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GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
IN VIRGINIA

HOWARD LEE McBAIN, Ph. D.

Associate Professor of Municipal Science and Administration in

Columbia University

ILLUSTRATED

.J ' ) 3 J }

The Bell Book and Staiionery Company
1918

Copyiijiht, V.)m
By Howahd LeI'. McBain

^ * . •

• • • « «

FOREWORD

Regrettable as the fact is, a large majority of children in the
United States go out into active life before they reach the
high school. Since this is true, and since ours is a govern-
ment which the people themselves must operate, it seems
manifestly desirable that some time should be given in the
elementary schools to a consideration of the activities of the
government. This book has been written for the pupils of

fc the elementary schools.

>. Government in the United States is exceedingly compli-

J^- cated in organization. It is not to be expected that children

ft* ... .

3 will find interest in, or be able to understand, all of its in-
tricate details. The fundamental principles of its organiza-
?»• tion are not, however, beyond their understanding; and, if

^ properly presented to them, there is no reason why the func-

^ tional activities of the government should not enlist their

keen interest. It is perhaps not of vital importance that the

(^ child in school should be able to memorize the titles, the

^ powers, and the duties of the innumerable officers who carry

o on the work of the government. It seems axiomatic, how-

lii ever, that in the school itself — and especially In the school

5 which the government provides — a very determined effort

< should be made to relate the child to the government, to

make him see its necessity and its purpose, to make him

understand that, far from being a thing apart from his own

life, the government is actually a part of him and he a part

iii

449654

iv FOREWORD

f)f it. This can l)c accomplished only by showing the child
the governiiunt in action and by emphasizing the personal
benefits ^\hi(h ]ie enjoys by reason of its existence. After
his interest has been awakened in this way, he will naturally
find greater interest in a study of the principles which under-
lie the organization of the government and will be more eager
to learn something about the powers and duties of the more
important officers. The prime purpose in this book is to
arouse an intelligent interest. With this end in view the
functional activities of the state and local governments are
discussed before any attention is given to the matter of gov-
ernmental organization. The same plan precisely is followed
in the treatment of the national government.

It is entirely natural that the child will be more interested
in those activities of the go\ernm>ent which he himself has
the opportunity to obser\e. Many of these he has probably
never connected with the government at all. It seenis highly
appropriate, therefore, that an elementary study of this im-
portant subject should bet;in with a dcscri])tion of the func-
tions of local and state governments and should proceed
from this to a consideration of the national government.
This is the plan of presentation which is followed in this
book. It seems further proper, in an elementary study such
as this is, that the attention of the child should be directed
especially to the government of his own state and his own local
community. There are large differences in the governments
of the several states of the Union, as well as in the local units
of government that are established in these states. It is
])ractically impossible to give the child any satisfactory and
adequate conception of actual conditions, if the governments

FOREWORD V

of all the states are to be surveyed and the treatment made
comparative. This book deals, therefore, with government
as it is found in Virginia. There is only occasional reference
to other states.

Each chapter is followed by a series of questions that may
be used as a basis for class exercises. For the most part these
questions are not founded upon the subject matter of the text;
they are offered simply as suggestions to stimulate class in-
terest and discussion. Perhaps the teacher herself will in
some instances be unable to answer them. The teacher
should encourage the pupils to consult their parents and others
in the community who may be able to enlighten them in re-
spect to these and other similar questions. In this way, it
is believed, will the entire study be localized and vitalized.

Every teacher will doubtless wish to expand her knowledge
of this important subject beyond the somewhat elementary
facts contained in this book. Material for a more detailed
study of the government of Virginia is not readily available.
The only general work on this subject is Dr. F. A. Magruder's
Recent Administration in Virginia. This monograph, pub-
lished in 1912 by the Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Mary-
land, contains an exceedingly interesting survey of the origin
and development of the several administrative departments
of the state government. The work of each of these depart-
ments is also described in some detail in their annual printed
reports, copies of which may usually be secured by written
application to the respective departments at Richmond. The
state constitution and ihe laws enacted by the General
Assembly are compiled in what is known as The Code of Vir-

vi FOREWORD

ginia, and its several Supplements. These volumes may be
consulted in the office of any lawyer.

By far the best work dealing with the whole subject of
national, state, and local government in the United States
is Beard's American Government and Politics, published by
the Macmillan Company, New York. Young's The New
American Government and Its Work, published by the same
company, may also be recommended. Bryce's American
Commonwealth, in two volumes, completely revised in 1910,
is still a standard work on American government. This
work also is published by the Macmillan Company and there
is an abridged edition of it in a single volume. Numerous
other general works on American government might be men-
tioned and there arc, of course, many volumes dealing in
more detail with specific aspects or divisions of the govern-
ment. It seems unnecessary, however, to present here any-
thing like an elaborate bibliography.

Howard Lee McBain.

New York City,

April, igi6.

CONTENTS

FIRST PART

POWERS AND DUTIES OF STATE AND LOCAL GOV-
ERNMENTS

Chapter Page

I. The Need for Government 1

II. The Life and Liberty of the People 10

III. The Life and Liberty of Persons Accused

of Crime 19

IV. The Health of the People 23

V. The Property of the People 30

VI. The Farms of the People 38

VI I. The Schools of the People 43

VIII. The Roads, Streets, AND Parks of the People 56

SECOND PART

ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE AND LOCAL GOV-
ERNMENTS

IX. The Constitution of the State 68

X. The Votes of the People 73

XL Political Parties 81

XI I. The State Legislature 86

viii CONTENTS

Chapter Page

XIII. The Execution of the Laws 93

XIV. The State Courts 104

XV. The Government of Counties Ill

XVI. The Government of Cities 118

XVII. State and Local Taxation 127

THIRD PART

POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE NATIONAL GOV-
ERNMENT

XVIII. Foreign Affairs and National Defense.. 135
XIX. Commerce, Finance, and Industries 145

FOURTH PART

ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

XX. The National Constitution 157

XXI. The Supremacy of the National Constitu-
tion 167

XXII. Congress 175

XXIII. The Execution of National Laws 185

XXIV. The National Courts 200

XXV. National Taxation 208

XXVI. The Government and the Citizen 215

INDEX 223

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

FIRST PART

POWERS AND DUTIES OF STATE AND LOCAL GOV-
ERNMENTS

CHAPTER I
THE NEED FOR GOVERNMENT

THE PEOPLE AND THE LAND. The Commonwealth
of Virginia covers an area of more than forty thousand square
miles. Residing upon this area are more than two million
people. If the territory of the State were divided equally
among all the people, every man, woman, and child would
have about twelve acres of land for himself. If such a divi-
sion were made, each of us might choose to live absolutely
alone upon his own twelve acres and have little or nothing
to do with his neighbors. Think what this would mean.
Every individual would have to provide shelter for himself
and all of his own food and clothing. How unhappy and how
unsatisfactory our lives would be.

Now, as everybody knows, people do not live in any such
absurd fashion as this. Most of us live with our families, and
all of us have friends and acquaintances with whom we mingle.

2 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

In other words, people do not live separately but in groups.
And there are many reasons why they live in this way.

THE FAMILY GROUP. It seems unnecessary to point
out the various reasons why people live in family groups.
Certainly one important reason is that during all the earlier
years of their lives children are unable to provide for them-
selves. It is necessary that their parents should care for them ;
and this necessity, among other things, holds the family group
together. It seems also unnecessary to discuss the numerous
advantages which we enjoy because we live in these family-
groups. So many are these advantages and so strong are the
ties of affection between the members of the family that,
even after children are able to support themselves, they more
often than not continue to live in the family group until they
are ready to establish families of their own. The family is
indeed the smallest of all the groups in which people live, but
in many ways it is also the most important of all groups.

TBE COMMUNITY GROUP. Of course every family
usually lives by itself to a certain extent. But families also
associate with one another and form larger groups. Even
when families live on farms and are thus separated by con-
siderable distances, they nevertheless have many interests in
common. They make, for example, common use of the roads,
the churches, the schools, the post offices. They form, in
other words, a community group. Nearly three-fourths of the
people of Virginia live in farming communities of this kind.

The people who live in cities and villages naturally live
much closer together than the people of farming communities.
Naturally also they have a larger number of interests in com-
mon. Their streets, for example, must be paved and cleaned
and lighted for the benefit of the whole population. They
must have a common police protection and common protec-
tion against fires. Such things as water and light must be
furnished to their homes, and means of transportation must
be provided.

THE NEED FOR GOVERNMENT 3

WHY PEOPLE LIVE IN FARMING AND CITY
COMMUNITIES. Everybody understands why a certain
number of people must of necessity live in farming com-
munities. Not only must the people of the farms raise their
own food and the raw material for their own clothing, but
they must provide these things also for the people who reside
in cities and villages. There are equally good reasons why
people live in cities and villages. One of the principal rea-
sons is that the raw material raised upon the farms may be
more easily manufactured in cities and distributed to the
stores which make a business of selling manufactured goods.
The people of the farming communities are themselves very
dependent upon the labors of the people who reside in cities.
How could the farms be properly cultivated without the im-
plements that are made in city communities? Would it not
be a distressing state of affairs if every farmer were compelled
not only to raise the wool, the flax, and the cotton from which
his clothing is made, but also to manufacture the necessary
cloth and thread and make it up into garments?

It is clear, then, that the lives of all of us are made a great
deal easier and happier because we live in community groups
and because the farming communities and the city com-
munities are dependent upon each other. Indeed we can
scarcely imagine what our lives would be if people did not
live together in these different kinds of groups.

HOW PEOPLE SATISFY THEIR DESIRES. Every
person in the world has a certain number of desires that he
wishes to satisfy. Although the desires of different indi-
viduals vary greatly, there are certain principal desires which
nearly everybody has. For example, life itself is one of the
things which all of us desire to preserve. Most of us also are
anxious to preser\e our health. We like to be free also to
do as we please without interference from others. In other
words, we desire liberl}' of action.

4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

Another thing which nearly everybody desires is to earn
money. Most people do not care for money in itself, but
money helps us to live our lives in our community. The
farmer does not ordinarily exchange a quantity of potatoes
or corn for a suit of clothes or a plow. He accepts money for
his potatoes or corn, and he gives the same money for the
clothing or the plow that he wants. Moreover, the possession
of money enables us to buy things which we call proj^erty —
such things, for exan pie, as land and houses, books and fur-
niture, food and clothing, horses and cattle. These things
make our lives more comfortable, and it is natural that we
should seek to obtain them.

Most of us desire not only to associate with the peojjle of
our own community but also to keep in touch with the people
of other communities. For this purpose we need roads and
bridges, railroads and boat lines, postal and express services,
telegraph and telephone lines. Another desire which most
j:)eopIe have is the desire for knowledge. We want to know
things. We must have, therefore, not only schools and col-
leges but also books and magazines and ne\\ spapers.

These, in a general way, are a few of the desires which nearly
everybody has. In the realization of these desires, we find
hai)piness for ourselves, and we increase our usefulness to
our family and our community groups.

THE CONFLICT OF INTERESTS AMONG PEOPLE.
When peopJe live in groups it is utterly impossible for each
individual to pursue his own desires Vvithout any regard for
others. We desire to preserve our lives; but sometimes, as
in time of war, men gladly give up their lives for their coun-
try. We desire health; but we cannot ignore the interests of
others in this matter. W^e have no right, for example, in
seeking to protect our own health, to drain the sewage from
our house into an open stream, if thereiiy we endanger the
health of our neighbors. We desire liberty of action; but we
must use our liberty \\ itli chie consideration for the rights of

■41

c
o

6 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

others. If we are seized with some conUigious disease, we
have no right to roam at Hberty and thus run the risk of
spreading that disease. If we live on a farm, we have no
right to refuse to build fences that will prevent our cattle from
straying abroad and destroying the crops of others. We have
no right to drive our horses or our automobiles recklessly, for
in so doing we imperil the lives of others. In other words, our
liberty of action must in many ways be restrained in order
that the rights and desires of other people may be protected.

THE NEED OF ASSISTANCE IN ATTAINING OUR
DESIRES. It is perfectly clear that in the attainment of
some of their desires people must act together. They must
provide some things which they can use in common. It
would certainly be ridiculous if each farmer attempted to
build his own road to a neighboring city or village. It would
be impossible for every family to establish a well-equipped
school for the children of the family. In a city of any si/e
it would be very difficult for each family to supply itself with
water by having its own well. And surely we should be great-
ly handicapped if we were compelled to forward our letters
by special messengers. In such matters as these we as indi-
viduals need assistance; and we find that assistance by acting
together.

THE REASONS WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE ES-
TABLISHED. Because the desires and interests of one per-
son so often conflict with the interests of others who live in
the same group it is nearly always desirable to lay down cer-
tain rules which everyone must obey. Even in the family
group such rules are necessary, though they are seldom, if
ever, written down. So in the school there are rules which
must be respected. In the larger groups which form com-
munities there are also rules. In every community, for ex-
ample, it is a rule that no person shall take the life of another
person; and the community will punish any person who dis-
obeys this rule. The rules for the conduct of the people of a

THE NEED ]'C)R COVERNMENT 7

community are called laws. The members of the com-
munity choose (or, as we say, elect) certain of their number
to frame these laws for the conmmnity and the kiws so framed
are binding upon everybody. Sometimes we may feel that
the laws of a community are irksome, because they interfere
with this or that thing that we as individuals want to do.
Sometimes also we may think this or that law is unnecessary
or unwise. We should remember, however, that laws pro-

VIEW OF A PROSPEROUS FARMING COMMUNITY

tect us from others in far greater measure than they actually
restrict us in what we ought reasonably to be permitted to do.
For the most part they deprive us only of those rights and
liberties which it is necessary for us to give up for the general
interests of the whole body of people in the community.

Not only must laws be made but they must also l)e enforced ;
and the people of every community select for this purpose a

8 (.OVKRNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

number of persons whom we call officers. It is the duty of
these officers to see that the laws are obeyed and to settle
disputes that arise between individuals as to the meaninp: of
the laws.

In addition to all tliis, tin; jjcople ol the ccjunnunity must
provide for the establishment and maintenance of the various
services which they need in common. This, again, requires
officers — officers who are empowered to build and repair
roads, to operate post offices, to construct and manage
schools. In other words, it is not sufficient for a community
simply to ha\e laws that impose duties and restrictions upon
individuals for the common benefit. The community must
also ha\'e certain services performed which indi\'iduals cannot
w ell supply for themselves.

These, then, are the reasons why people establish govern-
ments. The government consists of officers whom we choose
to perform certain duties for us as a community. We rc-
c|uire some of these officers to make the law^s for the com-
munity, so that ev^ery one of us may know w'hat his own rights
are and what are his obligations tow^ard his neighbors. To
other officers we give the power to enforce these laws, so that
we may have some authority to appeal to when our rights are
ignored or abused by another person. We select still another
group of officers to perform certain services which the people
of the entire community need to use in common.

It is difficult to see how we could get along in any com-
munity if we did not establish a government to accomplish
these purposes for us. It is highly iniportant that each of us
should l:e interested in the government of his community, for
certain it is that we should find many difficulties in living our
lives among our fellowmen and in realizing many of our de-
sires if there w^ere no such thing as the government. It is
desirable, therefore, that we should understand, in the first
i:)lace, what our government is undertaking to do for us, and.

THE NRED FOR GOVERNMENT 9

in the second place, how our government is organized to carry
on its various activities. These are the objects of our study.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. What sort of community do you live in — is it a farming community*
or a town, or a city? Find out, if you can, how many people live in your
community. In your neighborhood are the houses close together or fa^
apart? Think of some of the ways in which you associate with the jieople
of your community — when and where, for instance, do you meet them?

2. Mention some of the advantages that people enjoy because they
live in family groups. If you lived absolutely alone, how would you get
your food? Your clothing? Furniture? How would j'ou shelter your-
self?

3. If you live in a farming community, mention some of the advantages
you derive from associating with other people in your community. Do
you use any things that are manufacturofl by the ])eop'.e of city communi-
ties? Mention some of these things.

4. If you live in a city community, in what ways are you dependent
upon other ))eople in your community? In what ways are you dependent
upon the jieople of farming communities?

5. Mention some of the desires that you ha\"e. Have you any desire
that might conflict with the rights or desires of other members of your
family? Of your neighbors?

6. Explain how some of your desires are attained by reason of the fact
that the peoi)le of your community have acted together. Who, for ex-
ample, provided the road or the street over which you traveled to school?
Who provided the school?

7. Why do you attend school? What desire are you satisfying?
Mention some of the ways by which the people of your community keep
in touch with the people of other communities.

8. What do you mean by the government of a community? Why is it
necessary? Can you think of any w ay in wliich the government restricts
you in order that the interests or desires of other people may not be in-
terfered with? Can you think of any services provided by the govern-
ment which you could not provide for yourself?

9. Who makes the rules of your school? Who enforces them? Would
it be appropriate to speak of the "guvernment" of j-our school? What
would you mean?

CHAPTER II
THE LIFE AND LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE

PROTECTION OF PERSONS AGAINST VIOLENCE.
For the most part the people of a community are accustomed
to Hve in harmony and peace with one another. Occasionally,
however, one person attacks another and sometimes even
takes his life. This is naturally prohibited by the law, and
the government makes every effort to arrest the person who
commits an offense of this kind, and especially the person who
takes another's life.

In every community there are officers provided for this
purpose. In farming communities there are constables and
sheriffs. In city communities, because of the close associa-
tion of many people, personal attacks are more frequent than
in farming communities. In cities, therefore, the government
provides a more numerous force of officers known as the police
force. The streets of the city are patrolled by day and by
night in order that persons may be promptly protected from
the violence of others.

Of course it often happens that these officers who are
provided to preserve the peace of the community are not on
hand when an attack is made, but the knowledge that the
government has provided such officers, who will seek out and
arrest offenders and bring them to punishment, serves to pre-
vent many attacks that might otherwise be made. In this
way, then, does the government endeavor to protect us against
those persons in the community who, in a fit of passion or 1)c-
cause of some grudge against us, might attempt to injure us
or destroy our li\'es.

Very occasionally in ei community there is a large uprising
of persons, who in their anger iire ready to injure or take the

LIFE AND LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE

lives of those whom they regard as their enemies. This, for
example, sometimes occurs when a large strike is on, and when
the striking workmen or those who sympathize with them try
to prevent others from taking their places. Sometimes also
an unruly mob will attempt to take the life of some person
who has, or is supposed to have, committed an ugly crime in
the community. When conditions like this prevail it is im-
possible for the ordinary officers, such as constables, the
sheriff, or the police, to furnish the necessary protection for
the lives of those who are threatened. The government,

COMPANIES OF MILITIA ON DRESS PARADE

therefore, provides what is known as the militia. The militia
consists of companies of troops which may be called out and
sent to the scene of any unusual disturbance in order that the
peace may be preserved and the rioters prevented from carry-
ing out their designs. It is, however, only on rare occasions
that there is any necessity for the use of the militia.

PROTECTION OF PERSONS AGAINST A CCIDENTS.
Some accidents are apparently so unavoidable that perhaps
nobody can be blamed for them ; but for many of the accidents

12 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

that hapi)en to persons in the course of their Hves they them-
vSehes arc alone responsible. Of course it would be impossible
for the government to attempt to protect us against every
avoidable accident that might occur. There are, however,
certain circumstances in which the dangers of accident are so
apparent that the government does attempt to furnish a de-
gree of protection.

The people who liv^e in farming communities are exposed to
only a few dangers from accident in respect to which the gov-
ernment can be of assistance. The government retjuires, for
example, that persons dri\'ing along roads shall keep to the
right, in order that one drixer may know what mo\e to expect
from another. The government also limits the speed at
which automobiles may travel. Sometimes in the construc-
tion of roads and bridges the government erects fences or rails
to protect persons from dangerous ditches or ravines. Espe-
cially does the government endeavor to protect persons against
accidents from railway trains. Wherever a road crosses a
railway track the government requires that the railway com-
pany shall erect a sign warning the traveler on the road of
possible danger. Sometimes there is the additional warning
of a bell indicating the approach of a train. Occasionally,
moreover, the railway company is required to carry its tracks
on a bridge above the road or to carry the road on a bridge
over the tracks in order that the danger from accident may
be completely avoided.

It is, however, in the cities, where the risks are much greater
than in farming communities, that the government under-
takes in numerous ways to lessen the possibility of accidents.
Trains are required to move at a very slow rate of speed. The
operation of street cars and of automobiles is regulated in
many ways by law; and not infrequently special policemen are
placed at corners where the traffic is particularly heavy in
order that they may regulate the movement of vehicles.

The government also does many things to lessen the danger

LIFE AND LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE

from accidents that result from fires in cities. Many build-
ings are required to be equipped with fire escapes. In the
theatres and other buildings where large numbers of people
gather the government regulates such things as the width of
the aisles, the number of people that may be allowed to stand,
and the number and kind of exits that must be provided, in
order that, in case of fire, the audience may quickly gain the
street. Moreover, in all of the larger cities there is a force of
officers for the special purpose of putting out fires, and many
persons are saved from accident and from loss of life by the
heroic work of these firemen.

A STEEL BRIDGE UNDER CONSTRUCTION
This huge viaduct, at Richmond, Virginia, helps to prevent accidents by carry-
ing traffic high above numerous railroad tracks

The government, further, attempts to lessen the dangers
from accident to the workmen who are employed in large
manufacturing plants. The managers of these plants are
required to place guards around dangerous machinery and
otherwise to provide against accidents to their employes,
whether from fire or from the operation of the plant.

14 C.OVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

PROTECTION OF THE POOR. In still another way
does the government throw its protection around the life of
the individual. When a man's health and strength have
failed, when he is without money and without friends or
relatives to support him, he finds that the government has
made provision for his care. Formerly this protection of the
poor was given by the churches and by private persons and
organizations. These still do a great deal toward helping
those who are unable to help themselves. In modern times,
however, the care of the poor has come ^r , regarded as one
of the duties of the government. We find almshouses, there-
fore, in every county and city; and officers are appointed
whose duty it is to see that these unfortunates in the com-
nmnity are provided for.

PROTECTION OF AGED SOLDIERS. In Virginia the
government also contributes to the support of the soldiers
who fought in the War Between the States, and who, by rea-
son of their disablement or their losses as a result of the war,
are unable to care for themselves. These venerable men
gladly gave their services to the state in their youth. They
stood ready at a time of great need to sacrifice their lives for
the Southern cause. In many cases they lost everything.
It is no more than right and just, therefore, that the govern-
ment should make some provision for them during the de-
clining years of their lives.

THE MEANING OF LIBERTY IN THE COM-
MUNITY. As we have already had occasion to note, our
desire for liberty of action must be restricted in many ways
in the interest of other i)cople who live with us in the com-
munity. If the government did not impose certain restric-
tions upon our liberties, llie thoughtless and inconsiderate
people of the community would often seriously interfere with
the rights of others. It is only by restricting the liberty of
each of us to some extent that the interests of all can be pro-
tected.

LIFE AND LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE 15

It would be impossible to enumerate all of the ways in
which the government imposes restrictions upon our liberties.
This would necessitate a review of nearly all of the laws which
the government enacts; for most laws deprive us of liberty in
one way or another. We are compelled to do certain things
which, if our liberty was wholly unrestrained, we might not
choose to do. We are likewise forbidden to do many things
which we might otherwise wish to do. It is a great mistake,
however, to suppose that these restrictions upon our freedom
of action are impo; merely for the sake of interfering with
us. This is far from tne fact. Restrictions are never placed
upon our individual liberties except when the government be-
lieves that the whole community will be benefited by such re-
strictions.

HOW THE GOVERNMENT ITSELF IS PROHIBITED
FROM INTERFERING WITH OUR LIBERTY. It is a
mistake also to suppose that the government can go to any
extent it chooses in restricting our liberties. There are cer-
tain personal rights that we as a people regard as of great im-
portance ; and we expressly prohibit the government from in-
terfering with these rights. For example, we prohibit the
government from depriving us of freedom of speech or of
freedom of religion ; and we do not permit the officers of the
government to make unreasonable entry into our dwellings.
Moreover, as we shall see in the next chapter, we limit the
power which the government may exercise over persons
accused of crime, in order that innocent persons may not
suffer unjustly.

THE RIGHT OF FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND THE
PRESS. In some countries people ha\e to be very careful
what they say or write or print about the government. In
Virginia, however, and indeed throughout the United States,
there is no suppression of news in regard to the government.
Anybody may criticise the affairs of the government as he
pleases. Why is such liberty permitted in America? It is

16 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

because we believe that the more the people know about the
government, the better government we shall have. It is
necessary, therefore, that we should be permitted to discuss
the actions of the government very freely. If corrupt or
inefficient officers get control of the government, it is right
that the people should know this. It is true that able and
conscientious officers are sometimes unjustly condemned, and
the liberty that we as a people enjoy is thus abused. This
is unfortunate. But even though our liberty of speech is
sometimes abused, it would be far worse if we were kept in
ignorance of what the officers of the government are doing.

When persons become officers of the government they are
in a way the servants of the whole community, and they
place themselves in a position that especially invites criticism
of their acts. In criticising their acts, however, we have no
right to say or write false and malicious things about the per-
sonal character of these officers. M uch less have we the right
to say and write whatever we choose about our fellow citi-
zens. If we could do this, it is easy to see that one person
might often do serious injury to another person's reputation
and standing in the community. Whenever a person can
prove that he has been falsely slandered by another, the law
provides that the person who has slandered him shall pay him
a sum of money equal to the loss that he has sustained.
Officers of the government do not often attempt to recover
money damages of this kind, but private persons are not in-
frequently compelled to do so. While we as a people are pro-
tected in our freedom of speech and of the press, the govern-
ment has the power to limit that freedom to the end that the
reputations of individuals may not be destroyed by their
personal enemies.

THE RIGHT OF FREEDOM OF RELIGION. In times
gone by the churches were often very closely connected with
the government. Indeed the officers of the government
would often persecute those who held religious beliefs that

LIFE AND LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE 17

differed from their own. Even after the days of rehgious per-
secutions passed, the government often ga\e special support
to a particular religious denomination. And this is the situa-
tion that prevails in some countries even at the present time.

In Virginia the Episcopal or Anglican Church was sup-
ported by the government down to the year 1785. It was
largely through the efforts of Thomas Jefferson and James
Madison that this system was abohshed. Thereafter the
Episcopal Church, hke all the other denominations, was com-
pelled to support itself and secured no special favors from the
government. As everybody knows, we now enjoy absolute
freedom to worship at any church we choose, and we are not
required by law to contribute to the support of any church.
It is highly improbable that the government w'ould ever at-
tempt at this late day to give special favor to any particular
denomination or sect. But in order to guard against this
possibility, we have absolutely prohibited the government
from doing so.

THE RIGHT TO BE FREE FROM SLA VER Y. Before
the War Between the States, almost the entire negro popula-
tion of Virginia, in common with the negroes of the rest of the
South, was held in slavery. Slaves were bought and sold.
Indeed they were exchanged very much like other property.
Although they were in most cases treated kindly by their
masters, they did not enjoy any considerable degree of per-
sonal freedom. They were compelled to do what their owners
required of them. As a result of the war the negroes were
made free, and today they enjoy the same amount of per-
sonal freedom that is permitted to the white population. It
is now a general principle of government throughout the
United States that no person can be made the slave of an-
other. One person is as free as another, which means that
everybody is free to do as he pleases so long as he obeys the
laws of the community in which he lives.

18 GOVERNMENT AND POLITTCS IN VIRGINIA

CLASS EXERCISES

1. What means, if anj', are ])rovided in your school for the protection
of the hves of the teachers and pupils? Are there fire-escapes? Are
there broad staircases? Are there sufficient exits? Do you have fire drills?

2. If you live near a railroad, do you know of any precautions that
are taken to prevent accidents?

3. If you live in a city, do you know of any precautions that are taken
to prevent accidents by fire in i)ublic buildiiifis? To jjrevent accidents
in the streets? How are your city streets lighted, and why? Who owns
the lighting i)lant?

4. Ask some manufacturer in your community what things the gov-
ernment compels him to do to safeguard his emjjloyes.

5. Find out what provision is made in your community for the care of
the poor. Who sujjports the poorhouse?

6. Is there a militia company organized in your community? Do you
know of any time that it has been called into active service? If so, when,
and why?

7. Mention some of the restrictions ujjon your liberty in the school-
room^ — what are some of the things that you are not permitted to do?

Explain how these thin^-s would interfere with the rights of others. Why
are you forced to consider the rights of others? Why are they forced to
consider your rights?

8. How is your liberty in the family restricted? Who makes the rules
which you must obey in the home? Why are they made?

9. Compare the restrictions upon your liberty in the school and in the
family with the restrictions which the government places upon the liberties
of people living in the community. Why are these latter restrictions
necessary? What, then, do we mean by liberty in a community?

10. Can the government restrict the liberty of the people to any extent
it chooses? Can the government, for instance, prohibit freedom of speech?
What do we mean by freedom of speech? Can one man say or print any-
thing he chooses about another without fear of punishment?

11. Does the government i)rescribe what church you shall attend?
Could it do so if it wished? Why? Did the government of Virginia ever
make such laws? Why were they abolished? What is meant by an

"established church"?

12. Did you ever hear or read that some officer of the government was
unworthy of his position? Have the people in Virginia the right to talk
freely about the officers of the government? What good results from
this? What evil sometimes results?

13. When was slavery abolished in Virginia? How much liberty did
the slaves enjoy? What liberties do the colored people enjoy today?

CHAPTER III

THE LIFE AND LIBERTY OF PERSONS ACCUSED

OF CRIME

PROTECTION GIVEN TO PERSONS ACCUSED OF
CRIME. It is of great importance that persons who violate
the laws of the community should be punished. Otherwise
the laws and the government itself would be useless. But it
is no less important that innocent persons should not be made
to suffer merely because they are suspected of having violated
the laws. In order to avoid this we give to all persons who
are accused of committing crimes certain rights which they
may demand.

THE PRESUMPTION OF INNOCENCE. Perhaps the
most important of these rights is that every person is pre-
sumed to be innocent until the government has proved that
he is guilty. In other words, unless the government can find
other persons who saw the accused commit the offense in
question, or unless it can show certain facts which prove the
person's guilt beyond any reasonable doubt, the person can-
not be punished, whether he is actually guilty or not.

It is probable that a guilty person is sometimes allowed to go
unpunished because the government cannot get actual proof
against him. This is regrettable, but it is occasionally neces-
sary. Otherwise the officers of the government would be
able to punish a person merely because they thought he had
committed an offense. That would indeed be unendurable.

THE PRIVILEGE OF BEING RELEASED ON BAIL.
Of course persons must sometimes be held merely on sus-
picion, until the government has had time to investigate, and
until what is known as a trial can be held. Even in such
cases the person so held has certain rights and privileges. He

20 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

can, for instance, ask to be released on bail. If this request
is granted, someone must deposit a sum of money with the
government; and in case the person escapes from the com-
munity, or fails to present himself for trial, this money is
forfeited to the government. The amount of bail that is
demanded usually varies with the seriousness of the offense.
And sometimes, either because of the seriousness of the
offense, or because the government has reason to believe that
the suspected person is planning to escape and forfeit his bail,
the government refuses to allow him to be released on bail.
In many cases, however, it is only fair that a person who is
merely suspected should be permitted to go at liberty until
the government is ready to put him on trial and prove his
guilt. The chief objection to the bail system is that a poor
person or a person unknown in the community often finds
difficulty in raising the money to deposit with the govern-
ment.

THE RIGHT OF INDICTMENT BY GRAND JURY.
If the offense of which a person is accused is a grave one, he
cannot actually l;e brought to trial upon the mere accusation
of some officer of the government. This officer must present
the e\'idence which he has against the person to a group of
private citizens who are known as a grand jury. If this
grand jury thinks that the evidence against the person is
sufficient, they bring in what is known as an indictment
against him. This simply means that the person is formally
accused by the grand jury and is ordered to be tried for the
offense. If the grand jury thinks the e\idence insufficient,
they dismiss the indictment; and the person cannot then be
held for trial. Sometimes a person is arrested on suspicion
and held (or released on bail) until the grand jury can be
assembled. He is then said to be "held for the grand jury."
Sometimes he is not arrested at all until after the grand jury
has iii<]i(-t('fl him. In cither case, alter the grand jury has

LIFE AND LIBERTY OF THE ACCUSED 21

])resented an indictment against a person, he is said to be
':held for trial."

THE RIGHT OF TRIAL BY JURY. For all the more
serious offenses a person is entitled to be tried by jury. This
means that his guilt or innocence must be determined by a
group of tAveKe pri\ate citizens who reside in the community
in which the offense was committed. Moreover, these twelve
persons must all agree. Otherwise a new jury must be chosen
and another trial held. More than this, the accused must be
tried in an "open court" — that is, a court to which the public
is admitted. The court may, however, be cleared, if those
who are present attempt to influence the jury by showing
their feeling for or against the prisoner. The accused can-
not be compelled to testify against himself. If he prefers to
remain silent, he has the right to do so. The witnesses against
him must gi\ e their testimony in his presence. And the gov-
ernment is required to force the attendance of any witnesses
whom the prisoner may demand.

When all the evidence for and against the accused has been
presented, the jury retires to consider the case. If they come
to an agreement, they bring in what is known as a verdict.
This verdict may be either of guilt or of innocence. If the
verdict is one of guilt, the accused is said to be "convicted";
and thereafter he is "sentenced" to serve the punishment
which the law provides for the particular offense.

THE RIGHT OF APPEAL. It is often the case that a
prisoner, even after he has been convicted and sentenced, has
the right to carry his case to another and higher court. This
we call the right of appeal. He is not again tried by a jury ;
but this higher court considers whether the case was properly
tried before the jury. If they conclude that the trial was
not conducted with all the fairness required by the law, they
ha\e the power to order that a new trial be held.

THE RIGHT NOT TO BE PUNISHED IN A CRUEL
OR UNUSUAL MANNER. Various degrees of punish-

22 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

ment for different offenses are prescribed by the laws of the
coninuinity. But the government in making these laws may
jiot provide any cruel or unusual punishment. The most
usual punishment is a fine or imj^risonment, and sometimes
both a fine and a term of imprisonment are imposed. For a
few very serious offenses the government prescribes the
punishment of death. Formerly in Virginia persons who were
sentenced to death were hanged; but more recently the law
has provided for death by electrocution — that is, by causing
an electric current to pass through the body. Many persons
believe that punishment by death should be abolished entirely.
But as long as the people retain this form of punishment for
a few of the more terrible crimes, the use of the electric current
is certainly more humane than the old method of hanging.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Suppose a man commits a crime in your community, who would
ordinarily arrest him? Where would he be taken? Would he ha\e to
prove his innocence?

2. Explain how he might be released on bail. Explain how he might
he "held for the grand jury." How would he be indicted? What would
this mean? How would he be tried?

3. What is a verdict? A conviction? A sentence? What is the right
of appeal? Electrocution?

4. Find out where the courts in your community are held. Have you
ever seen a court room? If so, describe it.

5. Find out when a grand jury last met in your community. Try to
find someone who has served on a grand jury, and ask liim how the busi-
ness of the grand jury was conducted.

6. Try to find someone who has served on a jury. Ask him to de-
scribe the trial to you.

CHAPTER IV

THE HEALTH OF THE PEOPLE

PROTECTION AGAINST CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
Many years ago it usually happened that when some con-
tagious disease broke out in a community it spread rapidly
from family to family. This was known as an epidemic.
In the case of the more dangerous diseases, such as small-
pox, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and typhoid fever, many per-
sons would die during these epidemics. There were also
epidemics of less dangerous diseases, such as whooping-cough,
chicken pox, measles, and grip. Now the chief reason why
most of these diseases spread with such rapidity was that no
effort was made to prevent well persons from coming in con-
tact with those who were ill. It is now well recognized that
it is the duty of the government to take precautions to pre-
vent the spread of contagious diseases. For example, the
requirement that school children shall be vaccinated is a pre-
caution that is taken to prevent the spread of the most dan-
gerous of all of these diseases — smallpox. But the govern-
ment must also exercise control over the persons who are so
unfortunate as to contract contagious diseases. The attempt
is made to prevent well persons from coming in contact with
these unfortunates. To this end the government forbids well
persons to enter a house in which one of these diseases pre-
vails, and signs of warning are often required to be posted
conspicuously upon such a house. The children of the family,
if they have been exposed to the disease, are prevented from
attending school. After the disease is over the government
often requires that the premises shall be thoroughly fumi-
gated. In the case of very dangerous diseases, such as small-
pox, the government often provides a special hospital and

24 GOVERNMENT AND POIJTKS IN VIRGINIA

n(|uin'S thai; (lie |),itic'nL shall he rcnioved to this camfulK'
guarded institution.

It is not easy to enforce regulations of this kind and i)eople
often object to the restrictions that are imposed upon them.
When we compare, however, the infrequency with which wide-
spread epidemics now occur with their great frequency in the
past, we realize the necessity of control by the government,
and we ought to be perfectly willing to comply with those
requirements which are made of us.

The danger from the spread of contagious diseases in cities
is naturally greater than it is in farming communities. This
is due to the fact that people in cities live so much closer to-
gether. In cities, therefore, the government enforces quaran-
tine regulations with greater strictness than elsewhere.

PROTECTION A GA INST IMP URE WA TER. I n farm-
ing communities the water that is needed by each family
is almost invariably secured from a private well. The gov-
ernment cannot \indertake to protect all of these many weils
against impurities. Indi\'iduals themselves should, however,
exercise great care in this matter. For instance, a person
should never be so foolish as to place a well in a position
where the filth and refuse from a stable will drain toward the
well. It is now an established fact that certain diseases,
such, for example, as typhoid fever, are more often than not
caused by impurities in water that is Uvsed for drinking. A
person who is not careful in properly locating and covering
his well puts himself and his family in constant danger.

In the cities, where water is almost invariably supplied to
the homes of the people through pipes and mains that are laid
under the streets and connected with the houses, the govern-
ment itself is responsible for the purity of the water. Some-
times a city can secure its water from a source which contains
no impurities. Occasionally, however, it is necessary for the
government to instal a plant to purify the water before it is
distributed to the people. These plants are commonly

THE HEALTH OF THE PEOPLE

known as filtration plants. In cities also the government has
to be careful not to discharge the sewage which is taken from
the homes of the people in any place that is likely to endanger
the purity of the drinking water either of that city or of some
neighboring city. In many cities the annual number of cases
of typhoid fever has been greatly reduced by changing the
place of the disposal of sewage.

THE SETTLING BASIN NEAR RICHMOND
Here the muddy water of the James River is cleared before being distributed to

the homes of the people

PROTECTION AGAINST IMPURE MILK AND
FOODS. For the most part there is really no reason why the
people who live in farming communities should run any great
risk of endangering their health by the use of milk and foods
that are impure. With the people of cities, however, it is
quite otherwise. They are dependent upon others to supply
them with these things. Unless the government undertakes

26 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

to protect them, they are more or less helpless to protect them-
selves. For example, those who furnish them with milk
may have diluted it with water or may have used injurious
chemicals to prevent the milk from spoiling. Moreover, the
milk may have been handled in unclean dairies. It ispossible,
also, to handle meats and vegetables in such a way that they
are not actually fit to be used as foods. Again, a considerable
part of the foods that are used by the people are now supplied
to them in cans and in sealed packages; and it is often im-
possible to tell the quality and cleanliness of such foods by
merely looking at them. The government attempts in many
ways to regulate the quality of the milk and the foods that are
sold to the people of the state. It provides inspection for
dairies, creameries, stables, and cows. Its officers inspect
also such places as restaurants, bakeries, meat markets, and
slaughter houses. Samples of canned and package foods are
collected and analyzed. Even feeds for stock are examined
by officers of the government.

PROTECTION AGAINST UNTRAINED PHYSI-
CIANS AND PHARMACISTS. When a person becomes
ill it is usually necessary for him to have proper medicines
and medical attention. It is easy to see the danger that would
arise if everyone who wished to become a physician or pharma-
cist were permitted to do so. Ignorant persons would be con-
stantly furnishing medicine to those who are in need of trained
assistance. In order to provide against this danger the gov-
ernment requires that every person who wishes to practise
medicine or pharmacy shall pass certain examinations to
prove his knowledge and ability.

PROTECTION AGAINST INTOXICA TING LIQUORS.
The use of intoxicating liquors is today recognized to be
dangerous to the health of those who use them, as well as pro-
ductive of other unhappy consequences. For a long time
the government has underte^ken to regulate the sale of in-
toxicating liquors to some extent. Formerly in Virginia

THE HEALTH OF THE PEOPLE

each community was permitted to decide by a vote of its
people whether Hquors should or should not Ije sold in the
community. Even when a community voted in favor of the
sale of liquors the government required retailers to pay con-
siderable sums of money for this privilege. This made the
liquor more expensive and therefore tended to lessen its use.
The people of Virginia have now decided to prohibit entirely
the sale of liquor within the state. On November 1, 1916,
all saloons were compelled to discontinue operations.

A COTTON MILL AT DANVILLE, VIRGINIA
Showing a modern factory built with due regard for light, air-space, ventilation

and attractive appearance

SPECIAL PROTECTION OF THE HEALTH OF PER-
SONS EMPLO YED IN IND USTR Y. I n Virginia the gov-
ernment has taken certain steps looking to the protection of
the health of persons who labor in manufacturing establish-
ments. For example, the government has limited the number
of hours per day during which women, and children under

28 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

six I cell yi-ais of a^c, may hv employed. Employers are rc-
(luircd to arrange their work-rooms so that they shall be prop-
erly lighted and ventilated. They are required also to keep
their establishments in a sanitary condition, so that the health
of their employes may not be endangered. It is probable
that in the course of time the government will prescribe
additional regulations for the protection of the health of those
employed in industry. The government regulates matters
of this kind because those who are employed are often unable

A DUMP ON THE OUTSKIRTS OF A CITY
Where ushes and rubbish are used to fill up a ravine

to protect themselves against employers who, either from in-
difference or because of their unw illingness to spend a little
money in the improvement of their plant, require those who
work for them to labor in unhealtiiful surroundings.

ADDITIONAL PROTECTION OF HEALTH IN
CITIES. In many ways the go\'ernn^cnt is comj^clled t^
take special precautions for the protection of the health of
those who live in cities. The streets must be cleaned and in

THE HEALTH OF THE PEOPLE 29

the summer time they must be watered to keep down the
dust. Sewers must be provided to carry the rain water off
the streets. Garbage and refuse must be carted away from
the homes of the people. A sewer system must be provided
in order that sewage may be carried from the homes of the
people through mains and pipes laid under the streets. The
government also often regulates and inspects the plumbing
in houses, because diseases have often been traced to the gases
that are caused by bad connections with the sewer system.
In cities, moreoever, the government will not permit a person
to endanger the health of others by maintaining what is
known as a nuisance. For example, a person cannot keep his
stable in a filthy condition. Nor can he maintain a slaughter
house or a fertilizer factory in a residence district.

In numerous other ways does the government attempt to
promote and protect the health of the people who live in
cities. As we have already had occasion to note, this is be-
cause the people in cities live so close together that the acts
of one person are very apt to endanger the health of others
in a community'.

CLASS EXERCISES

1 . What means are provided in your school for the protection of health?
How is yovir schoolroom ventilated, and why? How is it heated? Is it
well lighted? Do the school authorities require you to be vaccinated?
Where does your drinking water come from? When are children prevented
from attending school on account of disease? Who prevents them, and
why?

2. What measures does your city take to make the community more
healthful? Is there a sewerage system? Are the streets kept clean?
Are contagious diseases quarantined? What about the drinking water?
The garbage? Find out, if you can, what measures are taken to protect
you against imjjure milk and foods. Are the dairies and creameries,
slaughter houses, butcher shoj's and markets inspected by the government?

;5. Why is the sale of intoxicating liquors prohibited in Virginia?
4. Ask some manufacturer what measures the government requires
him to take to protect the health of his employes.

CHAPTER V
THE PROPERTY OF THE PEOPLE

THE MEANING OF PROPERTY. It was pointed out
in the first ciiapter that nearly everybody desires to earn
money in order that he may purchase thi '^s which he needs
to make him and his family comfortable." We all know that
the land and houses in the community are owned by certain
individuals who have usually either earned money and bought
this property or have inherited it from others. The land and
houses are the property of the persons who own them; but
they are not the only kind of property. People also own
property that can be moved around, such as horses and cattle,
clothing and jewelry, books and furniture. Indeed money
itself is only a special kind of property, because, as everybody
knows, we can exchange money for various kinds of property.

Everybody who owns property has the right to be protected
in it, and the government hcl]is in many ways to furnish us
with the protection which we need in this matter.

PROTECTION OF LANDS AND BUILDINGS. Of
course it is usually impossible for one person to steal the land
or the house that belongs to another, for it is impossible to
hide such things or to carry them away. Sometimes, how-
ever, two or more persons each claim a certain piece of land or
a certain house. The government assists in settling disputes
of this kind by providing that whenever a piece of land is sold
or given l)y one person to another, this fact shall be recorded
in an office which the go\ernment provides. The property
that is thus sold or transferred must be accurately described
in this record which the government keeps. This system of
recording transfers of land and houses does not always pre-
vent disputes as to ownership; but if the government did not

THE PROPERTY OF THE PEOPLE

provide some such system, it is certain that such disputes
would be far more numerous than they are.

PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AGAINST ROBBERY.
In every community there are usually a few people who have
no regard for the property rights of others. They cannot
ordinarily steal lands and buildings, but they can steal other
forms of property; and they do not hesitate to do so whenever
it is possible. The same officers that protect persons against
the violence of othf^rs — the constables, the sheriff, and the
police — are also required to protect property from thieves.

A MOTOR HOOK-AND-LADDER TRUCK

In spite of the watchfulness of these officers, and especially
of the police in cities, and in spite of the fact that every person,
whether in a city or in a farming community, has the right to
protect his own property from burglars if he is able to do so,
robberies are sometimes committed. The government then
makes every effort to arrest the robber and bring him to
punishment and if possible to restore the stolen goods to its
owner.

32 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN \'IRGINIA

It must not he thought that those who break into other peo-
ple's houses are the only thieves that there are. Sometimes
men in high positions, who are greatly respected in the com-
munity, yield to the temptation to steal money which happens
to be in their care but which belongs to others. These men
are even worse than common thieves, for they have usually
had better opportunities and better training. The govern-
ment, of course, provides for their punishment.

PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AGAINST FIRE. It is
the duty of every person to use precautions to prevent the
starting of fires. In spite of such precautions, fires sometimes
occur. In farming communities it is manifestly impossible
for the government to provide any protection against fires.
But in the larger cities the government establishes organized
fire departments, with fire engines, hose wagons, and hook-
and-ladder wagons, and with a force of firemen to operate
this apparatus. At various places throughout the city there
are call boxes at which a fire alarm may be turned in. 'I his
notifies the fire department that a fire has started in a cer-
tain section of the city. Immediately the firemen hasten to
the scene of the fire and use every effort to put it out. On the
street corners there are plugs to which hose can be attached,
and the fire engines pump strong streams of water that are
thrown upon the burning building. In this way does the
government seek to protect the property of the people from
destruction by fires. An efficient fire department is very
necessary in every city, for, since the houses are built close
together, it might easily happen that a fire that started in one
person's house would spread rapidly and destroy the property
of many other persons.

In villages and small cities the government itself does not
often maintain a regular fire department. Instead of this, a
number of men in the community usually band together in
volunteer organizations. These organizations purchase hose
and other equipment for the purpose of fighting fires. Such

THE PROPERTY OF THE PEOPLE

organizations sIkmiUI be luartiK' supported by the peop)le of
these communities, for they really take the place of the gov-
ernment itself in performing this service.

THE RIGHTS OF THE COMMUNITY IN THE PROP-
ERTY OF INDIVIDUALS. In a general way we may do
whatever we choose with our property so long as we obey the
laws of the community. But, as we have seen, the govern-
ment, in the interest of the entire community, regulates in a
number of ways the uses to which we may put our property.

AN ELECTRIC LINE RUNNING BETWEEN RICHMOND AND ASHLAND
This is one of the many railways that are regulated by the government

In farming communities, for example, the government often
requires that the individual shall erect fences to prevent his
cattle from straying on other people's land. In cities the
government prevents a person from using his property for
carrying on an objectionable business in the midst of the
homes of the people. Frequently, also, the government pro-
hibits the erection of a wooden building in the heart of the
city in order to lessen the danger from fires. In most cities.

34 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

also, the government imposes certain regulations upon the con-
struction of buildings in order to insure their safety. Again,
if a person digs a hole upon his property close to a city street
he is required to protect it so as not to endanger the lives of
those who are using the street. In this and many other ways
the government places restrictions upon the uses of private
property.

Further than this, the government reserves the right to
take our property entirely from us whenever this property is
needed for the c(jmmunity as a whole. If, for example, the
government wishes to open a road or a street through the
property we own, or to construct a park or a school or other
public building upon our property, the government has the
power to take this property from us in case we refuse to sell it.
In such instances the government is required to pay us a just
amount of money for the property that is taken. This power
of the government to take a man's property from him is called
the power of eminent domain. The government often confers
this power upon railroad companies so that individual owners
of property may not, by refusing to sell, stand in the way of
the building of a railroad.

The government also takes property away from the people
of the community in the form of the taxes, which must be col-
lected for the support of the government. The individual
who pays taxes receives compensation only in the form of the
many things which the government does for the community
as a whole. (See Chapter XVII.)

SPECIAL RIGHTS OF THE COMMUNITY IN CER-
TAIN KINDS OF PROPERTY. The people as a whole
are peculiarly dependent upon some of the property that is
owned by private persons. We as individuals are not often
dependent in any unusual way upon the property which an-
other person may own in a shoe store or a dry-goods store.
If we cannot be suited at one such store we go to another, or
we order our shoes or our dry-goods from a distant city. But

THE PROPERTY OF THE PEOPLE 35

when we desire to go on a journey, we are dependent upon the
property which other persons own in a railroad; for there is
often only ofie railroad that we can make use of. So also we
are usually dependent in a peculiar way upon the property
which other people own in a telephone or telegraph company.
The people of cities are likewise dependent upon the property
of street car companies, and of water, gas, and electric light
companies; for more often than not there is only one company
that supplies each of these services to the community.

Now in some instances the government itself owns the water-
works, the gas works, or the electric plant. But this is not
always the case. Moreover, in no community in Virginia
does the government own the railroads, the telephone and tele-
graph services, or the street cars. These are owned by private
persons who seek to make as much money as possible out of
them. The government recognizes, however, that the people
have a very special interest in the property that is used in
these various services. It reserves the right, therefore, to
regulate property of this kind in a special way. Thus the
government usually fixes the rates that may be charged by the
persons who furnish these services and imposes many require-
ments upon them in the interest of the comfort and con-
venience of the public. The government cannot, however,
deprive them of the right to earn a reasonable income from
the property in which they have invested their money.

HOW THE GOVERNMENT IMPROVES THE PROP-
ERTY OF THE PEOPLE. It is, of course, the business of
every person who owns property to do whatever he can to in-
crease its value. To this end he should cultivate his property
so as to make it as productive as possible. If he owns prop-
erty in a city, he usually erects a building upon it, either for
his own home or business, or with a view to renting the build-
ing to some other person for profit. The government, how-
ever, also does many things which increase the value of the
property owned by individuals. When, for example, the

36 GO\ KRiNMENT AND POLITICS IN \ IRGINIA

government constructs a road, or grades and paves a street, or
lays out and beautifies a park, the adjacent property is often
made more valuable by reason of this improvement. Be-
cause of this fact the government sometimes requires the
owners of the adjacent property to pay the wliole or a part of
the cost of such improvements. When the government makes
charges of this kind against the owners of private property,
these charges are known as "special assessments." If a per-
son's property is increased in value because of some improve-
ment undertaken by the government, it seems only fair and
just that he should pay for that increase of value, even though
the improvement is also of benefit to other people in the
community.

THE PROPERTY OF THE GOVERNMENT. In every
community the government itself owns some of the property.
Thus the rivers, most of the roads, and many of the bridges
belong to the government. So also in cities the government
owns the streets, the alleys, and the parks. Moreover, the
government owns certain public buildings, such as school-
houses, courthouses, jails and prisons, poorhouses, city halls,
and public libraries. The property which the government
owns really belongs to the entire community, for it is used for
the benefit of all of the pccple.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Mention some of the property that you possess in the schoolroom.
How docs this property help you? Mention some of the property owned
by the school. How does this property assist you? Who supplies the
school property? Are you protected in the possession of your books and
])encils? Who protects you?

2. Is money jjroperty? Why? Wiiat business is your father engaged
in? Why does he eufiage in business? Mention some of the i)roi)erty in
your home. To whom docs it belong?

:i. ^\ ho owns tlie land in your couuiiunity? How may one man trans-
fer a piece of land to anotiier? In case of dispute over the ownership of a
l)iecc of land, who settles it?

. THE PROPERTY OF THE PEOPLE 37

4. What means does your community afford for })r()tecti()n against
burglaries? Who arrests tlie burglar and what is done with him? Why
do police patrol the city streets? Why are streets lighted? Why is
there no patrol in 1 he count ry districts? How is the police force organized?

5. Find out what you can about the fire department in your com-
munity. A\'hat is its purpose? Who supports it? Have you ever seen
a large fire? How is an alarm turned in? Explain how the dejjartment
operates. Why are there no fire departments in farming communities?

6. What are some of the ways in which the government restricts us
in the use of our property? Why are these restrictions imposed?

7. Why does the government impose special restrictions upon the per-
sons who own the railways, and the telegraph, telephone, water, gas,
and electric light services?

8. Do you remember a road or street ever being ojjened in your com-
munity across some man's property? Or do you remember a school-
house or other public building ever being built? If you do not know of
any such instance, perhajjs your parents or teacher can tell you of one.
Who opened this road or street? Or who built this building? How did
the government get the property? Was the former owner justly paid?
What is this power of the government to take property called?

9. What property does the government own in your community? How
did the government get it? Why is this property owned by the govern-
ment?

449654

CHAPTER VI
THE FARMS OF THE PEOPLE

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS. In
view of the fact that so large a part of the people of Virginia
live in farming communities, it is not surprising that the gov-
ernment should undertake to assist in developing the agri-
cultural interests of the people. In many wa>"s the govern-
ment endeavors to extend protection to farmers and to fur-
nish them with much valuable information and assistance.

INSPECTION OF FERTILIZERS. Every farmer is
dependent upon good fertilizers. It is not always possible,
however, for the farmer to tell whether the fertilizer that is
offered to him contains the things that his soil needs or the
things that are claimed for it by the fertilizer manufacturer.
This requires a chemical analysis which the farmer is not often
able to make. In order to protect farmers against dishonesty
in the matter of fertilizers the government provides inspectors
who secure samples of fertilizers in various parts of the state
and forward them to Richmond for examination. The
farmers themselv^es may also require that samples be sent on
for examination. If upon examination the government finds
that a sample does not come up to the claims of the manu-
facturer, the manufacturer may be punished, and the farmer
who has purchased any of the fertilizer in question may re-
cover the amount that he paid out.

SEED INSPECTION. The government requires that
those who sell seed to farmers shall mark the packages con-
taining the seeds so as to indicate their quality. Any farmer
may send to Richmond a sample of seeds which he is about
to purchase and have them examined. Moreover, the officers
of the government themselves take samples of seeds in various

GIRLS* CANNING CLUBS EXHIBIT AT THE STATE FAIR

BOYS' CORN CLUB PRIZE WINNERS IN PITTSYLVANIA COUNTY

40 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

parts of the State and analyze them to discover impurities
and weed seeds.

PROTECTION AGAINST CROP PESTS. The govern-
ment undertakes to furnish information to farmers on the
subject of insects and other pests that attack orchard trees
and crops. Inspectors are also appointed and are given the
power to destroy any pest that is about to gain headway-

STATE LIME QUARRY, STAUNTON, VIRGINIA
The agricultural lime taken from this quarry is sold to Virginia farmers at cost

in this or that farming community. The government also
inspects and regulates the nurseries at which orchard trees
are grown for sale.

PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES TO CATTLE.
The governn^ent maintains at Blacksburg an officer known as
the State Veterinarian whose duty it is to furnish informa-
tion on the subject of diseases of cattle. He has the power to
make inspections and in case he discovers an infectious dis-

THE FARMS OF THE PEOPLE

ease he may establish a local quarantine to prevent the spread
of the disease to other cattle in the community or to other
parts of the state. The railroad com.panies are also required
by the government to clean and disinfect cattle cars, in order
to prevent the possible spread of cattle diseases.

EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. At Blacksburg in connec-
tion with the Virginia Polytechnic Institute there is main-
tained what is known as the State Experiment Station. This
station is used for the purpose of making investigations into
the various kinds of seeds, fertilizers, soils, and methods of
cultivation, in order that farmers may receive reliable informa-

A FARMERS' INSTITUTE TRAIN

tion and instruction upon these subjects. In addition to this
important station, experiment stations are also conducted
under government control at Appomattox, Axton, Bowling
Green, Chatham, Louisa, Rustsberg, Saxe, Norfolk, and
Staunton. A large amount of valuable information is gath-
ered from the experiments that are conducted at these stations.
This information is furnished to the farmers who are interested
in improving their methods of cultivation.

42 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. The Virginia Agricultural
and Polytechnic Institute located at Blacksburg offers to the
young men of Virginia the opportunity to secure a four-year
college course in agriculture. It also conducts in the winter
season a brief course of six weeks for practical farmers. This
Institute is supported by the government. Teachers are also
sent out from this Institute to conduct what are known as
"movable schools of agriculture," which last from three to
ten days, and to carry on demonstration work on experi-
mental plots in all parts of the state. In the spring and
autumn the government also sends lecturers on special trains
throughout the state to address farmers on subjects of in-
terest to them.

In each of the ten congressional districts of the state the
government maintains an agricultural and industrial depart-
ment in at least one high school. The government also
supervises "boys' corn clubs" and "girls' canning clubs" in
connection with the work of the national Department of Agri-
culture at Washington.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. If yoii live in a fiirniing community find out how the farmers know
that the fertilizer which they buy has been inspected by the government.
Find out whether tlie farmers in yov:r community ever have the seeds
whicli they purchase examined by the government. Jf so, find out what
luis been the result of these examinations.

2. Has there ever been an epidemic of disease aiiioiig cattle in your
conunimity? If so, wh;it did the government do to jircvent the spread
of sucii disease?

3. If there is an agricultural experiment station near you find out,
if you can, what work it is doing. Has there ever been in your community
a movable school of agriculture or a farmers' institute train? Or has the
government carried on any demonstration work? If so, find out, if you
can, about these activities of the government.

CHAPTER VII
THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

THE REASON FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Back in the
year 1671 Governor Berkeley of Virginia wrote: "I thank God
there are no free schools or printirig presses and I hope we
shall not have any these hundred years." What did he mean
by this astounding remark? He meant simply this — that
people can be subjected to tyranny and oppression by the
government only when they are kept ignorant. Whenever
people begin to read and study and to think for themselves,
they begin to understand that they have certain rights which
have to be protected. They then realize that they are capable
of governing themselves and of determining, through the gov-
ernment which they themselves establish, what right sthey wish
to enjoy as individuals, and what services their government
shall provide for the community as a whole.

THE HISTORY OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN VIR-
GINIA . Of all the statesmen who helped to found the Ameri-
can nation, Thomas Jefferson had perhaps the greatest faith
in the ability of the people to govern themselves. He realized,
however, that it was absolutely necessary that the masses
of the people should be provided wnth means by which they
might improve their intelligence. He early proposed, there-
fore, that both primary and high schools should be established
by the government throughout the State of Virginia, and that
a university should also be established at the top of this system
of free education. His plan was never fully carried out.

As early as 1808 a sum of money known as the Literary
Fund was set aside by the government of Virginia for the edu-
cation of the poor children of the state. It was not a large
fund, and the people for many years regarded it as a public

44 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

charity. Even when they were too poor to pay for the edu-
cation of their children, many of them were too proud to
accept the help of the government. W'ilh the money fnmi
this fund, however, as well as with money contributed by
private persons, many schools were established in Virginia.
These schools were known as "free" schools because children
could attend them without the payment of tuition.

It was only after the War Between the States that a real
system of public education was established in Virginia. The

SUFFOLK CITY HIGH SCHOOL
A splendid modern school building

old free schools that existed in various parts of the state were
made a part of the present system when it was first established
in the year 1870.

The northern states were far in advance of Virginia and the
other southern states in establishing public school systems.
There were two principal reasons for this. In the first place,
the people of the northern states settled for the most part on
small farms in communities that were known as towns, or

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

townships. They lived fairly close together, and it was
comparatively easy for the children to attend the schools that
were provided. In Virginia, however, the people settled for
the most part on large plantations, and these were widely
scattered over the state. Even if the government had, in
early days, attempted to establish schools, it would have been
difficult for the children in the outlying districts to attend
them. This was one of the reasons, then, why the establish-

CHESTERFIELD COUNTY SCHOOL BOARD AT LUNCHEON
Served by the domestic science class of the Chester Agricultural High School

ment of systems of public education was so long delayed in
the South.

In the second place, there was in Virginia and the rest of
the South a large population of negro slaves. This fact
caused society to be divided into three classes. There was,
first, the wealthy class of land owners and slave owners, to-
gether with the professional men of the state, such as min-

46 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

isters, lawyers, physicians, and office-holders. Next, there
was a class of poor white people consisting of mechanics,
artisans, and laborers. Last, there was the slave population.
Now the government of Virginia was almost exclusively in the
hands of the wealthy class. The people of this class had
money and the opportunity to provide education for their
children by other means than at the expense of the public.
They did not, therefore, see the necessity for general public
education in order that all the people might share in the con-
duct of the government. In the northern states, on the other

A "CONSOLIDATED" SCHOOL IN HENRICO COUNTY
Showing school wagons for the transportation of pupils

hand, there were few negro slaves, and society was not divided
so strictly into classes. This, then, was another reason why
the people of the South failed to establish systems of education
at an early date.

PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. We have
long since ceased to regard the public schools as a charity
established by the government. It is true that some persons
continue to pay for the education of their children at private

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

schools. But many persons who can afford to pay for the
education of their children nevertheless prefer to send them
to the schools provided by the government. It is for each
family to decide whether the children of the family shall re-
ceive their education at a public or at a private school. The
public schools are open to the children of the community re-
gardless of whether their parents can afford to pay for their
education or not. It is simply a fact that in Virginia, as well
as throughout the United States, the vast majority of chil-
dren attend public lather than private schools.

LOUISA GRADED AND HIGH SCHOOL

It is the duty of every family to see that the children are
sent to school, even though they may sometimes be needed
at home. In some states of the Union the government abso-
lutely requires that children of a certain age shall attend some
school, either public or private. Laws of this kind are, how-
ever, very difficult to enforce. As a matter of fact, such laws
ought not to be necessary. The duty of parents in this matter
is so clear that the government ought not to be under obliga-
tion to compel them to fulfill this duty.

48 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE P UBLIC SCHOOLS. The
building up of an adequate school system by the government
is no small undertaking. Year by >ear the schools of Virginia
are being improved in many ways. It is the intention of the
govcrnm.ent to place within easy reach of every child in the
state a mcII equipped graded school and to establish in each
county at least one high school. But the government faces
many difficulties in accomplishing this object. In the first
place, the necessary money is not always easy to secure.
Some communities are very poor. The people object to giving

rUREE-ROOM GRADED SCHOOL FOR COLORED PUPILS, NOTTOWAY

COUNTY

a great deal cf money for the establishment and support of
schools. Ill the second place, the children who live in farm-
ing communities are often widely scattered. In order for
every child to have a school in his immediate neighborhood
it would be necessary to provide a very large number of small
schools with poorly paid teachers. In recent years the gov-
ernment has discontinued many small schools and established
in their place a single consolidated school. The government
has then provided school wagons for the purpose of carrying

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

the children to and from their homes. These consoHdated
schools are usually far superior to the small schools which they
replace.

Another difficulty which the government has to face in the
development of a system of schools is due to the fact that our
population is divided into two races. There must be separate
schools for each race, and the expense of maintaining schools
is thus greatly increased.

OUTDOOR CANNING DEMONSTRATION
Summer Normal School, Harrisonburg, Virginia

In spite of these and other difficulties which the government
faces, a great deal has been accomplished in the way of de-
veloping the public schools of Virginia. The responsibility
for supporting the schools rests largely upon the people of
each community. These people should take interest and
pride in the proper development of their schools. The gov-
ernment of the state as a whole, however, recognizes that it
must assist in building up the school system. It therefore

50 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

appropriates a part of the money that is needed for the main-
tenance of schools. It is unnecessary at this point to de-
scribe how the school system is organized and governed. It
is sufficient to remark that in very many ways the govern-
ment attempts to arouse the interest of the people in public
education and exerts its constant influence for the improve-
ment of school conditions.

JMp/t 1

EHMRH^^^^^H^ '"^^

^^1

iwm tmini

UNIVERSITY OFVIRGINIA
View of the "Lawn," looking toward the library

THE SCHOOLS IN CITIES. In cities the schools are
usually better equipped than they are in farming communities.
This is due in part to the fact that the property in cities is
more valuable than it is in farming communities and there
are more wealthy people. It is easier, therefore, to get money
for the support of the schools. Moreover, because of the
larger number of children who live close together, it is less
difficult to establish schools within walking distance of the

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

children. In every city it is possible also to maintain at least
one high school.

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE FOR HIGHER EDU-
CATION. In addition to the common schools and high
schools, the government of Virginia makes some provision for
higher education in colleges, institutes, and universities. The
University of Virginia at Charlottesville was established in
1818, through the efforts of Thomas Jefferson, and was
formally opened in 1825. Every boy in Virginia can secure

A VACATION SUMMER SCHOOL

at this University his college education without the payment
of any tuition. At Farmville, Harrisonburg, Fredericksburg,
and Radford the government maintains normal schools for
the education of women who expect to become teachers. The
government lends its support also to the Virginia Military
Institute founded at Lexington in 1839, the Virginia Poly-
technic Institute founded at Blacksburg in 1872, William and
Mary College founded at Williamsburg in 1693, and the Medi-
cal College of Virginia at Richmond. The government also

52 r.OVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

inainlaiiis lor the colored teachers a normal and industrial
school at Petersburg. For the education of the deaf and the
blind the government has established a school for white people
at Staunton and one fcr colored people at Newport News.

THE SCIIOOLIIOUSE AND THE COMMUNITY. It
seems unnecessary to dwell upon the advantages which we as
individuals derive from the schools. The training which

^PI^^^^^^^^^^^WtI^^^P*

' •'^- • ■ ' -'i

iifp-i litii • ^

STUDENTS OF VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
In charge of prize dairy cows

pupils receive in the schools and the knowledge which they
acquire assist them in countless ways toward making a success
of their lives. The schools increase our usefulness to our-
selves, our families, and the community in which we live.
People do not always realize that the prosperity of a par-
ticular community is often advanced by a good school. It is
a fact, however, that when families with children desire to

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

move from one community to another, they are often very
particular to inquire about the school facilities. They realize
how desirable it is that their children should have the oppor-
tunity of attending an up-to-date school; and they are un-
willing to make their home in any place where this opportunity
is denied to them.

In recent years a movement has been going on in many com-
munities to use the schoolhouses not only for the teaching of
children but also for other community or neighborhood pur-

HANDLEY PUBLIC LIBRARY AT WINCHESTER, VA.

poses. Since the schoolhouse belongs to the community,
there is really no reason why the grown people of the com-
munity should not use it (outside of school hours) for club
meetings, lectures, and other community gatherings or enter-
tainments. In some communities the schoolhouse has become
a center in which various community activities are carried on ;

54 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

and this is as it should be. In a few cities in the country the
experiment has been tried with success of using the school-
houses for polling places on election days — that is, places at
which the voters of the community may go to cast their votes
for candidates who are seeking to become officers of the gov-
ernment. It is probable that in the course of time many
schoolhouses will be constructed with a view to their being
used for numerous community purposes in addition to teach-
ing.

LIBRA RIES. In Richmond there is a large library owned
and supported by the government of the state. This library
has certain collections of books known as "traveling libraries,"
which are sent to various parts of the state for temporary use.
Many of our schools have established small libraries to be
used in connection with school work. In a few cities also the
government has established free public libraries. In Norfolk,
for example, the building for such a library was given by Mr.
Andrew Carnegie, and the library is supported at the expense
of the city. Of course it is very nearly impossible for the gov-
ernment to establish numerous public libraries in farming
communities, but the time will doubtless come when prac-
tically every city and village community will have at least one
public library, where the people may, without the payment
of any fee, secure books and magazines for limited periods of
time.

CLASS EXERCISES

1 . What e\aclences are there in your community that the government
is helping tlie i)Cople to attain knowledge? Are thorc i)ublic schools?
Is there a public library? Is there a high school? A i)ublic insl it iition of
higher learning? Have you ever seen a traveling library?

2. Explain how your life in the school corresponds to life in your com-
mvmity. What constitutes the school government? Who makes and who
enforces the laws? Do you see how your school training will help to make
vou a better citizen? In what way?

THE SCHOOLS OF THE PEOPLE

3. Do the peoi)le in Virginia govern themselves? What kind of gov-
ernment is this called? Why is education necessary for people who govern
themselves? What were Thomas Jefferson's views about this?

4. What are some of the reasons why public education did not develop
in Virginia before the war? Why did it de\'elop in New England?

5. Tell what you know of the school system of your community. If
there is no high school near you, are the i;)eoi)lc talking of building one?
Who is your county or city superintendent? What are the duties of the
school board? Do you know any of its members?

6. Is your school a graded or an vmgraded school? Have any schools
in your county been consolidated? How are the pupils brought to the
school? Why were the schools consolidated? If you are a pupil in a
consolidated school, what are some of the advantages you now enjoy
which you did not have before?

7. Who builds and pays for the support of public schools? Why does
the government do this? Suppose the government did not provide schools,
are there not many children who would be deprived of an education?

8. In what ways does the family assist in education? What duty in
this respect do parents owe their children? What duty in this respect do
you as pupils owe to yourselves, your families, and your community?

9. Is your schoolhouse used for any community purpose after school
hours? Can you think of any purpose it could be used for?

A RURAL SCHOOL BASE BALL TEAM

CHAPTER VIII
THE ROADS, STREETS, AND PARKS OF THE PEOPLE

THE NECESSITY FOR GOOD ROADS. In 1790, when
Thomas Jefferson arrived in New York to take his position as
Secretary of State under the newly formed government of the
United States, he wrote as follows to a friend whom he had
left in Virginia: "I arrived here on the 21st inst., after as
laborious a journey" of a fortnight as I ever went through;
resting only one day at Alexandria, and another day at Balti-
more. I found my carriage and horses at Alexandria, but a
snow eighteen inches deep falling the same night, I saw the
impossibility of getting on in my carriage, so I left it there, to
be sent to me by water, and had my horses led on to this
place [New York], taking my passage in the stage, however
relieving myself a little sometimes by mounting my horse.
The roads through the whole way were so bad that we could
never get more than 3 miles an hour, sometimes not more
than 2, and in the night but 1."

In this day of speeding railway trains and other con-
veniences for swift transportation, w^e can scarcely appreciate
the difficulties and discomforts of travel in those early days.
Thomas Jefferson took fourteen days to make a trip from
Richmond to New York — a journey which we now make in
about half as many hours.

The problem of building and maintaining good roads is one
in which practically everybody has a direct or indirect in-
terest. In farming communities this interest is too obvious
to require mention. Recently many people who live in cities
have become directly interested in the country roads because
the automobile is now so extensively used. Aside from this,
however, the people of cities should not forget that they are

ROADS, STREETS, AND PARKS 57

dependent upon the farmers both for their food and for the
raw materials which they use in their factories. Although
it is true that most of the food and raw materials are carried
to the cities by railroad or by boat, it is also true that the vast
majority of these products have to be hauled over country
roads before they reach the railway depots and the steamboat
wharves.

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE ROADS. In Jeffer-
son's time it was the usual custom for the large planters to
build such roads as they needed. At best these roads were
of very crude construction. If they were used by others, a
toll was charged. Sometimes, also, private companies,
usually known as turnpike companies, were organized to con-
struct and maintain roads. These companies went into this
business for the purpose of making money. They invariably
collected tolls of every person who used the road or roads which
they owned. Long ago, however, it became evident that the
government itself would have to undertake the construction
of roads for the benefit of all the people of the community.
Even after the counties of Virginia began to build roads, they
usually defrayed all or a part of the expense of construction
and maintenance by charging tolls. This toll system is still
followed in some parts of the state, and there are still some
private roads.

Another plan, adopted at a later date in Virginia, was that
of requiring every able-bodied man who resided outside of a
city or village to work on the roads two days in every year.
If he did not wish to perform this work, he could pay the
government a sum of money equal to a laborer's wages for
two days. This plan, which existed in Virginia for many
years, was not a great success. Some people have the idea
that anybody can construct a road. In point of fact the build-
ing of a good road requires the skill of a trained engineer.
Most farmers do not possess this training.

58 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

Provision is now made by which the government oi Vir-
ginia furnishes a competent road engineer to any county that
desires to improve its roads. The government also furnishes
a force of laborers made up of convicts from the state peni-
tentiary. The county pays the salary of the engineer and
buys the material that is needed for construction, such as
gravel, crushed stone, cinders, or. shells. The state govern-
ment also appropriates a comparatively small sum of money

AN UNIMPROVED ROAD IN SPOTTSVLVANIA COUNTY, VIRGINIA

every year to assist the counties in constructing certain roads.
Where the state government lends this assistance, it pays
half the expenses of construction.

As in the case of the schools, the responsibility for the con-
struction and maintenance of roads rests largely upon the
community itself. The construction of good roads is indeed
a costly undertaking, but they mean so much to the pros-
peri t>- and progress of the community that the people are often
williiiiT ((, rn.ikc the fiii.iiici.il siicririccs (hat arc necessary.

ROADS, STREETS, AND PARKS 59

As individuals we cannot, of course, undertake to construct
and maintain roads in the community in which we Vive. We
can, however, use our infkience to get the j2;overnment to do
this.

THE APPEARANCE OF THE ROADS. The govern-
ment cannot often undertake anything more than the laying
down of the roadbed itself. But the individuals who live in
farming communities can themselves do many things to im-
prove the appearance of the roads. For one thing they can

SAME ROAD AS SHOWN ON OPPOSITE PAGE, AFTER IMPROVEMENT

and should keep the weeds cut down along the roadsides.
When they are clearing out woods to secure land for cultiva-
tion, they should always leave trees standing at the road's
edge. Indeed the owners of farms could often plant trees
along hot and dreary roads with excellent results to their
community and with comparatively little expense and trouble
to themselves. Many farms could be greatly improved in
appearance by the planting of vines to cover unsightly fences.
It seems needless to say, moreover, that well-painted houses

60 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

and barns, neatly kept barn-yards, a bit of well ordered lawn,
and a few trees and flowers contribute not only to the happi-
ness of the family but also to the general appearance of the
community.

Some of these things, which add to the attractiveness of
the farm community, must of course be neglected at times
because of the lack of money. But many of them cost noth-
ing more than a little thought and a little time. When they
are not attended to, it is merely because of thoughtlessness

AN ILL- KEPT ROAD
Showing weeds cut from the sides but not removed from the roadbed

or indifference. Naturally the government does not compel
us to improve the appearance of our property. We can let
it remain as shabby as we choose. But everybody ought to
realize that, aside from his own pleasure, he has a real duty
toward his community in respect to this matter. There are
probably few if any communities in the entire state of Virginia
that could not be made vastly more attractive places to live

ROAUS, STREETS, AND PARKS

in, if every body would do for his own property only so much as
might reasonably be expected of him.

The schoolhouses themselves are usually built close to some
road, and it is not too much to say that they are sometimes
shamefully neglected. Even if the school building is a homely
one, its appearance can be greatly improved by the planting
of a few trees and shrubs and flowers. With a little direction
from teachers and parents, the pupils of any school can do

A WELL-KEPT ROAD
Notice how the appearance of this road is improved by trees

much to improve the appearance of their schoolhouse. Espe-
cially can they assist by refraining from injury to the school
property, by keeping the grounds free from Htter and rubbish,
and by refusing to place unsightly pictures and writings on
walls and fences. The appearance of the schoolhouse and
grounds, no matter how simple and plain they may be, ought

62 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

to be a matter of individual interest and pride to every person
in the community.

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CITY STREETS. In
cities the government has many obligations toward the
streets. In the first place, the streets are either laid out by
the government itself or, if laid out by some private person
upon his own property, they must be approved by the gov-
ernment. Formerly the government was very careless in
determining where and how the streets should run. In con-
sequence the streets of some cities are very badly and in-
conveniently arranged. . In recent years many cities have been
giving careful study to this matter. They cannot in most
instances make many changes in existing streets, for this is a
costly undertaking. But they are determined that, as the
city grows, new streets shall be opened up in accordance with
a carefully designed scheme or plan. This has come to be
known as "city planning."

In the second place, the government undertakes to pave
the streets. The sidewalks are usually paved with bricks or
with concrete made of crushed stone, sand, and cement.
Many of the roadways of the streets are also paved, either
with stone blocks, or with brick, or with asphalt, which is a
hard substance commonly made of tar, lime, and sand. In
selecting the pavement for a street roadway the government
usually considers the kind of traffic for which the street is
used. In residential streets sheet asphalt or asphalt blocks
have become the most popular paving ; but in parts of the busi-
ness district, where the streets are used chiefly by heavy
wagons and trucks, stone blocks are commonly used. In all
cases culverts are provided at the corners so that the streets
may be drained of rain water.

In the third place, the government permits the streets to be
used for other purposes than walking or driving, which is of
course their chief use. Mains and pipes are laid beneath the
surface of the streets in order that water and gas may be fur-

ROADS, STREETS, AND PARKS

nished to the inhabitants of the city, and in order that sewage
may be carried off from their homes. The government also
permits street car companies to lay tracks on certain of the
streets, while telephone and telegraph and electric lighting
companies are allowed to erect poles and string wires along the
streets. As we have seen, however, the government reserves
the right to regulate the business of these companies in return
for the special privileges they enjoy, and it usually also makes
them pay for the use which they make of the streets.

, ^

JimH

- ^"^ijLLILLL '

1 - 1 li

1 ( f

■ 1 ^^'" .f . _■ *-

■ ;

^^DkI^SSE^W,-"^^ ■4^'^mhli'l^^i^.

' i i

A CONVICT ROAD CAMP
In such camps are state convicts housed while they are engaged in road con-
struction

THE APPEARANCE OF THE STREETS: Just as it is
the duty of the people who live in farming communities to
improve the appearance of their property along the roads, so
it is the duty of city residents to improve their property along
the streets and thus add to the appearance of their neighbor-
hoods. Whenever a person improves the appearance of his

64 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

own home or yard, he serves not only himself but also his
community. The streets belong to everybody; it is, there-
fore, the duty of everybody to assist at all times in keeping
them clean. This is true also of the parks. The person who
scatters papers and other rubbish in the streets and parks
of a city simply ignores a plain duty which he owes to other
people who reside in the community with him. In many cities
the government provides trash boxes on street corners and in
the parks, and the persons who do not use these boxes have no
excuse for throwing rubbish elsewhere.

In cities the government itself finds it possible to do many
things to increase the attractiveness of the streets. The
paving of streets has already been mentioned. In addition
to this, the government undertakes to keep the roadways of
streets clean. In some cities this is accomplished for the most
part at night, in order not to interfere with traffic, and in
order to save the people as much as possible from the incon-
venience of dust, especially when street-sweeping wagons are
used.

The government also plants rows of trees along the side-
walks of many streets. Occasionally the roadway of a wide
street is divided so that grass plots and trees may be planted
in the center of the street. In recent years, also, cities have
been giving a good deal of attention to the manner of lighting
the streets. They have been careful to select light standards
that are ornamental instead of unsightly. 1 1 is to be regretted
that the streets in so many of our cities are spoiled by a net-
work of telegraph, telephone, and trolley wires and by the
numerous poles that are required to support these wires.
Some of the larger cities in Virginia have already insisted that
many wires should be put under the streets in what are known
as conduits. The day will probably come when in all the
larger cities the government will demand that all wires be
placed underground. Even the overhead trolley wires will

ROADS, STREETS, AND PARKS

give way to the more improved underground system, although
this latter system is far more expensive to construct.

THE GOVERNMENTS RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE
STREETS. Not only does the government undertake to
improve the streets in many ways, but it is also responsible
for keeping them in a safe condition. Sometimes a street is
temporarily closed for repairs or for excavations, and some-
times when buildings are being erected or torn down, the street
is partially obstructed. The government, however, prevents

A WELL-KEPT STREET IN PETERSBURG, VIRGINIA
Observe, however, how the appearance of the street is marred by unsightly poles

and wires

people from placing unnecessary obstructions in the streets.
Moreover, the government must see to it that the sidewalks
and roadways of the streets are kept in sufficient repair to
prevent accidents from happening to those who use them.
If a person is injured as a result of the failure of the govern-
ment to care for the streets, he has the right to sue the govern-
ment and to recover a sum of money for the damage that he
has suffered.

66 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE PARKS. The people
who live in farming communities can usually live out of doors
as much as they choose. But in cities, where the houses are
built close together, the government sets apart certain open
spaces for parks, in order that the people may secure rest and
recreation free from the noise and dust and dangers of the
streets. These parks are usually laid out with paths and grass
plots; trees and flowers are planted; and monuments and
fountains are erected. They not only add much to the ap-
pearance of the city but are also of great benefit to the in-
habitants, especially during the hot months of the summer.
Occasionally the government even provides band concerts for
the pleasure of the people who use the parks.

In recent years some cities have undertaken to provide
special playgrounds for the children of the city. Children
ought to play out of doors as much as possible, and it is well
recognized that the streets are not the proper place for num-
bers of children to gather for their play. These playgrounds
are arranged so that various games may be played and are
otherwise equipped for the amusement and athletic develop-
ment of the young people of the community. Sometimes also
the government provides for such playgrounds an instructor
or director who supervises and assists the children in organiz-
ing their play.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. What means are afforded in your community for your getting to
and from school? Describe the condition of the roads and streets over
which you travel. Is your school building attractive? Are there any
trees, shrubs, or flowers in the yard? Are the pupils careful to keep the
building and yard clean? Can you think of some things that could easily
he done to make your school more attractive?

2. If you live in a farming community, describe the condition of the
various roads that you know about. Of what are they constructed?
Are they in need of repair? Find out who is responsible for repairing the
roads. Do you know of any road that has recently been repaired? How
was it done?

ROADS, STREETS, AND PARKS 67

3. Are there any toll roads in your community? Who owns them?
Why was the method of having farmers work on the roads two days in
the year given up? -^^^ ^ \

i. Has the state approi)riated any monej* for road-building in j'our
community? Has it furnished a super\dsing engineer? Has it furnished
convicts from the state penitentiary? If the roads in your community
are in need of repair, find out who is responsible for not securing this
assistance which the state offers. Are the people of your community
unwilling to pay their share of the expense?

5. Select certain typical roads in your community and tell what you
think could be done to improve their appearance and comfort? Are
your schoolhouse and grounds an orname.it or an eyesore to the com-
munity?

6. If you live in a city or town, describe how the sidewalks are paved.
Who paved them? Are they kept in good repair? Are the roadbeds of
the streets paved? If so, what are they paved with and who paved them?

7. What kind of trees are set out along the streets of your city? Are
they satisfactory as shade trees? Are they ornamental? What can you
do to improve the appearance of the streets?

8. What are the names of the several parks in your city and where
are they located? Draw a map of one of them that you are familiar with.
Are the parks well kej^t? Why does the government establish and main-
tain parks in cities? What use do the j^eople make of them?

9. What uses are made of the streets of your city in addition to their
use for walking and driving? Can you jilace any obstruction that you
choose in the streets? If you are injured as a result of some unnecessary
obstruction or defect in the streets, have you any right against the gov-
ernment?

SECOND PART

ORGANIZATION OF THE STATE AND LOCAL GOV-
ERNMENTS

CHAPTER IX
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE

THE MEANING OF THE STATE CONSTITUTION.
During the period of our history before the Revolutionary
Weir, each of the thirteen colonies in America was under the
control of the government of England. The colonies exer-
cised only those rights and povi-ers which the English govern-
ment permitted. That gt)vernment also determined very
largely how the colonial laws should be made and in most of
the colonies appointed the governor. Under this system the
colonists actually enjoyed a large degree of self-government,
for they were allowed to make most of the laws by which they
were governed and to choose most of their governmental
officers.

When the Revolutionary War broke out, Virginia was
governed in this manner. The war, however, freed the
colonies from the control of the mother country; and the
people of each colony were forced to provide some other form
of government. Lord Dunmore, the colonial Governor of
Virginia, fled for his life; the House of Burgesses, the law-
making body of the colony, dissolved itself; and the old gov-
ernment passed away. Something had to be done, for the
people could not exist without any government. And this is
what happened. In May, 1776, a convention composed of

thp: constitution oi' the staff: 69

two delegates from each county in Virginia met at Williams-
burg and drew up a document providing for a form of govern-
ment very similar to that which had existed during the colonial
period. This written document declared what officers should
be chosen and how they should be chosen, what powers these
officers should have, and who should make and administer
the laws. This is what we mean by a constitution. It is a
written document framed by delegates representing the people
of the state and providing in outline the organization of the
government.

THE HISTORY OF VIRGINIA'S CONSTITUTIONS.
There were naturally many defects in this first constitution of
Virginia, framed as it was in great haste at the outbreak of
our war for independence. It is marvelous indeed that it
was strong enough to last fifty-four years. There were two
chief defects in this constitution. In the first place, only men
of considerable property could vote or hold office. As Thomas
Jefferson ironically remarked, the government of Virginia
was in the hands of those who were "distinguished by the
luxury and ostentation of their establishments." In the sec-
ond place, the people in the different parts of the state were
not equally represented in the law-making body. In con-
sequence, they did not enjoy an equal share in the management
of their own government.

Soon after the Revolutionary War adventurers began to
push in large numbers across the Alleghany Mountains into
what is now West Virginia, but was then an unsettled part of
Virginia. This movement of population during the early
years of the nineteenth century was very rapid. By 1815
two-fifths of the white population of Virginia lived on the
other side of the mountains. They were for the most part
poor pioneers. Few of them owned enough property to vote.
There were few large plantations and few slaves. In fact,
the whole character of these people differed from that of the
land-owning inhabitants of the eastern part of the state.

70 G()VERNMP:NT and politics in VIRGINIA

Under the constitution of 1776 they had Httle share in the
government. They were allowed to hold almost no offices,
and they did not have a fair representation in the body which
made laws for the state.

For years the people of this western part of Virginia
clamored for changes in the state constitution. But it was
only after a long and bitter struggle that a convention finally
met at Richmond in the winter of 1829-30 and drew up a new
constitution. This second constitution did not prove very
satisfactory, how^ever, and in 1850-51 a third constitution was
framed by a convention representing the people of the state.

The constitution of 1851 lasted throughout the period of
the War Betw^een the States, It w as during the terrible period
of reconstruction, in December, 1867, that our fourth con-
stitutional convention came together. It did not represent
the people of Virginia. Its membership was composed al-
most entirely of Northerners and of recently freed negroes.
The constitution which they adopted was known as the
"Underwood Constitution," taking its name from the presi-
dent of the convention. It was by no means wholly bad,
however, and the people of Virginia \\\cd under it, with a few
changes, for a period of more than thirty years.

THE PRESENT CONSTITUTION OF VIRGINIA. In
1901-02 our fifth and last convention met and framed the
constitution under which our government is at present or-
ganized. The chief reforms which the people felt it was
necessary to make were, first, a reduction in the number of
officers in the state, and consequently in the expenses of the
government; and second, the placing of new restrictions upon
the right to vote. However, many other changes were also
made.

Our present constitution is a long document, covering many
printed pages. The convention which framed it sat for twelve
months fully and carefully considering the great work before
them. The constitution provides in detail how the govern-

THE CONS'inUTION OF THE STATE 71

ment shall be organized. It enumerates all the chief officers
of the government and outlines their powers and duties. It
determines who shall have the right to vote and hold the
various offices. It provides also for the establishment of
local governments in the different communities of the state.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CONSTITUTION. The
constitution is often spoken of as the fundamental law of the
state. This is because it is superior in rank and importance
to any other law. The constitution, as we shall see, provides
for a legislature of the state and empowers this legislature to
make laws. Moreover our various county and city govern-
ments have the power to make local laws. But in making
these laws the legislature and the local governments of the
state must always consider the constitution. If they pass a
law which violates any provision of the constitution, the courts,
as we shall see, will simply declare that the thing which the>'
have called a law is not in fact a law at all; and the courts
will refuse to enforce it. For example, as we have seen, the
government cannot deprive us of our freedom of speech and
the press, except as we abuse this freedom and thus injure
others. This is because the constitution says that "any citi-
zen may speak freely, write and publish his sentiments on all
subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that right." Now
if the legislature should be so foolish as to enact a law pro-
hibiting a person from publishing an ordinary newspaper, the
courts would simply say that in spite of this law he could go
ahead with the publication of his paper.

This is merely a single illustration; for, as we have seen, we
have many other personal and property rights which the
government may not take away from us. This is because
these rights are written down in the constitution; and neither
the legislature nor any officer of the government can ignore
or violate the constitution. It is higher than the government
itself, and this is why it is called the fundamental law of the
state.

72 COVERNMKNT AND POLmCS IN VIRGINIA

now THE CONSTITUTION MA Y BE CIIA NGED. So
important is the constitution that it may be changed only b>'
unusual procedure. The legislature of the state may indeed
propose amendments to the constitution. But when any
amendment has been proposed by one legislature, it must
wait until a new legislature has been elected and must receive
the approval of this new legislature. After that it must be
submitted to the people themselves and the voters cast their
ballots for or against the proposal. If a majority of the voters
are in favor of the amendment thus proposed, it then becomes
a part of the constitution.

We have vseen that we have had a number of constitutional
conventions in Virginia. Whenever it seems desirable to have
an entirely new constitution, the legislature asks the people
to vote on the question of whether they wish a convention
to be called for the purpose of revising the constitution. If
a majority of the voters are in favor of calling such a conven-
tion, the legislature then makes provision for its coming to-
gether.

CLASS EXERCISES

1 . How were we governed in Virginia during the colonial period? Who
determined our form of government? Were we permitted to make any
of our laws? To choose any of our officers? How did the Revohitionary
War change our situation?

2. Who determines our form of government to-day? How is this done?
What is meant by a constitution? How many constitutions have we had
in Virginia? How were these constitutions drawn up?

3. Explain how the constitution jirotects our liberties. Against whom
are they protected? How n\ay the constitution be changed? Why may
our law-makers not change it?

4. When was our present constitution framed? By whom was it
framed? Find out, if you can, the names of some of the members of the
convention of 1901-02. Who represented your county or city?

CHAPTER X
THE VOTES OF THE PEOPLE

THE MEANING OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERN-
MENT. As we have seen, the government is really an or-
ganization which lays down and enforces certain laws that
the people must obey, and which undertakes many services
for the benefit of the people. It would be manifestly im-
possible for all the people of Virginia to come together and
themselves make the laws for the entire state. Indeed it
would be very inconvenient, if not impossible, for the people
of an entire county or city to come together and enact the
laws for their own community. The people of Virginia have
solved this difficulty by establishing what is known as repre-
sentative government. Instead of making the laws directly
for themselves they choose certain representatives to do this
for them. For example, the people of every county choose a
group of representatives known as the board of supervisors.
These representatives make laws for the county. The people
of every city choose a group of representatives that are com-
monly known as the city council. This council makes the
laws for the city. The people of the entire state choose a
group of representatives known as the General Assembly, and
ihis body makes the laws for the entire state. In addition
to these several groups who make the laws, the people choose
other representatives to enforce the laws and to manage the
various services which the government undertakes for the
benefit of the people.

The people control their government through these repre-
sentatives whom they themselves elect. Perhaps the most
important right that we as a people have is our right to vote
for or against the persons who offer themselves as candidates

74 GOVERNMENT AND POLiriCS IN VIRC.INIA

to represent us in the government. Our representatives arc
responsible to us for the kind of laws they enact and for the
manner in which they enforce these laws and carry on the
various governmental services. If we are not satisfied with
the way the government is being carried on, we have the right
to turn our existing representatives out of office and to choose
others in whom we have greater confidence.

THE RIGHT TO VOTE. When we say that the people
choose representatives to carry on the government for them,
we do not mean that every person in each community has the
right to vote. For many reasons this is not the case. For
example, the children are not permitted to share in selecting
the officers of the government. Nor are the women of Vir-
ginia pcnnilted to vote at elections, although in a number of
states in the Union the right to vote has been extended to
women. Again, foreigners (that is, persons who have not yet
become citizens of the United States), and citizens of other
states who happen to be temporarily in Virginia at the time
of an election, cannot cast votes. Moreover, we do not allow
men to vote in Virginia who cannot read and write. The more
intelligent people of the state have concluded that a man who
cannot even read and write, and who must in consequence be
very ignorant of what is going on in the world, is not a fit
person to help in choosing the officers of the government.
Finally, we exclude from the right to vote persons who are
insane or who are paupers and have to be supi^orted 1)y the
government, and jjcrsons who have been convicted of crime.

It is clear, therefore, that many persons are denied the right
to share in choosing the officers of the government. There
are more than two million people in the state of Virginia, but
in the election held in 1912, at which Woodrow Wilson was
chosen President of the United States, only 136,976 votes were
cast. This means that only one person out of every sixteen
cast a vote. In 1913, when we elected a governor in Virginia,
onh' 72,41 7 votes were cast. This means that only one person

THE VOTES OF THE PEOPLE 75

out of every twenty-eight cast a vote. It must not be under-
stood that these numbers represent all of the persons who
might have cast votes; for there were doubtless many persons
who did not take advantage of their right to vote. These
figures illustrate, however, how very small Is the number of
persons who actually participate in selecting the officers of
the government.

QUALIFICATIONS FOR VOTING. We have just
noted the various classes of persons who are not permitted to
vote in Virginia. The constitution itself determines who has
the right to vote. It may be well, therefore, to set down the
list of qualifications which the constitution prescribes. In the
first place, a person entitled to vote must be of the male sex;
he must be a citizen of the United States (that is, one who was
born in the United States or who, having been born abroad,
has become a citizen of the United States by swearing away
his allegiance to any other government); and he must be at
least twenty-one years of age. In the second place, he must
have resided in the state of Virginia for at least two years,
and in the particular county or city in which he offers to vote,
for at least one year. For voting purposes the various com-
munities of the state are divided into precincts or election
districts ; and the law provides that a man offering to vote shall
have resided in his precinct or election district for at least
thirty days. In the third place, a man who desires to vote
must be registered. This means that his name must be re-
corded in what is known as a registration book. The law
provides that in each election district there shall be an officer
known as a registrar. On a certain day in May and another
day in October of every year this officer sits at some con-
venient place in the district to receive and record the names of
those who are entitled to register. On these days any person
whose name is not already registered and who expects to
vote at the election must present himself, prove his qualifica-
tions, and have his name properly enrolled upon the book.

76 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

Such a person may also register on any other day provided he
can locate the registrar. On the day of election only those are
permitted to vote whose names are found in the registration
book. In the fourth place, every male resident of Virginia
who is over twenty-one years of age is required to pay a yearly
poll-tax of one dollar and fifty cents. No man can vote at
any election who has not paid his poll-taxes for the three years
preceding the election. This requirement in itself operates
to reduce the number of voters ; for if a man has, for one reason
or another, neglected to pay his poll-taxes for a few years,
he is compelled to pay the sum of four dollars and fifty cents
before he can be registered as a voter. His own interest in,
and duty toward, the government should pre\ent him from
subjecting himself to this penalty. In the fifth place, when a
man presents himself for registration, he is required to make
application in his own handwriting. If he cannot write, he
cannot be registered and therefore cannot vote.

These are the most important qualifications which, under
the constitution, every man must ha\e in order to qualify as
a voter. )^

THE PLACES OF VOTING. As we shall see a little
later, every county in Virginia is for certain purposes of gov-
ernment divided into magisterial districts and every city
into wards. Often these districts and wards are for voting
purposes also divided into precincts, or election districts.
In each precinct, or election district, there is one place,
called a polling-place, at which the voters who live in the dis-
trict may cast their votes at any election. In charge of these
polling-places are certain election officers who are appointed
in accordance with the law. These officers first examine the
books and determine whether a person desiring to vote is
properly registered. If his registration proves to be satis-
factory, they then permit him to cast his vote.

THE VOTING. In the early days of our history it was the
custom, when a voter went to the polls, to read him the names

THE VOTES OF THE PEOPLE 77

of the candidates for office and to ask him which candidate
he desired to vote for. Thereupon the voter would call the
name of the candidate of his choice. Under such a system
everybody knew how everybody else voted. The result was
that men could not always vote with independence, because
of what other people might think of them. They might be
made to suffer in some way for voting as they thought best.

Today, however, we have a wholly different system. It is
usually impossible for anybody to know how anybody else
votes. When a person goes to the polls, he is given a slip of
paper called a ballot with the names of the different candidates
printed on it. He then retires to a booth, where no one else is
permitted, and with a pen he draws a line through the names
of the candidates whom he opposes, leaving unscratched the
name of the candidate of his choice. He folds his ballot and
hands it to one of the election officers, who deposits it in a
sealed ballot box. None of these ballots are examined until
the election is closed. It is impossible for one voter to tell
how any other voter has cast his ballot; for when the ballot
box is opened, nobody can tell who cast this or that ballot.

The election lasts for one day, from sunrise to sunset. At
its close the ballot boxes are opened and the ballots are
counted. The count, or return as it is called, is then sent to
the county board or the city board appointed for that pur-
pose, and these boards add up the returns from the various
voting precincts. In case the election is for state officers,
these local boards send their returns to the capital at Rich-
mond, where the returns for the whole state are added and
the result of the election is announced. ^

INITIATIVE, REFERENDUM, AND RECALL. In
Virginia the voter shares in the conduct of the government
chiefly by casting his ballot for the choice of officers of the
government. Occasionally also he is called upon to vote for
or against an amendment to the constitution, or to vote di-
rectly on some question, such, for example, as whether the

78 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

sale of intoxicating liquors shall be prohibited in the state.
In some other states of the Union the voterg are permitted to
share more directly in the conduct of the government. For
example, a group of voters may themselves draw up a pro-
posed law and petition the government to have it passed.
This is known as the "initiative." If the legislative body
does not itself enact this law, they are compelled to let the
voters decide by their own votes whether or not it shall be a
law. Moreover, if the legislature passes a certain law, and
some of the voters are opposed to it, they may petition to have
it submitted directly to the voters. This is known as the
"referendum," which means a proposition referred to the
voters. This plan of letting the voters share somewhat di-
rectly in the making of laws has not been adopted in Virginia.

Another scheme by which the voters of some states control
the officers of the government is known as the "recall." All
of our officers are elected for definite terms of office — for
example, for a term of two or of four years. If we happen to
choose an unsatisfactory officer, we usually have to wait until
his term is ended before we can elect someone else in his place.
Under the recall, however, if a group of voters are dissatisfied
with any officer, they may petition to have him recalled before
the end of his term. This means that a special election must
be held, and the voters can then decide whether they will re-
tain the officer in question or put some other person in his
place.

THE DUTY OF THE VOTER. Unfortunately many ex-
cellent men have the idea that it is beneath them "to dabble
in politics." By their indifference they sometimes permit
the affairs of the government to be directed by low political
bosses and shrewd schemers who ha\'e onlv their own interests
at heart. Nothing can be more hurtful to any community
than this attitude which some good men assume. Of course
it is impossible for every man to enter politics. It is not even
desirable. But every man should be interested in all the

THE VOTES OF THE PEOPLE 79

undertakings of the government, and this means that he should
be interested in what we call politics.

He should keep himself thoroughly in touch with what the
government is doing. He should try to learn which of two
or more men desiring a particular office is the most honest
and the most capable. He should lend his influence in private
conversation, and if need be in public, to keep bad men out of
office. In every way possible he should further the best in-
terests of his community through the government. Not
only this, but the best men of the community should not hold
themselves aloof from the service of the government. Nearly
always there are plenty of men who desire to be officers; but
frequently none of them are the right sort of men for public
office, and it is sometimes difficult to get better men to see
that it is their duty to serve. The great hope of any state is
that its more intelligent men will be wide awake to every
movement which concerns the welfare of their community and
state, and that whenever it is possible they will use their in-
fluence to better the conditions of the government.

THE DUTY OF THOSE WHO DO NOT VOTE. It is
true, as we have seen, that many persons in Virginia do not
have the right to vote. But every man, woman, and child,
whether he votes or not, should be interested in the govern-
ment and contribute in every way that he can to promote the
welfare of the community. The women, for example, both as
individuals and in their charitable and other organizations,
may often bring to the attention of the government matters
which need to be attended to. The children can in many
ways improve the conditions of the schools which the govern-
ment provides. Indeed, our study thus far must have made
it clear that the government cannot and does not undertake
to do everything that the people of a community. need. Much
is left to be done by individuals and by private associations
of individuals, who may or may not be voters. Not only
can these individuals and associations influence the govern-

80 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

ment, but they can also do many things for the community
which the government must of necessity leave undone.

CLASS EXERCISES

1 . What do we mean by democratic government? Would it be possible
in your community for the peojile to make their laws directly? How are
the laws made? Who makes the laws for the whole state? What kind
of government do we call this? Why?

2. Explain how a man shares in the government by voting. Why do
not children have this right? Women? Foreigners? Citizens of other
states? Insane people?

3. Why does the constitution require that a voter shall be able to write?
Should an illiterate. man be trusted to hold office? To choose officers?
Why?

4. Mention all the qualifications for voters in Virginia. Take each of
these qualifications separately, and tell whether you think it is necessary
or unnecessary, and why.

5. Find out, if you can, how many magisterial districts there are in
your county, or how many wards there are in your city. Find out, if yo;i
can, how many precincts or election districts there are in your magisterial
district or ward. In what precinct or election district do you live? Find
out where the voting place of your precinct or election district was located
at the last election.

6. Explain the old method of voting. Explain how the votes are cast
to-day. What was accomplished by the change from the old method?
What is the ballot? The ballot box?

7. What is meant by the initiative? The referendum? The recall?

8. Explain how it is the duty of every man to be interested in politics.
To whom does the government belong? Explain how the govcrnmont is a
part of us. What is our duty toward it? How will we suffer if we fail
in this duty?

9. Mention some of the ways in which those who do not vote may in
fluencc and assist the government.

CHAPTER XI

POLITICAL PARTIES

THE MEA NING OF POLITICAL PARTIES. In every
country in which the government is estabhshed and main-
tained by the votes of the people, it invariably happens that
organizations of the voters, known as political parties, develop.
There are always differences of opinion among the voters as
to what the government ought and ought not to do. The
voters who in a general way agree with one another upon
certain policies for the government usually come together and
form an organization to promote these policies. The voters
who disagree with them and hold other views also organize.
In this way the voters are usually divided into two or more
political party organizations.

Although political parties sometimes go out of existence,
and parties with new names and new policies are formed, it is
a fact that political parties are more or less permanent or-
ganizations. Everybody knows, for instance, of the Demo-
cratic and Republican parties, these being the two great or-
ganizations to which most of the voters of the United States
belong. There are also other smaller parties, however, such
as the Socialist and the Prohibition parties. The principal
object of every political party is to secure the election to the
various offices of the government of persons who belong to
the party, and who, when they are in office, will carry out the
policies which their party is in favor of. Every party or-
ganization is, therefore, very active in letting the voters of
the community know what governmental policies the party
favors. In many ways each party tries to induce as many
voters as possible to cast their ballots in favor of those candi-
dates who stand as representatives of the party and its policies.

82 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

THE ORGANIZA TION OF PARTIES. Political parties
are not really a part of the government. They merely seek
to control the government by getting members of the party
into office. In order to accomplish this, however, it is neces-
sary for each party to organize with certain party officers and
with certain rules that go\ern the acti\'ities of the party.
This organization of political parties is accomplished chiefly
by means of committees. In every party there is a state
committee having general control of the affairs of the party
in the state. In addition to this, there are local committees
in the different counties and cities of the state. These com-
mittees arrange for political meetings and for addresses to be
delivered by party leaders and candidates for office. They
also determine many important questions in regard to the
method of choosing the candidates who are to stand for the
part}'. In the weeks and months that precede an election,
they stir up general interest among the voters and in every
way try to draw out as large a vote as possible for their candi-
dates.

THE NOMINATION OF PARTY CANDIDATES. It
is absolutely necessary that every political party should,
before any election is held, choose a party candidate for each
office that is to be filled by election. If this were not done, it
might well happen that two or more persons representing the
same party would stand for election to a particular office,
and the voters of the party would divide their votes among
these candidates. If at the same election it happened that
some smaller party had only one candidate for this office, and
if the voters of this party cast all of their ballots for this
candidate, the result might be that this candidate of the
smaller party would be elected. He would not receive a
majority of the votes cast, but he might receive a larger num-
" ver of votes than any single one of the several candidates of
the larger party.

POLITICAL PARTIES 83

The choosing of persons who are to stand for the party at
any election is called the nomination of candidates. Formerly
in Virginia, as elsewhere in the United States, candidates for
office were invariably chosen at what were known as party
conventions. These conventions consisted of delegates who
represented the voters of the party. At the present time the
law permits any political party organization in Virginia to
select its candidates for office in any way that it chooses.
Candidates are, however, chosen in two principal ways. The
first of these is by the system of party conventions just noted.
The second is by a system known as a primary election. The
law now provides that a primary election for the nomination
of party candidates for state and county offices shall be held
every year on the first Tuesday in August. Another pri-
mary election for the nomination of candidates for city offices
is held on the first Tuesday in April in any year in which a
city election is to be held. No party is required to choose its
candidates at these primary^ elections, but every party is
permitted to do so.

PRIMARY ELECTIONS. A primary election is con-
ducted in very much the same way as a regular election. It is
held at the same polling places, and there are officers to con-
duct the election. When a voter presents himself at the polls
on primary day, he is compelled to declare which party he
supported at the preceding general election. If he declares,
for example, that he supported the Democratic party, he is
given a ballot containing the names of persons who want to
become candidates for that party. Such a voter cannot de-
mand, and he will not be given, the ballot of the Republican
party. In case he failed to cast any ballot at the preceding
general election, he is required to declare which party he in-
tends to support at the coming election, and he is given the
ballot of that party. The reason why every voter is thus re-
quired to declare himself is because a primary election is
really an election within the party. It is not just that per-

84 GOVERNMENT AND JH)LITICS IN VIRGINIA

sons who do not belong to a particular party, and who have
not supported and do not intend to support the candidates
of that party, should, nevertheless, have the right to assist
in deciding who shall be the candidates of that party.

Of course this system destroys to a considerable extent the
secrecy of the ballot, for a voter is not allowed to participate
in a primary election unless he declares either how he has voted
at the last election or how he intends to vote at the coming
election. There is in fact little to prevent a voter from
deceiving the election officers in this matter, if he wants to
do so. These officers must usually accept his word. He
may, for example, on primary day, wish to vote for the candi-
dates of the Democratic party. In order to do so, he may
declare that he supported that party at the last election,
when in fact he did not do so. Or he may declare that he
intends to support that party at the coming election, when in
fact he has no such intention. Nobody knows how he actually
voted at the last election; and nobod\' will know how he
actually votes at the coming election. This is a matter, there-
fore, which is left to each voter's conscience. It seems clear,
however, that when a man has shared in choosing the candi-
dates of a particular party, he is certainly under a strong moral
obligation to support that party at the regular election which
follows.

This .s> stem of j^rimary elections was established l)ecause it
was thought that party conventions, consisting of a limited
number of the members of a particular party, frecjuently
did not represent the wishes of the rank and file of the party
in choosing party candidates for office. A primary election
is, strictly speaking, not an election at all. It simply results
in the selection of the candidates whose names are placed on
the ballot as the choice of the party at the real election which
follows. It is often the case, however, that where a great
majority of the voters belong to one particular party, the
])rimary election is really more important than the regular

POLl riC.AL I'ARTllCS 85

election. If a man is chosen as the candidate of such a party
at the primary, he is very nearly certain to be elected at the
regular election.

THE CANDIDATES FOR NOMINATION AT PRI-
MARY ELECTIONS. In order to become a candidate for
nomination at a primary election (which means that, if success-
ful at the primary election, the candidate becomes the party
candidate at the regular election) a person must formally de-
clare his intention to become such a candidate, and he must be
supported by a petition signed by a number of voters. If he
is a candidate for a state office, such as the governorship for
example, two hundred and fifty voters must sign his petition.
If he is a candidate for a city or county office, fifty voters
must sign his petition.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Try to find out which poHtical party is the stronger in your com-
munity. Are most of your county or city officers Democrats or Republi-
cans? To what political party do the present Governor and the other
state officers belong?

2. Explain how political parties are organized. Why is it necessary
for them to organize? What powers and duties have the party com-
mittees? Find out, if you can, what party committees there are in your
community.

3. Explain why it is necessary for parties to choose candidates before
the election. What would be the probable result if they did not do so?
In what two ways are party candidates chosen? Were your present city
or county officers nominated at a party convention or at a direct primary
election? In what way were the present Governor and other elected state
officers nominated?

4. What is meant by a primary election? When are such elections
held? How are the voters of the Republican party prevented from voting
in a primary election of the Democratic party, and trice versa?

5. How does a person become a candidate for the choice of his party at
a primary election?

CHAPTER XII
1'HK STATE LEGISLATURE

THE THREE DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT.
There are certain duties which the government undertakes to
perform for the people of the state as a whole. It is im-
possible to enumerate the complete list of such duties. It is
sufficient to say in a general way that the state government
makes and enforces such laws and undertakes such services
as seem inappropriate to be regulated by the local govern-
ments, such as counties, towns, and cities. For the purpose
of making state laws there is a group of representatives who
constitute what is known as the legislative department of the
government. There is another group of state officers who
see that the laws are enforced and who manage certain services
which the government of the entire state carries on. This
group constitutes what is known as the executive department
of the government. There is still a third group of officers
whose duty it is to explain and apply the law and to settle
controversies between persons under the la\\'. This group
consists of judges and is known as the judiciary department.

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GENERAL ASSEM-
BL Y. The legislative department of the state government is
divided into two bodies, or houses, as they are called. Every
proposal for law that is agreed to by either one of these houses
must also be agreed to by the other before it becomes a law.
This prevents laws from being hastily made. One of these
houses is known as the House of Delegates, the other as the
Senate. Together they constitute what is known as the
General Assembly of Virginia.

The constitution declares that the House of Delegates shall
never consist of less than ninety nor more than one hundred

THE STATE LEClSLA'niRE 87

members, and that the number of senators shall not be less
than thirty-three nor more than forty. The House of Dele-
gates is therefore much larger than the Senate. For the
purpose of electing delegates the entire state is divided into
what is known as house districts. The General Assembly
itself determines what counties and cities shall be grouped to-
gether to form a district. It also determines the number
of delegates to be elected in each district. As nearly as possi-
ble each delegate represents the same number of people.
Populous districts, whether consisting of a single large city
or large county or of a group of counties and cities, are given
more than one delegate. In the majority of districts, how-
ever, only a single delegate is elected. The members of the
House of Delegates are chosen by the voters of the several
districts in November of every odd-numbered year — that is,
in 1917, 1919, 1921, and so on.

For the election of senators the state is divided into sena-
torial districts. These districts are either much larger than
the house districts or else they have fewer senators than dele-
gates. Each senator is elected for a term of four years.
Provision is made, however, so that half of the whole number
of senators are elected in November of every odd-numbered
year, at the same time that delegates are chosen.

The General Assembly meets in the January following the
November elections — that is, once in every two years. Each
senator and delegate is paid five hundred dollars per session.
In order to prevent the General Assembly from wasting its
time, the constitution requires that it shall sit for only sixty
days. In case of necessity, however, the session may be
extended thirty days longer, provided that three-fifths of
the members of each house agree to this extension. More-
over, under extraordinary circumstances the Governor may
call the General Assembly in extra session.

Each house of the General Assembly has the power to choose
its own officers, and to determine the rules by which its de-

cS.s (.()VI-:RNMEN'r AND PULITRS IN NIKCIMA

bates and other affairs must be conducted. The one exception
to this is that the Lieutenant-(^»ovcrnor presides over the
Senate. The presiding offi(x>r of the House of Delegates is
called the Speaker. In addition to the presiding officer there
are a number of other officers and clerks in each house.

Each member has his own desk, and these desks are ar-
ranged in rows facing the presiding officer's chair. Visitors
are usually prohibited from coming upon the "floor" of either
house; but galleries are provided to which the public is freely
admitted.

THE MAKING OF THE LA WS. Nearly every member
who is elected to the General Assembly goes to the capital
with the idea of getting certain measures enacted into laws.
Sometimes the people who elect him express their desire to
have this or that law passed. Sometimes an individual
citizen asks a member to present a proposition for a law.
Frequently also the Governor and the other important officers,
who are thoroughly in touch with the needs of the state, de-
sire certain laws enacted.

Every member of either house has the right to introduce
any measure that he sees fit. The measure when introduced
is known as a bill. Instead of being taken up at once for de-
bate, every bill is referred to an appropriate committee. Pro-
vision is made for a number of standing committees in each
house, and each committee has for its consideration measures
that relate to one particular branch of the government's work.
In the committee room the proposed measure is talked over
and worked over. Often the committee holds what is known
as a hearing, at which persons who are interested may appear
and favor or oppose the measure. Later the committee
makes a report to the house, recommending either that the
measure be passed or that it be voted down.

When the committee has reported a bill, the house opens
debate on it after it has been printed and read on three
.separate days. The bill may be amended by the house in

THE STATE LEGISLATURE 89

any way, or it may be rejected. The house is largely in-
fluenced, however, by the report of the committee which has
made a special in\estigation of the subject. In case the bill
is passed in one house, it nmst then be sent to the other house
where it goes through a very similar process. In the end it
may be approved, or amended, or voted down.

This is the manner in which every measure proceeds through
the legislature. The committee system makes it possible to
handle many propositions in the short term of sixty days. It
also provides for a careful consideration of every proposal.

THE PO WERS OF THE GENERA L A SSEMBL Y. The
General Assembly may pass any law that it is not forbidden
by the constitution to pass, and which does not conflict with
the laws made by the national government at Washington.
It is necessary for the constitution to specify only those things
which the legislature may not do. Chief among the restric-
tions placed upon the legislature are those which secure to the
people certain rights which we ha\e already discussed, such,
for example, as the freedom of speech and religion, and the
right not to ha\'e property taken from them by the govern-
ment wathout just compensation.

The legislature is also prohibited from passing what is
known as "special acts" in regard to a long series of subjects.
This is to prevent the time of the law-makers from being
taken up in enacting law^s for a particular locality, or a special
individual, and also to secure to every person in the state
equal rights before the law.

Aside from these restrictions upon the powers of the legis-
lature, the General Assembly may pass any act it pleases.
It is not necessary for us to examine in detail what the nature
of these laws is. It is sufficient to say that they regulate,
among numerous other things, business relations, property
relations, and the marriage relations of the people of the state,
and provide for the raising of taxes, the educational interests,
and the affairs of railwa\s and other corporations.

90 GOVERNMENT AND POLrPICS IN VIRGINIA

THE STATE CAPITOL. The General Assembly meets
at Richmond, the capital city of the state. In a handsome
])ark, beautifully laid out and containing splendid statues
and monuments, stands the capitol l)uilding in which the
legislature holds its sessions. The central portion of this
Iniiiding was built in 1833. Within its walls have been heard
some of the most distinguished men that haxe figured in the

rilK HALL OK IHK IlOUSl, OF OELLGA I KS
Showing ihe desks at which the members sit during the sessions of the General

Assembly

history of the United States. Here, too, the Congress of the
Confederacy sat. Because of its age and the many historical
associations that surround it, this building has become
very dear to the people of Virginia. With the growth of the
business of the governnient, li(A\-e\er, it became entirely

THE STATE LEGISLATURE . 91

inadetiLiate, and some years ago it was found necessary to add
two large wings to the central structure. The original
building was, however, preserved. Even with these addi-
tional wings, the capitol building is too small to accommodate
all the officers of the state government.

INFLUENCES UPON OUR LAW-MAKERS. When a
man has been chosen to the legislature many people suppose
that it is a \ery simple matter for him always to vote honestly
and intelligently. Perhaps it ought to be; but as a matter
of fact a great many influences are brought to bear upon
members of the legislature which most of us do not fully
appreciate. In the first place, a member usually desires to be
re-elected at the end of his term of office. Sometimes the
voters who have elected him are controlled by a man known
as the political boss of the community. The member realizes
that he must, to some extent at least, act so as to please this
boss if he is to hope for re-election.

In the second place, when a measure is proposed that is
disadvantageous to some large corporation, or to the people
engaged in a certain kind of business (as, for instance, the
liquor business), all sorts of efforts are made to induce the
law-makers to ignore the interests of the people. Shrewd
lawyers and other crafty men are sent to Richmond to use
their influence upon the members of the legislature, and to
convince them, if possible, that the proposed measure is 7iot
for the interests of the people. This is called lobbying.
Many bad laws are made, and many good measures fail to be
enacted by reason of the influence which lobbyists frequently
use. It must not be thought, however, that all lobbying is
of this kind. Many good m.en also go before the committees
of the legislature and lobby with its members to secure the
passage of wise laws.

In the third place, the law-makers are often severely
criticised by the newspapers, and sometimes this criticism is
unjust. It is^ very difficult matter for a man in public life

92 GOVERNMENT AND roLIlICS IN VIRGINIA

to please e\'cnl)(Kl>' and to do onh- what is right. Our law-
makers have no easy task. If some of them do not serve the
people as they should, we ought to remember that we are
partly responsible for this. It is the duty of the people in
every community to choose as their representatives in the
law-making body of the state the most intelligent and the
most honorable men that can be induced to serve. And it is
the duty of a delegate or senator thus chosen to follow his
sound judgment on e\cry question before him. He should
consider always only the best interests of the state, regardless
of his personal ambitions, and in spite of the influences that
sometimes seek at times to turn him aside.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. What is the law-making body of the state of Virginia called? Into
what two branches is it di\i(l(Hl? Docs your city or county constitute a
house district by itself? If not, find out what otlicr communities are
grouped with it to form your house district. Find out, if you can, how
many representatives your district has in the House of Delegates. Do
you know the names of any present representatives?

2. If you live in a county, find out what other counties are grouped
with yours to form your senatorial district. If you live in a city, find out
whether your city constitutes a senatorial district by itself. If not, what
other communities are grouped with it? Find out, if you can, the name of
the present senator, or senators, from your district.

3. Who presides over the Senate? Over the House of Delegates?
Have you ever been to the capitol building at Kichmond? If so, describe
the park. Describe the building. If you have seen the chambers in
which the houses meet, describe them. Have you ever seen the houses
in session?

4. Suppose you desired to have a certain law passed, how would you go
about it? Explain in full how such a measure would become a law after
being introduced into one of the houses by some member. What is meant
by the committee system?

5. What is meant by a political boss? TVTiat is meant by lobbying?
Explain how the bosses and lobbyists hinder the work of the law-makers.
How can the people of any community prevent this?

6. When does the next General Assembly meet? How long will it
probably sit? Might it sit longer? Why is the length of the session of
the General Assembly limited by the constitution? ■>

CHAPTER XIII
THE EXECUTION OF THE LAWS

STATE AND LOCAL EXECUTIVE OFFICERS. After
the laws have been passed by the legislature, it is necessary
that there should be officers to see that these laws are carried
out. The enforcement of both state and local laws is in-
trusted very largely to local officers chosen in the various
communities of the state. For example, it is the General
Assembly that makes the laws defining crimes and providing
punishment for those who commit them; but it is the city
police or the county sheriff and constables who arrest offenders
who violate these laws. In the actual enforcement of the
laws the indi\idual in any community usually comes in con-
tact w^th county and city officers rather than with state offi-
cers. In addition to these local officers, however, there are
certain state officers whose duty it is to supervise and assist
the local officers in the execution of some of the laws of the
state and to execute directly certain laws which are not in-
trusted to local officers at all.

THE ELECTED STATE OFFICERS. At the head of
the executive department of the state government stands the
Governor. During the colonial period of our history the
Governor of Virginia was appointed by the crown in England.
After our indejiendence he was for many years chosen by the
General Assembly; but since 1851 he has been elected directly
by the voters. The Governor is now elected in November of
an odd-numbered year (1917, 1921, etc.). He enters upon
the duties of his office on the first day of the following
February, and remains in office for a period of four years.
He must be a citizen of the United States, at least thirty years
of age, and must have resided in Virginia for at least five years

94 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

preceding his election. At the time of the Governor's elec-
tion there is also elected an officer known as the Lieutenant-
Governor, who, in case the Governor dies or is unable to per-
form his duties, takes the place of the Governor. The Lieu-
tenant-Governor presides over the Senate.

The people of the state also elect an Attorney General, a
Secretary of the Commonwealth, a State Treasurer, a Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, and a Commissioner of Agri-
culture and Immigration. These officers are chosen at the
same time and for the same term as the Governor. In addi-
tion to these elected officers there are, as we shall see, a number
of important state officers who are appointed either by the
legislature or by the Governor with the consent of the Senate.

THE GOVERNOR. The powers and duties of the Goa-
ernor are both numerous and important. In the first place,
although he is the chief officer of the executive branch of the
government, he nevertheless has a considerable share in the
making of the laws. He is empowered, for instance, to send
what is known as messages to the legislature, and in these
messages he recommends that certain laws be passed. The
General Assembly is not compelled to act upon the recom-
mendations of the Governor, but the weight of his influence
is large, and it is simply a fact that the legislature does usually
give careful attention to his proposals. The Governor also
usually advises with the members and the committees of the
legislature in respect to important laws that are being drawn
up. Before any bill that has passed both houses of the legis-
lature can become a law, it must be signed by the Governor.
If he does not approve the bill, he may refuse to sign it and
return it to the legislature with a statement of his objections
to the measure. This is called the Governor's veto. In
case the Governor vetoes a bill, it cannot become a law unless
it is again passed by both houses of the legislature by a
majority vote of two-thirds. In addition to these powers, it

THE EXECUTION OF THE LAWS 95

has already been mentioned that the Governor may at any
time call an extra session of the General Assembly.

In the second place ^ as head of the executive department,
the constitution requires that the Governor "shall take care
that the laws be faithfully executed." To this end it is his
duty to keep himself informed as to how the other officers of
the state are performing their duties. He may require any
information of them, or he may at any time inspect their
books. When the General Assembly is not in session, he has
the power to suspend any officer at the capital, except the
Lieutenant-Governor, for misbehavior, or because he is not
properly performing his duty. He is required to report the
whole circumstances of such a suspension to the next General
Assembly, which has power either to restore the officer or to
remove him entirely. The Governor also has power to name
certain of the important executive officers of the government
who are not subject to election by the voters or to appoint-
ment by the General Assembly itself.

In the third place, the Governor is commander-in-chief of
the state militia. As such, he has power to call out these
forces when they are occasionally needed. As we have seen,
the militia is used whenever the ordinary police officers or
constables are unable to suppress a riot or other unusual dis-
turbance in a community.

In the fourth place, the Governor has power to pardon per-
sons who have been convicted of crimes. When once a case
has been finally decided by the courts it is impossible for it
to be taken up again by the courts. Occasionally, however,
it happens that for one reason or another a person who has
been convicted of crime ought not to be punished to the full
extent of his sentence. The Governor has the power to re-
lease a prisoner from punishment or to shorten his sentence
or to remit his fine. He does this, however, only in ex-
ceptional cases. He does not allow those who ought to be
punished to play upon his sympathies.

96 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

THE SECRETARY OF THE COMMONWEALTH. It
is the duly of this officer to keep a daily record of the acts of
the Governor and to perform services of a varied character in
connection with the enforcement of the laws. He keeps the
great seal of Virginia, and many important records are cared
for in his office.

THE ATTORNEY GENERAL. It frequently happens
that the officers who are required to execute the laws are not
able to decide exactly what this or that provision of the law
means. The Attorney General is the officer whose duty it is

CAPITOL SOUARK, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

Showing the west entrance of the Capitol building, where the General Assembly

sits and where most of the state executive offices are located.

The Governor's mansion is seen dimly in the background

to give his opinion to the Go\crnor and other officers at the
seat of government on questions of law. In certain cases,
moreover, when the state of Virginia brings suit against a
person or is sued, the Attorney General is the officer who
represents the government before the courts. Whenever a

THE EXECUTION OF THE LAWS 97

person who luis bix-u coiuictcd of crime appeals lo the highest
court of the state (the Supreme Court of Appeals), it is the
duty of the Attorney General to prosecute the ])risoncr be-
fore this court. These are the principal duties of the Attorney .
General. XI ^

STATE FINANCIAL OFFICERS. The State Auditor/ ^
who is chosen by the General Assembly for a term of four
years, is the officer who receives the money that is collected
in the various communities of the state for the purpose of
defraying the expenses of the state go\'ernment. He deposits
this money with the State Treasurer, who, as we have seen, is
elected by the people. When any officer or person has a
claim against the state, it is the Auditor who examines his
claim and issues an order or warrant directing the Treasurer
to pay the claim in question. There is also a Second Auditor,
chosen by the General Assembly, who performs, with reference
to certain special funds, duties similar to those of the Auditor.

STA TE DEPARTMENT OF ED UCA TION. The chief
executive officer of the public school system of Virginia is the
Superintendent of Public Instruction. He exercises general
super^-ision over the schools of the state and seeks in every
way to encourage the improvement of schools and to awaken
interest in public education. He uses his influence with the
legislature to secure appropriations for the schools and to
have wise laws enacted in the interest of the public school
system.

The Superintendent is assisted and controlled by the State .
Board of Education. This board consists of the Superin-
tendent himself, who is its president, the Governor, the
Attorney General, three members who are chosen from the
faculties of the state institutions of higher learning, and one
county and one city superintendent of schools. The board
has very large powers over the educational system of the
state. It makes many rules and regulations for the manage-
ment of the schools in addition to the laws that are enacted by

98 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

the legislature. One of its most important functions is to se-
lect the text-books tli;il may be used in the public schools
ihroughout the state.

The Superintendent of Public Instruction is also assisted
in many ways by the State Board of Examiners, This board
consists of five members appointed by the State Board of
Education. For the work of this board the entire state is
divided into five circuits, one of which is assigned to eiich ex-
aminer. It is the duty of the members of this board to
examine and issue licenses to those who desire to teach in the
public schools. They also tra\el about in their circuits hold-
ing teachers' institutes and forming citizens' leagues for the
purpose of arousing interest in, and advancing the cause of,
I)ublic education.

In every communit)' of the state there is a local school
officer called the division superintendent of schools. Al-
though these division superintendents exercise their powers
only in their respective localities, they are nevertheless ap-
pointed by the State Board of Education, their appointments
being subject to the approval of a vote of the Senate.
In a sense, therefore, they represent the state government
rather than the local government of their respective com-
munities.

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND IM-
MIGRAJTION. It is the duty of the Commissioner of Agri-
culture and Immigration to collect information in regard to
the climate, soil, crops, and minerals of the state and to fur-
nish this information to farmers and others who desire it. He
has charge of the inspection of fertilizers and of seeds, of the
farmers' institutes, and of certain experiment stations. In
many ways he encourages and assists the farmer and the cattle
raiser. He endeavors also to show to people who are looking
for a place of settlement the natural advantages that are to
be found in the state of Virginia. The Commissioner is
assisted and directed by the Board of Agriculture and Im-

THE EXECUTION OF THE LAWS 99

migration, which consists of the President of the Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and of one member from each of the ten
congressional districts into which the state is divided. Every
member must be a practical farmer and is appointed by the
Governor for a term of four years, subject to the approval of
the Senate.

In connection with the Department of Agriculture and
Immigration there is a Division of Dairy and Pure Food In-
spection. This division is in charge of the Dairy and Food
Commissioner, an officer who is appointed by the Governor
and the Senate. The duties of the division are perhaps
sufficiently indicated by its name.

THE STATE CORPORATION COMMISSION. The
members of this commission are appointed by the Governor,
subject to the approval of the entire General Assembly.
They hold office for terms of six years. This commission is
one of the most important branches of the state executive
organization. It has the powder to issue what are known as
charters of incorporation. Whene\'er a number of persons
wish to join themsehes together for the purpose of conducting
a business, or a charitable, social, or other organization, they
can apply to the Corporation Commission for a charter.
Having received such a charter, they can act just as if they
were a single person instead of a group of persons. The
laws regulate the conditions under which charters of this kind
may be issued.

The Corporation Commission also has many important
duties to perform in connection wuth the supervision of per-
sons and corporations engaged in the insurance business and
the banking business. The government places such business
as this under special regulations in order to protect the people
from mismanagement and frauds.

We have already noted that the government regulates
the rates and the service of railway, telegraph, and telephone

100 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

companies. This is the most important power that is con-
ferred upon the Corporation Commission.

THE BUREAU OF LABOR AND INDUSTRIAL
STATISTICS. This bureau is in charge of a Commissioner
of Labor and Industrial Statistics appointed by the Governor
and Senate. It is the duty of the bureau to gather informa-
tion and make investigations concerning the working and
living conditions of laborers in the state. It is also charged
with the enforcement of those laws which are enacted for the
benefit of persons employed in labor.

STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSIONER. This officer
is appointed by the Governor, wnth the consent of the Senate,
and has charge of the appropriations which the state govern-
ment makes for the construction and maintenance of roads.
He also gives information and assistance to those who are
interested in the subject of ro^id-building, and otherwise en-
forces the laws of the state dealing with this matter. He sends
forces of convicts to various parts of the state where they are
needed for the construction of roads; but when convicts are
employed in this work they remain under the care and man-
agement of the superintendent of the penitentiary.

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH. This depart-
ment is controlled by the State Board of Health, consisting of
twelve members appointed by the Governor. Under the
general direction of this board, the Commissioner of Health,
who is also appointed by the Governor, is in active charge of
the execution of many of the health laws of the state. The
department maintains laboratories in Richmond for the study
of the methods of preventing and curing dangerous diseases,
and for the free examination of specimens which are sent to the
department by physicians throughout the state. By means
of lectures, publications, and through the daily press, the de-
partment distributes a great deal of information on the sub-
ject of diseases and the methods of preventing them. It also
supplies, at the smallest possible cost, antitoxin for the cure of

1 HE EXECUTION OF THE LAWS 101

diphtheria, the \'irus that is used for vaccination, and dis-
infectants that are used for fumigating. This is done not
only to lessen the cost of these things to the people but also to
insure their quality. Every ph>sician iti the state is required
to report to some local officer all cases of dangerous diseases
that come to his attention, and these local officers in turn
furnish this information to the state department. The de-
partment also is required to inspect every hospital in the state
at least once a year. The State Board of Health has very
large power to make regulations of various kinds to prevent
those things that are dangerous to the public health. These
regulations ha\e the same force as laws enacted by the Gen-
eral Assembly.

STATE INSTITUTIONS AND PRISONS. The gov-
ernment maintains at Richmond a penitentiary in which are
confined all those persons who have committed grave offences
against the laws of the state. This prison is in charge of five
directors who are appointed by the Governor and the Senate.
This board appoints the superintendent of the penitentiary,
and the surgeons and other officers that are necessary for the
management of the prison. Some of the prisoners who are
sent to the penitentiary are taken care of on what is known as
the state farm, which is in charge of a superintendent ap-
pointed by the penitentiary board.

The state government maintains hospitals for the insane at
Williamsburg, Staunton, Marion, and Petersburg, Each of
these hospitals is in charge of a board of directors appointed
by the Governor and the Senate, while a general board, con-
sisting of all of the members of these special boards, has gen-
eral supervision over all these hospitals. There is also a
Commissioner of the State Hospitals for the Insane, who
is appointed by the Governor, and who has general direction
of the expenditure of moneys for the hospitals and the keep-
ing of their records.

102 C.OVKKNMENT AND POLl'llCS liN VIRGINIA

THE BOARD OF CHARITIES AND CORRECTIONS.
This board consists of five members appointed by the Gov-
ernor. It is the duty of the board, or of the secretary whom
they employ, to visit at least once a year every state, county,
city, or private institution which carries on any charitable
work or in which prisoners are confined. This board has very
little power over these institutions, but it examines into their
condition, gives advice as to matters that need correction,
and prevents many objectionable things that might go on in
these institutions without being known to the public.

OTHER STATE OFFICERS. There are a few other
officers of the state government whose duties it seems un-
necessary to describe in detail. Among these may be men-
tioned the Register of the Land Office, and the Superintendent
of Printing, who are chosen by the General Assembly, and
the Adjutant General, the Secretary of Virginia Military
Records, the Governor's Military Staff, the Boards of Visitors
of various state institutions of higher learning, the Board of
Fisheries, and the Boards of Examiners for pharmacists,
dentists, graduate nurses, veterinarians, embalmers, and
lawyers.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. If the General Assembly lays a tax upon certain property throuphout
the state, what officers in your community would collect this tax? If
a man commits a crime in your community, is he arrested by a local or a
state officer? Has he violated a local or a state law? Explain, then,
how state laws are often executed by local officers.

2. Mention all the state officers who are elected by the people. Find
out the names of as many of these officers as you can. Who is the present
Governor of Virginia? How and when was he chosen? How much longer
has he to serve? Do you know anything about his life? To what political
party does he belong? How was he nonunated by his party?

3. What is meant by the Governor's message? \Miy does the law re-
quire him to send a message? What is meant by his veto? How may it
be overcome?

'nil': EXECUTION OF THE LAWS

103

4. What control does the Governor have over the other executive
officers? ^^'hat is his positifin in the militia? What is meant by his
pardoning power? If he should die in office, who would succeed him?
What duty has the Lieutenant-Governor?

5. Mention all the important state officers who are appointed by the
Governor. What officers are chosen by the General Assembly? Find
out the names of as many of these officers as you can.

6. What are the duties of the Secretary of State? The Attorney Gen-
eral? The State Auditor? The State Treasurer? The Second Auditor?

7. Describe the organization and duties of the State Department of
Education. Who is the present Superintendent of Public Instruction?
Find out the names of the present members of the State Board of Educa-
tion. Who is your division superintendent of schools? WTien and how
was he appointed? How long has he to serve?

8. Describe the organization and duties of the Department of Agri-
culture and Immigration. Ihe State Corporation Commission. The
Bureau of Labor. The State Highway Department. The Department
of Public Health.

9. How are state institutions and prisons managed? What is the Board
of Charities and Corrections?

CHAPTER XIV

THE STATE COURTS

THE NECESSITY FOR COURTS. It is easy to under-
stand how people will sometimes differ in opinion as to what
the law realh' means, and how laws may sometimes conflict
with one another. Moreover, it is often very difficult to find
out the facts about a matter which the law attempts to regu-
late. For instance, a dispute may arise as to which of two
parties owns a piece of property; each party may claim that
he has the right to it under the law. Similar disputes might
arise over a debt, or over an agreement or contract between
two parties. These disputes may be very complicated, in-
volving many points to be considered.

Suppose a man is accused of some offense against the crimi-
nal laws of the state, such, for instance, as robbery or murder.
Whatever punishment is to be inflicted upon him will depend
on two things. First, it will depend on the facts of the case,
involving the question of whether he really committed the
act, and if so, whether it was partially or wholly justifiable.
Second, it will depend on what particular law will apply to
the circumstances under which the crime was committed.

Now it must be very clear that every time an attempt is
made to apply the law to a particular case, many questions
will arise in regard to the facts of the case and the meaning of
the law which is applied to these facts. There must, there-
fore, be a judicial department of the government, whose duty
it is to explain the laws and apply them in particular instances.
This part of the government's work is accomplished by the
courts.

THE PROTECTION OF THE COURTS. It is the courts
that constitute our strongest protection against injustice.

104

THE STATE COURTS 105

If any individual of the community feels that an injury has
been done him by another member of the community con-
trary to the law, he applies to the courts to determine the
matter. If he feels that the officers of the government are
overstepping their authority and are trampling upon his
rights and liberties, he goes to the courts with his grievance.
If a bad member of the community commits a crime, it is
the courts that examine into the facts and circumstances of
the case and determine what his punishment shall be in
accordance with the law. Few people pass through life with-
out on some occasion finding it necessary to seek the assist-
ance or the protection of the courts.

It is a fundamental principle of justice among the English-
speaking people that there must be in every community at
least one court for the settlement of perplexing questions of
fact and law. In other words, every man must have the pro-
tection of the courts within his reach. The system of courts
in Virginia by which this is accomplished is somewhat com-
plicated. There are a number of different kinds of courts,
each with certain limits to the powers that it may exercise.
It is unnecessary to examine in detail the powers, or jurisdic-
tion, as it is usually called, of these various courts. It will
be sufficient for us to get a general idea of the system of courts
in the state. There are in the main four classes of courts.

THE JUSTICES' COURTS AND POLICE COURTS.
In every county in Virginia there are a number of justices of
the peace whose duty it is to hold courts for the trial of petty
offenses against the laws of the state and the county. In the
cities, likewise, there is a similar court usually called the police
court. These courts constitute the most numerous branch of
courts in the state. It must be remembered, however, that
they have authority to try only such petty offenses as are pun-
ishable by small fines or short terms of imprisonment in jail.
They can also determine disputes in regard to property and
debts where only small amounts are involved. In many in-

106 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

stances even after a case has been decided in these lowest
courts of the state, the law provides that it may be carried to
the next higher court, and there be reviewed.

THE CIRCUIT COURTS. Next above the justices' courts
are the circuit courts. In all there are thirty-one such courts
in Virginia. For this purpose the whole state is divided into
thirty-one circuits. Each circuit consists of a number of
counties or a county and a city. The court of any circuit
is held, as the occasion may demand, in this or that county or
city of the circuit; and from the fact that it moves from place
to place, it takes its name, the "circuit" court. It is this
court which has the authority to hear by far the larger number
of cases that arise. In cases arising out of disputes over such
things as property and debts, the law provides that they must
involve a certain amount of money if they are to be brought
before the circuit court. If a person is arrested for an offense
against the law, he can be tried in the circuit court only when
the offense is so serious that it may be punished by imprison-
ment in the state penitentiary. Thus small cases and trials
for petty offenses are left to the justices' and police courts.

THE CITY OR CORPORATION COURTS. In addition
to the circuit court, every city of ten thousand inhabitants
may have an additiijnal court known as a corporation court.
Cities which have as many as thirty thousand inhabitants
have a number of different courts, each with the power, or
jurisdiction, to try cases of certain kinds prescribed by the
law. It is natural that many more cases should arise in large
cities than in farming communities. A special and more
elaborate system of city courts is therefore provided.

THE SUPREME COURT OF APPEALS. At the top of
the system of courts provided for Virginia stands the Supreme
Court of Appeals. This court has the power to hear cases
which may have been tried in the circuit courts and the various
city courts, and which may be carried, in accordance with the
law, to the highest court of the state for a last hearing. The

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108 G0VERNMP:XT AXD politics in VIRGINIA

Supreme Court holds sessions at different times of the year
in Richmond, Staunton, and Wythevillc.

THE JUDGES. The justices' courts are presided over by
justices of the peace, elected by the people of the district in
which they serve. All the other courts in the state, however,
are presided over by judges. For each circuit court and for
each city court one judge is chosen by the General Assembly
for a term of eight years. The Supreme Court of Appeals
consists of five judges chosen by the General Assembly for a
term of twelve years each. It is provided that the judges in
all of these courts shall be men trained in the law, either by
having previously held a judicial position, or by having prac-
tised law for a period of at least five years. It is provided
also that their salaries shall not be increased or diminished
during their terms of office. This is in order to prevent the
General Assembly from gaining any control over the honesty
and impartiality of the judges of the state, by refusing to con-
tinue their salaries.

There is a very good reason why our judges are chosen for
terms of eight and twelve years, instead of for a term of four
years as in the case of the Governor. One of the principles
that lie at the bottom of our judicial system is that every
man, no matter how poor and obscure, shall be equal to any
other man when he appears before the courts. If our judges
were subjected to the control of political parties by reason of
frequent elections, their decisions might sometimes be in-
fluenced by their desire for reappointment. The object,
therefore, of choosing the judges for long terms is that they
may be separated from any control of politics, and that they
may feel free to interpret the law with absolute impartiality.

THE TRIAL OF CA SES BEFORE THE CO URTS. How
does a person proceed when he feels that it is necessary for
him to call on the courts for assistance in maintaining his
rights against some other person? If he ascertains that the
law is probably in favor of his claim, he usually places the

THE STATE COURTS 109

matter in the hands of a lawyer, who brings it before the proper
court at the proper time, and in accordance with the regula-
tions prescribed for such proceedings. The other party con-
cerned generally employs a lawyer to represent him; and the
matter is fought out between these lawyers in the presence
of the court. The facts are all heard, the law is interpreted
and applied, and a decision is rendered. Such a case as this
is called a civil suit. In such a suit no person is on trial.

In case an individual is arrested and accused of some crime,
he usually employs, or else the government provides for him, a
lawyer to represent his cause before the court. Opposed to
this lawyer is an officer known as the commonwealth's attor-
ney, who is himself a lawyer representing the community.
It is the duty of this officer to bring out before the court all
the facts that will help to show the guilt of the prisoner. You
see, therefore, that we again have two lawyers struggling with
each other in the presence of the court on opposite sides of
the question to be decided. Such a case as this, in which a
person is being tried for a crime of which he is accused, is
called a criminal case. In any criminal case the government
itself, represented by the commonwealth's attorney, is one of
the parties concerned. A man who has committed a crime
has really committed an injury against the whole people of
the community, and the government must punish him if his
guilt can be proved.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Suppose a dispute arises between two persons over a debt, how is
it usually settled? Suppose a man is arrested for stealing, who deter-
mines his punishment? Why are the courts necessary? How do they
protect us from injustice?

2. Have you ever been in a court room? If so, describe it. Do you
know the name of any justice of the peace in your neighborhood (or of a
police justice)? Where is his court held? If a man is arrested for fight-
ing in your community, before what court would he be taken?

110 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

3. If you live in a city, try to find out how many courts there are in
your city and what they are called. If you live in a county, find out where
the circuit court sits. Why is it called a circuit court?

4. Describe the system of courts in Virginia. Why are the judges
appointed for long terms? Why may not the legislature increase or di-
minish their salaries?

5. What is the highest court in Virginia? How many judges sit in it?
How are they appointed and for what term?

6. Explain how in every case, whether civil or criminal, there are
lawyers on each side of the question. What is the duty of the common-
wealth's attorney? Find out, if you can, who is the commonwealth's
attorney In your community.

CHAPTER XV
THE GOVERNMENT OF COUNTIES

WHY COUNTY GOVERNMENT WAS ESTABLISHED
IN VIRGINIA. The entire state of Virginia is divided into
one hundred districts known as counties. In each of these
counties a local government Is established. It is the duty
of the county government to attend to certain matters that
are of interest primarily to the locality. Its officers also
enforce many of the laws that are enacted by the state legis-
lature in Richmond.

County government dates back to a very early period in the
history of England. When the settlers came over to America
and established the colony of Virginia, they simply trans-
planted to Virginia the county form of government to which
they had been accustomed in England. As we have already
had occasion to note the people of Virginia, as In the rest of
the South, settled upon large farms or plantations. They
thus lived considerable distances from one another. Now this
fact had an Important influence upon the kind of government
that developed in Virginia. It would have been impossible,
for example, for the people of Virginia to establish the kind
of local government that developed In New England. The
people who settled In New England came over to this country
largely that they might enjoy religious freedom. They came,
therefore, in congregations or groups. They did not separate
and settle on large estates. They built their homes close
around the church and the schoolhouse. Living as they did
quite close together, It was natural for them to adopt a direct,
or, as we say, popular or democratic form of government.
All the inhabitants of each community met together and de-
cided what their local laws should be and who should be their

111

112 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

officers. This form of local government vStill prevails in New
England and in a somewhat different form it has been adopted
in other parts of the United States. It is known as township
government and the assembly of the voters is called the town
meeting.

Instead of township government the people of Virginia
adopted the county form of government. All the people of a
county do not come together for the purpose of making laws
and choosing officers. They merely go to the several polls
and elect representatives to make the county laws for them
and in the same way they choose the officers who are to en-
force these laws.

THEPOWERSOFTHE COUNTY GOVERNMENT. The
county, which is only a subordinate district of the state, is
permitted to exercise only those powers that are granted by
the state constitution and the state legislature. The county
does not, in fact, enact many local laws. For the most part
its officers are engaged simply in enforcing the laws passed
by the state legislature. For example, it is the officers of the
county who preserve the peace by arresting those who violate
the laws of the state. The county also provides the court-
house in which such persons are tried and the jail in which
they are imprisoned. In this courthouse, too, are heard those
controversies which arise between individuals in the county.
The state laws require also that the county shall make pro-
vision for the care of the poor. It is the county, moreover,
which, under the laws of the state, makes provision for the
building and maintenance of schoolhouses and for the con-
struction of roads and bridges.

THE COUNTY BOARD OF SUPERVISORS. Every
county is divided into three or more districts that are known as
magisterial districts. Once in every four years, in November,
the voters of each district elect a supervisor of the district;
and the supervisors of the several districts form what is known
as the county board of supervisors. The law confers upon this

THE GOVERNMENT OF COUNTIES

113

board the power to make such rules and regulations as may be
necessary for the government of the county. It is this board
also which decides upon the building and repairing of roads
and bridges and which provides for the erection of school-
houses, the courthouse, the jail, and the poorhouse. It is
this board which levies the taxes that are necessary for these
various purposes and which borrows money in the name of

THE COURTHOUSE OF CHARLOTTE COUNTY, VIRGINIA

This is one of our oldest courthouses. Both Patrick Henry and John Randolph

have been heard within its walls

the county when that is necessary. Indeed the board of
supervisors has general control and direction of the affairs of
the county. The law requires that it must meet at least twice
in every year and the board may come together oftener if
need be.

THE OTHER COUNTY OFFICERS. In addition to the
board of supervisors there are a number of other county officers

114 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

who are elected by the voters for a term of four years and one,
the county clerk, who is elected for an eight-year term.

The sheriff is the officer who has charge of the county jail
and whose duty it is to assist in preserving the peace by arrest-
ing persons suspected of violating the laws. He attends the
circuit court when it meets in his county, and he carries out
the orders of the court. The sheriff is the most important
executive officer of the county, for many other duties in addi-
tion to those mentioned here are laid upon him by law.

The commonwealth's attorney is the law officer of the
county. It is his duty to prosecute criminals who are tried
before the circuit court. He also assists the board of super-
visors and the other county officers in the performance of
their duties by giving them his opinion on questions of law.

The county clerk is the officer whose duty it is to keep the
records of the county. It is by means of these records that
the owners of land in the county are assisted in establish-
ing their claims to their property. Whenever land is trans-
ferred from one person to another a record of this transfer
must be made in the county clerk's office. It is the county
clerk also who issues marriage licenses and who keeps a record
of marriages, births, and deaths in the county.

The justices of the peace are the officers who hold the lowest
courts in the state. Before these officers all petty offences
and disputes are tried. It is their duty also to assist in the
preservation of the peace. Three justices are elected in each
magisterial district. There is also elected in each district
at least one constable whose duty it is to arrest persons ac-
cused of violating the laws and otherwise to assist in preserv-
ing order within the community.

The superintendent of the poor is the officer who has charge
of the poorhouse or poor farm that is maintained in every
county.

The principal financial ofiicers of the county are the land
assessors, the commissioners of revenue, and the county treas-

THE GOVERNMENT OF COUNTIES

115

urer. For each magisterial district one land assessor is ap-
pointed by the circuit judge. It is the duty of the land
assessor to make Hsts of all the land and buildings in his dis-
trict and to determine the value at which such property shall
be held for taxation. The people of each district also elect a
commissioner of revenue, whose duty it is to list and value
new buildings and all other kinds of property that are owned

PEELING WILLOWS TO MAKE BASKETS
These willows are grown at Arlington Farm, Virginia

by the people of the district. The taxes that are levied are
collected and cared for by the county treasurer. He pays
out such sums as he may be authorized to pay; and he for-
wards to the State Auditor at Richmond such part of the
taxes as belongs to the state government. ♦

There are also in every county a surveyor, one or more coro-
ners, and certain minor officers whose duties are prescribed

116 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

by law. These assist in various ways in carrying out the
scheme of county government.

THE COUNTY SCHOOL OFFICERS. It has already
been mentioned that in every community there is a local officer
called the division superintendent of schools, this officer
being appointed by the State Board of Education, with the
approval of the Senate. The division superintendent usually
has charge of a single county or city, but in. a few instances
two counties or a county and a city are placed under one
superintendent. The division superintendent has general
power to supervise and regulate the schools in his division in
accordance with the laws of the state and the rules laid down
by the State Board of Education.

Every county is divided into a number of school districts.
The division superintendent, the commonwealth's attorney,
and one resident of the county (who is appointed for this pur-
pose by the judge of the circuit court) choose for each school
district a number of persons who are known as school trustees.
This district board of trustees has the power to appoint
teachers for the schools within the district. In other ways
also these trustees look after the interests of the schools.
The entire number of district trustees in any one county form
the county school board, whose duty it is to assist and direct
the division superintendent.

THE IMPORTANCE OF COUNTY HISTORY. There
is scarcely a county in Virginia that has not produced its
great men. Some of these men are only of local reputation;
but in many cases they have played important roles in the
history of Virginia and the nation. Moreover, many counties
have been the scenes of famous battles and other important
incidents of our history. It ought to be our pride to know
of these things. We should be eager to learn something of
rfie history of our county and the share it has had in the his-
tory of the state. We should cherish the names of our great
men and perpetuate their memory. Might it not be a good

THE GOVERNMENT ()1«' COUNTIES 117

idea to name the public schools in every community after the
great men of the locality?

CLASS EXERCISES

1. In what county do you live? Describe its situation in the state.
Try to find out something about its history; when was it settled, when did
it become a county, how did it receive its name?

2. Explain how geographical conditions in Virginia gave rise to the
county form of local government. What is meant by township govern-
ment? Where did it flourish, and why? Why did it not develop in Vir-
ginia?

3. What are some of the powers which your county government ex-
ercises? How is the county board of supervisors formed? W^hat are its
powers? What magisterial district do you live in? Find out who your
district supervisor is. When was he elected? How long has he yet to
serve? How often must the board of supervisors meet?

4. Find out, if you can, who is the present treasurer of your county.
The sheriff. The commonwealth's attorney. The county clerk. How
many justices of the peace are there in your district? Constables? Com-
missioners of revenue? Land assessors? How are these various officers
chosen? What is their term of office? Which one serves for eight years?

5. Who is your superintendent of schools? Who appointed him?
Who are your school trustees? How were they chosen? How many mem-
bers are there of your county school board? Mention the names of some
of them.

6. What great men has your community produced? Which of them
were of local, which of state, which of national reputation? What do
you know of their lives? Are their names commemorated in any way in
your community? Can you think of some simple ways by which they '
might be commemorated?

7. What important incidents of history have taken place in your com-
munity? Are these incidents commemorated? How?

ti-

^ -^ CHAPTER XVI
THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES

THE GROWTH OF CITIES IN VIRGINIA. Although
the cities of Richmond, Norfolk, and Williamsburg were
established as far back as the colonial period of our history,
the growth of cities in Virginia both in number and popula-
tion has been rapid only since the War Between the States.
This delay in the development of cities in Virginia, as in the
rest of the South, was due to the fact that the people lived on
large plantations, as well as to the fact that there was a large
slave population. The slaves made excellent farm laborers;
but they were not trained for labor of a higher character, such
as is required in operating the complicated machinery that is
used in manufacturing. Now, as everyone knows, the people
of cities support themselves by manufacturing and trading.
It was quite impossible for large cities to develop in Virginia
so long as there were slaves among us; for these could not be
profitably employed in manufacturing industries.

Since the emancipation of the slaves cities have developed
far more rapidly in Virginia than formerly. During the ten
years from 1900 to 1910 the population of Richmond (127,628)
increased fifty per cent; that of Norfolk (67,452) increased
forty-four per cent; and that of Roanoke (34,874) sixty-two
per cent. In 1890 Newport News had a population of only
4,449; in 1910 it had 20,205 inhabitants. In 1890 Roanoke
had a population of 16,159 inhabitants; in 1910 there were
34,874 persons in this city. In spite of this increase in the
population of the cities in Virginia, it is important to bear in
mind, as has already been noted, that the vast majority of the
people in the state still live on farms.

118

THE C.OVICRNMENT OK (11 IKS

119

THE PROBLEMS OF CITY GOVERNMENT. Wc have
already had occasion to note that the government undertakes
many things for the people of city communities that are un-
necessary in farming communities. It is scarcely needful to
explain why this should be the case. Where so many people
live close to one another, they are compelled to use the same

CONGESTED TRAFFIC IN A CITY STREET

Streets, the same facilities for lighting their houses and getting
water, as well as many other things in common. There are
also many dangers from which they must be protected. It is
the government which must attend to these matters for the
common welfare of all. Streets must be laid out, lighted.

120 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

paved, and kept clean. Parks must be provided. A police
force must be maintained for the protection of life and prop-
erty and for the enforcement of the laws. Water must be
furnished to the inhabitants; fire departments maintained; a
sewer system installed; and schoolhouses, city halls, court-
houses, jails, and poorhouses must be erected. These and
many other things the city must undertake. Now all these
undertakings call for a more or less elaborate government — a
government that differs in many respects from that which is
provided for counties.

THE MEANING OF A CITY CHARTER. The govern-
ment of every city in Virginia is provided for by what is known
as the charter of the city. This charter is simply a law enacted
by the state legislature. It provides in detail how the city
government shall be organized, how the city laws shall be
made, what city officers there shall be, and what powers the
city may exercise. Under these charters the form of govern-
ment in one city is in many respects quite different from that
of another city. It is, therefore, somewhat difficult to de-
scribe briefly the government of the cities of the state.

THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES UNDER OLD SPE-
CIAL CHARTERS. Nearly all the cities of Virginia are
operating under special charters which were enacted many
years ago, and which have from time to time been amended
by the legislature. These charters provide for a law-making
body, which is known as the city council; and, like the state
legislature, this council is divided into two houses, or chambers.
One of these chambers is called the common council, and the
other the board of aldermen. For the purpose of electing
councilnien and alderm.en, the city is divided into wards. The
voters of each ward elect a number of councilmen and a smaller
number of aldermen. In one or two of the smaller cities of
the state the city council consists of a single body.

The laws which the city council is empowered to make are
known as ordinances. These ordinances, of course, relate

THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES

121

only to the local affairs of the city. For the purpose of enact-
ing ordinances city councils are organized much as is the state
legislature. Proposals are referred to committees and must
be passed by both chambers of the council. They are then
sent to the mayor for his signature, and if vetoed by the
mayor, they can be passed only by a majority vote of two-
thirds of the members of both chambers. It is the city council
which determines what local taxes are to be raised for carrying

A BEAUTIFULLY PARKED CITY STREET

on the work of the city government, and which, when the
taxes have been collected, appropriates money for the various
activities of the government.

In every city there is a mayor who occupies in the city gov-
ernment a position somewhat like that of the governor in the
state government. The mayor is the chief executive officer
of the city. It is his duty to sec that the other officers attonrl

122 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

properly to the duties laid upon them. He often has the
power to suspend any officer who neglects his duty. The
mayor, however, has larger powers in some cities than he has
in others, so that it is difficult to describe his office exactly.
The mayor is elected by the voters, usually for a term of four
years. In most cities, also, the people elect at the same time
and for the same term a city treasurer, a commonwealth's
attorncN', a tax collector, and a city sergeant. In addition to
these elected officers there are in every city a number of ap-
pointed officers in charge of the various departments of the
government, such as the police, fire, and health departments.
These officers are usually appointed by the city council,
which also chooses the members of certain important boards
and commissions that direct the work of various branches of
the city government.

In a very general way this is the type of government that is
found in most of the cities of Virginia. At the same time it is
important to remember that there are many variations from
this type. For example, in Norfolk there is an elected board
of control, and in Richmond an elected administrative board.
These boards, whose duties need not be described in detail,
are perhaps the most important features of the government of
these two cities. The fact is that in order to understand the
government of any particular city, it is necessary to study the
special charter of that city.

THE NEW FORMS OF CITY GOVERNMENT. In 1912
a constitutional amendment was adopted, and in 1914 a law
was passed by the legislature which confers upon the cities of
Virginia the power to adopt forms of government wholly
different from that under which most of the cities of the state
are now operating. This law permits any city with a popula-
tion of more than one hundred thousand inhabitants (Rich-
mond is the only such city at present) to adopt its own charter.
This charter must be submitted to the voters of the city, and
if a majorily of (hem approve il , ihe legislature may then enact

THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES

123

it into law. For the other cities of the state the lep;islature
has provided a choice of three different kinds of government.
Upon a vote of the majority of the people of any city, they may
elect to be governed under any one of these three forms.
The first of these types of government is known as the

THE CITY HALL, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

"general councilmanic plan." It differs from the government
provided by most of the old special charters in that the law-
making body of the city consists of only one house, which
may contain from three to eleven members, according to the

124 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

size of the city. In the smaller cities these members are
chosen by the voters of the entire city, instead of by wards,
and even the larger cities may elect their councilmen in this
way if they desire to do so. Under this type of government
the mayor occupies a position very similar to that which has
been described above.

The second type of government which any city may elect
is called the "modified commission plan." Under this charter
the people elect either three or five commissioners, according
to the size of the cit>-. The government of the city is placed
entirely in the hands of this small group of commissioners.
Sitting as a body they pass the ordinances of the city. The
various activities of the city are divided into as many depart-
ments as there are commissioners, and each commissioner
acts as the head of one of these departments, being especially
responsible for its management- Of course these commis-
sioners employ subordinate officers to help carry on the work
of the city government, these officers being responsible either
to the commission as a whole or to the individual commis-
sioners. The commissioners choose one of their number to be
the mayor of the city; but under this form of government the
mayor has very little more power than any other commis-
sioner. He cannot veto ordinances, and he is no more re-
sponsible than any other commissioner for the conduct of
the government. This commission form of government for
cities has in recent years become very popular throughout the
United States. Hundreds of cities have abandoned their old
forms of government in favor of government by a small com-
mission.

The third kind of government which any city may adopt is
known as the "city manager plan." The law-making body
under this plan is about the same as under the "general coun-
cilmanic plan." The council enacts the ordinances of the
city ; but they hire a city manager, and he is vested with com-
plete control over the various activities and services of the

THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 125

city government. He is appointed for no definite term but
holds his office as long as the council.is satisfied with his work.
He appoints and removes the officers and employes who serve
under him. Under this form of government the manager is
almost wholly responsible for the character of the government.
This city manager plan is another type of government which
in recent years has been adopted by a number of cities in
various parts of the United States. It is interesting to note
that the idea of such a plan of government originated in the
city of StaiMiton, Virginia.

CITY SCHOOL OFFICERS. For the management of
public schools a few of the small cities of the state are joined
to the counties in which they are located. In most cities,
however, there is a city (division) superintendent appointed
by the State Board of Education. This superintendent has
general charge of the schools of the city. He is subject to the
control, however, of the city school board, the members of
which are usually appointed by the city council.

THE GOVERNMENT OF TOWNS. Towns are those
communities in Virginia which have less than five thousand
inhabitants, although there are a few communities known as
cities which also have a population of less than five thousand.
Town governments are somewhat simple in form. There is a
town council, a town mayor, and a few other executive officers.
The most important distinction between a town and a small
city is that a town is subjected to some control by the govern-
ment of the county in which it is located. Although every
city of Virginia is situated in a county, the officers of the
county do not exercise any power whatever over the people of
the city.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Try to find out the population of your city, or of the nearest city
to you. Is its population said to be increasing? Can you see any evi-
dences of the increase, such as the building of new residences or business
houses? What natural advantages has your city? What attracts people
to it?

126 GOVERNMENT AND I'ULITICS IN VIRGINIA

2. Mention some of the thin{!;s that city governments provide that are
not undertaken by county governments. Why docs this difference exist?
Explain, then, why the city government differs in form from that of the
county.

3. Explain what is meant by a city charter. Find out whether the
government of your c'ty (or the nearest city to you) is established by an
old si)ccial charter. Find out how the city council is organized. Are
there one or two bodies? What are they called?

4. How many wards are there in your city (or the nearest city to you)?
How many councilmcn are elected in each ward? How many aldermen?
\\'li('n are they next elected? How long do they serve? What is a city
ordinance?

.5. Who is the mayor of your city? When was he elected? How long
does he serve? What are his duties?

6. ^^'ho appoints in your city firemen, jiolicemen, street cleaners, health
officers, officers who lay out and jKXve the streets?

7. Does your city own the waterworks? The gas plant? The electric
plant? If so, who appoints the officers who manage these enterprises?

8. Describe the "modified commission form" of city government. The
"city manager form." The "general councilmanic plan."

9. Ex[)lain how any city (except Richmond) may adopt any one of
these three forms of government. Has your city (or the nearest city to
you) adopted or attempted to adopt any one of them?

10. How may Richmond change its form of government?

11. Tell what officers control the schools in your city.

12. If you live in a town, tell some of the things that your town gov-
ernment undertakes. What officers does it have? How many members
are there in the town council? What is the chief difference between towns
and small cities?

13. Mention the names of all the imi)ortant officers of your city or
town.

CHAPTER XVII
STATE AND LOCAL TAXATION

THE MEANING OF TAXATION. We have seen that
the government undertakes to perform many services in the
interest of the people — services which contribute very greatly
to our individual happiness and prosperity. Naturally it
requires a great deal of money to support these services which
the government undertakes. Salaries must be paid to officers,
many buildings must be erected and maintained, roads and
streets must be improved. The money for these and for many
other services which the government performs must be se-
cured from the people of the community. The government
secures this money by a system which we call taxation.

A tax is a sum of money taken from the individual to be
used by the government for the interest of the whole com-
munity. Or, as it is sometimes briefly put, "a tax is private
property taken for a public purpose" — this property being
almost invariably in the form of money.

Many people feel that it is a great hardship to pay taxes
to the government; they look upon this almost as oppression.
Some of them do not think that they are doing anything wrong
if they avoid paying their taxes whenever that is possible.
They do not seem to realize that the government gives them
something in return for the money that they pay in taxes.
It gives them, as we have seen, innumerable protections for
their life, their liberty, their health, their property; and
innumerable community benefits, such as good roads and
streets and schoolhouses for the education of their children.
People ought to be just as willing to pay for these things as
they are ready to pay for things which they buy in the shops.
Most of us get far more from the government in the way of pro-

127

128 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IX X'lRGINIA

lection and benefits than we ever actualK pay for in taxes.
The fact is that we cannot do without the services which the
government supplies, and the government is absolutely de-
pendent on taxes for its support.

THE PRINCIPLES OF TA XA TION. We have seen that
the government sometimes takes an individual's property
under the power of eminent domain, when such property is
needed for opening a street or road or for any other public
purpose. Property taken in this manner is not regarded as a
tax, because the individual is paid directly in money for the
property that is taken. When the government takes the indi-
vidual's property in the form of taxes the individual is of
course not paid anything directly. He gets his compensation
only indirectly in the form of services which the government
provides.

Ever since the Revolutionary War it has been settled in
the United States that the people alone shall have power to
tax themselves. This does not mean that each person may
say how much he will or will not contribute to the support of
the government. It simply means that taxes can be levied
upon us only by those whom we ourselves elect to represent
us for this purpose — by the General Assembly of the state,
or the board of supervisors of the county, or the council of a
city. This is the first important principle of taxation.

The second principle of taxation is that as nearly as possible
people shall pay taxes according to what they can afford to
pay. If we look at the benefits which each of us gets from the
government this principle may not seem wholly fair. The
rich man, who pays large taxes, receives no more benefit from
the roads and streets and schools than does the poor man who
pays little or no taxes. On the other hand, it would be absurd
for the government to tax everybody the same amount, with-
out any regard to differences of wealth and income among the
people. This would simply mean that many persons would
be unable to pay the taxes imposed upon them. It is manifest

STATE AND LOCAL TAXATION 129

that the government can get money for its support only from
people who have money. We have, therefore, hit upon the
general principle that people must contribute to the support
of the government in proportion to their ability to do so. The
poll tax of a dollar and a half a year, which is assessed upon
all men over twenty-one years of age, is an exception to this
general principle. So also are those special assessments which
the government levies (when, for example, a road or street is
improved) in proportion to the amount which the adjoining
property is increased in value by these improvements.

The third principle in our system of taxation is that taxes
must be equally and impartially laid. All the people of a
certain class and all the property of a certain class must be
taxed alike. The government cannot, for example, levy a tax
of a certain amount on one man's farm or income and refuse
to place the same tax upon another farm or another income of
equal value. While this principle is clearly just and reason-
able, it should be noted that it is not always easy to apply.
As we have seen, property is assessed for taxation by many
different officers throughout the state; and it often happens
that property in one community is assessed more nearly at
its true value than property in some other community. This
is sometimes true even with reference to different pieces of
property in the same county. The government should, and
probably will, make every effort to overcome these inequalities.

TAXES ON REAL AND PERSONAL PROPERTY.
Property in lands and buildings is known as real property.
It is this variety of property that bears the heaviest burden of
taxation, this being due in part to the fact that it is impossible
for the owners of such property to hide it. Property in the
form of farming implements, cattle, furniture, jewelry, books,
and such things, as well as property in the form of money, is
known as personal property. The government also endeavors
to collect taxes on this kind of property. The fact is, how-
ever, that taxes on personal property have ever>^where proved

130 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

to be very largely a failure. This is partly clue to the fact
that the owners of such property may deceive the officers of
the government by refusing to acknowledge all that they
possess. It would seem, however, that the officers of the
government very seldom make an honest effort to secure all
the information possible about the personal property of the
people.

In every community in Virginia some property is free from
taxation. It would be absurd, for example, for the govern-
ment to tax public buildings, roads, and streets. This
would simply mean that the government was pa\ing taxes to
itself. Certain other classes of property, such as public
Hi)raries, colleges and other educational institutions, churches
and ministers' residences, Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion buildings, and charitable institutions are also free from
taxation. Such property as this is not taxed because, al-
though it is owned by private persons or associations, it is
nevertheless regarded as being used for the general benefit of
the whole community.

INCOME TAXES. Many persons receive large salaries
and have other sources from which they get incomes, although
they do not possess any real property, and little, if any, per-
sonal property on which the government actually collects
taxes. It is not just that such persons should be entirely free
from taxation. The government, therefore, places a tax on
all incomes over and above a thousand dollars a year. As in
the case of personal property, these taxes are very difficult
to collect. The officers of the government have to rely al-
most wholly upon the individual's willingness to declare
exactly what his income is. That this form of taxation has
not been a great success is clearly shown by the fact that in
twenty-five or thirty counties of the state no income taxes are
paid at all.

FRANCHISE TAXES. Certain persons and corporations
are taxed for special privileges which the government has

STATE AND LOCAL TAXATION 131

granted to them. These taxes are known generally as fran-
chise taxes. Railroad, telegraph, and telephone companies,
for example, are compelled to pay such taxes in return for
the special powers which the government gives them. So
also street railway, gas, and electric light companies are re-
quired to pay franchise taxes for the peculiar use which they
make of the public streets.

POLL TAXES. As we have seen, every male resident of
Virginia who is over twenty-one years of age is required to
pay a tax of $1.50 a year. This is called a poll, or capitation,
tax.

STATE AND LOCAL TAXES. We have seen that there
is in Virginia not only a state government, which exercises
powers in all parts of the state, but also a local government
established over every county, city, and town. Both the
state and these local governments have to have means of
support. A part of the money that is collected in taxes goes
to the support of the state government and a part of it is
used for the support of the local governments. The state
government in turn distributes to the various communities
of the state money for various purposes, such as the main-
tenance of schools and the building of roads. Under this
system it is a fact that about thirty-five of the one hundred
counties in the state receive more money from the state
treasury than they actually collect in the form of taxes. In
effect, therefore, the people in some of the counties and cities
are taxed to assist in supplying services to the people in cer-
tain other counties.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Has any public building been erected in your community recently?
Try to find out how much it cost. Did the county, city, or state pay for
the building? Why? Try to find out how the money was raised. Ex-
plain how this building is used for the benefit of the people of your com-
munity.

\M GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

2. How is money raised for the improvement of rouds in jour county?
Try to find out what the tax assessment for roads is. "Who determines
this assessment?

3. How are the schools sui)])orted in your county? Try to find out
what the school assessment is. Have any new schoolhouses been built
recently? How much did they cost? Try to find out what part of the
school expenses are paid Ijy your coimty authorties and what part by the
state.

4. In what ways that you can think of do the people of your community
receive benefits from the taxes they pay? Explain why it is dishonest to
avoid i)aying taxes. Explain why it is wrong to look upon taxes as op-
])ression.

5. What part did the question of taxation i)lay in the causes of our
Revolutionary War? What princii)le of taxation was in consequence
established in America?

6. In what ways that you can think of does the owner of i)roperty get
special benefits by pajing the large taxes that are assessed upon him?

7. What is the difference between real estate and personal property?
Do you own any real estate? Any persinial pro{3erty? Explain why it is
easier to collect taxes on the one than it is on the other.

8. What is meant by ass(>ssing projjcrty for taxation? Try to find out
whether property in your coniniunity is said to be assessed high or low.
What does this mean?

9. What ])roi)erty that you can think of in jour community is free
from taxation? \\'hy is it not taxed? Is your school building taxed?
Why?

10. Mention all th(^ kinds of taxation that we have in Virginia, and ex-
I)lain what is meant by each.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
IN THE NATION

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THIRD PART

POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE NATIONAL GOV-
ERNMENT

CHAPTER XVIII
FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND NATIONAL DEFENSE

THE PURPOSE OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT.
In spite of all the many things that are undertaken by our
state and our local governments in Virginia, as in other states
of the Union, there are certain very important powers that
are exercised and services that are rendered by the govern-
ment of the nation, which has its seat in Washington. After
our independence was won, there were many reasons which
prompted the people of the new states to unite and establish
a national government. The people of the several states had
numerous interests in common. It was manifest, therefore,
that many of their affairs could best be managed by a govern-
ment that represented the people of all the states.

In a later chapter we shall see how the Union of the states
came to be established, and how our national constitution
was framed and adopted. This constitution determines what
powers the national government shall exercise and in what
ways it shall provide for the protection and welfare of the
people of the entire nation. The government that is pro-
vided for in the national constitution undertakes many things
that are of interest to the people throughout the whole United
States — things which cannot be satisfactorily attended to
by the separate states.

135

136 GOVERNMENT AM) roJ.lllLS IN XlkC.lMA

FOKEIGN A FFAIRS. The United States is today one of
the leading powers of the world. American citizens are con-
stantly travelHng in foreign Countries and carrying on enor-
mous commerce with the citizens of other nations. Just as the
interests of different people in a single community are likely
to conflict with one another, so the interests of the citizens of
different nations are apt to give rise to disputes and disagree-
ments. If some means were not provided for I lie peaceful
regulation of affairs between nations, the people of one coun-

(Cnpi/rii/lil , I rJi iiriiiiil. A' I' ml, rnadd)

IMMIGRANTS FROM ARMENIA
On board a vessel landing at New York

try would be continually getting into serious difficulties with
the people of some other country. It would be absurd, of
course, to allow each of the states of the American Union to
regulate its own affairs with foreign governments. This is
a duty, therefore, that belongs exclusively to the national
government. In a number of different ways the United
States government seeks to preserve friendly relations with

FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND DEFENSE 137

the other nations of the world and at the same time protect
the interests of its own citizens.

A MBA SSADORS A ND MINISTERS. 1 1 has long been
the custom of every civilized nation to keep at the capital of
every other nation a permanent representative known as an
ambassador or minister. The United States sends ambassa-
dors to thirteen of the more important nations of the world,
and to nearly all of the other countries it sends ministers.
At Washington there are ambassadors and ministers who are
sent from these countries to the United States. Through
these representatives nations communicate with one another.
Ambassadors and ministers help to keep the relations between
nations peaceful, for they are always at hand to assist in the
speedy and friendly settlement of any dispute that arises.
They also keep their respective nations informed as to what
is going on in the countries to which they are sent.

THE MAKING OF TREATIES. The United States
makes agreements on a great variety of subjects with the
governments of other nations. These agreements are known
as treaties. In many ways these treaties regulate the con-
duct of nations toward each other and determine the rights of
their citizens. Were it not for treaties, disagreements be-
tween nations over the rights of their respective citizens would
be much more frequent than they are. The United States
has more than three hundred such treaties in force today.
Sometimes, also, the nations of the world enter into uniform
agreements on certain important matters which ought to be
the subject of general regulation. These larger agreements
are commonly known as conventions.

FOREIGN COMMERCE. No state has any power to
regulate what goods shall be brought into the state from
foreign countries, or what goods shall be carried out of the
state. The control over foreign commerce is placed entirely
in the hands of the national government. The United States
government has entered into many treaties with foreign

138 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

governments for the regulation of matters pertaining to com-
merce. By law also duties have been imposed on many
articles that are brought into this country from abroad. We
shall see in a later connection that certain restrictions are
placed on the power of the national government to levy
duties on imports; and we shall also see how the government
undertakes in many ways to promote the trade of American
citizens with the citizens of foreign countries.

THE AMERICAN FLEET
Leaving Hampton Roads, Virginia, in the autumn of 1907 on a famous cruise

around the world

IMMIGRATION. For many years the United States
has attracted large numbers of foreigners from the various
nations of Europe and Asia. These people, coming in many
cases from lands of oppression and poverty, have looked upon
the United States as a land of opportunity and promise.
They swarm over the seas by thousands every year. Indeed,
more than a million of them have sometimes come to us in a
single j'ear.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND DEFENSE 139

The United States has the power, of course, to impose what-
ever conditions it chooses upon the entrance of these foreigners
into our country. Indeed, the government may prohibit
them from landing at all. For the most part, however, it
has been the policy of the government to extend its arms
generously to those who have sought refuge among us. The
government imposes certain minor restrictions on every
foreigner who seeks entrance to this country; but these re-
strictions are intended merely to prevent criminals, paupers,
diseased, and insane persons from coming in. The govern-
ment also imposes a tax of a few dollars on every foreigner
who enters. The only people who are now absolutely denied
permission to enter the country are certain classes of the
Chinese, Japanese, and other Asiatic peoples. This ex-
clusion of Orientals has been made at the demand of the people
who reside on the Pacific coast, where large numbers of these
people have settled.

Foreigners of the same nation frequently settle together in
some part of the country or in some section of one of our large
cities. There they retain their foreign language and customs.
They thus become a danger to our country, for they do not
understand our life and government. On the other hand,
many foreigners soon lose their foreign characteristics and
adopt our language and our customs. In other words, they
become truly Americanized. The school is perhaps the most
important means by which the children of these foreigners
are taught to understand our ways of living and thinking.

NATURALIZATION. The national government pro-
vides that in due course of time these foreigners may become
American citizens by a process called naturalization. Before
a foreigner can become a naturalized citizen of the United
States, he must have resided in this country at least five years,
and he must have declared his intention to become a citizen
at least two years before he is admitted to citizenship. He
must solemnly swear that he no longer owes allegiance to

140 GOVERNMENT AND I'OLITICS IN VIRGINIA

any foreign government, and that he recognizes only his duty
and his obligation toward the government of the United
States. After a foreigner has been granted his naturaHza-
tion papers by the g<^)\ernment, he enjoys the same privileges
that belong to a natural born citizen of the United States.

THE MAKING OF WAR. In spite of all the means that
are provided for keeping peace between nations, disagree-
ments sometimes arise which cannot be settled peacefulh'.
Appeal must then be made to arms. In the United States,
Congress alone has the power to declare war against a foreign
nation. It would naturally be absurd to permit the govern-
ment of this or that state to exercise this important power
whenever it chose to do so.

THE ARMY AND THE MHITIA. The different na-
tions of Europe are situated so close to one another that dis-
agreements are likely to arise frequently among them. As a
rule, therefore, most of them have, at great expense and sacri-
fice, maintained large standing armies. The United States is
not surrounded by numerous foreign nations. We occupy
the major part of a whole continent, and we are the most
powerful nation on the continent. Not fearing the possibility
of the landing of European troops upon our soil, it has been
our policy from the beginning of our nation to maintain a very
small standing army. The great European War which began
in 1914 called the attention of the people of the United States
to the fact that, with the marvelous development of ocean
transportation, we are no longer as safe from attack as we
formerly were. Moreover, we have important islands in the
far seas which it is our duty to protect. No nation can pro-
vide, train, and equip an army of considerable numbers in a
few weeks or even a few months. The prol)ability is that the
United States will, as time goes on, be compelled to abandon
(to some extent) its policy of maintaining a very small stand-
ing army.

The United States army is primarily for the purpose of

FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND DEFENSE

141

defending the nation against enemies from without. Some-
times, however, it is used to preserve the peace within the
states. However, troops of the army are never sent to the
aid of any state unless the government or legislature of that
state requests the President to send them. This is done only
when the state militia are unable to handle the situation.

Very occasionally troops of the United States army are
used to enforce the laws of the nation. In 1894, for example.

(.Copyright, Underwood & Underwood)

COAST DEFENSE GUNS

These twelve-inch guns fire a steel projectile weighing seven hundred and fifty

pounds across a range of seven miles

there was a large strike among railway employes at Chicago,
which is one of the most important railway centers in the
United States. Commerce between the states was seriously
interfered with, and trains carrying the United States mails
were held up. President Cleveland sent the United States
troops to put down the disturbance in order that the trains

142 C.U\ KRNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

might continue, under the laws of Congress, to carry the mails
and the commerce going from one state into another.

We have seen that there is in the state of Virginia an or-
ganized miHtia for the purpose of preserving the peace of the
state in times of unusual disturbance. In nearly all of the
other states similar provision is made for maintaining com-
panies of miHtia, these companies being known as the Na-
tional Guard. State miHtia companies are organized and

LAUNCHING OF THE BATTLESHIP PENNSYLVANIA
This ship, built and launched at Newport News, Virginia, is one of the most

powerful battleships afloat

discipHned in much the same way as are the troops of the
United States army, although the militiamen, being employed
in other occupations, give of course only a small part of their
time to this work. The militia companies, however, are a
supijlement to the regular army and may be called into the
service of the United States to suppress insurrection and repel
invasion.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND DEFENSE 143

COAST DEFENSES. It is necessary that the seaports
of our country should be fortified against attacks that might
be made by the war vessels of an enemy. At many important
points along the seacoast strong forts are built w ith powerful
batteries of large guns. Fortress Monroe is the chief coast
defense that is provided in Virginia by the national govern-
ment. The government is planning, however, to fortify also
Cape Henry and Cape Charles. Should a war break out, and
the coast of the United States be in danger of attack, the
government is prepared to strew what are known as mines
in the waters along the seacoast in order to prevent the near
approach of enemy vessels. These mines are sunk a little
below the surface of the water and are so constructed that if
struck by a vessel they will explode and destroy the vessel.

THE NA VY. If the United States should go to war with
any nation of Europe or Asia, much of the fighting would be
likely to take place on the water. Indeed, with a powerful
navy, consisting of many war vessels of the different kinds
that are needed, we should probably be able to prevent any
serious attempt to land hostile troops upon our shore. If we
destroyed or seriously crippled the navy of the enemy, it
would be impossible for the enemy to approach our shores
with ships filled with troops. It is because of this fact that
the national government has provided a navy, which is being
annually enlarged and strengthened. Since we acquired the
Philippine Islands and built the Panama Canal, the need for
a strong navy is even more apparent than it was formerly.
The protection of these outlying possessions against an enemy
is largely dependent upon the efficiency of the navy.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Does the state of Virginia maintain an army? A navy? A postal
system? Does it build forts and protect harbors? Make treaties? Send
diplomatic representatives to foreign nations? Coin money? Issue
paper money? Show how each of these things is necessary for our pro-

144 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

tectioii or welfare. By whom are these things undertaken, and why?
Explain, then, the necessity for our national government.

2. In what ways do the people of the United States associate with
the people of foreign countries? Suppose a dispute arises between the
United States and Great Britain; who settles it? Who has control over
all our foreign affairs, and why?

3. Could the state of Virginia make a treaty with Germany? Why?
Explain how treaties between the United States and a foreign govern-
ment are made. Why are they made? How do they help us as a nation?
Mention some of the treaties you have learned about in history. Why
were they made?

4. \Miat are ambassadors and ministers? Does Virginia appoint or
receive ambassadors and ministers? \Miy? \\]\o chooses the diplomatic
representatives of the United States? Where are they sent? Why are
they sent? A\'hat is tlie difference between an ambassador and a minister?
Find out, if you can, to which countries the United States sends ambassa-
dors. Find out, if you can, the names of some of our present diplomatic
reju-esentatives. To what covmtri(>s are they soiit? Try to recall from
your history some distin;' uished statesmen who have represented us abroad.

5. In the United States who has the power to declare war, and why?
^^'ho controls foreign commerce, and why? Who makes regulations for
the vessels and goods which come from abroad and land at the scajiorts
of Virginia?

(). Who maintains our army? Is it large or small, and why? Why is
the army maintained? \Mien may national troops be sent to protect life
and property within some state? How is the army used to enforce the
laws of the nation? Do you recall any instance of this? What part
does the state mi'itia have in the defence of the nation?

7. Exi)lain why the United States is obligated to maintain a large
navy. Ex])lain how the seacoast is protected. Where is Fortress Mtmroe?
Have you ever seen it? Tell all you know about it. Why should Cape
Charles and Cape Henry be fortified? What are mines?

<S. What people are known as inunigrants? Where do they come from,
and why? ^^'hat restrictions are im];osed ujjon immigrants who seek
admission to the United States? Why are Orientals largely excluded?
Why do some immigrants fail to become Americanized? What role do
the schools play in the process of Americanizing these foreigners?

0. \\ hat is the meaning of naturalization? Do you know any ])erson
who has been naturalized? Where was he born? Has he the same rights
that you have? What duty does he owe the government of the United
States? How does a foreigner become a naturalized citizen of the United
States?

CHAPTER XIX
COMMERCE, FINANCE, AND INDUSTRIES

PROMOTION OF FOREIGN COMMERCE. Mention
has been made of the fact that the national government has
complete power to regulate the commerce between the United
States and foreign countries. The government does many
things to help American citizens to secure markets abroad for
their goods. To many of the important cities of the world
the United States sends representatives known as consuls-
general or consuls. It also sends to a few countries officers
known as commercial attaches. These officers, as well as
other special agents of the government, gather a great deal of
information that is of value to American manufacturers and
merchants. This information is published by the govern-
ment for the benefit of those who are interested.

INTERSTATE COMMERCE. In this day of frequent
travel and of large activity in commerce between different
parts of the United States, we sometimes almost forget that
there are any boundaries between the states. Goods are
sent from one state to another as easily and as frequently as
they are sent from one local community to another. This
would not be the case, of course, if each state had the power
to restrict people or goods from coming in from another state.
If this were so, a great deal of confusion would naturally re-
sult, and much of our travel and commerce would be in-
terrupted or destroyed. To avoid this difficulty the national
government is given complete control over interstate com-
merce— that is, commerce passing from one state to another.

It has been the general policy of the national government
to permit commerce to be carried on between the states with-
out restrictions of any kind. In a few important instances,

145

146 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

however, the national government has imposed restrictions
upon such commerce. We ha\e seen that the government of
X'irginia regulates the rates and the service of raiUvay com-
panies and of telephone, telegraph, and express companies.
Most of these companies, however, operate beyond, as well as
within, the boundaries of X'irginia. Naturalh' the govern-
ment of X'irginia cannot control their operations beyond the
limits of the state, nor can the state government control their
operations within the state in such way as to interfere with
their interstate business. The national government, there-
fore, undertakes to regulate the rates and the service of such
companies so far as these matters are a part of the interstate
business of the companies. In other words, the power to
control these companies is divided between the state govern-
ment on the one hand and the national government on the
other.

The national government also undertakes to prohibit the
formation of enormous companies — trusts they are commonly
called — which seek in one way or another to control this or
that kind of business throughout the country and thus to
charge as high prices as they choose. The government also
endeavors to prevent persons and companies engaged in inter-
state business from adopting business methods and practices
that are unfair. This field of the national government's
activity is, however, exceedingly complicated. It is a sub-
ject which can be clearly understood only by trained lawyers.

NA VIGATION SERVICES. In connection with the regu-
lation of foreign and domestic commerce, the national govern-
ment undertakes to control and regulate many matters per-
taining to the navigation of boats. In the first place, in order
to promote the safety of passengers and crews, the govern-
ment imposes many regulations upon those who operate
boats. The government also has inspectors to examine boats
to see that these rules are complied with. In the second
place, the government establishes lighthouses and maintains

COMMERCE, FINANCE, AND INDUSTRIES 147

light-ships, buoys, and other aids to navigation. Without
these aids, accidents upon the rivers, bays, and oceans would be
far more frequent than they are. In the third place, the gov-
ernment maintains an elaborate life-saving service. Scattered
all along the coasts, the great lakes, and many rivers are
what are known as life-saving stations, where crews of strong
men with life-saving boats and equipment stand ready to give
help to any vessel in distress.

THE LIGHTHOUSES AT CAPE HENRY

In the center of the picture stands the new tower, the light from which may be

seen many miles out at sea. To the left the apparatus of the

United States wireless telegraph station is shown

THE PANAMA CANAL AND RIVER AND HARBOR
IMPROVEMENTS. In order to facilitate commerce be-
tween the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, as well as with the
Philippine Islands and the Orient, the national government
has at enormous expense constructed the Panama Canal.
This canal is owned and operated by the government. From
time to time, also, the government spends a great deal of
money in dredging and otherwise improving, for purposes of
navigation, rivers and harbors in all parts of the country.

148 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

It is regrettable, however, that this money is not always de-
voted to the improvements that are most urgently needed.

CONTROL OVER INTERSTATE COMMERCE IN
FOODS AND DRUGS. We have ^een that our state and
local governments undertake in many ways to protect the
people as:,ainst impure foods. To the extent, however, that
these foods are shipped across state lines they are subject to
control by the national government. In 1906 the national
government passed a law known as the Food and Drugs Act
and another law known as the Meat Inspection Act. Under
this last mentioned law, the government maintains, at all of
the large plants where meat is prepared and canned, inspectors
whose duty it is to see that no diseased meat and no injurious
substances get into the packages which are to be distributed
over the country for sale. The government does not maintain
inspection at plants in which such things as vegetables and
fruits are canned and breakfast foods and other package
foods are put up. The government does, hov.cver, buy up
samples of these things in all parts of the country, and if it
is found that any canner or manufacturer has violated the
law, the government provides that he shall be punished.

THE INTERESTS OF LABOR. We have seen that the
state of Mrginia enacts laws for the special protection of
those who are employed as laborers in the state. Nearl}- all
regulations of tliis kind are made b\' the several states of the
I'nion. The national go\ernment, however, makes many in-
vestigations concerning the conditions under which laborers
are employed in the United States, collects a great deal of
information on this subject, and in many ways endeavors to
promote the interests of the laboring classes. The govern-
ment is especially interested in investigating the conditions
under which children are employed in labor.

THE POSTAL SER VICE. The business of carr>'ing the
mails is owned and operated exclusively by the national gov-
ernment. This great business of the government probably

COMMERCE, FINANCE, AND INDUS IRIES 149

brings it in closer relations with the everyday life of the people
than any of its other activities. Post offices are established
everywhere throughout the country, and everybody is more or
less directly dependent upon the service which the government
thus provides.

The government realizes that quick and cheap postal service
is very necessary for the progress and development of the
country. The charges for postage have, in the course of
time, been greatly reduced. On account of their weight,

THE POST OFFICE AT RICHMOND, VIRGINIA

newspapers and magazines are of course more expensive to
carry than letters; yet because these things promote the
general knowledge and information of the people, the govern-
ment carries them at lower rates than are charged for letters,
even though this policy results in a great loss.

Within recent years the postal service has been improved
m a number of important ways. The government has es-

ISOr.OVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

tablishcd, for example, what are known as "rural free de-
liveries," so that the farmer now has his letters and newspapers
brought promptly to his gate, just as in cities mail matter is
delivered directly to the houses of the people. Tlie govern-
ment has also introduced into the mail ser\ ice what is known
as the "parcel post." h'or a long time small packages have
been carried in the mails. The government now carries in
the parcel post any package of merchandise that is not more
than seven feet in length and girth combined and that does

(Copyriijht, Underwood &L'h..

BUSY SCENE IN A CITY POSTOFFICE

Handling thousands of parcel post packages at the Christmas season

not weigh more than twenty pounds. Indeed, the govern-
ment will receive and transport for limited distances packages
weighing as much as fifty pounds. The charges for carrying
packages in the parcel post vary with the weight of the package
and the distance it is to be carried. Still another reform in
the postal service has been the establishment of "postal

COMMERCE, FINANCE, AND INDUSTRIES 151

savings banks." These banks were provided chiefly for
those who were unwilHng to put their savings in banks that
were privately owned and for those who could not convenient-
ly do this. The government itself guarantees the safety of

(Copyright, Undenvood & Underwood)
COUNTING COIN IN THE UNITED STATES TREASURY VAULTS
In the bags here shown there are $156,708,960 in silver dollars; $2,000,000 in half-
dollars and quarters; as well as some gold coins, nickeis, and
pennies. The counting is done largely by weighing the bags

the deposits in these banks and pays a low rate of interest on
them.

l^HE MONEY SYSTEM. If each state of the Union had
the power to coin its own money and regulate its own money

152 C.oViyKXMF.Xr AXn I'Dl TTirs TX VIRC'.IXIA

s>-stem, it is easy to imaiiine what confusion would result.
We should have to keep in mind the value of the coins of forty-
eight different states. This would be annoying beyond de-
scription. For this reason the national government is given
the power to establish one money system throughout the entire
country.

In order that we may be protected against frauds, the
national government itself undertakes to coin the money that
is used by the people and prohibits private individuals from
doing so. The coins are made in the United States mints.
The government punishes any person who attempts to dupli-
cate or counterfeit United States coins. The national govern-
ment also provides for the issue of paper money. It must not
be thought, however, that the government can issue any
amount of paper money that it chooses. A great many people
have this foolish idea. It is impossible briefly to describe
the various kinds of paper money that are issued. It is
necessary to understand, however, that a one dollar, five
dollar, or twenty dollar bill is nothing more than the promise
of the government (or of some bank authorized by the gov-
ernment) to pay this amount of money in gold or silver coins.
The government sees to it that sufficient coins are on hand to
meet these money promises which are used in all parts of the
country in the form of paper money. People very seldom
make a demand for the actual payment of these promises;
but if the government failed to keep enough coins on hand to
pay them, the people would soon learn this fact and paper
money issued by the government would become of less value,
if not indeed wholly worthless. The state governments are
forbidden either to coin money or to issue paper money.

rilE NATIONAL BANKING SYSTEM. Many of our
banks are organized under state laws and are subject to the
control of the states. Many banks, however, are known as
national banks, and these are organized under national laws
and are subject to the control of the national government.

COMMERCE, FINANCE, AND INDUSTRIES 153

There are thousands of such banks scattered throughout the
country. It is only these national banks that are permitted to
issue paper money, and they can make such issues only by
complying with very strict requirements of the law.

The national government has also established what is

(Copyright, Underwood & Uiuierwood)

A STAMP-PRINTING MACHINE
This machine prints, gums, perforates, and coils 300,000 stamps per day

known as a system of federal reserve banks. There are twelve
such banks, in the country, each of them operating in one of
the twelve reserve districts into which the United States is
divided. One of these banks is located at Richmond. The

154 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

federal reserve system is so complicated that it seems un-
necessary to attempt to describe its many operations. It is
sufficient to note that it plays a very important part in the
regulation of the currency and the banking business in the
country.

PATENTS AND COPYRIGHTS. When a person av rites
a book or invents a machine his book or his invention is really
a part of his property. Unless he is protected in this property,
however, someone else may reprint his book or manufacture
his machine without his consent. This would deprive him
of his just profits. In order to encourage authors and in-
ventors the government provides them with protection for
their work. To the author it issues what is known as a copy-
right, and to the inventor what is known as a patent. It is
made unlawful for an\onc, except the owner of a copyright
or patent, to publish a book that has been copsrighted or to
manufacture a machine or other device that has been patented.

PUBLIC LANDS AND FORESTS. The United States
government formerly possessed in its own name a great deal
of the land in the country. Most of this has been sold to
private persons, although a considerable part of it was turned
over to certain railway companies in order to encourage the
building of railway lines; and another considerable part of
it was given to certain states to aid in the development of
their educational s\'stems. The national government still
owns some of the land, this being located chiefly in the western
states. Some of this land is unproductive because of the dry-
ness of the climate. The government in many places has
undertaken to reclaim this arid land by constructing large
irrigation systems.

The government has set aside in the western states large
tracts of forest lands with the intention of preserving the
forests against destruction. Recenth', moreover, the gov-
ernment has purchased certain forest lands in the east, these
lands being in the White and tiie Appalachian Mountains.

COMMERCE, FINANCE, AND INDUSTRIES 155

A few of these recently purchased forest lands are in the
state of Virginia. The government permits certain timber
to be cut from, and other uses to be made of, these forest
lands. In many ways, also, it encourages the preservation
of forest lands and endeavors to protect them from devastat-
ing fires.

PROMOTION OF AGRICULTURE. We have seen that
our state government undertakes in many ways to further
the interests of those who earn their living by farming. The

FOREST DEPREDATION
Showing an oak tree ruined by "girdling," the bark being stripped off to be used
as a carrier for huckleberries. This is one kind of destruction
that the Forest Service seeks to prevent

national government also undertakes to promote the agri-
cultural interests of the people. It collects and publishes a
great deal of valuable information on almost every subject
that is of interest to farmers. It maintains experiment
stations in various parts of the country and also contributes
a good deal of money for agricultural education in the various
states.

156 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

CLASS EXERCISES

1 . Can ^'irp;inia ])roliibit pprsons from rnminn into the stato from Mary-
land, West Virfiinia, Kentucky, f)r North Carolina? Can \irginia i)ro-
iiihit goods from lieing broupiht in from these states? Why? What do
we mean by interstate commerce? \Mio controls it? Why? To what
extent does the national government control railways, telegraph and tele-
phone companies? ^^'hy?

2. Have you ever seen a life-saving station or a lighthouse? If so,
describe it. Who maintains these things, and why? Why and by whom
was the Panama Canal constructed?

3. To what extent and how does the national government protect us
against impure foods?

4. Where is your nearest post office? Who maintains it? Why?
Tell all that you know about the postal service in your community. Why
are newspapers and magazines carried for less than letters? What is the
parcel post? A postal savings bank? Why were these reforms intro-
duced? How heavy a letter can j^ou send for two cents? Fintl out how
much it would cost to send a package weighing ten pounds from your
post office to Washington. To New York. To Chicago. What are
patents and copyrights? By whom are they issued and why? Look in
the front of one of your school books and see who copyrighted it. What
does this mean? Have you ever seen any article marked "patented" or
"patent applied for"? Tell about the article and explain why it was
patented.

5. Who coins the money we use? Why is Virginia not permitted to
coin monej^? What is a mint? Why does the national government main-
tain mints? What is meant by counterfeiting? Why is it made a crimi-
nal offense? What is paper money? Who issues it? Why? Does Vir-
ginia issue any paper money? Why? Can the national government issue
any amount of paper money it chooses?

6. What is a national bank? A federal reserve bank?

7. \Miy should forest lands be preserved? Have you ever seen or
heard of a forest fire? How^ was it started? Could it have been pre-
vented?

8. Try to find someone in your community who has secured informa-
tion or assistance from the National Department of Agriculture. What
sort of information or assistance did he secure?

FOURTH PART
ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

CHAPTER XX
THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION

THE MEANING OF THE NATIONAL CONSTITU-
TION. We have seen that the government of Virginia is
organized under a fundamental law which is known as the
state constitution. Our national government also is or-
ganized under a constitution, and it is important for us to
understand how the Union of states came to be formed, and
how the national constitution was framed and established.

THE UNION OF THE COLONIES TO FIGHT FOR IN-
DEPENDENCE. During the colonial period of our history
each of the thirteen colonies was under the control of the
British government. There was, however, no sort of union
which bound them together. Each colony was independent
of the others. They were forced to join hands only because
the Parliament of the mother country began to oppress them
and to impose upon them taxes which they felt were unjust.
They realized fully that if their revolt against this oppression
was to be successful, they would have to act together. In
1774 the colonists therefore determined to send delegates to
what was known as a Continental Congress, which should
represent them in their struggle with Great Britain. It was
this Congress that issued the Declaration of Independence
and provided for carrying on the Revolutionary War. The
success of the war freed the colonies from British control.

157

158 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

They were no longer dependent colonies; they became inde-
pendent states.

During the period of the war the Continental Congress
exercised whatever powers were necessary. But naturally, after
peace was established, the people were unwilling to have this
Congress govern them as it chose. Even while the war was
going on, steps were taken to determine how the government
of the Union should be organized and what powers it should
exercise.

UNION UNDER THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERA-
TION. In 1777 a committee of the Continental Congress
drew up a plan of government for the new Union. The docu-
ment which they prepared was known as the Articles of Con-
federation. It was provided that this government should not
go into operation until every one of the thirteen states had
agreed to accept it. In 1781 the last state gave its consent,
and the government provided by the Articles of Confederation
was set in motion.

The government established by the Articles of Confedera-
tion proved to be very unsatisfactory. The war had been
costly, and the states were deeply in debt. Money was
needed for carrying on the work of the new government; yet
the government had no adequate way of raising money. It
had no power to levy taxes upon the people. It had to call
upon the different states to contribute to its support. The
Congress of the Confederation could not compel the states to
pay their contributions. Indeed, it could not compel obedi-
ence to any of the laws of the Union.

Within a few years it was seen that the government estab-
lished by the Articles of Confederation was a hopeless failure.
More than one attempt was made to give the Congress of the
Union additional powers. But no change could be made
without the consent of every state; and this it was impossible
to secure. The far-seeing statesmen of the time realized that
if the Union was to continue, something must be done to

THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 159

increase the powers of the national government. Washing-
ton called it a "half-starved, limping government, always
moving upon crutches, and tottering at every step."

Difficulties had early arisen betw^een Virginia and Mary-
land over the control of commerce on the Potomac River and
Chesapeake Bay, and these states seemed unable to settle
their disputes. In 1785 the General Assembly of Virginia
invited all the states to send representatives to a convention
to be held at Annapolis the year following. This convention
was called merely to consider the trade and commerce of the
Union. Only five of the states were represented when the
delegates came together. But a stirring address was issued
calling upon the states to send delegates to another conven-
tion which should meet the next year for the purpose of re-
vising the Articles of Confederation.

THE CON ST IT UT TONAL CON VENT ION OF 1787. The
Convention which was thus proposed assembled in Phila-
delphia in May, 1787. It was composed of delegates from
every state except Rhode Island. Nearly all the truly great
men of that time were among its members. Washington was
its president, and Virginia was also represented by James
Madison, George Mason, and Edmund Randolph. Jeffer-
son was not a member of this convention, for at this time he
was representing the government of the United States in
France. Prominent also in the Convention were Benjamin
Franklin and Alexander Hamilton. It was a high-minded,
patriotic, and noble body of men, which met at a critical time
to determine how the Union might be strengthened and pre-
served.

As a matter of fact, the Convention did not attempt to re-
vise the Articles of Confederation. They set about the task of
drawing up a completely new form of government. After
nearly five months of careful deliberation, their work was com-
pleted. They had framed a new constitution for the Union
of states.

160 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

HOW THE NEW CONSTITUTION WAS MADE EF-
FECTIVE. The Convention sent the constitution which
they had framed to the Congress of the Union, which was then
in session. Th{?y requested that this Congress should, in
turn, send it to the several states for consideration. In each
of the thirteen states a convention representing the people of
the state was called together to decide whether the state
would accept or reject the new form of government. Accord-
ing to the plan adopted by the Convention, the constitution
was to go into effect whenever nine of the states should accept
it. By this action of its own convention each state made its
own choice. No state was compelled to adopt the proposed
constitution.

The conventions in some of the states had little difficulty in
agreeing to adopt the new form of union. In others, however,
the constitution hung in the balance for months. There
were several reasons why the proposed constitution met with
so much opposition. The states had but recently been freed
from the oppressive yoke of Great Britain. They were now
enjoying independence, and they feared to give up any large
amount of power even to a government of their own creation.
They were afraid that as states they would be deprived of
too many rights, and that the people might not be secure in
their liberties. This was perhaps the chief objection that the
new constitution had to overcome.

Virginia w as the tenth state to ratify the constitution. The
opposition in Virginia was led by Patrick Henry, who pro-
tested violently against granting to the government of the
I'nion such large powers as the constitution provided for. In
the Virginia convention those members who were in favor of
accepting the constitution were led by James Madison. In
the Constitutioned Convention at Philadelphia, it was Madi-
son who had brought forward the plan of government which
was, after many changes, finally adopted. In the end he

THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 161

succeeded in carrying a small majority of the Virginia con-
vention in favor of adoption.

By the summer of 1788 eleven states had ratified the con-
stitution. North Carolina and Rhode Island alone refused
their consent. Indeed they did not come in as members of
the new Union until after the government had gone into
operation. Before the spring of 1789, Washington had been
unanimously chosen the first President of the United States;
and the members of the first national Congress had been
elected. The Congress of the old Confederation passed out of
existence, and the government provided for by the new con-
stitution, under which our national government is still estab-
lished, came into being.

AMENDING THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION. We
have seen that our state constitution, being the highest law
of the state, is considered of such importance that the legis-
lature is not permitted to change it. This is true also of our
national constitution. Indeed it may be said generally that
no constitution in the United States, whether state or national,
can be amended simply by an act of the ordinary law-making
body.

The constitution of the nation provides that changes, or
amendments as they are called, may be proposed in Congress.
But every proposed amendment must be passed by a two-
thirds vote of each house of Congress, and it must thereafter
be sent to the states for consideration. No amendment can
become a part of the constitution until it has received the
consent of the legislatures in at least three-fourths of the
states. The constitution also provides that, upon applica-
tion of the legislatures of two-thirds of the states, Congress
shall call a convention for the purpose of proposing amend-
ments, but this method of amending the constitution has
never been used.

As a matter of fact, it is a very difficult matter to secure
for any amendment a two-thirds majority of each house of

162 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

Congress and the consent of three-fourths of the states. It is,
in consequence, very difficult to amend the national constitu-
tion. Since the constitution went into operation in 1789,
more than t\\'enty-five hundred amendments have been pro-
posed in Congress. Most of these have failed to secure the
necessary two-thirds vote, and nearly all of the others have
been lost when they have been submitted to the states.
Seventeen amendments, however, have been adopted; and it
is of interest and importance to note how these amendments
came to be adopted.

THE FIRST TEN AMENDMENTS. At the time when
the constitution was being discussed in the different state
conventions much fear was expressed that it did not contain
sufficient restrictions upon the powers of the national govern-
ment. The people were afraid that the new government
might not be careful to protect their liberties. Several state
conventions, in adopting the constitution, proposed that cer-
tain amendments should be immediately passed for the pur-
pose of protecting the people's liberties. In the first Congress
that met under the new constitution, these amendments re-
ceived the necessary two-thirds vote in each house of Con-
gress, and they were very quickly accepted by the states.
They were added to the constitution so early in our history
that we may almost regard them as a part of the original con-
stitution.

These ten amendments provide, among other things, for
the protection of our freedom of speech and of the press, and
our freedom of religion. They guarantee us the right of
trial by jury in a fair and open court. They prohibit the
national government from imposing unreasonably large fines
or cruel and unusual punishments, or from making unreason-
able searches of our dwellings and our private affairs. They
provide also that our private property shall not be taken
from us unless we are justly paid for it. These amendments
protect us in certain of our rights against the powers of the

THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 163

national government only. It is important to note that they
do not restrict the powers of the states. As we have already
learned, it is by means of our state constitution that we are
protected in these matters against the powers of our state
government.

THE ELE VENTH A MENDMENT. In 1 793, four years
after the new government had been established, trouble arose
between the state of Georgia and the government of the United
States over a suit that was brought against Georgia in the
national courts. Georgia thought that the national govern-
ment had no power to force any state to come before its
courts. In order that the states might be protected against
such suits, the eleventh amendment was passed.

THE TWELFTH AMENDMENT. The original method
provided in the constitution for electing the President and
Vice-President of the United States proved to be very awk-
ward and unsatisfactory. In the year 1801 it produced serious
trouble, and a bitter contest resulted before Thomas Jeffer-
son finally triumphed over Aaron Burr. A few years after
Jefferson's inauguration the twelfth amendment was passed
by Congress and adopted by the necessary number of states.
It provided for our present method of electing the President
and Vice-President, which we shall have occasion to examine
at a later point in our study.

THE THREE AMENDMENTS THAT RESULTED
FROM THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES. During
the period of our history just after the War Between the States,
the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments were
added to the constitution. They were intended to protect
and to give certain rights to the recently freed negroes.

By the thirteenth amendment slavery was abolished
throughout the United States.

The fourteenth amendm.ent provides, first of all, that "all
persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens
of the United States and of the state in which they reside."

164 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

This, of course, grants citizenship to the negroes. The
amendment provides also that the states shall give to all per-
sons equal protection of the laws, and guarantees that the
national government will protect everybody, in his life, his
liberty, and his property, against any unjust action on the
part of the states. This amendment does not mention the
negroes; but its purpose was evidently to afford tlum ])rotec-
tion against the states.

We have already noted the (jualifications which our own
state requires of those who wish to vote at elections held in
Virginia. Throughout the Union each state determines who
shall and who shall not vote within its limits.. However, by
the fifteenth amendment to the constitution, it is provided
that no state can deprive any person of his riglit to vote be-
cause of his "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
The purpose of this amendment was to prevent the southern
states from depri\ ing the negro of his right to vote merely
because he was a negro and because he h^id been a slave.

THE INCOME TAX AMENDMENT. As we shall see
later, the national constitution placed certain restrictions on
Congress in the matter of levying taxes. One of these re-
strictions prevented Congress from imposing taxes on the
j)eo])le in proportion to their incomes. In 1009 an amend-
ment removing this restriction was submitted by Congress
to the states; and in 1013 tliis amendment, ha\ ing been ac-
ce]:)ted by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states, w;ls
added to the constitution as the sixteenth ameiulment.

A AMENDMENT FOR THE DIRECT ELECTION OF
UNITED STATES SENATORS. The constitution did
not provide for the election of senators by a vote of the people;
it provided that they should be chosen by the legislatures of
the various states. There were many disadvantages in choos-
ing senators in this manner. The position of United States
senator is usually much sought after, for it carries with it
great dignity and influence. In consequence the members of

THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 1(.5

our state legislatures were often chosen solely with reference
to hoAV they would vote on the choice of a United States
senator. Our state law-makers ought to be chosen wholly
with reference to their al)ilily to make proper laws for the
state. Moreover, it frequently happened that the members of
a state legislature were unable for many days to agree on the
choice of a United States senator. The result was that the
business of making laws for the state was seriously delayed
and much bitter feeling was aroused. On several occasions,
in this or that state, it was even disclosed that the friends of
certain candidates had corrupted the members of the legis-
lature by bu}ing their votes.

For many years efforts were made to change this method
of electing United States senators. This necessitated an
amendment to the national constitution. Finally, on May
12, 1912, an amendment providing that senators should be
elected by a direct vote of the people of the several states
passed both houses of Congress by the necessary two-thirds
vote and was sent to the state legislatures. Within one year
it had been ratified by the legislatures in three-fourths of the
states. In May, 1913, it was added to the constitution as the
seventeenth amendment.

THE CONSTITUTION TODAY. The constitution as
it now stands consists of the original text as it came from the
Convention of 1787 and the seventeen amendments which
have been added. Mr. Gladstone, the great English states-
man, once made the remark that the constitution of the
United States is the greatest work ever struck off at any one
time by the mind and purpose of man. When we pause to
think that it has, with few changes, stood the test of more
than a century, we are indeed impressed with the marvelous
greatness of the work of the Convention that framed it. In
1789 the constitution provided a national government for a
straggling line of states along the Atlantic seaboard with a
population of only a few millions. Today it provides for the

16() (;OVERNMENT AND I'OLITirS IN VIRGINIA

government of a mighty nation, stretching over a vast conti-
nent from coast to coast and extending its arms to the islands
of the far seas — a nation with a population of more than
ninety millions of people.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Exi)lain why the American colonies were forced to unite in their
struggle against the mother country. What were the Articles of Con-
federation? A\'iien and why were they drawn up? 7 low were they
adopted? Explain wliy the govenmient established under the Articles
of Confederation proved to be a failure.

2. What was the Constitutional Convention of 1787? When, where,
and why did it assemble? ^^'ho were the delegates from Virginia? \\'hat
was the result of the work of this Convention? Do you regard this Con-
vention as the most important assembly in our history? Why?

3. How was the constitution ratified? How many states were re-
quired to ratify it before the constitution went into effect? Why did
the constitution meet with ojjposition? Describe the struggle in the ^'ir-
ginia ratifying convention. When was the new government set in mo-
tion?

4. Explain how the constitution may be amended. Is it difficult or
easy to change our constitution? Do you regard this as an advantage or
a disadvantage?

5. How many amendments have been ])assed? Explain how and when
the first ten amendments came to be adoj)ted. Why was the eleventh
amendment adopted? The twelfth?

6. Tell about the three amendments that resulted from the War Be-
tween the States. The income tax amendment. The amendment that
provided for the election of United States senators by a vote of the i)eople.

CHAPTER XXI

THE SUPREMACY OF THE NATIONAL CONSTITU-
TION

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND THE
STATES. We have seen that, in addition to the govern-
ment of our state (which includes and controls the govern-
ment of our local communities), there is a national govern-
ment established over the entire Union of which our state is a
part. We have seen also that this national government is
organized under the constitution which was framed by the
Convention of 1787. All of us, therefor^, are subject not
only to the government of our state, but also to the govern-
ment of our nation. Each of these governments makes its
own laws and has its own officers to carry them out. To
each of them we owe loyalty and obedience, for each in its
own way helps to promote our safety, peace, and happiness.

It is perhaps not easy to understand how we can be re-
sponsible to two governments at the same time — how we can
be governed by two distinct groups of officers. Our national
and our state governments are not independent of each other.
On the contrary, each is dependent on the other. The na-
tional constitution did not attempt to set up a complete
government. At the time of its adoption the state govern-
ments were already in existence, and they continued to exist.
The national constitution simply made a division of poAvers
between the government of the nation and the governments of
the states. Our state government could not exist alone; for
it does not provide for maintaining an army and navy, for
the regulation of foreign affairs, the making of treaties, the
coining of money, and many other things that are controlled
by the government of the nation. Nor could our national

167

168 C.OVERNMENT AND POLl'llCS IN VIRGINIA

government exist without the states; for it does not ])ro\'ide
for the punishment of various crimes, the regulation of ]")rop-
erl>-, the building of roads, the support of schools, the general
])rotcction of the health of the people, nor for many other
things that are undertaken 1)\' the state governments.

In one sense, however, the national gxnernment is inde-
])endent of the states, and the states are indej)endent of the
national government. All the powers that are usually exer-
cised by a national government are, in the United States,
divided between the states and the nation; and neither can
exercise the powers belonging pro])erly to the other. Each
has its own independent sphere.

THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION IS THE "SU-
PREME LAW OF THE LAND:' The constitution de-
clares emphatically that it is itself the supreme law of the land.
This means that the national government cannot pass any
law or do any act which violates the constitution. It also
means that the states, when they make their constitutions
and pass their state laws, are compelled to respect the terms
of the national constitution. This constitution, therefore,
imposes restriction on both the national government and the
states.

THE EXPRESS AND IMPLIED POWERS OF THE
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. The constitution of the
United States enumerates in detail the powers which the
national government may exercise. We have already learned
in general what these powers are. When Congress wishes to
pass a law on any subject, it must first of all find its authority
to do so in the constitution. Otherwise the law is said to be
"unconstitutional"; and this means that it is no law at all.
We are not obliged to obey those laws which, under the con-
stitution, Congress has no power to enact. It must not be
thought, however, that each of us can determine these matters
for himself — that we may obey or disobey the laws of Congress
as we choose. As we shall see, the constitution provides

SUPREMACY OF NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 169

a means by which we may seek the protection of the courts
whenever Congress attempts to pass an "unconstitutional"
law.

It is highly important to understand that the national gov-
ernment has certain powers which are not in so many words
'aid down in the constitution. The powers which are ex-
pressly or directly given to the national government by the
constitution are not numerous. Almost from the beginning
Congress found it necessary to exercise other powers, which are
only indirectly given, or as we say, implied in the constitu-
tion. For example, the constitution has nothing directly
to say about the power of Congress to regulate the manu-
facture of foods. As we have seen, however. Congress has
exercised this power. The constitution simply gives Congress
the power to regulate interstate commerce. But since foods
of various kinds are shipped across state lines, and thus be-
come a part of interstate commerce, the power of Congress
to regulate the quality of these foods is implied. The power
to enact such laws as the Food and Drugs Act and the Meat
Inspection Act is, therefore, said to be implied in the power to
regulate interstate commerce. This is only a single illustra-
tion of how the national government exercises powers that are
not expressly given to it by the constitution. It is under
this authority to exercise implied powers that the activities
of the national government have been greatly extended.

THE RESTRICTIONS ON THE NA TIONAL GOVERN-
MENT. While it is important to understand this, it is of
even greater importance to understand that the national gov-
ernment cannot exercise powers which are neither expressly
nor impliedly granted to it by the constitution. It cannot,
for example, regulate matters pertaining to our public school
system; for the national constitution does not grant to Con-
gress any power which, by the widest stretch of the imagina-
tion, could be regarded as implying the power to control school
affairs. In spite of the fact that the so-called implied powers

170 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

of the national government are numerous and important, it is
nevertheless true that there are many important powers which
Congress may not, under the constitution, exercise. These
are left to the states. Our review of the activities of our state
and local governments has indicated in a general way what
powers are thus reserved from control by Congress and
given over to the several states.

That Congress may exercise only those powers that are
expressly or impliedly granted by the national constitution
is the most important restriction that is placed upon the na-
tional government. In addition to this, however, a number
of other restrictions are placed by the constitution upon the
powers of the central government. It does not seem neces-
sary to enumerate the entire list of these express restrictions;
it is sufficient if we get some general idea of their character
and importance.

As the constitution came from the hands of the Conven-
tion of 1787, it contained a number of express prohibitions
upon the powers of Congress. For example, after an indi-
vidual has committed an act, Congress is forbidden to pass
any law providing for his punishment. Such a law is called
an ex post facto law. Congress may of course provide for the
punishment of similar acts in the future. It is not fair or
just, however, that a person should be punished for an act
which was not an offense against the law at the time when he
committed it. When a person is arrested for an offense
against the laws of the United States, he cannot be kept in
prison indefinitely awaiting his trial. The national govern-
ment cannot deny him the privilege of being taken before
some officer of the law and shown the reason for his being
held. This is called the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus.
The United States go\crnment is also forbidden to grant any
title of nobility, like the titles given in most European coun-
tries. Moreover, as we shall see later, very important re-

SUPREMACY OF NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 171

strictions are placed upon the powers of Congress in the levy-
ing of taxes.

It is in the first ten amendments, however, that we find
most of the prohibitions upon the powers of the national gov-
ernment. These amendments, as we have learned, were
adopted because the states feared that the government
created by the new constitution might not respect the liberties
of the people. Among other things they protect our freedom
of speech and the press, and our freedom of religion. They
provide that when a person is accused of crime against the
laws of the nation, he shall be indicted by a grand jury, and
shall be tried by a jury in a fair and open court, with the right
to have his witnesses and a lawyer to defend him. They pro-
vide, too, that our private property shall not be taken from
us by the national government without just compensation;
and that civil suits — that is, suits over property, debts, and
the like— in which the amount exceeds twenty dollars shall
also be tried by a jury.

These are not all the restrictions placed upon the powers
of the national government; but they are sufficient to illus-
trate how the national constitution protects our lives, our
liberties, and our property from any tyranny on the part of
the officers of the national government. Similar restrictions,
as we have learned, are placed upon the powers of our state
government by the constitution of the state of Virginia.
Thus we are protected in our life, liberty, and property
against both of the governments to which we owe loyalty
and obedience.

RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED ON THE STATES. We
have just seen that the most important restriction on the
national government is that it may exercise only those powers
that are expressly or impliedly granted by the national con-
stitution. So likewise the most important restriction upon
the powers of the states is that they may not exercise any of
the powers thus given to the government of the nation. In

172 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

other words, powers are divided between the two, and each is
restricted to its own si)here. In addition to this general re-
striction on the states, the constitution contains a few other
l)rohil)itions upon their powers. For example, when legal
agreements, or contracts as they are called, ha\e been made in
any state, no law can be passed by that state to render these
contracts less binding upon the parties who have made
them. The states also are forbidden to pass any ex post
facto laws. Nor can they make agreements with one another,
or with a foreign goxernment ; nor maintain an army and navy ;
nor grant a title of nobilit)-; nor coin money; nor levy duties
on imports.

The thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments
also impose certain restrictions upon the powers of the
states. As we have seen, they prohibit the states from re-
establishing slavery, and from depriving any person of the
right to vote because of his "race, color, or previous conditon
of servitude." The fourteenth amendment declares thatino
state shall "deprive any person of life, liberty, or proper y,
without due process of law; nor deny to any person within tts
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The meaniing
of this sweeping declaration has never been fully determined.
As has been noted, it was intended primarily to protect the
negro race; but it has actually been used much more fre-
quently to protect corporations and others within the states
from the operation of certain state laws. This whole ques-
tion is very complicated; it belongs more properly to the
study of law. Any attempt to explain it in our elementary
study of government would only serve to confuse us.

THE GO VERNMENT OF TERRITORIES A ND OTHER
POSSESSIONS. The entire territory of what is known as
"Continental United States" is now dixidcd into forty-eight
states. All of these, except the original thirteen states, have
been admitted to the Union at various times by acts of Con-
gress. There are parts of the United States, however, which

SUPREMACY OF NATIONAL CONSTITUTION 173

are not organized as states. There are the territories of
Alaska and Hawaii, and there are the Philippine Islands,
Porto Rico, and a few other islands of less importance; and
there is the District of Columbia. These territories and
possessions occupy in our system of government a place en-
tirely different from that of the states. They do not, like the
states, enjoy any powers independent of the national govern-
ment. The constitution gives Congress the power to de-
termine how each of them shall be governed. Congress has,
indeed, organized the territories of Alaska and Hawaii on a
plan similar to that of the state governments; but Congress
has the power to change this plan at any time— a power
which it could not exercise over any state. Congress has also
pro\ided by law special governments for Porto Rico and the
Philippine Islands.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Could our national government make laws for the regulation of the
school system of Virginia? For the management of trolley lines in Vir-
ginia? For the regulation of the sale of liquors in Virginia? Could it
provide fire departments, sewer systems, electric lif hts, and street pave-
ments for our cities? By whom are these things controlled? Why?

2. Could the state of Virginia maintain an army? A navy? A postal
system? Could it build forts? Make treat'es? Coin money? Issue
paper money? By whom are these things controlled? Why?

3. Explain, then, what we mean when we say that our national gov-
ernment and our state governments are indcpeialevt of each other. How
is this independence secured? Who made the division of powers between
the states and the national government? How was the division made?
Are the states and the national government inde]jendent of each other in
the same way that Great Britain and Italy are independent? Explain
the difference.

4. Could the state of Virginia exist under its present constitution with-
out the national government? Why? Could the national government
exist without the states? Why? Explain, then, what we mean when we
say that the states and the national government are dependent on each
other.

174 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

5. What is meant by the exjjress powers of the national government?
The imjiliocl powers? The national government once built a post-road
tlirough Maryland; the national government has no express power to build
roads; how, then, could the government build this post-road? Under
what power did our national government acquire the Philipj)ine Islands?

6. What is meant by the "reserved" powers? Who exercises these
j)owers?

7. Can our national government restrict our liberty in any way that it
chooses? How is it prevented? Can it, for instance, restrict our freedom
of speech? Can it prescribe what church you shall attend? Or make
you contribute to the supjiort of some church? Whj-?

8. After you have committed some act, can the national government
pass a law for your punishment? Why? Suppose you are arrested for
some offense against the laws of the nation, can you be kept in prison
indefinitely awaiting your trial? At your trial what rifrhts would you
have? How are these rights secured to j'ou? Why were the first ten
amendments to the constitution passed?

9. Does the national constitution place any restrictions on the powers
of the states? Mention some of these restrictions.

CHAPTER XXII
CONGRESS

REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS. The national
constitution, which was adopted in 1789, provides for a legis-
lature composed of two houses. One of these is known as the
House of Representatives and the other as the Senate. In
order for any measure to become a law, it must be passed by
both of these houses of Congress. Thus the makers of our
constitution sought to prevent laws from being made without
due care and deliberation.

In the Congress that existed during the period of Confedera-
tion (1781-9), each state was entitled to cast only one vote,
without regard to its population or the number of representa-
tives that it had in Congress. The small state of Delaware
had, therefore, as much power in making the laws of the nation
as Virginia, which was then the largest state of the Union.
At the time of the framing of our present constitution, the
smaller states wished to continue this equal representation of
the states in Congress. The large states, however, wanted
to be represented in proportion to their population, for this
would increase their power in the national legislature. When
it was decided that Congress should consist of two houses,
the difficulty was readily overcome. The large states were
given what they desired in one house and the small states in
the other. It was provided that in the House of Repre-
sentatives each state should be represented according to its
population. In the Senate each state was given the same
number of senators.

THE HO USE OF REPRESENTA TI VES. For the pur-
pose of electing congressmen — as members of the House of
Representatives are usually called — each state is divided into

175

CONGRESS 177

congressional districts, and one congressman is elected by the
voters of each district. At present Virginia has a population
which entitles the state to ten congressmen. There are,
therefore, ten congressional districts in Virginia. It must not
be supposed, however, simply because congressmen are elected
by districts, that they represent only the interests of their
districts. Unfortunately this is too often the case. Every
representative should act solely for the interests of the entire
nation.

Provision is made in the constitution for ascertaining the
number of people in each state by taking a census every ten
years. After each new census Congress has to determine
how many representatives each state is to have in accordance
with the new record of its population. This is called "re-
apportioning" the representation of the states. At this time
Some states are given additional representatives because of
their large increase of population since the preceding census.
Moreover, a state may, in the reapportionment, be deprived
of one or more of its representatives, although in practice
this is usually avoided.

At present each congressman is elected by a population of
about 200,000 people. If, however, a small state has less
than this population, it must be given at least one representa-
tive. The constitution does not place any limit upon the
size of the House of Representatives. At present it numbers
435 members.

Members of the House of Representatives are chosen every
two years in November of the even-numbered years (1916,
1918, etc.). Each representative, therefore, serves for a
term of two years. If he returns to Congress for another
term, he must be re-elected by the voters of his district. It
is a fact that representatives are sometimes re-elected for
many terms.

THE SENATE. In the United States Senate each state,
without regard to its population, is entitled to two senators.

178 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

The result is that the least populous state of the Union,
Nevada, with only about eighty thousand inhabitants, has
the same representation in the Senate as New York; with a
population of more than nine millions.

We have already noted that senators were formerly chosen
by state legislatures, but that, since the adoption in 1913 of
the seventeenth amendment to the constitution, they are
elected by a direct vote of the people of the several states.
A senator holds his seat for a term of six years. Unlike the
House of Representatives, the entire Senate is not renewed
at the end of the senatorial term. Instead of the whole
number of senators being chosen every six years, one-third of
them are chosen every two years. By this means it is im-
possible for more than a third of the Senate to consist of new
members; for the other two-thirds always hold their posi-
tions over from one Congress to another. Moreover, many
of the senators are re-elected at the end of their terms of
office. The Senate, in consequence, consists of a body of
men most of whom have held their seats for a long period
of time. This gives a permanence of character to the Senate
which the House of Representatives lacks because of the
many changes that are made every two years.

The term of one of the senators from Virginia expires in
1917, 1923, and every sixth year thereafter. We elect a
senator, therefore, at the regular November elections in 1916,
1922, and so on. The term of our other senator expires in
1919, 1925, and every sixth year thereafter. We elect a sena-
tor for this seat, therefore, in November of 1918, 1924, and so
on. As we have already noted, each state determines for it-
self who may vote in the elections of congressmen and sena-
tors.

NOMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR CONGRESS
BY POLITICAL PARTIES. Of course the several politi-
cal parties put forward candidates for congressmen and
senators whenever these officers are about to be elected.

CONGRESS 179

Each party seeks to secure the election of as many of its
candidates as possible. If a majority of the members of the
House and the Senate belong to a particular party, that party
is then in a position to enact such laws and carry out such
policies as It may have promised to the voters. As we shall
see a little later, the promises of each party are set forth in
what is known as the national party platform. These plat-
forms are adopted by the national conventions of the several
parties, which meet every fourth year, in the summer pre-
ceding the election of a President.

While the platform of each party is made by a convention
of delegates from all parts of the country, the candidates for
Congress are nominated in each state in the manner that is
prescribed by the laws of the particular state. For example,
under the laws of Virginia, each party decides for itself
whether its candidates shall be chosen by party conventions
or shall be elected by the voters of the party at the regular
primary elections, which are held every year on the first
Tuesday in August.

THE SESSIONS OF CONGRESS. We have seen that
all of the congressmen and one-third of the senators are elected
in November of the even-numbered years (1916, 1918, 1920,
etc.). The persons so elected, together with the two-thirds
of the senators who hold over, form a new Congress. In
theory the life of this new Congress begins on the fourth of
March follov.ing these biennial November elections (March 4,
1917, 1919, 1921, etc.). However, unless the President calls
the Congress in an extra and earlier session, it does not actually
come together until the first Monday in December following
— that is, about thirteen months after the election has been
held. Congress then usually continues in session until some
time during the following summer. This first session of
every newly elected Congress is known as its "long session."
In November following this long session the time arrives for
the election of another Congress. In December following this

180 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IX VIRGINIA

election the old (not the newly elected) Congress comes to-
gether for its second session. This is called its "short session,"
because it must come to an end on the fourth day of the fol-
lowing March, when the two-year life of the Congress expires.
To illustrate, the members of the Sixl)-Fourth Congress
(except two-thirds of the senators, whose terms had not ex-
pired) were elected in November, 1914. The life of this
Congress began March 4, 1915. It assembled for the first
time in December, 1915. It adjourned in the summer of
1916. In November, 1916, the members of the Sixty-Fifth
Congress were elected. But in December, 1916, the Sixty-
Fourth Congress came together for its short session, which
came to an end on March 4, 1917.

There are of course many disadvantages about this arrange-
ment. It is almost absurd to think that a congressman w^ho
has perhaps been defeated for re-election in November
should nevertheless return to Washington and assist in making
the laws of the nation for a period of scNcral months after
his defeat.

THE QUALIFICATIONS OF CONGRESSMEN AND
SENATORS. The constitution recjuires that senators and
representatives shall be citizens of the United States and
residents of the state from which they are chosen. Senators
must be at least thirty years old and congressmen at least
twenty-five years old. Usually, too, a congressman must re-
side in the district in which he is elected, although this is not
required by the constitution.

In general only men of intelligence and high character are
chosen to be members of the national Congress. Nearly
always a majority of them are lawyers of ability. The longer
a congressman or senator holds his scat in Congress the more
influential he becomes. Ordinarily a representative who
holds office for only a single term of two years does not wield
a large amount of influence in the law-making body of the
ii.ition.

THE ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS. Each house
of Congress has ihc power to <lctci mine how il. .sh;ill be or-

CONGRESS 181

ganized for business, and whether those who claim to be mem-
bers have been properly chosen. Each house elects its own
officers, with the single exception that the Vice-President of
the Ignited States is the presiding officer of the Senate.

The House of Rcprescntati\es chooses for its presiding
officer one of its own members. This officer is called the
Speaker. He is not mentioned in the national constitution;
but owing to the powers which have been given him by the
House, the Speaker is a very important figure in the national
government. He is usually the strongest man in the political
party which has elected a majority of the members of the
House. He has many important powers o^'er the conduct of
the business of the House. In recent years, however, some
of the Speaker's powers have been taken away from him; for
it was felt that the control which he had over the making of
the laws and over the rights of individual members of the
House was far greater than any single man ought to enjoy.
Even though they have been somewhat diminished, the
Speaker still has very large powers. Especially is this seen
when his pOAvers are contrasted with those of the Vice-Presi-
dent, who presides o\'er the Senate.

THE COMMITTEES OF CONGRESS. Everyone who
visits the House of Representatives during a session of Con-
gress is impressed by the general disorder that usually pre-
vails. It seems almost as if no business at all is being trans-
acted. Many of the members are absent from their seats,
and those who are present are often reading newspapers, or
walking about, or conversing with one another. Usually
some member is speaking, but it often happens that scarcely
anybody is listening to him. It is only upon exceptional
occasions that all the members are in their seats giving close
attention to the speeches that are being made. Moreover,
the House is frequently in session only an hour or so during
the entire day. How is it that so many important m.easures
can be passed by this House under such circumstances? It is

182 GoVKKNiMKN r AND i^ULi llCS IN \ IRGliNlA

because the real business of the House is being carried on in
the committee rooms.

When a new Congress comes together, and the Speaker and
other officers have been chosen, the first business of each house
is to elect a large number of standing committees. Each of
these committees has for its consideration measures that re-
late to one particular branch of the national go\ernment's
work. Every congressman and every senator is eager to be
chosen as a member of one or more important committees;
for it is in the committee room that a congressman or a senator
does his real work and becomes a power in making the laws
of the nation. In each house the chairman and a majority
of each committee belong to the political party which at the
time has a majority of members in the house.
' THE MAKING OF A LA W. At every session of Congress
an enormous numl)er of measures are introduced in each
house. Not one in ten of these measures is enacted into law.
Every member is permitted to introduce any measure that
he chooses; but if every member could compel the house to
consider his proposal immediately, almost nothing would be
accomplished. Hence the committee system has been adopted.
When a measure is introduced by any member, it is referred
at once to an appropriate committee. The committee con-
siders the proposition carefully and perhaps revises it. It
may conduct a hearing, so that those who are in favor of, or
opposed to, the measure may have the chance to give their
opinion and advice. Later the committee may report the
measure to the house and advise that it be enacted or rejected.
Many proposals the committees simply ignore. They do not
report them at all, but allow them to "die" in the committee
room. Important bills, after they have been reported by a
committee, are discussed in the house, and frequently they
are amended before they are passed. Sometimes, however,
the house relies largely upon the report of the committee and
passes or rejects the bill according to its recommendation.

CONGRESS 183

This method of handUng the business of Congress by means
of committees makes it possible for a large number of bills to
be considered. More than two thousand laws have sometimes
been passed by a single Congress, and many times that num-
ber of measures are proposed and referred to the various com-
mittees. When any bill has passed through one house of
Congress, it must go through a similar process in the other
house, and later, as we shall see, it must be submitted to the
President for his approval or veto.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Find out the number of the congressional district of Virginia In
which 30U live. How many people live in this district? Find out the
name of the present congressman from your district. When was he
elected? How many terms has he served? When will the next congres-
sional election be held? Will your congressman be elected at the same
time that congressmen will be chosen in other districts of Virginia and in
the other states of the Union?

2. How many congressmen has Virginia? Explain why Virginia hag
this number, while New York, for instance, has many more, and Delaware
many less. Who determines the number of congressmen that each state
shall have? How often is this matter determined? When will the next
reapportionment take place?

3. How many senators has Virginia? How many have the other
states? Find out the names of the present senators from Virginia. How
long has each of them served? How were they chosen? When? How
long has each of them yet to serve? When will the people of Virginia
choose another senator? Will one or two be chosen at this time? Why?

4. How many members has the Senate? Why? How long is their
term of office? Are all of them chosen at the same time? Explain, then,
how the Senate is only partly renewed from one Congress to another.
What advantage has this? How were senators formerly chosen? Why
was this system abolished? How was it aboUshed?

5. What advantage is there in having two houses of Congress? Ex-
plain how the people are represented on a different basis in each house.
Why was this plan adopted?

6. Explain how candidates for the two houses of Congress are nomi-
nated by political parties in Virginia.

7. How long does each Congress exist? How many regular sessions
does each Congress hold? When do the sessions begin and how long do

184 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

lliey last? What is meant by tlie "lon^" and tlu>, "sliort" session of Con-
j2;ress? Kxjilain how the members cf one Con^jress are elected before the
short session of the preceding Congress is lidd. \\ hat disadvantage has
this?

8. Is Congress in session at present? If not, wiicn will it assemble?
Will this be for the long or the short session? How do you know?

9. What qualifications are required of congressmen and senators?

10. Who presides over the Senate? Over the House of Representa-
tives? ^^■hat power has the Speaker? How is he chosen? Who is the
present Speaker of the House? Who is the present Vice-President of the
United States?

11. Why was the committee system adopted in Congress? How are
the committees chosen in each house? Explain how every measure must
pass through either house of Congress. Exjilain in full, then, how every
law is made. What advantages has this system?

12. Where does Congress meet? Have you ever seen the Capitol?
Describe it. Have you ever attended a session of either house of Con-
gress? Tell the class what you saw. Describe the Hall of the House of
Representatives.

CHAPTER XXIII
THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT OF THE NA-
TIONAL GO VERNMENT. The constitution does not con-
fer upon state officers the power to put the laws of the nation
into operation. It provides that the national laws shall be
executed exclusively by national officers, with the President
of the United States at their head. Congress has provided
by law what officers, in addition to the President, are neces-
sary for carrying out the laws. These officers constitute the
executive department of the national government.

THE ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT. When the
voters of the several states go to the polls to elect a President
and a Vice-President, they do not vote directly for the candi-
dates for these offices. They cast their votes for a number of
officers known as presidential electors. The constitution
provides that each state may choose as many presidential
electors as it has representatives and senators in Congress.
The whole number of electors in any state is known as its
electoral college. Under this system the voters of Virginia
elect at each presidential election twelve presidential electors ;
for, as we have seen, Virginia has in Congress ten representa-
tives and two senators.

In each state the proper number of electors are chosen at
the polls in November of every fourth year (1916, 1920, etc.).
In each state these electors come together the following
January to vote for a President and a Vice-President of the
United States. They send the result of their vote to Wash-
ington, where the votes of the electors in all the states are
counted. The original idea was that the presidential electors
chosen in the several states would be men of greater ability

185

186 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

than the average voter, and that they would be better able,
therefore, to choose a suitable President and Vice-President.
As a result of the control which political parties have over
these elections, the electoral colleges were at a very early date
deprived of this important power.

As we shall see in a moment, each of the ])olitical parties
nominates one candidate for President and another for Vice-
President. Either by a party convention or at a direct pri-
mary election the proper number of presidential electors are
nominated by each party in each state. When the voters go
to the polls, they are given ballots which contain the list of
the electors that are nominated in this fashion by each of
the parties, and the voters cast their ballots for the electoral
candidates of one or another party. The electors that are
chosen have in fact no independence at all. They must,
upon being elected, vote for the candidates for President and
Vice-President that their party has previously nominated.
No elector would dare vote for any other. While the
voters still continue to vote at the polls not directly for
President and Vice-President but for presidential electors,
this has become a mere form. They actually vote for the
candidates of their party; for when the electors of a par-
ticular party are victorious at the polls in any state, these
electors cannot, when they meet in the electoral college of
their state, cast their votes for any other than the candi-
dates of their party. So litde part do the electors actually
have in choosing the President and the Vice-President that
the average voter scarcely knows or cares who they are.

When the votes of the electors are counted at Washington,
each state is counted as having one vote for each elector to
which it is entitled. The entire electoral vote of any one state
is, however, usually cast for the candidate of one political
party, even though the parties in the state are divided nearly
evenly. For example, if the Democratic party in Virginia
has only a small majority of voters over the Republican party.

..*|iir^^^,

(Copyright, Underwood <S Underwood)
THE PRESIDENT READING HIS INAUGURAL ADDRESS ON THE STEPS

OF THE CAPITOL

188 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

the Democratic electors will be chosen at the polls instead of
the Republican electors. These electors will cast all of Vir-
ginia's twelve electoral votes for the Democratic candidates
for President and Vice-President.

The whole number of electoral votes is 531, for there are
in Congress 96 senators and 435 representatives. It requires
a majority of the electoral votes to elect a President or a
Vice-President. Otherwise, the House of Representatives
chooses the President, and the Senate chooses the Vice-
President.

NOMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR PRESIDENT
BY POLITICAL PARTIES. Party candidates for Presi-
dent and for Vice-President are nominated by each of the
political parties at its national convention. These conven-
tions consist of delegates chosen in the several states either
by party conventions or at direct primary elections. They
meet usually in June preceding the November elections at
which presidential electors are chosen. Each convention,
consisting of about 1,000 members, assembles in some
enormous hall in one of our large cities.

All of the arrangements for the meeting of these conven-
tions are made by what is known as the national committee
of each party. This committee, consisting of one member
from each state, has general control over the affairs of the
party.

THE PLATFORM AND THE CAMPAIGN. In addi-
tion to choosing the party candidates for President and Vice-
President, the national convention draws up what is known as
the platform of the party. This platform is a statement of
the views of the party on important questions in which the
people are interested. It declares what the candidates of the
])arty will and will not do if they are elected. Unfortunately
these platforms sometimes contain promises that are intended
only to attract voters for the party candidates. When the
election is o\er, those who have been chosen to office do not

THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS 189

always seek to carry out the promises which their party made
in its platform.

The party platform is published in the newspapers through-
out the land. It is freely discussed in the speeches that are
made during the campaign, as the period preceding the elec-
tion is called. Each party explains and upholds its own plat-
form, while it opposes and denounces the platform of the
other party. The entire campaign, which lasts up to the time
of the November elections, is managed by the national party
committee.

THE PRESIDENTS POWERS. The President of the
United States is elected for a term of four years, which term
begins on the fourth of March following the election of the
electors in November. Many of our Presidents have been re-
elected for a second term, but it is now a fairly established
custom that no President will be re-elected for a third term.
The constitution and the laws of Congress grant many im-
portant powers to the President and impose upon him many
important duties.

In the first place, the President plays an important role in
the making of the laws of the nation. At the opening of each
session of Congress, he sends to the national legislature a
message in which he discusses the condition of the country
and recommends the passing of certain laws. In 1913 Presi-
dent Wilson adopted the plan of reading his message to Con-
gress in person. This was a plan which no President had
followed since the administration of Thomas Jefferson.
Sometimes during the session the President sends (or reads)
further messages to Congress, and at all times he keeps closely
in touch with the leaders of the House and the Senate, con-
sulting and advising with them as to the framing of bills.

When a bill has finally passed both houses of Congress, it
must be sent to the President for his signature. The constitu-
tion gives him ten days in which to consider the bill. If at
the end of that time he has taken no action, the measure

190 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

becomes a law \\ ithout his signature. Before the expiration
of these ten days, however, the President may veto the bill
and return it to Congress with his reasons for refusing to
approve it. If Congress passes the bill again by a majority
vote of two-thirds in each house, the measure becomes a
law in spite of the President's disapproval. It is usually
very difficult, however, to secure the two-thirds vote neces-
sary to "override" the President's veto. If, after a bill has

A NEW YEAR'S RECEPTION AT THE WHITE HOUSE

Showing thousands of persons in line entering the White House on the occasion

of the President's public reception held on New Year's Day. The large

building in the foreground is occupied by the State, War and

Navy Departments

been presented to the President, Congress adjourns before the
expiration of ten days, the bill does not become a law without
the President's signature. This is known as the "pocket
veto."

When Congress is not in regular session at Washington,
the President is sometimes convinced that measures of im-

THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS 191

portance should be immediately enacted into laws. At such
times he has authority to call a special session of the national
legislature.

The power of the President to send, or read, messages to
Congress, to veto bills, and to call extra sessions of Congress
may not seem to give him much control over the enactment of
laws. In fact, however, his influence in the making of the
laws is very great. He is chosen to be head of the branch of
the government which merely executes the laws that Congress
makes. But the fact is that he is usually elected because he
and his party promise that certain laws will be enacted ; and
after his election the people of the country expect him to see
that these promises are fulfilled.

In the second place, the President is in large part responsible
for the proper enforcement of national laws, because he has
the power to appoint so many of the officers who are charged
with this duty. He and the Vice-President are the only
national officers who are elected. All of the other officers
who execute national laws are appointed. The most import-
ant of these, such for instance as the heads of departments,
ambassadors and ministers, the chiefs of bureaus in charge of
important services, and many officers who serve in various
localities, such as postmasters, district attorneys, and customs
and internal revenue collectors, are nominated by the Presi-
dent and approved by a vote of the Senate. In addition to
these, a vast number of less important officers and employes
are appointed after competitive examinations are held under
the direction of a board known as the Civil Service Com-
mission.

In nominating many of these important officers the Presi-
dent cannot always act with independence. He is influenced
and controlled largely by the wishes of senators and congress-
men. Especially is this true in the appointment of such
officers as district attorneys, postmasters, and customs and
internal revenue officers, who serve at posts throughout the

192 GCA'KRNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

entire United States. Senat(Hs and congressmen usually
have great influence with the President in such appointments.
The President must see that the laws of the nation are faith-
fully executed. It is his duty, therefore, to see that the other
executive officers are properly performing their work. This
would be impossible unless the President had the power to
remove from office those who were inefficient, or who refused

(Cojiyrxght, I'lidfrwuiid A I ' n Irnnidil)

THE PRESIDENT'S OFFICE BUILDING
The White House, connected with the executive offices by an esplanade, is seen

in the background

to carry out the law or his orders. Witii the excei)tion of a
])eriod of about twenty years in our history, the President has
always exercised the important power of removing officers.
Officers are removed by the President not only to secure
better service in the government 1)ut sometimes also in the

THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS 193

interest of party politics. Whenever a new President is
elected by a party which has been out of power, it is usual for
a number of the more important officers either to resign or to
be removed from office by the President. Their places are
then filled by members of the political party which has come
into control of the government.

In the third place, the President is the head of the govern-
ment for the management of foreign affairs. He has the
power, with the consent of the Senate, to appoint those
diplomatic officers who are sent to represent us in foreign
countries. It is he, also, who receives the diplomatic repre-
sentatives who are sent by other nations to the United States.
As we have already seen also, he has the power to draw up
treaties with foreign nations, although these must afterwards
be approved by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. The Presi-
dent is thus the most important officer of the nation in the
conduct of our relations with foreign nations.

In the fourth place, the President is commander-in-chief of
the army and navy. This gives him large control over the
appointment of army and navy officers and over the move-
ments of our land forces and vessels of war. Congress has
given him the power to call out the state militia in time of
public danger, and the constitution places him also at the
head of these forces when they are called into the service of
the nation.

In the fifth place, the President has power to pardon those
who have committed offenses against the laws of the United
States. This power is given to the President for the same
reason that the Governor of our state is given the power to
pardon those who have committed offenses against the laws
of Virginia.

THE COMMANDING POSITION OF THE PRESI-
DENT. This brief enumeration of the President's powers
gives a very faint conception of the great importance of his
office. Many of his powers are similar to the powers that

194 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

are exercised in Virginia by the Governor. The President,
h()\ve\er, exercises his powers ox'er the whole United States,
and the laws which he assists in making, and which he and
his appointees execute, are the laws of the entire nation.
Moreover, in addition to the ordinary powers that every
Governor exercises within his state, the President has a large
control over the foreign affairs of the nation and over the
army and navy. He also has a much larger power over the
appointment and removal of the executive officers of the
nation than the Governor has over the appointment and re-
moval of state officers. He occupies, therefore, a more im-
portant position in the government of the nation than the
Governor in the government of the state. As a matter of
fact, he is the most commanding and powerful officer in the
United States. He is directly responsible to the people who
placed him in office for the faithful performance of his duties.

The constitution requires that the President shall be a
natural born citizen of the United States — thus excluding
naturalized citizens. He must be at least thirty-five years
old and must ha\e resided in the United States for fourteen
years preceding his election.

THE VICE-PRESIDENT. In case the office of Presi-
dent becomes vacant for any cause, he is succeeded by the
Vice-President, an officer who is elected at the same time and
for the same term as the President. In case both the Presi-
dent and the Vice-President are unable to fill the office. Con-
gress has provided by law that the heads of the several execu-
tive departments shall fill the vacancy in the following order:
The Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the
Secretary of War, the Attorney General, the Postmaster
General, the Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of the
Interior. Five Presidents of the United States have died in
office and have been succeeded by Vice-Presidents.

THE CABINET. Of course the President does not per-
sonally execute many of the laws of the nation. For this work

THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS 195

Congrrss has created a vast admiiiistrative organization,
Avhich consists of ten great departments and scxeral ini])ortant
commissions or boards. Each of the ten departments has
an officer at its head who is called either a "secretary" or a
"general." These officers are appointed by the President,
with the consent of the Senate, and they act as advisers to
the President in all important matters. He not only consults
them individually, but he also brings them together once or
twice a week. When they come together these heads of de-
partments constitute what is known as the President's Cabi-
net. The President is not compelled to act upon the advice
of the Cabinet, but this organization is nevertheless of great
assistance to him.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS. The central
offices of the ten great departments are located in W^ashing-
ton, where thousands of officers, clerks, and employes are
engaged in carrying on the work of the government. For
convenience these departments are organized into bureaus
or divisions, each in charge of a chief officer who is usually
appointed by the President and the Senate. It must not
be thought, however, that the work of the national govern-
ment is performed entirely in W^ashington. Practically all of
the departments have numerous officers and employes who
carry on the work of the government in all parts of the coun-
try. These scattered officers are subject to the control and
direction of the departments at the national capital.

THE STATE DEPARTMENT. Headed by the Secre-
tary of State, this department attends to all the details of our
foreign affairs. It gives instructions to our diplomatic
representatives abroad and superintends all our relations with
foreign governments.

THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. Headed by the
Secretary of the Treasury, this department manages the
financial affairs of the nation, collects its revenues, controls

196 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

the mints and the national hanks, and pays out such money
as is authorized by Congress.

THE WAR DEPARTMENT. Hc'a<k-d by the Secretary
of War, this department provides for the recruiting, equip-
ment, and management of the army. It controls the United
States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where
young men are trained for service as officers in the army.
The improvement of our ri\ers and harbors is also under-
taken by the engineers of this department.

lin: UNITED SIATES rREASURY BUILDING

THE NAVY DEPARTMENT. Headed by the Secre-
tary of the Navy, this department provides for the navy in
the same way that the War department provides for the army.
It controls the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis,
Maryland, where young men are trained to be officers of
the navy.

THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. Headed by the
Postmaster General, this department has the entire manage-
ment of the United States postal service.

THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. Headed by the
Attorney General of the United States, this department gives

THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS 197

advice on questions of the law to the President and the
other executive officers of the nation. When the United
States government sues or is sued in the courts, the national
government is represented by the Attorney General or by
one of the United States district attorneys, who are under h^
control.

THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. Headed by the
Secretary of the Interior, this department has control over a
number of matters relating to the affairs within the country,
such as Indian affairs, public lands, pensions, and patents.

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Headed
by the Secretary of Agriculture, this department collects in-
formation in regard to the agricultural conditions of the
country, the improvement of roads, and similar matters. As
we have seen, the department has no control over these things.
It is established merely to advise and assist those who desire
information. It has control also over the weather bureau,
the government forest reserves, and the enforcement of the
Food and Drugs Act and the Meat Inspection Act.

THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. Headed by
the Secretary of Commerce, this department promotes the
commercial interests of the country by gathering and fur-
nishing information — especially information concerning oppor-
tunities for American trade in foreign countries. This de-
partment also manages most of those services which regulate
and assist navigation.

THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. Headed by the
Secretary of Labor, this department makes investigations
and collects information that is of interest in connection with
the improvement of the conditions of the laboring classes in
the United States. It maintains a special bureau devoted
to the interests of children who work in industry. It also
supervises and enforces the immigration and naturalization
laws.

108 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRC.INIA

THE INDEPENDENT COMMISSIONS. In addition
to these ten larj^e departments, there are in the national
executive organization a few important commissions which are
iiidependent of any department. The Interstate Commerce
C'ommission, consisting? of seven commissioners, controls
and regulates the interstate business of railway, telegraph,
telephone, car, and express companies. The F^ederal Trade
Commission, consisting of five commissioners, regulates the
business of companies that ship goods in interstate commerce
in order to prevent these companies from being unfair in
their business methods. The Civil Service Commission, con-
sisting of three commissioners, conducts examinations in
all parts of the country for those who desire to secure positions
in the service of the national government. The Federal
Reserve Board, with seven members, supervises and controls
the business of the twelve federal reserve banks

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Do the officers of our state government execute the national laws
in Virginia? If not, how are the national laws enforced? Explain why
the national executive officers ure necessary.

2. Who is now President of the United States? When was he elected?
When d'd he take office? How long has he yet to serve? May he be re-
elected at the end of his present term of office?

3. ^^'hat is meant by presidential electors? How are they nomi-
nated? How are they elected? What is their duty? Do you know of
any one who has ever been a presidential elector? Why do we take so
little interest in the choice of presidential electors? Explain fully the
original idea of the electoral college. Have the electors any independent
choice in casting their vote for Pr(?sident and Vice-President? Ex])lain
how, in spite of the fact that we cast our vote at the polls for presidential
electors, we in reality vote for one of the candidates for President.

4. How many electoral votes has Virginia? Why? Explain how the
entire electoral vote of Virginia may be cast for the Democratic candidate
even though only a small majority of the voters in the state may vote for
the presidential candidate of this party.

/). Explain how party candidates for the presidency are nominated by
political parties. What is the platform? Who draws it up, and where?
What is meant I)y the campaign?

THE EXECUTION OF NATIONAL LAWS 199

6. Why is the President required to send messages to Congress?
What is meant by his veto? How may it be "over-ridden"? When may
the President call a special session of Congress? Does the President have
any influence in the making of our national laws?

7. What officers of the national government are elected by the people?
How are the other important officers chosen- — the heads of departments,
for instance, the ambassadors and ministers, the judges, the postmasters?
How are most of the less important officers chosen? Suppose the Presi-
dent wishes to nominate the postmaster In your community, how would
he probably get the names of suitable candidates for this position? How
would the appointment be made? How is the President influenced in the
nominations which he makes to the Senate?

8. Why is it necessary that the President should have the power to
remove cabinet and other officers? What share does the President have
in making our treaties with foreign countries? What is his position in
the army and navy?

9. Who may be chosen President of the United States? In case of
the President's death, who succeeds him? In case of his successor's death,
who would become President?

10. What is meant by the President's cabinet? What are the names of
some of the present cabinet officers? Who appointed them? Who may
remove them?

11. What is meant by the executive departments? How many de-
partments are there? Give the name of each of these departments and
some idea of its business. What important independent commissions
are there?

CHAPTER XXIV
THE NATIONAL COURTS

THE NECESSITY FOR NATIONAL COURTS. It is
easy to understand the difficulties that would arise if the
courts of the various states of the Union were given the sole
power to explain and apply the laws of the nation. Courts
in different states would explain the national laws quite
differently. They might even be unfriendly to the laws passed
by Congress and might refuse to enforce them. In order to
avoid this confusion and weakness, the constitution provides
for a system of national courts which are wholly independent
of the state courts. These courts constitute the judicial
department of the national go\crnment.

The constitution says that there shall be one Supreme
Court of the United States and as many other courts as Con-
gress may see fit to establish. Congress, therefore, has by
law determined what national courts shall be established in
addition to the Supreme Court, and how many judges shall
be appointed for each court, including the Supreme Court.

THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT. The
Supreme Court consists of nine judges, or justices as they are
called. One of these, the Chief Justice, presides over the
court. No case can be heard by less than six of these j ustices,
and a majority of those hearing the case must agree upon
every judgment that is made. Almost the entire work of
this court consists in hearing what are known as apjx'alcd
cases. These are cases that ha\e already been tried in the
lower United States courts or in the courts of one of the states,
and have been properly brought up, or appealed, to the
Supreme Court for a final determination.

200

THE NATIONAL COURTS 201

The United States Supreme Court is the highest court of
our nation. It is perhaps the most powerful court in the
world. Its justices are men of great learning in the law and
of integrity and character above reproach. A seat upon the
Supreme Bench, as it is called, is one of the highest honors
in the gift of the nation. Everybody in Virginia should be
proud to reflect that the greatest justice this court has ever
known was John Marshall of Virginia. From 1801 until the
time of his death in 1835 he presided over the Supreme Court
as its Chief Justice. In the opinions which he handed down
during these years, he explained more clearly than anyone
else the real meaning of our national constitution, and the
true nature of the federal government which it created.

The Supreme Court holds its sessions in the capitol at
Washington. It is a solemn, dignified, and impressive court
of justice.

THE CIRCUIT COURTS OF APPEAL. For judicial
purposes Congress has divided the entire country into nine
circuits, a number of states being included in each circuit.
Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia, North Carolina, and South
Carolina form the fourth judicial circuit of the nation. In
each of these nine circuits there is a circuit court of appeals.
These courts hear cases that have been appealed from the
United States district courts, and in many instances they have
the power to determine these cases finally, there being no
further appeal to the Supreme Court. These circuit courts
of appeal were established to relieve the Supreme Court of a
part of its work. In spite of the assistance which they give,
the Supreme Court is greatly overburdened with the large
number of cases before it. After a case has been carried to
this court, it often happens that it cannot be considered for
two years or more.

THE DISTRICT CO URTS. The lowest and most numer-
ous branch of United States courts are the district courts.
In each state Congress has provided for one or more judicial

202 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

districts, and in each district there is a United Slates district
court. There are in all about eighty of these district courts.
Virginia is divided into two of these national judicial districts.
These are known as the Eastern and the Western Districts
of Virginia. The court of the Eastern District sits from time
to time in Richmond, Norfolk, and Alexandria. The court
of the Western District sits in Lynchburg, Danville, Roanoke,
Abingdon, Big Stone Gap, Charlottesville, and Harrisonburg.

(jCopyright, Underwood & Underwood)

THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT IN SESSION

The man standing in the foreground is an attorney who is arguing a case before

the court

THE JUDGES OF UNITED STATES COURTS. In
addition to the nine justices of the United States Supreme
Court, there are in each of the nine judicial circuits from two
to four circuit judges, and in each of the eighty judicial dis-
tricts at least one district judge. All of these justices and
judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the
Senate.

THE NATIONAL COURTS 203

Unlike the President and Vice-President, United States
judges hold office for life, or as the phrase goes, "during good
behavior." This method of appointing judges for unlimited
terms has one great advantage. When once he has been ap-
pointed, a judge holds his office quite independently of the
President and Congress. He does not have to seek re-
appointment, and therefore he does not have to consider
politics. He can perform the duties of his office with justice
and fairness to all.

THE REMOVAL OF JUDGES BY IMPEACHMENT.
If a judge of one of the national courts, or some other high
officer of the nation, violates the trust imposed in him, he
ought not to remain in office. If, for instance, he accepts a
bribe, or betrays the nation to an enemy, or commits some
great crime, the people would be unwilling to have such a
man continue in office. The constitution makes provision
by which such an officer may be removed. This is accom-
plished by convicting him upon what is known as impeach-
ment. Impeachment is a kind of accusation brought against
a judge or other public officer. It is somewhat similar in
character to an indictment brought by a grand jury.

The national constitution gives to the House of Repre-
sentatives the power to impeach any officer of the United
States. The Senate is made a court for the trial of such an
impeachment, and the officer who has been impeached can be
convicted only by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. If con-
victed, he may be removed from office and forbidden to hold
any office of trust in the future.

The House of Representatives has rarely exercised this
power to bring impeachments. In 1868 President Johnson
was impeached by the House; but the Senate failed to con-
vict him on the charges brought against him. Only six
national judges have ever been impeached, and only three of
these were convicted and removed from office.

204 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

THE JURISDICTION OF UNITED ST A TES COURTS.
The constitution itself declares what kinds of cases may be
brought before the courts of the United States. It seems un-
necessary to enumerate all the different classes of cases that
are thus mentioned in the constitution. Some of them are in
fact of very little importance. It is highly important, how-
ever, to understand in general that the national courts con-
sider certain important classes of cases, and the state courts
other important classes.

Let it be said, then, that the national courts determine
cases arising under the constitution, the laws, and the treaties
of the United States. For example, if one person claims that
his patent or his copyright has been violated by another, he
brings suit in a national court; for these are rights in which he
is protected by the laws of Congress. Again, if a person is
accused of counterfeiting Ignited States money, or of stealing
from the United States mails, he is tried in a national court,
for these are offenses against the laws of the nation. Such
cases as these do not come before the state courts, for they do
not require the application of state law but of national law.

Cases of one other important class are brought before the
courts of the nation. Ordineirily these courts do not interpret
and apply the laws of any state. This is the duty of the
courts of that state. But suppose a dispute arises between
two states, and one of them brings suit against the other.
Naturally neither of the states would be willing to have the
trial conducted in the courts of the other state. The constitu-
tion provides that such a suit may be brought in the I'nited
States Supreme Court. The state of Virginia recently brought
such a suit against the state of West Virginia to determine a
controversy over the debt which Virginia owed at the time
when West Virginia was formed into a separate state.

Again, suppose a citizen of one state wishes to sue a citizen
of another state. Or suppose a suit arises between a citizen
of one of the states and a foreigner. In such cases as these.

THE NATIONAL COURTS 205

the courts of any particular state might be inchned to favor
the citizens of that state as against outsiders. It is provided,
therefore, that such suits may be brought in the national
courts, even though they may require the application only of
state law.

There are a number of other kinds of cases which may come
before the national courts, but these arise much less frequently
than those just mentioned. In general, therefore, the cases
heard in the United States courts are: (1) those which require
the application of the laws of the nation; and (2) those in
which, by reason of the character of the parties engaging in
the suit, the national courts may be expected to render more
impartial decisions than the state courts.

THE POWER OF THE SUPREME COURT TO PRO-
TECT THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION AGAINST
THE ST A TES. We have seen that the United States con-
stitution is the supreme law of the land, and that it imposes
certain important restrictions upon the powers of the states.
Now suppose a state passes a law that deprives a person of
his property without paying him justly for it. Or suppose a
state law provides for the collection of duties on imports.
The national constitution prohibits any state from passing
such laws as these. At once, therefore, a conflict arises be-
tween the state law and the constitution of the nation. But
the constitution, being the "supreme law of the land," must
prevail over the state law. The situation is very compli-
cated. How shall a man proceed who has been deprived by
some state of a right in which he is protected by the national
constitution? This will depend somewhat upon the particu-
lar case. It is sufficient to know that ordinarily he brings
his suit In a state court and asks that court to maintain his
rights under the national constitution. If the Supreme
Court of the state decides that he is not protected by the na-
tional constitution, he then has the right to carry his case
before the United States Supreme Court, This court has the

206 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

power to determine the question finally, and the state is com-
pelled to obey its orders. This is the usual method by which
we may protect ourselves against the unlawful exercise of
powers by any state.

THE POWER OF THE SUPREME COURT TO PRO-
TECT THE CONSTITUTION AGAINST CONGRESS.
The United States Supreme Court also has the power to pro-
tect us against any law which the constitution prohibits Con-
gress from enacting. As we have seen, Congress can exercise
only those powers that are given to it either expressly or
impliedly by the terms of the constitution. If, for example,
Congress should enact a law regulating the pul)lic school
system of Virginia, the Supreme Court would declare the law
unconstitutional and would refuse to enforce it; for Congress
is not granted the power to enact such a law.

It is by their refusal to enforce certain laws of the states
and of Congress that the courts have preserved the division
of powers which the constitution makes between the nation
and the states. For whenever the states have exceeded their
constitutional powers, they have usually exercised powers
that are granted to Congress. And whenever Congress has
gone beyond its powers, it has usually attempted to exercise
some power reserved to the states.

THE TRIALOF CASES IN THE NATION AL COURTS.
Cases are tried before the national courts in very much the
same way that they are tried in the state courts. Most of
the cases in the United States district courts are tried by
juries. In a civil suit, there are lawyers on both sides of the
case, who argue the case before the court. In a criminal suit,
the United States government is usually rei)resented by an
officer known as a United States district attorney. It is the
duty of this officer to pro\e the guilt of the person who is
accused of a crime against the laws of the nation. One dis-
trict attorney is appointed in each of the eighty judicial dis-
tricts.

THE NATIONAL COURTS 207

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Explain why the national courts are necessary, in addition to the
courts of the states.

2. Have you ever seen the Supreme Court room in the Capitol at Wash-
ington? If so, describe it. How many justices sit in this court? How
often does it meet? What cases does it consider?

3. Describe the system of national courts in the United States. In
what circuit is Virginia? What other states are in this circuit? How
many district courts are there in Virginia? Where do these district courts
sit? Why were the circuit courts of api)eals established?

4. How are the national judges appointed? For what term? Why?
Find out, if you can, the name of our present Chief Justice. The names
of some of the other justices on the Supreme Bench. Find out, if you
can, the names of some of the national judges who sit in the district court
and the circuit court of appeals in Virginia.

5. What is meant by impeachment? Why is it necessary? Who has
the power to bring impeachments? How must the accused officer be
tried? How may he be punished? Tell about the impeachment of Presi-
dent Johnson.

6. What classes of cases may be brought before the national courts?
What cases come before the state courts? If you wished to defend some
right granted to you by the national constitution, how would you prob-
ably proceed? Who would determine your case finally?

7. Explain how the Supreme Court protects the constitution against
the states. Against Congress.

CHAPTER XXV
NATIONAL TAXATION

THE NECESSITY FOR NA TIONAL TAX A TION. Just
as our state and local governments find it necessary to raise
a large amount of money for their support, so the national
government must have revenue in order to maintain the many
important serv^ices which it undertakes. For one of these
services, the postal system, we indeed pay the government
directly; but even in this department of its work, the govern-
ment has often spent more than it has collected from the sale
of stamps. Most of the other enterprises of the national
government are undertaken at enormous expense. There
must be money for the support of the army and navy, for con-
structing defenses along the coasts, and for the erection at
Washington of handsome national buildings, such as the Capi-
tol, the White House, the Library of Congress, and the build-
ings occupied by the various departments of the government.
Courts must be maintained throughout the land. Salaries
must be paid to the President and Vice-President, the members
of Congress, the judges of the courts, the heads of depart-
ments, to our diplomatic representatives abroad, and to
thousands of less important officials engaged in carrying on
the work of the national government.

By the national constitution the government of the United
States is given the power to raise its revenue without any
assistance or hindrance on the part of the states. There are
three principal sources from which the national government
secures the revenue it needs.

DUTIES ON IMPORTS. Almost from the beginning of
our history as a nation, Congress has laid duties on imports
coming from foreign countries into the United States. At

208

NATIONAL TAXATION 209

first these duties were small, but today they are quite large.
The revenue which the national government collects annually
from these customs duties, as they are called, amounts usually
to more than two hundred millions of dollars.

Apparently it is the importer of these goods from foreign
countries who pays the duties on them when they are unloaded
at any port of the United States. In reality, however, the
importer adds the amount of the duty to the price charged
for his goods. We ourselves actually pay the duty in the in-
creased price of gloves, silks, laces, woolen goods, and many
other articles that we buy. This makes the burden of the
customs duties appear much lighter, for people do not realize
that they are paying these duties as a part of the price they
pay for many articles. We call such a tax as this an indirect
tax. It is much less difficult to collect an indirect tax than
a direct tax, for those who purchase the goods and in reality
bear the tax do not pay it to an officer in the form of a tax.

For the collection of the customs duties the national gov-
ernment has established customs houses in all the seaports
and border towns of the United States. The collection is
under the control of the national Treasury Department, and
numerous customs officers are employed in this important
work of the government.

Why has the national government chosen to raise a large
part of its revenue by placing high duties on imports? Many
of these imports consist of articles manufactured abroad.
In most cases these articles can be manufactured just as well
in our own country, although they can be manufactured
abroad more cheaply. By imposing large duties upon them
these foreign articles are made more expensive. Thus our
home manufactures are encouraged and promoted. These high
duties on imports are known as a protective tariff, because
they "protect" our home industries from articles made more
cheaply abroad.

210 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

Many people in our country believe that the tariff should
be kept high. Others believe that it ought to be low. The
Democratic party has in general favored a low tariff, believing
that it is, after all, the poorer people who actually bear the
burden of high duties.

EXCISE TAXES. In accordance with the power granted
by the constitution, Congress has from the beginning laid
taxes upon the manufacture of certain articles within the
United States. These taxes are known as excise taxes. From
this source the national government secures a revenue which
in some years has even exceeded by many millions the
enormous revenue from the customs duties. The money
raised by the excise taxes is known. as internal revenue, for,
unlike the duties on imports, these taxes are laid on goods
made within the United States.

The principal manufactures upon which excise taxes are
laid are spirituous liquors and tobacco. On cigar boxes, for
example, there is always a green stamp so placed that the box
cannot be opened without breaking and thus destroying the
stamp. This stamp represents the excise tax that has been
paid upon the manufacture of the cigars. Such taxes are
imposed upon the manufacture of liquors and tobacco for
two purposes. In the first place, they bring in a large revenue
to the government; and in the second place, they raise the
price and thus decrease the sale of two articles which are
recognized generally to be unnecessary, if not, indeed, in-
jurious to the people.

Like the customs duties, excise taxes are also indirect taxes.
They are not borne by the manufacturer who pays them to an
officer of the government. To the price of his liquors or
tobacco the manufacturer adds the amount of the excise tax,
and the purchaser pays the tax in the increased prices of these
articles when he buys them.

The numerous officers who attend to the collection of the
excise taxes are known as internal rexenuc officers. Like the

NATIONAL TAXATION 211

customs officers, they are under the control of the Treasury
Department.

TAXES ON INCOMES. Our national government is
enormously expensive. It spends annually about $1,000,-
000,000. Now if the customs duties are greatly lowered, the
revenue of the government from this source will naturally
be decreased, and some other kind of tax must be imposed to
make up the difference. In 1913 the Democratic party in
Congress greatly lowered the then existing duties on imports.
On many articles the duty Mas removed entirely. In order
to make up for the resulting loss of revenue, they levied,
under the authority of the sixteenth amendment to the con-
stitution, which had just been ratified, what is known as an
income tax. This is a tax imposed on all persons and cor-
porations in the country and is based upon the amount of
their annual incomes. However, those whose incomes are
less than a few thousand dollars are not required to pay this
tax. Many people believe that this is the most just form of
taxation possible, since a person's income is the best test of
his ability to pay. The national income taxes are collected
by the internal revenue collectors.

RELATION BETWEEN NATIONAL AND STATE
TAX A TION. The customs duties and the excise and income
taxes are not the only forms of taxation which the national
government may adopt; but ordinarily they are the only
forms employed. In times of war, when the United States
government has needed large additions to its revenue, taxes
have been imposed on many other things. During the
Spanish-American War, for example, stamp taxes were im-
posed on bank checks, freight bills, Pullman tickets, and
other things; but these were withdrawn as soon as possible
after the war. During the European War, which began in
1914, our revenue from customs duties was partly interrupted ;
and the government again imposed stamp taxes on a few
things.

212 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

Roth the .states and the national go\ernnient are pro-
hibited by the constitution from la}ing duties on exports from
the United States; and the states are also fori)idden to lay
any duties on imports. Nor do the states as a rule lay excise
taxes upon the manufacture of liquor and tobacco, although
they might le\y such taxes if they wished to do so. Thus
you see that the states do not interfere with two of the chief
sources of the national revenue— the customs duties and the
excise taxes. The goxernment of Virginia does, as we have
seen, levy taxes on incomes, but most of the states of the
Union do not levy such taxes.

On the other hand, the national government does not lay
taxes on real estate, personal property, or franchises; nor
does it impose poll taxes; and only in rare instances license
taxes. These, as we have seen, are among the chief sources
of our state and local revenues. It is clear, therefore, that
the methods by which the government of the nation and the
governments of the states secure their respective revenues are
for the most part quite distinct. This has its advantages, for
if taxes were laid by both governments on the same things, it
might result in excessive taxation.

RESTRICTIONS ON THE TAXING POWER OF CON-
GRESS. In the exercise of its taxing power, the constitu-
tion places two important restrictions upon the national
government. In the first place, direct taxes must be appor-
tioned among the states according to their population. The
result of this restriction is that Congress has seldom attempted
to levy a direct tax. It is far too difficult to apportion such
a tax among the states. For example, suppose Congress
should attempt to lay a tax on land. This would be a direct
tax, for the owner of the land would himself bear the tax.
Such a tax would have to be distributed among the forty-
eight states according to their population. This would
necessitate a different rate of taxation in each of the states

NATIONAL TAXATION 213

and would require an army of officers to superintend its
collection.

The second restriction on the taxing power of Congress is
found in the requirement of the constitution that "all duties,
imports, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United
States." This means that Congress may not levy a duty on
imports brought into New York and refuse to levy the same
duty on similar imports brought into Norfolk or San Francisco.
No preference can be given to the ports of one state over
those of another. Nor may Congress impose an excise tax
on one manufacturer of liquors or tobacco and refuse to im-
pose a like tax on another manufacturer of similar articles.

CLASS EXERCISES

1. Who is the postmaster at your post-office? Who pays him for his
services? Is there a rural free delivery in your community? Who pays
the carrier for his services? How is postal service supported?

2. Who pays for the support of our army? For the building of our
battleships? For the construction of coast defences, like Fortress Monroe?
Who pays the salaries of the President, the members of Congress, our
diplomatic representatives, and all the other officers of the national gov-
ernment? Mention other services undertaken by the United States
government which require large expenditures of money. How is this
money secured? Explain, then, how we as a people are benefited by the
taxes paid to the national government.

3. Find out from your father or some other person in your community
whether he pays any taxes directly to the national government.

4. What are imports? Suppose an importer buys gloves in London for
one dollar a pair and pays on each pair imported to the United States a
duty of sixty cents; what would these gloves probably sell for in American
shops? Suppose you buy a pair of them, who pays the duty of sixty cents?
Do you realize that you are paying it? Do you pay it directly to the gov-
ernment? Who pays it to the government collector? What kind of tax
is this called, and why?

5. Why does the United States government place large duties on im-
ports? Why is this called a "protective tariff"? Explain fully how our
protective tariff is meant to encourage home manufactures.

6. Have you ever seen a government stamp on a cigar box? How la
this stamp placed, and what does it mean? On the manufacture of what

214 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

article besides tobacco are excise taxes levied? Why does the national
government place taxes on the manufacture of these articles?

7. Suppose it costs a manufacturer two dollars to make a box of cigars,
and suppose the Ignited States government places an excise tax of fifty
cents on each box that he makes; what would this box i)robably sell for
in the shojw? Who pays the tax of fifty cents? What kind of tax is
this called, and why?

8. What is the national income tax?

9. Explain how our national government and our state government
secure their revenues from different sources. What is the advantage of
this?

10. What are the two great principles of national taxation? What
difficulty would the government of the Inited States meet if it laid a tax
on real estate? Suppose a New York importer pays a duty of three dollars
a yard on lace worth five dollars a yard; what duty will a Norfolk or New-
l)ort News importer pay for the same lace?

11. Who has the power to impose these duties and taxes? Who
determines how the money that is raised by these means shall be ex-
pended?

CHAPTER XXVI
THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN

A SUMMARY. In the preceding pages we have learned
that our government is estabhshed, first, for the purpose of
making and enforcing certain rules that protect us in our
rights and in the pursuit of our desires, and, second, for the
purpose of supplying certain services which we as individuals
could not supply for ourselves. We have seen that govern-
ment in the United States is established and maintained by
the people themselves. We have seen, further, that ours is
a somewhat complicated system of government — that cer-
tain functions are performed by our national government
while certain other functions are performed by the govern-
ment of our state, and that within our state there are the
governments of our local communities, such as counties,
cities, and towns, which local governments are subject to the
control of the central government of the state. The object
of our study has been that we might understand what these
several branches of our government are attempting to do for
us, how they assist us in the living of our lives, and how they
are organized and operated for this purpose.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
UNDER THE LAW. The rules, or laws, which the gov-
ernment makes and enforces impose restrictions upon each
of us; but these restrictions are both reasonable and neces-
sary. We must allow the government to restrict us because
the rights of others must be considered and protected. We
must compel the government to restrict others because our
own rights must be considered and protected. It is thus by
restricting the liberties of all of us in certain respects that
everybody knows what his own rights are and what his legal

215

216 CKWERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

ol:)ligatioiis are toward his fellowmen. h\ ollur words, the
reasonable rights of every person are thus protected against
the unreasonable demands or desires of every other person.

It must not be thought, however, that our rights under the
law remain always the same. They are, on the contrary,
subject to change from time to time, as new conditions arise
or as people alter their ideas about the reasonableness or
justice of this or that law. We have seen, for example, that
there was a time when persons were punished for their failure
to belong to and support a particular church. Long ago the
people decided that this was unjust — that the government
had no right to regulate such a matter as this. They there-
fore repealed the laws on this subject and restored to every
person the right of freedom of religion. Again, there w^as a
time when most of the colored people in Virginia and the rest
of the Southern states were held in slavery and enjoyed, in
consequence, few personal rights. But as a result of the War
Between the States slavery was abolished, and the colored
people were given the same rights under the law that white
people enjoy. In spite of the terrible trial of the war, there
is probably no thinking person in the South today who would
wish to see the rights of these people taken away from them
and the institution of slavery restored.

Again, it was only a short time ago when every person in
Virginia had the right to buy and sell intoxicating liquors;
but this right has now been taken away because the people
of the state thought it was for the best interests of all that
everybody should be deprived of this right. To cite only
one other instance, there was a time many years ago when
persons who could not pay their debts were thrown into prison.
The people finally came to realize not only that this form of
punishment was often cruelly unjust but also that it actually
prevented the person who was thus imprisoned from earning
money with which he might be able to pay off his debts.

Illustrations of this kind might be mentioned almost in-

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 217

definitely; but this seems unnecessary. Suffice it to say that
at the present time we enjoy numerous rights which were
formerly denied by the law. On the other hand, we are de-
prived b}^ the law of many rights which our forefathers en-
joyed. And this is as it should be. The conditions under
which people live and their views about rights and justice
are constantly, though gradually, changing. It is natural,
therefore, that they should also change the laws in w^hich
these rights and views are embodied. These changes in the
laws are not usually made suddenly; they are, on the con-
trary, made rather slowly. The point to remember is that
our rights over against our fellowmen and our duties toward
them do not remain fixed and stationary. Our government is
a living thing; and like all living things it grows and develops.

It would be a mistake to assume that our obligations toward
those with whom we come in contact are regulated entirely
by la-ws. It is only the most important of our rights and
duties that the government seeks to control by laws. We
have many duties toward our families and our neighbors
that we perform, not because the law commands them, but
from a sense of kindness and consideration or because we
appreciate and understand the difference between right and
wrong conduct. If we were content to do for one another
only those things which the laws positively require, we should
indeed live very wretched community lives.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SER-
VICES. Just as our rights under the law are subject to
gradual change, so in the course of time has the government
gradually undertaken to perform more and more services for
the benefit of the people. A century or more ago the govern-
ment, for example, constructed very few roads and provided
no schools. In cities the government did not maintain or-
ganized police forces nor fire departments. It did not light
and pave and clean the streets, nor remove sewage and garbage
and ashes and rubbish from the people's homes. It did not

218 c;C)\ERx\iMEX'r AND POLITICS l.\ \ IRGIiNIA

furnish water nor pro\ide parks. In the course of time, how-
ever, the government began to furnish one after another of
these services; for the people came to reahze how important
they were to the welfare of the community, and it seemed
appropriate that the government itself should establish and
maintain them for the benefit of all.

It is probable, moreover, that as time goes on the govern-
ment will undertake other services for the common well-
being of the people. What these services may be we do not
know. Certainly the government will not be likely to rush
in and undertake services that are being satisfactorily car-
ried on by private indi\iduals or companies.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUFFRAGE. We
have had occasion to note that the people participate in the
establishment and maintenance of the government chiefly
by casting their ballots at primary elections, when the party
candidates are chosen, and at the regular elections, when the
officers of the government are chosen from among the party
candidates. W'e have observed, too, that not all the people
are permitted to vote — that the women, the children, and
some of the men are excluded from this pri\ilcge. While
the number of persons that are thus excluded in Virginia is
very large, it is by no means so large, in proportion to the
population of the state, as it formerly was. Time was when
in most of the states only those could vote or hold office who
owned a certain amount of property and who belonged to a
particular church. These qualifications were, however,
finally removed ; and the suffrage was extended to practically
all men who were twenty-one or more years of age. It was
only in 1902 that an educational qualification was introduced
in Virginia and that the requirement of the payment of poll
taxes was made more rigid. These qualifications, which are
at the present time found in only a few states of the Union,
naturally reduced the number of those who voted in Virginia.
In most of the states every male resident adult citizen is

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 219

entitled to vote; and in a number of states this privilege has
been extended also to women. In other words, it is simply
a fact that, for the most part, suffrage qualifications have
been gradually reduced in the United States, and that in
consequence more and more people have been able to partici-
pate in the government by exercising the right to vote. It
must be remembered, however, that the people of each state
have the power to determine who shall vote in that state.
They may even determine who shall vote in the state for con-
gressmen and senators and presidential electors; for the na-
tional government has no power to fix the qualifications for
suffrage even in national elections.

OUR RESPONSIBILITY TO TWO GOVERNMENTS.
In the beginning of our history as a nation there was con-
siderable rivalry between the national government and the
governments of the several states, and there was to some ex-
tent a feeling of divided loyalty on the part of the people.
This rivalry lasted for many years, and even at the present
time many people think that the powers of the states should
be carefully and jealously guarded. Others believe that the
national government should be given much larger powers
than it now enjoys. In spite of this difference of view,
everybody now recognizes that there is no longer any question
of loyalty involved in this difference. Whether this or that
power should be taken away from the states and given to
the national government or should be taken away from the
national government and given to the states is simply a
question of policy. In other words, it is a question as to
which of these branches of our government could probably
exercise the particular power for the best interests of the
people. It is not a question of our greater devotion to our
state or to our national government.

In many respects the government of our country or city is
closer to us than the central government of our state ; and the
government of our state is closer to us than that of our nation.

220 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

We should not, however, be mislead by this. All of these
governments are simply parts of a great whole. Each of
them helps us in its own way and within its own sphere of
powers. We should be interested in and loyal to each of
these governments. We should take pride in the develop-
ment of our county, our town, or our city; and we should
desire to see it ha^•e the best government that is possible.
As Virginians we have every reason to be proud of our splen-
did state. We should never fail to remember, however, that
the people of the United States are one people. We should
be happy to know that above all else we are American citi-
zens.

OUR DUTY AS AMERICAN CITIZENS. It is of
the utmost importance for each of us to realize that he has a
personal part in the scheme of government which we have
been studying. All the branches of our government belong
to us. Our forefathers created them and we have preserved
them. Whether our government, in our community, our
state, or our nation, is good and effective or is bad and in-
effective depends wholly upon us. It is for this reason that
we should understand why our government is established,
how it is organized and operated, and what are the ideals that
it is seeking to work out for our benefit.

Nearly every day the several branches of our government
are settling important questions that are, either directly or
indirectly, of importance to every one of us. These ques-
tions are discussed in our newspapers and magazines. They
are the subject of conversation among intelligent men and
women. Many of them can be understood by intelligent
boys and girls. All of us should be interested in them.
We should study them and try to understand them. We
cannot do this, however, unless we have taken time to study
and understand the principles of our government. Let each
of us bear in mind that the government will not run itself.
If we stand aside, absorbed in our own affairs, and let the

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 221

government take care of itself, it will surely fall into the hands
of corrupt men, who will take advantage of the people's
indifference and will use the people's money without regard
for the people's interests but for their own selfish ends. If
we are to have good government, the people — that is, you
and I — must not only understand the government but must
also be watchful, interested, and willing to assist in every
possible way.

How can we assist? We can study the principles of our
government. We can study and endeavor to understand the
questions which our government has to face and decide. We
can inform ourselves in regard to the candidates who are seek-
ing office, so that we can cast our votes with intelligence. We
can use our influence to get the best men nominated for, and
elected to, office. When our country needs us, whether to
serve on a grand jury or to cast our ballot, or to hold office,
or to defend the nation in time of war,^ we can respond with
patriotism and devotion. We can pay our taxes willingly,
realizing that the government cannot exist and perform all of
its necessary and invaluable services unless it has the money
with which to meet expenses. \^'e can obey the laws cheer-
fully, even though we are occasionally inclined to believe that
this or that law is unwise or unjust. These are some of the
more commonplace duties which every good American citizen
owes to himself and his fellow citizens.

But this is not all. It is not sufficient that we do our
duty directly in the matter of carrying on and furthering the
interests of the government itself. On more than one occasion
in the course of our study we have had occasion to note that
the responsibility for the progress and de^'elopment of a
community does not rest wholly upon the government.
The government cannot do everything that the community
needs. We as individuals and in our private societies and
associations can and ought to do not only many things to
help the government but also many things for the better-

222 CCARRNMENT AND POLITICS IN VIRGINIA

ment of our connnuuiiy wliicli the government does not under-
take at all. Some men do nothing for their community
except to cast their votes on election days. ^ e men do
not even do that. Some women and children do nothing
for their community either because they are indifferent, or
because they think that everything should be done by the
go\'ernment itself, or because they have never stopped to
think of the many wa^s in which they might be of assistance.
Such persons are not making the best of their opportunities.
They are not living up to the high ideal of citizenship of which
they are capable; for this ideal means that we must recognize
our responsibilities in return for the privileges that we enjoy
by reason of our community life. If we do nothing more, we
can at least be energetic and industrious, and thus by our own
progress promote the progress of our community. We can
at all times be considerate of the rights of others. We can
be honest with, and kind to, our fellowmcn. And we can
greatly improve the appearance of our community by im-
proving the appearance of our own property.

Perhaps of all American citizens the citizen who has been
born on foreign soil but has become naturalized in this coun-
try owes the greatest amount of loyalty and devotion to the
government. We have received him gladly and made him
one of us. He has voluntarily accepted our hospitality as
a nation. He should show his appreciation by his interest
in everything that makes for the betterment of the community
in which he has chosen to live; and in time of stress, when
perhaps the American nation has been brought into disagree-
ment with some foreign nation, even though that nation be
the one under which he was born, his loyalty to America,
the country of his voluntary adoption, should be above the
possibility of criticism.

INDEX

Accidents, protection against,
11-13.

Adjutant General, 102.

Administrative board, Rich-
mond, 121.

Agriculture, government as-
sistance to, 38-42; State
Commissioner of, 98; State
Board of, 98, 99; national
government assistance, 155;
U. S. Department of, 197.

Alaska, government of, 173.

Aldermen, 120.

Ambassadors, 137, 193.

Amendment, of Va. constitu-
tion, method of, 72; of na-
tional constitution, 161, 162.

Amendments of national con-
stitution, seventeen, 162-165.

American citizens, the making
of, 139, 140; who are, 163,
164; duties of, 220-222.

Annapolis Convention, 159.

Appeals, meaning of, 21, 106,
200, 201.

Appointment, Governor's pow-
er of, 94; President's pow-
er of, 191.

Army, U. S., 140, 142.

Articles of Confederation, 158,
159.

Assessment, of property, 114,

115; special, 36, 129.
Assessors, land, 114.
Attorney General, of Va., 94,
96, 97; of U. S., 196, 197.

Attorneys, commonwealth.'s,
109, 114, 121; U. S. district,
197, 206.
Auditor, of Va., 97; Second,
97.

Bail, 19, 20.
Ballot, 77.

Ballot box, 77.

Banks, control over state, 99;
postal savings, 151; nation-
al, 152-154; reserve, 153.

Berkeley, Governor, 43.

Bill, meaning of, 88, 182.

Blacksburg, 551.

Board of control, Norfolk, 121.

Boards, of visitors, 102; see
also State Board.

Boss, political, 91.

Boys' corn clubs, 42.

Cabinet, President's, 194, 195.

Campaign, political, 188, 189.

Canal, Panama, 143, 147.

Canning clubs, girls', 42.

Capo Charles, 143.

Cape Henry, 143.

Capitol, of Va., 90, 91; of U.
S., 134.

Cattle, diseases of, 40, 41.

Census, 177.

Charities, 14, 102.

Charlottesville, 51.

Charter, of corporations, 99;
meaning of city, 120.

Circuit courts, in Va., 106; of
appeals, U. S., 201.

Circuits, judicial, in Va., 106;
U. S. judicial, 201.

Cities, life in, 2; why people
live in, 3; preservation of
peace in, 10; accidents in
12, 13; health in, 24, 28, 29
drinking water in, 24, 25
protection of milk and foods
in, 25, 26; fire departments
in, 32; education in, 50, 51;
libraries in, 54; streets in,
62-65; parks in, 66; nomina-
tion of officers in, 85;
courts in, 105, 106; growth
of, in Va., 118; problems of,
119-120; government of, 120-

223

224

INDEX.

124; distinguished from
towns, 124, 125; taxation in,
131.

Citizenship, duties of, 79, 220-
222; a qualification for
voters, 74, 75; granted to
aliens, 139, 140, 197; grant-
ed to negroes, 163, 164.

City manager, 124.

City planning, 62.

Civil Service Commisson, U.
S., 198.

Civil suit, meaning of, 109.

Clerk, of county, 114.

Cleveland, Grover, 141.

Coast defenses, 143.

Collectors, of customs, 209; of
internal revenue, 210, 211.

Colonies, government of, 68,
157; union of, 157.

Colored people, freedom of,
from slavery, 17, 163;
schools for, 49, 52; citizen-
ship granted to, 163, 164;
protection for, 164.

Commerce, foreign, 137, 145;
interstate, 145-148, 198; U.
S. Department of, 197.

Commission plan of city gov-
ernment, 122, 123.

Commissioner, of Agriculture
and Immigration, 94, 98;
Dairy and food, 99; of La-
bor and Industrial, Statis-
tics, 100; of Highways, 100;
of Health, lOO; of State
Hospitals, 102.

Commissioners of revenue,

county, 114, 115.
Committees, of General As-
sembly, 88, 89; of political
parties, 82, 188, 189; of city
councils, 121; of Congress,
181, 182.
Commonwealth's attorney,

109, 114, 121.
Community, definition of, 2;
why people live in, 3; lib-
erty in, 14, 15; how schools
help, 52, 53; improvement

of appearances of, 59, 60, 63,
64.
Congress, powers of, 168, 169;
restrictions on, 109-171; two
houses of, 175; representa-
tion in, 175-178; sessions of,

179, 180; organization or,

180, 181; committee system
in, 181, 182; protection
against, by courts, 206.

Congress of Confederacy, 90.
Congressional districts, 175-

177.
Congressmen, election. of, 175-
177; term of, 177; qualifica-
tions of, ISO; nomination of,
178, 179; power of, over ap-
pointments, 191, 192.
Consolidated schools, 48, 49.

Constables, 10, 31, 93, 114.

Constitution, origin of, 68, 69,
definition of, 69; history of,
in Va., 69, 70; of 1902,
70, 71; importance of,
in Va., 71; amendment of,
72; of the nation, 157-166;
framing of national, 159,
160; adoption of national,
160, 161; opposition to na-
tional, 160; amendment of
national, 101, 16z; seven-
teen amendments to nation-
al, 162-165; importance of
national, 105, IGO; nation-
al, is supreme law of the
land, 168 ; protection of na-
tional, 205, 206.

Consuls, 145.

Consuls general, 145.

Continental Congress, 157,
158.

Convention, constitutional, in
Va., 69-71 ; of political par-
ties, 83-85; Annapolis, 159;
constitutional, of 1787, 159;
ratifying, of Va., 160; na-
tional party, 188.

Copyrights, 154.

Corn clubs, boys', 42.

Coroners, 115.

INDEX.

225

Corporation Commission of
Va., 99.

Corporations, 99.

Corporation courts, 106.

Council, city, 120, 122; town,
125.

Councilmanic plan, of city
government, 122.

Councilmen, 120, 122.

Counties, roads in, 59; courts
in, 105, 106; reason for, in
Va., Ill, 112; powers of,
112; government of, 112-
116; history of, 116.

Courts, necessity for, 104;
protection in, 104, 105; sys-
tem of, in Va., 105-108;
judges of, in Va., 108; ne-
cessity for national, 200;
system of national, 200-202;
judges of national, 202, 203;
jurisdiction of national, 204,
205.

Criminal case, meaning of,
109.

Crop pests, 40.

Customs, see Duties.

Dairy and Food Commission-
er, 99.

Deaf and blind institutes, 52.

Delegates, election of mem-
bers of House of, 86, 87.

Democratic party, see Polit-
ical Parties.

Departments, of government,
86; executive, of state gov-
ernment, 96-102; executive,
of national government,
195-198.

Desires of individuals, 3, 4;
government assistance for,
6.

Diplomatic representatives,
137, 193.

Diseases, protection against,
23, 24.

District of Columbia, govern-
ment of, 173.

District attorney, U. S., 197,

206.
District courts, U. S., 201, 202.
Division of powers, between

national government and

states, 167, 168.
Division superintendents, of

schools, 98, 115, 124.
Drinking water, protection

against impure, 24, 25.
Dunmore, Lord, 68.
Duties, customs, 208-210.

Education, why the govern-
ment promotes, 43; history
of, in Va., 43-46; in New
England, 44, 45; private
and public, 46, 47; aims of
government in, 48-50; in
cities, 50, 51; higher, 51, 52;
State Board of, 97; see also
Schools.

Election, places of, 76; offi-
cers of, 76; see also Yates
and Yoters.

Electors, presidential, 185-188.

Electrocution, 22.

Eminent domain, definition
of, 34; power of, given to
railroads, 34; distinguished
from taxation, 34, 128.

Engineer, road, 58, 59.

Established church, 16, 17.

Examinations, for physicians,
and pharmacists, 26, 102;
for teachers, 98; for den-
tists, 102; for graduate
nurses, 102; for veterinar-
ians, 102; for embalmers,
102; for lawyers, 102.

Examiners, State Boards of,
98, 102.

Excise taxes, 210, 211.

Executive department, of
state government, 86, 96-
102; of national govern-
ment, 195-198.

Experimental farms, 41.

Ex post facto law, 170, 172.

226

INDEX.

Family group, 2; responsi-
bility of, toward education,
47.

Farmers' institutes, 42.

Farming communities, 3.

Farms, government assistance
to, 38-42; drinking water
on, 24; appearance of, 59-62.

Farmville, 51.

Federal government, meaning
of, 167-1G8; 21^, 220.

Federal reserve banks, 153,
154.

Federal Reserve Board, 198.

Federal Trade Commission,
198.

Fertilizers, control of, 38.

Fires, protection against, 12.

It), 0-, D<J.

Food inspection, by state gov-
ernment, 25, 26, 99; by na-
tional government, 148, 197.

Foreign affairs, control of,
136-138; President's power
over, 193.

Forests, national, 155.

Fortress Monroe, 143.

Franchise taxes, 130, 131.

Franklin, Benjamin, 159.

F'redericksburg, 51.

Freedom, of speech, 15, 16, 71,
171; of religion, 16, 17, 171;
of person, 14, 17, 163.

General Assembly, houses of,
86; organization of, 86-88;
sessions of, 87; powers of,
89; meetings of, 90.

Geography of Va., 111.

Girls' canning clubs, 42.

Government, why established,
6-8; protection of life and
liberty by, 10-15; liberty
under, 14-17; protection of
health by, 23-29; protection
of property by, 30-33; con-
trol over property by, 33-
36; ownership of property
by, 36; promotion of agri-
culture by, 38-42; promo-

tion of education by, 43-54;
control over roads, streets,
and parks by, 50-66; respon-
sibility of, for streets, 65;
organization of, 86; of
counties, 111-116; of cities,
118-125; support of, 127-131;
necessity for national, 135;
functions of national, 136-
155; under Articles of Con-
federation, 158, 159; organ-
ization of national, 175-206;
development of, 217, 218.

Governor, election of, 93;
term of, 93; qualifications
of, 93; powers and duties
of, 94, 95.

Grand jury. 20, 21, 171.

Habeas Corpus, 170.

Hamilton, Alexander, 159.

Harbors, improvement of, 147,
148. 196.

Harrisonburg, 51.

Hawaii, government of, 173.

Health, desire for, 3; pro-
tection of, by government,
23-29; state department of,
100.

High Schools, 42, 48, 51.

Hospitals, 23; for insane,
101.

House of Burgesses, 68.

House of Delegates, 86. 87;
representation in, 86, 87.

House of Representatives,
175-177; representation in,
175-177; power of, to choose
President, 188; power of, to
bring impeachments, 203.

Immigration, 138, 139, 197.

impeachment, 203.

Implied powers of Congress,
108, 169.

Income taxes, state, 130; na-
tional, 164, 211.

Indictment, by grand jury, 20,
21, 171.

Initiative, 77, 78.

lADKX.

227

Innocence, presumption of, 19.

Insane, hospitals for, 101.

Inspection, of milk and foods,
25, 26, 148; of fertilizers,
38; of seeds, 40; of cattle,
40; of boats, 146; of meats,
148.

Interior, U. S. Department of,
197.

Internal Revenue, 210, 211.

Interstate commerce, 145,
148; Commission, 198.

Institutes, farmers', 42.

Jefferson, Thomas, 17, 43, 51,
56, 57, 159, 189.

Judges, appointment of, in
Va., 108; term of in Va.,
108; appointment of nation-
al, 202, 203; term of nation-
al, 203 ; impeachment of na-
tional, 203.

Judiciary department, of
state, 86; of national gov-
ernment, 200.

Jurisdiction, of various courts
in Va., 105-108; of various
national courts, 200-202,
204, 205.

Jury, right of trial by, 21,
171.

Justice, U. S. Department of,
196, 197.

Justices of peace, 105, 106,
114.

Labor, protection of, 13, 27,
28; state Bureau of, 100;
Commissioner of, 100; pro-
motion of interests of, 148;
U. S. Department of, 197.

Land assessors, 114.

Laws, how made in Va., 88,
89; execution of, in Va., 93-
102; interpretation of, in
Va., 104; county, 112; city,
120, 121; how made in
Congress, 182, 183; execu-
tion of national, 185, 198;
interpretation of national,
200.

Legislative department, 86,
175.

Legislature, see General As-
sembly and Congress.

Libel, protection against, 16.

Liberty, desire for, 3; mean-
ing of, in a community, 14,
15; protection of, 15-17,
170-172; growth of, 215-217.

Libraries, 54.

Lieutenant-Governor, 88, 94.

Life, desire for, 3; protection
of, 10-22.

Life-saving stations, 147.

Lighthouses, 146, 147.

Liquors, prohibition of sale
of, 26, 27; taxation on
manufacture of, 210.

Literary Fund, 43, 44.

Lobbying, 91, 92.

Local option, formerly in Va.,
26, 27.

Madison, James, 17, 159.

Magisterial districts, 112, 114.

Marion, 101.

Marshall, John, 201.

Mayor, powers cf, 121-124;
election of, 121; under com-
mission government, 124;
town, 125.

Medical College of Va., 51.

Message, of Governor, 94; of
President, 189.

Military Academy, U. S., 196.

Militia, 11, 95, 140-142.

Milk, protection against im-
pure, 25, 26.

Ministers, foreign, 137, 193.

Mints, U. S., 152.

Money system, national con-
trol of, 151-152.

National banks, 152, 153.
National constitution, see

Constitution.
National courts, see Courts.
Naturalization, 139-140, 197.
Naval Academy, U. S., 196.
Navigation, control of, 146,

147.

INDEX.

».

Navy, U. S. Department of,
196.

New England, education in,
44-4G; township govern-
ment in, 11], 112.

Newport News, 52, 118.

Nomination, by parties, 82-85,
of President, 186-188; of
senators, 178, 179; of con-
gressmen, 178, 179.

Norfolk, view of, 5; library
in, 54; population of, 118.

Normal schools, 51, 52.

Panama Canal, 143, 147.

Parcel post, loO.

Pardoning power, of Govern-
or, 95; of President, 193.

Parks, in cities, 66.

Patents, 154.

Pavements, street, 62-65.

Penitentiary, 101.

Petersburg, 52, 101.

Philippine Islands, 143, 173.

Platform, party, 188, 189.

Playgrounds, 66.

Police, in cities, 10, 31, 93,
121.

Political parties, origin of,
81; necessity for, 81; or-
ganization of, 82; state and
local conventions of, 83, 179,
186; primary elections of,
83-85, 179; control of, over
Congress, 178, 179; control
of, over presidential elec-
tions, 186-188; national con-
vention of, 188.

Polls, 76.

Poll tax, 76, 131.

Poor, protection of, 14; super-
intendent of, 114.

Porto Rico, government of,
173.

Postal savings banks, 150.
Postal service, 148-151; con-
trol of, 148; support of, 208.

Postmaster General, 196.

Post Office Department, 196.

Precincts, election, 76.

President, election of, 163,
185-188; nomination of,
188; powers of, 189-193;
importance of position of,
193, 194; qualifications of,
194; successor to, 194.

Presidential electors, 185-188.

Primary elections, meaning
of, 83, 84; in Va., 83-85; for
nomination of state officers,
83, 85; for nomination of
local officers, 83, 85; for
nomination of U. S. sena-
tors, 178, 179; for nomina-
tion of congressmen, 178,
179; for nomination of
presidential electors, 186;
for nomination of delegates
to national conventions,
188.

Procedure, in courts of Va.,
108, 109; in national
courts, 206.

Prohibition, in Va., 26, 27.

Property, definition of, 4, 30;
uses of, 4, 33; in land and
buildings, 30; protection of,
by government, 30-33; con-
trol over, by government,
33-36; improvement of, by
government improvements,
35, 36; ownership of, by
government, 36; taxes on,
129, 130; real, 129; person-
al, 130; exempt from tax-
ation, 130.

Protective tariff, 209, 210.

Public lands, 155.

Quarantine regulations, 23, 24.

Radford, 51.

Railroads, protection against,
34, 35, 99; power of emi-
nent domain given to, 34;
state control of, 34, 35, 99;
national control over inter-
state, 145, 146, 198.

Real estate, taxes on, 129,
130.

INDEX.

229.

Reapportionment, in Con-
gress, 177.
Recall, 77, 78.

Referendum, 77, 78.
Register of Land Office, 102.
Registration of voters, 75, 76.
Removal, Governor's power of,

95; mayor's power of, 171;

President's power of, 192;

of national judges, upon

conviction on impeachment,

203.

Representative government,
meaning of, 73, 74.

Representatives, see Con-
gressmen.

Republican party, see Politi-
cal Parties.

Reserve banks, federal, 153,
154.

Reserved powers, of the
states, 167-170.

Revolutionary War, 68, 128,
157, 158.

Richmond, 51, 90, 155; popu-
lation of, 118.

Riots, protection against, 11,
95.

Rivers, improvement of, 147,
148, 196.

Roads, necessity for good, 56,
57; toll, 57, 58; provision
for, in Va., 59; appearance
of, 59-62; state assistance
for, 100.

Roanoke, population of, 118.

Rural free delivery, 150.

School board, county, 115;
city, 124.

Schools, agricultural, 42, 155;
history of, in Va., 43-46;
consolidated, 48, 49; trans-
portation to, 48, 49; in
cities, 50, 51; how the com-
munity is helped by, 52, 53;
appearance of, 61, 62; see
also Educat'on.

School system, beginning of.

in Va., 43-46; organization
of, 97, 98.

Secretary, of the Common-
wealth, 94, 96; of State,
195; of the Treasury, 195;
of War, 196; of the Navy,
196; of the Interior,
197; of Agriculture, 197; of
Commerce, 197; of Labor,
197.

Seeds, regulation of, 40.

Senate, of Va., 86-88.

Senate, U. S., power of, over
treaties, 137; representa-
tion in, 177, 178; power of,
over appointments, 191,
192; as a court of impeach-
ment, 203.

Senator, state, election of, 86-
88.

Senators, U. S., election of,
164, 165, 17S; nomination
of, 178, 179; terms of, 178;
qualifications of, 180; pow-
er of, over appointments,
191, 192.

Sewerage systems, 28.

Sheriff, 10, 31, 114.

Slavery, abolished, 17, 163;
in Va., effect of, 45, 46, 118.

Soldiers, care of aged, 14;
see also Army and Militia.

Speaker, of House of- Dele-
gates, 88; of House of Rep-
reseiatatives, 181.

Special assessments, 36, 129.

State, U. S. Department of,
195.

State Board of Education, 97,
115; of Examiners, 98, 102;
of Agriculture and Immi-
gration, 98, 99; o; Health,
100; of Charities and Cor-
rections, 102; of Fisheries,
102.

States, pro^^ection of, against
insurrection, 11, 95; com-
merce between. 145, 148,
198; ratification of U. S.
constitution by, 160, 161;

230

1M)KX.

protection of. against suits,
1G3; dependence and inde-
pendence of, 1G7, 1G8; pow-
ers of, 169, 170; restrictions
on powers of, 171, 172; rep-
resentation of, in Congress,
175-177; protection against,
205. 20G.

Staunton. 52, 101.

Streets, planning of. G2; pav-
ing of, 62; uses of, 62, 63;
appearance of, 33-65; liglit-
ing of, G2; sprinkling of.
64; government responsibil-
ity for, 65.

Suffrage, see Voters.

Superintendent, of Public In-
struction, 94, 97; of schools,
98, 115, 124; of penitentiary,
101; of printing. 102.

Supervisors, county board of,
112.

Supreme Court, of Appeals in
Va., 106-108; of U. S., 200,
201, 205, 206.

Surveyor, county, 115.

Tariff, protective. 209, 210.

Taxation, necessity for, 127,
128; distinguished from
eminent domain, 128; prin-
ciples of, in Va., 128, 129;
forms of, in Va., 129, 131;
in cities, 121; necessity for
national, 208; forms of na-
tional. 208-211 ; national and
state, compared, 211, 212;
restrictions on national,
212, 213.

Taxes, definition of, 127; on
property, 129; on incomes,
130, 164, 211; franchise,
130, 131; poll, 76, 131; state
and local, 131; indirect.
209; excise, 210, 211; stamp.
211; direct, 212, 213.

Teachers, examination of, 98;
appointment of, 115.

Telegraph service, control
over, 35, 99. 145, 146, 198.

Telephone service, control

over, ;35, 99, 145, 146, 198.
Territories, government of,

< J, 1 (O.

Town meeting, ill, 112.
Towns, government of, 124,

125.
Township government. 111,

112.
Trade Commission, Federal,

198.
Treasurer, of Va., 94, 97,

county, 114, 115; city, 121.
Treasury Department, U. S.,

195. 196.
Treaties, the making of, 137.

Union of states, reason for,

157, 158.
University of Virginia, 51.

Veto, of Governor, 94; of
mayor. 121; of President,
189, 190; pocket, 190.

Vice-President, duty of, 181,
194; election of, 185-188.

Virginia Military Institute,
51.

Virginia Polytechnic Insti-
tute. 42. 51.

Voters, qualifications for, in
Va., 75, 76; 218. 219.

Votes, how cast, 76, 77; how
counted, 77; right of negro
to cast, 164.

War, power to make, 140; U.

S. Department of, 196.
War Between the States, 17,

44, 70, 163, 164.
Wards, in cities, 76, 120, 122.
Washington, George, 159.
Washington, 137, 195, 201.
Waterworks, 24, 25.
West Virginia, suit against,

204.
William and Mary College, 51,
Williamsburg, 51, 101.
Wilson, Woodrow. 74, 189.
Witnesses, 21.
Woman suffrage. 74, 219.

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