E. togata is rare ; Mr. Mathew records it from Harwich, and Mr. Prout
captured a specimen at Higham Park in 1892. E. pumilata is common.
E. corona fa sometimes occurs freely about Colchester, especially on the
boulder clay. E. rectangulata is common in gardens and orchards. Lobo-
phora sexalisata (sexa/ata, Vill.) occurs among sallow at Colchester, Haze-
leigh and St. Osyth. L. halterata (hexapterata^ Schiff.) may frequently
be found at rest on boles of aspens and poplars, and is widely distributed.
L. viretata is rare, but has been taken at Epping and Walthamstow, and
Mr. Laver once found a specimen at Colchester. L. carpinata (lobulata,
Hb.) has been found several times at Donyland and St. Osyth. L. poly-
commata is in a list of Epping insects by Mr. Edward Doubleday, pub-
lished in the Entomological Magazine^ vol. iii. (1836). Thera juniperata
is to be found at Donyland, where it does not appear to be very common.
T. variata and T.firmata both occur among larch and Scotch fir. The
former is common and generally distributed, the latter scarcer and more
local ; but Mr. Burrows has taken it rather freely, and it has also been
found at Birch and Berechurch. Hypsipetes ruberata seems to be scarce
in the county judging by the paucity of records. It occurs sparingly at
Colchester, where the specimens are more richly coloured and of a larger
size than most of those from other parts of Britain. H. trifasciata (im-
plu-viata, Hb.) is not very common, but may be usually found among
alder. H. sordidata (e/utata, Hb.) abounds among sallow everywhere.
Melanthia bicolorata (rubiginata, Fb.) was common among alder at Col-
chester and Langham a few years ago, but is now extremely scarce. M.
ocellata is common everywhere among Galium molluga and G. verum.
M. albicillata, though far from common, appears to have a wide range.
Melanippe hastata is local, but has been taken at Southend, Brentwood,
Messing and St. Osyth. M. procellata is not scarce on the boulder clay
near Colchester ; Professor Meldola has found it at Southend, and Mr.
Mathew has taken it at Harwich. M. unangulata and M. rivata are some-
what common locally. M. sociata, M, montanata and M. fluctuata abound
everywhere. Anticlea cucullata (sinuata, Hb.) is extremely rare, and the
only recorded capture was made in Epping Forest by Mr. A. H. Waters
in May, 1896. A. rubidata has a wide distribution, and has for three or
four years been comparatively common after a long period of scarcity.

162

INSECTS

A, badiata and A. nigrofasciaria (derivata, Bork.) occur among wild rose
in many parts of the county ; the former is abundant and the latter, as
a rule, decidedly scarce. A. berberata is extremely local ; it was formerly
found at Epping, and is still plentiful in the Saffron Walden district.
Coremia designata (propugnata, Fb.) has been found at West Bergholt,
Great Tey, Langham and near Harwich, but does not seem to be com-
mon generally. C.ferrugata and C. unidentaria are to be found every-
where and often in abundance. C. quadrifasciaria is scarce but is well
distributed, the known localities being too numerous to mention. Camp-
togramma bilineata is very common, but C.Jluviata is rare, single specimens
only having been recorded from Colchester, Pitsea, Leigh, Woodford,
Hainault and Rainham. Pbibalapteryx tersata and P. vitalbata are gener-
ally to be found among Clematis. P. vittata (lignata, Hb.) is scarce, but
was once taken at West Bergholt by Mr. J. G. Grapes, and others have
been captured by Mr. Burrows at Rainham. T'riphosa dubitata and
Eucosmia certata are found in Epping Forest and at Saffron Walden.
The latter also occurs occasionally at Colchester. E. undulata inhabits
most woods, but is not common. Scotosia vetu/afa and S. rhamnata are
also Epping and Saffron Walden insects. Cidaria miata is of general
occurrence, especially at gas lamps. C. picata has a wide distribution,
and was no rarity previous to the great drought of 1893, but has
been very difficult to find since. C. corylata and C. truncata (russata,
Bork.) are common everywhere. C. immanata, which is by some authors
considered a form of truncata, is much less common. C. suffumata seems
to occur freely at Epping and Maldon, and Mr. Mathew finds it in the
Harwich district, but it is rarely taken at Colchester. C. silaceata is
rare, but has been found at Colchester and Epping. C. prunata was
formerly common at Epping, where Mr. Doubleday says ' it sometimes
strips the currant bushes of their leaves ' ; Mr. Fitch says it is also found
at Maldon. C. testata is of frequent occurrence among sallow and birch.
C. fufoata is common among wild rose. C. dotata (pyraliata, Fb.) is
widely distributed, but by no means abundant. C. associata (dotata, Gn.)
occurs freely in gardens among currant. Pelurga comitata is sometimes
plentiful among Chenopodium.

EUBOLIID^E

Eubolia ceruinata is common among mallow and hollyhock. E. limi-
tata (mensuraria, Schiff.) abounds among vetches. E. plumbaria (palum-
baria, Bork.) is sometimes common in heathy places among furze. E.
bipunctaria is local, but occurs at Epping, Southend and Harwich. It
was once seen in some numbers at Walton-on-the-Naze, but the encroach-
ments of the sea seem to have been fatal to it. Anaitis plagiata is of
general occurrence among Hypericum. Cbesias spartiata abounds among
broom. C. rufata (pbliquaria, Bork.), though very much scarcer, is pro-
bably also found in most places where broom grows freely.

SIONID-ffi

Tanagra atrata (cbaeropbyllata, L.) is recorded from Epping and
Hainault. ,

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

PYRALWES
PYRALIDID^E

Cledeobia angustalis is found in many coast localities. Aglossa pin-
guinalis occurs in houses, and though reputed generally common seems
to be scarce in many places. A. cuprealis occurs sparingly at Colchester,
Harwich, Hazeleigh and Southend. Pyralis costalis and P. glaucinalis are
somewhat plentiful at Colchester, and the former is common in the Mai-
don district. P.farinalis is generally common. Scoparia ambigualis abounds
on tree trunks in woods. S. basistrigalis occurs at Dovercourt and Haze-
leigh. S. cembrce is scarce, but has a wide range. S. dubitalis is common
everywhere. S. conspicualis is reported for the Harwich district by Mr.
Mathew. S. mercurella is generally abundant. S. ulmella has been found
at Woodham Ferris by Mr. Raynor. S. cratcegella has been captured at
Colchester and Epping. S. truncicolella occurs at Epping and Hazeleigh.
S. angustea is found on several old walls at Colchester. S. pallida is a marsh
insect that has been occasionally taken at Leigh and St. Osyth. Nomo-
phila noctuella (hybridalis, Schiff.) is a frequent migrant ; it is generally
distributed, and is sometimes very abundant, especially on the coast.
Pyrausta aurata (punicea/is, Schiff.) was very common in the Colchester
district a few years ago, but has quite disappeared. P. purpuralis, which
was formerly scarce there, has become very common. P. ostrinalis has
been found at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor. Herbula cespitalis is generally
distributed, and is occasionally very common at Donyland and St. Osyth.
Ennychia nlgrata (anguinalis, Hb.) was taken at Epping by Mr. Double-
day. E. octomaculata is reported by Mr. Whittle to be rare near South-
end. Endotricba jlammealis is common at Colchester, and probably far
from rare generally.

BOTYD^E

Eurrbypara urticata abounds among nettle. Scapula lutealis is rare,
but has been found at Epping by Mr. Doubleday and at Pitsea by Mr.
Whittle. S. olivalis and S. prunalis are common. S.ferrugalis has a wide
distribution, but is far from common ; it has been found at Colchester,
Maldon, and in the Southend and St. Osyth districts. Botys pandalis has
also been taken at Southend. B. ruralis (verticalis, Schiff.) abounds among
nettles. B.fuscalis is common among Melampyrum. Ebulea crocealis occurs
freely among Inula. E. verbascalis is sometimes common among Teucrium.
S. sambucalis abounds among elder. E. stachydalis is not rare on the boulder
clay near Colchester. Spilodes sticticalis can scarcely be considered a native,
and only two specimens are recorded : one at Colchester in 1868 and one
at Hazeleigh in 1 900. S. palealis became generally common in north
Essex where it had not previously been seen about 18756, but totally
disappeared after a brief period. In 1898 Mr. Laver noticed some larva?
on the southern coast of the county, and the following year Mr. Whittle
obtained some near Southend. In 1900 the species again made its
appearance in the north, a single moth and a number of larvas being
found near Clacton-on-Sea, and in 1901 Mr. Fitch took it at Burn-
ham. S. verticalis (cinctalis, Tr.), though not very common, is widely

164

INSECTS

distributed in corn and clover fields. Pionea forficalis is a common
garden insect. Qrobena straminalis (sframenfa/is, Hb.) is extremely local,
but is found in small numbers at West Bergholt. Perinephele lancealis
was formerly far from scarce at Langham Lodge Wood, and has
occurred at Southend and St. Osyth.

HYDROCAMPIDiE

Cataclysta lemnata abounds everywhere on duckweed. Paraponyx
stratiotata is local and seems scarce ; Mr. Howard Vaughan records it
from Leigh, and it is occasionally found at Colchester. Hydrocampa
nymphctata and H. stagnata are widely distributed and frequently common.

ACENTROPODID^E
Acentropus niveus has occurred at Colchester, but is not often seen.

PTEROPHORI (Plumt Moths)

CHRYSOCORIDID^E

Chrysocoris festa liella is recorded from the slopes near Hadleigh Castle
by Mr. Howard Vaughan, and from Brentwood by Mr. Raynor.

PTEROPHORIDiE

Agdistis bennetii is found on all the salt marshes of the county among
sea lavender. Cneemidophorus rbododactylus was formerly taken at Lough-
ton by Mr. Machin. Platyptilia ochrodactyla is found at Colchester among
tansy, and Mr. Burrows has taken it rather freely at Mucking. P.
bertrami also occurs among yarrow in the same localities. P. gonodactyla
(trigonodactyla, Haw. ?) is generally common among coltsfoot. Amblyptilia
acantbodactyla is recorded from Leigh by Mr. Howard Vaughan, and is
occasionally found at Colchester among Ononis, Stacbys, Galeopsis and
other plants. Mimaseoptilus pheeodactylus has been found at Witham by
Mr. Cansdale. M. bipunctidactyla is generally common. M. zophodactylus
(/oweii, Zell.) has been found at Leigh and Shoeburyness by Messrs. Howard
Vaughan and Whittle. M. pterodactylus (fuscus, Retz.) is common in many
places. (Edematophorus litbodactylus was formerly found freely in the north
of the county among Inu/a, but has been absent in recent years. Ptero-
phorus monodactylus (pterodactyla^ Hb.) is very common. Leioptilus lieni-
gianus is found at Colchester and in south Essex. L. tephradactylus has
been taken near Southend. Aciptilia galactodactyla is frequently found
among burdock. A. pen tada c tyla often called by the Colchester children
' the angel ' is common everywhere.

ALUCITIDjE

Alucita hexadactyla (polydactyla, Hb.) is common, and is frequently
found on windows in the spring.

CRAMBl
CUILIDJE

Chilo pbragmitellus is common at Southend and Pitsea. Scbaenobius
forficellus is common at Wanstead, and has been captured near Braintree

165

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

and Colchester. S. gigantellus is included in Mr. Vaughan's list of the

Lepidoptera of Leigh.

CRAMBID^E

Platytes cerussellus is very abundant on the coast. Crambus falsellus
is scarce at Colchester, and has been found at Hazeleigh and Leigh. C.
pratellus and C. pascuellus are generally common. C. pinellus is usually
scarce, but was common for a couple of years on a derelict farm at
Colchester ; it is also found at Danbury and Hazeleigh. C. latistrius
was once taken by Dr. Wallace at St. Osyth. C. perlellus is common
generally ; its variety warringtonellus occurs near Brightlingsea. C. selasellus
is found sparingly in several coast localities. C. tristellus is abundant.
C.fascelinellusvfas once taken at Dovercourt (W. H. H.). C. inquinatellus
is common. C. contaminellus (salinellus, Tutt.) has been found in marshes
near Southend by Dr. Chapman, Mr. Whittle and others. C. geniculeus
and C. culmellus are common. C. chrysonucbellus occurs at Epping and
Loughton. C. hortuellus abounds everywhere.

PHYCID^E

Anerastia lotella is plentiful on the coast sands. Ilithyia semirubella
(carnella^ Lin.) was once taken at Nightingale Hall near Halstead by the
late Mr. S. R. Bentall in 1872. Myelophila cribrum is common on the
coast, and while much of the land remained out of cultivation, extended
its range many miles inland. Nyctegretes achatinella is scarce, but was
once bred in some numbers from larvae found at St. Osyth. Homaeosoma
sinuella is widely distributed and by no means scarce. H. nimbella is re-
corded by Mr. Vaughan from Leigh. H. nebulella is scarce, but is some-
times found at Southend and St. Osyth. H. bincruella occurs in many
coast localities. H. senecionis is an erratic species, but when found is
occasionally common. Epbestia elutella is local, but sometimes common
about old clover stacks ; it was very abundant at Stanway in 1 900. E.
semirufa has been taken at Hazeleigh and Leigh. E. kuhniella^ a com-
paratively recent introduction from abroad, was found in great numbers
in a bakery at Leytonstone by Mr. Cooper. Euzopbera pinguis is found
sparingly at Colchester about old ash trees. Cryptoblabes bistriga is re-
ported from Southend, and is frequently taken at Colchester and St. Osyth.
Gymnancyla canella is very local and uncertain, but has been occasionally
found near Clacton-on-Sea. Pbycis betulce is sparingly distributed among
birch at Leigh and in several woods about Colchester. P.fusca (car-
bonariella, Fisch.) has been found at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor and at
Southend by Mr. Thurnall. P. adornatella was taken at Loughton by
Mr. Machin. Nephopteryx spissicella (roborella, Zinck.) is frequently
found in oak woods. N. rhenella (adelphella^ Stainton) is rare and local,
and has only been found in the Colchester district and at Hazeleigh.
Pempelia palumbella occurs at Epping and Loughton. Rbodophcea formosa
is fairly common among elm near Colchester and probably elsewhere.
R. comociella occurs freely among oak. R. advenella is frequently found
among hawthorn. R. marmorea is found sparingly at Leigh. R. suavei/a

1 66

INSECTS

has a wide range in north Essex, and Mr. Vaughan records it as ' uncom-
mon ' at Leigh. R. tumidella is found among oak, occasionally in some
numbers. R. rubrotibiella (tumidana, Schiff.) is rare, and has only been
taken by Mr. Raynor at Hazeleigh.

GALLERIDjE

Galleria mellonella (cereana, Lin.) is found in the Colchester and
Maldon districts ; it feeds on the comb in beehives. Aphomla sociella
is generally common. Achrcea grisella (a/vearie//a, Gn.) occurs at Col-
chester and Hazeleigh, and is probably only too well known to bee-
keepers throughout the county.

TORT RICES
TORTRICID/E

Tortrix podana is common. T. piceana is scarce, and has only been
found at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor. T. cratagana is far from common
at Colchester and St. Osyth. T. xylosteana is abundant everywhere. T.
sorbiana is of general occurrence, but is not very common. T. rosana is
extremely common. T. druersana is found among elm at Colchester. T.
cinnamomeana was taken at Loughton by Mr. Machin, and does not seem
to be found in other districts. T. heparana and T. ribeana are common.
T. corylana occurs at Southend, Colchester and St. Osyth, but is not an
abundant species. T. unifasciana is common everywhere. C T. semialbana
is local and scarce. T. costana and its variety latiorana and T. viburnana
are found on the salt marshes at Southend and St. Osyth. T. viridana
and T. ministrana are common everywhere. T. forsterana is somewhat
scarce and local, but is found at Colchester, Hazeleigh and Leigh.
Dicbelia grotiana is found in the same localities as the last, and also at
Brentwood. Leptogramma literana and L. scabrana occur sparingly at
Colchester, and the latter was taken at Stratford by Mr. Machin. Peronea
sponsana is widely distributed but not very common. P. rufana has been
captured at Leigh by Mr. Whittle. P. mixtana was found at Hainault
by Mr. Machin. P. scballeriana and P. comparand have occurred sparingly
at Colchester. P. variegana is very common. P. cristana seems to be
confined to Epping and Hainault. P. bastiana is found everywhere
among sallow and osier. P. umbrana is also recorded from Epping and
Hainault. P. ferrugana is not scarce among birch. P. aspersana is
frequently common in strawberry beds at Colchester. Rhacodia caudana,
Teras contaminana^ Dictyopteryx Iceflingiana, D. holmiana, D. bergmanniana,
D. forskaleana^ Argyrotoxa conivayana and Ptycholoma lecheana are gene-
rally common.

PENTHINID.E

Ditula hartmanniana is rare at Colchester and is recorded by Mr.
Machin from Temple Mills. D. semifasciana has been found at Haze-
leigh, Saffron Walden and St. Osyth. Pentbina corticana (picana, Fr5l.)
and P. betulatana are widely distributed among birch. P. capraana
occurs at Colchester and St. Osyth. P. sororculana (pralongana, Gn.) is

167

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

found at rest on birch trunks, but is not common. P. pruniana is
extremely abundant. P. ochroleucana is said to be common at Leigh, but
is not often taken at Colchester. P. vanegana (cynosbatella, Wilk.) is
plentiful in hedges. P. dimidiana is an Epping species. P. gentiana is
of general occurrence among teazle. P. sellana occurs in the Leigh
district. P. marginana is found at Saffron Walden and Southend. P.
fuligana has been captured by Mr. Raynor at Brentwood. Antithesia
salicella has been taken at Colchester, where it is very rare.

SPILONOTID^E

Hedya ocellana abounds everywhere. H. pauperana has only been
taken by Mr. W. R. Jeffrey and Mr. W. Warren at Saffron Walden.
H. aceriana and H. dealbana are common. H. neglectana has been taken
at Wanstead Flats, Temple Mills and near Southend. H. seruillana is
found at Colchester, Loughton and St. Osyth among sallow. H. simplana
is rare among aspen, but has been found at Colchester. Spilonota incar-
natana occurs at Epping. S. trimaculana (suffusana, Zell.), S. roscecolana^
S. roborana and Pardia tripunctana are generally common.

SERICORID^E

Aspis udmanniana occurs everywhere among bramble. Sideria acha-
tana is found sparingly among whitethorn at Colchester. 5. littoralis is
common in the salt marshes among thrift. S. cespitana is found at
Loughton, S. rivulana (concbana, Hb.) at Wanstead. S. urticaria and
S. lacunana are common everywhere. Roxana arcuana is local but
abounds in some woods, and is now common in the High Woods at
Colchester, where a few years ago it was never seen. Euchromia
purpurana has been taken at Hazeleigh, Leigh, Walton-on-the-Naze and
St. Osyth, but is always scarce. Orthotcenia striana is found sparingly at
Colchester and Brightlingsea, and more commonly at Leigh. O. bran-
deriana occurs in many woods among aspen. O. ericetana is scarce and
local, but has been captured at Colchester, Brentwood and Hazeleigh.

SCIAPHILID/E

Phtheochroa rugosana is frequently found in the larva state in briony
berries, but is difficult to rear and the perfect insect is not common.
Cnephasia politana (lepidana^ Curt.) is rare in the county. Mr. Whittle
once took it at Benfleet. C. musculana and Sciapbila nubilana are common.
S. conspersana (perterana, Gn.) is recorded from Leigh by Mr. Vaughan.
S. subjectana and S. virgaureana are common. S. pascuana has been taken
at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor. S. chrysantheana occurs sparingly at Col-
chester. S. hybrldana is not uncommon near Colchester and at Southend.
Sphaleroptera ictericana abounds on the coast and Capua favillaceana is
common in woods.

GRAPHOLITHID.E

Bactra lanceolana is often abundant in damp places among rushes.
B. furfurana was taken at Temple Mills by Mr. Machin. Phoxopteryx

1 68

INSECTS

siculana is found in woods in the Colchester district. P. uncana has been
taken at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor and at Epping and Loughton by Mr.
Machin. P. biarcuana has also been found at Loughton by Mr. Thur-
nall. P. lundana is found everywhere. P. diminutana is very local and
uncommon at St. Osyth. P. mitterpacheriana is widely distributed and
fairly common among birch. P. upupana is scarce and local ; it is found
at Colchester and St. Osyth. P. lactana occurs rather freely among
aspen. Grapbolitba ramella is generally distributed among birch. G.
nisella has been found at St. Osyth, Wanstead Flats and Pitsea among
sallow, but does not seem to be as common in the county as elsewhere.
G. cineraria is very common on the boles of large aspens in the Tendring
Hundred. G. nigromaculana occurs sparingly at Leigh and St. Osyth.
G. subocellana is very common among sallow. G. minutana is found
among poplars at Colchester. G. trimaculana and G. penkleriana are
common. G. obtusana is found in small numbers at Colchester, Southend
and St. Osyth. G. nce'vana is abundant among holly everywhere. Pblceodes
tetraquetrana is very common. P. immundana and P. demarniana are
found sparingly at Brentwood and St. Osyth, and the latter has also been
taken at Leigh. Hypermecia cruciana and Batodes angustiorana are gene-
rally common. Pcedisca bilunana is frequently met with among birch.
P. oppressana is found on black poplar at Colchester and Hazeleigh. P.
rufimitrana has once been taken at Dovercourt (W. H. H.). P. corticana
abounds on tree trunks in woods. P. profundana is widely distributed
and has been reported common at Leigh, but seems to be scarce else-
where. P. ophthalmicana may be found at rest on aspens at St. Osyth,
but is not common. P. solandriana, P. semifuscana and P. sordidana have
all been taken somewhat freely at Colchester. Ephippiphora similana
(bimaculana, Don.) is found sparingly at Colchester, Brentwood and
Wanstead. E. cirsiana and E. pjiugiana occur among thistles, the former
being by far the commoner and more widely distributed. E. brunnichiana
is very common among coltsfoot. E. inopiana occurs at Colchester, and
is reported from the neighbourhood of Southend by Mr. Vaughan and
Mr. Machin. E. fcenella seems always to be found among mugwort.
E. nigricostana has occurred at Colchester, Brentwood and Epping. E.
signatana has been recorded for Epping. E. trigeminana, though rather
local, is frequently found among ragwort. E. tetragonana is scarce, but
has been taken at Epping, Leigh and St. Osyth. E. populana occurs
sparingly at Colchester and Hazeleigh. E. obscurana was reported as
scarce at Leigh by Mr. Vaughan, and has also been captured at Epping.
Semasia spiniana and S. ianthinana are found at Epping, and the latter has
also occurred at Southend. S. rufillana is common among wild carrot
everywhere. 5. ivaeberiana is too frequently met with among fruit trees,
to which its larva?, which feed on the inner bark, do a great deal of
damage. Coccyx splendidulana is found sparingly at Colchester and
Southend. C. argyrana is very common everywhere on oak trees, and
C. tadella (hyrciniana, Uslar) on spruce. Heusimene jimbriana is occa-
sionally taken at Colchester, where it is scarce. Retinia buoliana, R.

\ 169 22

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

pinicolana and R. pinivorana are found in the Colchester district and
probably throughout the county on Scotch fir. Carpocapsa splendidana
occurs among oak everywhere. C. grossana is found among beech at
Brentwood. C. pomonella, the well known ' Codling Moth,' is much too
common in the larva state in * maggot-eaten ' apples and pears. Opadia
funebrana takes a heavy toll of the plum crop most seasons. Endopisa
nigricana is another injurious species which in the larva state is found in
the pods of peas. Stigmonota leguminana, which is extremely rare, S.
perlepidana and S. internana are found at Epping and the last named at
Stanway. S. compositella is frequently very common in clover fields. S.
nitidana and S. fexana (iveirana, Doug.) occur sparingly at Colchester
and also at Epping. S. regiana is of general occurrence among sycamore,
and S. roseticolana among wild rose. S. germarana has been taken at
Epping. Dicrorampba politana and D. alpinana are found at Colchester,
Brentwood and Loughton. D. sequana is common at Colchester and
Leigh. D. petiverella abounds everywhere. D. plumbana occurs at
Brentwood and Southend. D. saturnana is also taken at Southend. D.
plumbagana is very common among vetches. D. acuminatana has been
captured at Leigh and Colchester. D. simpliciana is found somewhat
freely about Artemesia vu/garis. D. tanaceti is common at Colchester
among tansy. D. consortana was obtained on the ' Essex salt marshes '
by Mr. Machin. Pyrodes rheedlella is generally common. Catoptria
albersana is found at Dedham, Danbury and Southend. C. ulicetana
abounds everywhere among furze. C. Juliana is scarce at Dedham and
Southend. C. nimbana has occurred in Epping Forest, where Mr. Thur-
nall has taken it sparingly. C. microgrammana is rare, and has only been
recorded from Leigh by Mr. Vaughan. C. hypericana is found commonly
among Hypericum and C. cana on thistles. C. candidulana (ivimmerana,
Wilk.) occurs among Artemesia maritima on the coast at Southend and
St. Osyth. C. scopoliana (bobenwarthiana, Gn.) is abundant among
Centaurea nigra. C. cacimaculana has been taken at Leigh and St. Osyth.
C. conterminana is occasionally found among lettuce at Colchester and
Leigh. C. cemulana was captured at Eastwood near Southend among
golden rod by Mr. Whittle. C. tripoliana (Bar.) is periodically common
among Aster tripolium^ but has not been found in north Essex recently.
C. expallidana has been captured at Leigh by Mr. Vaughan and at Ben-
fleet by Mr. Whittle. C, citrana occurs at Southend and on Canvey
Island. C. pupillana is recorded from Essex in Stanton's Manual. Try-
cheris aurana is frequently found on Angelica flowers.

PYRALOIDID^E

Choreutes myllerana has been taken at Temple Mills by Mr. Machin,
who has also taken Symcethis pariana at Loughton. S. oxyacanthella
(fabriciana, St.) abounds everywhere among nettle.

CONCHYLIDJE

Eupaecilia nana has a wide range among birch. E. dubitana occurs
near Southend and at Temple Mills. E. atricapitana is also found at

170

INSECTS

Southend. E. maculosana abounds among wild hyacinth. E. bybridella
has been captured at Colchester, Leigh and Witham. E. ambiguella
finds a place here on the authority of Meyrick's Handbook. E. angustana
is not uncommon in many districts. E. affinitana and E. vecfisana are
generally distributed in the salt marshes. E. udana has been taken at
Temple Mills and St. Osyth. E. notulana was once met with at Leigh,
where E. roseana is common. The latter species is also found at Haze-
leigh. E. ciliella is plentiful among cowslip at Aldham. Xanthosetia
zoegana occurs sparingly in many places. X. bamana abounds everywhere
among thistles. Cbrosis alcella (tesserana, Tr.) is of common occurrence
on the coast, and has been taken freely at Colchester and Witham. C.
bifasciana (audouinana, Dup.) is rare and local, and has only been recorded
from Epping and Wanstead. Lobesia re/iguana is probably in all wooded
districts. Argyrolepia hartmanniana (baumanniana, Schiff.), a very local
species, has occurred at Eastwood, Epping and Layer-de-la-Haye. A.
zephyrana is rather common among wild carrot. A. maritimana is scarce
and local on the coast sands, where much of its food plant the beautiful
sea holly has disappeared with the growth of the seaside watering
places. A. badiana is found among burdock and A. cnicana among
thistles at Colchester and St. Osyth. A. eeneana occurs sparingly in the
Southend district, where also Concbylis dipoltella and C. francillana arc
found. C. smeathmaniana and C. straminea occur at Colchester. C.
alternana is said to be an Essex species in Meyrick's Handbook.

APHELIID^

Tortricodes hyemana is very abundant in all oak woods in the early
months of the year.

TINE^E

The insects belonging to this group have so far received consider-
ably less attention than those already dealt with, and doubtless many
additions will be made to the following list when the entire county has
been thoroughly and systematically explored.

EPIGRAPHIIDJE

Lemnatophila pbryganella is somewhat common in oak woods in
November, and is widely distributed. Dasystoma salicella is very local,
but is found at Brentwood and Dedham. Exapate congelatella occurs at
Loughton. Diurnea fagella is abundant everywhere. Semioscopus avel-
lanella is scarce at Hazeleigh, Southend and St. Osyth. Epigraphia
steinkellneriana is generally distributed but is not very common.

PSYCHID./E

Talteporia pseudo-bombycella is fairly common in woods. Epicb-
nopteryx pulla is often plentiful on the coast, and is found in many inland
localities. E. reticella is very local, but is obtained by Mr. Whittle in
the Southend marshes. Fumea crassiorella has been taken by Mr.
Burrows at Rainham. F. betulina is stated in Meyrick's Handbook to
occur in the county. F. intermediella is common everywhere, and
Solenobia inconspicuella is reported from Brentwood by Mr. Raynor.

171

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

TINEID^E

Diplodoma marginepunctella^ Xysmatodoma melanella and Ochsen-
beimeria birdella have been taken at Colchester, and the last has also
occurred at Shoeburyness. O. bisontella^ O. vacu/e//a, Scardia boleti and
S. corticella have been found at Epping, and the two latter at Colchester.
S. para sitella was common in Donyland Wood in 1898. S. granella, S.
cloacella, S. arcella, Blabophanes ferruginella, B. rusticella and Tinea
tapetzella are all more or less common. T. albipunctella and T. capri-
mulgella are local but have occurred at Colchester. T. misella has been
taken at Shenfield by Mr. Raynor. T. pellionella and T. fmcipunctella
are of general occurrence. T. argentimaculella has been found at Epping
and Colchester, T. pallescentella at Colchester. T. lapella is generally
common, and T. semifuhella is found sparingly at Colchester and Haze-
leigh. Tineola biselliella, Lampronia quadripunctella and L, luzella have
been captured at Southend. L. preelatella is found at Brentwood, L.
rubiella at Colchester, and Incuruaria muscalella abounds everywhere.
/. pec tinea and /. oehlmanniella are by no means uncommon. /. capitella
is occasionally taken at Colchester among currant. Micropteryx calthella^
M. aruncella, M. sepella, M. thunbergella and M. purpurella are common.
M. kaltenbachii (Stt.) is given as an Essex species in Meyrick's Handbook.
M. semipurpurella and M. sparmannella occur at Colchester, M. subpur-
purella is found everywhere among oak. Nemopbora sivammerdammella
and N. scbwarziella abound in woods.

ADELIDJE

Adela jibulella and A. rufimitrella have a wide range in the Col-
chester district, where A. crcesella is scarce and local. A. degeerella and
A. viridella abound everywhere. Nematois cupriacellus is found at Col-
chester, Epping and St. Osyth. N. fasciellus is by no means scarce
among Ballota nigra at Colchester.

HYPONOMEUTIDjE

Sivammerdammia combine Ha, S. ccesiella, S. lutarea, S. oxyacanthella
and S. pyrella are all more or less common and have a wide distribution.
S. spiniella was taken at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor. Scythropia cratagella
is found sparingly at Benfleet and Leigh, and more commonly at Stan-
way and Colchester. Hyponomeuta 'vigintipunctatus was formerly taken in
some numbers at Colchester and Witham, but has been looked for vainly
in recent years. 1 H. plumbellus is frequently found among spindle at Col-
chester, and has also occurred at Prittlewell. H. padellus and H. cagna-
gellus are very common. H. evonymellus was once obtained on the seashore
at St. Osyth. Prays curtisellus is generally distributed among ash.

PLUTELLIDjE

Eidopbasia messingiella was captured by Mr. W. R. Jeffrey at Saffron
Walden. Plutella cruciferarum abounds throughout the county. P.
porrectella is common among Hesperis matronalis at Colchester, and Mr.

1 This species again occurred at Colchester in 1901 .
172

INSECTS

Whittle sometimes finds it at Southend. Cerostoma vitte//a, C. radiatella,

C. costella and C. sylvella are very generally distributed. The scarce and
local C. alpella has been captured by Mr. Warren at Wanstead and by
Mr. Whittle at Southend. C. lucella and C. horridella are also scarce.
Both have been taken at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor, and the latter hai
also been found at Colchester, Loughton and Woodham Ferris. Har-
pipteryx scabrella occurs in Epping Forest, H. nemorella is found sparingly
at Colchester and Southend, and H. xylostella commonly among honey-
suckle in many places. Tberistis mucronella^ though far from common,
is frequently found at Colchester, Hazeleigh and Saffron Walden among
spindle.

GELECHIID/E

Orthotelia sparganella is not uncommon at Wanstead, and Henicostoma
lobelia in the Colchester and Maldon districts. Phibalocera quercana
abounds among oak, Depressaria costosa and D.jtavella are generally dis-
tributed, D. umbellana has been taken somewhat freely at West Bergholt
and St. Osyth. D. assimilella and D. scopariella are locally common
among broom. D. atomella has been found at Epping by Mr. Machin.

D. arene/fa, D. propinquella and D. subpropinquella are generally common.
D. rbodochrella has been reported from Brentwood by Mr. Raynor. D.
alitrcemeriana is plentiful among hemlock at Colchester. D. purpurea
has occurred at Hazeleigh and Southend. D. liturella is found freely
among Hypericum, D. conterminella among osiers, and D. angelicella has
frequently been noticed in the larva state at St. Osyth. D. cnicella
occurs only on the coast sands. D. ocellana is frequently taken among
sallow. D. yeatiana is recorded from Southend and Hazeleigh. D.
applana is abundant. D. depressella has occurred at Southchurch and
Southend, D. albipunctella at Hazeleigh, D, douglasella at Pitsea. These
last three are scarce. D. chcerophylll abounds at Colchester. D. ultimella
has been taken at Witham. D. badiella is found sparingly at Colchester,
and D. beracleana abundantly in all the districts. Psoricoptera gibbosella
is recorded from Epping and Hainault. Gelechia vilella has been taken
by Mr. Warren at Shoeburyness. G. pinguinella is found on poplars at
Colchester and Hazeleigh, G. nigra on aspens at Wanstead, and was once
taken at St. Osyth. G. lentiginosella is an Epping species (Stainton's
Manual}. G. ericetella, G. mulinella, G. sororculella and G. diffinis are
generally common. G. rhombella occurs at Colchester ; G. scalella is not
scarce on oak trees in June. Brachmia mouffetella is to be found among
honeysuckle at Colchester. Bryotropba terre//a, B. affinis and B. domestica
are very common and widely distributed. Lita maculea and L. tricolorella
are somewhat common. L. leucomelanella has only once been bred from
a larva found at St. Osyth. L. juncte lla occurs at Epping and Hainault
(Stainton's Manual). L,. obsoletella was obtained in the south Essex
marshes by Mr. Machin. L. atriplicella and L. sueedella have been
taken at St. Osyth. L. oce//ate//a, L. instabilella and L. salicorniee are
also salt-marsh insects. Teleia proximella is generally common among
birch, T. notatella has been taken at Hockley by Mr. Whittle, f.

173

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

bumeralis at Epping by Mr. Machin, T. -vulgella is plentiful among haw-
thorn, T. luculella and T. scriptella occur at Colchester and Southend.
T. fugitive I la is somewhat common on elm in various localities, T. sequax
has been found at Benfleet, T. dodecella at Colchester and T. triparella at
Hazeleigh. Recurvaria leucatella is somewhat common on apple stems
and boughs, R. nanella has occurred at Southend and Woodham Mor-
timer, Pcecilia nivea at Colchester, P. albiceps and Argyrltis pictella have
been taken near Southend. Nannodia hermannella is often found among
Chenopodium at Colchester. Apodia bifractella^ Ptocbeuusa inopella, P.
subocellea and Ergatis brizella have all occurred in the Leigh district ;
E. ericinella was obtained at Loughton by Mr. Machin, Dorypbora lutu-
lentella at Witham by Mr. Cansdale, Monochroa tenebrella is an Epping
species. Lamprotes atrella is found at Saffron Walden and St. Osyth,
Anacampsis albipalpella at Loughton, A. ligulella at St. Osyth, A. vorticella
at Colchester, Brentwood and Hazeleigh, A. teeniolella at Southend and
A. anthyllidella in the Maldon district. Tachyptilia populella abounds
everywhere among poplar and birch. T. temerella was taken at Epping
by Mr. Machin. Bracbycrossata dnerella and Ceratopbora rufescens are
widely distributed. C. inornatella has occurred among reeds at Benfleet,
and Cladodes gerronella at Colchester and Epping. Parasia lappella is
found at Benfleet, Cleodora cytisella at Epping, Colchester and Witham.
Chelaria hilbnerella is sometimes common at St. Osyth. Anarsia spartiella
is frequently found among broom at Stanway, Haplota palpella is recorded
from Hainault, Sophronia parenthesella from Brentwood and Southend,
and Pleurota bicostella from Epping. Harpella geoffrella and Dasycera
sulphurella are common everywhere. D. olfaierella is widely distributed
and not scarce in the Colchester district, where also (Ecophora minutella^
(E. fulviguttella, (E. tripuncta and (E. angustella are to be met with.
The rare and local (E. formosella has occurred at Wanstead. (E. lunaris
is reported from many districts, the scarce (E. lambdella from Epping
and Colchester, (E. tinctella from Hazeleigh ; while (E. panzere//a, (E.
unitella and (E. Jlavifrontella have an extensive range in the county.
(E. fuscescens has been taken at Epping and Hazeleigh. (E. pseudo-
spretella is a pest everywhere. (Ecogenia quadripunctata and Endrosis
fenestrella are generally common. Butalis grandipennis is extremely local,
but has been taken in some plenty at Wanstead. The rare B. cicadella
was obtained at Southend by Mr. S. Stevens. B. chenopodiella is found
among Chenopodium at Colchester and Wanstead, and the local Pancalia
latreillella occasionally occurs at St. Osyth.

GLYPHIPTERYGID.ffi

Roslerstammia erxlebenella is not uncommon among lime at Col-
chester, Glypbipteryx fuscoviridella abounds everywhere, G. thrasonella,
G. equitella and G. fischeriella are found at Colchester, and Perittia obscure-
punctella and Heliozele sericiella at Epping and Brentwood.

ARGYRESTHIIDjE

Argyrestbia epbippella and A. nitidella are generally common. A.

174

INSECTS

semite stacella occurs at Epping, A. spiniella at Southend, A. albistria,
A. conjuge//a, A. semifusca, A. mendica, A. glaucinella and A. retinella are
all found in the county more or less commonly. A. andereggiella was
taken at Epping by Mr. P. C. Wormald. A. curuella is plentiful
among apple, A. pygmcella is far from scarce among sallow, A. goedartella
abounds on alder and A. brochella on birch.

GRACILARIID/E

Graci/aria alchimiella occurs everywhere, G. stigmatella and G. elon-
gella are found sparingly at Colchester, G. tringipennella is recorded as
somewhat scarce at Benfleet, G. syringella is very abundant among privet
and lilac, G. auroguttella has been captured at Brentwood and Shoebury-
ness, and Coriscium brongniartellum at Danbury by Mr. Raynor. Ornix
avellanella and O. anglicella are common, O. betulee was obtained at
Snaresbrook by Mr. Machin. O. torquillella and O. guttea are well dis-
tributed and somewhat common.

COLEOPHORIDJE

Goniodoma auroguttella was captured by Mr. G. Coverdale at Shoe-
buryness. Coleopbora fabriciella has occurred at Colchester and Epping,
C, deauratella at Colchester, Southend and Witham. C. alcyonipennella
is not scarce among Centaurea nigra \ C. wockeella is rare, and has only
been found at St. Osyth. C. potentillce has been taken near Waltham-
stow, C. conspicuella at Benfleet, C. vibicigerella at Fobbing, C. albicosta
at Colchester and C. vu/nerarue at Brentwood. C. anatipennella is
common and generally distributed, C. palliatella has been captured at
Colchester, Epping and Southend, C. ibipennella at Southend, C. curruci-
pennella and C. discordella at Epping. C. genista is recorded from
Wanstead, C. saturatella is somewhat common among broom at Col-
chester, C. therinella has been taken at Southend and Canvey, and C.
maritimelta at Vange. C. lineolea is common everywhere among Eallota
mgra, C. caspititiella abounds among rushes, C. laripennella has occurred
at Colchester, C. salinella at Benfleet, Shoeburyness and Great Wakering
and C. artemisicolella at Vange, Canvey and Leigh. C. argentula is
common among yarrow, C. tripoliella has been taken at Southend, C.
virgaurea at Colchester, C. hemerobiella is included on the authority of
Meyrick's Handbook, C. laricella abounds among larch, C. albitarsella^
C. nigricella and C.fuscedinella are common and widely distributed. C.
orbitella has been taken at Brentwood by Mr. Raynor and at Snares-
brook by Mr. Machin, C. gryphipennella at Benfleet by Mr. Whittle
and C. siccifolia in Epping Forest by Mr. J. Scott. C. viminetef/a, C.
so/itarie//a, C. lutipennella and C. badiipennella have an extensive range in
the county, and are not uncommon. C. adjunctella was captured at
Shoeburyness by Mr. Coverdale, and C. limosipennella at Ley ton by Mr.
Machin.

ELACHISTIDJE

Eedellia somnulentella has been found at Witham. Stathmopoda
pedella is scarce among alder, and Cosmopteryx eximia not uncommon

i75

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

among hop at Colchester, where Eatrachedra prceangusta abounds on
poplar. B. pinicolella and Chauliodus cheer ophy lie llus have been taken at
Brentwood. Laverna lacteela and L. stepbensi are both found in the
Epping district. JL. epilobiella is abundant everywhere on Epilobium
hirsutum, L. ochraceella has been obtained at Eastwood near Southend.
L. decorella, according to Mr. Fitch, is generally distributed but not
common. L. subbistrigella has been captured at Hazeleigh, L,. atra and
Chrysoclysta aurifrontella are common everywhere among hawthorn.
Antispila pfeifferella has been found at Brentwood, Elacbista magnificella
at Colchester, E. albifrontella is common, E. stabilella is reported from
Brentwood, E. nigrella and E. obscurella are very common. E. gan-
gabella occurs at Epping, E. cerussella at Colchester, E. triatomea at
Benfleet ; JE. pollmariella was taken at Fairmead Bottom by Mr. Machin,
E. rufocinerea and E. argentella are generally abundant. Tischeria com-
planella is very common among oak. The local T. dodoncea has been
obtained by Mr. Whittle at Eastwood near Southend, T. margined is
plentiful among brambles, T. gaunacella has occurred at Colchester and
Witham.

LITHOCOLLETID^:

Litbocolletis hortella occurs at Colchester, L. lantanella at Southend.
L. irradiella and L. lautella are found at Brentwood ; the latter has also
been obtained by Mr. Fincham who has given much attention to this
genus and Neptlcula at Colchester. L. cavella is recorded for the
county in Mey rick's Handbook. L. pomifoliella, L. coryli, L. spinicolella,
L. faginella, L. saliclcolella and L.. vimineforum are common at Colchester.
L. carpinicolella has been taken at Loughton, Wanstead and Southend.
L. ulmifoliclla, L. spinolella, L. quercifoliella, L. messaniella, L. corylifoliella,
L. viminiella, L. alnifoliella, L. heegeriella, L. cramerella, L. tenella and
L. syhella have all been found at Colchester, and with the exception of
tenella are common there ; this has also occurred at Wanstead. L.
emberizczpennella has been obtained at Southend. L. nicellii, L. scbreberella,
L. tristrigella and L. trifasciella are Colchester species, and like most of
this family have probably a wide range in the county, though few definite
localities are at present known for them.

LYONETIID^E

Phyllocnistis suffuse I la, Cemiostoma spartifoliella and C. laburnella are
common at Colchester. Opostega salaciella has been taken at Brentwood
by Mr. Raynor, O spatulella at Witham by Mr. Cansdale, and at
Southend by Mr. Whittle. Eucculatrix ulmella occurs at Hazeleigh and
Southend, B. vetustella is recorded from Epping, where B. cratcegi is
common. B. maritima is plentiful in the marshes at Benfleet and
Southend, and B. cristatella is reported from Benfleet and Witham.

NEPTICULID^:

Neptlcula atricapitella is found at Epping, N. anomalella and .ZSf.
pygmceella are common at Colchester, N. pomella has been taken at

176

INSECTS

Wanstead, N. viscerella at Colchester and Wickham Bishops, N. catbar-
ticella at Danbury, N. septembrella is plentiful at Colchester, and N.
intimella has occurred at Witham. N. subbimaculella^ N. trimaculella,
N. quinquella and N. Jioslactella occur frequently at Colchester. N.
salicis, N. microtheriella, N. plagicolella and N. tityrella are common. N.
malella has been found at Walthamstow, N. angulifasciella at Colchester,
and N. rubrvora has been taken in the county by Mr. Warren. N.
marginicolella, N. alnetella and N. aurella are common. N. regiella has
been obtained at Brentwood and Colchester, N. puherosella has been
bred from Epping Forest larvae by Mr. E. R. Bowles. Trifurcula
immundella has been captured at Wanstead by Mr. Warren.

DIPTERA

Flies

The Diptera are for the most part small or moderate sized insects
with two fully developed membranous wings and two inconspicuous
haltares or balancers situated where other insects are provided with hind
wings.

The order is extremely numerous in species, many of which are so
excessively prolific and so ubiquitous that everybody is of necessity more
or less acquainted with some of them, though they have been hitherto
so little studied in this country that few British entomologists know
much about them.

In recent years a small number of earnest workers have been
endeavouring to bring about a more satisfactory condition of things,
and with the commencement of the new century Mr. Verrall, who is
our chief authority, has brought out the first volume of what promises
to be a fine work on the order ; so that it is to be hoped that before
long we may be able to give a better account of it than we are at
present.

The Diptera have been painted in anything but alluring colours
hitherto, and even Professor Westwood, from whom they might have
expected better treatment, condemns them root and branch ; for in his
famous Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects he says that
' while their size entitles them to small consideration, they have slender
claims to our notice on the score of beauty, their forms are inelegant
and their manners and customs atrocious and disgusting.'

While some species of Diptera are undoubtedly harmful to us or to
our belongings there is another side to the question, since among them
are many which render us essential service as scavengers in the removal
of putrefying substances, as checks upon the undue increase of other
insects, as fertilizers of flowers and in a variety of other ways.

Nor is the statement that they are devoid of elegance of form or

beauty of colouring to be allowed to pass without challenge, seeing that

many among them are brilliantly coloured and extremely beautiful. On

the continent, and to a limited extent in this country, it has been the

i 177" 23

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

custom hitherto to impale these insects on long pins without making
any attempt to arrange and display their wings, bodies and legs, and
treated in this fashion they are certainly melancholy and pitiable objects ;
but a collection in which the specimens are all properly set and arranged
is far more useful for all purely scientific purposes, and is calculated to
form a source of considerable pleasure to those who are not wholly
wanting in all aesthetic sensibility.

Some of the families into which this order is divided require much
attention and revision before even the most competent British entomo-
logists can speak with authority about them ; and seeing how small a
portion of our own county has been even superficially investigated, it
behoves us to be modest in displaying our knowledge even of the better
understood families, but a little should be said about some of them.

The Gall Gnats (Cecidomyidce and their allies) have been fully dealt
with by Mr. Fitch, and to his article on the ' Galls of Essex ' (Trans.
Essex Field Club, ii. 98-156) reference should be made by any one
desiring the best available information concerning them.

The Bibionidce are represented by about a dozen of the typical genus
Bibio. B. venosus, the scarcest of these, is occasionally found at Colchester;
B. marci (St. Mark's fly) is a conspicuous black insect which suddenly
appears in vast swarms early in the spring, and is one of several insects
for the ' bringing over ' of which the rural population make the east wind
responsible.

The Gnats (Culicida, etc.) are well in evidence in mild weather
throughout the year. Several of them are only too well known from
their blood sucking propensities, and in certain parts of the county
species are found which if met with elsewhere would be called mosqui-
toes, and would have as good a right to the name as other members of
the same family to which it appears to be somewhat indiscriminately
applied.

The Crane-flies (Tipulida:}, more familiarly known as 'Daddy-long-
legs,' are numerous, and some of them, such as Tipula gigantea, T", lutes-
cens, etc., are large and handsome insects ; but their legs are so loosely
joined to their bodies that it is extremely difficult to prepare them for
the cabinet in perfect condition, and therefore they do not receive the
attention from collectors which they otherwise deserve. Among the
better species Dictenidia bimaculata occurs at Colchester, and the hand-
some Ctenophora flaveolata has been captured by Mr. G. F. Mathew at
Dovercourt.

The Stratiomyida include some fine insects, notably Stratiomys pota-
mida, S. longicornis and Odontomyia ornata, which are occasionally found at
Colchester, and S. furcata and O. tigrina, which occur on the coast. The
species of Sargus and Chloromyia are elegant insects with brilliant green
and purple metallic bodies ; they are well distributed and not un-
common.

The Tabanidce or Breeze-flies, also known as Gadflies, which are so
troublesome to horses and cattle and occasionally to mankind, are natur-

178

INSECTS

ally strongly represented in a county which contains so much grazing
land as ours. The larger and more robust species seem to be found more
freely in the woods and marshes towards the coast than further inland,
but the pertinacious ' clegg,' Htematopota pluvialis^ and the brilliant eyed
Cbryiops ceecutiens have a wider distribution.

Among the Asilidce the rare Dioctria reinbardi has occurred at
Colchester, and the large and voracious Asilus crabroniformis, which
preys upon grasshoppers and other insects, is sometimes far from scarce
in the autumn, especially in pastures where horses are feeding. Pbilonicus
albiceps is a local coast species which is not uncommon on the St. Osyth
sands.

The Bombylidee are represented by Anthrax paniscus and Bombylius
discolor and B. major. The Anthrax is a coast species not often seen
and still less frequently captured, as it is an extremely wary insect. The
two species of Bombylius called ' Unicorn-flies,' because of the extreme
length of the proboscis, may frequently be noticed hovering before
primrose and other flowers, or poised in the air making a loud humming
noise with their wings, which vibrate so rapidly that their motion is
hardly perceptible. In the larva state they are parasitic on the larvae of
bees of the genus Anthophora.

The extensive family Syrphidae comprises many of our largest and
most brilliantly coloured native Diptera. Some of them are robust
insects bearing a strong superficial resemblance to Humble-bees. The
typical genus Syrphus contains many common species ; in the larva state
they prey upon aphides, vast numbers of which are devoured by them.
S. umbellatarum and S. tricinctus are scarce, and S. eucbrotnus and S. tri-
angulifer very rare.

Among the more notable members of other genera deserving of
special mention are the fine Xantbandrus comtus^ the rare Didea alneti and
D. fasciata D. alneti was added to the British list from a specimen
taken at Colchester in 1893. Volucella inftata and V. inanis, two fine
and very local species, are occasionally met with in some of our woods.

The extremely variable Merodon equestris, at one time considered a
great rarity, is rapidly becoming much too common, as many local bulb
growers are discovering to their cost, large numbers of their finest
narcissus and other bulbs being devoured by its larvae.

The handsome genus Criorrbina is generally well represented at
May blossom and raspberry and bramble flowers in certain favoured
spots.

The curiously constructed Conopidee or Wasp-flies are generally well
in evidence in the late summer among composite flowers, and several of
the species seem to be commoner in the Colchester district than in
other parts of England.

The Muscidtz which in the list that follows are placed in accord-
ance with Mr. Austen's arrangement of the new collection in the
National Museum include a number of species parasitic on the larvae
of the Lepidoptera, and as some of them are excessively numerous in

179

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

individuals and prey upon many different kinds of larvae they destroy
prodigious numbers, in some cases only leaving a few survivors out of
large broods. The common House-flies (Musca corvina and M. domestica),
the Flesh-fly (Sarcophaga carnaria), the blue and green Bottle-flies (Calli-
pbora and Lucilia) also belong to this group, which includes many less
familiar and more handsome species, such as the brilliant blue Cynomyia
mortuorum, occasionally found in some numbers on the coast and less
frequently inland ; the large glossy black Mesembrina meridiana, the wings
of which have the basal portion conspicuously yellow, and Micropalpus
pudicus. This, though by no means rare in the Colchester district, does
not seem to have been identified from any other locality at present.

The Horse Bot-fly (Gastrophilus egui), the Ox Warble-fly (Hypoderma
bovis) and the Sheep Nostril-fly (CEstrus ovis) are also now classed with
the Muscidee, but the literature devoted to them is already so voluminous
and so easily accessible that it need not be added to here.

The Antbomyidce and the families which follow them include many
insects which perform an important part in the economy of nature by
the removal of putrefying animal and vegetable substances ; also some
that are very destructive to our crops, such as Pegomyia beta, which
probably generally feeds on the wild beet (Beta marltlma) on the sea coast,
but is occasionally very destructive to mangel-wurzel ; the Celery-fly
(Acidia heraclei), the Carrot-fly (Psi/a rosci), and a number of beautiful
little insects with spotted wings, among which the rare Gonyglossum
wiedemanni and Icterica westermanni are especially noteworthy.

When no other locality is mentioned in the list the Colchester dis-
trict is to be understood.

A LIST OF THE DIPTERA OCCURRING IN THE COUNTY

CECIDOMYID.S (continued)

Cecidomyia trifolii, F. Lw. Maldon (Fitch)

ulmariae, Bremi. Maldon, Rayleigh

(Fitch)

urticae, Ferris. Essex (Fitch)

veronicas, Vallot. Loughton (Fitch)
Diplosis, Lw.

botularia, Winn. Birdbrook, Maldon

(Fitch)

buxi, Laboulb. Birdbrook (Fitch)

loti, Deg. Epping, Maldon (Fitch)
Hormomyia, Lw.

capreae, Winn. Maldon (Fitch)

corni, Gir. Heltons Bumpstead (Fitch)

fagi, Hartig. South Benfleet (Fitch)

millefolii, Lw. Maldon (Fitch)

piligera, Lw. Danbury, Epping

NEMATOCERA
PULICID.S
Pulex, L.

irritans, L.
CECIDOMYIDA:

Lasioptera, Mg.

rubi, Schrk.
Asphondylia, Lw.

pimpinellse, F. Lw. Maldon (Fitch)

sarothamni, Lw. Epping (Fitch)
Cecidomyia, Mg.

- bursaria, Bremi. Birdbrook (Fitch)

- ? clausilia, Meade. Maldon (Fitch)

- crataegi, Winn. Essex (Fitch)

galii, Lw. Birdbrook, Maldon (Fitch)

persicarias, L. Burnham (Fitch)

plicatrix, Lw. "|

- ? pruni, Kltb. I Maldon (Fitch)

ranunculi, Bremi. J

rosaria, Lw. Essex (Fitch)

rosarum, Hardy. Maldon (Fitch)

salicis, Schrk. Essex (Fitch)

sisymbrii, Schrk. Romford (Fitch)

taxi, Inch. Greenstead (Fitch)

(Fitch)
MYCETOPHILID^:
Sciara, Mg.

thomas, L.

tilicola, Lw. Maldon (Fitch)
Platyura, Mg.

marginata, Mg.
1 80

INSECTS

Dilophus, Mg.

febrilis, L.
Bibio, Geoff.

- pomonje, Fabr.
marci, L.

hortulanus, L.

anglicus, Ver.

venosus, Mg.

reticulatus, Lw.

nigriventris, Hal.

- varipes, Mg.

- laniger, Mg.

- johannis, L.

- Icpulus, Lw.
CHIRONOMID^

Chironomus, Mg.

- plumosus, L.
CULICID.*

Culex, L.

- ciliaris, L.

cantans, Mg.

annulatus, Schrk.
PTYCHOPTERIDJE

Ptychoptera, Mg.

contaminata, L.

albimana, Fabr.
LntMMBUi

Limnobia, Mg.

nitida, Vcr.
Poecilostola, Schin.

- punctata, Schrk.
Trichocera, Mg.

hiemalis, Deg.

rcgelationis, L.
TIPULID.S

Pachyrrhina, Mcq.

maculosa, Mg.

- quadrifaria, Mg.
Tipula, L.

marmorata, Mg.

varipennis, Mg.

lateralis, Mg.

gigantea, Schrk.

lutescens, Fabr.

olcracea, L.
Dictenidia, Brul.

bimaculata, L.
Ctcnophora, Mg.

- flaveolata, Fabr. Dovercourt

Rhyphus, Ltr.

fenestralis, Scop.

BRACHYCERA

STRATIOMVIDJE
Nemotelus, GeoflF.

notatus, Ztt.
Oxycera, Mg.

pulchella, Mg.

STRATIOMYID/E (continued)
Oxycera trilineata, Fabr.
Stratiomys, Geoff.

potamida, Mg.

furcata, Fabr.

longicornis, Scop.
Odontomyia, Mg.

ornata, Mg.

tigrina, Fabr.

viridula, Fabr.
Sargus, Fabr.

flavipes, Mg.

cuprarius, L.

infuscatus, Mg.
Chloromyia, Dune.

Formosa, Scop.
Microchrysa, Lw.

polita, L.
Beris, Ltr.

clavipes, L.

vallata, Forst.

chalybeata, Forst.

Hzematopota, Mg.

- pluvialis, L.

- crassicornis, Whlbg.
Therioplectes, Zlr.

- tropicus, Mg.

var. bisignatus, Jaen.

- solstitialis, Mg.
Atylotus, O-Sack.

- fulvus, Mg.
Tabanus, L.

- bromius, L.

- autumnalis, L.
Chrysops, Mg.

- czcutiens, L.

- relictus, Mg.
Leptis, Fabr.

- scolopacea, L.

- tringaria, L.

- lineola, Fabr.
Chrysopilus, Mcq.

auratus, Fabr.
ASILID.*

Leptogaster, Mg.

cylindrica, Deg.
Dioctria, Mg.

o:landica, L.

reinhardi, W.

atricapilla, Mg.

rufipes, Deg.

baumhaueri, Mg.
Laphria, L.

marginata, L.
Asilus, L.

crabroniformis, L.
Philonicus, Lw.

albiceps, Mg.
Ncoitamus, O-Sack.

181

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

(continued)
Neoitamus cyanurus, Lw.
Machimus, Lw.

atricapillus, Fin.
Dysmachus, Lw.

trigonus, Mg.

BOMBYLIDJE

Anthrax, Scop.

paniscus, Rossi
Bombylius, L.

discolor, Mik.

major, L.
THEREVID.S:

Thereva, Ltr.

nobilitata, Fabr.

bipunctata, Mg.

- annulata, Fabr.
EMPID.S

Hybos, Mg.

grossipes, L. Epping (Brunetti)
Rhamphomyia, Mg.

- sulcata, Fin.
Empis, L.

tessellata, Fabr.

livida, L.

trigramma, Mg.

nigritarsis, Mg.
Hilara, Mg.

- litorea, Fin. Epping (Brunetti)
Trichina, Mg.

clavipes, Mg. Epping (Brunetti)

DOLICHOPODID^E

Dolichopus, Ltr.

trivialis, Hal. Epping (Brunetti)
Poscilobothrus, Mik.

nobilitatus, L.
Argyra, Mcq.

diaphana, Fabr.

leucocephala, Mg.
Scellus, Lw.

notatus, Fabr.
Campsicnemus, Wlk.

curvipes, Fin. Epping (Brunetti)
LONCHOPTERID.S

Lonchoptera, Mg.

lutea, Pz. Epping (Brunetti)

PROBOSCIDEA

SYRPHID.K

Pipizella, Rnd.

virens, Fabr.

maculipennis, Mg.
Pipiza, Fin.

noctiluca, L.

lugubris, Fabr.
Cnemodon, Egg.

vitripennis, Mg.
Chrysogaster, Mg.

metallina, Fabr.

liirtella, Lw.

SYRPHIDJE (continued')

Chrysogaster virescens, Lw.

splendens, Mg.

solstitialis, Fall.
Chilosia, Mg.

sparsa, Lw.

soror, Ztt.

scutellata, Fin.

vernalis, Fin.

proxima, Ztt.

fraterna, Mg. (chloris, Mg.)

bergenstammi, Becker.

grossa, Fin.

albipila, Mg. (flavicornis, Fabr.)

albitarsis, Mg. (flavimana, Mg.)

variabilis, Pz.

honesta, Rond.

barbata, Lw.

vulpina, Mg.

intonsa, Lw.

illustrata, Harris (oestracea, L.)
Leucozona, Schin.

lucorum, L.
Melanostoma, Schin.

scalare, Fabr.
- mellinum, L.

Melangyna, Ver. (Melanostoma pars Schin.)

quadrimaculata, Ver.
Xanthandrus,Ver. (Melanostoma pars Schin.)

comtus, Harris (hyalinatum, Fin.)
Pyrophaena, Schin.

ocymi, Fabr.
Platychirus, St. Farg.

manicatus, Mg.

albimanus, Fabr.

peltatus, Mg.

scutatus, Mg.

fulviventris, Mcq. Epping (Brunetti)

immarginatus, Ztt.

scambus, Staeg.

clypeatus, Mg.

angustatus, Ztt.
Didea, Mcq.

alneti, Fin.

fasciata, Mcq.
Syrphus, Fabr.

barbifrons, Fin.

umbellatarum, Fabr.

labiatarum, Ver.

euchromus, Kow.

triangulifer, Zett.

auricollis, Mg.

cinctellus, Ztt.

balteatus, Deg.

bifasciatus, Fabr.

luniger, Mg.

corollae, Fabr.

nitidicollis, Mg.

vitripennis, Mg.

ribesii, L.

182

INSECTS

(continued)
Syrphus grossulariae, Mg.

tricinctus, Fin.

venustus, Mg.

quadrilunulatus, Schaum.

albostriatus, Fin.

laternarius, Mall.
Catabomba, O-Sack.

pyrastri, L.
Sphzrophoria, St. Farg.

scripta, L.

var. dispar, Lw.

menthastri, L.
Xanthogramma, Schin.

- citrofasciatum, Deg.

- ornatum, Mg.
Baccha, Fabr.

elongata, Fabr.
Ascia, Mg.

floralis, Mg.
Rhingia, Scop.

campestris, Mg.
Brachyopa, Mg.

bicolor, Fin.
Volucella, Geoff.

bom by Ian s, L.

pellucens, L.

inflata, Fabr.

inanis, L.
Sericomyia, Mg.

borcalis, Fin.
Eristalis, Latr.

sepulchralis, L.

aeneus, Scop.

tenax, L.

- intricarius, L.

arbustorum, L.

pertinax, Scop.

nemorum, L.

horticola, Deg.
Myiatropa, Rnd.

florea, L.
Helophilus, Mg.

- trivittatus, Fabr.

- pendulus, L.

- versicolor, Fabr.

- transfugus, L.

- lineatus, Fabr.

- vittatus, Mg.
Merodon, Mg.

- equestris, Fabr.
Tropidia, Mg.

- scita, Harris (milesiformis, Fin.)
Criorrhina, Mcq.

- berberina, Fabr.

- asilica, Fin.

- oxyacanthse, Mg.

- floccosa, Mg.
Xylota, Mg.

segnis, L.

SYRPHID.* (continued)
Xylota lenta, Mg.

nemorum, Fabr.

sylvarum, L.
Syritta, St. Farg.

pipiens, L.
Eumerus, Mg.

ornatus, Mg.

strigatus, Fall.
Chrysochlamys, Rnd.

cuprea, Scop.
Chrysotoxum, Mg.

cautum, Harris (sylvarum, Mg.)

octomaculatum, Curt.

festivum, L.

bicinctum, L.
CONOPID./E

Conops, L.

quadrifasciatus, Deg.

ceriiformis, Mg.

flavipes, L.
Physocephala, Schin.

rufipes, Fabr.
Sicus, Scop.

ferrugineus, L.
Myopa, Fabr.

- buccata, L.

testacea, L.

- polystigma, Rond.
MUSCID.*

Ceromasia, Rond.

stabulans, Mg.

senilis, Mg.
Exorista, Mg.

vetula, Mg.
Epicampocera, Mg.

ambulans, Mg.
Blepharidea, Br. and Berg.

vulgaris, Fin.
Myxexorista, Br. and Berg.

libatrix, Br. and Berg.
Phorocera, Dsv.

cilipeda, Rond.

concinnata, Mg.
Chaetolyga, Rond.

quadripustulata, Fin.
Eutachina, Br. and Berg.

- larvarum, L.

- prsepotens, Mg.
Gonia, Mg.

ornata, Mg.
Aporomyia, Rond.

dubia, Fin.
Mintho, Dsv.

prseceps, Scop.
Melanota, Rond.

volvulus, Fabr.
Macquartia, Dsv.

dispar, Fin.
Thelaira, Dsv.

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

MUSCID^E (continued)

Thelaira leucozona, Pz.
Myobia, Dsv.

inanis, Fin.
Oliviera, Dsv.

lateralis, Fabr.
Micropalpus, Mcq.

vulpinus, Fin.

pudicus, Rond.
Erigone, Dsv.

radicum, Fabr.

strenua, Mg.
Tachina, Mg.

fera, L.
Phorichaeta, Rond.

carbonaria, Pz.
Thryptocera, Mcq.

latifrons, Mg.
Alophora, Dsv.

hemiptera, Fabr.
Trixa, Mg.

oestroidea, Rob.
Sarcophaga, Mg.

carnaria, L.

vulnerata, Sch.
Cynomyia, Dsv.

mortuorum, L.
Nyctia, Dsv.

halterata, Pz.
Miltogramma, Mg.

punctata, Mg.
Dexiosoma, Rond.

caninum, Fabr.
Dexia, Mg.

rustica, Fabr.
Pollenia, Dsv.

rudis, Fabr.
Musca, L.

domestica, L.

corvina, Fabr.
Graphomyia, Dsv.

maculata, Scop.
Cyrtoneura, Mcq.

stabulans, Fin.
Mesembrina, Mg.

meridiana, L.
Calliphora, Dsv.

grcenlandica, Zett.

azurea, Fin.

erythrocephala, Mg.

vomitoria, L.
Lucilia, Dsv.

caasar, L.

sericata, Mg.
Gastrophilus, Leach

equi

Fabr.

Hypoderma, Latr.

bovis, Deg.
Oestrus, L.

ovis, L.

ANTHOMYID.S
Polietes, Rond.

lardaria, Fabr.

albolineata, Fin. Epp'mg (Brunetti)
Hyetodesia, Rond.

lucorum, Fin.

perdita, Mg.

erratica, Fin.

basalis, Ztt.

scutellaris, Fin.

populi, Mg.

pallida, Fabr.

flaveola, Fin.
Mydaea, Dsv.

impuncta, Fin.

- affinis, Meade
Spilogaster, Mcq.

communis, Dsv.
Hydrotaea, Dsv.

ciliata, Fabr.

dentipes, Fabr.
Ophyra, Dsv.

leucostoma, W.
Hylemyia, Dsv.

strigosa, Fabr. Epp'mg (Brunetti)

praepotens, W.
Anthomyia, Mg.

radicum, L. Epp'mg (Brunetti)
Phorbia, Dsv.

- histrio, Ztt.
Pegomyia, Dsv.

betas, Curt.

versicolor, Mg.
Homalomyia, Bouche

aprica, Hal.

canicularis, L.

- incisurata, Ztt. Epp'mg (Brunetti)

- triangulifera, Rond.

CORDYLURIDJE

Cordylura, Fin.

pubera, L.

pudica, Mg.

ciliata, Mg.
Scatophaga, Mg.

spurca, Mg.

lutaria, Fabr.

inquinata, Mg.

stercoraria, L.

squalida, Mg.
HELOMYZIDJE

Tephrochlamys, Lw.

rufiventris, Mg.
SCIOMYZIDJE

Dryomyza, Fin.

anilis, Fin.

flaveola, Fabr.
Neottiophilum, Frfld.

praeustum, Mg.
Tetanocera, Fin.

elata, Fabr.

184

INSECTS

SCIOMYZID.* (continued)

Tetanocera ferruginea, Fin.

reticulata, L.

punctulata, Scop.
Li in nia, Dsv.

marginata, Fabr.
Elgiva, Mg.

dorsalis, Fabr.
- rufa, Pz.

Sepedon, Latr.

sphegeus, Fabr.

spinipes, Scop.

Psila, Mg.

fimetaria, L.

- rosae, Fabr.
Loxocera, Mg.

aristata, Pz.
MICROPEZID^

Micropeza, Mg.

corrigiolata, L.
ORTALID.*

Dorycera, Mg.

graminum, Fabr.
Ptilonota, Lw.

- guttata, Mg.
Ceroxys, Mcq.

pictus, Mg.

crassipennis, Fabr.
Anacampta, Lw.

urticae, L.
Platystoma, Mg.

- seminationis, Fabr.
Seoptera, Kirby

vi brans, L.
TRYPETID^

Acidia, Dsv.

cognata, W.

- heraclei, L.
Gonyglossum, Rond.

wiedemanni, Mg.
Spilographa, Lw.

zoC, Mg.
Trypeta, Mg.

- falcata, Scop.

- onotrophes, Lw.
Urophora, Dsv.

TRYPETID.* (continued)
Urophora solstitialis, L.

stylata, Fabr.

cardui, L.
Icterica, Lw.

westermanni, Mg.
Tephritis, Latr.

miliaria, Schrk.

vespertina, Lw.
SAPROMYZID^E

Sapromyza, Fin.

prxusta, Fin. Epping (Brunctti)
Lauxania, Latr.

aenea, Fin. Epping (Brunetti)
OPOMYZID^

Opomyza, Fin.

germination is, L. Epping (Brunctti)
SEPSID*

Sepsis, Fin.

cynipsea, L. Epping (Brunetti)
Nemopoda, Dsv.

cylindrica, Fabr. Epping (Brunetti)

EPHTDUDA

Hydrellia, Dsv.

- griseola, Fin.
Parhydra, Stnb.

coarctata, Fin.
Ephydra, Fin.

micans, Hal.
CHLOROPID^

Chlorops, Mg.

taeniopus, Mg.
BORBORIDA:

Borborus, Mg.

nitidus, Mg.

equinus, Fin.

vitripennis, Mg.

- geniculatus, Mcq.
PHORID.*

Phora, Latr.

rufipes, Mg.

EPROBOSCIDEA

HlPPOBOSCID^

Ornithomyia, Latr.

avicularia, L.

Epping (Brunetti)
Epping (Brunetti)

? cq.J

Epping (Brunetti)

HEMIPTERA

HETEROPTERA

Bugs

This order has thus far received but scant attention from British
entomologists, though some of the species comprised in it are con-
spicuous for their beauty and many are extremely interesting from their
great diversity of structure. They feed principally upon plants, from
1 185 24

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

which they suck the juices ; but some of them prey upon other insects,
and one has conferred an evil reputation upon the rest from its too
assiduous attentions to mankind. Some are winged, but are not so
frequently found flying as other insects ; others have only rudimentary
wings and elytra, and a few are altogether wingless. Although they
are mainly attached to land plants, a good many are found in or on the
surface of the water.

Among the more notable Essex species are Ettrygaster maura, which
has been swept from mint at St. Osyth ; JElia acuminata, which occurs
on the coast, and has also been beaten from birch at Colchester. A
single specimen of Pentatotna fuscispina was taken at St. Osyth on August
19, 1901. Of this fine insect only six British specimens were previously
recorded, all from Devonshire. The rare Strachia oleracea has been
found near Clacton-on-Sea, where Beosus luscus may not unfrequently
be met with. The very beautiful Zicrona ccerulea has been captured at
Dedham. Henestaris laticeps and Ceraleptus Irvidus are coast insects, and
the curious Chorosoma schilling} may be met with freely on the flower
heads of the marram and other seaside grasses. Dictyonota fuliginosa, for
which Weybridge is the only recorded locality, has several times been
found, and the rare Monanthia ciliata once only. A macropterous
example of Nabis brevipenms, which is usually micropterous in this
country, and concerning which Saunders says, ' I have never seen a fully
developed British specimen,' has occurred, and a similar fully developed
specimen of N. latrventris. Probably the high temperature of some
recent summers may have produced these unusual forms. N. lineatus
is occasionally to be found on the coast sands, while Lopus jtavomargin-
afus, which is usually considered local and scarce, seems to be widely
distributed in the northern part of the county.

HOMOPTERA

The Homopterous section of the Hemiptera includes the frog-
hoppers and cuckoo-spits. They are mostly of small size, the strange
looking Ledra aurlta being our largest Essex species. This is by no
means common, but may sometimes be found in oak woods in the
autumn. Issus coleoptratus is another curiously formed insect, which
occurs somewhat freely near Colchester. Triecphora vu/nerata, our most
beautiful native species, is common throughout the summer. The
universally distributed Pbilcenus spumarius, commonly known as the
' spittle-bug,' is also worthy of notice. The larva of this species, which
advertises its presence by surrounding itself with a frothy secretion, is
said by all the gamekeepers about Colchester to be fatal to young
pheasants if they eat it, and according to them large numbers actually
do perish every year from this cause. All species included in the list
which follows have occurred in the Colchester district except where
other localities are given :

186

INSECTS

A LIST OF THE HEMIPTERA OCCURRING IN THE COUNTY

HETEROPTERA
GYMXOCERATA

PENTATOMINA
SCUTELLERID.C

Corimelsena, White

scarabxoides, L.
Eurygaster, Lap.

maura, L.
Podops, Lap.

inuncta, Fabr.

Cnwiiui

Sehirus, Am. S.

bicolor, L.

biguttatus, L.
Gnathoconus, Fieb.

albomarginatus, Fabr.

./Elia, Fabr.

acuminata, L.
Ncottiglossa, Curt.

- inflexa, Wolff
Pentatoma, Oliv.

fuscispina, Boh.

baccarum, L.

- prasina, L.
Piczodorus, Ficb.

lituratus, Fabr.
Tropicoris, Hahn

rufipes, L.
Strachia, Hahn

oleracea, L.
ASOPIDJE

Picromerus, Am. S.

bidens, L.
Asopus, Burm.

punctatus, L. Loughton (Billups)
Podisus, H.S.

luridus, Fabr.
Zicrona, Am. S.

coerulea, L.

ACANTHOSOMID.*

Acanthosoma, Curt.

hzmorrhoidale, L.

dentatum, DeG.

interstinctum, L.

COREINA
Coumji

Syromastes, Latr.

marginatus, L.
Vcrlusia, Spin.

rhombea, L.
Ccraleptus, Cost.

lividus, Stein.
Coreus, Fabr.

denticulatus, Scop.

Alydus, Fabr.

calcaratus, L.
STENOCEPHALIDVE

Stenocephalus, Latr.

agilis, Scop.
CORIZIDA

Myrmus, Hahn

- myriformis, Fall.
Chorosoma, Curt.

schilling), Schml.

BERYTINA
BERYTID^
Neides, Latr.

- tipularius, L.
Berytus, Fabr.

- minor, H.S.
METACANTHIDJE

Mctacanthus, Cost.

- punctipes, Germ.

LYG^EINA
LYOJIIOJI

Nysius, Dall.

- thymi, Wolff

Cymus, Hahn

glandicolor, Hahn

claviculus, Fall.
Ischnorhynchus, Fieb.

reseda:, Panz.
HENESTARIDJE

Henestaris, Spin.

laticeps, Curt.
ARTHENEIDVE

Chilacis, Fieb.

typhz, Perr.
HETEROGASTRID^

Heterogaster, Schill.

- urticae, Fabr.
PACHYMERID*:

Rhyparochromus, Curt.

- praetextatus, H.S. St. Otyth

- dilatatus, H.S.

- chiragra, Fab.
Plinthisus, Fieb.

- brevipennis, Latr.
Acompus, Fieb.

- rufipes, Wolff
Stygnus, Fieb.

- rusticus, Fall. Purflett (R. M. Leake)

- pedestris, Fall.

arenarius, Hahn
Peritrechus, Fieb.

geniculatus, Hahn

nubilus, Fall.

luniger, Schill.

187

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

PACHYMERID/E (continued)
Trapezonotus, Fieb.

agrestis, Panz.

var. dispar, Stal.
Aphanus, Lap.

lynceus, Fabr. Southend (Champion)

pedestris, Panz.

pini, L. Epplng (F. B. Jennings)
Beosus, Am. S.

luscus, Fabr.
Drymus, Fieb.

sylvaticus, Fabr.

brunneus, Sahib.
Notochilus, Fieb.

contractus, H.S.
Scolopostethus, Fieb.

affinis, Schill.

decoratus, Hahn
Gastrodes, Westw.

ferrugineus, L.

TINGIDINA

PlESMID/E

Piesma, Lap.

quadrata, Fieb.

capitata, Wolff

maculata, Lap.
TINGIDID.S

Serenthia, Spin.

- Izta, Fall.
Orthostira, Fieb.

parvula, Fall.
Dictyonota, Curt.

crassicornis, Fall.

strichnocera, Fieb.

fuliginosa, Costa
Derephysia, Spin.

foliacea, Fall. Marks Tey
Monanthia, Lep.

ampliata, Fieb.

cardui, L.

ciliata, Fieb.

humuli, Fabr.

ARADINA

Aradus, Fabr.

depressus, Fabr.
Aneurus, Curt.

laevis, Fabr.

HEBRINA

Hebrus, Curt.

pusillus, Fall. Rainham (Billups)

ruficeps, Thorns. Loughton (Billups)

HYDROMETRINA

HYDROMETRID^E
Hydrometra, Latr.

stagnorum, L.

VELIID./E
Velia, Latr.

currens, Fabr.
GERRID.S:

Gerris, Fabr.

najas, DeG.

costs, H.S.

thoracica, Schum

gibbifera, Schum

lacustris, L.

odontogaster, Zett.

argentata, Schum

REDUVIINA
EMESIDJE

Ploiaria, Scop.

vagabunda, L.
REDUVIID^

Reduvius, Fabr.

personatus, L.
Coranus, Curt.

subapterus, DeG.
NABIDJE

Nabis, Latr.

brevipennis, Hahn

lativentris, Boh.

major, Cost.

flavomarginatus, Scholtz

limbatus, Dahlb.

- lineatus, Dahlb.

ferus, L.

- rugosus, L.

SALDINA

Salda, Fabr.

pallipes, Fabr.

littoralis, L.

lateralis, Fall.

cincta, H.S.

cocksii, Curt.

188

West Ham (Billups)

CIMICINA

CIMICID.S
Cimex, L.

lectularius, L.
ANTHOCORID.S:

Lyctocoris, Hahn

campestris, Fall.
Piezostethus, Fieb.

galactinus, Fieb.

cursitans, Fall. Loughton (Champion)
Anthocoris, Fall.

confusus, Reut.

nemoralis, Fabr.

sylvestris, L.
Acompocoris, Reut.

- pygmaeus. Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Triphleps, Fieb.

minuta, L.

INSECTS

CAPSINA
CAPSID.*

Pithanus, Fieb.

- maerkcli, H.S.
Miris, Fabr.

calcaratus, Fall.

- Izvigatus, L.
Megalocerza, Ficb.

crratica, L.

- longicornis, Fall.

- ruficornis, Fourc.
Tcratocoris, Fieb.

- antennatus, Boh.

- saundersi, D. and S. Purfleet (R. M.

Leake)
Leptopterna, Fieb.

ferrugata, Fall.

- dolobrata, L.
Monalocoris, Dahlb.

- filicis, L.
Pantilius, Curt.

tunicatus, Fabr.
Lopus, Hahn

flavomarginatus, Don.
Phytocoris, Fall.

- populi, L.

tiliz, Fabr.

longipennis, Flor. Purfltet (R. M.

Leake)

reuteri, Saund.

- varipes, Boh.

ulmi, L.
Calocoris, Fieb.

striatellus, Fabr.

- bipunctatus, Fabr.

chenopodii, Fall.

roseomaculatus, DeG.

infusus, H.S.

striatus, L.
Oncognathus, Fieb.

- binotatus, Fabr.
Dichrooscytus, Fieb.

rufipennis, Fall.
Plesiocoris, Fieb.

- rugicollis, Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Lygus, Hahn

pratensis, Fabr.

contaminatus, Fall.

viridis, Fall.

pabulinus, L.

pastinacx, Fall.

cervinus, H.S.

kalmii, L.
Zygimus, Fieb.

- pinastri, Fall.
Poeciloscytus, Fieb.

- nigritus, Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Camptobrochis, Fieb.

lutescens, Schill.
Liocoris, Fieb.

. : (continued)

Liocoris tripustulatus, Fabr.
Capsus, Fabr.

- laniarius, L.
Rhopalotomus, Fieb.

- ater, L.
Pilophorus, Hahn

per plexus, Scott

- clavatus, L.
Halticus, Burm.

luteicollis, Pz.

- apterus, L. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Labops, Burm.

- saltator, Hahn
Dicyphus, Fieb.

constrictus,Boh. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)

epilobii, Reut.

errans, Wolff

pallidicornis, Fieb.

- globulifer, Fall.
Campyloneura, Fieb.

- virgula, H.S.
Cyllocoris, Hahn

- histrionicus, L.

- flavonotatus, Boh.
jEtorhinus, Fieb.

- angulatus, Fabr.
Mecomma, Fieb.

- ambulans, Fall.
Cyrtorrhinus, Fieb.

caricis, Fall.
Orthotylus, Fieb.

- bilineatus, Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)

- marginalis, Reut.

- tenellus, Fall.

nassatus, Fabr. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)

- prasinus, Fall.

flavosparsus, Sahib. Harwich (Cham-

pion)

chloropterus, Kb.

- adenocarpi, Perr.
Loxops, Fieb.

coccinea, Mey.
Heterotoma, Latr.

merioptera, Scop.
Heterocordylus, Fieb.

- tibialis, Hahn
Malacocoris, Fieb.

- chlorizans, Fall.
Onychumenus, Reut.

- decolor, Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Oncotylus, Fieb.

- viridiflavus, Goeze
Macrotylus, Fieb.

- paykulli, Fall.
Conostethus, Fieb.

- roseus, Fall. Epping (Marshall)
Macrocoleus, Fieb.

hortulanus, Mey. \ Purfltet (R. M.

molliculus, Fall. / Leake)

189

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

CAPSID.S: (continued)
Harpocera, Curt.

thoracica, Fall.
Byrsoptera, Spin.

- rufifrons, Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Phylus, Hahn

palliceps, Fieb.

melanocephalus, L.

- coryli, L.
Psallus, Fieb.

- ambiguus, Fall. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)

betuleti, Fall.

variabilis, Fall.

quercus, Kb.

fallenii, Reut.

varians, H.S.

diminutus, Kb.

sanguineus, Fabr.

salicellus, Mey. Purfleet (R. M. Leake)
Plagiognathus, Fieb.

albipennis, Fall.

- viridulus, Fall.

arbustorum, Fabr.

CRYPTOCERATA
NAUCORIDINA

Naucoris, Geoffr.

cimicoides, L.

NEPINA

Nepa, L.

cinerea, L.
Ranatra, Fabr.

linearis, L. Epp'mg (Enoch)

NOTONECTINA

Notonecta, L.

glauca, L.
Plea, Leach

minutissima, Fabr.

CORIXINA

Corixa, GeofFr.

geoffroyi, Leach

- lugubris, Fieb.

- hieroglyphica, Duf.

sahlbergi, Fieb.

limitata, Fieb.

- semistriata, Fieb.

striata, L.

fallenii, Fieb.

distincta, Fieb.

moesta, Fieb.

fabricii, Fieb.

concinna, Fieb.
Sigara, Fabr.

minutissima, L.

HOMOPTERA
CICADINA

MEMBRACID.S
Centrotus, Fabr.

cornutus, L.
Gargara, Am. et Serv.

genista-, Fabr.
ISSIDJE

Issus, Fabr.

coleoptratus, Geoff.
DELPHACIDJE

Liburnia, Stal.

lineola, Germ.

vittipennis, J. Sahl.

pellucida, Fabr.
Stiroma, Fieb.

albomarginata, Curt.

pteridis, Boh.
CERCOPIDJE

Triecphora, Am. et Serv.

vulnerata, Illig.
Aphrophora, Germ.

alni, Fall.

salicis, DeG.
Phitenus, Stal.

spumarius, L.

campestris, Fall.

lineatus, L.
LEDRIDJE

Ledra, Fabr.

aurita, L.
ULOPID^E

Ulopa, Fall.

reticulata, Fabr.

trivia, Germ.
PAROPIIDJE

Megophthalmus, Curt.

scanicus, Fall.
BYTHOSCOPID.S:

Macropsis, Lewis

lanio, L.
Bythoscopus, Germ.

alni, Schr.

flavicollis, L.
Pediopsis, Burm.

scutellatus, Boh.

tibialis, Scott

ulmi, Scott
Idiocerus, Lewis

adustus, H.S.

fulgidus, Fabr.

populi, L.

confusus, Flor.
Agallia, Curt.

puncticeps, Germ.

venosa,

Fall.

TETTIGONID^E

Evacanthus, Lep. et Serv.

190

INSECTS

TETTIGONID.* (continued)
Evacanthus interruptus, L.
Tcttigonia, Geoff.

viridus, L.

ACOCEPHALIDVK

Acocephalus, Germ.

nervosus, Schr.

albifrons, L.
Eupelix, Germ.

cuspidata, Fabr.
JASSID/E

Allygus, Fieb.

commutatus, Fieb.

modestus, Fieb.
- mixtus, Fab.

Thamnotettix, Zett.

dilutior, Kbm.

subfuscula, Fall.

(continued)
Thamnotettix crocea, H.S.
TYPHLOCYBID.W
Alebra, Fieb.

- albostriella, Fall.
Chlorita, Fieb.

flavescens, Fabr.
Eupteryx, Curt.

vittatus, L.

urticze, Fabr.

- pulchellus, Fall.

PSYLLINA

PSYLLID.*

Psylla, F. Low

alni, L.
Arytaena, Scott

genistz, Latr.

APHIDES

Plant Lice

Although dwellers in the country are necessarily much too familiar
with the insects included in this section, nobody seems to have system-
atically studied and differentiated the Essex species.

Of all insects they are the most numerous, the most ubiquitous and
the most harmful, and the loss they sometimes occasion is incalculable.
They infest alike the lowliest herbage and the loftiest trees ; some live
underground upon roots, out of which they suck the sap, and others
submerged in water upon aquatic plants. In former times it was
imagined that every plant had its own peculiar Aphis, and as the various
species were named after the plants upon which they were found some
of them received a large number of names, which are sunk as synonyms
now that we know that the same Aphis in some cases affects a great
many different plants, and that some of these afford sustenance to several
different Aphides.

When they first appear in the spring they are not very numerous,
but they arrive at maturity so rapidly, and increase at such a prodigious
rate, that before the summer is far advanced it is said a single individual
may number its descendants by hundreds of millions, and the term
' Smother-flies,' which is sometimes applied to them, is then amply
justified. Their life history is very interesting and peculiar, for the
ordinary processes of nature have been so materially modified to meet
their special case that the actual facts would appear almost incredible if
they had not been abundantly proved. The first brood of the year
emerges from eggs which have been laid by the fertilized females of
the previous autumn, and consists of females exclusively, which without
any male intervention bring forth other females, and the process is con-
tinued as long as a suitable food supply lasts and the climatic conditions
remain favourable ; but when these change a bisexual brood is produced,
the males of which fertilize the females, and eggs are deposited which

191

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

lie dormant through the winter and produce the generations of the suc-
ceeding year. Some of the Essex gardeners seem to labour under strange
delusions about Aphides, for they will tell you that like divers other
noxious insects they come over with the east wind in the spring, and
that they are especially abundant ' after we have had a heavy fall of
honey-dew.' They do not seem to know that the sweet clammy sub-
stance called honeydew is a secretion from the Aphides themselves, and
that it is because they are already abundant that the ' fall ' is heavy. The
species that infest the beech, birch, cabbage, currant, dock, elm, honey-
suckle, lime and rose are too well known examples of the tribe, but to
name all its food plants we should require a second botanical section.

Mr. Fitch has noticed that Aphis asteris, from the situation it affects
in the Essex salt marshes, must be covered by the tide eight hours out of
the twenty-four ; and though as a rule the fully developed forms dis-
appear in the autumn, some of them may in mild seasons be met with
much later in the year. Siphonophora lactucce for instance was abundant
among the inner folded leaves of lettuce at Colchester during December,
1900, and continued to flourish till its food was destroyed by the severe
frosts that followed. Some authors say that all the individuals of the
early broods are wingless, but this is certainly not the case invariably,
for winged specimens of some species have been common at Colchester
during the present spring (1901). Existing in such enormous numbers,
and carrying on their operations on such an extensive scale, Aphides are
generally formidable enemies to contend against ; small greenhouse plants
can be easily freed from them, but large trees and crops that cover exten-
sive areas do not so readily lend themselves to successful treatment, and
most of the remedies recommended are costly and useless, and in apply-
ing them we are in danger of interfering with nature's remedies, which
are as a rule much more efficacious than ours.

No tribe of insects has so many formidable enemies among other
orders as the plant lice. They are preyed upon by certain of the fossorial
Hymenoptera, which carry them off to their burrows as food for their
larva?, and as they sting and paralyze but do not kill them the larvae are
provided with a sufficient supply of fresh meat as long as they require it.
Large numbers of species of Bracomder, Cbalcididce and other parasitic
Hymenoptera deposit eggs in their bodies, and in this way destroy myriads
of them. The larvae of the Lacewing flies among the Neuroptera, the
Syrphida among the Diptera, and the Coccinellidce among the Coleoptera
also devour enormous multitudes, and when a systematic attack is made
upon them by the horticulturist he is far more likely to destroy his
friends than his foes, as they are much more easy for him to get at, and
thus he too often stops their beneficent operations in blissful ignorance
of their very existence.

192

MYRIAPODA

With the exception of a few specimens collected by Mr. B. B.
Woodward at Walton-on-the-Naze, the Myriapoda recorded in the sub-
joined list were obtained by Mr. W. M. Webb, who at one time not
only paid special attention to collecting representatives of this neglected
group, but in addition stimulated to that end the interest of naturalists
in various parts of the county of Essex. As a result we have perhaps
as complete a knowledge of the Myriapoda of this county as of any
other county in Great Britain.

Most of the specimens belong to species which have a wide distri-
bution in the south of England and in the adjacent countries of the
continent. None are peculiar to the county. On the other hand,
there are one or two noteworthy deficiencies in the fauna. Of these the
most noteworthy is the apparent absence of Lithobius variegatus, a rela-
tively large and striking form and one not likely to be overlooked by
collectors, a species too which is the most prevalent element in the
myriapod fauna of all the other counties of Great Britain where col-
lecting has been carried on to any extent. The absence of the species
from Essex gains in interest when it is remembered that the animal is,
so far as we know, restricted in its range to Great Britain and the
Channel Islands. The apparent absence too of Stigmatogaster subterraneus
is to be noted. Elsewhere in England this species is perhaps the com-
monest, as it is the largest, representative of the Geophilidz. It also
occurs in Denmark, Belgium, etc. Hence, as is probably the case with
other elsewhere common species, it may have been overlooked in Essex.

Finally, it may be mentioned that a single specimen of Scutigera
coleoptrata, a species of Chilopod which is common in the south of
Europe and has already been recorded as an importation in Scotland by
Mr. Gibson Carmichael, was captured in a house in Colchester. Pre-
sumably, since no other specimens have come to hand from Essex, the
one discovered by Mr. Webb was artificially introduced.

CHILOPODA

Centipedes
LITHOBIIDiE
Short-bodied, swift-running centipedes, furnished with eyes and only fifteen pairs of legs.

One of the smaller species, with long
antennae and peculiarly modified anal legs
in the male. Common in central Europe
and abundant throughout the south of Eng-
land.

3. Lithobius crassipes, Koch. Die Myr.-Gatt.

Lithobius, p. 71 (1862).
Brentwood.

Common in England and central Europe.
A small species with short antennae. Gene-
rally mistaken by collectors for the young of
L. forficatui.

1. Lithobius forjicatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed.

to, P . 638(1758).

Brentwood, Stock, Maldon, FinchingficlJ,
Warley, Colchester, West Horndon,
Dagenham, Ingrave, Rivenhall, Shocbury-
ness.

Common throughout the whole of north
and central Europe, and abundant every-
where in England in the neighbourhood of
houses as well as in fields and woods.

2. Lithobius calcaratus, Koch. Die Myr.-Gatt.

Lithobius, p. 86 (1862).
Brentwood, Warley.

193

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

CRYPTOPID^E

Eyeless centipedes of medium length and thickness, with twenty-one pairs of short legs,
and though somewhat intermediate in form between the preceding and the succeeding families,
resembling the latter rather than the former in their slow movements.

Cryptops hortensis, Leach.
Land. xi. 384 (1815).
Maldon, Warley.

Tr. Linn. Sac. A widely distributed species, but never oc-
curring in any very great numbers. Abun-
dant all over central and southern Europe.

GEOPHILID^:
Long-bodied vermiform centipedes without eyes, and furnished with a large but variable

number of legs.

5. Geophilus flavus, De Geer. Mem. Ins. vii.

561 (1778) ( = longicornis, Leach).
Brentwood, Maldon, Stock, West Mersea
(under Zostera on the beach), Finching-
field, Warley, West Horndon, Dagenham,
Ingrave, Colchester.

Common throughout Europe. Distinguish-
able from all the other British species by its
long antennal segments.

6. Geophilus proximus, Koch. Syst. d. Myr.

p. 1 86 (1847).

Brentwood, Finchingfield, Colchester, Riven-
hall.

Although widely distributed on the conti-
nent, this species, so far as our knowledge at
present extends, appears to be restricted in its
range to the eastern counties of Great Britain.
It may be distinguished by the presence of a
pair of short oval impressions on the sterna of
anterior segments of body.

7. Geophilus carpophagus. Leach. Zool. Misc.

iii. 43 (1817).
Brentwood, Warley.

Common everywhere in England and on
the continent. Distinguishable by the ball
and socket method of articulation of the an-
terior sternal plates.

8. Geophilus truncorum, Meinert. Nat. Tidskr.

iv. 94 (1866).
Warley, Ingrave.

A small species, often overlooked, but
ranging throughout the south of England
and Wales. Distinguishable by the presence

of three strong grooves on the anterior sternal
plates.

9. Linoteenia acuminata. Leach. Tr. Linn.

Soc. Land. xi. 386 (1814).
Warley.

Widely distributed in the south of England
and on the continent.

10. Linoteenia crassipeSy Koch. Deutschl. Crust.

etc. 3, pi. iii. (1835).
Brentwood, Warley, Ingrave, Colchester.
This species has the same distribution as
the last, to which it is nearly allied. The
two are the common British luminous centi-
pedes which frequently attract attention on
damp evenings in the autumn by the emission
of a phosphorescent secretion from their ster-
nal glands.

11. Linoteenia maritima, Leach. Zool. Misc.

iii. 44 (1817).

West Mersea (under Zostera on the beach).
Fairly common in suitable localities round
the coasts of Great Britain and on those of
western Europe, living beneath stones be-
tween tide marks or under accumulated sea-
weed left by the tide.

12. Schendyla nemorensis, Koch. Deutschl.

Crust, etc. 9, pi. 4 (1837).
Warley.

A small and delicate centipede of about the
same size and general appearance as G. trun-
corum. Found under tree trunks and stones
in woods, etc., throughout England and cen-
tral Europe.

DIPLOPODA

Millipedes
POLYDESMIDJE

Millipedes with from nineteen to twenty body segments, most of which are furnished
with paired scent-glands supported on a larger or smaller lateral crest or keel.

13. Polydesmus complanatuSy Linn. Faun. 14. Polydesmus subinteger, Latzel. Bull. Soc.

Suecic. ed. 2, p. 502 (1761). Rouen (2), xix. 269 (1883).

Stock, Warley Epping Forest, Widford, Walton-on-the-Naze.

Walton-on-the-Naze.

The commonest and largest British species. A smaller and much scarcer species than

Found all over Europe. the foregoing, and known from a few of the

194

MYRIAPODA

southern counties. Occurs also in the western
countries of central Europe.

15. Brachydesmus superus, Latzel. Die Myriap.

(Ester. Ungar. Man. ii. 130 (1884).
Finchingfield, Walton-on-the-Nazc.

CHORDEUMIDJE

Millipedes with typically thirty segments furnished dorsally with six symmetrically
disposed bristles, without scent-glands and usually keeled like those of the Polydesmidse.

16. Atractosoma polydesmoiJes, Leach. Zool.

Misc. iii. 36 (1817).
Brentwood, Finchingfield, Warley.

This species, with its large keels, closely
resembles an elongate Polydesmus.

IVLIDJE

Millipedes in which the body consists of a large but variable number of segments, each
of which, excepting the most anterior, is furnished with scent glands, but without the keels
characteristic of the Polydesmidae.

17. lulus sabulosus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 10,

P- 639 (1758).
Walton-on-the-Naze, Chelmsford, Widford.

A large species with acute caudal prolonga-
tion and a pair of yellow longitudinal dorsal
stripes.

1 8. lulus niger. Leach. Zool. Mix, iii. 34

(1817).
Warley.

Common in England and in the western
countries of the continent. As large as the
preceding but slenderer, without dorsal bands,
and with the anterior portion of the segments
transversely grooved.

19. lulus ligulifer, Latzel. Berl. Ent. Ztits.

xxxvi. 152 (1891).
Stock, Warley.

A small black -tailed species, without
stripes and without transverse grooves on the
segments. Fairly common in central Europe
and no doubt also in England, though not
previously recorded as British.

20. lulus pilosus, Newport. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. xi. 316 (1842).
Warley.

Very nearly allied to /. ligulifer, and prob-
ably often confounded with that species so far
as the females are concerned. The males of
the two are easily distinguishable by the form
of the first pair of legs.

21. lulus punctatuiy Leach. Zool. Afiic. iii.

Warley.

A yellowish-brown species, with a blunt
expanded caudal process and a row of dark
spots on each side of the body. Found in
rotten wood. Common throughout England
and on the continent.

22. lulus teutonicus, Pocock. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (7), vi. 206 (1900).
Stock, Warley, Colchester, Great Baddow,
Dagenham.

This species, which is common at least in
the south-eastern counties of England and in
the western countries of Europe, has errone-
ously passed until recently under the name
lulus londinensis. With exception of the lat-
ter, which has never been discovered since
Leach's time, /. teutonicus is the largest tailless
form of this genus met with in Britain.

lulus londinensis, Leach (TV. Linn. Sac. xi.
378 [1815]), described from the environs of
London, may prove to belong to the fauna of
Essex.

23. Blaniului guttulatus, Bosc. Bull. Sac.

Philom. p. 12 (1792).
Finchingfield.

A long and slender eyeless species, with
the head and anterior segments pale, and a
line of blood-red spots on each side of the
body.

POLYXENID^:
Syst. Nat. ed.

24. Polyxenus lagurus. Linn.

'0, P- 637 (1758).
Brightlingsea.

This species is commonly found beneath
the loose bark of old fences or tree trunks.

The examples above recorded however were
collected beneath weeds upon the beach. In
spite, however, of the peculiarity of the
habitat, they seem to belong to P. lagurus, the
common European species of the genus.

195

A HISTORY OF ESSEX
ARACHNIDA

Spiders, etc.

There have been already published two contributions towards a
knowledge of the Arachnida of Essex. The first appeared in the Trans.
Essex Field Club in 1883 (iv. 41-9), by the Rev. O. Pickard-
Cambridge ; the second in 1901 in the Essex Naturalist (xi. 315-8).
These two publications had brought the number of records for the
county, up to that date, to ninety-five, including ' harvestmen ' and
' false-scorpions.' Many more however have been added from time to
time by the present author and others, so that the list has considerably
increased and includes at the present time 153 spiders, 3 false-scorpions
and 6 harvestmen.

The county as physically constituted offers some magnificent situa-
tions where Arachnida ought to be found in abundance, though generally
speaking a predominance of heavy clay soil is not favourable to the
members of this family.

None the less however there are several special localities which
would always repay a thorough investigation ; Epping Forest and district,
Chelmsford, and all the estuaries on the coast, including the salt marshes,
such as Benfleet, Burnham-on-Crouch, the Blackwater, and in the neigh-
bourhood of Walton-on-the-Naze.

So very little collecting however has been hitherto done that the
present list must only be regarded as a small contribution which can
easily be very largely increased with but little trouble.

The initials of those who collected the specimens or recorded their
occurrence have been added to names in the list except in cases where
the present author is himself responsible for them. Many species
were recorded by Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge (O. P.-C.) and others by
Messrs. William Cole and F. P. Smith (F. P. S.).

In cases where the generic or specific name quoted is not that under
which the spider has usually been recognized in the works of English
authors, a note has been added calling attention to the fact. With these
few preliminary remarks, we may proceed at once with the list of the
spiders of Essex.

ARANE^

ARACHNOMORPH&

DYSDERID^E

Spiders with six eyes and two pairs of stigmatic openings, situated close together on the
genital rima ; the anterior pair communicating with lung books, the posterior with tracheal
tubes. Tarsal claws, two in Dysdera, three in Harpactes and Segestria.

I. Dysdera cambridgii, Thorell. form, orange legs, dark mahogany carapace

Broxted. and pale clay-yellow abdomen. The palpal

Not uncommon under stones and bark of bulb of the male has no cross-piece at the

trees, where it lurks within a tubular retreat. a P ex - The s P ider is also known as D -

The spider is easily recognizable by its elongate erythryna, Blackwall.

196

SPIDERS

2. Harpactts hombergii (Scopoli).

Brozted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).
Rare under bark of trees, and recognizable
by its linear ant-like form, black carapace,
and pale clay-yellow abdomen and three tar-
sal claws.

3. Segestria senoculata (Linnzus).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Not common ; under bark of trees, in the
crevices of loose stone walls and amongst
detached rocks. Recognizable by its linear
form and the black diamond-shaped blotches
on the dorsal surface of the abdomen.

DRASSID.&

Spiders with eight eyes, situated in two transverse rows. The tracheal openings lie just
in front of the spinners. The tarsal claws are two in number, the anterior pair of spinners
are set wide apart at the base, and the maxillae are more or less impressed across the middle.

4. Drassdes lapidosm (Walckenaer).

Brozted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Very common under stones. Also known
as Drauus lapidicolens.

5. Drassodes syfvestris (Blackwall).

Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

6. Scotaphieui blackwallii (Thorell).
Brozted.

A dark elongate mouse-grey spider, often
found wandering about the walls of dwelling
and outhouses at night. Known also as
Drassus sericeus, Blackwall.

CLUBIONID^E

Spiders with eight eyes, situated in two transverse rows. The tracheal openings lie
immediately in front of the spinners. The tarsal claws are two in number, but the anterior
pair of spinners are set close together at the base ; the maxillse are convex and not impressed
across the middle.

7. Afiearia pulicaria (Sundevall).

Brozted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

A small dark spider, iridescent and shining,
with a white cincture round the middle of
the anterior half of the abdomen. Known
also as Drassus nitens, Blackwall.

8. Phrurolithm festivus, C. L. Koch.

Chelmsford ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).
Also known as Drassus propinqum, Black-
wall.

9. Zora spinimana (Sundevall).

Brozted.

10. Clubiona stagnatilis, Kulczynski.
Broxted.

Known also as C, holosericea, Blackwall.

1 1 . Clubiona terrestris, Westring.
Brozted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

12. Clubiona reclusa, O. P.-Cambridge.
Chelmsford.

13. Clubiona lutescfns, Westring.
Brozted.

14. Clubiona brwipes, Blackwall.
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

I 5. Clubiona pallidula (Clerck).

Brozted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

1 6. Clubiona corticalis (Walckenaer).
Danby Park.

17. Clubiona phragmitis, C. L. Koch.
Dunmovv.

1 8. Clubiona compta, C. L. Koch.
Brozted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

19. Chiracanthium erraticum (Walckenaer).
Broxted.

Known also under the name of C. carniftx.

20. Agroeca proximo, O. P.-Cambridge.
Epping Forest.

21. Agraeca brunnea (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

ANYPH^NID^E

The spiders of this family resemble those of the Clubionida in most respects, except that
the tracheal stigmatic openings beneath the abdomen are situated about midway between the
genital rima and the spinners, and not, as in the last family, immediately in front of the
spinners. One species only is indigenous to Great Britain and is very common amongst the
foliage of trees in May and June.

22. Anypbttna acctntuata (Walckenaer).
Brozted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

197

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

THOMISIDjE

Spiders with eight eyes, situated in two transverse rows, two tarsal claws and anterior
spinners close together at their base. Maxillae not impressed. The crab-like shape and side-
long movements of these spiders are their chief characteristics, enabling them to be easily
distinguished from the more elongate Drassidee and Clubionidee.

23. Philodromus dispar, Walckenaer.
Broxted.

24. Philodromus aureolus (Clerck).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

25. Philodromuf c&spiticolens, Walckenaer.
Dunmow.

26. Tibellui oblongus (Walckenaer).
Broxted.

27. Xysticus cristatui (Clerck).
Broxted.

28. Oxyptila praticola (C. L. Koch).
Chelmsford.

29. Oxyptila trux (Blackwall).
Chelmsford.

30. Misumena vatia (Clerck).
Earl's Colne.

31. Ditto dorsata (Fabricius).
Broxted.

ATTIDJE

The spiders of this family may be recognized in a general way by their mode of pro-
gression, consisting of a series of leaps. More particularly they may be known by the square
shape of the cephalic region and the fact that the eyes are arranged in three rows of 4, 2, 2,
the centrals of the anterior row being much the largest. Otherwise the spiders are simply
specialized Clubionids with two tarsal claws and other minor characters possessed in common
with other members of this family.

32. Salticus scenicus (Clerck).
Dunmow.

33. Salticus cingulatus (Panzer).
Danby Park.

This species is not nearly so common as
the last.

34. Euopbrys frontalis (Walckenaer).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

35. Neon reticulatus (Blackwall).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

36. Attus pubescent (Fabricius).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Known also as Salticus sparsus, Blackwall.

37. Ergane falcata (Clerck).
Broxted.

Known also as Salticus coronatus, Blackwall.

38. Heliophanus flavipes, C. L. Koch.
Chelmsford.

Rare ; found on the Roman road.

39. Marptusa muscosa (Clerck).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Common. Known also as Salticus tardigra-
dus, Blackwall.

40. Ballus depressus (Walckenaer).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Known also as Salticus obscurus, Blackwall.

PISAURID^:

Spiders with eight eyes in three rows of 4,. 2, 2 ; the small anterior eyes being sometimes
in a straight line, sometimes recurved and sometimes procurved. Those of the other two
rows are situated in the form of a rectangle of various proportions and are much larger than
the eyes of the anterior row. The tarsal claws are three in number. Pisaura runs freely
over the herbage, carrying its egg-sac beneath the sternum ; while Dolomedes is a dweller in
marshes and swamps.

41. Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck).

Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).
Known also as Dolomedes, or Ocyale, mirabilis.

198

SPIDERS

LYCOSIDJE

The members of this family are to be found running freely over the ground, and carry-
ing the egg-sac attached to the spinners. Many of the larger species make a short burrow in

the soil and there keep guard over the egg-sac,
with slight differences.

42. Lycosa ruricola (De Geer).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Known also as L. camfestris, Blackwall.

43. Lycosa ttrricola, Thorell.
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C).

Known also as L. agretica, Blackwall.

44. Lycosa accentuata, Latreille.
King's Oak.

Known also as Tarentula andrenivora.

45. Lycosa pulverulenta (Clerck).
Broxted.

Known also as L. rapax, Blackwall, and
Tarentula pulverulenta.

46. Pardosa lugubris (Walckenaer).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Eyes and tarsal claws as in the Pisaurid*,

47. Pardosa pullata (Clerck).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Known also as Lycosa otscura, Blackwall.

48. Pardosa nigrifeps, Chorell.
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

49. Pardosa palustris (Linnzus).
Chelmsford.

Known also as Lycosa exigua, Blackwall.

50. Pardosa amentata (Clerck).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.). ; Broxted.

51. Pardosa annu/ata, Chorell.
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

52. Pirata piraticus (Clerck).
Loughton (F. P. S.).

AGELENID.E

Spiders with eight eyes, situated in two straight or more or less curved transverse rows.
Tarsal claws, three. The species of this family spin a large sheet-like web, and construct a
tubular retreat at the back of it, which leads to some crevice amongst the rocks or in the
herbage, or in the chinks in the walls of outhouses and barns, wherever the various species may
happen to be found. The habits of Argyroneta, the water spider, are however quite different.
The posterior pair of spinners is much longer than the others in the more typical genera of
this family.

53- Tegenaria atrica, C. L. Koch.
Epping Forest.

54. Tegenaria parietina (Fourcroy).
Epping Forest.

Abundant in parts of this county and the
London district generally. Known also as
T. guyonii and T. domestica.

55. Tegenaria derhami (Scopoli).
Epping Forest ; Broxted.

A very common species everywhere.

56. Tegenaria silvestris, L. Koch.
Broxted ; Chelmsford.

Known also as T. campestris.

57. Cicurina cinerea (Panzer).

Broxted ; Epping Forest, under bark (F. P. S.).
Common in a cellar at the vicarage.

58. Agelena labyrinthica (Clerck).
Epping Forest.

Abundant, forming large sheet-like webs
on the herbage, with a funnel-shaped tubular
retreat.

59. Hahnia elegans (Blackwall).
Chelmsford.

Not uncommon amongst the roots of aquatic
plants and riverside herbage. Known also as
Agelena e/egans, Blackwall.

60. Hahnia montana (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Not uncommon. Known also as Agelena
montana, Blackwall.

61. Argyroneta aquatica (Clerck).
Whipps Cross, Waltharostow (F. P. S.).

ARGIOPIOfc

The spiders included in this family have eight eyes, situated in two rows, the lateral eyes
of both rows being usually adjacent if not in actual contact, while the central eyes form a
quadrangle. The tarsal claws are three, often with other supernumerary claws. The web is

199

A HISTORY OF ESSEX

either an orbicular snare, as in the case of the ' common garden spider,' or consists of a sheet
of webbing, beneath which the spider hangs and captures the prey as it falls upon the sheet.
This immense family includes those usually separated under the names Epeiridte and Linyphiidte.

62. Mtta segmentata (Clerck).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.) ; Broxted.

Very abundant. Known also as Epeira
inc/inata, 13 kick wall.

63. Meta meriante (Scopoli).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.) ; Broxted.

Not uncommon. Known also as Epeira
antriada, Blackwall, and a striking variety as
E. celata, Blackwall.

64. Tetragnatba extensa (Linnaeus).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.) ; Broxted.

Most abundant and generally distributed.

65. Tetragnatha solandri (Scopoli).
Broxted.

66. Pachygnatha clerkii, Sundevall.
Broxted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

67. Pachygnatha degeerii, Sundevall.
Broxted ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Common and generally distributed.

68. Cyclosa conica (Pallas).
Snaresbrook.

A few specimens only have been taken.
Known also as Epeira conica, Blackwall.

69. Zilla x -notata (Clerck).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Very common. Known also as Epeira
similis, Blackwall.

70. Zilla atrica, C. L. Koch.
Snaresbrook ; Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Almost as common as the above. Known
also as Epeira callophylla, Blackwall.

7 1 . Araneus cucurbitinus, Clerck.
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Common and generally distributed.

72. Araneus diadematus, Clerck.
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Abundant and generally distributed.

73. Araneus cornutus, Clerck.
Broxted.

Common. Known also as Epeira apoc/isa,
Blackwall.

74. Araneus patagiatus, Clerck.
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

75. Araneus umbraticus, Clerck.
Broxted ; Earl's Colne (F. P. S.).

Common and generally distributed.

76. Araneus triguttatus, Fabricius.
Epping Forest.

Not common. Known also as Epeira
agalena, Blackwall.

77. Linyphia impigra, O. P. Cambridge.
Chelmsford.

78. Linyphia triangularis (Clerck).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Common. Known also as L. montana,
Blackwall.

79. Linyphia hortensis, Sundevall.
Broxted.

Known also as L. pratensis, Blackwall.

80. Linyphia pusilla, Sundevall.
Epping Forest.

Known also as L. fu/iginea, Blackwall.

81. Linyphia montana (Clerck).
Broxted.

Common. Known also as L. marginata,
Blackwall.

82. Linyphia c/athrata, Sundevall.
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Abundant. Known also as Neriene mar-
ginata, Blackwall.

83. Linyphia insignis, Blackwall.
Epping Forest.

84. Linyphia peltata, Wider.
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

85. Labulla thoracica (Wider).
High Beach (F. P. S.) ; Broxted.

Common. Known also as Linyphia cauta,
Blackwall.

86. Floronia bucculenta (Clerck).
Chelmsford.

Rare. Known also as Linyphia frenata
(Wider).

87. Stemonyphantes lineatus (Linnaeus).
Epping Forest.

Known also as Linyphia bucculenta, O.P.-C.,
and Neriene trilineata, Blackwall.

88. Lepthyphantes leprosus (Ohlert).
Broxted.

Common.

200

SPIDERS

89. Lepthyphantti blaclnuallii, Kulczynski.
Epping Forest ; Broxted.

Common.

90. Lepthyphantes minutut (Blackwall).
Broxted ; Snaresbrook.

91. Lepthyphantes tenuis (Blackwall).
Epping Forest.

92. Lepthyphantes obscurus (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Rare.

93. Lepthyphantes nebulosus (Sundevall).
Broxted ; Snaresbrook.

Rare and very local. Known also as
Linyphia vivax, Blackwall.

94. Lepthyphantes ericeus (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Not common.

95. Lepthyphantes pallidus (O. P.-Cambridge).
Broxted.

Rare.

96. Bathyphantes pullatus (O. P.-Cambridge).
Epping Forest.

Common.

97. Bathyphantes nigrinus (Westring).
Tilty, near Dunmow.

Common. Known also as Linvphia fiulla
Blackwall.

98. Bathyphantes meadii (O. P.-Cambridge).
Chelmsford.

Abundant. Known also as Linyphia
approximata (O. P.-Cambridge).

99. Bathyphantes dorsalis (Wider).
Chelmsford.

Not uncommon. Known also as Linyphia
claytoniie, Blackwall.

100. Bathyphantes circumspectus (Blackwall).
Broxted.

101. Bathyphantes gracilis (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

O2. Bathyphantes concolar (Wider).
Broxted ; Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

Not uncommon. Known also as Theridien
flipes, Blackwall.

103. Hilaira uncata (O. P.-Cambridge).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

A few taken in marshy places.

104. Centremerus bicalor (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

105. Macrargus abnormis (Blackwall).
Broxted.

1 06. Microntta subtilis (O. P.-Cambridge).
Broxted.

Known also as Neriene anomala, O. P.-
Cambridge.

107. Microneta viaria (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

1 08. Micryphantes innotabilis (O. P.-Cam-

bridge).
Epping Forest (O. P.-C.).

109. Micryphantes rurestris, C. L. Koch.
Broxted.

Known also as Neriene fuscipalpis, O. P.-
Cambridge, ad partem ; and probably N.
gracilis and flavipes, Blackwall.
no. Erigone atra (Blackwall).
Epping Forest.

Very abundant on railings.

111. Erigone dentipalpis (Wider).
Loughton (F. P. S.).

Equally abundant as the last species and in
the same situations.

112. Tito vagans (Blackwall).
Epping Forest (F. P. S.).

Rare ; two specimens only have been
recorded.

113. Neriene rubens (Blackwall).
Broxted.

Known also as Gonatium rubens.

114. Neriene isabellina (C. L. Koch).
Broxted.

Known also as Neriene rubella, Blackwall.

115. Dicyphus cornutus, Blackwall.
Hoddesdon and Lea Valley (F. M. C.).

1 1 6. Hypomma bituberculatum (Wider).
Chelmsford.