"
..,
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
PRESENTED BY
PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
VIEW
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
EDUCATION.
WORKS
PUBLISHED BY THE SAME AUTHOR, IN ENGLISH.
1. The ANATOMY of the BRAIN.
2. PHRENOLOGY, or the DOCTRINE of the MENTAL
OPERATIONS.
3. PHILOSOPHICAL PRINCIPLES of PHRENOLOGY.
4. OUTLINES of PHRENOLOGY.
5. OBSERVATIONS on INSANITY.
6. EXAMINATION of the OBJECTIONS made, in Great
Britain, against PHRENOLOGY.
7. PHRENOLOGY, in Connection with the Study of
PHYSIOGNOMY. Part I. CHARACTERS, with
34 Plates.
8. A SKETCH of the NATURAL LAWS of MAN.
VIEW
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
EDUCATION,
FOUNDED ON THE
STUDY OF THE NATURE OF MAN.
G. SPURZHEIM, M.D.
OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF VIENNA AND PARIS, AND LICENTIATE OF THE
ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON.
SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED AND ENLARGED.
LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY TREUTTEL, WURTZ, AND RICHTER,
30, SOHO SQUARE.
M.DCCC.XXVIII.
BAGSTER AND THOMS,
PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE, LONDON,
PREFACE.
THE most important point in Anthropo-
logy or the study of Man, is to acquire a
knowledge of his Nature ; and the next, to
discover the mode in which his physical
and mental constitution may be most ad-
vantageously improved. Men of eminent
talents have considered the principles of
education worthy of their attention ; and
many works have been already published
on this subject. It may therefore be asked,
Why should another be presented? Be-
cause education is still conducted in a
manner very different from that in which
it ought to be. Mankind has improved
vi PREFACE.
less than we could wish. " There are
many books/' says HELVETIUS, " many
schools, but few persons of understand-
ing ; there are many maxims, but they are
seldom applied ; man is old, but still a
child." New elucidations of this subject,
therefore, are still wanting ; and I hope I
shall be able to suggest some new ideas
upon it. As, however, many ancient and
modern philosophers have examined this
subject, several of my ideas may be found
in other writings; but nowhere are they
reduced to the principles which I have
adopted, and arranged in the same order.
I hope also to succeed in pointing out
some new objects, interesting in them-
selves, and leading to important results.
This, no doubt, will produce opposition.
I am also aware of the active influence of
prejudice, of old habits and selfish pas-
PREFACE. Vll
sions; but nothing shall deter me from
communicating what appears to me to be
founded on the immutable laws of the
CREATOR. His authority is the only one
I acknowledge in natural history. Truth
is independent of time ; it must prevail,
though it excite the hatred of the ignorant,
the weak, and the jealous.
The reader is requested to bear in mind,
that the language in which this treatise is
composed, is to the Author a foreign one.
A person so situate, is not always a com-
petent judge of the nicer shades of mean-
ing attaching to the expressions which he
employs ; and from this circumstance, to-
gether with the difficulty of commanding
words to convey his ideas properly, he is
liable to be betrayed into a tone of abrupt
and apparently authoritative writing, quite
foreign to his wish and intention. To
Vlll PREFACE.
these causes the reader is requested to im-
pute any thing in the manner of the fol-
lowing pages, which may appear not suited
to the circumstances or the subject.
G. SPURZHEIM.
8, Gower Street,
London.
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
Page
GENERAL VIEW ....... 1
Definition of Education .... ib.
Perfectibility of man 2
Improvement of mankind in arts and sciences . 4
In religion and morality 6
Causes of the want of success in education . . 14
Singleness of the human species . .20
Utility of instruction . . . . . . 35
Division of education . 38
SECTION I. CONDITIONS OF EXCITEMENT . 40
CHAP. I. ON THE LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT . 41
CHAP. II. ON THE LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE
FUNCTIONS 59
Duration of life . 63
Period I. From birth to two years, or infancy . 69
Temperature . ib.
Food 71
Air . .75
b
X CONTENTS.
Page
Light . 77
Cleanliness .78
Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise . . 79
Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 81
CHAP. III. ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE . . 91
Habit 92
Meaning of the word exercise . . 96
Education of intellectual faculties . .99
of feelings 102
School-education, Greek and Latin . . . 112
Means of exercising the faculties . . 119
Order of instruction . . . . . 121
Different success of exercise . . . 129
Mutual instruction . . . . . 131
Exercise increases the organs . . . . 137
CHAP. IV. MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES
AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT . . 139
Mnemonics 141
SECTION II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE
FACULTIES . . 146
CHAP. I. IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY . . 147
Happiness founded more on morality than on in-
tellect 150
CHAP. II. EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION . 155
Regulation of the mode in which gratification
should be sought . . 158
Proper employment of the faculties . . 161
CONTENTS. XI
Page
Little effect of precepts ... 167
Faculties which assist each other . . . 169
Patronage considered as a means of exciting talents 171
Selfishness a means of excitement . . . 1 74
Regulation of feelings, religious, sexual . 177
Objects of education . . 182
CHAP. III. MOTIVES TO ACTION . . . 186
Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions . 187
Different motives may produce the same action . 189
CHAP. IV. DIFFERENCES OF NATURAL ENDOW-
MENT , 194
Class I. Where the superior faculties predominate ib.
Class II. Where one or several inferior, and one
or several superior are very active . . ib.
Class III. Where certain of the inferior faculties
are strong, and all the superior weak . . ib.
Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling . ib.
Education to be varied with different individuals . 197
Individuals should be placed in situations for which
they are naturally fitted . . . . 199
Intellectual education 201
Professional education .... . 206
CHAP. V. EDUCATION OF THE SEXES . . 216
Condition of women .... . ib.
Is there a natural difference in the mental powers
of the sexes? . . . . . . 218
Certain feelings stronger in women than in men . 221
Certain intellectual powers stronger in men than in
women ...... . 226
CHAP. VI. EDUCATION OF NATIONS . . . 230
Xll CONTENTS.
Page
CHAP. VII. ON PUBLIC AND ON PRIVATE EDU-
CATION 269
Conclusion 271
APPENDIX.
ON THE CORRECTION AND REFORM OF MALEFACTORS 273
Definition of legislation 274
Aim of legislation .277
Means of preventing crime . . . 278
Means of correcting malefactors . . . 286
Treatment of incorrigible offenders . . . 295
ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WITHOUT GUILT . . <BOO
I. Illegal actions of idiots . . . . 301
II. Illegal actions of madmen . ^ . 305
ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WHICH ADMIT OF EXTENU-
ATINC MOTIVES 306
Strong mental affections ... . 309
Child-murder 319
CONCLUSION . . 326
ELEMENTARY
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
GENERAL VIEW.
THE preliminary points to be considered in this
general view are, 1. The definition of the word
Education; 2. The perfectibility of mankind;
3. The little success which has hitherto attended
Education; 4. The singleness of the human
species ; and, 5. The usefulness of Education.
As to the definition of Education, I think it
necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in
this volume several topics which are not gene-
rally considered as falling under Education in
the common acceptation of the word, merely de-
noting instruction in literature and accomplish-
ments ; I use this term as embracing every means
which can be made to act upon the vegetative,
affective, and intellectual constitution of man,
B
* EDUCATION OF MAN.
for the purpose of improving this his threefold
nature.
Being asked what I mean by human nature?
I reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone,
nor animal propensities, affections, or passions ;
nor moral feelings, nor intellect; neither is it
organization in general, nor any system of the
body, nor any particularity whatever; but hu-
man nature, in the proper sense of the words,
comprehends all the observable phenomena of
life, from the moment of conception to that of
death, both in the healthy and diseased state ; or,
in short, all the manifestations both of the body
and mind.
The next introductory point to be elucidated
is, whether human nature is susceptible of per-
fection or degradation.
In speaking of the susceptibility of being per-
fected, it is not to be understood that man may
lose one faculty and acquire another; for the
fundamental nature of man being unchangeable
in body as well as in the faculties of the mind,
such an event is impossible on earth. The mean-
ing of the proposition, therefore, can only be,
whether certain powers are capable of attaining
GENERAL VIEW. O
greater or less activity ; whether some of them
may prevail over others ; and, whether the mu-
tual influence of the faculties and their actions
may be regulated and well conducted.
In this latter signification alone, the answer is
affirmative. Such a perfectibility exists in all
living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for
instance, may be strengthened, increased, weak-
ened, or diminished. Fruit trees may be modified
as to their growth or fruit, their produce. Each
part of the bodies of animals is subject to great
variations. Animals, also, are not confined to
actions which their preservation requires. They
modify their conduct according to the situation
in which they may be placed ; hence they are
susceptible of a kind of education beyond their
wants. Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be
instructed to play various tricks. They have also
a recollection of what has happened to them, and
modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox
which has escaped several snares, and knows that
he is watched, takes greater precautions, and
proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches
the habitations of man, with a view of stealing
poultry. A bird whose nest has been destroyed
in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of
placing it in future in a more retired situation :
B 2
EDUCATION OF MAN.
and the construction of the second nest is also
more solid and more perfect than that of the first.
A dog resists its instinct to run after a hare, be-
cause it recollects the beating it has previously
received on that account. The horse avoids the
stone at which it once has stumbled. There are
even facts on record of learned pigs and learned
canary birds. Similar examples are within the
knowledge of every one, and it is therefore unne-
cessary to multiply them. Yet this power of
modifying their actions is not unbounded in
animals, but limited according to their nature.
Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be
taught to hunt like falcons and dogs.
Man offers similar appearances. The various
modifications to which his body is liable, are
known. The manifestations of the mind also
vary in different persons, even in whole nations.
Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has
always been essentially the same. The only
difference, observed at different times, has been,
that the manifestations of the special powers
have been more or less active, modified, and va-
riously employed.
The next question is, Whether man, with re-
spect to his feelings and intellect, has improved
GENERAL VIEW. 5
or degenerated. By some authors mankind is said
to have arrived at a greater state of perfection
than it originally enjoyed ; while others lament
its progressive degeneracy. The improvement or
degeneracy of the human race, in regard to a
knowledge of the external world, the practice of
the fine arts, and moral conduct, are particularly
to be examined. A detailed elucidation of these
points would require a whole volume : it is my
intention only to take a general view of them.
It is superfluous to mention, that the moderns
enjoy a great superiority over the ancients with
respect to every branch of natural history and
natural philosophy. The Baconian and true me-
thod of studying Nature, founded on observation
and induction, has been recently discovered and
introduced. It has forwarded every kind of
knowledge in an astonishing degree. It has,
however, been unfortunately neglected in the
study of man, and hence his nature is but lit-
tle known. It is true, whatever it was in the
power of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by
observation, to discover, was discovered by the
ancient philosophers. But the knowledge of man
remained extremely vague and uncertain, and
Phrenology alone will supply this defect, and re-
duce Anthropology to invariable principles.
6 EDUCATION OF MAN.
In the fine arts of imitation modern artists find
it difficult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they
seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere
imitation of ancient productions ; nature always
remains the best model, inexhaustible in her mo-
difications, whilst by the former proceeding the
arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is
impeded.
The arts of industry have undoubtedly im-
proved, and political economy may be considered
as a science of modern days. The state of man-
kind at large is evidently better than in ancient
times and during the ages of darkness, and it will
still improve in proportion as ignorance and im-
morality are removed, and the laws of the Creator
attended to.
The improvement or degeneracy of man, as
regards his moral and religious opinions, presents
a particular interest, even with respect to his
worldly happiness. Both these sorts of notions
vary according to the different states of civiliza-
tion, and they are, by no means, stationary, any
more than the functions of every other faculty.
Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and
generally consider all Superior Beings as malevo-
GENERAL VIEW. 7
lent, and worship them through fear. People in
a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings
of a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the
Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be en-
dowed with all human feelings ; they required
food and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free
from the human frailties : he was jealous, often
cruel and implacable. He had overturned every
thing in heaven, and reduced the other gods to
be his slaves. The gods of the Romans were not
more noble. They were mercenary, and could
be bribed by fine temples, games, and more ac-
ceptable sacrifices. People of little instruction
divided the invisible beings into benevolent and
malevolent. Others admitted two principles ; one
benevolent, the other malevolent; and they ac-
knowledged also many inferior deities, as emana-
tions from the primitive ones. Persons of more
cultivated minds believed in one supreme bene-
volent deity; and in inferior spirits, some benevo-
lent, others malevolent The most enlightened
acknowledged only one Supreme Being, bound-
less in perfection, and the maker of every crea-
ture.
The mode of worship deserves equally a pecu-
liar consideration in the history of mankind. It
is always conformable to the notions entertained
EDUCATION OF MAN.
of the nature of the Deity. In order to avert the
wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please
them, men have made themselves as miserable as
possible, by mortifications, flagellations, painful
labours, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and
suicides. To gain the favour of manlike gods,
sweet-smelling herbs, burning incense, oblations,
gifts, agreeable impressions on the senses, cere-
monies which illustrate a prince at his court, and
various sorts of formalities, have been employed.
If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or
even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the
purity and sublime principles of true Christianity,
we shall perceive that the latter are greatly supe-
rior. The Old and New Testament attribute very
different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their
moral precepts are very different. The old dis-
pensation may be viewed as accommodated to the
Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub-
born race.
The God of Israel was jealous, revengeful,
terrible, and a God of war. He was fond of
perfume, ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense,
even of bloody sacrifices. He commanded his
people to destroy those who forsook him, or who
did not obey his commandments ; even those who
kindled fire on the sabbath-day. Neither brother.
GENEftAL VIEW. 9
sister, son, daughter, husband, wife nor friend,
was to be spared, if he served another god. He
who knew an infidel, was forbidden to pity, con-
ceal or save him ; on the contrary, it was his duty
to stone him. (Exod. xxxv. Deuteronomy xiii.)
The God of Christians, on the contrary, is love,
benevolence and charity. He is the Father -of the
whole of mankind, and wishes for universal hap-
piness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner
repent. He gives the same laws to all, makes no
exception, and pays no attention to the appear-
ance of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards
every one after his actions. He is a Spirit that
cannot be confined to temples, and is to be adored
in spirit and in truth. (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John iv.
Matt. vi. &c.)
The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to
those of their own race ; they were permitted to
take usury from foreigners, and to hate them.
David praised God in saying, " Do I not hate
those who hate thee? I hate them with perfect
hatred." (Ps. cxxxviii.) They were ordered to
form a separate nation, and prohibited from inter-
marrying with other people. Their food was pre-
scribed ; many things were inderdicted and de-
clared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon
10 EDUCATION OF MAN.
had seven hundred wives and three hundred con-
cubines. The husband was allowed to put away
his wife; it was sufficient to write her a bill of
divorcement, &c. &c.
How superior and more noble are the principles
of Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and
revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ;
they command forgiveness of every offence seven
times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked
for; to love our enemies; to bless them that
curse us, and to do good to them that hate us.
They interdict all selfish passions, and declare our
neighbour every one who does the will of God,
CHRIST asked to drink of a woman of Samaria,
whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation.
He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with
publicans and sinners, and declared those only
who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his
mother, sister or brother.
No food is an abomination to Christians.
CHRIST said, " Not that which enters into the
mouth defiles a man;" and St. PAUL declares to
the Romans, " I know and am persuaded by the
Lord JESUS, that there is nothing unclean in
itself." CHRIST permitted only one wife, and
in this respect re-established the law as it was
GENERAL VIEW. 11
from the beginning of the creation. (Mark
x. 6.)
Before the Christian dispensation, empires were
founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and
frightful destruction of the vanquished.
CHRIST declared, that he came, not to destroy
men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts
himself shall be abased. He made no distinction
among persons, and considered love and peace as
the aim of all commandments. He only proposed
the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the ac-
ceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by
the sword. He directed his disciples only to
shake off the dust of their feet in departing out
of that house or city where they had not been
courteously received, or where their words had
not been attended to.
The superiority of the Christian principles
above the Jewish law is evident. St. PAUL
said to the Hebrews (iii.), that " CHRIST is more
worthy than MOSES;" and (vii.20.) "by so much
was CHRIST made a surety of a BETTER Testa-
ment;" and, (viii. 7.) " if the first Covenant had
been faultless, then should no place have been
found for the second." True Christianity really
12 EDUCATION OF MAN.
improves the moral and religious character of
a Jew.
In regard to morality, it is indeed impossible
to establish better principles than have been
pointed out in the New Testament. But since
these rules, unexampled in ancient legislation,
have been established, the followers of Christianity
have often fallen back to many of the contemptible
doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im-
portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered
to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have dis-
puted, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meat
on certain days, in the same manner as Maho-
medans dispute, whether coffee be or be not pro-
hibited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these
abuses, however, it is certain, that the precepts
of moral and religious conduct have improved by
degrees; and that many selfish and absurd opi-
nions will be rectified, as soon as human nature
shall be better understood. True Christianity will
gain, by every step which is made in the know-
ledge of man.
Let us now see whether Education is advanced
as much as may be desirable. Unfortunately we
find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles
of Christian morality, and the numerous master-
GENERAL VIEW. 13
pieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable
truth, that hitherto education has succeeded less
than the friends of humanity wish for. In-
deed, if we examine its influence on the improve-
ment of mankind, a thousand years is like a day
that is past. Who has not seen children of the
most pious and exemplary parents indulge in
scepticism, and plunge themselves into profanity
and vice ? And who has not observed that licen-
tiousness often prevails in the most enlightened
and refined classes of society? Who has not ob-
served very limited talents appear in the offspring
of men of the greatest genius? Now the in-
ferences to be drawn from such facts are, that
either the education has not been adapted to the
natural dispositions of those individuals, or that
every one is not capable of receiving the full
effect of a good education ; and as man in general
hitherto has little improved by education, we must
conclude that either he is less perfectible than we
may wish for, or that the true means of improve-
ment have not been employed. The latter cause
seems to me the most probable, and it may be
principally accounted for by our ignorance of the
nature of man. Plants and animals succeed only
if treated according to their natural qualities, and
the education of man will not and cannot succeed
without adapting it to his nature.
14 EDUCATION OF MAN.
Some philosophers have endeavoured to de-
grade man to a level with the brute; while
others have fancied that he has nothing what-
ever in common with the animal kingdom. By
some the faculties of man are considered as the
result of external impressions and accidental cir-
cumstances; while others believe that the exist-
ence of each person, and all the phenomena of
that existence, are the effects of predestination.
I shall mention a few particulars concerning
the great error, according to which the champions
of education consider new-born children as blank
paper, on which they can mark every impression.
But, under such a supposition, why are children
of the same family so different? Why can
teachers not communicate their own talents to
every pupil ? Why cannot every one, who under-
stands the masterpieces of genius, produce similar
effects? Why is not every poet a HOMER, every
musician a HANDEL, a MOZART, a HAYDN,
every historian a TACITUS, every speaker a
DEMOSTHENES, every painter a RAPHAEL ? The
rules which lead to perfection being pointed
out, it would be easy for every one to put them
into practice, if no innate powers were necessary.
Experience, then, forces us to decide entirely
against such speculative assertions ; those who
GENERAL VIEW. 15
have been engaged in conducting education are
convinced that they are incapable of producing
those talents and feelings in children which they
could wish ; and those who assert the contrary,
maintain only dreams, and instead of observing
nature, indulge in their fancy.
Many defenders of education wish to persuade
us, that the first impressions in early age deter-
mine the direction of the mind. I do not deny
their influence, but it is less than it is generally
supposed to be. Children, in their early years,
are almost exclusively intrusted to the care of
females, yet boys and girls show from the earliest
infancy their distinctive characters ; and this dif-
ference between the sexes continues through life.
A marked variety of tempers and capacities may
be observed in children, as soon as they are sus-
ceptible of any impression. Children, like adult
persons, are differently affected by the same ex-
ternal circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to
be observed, are more or less permanent. How
often, in the maturity of age, when the activity
of the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that
we are at one time perfectly acquainted with a
subject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had
never known it? How, then, is it possible to
believe, that individual impressions, received at a
16 EDUCATION OF MAN.
period when the mind is almost inactive, deter-
mine the character or the mental capacities of a
child for his whole life? On the other hand, it
is well known, that many individuals turn out
very different from what they appeared at an
earlier period of life. It must therefore be al-
lowed, that the above mentioned opinion is desti-
tute of all support from experience.
I do not hesitate to maintain, that education
must fail, as long as we continue to think that
children are born alike, and may receive, with
equal advantage, every kind of education. If
J. J. ROUSSEAU had had the care of children, he
would have detected his erroneous conceptions :
he would have observed, that Nature implants
certain kinds of feeling; that education only
weakens, or invigorates and refines them; that
children react on external circumstances, accord-
ing to their natural dispositions ; and that it is
necessary to adapt education to the nature of in-
dividuals. Hence, the first thing to be done, is to
trace back the faculties of children to their origin.
Such a knowledge will contribute to the advance-
ment of arts and sciences, and to the improvement
of moral conduct, by suggesting suitable means
for directing the energies of children to the ob-
jects which they are most fitted by nature to
GENERAL VIEW. 17
attain. " There are few subjects," says DUGALD
STEWART, " more hackneyed than that of educa-
tion, and yet there is none upon which the opi-
nions of the world are still more divided. Nor is
this surprising ; for most of those who have spe-
culated concerning it, have confined their atten-
tion chiefly to incidental questions about the com-
parative advantage of public or private instruc-
tion, the utility of peculiar language or sciences,
without attempting a previous examination of
those faculties and principles of the mind, which
it is the great object of education to improve. "-
(Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind,
p. 62.)
Another great error in education, also founded
on our ignorance of the human nature, is, that
every teacher takes himself as a model for his
pupils. What he likes and learns with facility,
he supposes ought to be equally liked and learned
by every other person ; while in every child, the
feelings and intellectual faculties, though essen-
tially the same, are modified in quantity and
quality. Hitherto, on account of none of the
systems of education being founded on a correct
analysis of the faculties of man, education has
been conducted altogether in a general way ; and
hence almost every individual who thinks for
18 EDUCATION OF MAN.
himself when arrived at the age of maturity, has
found it necessary to begin a new course of edu-
cation, according to his individual character and
talents.
Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently un-
derstood in education, concerns the organic con-
ditions on which the manifestations of the mind
depend. This is the object of a new doctrine,
and is detailed in my work on Phrenology.
Thus education, though it does not create any
power whatever, may produce great effect ; but to
that purpose its whole system must be changed,
and this will be done in proportion as the nature
of man becomes known, and as it will be acknow-
ledged that man must be perfected like other
created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and
must submit to the determined sway which pre-
vails in her government. He errs the moment he
ceases to observe, and begins to excogitate. The
construction of a system of education cannot be
a creative but an imitative process, which must
be founded only on the lessons of experience.
Here, as in the cultivation of every other science,
it is not by the exercise of a sublime and specula-
tive ingenuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is
by letting himself down to simple observation,
GENERAL VIEW. 19
by rejecting equally the authority of antiquity,
and of eminent contemporaries, when in opposi-
tion to nature ; by sacrificing every consideration
that opposes the evidence of observation, and its
legitimate and well established conclusions ; by
being able to renounce all the favourite opinions
of infancy, the moment that truth demands the sa-
crifice ; in short, by following only the lights of
observation and induction. " Does not our hap-
piness depend," says a contemporary writer, " on
the knowledge of the various relations which man
bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the
practice of the duties which they impose; and
how are we to discover these relations, except
by the assistance of reason, operating on experi-
ence ? Can false views of human nature, and its
attributes, increase the happiness of the human
race individually; or can political society, framed
on such erroneous principles, attain the end for
which alone society was framed? * Deception
and mendacity are always regarded in the com-
mon and every day intercourse of life as base and
odious, Is it then only upon subjects of the
highest importance to man, that he may be de-
ceived without danger or detestation?'" (Retro-
spective Review, No. I. p. 71.) I concur entirely
in these sentiments.
c 2
20 EDUCATION OF MAN.
My ideas on the nature of man, on his funda-
mental powers ; on their innateness ; on the con-
ditions of their manifestations in this life ; on the
moral liberty, and several other points, are ex-
posed, with details, in works entitled, Phreno-
logy ; and, Philosophical Principles of Phrenology.
I suppose these points to be known to those who
take up this volume, composed merely with phre-
nological views, and founded on mere phrenolo-
gical principles.
In treating of Education and Legislation, it
seems important to examine, Whether there is
only one species of the human race, or whether
there are several ? The great variety of bodily and
mental appearances ; of features, complexion,
size and configuration ; of feelings and intellec-
tual powers, must strike the most superficial
observer. The causes of these differences have
been examined, and various hypotheses have been
invented to account for them. Some authors
have had recourse to different original species ;
others have accounted for these modifications, by
the common laws of nature. It is indeed natural
to ask, Whether a Negro and a White Man, a
Dwarf and a Giant, a Hottentot and Lord
BACON, are of the same species? Whether the
Cannibal, whose earthly and expected heavenly
GENERAL VIEW. 21
pleasures are gratifications of the low animal pas-
sions, and the true Christian, full of kindness and
benignity; whether he whose ingenuity is exer-
cised merely in destruction and devastation, and
he who beholds all creatures as objects of Di-
vine providence and beneficence, were originally
formed after the same image ?
If there be several species of Man, there can
be no universal principles of human conduct ;
human nature cannot be included in any one sys-
tem ; and the rules which are suitable for one
nation will not be fit for another. If, on the
contrary, there be only one species; general
principles of education, general rules of conduct,
and national laws, may be established. More-
over, if there were several species, and one supe-
rior to the others, the White to the Negro, for
example, slavery might be contended for as an
institution of Nature ; but if the species be only
one, neither the primitive moral character, nor
Christianity, can excuse this most selfish of all
barbarities.
I will not consider the arguments of those who,
from inferior motives without any respect for hu-
man dignity, and without any religious or moral
principles, or reproaches of conscience, force
22 EDUCATION OF MAN.
other people to become the mere instruments of
their selfish gratification. I shall examine only
the reasons which natural history offers in support
of the one or other opinion, that the human race
consists of one species or of several. These rea-
sons may be drawn from the external qualities of
the body, such as size, configuration and com-
plexion ; its internal structure ; the laws of pro-
pagation ; and the manifestations of the mind.
In the elucidation of this important object, it
is not sufficient to examine the external qualities
alone. Such a proceeding is like that of LIN-
N^us, who classed the animals according to their
external appearances, and not according to their
nature; or like that of a librarian who should
class books according to their shape, size or bind-
ing, without regard to their contents.
Man is found in all climates ; and hence some
philosophers have inferred that there are several
species of man. These philosophers reasoned by
analogy, stating, that each climate has its own
species of men in the same way as plants and
animals are adapted to hot, temperate and frigid
regions. Plants which grow in the torrid zone,
perish in a cold climate, and those which flourish
upon mountains decay on being removed to a
GENERAL VIEW. 23
plain. The rein-deer, say they, is confined to the
frozen region, and the white bear cannot live in a
southern climate; while the elephant, rhinoceros,
and many other animals, do not prosper in the
frigid zone. Hence Nature has destined and
fitted different beings for different climates, and
she has guarded them against the natural vicissi-
tudes of the seasons. To this end, in cold coun-
tries, animals are protected with more fat, and
thicker hair. The same rule explains why plants
and animals lose their qualities when removed
from their native climate; and why, in several
countries, the stock requires to be continually re-
newed. In northern countries, for instance, flax
degenerates, and a quantity of seed is annually
imported from southern regions. In the same
way, to preserve, in some degree of perfection, the
breed of Arabian and Barbary horses, frequent
supplies from their original climates are requisite.
Lord KAMES, (Sketches of the History of Man,
vol. i.) one of the principal champions of the opi-
nion that there are different species of man, insists
much on observations of this kind, and thinks
them conclusive. He supports his assertions, by
observing, that men, in changing climate, usually
fall sick, and often run the risk of losing their
lives. This argument, however, is not decisive^
24 EDUCATION OF MAN.
The plants and animals adapted to different cli-
mates, are evidently of different species. This is
not the case with the varieties of men. Moreover,
as plants and animals can by no means alter or
regulate the effect of external influences upon
themselves, it is conceivable that peculiar species,
fitted for every climate, should be created. Man,
on the contrary, is able to remove obstacles, to
overcome difficulties, and to modify, in a high
degree, the effect of external circumstances upon
his nature. On the other hand, the argument
of analogy is not even general ; for several ani-
mals, such as pigs, dogs, and others, follow man,
and, sheltered by him, live in all climates.
It is certain that great changes of climate pro-
duce diseases. We must observe, however, that
it is not a great difference of climate alone that
produces this effect, but that all sudden changes
of season, weather, situation, and mode of living,
also expose us to the loss of health. In America,
says the Reverend Dr. SMITH, (" On the Varie-
ties of Men," p. 119.) " we are liable to disorders
by removing incautiously from a northern to a
southern State ; but it would be absurd to con-
clude, that the top of every hill, and the bank of
every river, is therefore inhabited by a different
species, because in the one we enjoy less health
GENERAL VIEW. 25
than in the other. The constitution becomes at-
tempered in a degree even to an unhealthy re-
gion, and then it feels augmented symptoms of
disorder on returning to the most salubrious air
and water ; but does this prove that Nature never
intended such men to drink clear water, or to
breathe in a pure atmosphere ?" It may be added,
that there are diseases of professions as well as
of climates. Shall we maintain, therefore, that
there is a species of man for every profession?
Captain COOK, Captain KRUSENSTERN, and other
navigators, have proved, that, with sufficient care,
man can bear great changes of air, temperature,
season and weather. They have preserved the
health of their crews in long voyages, and in the
most dissimilar climates. The human constitution
is known, from positive observation, to become in
time assimilated to every climate; and the offspring
of foreigners, at length endure, like the aborigines,
the external influence without injury. Thus, the
argument that sudden changes of climate have a
tendency to produce diseases, or even death, does
not prove that there are several species of man.
The Reverend Dr. SMITH has clearly shewn,
from another argument, quoted from Lord KAMES,
that the latter was too credulous; that he was
deceived by erroneous reports of superficial ob-
26 EDUCATION OF MAN.
servers; and that he did not sufficiently under-
stand the pliancy of the human constitution,
which enables it to adapt itself to every climate,
and to all external circumstances. The last re-
mark that Lord KAMES makes, is a striking ex-
ample against his own assertion. He says, that
" the Portuguese colony on the coast of Congo,
has in course of time degenerated so much, that
they scarcely retain the appearance of men."
Another assertion of his, is a complete specimen
of his credulity. He is of opinion that the
Giagas, a nation in Africa, could not have de-
scended from the same original with the rest of
mankind, because, unlike to others, they are void
of natural affection ; kill all their own children as
soon as they are born, and supply their places
with youths stolen from neighbouring tribes.
Common sense, however, would answer, that if
such a species were created, it could not continue
longer than the primitive stock endured. The
stolen youth would resemble their parents, not
those who adopted them, and would soon be the
sole constituents of the nation. Yet Lord KAMES
thought that the Giagas formed a peculiar spe-
cies, who continued from generation to generation
to kill their children !
All organized beings are modified by external
GENERAL VIEW. 27
influences, though their primitive nature is never
changed. There is certainly no reason to believe
that every kind of apple, pear, or other fruit-tree
which we see in our gardens, has been the sub-
ject of a distinct creation, these varieties being
produced by degrees. The specific character,
however, is constantly the same ; and one tree
can never be changed into another, an apple-
tree, for instance, into a pear-tree.
The same law of modification prevails among
animals. Their size, colour, and other qualities,
are very different in different climates. There
are varieties of horses eight times smaller than
other races. Some goats have no horns ; others
have several. The pigs, also, of Scotland, Ire-
land, and Hungary, are very different, but it
would be irrational to admit as many primitive
species of these animals as there are varieties.
Their specific character is always the same, and
a pig can never be changed into a sheep.
As the body of man is subjected to the ge-
neral laws of organization, why should it also not
undergo considerable changes, and present great
differences of appearance? This matter, on ac-
count of its importance, deserves to be examined
more at large.
28 EDUCATION OF MAN.
One of the most striking differences perceptible
in the human race, as well as in animals, is to be
found in the skin and hair, which are in the most
intimate relation with each other, and indeed re-
ceive their nourishment from the same blood-
vessels. They vary in thickness and colour, and
evidently depend on climate. The ermine and
weasel change the colour of their hair in summer
and winter. The fur of wild animals grows
thicker in cold weather, while under the heat of
the torrid zone, the hair is coarse.
Among horses, oxen, rabbits, and other ani-
mals, some individuals of the same species are
brown, black, or white, and why should it be
thought absurd that there should be also vari-
ously coloured men ? The only difference in this
respect betwixt man and animals, seems to be,
that man resists longer the influence of external
circumstances, and that his skin requires a greater
difference of climate to change its colour. It is a
fact, however, that heat and extreme cold thicken
the skin of man and darken his colour. We might
naturally expect, what is indeed the case, that
changes of the skin produced by climate, should
take effect in a longer or a shorter time, according
to the different degrees of civilization; for ex-
ample, savages being exposed to the influence of
GENERAL VIEW. 29
climate, suffer its full force; while civilized nations
obviate, or even greatly prevent its influence.
Among the physical qualities of man, com-
plexion is the most easily changed. The Portu-
guese in Africa are become black, but they have
preserved their original configuration. The Jews
in northern countries are fair; they become brown
and tawny towards the south, but their configura-
tion does not undergo proportionate changes.
It seems difficult to say whether the original
colour of man was white or black ; but it is cer-
tain that white people grow black sooner than
negroes become white.
On the other hand, difference of size and form
does not prove the existence of several species of
man, more than that of several animals which
vary greatly in this respect. The swine carried
from Europe to Cuba acquires double its original
magnitude. It is the same with the oxen in
Paraguay. Climate, diet, and the manner of
living, may produce such differences. Young
animals of the same litter, treated with care, or
neglected, well fed or reduced to starvation, will
be quite different in shape and size. Children,
when neglected, are emaciated, sallow, and their
30 EDUCATION OF MAN.
features coarse and meagre. The poor, exposed
to excessive hardships, are apt to become de-
formed, and diminutive in their persons ; whilst
luxury and excess also tend to debilitate and dis-
figure the human constitution.
Determinate feelings, too, when permanent and
habitual, change the countenance and external
appearance.
The most effectual means of producing diffe-
rences, and of preserving those which exist, is
propagation; and on this subject I shall here-
after enter more into detail.
Thus, the external differences of mankind may
be explained by known natural causes, and are
no proofs that there are several original species.
A sound philosophy never assigns without neces-
x sity, different causes for similar effects. Small
influences, acting constantly, will necessarily pro-
duce, in time, conspicuous changes in mankind ;
just as a succession of drops of water falling
on the hardest rock makes a cavity. The first
alteration in the external appearance of man is
observed in the countenance, the next in the
complexion, and the last in the size and con-
figuration.
GENERAL VIEW. 31
It may be added, that man may live every
where, the flexibility of his body supporting dif-
ferent impressions ; moreover, no obstacle, nei-
ther river nor sea, prevents him from continuing
his excursions ; he transports with him animals
and vegetables, and prepares by art what he can-
not use in the natural state ; and he knows how
to shelter himself and other useful beings against
noxious influences from without.
The internal structure of the body of man, also,
indicates that there is only one species. To
prove that there are several, it would be necessary
to show that the number of the essential parts is
not the same in all; that Europeans, for instance,
possess certain parts which Negroes have not.
Whoever could demonstrate, that one part of the
brain in Europeans is wanting in Negroes, would
prove that there is a natural difference between
them ; but so far as I am able to judge, the same
essential parts exist in both, subject, merely, to
modifications.
Another argument to prove that there is only
one species of Man, may be founded on the ma-
nifestations of the mind. Every where, and at all
times, the same primitive faculties, however modi-
fied the actions flowing from them may be, are to
32 EDUCATION OF MAN.
be observed. Negroes, in general, are inferior to
Europeans ; yet some of the former excel in mu-
sic, mathematics, and philosophy. BLUMENBACH
(Goetting. Magazine, t. iv. p. 421.) and Bishop
GREGORY have collected the names of Negroes
famous for their talents. HERDER and RAYNAL,
in various passages of their works, quote instances
of extraordinary virtue and morality observed
among savages and barbarous nations.
It has been reported, that there are nations
without religious feelings ; but more exact inves-
tigation has shown, that religious ceremonies
existed, but had been mistaken for mere social
amusements, such as dancing, singing, and fight-
ing. It has frequently happened, that descrip-
tions of savage nations have been given by travel-
lers, who neither knew their language, nor the
signification of their manners and customs. Al-
most all reports of this kind are founded on
single observations. How erroneous, therefore,
must they be, and how little to be relied on,
particularly when they describe the customs of
nations hostile to strangers. It is known, that
savages frequently steal from foreigners, while
they continue faithful to each other, like several
criminals in Europe, who show great attachment
and justice towards each other, and rather suffer
GENERAL VIEW. 33
the greatest torments than betray their compa-
nions and friends, but who do not spare either
the goods or the lives of other individuals. If a
traveller, accustomed to the most brilliant cere-
monies of religion, were to meet with a sect of
the followers of CONFUCIUS, who have neither
temple nor priests, nor any form of external wor-
ship ; who adore the Supreme Being in mere
inward contemplation, and in the practice of mo-
ral virtue, and he had no direct means of commu-
nication with them, might he not easily be led to
think, that they professed no religion whatever?
Hence, it is important to distinguish betwixt the
faculties themselves and their application. At-
tachment, for instance, may act with respect to
our native country, to our friends, to animals,
or to other objects, yet the primitive impulse
is the same in all these instances, although the
external applications are very different. Courage
may be shown in self-defence, or in defending
others. He who is fond of approbation, may
adorn himself with earrings, with girdles, with
chains, or embroidery. Religious people, in like
manner, may pay divine honours to a bull, to a
serpent, to the sun, to saints, or to the God of
Christians ; they may howl to the glory of invi-
sible beings, or worship one Deity, by singing
psalms, or by the practice of moral virtue, and all
D
34 EDUCATION OF MAN.
of these acts may flow from the same primitive
tendency to veneration.
Finally, propagation is considered as a means
of determining whether animals belong to the
same or to different species, according as they can
or cannot engender together, or as their issue can
or cannot procreate. Tried by this test, also, we
must conclude that mankind form but one species.
However, it ought to be observed, that natural
history can show only the possibility of mankind
being derived from one original species, which, by
degrees, has undergone various changes ; but it
cannot prove the reality of this fact, any more
than it can ascertain whether the original colour
of man was white or black.
Thus, in the following considerations, I shall
take it for granted, that mankind is only one
species, comprehending various races, endowed
with the same primitive powers of body and mind.
Yet, as the sense of smell, attachment, or courage,
c. is stronger in one dog, or in one race of dogs,
than in another ; so such or such a faculty may be
more active in one man, or in one tribe, than in
another, though both races are essentially of the
same species.
GENERAL VIEW. 35
There remains an important introductory point
to be considered, viz. whether education, prin-
cipally instruction, is useful ; or, in other words,
whether it is better to leave the common people
in ignorance, or to instruct all classes of society?
To answer this query in a satisfactory manner,
let us remember that the human mind embraces
feelings and intellectual faculties ; that intellect
does not produce feelings, but that the latter are
the main causes of our actions. Hence it is a
great mistake to confine education to intellectual
instruction. Education, then, if well conducted,
embraces both feelings and intellect, and improves
both the body and mind. Now a few observa-
tions will prove that education is preferable to
ignorance.
There is a great difference in the actions of all
nations, through the different states of civiliza-
tion. The history of each at the beginning is
stigmatized with assassination, parricides, incest,
and violation of the most sacred oaths. The
selfish passions, then, appear to have enjoyed an
overwhelming power ; and all enjoyments sprung
from the gratification of the lower propensities.
In periods of ignorance, too, all nations confined
moral virtue to themselves, and supposed the rest
D 2
36 EDUCATION OF MAN.
of nature destined to be their prey. Legislation
corresponding with the national character at the
beginning, is sanguinary; and capital punishment
is common. Nay, it falls not on the criminals
alone, but also on their relations, and on whole
districts. Their religion is founded on terror,
their gods are endowed with all the lower feelings
and affections, such as selfishness, jealousy, wrath,
and fondness for dreadful actions and expiatory
sacrifices. If they hope for immortality, the
scenes which they expect are conformable to their
actual feelings; triumph over enemies, gratifica-
tion of lower passions, and sensual pleasures.
The whole tendency of the mind is atrocity ; and
their actions might almost be denominated a se-
ries of horrid crimes. I doubt whether those who
consider the savage state so worthy of commen-
dation, would be disposed to give up the comforts
of civilization, and be satisfied with the food,
clothing, habitations and accommodations of Bar-
barians ; whether they would prefer roots, acorns,
nuts, insects and other animals, at the sight of
which we shudder, as their food, to the prepara-
tions of a skilful cook; whether they would be
better pleased with clothes made of the skins of
animals, of leaves or of grass, than with woollen,
cotton, linen, or silk habiliments ? Whether they
would like to exchange our comfortable rooms for
GENERAL VIEW. 37
a hollow tree, for the cavity of a rock, a den
under ground, a hut of reeds, or of turf and
branches of trees ? Finally, Whether they would
seriously think the rough attempts of savages at
painting and sculpture, equal to the statues of
PHIDIAS, and the paintings of RAPHAEL?
In following the history of mankind, we ob-
serve, that, in proportion as nations cultivate their
moral and intellectual powers, atrocious actions
diminish in number ; the manners and pleasures
become more refined, the legislation milder, the
religion purified from superstition, and the arts
address themselves to the finer emotions of the
mind.
By observing also the different classes of
society, and the inhabitants of different provinces,
we learn, that ignorance is the greatest enemy of
morality. Wherever education is neglected, de-
pravity, and every kind of actions which degrade
mankind, are the most frequent. Among ignorant
persons, c&teris paribus, rapacity, cheating, and
thieving, drunkenness, and sensual pleasures, are
prominent features in the character.
Those then who object to the instruction of the
lower orders, can merely act from selfish mo-
38 EDUCATION OF MAN.
tives. Being aware of their superiority, they may
wish the inferior classes to be obedient to their
arbitrary regulations ; for unquestionably, it is
much easier to lead the ignorant and uncultivated
than the instructed and reasoning people. Know-
ledge too, and the habit of reflection, detect abuses
and errors, which selfishness and pride may wish
to keep concealed. But whoever thinks it right
to cultivate his own mind, cannot with justice
desire others to remain in ignorance. He, there-
fore, who is versed in history, or understands the
law of Christian charity, will join those who con-
tend for the benefit of an instruction adapted to
every class of society. This then will not be con-
fined to reading and writing, but particularly ex-
tended over the moral conduct and all duties and
rights in practical life.
The education of the body is called Physical,
that of the mind, Moral. It is, however, impos-
sible to decide by observation, whether education
modifies the mind itself. We can only show,
that we may exercise an influence on the instru-
ments by which the powers of the mind manifest
themselves. Hence, the study of the organization
is necessary, even with respect to the moral edu-
cation of man ; and for that reason, I avoid the
common division of education into physical and
GENERAL VIEW. 39
moral, though I find it proper to divide the
following considerations on education into two
Sections. In the first, I shall speak of the condi-
tions which contribute to the greater or less acti-
vity of the powers of the body and of the mind ;
and in the second, of their aim and direction.
40
SECTION I.
ON THE CONDITIONS OF EXCITEMENT ; OR
THOSE WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE ACTI-
VITY OF THE INNATE POWERS OF THE
BODY AS WELL AS OF THE MIND.
THESE important inquiries are not sufficiently
understood, and are therefore too generally alto-
gether overlooked. They, however, deserve the
most serious attention of every natural philoso-
pher. Our reflections on them may be divided
into four Chapters, corresponding to the natural
divisions of the conditions of excitement them-
selves. The first condition is founded on the
Laws of Propagation, or hereditary descent; the
second on those of the Vegetative Functions ; the
third on Exercise ; and the fourth on the Mutual
Influence of the Powers.
41
CHAPTER L
ON THE LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT.
THE developement of the human body is favour-
ed, retarded, or disordered, according to the ge-
neral laws of organization, in the same way as
that of other living beings. Consequently chil-
dren participate in the bodily configuration and
constitution of their parents, and also in their ten-
dencies to particular manifestations of the mind,
these being dependent on the individual parts of
the brain. The elucidation of these subjects is
indispensable to a sound system of education.
Nay, I am convinced, that this condition exerts a
greater and more permanent influence than any
other which can be introduced with the view of
perfecting mankind. Let us first consider how
other organized beings are improved.
Florists, pomologists, and horticulturists, are
aware that Nature produces the varieties of plants,
and they observe the circumstances which are fa-
vourable to the improvement of certain qualities.
42 EDUCATION OF MAN.
They know that the first and most important
point is ripe and well-conditioned seed ; the
second a fertile and convenient soil. In short, it
is a fact, that, in order to improve the vegetable
kingdom, propagation is attended to.
In perfecting animals, or in promoting their
peculiar qualities, such as the colour or figure of
horses, the wool of sheep, the smell of dogs, &c.
country people have recourse to the laws of pro-
pagation. By these means, farmers have suc-
ceeded in diminishing or increasing various parts
of animals, such as their bones, muscles, &c.
We might naturally suppose, that it would be
sufficient to mention the fact, that the organization
of man is submitted to the same general laws as
that of animals, to induce reasonable beings to
take at least the same care of their own offspring
as of their sheep, pigs, dogs and horses. But
man wishes to make himself an exception from the
immutable laws of the Creator, and the result of
his ignorance and self-conceit is lamentable. As
this subject is of the utmost importance, I shall
enter into a few details upon it.
For the sake of bodily health, many natural
philosophers, a long time ago, insisted on the
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 43
necessity of a better regulation of marriage.
Their benevolent desire was supported by the
constant observation, that health depends on or-
ganization, and that the latter is propagated by
birth. " Sir JOHN SEBRIGHT," says Dr. ADAMS,
(On the Pretended Hereditary Diseases, p. 33.)
" informs us, that if a flock of sheep, in which
there is any defect, are permitted to breed in
and in, the defect will gradually increase among
them; and Colonel HUMPHRIES, by selecting for
breeding a marked variety, has succeeded in pro-
curing a flock with deformed bones." Dr. ADAMS
adds, that if the same causes operate in man,
we may impute to it many endemic peculia-
rities found in certain districts, which have hi-
therto been imputed to the water, and other
localities.
Those who have more confidence in facts than
in speculative reasoning, cannot doubt that the
qualities of the body are hereditary. There are
family-faces, family-likenesses ; and also single
parts, such as bones, muscles, hair and skin,
which resemble in parents and in children. The
disposition to various disorders, as to gout, scro-
fula, dropsy, hydrocephalus, consumption, deaf-
ness, epilepsy, apoplexy, idiotism, insanity, &c. is
frequently the inheritance of birth. There are
44 EDUCATION OF MAN.
few families where there is not one part of the
body weaker than the rest, the lungs, for in-
stance, the eyes, the stomach, liver, intestines,
some other viscus, the brain, &c.
Children born of healthy parents, and belong-
ing to a strong stock, always bring into the world
a system formed by nature to resist the causes of
disease; while the children of delicate, sickly
parents, are overpowered by the least unfavour-
able circumstance. Medical men know very well,
that in curing diseases, nature is oftentimes more
powerful than art, and that the latter is ineffectual,
if not assisted by the former. Longevity also de-
pends more on innate constitution than on the
skill of physicians. Is it not then astonishing,
that this knowledge, as a practical piece of infor-
mation, is not taught to and disseminated among
young people ? Indeed, it ought to be familiarly
and generally known ; not because it is expected
that every one would be reasonable enough to re-
gulate his conduct by it, but in order to induce as
many as possible to do so. A great number are
too selfish to be guided in their own enjoyments
by a regard to the condition of their offspring ;
but many, on the other hand, who reflect on the
future, may be induced to avoid, even from a
selfish motive, a union with a person who will be
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45
likely to embitter their future days. Even the
unthinking must perceive, that the enjoyments of
life are rendered impossible, when diseases make
their ravages in a family ; and that love for the
most part ceases, when poverty takes up its abode
in the house. Others, who wish to live in their
posterity, will, when acquainted with the immu-
table laws of the Creator, submit to them, in order
to lay a foundation for the prosperity of their
descendants.
The laws of hereditary descent should be at-
tended to, not only with respect to organic life,
but also to the manifestations of the mind, since
these depend on the nervous system. There are
many examples on record, of certain feelings, or
intellectual powers, being inherent in whole fami-
lies. Now, if it be ascertained that the hereditary
condition of the brain is the cause, there is a
great additional motive to be careful in the choice
of a partner in marriage. No person of sense can
be indifferent about having selfish or benevolent,
stupid or intelligent children.
An objection may be made against the doctrine
of hereditary effects resulting from the laws of
propagation, viz. That men of great talents often
get children of little understanding, and that in
46 EDUCATION OF MAN.
large families there are individuals of very dif-
ferent capacities.
This observation shows at least that the chil-
dren are born with different dispositions, and it
proves nothing against the laws of propagation.
The young ones of animals that propagate indis-
criminately, are very different; but when the
races are pure, and all conditions attended to,
the nature of the young can be determined before-
hand. As long as the races of mankind are
mixed, their progeny must vary extremely. But
let persons of determinate dispositions breed in
and in, and the races will become distinct. More-
over, the condition of the mother is commonly less
valued than it ought to be. It is, however, ob-
served, that boys commonly resemble their mother
and girls their father, and that men of great talents
generally descend from intelligent mothers. But
as long as eminent men are married to partners of
inferior capacities, the qualities of the offspring
must be uncertain.
The age of propagation too is not indifferent.
Animals are not permitted to propagate at all
ages, neither too young nor too old, but in the
period of their strength. Men of talents and
science often marry when their body, particularly
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 47
the nervous system, is exhausted by protracted
studies and debilitating causes. They are seldom
rich from birth, and their condition rarely allows
them to choose during the period of their greatest
energy ; yet they might often accomplish more
than they do to the benefit of their offspring, were
they better acquainted with the laws of the here-
ditary descent, and the dependence of the mind
on the organization of the body, and would they
submit to appreciate such laws more than fashion-
able manners and customs.
The age of the parents is of great importance
both in regard to their own health, and to the
constitution of their children. Young trees which
bring forth fruit are weak ; animals that propa-
gate their species too early in life, generally do
not grow strong. Many women who marry when
very young, and bear a very numerous family,
become early victims to an exhausted constitu-
tion.
Farther, the fruit of young plants is imperfect.
The eggs of young birds are very small ; the pro-
geny of young quadrupeds is feeble and diminutive ;
and, in like manner, the offspring of living beings,
when old, is weak. Such a progeny, therefore, is
never destined, by country people, to the preser-
48 EDUCATION OF MAN.
vation of the species. MOSES forbade the Jews
to bring up the first c uaEa. of animals. (Deut.
xv. 19 23.) When both parents marry early in
life, and get a numerous family, the first-born
commonly possess less talent than those 'who
are begotten during the period of vigour of their
parents.
The laws of degeneration belong to those of
propagation, and deserve a peculiar attention.
They again are general throughout all nature.
Plants cultivated on the same spot degenerate.
Wheat must alternate with barley, flax, potatoes,
or other plants. Where firs will no longer
grow, beeches will succeed. The seed of plants
that degenerate, ought not to be taken for propa-
gation, for they at length perish entirely : nor
ought the sickly organization of one tree to be
engrafted on another. In this way, we see an
explanation why the same sort of fruit-trees dies
in whole districts, the external circumstances of
which are unfavourable. The sickly condition oi
the tree is constantly propagated, and it dies at
last by the continual and noxious influence from
without. All trees, or parts of the same tree,
perish a little sooner, or resist a little longer than
others, on account of the influence of the branch
on which they are engrafted.
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 49
The same law of degeneration prevails in ani-
mals. Various circumstances weaken their con-
stitution, and, among various conditions, to pre-
vent degeneration, it is necessary to cross the
breed, and to renew the blood.
The degeneration of man, too, is certain, in
families who intermarry among themselves. Un-
cles and nieces, or first cousins, who do so, get
no children, or their progeny is commonly feeble.
The smaller the number of choice, the quicker the
degeneration takes place, and no class of society
can be made an exception from this law. Any
bodily or mental affliction which may happen to
originate in one individual soon affects such fami-
lies. This frequently happens among the rich and
high ranks ; and, as their manner of living is not
conducive to bodily strength, it is quite natural
that there should be so many living proofs of the
truth of this proposition, which invites the friends
of humanity to admire the law of compensation.
The great influence of propagation is ascer-
tained also by the fact, that it is infinitely more
easy by it to keep up natural changes, and even
deformities, than to produce them by art. Deaf
people often get children with the same defect;
while circumcision among the Jews and Maho-
E
50 EDUCATION OF MAN.
medans has not yet become superfluous. It is
more probable that a man born without an arm
should get children like himself, than that he
should do so whose arm has been taken off by
the knife of the surgeon.
The influence of propagation is still visible,
since the greater number of first-born children
are girls ; since in one year more girls, in another
more boys are born ; since, when old and weak
men marry young and vigorous females, the
greater number of their children are girls, &c.
These effects must have adequate causes, and by
more patient attention to the phenomena than has
hitherto been paid, some valuable conclusions
might be arrived at. May not the particular and
transient state of the same parents, at different pe-
riods, account, in some degree, for the differences
in their children ? Seminis uterique conditio maxlmL..
est momenti. At all events, the bodily constitu-
tion of both parents, in every respect, ought to be
attended to. MOSES (Leviticus xii. 2d & 5th)
ordered a longer period for the purification of a
girl than for that of a boy. Is there a natural
reason for his having done so ? Can any infer-
ence be drawn from the observation, that the
greatest number of monsters are amongst the fe-
male sex ?
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 51
It is indeed a pity that the laws of propagation
are so much neglected, whilst, by attention to
them, not only the condition of single families,
but of whole nations, might be improved be-
yond imagination, in figure, stature, complexion,
health, talents, and moral feelings. I consider
with ARISTOTLE, that the natural and innate
differences of man are the basis of all political
economy. He who can convince the world of
the importance of the laws of hereditary descent,
and induce mankind to conduct themselves ac-
cordingly, will do more good to them, and con-
tribute more to their improvement, than all insti-
tutions, and all systems of education. Yet they
embrace more than a choice, according to the
beauty of configuration and to the vigour of body
and mind. The state of health of both parents,
their age, their previous manner of living, contri-
bute to the developement of the embryon ; and the
state of health of the mother, during pregnancy,
is likewise of great weight.
'
" It is probable," says Dr. RUSH, " that the
qualities of body and mind in parents, which
produce genius in children, may be fixed and
regulated ; and it is possible the time may come,
when we shall be able to predict with certainty
the intellectual character of children, by know-
E 2
52 EDUCATION OF MAN.
ing the specific nature of the different intellec-
tual faculties of their parents. The marriages
of Danish men with the East Indian women
produced children that had the countenances
and vigorous minds of Europeans ; but no such
results appeared in the children of the East In-
dian women who intermarried with the males of
any other European nation." (" On the Influence
of Physical Causes on the Intellectual Faculties,"
p. 119.)
Three successive generations appear to be ne-
cessary to impregnate a race to a certain effect.
" Si le goitre," says Dr. FODERE, " n'est qu' acci-
dental, et qu'il n'y ait qu'un des parens affecte', les
enfans ne naissent pas goitreux. Si de pere en fils
un goitreux a epouse une goitreuse pendant deux
generations, et dans un pays ou le goitre est ende-
mique, a la troisieme generation 1'enfant qui nait,
n'est pas seulement goitreux, mais il est encore
cretin." (" Traite du Goitre, et du Cretinisme,"
Paris, 1800, p. 69.) According to the laws of
the creation, therefore, it is said, that " the Lord
visits those who hate him (in my opinion who do
not submit to his laws), to the third and fourth
generation;" viz. by their hereditary dispositions.
Such causes as produce what is called the old
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 53
age of nations deserve to be remarked. Luxury
undoubtedly belongs to them, and its influence,
if continued during several generations, weakens
body and mind, not only of families, but of whole
nations. The degeneration of the organic condi-
tion of man, in general, is not sufficiently under-
stood, and is of greater effect than the political
economists of modern days are aware of.
The Reverend Dr. SMITH, who ascribes par-
ticularly the variations of man to external cir-
cumstances, says, " that Germans, Swedes, and
Frenchmen in different parts of the United States,
who live chiefly among themselves, and cultivate
the habits and ideas of the countries from which
they emigrated, retain, even in our climate, a strong
resemblance to their primitive stock. Those, on
the contrary, who have not confined themselves
to the contracted circle of their countrymen, but
have mingled freely with the Anglo-Americans,
entered into their manners, and adopted their
ideas, have assumed such a likeness to them, that
it is not easy now to distinguish, from one an-
other, people who have sprung from such different
origins."
On a closer examination, it will be found, that
one stock may adopt the manners of another, a
54 EDUCATION OF MAN.
Saxon, for instance, the fashions of the French,
but that the original features of the tribes will
be preserved, as long as they do not intermarry.
The genuine races of Highlanders and Lowland-
ers of Scotland will not lose their originality by
exchanging their countries, but by intermarrying
with each other.
The Jews are a striking example, that climate
and external influences are less powerful in chang-
ing man than propagation. They are dispersed
in every country of the globe, and though, owing
to the climate they have inhabited, their com-
plexion may have changed, yet, being prohibited
by sacred institutions from intermarrying with
other nations, they are still distinguishable from
other people.
The ancient legislators were very attentive to
the laws of propagation. MOSES complains (Gen.
vi.) that the sons of GOD saw the daughters of
men, that they were fair, that they took them
wives of all which they chose : he divided his
people into tribes, but prohibited, on pain of
death, the sexual intercourse betwixt near rela-
tions. (Levit. xviii.)
The Greeks, as appears from their customs, phi-
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 55
losophy and legislation, had particularly in view
the beauty and vigour of the human constitution.
" As we," says PLUTARCH, (" De Nobilitate,")
" are anxious to get dogs and horses from a good
breed, why should we marry the daughters of bad
parents ? " PLATO spoke against marriages betwixt
relations. He, as well as SOLON and ARISTOTLE,
considered also the age at which it was best to
marry. The ancient philosophers commonly fixed
it between eighteen and twenty-four for a woman,
and between thirty and thirty-six for a man.
It may be replied, that these considerations
can never become practical rules of conduct for
society at large. In the actual situation of things
I will not maintain the contrary. But we must
also admit, that the laws of the Creator will not
change to gratify our fancy. If we will not sub-
mit to his dictates, we have no right to complain
of being punished by unavoidable though dis-
agreeable results. Christian principles are not
sufficiently exercised in society, yet it i& not, on
this account, considered superfluous to teach
them; and he who loves mankind will wish for
their promulgation. Now, the laws of hereditary
descent are in the same situation. Nay, if ob-
served, they would even tend to prepare mankind
to receive and keep the precepts of Christianity,
56 EDUCATION OF MAN.
which, in the actual and common way of Provi-
dence seems impossible.
I find it also necessary to obviate another
objection which may be made by religious per-
sons, who are not aware that the letter kills,
while the spirit vivifies. Some, who are entirely
unacquainted with natural causes, and who expect
all from supernatural influence, may be offended
by so much being ascribed to the laws of organi-
zation. If they reflect, and will be consistent
with themselves, they cannot reject any thing
that is in nature, and the work of the Creator.
The organization is constituted by the same Al-
mighty Being whom they implore to be propi-
tious. If they will submit to Him, they must
acknowledge every law of creation. The primary
arrangements of Nature as certainly proceed from
Him, as any subsequent revelation. Shall we,
then, have no recourse to natural means to cure
diseases, because St. JAMES has admonished us,
if any one is sick, to call for the elders of the
church, to let them pray over him, anointing him
with oil ? We read in the Old Testament, that
ELI AS prayed that it might not rain, and it rained
not on the earth for the space of three years and
six months ; and he prayed again, and the hea-
vens gave rain, and the earth brought forth her
LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 57
fruit. Shall we therefore not study the laws of
vegetation, and cultivate the vegetable kingdom ?
Shall we neglect to sow, and expect that by
means of prayers we shall be permitted to reap ?
In the same way, if, while we say prayers, we do
not at the same time submit to the laws of organi-
zation, supernatural influence alone will not give
talents nor bodily health. The laws of the Creator
have been the first dictated, and must be the first
obeyed. A parent who perceives that his child is
affected with disease and a weak constitution, and
who, while he prays to GOD for restoration of his
health, leaves him in confined air, and under the
charge of careless or ignorant servants, has no
right to expect that supernatural influence will be
exerted in his favour, while he continues to neglect
his own duty in contemning the first laws of
creation. The Supreme Being gave us under-
standing that we might perceive these laws ; and
having perceived them, it is our first duty to obey
them as His dictates; and having done so, we
may then, but not till then, expect His blessing to
attend us. This special obedience is an indispen-
sable condition to the improvement of mankind ;
and nothing but ignorance, superstition and preju-
dice can oppose it.
The influence of the laws of propagation may
58 EDUCATION OF MAN.
be shown to young persons, first in plants, then in
animals, and at the end in mankind. Many pa-
rents are cautious and fearful of speaking of such
notions to their children, and do not think of the
anxiety with which children look for information
of that kind, and of the benefit they may derive
from it. Such information, when given by the
parents, will be received with confidence and re-
spect. Some young persons will possess reflection
enough to attend to their bodily health, from the
consideration that their constitution will be com-
municated to their offspring. I know positively,
that such a proceeding has been more effectual
and beneficial, than endeavouring to prevent chil-
dren from acquiring any knowledge of that kind,
or to conceal the effects of the disorderly satisfac-
tion of physical love. This propensity deserves
the same attention which we pay to hunger and
thirst. Both are active without our will; and
their activity must be directed. Why should we
not have recourse to the understanding as far as
possible, to regulate the actions, and employ na-
tural means of correction against natural faults?
How can we expect that children should suppress
a strong internal feeling, without being acquainted
with the bad consequences of its abuses, and with
its destination? It seems therefore advisable to
show the dreadful effects of Onanism to those
ON THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 59
who are inclined to this aberration ; at first with
respect to their own health, and afterwards in
relation to their offspring.
It has been my object in this Chapter to bring
under consideration a most important point, which
must precede, and which will influence whatever
remains to be done in education. Yet I do not
deny the efficacy of various other conditions which
I shall examine in the following pages.
CHAPTER II.
ON THE LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS.
IT is reasonable, when we desire the improvement
of any living being, to employ all the means
which may contribute towards its perfection. We
have seen in the preceding Chapter, that man is
born sickly or healthy, deformed or well shaped,
an idiot or a genius, in short, that the human
being enters life with the greatest modifications
of bodily and mental endowments. The innate
constitution, then, which depends on both parents,
and the state of the mother during pregnancy, is
the basis of all future developement.
Being placed in the world, man is subjected in
60 EDUCATION OF MAN.
every respect to the laws of organization. Orga-
nization is influenced by light, air, climate, nou-
rishment, bodily exercise, rest, sleep, cleanliness,
and excretions. The body of man, like other
organized beings, undergoes various changes : it
begins, increases, arrives at its full growth, de-
creases, and dies. There is a certain regularity
in the succession of these natural changes; and
accordingly, the duration of life is divided into
different periods, commonly called ages.
These changes cannot be entirely prevented,
but they may be accelerated or retarded by exter-
nal influences. The regulation of all the condi-
tions which contribute to the developement of the
body and of its parts, and to the duration of life,
constitutes what is termed Physical Education.
I shall not endeavour to explain Life. I am
satisfied to say, that it embraces all the vital
functions from conception to death. It certainly
depends on various conditions, several of which
are not yet sufficiently understood. The chemical
explanation is not more satisfactory than that
founded on mere mechanical laws. Life is more
than the effect of a machine, more than a crystal-
lization. The life of man is also more than the
organization of a plant, and even more than that
ON THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 61
of an animal. Some fluids belong to its neces-
sary conditions, such as caloric and the electric
fluid; but it remains undecided how far some
ancient and modern physiologists are right or
wrong in speaking of a peculiar Vital Principle,
which in ancient times often was called the Soul
of the World ; and which sometimes has been
confounded with the immortal soul of man.
The modern physiologists consider rather the
functions of man than the principles of which he
is composed. They place together the functions
without consciousness, and call them Automatic
Life ; while the functions with consciousness are
known under the name of Animal or Phrenic Life.
It is not yet generally admitted, that the
phrenic as well as automatic functions depend
on the organization. Physical education, how-
ever, evidently rises in importance, if the mani-
festations of the mind are modified in energy and
quality by the influence of the body.
In this respect various opinions have prevailed,
and still prevail. There is an ancient belief in
oriental countries, that the body prevents the soul
from communicating with superior beings, and
from exercising freely its powers. PYTHAGORAS,
62 EDUCATION OF MAN.
PLATO, and almost all metaphysicians, fancied,
that in this life thoughts might be manifested
without the medium of organization. The body
was considered as a prison of the soul. Hence
the great tendency to deliver the immortal soul
from the mortal body; hence the spontaneous
vexations and torments of the body ; and hence
many nonsensical ideas of castigation.
This opinion, however ancient it may be, is yet
erroneous. Experience, which must constantly
guide our reasoning, proves the dependence of
the mental operations on the body during this
life.
The duration of life is commonly divided into
Infancy, Adolescence, Adult and Old Age. With
respect to physical education, the time from birth
to that of full growth, is the most important. It
is preparatory for the rest of our days, and has
also a great influence on our offspring. It may
be subdivided into several periods, the first of
which is that from birth to two years, or to that of
the first dentition, I call it Infancy : The second
from two to seven years, or to the second dentition,
viz. Childhood : The third from seven years to
puberty, viz. Adolescence : The fourth from pu-
berty to full growth, or to the Period of Marriage.
ON THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 63
Before I enter into details on these periods, I
shall notice some general considerations, and begin
with Longevity.
It is not probable that the life of man has dimi-
nished with the duration of the world ; it is more
reasonable to suppose, that the years mentioned
in the Old Testament were shorter than ours. It
is a common observation, that the same term has
quite different meanings among different nations,
and even in the same nation at different periods
of its history. The English and Germans, for
instance, measure the distances of localities by
miles ; but it is known that about six English
miles make only one mile in Germany. In the
same way, it may be that the expression year, did
not always denote the same lapse of time. It is
also possible that the duration of a family, that is,
of all male descendants, was considered as the
continuation of the same life, as it is still a com-
mon saying, that parents continue to live in their
children. Men, like quadrupeds, commonly live
in the state of nature five or six times longer than
they grow ; and many individuals of the human
race arrive still at an age corresponding to these
proportions. But there is no reason to suppose
that the Jews made an exception from the physical
laws in general, whilst on the other hand, it is
64 EDUCATION OF MAN.
more probable that life, generally speaking, Is
shortened by artificial means, rather than by the
lapse of time since the creation.
Among the causes which contribute to longe-
vity, the most important is the innate bodily con-
stitution. In this respect, savages have an advan-
tage over civilized nations. The health of the
former is more durable, and they do not experience
a number of bodily and mental disorders with
which the latter are molested.
A moderate temperature is more conducive to
old age than great heat. The latter accelerates
the natural changes of organized beings, and
brings them sooner to death. Pure, dry and cold
air, moderate exercise of all the bodily and mental
faculties, a good physical education in general,
and quietude of the mind, are all very favourable
to longevity.
On the contrary, hereditary dispositions to dis-
eases, a weakly constitution, great and sudden
changes of temperature, intemperance, want of
bodily exercise, noxious occupations, too great
application of the mental powers, misery, un-
wholesome food, a want of sufficient rest, every
kind of debilitating influences, disagreeable af-
ON THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 65
fections of the mind, such as jealousy, envy, fear,
grief, &c. are hurtful to health.
The influence of nature in preserving the spe-
cies, and also the individuals, is great, and has
been spoken of at all times, under the name of
vis plastica or vis medlcatrix natura. It is visible
in the healthy and diseased state. Yet, however
effectual nature, and however favourable all cir-
cumstances may be, the succession of the different
ages cannot be prevented, and death is at last
unavoidable. Physical education can produce
only modifications, but can never annihilate the
immutable laws of the Creator.
The modifications produced in the body by ex-
ternal circumstances, deserve next to be consi-
dered. Plants and animals which can live in
various climates, are extremely modified by the
influence of outward conditions. Fruit-trees which
have been transplanted from the south to the
north, bring forth the same kind of fruit, but of
modified qualities. The grapes of France excel
those of England.
LEIBNITZ has already remarked, that plants
and animals show the same type of configuration,
are long and slender, or short and stout, in dif-
F
66 , EDUCATION OF MAN.
ferent countries. We may add, that it is the
same with man. In Angora, the beard of the
men is modified like the hair of animals. In
countries where the grass of the meadows is
long, the cattle are tall, and animals in general
have long extremities. Mankind shows a similar
make.
The influence of physical education may be
examined with respect to the body as a whole, or to
the individual systems, such as the muscles, blood-
vessels, bones, nerves, digestive organs, &c. It is
certain and generally known, that climate and
the manner of living modify the whole organiza-
tion of man. Climate, in its general acceptation,
designates not only temperature, but all external
influences, particularly air, light, dryness and
moisture, and food. A particular effect produced
by a high temperature on living beings is, that
they undergo their natural changes with greater
celerity than in colder regions. Annual plants of
the south, the aloes, for instance, when carried
into northern countries, last many years.
It is quite superfluous to insist on the modi-
fications produced in organized beings, by food,
and other external circumstances. Who does not
know that the constituent parts of milk, such as
ON THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 67
butter, cheese, and whey, of the same cow, vary
according to the food with which she is nou-
rished ; that the flesh of roes, hares, rabbits,
fowls, &c. though each sort preserves its specific
taste, is greatly modified by the food on which
the animal lives ?
This principle, however, is not sufficiently at-
tended to in the physical education of children ;
they are commonly treated according to a general
plan, while external circumstances ought to be
regulated according to the individual tempera-
ment.
In this respect, a very important question may
be examined, viz. How far may external circum-
stances contribute to the developement of indivi-
dual parts of the body ? It is known that different
systems of the body, such as the muscles, the
nerves, the digestive organs, &c. do not possess
precisely equal activity in the same individual.
It would be extremely interesting to ascertain,
that such or such a climate, such or such food,
Sec. is more or less favourable to the improvement
of particular systems of the body.
The same degree of excitement, whether of
temperature or of food, may stimulate one sys-
F 2
68 EDUCATION OF MAN.
tern, and weaken another. Great heat accele-
rates the circulation of the blood, and debilitates
the digestive organs. As the manifestations of
the mind depend on organization, it is conceiv-
able why even talents and moral feelings depend
on the influence of climate and nourishment. All
observations of this kind have been made merely
with respect to health and the intellect in gene-
ral. But as medical men admit that some drugs
act more on the nerves, others on the blood-ves-
sels, others on the skin, others on the abdominal
or urinary secretions, why should aliments, .and
other external influences, not be more or less fa-
vourable to individual parts of the body ? In this
way, nutrition, and the regulation of external cir-
cumstances, will increase in importance as they
are discovered to contribute, not only to the deve-
lopement and organic constitution of the body in
general, but also to the improvement of single
parts.
In this respect, our knowledge is by no means
satisfactory; yet every one will feel the import-
ance of these considerations, and wish for posi-
tive observations. This interesting subject, in-
deed, deserves the attention, not only of medical
men, but of all those who have the charge of
education.
ON THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 69
I shall now add some ideas concerning the re-
gulation of the vegetative functions, during the
time from birth to the period of full growth, or
marriage.
PERIOD I.
FROM BIRTH TO THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, OR
INFANCY.
IN this age, the mortality of children is the
greatest; and hence the care bestowed on their
treatment must be proportionate to the dangers to
which they are exposed. Let us then see what is
to be done, with a view to regulating external in-
fluences upon them. I have already stated, that
the most important requisite to health and pros-
perity, is a good innate constitution. Among the
external circumstances after birth, the most essen-
tial are Temperature and Food.
Temperature.
It is known that without a sufficient degree of
caloric, no act of vegetation or animalization can
take place ; and that before birth, the child is con-
stantly exposed to the temperature of a lukewarm
70 EDUCATION OF MAN.
bath ; was it then reasonable to think, that imme-
diately after birth a low temperature should be
most suited to its health ? In new-born children,
it frequently happens, that circulation in the ex-
ternal vessels of the skin is impeded by the influ-
ence of cold air, and that from this circumstance
a kind of jaundice arises. In more advanced
years, great changes of temperature are hurtful
to health. In hot climates, tetanus is often the
result of sudden refrigeration. We also see the
natural instinct of birds leads them to cover their
young with their wings. How, then, was it pos-
sible to fancy with J. J. ROUSSEAU, that new-
born babes may receive benefit when exposed to
cold, or when bathed in ice-cold water, or in
snow ? Such a treatment, it is true, has been de-
fended by an appeal to the example of northern
nations. But it has been overlooked, that in those
cold countries the whole animal economy of the
parents is different, and that the children partici-
pate in their bodily constitutions. The mothers
in northern regions digest things which the deli-
cate women of the south could not take without
injury. It would, however, be as reasonable to
feed a southern mother on fish-oil, as to bathe her
tender offspring in ice-cold water. The bad effect
of cold-bathing upon new-born children is now
ascertained, and this nonsense has been given up.
FOOD. 71
It is not, however, my opinion that young child-
ren ought to be brought up as in a hot-house. I
grant that they are often kept too warm and too
much wrapped up. Man being obliged to bear
various temperatures, children should be accus-
tomed to them by degrees. But the weaker and
the more delicate children are, the more care is
requisite.
Food.
It is scarcely imaginable how the simple pro-
ceedings of Nature should be neglected, and fan-
tastical dreams substituted in their place. How
any one, for instance, could doubt, whether, dur-
ing the first days, the milk of the mother were
wholesome to the suckling, whilst calves, pup-
pies, and the young of all quadrupeds, suck
immediately after birth. Why will man alone
disdain the laws of Nature, who takes so much
care for the preservation of the species? How
was it possible to think, that honey, syrup of
rhubarb, or even wine, was more wholesome to
young babes than their mother's milk, which at
the beginning is thin, watery, and fit to evacuate
the meconium collected in the child's intestines,
and which, after a few days, becomes thicker and
more nutritious ? Nothing but ignorance would
72 EDUCATION OF MAN.
endeavour to govern Nature. Thus, the mother,
after having taken rest from her labours, and
some restoring nourishment, should, as soon as
she has got milk, give suck to her child. In
cases only where she has got no milk, light artifi-
cial nourishment ought to be given, till Nature
supplies a better food.
Much has been said upon the question, whether
the child is better nourished by its mother's milk
or by that of another nurse, or by heterogeneous
substances. I think nature must decide. Expe-
rience shows, that, cczteris paribus, a plant sue*
ceeds better if it be not transplanted from one
spot to another; and, that young trees trans-
planted from a fertile soil into a barren one, lan-
guish or perish ; while, on the other hand, if left
as they were, they grow luxuriantly. Young
birds may be nourished with eggs, viz. with sub-
stances on which they lived in the embryo state.
Young mammalia also may be well fed upon
milk arid eggs ; and why should it not be the
same with young children ?
If the mother be healthy, and her milk nou-
rishing, it will agree the best with the digestive
powers of the child ; and by giving suck, the
mother will be freed from various complaints,
FOOD. 73
noticed by many medical writers as the result of
neglecting the first duty of a mother. In many
cases, however, it will be better for the mother,
for the child, or for both, to feed the child on the
milk of a nurse ; or, if this be impossible, by other
alimentary substances. Many mothers of a deli-
cate constitution are weakened and fall into con-
sumption in consequence of giving suck. Many
children also perish in such cases from want of
sufficient nourishment. A mother is certainly
blameable, if, from a love of dissipation and per-
petual amusement, she persuades herself that she
is sent into the world merely to pass through it in
the most easy manner. But in the above-men-
tioned examples, it is most advisable to have re-
course to the milk of a healthy nurse, who, as far
as possible, should resemble the mother in age,
temperament, and in the period of her delivery.
If new-born children are given to nurses who
have been delivered some time before, artificial
means, such as syrup of rhubarb, or chiccory, ge-
nerally become necessary, to evacuate the meco-
nium ; or we may act on the babe by the medium
of the nurse, in giving her alimentary substances
that make her milk thin and clear, or even that
are slightly purgative.
The milk of a wet-nurse varies according to her
74 EDUCATION OF MAN.
age, her bodily constitution, to the food she takes,
and according to her manner of living in general.
She must avoid every thing which disturbs di-
gestion, particularly strong spices, spirituous li-
quors, and disagreeable affections of the mind.
The suckling participates in her bodily disorders.
It is liable through her to vomiting, to hiccough,
to pain of the belly, diarrhoea, uneasiness, to con-
vulsive motions, and various other complaints.
Bad digestion, and all symptoms which result
from it, are frequently caused by feeding the in-
fant immediately after birth with artificial ali-
ments, such as panada, pap, &c. It will be
found that new-born children succeed best, if
they live for the first three months only on the
milk of the mother, or of a sound nurse. By de-
grees, they may be accustomed to some other
food, according to their temperament and diges-
tive powers, beginning with liquids, such as milk
and sugar, broth, boiled biscuit, rice-cream, &c.
and so go on to solids. The younger the child is,
the less nourishment should be given at once, and
the oftener repeated : older children may take
more food, and at greater intervals.
The nurse's milk certainly has great influence
on the developement of the suckling. Those,
AIR. 75
however, who think that it imbibes the moral
character of its nurse with her milk, are mis-
taken. If it were true, that a child brought up
upon goat's milk was fond of jumping, that an-
other fed with swine's milk was dirty, it would
follow that adult people ought also to adopt the
character of the animals on whose flesh they live.
Men and women who live in the same manner,
would be endowed with the same affective and
intellectual faculties. Nor could it happen, that
different children, nourished by the same mother,
should show quite different characters, even be-
fore they had taken any heterogeneous food.
Thus, the nurse's milk will contribute to the nou-
rishment and developement of the instruments of
the mind ; but it will not give rise to determinate
qualities. Her moral character may change her
milk with respect to its healthy condition, but -it
cannot produce talents or feelings. Finally, the
mental powers of children are more or less exer-
cised and directed by the nurse's temper and
mental capacity, but they are innate.
Air.
Atmospheric air is another indispensable con-
dition of human life, and its physical properties
76 EDUCATION OF MAN.
and constituent parts, have an influence on all the
vital functions. Its transparency is necessary to
vision, or to the passage of light : its fluidity
permits the free motion of the body in it. In
virtue of this quality it admits also of being
changed or renewed. Its elasticity in propa-
gating its vibrations assists the sense of hearing.
Its weight compresses the fluid and solid parts
of our organization. Moreover, as the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere is commonly below that
of our body, the air receives the superfluity of
caloric. Generally, however, we are obliged to
guard against the disagreeable sensations of cold
caused by the too great privation of caloric.
The constituent parts of the atmosphere are
extremely important to the body. Its oxygen
and caloric are essential to the sustenance of life.
Its azote, hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, water, electric
fluid, and the various exhalations of plants and
animals, have a great influence on the functions
of organized bodies. Certain conditions of the
atmosphere cause plants of different kinds to
perish. Some winds and conditions of weather
produce epidemic diseases among animals and
mankind. In some persons, the digestive powers
are disturbed at the approach of a storm. Per-
sons whose limbs have been injured by wounds,
LIGHT. 77
can foretell the changes of the weather by the
pains they feel. Nervous and delicate constitu-
tions perceive the slightest difference in the state
of the atmosphere. Many of them know by their
bodily sensations whether the wind blows from
the north, east, or west.
New-born children, according to their innate
temperaments, are more or less benefited or dis-
turbed by the condition of the atmosphere. Some
constitutions require a dry and others a moist air.
It is, however, a general rule, that it should be
pure, and not impregnated with noxious exhala-
tions.
Light.
The influence of light is also necessary to the
developement and health of organized bodies in
general. It changes the colour of plants and
animals, and the complexion of man. Plants
kept in darkness grow pale and yellow. Worms
and insects confined to dark places remain white.
Those who spend their lives in their closets, have
a pale and yellowish complexion. The whole or-
ganization, being deprived of light, grows weak
and fat. It is affected with scurvy or putrid com-
plaints, and the liver enlarges. Hence dark habita-
78 EDUCATION OF MAN.
tions, narrow streets, high houses, little windows,
and whatever shuts out light from dwelling-places,
is unwholesome.
Light awakes us from sleep ; it excites all func-
tions of the body, particularly those of the skin.
Its sudden impression excites sternutation. Too
much light produces headach, inflammation of
the eyes, of the skin, of the throat, and of the
brain; hence, its regulation is of great import-
ance.
The eyes of new-born children should not be
exposed to a strong light at once, and when they
begin to see, they ought to be placed so that the
light is before them, since they always direct their
eyes towards it, and may acquire an irregular
look, the eyeballs being turned too much upwards
or sidewards.
Cleanliness.
The skin having a great influence on the pre-
servation of health, by its absorption and excre-
tion, its pores must be kept open by washing the
body, and by changing the swaddling-clothes and
linen whenever they are unclean. According to
the condition of the skin, it may be washed with
SLEEP, WATCHING, REST, &C. 79
lukewarm water only, or with water and wine, to
strengthen it, or rubbed over with some oily sub-
stance if it be dry and rough.
Some parts, such as the folds of the neck, be-
hind the ears, the interior of the legs, &c. which
are liable to be inflamed, deserve particular atten-
tion. They may be washed with a solution of
alum, or powdered with pulvis lycopodii, or be-
smeared with cacao-butter, oil, or any other pure
greasy substance. I have already mentioned,
that children should be accustomed by degrees to
a lower temperature : hence the water or the bath
employed as the means of cleanliness, must gra-
dually be used colder and colder. The body, like
the face, might be exposed by degrees to the
atmosphere.
Sleep, Watching, Rest, and Bodily Exercise. .
Before birth, children seem to sleep almost
continually. After birth, the younger the infant,
the more sleep it requires. Children then should
never be awakened, and be allowed to sleep as
long as they please. It is, however, wrong to
employ soporiferous means to produce sleep. On
the other hand, they may be soon accustomed to
80 EDUCATION OF MAN.
awake and to fall asleep at a certain hour, and
this habit is useful in various respects.
The free exercise of their limbs is very advan-
tageous to them. No part of the body ought to
be pressed. It was an absurd custom to tie the
tender creatures, and to impede all their motions.
It is particularly necessary to attend to the head,
and not to let it fall backward, since the nerves of
the spinal cord may suffer from pressure, on
account of the cartilaginous state of the vertebral
processes.
We ought not to be uneasy when children cry
a little. By crying, the lungs are distended and
strengthened, the eyes and nostrils are cleaned,
and the circulation of the blood is promoted. It
is imprudent to lift up children by one part only,
such as by one hand or one arm, luxations being
easily the result of this practice. It is also
wrong to place delicate and fat children too early
on their legs, since curvations of the spine and
hip bones may be thereby produced. Moreover,
the thorax and shoulders are often injured by
leading-strings, which, in consequence, ought to
be abolished. It is true, that many children are
strong enough to resist, but delicate ones must
frequently suffer by them. Too violent shaking
CHILDHOOD. 81
may injure the stomach and brain, and produce
vomiting, principally at the moment when the
stomach is full. Bodily exercise is of great in-
fluence, but it is to be directed with caution.
PERIOD II.
FROM THE AGE OF TWO YEARS TO THAT OF
SEVEN, OR CHILDHOOD.
BEFORE I consider the particularities of this
period, it will be interesting to advert to a few
circumstances with respect to dentition. At first,
the natural food of children is liquid ; but about
the seventh month, instruments which are fit to
assist the digestion of solid aliments, viz. the
teeth, appear. The developement of these organs
is often the cause of various complaints. The
saliva is generally secreted copiously, frequent
sneezing occurs, the gums grow red and hot,
sometimes they are swollen, one or both cheeks
are red ; the child carries his hands, and every
thing he holds, into his mouth, and presses the
gums against it. At the end, white spots are
seen where the teeth appear. Commonly the two
middle incisors of the lower jaw first cut through
the substance of the gums. A little while after,
82 EDUCATION OF MAN.
the corresponding incisory teeth of the upper jaw
show themselves, then the lateral incisors, the
eye-teeth, and the lateral grinders. When the
small molar teeth have come through at the age
of about two years, the first dentition is complete,
and the life of the child, which before was preca-
rious, is then more secure; for it is ascertained
that a third part of children dies before the age of
twenty-four months.
The growth of teeth, though a natural opera-
tion, causes various disorders in the vital functions
of children. Diarrhoeas and convulsions are the
most fatal accidents attending difficult dentition.
The state of the jaws alone, or, by sympathy of
several other parts, sometimes of the whole body,
is inflammatory. Hence the treatment of such
children must be conformable. As their constitu-
tions, however, are extremely modified, a physi-
cian ought to be intrusted with the particular
care of them. The general rule is, that every
kind of stimulus ought to be avoided. Tepid
bathing is an excellent antiphlogistic.
It may be observed in general, that in infancy
the vital motions tend particularly toward the
head, and that, therefore, this part is the principal
seat of the afflictions peculiar to this age.
CHILDHOOD. 83
In order to favour the cutting through of the
teeth, the gums may be rubbed with sugar or
bits of althea-root, moistened with honey or syrup,
and kept between the jaws. The nurse may
also introduce her little finger, moistened with
honey, between the gums of the child, to soften
them, and to relieve the pains of the young crea-
ture. Sometimes little incisions are made into
the gums with evident advantage. The excretions
of the skin and bowels must be kept free.
To the twenty teeth of the first dentition two
new grinders in each jaw are added at about the
end of the fourth year. They differ from those
that preceded them in this, that they are destined
to remain throughout life, whilst the primitive or
milk-teeth are lost at seven years of age, in the
same order in which they appeared, and are re-
placed by new teeth, better formed, and provided
with longer and more perfect roots. Towards the
ninth year two new large grinders come forth be-
yond the others. There are then twenty-eight
teeth. Between eighteen and thirty, or sometimes
still later, the denies sapienti&, two in each jaw,
complete the second dentition.
Dentition, like all other acts of the living eco-
nomy, is subject to endless variations. There are
84 EDUCATION OF MAN.
instances of children that have come into the
world with one or two incisors, and there are
often supernumerary teeth. It is difficult to say
why the primitive teeth are detached and replaced
by others, which have remained so long buried
within ^the alveolar processes. Teeth of a third
set have been known to be cut in very old people.
Generally speaking, teeth are not taken all the
care of which their importance demands. They
ought at least to be kept clean. Those who
neglect this duty, offend against the first requi-
sition of nature ; and if they are punished by
tooth-ache, they receive only their desert. The
condition of the teeth certainly depends on the
whole constitution of the body ; and in many
cases, the advice of a good dentist, who under-
stands not only the operative part of his art, but
also the animal economy, is to be recommended.
The teeth are in close relation with nou-
rishment, and this deserves particular attention.
The necessity of taking nutritive substances is
generally known and indicated by hunger and
thirst.
Nature, which has assigned to different animals
their different aliments, has, in this respect, al-
CHILDHOOD. 85
lowed to man the greatest variety. He is almost
omnivorous, and he alone understands the art of
cookery, by which he facilitates digestion. Yet
nourishment must be modified in quantity and
quality according to age, to the bodily constitu-
tion, to climate, to season, and to the manner
,
of living.
The influence of different kinds of food on the
whole constitution is evident, from the modified
flesh of animals of the same species, fed on va-
rious aliments.
In children, the functions of nutrition are
quicker; they die sooner of inanition than adult
persons ; they require more frequent feeding, and
a larger quantity of food, as they not only change
the matter of their body, but increase also.
As children grow stronger, they will digest
substances of a heterogeneous and more solid
nature. Jn general, the more simple and plain,
the better are the aliments ; and every food which
digests is wholesome. It is, however, known,
that lymphatic constitutions require nutritive and
stimulating substances ; that nervous tempera-
ments suffer from stimuli, and stand in need of
light and simple aliments ; and that weak bowels
86 EDUCATION OF MAN.
do not bear vegetables, fruit, and paste, these
aliments giving rise to worms and scrofulous dis-
eases. Such bowels then must be strengthened by
animal food, steel-water, some wine and bitters.
In cold climates animal food is necessary to
man; he grows pale and languishing on vege-
tables. In hot countries, on the contrary, fruit
and vegetables nourish sufficiently, their nature
being quite different from that of plants in nor-
thern regions. This is evident, since the spices
we take to assist digestion, belong to the vege-
tables which grow in southern climates. A cold
dry air excites the appetite, while a hot and moist
atmosphere weakens the digestive organs.
The alvine and cutaneous excretions are in inti-
mate connection with nutrition. Noxious particles,
when they remain in the intestines, are absorbed
and brought into the circulation. The bowels be-
ing constipated, the bloodvessels are compressed,
the circulation is impeded, and piles are produced.
The blood is carried to the brain, and causes
head-ache. Thus, the excretions must be taken
into consideration and regulated. They vary in
quantity and quality according to age, tempera-
ment, nutrition, weather and season. Perspiration
is more considerable in youth than in old age.
CHILDHOOD. 87
more in hot than in cold weather, more in irritable
than in inert temperaments. Children suffer from
being kept too warm. Yet too sudden and too
great changes of temperature produce in them, as
well as in adult persons, catarrhal affections,
coughing, inflammation, diarrhoeas, &c.
The skin ought to be kept clean, exposed to
the air, and thus rendered less sensible to external
impressions. With respect to clothing, the gene-
ral rule is, that no part of the body ought to be
pressed. Weak organs may be supported, and
the whole body defended against cold, but all the
movements of the body ought to be free and easy.
It is a false taste to hurt the health with a view to
increase beauty.
A sedentary life is adverse to health in general,
particularly to that of children. They require
more bodily exercise, and more sleep than adults.
During childhood, as well as in infancy, the
regulation of the vegetative functions is the most
important point of education. A good and healthy
organization is the basis of all employment and
of all enjoyment. Many parents, however, are
anxious to cultivate the mind at the expense of
the body. They think that they cannot instruct
88 EDUCATION OF MAN.
their offspring early enough to read and to write,
whilst their bodily constitution and health are
overlooked. Children are shut up, forced to sit
quiet, and to breathe a confined air. This error
is the greater, the more delicate the children are,
and the more premature their mental powers. The
bodily powers of such children are sooner ex-
hausted, their brain is liable to inflammation and
serous effusion ; and a premature death is fre-
quently the consequence of such a violation of
nature. It is indeed to be lamented, that the.
influence of the physical on the moral part of
man is not sufficiently understood. There are
parents who will pay masters very dearly, in hope
of giving excellency to their children, but who
will hesitate to spend the tenth part to procure
them bodily health. They, by an absurd infa-
tuation, take their own constitutions as a measure
of those of their children, and because they them-
selves in advanced life can support confinement
and intense application with little injury to health,
they conclude that their young and delicate chil-
dren can do the same. Such notions are altoge-
ther erroneous. The advantages of a sound body
are incalculable for the individuals themselves,
their friends, and their posterity. Body and mind
ought to be cultivated in harmony, and neither of
them at the expense of the other. Health should
CHILDHOOD. 89
be the basis, and instruction the ornament of edu-
cation. The developement of the body will assist
the manifestations of the mind, and a good moral
education will contribute to bodily health. The
organs of the mental operations, when they are
too soon and too much exercised, suffer and be-
come unfit for their functions. This explains the
reason why young geniuses often descend at a
later age into the class of common men. Indeed,
experience shows, that among children of almost
equal dispositions, those who are brought up with-
out particular care, and begin to read and to write,
when their bodily constitution has acquired some
solidity, soon overtake those who are dragged
early to their spelling-books. No school educa-
tion, strictly speaking, ought to begin before seven
years of age. We shall, however, see in the fol-
lowing chapter, on the laws of exercise, that many
ideas and notions may be communicated to chil-
dren by other means than books, as it is done in
infant schools. When education shall become
practical and applicable to the future destination
of individuals, children will be less plagued with
nothings, but they will be made answerable not
only for their natural gifts, but also for the preser-
vation and cultivation of their bodily constitution,
since vigour in it is indispensable to enjoyment
and usefulness. They will be made acquainted
90 EDUCATION OF MAN.
with the natural laws of nutrition, and with their
influence on health. This knowledge will be of
greater use than to forbid eating meat on certain
days. Teachers, indeed, ought to know, that no-
thing is unclean or an abomination in itself, but
becomes so by being ill used. Man must eat and
drink to live, but he ought to avoid all unwhole-
some food, and whatever disturbs his health.
The influence of the laws of the vegetative
functions is so great, that those who direct man-
kind, ought to be permitted to regulate them in
many respects. The Mosaic law may serve as a
fine specimen. All ancient legislators paid great
attention to these laws, as well as to those of he-
reditary descent.
The submission of man to the laws of the vege-
tative functions is necessary during his whole life,
but particularly from birth to the age of complete
developement, since the time of growth is prepa-
ratory for the rest of life.
An additional observation concerning the vege-
tative functions is, that they, like all others, admit
of great modifications, nay, even of idiosyncrasies.
Some persons succeed under all circumstances :
they digest whatever they eat; others suffer
CHILDHOOD. 91
from particular aliments, such as mutton, pigeon,
veal, cauliflower, Sec. These, and all other parti-
cularities can only be observed, but can never be
explained. In regard to them, every one must be
his own physician. DEMOSTHENES and HALLER
were kept in a state of regular excitement by
drinking nothing but water. Coffee was the fa-
vourite stimulus of VOLTAIRE, and tea that of
Dr. JOHNSON. Sir ISAAC NEWTON lived upon
vegetables when he was employed in composing
his famous treatise on Optics. HOBBES sat in
his study, enveloped in the smoke of tobacco, &c.
During the age of preparation, that is, from
birth to the state of full growth, a third kind
of laws is to be kept in view, and these shall be
considered in the following pages.
CHAPTER III. .
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE.
THESE laws embrace what is called Education
in a more limited sense, but in this respect many
errors are caused by the true meaning of the word
Exercise not being sufficiently understood. I em-
92 EDUCATION OF MAN.
ploy this expression as synonymous with putting
into action, and distinguish Exercise from Habit ;
the latter being the result of the former.
Habit.
Habit has two significations : it sometimes in-
dicates the result of diminished activity, and at
other times a greater facility of acting. A power
being too active, becomes fatigued, diminishes,
and is finally exhausted. Moreover, all natural
powers become accustomed to external impres-
sions, and the former become the less affected the
longer the latter are applied. The mimosa sensi-
tiva, when shaken for a certain time, ceases to
fold its leaves. In the same way, each sort of
impression on the organization loses its effect by
frequent repetition. Even noxious impressions,
when repeated, are less felt than they were at
first. In this sense MITH RID AXES accustomed
his stomach and bowels to poisonous substances.
The attendants and nurses of patients become in
a certain degree insensible to contagious diseases
in hospitals. The mind itself shows less energy
at each repetition of the same function. It be-
comes accustomed even to misfortune and painful
situations.
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 93
Organized beings adapt themselves in a sur-
prising degree to external impressions, and a
change of place and various circumstances is fre-
quently less advantageous than might have been
expected. Prisoners, who have been confined for
many years to dungeons, or unwholesome habi-
tations, fall sick when they obtain their liberty.
Many morbid, but accustomed aifections, such as
old sores and exudations, &c. are to be removed
with the greatest precaution, and sometimes to
be left untouched. Body and mind successively
take a turn which can be changed solely by de-
grees.
All changes which nature produces are suc-
cessive, and art ought to imitate her proceedings.
It is the same in dietetic rules, and in every man-
ner of feeling and thinking. Drunkards cannot
leave off their bad* habits suddenly without injur-
ing their health. Those who are near starving
from inanition, will perish if too much nourish-
ment be given ; and too much light dazzles those
who have lived long in darkness. The bad effects
of great and sudden changes of temperature on
inanimate bodies, such as glass, or on plants, ani-
mals, and man, are generally known. Those who
are accustomed to certain mental occupations, feel
great reluctance to give them up. In the same
94 EDUCATION OF MAN.
way, great and sudden changes of political, mo-
ral, and religious opinions, are not borne with
indifference. Habit is a second nature, physi-
cally and morally speaking.
The living generation, if not prepared for it,
generally rejects every reform. It is only in
process of time that the adherents to any new
doctrine become numerous ; and any doctrine,
though false, when once admitted, will be re-
placed by another and a better only by degrees.
Yet it is natural that the more agreeable a doc-
trine is, the sooner it will gain ground, and that
a precept which commands resignation will be
submitted to, in proportion to the reward it pro-
mises. Christianity assigns eternal happiness as
the reward for temporal conflicts ; and it was
adopted by fishermen and the poor sooner than
by the rich.
The law of modifying mankind, or of produc-
ing changes is seldom understood by reformers.
They are commonly too hasty ; though, at all
times, experience has shewn the danger and harm
of such a proceeding. When changes are to be
made, let them be gradual ; the greater the al-
terations you wish for are, the slower must be
your method of proceeding; keeping, however,
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 95
constantly the aim in view. The precipitancy of
common reformers can be excused only by their
ignorance of human nature, and by their erroneous
opinion, that it is sufficient to point out errors,
and to propose principles, in order to perfect man,
without considering that he must by degrees be
prepared for, and accustomed to them.
The facility of accommodating man to new
impressions greatly depends on age ; it succeeds
best during the period of growth, whilst in latter
years we are less susceptible of changes. It is
therefore not astonishing, that all new doctrines
have been received and propagated by youth and
new generations.
The law of accommodation, however great,
never annihilates the general laws of life. It is
even subordinate to them, and cannot prevent the
successive changes of age. Again, every indivi-
dual being born with a different constitution, and
with different dispositions, is not equally capable
of accommodating himself to circumstances, and
hence each will present some modification, though
the external influences are the same. This is the
case in the automatic and animal functions. Not-
withstanding these restrictions, the law of accom-
96 EDUCATION OF MAN.
modation is incalculably great in the education
both of individuals and of nations.
The second meaning of Habit is an increased
facility of acting in a certain manner. In this
acceptation of the word, it is still more interest-
ing to education than in the former, and deserves
a detailed elucidation.
Exercise.
I have already mentioned that I employ the
word exercise as synonymous with putting into
action. Now the first law of this kind is, that
exercise strengthens powers. This principle is
quite general throughout nature, and extends
even to inanimate bodies. Musical instruments
being played on by masters in the art, improve.
The power of a magnet to support weight may
be increased, by gradually appending to it more.
Every power, both in automatic and animal life,
may be exercised, and thereby gains in activity.
There is something analogous even in the dis-
eased state. Each organic part, having once
been affected by any disorder, is liable to re-
lapses ; in the same way as, according to the first
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 97
meaning of habit, by repetition and continuation
many diseases are exhausted.
The digestive organs may not only be accus-
tomed to various aliments, but they become also
more active by being satisfied. In persons who
spit out the saliva, the glands secrete more
abundantly. All muscles which are exercised
increase in strength. Smiths, and those who
use their arms, acquire more power than those
who seldom employ them. Bodily exercise in
general strengthens; and a sedentary life weak-
ens the constitution.
The influence of exercise on the functions of
the five senses, is generally known and admitted.
The sense of feeling often acquires a very high
degree of perfection in persons who are blind.
In my work on Phrenology, speaking of the Ge-
neralities of the external senses, I have quoted
many examples which prove, that they become
more active by practice.
It is the same with the internal faculties ma-
nifested by means of the different parts of the
brain. Each mental power, if it be sufficiently
cultivated, grows more energetic, whilst, if neg-
lected, it shows less activity.
EDUCATION OF MAN.
In this chapter on the Laws of Exercise, I take
for granted, that all dispositions are innate and
discovered. I refer for the details of this impor-
tant proposition to my work on Phrenology. Hi-
therto philosophers have admitted a few general
powers, and have derived from them all particu-
lar manifestations. The greater number of them
consider the intellect as the cause of the feelings.
Accordingly, they confine education to the Un-
derstanding, and do not think of cultivating the
Feelings themselves. This, however, is a great
error, and the first thing to be done is to specify
the primitive powers of the Mind ; and then, as
they exist independently of each other, every one
must be exercised for itself. The legs or arms
will not be strengthened by reading treatises on
muscular motion. The digestive organs will not
act with more energy in those who know all the
theories which have prevailed on digestion, and
who are even able to explain the causes of hun-
ger and thirst. Let such persons have but little
to eat and to drink, and give to others who have
never heard of any theory of alimentation, whole-
some food in abundant quantity, and every intel-
ligent reader will perceive whose appetite and
digestive functions will be exercised to the best
advantage.
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 99
Let any one study the principles of optics merely
in books and in descriptions ; let him learn by
heart all the theories of colours, but let him never
see any colour, nor feel their harmony. He may,
like a blind man, recollect all the expressions
used in painting, but without practical instruction
his faculty of colouring will not improve.
Who would pretend to cultivate the musical
talent only by reading discourses about the prin-
ciples of melody and harmony ? Is it not neces-
sary for this purpose to perform tunes, or to hear
them performed by others, either in singing or in
playing on a musical instrument ?
/
It is the same with all intellectual faculties.
Each must be exercised or put into action for
itself. Thus, to cultivate the power of Numera-
tion, the numbers must be shown in real objects.
To exercise the power of Locality, it is not enough
to know the names of each town, river, sea, &c.
but their respective situations must be acquired.
Some children easily recollect names and geogra-
phical descriptions by heart, but feel great diffi-
culty in learning local situations; while others
present to themselves, in their own minds, an ex-
act image of localities the names of which they
have forgotten. When children are obliged to
H 2
100 EDUCATION OF MAN.
trace maps, it is not always those who know the
localities best that have the greatest power of
tracing them on paper. The fundamental facul-
ties must be separated in every study. In geogra-
phy, for instance, a perfect knowledge requires
the exercise of Individuality, of Form, Size, Lo-
cality, and Language. In order to draw maps,
Constructiveness is required in addition. The
latter power will be assisted by Order and Nu-
meration.
The intellectual faculties of man have improved
less by education than they might have done, in
consequence of two reasons, first, of the primitive
powers of the understanding not being known ;
and second, of the difference between sensations
and perceptions on the one hand, and the artifi-
cial signs, either sounds or figures, which express
them, on the other, not being attended to.
To proceed as if artificial signs could pro-
duce sensations and perceptions, while they can
only call those ideas into recollection which have
pre-existed in the mind, does incalculable harm.
It is to be admitted as a general principle, in
communicating every kind of positive knowledge
of the external world, that, first, sensations and
perceptions must be excited, and these then de-
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 101
noted by particular signs. In that way we shall
avoid the great mistake to which we are accus-
tomed from infancy, viz. of pronouncing words
without knowing their meaning.
The vocal or written signs are to be used only
as means of communication, of recollection and
tradition; but they cannot be considered as the
cause of any idea or sensation. On the other
hand, each intellectual faculty must be exercised
by practical application, in the same way as the
sense of hearing is exercised by hearing, that of
smelling by smelling, that of sight by seeing.
With respect to the Feelings, education is still
more defective. It is commonly believed that it
is more difficult to cultivate the propensities and
sentiments than the intellectual powers. It is
even stated, that the feelings cannot be taught.
This proposition, however, is not clearly stated.
The feelings cannot be taught, if by this proposi-
tion we mean, that they may be given by educa-
tion; in this sense also understanding cannot be
communicated. Both intellect and feelings are in-
nate or given by the Creator, but the latter may be
exercised in the same manner as the intellect, not
by the action of the faculty of language, or by
learning signs, or by exercising the verbal me-
102 EDUCATION OF MAN.
mory, but by putting the feelings themselves into
action. I even think that it is much easier to
exercise the feelings than the intellectual powers.
It cannot be too frequently repeated, that the
Feelings do not result from intellect, any more
than intellect is the result of the feelings. No
one is benevolent, just, timid, courageous, haugh-
ty, or affectionate, in proportion to his under-
standing, nor has he penetration on account of
his feelings. Moreover, each affective, as well
as each intellectual faculty, must, and may be
exercised for itself. Man learns to be courageous,
circumspect, ambitious, just, or benevolent, as he
learns to sing, to calculate, to measure, to speak,
and to reflect. When often exposed to danger,
he learns to meet death without fear. By habit
he becomes indifferent to destruction. The heart,
as the Chinese proverb states, goes farther than
understanding.
Thus, bring men into favourable situations,
calculated to call forth their feelings, and these
will be strengthened. In order to cultivate bene-
volence, one should not frequent only the society
of rich and opulent persons, and learn by heart
descriptions of charity; he must experience mi-
sery himself and contemplate the painful situa-
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 103
tions of others. There are more poor willing to
give charity from their necessity, than rich from
their superfluity. If all our whims and fancies
have generally been satisfied, the feelings of jus-
tice and benevolence towards others are less ex-
cited, than if our wishes have been contradicted
and reformed. For the same reason moral feel-
ings will not improve by frequenting places of
debauchery.
The principle in question explains the ancient
proverb ; verba movent, exempla trahunt, and also
the great influence of bad or good company. So-
ciety, however, cannot be, as it is often considered,
the cause of any faculty ; it presents only an op-
portunity to the innate powers to act, or excites
them to do so.
The knowledge of the means of exciting the
powers is very important, but not better under-
stood than the fundamental powers themselves.
It is time to abandon the immense error, that
words and precepts are Sufficient to call internal
feelings and intellectual faculties into active exer-
cise. Gospel-preaching is infinite, but many of
those who deliver exquisite sermons are too often
obliged to add : Do what I say, and not what I
do. Now, if they themselves show no faith by
104 EDUCATION OF MAN,
their works, how can they expect others to do so ?
Let education be practical, and the means of ex-
citement adequate to the innate dispositions. Bold
children will reap advantage from being brought
up alone, but timid ones must be early accustomed
to the society of strangers. Obstinacy will increase
by unseasonable vexations, while just and quiet
resistance or mild treatment may suppress it. The
feelings are rather moved by a dramatic repre-
sentation than by a monotonous sermon. The
sight of a person wounded, or in danger, makes
a greater impression on the mind, than reading
that thousands have been killed in a battle. Na-
tural language, in general, has more effect on the
feelings than artificial signs. We are, for instance,
more likely to smile or laugh on looking at a gay
face, than on hearing the word gaiety mentioned.
The effect of external impressions on internal
faculties is proportionate to the assistance which
the external senses give to the internal faculties.
I refer particularly to what I said of the mediate
functions of the external senses, in my work on
Phrenology. In that way, the influence of reli-
gious ceremonies on common people, is easily ex-
plained, and ought not to be overlooked. Music,
and representations of objects and facts in paint-
ings and sculpture, may excite various kinds of
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 105
feelings, the inferior as well as the superior. It
is true, that these means may be and have been
abused ; but I think it wrong on that account to
reject them altogether. Let the impressions on
the senses be adapted to the feelings we wish to
excite, and these will be exercised. Church-
music certainly should be different from that of
the ball-room, but music itself ought not, there-
fore, to be considered as useless in the inspiring
religious feelings. By means of music, the sol-
dier may be incited to fight, and the Christian
to adore his CREATOR. The great point is, not
to confound the means with the aim, and not to
consider the first as the second. Religious cere-
monies are nothing but means to become morally
good ; and if they do not tend to that purpose,
they lead us into error. The practice of them
will not improve the moral conduct any more
than learning the commandments by heart will
do. It is also true that the effect of music is
different in different individuals ; but it is a great
instance of ignorant bigotry and intolerance in
persons to exclaim against its use in religion, be-
cause they themselves are unfortunately insensible
to its charms.
I shall add a few remarks on the artificial
signs : they are oral, viz. pronounced, or written
106 EDUCATION OF MAN.
and printed. We commence with learning the
oral or vocal signs. Their number increases in
proportion to the activity of the innate faculties
of the body and mind, but children ought not to
be taught to pronounce any word, without learn-
ing at the same time to understand it.
As every family has not the means of giving
sufficient education to their children at home,
they send them to schools or colleges, to be in-
structed. Public institutions, in consequence,
ought to be established, with a view to give no-
tions first, and signs afterwards, in proportion
to the notions acquired. It is evident, that the
objects to be taught must vary, according to the
situations of the scholars, in future life, whether
they be destined for agriculture, commerce, or
any of the learned professions. Articles which
compose the first necessaries of life, the most
common objects and events, Forms, Measures,
Weights, Colours, Coins used in the country,
the general division of beings into minerals, vege-
tables, and animals, the great and common pheno-
mena of nature, &c. may be taught every where.
Those notions which are particularly interesting
to country people, such as the rearing of cattle,
or cultivating fruit-trees and other plants, &c.
may be given where necessary. Every kind of
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 107
information given should be practical and useful.
Whatever is spoken of, should be shown in na-
ture, since it is useless to speak of things which
children have neither seen, heard, felt, tasted, nor
smelt. They cannot know any more of them than
those who are born blind do of colours. The
feelings also ought to be exercised as far as they
are necessary ; but it is not enough to speak of
Charity to teach it ; teachers must excite that
feeling by their own example ; and children must
be accustomed to practise that virtue.
In the practical way, an immense number of
useful notions might be given to children in a
short space of time. Their intellect shows a
great tendency to acquire positive knowledge,
while teachers, in direct opposition to nature,
very absurdly torment them with words without
meaning, or with things they cannot understand.
As in teaching languages or vocal signs, it is
essential to combine notions with words, and to
show that the latter are merely signs, so, in
teaching words, the whole grammar of the mo-
ther-language might be taught. Children will
understand the meaning of substantives, or that
each being has a name as well as each substance,
108 EDUCATION OF MAN.
each form, dimension, colour, &c. They may
learn, at the same time, the qualities of objects,
and words which express them, or the adjec-
tives. Their attention may also be directed to
the different degrees of the adjectives. In pro-
portion as they become acquainted with pheno-
mena, or facts, the verbs may be explained. The
different kinds of notions, too, may be pointed
out, and children may thus become acquainted
with the primitive powers of man, without any
peculiar study.
Those who are advanced in the acquirement
of notions, and of words or spoken signs, may
begin to learn written and printed ones. They will
then compare the latter signs with the former, or
with the sounds of which they have already
acquired some knowledge. Among the printed and
written signs, first, are to be learned those which
are employed to express constantly the same sounds;
in the German language, for instance, a, o, u, b,
d, g, I, m, n, p, s, w, c. ; then the signs which are
different, but express the same sounds ; as, in the
German, v and eks ; f and v ; i and y ; z and
tz: finally, the signs which designate different
sounds, such as in the German c, e, h, Sec. When
the printed and written signs of single sounds are
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 109
known, then those of compound ones may next
be taught.
To assist the power of language, the faculties
of Individuality and Form are usually employed
at the same time. The figures of animals are
marked under the letters of the alphabet; an
Ape, for instance, is placed under A ; a Bat under
B ; a Cat under C, &c. ; yet no animal should be
named that is not perfectly known to the children
who learn the signs. It would be desirable, how-
ever, to exhibit the animal itself, where it is not
familiarly known.
In this proceeding the fundamental powers of lan-
guage and configuration are obliged to learn each
two impressions : two forms and two names, for
instance, A and Ape, C and Cat, &c. I therefore
would advise to teach only the written or printed
signs, without bringing them in connection with
objects; but I would, at the same time, when
they learn the printed signs, exercise their fingers
in copying the letters of the signs, or what is the
same thing, in writing them in sand, as is the
practice in the schools of mutual instruction.
The advantage of the other method is supported
on the effect of association. But those who are
taught in this way, and have the power of confi-
110 EDUCATION OF MAN.
guration very active, may be impeded in reading,
because they attach at each letter the object they
have learnt in its connection ; and in order to read
fluently, they must unlearn what they were obliged
to learn at the beginning.
It is clear that the printed and written signs
or letters in any language, ought to be formed in
the same manner. If both sorts of signs are
different, as in the German language, a useless
difficulty is created.
The printed and written signs should be taught
in the same order as the sounds are communicated,
and a sign should never be taught without indi-
cating the idea that is expressed by it. We
ought to begin with single sounds and single
letters ; then to go to monosyllables, and by de-
grees to polysyllables ; and these should be pro-
nounced and compared with the printed and
written signs. Ale, Ape, Bed, Bank, Cat, Cold,
&c. Apple, Bacon, Body, Bitter, &c. Appetite,
Candle-stick, Candle-holder, &c.
As we are accustomed from infancy to connect
sounds with the printed and written characters
which represent them, we never see the latter
without repeating at the same time the former.
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. Ill
Did we never learn sounds, without acquiring at
the same time a positive knowledge of the things
they express, we should always think of the re-
lated notions when we heard or saw the signs,
and then learning would be much more agreeable,
easy, and profitable.
The same proceeding is necessary with respect
to both the intellectual and affective faculties.
As we ought to perceive the external objects indi-
cated, before we learn the signs of them, either
vocal, printed or written, so we ought to expe-
rience the feelings first, before we learn the words
by which they are expressed. Hunger and Thirst,
Warmth, Cold, Anger, Fear, &c. must be felt
before their signs can be fully understood. If
education be conducted in this way, moral and
religious principles will produce more effect on
mankind than they have done hitherto. Then the
moral faculties will be called into action, and our
efforts to cultivate the mind will not be limited to
the power of language only, viz. to that faculty
which learns artificial signs.
Ignorance of the fundamental powers of the
mind, and of the means of exercising them, may
be observed in all the institutions of society.
Whole universities are conducted according to
112 EDUCATION 'OF MAN.
erroneous suppositions. All teachers agree that
the reasoning power ought to be exercised in
every individual; but what shall be done to
accomplish that end? Perhaps we see one man
of great depth of mind who is eminent as a ma-
thematician : the inference is immediately drawn,
that every child ought to study mathematics, in
order to acquire great reflecting powers ; and not
even the theologist is to be excepted, as if mathe-
matical and moral reasoning were founded on the
same principles.
Another person also endowed with great rea-
soning powers is perhaps a great philologist, and
particularly an excellent Greek and Latin scholar:
therefore, every one is compelled to learn Latin
and Greek, with the view of giving him a power-
ful mind, as if learning words and phrases were
the same as acquiring sensations and perceptions
of all kinds, and reasoning on them. Happily the
time of sophistry is past, and positive knowledge
is now esteemed. Experience shows, that philo-
logy and mathematics do not improve arts and
sciences, nor the moral character of man.
It is replied, that the great mathematician and
the great linguist, excel by their philosophical
minds. This is certain ; but they did not become
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 113
good reasoners, one by studying mathematics, and
the other by learning Latin and Greek. There
are great philosophers who cannot become great
mathematicians, nor great linguists. The reflec-
tive powers of man are fundamental, and may be
employed in prosecuting any branch of know-
ledge, in the study of natural history, zoology,
geology, chemistry, phrenology, &c.; and who-
ever excels in general reasoning, must possess
them in a higher degree ; but they are by no
means the exclusive attribute of mathematicians
or philologists.
In the same way, as each faculty exists in itself,
and may be combined with others, so each may
be exercised alone or in connection with others.
We may exercise the faculty of Form, Size, or
any other, without learning signs to denote our
ideas ; and we may learn signs by heart, without
understanding their significations ; or Language
may also be exercised at the same time with other
faculties. Yet it is useful to put into simulta-
neous, or closely successive action, all the faculties
which have a mutual influence on each other. In
this way they excite each other mutually. This
rule explains the whole doctrine of Mnemonics ;
that is, the activity of one power excites that of
one or several others. In the next chapter, this
i
114 EDUCATION OF MAN.
proposition will be more fully detailed. Here, my
principal object is to fix the attention of teachers
upon the great fault of confounding together signs
and ideas, or of thinking that mere words can
produce notions.
School education begins with teaching printed
and written signs, without explaining their signi-
fications, and even the instruction we commonly
get in colleges, is more a communication of signs
than ideas. Youth are admired and rewarded in
proportion as they know signs. How glorious is
it for a boy to know how to communicate the
same idea in Greek, Latin, perhaps in Hebrew, or
in many modern languages !
It is, however, certain that, generally speaking,
the study of the dead languages is extremely
tedious for the greater number of pupils. I am
convinced, that thereby many children become
unwilling to learn things to which they would
have attended with pleasure, had they been taught
them in their own language in a practical way.
Many others are drilled by indefatigable pains to
become classical scholars, and nevertheless fail to
distinguish themselves. Some good Latin and
Greek scholars, when they come to practical bu-
siness, are left behind by fellow students, who at
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 115
school were undervalued. The quantity of Latin
words crammed into the heads of the students,
does not give them the primitive power of reflec-
tion, nor does it serve to cultivate attention. On
the contrary, that constrained method of studying,
renders their conceptions slow and indolent.
The spirit of the ancient languages, however,
is declared to be superior to that of the modern.
I allow this to be the case, but I do not find
that the English style is improved by learning
Greek. It is known, that literal translations are
miserably bad, and yet young scholars are taught
to translate, word for word, faithful to their dic-
tionaries. Hence those who do not make a pecu-
liar study of their own language, will not improve
in it by learning, in this manner, Greek and
Latin. Is it not a pity to hear, what I have been
told by the managers of one of the first institu-
tions of Ireland, that it was easier to find ten
teachers for Latin and Greek, than one for the
English language, though they proposed double
the salary to the latter ? Who can assure us that
the Greek orators acquired their superiority by
their acquaintance with foreign languages ; or is
it not obvious, on the other hand, that they
learned ideas and expressed them in their mother
tongue?
i2
116 EDUCATION OF MAN.
It is farther said, that it is interesting to know
Latin and Greek, in order to understand the ety-
mology of modern languages. This is true, but,
with this view, the English ought to study also
the German, Dutch, French and Danish, since
their language is composed of words borrowed
from all these nations.
After all, I am persuaded that the advantage
does not repay the trouble of prosecuting such
studies, and that they occasion an enormous waste
of time and labour. I had rather learn ten ideas
in a given time, than ten different signs which
express one and the same idea. We should never
sacrifice positive knowledge and reflection to the
acquisition of a variety of signs. We should
begin to acquire notions and that language which
is the most necessary for us to converse in. When
I was examined, in order to my becoming a licen-
tiate of the college of physicians of London, it
would have been more suitable to have inquired
whether I spoke the English language sufficiently,
than whether I understood the Latin, the English
being indispensable to the practice of medicine
in and about London, whilst no physician exa-
mines his patients in Latin, any more than a
barrister defends his clients, or a preacher exhorts
his congregation in that language.
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 117
It is said, that a man who knows Latin, has
received a liberal education ; yet it is a lament-
able thing that we should pretend to judge of a
person's useful attainments by his knowledge of
ancient languages. I wish that the medical pro-
fession may be cultivated by men of superior
talents, but I hope that a knowledge of Latin
and Greek will not continue to be the touchstone
of deciding who is, or is not, fit for practising
this difficult and important art. Few surgeons
and physicians, who are good classical scholars,
will, from that circumstance, equal JOHN HUNTER
in useful knowledge, and in improving the healing
art ; and yet he was not prepared by the study of
ancient languages for the excellence he attained.
A similar remark might be made with respect to
Shakspeare.
We seldom learn to speak Latin and Greek, or
we soon lose the habit of doing so. Thus, we
learn these languages in order to understand the
contents of ancient books. This is well, but
then we ought, for the same reason, to study all
modern languages ; at least, to act fully up to this
principle, medical men ought to take that trouble,
since, beyond doubt, all branches of natural his-
tory, anatomy, physiology, and pathology, are
more advanced now than they were at the time of
118 EDUCATION OF MAN.
the Greeks and Romans; and, of course, more
knowledge is to be obtained on those subjects
from publications in the modern languages of
Europe, than in the languages of Greece and
Rome. Formerly, when scientific books of all
nations were published in Latin, a knowledge of
it was necessary ; but since the works of every
nation appear in the mother tongue, the same de-
gree of importance can no longer be attached to
it. If we are contented with extracts and trans-
lations of modern works, why should we not be
the same with respect to the ancient ? Moreover,
the greater number of professional men, who are
much occupied in practical life, have scarcely,
time to read what is written in their own lan-
guage. Their knowledge of Latin and Greek,
therefore, is quite useless to them and to the art.
I think, that every one who has the natural
talent and abundance of leisure, may be allowed
to study the ancient languages, as well as the
modern, if so inclined ; but that a knowledge of
them ought not to be required as indispensable from
every student; and it seems to me particularly
unwise to begin our college education with them.
It is replied, that childhood is the most fit
period for learning languages, that children must
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 119
be trained up to the tedious study of ancient
tongues, because, at a later period, they would
not submit to the same trouble. The second part
of the proposition is supported by no authority,
except that of the prevailing opinion, that the
study of Latin is a necessary accomplishment ; it
falls to the ground as soon as we feel its useless-
ness. It is undoubtedly true, that youth is the
fittest period for learning languages, but let us
learn those first which are the most important to
our future life. Now, the modern languages,
appear to me to be the most useful. Above all
stands our mother tongue ; we ought, therefore,
to begin with it. The parts of speech are the
same in all languages, and may be learnt in the
modern as well as in the ancient. I leave this
subject to the consideration of all those who inter-
fere with the direction of academic studies. Some
may think that I have entered into too many de-
tails, but the importance and great influence of
this matter will plead my excuse.
The next principle of exercise is, that the pri-
mitive powers are not to be confounded with
their application; each power being always the
same, but its applications and. modifications infi-
nite, according to age and external circumstances.
Inattention to this difference, produces more bad
120 EDUCATION OF MAN.
effects than many persons suppose. They com-
plain, for instance, of the vanity of adult persons,
while they continue to nourish this feeling in
every child they meet with. He who knows that
the Love of Approbation is a fundamental feel-
ing ; that it exists in different degrees of strength
in different individuals, and that exercise increases
its activity, will not excite it too much in infancy,
for fear that, in later life, it should produce abuses.
He will perceive, that flattery of every kind ex-
cites this sentiment ; that praising a child for his
figure, his hair, his voice, his clothes, his manner
of dancing, &c. will put into action, and increase
his Love of Approbation, and prepare for him a
source of misfortune. Irascible children should
not be permitted, and still less encouraged, to
beat their playthings, against which they hurt
themselves. As equity was a principal object of
the Areopagus of Athens, that virtue was con-
sidered as indispensable in the members in all
situations. He who killed a bird that looked for
shelter in his house could not become a member;
and a member who played on a word, was de-
graded, because such a practice might do harm to
truth. How inferior, nay puerile, is the behaviour
of some modern legislators ! Those who are
faithful in little things, says Christ, will be so
in great. Thus particular vigilance ought at all
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 121
times to be observed not to cultivate to excess
the propensities and sentiments of children, which
may in after life render them unhappy or impede
their moral conduct. On the other hand, they
are wrong who neglect to cultivate the feeling
of veneration, or the faculties of the fine arts, be-
cause disorders may and often do result from
them. This also happens with acquisitiveness,
and with every fundamental power, each of which,
however, is given to a certain purpose. In admit-
ting that every one is answerable for the talents
he has received, it is evidently our duty to culti-
vate the fine arts, as far as they are in harmony
with all other faculties. Superstition undoubtedly
degrades a reasonable being, but the human cha-
racter is ennobled and the charms of society
increased by respectfulness. There can be no
doubt that in attending to the difference between
primitive powers and their application, between
their legitimate actions and misapplications or
disorders, many errors hitherto committed in
education will be avoided.
The third principle of exercise is, that the
order of instruction ought to follow the order of
nature, in bringing the faculties into activity.
Children acquire notions before they make them-
selves acquainted with signs to indicate them.
122 EDUCATION OF MAN.
They know the objects themselves sooner than their
qualities and mutual relations ; they know the
qualities of those objects sooner than the modes
of their actions. Accordingly, their language be-
gins with nouns, and verbs in the infinitive mode.
By degrees, they learn signs to indicate their
acquired notions of other kinds. Their language,
then, evidently shows, that their faculties do not
appear simultaneously. It is, indeed, an import-
ant point in education, to know that the faculties
of the mind begin to act successively, viz. in
proportion as the organs on which their manifes-
tations depend, are developed. Hence, they ought
to be exercised in the same order; and the know-
ledge of the periods of developement of the re-
spective organs, is as necessary as a knowledge of
the functions of the primitive faculties ; because it
is certain that no faculty can be exercised without
the assistance of its organ. This principle is
general in organic and animal life.
It may be here considered, that education, as
far as exercise goes, begins earlier in life than is
commonly believed. The vegetative functions,
the hours of sleep, of appetite, of the urinary and
alvine excretions, may be soon regulated. Chil-
dren are easily accustomed not to fall asleep,
except when carried on the arms or shaken in a
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 123
cradle. They begin to make acquaintance with
the external world when a few weeks old. It is
by degrees that they taste and feel, hear and see ;
that they learn to distinguish their nurse, or those
who take care of them, from strangers, and the
existence of external objects. When they become
attentive to the things around them, we ought to
show them repeatedly a great number of various
objects, and exercise as much as possible their
external senses. They are soon tired with the
same object, but pleased with new impressions, as
is the case also with the greater number of adult
persons. Thus, it is not a matter of indifference,
whether a child be carried quietly on the arm, or
whether its attention be excited towards external
objects. I consider it as very important in whose
society young children are kept ; not that I think
that children absolutely acquire the character and
talents of those who are around them, but because
their society will be favourable or unfavourable to
the exercise of the innate dispositions.
The periods when the innate powers appear,
increase, decrease, or disappear, are of great im-
portance. Some are active early in life, and con-
tinue longer than others which appear later. The
powers will be cultivated with most effect at the
period of their natural activity.
124 EDUCATION OF MAN.
There is some regularity in the appearance and
disappearance of the faculties, yet there are many
exceptions and modifications, as in all natural
operations. Nature is immutable only with re-
spect to the relation of cause and effect ; but she
modifies the phenomena in infinite varieties. It
happens usually, that those powers that act strong-
ly, appear early and last long. The intellectual
faculties, and several feelings, commonly decrease
in old age. Several persons, however, are parti-
cularly fortunate in preserving the energy of their
mind to a great age. But the greater number of
old people are deceived, if they take themselves to
be still what they were when young.
Among the intellectual faculties, those of indi-
viduality, form, eventuality, comparison, and lan-
guage, appear first. Children soon know many
individual objects and facts, and conceive general
notions ; they call, for instance, every young being,
child. Then the faculties of size, colouring, lo-
cality, number, order, time and tune, appear suc-
cessively. Objects and their phenomena ought to
be taught first, and afterwards the qualities of
objects and their relations.
Among the feelings or affective faculties, those
of attachment, cautiousness, love of approbation,
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 12<
acquisitiveness, combativeness, secretiveness,, de-
structiveness, firmness, benevolence, justice, and
imitation, are very early active. Those of venera-
tion and amativeness appear much later.
Let it not be forgotten, that from the earliest
age, the feelings, as well as the intellectual facul-
ties, may be educated, and that young children
show no less difference in their characters than in
their talents. They are patient or obstinate, indo-
lent or lively, timid or courageous, attached to,
or careless about others, c. Let those powers
which are naturally too active be quieted, and
their activity prevented ; while those that do not
act with energy enough, ought to be excited in a
practical manner.
I have stated, that very young children ought
not to be obliged to sit still in an apartment all the
day, as is sometimes the case in common school
education. Particular places, in healthy situa-
tions, might be instituted, where children could
come together to play, and at intervals to learn
things in nature, and their names, objects and
their qualities, instead of sending them out only
to take a walk, or to breathe pure air. Parents
might thus have the advantage of having their
children kept out of harm's way, and the young
126 EDUCATION OF MAN.
creatures themselves would not be compelled to
suffer the distresses necessarily experienced when
restrained from moving their limbs, nor be tired
by unprofitable learning. They would be pleased
with acquiring the knowledge of things and of
words to express them, and at the same time, they
might be accustomed to order and obedience.
They will also learn the signs which express the
feelings, and their relations, in proportion as the
feelings are excited in themselves. Gymnastic
exercises also might be combined with mental
instruction. The principal object of such schools
should be bodily strength, order, cleanliness, no-
tions of things, and oral signs.
The schools for children in Mr. OWEN'S esta-
blishment at New Lanark, first exhibited, to a certain
extent, the practical application of these principles.
The infant schools since introduced in London and
in the rest of Great Britain do the same ; and no
one can observe the happiness and intelligence
which reigns among the children there, without
wishing this mode of instruction generally adopt-
ed; though it may be still improved and more
adapted to the nature of man.
The fourth principle of exercise is, that it must
be proportionate to the innate dispositions. Too
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 127
much activity weakens or even exhausts the fa-
culties, both feelings and intellect. This explains
why too early geniuses often become ordinary
men when grown up ; why the mental operations,
when too active, are frequently deranged, and
why it is necessary to keep up the balance be-
tween body and mind, and between the indivi-
dual faculties.
The brains of delicate children ought to be ex-
ercised late, and the greater their mental activity
is, the less it needs to be exercised.
It is also very important to know, that during
the climacteric years, when the body increases
most rapidly, the mental powers are weaker.
Hence, at that period, the body deserves greater
care than the mind. The mental faculties will
resume their activity, when the body has acquired
its solidity.
Increased or diminished energy is dependent
not only on the periods of growth, but all powers
are liable to be occasionally more or less fatigued.
No power is always equally active, each requires
rest. It is, therefore, advisable to exercise one
power after another. As any faculty, if too
128 EDUCATION OF MAN.
much excited, is injured, or even exhausted, so is
it weakened if it remain too long inactive.
Teachers may easily perceive the disadvan-
tages of too long a cessation from study in the
effects of vacation on their pupils. These latter
always find some difficulty in returning to appli-
cation and order. Intermission is necessary as
well as exercise, but neither ought to be of too
long a duration. They are relative, and educa-
tion requires to be amended in this respect. A
long vacation is more favourable to the teachers
than to the students. The former, it is true, want
rest, but they might alternate, for the same reason
as the objects to be taught must be changed from
time to time. Education should never be tedi-
ous, nor too long interrupted ; different faculties
should be put successively into action, which pro-
duces a kind of relaxation, and sufficient care
ought always to be taken that the bodily constitu-
tion does not suffer by pressing too keenly the
progress of mental instruction.
Children, who return for months to their fa-
mily, are rather spoiled, during that time, than
improved in order and obedience. They are in-
dulged in their caprices, and see conduct prac-
ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 129
tised in direct opposition to what they are taught
at school to regard as meritorious. The frequent
and long interruptions of practising the theore-
tical rules, prevent them from becoming alto-
gether accustomed to them, and they wish for
nothing more earnestly than that the time of
learning might be over, to be permitted to act in
opposition to what they have been taught, and to
forget the ideas they have had so much difficulty
in acquiring*
The fifth principle of exercise is, that its in*
fluence will not be the same on every individual,
on account of the innate dispositions. Even dif-
ferent children of the same parents, and brought
up by the same teachers, turn out quite different-
ly. Indeed the fact, that the dispositions are in-
nate, cannot be insisted on too much. We must
say with HUME, (Essays on Morality, 3rd edit,
p. 93.) that the influence of education would be
miraculously great, could it but create one sense,
and that this miracle is reserved to our Maker;
that education may cherish and improve the
plants of nature's formation, but cannot introduce
any original plant. HELVETIUS, who considered
man as the result of education alone, was obliged
to allow that " une folie passee rarement eclaire
les hommes sur une folie presente." MARCUS
K
130 EDUCATION OF MAN.
AURELIUS calls little politicians, and compares
with children, those who maintain that whole na-
tions might be changed' into philosophers. He
was satisfied by being able to contribute in a
slight degree to common welfare, and to improve
a few persons. He denies the possibility of esta-
blishing PLATO'S republic. He, in particular in-
sists on the importance of making any new idea
popular. He adds, that without this precaution
the success is impossible, that absolute power and
lessons remain without effect, if the manners of
the people do not change ; that in this case, na-
tions are but slaves, and complain of restraint, or
are hypocrites, and feign to be persuaded.
It is more easy to cultivate the lower feelings,
since they are naturally stronger in mankind ; but
those who are virtuous by nature will sooner learn
to practise moral principles than those in whom
the lower propensities predominate. Those who
have little justice will with great difficulty learn
to be just in a higher degree, in the same way as
those who possess any intellectual faculty in a
small degree, will never excel in it. The greater
the disposition, the greater the effect of exercise ;
yet it is always true, that a proper degree of exer-
cise strengthens the functions of each power.
MUTUAL INSTRUCTION. 131
The preceding considerations on exercise afford
an opportunity of speaking of the method of mu-
tual instruction. It is inconceivable how its ad-
vantages can be contested. I rather excuse those
who contend for the beneficial effects of igno-
rance, and who object, that mutual instruction is a
means of teaching in too short a time, than those
who acknowledge the benefit of general informa-
tion, and yet hesitate to employ this method. Its
superiority is too evident to be long impeded by
its novelty.
It is my decided opinion, that this method
ought to be used in all branches of knowledge,
which may be acquired by the influence of teach-
ers, or which may be taught. Even those who
are destined to improve arts and sciences will
gain by it. The reason of this is very simple,
and founded on the influence of exercise ; while
at the same time this method has the great addi-
tional recommendation of being the least expen-
sive mode of instruction. This advantage is cer-
tainly of importance, but I shall examine only the
benefits which result from exercise.
If there be many children or students together,
the school hours are not sufficient to examine
every one. Young persons, however, who are not
K 2
132 EDUCATION OF MAN.
examined, are less attentive to their studies than
those who are ; their faults, not being remarked,
are not corrected, and only a few are noticed. In
large classes all that can be expected at present
is, that the teacher should explain every thing
distinctly, and repeat it with a few scholars. He
addresses himself commonly to those who learn
quickly. Should it happen that the master speaks
to others of less talents, the better heads, knowing
their lesson, cease to pay attention, or at least are
soon wearied of doing so. But were the better
students obliged to repeat the lesson with the
others, they would experience that we learn by
teaching; they would feel inclined to go over
and over the same thing with those intrusted to
them for instruction, while, in the common way,
they cease to repeat their lessons, when left alone.
At the same time the students of less capacities
will be more attentive, and, on account of the con-
stant repetition, they will remember what was lost
at the mere explanation of the master.
Let us examine any branch of education what-
ever, and we shall find that the advantages of this
method are always the same. We may take a
mathematical problem for the sake of example.
Suppose the rules to have been taught, and that
they are to be applied. Those scholars who pos-
MUTUAL INSTRUCTION. 133
sess the mathematical talent in a high degree, will
soon finish their problem, and will be obliged to
wait in irksome idleness till many others, who
cannot follow so quickly, have done. If the for-
mer, only, are called for by the master to resolve
the problem, the others hear it, but it is not at-
tended with the same advantage to them, as if
they were called to work for themselves. If, on
the contrary, the scholars, with little mathematical
genius, be chiefly examined, those who excel in
that talent will lose their time, and neglect what
they know, while their attention would be excited
if they were employed in teaching their condisci-
ples. It is the same with spelling, writing, draw-
ing, dancing, learning history, geography, lan-
guages, in short, with every branch of knowledge
that is taught.
The practice of the common method can be
excused only by the supposition, that all pupils
are endowed with the same degree of abilities.
As, however, daily experience shows the con-
trary, it ought no longer to be tolerated, if the
object be to take the greatest possible advantage
of the period of education. The new method is
particularly useful in schools where all classes of
children are collected together in the same room,
and where, in the common method of teaching,
134 EDUCATION OF MAN.
while one class is examined the others are doing
nothing. Children are in general required to
learn by themselves, but few only are capable of
this exertion. According to the new method, all
classes go on at the same time, and the same
subject is repeated till every child knows it.
In colleges, where each class is separated, the
necessity of the new method is less felt ; yet, the
above-mentioned reasons induce me to think,
that it should be employed in all large classes,
where the pupils, on account of their different
degrees of capacities, naturally form themselves
into several subdivisions.
The superiority of the new method, ought to
determine the directors of instruction, to make a
new classification in colleges, according to the
subjects to be taught. There should be one pro-
fessor for each branch of knowledge; one for his-
tory, one for geography, one for the mother tongue,
one for Latin, one for Greek, one for poetry, one
for mathematics, &c. The pupils who study the
same branch might be brought together, but di-
vided into different classes; those, for instance,
who study history might be in the same room, but
divided into several classes. A similar arrange-
ment should prevail among the students of Latin,
MUTUAL INSTRUCTIONS 135
Greek, mathematics,, geography, &c. The pro-
fessor of each branch might put all his classes
into action at the same time, in the same manner
as is done in the schools for children. Monitors
might take his place in the inferior classes. In
this way, the pupils would make more progress
than they commonly do. It is not necessary to
state how many professors might be instituted, for
there might be as many as branches are found to
be requisite. The principal object I here contend
for is, that the better students should instruct the
inferior ones, when the masters are not sufficient
for the purpose. Emulation -would induce the
monitors to employ their leisure moments in learn-
ing new subjects. Moreover, the time which the
masters give to explanation is short; that em-
ployed by the scholars in learning occupies a
greater portion. This portion of time will be
filled up to more advantage by the method of
mutual instruction, than if every one is left to
himself alone ; and those who instruct others will,
in this way, derive even the greatest advantage.
This method, being new, has met with adversa-
ries ; but whoever will set an example of using it
in the higher branches of knowledge, will find its
superiority the same as it is already ascertained
to be in teaching the first elements of education.
The fundamental principle implied in the method
136 EDUCATION OF MAN.
of mutual instruction, is one and the same for
whatever is taught to many pupils at once. At
colleges, those who are very zealous form private
classes for repetition among themselves, and
others who have means, pay repeaters. Every
improved system of learning admits the advan-
tage of repetition. The principal point of the
Hamiltonian system too is that of continued exer-
cise. Numerous teachers replace the monitors;
and the same lesson is constantly repeated. The
other great point of this system, which teaches to
learn a language without the grammatical rules,
does not seem to me equally applicable to every
individual. It will please those who attach them-
selves little to principles; whilst those whose reflec-
tive powers are large, will be desirous of knowing
the rules contained in their language.
The advantage of repetition then being evident,
and confirmed by daily observation, it ought to
be more generally practised than it is done in
public institutions. The more the pupils are
examined, the more they will learn, and the
clearer their notions will be.
It may be asked, whether exercising the affec-
tive and intellectual powers, makes the respective
organs increase? Each part of the body, being
EXERCISE INCREASES THE ORGANS. 137
properly exercised, increases and acquires more
strength. The fact is known to be so, with
respect to the muscles of woodcutters, smiths,
runners, &c. Now, the brain and its parts are
subject to all the laws of organization ; they are
nourished like the arms and legs. Cerebral ac-
tivity, therefore, determines the blood towards the
head, in the same way as the blood is carried to
any other part when irritated, and this law of the
organization may enable us to account for the
developement of certain parts of the brain of
whole nations, and to explain national characters,
if individual powers are cultivated during succes-
sive generations.
The growth of the organs, however, is not the
most important advantage to be derived from pro-
per exercise, for it is certain that organic parts,
such as the muscles, the senses, the brain, &c. do
not increase in size in proportion to their exercise.
The muscles which move the fingers of a musi-
cian, for instance, who plays on a piano forte,
will acquire more facility and agility than size by
the exercise. If we walk little during winter, and
take more bodily exercise in the spring, we are
easily fatigued at the beginning, but, by degrees,
we can make greater excursions without suffering
by them. Yet the muscles do not grow in pro-
138 EDUCATION OF MAN.
portion as walking becomes easy. In the same
way, the size of the organ of tune, or of any
other power, will not augment in proportion to its
being exercised, but its fibres will act with more
facility.
I finish this chapter by repeating the principal
points detailed in it : Exercising is the same as
putting into action ; each faculty must be exer-
cised for itself; the means of exercising the
powers are of great importance ; exercise of the
faculties should take place in proportion as their
respective organs are developed ; exercise must
be proportionate to the innate dispositions, too
little or too much does harm, but applied in a
proper degree, it makes the organs increase in
size, modifies their internal constitution, and pro-
duces greater activity and facility. The effect of
the same exercise is different, on account of the
innate dispositions of different individuals. It has
been hitherto feeble ; but it will be greater, when
the innate dispositions of the mind and the laws
of exercise are understood and attended to.
139
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACUL-
TIES, AS A MEANS OF EXCITEMENT.
THE fourth condition which contributes to in-
crease the activity of the faculties, is their
Mutual Influence. To employ this means it is
necessary to understand, that each power may be
active by its internal energy, or by its being ex-
cited by one or several other faculties ; and that
on the other hand, each power may be inactive
either by its want of energy, or by the influence
of other faculties. This consideration deserves
every attention in practical education. It sup-
poses in the teacher who wishes to reap from it
all the advantages possible, a knowledge of the
primitive faculties of the mind, of the natural
connection of their organs, and of the individual
dispositions of him who is to be educated.
It is a general law, that organic parts which
contribute to the same function excite one another.
The organs of smell and taste, the nerves of hun-
ger and thirst, and the digestive power, are in
intimate connection. Smell and taste often whet
appetite, and the appetite excites the sense of
140
EDUCATION OF MAN.
taste; it is therefore justly said, that hunger is
the best cook. The internal feelings are equally
subject to mutual influence. Amativeness, and
philoprogenitiveness, frequently excite combative-
ness, viz. male animals fight more when under
the influence of amativeness than at other periods.
Females defend their young ones with more cou-
rage than any other object. Acquisitiveness and
cautiousness, excite secretiveness to act. Attach-
ment may put cautiousness into action, or we may
fear for the sake of friends more than for others.
Firmness may assist hope and justice, and the
former may be assisted by the two latter. In
short, each feeling may be stimulated by one or
several others.
Mutual influence exists, also, with respect to
the intellectual faculties, and is called Associa-
tion of Ideas. Those persons, however, who con-
sider association as a primitive power, are mis-
taken, for the activity of at least two powers,
whose functions are associated, is necessarily im-
plied in its very existence. Now, this mutual
influence takes place among the feelings as well
as among the faculties of the understanding, and
among feelings and intellectual faculties promis-
cuously ; that is, one or several feelings may
excite intellectual operations, and vice versa.
MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 141
The mutual influence of the faculties is the
basis of what is called Mnemonics, or of the art
of strengthening memory. This art is very an-
cient, but in consequence of its principles not
being sufficiently understood, it has been rejected
by some, and extolled to excess by others. The
great errors committed in mnemonics, resemble
those committed in all branches of education, and
in all sorts of institutions. Teachers of every
sort look upon themselves as the standard for the
whole of mankind, and commonly have recourse
to that faculty which is the most active in them,
reproduces the most easily its anterior perceptions,
and excites other powers with the greatest facility.
They err in overlooking the differences of the
innate dispositions and talents of different indi-
viduals.
The most common kind of mnemonics is found-
ed on language ; that is, words recall individual
notions ; written signs do the same, in bringing
to our recollection sounds and ideas. They de-
pend on the faculty of configuration. If we
resolve upon doing a thing in a distant place, and
after setting out to go there, forget our design, and
recollect it only on returning to the place where
the resolution was first made, the power of lo-
cality is the means of mnemonics, and many
142 EDUCATION OF MAN.
teachers of mnemonics have recourse to this
faculty ; they combine ideas with places, and in
thinking of the latter they remember the former.
It seems that the ancient orators employed these
means, in order to learn their discourses with
greater facility. Their proceeding appears to be
indicated by the expressions denoting the divi-
sions of the subject, such as in the first, second,
and third place, &c. This power may indeed, if
it be strong, assist the other faculties. Persons
endowed with it, may divide and subdivide, in
their minds, a given place, and put into each
compartment a particular notion, and the idea
will be called to recollection, in thinking of the
corner where it has been lodged.
Locality, however, will be of little use to those
who possess it only in a small degree ; whilst if
they be endowed with the power of Form in a
high degree, they will combine a notion with a
figure with great facility. We may also, with
other mnemonists, have recourse to several facul-
ties at the same time, to fix the recollection of
an object.
This proceeding then may be applied with great
advantage in education; but it is to be remem-
bered, that the most active powers furnish the
MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 143
best means of mnemonics, and that any particular
mode of association useful to one may be useless
to another, on account of the differences in the
innate faculties. The general rule is to exercise,
at the same time, as many faculties as possible in
combination with each other, and even with the
senses. The activity of one or several faculties,
may excite the peculiar action of mind we wish
for. The smell of a flower may recall the place
where we perceived it first, or many particular
circumstances connected with it. The powers of
Comparison and of Causality, are often usefully
exercised to this purpose, particularly in persons
who cannot learn by heart what they do not
understand. Others who have Imitation and
Ideality large, recollect easily things expressed
with ideality. Every one remembers best those
phenomena, or those points in history, which are
in the most intimate relation with his strongest
feelings and intellectual faculties. These facul-
ties enter into action with the greatest facility, re-
produce their sensations, that is, appear as memo-
ry, and excite the other faculties.
The strongest illustration of the effects of
mutual influence among the faculties, is to be
seen in the effect of emulation in children, and
the desire of distinction among men. Many stu-
144 EDUCATION OF MAN.
dents learn more, in consequence of excitement
produced by emulation, than by the innate acti-
vity of their understandings. The love of appro-
bation, indeed, may excite every other power.
Soldiers do not always behave bravely, from the
desire to fight alone; but sometimes they do so
from love of glory. Some men of talents ruin
their health by continued study, as frequently
from a desire of distinction as from a strong pas-
sion for the study itself.
Acquisitiveness, or the desire of gain, is an-
other great cause of excitement of other faculties.
Its influence, and that of the Love of Approba-
tion, are of such power, that many philosophers
have considered these two motives as sufficient to
explain all particular manifestations of the mind.
But however strong their energy may be, they
never produce powers, they only excite the innate
faculties to act. This fact ought to be specially
attended to in Phrenology. If two boys possess
the same natural endowment of the faculty of
Language, but the one double the Love of Appro-
bation of the other, he, by the influence of the
latter faculty, may be rendered the more excellent
scholar of the two. But if the Love of Approba-
tion is equal in both, he who possesses Language
naturally more powerful, will undoubtedly excel.
MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 145
The mutual influence of the faculties being also
a means by which we may direct their employ-
ment, I shall enter more into detail on this subject
in the next Section, where I speak of the Motives
of our Actions.
From the considerations unfolded in the pre-
ceding Chapters, I draw the conclusions that
Education ought to be founded on the knowledge
of Man; that the true principles of education
ought not to be confounded with school-learning ;
that great improvements remain to be made even
with respect to instruction in arts and sciences,
and that the education of the Feelings, which I
consider as the most important, and place far
above that of the Understanding, will require to
be quite newly modelled.
It is admitted and stated in the Preface, that
several views developed in this work are not new,
but there is a difference betwixt knowing a fact,
and knowing the principle of it, and Phrenology
alone can reduce to a science and system the ob-
servations which had formerly been made. This
assertion will be farther confirmed in the follow-
ing pages.
146
SECTION II.
ON THE DIRECTION OF THE FACULTIES.
AFTER having examined the conditions which
contribute to the greater or less activity of the
mental faculties, I shall consider the direction
which ought to be given to their actions. In the
same way as, in the first Section, I held it esta-
blished by Phrenology, that all dispositions are
innate, and that their manifestations depend on
cerebral parts, called organs ; so I suppose here,
that my ideas on the moral nature of Man, as
detailed in my work on the philosophical prin-
ciples of Phrenology, are known. Phrenology
shows that there is a natural arrangement among
the faculties, and this circumstance is the founda-
tion of the moral character of Man. To under-
stand fully the ideas unfolded in this Section, it is
also necessary to be acquainted with the sphere
of activity of each special faculty of the Mind,
and with the modifications of their manifestations.
This information likewise is communicated in the
work referred to, and in that on Phrenology.
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 147
In employing and directing the faculties of
Mankind, we ought to proceed according to fixed
and ascertained principles ; the first and most im-
portant of which is, That human actions are ob-
jects of moral regulation : The second is. That
each faculty has a tendency to act : The third
concerns the knowledge of the motives or sources
of our actions; and the fourth the difference of
natural gifts. I shall, therefore^ divide this Sec-
tion into four Chapters.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY.
ACCORDING to my ideas of the moral character
of Man, his actions ought to be subordinate, or
conformable to the whole of the faculties proper
to mankind, and all actions which are in contra-
diction to the whole of these properly human
faculties are bad. The point which I wish now
to impress on the minds of my readers is, that
human nature is so constituted by the CREATOR,
that morality is as necessary to the prosperity of
Mankind, as oxygen to combustion, caloric to ve-
getation, and respiration to human life,
L 2
148 EDUCATION OF MAN,
The primary virtues, essential to the existence
of society, are withdrawn from our election and
choice, nor are they left to be directed only by so
weak a principle as reason ; they are identified
with human nature by the dictates of creation.
Submission alone to the indispensable laws of
morality is left to our choice. In doing so only
can we contribute to the improvement of Man-
kind.
Christianity promises future rewards for every
sort of righteousness, such being the will of the
CREATOR. But, I maintain also, that morality
is necessary in this life, not because I believe, as
many do, that wicked persons are tormented by
their consciences, a notion which I have endea-
voured to explode in treating of the faculty and
organ of Conscientiousness in my work on Phren-
ology ; but because I really think, that the
world is so constituted, that morality is indis-
pensable to the general happiness of Mankind.
It is objected, that the just often perishes in
his righteousness, while the wicked often thrives
in his iniquity; but shall we infer from this,
that morality is less necessary to prosperity than
I maintain?
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 149
The condition of individuals is subordinate to
that of the community. On the other hand, one
power may triumph over another for a certain
time, and the animal over man in single indivi-
duals; but such a state cannot become general,
nor everlasting, because the animal powers, from
their tendency to the gratification of Selfishness,
would, if predominant, overset society ; while the
powers proper to Mankind, are eminently con-
servative, and calculated to promote general
happiness.
I grant also, that individuals and whole na-
tions will perish, if they make use only of the
faculties proper to Man. As long as Mankind
remains as at present constituted, these faculties
will stand in need of the assistance of the animal
powers, to avoid being destroyed. But history
furnishes examples, that wherever mere animal
faculties have governed, the sovereignty did not
last ; morality and understanding being the two
first principles of politics, and necessary to direct
the actions of every faculty.
I am sorry to observe, that generally the cul-
tivation of the understanding constitutes the prin-
cipal object of education ; and that the pupils of
public establishments smile with pity at praise
150 EDUCATION OF MAN.
given for good behaviour. I am well aware, that
children of excellent conduct do not always excel
in intellect ; but we find also, that many young
and old individuals of great understanding do
not always behave as they ought to do. These
persons convert their intellect into scourges of
society, and are the greatest enemies to the hap-
piness of the race. Both moral and intellectual
endowments are important, and therefore ought
to be cultivated in harmony. By neglecting
both, societies and even nations will come to
an end.
In examining Mankind at large, we shall find
that general happiness is founded more on mo-
rality than on intellect. Establishments of cha-
rity for relieving distress, and correcting manners,
are more beneficial to society than colleges for
the study of mathematics under the government
of conquerors. Morality ought to be the aim, and
understanding but a means of attaining it. Those,
however, who 4 know my ideas on the primitive
powers of Man, and on their moral arrangement,
will know that I distinguish morality from reli-
gious creeds ; that my GOD is a GOD of union,
who wishes to save and not to destroy ; and that,
in my opinion, charity, or general love, is the
greatest of virtues. They will perceive that 1 do
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 151
not agree with teachers who place the love of
their country, and that of glory, above the love of
Mankind ; and that I maintain the authority and
the advantage of the Christian principle, which
commands us to love every one as our neighbour.
CHRIST called him his brother who did the will
of his Father. I allow, that we owe obligations
to our parents, and to our country ; indeed I ad-
mit that there is a primitive feeling of attachment
to all beings around us. But this propensity is
given also to the lower animals, and is far inferior
to general love. He who considers the wants of
the poor, and the causes of those wants ; the de-
serts of the poor, and the possibility of improving
their situation; who will never encourage idle-
ness and disorder; who considers attachment as
a quality of secondary weight ; who relieves him
first that deserves it best; and who prefers his
countrymen only in so far as they are equally
meritorious, is far nobler than those who are in-
fluenced by the love of their country or by a reli-
gious creed alone, to the neglect of this universal
Benevolence.
It is a touchstone of superiority among the
faculties that their influence is more universal.
The animal feelings contribute to the preservation
of individuals, of societies, and in a certain de-
152 EDUCATION OF MAN.
gree of the species. Human feelings alone place
society above individuals, and species above so-
cieties. They coincide with the proceedings of
nature. Individuals perish, while nations con-
"tinue; and these disappear while Mankind is
preserved. The faculties which produce such
effecrts, must be important in proportion.
When I state that the sphere of the faculties
proper to Man is more extensive than that of the
animal powers, this must not be confounded with
the other proposition ; that a faculty is more or
less generally bestowed by nature. The meaning
of the latter is, that a faculty exists in a greater or
smaller number of species, while the former de-
notes that the influence of a faculty extends over
more beings. Amativeness is very general, while
Christian charity is confined to Mankind; but
the effect of this latter feeling embraces all be-
ings, while that of the former is infinitely more
limited.
Thus, in all actions, Morality is to be kept in
view as the aim and end. Man, by superior
powers, is the lord of the terrestrial creation ; but
the same feelings which constitute his superiority
command him not to abuse other beings. A
lower propensity excites Man to kill animals, in
ON THE IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 153
order to live on them ; but the superior feelings
forbid us to torment them.
All sects of religion must agree that morality
is necessary to the welfare of the human race,
however different their opinions may be about the
mode of attaining it. But I have no hesitation
in declaring against any creed that undermines
charity, and which teaches children that those
who do not believe as they themselves do, and that
those who wish to adopt different means in order
to please their MAKER, are damned. As Chris-
tianity evidently tends to unite ail men in the
presence of GOD, it appears to me that we are
entitled to reject every interpretation of any pas-
sage of the Gospel which does not agree with
general peace. The superiority of the Christian
principles of morality, is proved and recom-
mended by their good effects ; and, in this way,
belief is converted into conviction.
Modified ideas about the means of pleasing
GOD are natural, and present a large field for
teaching tolerance and mutual forbearance. Va-
rious formalities are considered as agreeable to
GOD ; but history informs us, that many of those,
used by different sects, are borrowed from pagan-
ism. Every one ought to be permitted to do as
154 EDUCATION OF MAN.
he thinks right, unless the general happiness of
Mankind be disturbed by it. I think that he is
too proud who believes that he can add to, or
exalt the happiness of his CREATOR, to whose
dictates all that man can do is to submit. In
submitting to his dictates, we practise the true
and undefiled religion, viz. in this way we shew
that we are tied to GOD, and obey his will. Thus,
it is an important point, in teaching religion,
never to confound the aim with the means. The
former is universal happiness, and loving our
neighbour as one's self. The means which lead
to it are various, and differences of opinion in
regard to them are to be expected. It seems,
however, a great error to look for happiness from
Divine influence, while the natural means of pro-
ducing it, appointed by the CREATOR to be ob-
served, in the ordinary way of Providence, are
neglected.
155
CHAPTER II.
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION.
THE faculties are innate and active in different
degrees ; but each desires to be satisfied, and all
are necessary ; hence it would be wrong to endea-
vour to annihilate or to neglect any one in the in-
stitutions of society ; whilst the acts of every in_
dividual power may be morally good or bad, that
is, conformable or contrary to the whole of the
faculties proper to Man. In order to elucidate
this subject, I shall make first a few general re-
marks, and then subjoin some details concerning
the primitive powers.
In the greater number of persons, the lower
faculties are the most active, and several of them
more so than others. This explains the great ac-
tivity of the animal nature of man. Again, single
individuals, each of the sexes, the inhabitants of
certain provinces, and whole nations, possess in-
dividual faculties more active than others. These
primitive dispositions, then, must first be studied,
156 EDUCATION OF MAN.
and each power cultivated in harmony with the
dictates of general morality, and with the particu-
lar situation of the nation, sex, or individual in
question. Any feeling that is naturally too ac-
tive, should never be exerted. Hence, in those
children and nations, whose character is strongly
marked by the love of approbation, this feeling
should never be nourished by education. For, if
predominant, it becomes the cause of great mis-
chief, and it is evidently a great fault to encou-
rage it continually, and to hold out approbation
and glory as the principal reward of every action.
If, among other nations, Self-esteem be the strong-
est feeling, it should not be encouraged. Such
children are to be accustomed to' attend to what
others say of them, and to be spoken to freely on
their faults.
On the other hand, no strong feeling can be
overcome at once ; its activity will appear in one
way or another, and the object of the teacher or
governor ought to be to make the best use of it.
The love of approbation, for instance, may lead to
war or peace, to idleness or industry, to vice or
virtue, according to the object approved of by the
directors. It is the same with every fundamental
power. Has not every crime been committed,
and every virtue exercised, under pretence of
'
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 157
glorifying GOD, or of obeying GOD rather than
men?
The improvement of mankind has been greatly
retarded by the erroneous notion of our being
born alike in feelings and understanding, and of
our being capable of becoming whatever teachers
please. On account of the differences in the in-
nate faculties, on the contrary, education must be
modified in many respects even for nations, as
well as for individuals and sexes. As the inha-
bitants of cities cannot digest the food on which
savages will thrive, so civilized nations stand in
need of principles which cannot enter into the
brains of ignorant and uncivilized persons. There
are many examples in history, where nations have
been ungrateful to their governors, who have en-
deavoured to improve their condition. Missiona-
ries, who preach to ignorant and barbarous tribes
in the same way as to enlightened people, cannot
produce the desired effect. New-born children
cannot bear too much light at once; and the
mind, like the eyes, must be accustomed by de-
grees to new impressions.
On the other hand, governments are wrong if
they retard the attainment of the degree of civi-
lization which their nations require. They are
158
EDUCATION OF MAN.
mistaken in thinking, that the special tendency
of primitive faculties can be prohibited by mere
commandment. As no institution, having for its
object the annihilation of amativeness, acquisi-
tiveness, the love of approbation, or any other feel-
ings, given by the Creator, can be permanent;
as its duration will be shortened, in proportion as
such feelings are more active, in the same way,
as soon as our understanding is arrived at a
higher degree of cultivation, such institutions as
are adapted to dark ages will no longer suffice.
The faculties proper to Man being given to
govern every where, are to be cultivated inces-
santly, and in every one, whilst the powers com-
mon to man and animals, should be encouraged
only in so far as they contribute to the great end
of the satisfaction of the properly human nature,
or to general happiness. The animal faculties
may be employed as means, but not any one
should become the aim of our existence. They
may do good, when subordinate, but they pro-
duce much evil, as soon as their gratification be-
comes the aim of life. It is remarkable that all
institutions, true Christianity excepted, are found-
ed on selfish principles, and that by far the greater
number of the motives, which they propose to
mankind, originate in the animal feelings.
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 159
The regulation of the mode in which gratifica-
tions are sought, is an important point in edu-
cation. Each faculty when active, wishes to be
satisfied, and will excite those powers which may
become the means of its gratification. Suppose,
for example, that we have a desire to be distin-
guished, we may fight, destroy, calculate, culti-
vate arts, &c. according as distinction is likely to
follow the performance of such and such actions.
To gain eternal happiness, we may do and we
may omit various things, according as we are
taught that it is to result from the one or the
other. Selfishness, in general, is a great stimulus.
The gratification of individual faculties may even
become a means of obviating their abuses. Ac-
quisitiveness, for instance, may be prevented from
stealing and cheating, &c. by placing before the
mind the consequences of illegal actions, and by
showing, that the best calculated selfishness is
that which is combined with honesty.
Though it is a pity, that, in common education,
the satisfaction of the inferior faculties is gene-
rally represented as the aim of our existence, and
of the whole of our actions ; their gratifications,
however, may be of great use, being a source of
pleasure, and the contrary a punishment. The
idle being pleased by vacancy; the dainty-
160 EDUCATION OF MAN.
mouthed by cakes and sweetmeats ; the vain by
decorations, fine clothes, &c. ; the mechanician by
ingeniously contrived instruments ; the painter by
colours. There are as many sorts of reward or
punishment as natural gifts, but the gratification
of those powers which are not requisite to our
profession, should be only an object of reward
and recreation, the difference between aim and
means being constantly attended to.
A question which has been often repeated by
philosophers, may be brought in here, viz. Whe-
ther it is better to have many or few wants ?
Want is here synonymous with Desire, or the
tendency of individual faculties to seek gratifica-
tion ; and there are as many sorts of wants or
desires as there are primitive powers.
To answer this question, we must bear in mind,
that the satisfaction of each desire gives pleasure ;
that there are as many sorts of pleasure as there are
faculties, and that desires and pleasures are pro-
portionate to the activity of the powers ; more-
over, that the pains, displeasures, or states of
dissatisfaction, are also as numerous as, and pro-
portionate to the activity of, the faculties. Thus,
wants or active faculties may render us happy or
unhappy.
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 161
In order to prepare happiness for ourselves, let
us exercise those faculties which we have the
power of gratifying, and check the activity of
those which we cannot satisfy; taking constantly
for granted, that morality is the aim of our life,
and that no animal power shall be permitted to
become predominant; that Ostentation, for in-
stance, must remain subordinate to Justice^ and
that spending our superfluities on purposes useful
to society, is preferable to employing them in the
gratification of any animal propensity.
The proper employment of the faculties being
so important, this knowledge is not only neces-
sary to teachers and governors, but it should be-
come an object of instruction for every person,
and be taught and learned by heart.
We must eat and drink, because we are excited
to do so by hunger and thirst. But the laws of
digestion and nutrition might be explained, the
respective organs shown, and the necessity of
submitting to the dictates of creation taught.
The knowledge of the general rules of HYGEIA
is useful to every one. Let children know, that
they must eat to live, but that they do not live to
eat and to drink ; let them feel the advantages of
sobriety, and the consequences of indigestion;
M
162 EDUCATION OF MAX.
let them see the vice of gluttony and drunkenness
in nature, and be accustomed to temperance, and
to the moderate use of every sort of food. It will
be easy to render them attentive to the quantity
and quality of aliments necessary to be taken, and
to those which do not agree with their digestive
organs. It is important that they should be able
to resist the desire to eat of every dish that is
placed on the table.
It is a great fault of parents and teachers to
preach sobriety, and themselves to give a con-
trary example. The example is more effectual
than the precept. I think it also wrong to give
dainties and liquors to children as rewards, for it
is in this manner that they are taught to value
them. They may enjoy the sense of taste, but
they ought not to be governed by it.
In speaking of hunger and thirst, food, beve-
rage and nutrition, a great deal of knowledge
may be given to children at table, with respect to
the natural history of the three kingdoms, and
with respect to chemistry and physiology. Pa-
rents might direct the conversation towards conve-
nient subjects, and enter into farther explanations
after dinner. Certainly this supposes the parents
themselves to be well informed, which, however,
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 163
is too frequently not the case. The duty of in-
struction devolves particularly on the mother;
and if there be several children, the elder may
inform the younger.
Is not the great curiosity of children a hint of
Nature, that they ought to be made acquainted
with many subjects ? Why then do we not rather
cherish than suppress it? We should always
answer, even when questions are put to which
delicacy does not allow us to reply. In such
cases, we may find an excuse by observing, that
they are not yet able to understand the thing.
This will be believed, if we show them the reality
of such an excuse in other examples. But they
must never be told they ought not to know such
things. A formal denial will excite their cu-
riosity.
The objects which concern cookery, eating and
drinking, and play-things, furnish sufficient mat-
ter to different conversations. We may put ques-
tions about the origin, usefulness, and prepara-
tions of aliments, by degrees. Each object will
offer a large field of information. I suppose, for
example's sake, that potatoes are placed on the
table, the mother may ask, To what kingdom of
natural history do they belong? According to
M 2
164 EDUCATION OF MAN.
the age of the children, various questions may be
added. After the first notions are communicated,
the mother may continue to inquire about the
parts of the plant which we eat under the name
Potatoes. The discussion again will require to
be more or less detailed, according to the capaci-
ties of the children. Whatever cannot be shown
at home, could be noticed on taking walks into
the fields or elsewhere. In what country are po-
tatoes indigenous ? How are they cultivated, &c.
Another time, the mother may begin a conver-
sation concerning bread. Children may learn the
difference between rye, wheat, oats, &c.; the
manner of grinding corn, of baking bread, &c.
In this way, every article may be made an object
of instruction and amusement. Children will
learn ideas and combine them; they will know
every thing around them, and will feel a desire
to know it. They will at the same time learn to
think when they speak, and to express no ideas
without reflecting on them.
Bodily exercise is another important point in
education. Muscular activity is greater in child-
hood than in any later age. It is necessary to
the developement of the body and to health. To
keep children quiet is acting against nature. The
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 165
body and the intellectual faculties, however, may
be exercised at the same time. Playing is to be
considered as a mere change of occupation, and
many things may be taught by means of it ; to
dance, for instance, to climb, to leap, to swim, to
go on horseback, to fence, &c. The muscles of
the arms, or legs, or trunk, may be exercised ac-
cording to the utility of such exercise in any fu-
ture situation, or according to their local weak-
ness. All gymnastic amusements serve to these
purposes. It is to be understood, that bodily
exercise ought to be proportionate to the innate
strength and progressive growth of the indivi-
duals. It is said, that MILO carried on his
shoulders a calf day by day, till it was full
grown.
On the play-ground, children may be made ac-
quainted with a great number of objects, their
physical qualities, such as form, dimensions,
weight, colour, distances, phenomena of hydrau-
lics, mechanics, and chemistry. Nothing, for in-
stance, is more easy than to teach what is called
gravity, affinity, attraction. Let children collect
stones of different specific weight, let them make
figures in the sand, such as circles, triangles,
squares. - They will do it with less pleasure when
they are confined to the benches. It is known,
166 EDUCATION OF MAN.
that girls, in amusing themselves with dolls, exer-
cise many faculties necessary to their future con-
dition in life.
The external senses deserve particular atten-
tion. Though they are not sufficient to make us
acquainted with the external world, they are,
nevertheless, indispensable means to acquire dis-
tinct perceptions. Blind and deaf persons show,
how in the former the sense of touch, and in the
latter that of sight, can be improved. For those
who feel an aversion to touch innoxious insects,
for instance, a lizard, a frog, a crawfish, or even
velvet and other tactile objects, an early habit of
doing so is advisable. It is the same with regard
to a dislike to certain smells, tastes, colours or
sounds. The ears ought to be exercised to bear
the noise of a gun, of thunder, &c.
Children ought to be accustomed to speak loud,
and to pronounce all possible sounds and articu-
lations, even those of such foreign languages as
they will be obliged to learn; for almost every
language has its particular sounds which we pro-
nounce with difficulty, if we have not been early
accustomed to them. Accordingly, nations who
have the greatest number of sounds in their
speech, learn the most easily to pronounce foreign
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 167
languages, since they know their articulations, by
having met with similar sounds in their own lan-
guage. The French and English having no gut-
tural sounds in their language, find it difficult to
imitate them in the German. The Germans, on
the contrary, who have not the sounds of j and v
of the French, or of th in the English, acquire
them with difficulty. The inhabitants of Ota-
heite, when trying to pronounce the name of
COOK, always said Toutou.
As to the internal powers, it is a great fault
in education, to think exclusively of the intellec-
tual faculties, and to try to conduct mankind by
precepts. It never should be forgotten, that
children, as well as adult persons, always act
by feelings, and that charity and justice are no
sciences. Precepts alone have no more effect
on feelings than on understanding. To say, be
just, patient, and benevolent, will neither produce
nor exercise justice, patience, nor benevolence,
any more than we should understand mathematics,
chemistry or philosophy, if we were only exhorted
to study them. Precepts must be put into exe-
cution, and this alone is of practical use. Two
ideas, then, must be well understood ; first, that
the faculties which give feelings, and those which
constitute intellect, exist independently of each
168
EDUCATION OF MAN.
other ; and, secondly, that they act in different
degrees of force in children as well as adults.
In this sense, we may say with DE LA MOTTE,
that the child is already a man, and the man still
a child. It is the same idea which DE LA
BRUYERE on characters (T. II. chap, xi.) has
detailed, in stating, that children, like adults, are
affectionate or selfish, courageous or timid, candid
or disingenuous, lazy or industrious, benevolent or
envious, peaceable or quarrelsome, unsteady or
persevering, humble or proud, just or unjust. The
powers are, indeed, the same in children and
adults ; they are only applied to different objects.
The same person, when a child, may be jealous
or envious about sweetmeats, and when adult,
about places of honour. The same faculty ren-
ders a child self-willed, a boy disobedient, and a
man mutinous. Mr. COMBE has well expressed
the same idea ; " The child," says he, " who
trembles at the threat of being shut up in a dark
closet ; who exhibits to us with delight his new
suit of clothes ; who fights about a marble ; or
who covets his neighbour's top, is under the in-
fluence of the same faculties which, in future
years, may make him tremble under the anticipa-
tion of a fall of stocks ; make him desire to be
invested with a star and garter ; contend for an
island or a kingdom, or lead him to covet his
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 169
neighbour's property." (Essays on Phrenology,
p. 315.) Hence the individual tendencies must
be observed, impeded, or encouraged and directed.
A young girl, whom I know, was prohibited from
being imperious to servants and common people ;
she continued to amuse herself with giving orders
to such of her playthings as represented servants,
and with scolding them. When she was told that
she committed a fault, she excused herself by say-
ing, that it was merely a play. But the parents were
intelligent enough not to confound the feeling of
self-esteem with any object of its satisfaction, and
this amusement was equally interdicted.
If any inferior feeling be too energetic, it is
proper to avoid every circumstance that may put
it into action. Accordingly, never vex quarrel-
some or obstinate children, and at length yield to
them and let them have their own way ; never
desire such children to do what is unjust; make
every demand on them quietly, but never yield.
It is essential to know which faculties assist
each other, and which act in opposition, in order
to direct the actions and omissions of man. At-
tachment will generally rest on objects, men,
animals or things, whereby the other feelings
may be satisfied at the same time, or, at least, not
170 EDUCATION OF MAN.
prevented from being so. It is assisted by mild-
ness and cautiousness. Children endowed with
these feelings, and with ideality and love of ap-
probation in a high degree, in order that they
may not be deceived in their dealings with man,
should be made acquainted with the difference
of men, and with the various motives of their
actions.
Courage is not given to indulge quarrelsome-
ness and anger, nor to effect gratification of ven-
geance. Its aim is to defend what is absolutely
just. If not active enough, it ought to be en-
couraged, not only by words, but by exposing the
individual to situations which may appear annoy-
ing. Timid children will become less fearful by
being accustomed to society. If courage be too
strong, its bad consequences may be shown ; and,
according to circumstances, attachment, selfish-
ness, the love of approbation, or the moral feel-
ings, may be opposed as motives to restrain it.
Selfishness and the love of approbation, act
with the most different appearances, according to
their combinations with other faculties, and to
external circumstances. It is known, and I have
already mentioned, that their activity has been
considered, by some philosophers, as sufficient to
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 171
explain all the actions of man, and even as the
source of superior talents. Indeed, whenever we
omit any thing, in order to gain any earthly or
heavenly enjoyment, selfishness is active; and
whenever we wish to be approved of, the love of
approbation comes into play. The tendencies of
these two powers are easily distinguished in chil-
dren ; but I repeat, that their preponderance pro-
duces great mischief in society ; that they are too
much cultivated in common education, and that it
is an error, the evil consequences of which are
incalculable, to represent them as the chief aim of
our existence, while they ought to be only secon-
dary motives. I have seen children endowed
with a great deal of pride and love of approba-
tion, who became quite intoxicated by being
praised, and, certainly from this excitement, com-
mitted new faults, and sometimes became into-
lerable for several days.
Let us examine with some more details whether
selfishness and the love of approbation produce
talents ; and whether the satisfaction of these two
feelings should be the aim of all our actions ? Is
it true, that arts and sciences originate and im-
prove in proportion as they are patronized by
pecuniary rewards and honour? In Greece, the
masterpieces of poetry, eloquence, history, and
172 EDUCATION OF MAN.
philosophy, were not the result of patronage.
The successors of ALEXANDER the Great encou-
raged the learned, yet sciences lost their grandeur
and originality. Only commentaries, compila-
tions, and imitations became numerous. In read-
ing history, we meet with many great men who
found their reward in the cultivation of the
sciences and the arts themselves, and who were
even persecuted on their account. Many others
have persevered in contributing to the improve-
ment of arts and sciences, only until they met
with rewards and honours ; and it was fortunate
if this did not happen too soon, as it appeared
they worked only for them, and became idle when
their aim was attained.
If individuals, because they possess some ta-
lents, are to receive the privilege of deciding on
the value of every scientific production, their
elevation to distinction becomes a great obstacle
to the progress of arts and sciences, because the
learned themselves are not free from selfish pas-
sions, and, like the vulgar, are ready to hinder
others from attaining similar enjoyments and ho-
nours. Few are disposed to acknowledge the
superiority of others.
As the great maxim of a liberal government is,
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 173
Let them act, so the true patronage consists in not
preventing talents from exercising themselves, as
long as absolute justice towards mankind is not
injured ; in rewarding productions according to
their influence on the general welfare, and in re-
warding only services actually performed. Among
the abuses concerning rewards and distinctions, I
mention only the fault to give to regular profes-
sors the exclusive right of teaching, and what is
still worse, to permit them to delegate their duties
to any substitute they may choose. Monopoly
impedes improvement in every thing. If the ser-
vices of a professor be useful to society in other
avocations, and he cannot attend to his scientific
pursuits, his professorship ought to be transferred
to the person who, next to him, cultivates that
branch with pleasure and success.
It is certain that reward and distinction do not
produce talents, though they are of great weight
in exciting and directing the actions of all
the faculties. I even infer from history, that
mankind will suffer, and that all institutions will
remain imperfect, as long as selfishness and glory
are the aim of our actions ; or, in other words, as
long as places are looked for with a zeal in pro-
portion to the profit they bring, and to the dis-
tinction they bestow on the possessor, whilst all
174 EDUCATION OF MAN.
our actions ought to tend to the common benefit
and honour of mankind. Nothing but the place
we occupy in society, and fitness for its duties,
should give distinction. It should be considered
as every man's duty, to do all that he is capable
of doing for the general happiness of those among
whom he lives. Private interest, when exclu-
sively pursued, is the greatest enemy of morality.
Whoever contends for it as the chief aim of our
existence, acts after the impulse of his animal
nature ; he is not a man.
Selfishness, it is true, has greatly contributed
to abolish various kinds of injustice, for every one
is ready to resist his oppressor. In religious and
civil legislation, privileges are more and more
limited, and the rights of man become more equal
than they were in ancient times. We no longer
believe that all mankind is made for the sake of a
few. Indeed, as long as there is any thing to
gain, there will be many who will contend for
independence, out of mere selfishness; but the
principle from which they act, though hitherto
auxiliary to the common good, cannot be ap-
plauded ; for it would lead them to tyrannize in
their turn, if they had the power.
Mankind cannot become happy, if selfishness
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 175
be not replaced, or at least mitigated, by a su-
perior motive of action. He who pursues his
own advantage only, so far as he can do so with-
out injuring another, is just ; he who gives up his
superfluity rather than to do harm to another, is
noble ; he who works only for the common wel-
fare is the most noble, and no one, but him,
deserves that name.
A great step towards perfection, would be the
full and practical admission of the principle that
every one has the right to employ his talents to
the utmost for his own benefit, as far as he can
do it without injuring others. This system of
government is certainly far superior to that of
exclusive privileges of any kind : Many battles,
however, will be fought betwixt selfishness and
bigotry on the one hand, and reason and sound
morality on the other, before it is generally ad-
mitted and followed.
It must be added, however, that the adoption
even of this principle cannot be expected to ob-
viate misery, nor luxury, with all its fatal conse-
quences, for this simple reason, that the natural
endowments of individuals are very different, and
that those who have more talents will govern the
others in one way or another. While selfishness
176 EDUCATION OF MAN.
continues to be the motive of their actions, the
highly gifted will employ the weak to advance
their own ends. The poor will be constantly
dependent on the rich, and will serve them as the
only thing they can do to live. Supremacy will,
of necessity, fall on single individuals. Nations
also, through selfishness, interfere with each other,
and war becomes unavoidable. The fortunate
commander finds satellites whose advantage it is
to serve him, as workmen serve the manufacturer;
he avails himself of their talents, and tells his
countrymen that peace, and obedience to his will,
are essential to their happiness. Is not this the
state of Man as far as history informs us ? And
this must continue to be his state, wherever per-
sonal welfare is the only rule of conduct. Ty-
ranny causes revolutions ; revolutions, again, are
productive of tyranny ; and all this has its origin
in selfishness. There is no possibility of changing
this permanent circle of events in mankind, ex-
cept by subordinating private interest to common
advantage.
This doctrine is not new, it is the basis of
Christianity ; but it has been dreadfully abused
at different times, even by pretended teachers of
morality. It is no where practised in its full
vigour, and happy is the nation whose governors
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 177
follow it even in a limited degree. But it ought
at least to be generally propagated, and its good
effects shown to every one who is capable of
appreciating them.
The faculty of Firmness greatly assists the
activity of every other power, but it also pro-
duces many disorders, particularly if it be natu-
rally strong, and if parents, in order to form the
character of their children, as they say, allow
them the gratification of every fancy. Such be-
ings are exasperated by the least resistance in
future life, and become frequently unhappy.
Mere opposition stimulates firmness, particularly
if it be combined with self-esteem, or love of
approbation.
Firmness alone will never produce great actions.
It only causes the active faculties to persevere.
Hence the same person may persevere much in
one respect, and very little in another. It has
particular influence on self-esteem, the love of
approbation, justice and veneration. Ideality,
and the want of order and time, are in opposi-
tion to perseverance.
The direction of amativeness and of the reli-
gious sentiments is of prime influence. These
N
178 EDUCATION OF MAN.
feelings appear commonly later, sometimes, how-
ever, earlier in life.
The longer the difference of the sexes can be
concealed from children, the better. But as soon
as children are inclined to abuse their persons, let
them know the dreadful consequences of such a
vice on the whole body, and on the manifestations
of the mind. The picture may be varied, accord-
ing to the knowledge of the child, and to the bad
effects which are already visible in him. Every
thing which excites nervous irritability, and ac-
celerates the circulation of the blood, must be
avoided. Bodily exercise, however, cannot be
dispensed with, as it is necessary to produce
sleep. If the functions of propagation be known,
the influence of the vice, not only on him, but
on generations to come, may be detailed. Many
ideas of this kind are mentioned in books on phy-
sical education. I refer to them, mentioning
again, that a too anxious taciturnity of parents
concerning these points, will rather do harm than
good, because the propensity is innate, and acts
without restraint, if its destination, and the con-
sequences of its abuses, be not clearly shown to
children. Being informed of its importance, they
will more readily resist, and submit to those means
which seem necessary to restrain it.
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 179
The regulation of the religious feelings also
deserves great attention. It is known how very
different the ways of worshipping have been, from
human sacrifices to adoration in spirit and in
truth. It is remarkable that at all times con-
tinency has been considered as agreeable to GOD.
The priests of the ancient Egyptians avoided wine
and wives. The Levites were obliged to avoid
the intercourse with females during the time of
their sacerdotal service. In Ceylon and Siam the
priests are prohibited from marrying. The Roman
Church requires an observance of a similar law.
Religious precepts of various kinds, and the
most opposite opinions, when proposed as the
will of GOD, have been listened to. The ma-
jority of mankind is credulous. Say that it is
necessary to sacrifice animals, to burn perfume,
to ring bells, to fast, to sing, to make prostra-
tions, to dance, to whip the body, or to do va-
rious other things in honour of GOD, and man
will comply. Even those who reflect for them-
selves, and admit the revelation of Christian
principles, will differ in their explication of them.
The question, then, is often put, Who can decide
which is the true religion ? As the tree is known
by its fruit, so is the man by his actions, and a
doctrine by its effects. I think that the touchstone
N 2
180 EDUCATION OF MAN.
of every principle, religious and moral, is the
same, viz. its tendency to promote the common
happiness of mankind. It is absurd, and even
blasphemous, to hold out any doctrine as coming
from GOD, the manifest tendency of which is to
inflict evil. I adopt, therefore, only that expla-
nation of every passage of Christianity which
favours general love.
There are religious people who agree with re-
spect to principles, but vary as to the particular
applications of them. They insist much on some,
and are indifferent about other points ; and some-
times follow the absurdities of their own imagina-
tions ; they explain one passage of the Gospel
according to its spirit, and take another literally.
Others admit the principles, and say that they
believe in them, but care very little for their prac-
tice ; whereas the least portion of intelligence and
honesty might enable them to perceive, that the
practice is better than the mere assertion of
belief.
In religious education, as well as in every other
sort of instruction, three things are particularly to
be kept in view; first, The objects taught must be
suitable to the station of those instructed ; second-
ly, The knowledge communicated must be appli-
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 181
cable; and, thirdly, The necessary means for at-
taining the end must be pointed out and attended
to. With respect to the first point, the choice of
objects to be taught, there can be little difficulty
in deciding between the advantages of communi-
cating a knowledge of fabulous tales or examples
of moral conduct ; of teaching habitual charity or
vice. Children ought to be taught that moral
conduct is the aim and end of their existence,
and that morality is indispensable to the welfare
of individuals and of society. And moralists,
who wish for the improvement of mankind, ought
not to reject any means of attaining that end, except
those which have been tried and found ineffectual;
but these should be given up, of whatever date
and authority they may be, and only those that
prove useful be employed.
Thus, all powers should be directed with a
view to practical life, the intellectual faculties to
the acquisition of positive knowledge, and the
feelings to the promotion of the general welfare.
There is another great error generally commit-
ted in public schools, viz. the third part of the
year is given up to idleness. This may be neces-
sary, because the objects to be taught are few,
and because the faculties employed are fatigued,
182 EDUCATION OF MAN.
and require rest or vacation-days ; but these might
be filled up by the useful employment of other
faculties, which could be exercised one after an-
other. In that way more knowledge would be
acquired, and sufficient time allowed for relaxa-
tion to the individual faculties.
Natural history, mechanical and chemical ex-
periments, are well suited to the capacities of
youth, and would delight many ; architecture,
painting, music, geography, theatrical perform-
ances, military evolutions, &c. would please others.
No better recreation would be wished for. The
great error is, that all children are obliged to
learn the same things ; the boys Latin and Greek,
and the girls music or drawing. Yet out of the
prodigious number of girls who learn these arts,
how few are there, who, after they become mis-
tresses of their own time, and after they have the
choice of their own amusements, continue to prac-
tise them for the pure pleasure they afford. Even
those who take pleasure in good music, are better
pleased with hearing others than in performing
themselves. How often are the labours of years,
and the expenditure of large sums of money, lost
in this way ? What a pity, that we are obliged
to learn so many things for no end but to forget
them !
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 183
Accomplishments in general are not sufficiently
distinguished from necessary and useful instruc-
tion. The latter is often neglected, and things
are taught for which children have no taste, such
as drawing and music, while they never would
take a pencil in their hand nor play a tune from
choice. How glad are they, therefore, when the
time for lessons and masters is over, when they
are of age, and their education is finished. Many
women, possessed of such accomplishments, never
touch the heart of a man. They find a partner
only for their money, but the result of such a
union is daily seen. Leisure time alone should be
filled up by accomplishments, and whoever does
not cultivate them from his own impulse, should
not cultivate them at All.
Order is of great importance in our affairs.
Children ought to be accustomed to take care
of whatever belongs to them, and young females
should be exercised in keeping the family-accounts.
Order does not depend only on the understanding,
but it requires also experience. This cannot be
infused into the mind by precept, but must be
acquired by practice. Every one should learn to
employ his own powers, and to regulate his own
conduct, and for that purpose he should be placed
into various situations, and left to his own re-
184 EDUCATION OF MAN.
sources. This is particularly necessary to boys.
Girls are more dependent, and, in many respects,
they may be accustomed to trust to the experience
of others, and to conform to the customs of so-
ciety. Their faults are of greater consequence
than those of boys to their station in society ; for
repentance and tears will not wash out the errors
and immoral conduct of girls.
Refined manners are a great ornament, and
ought always to be cultivated. All odd motions
or attitudes, and awkward gestures, should be
watched and prevented from becoming habitual.
The reflecting faculties deserve particular care.
Let children be taught, if possible, to understand
what they say and do, and to express their own
ideas with precision. I have already mentioned,
that those persons are mistaken, who think that
reasoning can be improved only by one sort of
study, such as of language or mathematics. The
fact is, that studying any branch accurately, ap-
plying judgment to it, and reflecting on the rela-
tions of Cause and Effect which it exhibits, will
cultivate the reasoning powers with equal effect.
Comparison and Causality are necessary in import-
ant and in trifling things. If children have great
difficulty in reasoning, the first attempt here,
EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 185
as in every other branch, is the most difficult part
of the work. We should therefore allow them
time to reflect, and wish that they should rather
acquire one distinct idea, than many confused
notions of different things.
The erroneous method of instruction generally
pursued, is the cause why many, when at the end
of their school-education, must become their own
teachers. Those who have not talent or courage
enough to do so, remain within the circle of me-
diocrity, and are mere followers in the paths of
others. Yet copying, or merely imitating others,
is the death of arts and sciences.
I conclude this Chapter with repeating, that
each faculty tends to act ; that each faculty may
be used and abused; that all faculties ought to
be employed in augmenting the common happi-
ness; and that moral conduct and reflection are
the principal means of producing it; but that
precepts alone will not change and improve man-
kind. Their influence is little in comparison to
that of social intercourse. The manners of the
world, the spirit of families and of parties, cus-
toms and received opinions, are often opposite to
those which we are taught at school. We hear
sobriety praised, and in our families we find
186 EDUCATION OF MAN.
luxury; disinterested conduct is highly spoken
of in our books, but we live in the midst of a
crowd of busy creatures, whose most anxious
thoughts are directed towards gain and vanity;
and we observe, that respect and consideration
are paid to others in proportion to their wealth,
idleness, privileges, and fanciful, nay selfish dis-
tinctions. School-education is then soon forgot-
ten. Whoever, therefore, has an influence on
society, let him contribute all in his power to
cause the same spirit to prevail in education, in
legislation, in social intercourse, in writings, in
arts, and in sciences.
CHAPTER III.
THERE IS NO ACTION WITHOUT A MOTIVE.
THE principle that no action takes place with-
out a motive, is the same as that there is no effect
without a cause. Yet the nature of the motives
of our actions, and their origin, are not sufficiently
understood.
As long as it is believed that education can
MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 187
create faculties, the whole of mankind will be
treated in the same manner, and the same motives
will be proposed to all men. But when we know
the influence of innate dispositions, we perceive
the necessity of having recourse in each person to
his natural powers, and of fortifying or guiding
them by cultivation.
I here repeat, that our faculties, inferior and
superior, furnish the motives of our actions,
that, in consequence, the motives are different
like the faculties themselves ; but that the
proper aim or object of our actions is only one.
I take it also for granted, that the cultivation of
the faculties proper to Man is the aim of his
existence ; since they alone constitute moral rec-
titude, and general happiness, and submission to
the laws of creation.
The superior faculties, when they act by them-
selves from their internal energy, do so with
pleasure, and constitute the kingdom of love. But,
whenever they must be excited in any way, or
when the energy of the inferior faculties requires
to be moderated, then government and obedience,
or the rule of the law, begins. As the inferior
* o
faculties, however, exist in human nature, and
stand in need of constant regulation, it is evident.
188 EDUCATION OF MAN.
that CHRIST, although in His own person He ful-
filled the law, could not abolish it. Its existence
is the will of His heavenly Father, and the consti-
tution of human nature evidently requires it.
The motives arising from the superior faculties
of man, are also termed Religious and Moral ;
religious, as far as we stand in relation to GOD,
and moral, in so far as it is our duty to act in
such or such a manner with respect to mankind.
There can be no doubt that our Maker has
bound us by laws which must be obeyed. These
laws are established by the Creator, and have
been confirmed by revelation. Man is a moral
being, and the law of his natural morality has
been confirmed by Christianity. This matter, ex-
ercising the greatest influence on the happiness
of Man, is considered, with details, in my work
on the Philosophical Principles of Phrenology.
Children may soon be made to comprehend
that they cannot change the laws of nature, and
to see the necessity of submitting to them. When
they understand the tendency of these laws, they
will feel respect and veneration for that Almighty
Being who instituted them, and for His all-wise
appointments. But it will be a matter of greater
MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 189
difficulty to make every one comprehend and ho-
nestly love the general good as the aim of our
existence, though it is conformable equally to the
law, natural and revealed. The desire for the
common welfare of mankind, is not strong enough
in man, to allow us to depend on it as a sufficient
motive of self-direction, and, accordingly, various
means have been, and still must be employed, in
order to direct our actions towards this point. A
knowledge of the different motives of our actions,
then, is indispensable. If the moral law be writ-
ten in the heart of a man, that is, if the faculties
of Justice, Benevolence, and Veneration be natu-
rally most powerful in any person, let us appeal
to them. If another be more disposed to obey,
because it is commanded by the revealed law,
that is, if his Hope and Marvellousness be natu-
rally the most powerful faculties, let us not reject
these motives. The same aim is to be attained,
but the means may vary.
If the superior motives of man; his natural
charity, his religious faith, and his reasoning
powers are not sufficient to direct his actions, in-
ferior motives must be employed, such as love of
approbation, acquisitiveness, reward and punish-
ment, fear, &c. Many persons are prevented from
190 EDUCATION OF MAN.
stealing, through the criminal code, or the fear
of hell, or of being dishonoured.
The kingdom of fear and selfishness is infinitely
more extensive than that of love. The former has
existed, exists, and will long continue to exist, but
the latter cannot come, as long as selfishness and
the love of approbation are presented as the aim
of our conduct. While these are considered as
the objects of human existence, conquerors will
prevail over their satellites, like BRENNUS, who
sent wine from Italy to his countrymen, saying,
If you like this wine, come and help me to con-
quer the country where it grows.
It is essential for a teacher, or any one who di-
rects others, to know that different motives may
produce the same action in different persons.
One child may behave well through attachment
to his parents ; another through fear, or the love
of approbation ; a third through selfish views, or
a feeling of duty.
Moreover, it ought to be kept in view as a
principle in moral and intellectual education,
that children do many things by mere imitation.
They often adopt the manner of thinking and act-
MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 191
ing of those with whom they live. They consider
as good that which they hear praised and see
done by their parents. For this reason we know
by the children whether we are liked or disliked
in a family. This propensity to imitate will pro-
duce most effect in children whose natural cha-
racter is not very determinate, and in them it may
be applied with advantage as a means of instruc-
tion. Parents therefore become the best moral
teachers ; but let their moral conduct agree with
their precepts, if they expect to produce any effect
by their teaching. If they show in words an ab-
horrence of vice, let not their actions be stained
by impurity. When they teach their children to
avoid bad company, and to esteem virtue and ex-
cellence above the distinctions of wealth and rank,
let them not be encircled themselves in fashion
and vanity. If they exhort them to order, truth,
candour, and charity, let them prove their since-
rity by their own actions.
Many children, at an early age, are capable of
feeling arguments, but several cannot. Parents
and teachers should be always just and reasonable
in what they require of them, and then never yield
to any resistance or remonstrance whatever on the
part of the child. A habit of submission is of the
192 EDUCATION OF MAN.
utmost consequence to the moral improvement of
children.
Children, however, as well as adults, like what
is conformable to their natural dispositions. If
their intellectual powers are very active, they may
be allowed to follow their dictates, and to deter-
mine even their own future situation in life. But,
if parents wish to bring them up to professions
which they themselves prefer, and not according
to the natural gifts of the children, or if children
are not distinguished by their talents, they must
be encouraged, by various means, and sometimes
even forced, to exertion, and to make a choice of
employment. Without this, many children would
become careless and idle. It becomes necessary
to impose tasks whenever the natural dispositions
do not induce children to attain the knowledge re-
quisite for their profession. It is always an error to
allow idleness and free hours as a reward, because
such a proceeding implies that learning is a pu-
nishment. It is not very judicious, neither, to
conduct education, so that kings' birth-days and
holydays are liked, because they exempt children
from attending school. This is nearly as bad in
principle, as compelling them to learn verses or
write versions by way of punishment. Certainly
MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 193
a better mode of chastisement might be found.
This kind of punishment is similar to that inflicted
by some priests, who, as a penance, command a
repetition of certain prayers.
Although I am obliged to allow, on the one
hand, that few persons can be guided by the su-
perior feelings alone, and that reasoning is seldom
of any great weight as a motive of conduct; and
although it is obvious, on the other hand, that the
greater number of persons are actuated by inferior
motives, and even by commandment and by fear,
yet I would recommend, that the propriety of
making use of all possible motives to produce vir-
tuous conduct should be kept constantly in view,
and that every motive should be employed, be-
ginning with the most noble and elevated, and
ending with the lowest, viz. impressions on the
sense of feeling, and the sensations of hunger and
thirst. We may reason with those who under-
stand the laws of the Creator, and feel their im-
portance, whilst others, who cannot comprehend
these laws or perceive their utility, should be re-
strained by inferior and selfish motives, even by
disagreeable impressions on their senses, or by
feeling the pains of hunger, or solitary confine-
ment.
194
CHAPTER IV.
EVERY ONE HAS HIS NATURAL GIFTS.
THE reader, somewhat versed in Phrenology, will
easily perceive, that the different considerations of
this work are in the most intimate connection with,
and even founded on, ideas developed in other
publications to which I have frequently referred.
In this Chapter I take it for granted, that all
mental dispositions or powers, are innate, and I
speak of them in so far only as regards the direc-
tion of their actions.
In respect both to sentiments and intellect, man-
kind may be ranged in different classes. There
are persons who may be called fortunate, if not
elect, namely, those who, from the felicity of their
natural constitution, desire only what is good,
who act from love, and show pure morality in all
their actions. In these happy beings, the supe-
rior feelings predominate much over those com-
mon to man and animals.
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 195
The rest of mankind, by far the greater num-
ber, are obliged to combat against the activity of
the inferior feelings, and stand in need of the law
to direct and restrain them. Three subdivisions
of this latter class may be considered. The first
embraces those who have one or several of the
inferior as well as one or several of the superior
feelings very active. These persons may be great
in vice or virtue, according as they follow the dic-
tates of their inferior or superior faculties.
In the second order, may be reckoned those in
whom certain inferior faculties are very active,
and all the superior very weak. Such individuals
are exposed to the danger of being overwhelmed
by vice, in proportion to the weakness of the su-
perior motives. This disproportion is common in
great criminals.
In the third class are placed by far the greater
number of mankind, namely, those individuals in
whom all the faculties are middling ; those who
act according to education and external circum-
stances, and follow, without examination, the mo-
ral and religious principles which they are taught.
Some philosophers, founding on them as instances,
have been led to maintain, that man does every
thing by imitation. Though that opinion be
o2
196 EDUCATION OF MAN.
erroneous, the influence of imitation, remains very
great, and we may say with Mr. COMBE, (Es-
says on Phrenology, p. 322.) " As a general rule,
whatever you wish your child to be or do, be that
or do that to him. If you wish him to be out-
rageous, to be cruel, to be quarrelsome, be out-
rageous, cruel, and quarrelsome to him. If you
wish him to be humane and polite, be humane
and polite to him. If you wish him to be just
and pious, be just and devout before him." The
great mass of mankind, indeed, cannot be left
to their own guidance; common people, when
tempted, easily yield ; education, therefore, in all
its details, legislation, and all public institutions,
ought to contribute to accustom them to regula-
rity and order. But, at the same time, the rulers
of mankind must not expect the lower minds to
be obedient whilst they forget their own duty.
Power is given, not for the selfish gratification
of those who are invested with authority, but to
promote the general happiness of the community.
With respect to understanding, it is also cer-
tain, that few are endowed with a mind so com-
prehensive, as to enable them to learn whatever
they please, and to embrace the principles of
universal knowledge. Some are given rather to
deep reflection than to great learning ; others
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 197
have less reflection, but much talent for acquiring
erudition ; and, in the last place, the greater num-
ber do not excel in any department of knowledge,
of art, or of science whatever ; but may learn any
thing that is necessary to qualify them to become
useful members of society.
The preceding facts being ascertained by ob-
servation, we may examine the question, Whether
the same kind of education will equally suit every
individual ?
The aim in educating all must be the same,
namely, to render them virtuous and intelligent ;
but as the natural endowment of individuals is
different, all persons are not capable of the same
improvement, and every one cannot be induced
by the same motives to pursue the same end.
The faculties proper to man, being the aim
of all our actions, should be cultivated in every
person as much as possible, but the natural dif-
ference will be observed with respect to the
energy of these, as well as of the other faculties
in different individuals. Nature, by her endow-
ment, constitutes some characters moral, and
others religious. The latter will act more from
faith, the former from duty. Yet, the law, " Love
198 EDUCATION OF MAN.
thy neighbour as thyself," must be constantly
held up to both, as the object of their exertions,
and obedience to it required, even of those who
do not feel inclined to do so.
If the superior motives be not sufficiently
strong to produce this obedience, the lower fa-
culties must be employed. The influence of the
latter powers, then, is double; they constitute
motives themselves, and they also assist the su-
perior feelings to arrive at their gratification.
Among the lower motives, selfishness and fear
are the most generally energetic, and no legisla-
tion can exclude the use of them.
Thus, a true system of education cannot be
founded on single views, or established accord-
ing to single individuals ; it must be adapted to
human nature. Whoever will direct man, ought
not to hold out only one motive of action. He
who endeavours to change every person into a
philosopher, and he who will never reason with
any one is equally mistaken. A preacher who
invites others to become morally good, will err
when he trusts entirely to the motives which
govern his own actions, not being aware that
sometimes such motives make no impression on
others. He ought to bring forward all possible
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 199
reasons to touch all his auditors, and make them
feel those motives which they are susceptible of.
He ought to be particularly careful to be under-
stood, and to speak by examples. Moreover, his
precepts must be confirmed by his own actions.
He who teaches order and cleanliness, must be
orderly and cleanly himself; he who preaches
peace and charity, must not deny these principles
by his moral conduct. Those who say, Follow
my words, but not my actions, are unfit for their
situation, and ought to be replaced by more wor-
thy subjects.
It follows, that the feelings, as well as and even
still more than the intellectual faculties, ought to
be considered before children are destined to cer-
tain professions, or adults to certain places. To
bring up a child endowed with great animal pro-
pensities, such as Amativeness, Combativeness,
Acquisitiveness, Self-esteem, &c. to the church,
whatever his intellect may be, is the height of
error and absurdity. Nothing has done greater
harm to society, than placing individuals in pro-
fessions and situations for which they were unfit,
not only through the want of some necessary fa-
culties, but also through the inordinate activity of
some of the opposite ones. Strong amativeness
or cruelty produces mischief in a Roman Catholic
200 EDUCATION OF MAN.
priest, as does the love of domination in the re-
presentative of a free nation, corruptibility in a
judge, fear in a general, &c. The feelings, also,
ought to be exercised with a view to the future
destination of children. Combativeness is to the
soldier what Veneration is to the clergyman;
but, in both, benevolence and justice should
be active.
It is also impossible to insist too much on the
importance of considering the effect of the natural
feelings, in the choice of persons to rule or to
lead society. This highly interesting point can
be perceived, in all its magnitude, by those only
who are convinced, that the faculties which pro-
duce feelings, are natural gifts differing in every
individual ; that they are independent of intel-
lect, and are the principal cause of our actions.
In this way, fishermen, who are eminently gifted
in natural sentiments, may be better moralists
than high priests, mathematicians, orators, or phi-
losophers, who excel only in intellect, and whose
moral sentiments are weak compared with their
inferior propensities.
An opposite error, but not less hurtful to so-
ciety than the preceding, is committed by those
who despise and neglect the cultivation of the
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 201
intellectual faculties. Some religious persons of
this kind, have endeavoured to put aside all
temporal concerns, and have become hermits.
Others avoid all pleasure, or even torture their
body, in order to be agreeable to their CREATOR.
Others represent a knowledge of the Bible, as a
substitute for all other information, in the same
way as the Mahometan confines his knowledge to
the Koran. Our ignorance of human nature is
the cause of such mistakes. The faculties which
produce feelings, constitute only one part of our
nature ; the other part is intellectual, and the
feelings work in darkness if not enlightened by
the understanding.
Intellectual education too, is frequently miscon-
ducted from ignorance of human nature. The
basis, however, of the direction of intellect is the
same as that of feelings. A plurality of intellec-
tual powers exists, and they are possessed in dif-
ferent degrees of strength by different individuals.
The reflective faculties are essential to our moral
conduct in every situation ; and are necessary to
form clear conceptions in all intellectual opera-
tions, while the perceptive faculties are applicable
only to certain kinds of employment. The reflec r
tive powers then should be exercised in every in-
dividual,
202 EDUCATION OF MAN.
I have already repeated, that all our learning
ought to be useful, and that we should obtain po-
sitive notions instead of mere signs, which convey
no meaning. Indeed no one has excelled, nor
will excel, as a deep thinker, as a great minister,
general, lawyer, physician, or moralist, merely
because he is a good classical scholar. Great
men are no doufet frequently skilled in the clas-
sics; and it would certainly be astonishing, if
their natural capacities, which enabled them to
become great, did not enable them also to become
good Latin scholars, seeing that they are obliged
to spend more time and labour in learning Latin
than in any other pursuit. But it should never
be forgotten, that the talent for learning artificial
signs is a primitive one, and that it may or may
not be combined in any individual with a great
endowment of other intellectual powers, and
hence that it is wrong to consider it as the stan-
dard of understanding in general. It is high
time, says Dr. RUSH, (Essays Literary, Moral,
and Philosophical. Phil. 1806.) to distinguish
between a philosopher and a scholar, between
things and words. We may be good scholars,
and know nothing of man and things. A mere
scholar can call a horse or a cow by different
names, but he frequently knows nothing of the
qualities and uses of these valuable animals. ""A
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 203
boy of eight years old, with the Latin grammar in
his hand, asked his father who made the Latin
language, and for what it was made? Another
boy, of eleven years of age, wished he had not
been born, because of the trouble which he found
in learning Latin." It is certain, as Dr. RUSH
also says, that many sprightly boys, of excellent
capacities for useful knowledge, have been so
disgusted with the dead languages, as to retreat
from the drudgery of schools to low company,
whereby they have become bad members of so-
ciety.
The exclusive study of the ancient languages
has retarded the progress of the arts and sciences.
Whoever takes an interest in their improvement
must declare against it. Philology ought to be
considered as a particular branch of instruction,
in the same way as Chemistry, Botany, &c. Use-
ful and practical knowledge ought to be the prin-
cipal object of intellectual education. During the
time we spend in learning the words in which
VIRGIL delivers the erroneous opinion, that bees
originate from putrefaction, we might learn, with
greater advantage, the natural history, treatment,
and usefulness of this insect itself. In countries
where vines are planted, it is more useful to teach
children how to cultivate them, and how to make
204 EDUCATION OF MAN.
wine, than the expression which HORACE em-
ploys to inform us, that he liked a good glass of
wine. Instead of learning Mythology in Latin
and Greek, we had better make ourselves ac-
quainted with the history of the different religious
creeds, and of true Christianity, by reading in our
mother-tongue. Of what use is it to us to know
what words the Greeks used when they spoke,
since we never converse in Greek ?
Intellectual education may be divided into
General and Professional ; and in both respects
the pupils may be subdivided into several classes,
not according to age and time, but according to
the objects to be taught, and those to be learnt ;
for, in point of fact, some children learn double
what others do in a given time, and succeed better
in one branch than in another. They should
remain in each class as long as, and no longer
than, is necessary to acquire sufficient knowledge
of the branch there taught. There should be one
professor for each branch, and each class should
be conducted according to the plan of mutual in-
struction.
->
I have already laid it down as a fundamental
rule, that no sign should be employed without its
meaning is explained, and that children should be
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 205
constantly admonished, that they use artificial
signs as means of communication or recollection,
and that sensations, feelings, notions and reflec-
tions, precede, and can be acquired only by, the
activity of the faculties themselves.
I reckon the knowledge of as many objects and
beings as possible, viz. of the three kingdoms of
natural history, of their physical and chemical
qualities, of the vital phenomena, of history, geo-
graphy, geology, and cosmography, of anthropo-
logy, the mother-tongue, printed and written signs,
calculation, and, finally, moral and religious prin-
ciples, to be essential to a general intellectual
education.
Elementary ideas, or outlines of these objects,
are sufficient for children ; but during the college
education, these branches are to be extended and
detailed, but always taught by the way of mutual
instruction.
It is a common complaint that arts and sciences
do not improve as much as might be wished for.
This proves at least that education does not pro-
duce talents ; but I think, on the other hand, that
Nature has given many capacities which educa-
tion suppresses. If, for instance, a boy who has
206 EDUCATION OF MAN.
little talent for learning Latin, but great inclina-
tion to draw, will, whenever the master turns his
eyes away, exercise his natural bias, he will, when
perceived, at least be scolded. The consequence
will be, that at the end he will know but very
little Latin, while his innate talent of drawing
has been prevented from being exercised. In this
way many children are punished for cultivating
their natural gifts, and their intellectual education
is impeded. How different would every one be,
were he brought up according to his natural
endowments. It is really the greatest misfortune
for mankind to educate children and youth in an
indiscriminate manner ; and we may say, that in
consequence of absurd views in the selection of
the objects taught, and in the manner of teaching,
learning has hitherto been tiresome, unprofitable,
and even disgusting in no ordinary degree.
The mistakes committed are particularly great
in professional education. It is a lamentable
truth, that few persons stand in the situations for
which nature particularly fitted them. This sol-
dier ought to have been a clergyman ; that clergy-
man a soldier ; and here we see a shoemaker who
was intended for a poet ; and there an advocate
who was designed for a shoemaker. The first
indication of improvement in this respect will
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 207
appear, when human nature shall be better under-
stood ; it will be known that there are natural
gifts, that these gifts are different ; that precepts
and rules neither bring forth talents nor moral
conduct; that none should be promoted to the
degree of a leading man, who is not fit for the
station, and that he who is fit for one place is not
on that account necessarily fit for all others.
There is an example on record, which proves
the importance of employing every one according
to his talents. The society of the Jesuits rose in
a short time to an extraordinary height and in-
fluence. Several causes contributed to this result;
but the principal one certainly was, that they were
employed in conducting education, distinguished
the genius of their pupils, chose for their order
only those who excelled in talents, and employed
each individual according to his natural disposi-
tions. No society will acquire an equal influence
that expects to do so from teaching alone.
Moreover, their regulations were calculated to
contribute to their excellence. They were under
a leading general, who nominated without con-
trol all functionaries of the order, and could
remove them at pleasure. To him the reports of
208 EDUCATION OF MAN.
the subordinate societies were submitted. These
reports were minute and circumstantial in the
highest degree, containing exact information of
the characters of the novices, and professed mem-
bers, their talents, dispositions, and prevailing
tendencies, and, above all, their knowledge of
human nature, and experience in affairs. Thus,
the general could appoint to each man his station
and his reward, could elevate and degrade, ex-
clude and retain, and allot the chief duties to the
highest abilities.
I am far from defending this society and its
tendencies. I argue only in favour of their sa-
gacity, in employing every member according to
his abilities.
If every one were employed according to his
natural gifts, a double advantage would result:
arts and sciences would be cultivated with more
success, and many persons would be better pleased
with their station in life. It is certain, that it is
not always the profession to which we are forced
by circumstances, that makes us happy. Many
would be satisfied with a smaller income, if they
were allowed to follow their natural bias. Even
people of independent fortune are still dependent
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 209
on the general arrangement of education. They
are drilled for years, and soon forget that which
they learned by compulsion.
The second error of professional education is,
that we are plagued with a great deal of useless
knowledge, while the most important objects are
overlooked. Of what use is poetry or mathe-
matics to a clergyman, while his attention is
scarcely called to human nature, and to the or-
ganic conditions on which the manifestations of
the mind depend? None of the unprofitable
studies ought to be compulsory. Yet as every
kind of knowledge is useful, no branch of it
should be neglected, and therefore Latin and
Greek might, with propriety, continue to be
taught, if we make it requisite for those only to
learn them who have the inclination to do so, or
whose professions require such knowledge. No
one can v learn every thing, and it is wrong to
oblige pupils to learn that which is useless in
their practical situation in life.
The third error of professional as well as of
general education, consists in the method of teach-
ing. It has been examined in the preceding
pages, and I mention it once more for the sake of
connection. Children learn languages without
p
210 EDUCATION OF MAN.
ideas, and natural history by mere descriptions ;
and those who teach them in this manner, if they
think at all about the matter, must proceed on the
belief that every word communicated necessarily
excites, in the mind of the pupil, the idea which
they mean it to convey. This, however, is an
extravagant error ; for words can excite only ideas
already acquired, and if no previous ideas have
been formed, they are mere unmeaning sounds.
The same error is committed in professional edu-
cation. In the study of medicine, for instance,
we are frequently told a great deal about various
diseases ; of external appearances ; of different
conditions of the pulse or skin, &c. before we see
such things in nature. The result is, that the
time and labour we spend in acquiring such
theoretical knowledge are, in a great measure,
lost. Let us first see Nature, and then hear
descriptions. A medical student, who has never
seen a patient, but studied the theory of diseases,
will be as little acquainted with them as with mi-
nerals of which he has only read the descriptions.
Thus, in the study of medicine, it is not only
wrong to compel the students, as is the case at
certain universities, to learn the auxiliary sciences
in detail, such as mineralogy, botany, zoology
and chemistry, since a perfect and practical
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 211
knowledge of each of these branches would re-
o
quire several years ; but it is also a great error to
begin with theoretical lectures.
Moreover, the individual branches of medical
education are too much separated. The instruc-
tion begins commonly with anatomy, without the
pupil being taught to think of the use of any par-
ticular part. At certain universities, they spend
the greater part of the time in studying osteology
and myology, (the knowledge of the bones and
muscles) ; they must learn the name of each bony
ridge and edge; but may hurry over, with very
superficial notions of the viscera and nerves, which
certainly are more important to medical practi-
tioners in general than those of the bones ; whilst
operative surgeons alone stand in need of a very
exact knowledge of the bones and bloodvessels.
Physiology and anatomy ought never to be
separated from each other : the structure will be
learned with more ease and pleasure when at the
same time its uses are taught. On the other hand,
students ought to begin with the more necessary
functions, and go on to those of less importance.
When well acquainted with anatomy and physio-
logy, they ought to see patients, and the different
morbid symptoms ; they should learn to distin-
p2
212 EDUCATION OF MAN.
guish diseases, to become attentive to modifications
according to age, temperament, climate, season,
and manner of living, and to learn the mode of
treatment. Being instructed in this practical way,
they will feel an interest in studying the Materia
Medica, or the substances used out of the three
kingdoms of nature, and also the chemical prepa-
rations and doses.
When human nature shall be better understood,
and the primitive faculties of the mind, and the
conditions of their manifestations, more perfectly
known, professional education will be better regu-
lated, and we shall then no longer be obliged to
learn merely for the school, or, as we commonly
say, for the examinations. We shall then acquire
only practical knowledge, and no one will find it
necessary to begin his own plan of useful learn-
ing when he has finished his studies at the univer-
sity. Indeed, nothing can be more tedious for
students, than to attend ex officio lectures of mere
theoretical schoolmen.
Here the qualifications of teachers might be
considered with propriety ; they are certainly of
great importance, but it is not my intention to
speak of them. Pupils are well aware, that great
abuses are committed in this respect; that it is'
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 213
not always the most worthy who fills the chair.
I merely notice, that there is a difference between
the possessing of knowledge and the capacity of
communicating it to others, and that some persons
of more knowledge are sometimes less skilful in
teaching, than others of less information, in the
same way as the best students of theoretical
knowledge have not always the most practical
skill.
The common method of teaching arts is not
better than that of cultivating sciences. Let us
suppose, for the sake of example, that those only
who have natural talents apply themselves to
drawing, painting, and the arts of imitation, but
we may ask, how are they generally taught?
They are too frequently confined to copying the
antiques as the only models of beauty and perfec-
tion, instead of representing and imitating nature.
In this way artists will be only copyists, and
never can acquire any claim to originality. On
the other hand, the ancients had no exclusive
privilege of genius, nor did they necessarily ex-
haust all the sources of excellence, so as to leave
to posterity no resource but to copy them. On
the contrary, there are many antiques that have
no merit but their age. The only criterion, then,
of greater or less perfection in works of art, is
214 EDUCATION OF MAN.
their resemblance to nature. Now, if the ancients
have brought forth masterpieces in imitating na-
ture, why should not modern artists do the same,
since nature, though infinite in her modifications,
is constant in her laws ? Let us imitate the me-
thod of the ancient artists, but not copy their
productions. They represented nature, and imi-
tated her varieties ; they gave to each strong hero,
strong muscles, yet different in proportion and
size, just as we find in nature ; why should our
artists copy only the statue of HERCULES, in order
to indicate bodily strength ? Why should they in
general confine themselves only to one and the
same configuration and attitude for particular per-
sonages? All musicians might be equally, and,
with the same right, requested to follow only
the productions of one or several great com-
posers ; and all music which is not like that of
HANDEL, MOZART or HAYDN, be declared to be
good for nothing.
Even on the supposition that education, in all
its details, is well understood, and its principles
practised, still there will be but a few individuals,
who will unite all the faculties necessary to such
or such a situation. The individual painters will
be rare, who possess in a high degree the facul-
ties of Constructiveness, Configuration, Size, Co-
DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 215
louring, Imitation, Individuality, Comparison, and
Causality. The same difficulty of uniting the
necessary fundamental faculties together prevails
in all arts, sciences and professions. In every
one there are and will be individuals endowed
with one or several of the necessary gifts ; but it
seldom happens that all the faculties are united
in an eminent degree in one person. The combi-
nations of the primitive powers are innumerable,
and form the proper subject of a particular trea-
tise on talents and characters.
The reader will keep in mind, that in this vo-
lume, I intend merely to expose the fundamental
principles according to which education is to be
regulated, and the human race perfected. The
peculiar applications are without end. The two
following chapters, however, one on the education
of both sexes, and the other on that of nations,
seem to me particularly interesting. Yet there
too the general principles remain the same, but
their application is to be modified, and adapted
to the peculiarities of sexes and nations.
216
CHAPTER V.
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES.
THE question, whether both sexes are to be edu-
cated differently, or in the same manner, and
placed in different or in the same situations in
practical life, has been, and is still differently an-
swered. Women call men usurpers and tyrants ;
and these, on the contrary, boast of natural and
positive rights of superiority. I shall consider,
in the first place, in a general way, the condition
of women as it was, and as it is, and then exa-
mine what natural claims they have to equality.
Their education is to be regulated according to
the determination of the latter point.
The condition of women is very miserable among
barbarous nations; they are slaves. Wherever
bodily strength and animal feelings predominate,
they are sadly off. They are purchased, and di-
vorce is permitted. The Jews were privileged to
divorce their wives, (Deut. xxiv.)
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 217
Among civilized nations, as long as the code of
morality is dictated by the lower feelings, females
are looked on as means of gratifying the selfish
passions of men. The ancient Greeks and the
European nations, during the dark ages, treated
them with every indignity. Polygamy is inti-
mately connected with the custom of purchasing
wives. It prevailed originally every where, and
exists still in many countries. In China, the wives
are sold at marriages, and not permitted to make
any choice of their own. By polygamy, however,
some men usurp the right of others, a custom
which is contrary to nature, since more boys are
born than girls; or are we authorized to admit
that the contrary happens in Asia? The pure
spirit of Christianity abolished this odious prac-
tice, and re-established the primitive law of the
CREATOR.
The female sex has risen by a slow ' progress
to higher and higher degrees of estimation in
Europe. Females are respected wherever moral
feelings are esteemed. Where this is the case,
they are valued as friends ; but still they are
either considered as weak and delicate creatures,
and assisted, since it is thought a duty to com-
passionate and to succour the feeble, or they are
treated as simple and useful housewives.
218 EDUCATION OF MAN.
Where a taste for beautiful forms and elegance
of manners prevails, the females are considered
as agreeable companions, and often become mis-
tresses.
Women are best treated, when polite manners
and moral feelings are cultivated. Then they live
with men under the decent form of matrimony.
Their gentle and insinuating manners are highly
appreciated, and they are considered as intimate
and faithful friends.
Yet there is no society where the two sexes
stand altogether in an equal situation. Is this
difference founded on nature, or the result of the
selfishness of men ? Women speak of vindicating
their natural rights ; they call it tyranny to deny
them a share in civil and political affairs, to force
them to remain immured in their families, &c.
MARY WOLSTONCROFT has taken great pains to
show, that both sexes are by nature equal. She
was obliged to admit the actual inferiority of her
sex ; but still she endeavoured to prove, that
women are degraded only by want of education,
and by external circumstances ; and that men,
through jealousy, purposely neglect the cultiva-
tion of girls. Male writers, on the contrary,
maintain, that nature has made the two sexes
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 219
different, though concordant, so as to produce
together a delicious harmony; that she has pre-
pared them for their future destinations, by a par-
ticular modification of feelings and intellectual
faculties given to each, and avoided rivalship
between them, by giving them different disposi-
tions.
It is to be understood, that I do not speak of
single individuals. There are women who re-
semble men, and vice versa. MARY WOLSTON-
CROFT speaks of her own manner of feeling and
thinking, which resembled that of a man. She
contends particularly for the power of generaliz-
ing ideas, of drawing comprehensive conclusions
from individual observations, a power which
seems to her the only requisite of an immortal
being; a power which is commonly denied to
women, and often considered as inconsistent with
the female character. I allow that this power
exists in some women stronger than in many men ;
but MARY WOLSTONCROFT would accuse herself,
and speak against her sex, if she would draw ge-
neral inferences from her own individual feelings.
As I am of the decided opinion, that the two
sexes, in the actual state of things, are naturally
different in their dispositions, I shall contrast
220 EDUCATION OF MAN.
them in a summary view. They possess essen-
tially the same powers of mind, the whole differ-
ence consists in the degrees in which they have
them.
The form of the female body is rounded, and
indicates rather delicacy and beauty than strength
and solidity. "Let us be allowed," says MARY
WOLSTONCROFT, " to take the same exercise as
boys, not only during infancy, but also during
youth, and we shall arrive at the same perfection
of body." I admit, that in girls, confined to
close rooms, and prohibited from taking sufficient
exercise, the muscles are relaxed, and the diges-
tive powers destroyed. It would certainly be ad-
visable to take the greatest care of the bodily
constitution, and to adopt a manner of living
which would secure females against the immense
train of nervous complaints that afflict them under
the present system ; but I am also fully convinced,
that although the same physical education were
given to the muscular system of both sexes, each
woulcj preserve its peculiarities, because the func-
tions, those at least which characterize the sex,
are different in each. Country people furnish a
certain proof of the truth of this assertion, boys
and girls are brought up in the same way, but it
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 221
is superfluous to say which sex is the strongest,
and which has recourse to the other when mus-
cular strength is required.
Farther, women are exposed to many little dis-
orders unknown to the male sex. In fulfilling
their duty as mothers, they are exposed to great
sufferings, and causes of weakness. Mankind is
treated in this, as in many other respects, like all
viviparous animals. Though the manner of living
be the same in both sexes, the females are smaller
and weaken than the males.
Some of the feelings necessary to the preserva-
tion of the species are stronger in men, and others
of them stronger in women. In animals, the male
pursues, the female yields, and so it is in man-
kind. Among all nations men court, and women
are courted. As to the love of offspring, the two
sexes shew a decided difference. Female child-
ren delight to dress and undress a baby, to take
every possible care of a doll, to get an infant in
their arms, to carry it, to sing and to walk about,
staggering under the weight. Boys seldom think
of such a pastime. They have more inclination
to noisy amusements, to run about, to ride upon
a stick by way of a horse; they delight in a
top, a ball, a drum, &c. Since the 'suckling mo-
222 EDUCATION OF MAN.
ther must stay with the child, and provide for its
wants, nature has taken care that she should be
pleased with doing so. Indeed many mothers
have this feeling too strong, they cannot manage
their children properly ; they spoil them, become
unjust towards other persons on their account,
and sacrifice truth and every thing for their sake.
This is seldom the case with fathers ; they are
commonly obliged to inflict the deserved punish-
ments, and to be the judges in all disputes.
MARY WOLSTONCROFT denies, that women
from birth, independently of education, have a
fondness for dolls. She quotes her own feelings,
and ventures to affirm, that the doll will never
excite the attention of a girl, unless confinement
allows her no alternative. " Girls and boys," says
she, " would play harmlessly together, if the dis-
tinction of sex were not inculcated long before
nature makes any difference." MARY WOL-
STONCROFT is very wrong to take herself as the
standard of her sex, while general observations
show, that throughout nature the love of offspring
is stronger in females than in males.
Another feeling more energetic in women than
in men, is Attachment. This feeling is not the
result of their weak state, but is given by nature.
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 223
Many women have sacrificed to it their happiness
and welfare. Females commonly wish to possess,
exclusively, the friendship of others, and often
complain of the want of friendship in men, since
they are not so exclusively governed by it. The
circumstance of this feeling being so energetic
and prevailing in women, is an additional motive
why seduction should be more severely punished.
I fear that many legislators wink at this crime,
from the circumstance of their not being them-
selves so prone to strong attachments as women.
There are still some other feelings more active
in women than in men, which essentially enter
into the formation of the female character. It is,
however, difficult to say whether they contribute
to their happiness, since it often happens, that, if
they be not satisfied, they become sources of un-
happiness to them.
One of the most prevailing sentiments of fe-
males is the Love of Approbation. They show it
from their earliest infancy in dressing, walking,
speaking, &c. &c. They are constantly desirous
of knowing what others say of them; they are
fond of distinctions of every kind, of decorations
and external show. Young girls, who are scarcely
capable of understanding what is said of them,
224 EDUCATION OF MAN.
may be governed by talking to them of what
other people think of their behaviour. This mo-
tive has not the same effect with boys. Many
females are intoxicated by the love of approba-
tion, they cannot distinguish true merit from false
flattery, nay, they would be pleased with adora-
tion. They try to make impressions on others by
various means. Some would suffer pain in order
to be pitied, rather than remain unnoticed.
No man will object indiscriminately against
the feeling which causes a desire of pleasing ; it
is the source of many pleasures in society ; but
its too great activity, combined with some other
sentiments, and not directed by reflection, makes
many women weak and fastidious, or mere ob-
jects of amusement, by their pretty nothings and
infantine airs. It is still worse, if such fine
ladies be full of capricious fancies. Females
who are governed only by this feeling, will re-
main alluring objects for a moment, but they
will not obtain a durable interest in the affec-
tions of a sensible man. It follows, that the
sentiment of the love of approbation being in
general too strong in women, does not stand in
need of being exercised; it only requires to be
directed.
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 225
Females naturally have less courage than men,
and more circumspection. Fear, therefore, ought
not to be cherished in them ; but it ought to be
treated as cowardice. To fear a cat, a mouse, an
insect, a little noise, &c. is irrational, looks infantine,
and indicates altogether a false susceptibility of
mind, or a too great nervous irritability. The
ardour with which some females amuse them-
selves in hunting, shooting, and gaming, appears,
on the other hand, equally objectionable. In short,
while coarseness in females is to be avoided ; de-
licacy and refinement of taste must not be con-
founded with weakness.
The conduct of females, in general, is unstable ;
their opinions are often wavering; they think too
much of incidental occurrences ; of actual events ;
they wish to enjoy immediately; are moved by
momentary impressions ; do not like to work for a
future period; while men have more frequently
the end in view. Females undertake many things ;
they are warm by fits and starts, but their warmth
is soon exhausted.
Indeed, hitherto the greatest enemies of the
female sex reside in their own feelings. Many
civilized women please, rather than inspire with
respect. They prefer alluring manners to perma-
Q
226 EDUCATION OF MAN.
nent friendship. Many are charming, romantic,
vain, or fine sentimental ladies. They are occu-
pied with trifling things, mere beings of sensi-
bility and pleasure, refined by novels, poetry, and
gallantry ; but they should never forget, that they
will always be considered as insignificant when
they wish only to be fine ladies, and not to fulfil
the duties which nature has assigned to them.
o
Thus, the feelings and their combinations in
women, tend much to make them dependent.
To be independent, it is not sufficient to be en-
dowed with the feeling of duty and justice as
principal motive ; these must also be combined
with indifference about the opinion of others
when unjust, with courage and perseverance, in
order to resist difficulties and obstacles, and to
attend only to the aim, and to think of the ne-
cessary means.
In order to understand perfectly the great
phenomenon observed at all times, that one half
of the human species has excluded the other half
from all participation in government, it is neces-
sary to compare also the understanding of the
two sexes.
.
The intellectual faculties, though, like the feel-
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 227
ings, essentially the same in both sexes, are widely
different in power in the two, and men undoubt-
edly enjoy the superiority. I by no means say,
that women are made to be the toys of men, much
less their slaves ; and I wish that their under-
standing may be more cultivated than it usually
is. But whoever will attend to female education,
will find that they acquire many notions of indi-
vidual things ; that they excel in the recitation
of anecdotes and descriptions of manners, in the
epistolary style ; that they are admirable in de-
tails, but dwell on effects, without tracing them
back to their causes. In arts and sciences fe-
males rarely show themselves masters, they most
commonly remain apprentices. Those female au-
thors who defend their sex, maintain that their
education is neglected, and that on this account
alone they are inferior, for they are all obliged to
admit the actual inferiority of the fair sex. Yet
there can be no doubt that more girls than boys
learn music, drawing, and painting, and that
many females cultivate these arts exclusively.
Why then, we may ask, do their compositions so
rarely equal those of men ? Whenever great com-
binations, deep reflection, discrimination, and ge-
neral abstraction are required, when principles
and laws are to be established, females in general
remain behind.
Q 2
228 EDUCATION OF MAN.
Thus, there is a natural difference between the
two sexes, not in the number, but in the degrees
of the primitive powers of the mind. Some are
stronger in women, others stronger in men, and
both sexes seem to be destined to different oc-
cupations in society. Indeed no education will
change the nature of the innate dispositions. Let,
then, each sex, and each individual, be cultivated
and employed in those things for which he is fit.
The claim to justice is equal in man and woman ;
their duties only are different. Females are not
destined in any circumstances to be slaves, or
mere patient drudges, nor are their duties limited
to those of chaste wives and good managers of
their families only ; women are required also to
direct the education of their children, and to be
agreeable and intelligent companions to their
husbands. Let their understandings, then, be
cultivated by useful knowledge ; by the study of
the human mind, and the principles of education,
and of their duties in the direction of their fami-
lies ; let their intellect be improved by the study
of history and of arts and sciences. Girls com-
monly learn only objects of secondary importance,
mere accomplishments ; and hence, when they
arrive at the age of being united to a husband,
they are seldom capable of supporting permanent
friendship, by the elevation of their minds, and
EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 229
t
the steady practice of the domestic virtues. They
do not know how to guide themselves, and still
less their offspring, their servants, and household
affairs. Indeed, if the fair sex go on as they
have done hitherto, they cannot repine that they
have no share in political concerns. If their
minds do not take a more serious and more solid
turn, they may govern in drawing-rooms, where
delicate feelings and polite manners are attended
to, but they will have no permanent influence on
society at large.
I beg leave, 1 however, to repeat, that I admit
individual exceptions, and speak only of the sex
in general. I even think, that legislators are
wrong to take it for granted, that the intellect of
men is, in every case, superior to that of women.
Some females contribute more than their husbands
to the fortune of the family : Is it then not unjust
to permit the husband to spend what the wife has
gained, and to deprive her of power, when, in
point of fact, she might manage affairs to the ad-
vantage of her family and of herself?
I, however, cannot perceive any arrangement
of nature that can lead me to expect, that women
will cease soon to be considered as subordinate
to men. Let them endeavour, if they please, to
230 EDUCATION OF MAN.
acquire the same degree of talent, energy, and
perseverance ; but, till they have acquired it, let
them cherish order, and exercise the virtues of their
actual condition in society, rather than attempt to
rise into a sphere for which they are not at pre-
sent fitted.
CHAPTER VI.
EDUCATION OF NATIONS.
THE first idea that presents itself in this Chapter,
is to inquire who, according to the laws of the
CREATOR, is intrusted with national education,
this being taken in the most extensive signification
of the word. In treating of the education of child-
ren, I took it for granted, that parents are their
natural protectors and leaders, and that they ought
to consider it their duty, to favour the happiness of
their progeny. On the other hand, parents, being
free agents, are to be declared answerable for
their influence on their offspring.
Nations and governments are often compared,
the former with children, and the latter with pa-
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 231
rents. The analogy, however, is very inaccurate,
nations never owing their existence to their go-
vernors. This comparison is further objection-
able, since nations always provide for the living
of their rulers. It seems therefore more reason-
able to think, that individuals unite under deter-
minate conditions for the sake of the common
good ; and submit, on that account, to an ap-
pointed leader or director. But who could fancy
that this submission can be agreed to at the ex-
pense of the general welfare? The sovereignty
of nations seems evidently to be a law of the
CREATOR, and will be acknowledged in propor-
tion as men become intelligent and virtuous.
Yet, let us suppose what governors like to per-
suade mankind : that they exist by the grace of
GOD, viz. allowing this to be in the same way as
every arrangement is made, and every kind of
order is established by the will of the CREATOR ;
but let us add the question, whether GOD, the
Father of all, according to reason and Chris-
tianity, could establish civil and religious govern-
ments for the sake of any absolute power and
private pleasure, independent of general happi-
ness? Reason says, that wherever there is a
community, its aim can be the public good alone.
This principle prevails as regards families, tribes,
232 EDUCATION OF MAN.
nations and mankind at large. Christianity
teaches the same doctrine. JESUS CHRIST, in-
stead of assigning privileges to his disciples, abo-
lished all personal supremacy and prerogatives.
" Ye know, "said he, " that the princes of the Gen-
tiles exercise dominion over them, and they that
are great exercise authority upon them ; But it
shall not be so among you, but whosoever will be
great among you, let him be your minister, and
whosoever will be chief among you, let him be
your servant." (Matt, xx.) " The disciples had dis-
puted among themselves who should be the great-
est; and he sat down, and called the twelve, and
said unto them, If any man desire to be the first,
the same shall be the last of all and servant of
all." (Mark ix.) He ordered them to be peace-
able, humble, charitable, and satisfied with their
daily bread. The following text, " Render unto
Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto
GOD the things that are GOD'S," (Matt, xxii.)
commonly quoted to prove that Christianity is not
against absolute rulers, bears, in my opinion, a
more sound interpretation than is commonly given
to it. CHRIST imposed upon his followers a new
code of morality, Tvhich was the will of his hea-
venly Father, and incumbent on all his disciples,
Jews and Gentiles : one of its great command-
ments, applicable to all members, is to love our
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 233
neighbour as ourselves. Now, I doubt, whether
common sense can allow privileges compatible
with such a doctrine? If we maintain that JESUS
CHRIST sanctioned absolute power, because he
did not interfere with it; it may be said, with
equal propriety, that he sanctioned every state of
things, he did not mention. Is it not a natural
consequence of his doctrine, that those who follow
it, change their former manner of living, and
abandon the abuses of preceding ages? at all
events, even those who consider GOD as the true
legislator, and themselves as the directors ap-
pointed by his special grace, must acknowledge
that the aim of Christianity is the general happi-
ness of mankind, and that all notions opposed to
that cause, must be abandoned.
The reader, then, may easily suppose, that I
do not intend to examine the means favourable to
governments, in order to dispose nations to be sa-
tisfied with the good pleasure of their rulers, to
keep them in ignorance and poverty, to force
them to passive obedience, and employ them to
mere selfish purposes, in short, to enslave them ;
on the contrary, my object is evidently to speak
of the means which may enable governments to
fulfil the only reasonable and moral destination of
their existence. I take it for granted, that general
234 EDUCATION OF MAN.
welfare is the object of national education, and go
at once to the inquiry how this is to be obtained.
In national education as in that of individuals,
the same principles prevail. Those who wish to
contribute to this great work must always remem-
ber, first, that they cannot create, but are confined
to the laws of the Creator ; hence, that they can
produce certain effects only under conditions ;
secondly, that the faculties of the mind are innate,
and that their manifestations depend on the cere-
bral organization ; thirdly, that the special facul-
ties of the mind are essentially the same, but more
or less active in different nations; fourthly, that
man acts from feelings rather than from intellect ;
and finally, that the feelings in themselves are
blind, and that their actions must be regulated
by reason. Convinced of these principles, they
may endeavour to increase or diminish the acti-
vity of the individual powers, and direct them
towards the aim of society.
With respect to the general preliminary prin-
ciples of national as well as individual education,
I refer to my other publications, where these
points are examined with details; even in treating
of the means necessary to obtain the desired effect
of national education I may be short, since they
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 235
are the same as those explained in the preceding
chapters.
Among the means of improvement, propagation
occupies the first place, and crossing the breed is
the surest way of changing races. Foreign in-
vaders, who intermarried with the old inhabitants,
have greatly contributed to change the character
of different nations ; and new settlers who mix
with the natives will be of greater effect than all
sorts of other regulations. The northern pro-
vinces of Ireland are inhabited by Scotch, and by
a mixed race of Scotch and the primitive inha-
bitants ; their character is known to be different
from that of the Leinster people, and their cerebral
organization is not less so. Tribes, by attending
to the laws of hereditary descent during several
generations, might be modified with greater cer-
tainty than by theoretical instruction in reading
and writing, by hearing sermons and repeating
prayers. Granted that governments have no right
to force nations, except in conformity with the
established laws ; they may, however, if they
really mind the welfare of the people, inculcate
the natural laws of hereditary descent, and find
various ways to favour their practice. Careless
tribes ought to intermarry with cautious persons ;
fearful with courageous ; gloomy with gay, &c.
236 EDUCATION OF MAtf.
Natural morality and Christianity command na-
tions to live in peace, and by crossing their blood,
their faculties of body and mind may be strength-
ened and improved. The principle, Make the
tree good and it will bring forth good fruit, is
undeniable.
Thus, the knowledge of the laws of hereditary
descent being the first and surest means of im-
proving nations, deserves the attention of legisla-
tors and governors : it embraces the conditions of
innate strength of body and mind ; the causes of
degeneration ; the propagation of hereditary dis-
eases ; the number of inhabitants, or population ;
and the regulation of marriages. A military go-
vernment, that institutes the conscription, such
as it existed in France under the reign of
Buonaparte, that carries on war for several
generations, and distributes all the honours only
to soldiers, is the greatest curse to a nation.
Degeneration will be unavoidable, since all the
better heads are sacrificed and the inferior allowed
to propagate. On the other hand, when all infe-
rior moral and intellectual organizations are em-
ployed as soldiers, and prohibited from marrying,
the military line may be very useful to society.
Hence, if standing armies be necessary, take up in
preference those who enlist from laziness and dis-
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 237
orderly habits, and who are under the influence
of the lower propensities.
I think it necessary to add, that it is by no
means my intention to degrade the military pro-
fession ; I acknowledge its usefulness and merit
in time of necessity, as in a war of defence
against foreign aggression. I even admit, that in
order to resist with vigour, every member of the
community should be exercised in the use of
arms, and be obliged to defend his country in
case of attack. The number of degenerated
brains will always be small in proportion to the
great bulk of the nation ; they will be easily kept
in order, partly by the regular behaviour and
good example of their companions, partly by the
severe laws of military discipline. Their number
will also diminish by degrees, when all the princi-
ples of national education shall be practised. The
great weight I lay on this proceeding depends on
the means of purifying the race, by preventing
the inferior organizations from propagating. The
transportation of degenerated subjects may also be
of great benefit to the mother country.
The next object of national education concerns
what is commonly styled physical education, or
the regulation of the vegetative functions. It in-
238 EDUCATION OF MAN.
eludes the salubrity of air and light, cleanliness,
food, clothing, bodily exercise, in short, corporeal
health and strength, these being indispensable
conditions to personal happiness and public use-
fulness.
In this respect, too, a good deal more than ge-
nerally is might be done ; in taking for granted
that governments never act from selfish views, but
always with the intention to favour the public
good, since they are aware that they themselves
die, whilst their nation continues and may be
everlasting, and that therefore they calculate their
measures not for momentary advantages, but for
permanent results. This latter point, however,
is too often neglected, though it is a characteristic
sign of greatness in a legislator, if his regulations
be lasting, viz. adapted to nature and her manifes-
tations.
The preservation of bodily health and strength
is of greater importance than legislators commonly
imagine, and its neglect during several generations
may greatly contribute to the fall of a nation.
Overgrown towns, capitals in general, after several
centuries, would die out, if the inhabitants were
not renewed by people from the country. In the
same way whole nations may be weakened by va-
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 239
rious causes : they may degenerate, lose their
energy, grow old, as it is commonly expressed,
and become incapable to resist foreign invaders.
Hence, whatever besides the innate dispositions of
the body and mind, concerns the salubrity of habi-
tations, the purity of air in the streets and houses,
food, cleanliness, bodily exercise, &c. belongs to
the scope of legislation. This chapter is vast,
and includes every point conducive to health and
strength.
In this as in any other respect, nations, like
children, do not always understand what is the
most advantageous to them. They are too often
satisfied with temporary amusements, and neglect
the conditions of permanent happiness. Legisla-
tors, therefore, be they hereditary and permanent,
or chosen and temporary, might and ought to lead
the community, and prepare their happiness, in the
same way as parents provide for children.
The views which governments entertain of their
right to interfere with the personal liberty of the
people, are sometimes very singular. They often
show indifference about things which do harm to
individuals and to the whole of the nation, and
punish as crimes disorders which are of little con-
sequence. They may wink at debauchery, drunk-
240 EDUCATION OF MAN.
enness, gluttony, luxury, &c. and bestow the right
of hunting as a privilege ; they fix the quantity of
wine which may be carried from one cellar to an-
other, and inflict a penalty upon the transgressor,
but license numberless ale-houses ; they grant only
a small quantity of gunpowder to be kept in pri-
vate houses, but tolerate gaming-places and lot-
teries ; they force the individuals to be sailors or
soldiers, but have no authority to propagate vac-
cination ; they oblige medical men to study ana-
tomy, and inflict upon criminals the dissection of
their body as a punishment, Sac. ; they allow the
poor to multiply as they like, and force the rich
to nourish the poor and their progeny, &c. Who
does not perceive that they never hesitate to inter-
fere in whatever answers their own purposes,
always under the pretext of the common welfare,
but that they have no right to restrain the per-
sonal liberty in whatever is indifferent to them.
It seems to me that, among civilized nations, every
interference of the government should be allowed
which tends to the common wealth, and which is
obligatory for every member of the society. Per-
sonal exceptions are unjust, they weaken by de-
grees the force of the laws, and at last destroy
their efficacy.
The regulations concerning habitations and nou-
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 241
rishment are of prime influence. The situation
must be healthy, the air pure, its circulation free ;
hence the streets large, the houses not too high,
the abodes and walks freed of every sort of or-
dure; dunghills and filth at a certain distance
from dwelling-places and public roads. In short,
it is necessary to enjoy cleanliness of every de-
scription, and pure air in every situation.
Nourishment must be adapted to the constitu-
tion, age, occupation, climate and weather. No-
thing is wholesome or unwholesome in itself. In
northern countries, and in cold weather, animal
food is more easily digested than vegetables ;
these latter, on the contrary, agree better in the
south and in hot weather; whilst a mixture of
meat and vegetables favours best bodily strength
in temperate climates ; but whenever animal food
is well digested, it gives more strength to the
body, and then vegetables, by feeding and multi-
plying domestic animals, should be changed into
flesh, before they serve to nourish man.
Temperance and sobriety greatly invigorate the
body and mind ; intemperance and debauchery,
therefore, should be restrained by all possible
means. The natural wants are to be provided ;
and as Christians pray only for their daily bread,
R
242 EDUCATION OF MAN.
objects of refined cookery might be imposed with
enormous duty, and drunkenness considered as a
civil fault.
As bodily exercise particularly strengthens, as it
invites to sleep, and secures against great disor-
ders, it is to be generally encouraged. Gymnastic
amusements may be established for all ages and
for all classes of society.
Idleness, the great source of personal dissatis-
faction and of many faults and crimes, should be
declared a moral and civil vice, and as such pro-
hibited. Every one should be obliged to exercise
a profession ; mendicity entirely forbidden ; and
every citizen honoured in proportion as he con-
tributes to the welfare of his fellow-creatures.
Here a difficult matter presents itself concern-
ing the poor and charitable institutions. The
feelings are blind, and temporary relief of a feel-
ing may do permanent mischief. This seems too
much the case with charity. The poor are un-
doubtedly a burden to themselves and to the
community at large; I find, therefore, whatever
contributes to increase their number objectionable,
charitable institutions not excepted, since in pro-
viding alimentation for the poor they encourage
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 243
their propagation. It is not my object to examine
this matter, but I admit, with all enlightened poli-
ticians, that the number of population depends on
the means of alimentation, though it cannot be
said that the most populous countries are the most
happy. I also refer the reader to the chapter on
happiness, in my work on the Philosophical Prin-
ciples of Phrenology, to make him understand my
manner of thinking. I here confine myself to
state the reasons which induce me to blame the
obligation to provide for the poor. It is generally
unjust to force others to work for our welfare;
and if the government think it right to prevent
me from doing so with others, there is no more
right to oblige me to nourish others, or to work
for them. All donations of this kind should be
voluntary. Governments may excuse this injus-
tice by the public order and welfare, but would
they not act more prudently by removing the
causes of misery than by increasing the number
of the miserable ? As general welfare is the aim of
society, and as the poor-laws and charitable insti-
tutions augment the mass of misery, benevolent
and charitable persons will do well to reflect and
reason before they act, in order to bring their
feelings in harmony with reason. It is a well
known fact, that charitable institutions of any
kind never diminish the number of those who
R2
244 EDUCATION OF 1V/AN.
stand in need of assistance ; hence they give rise
to permanent harm. Their nature should be
changed, and it might be taken as a leading
point, that public institutions are to be abolished,
if they augment public misery, and to be encou-
raged as far as they diminish misery and establish
general happiness. Public schools where useful
knowledge is taught, institutions for blind or for
deaf and dumb, and hospitals for unforeseen acci-
dents, are of the latter kind.
As sufficient alimentation is the first condition
of our preservation, and as parents are bound by
nature to bring up their children, those who can-
not provide for a family should be prevented from
propagation. On the other hand, as idleness and
mendicity are civil faults, charitable institutions
should be houses of correction or penitentiaries.
The lazy might be confined, instructed, educated,
obliged to work, and kept till they can provide
for themselves.
Again, as many occupations in society are hurt-
ful to health, they must be superintended, parti-
cularly if youth be employed therein. Children,
for instance, brought up in factories and hot
rooms, unavoidably degenerate, and become sources
of future misery.
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 245
The consequences of idleness and poverty being
deplorable, activity and industry are to be pa-
tronized. Yet also this proceeding is not without
inconveniency. Besides the misery which attends
the working classes, in proportion as they dege-
nerate, the happiness of the families who enrich
themselves by industry and commerce is never
lasting, since riches invite to luxury, and luxury
occasions many evils of body and mind in indi-
viduals and nations. I grant that, in the actual
state of things, luxury has the advantage of bring-
ing money into circulation, and this ought to be
attended to as long as great riches are collected.
But the mischief begins if the owners spend above
their income, or if they look out for gain by every
means. In this way, a too great anxiety about
riches, as well as great poverty, do harm.
Two important ideas concerning riches may be
examined : 1 . Great wealth is neither sufficient
nor necessary to personal happiness ; and, 2.
Riches alone do not secure the duration of nations
any more than that of families.
The first idea is confirmed by daily observation.
A greater number of persons understand to make
a fortune rather than to enjoy it ; and whilst they
collect and work, they are commonly happier and
246 EDUCATION OF MAN.
more satisfied than when they give up business
and live in retirement. Personal happiness de-
pends on health, and health on temperance. Now
this virtue only requires a moderate income, which
may be procured by a moderate exertion. This
state again protracts the necessity to work, and
keeps up an essential condition of happiness,
which is no more possible without occupation
than collecting wealth without activity.
The second idea is equally certain, and con-
firmed by history. Monarchical governments,
therefore, who want a court and splendour, keep
up rich families by primogeniture, and hitherto
they endeavoured to preserve their nation by po-
verty and ignorance. The examination of this
subject belongs to political economy, a science
destined, in my opinion, to discover means not
only of collecting wealth, but of securing pro-
perty.
This object is interesting both in a moral and
political point of view ; and here we find a new
example of justice being inseparable from the
general and permanent happiness of mankind.
Rich families left to themselves degenerate. Now
is it not evidently a great injustice, that degraded
children enjoy wealth, whilst active and intelli-
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 247
gent members of society are deprived of the pos-
sibility to ameliorate their situation, as it happened
under the feudal system ? The bulk of a nation
living in that state is miserable, and the resources
of its government are exceedingly small.
On the other hand, if landed property remain
in the possession of a few families, by the law of
primogeniture, whilst others can enrich themselves
by industry and commerce, the number of inde-
pendent persons increases, welfare and comfort be-
come more general, and the pecuniary resources
of the government grow in the same proportion.
Yet the injustice of primogeniture, and most
likely the degeneration of families, will continue.
But justice is accomplished, personal happiness
procured to the greater number, and the greatest
advantage secured to the government, if all sorts
of privilege be banished, every individual allowed
to employ his talents, and to earn the profit of his
labours and to spend his property as he pleases.
Under such circumstances individuals and fami-
lies will disappear, but the nation will flourish and
last. There will be talents in abundance ; active
and intelligent citizens will collect riches, and lay
great weight in the balance of national property
and resources.
248 EDUCATION OF MAN.
Natural talents and dispositions being different,
there can be no equality except that before the
law, which is the same to all, and equally protects
the poor and the rich ; which allows to every one
the use of his powers, rewards personal merit, and
makes every transgressor answerable for the dis-
orders he commits.
Those who take interest in the duration of
public prosperity, will highly appreciate riches,
and acknowledge the great influence and power
which they bestow on their possessors, be these sin-
gle individuals or nations. But governors will find,
that, to produce the desired effect, besides riches,
many other conditions concerning body and mind
must be attended to, and just the same as are
necessary to the improvement and preservation of
individuals. They will seriously reflect on what
Lord BACON said to King JAMES, of the true
greatness of Britain, viz. that in the measuring or
balancing of greatness, there is commonly too
much ascribed to largeness of territory, to trea-
sure or riches, to the fruitfulness of the soil or
affluence of commodities, whilst the true greatness
requires a fit situation of place, and consists essen-
tially in population and breed of men, so that
every common subject should be fit to make a
soldier.
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 249
The influence of public institutions is conceived
and should be conducted according to the laws of
exercise, (as explained above, Sect. I. chap, iii.)
Institutions in order to produce effect must be
lasting ; but every sort of institution, if continued
for generations, will accustom whole nations to
certain manners of feeling and thinking, and
strengthen the special and individual powers of
the mind.
In examining this subject, the following propo-
sitions may be laid down as principles. Nations,
as well as individuals, act from feelings; feelings
do not result from intellect, nor intellect from
feelings ; and every faculty, in order to be exer-
cised, must be put into action. It may be added
that, generally speaking, the selfish feelings are
strong enough, and scarcely need any exercise,
whilst those destined to forward the public hap-
piness are commonly weak ; farther, that lessons
and sermons never suffice to root out strong feel-
ings, and seldom hinder their disorderly effects ;
finally, that natural means may be employed with
peculiar advantage, in order to increase, diminish,
or prevent the activity of any fundamental faculty.
As to the objects to be taught, two general re-
marks may be made : it is a great error to confine
250 EDUCATION OF MAN.
education to intellectual instruction ; and, secondly,
it is wrong to attend rather to theoretical than prac-
tical knowledge. Ignorance is certainly a fertile
cause of error, but society at large will derive
greater benefit from moral improvement than from
scientific acquirements. Theoretical schoolmen,
I am sorry to say, are too much attached to intel-
lectual instruction, and not enough to the progress
of moral conduct. Intellect, however, furnishes
means to gratify the animal nature, as well as the
nobler feelings of man. There should be schools
for infants, children and youth, where positive
notions of things, their usefulness and means of
improvement, are communicated by the way of
mutual instruction, and where, at the same time,
morality is shown in action and imposed as a
duty. I hope the time will come, when every
one will learn to read, to write and to cipher, in
order to be able to acquire new notions, to teach
others that which he knows, and to assist his re-
collection ; when all knowledge, extended accord-
ing to age and particular classes of society, will
be practical, from the most common notions of
household affairs and agriculture, to the deeper
conceptions of arts and to the principles of
sciences ; when, at the same time, the feelings
will be exercised and their actions regulated
according to the principles of morality ; when
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 251
nothing will be taught or learned merely for the
school, but every thing in reference to universal
happiness ; when the religious feelings will be
cultivated in every one, not by words but in
deeds, not by superstitious formalities, but in har-
mony with reason and with the intention to im-
prove the fate of mankind ; finally, when even
the animal feelings will not be neglected, but only
employed as powerful means to assist the faculties
proper to man, which alone are the aim of our
existence.
From the preceding remarks it follows, that the
principles of excitement are the same for govern-
ments as for parents. The same rule holds out
with respect to the direction and employment of
the special powers. Whatever contributes to the
general happiness must be encouraged and com-
mended, whilst the contrary is to be prevented
and forbidden. Education can neither be con-
fined to intellect, nor to the feelings, but both
sorts of powers must be exercised at the same
time, and in harmony with each other. Reason,
destitute of the assistance of feelings, remains
cold, whilst feelings without reason are blind,
and prepare numberless disorders. Even religion,
without being combined with understanding, un-
avoidably degenerates into superstition. Civil
252 EDUCATION OF MAN.
governments, who know that they are instituted
for the common welfare in this life, will proclaim
the same rules of moral conduct for every member
of the community, and tolerate every religious
opinion, provided it does not disturb peace nor
injure the rights of others. They will confine
their exertions to the actual state of society, and
not interfere in any way with the life to come ;
they will remit all conceptions of that kind to
every one's own conscience. There will be no
creed obligatory, and none will enjoy parti-
cular advantages ; in other words, there will
be no religion of state. I also think, that such
governments will consider it as right, to pay
teachers only for things which are useful to every
one, but refuse to charge the community with
expenses for knowledge which is advantageous to
single individuals alone. Spontaneous donations,
or voluntary contributions, however, may be al-
lowed to propagate knowledge of every kind,
whilst the only duty of the government remains
to protect every member of the community in his
exertions, as long as they are harmless to others,
and conformable to general justice.
Nothing but the right of the strongest, and
selfishness, can keep up the things as they com-
monly are, in contradiction with the principle
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 253
that every one should earn but the profit of his
labours, that sinecures should be abolished, and
idleness despised.
A religious reform in general seems necessary
and desirable. Very few among those who allow
themselves to reason, believe that the priesthood
has the power of sending into or excluding from
heaven. Christianity and common sense teach
that every one should do his duty, and that he
can do no more. Religious teachers, therefore,
should be considered in the same way as teachers
in languages, arts and sciences. Every one who
has talent and time might study religious ideas,
write and converse with others on them, in short,
do as he pleases, provided he conducts himself in
conformity with the principles of general morality.
Every one might read the Scriptures of Revela-
tion, and form his own opinion ; and every civil
government should follow the example of the
United States of America, and abolish priesthood
as a political body, or as a necessary division of the
government. JESUS CHRIST expressly stated, that
his kingdom was not of this world.. (John xviii. 36.)
I am aware that the sacerdocy will object to
such a reform, and do what they can to make man
believe that there is no morality without religion,
254 EDUCATION OF MAN.
and no religion without their office, and that they
deserve to be largely rewarded. I, however, can-
not help thinking, that man has been, and still is,
misled by priests, because he is naturally religious,
and that priests ascribe to their influence what be-
longs to the power of the CREATOR. The time of
what was called theocracy is over. I can, how-
ever, conceive, that where civil governments de-
cide in every respect what people are permitted
to do, religious as well as political opinions are
dictated ; but it seems natural to admit, that
where liberal principles prevail, religious and civil
liberty should go hand in hand.
My writings may prove, that the principles of
true Christianity alone satisfy my mind, but not
Christianity disfigured by popery, or by any
sacerdocy who substitute their inclinations for the
will of GOD, and declare themselves infallible;
nor Christianity that degrades the CREATOR, and
disturbs peace and general happiness. On the
other hand, the aim of civil governments being
the common welfare of society, it seems to me
that intelligent rulers should enact regulations to
that purpose alone, and protect and even encou-
rage religious ideas, as far as they are conducive
to, and in harmony with, that end ; but they should
not employ religion as a means of gratifying
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 255
selfish views, nor allow the priesthood to do
so ; and certainly they should not allow any reli-
gious sect to enjoy privileges, these being posi-
tively interdicted by Christianity.
In giving freely my opinion, I follow the prin-
ciple of Protestantism, which grants the use of
reason, and I agree with them who think that no
one has the right to impose his religious opinions
upon others ; that true religion consists in the
fulfilment of all our moral duties ; that the belief
of this truth having been revealed, is a powerful
motive to practise morality, and that this was the
will of the great and all-wise Intelligence, who
arranged the universe and the laws of reason.
On the other hand, I pity Mankind for not
being able to bear the moral code of Christianity,
and for not being ripe to enjoy religious and civil
liberty. It is lamentable to see, that in some
countries there are only masters and servants ;
that superstition, ignorance, and poverty are em-
ployed to keep the people in subordination, and
to gratify the selfish views of their civil and reli-
gious leaders; and that even among civilized na-
tions, where the best known principles of govern-
ment are in vigour, the great bulk cannot be left
to themselves, but must be conducted. I, there-
256 EDUCATION OF MAN.
fore copy from Cowper s letter to the Rev. Walter
Bagot : " Do I hate a parson ? Heaven forbid ! I
love you all when you are good for any thing ;
and as to the rest, I would mend them if I could,
and that is the worst of my intentions towards
them." And, from the Hints of a Barrister to the
public, " Whoever sets the best example of in-
dustry, uprightness, charity, justice, benevolence,
mildness, integrity, and all those practical virtues
which are the basis, immoveable and eternal, of
Christianity; such a man is the best teacher of
religion which the community can possibly re-
ceive." On the other hand, I reject, as destruc-
tive, every doctrine which sows a spirit of secta-
rian bigotry ; generates superstition ; introduces
discord into the circles of domestic life, depre-
ciates the bonds of charity and peace, or even
reprobates all practical virtues and righteousness
as filthy rags, and which places peculiar doctrines
above the authority of the Gospel, whose great
tendency is, and ever will be, to excite the sinner
to repentance and reformation ; to cultivate be-
nevolence and justice, and to link together man-
kind in the bonds of peace and charity.
A favourable change is wanted, but it may be
asked, who shall produce it? the governments, or
the nations, severally or together? Hitherto na-
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 257
tions are too much accustomed to be guided ; and
governors too fond of commanding and imposing
their good pleasure as law. Both parties seem to
be wrong. Governments, it is true, may succeed
better and sooner, since they can follow a regular
plan, and have greater means of execution. But
as rulers are too much disposed to do what flat-
ters their selfishness, nations ought to think of
their own welfare, and know that vox populi is
vox Dei. Instead of expecting every improve-
ment from their governors, they ought to work at
their deliverance from tutorage. There will be
masters as long as there are servants, and children
depend on their parents as long as they cannot gain
their own livelihood. It is conceivable that go-
vernments like to rule their subjects, but these are
blameable for not using all reasonable means to gain
and deserve their independency. They should be
aware that a liberal government lets the people
act for themselves, provided the common welfare
does not suffer, and that, on the other hand, go-
vernments are despotic in proportion as they in-
terfere with personal liberty, and prevent the
public good. In fact, in many situations, when
the things do not go on as they are wished for,
nations may accuse themselves rather than their
governors. By perseverance they will always ob-
258 EDUCATION OF MAN.
tain what they deserve. Remarks of this kind
are also applicable to the improvement of reli-
gious creeds. It is an historical fact, that the
priesthood always wishes to keep religious ideas
stationary, and that every religious reform began
with individuals, or with the civil power. This
will be the case as long as religious governors do
not keep pace in knowledge and moral improve-
ment with the community at large. Any church
whose tenets were composed in dark ages, and
adapted to the capacities of ignorant people, will
be divided against itself, whenever the public be-
come enlightened, and it must end in its over-
throw, if the leaders remain in ignorance, and
confound the aim of religion with the means that
lead to it. The former certainly remains the same
at all times, and amongst all classes, but the latter
must vary in different periods of civilization. It
is as lamentable as repugnant, to hear ignorant
teachers speak of the heavenly Father as endowed
with qualities for which every reasonable person
would disdain his neighbour. The evil is great,
and deserves the serious attention of the civil and
religious governors.
What, then, is to be done to establish civil and
religious liberty? Is it sufficient to proclaim a
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 259
reform? By no means. The French tried one
constitution after another, and it is scarcely de-
cided which suits them best.
It is certain that the natural dispositions and
their activity determine the progress of civiliza-
tion in nations as well as in individuals. Ignorant
people are fond of darkness, while enlightened
nations cannot bear measures of obscuration.
The French revolution abolished all external de-
corations and signs of distinction, but it was easy
for BUONAPARTE to introduce them again, since
the love of approbation is an essential feature
in the French character. Any reform succeeds
easily, if it be in harmony with the most active
powers ; but it will never take root, if it be con-
trary to the predominant powers, or if the neces-
sary powers do not act. The doctrine of the
innate dispositions cannot be taken too much to
heart by those who wish to exercise an influence
on the community. They may direct the given
powers to different applications, but they can nei-
ther create nor annihilate. Many historical facts
will be explained, and many erroneous opinions
of governments will be rectified, when the innate
dispositions will be understood. Then, also, not
only the different progress in the various branches
of literature, arts, and sciences, but also their
s 2
260 EDUCATION OF MAN.
modifications, in different nations, will be easily
conceived.
Amongst many instances which might be
quoted, I shall mention the following. The Re-
formation, undertaken by LUTHER, and continued
by CALVIN and others, gained more ground in
Germany than in France, and it is more advanced
in Scotland than in England, and it turned out
very differently in different countries. There is a
great deal of marvellousness and of the reflective
powers in the Germans and in the English, but
many of the former will begin with examining
how far it is reasonable to believe, and give up
rather belief than reason ; whilst the latter take
belief as indispensable, and reason merely on
interpretations. Self-esteem and love of notoriety
are great in the English and French ; but Self-
esteem is proportionately greater in the former,
and love of approbation, combined with form, in
the latter. The English, in their display of show,
betray their predominant feeling, and wish to
possess or do what others cannot;- for instance,
to appear very rich in keeping horses, carriages,
and many servants, dressed in shoes and white
silk stockings; whilst the French wish to be ap-
proved of, and to attract the attention of others
ty a fine taste in their show-things. Thus, it is
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 261
certain, that lessons will make impression, and
institutions succeed, in proportion as they are
adapted to the character of nations to whom they
are given. Defective heads can neither excel in
arts and sciences, nor in the refined principles of
morality or Christianity.
The influence of institutions on nations does
not only depend on their being adapted to the
innate dispositions, but also on their duration.
Their effect is insignificant, if they be transitory
and cannot form habit. Any new institution, like
any new doctrine, in order to be of permanent use-
fulness, must become, so to say, incarnate, or be
infused in the minds of the people ; but then their
influence is certain, since the innate powers
being exercised during generations, increase, and
act with facility. I copy a suitable passage from
the introduction to the History of France, by
CHATEAUBRIAND, read by himself to the Aca-
demic Franchise, in the sitting of the 9th of Feb.
1826.
" It has been said, that from the time of VES-
PASIAN to MARCUS AURELIUS, was the period
during which mankind enjoyed the greatest feli-
city. This is true, if the dignity and the inde-
pendence of nations are to go for nothing.
262 EDUCATION OF MAN.
" Every imaginable kind of merit appeared at
the head of the empire. Those who possessed
those qualities were free to undertake any thing
they pleased ; they were shackled by no restraints ;
they inherited NERO'S absolute power; they could
employ for good the arbitrary authority which
had hitherto been used only as an instrument of
evil. What, however, did this despotism of vir-
tue produce ? Did it reform manners ? Did it re-
establish liberty? Did it preserve the empire from
its approaching fall ? No ; the human race was
neither altered, nor improved. Firmness reigned
with VESPASIAN, mildness with TITUS, generosity
with NERVA, grandeur with TRAJAN, the arts
with ADRIAN, the piety of polytheism with AN-
TONINE, and lastly, with MARCUS AURELIUS,
philosophy ascended the throne; yet the fulfil-
ment of this dream of sages, was productive of no
solid results to the world. No ameliorations are
durable, none indeed are possible, when any act
of government proceeds from the will of indivi-
duals, and not from laws and institutions ; and
the pagan religion, no longer supported or cor-
rected by austerity of manners, transformed men
into old children, destitute alike of reason and of
innocence.
v There were, at this period, some Christians
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 263
in the empire, they were obscure and persecuted,
yet, with their despised religion, they accom-
plished what philosophy upon the throne could
not achieve. They instituted laws, corrected
manners, and founded a society which exists to
this day."
In the examination of this subject, it is found
that religious and civil regulations are degraded
and improved in the same degree, and by the
same reasons. Stupid and ignorant people are
superstitious, and believe in the good pleasure of
their absolute rulers. Whoever is not able, or
does not dare to think, or does not feel contradic-
tions and absurdities, is unfit for a refined religion
and civil liberty. Understanding, indeed, is the
first condition of civil and religious, as well as of
personal and moral liberty, and ignorance a fer-
tile cause of superstition and slavery. Under-
standing improves plants and animals, and it is
necessary to the improvement of nations and of
the nature of man. The Germans, expressing ci-
vilization by the word aufklaerung (enlightening,)
indicate that they consider intellect as the basis
of improvement.
The great point in this discussion is to deter-
mine, first, the origin and cause of liberty, and
264 EDUCATION OF MAN.
then the means of establishing- and maintaining it.
None of the faculties, common to man and ani-
mals, conceives the idea of civil liberty any more
than that of religion. These conceptions result
only from the human powers, and are retarded in
their progress in proportion as they are influenced
by the animal powers. The animal feelings are
selfish, wish for personal advantage, like to take
the first place in society, and dispose to religious
intolerance and civil despotism. Hence, a nation
is unfit for liberty in proportion as the animal
powers are predominant over those proper to man.
Courage, bravery, and stubbornness to death, are
by no means sufficient to establish this happy
state of society. Even the higher animal feelings,
as attachment, love of approbation, cautiousness,
acquisitiveness, and the perceptive faculties, are
incapable of securing it. The animal nature, it
is true, is powerful to oppose despotism, and so
far conducive to liberty. Whilst timid, poor, and
ignorant people remain slaves, the courageous, in-
telligent, and industrious seek for independency.
In consequence, instruction and industry are the
great means of establishing liberty, whilst igno-
rance and poverty are its greatest enemies. In-
dustry procures riches, and these enable the
possessor to cultivate his understanding. It is,
therefore, not astonishing that all those who treat
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 265
of political welfare speak of industry as necessary
and favourable to liberty. But those who think
that industry and riches are sufficient to secure
liberty, are mistaken ; they evidently confound
the means of establishing this great blessing with
its primitive source, and with the means of main-
taining it. Riches alone being a great cause of
degeneration in body and mind, are incompatible
with permanent liberty. The same uncertainty
of things continues, even if riches be assisted by
understanding, since the motives of all actions
still remain selfish and of the animal nature.
./
With the faculties proper to man morality
begins, and by their influence the animal nature
is directed, every kind of privilege abolished, the
number of public officers who require emoluments
diminished, every individual permitted to use his
talents as he likes, provided he does not injure
others ; every community allowed to regulate its
special concerns, personal merit alone rewarded,
the general welfare thought of, in short, civil
liberty acknowledged. And if such a liberty be
granted in worldly affairs, it is still more necessary
in things and opinions relative to the life to come
and religion. The effect of feelings proper to
man can become reasonable only by its union
with the reflective powers.
266 EDUCATION OF MAN.
On the other hand, though the human nature is
the source of civil and religious liberty, yet the
faculties proper to man are not capable either of
establishing or of warranting liberty. To that
effect they need the assistance of instruction and
of the animal powers, particularly of industry,
or acquisitiveness, self-esteem, courage, and per-
severance. In order then to establish and maintain
civil and religious liberty, the whole man, his
vegetative, affective, and intellectual faculties
must be exercised, but the animal faculties con-
stantly subordinate to those proper to man.
In this way we have a criterion to decide
whether, and how far, a nation is fit for civil and
religious liberty ; whether, and how far, liberty
which is granted or gained can last ; and whether,
and how far, governments earnestly prepare the
nations for that happy state. In the same way,
those who wish to forward liberty, may conceive
what is to be done to secure general and perma-
nent felicity, and why hitherto all partial means
could not succeed.
A delicate question too, viz. whether any nation
of those we know of, can bear the Christian reli-
gion in its greatest purity, and a republican go-
vernment, may be answered in the negative, on
EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 267
account of the animal nature being still dispropor-
tionate to that proper to man.
In supposing then that any ruler may have the
best intention to fulfil his duty, I conclude this
chapter with repeating the points indispensable to
his success. Let him become acquainted with
human nature in general, with the innateness of
the affective and intellectual faculties, with their
dependence on the cerebral organization, and
with their modifications in the nation he governs.
Besides, let him understand that every innate
power tends to action, but that the motives of the
same action may be very different ; and that regu-
lations founded only on truth and morality can
last. The most important point for him is to
know to employ every one according to his na-
tural gifts and talents, be it as servant, soldier,
artisan, merchant, artist, teacher of any kind,
legislator, superintendent or president. He also
must be aware, that various talents are given to
all classes of society, to poor and rich, to country
people as well as citizens ; and that natural nobi^
lity and personal merit alone deserve distinction.
Governments in general employ individuals who
speak and act in their favour ; hence the proverb,
quails r&r, tolls grex ; yet it may be interesting
268 EDUCATION OF MAN.
for well-intentioned governments to understand,
what incalculable mischief results from training
individuals to professions for which they are unfit.
The bad effect of a preacher, for instance, who is
the slave of amativeness, acquisitiveness and self-
esteem, is evident. Persons endowed with great
self-esteem, firmness, acquisitiveness and destruc-
tiveness, without conscientiousness, veneration and
benevolence, will never defend public liberty and
general felicity ; hence they are unfit to represent
the nation. The clergy in France showed more
talents before the revolution than after the fall of
BUONAPARTE. This fact is easily accounted for,
by the regulation that the priesthood alone was
exempt from the conscription during the reign of
BUONAPARTE. Hence, only heads of inferior ca-
pacities, or individuals indifferent to distinctions,
chose that profession. The same will happen
with every sort of arts and sciences, if the indi-
viduals who cultivate them are destitute of the
necessary qualities. Phrenology, then, in making
the natural endowments known, and in directing
the choice of individuals in any situation, may be
of immense advantage to wise governments, as
well as to parents, teachers, and directors of
any kind.
269
CHAPTER VII.
A FEW IDEAS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
EDUCATION.
VARIOUS opinions are entertained upon the ques-
tion, whether public or private education be pre-
ferable. The term education is here taken in a
limited sense, and the answer would be easy, if
education were what it ought to be. In the ac-
tual state of things, the greater number of parents
cannot adopt the private mode of education for
want of pecuniary means. The question, then,
concerns chiefly the richer classes of society.
There are advantages and disadvantages on
both sides. Generally speaking, in private edu-
cation, moral conduct and religious principles
may be more carefully taught, and the natural
dispositions better exercised. But here we must
suppose the governors to be of superior ability.
Such persons, however, are not so easily found.
On the other hand, private teachers and servants
kindle very often inferior propensities, which
would remain inactive were the children sent to
270 EDUCATION OF MAN.
public schools. Again, as the education of boys
and girls must be conducted in a different man-
ner, particularly in large towns, several board-
ing-schools become necessary. And if in these
the moral conduct be particularly attended to,
they will combine the advantages of a public
and private education. In them, physical edu-
cation can be better attended to than at home;
common play grounds and bodily exercise can
be more easily procured. Such abodes are com-
monly in healthy situations, and better teachers
may also be provided. It is of advantage to
children to afford them opportunities of comparing
their talents with those of others. When alone,
they easily think themselves above all other chil-
dren, but when together, they often feel their
inferiority. The less intercourse we have with
others, the sooner we are satisfied with ourselves.
This happens with children as well as with adults.
Those who have travelled with reflection and with-
out prejudice, lose in many respects their national
pride. They find that every where there are good
and bad, ignorant and well-informed persons.
Whoever remains confined to his own small circle,
thinks all other society inferior, partly through a
natural attachment to his accustomed manners,
and partly through his not knowing what others
are, or what advantages they possess.
ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 271
Knowledge of the world, of different charac-
ters, of manners and social intercourse, is an im-
portant point in education. It is easily acquired
in public institutions. Children soon learn to
distinguish between the different manners of feel-
ing and thinking of their companions.
Greater uniformity in manners, more mutual
attachment and general benevolence, more order
and greater readiness to obey and to depend on
their superiors, may result from public education.
There the feelings, in general, may be more easily
exercised and directed, because society is indis-
pensable to that purpose, and private education
can never afford the same opportunity. Finally,
the great effect of emulation is entirely lost in
private instruction.
Thus, even in the actual state of things, public
institutions are preferable, and they will be far
superior, if once regulated according to sound
principles and adapted to human nature.
Conclusion.
The great object of education is, not to create,
but to prepare, to develope, or to impede, and to
272 EDUCATION OF MAN.
direct the natural dispositions, affective and intel-
lectual faculties. The nature of the fundamental
powers, and the conditions on which their mani-
festations depend, must be known, to enable us to
cultivate and direct them. The difference between
the feelings and intellectual faculties, is particu-
larly to be attended to. Then, if the means of
excitement and those of direction be employed,
as I have detailed them, arts and sciences will
improve, moral evil will diminish, and mankind
will become more happy. I do not flatter myself,
however, that in the present state of mankind, the
most perfect education can abolish all disorders.
Hence, institutions of another kind are necessary,
which I shall speak of in the following chapters.
APPENDIX.
ON THE CORRECTION OR REFORM OF
MALEFACTORS.
As individuals differ exceedingly from each other
in the innate strength of their faculties, there can
be no doubt that adults, as well as children, if
entirely left to themselves, and to the motives
which spring up in their own minds, would not
all be influenced either by the same number, or
by the same kind of motives, nor would each mo-
tive act with equal force in all. Besides, the
faculties which produce the lower propensities, do
not of themselves produce good actions, and as
they are stronger than the faculties proper to man,
legislation is necessary to direct mankind. In re-
gard to many particular acts, the government must
command what is to be done, and forbid what is
not to be done ; seeing few individuals possess so
favourable an endowment of dispositions as to be
274 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
naturally .prone to virtue, or to have the law writ-
ten in their hearts. Now, the general aim of all
legislation ought to be the happiness of mankind,
combined, as far as possible, with that of each
individual ; or, in the language of Phrenology,
it ought to be to establish the natural morality of
man, confirmed by true Christianity. The lower
animals have no conceptions of morality, because
they do not possess the faculties which produce
the moral sentiments and reason. Hence, those
faculties which are proper to man alone, con-
ceive the necessity of legislation, and without
them there would be none in mankind any more
than in the animals. .
Definition of Legislation.
I take this expression in its most extensive
signification, and conceive it to comprehend the
regulation of the manner in which all our facul-
ties ought to be employed. Positive legislation
has been, and still is, very different in different
countries. The same actions have been and
still are considered now as crimes, and then as
virtues. The first great object is to distinguish
natural from positive laws. It appears to me
that both ought to be the same, and that the
DEFINITION OF LEGISLATION. 275
natural laws, in as far as they are known and
admitted, ought to be declared positive, and to
guide the actions of man. No one, therefore,
should endeavour to make laws, but only to dis-
cover those made by the CREATOR, to submit to
them, when discovered, as to his will, and to
dispose others to follow this example.
Positive laws are divided into Divine and Civil.
The former are given by GOD, the latter by
human legislators.
The question which naturally occurs is, whe-
ther there ought to be differences betwe.cn the
natural, Divine, and civil codes. Hitherto they
have not agreed, and the one makes war against
the other ; but I am of the decided opinion, that
mankind cannot become happy till they all accord.
To say that the revealed law is not the same as
the natural, is to suppose that GOD is not the
CREATOR of mankind, or that he has been in con-
tradiction with himself at different times. Such
notions seem to me absurd, and I cannot admit
any interpretation of the revealed law, which is
evidently in contradiction with the real nature of
man. Moreover, since man cannot create, he
ought not to set himself up as an inventor of
laws ; nor attempt to control the course of Provi-
T 2
276 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
dence, or counteract the nature of things. As
already said, he should try to discover, and hav^
ing discovered, to submit to the arrangements of
the CREATOR with respect to his vegetative, affec-
tive, moral, and intellectual nature.
Civil legislation is necessarily divided into
different branches, but they ought all to have
constantly only one and the same aim, and to be
the result of one and the same spirit. Hitherto
selfishness has been the principal object of all
civil legislation, and of every branch of it. Sol-
diers wish for war, and an opportunity of spolia-
tion; lawyers also have too constantly in view
their own special advantages ; and the members
of the ordinary professions do not think it neces-
sary to conceal, that the end and aim of all their
exertions is selfishness. The same antisocial prin-
ciple is visible in all worldly affairs; and even
the clergy, whose employment is to prepare man
for eternity, too frequently show that selfish mo-
tives are in fact the mainsprings of their conduct.
This overwhelming flood of selfishness must abate,
or the general happiness of mankind remain an
impossibility. There is only one permanent Le-
gislator, viz. the CREATOR, and whatever erects
itself against his institutions, or deviates from
them, is usurpation and folly.
NATURAL AND CIVIL CODES. 277
It is certainly a difficult task to discover clearly
the law established by Nature, and to bring all
branches of legislation into harmony. Happily,
however, Nature has few laws ; but it is of great
importance to know that she never admits of an
exception, and punishes severely every neglect.
This subject being of the highest importance, any
attempt to elucidate it cannot be considered as an
idle occupation, and is the true object of a philo-
sophical catechism.
In this summary we may consider legislation
in three points of view, viz. the aim ; the means
necessary to attain it ; and the persons subject to
the law.
Aim of Legislation.
Legislation begins with the sentiment of duty.
In my opinion, the duty of man, according to the
will of Nature, consists in general Benevolence
and Veneration. Hence the natural law requires
more than the civil. Justice/ according to the
latter, is merely passive, viz. not to take from
others that which belongs to them ; while, accord-
ing to the former, we are obliged to do to others
what we wish they should do to us. Thus Chris-
tianity coincides with the natural law. Love thy
278 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
neighbour as thyself, is the touchstone of all legis-
lation as to its aim.
Means to attain the Aim of Legislation.
The second part of legislation concerns the
means necessary to attain the proposed aim ; but
this point is not yet accomplished. Either, there-
fore, those who have it in their power do not ear-
nestly wish for it, or they have not intellect enough
to choose the necessary means, or the general aim
of legislation is not kept constantly in view. This
field is extremely extensive, but without the reach
of my study. I shall confine myself to a few
remarks, with respect to criminal and penal legis-
lation, which certainly has improved in modern
times ; first, with respect to the means of prevent-
ing crime ; and, secondly, with respect to those of
correcting criminals.
There were ages when criminal legislators
thought it their only duty to punish or to revenge
themselves on those who were disobedient ; the
animal powers dictated the penal laws, and the
feelings proper to man had no share in them.
Now-a-days, it is admitted that the penal code
ought to have for its objects the prevention of
MEANS OF PREVENTION. 279
offences against the welfare of society, the correc-
tion of those who have failed in their duty, and
securing the community against incorrigible mem-
bers. This aim is laudable ; but as it is not
attained, we are led to conclude that the means
employed to effectuate that purpose are not the
best that might be chosen.
Various kinds of punishments have been, and
are inflicted, in order to deter men from commit-
ting criminal actions. Malefactors are deprived
of their personal liberty, and are confined to pri-
son, for a shorter or longer period ; some even for
life. They are treated with more or less severity;
some remain idle ; others are condemned to hard
work. Some are exiled or transported; others
put to death.
Experience, however, shows, that punishments
alone do not produce the desired effect. Even
at an execution for stealing, pickpockets are
sometimes busy committing their depredations.
I do not say that punishments are useless ; I only
say, that they by themselves are not sufficient to
prevent faults and crimes. Hence governments
must have recourse still to other means. To
choose these means correctly, it is necessary to
discover the causes of criminal actions, for crimes
280 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
will cease to be committed as soon as their causes
are removed.
The most important way of preventing crime,
is that of improving mankind by every possible
means, and especially by those spoken of in the
preceding pages on education in general, and on
that of nations in particular. Let the inferior races,
whose actions are stigmatized by crimes or disor-
derly living, be prevented, as much as possible,
from propagation; for it is a fact well known to
those who have attended to the subject, that the
organs of the animal passions, like those of the
other faculties of the mind, are hereditary. More-
over, let ignorance, idleness, intemperance, and
poverty, which are the principal causes of crimes,
be prevented, and there will be little occasion for
prisons.
In the General View to this work, I have con-
sidered the great influence of ignorance on the
moral conduct of man. Instruction, indeed, will
greatly improve the human character, and the fa-
cility of acquiring it in our days is a great bless-
ing to mankind. It is therefore the duty and
interest of wise and paternal governments to dif-
fuse instruction as widely as possible, according
to the capacities of the people, and according to
MEANS OF PREVENTION. 281
local and particular situations; and whoever wishes
to promote the moral conduct of mankind, and in-
sure their happiness, will favour public institutions
for useful information.
It is both more effectual towards promoting the
welfare of society and more agreeable, to correct
morals, than to punish crimes. To that end it
ought to be a serious aim with governments, to
adopt means to exclude idleness and intemperance
from society. Children should be accustomed to
sobriety, and intemperate persons despised. Every
person found intoxicated in the streets should be
taken up and confined for twenty-four hours, and
fed on bread and water.
Persons when drunk are deprived of the use
of their reason, and often inclined to abuse their
animal propensities; and hence the welfare of
society requires them to be placed in a situation
where they can do no harm, and which may con-
tribute to their correction. The criminal records
of every country bear evidence of flagitious crimes
committed, and much misery inflicted, of which
drunkenness was the proximate cause. Govern-
ments are therefore wrong in licensing numberless
alehouses and gin-shops, and in affording great
facility of pawning.
282 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
In the Chapter on national Education, I have
already said, that in a well regulated state, no po-
verty ought to be seen, and no mendicity tole-
rated ; that each citizen ought to exercise a pro-
fession, and each beggar to be shut up, and to
be forced to work in public employments ; that
charity is misapplied, and idleness rewarded, if
industrious people be obliged to support the poor.
This subject, being of the utmost importance, de-
serves a particular examination, and the repetition
of some ideas does not seem to be out of place.
The law obliging the rich to nourish the poor, is
an indirect infringement of personal liberty, and
in opposition to the basis of a free government,
which admits private property, and 1 encourages
every one to use his talents, in as far as is con-
sistent with the general happiness of the nation.
The poor laws encroach on this right, and do
harm to society. They in fact hold out to the
profligate, the idle, and the imbecile, an invitation
to act without regard to the consequences of their
actions, and promise them, that if they are over-
taken by the calamities which nature has attached
to heedless conduct, the virtuous and considerate
shall be made to bear the burden for them.
If the poor, on account of their right to per-
sonal liberty, cannot be prevented from marrying,
MEANS OF PREVENTION. 2B3
the rich, for the same reason, cannot be forced to
nourish them. It is an infringement of the per-
sonal liberty of an industrious citizen, to be com-
pelled to support a lazy drone. If the poor must
be permitted to marry, after the consequences are
pointed out to them, then, at least, let every one
be equally free ; let him who gets children pro-
vide for their subsistence ; and let him who la-
bours reap the whole fruits of his own industry.
But, it may still be said, that whoever lives has
a right to the prolongation of his days, and that,
hence, the necessitous must not be allowed to
perish. Strictly speaking, there is no doubt that
those who exist have a right to partake in what-
ever nature produces. But civil laws are destined
to keep order, and to regulate property. Now, I
am willing to admit, that humanity calls upon us
to preserve those who actually exist ; but it ap-
pears to me to be impossible permanently to ame-
liorate the condition of the poor, except by pre-
venting them, by some means or other, from
excessive propagation. In the first place, It is a
general law in nature, and it holds good in the
case of mankind, as well as in every other species
of animals, that every germ produced is not per-
mitted to prosper and to multiply. As things are
now managed, however, the best and most con-
*284 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
siderate of the race, are those who are most re-
strained from multiplying; because they see the
evils, and endeavour to avoid them, while the
worthless and unreflecting indulge their propen-
sities without fear, and fill the world with misery.
This is exactly the reverse of what it ought to be.
Moreover, for the sake of general order, sailors
and soldiers are prohibited from living in matri-
mony, and why should not the same liberty be
taken with the poor ? If they can show that they
have the means of supporting a family, they are
no longer poor, and the interdict would not apply
to them. Many things are forced upon, as well
as interdicted to individuals, for the sake of gene-
ral happiness ; and this being the principal aim of
society, I cannot conceive a reason why the abject
poor may not be hindered from marrying, for the
general good, just as they are excluded, for the
same reason, from directing the government.
The law should harmonize with the manners
and morals of the day, the punishment propor-
tioned to the crime, and no hope left to the cri-
minal to be pardoned.
Finally, the surest* and most universal means
of preventing crimes, would be, if selfishness
could be made subservient to general benevo-
MEANS OF PREVENTION. 285
lence, and if morality could become the leading
aim among all nations ; then the kingdom of
Heaven would in fact arrive. The influence of
this principle cannot yet be felt by mankind at
large, and many may therefore say, Why, then,
do you speak of it? I answer, Because it appears
to me that the arrangements of nature admit of
such a state, and that men require only to under-
stand and practise her laws, to bring it about;
and as the tendency of the mind is to approxi-
mate towards truth, and to appreciate it when
discovered, I am not without hope, that the time
may come, when the higher sentiments shall pre-
vail over the lower propensities, and benevolence
over selfishness. Truth, whether admitted or re-
jected, is and remains always truth. At all events
no encouragement should be given to the abuse
of the lower feelings, nor any facility offered to
commit crimes. Bigamy, for instance, and seduc-
tion are facilitated by the permission of marrying
without a certificate of any kind.
I am convinced, that in proportion as the
preceding means are neglected or attended to,
offences and crimes will be committed or pre-
vented ; and that by applying them in practice,
mankind will improve their condition more than
by punishing malefactors, and praying the Hea-
286 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
venly FATHER for his assistance, while they
neglect the natural means of preventing crimes,
and producing good. The blessing of GOD will
follow as soon as we submit to his laws; but
prayers for it, while we contemn them, are im-
pious and absurd. Prisons are not become useless
by building churches. However, I do not mean
to say, that Christianity is ineffectual in prevent-
ing crimes ; I only maintain that no means should
be neglected.
Means of correcting Malefactors.
Let us now examine how far the second point
of criminal legislation, viz. the correction of ma-
lefactors, has been attained. Experience shows,
that punishments alone do not correct delinquents,
any more than they prevent disorders, and that
the common way of treating criminals depraves
rather than improves them. This truth is more
and more perceived, and some practical results
have already taken place, which have proved
highly beneficial ; and I hope that the good effect
they produce will encourage their adoption in all
countries. One great subject of regret, however,
remains, that the nature of man is not sufficiently
understood, and that in consequence, many modi-
MEANS OF CORRECTION. 287
/
fications of treatment, which individual malefac-
tors require, are entirely overlooked.
Formerly, malefactors of all kinds, young and
old, persons seduced by strong temptation into
crimes, even those who were only accused and
detained on suspicion, and inveterate villains,
were shut up together. In many prisons they
were idle, or if they had some occupations they
were generally unprofitable, sometimes too easy,
at other times too hard, often dirty and unwhole-
some; and because punishment, and not reform,
was the principal motive of confining prisoners,
they were treated with neglect. Their food was
not sufficient, and sometimes noxious. Prisons
were sometimes erected in damp and unwhole-
some situations. The prisoners were, on account
of ill treatment, affected with various cutaneous
and scrophulous diseases, with blindness, dysen-
tery, consumption, typhus, &c. Such aggrava-
tions of punishment were too severe, and against
the intention of the law.
This error has been felt, but in our days men
are falling into an opposite extreme. In many
prisons there is too much comfort, and not punish-
ment enough. Here and there they become
houses of reward. They perhaps appear still
288 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
uncomfortable to the rich administrators, but they
afford more comfort than the greater number of
criminals are accustomed to. The prisoners are
clothed, secured against the inclemency of the
weather, have a good bed to rest on, and are
better nourished than at home. Some persons,
indeed, commit faults in order to be taken into
them. Such prisons fail to effect their purpose.
To be confined in a prison, ought always to be a
disagreeable situation in one way or another. A
proper arrangement would be, to have in each
prison a variety of apartments, affording different
degrees of comfort and accommodation, and to
put every atrocious criminal into the lowest first,
and let him rise to the higher as his moral im-
provement proceeded. This would be a practical
illustration of the great natural truth, That a state
of vice is one of misery, and a state of morality
one of comfort and enjoyment. Prisons construct-
ed on such principles would no doubt require to
be extensive ; and they would, in their first erec-
tion, be expensive. But whether would a nation
derive greater ultimate advantage from a sufficient
number of such establishments, to correct and re-
strain the vicious part of her population, or from
a victory in a war about a sugar island ? And
the sums consumed by the nations of Europe in
prosecuting quarrels which have no natural foun-
MEANS OF CORRECTION. 289
dation, and in inflicting misery on each other,
would have placed a penitentiary in every de-
partment of every kingdom ! Such are the re-
sults of the dominion of the animal over the
man in human affairs.
There are still other causes which prevent the
correction of prisoners. Prisoners are taken in
ignorant, idle, poor, and disorderly, and are dis-
missed in the same state, or perhaps more in-
structed in vice. Being together, they are in-
duced to converse ; and even where this is pro-
hibited when at work, they take advantage of
every moment, when the overseer is absent, to
do so, or they find in the yard an opportunity
of becoming acquainted with their companions
They tell each other their crimes and tricks ;
and every new comer, especially if his natural
dispositions harmonize with that kind of instruc-
tion, profits by such lessons, and his corruption
is soon complete. In a short time the novice is
accustomed to live intimately with the outcasts
of mankind, becomes one of themselves, and then
all shame and bashfulness disappear. In this
manner, according to the saying of the criminals
themselves, prisons are schools where all sorts of
vices are taught. The malefactors become friends,
u
290 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
and form projects, to be executed when they are
liberated ; they organize bands, and prepare to
pursue with greater audacity their former crimi-
nal life.
The greater number of malefactors who are
liberated, are incapable of gaining their liveli-
hood. Their immoral habits, their idleness, and
even sometimes their intemperance, have been in-
creased during their confinement, and nothing can
be more natural, than that they should yield again
to their animal dispositions. Nay, some are forced
to continue their depraved manner of living, to
escape dying of hunger. This, for instance, is the
case with those who are branded, and publicly
dishonoured. Who will give employment to such
individuals? Who will work with them in the
same shop? If it seem necessary to brand, in
order to know whether a criminal has already
committed a crime, let it be done where the mark
may easily be concealed.
Another manner of treating prisoners, without
correcting them, and which is very illiberal to-
wards neighbouring countries, is that of sending
all malefactors over the boundaries. Such a course
of proceeding should be only permitted in cases of
MEANS OF CORRECTION. 291
political errors. In other cases, it is saying to a
malefactor. Do not steal in my house, but go to
my neighbour's, and do what you please.
The common way of treating criminals gives
rise to another injustice against society. Accord-
ing to the present mode of conducting jails, those
who, by their criminal actions, disturb the general
peace, live at the expense of the quiet and honest
citizens. It is indeed shameful, that malefactors,
who are commonly stout fellows, and in the best
years of their lives, should not gain the necessary
means of subsistence, while manufacturers get
immensely rich by the employment of other
people.
Thus, it is high time to rectify such abuses.
The aim of all prisons for malefactors, who are to
be sent back into society, ought to be only one
and the same, viz. correction. But, then, in order
to change the houses of Perversion, which all
common prisons are, into houses of Correction,
other 'regulations must be put into execution.
I repeat that these ideas are not new, but they
must be repeated till they are practised every
where. First, then, let the causes which produce
oifences and crimes be removed. Ignorant people
u 2
292 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
who are taken up, should receive instruction, and
their attention should particularly be directed to
their duty in society. They must be treated as
grown up children whose education has been
neglected. It will be more difficult to change
their habits than those of children, but they are
more capable of feeling the difference of motives^
and their will may exercise a greater influence on
their actions.
Idleness ought not on any accpunt to be to-
lerated. Those who know a trade, may continue
to exercise it; and those who do not know, may
learn one. The better heads may superintend the
inferior, and become their masters and teachers.
Every prisoner should be compelled to work to
pay his expenses. If they gain more than is ne-
cessary to supply .their wants, and if they have
placed their fellow creatures in misery, those, for
instance, who have put fire to the house and de-
stroyed the whole property of a family, ought to
be obliged to indemnify them as far as possible ;
others, who gain above their personal wants, may
be allowed to turn it to the profit of their family,
or may put it aside to receive it at their exit.
Prisons should be open to the gratuitous inspection
and superintendance of intelligent and benevolent
individuals of the community, or if such cannot
MEANS OF CORRECTION. 293
be found, the prisoners might work to pay inspec-
tors. The confinement should last till the occa-
sional causes which gave rise to the offence are
removed, and till amendment is probable ; and on
being released, the prisoners are, for a certain
time, to be observed by the inspectors or the
police. If each large town were divided into
districts, and several of the respectable inhabitants
of each district would act as inspectors, and visit
the released prisoners who come to settle in it,
they might save many from relapsing into crime.
The system of confining prisoners indefinitely
till corrected, certainly supposes perfect justice in
the management of the jails ; otherwise persons
might be detained in prison from improper mo-
tives, and much longer than necessary for amend-
ment. Such an abuse ought to be most carefully
guarded against; and, perhaps, the best of all
checks to its existence, might be found in the
system of open and gratuitous inspection by be-
nevolent individuals above recommended. The
public could never conspire to do injustice to an
individual; and while his confinement was con-
tinued under their eye, there would be very little
chance of its being unjustly and unnecessarily pro-
longed. Or, the period of confinement might be
mentioned in the sentence, leaving power to the
294 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
inspectors, or some properly constituted authori-
ties, to shorten it on proofs of amendment.
The efficacy of prisons established according to
sound principles, is no longer speculative. PENN
first showed it in a practical way at Philadelphia.
Several governments have followed his example,
and the result has perfectly answered their expec-
tations. Relapses of malefactors dismissed from
prisons and common houses of correction are
usual, while in the houses of correction, con-
ducted according to the new plan, only one or
two in a hundred are confined a second time.
The new method of treating criminals is advan-
tageous also in other respects to society. The
prisoners gain more than they consume, and being
corrected, they no longer injure orderly, nor se-
duce innocent persons.
It is important to understand human nature,
and the modified characters of the malefactors,
in order to treat them properly, because every
measure which the natural constitution of each
individual renders available to produce amend-
ment may require to be employed. A knowledge
of this kind will confirm and render still more
useful the practical views of several intelligent
MEANS OF CORRECTION. 295
benefactors of mankind. The reader may consult
JOHN HOWARD on Prisons and Houses of Cor-
rection ; the work on the Prisons of Philadelphia
by a European (Duke of LIANCOURT); Theorie
des Paines et des Recompenses, par JEREMIE
BENTHAM; An inquiry, whether Crime and Mi-
sery are produced or prevented by our present
system of Prison-discipline, by THOM. BUXTON,
&c. ; and he will find in Phrenology, a most sa-
tisfactory theory to explain and to direct the far-
ther application of the practical maxims of these
authors.
Treatment of Incorrigible Offenders.
I come to the third point of penal legislation,
viz. that which has for its aim to secure society
against incorrigible individuals. I shall not enter
into the vain discussions on the right of society to
inflict capital punishment. I take it for granted,
that society is entitled to cut off one of its limbs
for the sake of the happiness of the rest, if there
be no better means of securing that end; but
death, as the last evil, ought not to be inflicted
till all other means have proved ineffectual.
Some crimes are punished with death, in order
296 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
to prevent their repetition. All judicious writers,
however, speak with regret of the frequency of
capital punishment, and deny that it has this par-
ticular effect. Death is not equally frightful to
every one. Criminal legislators judge of others
according to their own feelings ; they fear death,
hence they think that all men do the same. Ex-
perience, however, shows that to many persons
death, when contemplated at a distance and as a
contingency, is not appalling. Nay, by some,
even the immediate infliction of it appears to be
regarded as a small evil. The unfortunate wish
for it, in order to be delivered from their pains.
Those in despair destroy themselves, and many
become the martyrs of ambition and religion.
The laws, themselves, suppose that the loss of
life is little in the eyes of many criminals, for
means are taken to prevent them from putting an
end to their days, which they would do rather
than be confined for life. It is certain, that se-
veral criminals are not at all moved by the sen-
tence of death, and that they go to the gallows
with perfect calmness and resignation. Inveterate
criminals commonly say, Dying is nothing, we
must finish in that way.
It appears to me, that there is no harm in de-
livering society from villains, particularly from
INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS. 297
those who are dangerous to the existence of
o
others. A tree that brings forth no fruit, is cut
down and burnt ; a furious animal is killed ; and
a dangerous fellow may, on the same principle, be
extirpated. Yet I am also of opinion, that capital
punishment might be abolished, and replaced by
other means which would be more effectual to
protect society. There is an inconsistency in the
present practice of inflicting death as a punish-
ment for a great variety of offences ; for certainly
crimes differing greatly in atrocity do not merit
exactly the same retribution. If it be true that
crimes must be judged of according to the perver-
sity of the malefactor, and according to the mis-
chief which results from the offence ; and if it be
established as an axiom, that a crime consists in
the intention and not in the action ; all crimes
which are at present capitally punished, cannot
be considered as equal in guilt. A man who in-
tentionally kills his benefactor, or another who
kills one who has excited his jealousy and dis-
turbed the peace of his family ; an inexperienced
girl who, in a moment of despair, destroys her
offspring, the cause of her misery for life ; the
horrid monster who strangles an old father to
enjoy his inheritance the sooner; the prostitute
who assassinates the companions of her de-
bauchery ; and the highwayman whose whole
298 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
life is only a succession of robberies and murders,
who spreads desolation and devastation in whole
districts, cannot be considered as equally guilty.
Either, therefore, the minor offences should be
visited with a less punishment than death, or, to
preserve consistency, the greater offences should
be followed by death aggravated by increased
horrors; a proposition at which even the san-
guinary spirit of legislation would revolt. But
as it is said, that death is the ultimate extent of
judicial authority over malefactors, and that every
punishment beyond it is cruelty, it ought not to
be inflicted on individuals who might be pre-
vented from doing evil by other means, such as
confinement and education; nor on those equally,
who are guilty in very different degrees, particu-
larly since it does not prevent others from com-
mitting similar offences.
If the proper means of education and correc-
tion were employed according to the law of na-
ture, the injustice in criminal legislation, now
mentioned, might be avoided; and, indeed, there
would soon be no occasion for capital punish-
ment at all. There ought to be a particular
establishment for those who are confined for life,
regulated by sound principles. It may be found
necessary to treat some with severity, yet by far
INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS. 299
the greater number will be kept in order by just
treatment.
The idea of punishment is closely connected
with that of the different degrees of guilt. If the
reformation of malefactors were the principal ob-
ject of the penal code, the possibility and means
of correction would be the first object to be consi-
dered, and the extent of the guilt only the second.
Punishment would then be viewed, as one of the
means of correction, but all the others would like-
wise be examined and employed. The greater
the villain, the more care would be taken to cor-
rect him. At the same time, it is natural to con-
sider the different degrees of guilt. On this
point, many ideas may be communicated which
are not adequately understood by legislators, be-
cause they are not sufficiently acquainted with
human nature.
It is scarcely possible for human intelligence
to decide with perfect justice, in regard to the
precise extent of guilt and innocence in every
particular case. All the motives and causes
which have determined a malefactor to commit
a crime, cannot be known by man, and without
such a knowledge, it is impossible to form a per-
fectly just estimate of the exact degree of guilt.
300 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
Such a judgment must be remitted to Him alone,
who is all-wise. Although, however, human wis-
dom has limits, it must extend itself as far as
possible. In penal legislation, extenuating and
aggravating motives are admitted ; and indeed
some individuals, the fatuous and insane, are not
held as answerable at all for their actions. In
other cases, actions may be clearly illegal, which
nevertheless admit of extenuating motives. I
shall speak of several grounds of extenuation
which appear to me to be founded in nature, but
which nevertheless are not considered as such in
different countries.
ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WITHOUT GUILT.
The first condition upon which a man is an-
swerable for his actions, is that he is free. Here
I take it for granted, that my ideas on moral
liberty, such as they are developed in The Phi-
losophical Principles of Phrenology, are known
to the reader. Whenever moral liberty is want-
ing, there is no guilt. This is the case at those
periods of life when the human faculties have not
acquired strength enough to exercise will, viz. in
infancy, or when the influence of will is suppressed
by the state of disease. In all countries, a certain
ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS. 301
age is fixed when punishment may be inflicted.
It is also admitted, that the diseased state of the
manifestations of the mind excludes culpability ;
but the extent and appearances of this state are
not sufficiently understood.
I. Illegal actions of Idiots.
Idiocy is Complete or Partial : Instances of the
former kind are rare ; of the latter numerous.
Complete idiotism is easily distinguished, and
does not require a detailed elucidation; but the
common manner of judging of incomplete idiot-
ism is frequently very erroneous. Legislators
and judges are not yet convinced that there are
various faculties of the mind, and that the ma-
nifestations of each power depend on a particu-
lar part of the brain ; that one or several organs
may be very active, while others are in a state
of idiotism. These facts, however, which, al-
though not generally admitted, are true, explain
why, in some individuals, the perceptive faculties
and the inferior propensities may be very active,
while the powers of the moral will are silent.
Such individuals are like animals, and cannot be
moved by moral motives. They act only accord-
ing to the feelings which they possess, without
302 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
being able to choose between motives. PINEL
speaks of an idiot who had the most determinate
inclination to imitate the voice and gesture of all
persons around her. It is observed, says Fo-
DERE, " That by an inexplicable particularity se-
veral cretins, endowed with so little intelligence,
are born with a particular talent for drawing,
musical composition, rhyming, &c. I have seen,"
continues he, " several of them, who learned, by
themselves, to play pretty well on the organ or
harpsichord; others, without having had any
master, knew how to mend watches and to make
various mechanical instruments. This phenome-
non probably results from the more perfect orga-
nization of the organ on which such or such an
art depends, and not at all from the understand-
ing. For, these individuals do not know how to
read books which treat of the principles of the
respective arts ; they are even disturbed at being
desired to learn the principles." (Traite du Goitre
et du Cretinisme. Paris, 1800, p. 133.)
I have mentioned many cases in my work on
Insanity (p. 120 133.); and in that on Phreno-
logy, where I speak of destructiveness and acqui-
sitiveness. Idiots, although mischievous, are not
objects of punishment, yet it is rash to say, that
all means of correction are useless. They ought,
ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS. 303
at all events, to be prevented from doing harm to
others ; and as they cannot be left to themselves,
there ought to be houses of security for such un-
fortunate individuals.
There are cases, in which it is extremely diffi-
cult to decide whether there is or is not will.
" Persons," says Dr. RUSH, (Diseases of the Mind,
p. 268.) " who are inordinately devoted to the use
of ardent spirits, are irreclaimable by all the con-
siderations which domestic obligations, friend-
ship, reputation, property, and sometimes even by
those which religion and the love of life can sug-
gest to them. An habitual drunkard, when
strongly urged by one of his friends to leave off
drinking, said, Were a keg of rum in one corner
of a room, and were a cannon constantly dis-
charging balls between me and it, I would not
refrain from passing before that cannon, in order
to get at the rum.
" There are many instances," continues Dr.
RUSH, " of persons of sound understanding, and
some of uncommon talents, who are affected with
the lying disease. Persons thus diseased, can
neither speak the truth upon any subject, nor tell
the same story twice in the same way, nor de-
scribe any thing as it has appeared to other
304 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
people. Their falsehoods are seldom calculated
to injure any body but themselves, being, for the
most part, of an hyperbolical or boasting nature,
and not injurious to the characters and property
of others. That it is a corporeal disease, I infer
from its sometimes appearing in mad people, who
are remarkable for veracity in the healthy state of
their minds, several instances of which I have
known in the Pennsylvanian hospital, persons
affected with this disease, are often amiable in
their tempers and manners, and sometimes bene-
volent and charitable in their dispositions. Lying,
as a vice, is said to be incurable. The same thing
may be said of it as a disease when it appears in
adult life."
The time will come when several malefactors
will be declared insane, who are now punished.
The only difference, however, will perhaps be in
the aim of their confinement, viz. they will be
shut up, in order to be prevented from doing
mischief, instead of being shut up with the view
of making atonement to justice. The laws of
Nature are severe, but they are just. General
order must never be allowed to suffer for the
sake of one or several individuals. Even these
persons, however, must, as much as possible, be
allowed to enjoy their natural rights. In a prison
ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF MADMEN. 305
at Berlin (Stadtvogtey), we found a boy of an un-
fortunate cerebral organization ; the forehead was
low and narrow, depressed immediately above the
eyebrows, much hollowed sidewards above the
eyes, but large and prominent at the temples.
His countenance indicated slyness and malice.
Dr. GALL said, that such individuals should not
be left at liberty, but ought to be kept in an esta-
blishment for security. The registers, when re-
ferred to, proved that the boy, from infancy, had
shown the most obstinate propensity to steal.
Such individuals, indeed, become more incurable
upon every relapse. In such cases, all means of
correction should be tried first, and if these are
found fruitless, it should then be declared lawful
to detain them for life, but to treat them with hu-
manity. They ought to be considered as persons
affected with a disease, pregnant with danger to
society. In general, nothing but amendment of
conduct should entitle malefactors to return to the
society which they have disturbed.
II. Illegal actions of Madmen.
Madness is every where allowed to take away
guilt, but its nature is not sufficiently understood.
The most important points to be attended to are,
x
306 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
that it may be general or partial ; that the feel-
ings as well as the intellectual faculties may be
deranged, and that general and partial insanity
may be continual or intermittent. General and
continual madness is easily distinguished, but
partial and intermittent insanity is less known
than it ought to be.
My ideas on these points are detailed in my
work on Insanity, and I refer to it for a fuller
developement of the subject. Individuals under
the involuntary influence of these faculties through
disease, are to be treated as patients and cured,
not as criminals to be punished.
ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WHICH ADMIT OF
EXTENUATING MOTIVES.
It is impossible to weigh exactly the motives
which may produce illegal actions. In examin-
ing whether an action be just or unjust, we com-
monly think only whether it is conformable to the
law or against it. Yet, as long as legislation in-
tends to punish, the degree of guilt attributable
to the individual cannot be entirely overlooked;
for otherwise, an idiot who assassinates would be
liable to the punishment of a sane person; in
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 307
short, extenuating motives would not in any case
be admitted.
Violent passions and affections, such as anger,
fury, jealousy, rage, &c. are considered as a tran-
sient madness, and are justly admitted as exte-
nuating motives. But it ought to be known, that
some persons may feel internally an excessive
excitement of these affections, who restrain the
outward expressions of them ; nay, that such per-
sons sometimes suffer even more than those who
manifest their anger externally, and who tear their
hair or stamp with the feet, &c. Shame, despair,
and many secret affections darken the spirit of
man, as much as sudden and violent passions;
and they derange equally the state of health and
the judgment.
Moreover, the same exciting cause will act
violently on one person, and scarcely make an
impression on another, according to their natural
constitutions. Certain kinds of food, principally
liquors, excite differently the individual disposi-
tions of different persons. Wine or brandy ren-
ders one courageous and quarrelsome, another
eloquent, sincere, amorous, sorry, gay, &c. The
highwayman, PETER PETRI, a companion of
SCHINDERHANNES, seemed to be insensible in
x2
308 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
his common state ; but when he had taken several
glasses of brandy, he behaved like a tiger, and
attacked friends and enemies indiscriminately.
We know the history of a woman who, after
drinking some glasses of brandy, felt a strong
involuntary desire to become an incendiary.
Illegal actions done during drunkenness, at least
the first time, should find in it an extenuating
motive. The guilt is greater, if the effect of
spirituous liquors be known, and if they be not
avoided.
The most intricate situation, with respect to
extenuating motives, is when one faculty in par-
ticular is extremely active in individuals. This
may happen with regard to every power. If it
be the case with a superior faculty, such as be-
nevolence or veneration, the individual may be
said to be fortunate. Yet, in the same way,
every other feeling, for instance, an insatiable
desire of glory, may govern the whole conduct
of some persons ; and again, every animal pro-
pensity may become excessively active. This
state is not insanity ; the individuals are able to
distinguish the influence which excites them, and
have power to restrain it, and are therefore an-
swerable for their actions; but their situation is
an unfortunate one ; for they are called upon to
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 309
maintain a dreadful struggle with their ruling
propensity. In a family which we know, the
desire to drink liquors is hereditary ; the grand-
father and the father have killed themselves by
hard drinking, the grandchild, when only five
years of age, manifested the same inclination.
There are similar examples with respect to acqui-
sitiveness and destructiveness. The question, then,
is, Whether and how far the innate dispositions,
when in this manner excessively strong, are to
be considered as extenuating motives? At all
events, it is certain, that not only violent and
sudden affections, but also various other excite-
ments ought to be considered as extenuating;
and I have no doubt that they will be admitted
by degrees, as they are understood.
Let us examine a few examples, among the
infinite number which might be quoted. A first
lieutenant was inspired with a passion for the
wife of a private in his company. This virtuous
woman steadily refused his propositions and im-
portunities, without saying a word of it to her
husband. One day, at exercise, the lieutenant
treated the husband very ill, and ordered him
several times to be bastinadoed. As the hus-
band complained, he was treated as stubborn
and mutinous, and forced to be silent by fifteen
310 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
other blows. His unfortunate wife told him the
intention of the lieutenant. From Thursday to
Sunday he meditated and projected the death
of his wife and his children. He admonished
his wife to confess, and to go to the communion-
table. He did the same. He was always mild,
a good father, and an excellent husband, but
during these days he excelled in these qualities.
On Sunday, after dinner, he proposed to his wife
to take a walk with him. He conducted her
under the sallow-trees, planted along the glacis
of the citadel at Breslaw, and, whilst caressing
her most tenderly, he pierced her heart with a
dagger. He went back in haste, that he might
not be prevented from sending his two children
into heaven. He hoped to find in them inter-
cessors before GOD. He killed them with a
little axe; placed them on the bed, their arms
crossed ; went then directly to the guard, with a
countenance of satisfaction, and told what he
had done. " Now," added he, " may the Lieu-
tenant of *** make love to my wife. She and
her children are secured against seduction and
dishonour. They will be obliged to me for their
happiness, and pray for me in heaven." The
court-martial, at Breslaw in Silesia, did not think
of extenuating motives, but even aggravated his
punishment, by depriving him in prison, and at
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 311
the moment of execution, of the presence of a
clergyman who might encourage and prepare
him for death.
The work of CRICHTON on Insanity contains
several examples of this kind. " CATHARINE
HANSLERIN, forty-five years old, was an inha-
bitant of Donauworth. -She had been twelve
years married to a man of a severe and unfeel-
ing temper, and, excepting a fever, and some
slight irregularities in regard to her menses,
was a tolerably healthy woman. About the
end of the year 1785, she was detected in steal-
ing milk in the village where she lived. She
solicited, in the most earnest manner, that the
circumstance might be concealed from her hus-
band, whom she dreaded. It was promised, but
not observed. At first, he was told of it in an
obscure way, but he afterwards discovered the
whole truth.
" The detection of her fraud made a deep im-
pression on her mind, not only on account of her
good name, but also on account of the treat-
ment she was likely to receive from her husband.
In consequence of this, she became low in spirits,
and melancholy. She had confessed, but it did
not relieve her mind. She prayed often, with-
312 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
out knowing what she said. She had been fre-
quently seized with violent headaches, during
which she was not conscious of what she did.
" Her husband, when he heard of her stealing,
beat her severely. After this ill-treatment, she
went to bed, trembling for fear, and dreading
worse usage the next day. Her daughter, a little
girl seven years old, came to her bedside, and
prayed with her. She had formed the resolution
of leaving her husband, and asked her daughter,
if she would stay with her father? This the girl
refused to do, as she was afraid of him. After
praying devoutly, early in the morning she left
her husband's house, and took her daughter along
with her, and also her infant, that was only two
months and a half old. As she was about to de-
part, she again asked her daughter if she would
not rather live with her father? The girl an-
swered she would rather die. The thoughts
which this answer occasioned in the mother's
mind, the misery and distress which surrounded
her, the fear of what might happen to her child-
ren in case she died, and, at the same time, her
own ardent wish to finish her existence, all these
thoughts caused her to form the barbarous resolu-
tion of drowning them.
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 313
" The infant she took in her arms, and being
arrived at the banks of the Danube, she caused
her daughter to kneel down and pray to GOD
to deserve a good death. She then tied the in-
fant in the arms of the girl, blessed them, by
making the sign of the cross on them, and threw
both into the river. She afterwards returned
to the village, told what she had done, and was
executed."
" A young woman, twenty- three years of age,
was sent to the house of correction at Onolbach,
1755. She was received with blows and stripes.
This treatment made so deep an impression on
her mind, that she began to detest life, and in
order to get rid of it, determined to commit mur-
der. She thought that by so doing, she would
have time allowed her for repentance, which she
knew she could not have, were she to destroy
herself. She premeditated her design in cold
blood, and accomplished it on another woman in
the following manner.
" One Sunday she complained of being ill, and
requested to be excused from attending Divine
service. A simple, and half fatuous girl was
allowed to attend her. She convinced this girl
that there was no hope of their being relieved
314 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
from their present miserable situation, but by their
both consenting to die, and she proposed to the
girl to kill her first. The girl was soon recon-
ciled to the proposition, and the only condition
she made was, that her companion should not
hurt her. She stretched herself out, and the
murderess accomplished the horrid crime by cut-
ting the girl's throat.
" Upon being asked, in the court of justice,
what could have induced her to commit so horrid
a deed, as the murder of her fellow-prisoner? she
answered, Fear of the sharp blows and pain she
knew she had to sustain in the house of correction.
She thought within herself, If I take away my
own life, my soul is lost for ever ; but if I murder
another, though in that case I also must forfeit
my life, still I shall have time to repent, and GOD
will pardon me. When she was asked, Whether
she had no hatred against the deceased, or if she
had ever received any ill-usage from her ? she an-
swered, That the deceased had never done her
any injury, and if any thing vexed the deceased,
she always came to her to make her complaints.
Upon being asked, if she slept well after having
committed so horrid an act? she answered, That
she prayed to GOD before going to bed, and slept
well, and when she awoke, she again prayed. She
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 315
seemed perfectly calm and recollected during her
trial, until it was explained to her, that she had
drawn down the eternal wrath of GOD upon her-
self. Then she wept bitterly. The physician
ascribed the crime to despair, and ttfdium vita ;
but the law would not understand the hint."
There is a similar fact mentioned in the journal
which is published at Leipzig, under the title
Zeitung fur die elegante Welt, (N. 92. 1st Aug.
1805). Amongst a great number of malefactors
confined in the prison of Torgaw, and presented
to Dr. GALL, there was a woman who had drowned
her child, a boy of four years old. Dr. GA LL ex-
amined her head, then took the hand of Professor
LODER, who was present, and put it upon the
organ of Philoprogenitiveness, that he might exa-
mine its size. When the prisoner had retired,
GALL said that that organ was great in this wo-
man, the organ of Murder (as it was then called)
small, and that, in general, her head was well
organized. He desired to be informed of her
character and capacities, principally with respect
to her crime. The magistrate said that this per-
son was born of poor parents, whom she had lost
early, and that she had received no education.
When grown up, she became a servant in the
village. Every one was satisfied with her con-
316 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
duct and behaviour. Unfortunately she was se-
duced, and had a child. The being to whom she
gave life was the cause of her misery. She was
dismissed from service, and no one would receive
her on account of the child. For a long time she
did not know how to endure her situation. She
loved her infant with the most tender affection,
though she had reason to detest his existence.
Finally, a poor peasant and his wife had pity on
her ; they kept the child in their house, and took
care of him for three years. The mother found a
place, and her behaviour was very exemplary.
The child increased, and gave great satisfaction
to the adopting father, who loved him very much.
This was enough for bad tongues to say, that the
peasant was his father. Satisfied with his con-
scious innocence, he despised the wicked imputa-
tion, but this was not the case with his wife. To
keep peace at home, he was obliged to give the
boy back to the mother. She begged her master
and mistress in vain to keep her ; in vain she
represented to them, that she had served with
exemplary assiduity and fidelity. She was dis-
charged in the most severe season. All the
wealthy peasants treated her with the same seve-
rity. She sold whatever she possessed to feed
her child and herself. He decayed through cold
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 317
and misery. In this situation she prayed to
Heaven to let both herself and him die. Her
maternal affection was overpowered by an internal
voice, which said aloud, that the only means of
saving them was the destruction of her child.
She preferred to see him die suddenly, and in a
moment of despair, she carried him to the River
Elbe, and precipitated him into the stream. Ex-
hausted, she fainted away, and was found in this
situation. As soon as she recovered her senses,
she accused herself. During her detention before
trial, namely, a whole year, she behaved very
well ; she manifested distinct and deep repentance
of her deed, which, however, she did not consider
as a crime. The clergyman, who visited her from
time to time, said that she was ignorant, but that
she was mild, and very docile. The superinten-
dants gave excellent testimonies of her good con-
duct. These different motives determined the
Court of Appeals to change the first judgment,
according to which she ought to have been be-
headed, and they condemned her to confinement
for life, without being severely treated. Here she
learned to write and to read, and her whole con-
duct was orderly.
From this narrative of facts, it is evident that
her organization was not in contradiction with her
318 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
manner of feeling and thinking, and that she de-
served the benefit of the application of extenuating
motives.
There is no illegal action which has greater
and juster claims to be treated with equity than
child-murder. In various countries penal legisla-
tion is too severe in this respect. I am far from
excusing a crime when it is voluntary, but I con-
tend also for extenuating motives, whenever they
can be admitted. Legislators and judges are
commonly more or less severe, according to their
own manner of feeling, rather than according to
philosophical principles. Several say, is it pos-
sible to imagine a more barbarous and inhuman
action, than that of a mother, deaf to the cries of
nature, destroying her child, at the moment when
he seeks for aliment from her breast? Others
reply, that because infanticide is a crime against
nature, and because the hearts of all mothers re-
volt at the idea of it, it is impossible that it can
be committed except in a moment of derangement,
and in a state of delirium.
Infanticide impresses us with the idea of bar-
barity and atrocity with the greater force, because
it seems natural that the love of offspring should
prevent such an action. It is true, nature has en-
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 319
dowed the greater number of women with this
benevolent propensity. But in women, as well as
in females of animals, this propensity has different
degrees of energy. Certain cows do not suffer
their calves to suck ; some pigs, cats, rabbits, &c.
kill their young, while other females of the same
kind of animals cry for several days, and refuse to
eat, when they are bereft of their offspring. It is
a lamentable truth, that this difference of motherly
love exists also in mankind. All women do not
desire to become mothers ; some consider their
pregnancy as the greatest misfortune. Several
mothers seek various pretexts, in order to remove
their children- out of the house. There are others,
who being freed from shame, reproach, misery,
and many inconveniences, by the loss of their
illegitimate children, yet shed tears for a long
time after, at the remembrance of them. Others,
on the contrary, see their legitimate offspring
buried without a pang. Thus it is beyond doubt,
that natural love of offspring is very weak in
some women. It is therefore wrong to believe
that infanticide is a more unnatural act than any
other murder.
I have examined thirty-seven child murderers,
and in thirty the organ of Philoprogeny was
very small. It does not follow that a mother,
320 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
in whom the organ is small, must necessarily
destroy her offspring. My object is only to ob-
serve, that this sentiment is not strong in every
mother, and that, if females, in whom it is weak,
are exposed to various unfortunate circumstances,
they are destitute of a great motive to combat
the internal sensations which may impel them
to this crime.
Almost all laws against infanticide are framed
on the supposition, that this crime, when not
committed in a fit of rage and hatred, is always
premeditated. But is it true that these two are
the only affections which exclude premeditation ?
Different actions of our sex may be cited, in an-
swer to this question. How often does not the
sentiment of honour, which is even preposterous,
dispose man to hazard his life. Several have de-
stroyed themselves, for having lost a woman they
loved. Others despair from disappointed ambi-
tion, or from the loss of fortune. Our sex, how-
ever, is the strongest ; we are seldom destitute of
all resources, or deprived of all hope of finding a
companion for life. How different is the situation
of an unfortunate woman ? The intellectual facul-
ties of the female sex are commonly weaker; hence
they have less will to resist their stronger sensi-
bility, and stronger affections and passions. Their
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 321
sentiment of honour and shame is cultivated from
infancy, exercised and exalted ; and we require of
young, timorous, inexperienced and sensible crea-
tures, when the most dreadful event overwhelms
them, to be cool, calm, and reflecting. The com-
plaints of pregnancy, and many terrible thoughts
during it, weaken the bodily strength, increase
irritability, and disturb the mind. When the
critical moment arrives, they are most frequently
alone, without consolation, overwhelmed with
grief, weakened by the loss of blood ; how, then,
can we expect that their judgment should be
sound? and if such an unhappy mother destroy
the feeble existence of her offspring, perhaps in a
fit of delirium, how is it possible to confound such
an action with the most horrible of crimes ?
Moreover, men and women are more irritable
at certain periods. In my work on Insanity, I
have treated of these periods of irritability in the
article on Fits. It coincides in women with the
period of their menses, and their delivery happens
at the same time, viz. when the mother would
have had the tenth periodical return. Thus it is
natural, that at this period the unfortunate woman
should feel her situation more strongly, and be
more inclined to take a fatal resolution.
322 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
Our sex can never be exposed to such a misfor-
tune; and if we, the legislators, think that it is not
expedient to require satisfaction from the seducer,
and if we fear to be unjust against perfidy, why do
we fear to be indulgent and humane, towards the
frail and disappointed female ? It is even conceiv-
able, that such an unfortunate mother may conti-
nually think of the ingratitude and perfidy of the
father of her child ; that she may consider how he
has deceived her in the most infamous manner ;
how he is the cause of her ignominy and misery ;
how he, perhaps in the arms of another person,
forgets his forfeit, whilst, in some countries, the
laws do not afford her any protection against him ;
and how his stratagems are styled merely love in-
trigues. May not indignation trouble her under-
standing, and excite derangement of her mind ?
Indeed, if it were not so difficult for a mother
to take such a desperate resolution, infanticide,
the result of illegitimate pregnancies and of per-
fidy on the side of seducers, would be much more
frequent. Hence it is but just to take into consi-
deration the internal conflict which may have de-
ranged the senses of a child murderess, and to
appreciate all extenuating motives. The ideas on
infanticide, which Dr. HUNTER has detailed in a
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 323
letter to the Royal Society of London, deserve the
attention of every criminal legislator. I agree
that it must be punished as murder, when it is
committed with premeditation, with mature re-
flection, in the complete use of moral liberty, with-
out an urgent provocation, and through mere de-
pravity of morals. In this case, the legislator
deserves all thanks for protecting the child who is
without support and defence. But it is important
to know how to distinguish the different circum-
stances which accompany this action, and there
can be no doubt that very often infanticide admits
of many extenuating motives.
Lying-in hospitals, where every woman with
child is taken in and brought to bed, without
being obliged to say who she is and whence she
came, and foundling-hospitals, often prevent in-
fanticide. In countries where such establishments
are wanting, child-murder is more frequent than
in others where they exist. These institutions,
however, tend so much to weaken the motives to
moral restraint furnished by the obligation to
support and to cherish offspring, that it may be
fairly questioned whether the evils they produce
in this point of view, are not greater than those
they prevent in the other.
y 2
324 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS.
In order to prevent child-murder, there is a
law in certain countries, which obliges pregnant
girls to discover their situation to some accouch-
eur or midwife. If they do not fulfil this for-
mality, they are supposed to have the intention of
committing infanticide. In other countries, the
proprietors of houses are answerable for pregnant
girls who live in them. They are thus required
to know the state of their locatories.
Unfortunately legislators are often in the same
situation as physicians who attend incurable dis-
eases. They try uncertain means, rather than do
nothing. The law which obliges women to inti-
mate their state of pregnancy, is in contradiction
to nature. It is not necessary to mention, that
there is no need of such a law with respect to
girls of the town. These have lost their bashful-
ness, and will go to the lying-in hospitals to be
delivered. Such a regulation, therefore, must be
intended for timorous, bashful, and decent women,
who have been seduced. Now, the feeling of
honour and bashfulness is considered as the best
safeguard of female virtue, and is constantly che-
rished accordingly; nevertheless, when such a
girl falls, she is required, under pain of punish-
ment, to make her shame known. There are men
EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 325
of mature age who, with the greatest reluctance,
would confess certain diseases to their most inti-
mate friends. How, then, can the law be so
severe on females, for not confessing a circum-
stance which they are taught to look upon as
more disgraceful than any disease? Besides,
when we consider that such unfortunate girls
are frequently actuated by a strong feeling of the
ignominy and misfortune they bring on their
family by their misconduct, we ought to recollect,
that their obstinacy in concealing their state, may,
in truth, be allied more nearly to virtue than
to crime.
Thus, if extenuating motives are in any cir-
cumstances to be admitted, in no cases will
they be more truly applicable than in those of
infanticide.
In my work on Insanity, I have shown, that
suicide in many cases is the effect of a corporeal
disease. It then admits extenuating motives.
Criminal legislators, if better acquainted with it
than they commonly are, certainly will modify
the laws upon the subject. These very rarely
are of much efficacy in deterring those who wish
to end their days, and are no punishment for
326 CONCLUSION.
them after death ; but it is not a matter of indif-
ference to whole families, to have the stigma of
alliance with a malefactor forced upon them, when
in fact they have only had the misfortune to be
connected with a diseased individual. For de-
tails on this subject I refer to my work on
Insanity.
CONCLUSION.
THE considerations, examined in the Appendix
of this work, tend to show, that legislation in
every branch ought to have only one aim, viz.
the general happiness of mankind, and that of
each individual, as far as it is compatible with
the former; that penal legislation, in particular,
ought to be corrective ; that in prisons, the inha-
bitants of which are to be sent back into society,
all possible means of correction should be em-
ployed; that capital punishment might be abo-
lished, and the crimes for which it is inflicted
prevented, by proper establishments. As punish-
CONCLUSION. 327
ment, however, is still the object of the penal
code, I have treated of "the different degrees of
guilt which may be implied in criminal actions ;
and of some illegal actions that admit of extenu-
ating motives, such as suicide and infanticide.
From this Appendix, too, it may be inferred, how
important and necessary, for legislators and judges,
is the study of man.
THE END.
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