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tbc HJemori) of
EDWARD CHARLES BELL,

ONE OF THE FIRST PROFICIENTS IN "VISIBLE SPEECH,

WHOSE ABILITY
IN DEMONSTRATING THE LINGUISTIC APPLICATIONS OF THE SYSTEM

EXCITED THE ADMIRATION OF ALL WHO HEARD HIM ;

I5UT WHOSE LIFE OF HIGHEST PROMISE WAS CUT OFF IN* HIS

NINETEENTH YEAR,

ON I;TII MAY, 1867;

THIS INAUGURAL VOLUME IS DEDICATED

BY HIS FATHER.

CONTENTS.

Page

Preface, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... vii

Popular Description of the Organs of Speech, ... ... ... ... ... 11

Diagram of the Organs of Speech, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13

The Invention of Visible Speech, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14

TABULAR EXPOSITION OF VISIBLE SPEECH.

Complete Table of Eadical Symbols, ... ... ... ... ... ... 35

Ten Radical Symbols from which all Vowel and Consonant Letters are formed, 36

Complete Table of Letters — with their Names, .. ... ... ... 37

Diagrams showing the relation of the Primary Organic Symbols to the Organs, 38

Explanatory Table of Symbols for Vowel Configurations, ... ... ... 40

Table showing the mutual relation of Symbols and Sounds, ... ... ... 41

THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS, EXERCISES, &c.

Rudimental Symbols, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

Exercises on the Rudimental Symbols, forming Interjectional or Inarticulate

Utterances, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50

CONSONANTS, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51

Table of Organic Symbols, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52

Diagrams of the Consonant Organic Positions, ... ... ... ... 53

Description of the 'Inner' and 'Outer' Varieties of each of the Primary

Consonants, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 54-

Table of the Mechanical Varieties of Consonants, ... ... ... ... 5G

Diagrams of the Mechanical Varieties of Consonants. ... ... ... 57

Description of the Mechanical Varieties of Consonants, ... ... ... 58

' Inner' and ' Outer ' Varieties of ' Divided ' Consonants, ... ... ... 59

Uni -Lateral Formations, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

Nasal Consonants, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

Shut Consonants, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 60

Consonant Suctions — Clicks, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 62

Consonant Actions without Breath, ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

Comparative Diagrams of the Radical Consonant Positions,... ... ... 63

Example showing the Application of the Modifiers to a single Consonant action, 64

Interjectional Exercises on the Rudimental Consonant Symbols, ... ... 65

Voiced Consonants, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 66

General Scheme of Consonants, ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

Imperfect and Variable Vocality of Consonants, ... ... ... ... 67

' Held ' Consonants, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 68

Consonant Combinations, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

GLIDES, ... ... ... ... 6(.)

Complete Table of the Glides, 70

VOWELS, ... ... ... ... ••• 71

Vowel Symbols, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... "2

Diagrams showing the Relative Organic Formation of Vowel?, ... ... 73

Page-
Diagram showing the Scale formed by the Lingual Vowels, ... ... 74

Relation of Vowel to Consonant Positions, ... ... ... ... 75

Lip-Modified or ' Round ' Vowels, 7(5

Symbols of Round Vowels, ... ... ... ... ... 77

Nasalized Vowels, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

Vowels of Gliding Quality — Diphthongs, ... ... ... ... ... 78

Vowel Quantity, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 79

Linked Symbols,

Governing Signs, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib.

Analysis of Mixed Symbols and Optional Extension of the Principle, ... 82

Tones, ib.

Modulated Whisper, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8G

APPLICATION OF VISIBLE SPEECH TO LANGUAGES.

The Elementary Sounds of Languages, ... ... ... ... ... 91

Letter- Value of the Principal Consonant Symbols, ... ... ... ... 93

Letter- Value of the Principal Symbols for Vowels and Glides, ... ... 94

Modes of Teaching the Universal Alphabet, ... ... ... ... ... 96

Typography of Visible Speech, ... ... ... ... ... ... 98

Visible Speech Writing, 100

Visible Speech Telegraphy, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 102

Practical Tests, 104

Alphabetic Vocabulary of Test- words (Initial Vowels,) ... ... ... 105

VISIBLE SPEECH APPLIED TO ENGLISH.

Table of English Elements, 110

English Pronunciation, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill

Sounds of English Letters and Orthographies of English Sounds, ... ... ib.

Tendencies of English Pronunciation, ... ... ... ... ... 116

English Characteristics, ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 117

Syllabic Analysis, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 118

Outline course of Lessons for Teaching the Illiterate to Read, ... ... 120

Mode of Deducing Foreign Sounds from their Symbols, ... ... ... 124

Note on the Zulu Clicks, ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 125

P L AT E S.

Alphabetic Vocabulary of Test- Words (Initial Consonants), . . I. II. III.
Interjectional and Inarticulate Sounds, and Dialectic Pronunciations of

Numerals, ........... IV.

Test Sentences, — Scottish, English, and Miscellaneous Dialects, . . V. VI.

Foreign-English, and Foreign Sentences, ...... VII.

Shakpperian English, — Portia's Speech on Mercy ; &c. . . . VIII.

Acts, Chap. xxvi. . . . IX. X. XI.

Visible Speech Writing,— The Alphabet, . . . XII.
St. John, Chap. xiv. ... . XIII. XIV. XV.

The Lord's Prayer, in Capital, Lower-Case, and Script Alphabets, . XV.

I Corinthians, Chap. xiii. . . . .... XVI.

PREFACE.

THE scientific interest attaching to the Invention of VISIBLE SPEECH has alone
induced me to consent to the publication of the System under Copyright. My
desire was, that this Invention —the applications of which are as universal as
speech itself — should at its inauguration have been made free from all restric-
tions ; but my endeavours to effect an arrangement for this purpose have been
frustrated.

I wish to put on record here a statement of the facts concerning my offer
of the Invention to the British Government, and the reception of the offer.

The proposition made was to the effect that — If the expense of casting
the new Types and publishing the Theory of the System should be defrayed
from Public resources, I would, on this simple condition, relinquish pro bono
pnblico all copyright in the Explanatory Work, as well as all exclusive property
in the System and its applications, in order that the use of the Universal
Alphabet might be as free as that of common letters to all persons. I made
no stipulation for personal recompense ; nor was the acceptance of the offer
asked, save as the result of a satisfactory examination of the System. The
primary proposition was therefore specifically limited to a request for an
authorized investigation, the result of which should decide the question of
publication.

This request was made in vain. The subject did not lie within the province
of any of the existing State Departments, and the Memorial was, on this ground,
politely bowed out from one after the other of the Executive Offices.

The proposition was, no doubt, an exceptional one — but so is the Invention.
Even the idea which it realizes is entirely new ; the idea, namely, of representing
the mechanism of speech-sounds in their alphabetical symbols. It was a matter
of course that such a subject could not have been included in the established
routine of any Department.

Does not the fact that an offer of such a nature failed to obtain a hearing,
indicate a national want — the want namely of some functionary whose business
it should be to investigate new measures of any kind which may be presented
for the benefit of society ?

Before offering the Invention of Visible Speech to Government, I had sub-
jected the System to a crucial variety of practical and public tests, so that a
fair prima facie case had been made out to justify even so unheard-of a thing
as investigation by a Royal Commission. But credentials could, of course, have
no weight when the ground of rejection was that of inability to take ' official
cognizance' of the subject.

This very unsatisfactory reason for neglecting an offer, which I was not alone
in thinking both liberal and patriotic, as well as sufficiently important for recog-
nition, induced me, before issuing the Circular announcing the present publica-
tion, to make a final appeal to Her Majesty's Prime Minister, specifying the
amount to which the requisite grant for inaugural expenses might be limited.
The following was his Lordship's reply :

" 10 Downing Street, Whitehall,

February 12, 1867.

Sir, — I am directed by Lord Derby to acknowledge the receipt of your letter
of the 8th instant, and to inform you that there are no public funds from which
he can make you the grant you desire.

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your obedient Servant,
A. Melville Bell, Esq. W. P. TALBOT."

This was at all events definite ; and the fact of there being no available
' public funds ' for such a purpose, certainly furnished sufficient reason for denial.
But the fact is, nevertheless, remarkable. The price of a piece of ordnance, and
a few barrels of gunpowder — the cost of an every-day experiment in target-
firing — ought surely to have been forthcoming from some ' public fund ' for the
advancement of one of the foremost Arts of Peace.

The choice was now left but between two alternatives : either to withhold
the Invention, or to publish it under copyright ; — in the latter case, to impose
local restrictions on what was in its nature universal ; in the former case, to
render nugatory the results of a long labour. For the System was of course
worthless while unpublished.

Having put my hand to the plough, I would not turn back —

' Aut non tentaris aut perfice ?-
I therefore accepted the obligation which this ' Inaugural Edition' fulfils.

The time will, I hope, come when the Chamberses and Cassells of Litera-
ture will be able to issue their penny sheets in the new type to convert the
unlettered millions in all countries into readers. But the System cannot be
popularized by the present theoretical, and, necessarily, expensive Work. My
sole object here is to communicate the System as the basis of a new science of
UNIVERSAL ALPHABETICS.

The investigation which was vainly sought for from pre-occupied States-
men, can now be made at leisure by the scientific world. If its judgment be
favourable to the adoption of this scheme for macadamizing the linguistic high-
ways between nations, the requisite facilities may ultimately be made available ;
but, in the meantime, the offer to relinquish copyright is withdrawn, and all
rights of reproduction, translation, &c., are reserved.

' My previous proposal for an unrestricted publication renders this definite
intimation of the reservation of copyright necessary to prevent mistakes.

The unavoidable effect in this peculiar case will unfortunately be, to retard
the popular promulgation of this System of Letters in the country of its birth,
while in countries where the rights of foreign authors are disregarded, the
System may be at once brought freely into use. This result was, however, duly
pointed out, and the anomaly was sought to be prevented.

Persons who may be desirous of bringing any part of the System into
practical application, by publications or otherwise, will be enabled to do so,
under conditions which may be mutually arranged.

The symbols appear at some disadvantage, from the comparative coarseness
of the experimental types, and also in the absence of illustration from ' lower
case ' letters. The aspect of the symbols in the latter form may be judged of
by the lithographed specimens at the end of the volume ; but letters individually
drawn by hand want the clearness, compactness, and uniformity of typographs.
Letter-press exemplification was not contemplated when the Prospectus of
this Work was issued — lithographic illustration only having been intended ; but
in the development of the System for publication, a constant reference to Plates
was felt to be an intolerable inconvenience — to the Student of the System the
inconvenience would have been even greater ; — and therefore a fount of types
to work with the common letter-press has been extemporized.

The new letters — as shown in this work — are all of equal height, and they
consequently have the effect of CAPITALS. The 'lower case' letters, it will be seen,
possess an additional element of perspicuity, from the ascending and descending

lines of the vowels. The 'capital' form has simply been preferred for the pre-
sent purpose, because of the larger scale which it allowed for the exhibition of
the organic symbols.

A system of this nature would be much more easily explained orally than
in print. This inherent difficulty arises from the impossibility of communicating
an exact knowledge of sounds before the appropriate symbols of the System
are understood. An hour of viva vocc instruction would save the majority of
Students many hours of uncertain reading, and enable them to commence at
once with the Symbols, instead of having first to gather a general knowledge of
the basis of the System, by the perusal of preliminary explanations.

On this account I recommended that, in connection with the Inaugural
Publication from public resources, which was originally proposed, a temporary
arrangement should be added for giving the benefit of oral exemplifications to
the first learners. A weekly or bi-weekly free Lecture in connection with the
' Science and Art Department' at South Kensington would have started a large
number of learners pleasantly over initiatory difficulties.

In developing the theory in the following pages, I have endeavoured so to
arrange the matter that a general knowledge of the essentials of the System
may be gathered from the Tables and Diagrams alone. (See pages 35 to 41).
These are, however, supplemented by a full detail of Explanations and Illustra-
tions, to which reference will of course be made as required.

The reader will bear in mind, that all the phenomena of Universal Speech
are included in this Work. He must not suppose that the varied and minute
distinctions of the System require to be mastered by every learner. The
youngest child may be taught to read from the Symbols — of course, without
any theoretical knowledge. A full understanding of the Theory is essential
only to Teachers and Symbolizers— or writers of sounds at hearing.

In presenting the System with the requisite completeness for all purposes,
I have found it difficult— with so much of necessary detail to be communicated
— to preserve the aspect of simplicity. But the learner will discover the real
simplicity of the Symbolization in connection with the known sounds of his
own language ; and wrhen he has mastered vernacular reading, foreign varieties
of sound will present little or no difficulty.

A. M. B.

London, N. W.
1 8 Harrington Square, August, 1867.

VISIBLE SPEECH

POPULAR DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.

THE lungs constitute the bellows of the speaking machine ; the larynx, the
pharynx, the soft palate, the nose, and the mouth, modify the breath into the
elementary sounds of speech.

The lungs are enclosed within the chest, and in healthful respiration they
are acted on chiefly by upward pressure of the diaphragm, or midriff, which
separates the chest from the abdomen. In faulty respiration the sides of the
chest are drawn in upon the lungs to force out the breath, and the natural action
of the diaphragm is reversed. Stammerers generally exemplify this error.

The breath driven from the lungs ascends the windpipe, and its emission is
rendered audible only by the resistance which it meets with in the throat, the
nostrils, or the mouth.

On the top of the windpipe is placed the larynx, — the vocalizing part of
the speaking machine. The larynx is practically a box, the cavity of which is
susceptible of a multitude of modifications affecting the pitch of the voice. The
orifice of the larynx — the glottis — may be perfectly closed, fully expanded, or
contracted in any degree.

When the whole of the guttural passage is fully expanded, the passing-
breath creates no sound ; but when the glottis, or aperture of the larynx, is
definitely narrowed, its edges vibrate and produce the sound which is called voice.
Voice is thus the mechanical result of vibration of the edges of the glottis.
These latter have, from this cause, received the name of the 'vocal ligaments."

Above the glottis, and forming part of the larynx, is what may be con-
sidered as a pair of lips, the aperture between which is called the ' superior,' or
' false glottis.' The latter, and the passage between the larynx and the
mouth, are susceptible of a variety of changes of shape and expansion. A
moderate degree of contraction gives the breath the rustling quality called
' whisper ;' and a greater contraction, with a strong current of breath, creates
the resonant but non-vocal vibration, which will be understood by the term
' growling.'

The passage between the larynx and the mouth is called the pharynx.
This cavity is susceptible of various degrees of expansion and contraction ; and
these modifications of the pharynx, assisted by the position of the pendulous
soft palate, play an important part in the formation of the elements of speech.

The percussive effect of consonants results mainly from the elasticity of
the muscles of the pharynx, which compress the breath behind the articulating
organs in proportion as the latter restrain its issue through the mouth. In
forming vowels, the pharynx is for one set of sounds, partially, and for another
set fully, expanded.

In front of the pharynx is the mouth ; and at the top of the pharynx, behind
the soft palate, is the entrance to the nasal passages. When the soft palate is
raised, it prevents the breath from passing into the nose, and when it is depressed,
the breath flows through the nostrils as well as into the mouth.

The soft palate acts the part of a double valve, closing the nasal passage
by upward pressure, and closing the mouth by downward contact with the
tongue. Both passages are shut in this manner in forming the consonant K ;
the oral passage is closed and the nasal passage open in forming NG ; both
passages are open in forming the French /;/, on, &c. ; and the oral passage is
open and the nasal passage shut in forming vowels.

The roof of the mouth is an arch ; and the tongue, as its various parts, —
the back, the front, or the point, — are presented to the back, the front, or the
rim of the palatal arch, or the upper gum, gives a great variety of configurations
to the channel of the mouth. From each of these configurations the passino-
breath or voice receives an audibly different effect, of vowel or of consonant
quality. Further modifications result from the degree of contraction of the
lips, the condition of the guttural passage, &c.

In forming CONSONANTS, the breath or voice is stopped or sqticezcd, with an
effect of percussion, sibilation, buzzing, or vibration, in some part of the guttural

or oral passage ; and in forming VOWELS, the breath or voice flows through
similar but more open and ' fixed' configurations, which merely shape or mould
the breath, without impeding its emission.

The following Diagram shows the relative position of the various organs : —

DIAGRAM OF THE ORGANS OF SPEECH.

1. The Larynx.

2. The Pharynx.

3. The Soft Palate.

4. The action of the Soft Palate in

closing the Nasal Passage.

5. The Back of the Tongue.

6. The Front of the Tongue.

7. The Point of the Tongue.

8. The Lips.

THE INVENTION OF VISIBLE SPEECH.

THE system of Visible Speech was elaborated slowly during the course of a
great many years. In 1849, the Author wrote, in his ' Principles of Speech,'
having reference only to English sounds : — ' It would really be a matter of but
little difficulty to reconstruct our alphabet, and furnish it with invariable marks
for every appreciable variety of vocal and articulate sound. So few as twelve
radical letters might be made to represent all the English articulations (con-
sonants.) Thus : we have twelve forms of articulative action, most of which
do, and all of which may, modify both voice and breath, so producing twenty-
four elements of speech. Let some uniform change to represent breath and voice
be made on each of the twelve characters, and these twenty-four varieties of
articulate sound may be not only fully represented, but with a natural analogy
and consistency which would explain to the eye their organic relations.

' A further uniform change made on those letters which have a nasal cor-
respondent, would complete the scheme, and with perfect analogy between marks
and sounds, exhibit, by twelve radical letters, every articulation in our language.

' Some equally simple and analogical notation might be arranged for the
vowels, on the principle of their sequence ; so that a really scientific alphabet
could be easily constructed.'

The practicability of extending this mode of representation to all possible
sounds, was conceived and ultimately became a persistent idea. But the
necessary pre-requisite for carrying out the idea was to obtain a knowledge of
the exact relations of sounds, and the conditions to which they owed their
differences. This knowledge could only be acquired from observation and
experiment. For these, fortunately, opportunities were abundant.

Professional pursuits directly favoured the investigation, by furnishing a
constant variety of examples for study and corroboration ; and year by year the
subject grew in interest, and was unceasingly prosecuted. Gradually the cate-
gory of known sounds increased, and their mutual relations became more and
more definite. Still, so recently as 1862, when a new edition of the 'Principles
of Speech''- was called for, the Author had not advanced beyond his original
triple scale of voAvels, consisting of the three classes,

L ingtt al, L abio-L ingnal, Labial ;

•;" Principles of Speech and Cure of Stammering-. London : Hamilton, Adams & Co.

the first series starting with the close ee ; the third with the close do, and the
intermediate with the German ii ; and each series terminating in the most open
vowel ah.

The classification of vowels on this basis included twenty-two varieties ;
but the scheme was acknowledged to be far from complete for the representation
of other than European languages : —

" The plasticity of the organs which modify voice is so great, that there
may be many other shades of sound heard in other languages."*

" The plasticity of the organs is so great, that shades of vowel quality are
endless, arising from infinitesimal differences in the relative positions of the lips
and the tongue. The number of possible varieties can as little be estimated as
the number of possible shades of colour. "f

The expectation of ultimate success in the construction of a complete
Physiological Alphabet, on the principle of Elementary Relations, was now,
however, fully entertained : —

" In this way a system of notation might be constructed by which all the
sounds of any dialect might be represented intelligibly to readers of whatever
country or tongue. A Table of all recognized elements of speech on this
natural principle of arrangement would be one step toward the realization of
that indefinite philological speculation, — a universal language.''^

The number of sounds that had been by this time clearly discerned as they
were experimentally produced, was perplexing ; the more so that some of them
could not be made to fit into either of the three classes in the scale. This led to
the conclusion that the framework of the Vowel Table was at fault, and quires of
paper were covered with attempts at new arrangements which might incorporate
the excluded elements.

One sound — that of the English err, sir, &c. — was confessedly out of place
in the published Table, but the Table evidently did not contain a place where
the sound could be satisfactorily located. This sound haunted the ear and the
mouth by day and night, ' seeking rest but finding none ;' and with it flitted a
train of obviously kindred sounds, clamouring for recognition. Among them
were an American sound heard in the words err, sir, &c., very different from the
ordinary English sound in the same words, yet having some features of family
resemblance ; the French vowel in ' que,' and the obscure sounds of the English

* 1840 edition, p. 28. f 1863 edition, p. 27. t 1863 edition, p. 32.

articles 'a' and 'the;' all of which were felt to be mutually related in some
undiscovered way.

The revisal of the ' Principles of Speech' had re-opened the whole question
of elementary relations, and the experimental classifications which followed,
resulted in the identification of a new category of vowels, — a series moulded
simultaneously by the back and the front surfaces of the tongue. Next, the
discovery that these sounds were each susceptible of labial modification, corres-
ponding to that of ii (on the 'high front' vowel ee,) revealed the principle that
the so-called Labial Vowels were all, in reality, compound formations, in which a
definite lingual quality was involved. The analysis of the English vowels oo, <?, and
aw, by removal of labial modification, cleared away the whole remaining mystery.

It was evident that there were three classes of purely lingual vowels,
moulded respectively by the back, the front, and by 'mixed' back and front
positions of the tongue ; and that each element in this triple scale was the basis
of another vowel, in forming which a definite labial modification was simply
added. There were then six sets of vowels instead of three, as formerly sup-
posed, one half being labialized or 'rounded' forms of the other half.

The longitudinal division of the tongue into three principal sections, as after-
wards explained, suggested a corresponding tri-partition of the aperture between
the tongue and the palate, according to the ' high,' ' mid,' or ' low ' position of
the tongue ; and the nine points thus obtained furnished the means of noting, as
by lines of latitude and longitude, the precise place of any vowel in the mouth.

The arrangement may be illustrated by the following Diagram, in which
the letters a b c, &c., stand for vowel sounds :—

Back.

Mixed.

Fro,

High,

Mid,

Loiv

These nine fixed points enabled minor degrees to be measured from them
by simple diacritic signs for 'inner,' 'outer,' 'higher,' and 'lower' positions;
so that the absolute representative power of the principle extended to nine
degrees of horizontal and nine of vertical measurement.

This power of discrimination was enormously in excess of all possible
necessity ; and it was found that the cardinal degrees were amply sufficient for

all practical purposes, in connection with another distinction which now rev

itself : the distinction between Primary Vowels or those most allied to Conson-
ants, and Wide Vowels or those in forming which the pharynx or guttural
passage is fully expanded. Each of the lingual positions furnished both a
primary and a wide vowel, so that the scale was fixed for purposes of notation
at nine primary and nine wide vowels, formed exclusively by the tongue.

No instance has occurred in the experimental writing of languages in which
the minor distinctions of ' inner,' ' outer,' ' higher', or ' lower' positions have been
necessary ; but these discriminations are still available should they be required.

All the wandering vowels were now provided for ; and as each sound fell
into its proper place, its neighbour-sounds took up their positions with perfect
harmony. The framework of the scale was, however, larger than the number of
known sounds could fill ; but the gaps which remained here and there showed
the exact places of other possible varieties ; and experiment proved that the
missing sounds could all be produced by organic arrangements corresponding
with the theoretical classification. In fact, any desired sound, known or
unknown, could be produced at pleasure by first adjusting the organs tentatively
for its neighbour-sounds, and then allowing these to coalesce, as it were, into an
intermediate.

The most perfect facility, too, was found in evoking in this way, totally
unheard vowels from the organs of other persons ; and this fact led to the
discovery, — which had not hitherto been reached, — that the scheme, thus
demonstrably Physiological, solved the problem of a UNIVERSAL ALPHABET.

A new stimulus was thus given to the prosecution of the subject, and the
Consonants were investigated in the light shed on the oral actions by the
Vowel Scales.

The Consonants were much more easily classified, as their organic formation
was more obvious ; and former results had left comparatively little to be done
in order to form a correspondingly complete scale. An important discovery
was, however, made in tabulating these elements : their relation to the various
parts of the Vowel Scale was ascertained ; the true cause of consonantal, as
distinct from vowel effect, was made manifest, and a New Class of Elements,
intermediate to vowels and consonants, was recognised. These ' glides/ or true
semi-vowels, completed the scheme of Linguistic Sounds, joining the vowels and
consonants into one harmonious scale.

The classification proved its own completeness, by the unbroken catenation
>f the sounds, and it now became possible to indicate with absolute precision a

multitude of nice discriminations in the oral adjustments, from each of which
some difference of phonetic effect necessarily and uniformly resulted.

If it were but possible to symbolise these distinctions with practicable
simplicity, the resulting alphabet would represent not merely every language,
but every dialect, and even every idiosyncrasy of speech !

Here was a new object to be aimed at, — grand in its utility, worthy of all
effort for the sake of science, — but apparently beyond hope of success. The
Alphabetic Conferences held in London in 1854, — under the presidency of
Chevalier Bunsen, the Prussian Ambassador, — and attended by the most dis-
tinguished philologists of several countries, had declared that — ' it would be
useless and impossible to attempt to find for each possible variety of sound a
different graphic sign.' Nevertheless, these learned men might be mistaken ;
they certainly did not comprehend the relations of the sounds of speech as they
had now been ascertained. Their Conferences were fruitless, from the avowed
want of the requisite 'Physiological Basis' for a complete Alphabet. Here was
the ' Basis' undoubtedly laid. The Cosmopolitan Graphic Structure might,
after all, be raised. Pen, ink, and paper, cost little ; ' the labour we delight in
physics pain ;' nil desperandum ! The attempt was diligently prosecuted.

The problem was: — To construct a Scheme of Symbols, which should
embody the whole classification of sounds, and make each element of speech
shew in its symbol the position of its sound in the organic scale.

The adoption of letters from existing alphabets was obviously irreconcilable
with the desired conformity of symbol to sound. There were six sets of purely
lingual vowels to be provided for, each set consisting of three sounds, dependent
on relative difference of aperture ; besides which, there were corresponding sets
of ' rounded/ or labio-lingual formations ; making a total of thirty-six organi-
cally distinct simple VOWELS. There were also the CONSONANTS, of corres-
ponding organic classes to the vowels, with all their nice gradations of effect
dependent on the exact point of contact or friction ; and there were the GLIDES
allied to both sets of elements.

The consideration that all these varieties of elementary sound resulted
mainly from the evolutions of a single organ — the tongue — happily suggested
the idea of representing each class of elements by a SINGLE RADICAL SYMBOL ;
and the realization of this idea became the final object of effort.

Definiteness of aim achieved a speedy success. The result was c' ' |or

beyond hope ; the MONO-SYMBOLIC idea being, as the Reader will perceive,
carried out in every part of the Scheme, for vowels, consonants, and glides.

In the early part of 1864, the New System of Letters was completed, and
all the hitherto undefined 'airy nothings' of human speech received each

' A local habitation and a name. '

The correlation of the Sounds and Symbols rendered the latter SELF-
INTERPRETING to those who possessed the key to the symbolism, and so
converted the UNIVERSAL ALPHABET, which had been the object of the
designer, into a real VISIBLE SPEECH ; — the latter constituting, in fact, a new
Science, — adapted for the use of all mankind !

The Invention was without delay brought to the test of public experiments
in the Writing of Languages. The Inventor's Sons acquired a perfect know-
ledge of the System in a few days, and were enabled to pronounce, at sight,
the most difficult and peculiar words that could be selected from the Eastern
and other Languages ; involving often combinations of sound which the readers
had never heard before their own organs gave them utterance.

Practical success having been thus demonstrated and certified by the
Linguists who had dictated the experimental tests,* the System was forthwith
offered to the British Government for publication without Copyright, as a gift
to the Nation and the world : the only condition being, that the cost of casting
the new Types, and communicating the Theory of the System, should be
defrayed from public resources. The result may be seen in the Preface.

The entire System of Visible Speech has, before publication, been written
above a score of times on various plans, with the view of securing the utmost
simplicity and perspicuity in presenting its principles. It is hoped that these
qualities will be manifest in the ultimate draft which is now submitted to the
public. The Invention having also undergone close revision in all its details at
each transcription, as well as having been made the subject of constant experi-
ment during the years that have elapsed since its completion, is now, it is
believed, perfect for its purposes, and will probably be found to require no
additions or alterations, however extended its uses may become.

Among the special uses of ' Visible Speech,' the following may be
indicated : —

* For a record of the experiments, see Pamphlet 'Visible Speech, — A New Fact Demonstrated.' London:
Hamilton, Adams & Co.

~ C

SPECIAL USES OF THE INVENTION OF VISIBLE SPEECH.

I. The teaching of the ILLITERATE in all countries to read their Vernacular,
Tongue in a few days.

The certainty of accomplishing this result should incite philanthropic
societies and individuals to the most widely sustained efforts for the enlighten-
ment of the ' latent tracts' of communities. The worst vices of society are
undoubtedly nurtured in ignorance.

II. The teaching of the BLIND to read.

The small number of radical forms, and the distinct tangibility of differences
of position of the same form, render the Symbols of Visible Speech peculiarly
adapted for this purpose.

III. The teaching of the DEAF AND DUMB to speak.

In this department, very striking results may be confidently anticipated.
The Deaf and Dumb possess all the organs of speech, and only require to be
directed visibly in their use. The feeling of organic action will probably be
developed by practice to a keenness corresponding to that which the sense of
touch acquires among the Blind.

IV. The communication of the exact sounds of FOREIGN LANGUAGES to
learners in all countries.

The advantages of this facility will be experienced in connection with the
Foreign Services abroad ; with Geographical and other Expeditions ; with
Political Embassies, Christian Missions, Commerce, General Education, &c.

V. The establishment of a STANDARD of the NATIVE PRONUNCIATION of
any language.

In the case of almost every language this is a desideratum, the want of
which has been productive of great domestic and international inconvenience ;
and the supplying of this want will, of course, achieve a corresponding amount
of social and scholastic benefit.

VI. The Prevention and Removal of DEFECTS and IMPEDIMENTS of Speech.
In dealing with these, ' knowledge ' of the mechanisms of speech is,

emphatically, ' power' of correction. Such habits should, now that these
mechanisms have been plainly revealed, be easily and certainly prevented.

VII. The TELEGRAPHIC communication of messages in any language,
through all countries, without translation.

Visible Speech does not interfere with the use of ordinary alphabets in
literature, &c. ; but for international purposes it may very advantageously
supplant all local alphabets. Roman letters have been fully tried, and found
sadly wanting in Telegraphy.

VIII. The study, comparison, and preservation of fast-disappearing
DIALECTS, and the universal tracing of the AFFINITIES OF WORDS.

The Science of Etymology has been hindered by nothing more than by the
want of a Universal Alphabet. Visible Speech furnishes more than this, or
than scholars have hitherto dared to hope for. The relations of sounds will now
need no research or elaborate disquisition, as every relation, whether organic or
mechanical, will be distinctly legible in the literal Symbols themselves. The
Science of Comparative Philology should be vastly advanced by this Invention.

IX. The speedy diffusion of the language of a mother country throughout
the most widely separated COLONIES.

This is only one among many similar Political benefits to be derived from
the New System of Letters. The acquisition, by Rulers, of the languages of
their Colonial Subjects, will, of course, be facilitated in an equal degree.

X. The world-wide communication of any specific sounds with absolute
uniformity ; and, consequently, the possible construction and establishment of
a UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE.

Without such a medium of self-interpreting letters, the establishment of a
Universal Language might fairly be deemed an impossibility. By means of
Visible Speech, if at all, this Dream of Philosophers will be realized. The
foundation is laid, and the Linguistic Temple of Human Unity may at some
time, however distant the day, be raised upon the earth.

EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATIONS OF VISIBLE SPEECH.

Since the Pamphlet was printed in which the earlier experiments in appli-
cation of Visible Speech were recorded, the list of Languages from which tests
have been furnished has become much more extensive. It is unnecessary to
swell the bulk of this volume with fresh citations. There has been no single
instance of failure in connection either with the sounds of Languages or

Dialects, or in the writing of Arbitrary peculiarities. For the sake of showing
the mode in which the experiments were conducted, the following description is
quoted from a letter to the ' Reader,' by Alexander J. Ellis, Esq., F.R.S. :—

" The mode of procedure was as follows : Mr Bell sent his two Sons, who
were to read the writing, out of the room, — it is interesting to know that the
elder, who read all the words in this case, had only had five weeks' instruction
in the use of the Alphabet, — and I dictated slowly and distinctly the sounds
which I wished to be written. These consisted of a few words in Latin, pro-
nounced first as at Eton, then as in Italy, and then according to some theoretical
notions of how the Latins might have uttered them. Then came some English
provincialisms and affected pronunciations ; the words ' how odd,' being given
in several distinct ways. Suddenly German provincialisms were introduced.
Then discriminations of sounds often confused, ees, is' (Polish) ; eesh, ich
(German) ; ich (Dutch) ; ich (Swiss) ; oul, oni (French) ; we (English) ; wie
(German) ; vie (French). Some Arabic, some Cockney-English, with an intro-
duced Arabic guttural, some mispronounced Spanish, and a variety of shades
of vowels and diphthongs. * * * The result was perfectly satisfactory ; — that
is, Mr Bell wrote down my queer and purposely-exaggerated pronunciations
and mispronunciations, and delicate distinctions, in such a manner that his Sons,
not having heard them, so uttered them as to surprise me by the extremely
correct echo of my own voice. * * * Accent, tone, drawl, brevity, indis-
tinctness, were all reproduced with surprising accuracy. Being on the watch, I
could, as it were, trace the alphabet in the lips of the readers. I think, then, that
Mr Bell is justified in the somewhat bold title which he has assumed for his mode
of writing — 'Visible Speech.' I only hope that, for the advantage of linguists,
such an alphabet may be soon made accessible, and that, for the intercourse of
nations, it may be adopted generally, at least for extra-European nations, as for
the Chinese dialects, and the several extremely diverse Indian languages, where
such an alphabet would rapidly become a great social and political engine."

No man could be better qualified to form a correct judgement in reference
to these experiments than the eminent Author of ' The Essentials of Phonetics ;'
and it was a confidence only due to Mr Ellis's disinterestedness, and promptitude
in recognising the merits of Visible Speech, which led the Author to invite that
Gentleman, at a later period, to inspect the Theoretical details of the Invention.

Mr Ellis's second letter to the ' Reader,' (August 5th, 1865,) descriptive of what
he now knew theoretically as well as practically, is subjoined in extenso : —

" In your number for September 3, 1864, vol. iv., page 303, you gave insertion
to a letter which I addressed to you concerning Mr Melville Bell's new system
of expressing speech-sounds by written symbols. I had then been favoured
with a private demonstration of its capabilities, which I had tested to the best
of my power ; and I was able to give a most satisfactory report to that extent.
But I did not know the forms of the letters, or what each individual letter repre-
sented, or how they were to be combined, or what was the theory on which the
extraordinary results I witnessed was based ; and I was, therefore, obliged to
qualify my opinion. Mr Melville Bell and his two Sons have now been kind
enough to devote several hours to explaining to me thoroughly the whole
phonetic theory and plan of symbolization, and to read and exhibit on paper
before me examples of its use, sufficiently numerous to enable me to form a
complete judgement of its powers and merits. I take the liberty, therefore, in
the interest of science, to complete the information I gave you, so far as I am
at liberty to do. I may add, that I have no sort of connexion, pecuniary or
personal, with Mr Melville Bell's scheme ; that I have not been of the slightest
assistance to him in its construction ; and that persons might even rather suspect
me of wishing not to forward a scheme which will, I believe and hope, thoroughly
supersede one on which I have laboured for many years, and expended much
money. My impressions in favour of Mr Bell's scheme are so strong, that it is
necessary for me to guard against any suspicion of being biassed in giving them
expression.

"As I write I have a full and distinct recollection of the labours of Amman
(Surdus Loquens, 1692 ; Dissertatio de Loqueld, i/ooj ; De Kempelen (Le
Mecanisme de la Parole, 1791 J ; Johannes Miiller (Handbuch der Physiologic,
book iv., sec. 3., Von der Stimme und Sprache, German, 1834, French, by
Jourdan and Littre, 1851^ ; K. M. Rapp (Versuch einer Physiologie der Sprache,
4 vols., 1836 — 1841^ ; C. R. Lepsius (Standard Alphabet, second English edition,
1863,) ; E. Briicke (Grundzuge der Physiologie und Systematik der Sprachlaute,
1856^1 ; S. S. Haldeman (Analytic Orthography, i86oj ; Max Miiller (Proposals
for a Missionary Alphabet, prefixed to his Survey of Languages, 1855 ; Physio-
logical Alphabet, in his Lectures on the Science of Language, series ii., lecture 3,
1864,). To these I may add my own works (The AlpJiabet of Nature, 1845 ;

The Essentials of Phonetics, 1848; Universal Writing and Printing, 1856^;
together with a host of other works of more or less pretension and value, which
it would be too long to enumerate. The above treatises contain, perhaps, a com-
plete account of the present state of phonetical knowledge, so far as has been
published.

" Now, it is with this full and distinct recollection of works, which I have not
only read, but studied, many of them with great care and attention, that I feel
called upon to declare that, until Mr Melville Bell unfolded to me his careful,
elaborate, yet simple and complete system, I had no knowledge of alphabetics as a
science Much had been done. The mechanism and physiology of voice-sounds
had been carefully and profoundly studied. Excellent and elaborate attempts at
analyzing speech-sounds had been made. Various alphabets, local and universal,
had been planned. Contributions to the philosophy of alphabetics of great
value, indispensable observations and experiments, had been recorded and
many more are doubtless required. But alphabetics as a science, so far as I have
been able to ascertain — and I have looked for it far and wide — did not exist.
We did not know what elementary sounds or modifications of sound should be
expressed, and the art of expressing such as had been pretty generally received
was in a state of the utmost confusion. I should be loth to say that Mr Melville
Bell's scientific system of alphabetics admits of no improvement. It would be
strange if it did not. But it has all the present appearance, on the one hand, of
satisfying the wants of science, and, on the other, of fulfilling the demands of
practice.

" Mr Melville Bell, in forming an alphabet, rejected all existing alphabets.
They were all formed on very imperfect knowledge, or superficial observation.
He applied himself directly to the organs of speech, with which his long practice
as a corrector of the defects of utterance had rendered him familiar in all their re-
lations. The different forms of the glottis, the different modes of driving the
air from the lungs and the passages it traversed, the various ways of altering or
modifying the positions assumed by the organs of speech, first engaged his
attention ; and the skill with which he has hit upon the general modifications, is
one of the most remarkable parts of his system, leading to a series of diacritic
symbols of universal applicability, giving an almost unlimited power of express-
ing shades of sound and peculiarities of utterance, without loading the memory
of the reader with an impossible variety of literal forms. Next came the con-
sideration of the vowels, and their treatment is at once complete and original.

The size and shape of the aperture allowed for the passage of vocalized breath
" forms the basis of the arrangement, and the relations of the apertures thus
formed, with their modifications at either extremity, labial and pharyngal, give
a philosophical and, indeed, musical scheme of the relations of the vowel sounds.
The power thus obtained of showing, by the very form of the symbol, how to
produce the vowel sound, is really astonishing to those whose study of vowel
sounds has shown them the extreme difficulty of conceiving the method of
uttering or imitating them when spoken. So perfect is the present arrangement,
that a simple name is given to each vowel heard, depending entirely on the shape
and modification of the wind passage, by which its power is conveyed with ease
to those who have been properly instructed in the meaning of the words em-
ployed. The numerous examples which Mr Melville Bell and his Sons gave me
of the facility with which delicate distinctions in English pronunciation — as, for
example, between the vowels in shun and mention, nest and goodness ; principle,
principal, and principality — and difficult Scotch and Irish dialectic vowels, could
be symbolized and understood, were most interesting and satisfactory. No
approach to such a perfection of analysis and symbolization of the vowels has
yet fallen under my notice. Lastly came the consonants ; and here, too,
although they have been generally much better understood than the vowels, the
treatment is very original, and apparently exhaustive. I need only allude to the
method of marking the position and shape of the tongue with respect to the
palate, and the general modifications whereby the great variety of consonants
thus formed is reduced to a rational and intelligible order. Nor must I omit to
mention the mode of indicating glide sounds, during which the organs change
their position, and which, therefore, assume a kind of middle place between
consonants and vowels.

" As it would be impossible to give illustrations, the above general remarks
must suffice as an outline of the theory. To those who endeavour to pick up
conceptions of speech-sounds from the confused accounts of ordinary writers
(which are certainly sufficient to drive one to despair by their vagueness and
figurative language, differing for almost each country and each traveller or
grammarian), such a theory may seem terribly difficult. But treated practically,
by one who thoroughly understands it, it will be found extremely easy. There
is nothing vague, nothing figurative. Each symbol, and each part of a symbol,
has a meaning, and contains a direction for utterance. They are ivords of
command, which any raiv recruit can obey after proper drilling. When an

Englisman talks of hard and soft c, he has a meaning, no doubt ; but it is very
different from what an Italian or Spaniard would understand. What does a
Saxon mean by hard and soft, when he calls / hard, and b soft ? Something
very different. What are the thick and thin, heavy and light vowels or conson-
ants of different nations ? These words evidently do not tell any one what is to
be done. No one could he trained by them. But they have served to pervert
men's minds, and render them unable to describe or understand a real description
of sound. A well-known Orientalist, the other day, was surprised that Mr Bell
could not write a sound from description, which the describer could not himself
pronounce ; and was dissatisfied by having his own utterance of another sound
photographed, when he wished to hear the sound of his conception. All this
arises from extremely imperfect knowledge of certain landmarks of sound which
Mr Bell's system, when properly taught, at once establishes. But it will not teach
itself; owing in part to this prevailing ignorance, and in part to varieties of
pronunciation affecting the key-words. If Mr Bell were to publish his system
as a book, it might be doomed to repose on the same shelf with the Real
Character of Bishop Wilkins (which also contains an admirable analysis of
speech-sounds). Mr Bell can only teach it by transfusing it into living organisms
which will give his written symbols notion and meaning. Would the best book
on military manoeuvres, thrown on the world, make men mass together and
march and countermarch with precision and certainty ? It could at most but
incite a few minds to drill the multitude. But how inefficiently would they do
it, in comparison with those who had themselves been drilled and directed by the
man who conceived the manoeuvres ! It is the same in the practice of music,
drawing, sculpture, or any mechanical manipulation. It cannot be described,
it must be taught, shown, drilled into the pupil, to whom the book only serves
to recall the master. Hence, if the world will enjoy the benefit, the great
scientific and practical benefit, of Mr Melville Bell's discovery, it must place him
in a position to communicate it to proper teachers, by whom it may be conveyed
in an ever-widening circle. It is not a case in which a man can do this for
himself, without ample, independent means ; and even then ke^vould have little
chance of success, if the importance of his mission did not receive a public
recognition. For this reason, Mr Melville Bell appeals to the Government of the
country ; and his appeal should be backed on the same principle which induced
France to give Daguerre a pension for his discovery. The benefit is one for

mankind, which cannot sufficiently reward the individual ; and the benefit may
therefore be lost by death, if not secured at once.

" Allow me to say a few words respecting the mechanical arrangements of the
alphabet. When I first turned my attention to inventing letters, I learned ' to
work at case and press,' that I might know what would or what would not, be
practicable. Mr Melville Bell has been, perhaps, too anxious to reduce the
number of his symbols. He requires thirty-nine distinct types, of which many,
having a perfectly square face (as an ?«), can be used in four positions
(as m ui § § ), giving four distinct symbols. This renders certain typographical
arrangements necessary that, I think, would be best avoided. Such a defect, if
it be really a defect, is, however, a small matter of detail, which is easily
arranged, and could be at once overcome by increasing the number of types.*
They would even then not be too numerous. The shapes of his letters are not
founded on those of any existing alphabet, although a few of them accidentally
]/ recall some of our letters. They have direct reference to the positions of the
//organs of speech, and thus can be read at sight into the words of command
which the organs have been drilled to obey. By a happy contrivance, the vowels
have such a remarkably different appearance from the consonants, that they
strike the eye at once, and hence determine the number of syllables of which
the word consists. Mr Bell considers that the forms of the letters would be easy
for the blind to recognise by touch ; but of this I am no judge. Their great
/ peculiarity is, that each letter has its genus immediately marked upon it, by its
\general contour, and its species by the detail of the contour; its varieties by
diacritics of peculiar kinds. Thus we see at once that the sounds of t> d, are of
the same genus, and that the sounds of /, b, are also of one genus. Moreover,
we see that the specific distinction between f, d, is the same as the specific dis-
tinction between p, b, — a fact quite obscured in our ordinary letters, although also
shown thus far (and somewhat further, but by no means consistently) in Mr I.
Pitman's Phonography. But again, to t, d> are related s, z, and also Welsh //>
and / ; and these relations are again shown in type, the specific differences being

* The difficulty alluded toby Mr Ellis has been obviated in the typography of the system as now arranged.
The vowels were originally written with lines ascending beyond the consonants, and the spaces over the square
letters were filled with blank types. The alphabet as shown in the present work consists of ' capital' letters : the
' lower-case' alphabet (with ascending and descending vowel-lines) is now obtained, without blank types, by
simply casting the consonants on oblong instead of square bodies. This method adds 12 types to the numbe •
employed in the ' capital' alphabet. Lithographic illustrations of the ' lower-case' alphabet will be found at
the end of this volume.

the same as before, and shown in the same way. I can obviously only allude
to the simplest and best understood relations, but this may be sufficient to show
the principle. The specific difference between these pairs is the presence or
absence of vocalized breath ; and the specific mark of difference is derived
from the sign for ' the natural vowel/ which is again derived from the form
of the glottis necessary for vocalizing breath ; and thus the whole system is
bound together by a philosophical and scientific chain.

" How the work of the missionary and philologist would be facilitated by
the use of such an alphabet — which at once enables them to exhibit sounds that
no existing alphabet can even vaguely imitate, and to show their relations to
one another at a glance, and thus exhibit the relations of languages now forcibly
concealed by differences of alphabetic character, or by different usage of the
same alphabetic character — I need scarcely indicate. Leaving out of considera-
tion, then, what may be naturally considered the first practical and scientific
applications of such a mighty instrument as lies ready to be used when we call
it from its obscurity, its immediate home uses would be of great educational
value. If the teachers in our schools were drilled in the use of such an alphabet,
even only to the extent of European sounds, they could correct all mispronun-
ciations ; they could overcome, to a great extent, all natural defects of utterance
— as stammering, stuttering, and the like ; and they could prepare their pupils
to pronounce foreign languages in a manner that would not so seriously offend
the native's ear as our present " Stratford atte Bowe scole" fashion. Moreover,
without attempting to alter the established orthography of any country (leaving
that to the wisdom of our descendants, which it would be hard to suppose less
than that of our ancestors, who did change their orthography and alphabet), a
sufficient number of books in Mr Bell's alphabet (it is without a name, — why not
le bel alphabet?} might be published, being reprints of classical works readily
obtained in the usual alphabet, to render the acquisition of the pronunciation of
our own or any Continental tongue easy and exact. It is a simple statement of
fact to say that no system of marking our pronunciation which has hitherto been
adopted (not excepting Walker's, Smart's, Worcester's, or the phonetic systems
adopted by myself, or subsequently in America, and still more lately in the
presumed improvements by Mr I. Pitman) has succeeded in marking the extent
of national peculiarities of English speech, to the accuracy possible in Mr Bell's
system.

" I am afraid my language may seem exaggerated, and yet I have

endeavoured to moderate my tone, and have purposely abstained from giving
full expression to the high satisfaction and pleasure which I have derived from
my insight into the theory and practice of Mr Melville Bell's ' Visible Speech/
as it is rightly named."

The following Editorial article from the "Athenaeum" of July I5th, 1865,
was also founded on an examination of the Theory of the System : —

" Mr Alexander Melville Bell, who has for many years attended to the
removal of defects in pronunciation, produces a method of writing sounds : this
method is submitted to the severest tests with perfect success. It consists in
picturing by totally new symbols the action of the several organs of speech, tongue,
lips, teeth, &c. Each one of the symbols is a direction to do something : so that if
the user of it had forgotten the sound it represents, he would be taught it again
by merely following directions. The symbols, of course, represent the most
elementary actions of the organs : put together, they produce compounds. A
full sneeze, for example, is a complex operation : it comes among what are
called inarticulate sounds ; but Mr Bell writes it down, and, for aught we know,
could undertake to furnish every member of the House of Commons with a
symbol representative of his own particular sneeze, as distinguished from those
of all his colleagues.

" We, and many others, have seen this method tested in the following way. —
Mr Bell sends his two Sons out of the room, and then invites the company to
make words in any language, pronounced rightly or wrongly, and sounds of any
kind, no matter how absurd or original : for it is the success of this method that
whatever the organs of speech can do, the new alphabet can record. Mr Bell
tries each sound himself, until the proposer admits that he has got it : he then
writes it down. After a score of such attempts have been recorded, the young
gentlemen are recalled, and they forthwith read what is presented to them, re-
producing to a nicety, amidst general laughter and astonishment, all the queer
Babelisms which a grave party of philologists have strained their muscles to in-
vent. The original symbols, when read sound after sound, would make a Chris-
tian fancy himself in the Zoological Gardens.

" The utility of such a method is obvious : it is clearly one of those steps of
which people admit the utility so long as they can deny the practicability ; and

then, when obliged to admit the practicability, they deny the utility. Mr Bell
has formed a wide opinion of the range of application of his invention. He
may, or may not, be fully justified : but every one can see a great deal of what
he sees. To communicate through the telegraph by pure sounds, independently
of meaning, so that Arabic or Chinese may travel from a clerk who knows not
a word, to another just as unlearned as himself : to teach the dumb how to speak
by instructing them in the actual use of their organs : to take down the sounds
of foreign languages, especially those of savages, and to transmit them home :
to learn how to pronounce a foreign language by interlinear use of the alphabet
of sounds : — will be a very pretty instalment. And while this is being gained
the rest may be discussed.

" Mr Bell comes forward with a petition to the Government. He asks just this
— that the nation will be at the expense of casting his types and circulating
his method ; also that he may be enabled to give to a sufficient number the re-
quisite oral instruction. He submits that if he should be obliged to do all this
for himself, his system will be freely given to all the rest of the world, but re-
stricted within the British empire, by the action of the law of copyright. We
sincerely hope that he will be taken up, either by the Government or by the part
of the public especially concerned. To us it seems that the Missionary Societies
alone would find it worth their while to bear the whole expense. But we should
best like to see the Crown forward in putting before the world — after still further
and sharper testing, of course — a discovery which, if it be what we cannot doubt
it is, must be called the final victory over a difficulty as old as written language,
and an obstacle which has seemed to inhere in the nature of writing itself.

"This system was perfectly completed in April 1864. As long ago as 1849,
Mr Bell published a work in which he said, ' It would really be a matter of but
little difficulty to reconstruct our alphabet, and furnish it with invariable marks
for every appreciable variety of vocal and articulate sound.' But when he came
to the attempt, he found some lions in the path, which, as is the nature of that
sort of lion, did not show themselves until the huntsman came close to their
dens. The monsters were successfully attacked : but they took a long time to
conquer. That they are conquered, has been seen.

" All that has hitherto been tried is the attempt to put the letters of a lan-
guage or languages into symbols. We remember a work of the last century
which professed to symbolize accent, rythm, and cadence. A great many efforts
have been made to spell words : but the system before us spells spelling!'

If the Author has to complain of the insouciance of Government Officials
in reference to his proposition for a free promulgation of ' Visible Speech/ he
has no cause for any other feeling than that of the highest satisfaction on
account of the interest uniformly shown by the Press ; as well as by all who
have witnessed the experiments in application of the Invention. Among the
latter, he desires to mention the name of Professor S. S. Haldeman (of Columbia,
Pennsylvania, U.S.) — Author of the Trevelyan Prize Essay on ' Analytic
Orthography' — whose warm appreciation deserves this special acknowledgement.

A distinguished Bohemian Linguist, CENEK SERCL,* who, while still a
young man, has rivalled, if not surpassed, the renowned achievements of Cardinal
Mezzofanti, has favoured the Author with the following letter, which he has
much pleasure in presenting here :

" 37 Museum Street, 6th September 1866.

" At the request of Mr Bell, I dictated to him many of the most difficult
words of the Bohemian language, which were afterwards read by his Son, who
having been absent at the time of dictation, did not hear me pronounce them,
but nevertheless pronounced them in a very satisfactory manner, and extremely
intelligibly. I also selected the most difficult words in almost all European, and
five Asiatic languages, which were then written down by Mr Bell according to
his system ; his Son having been again called in, read them most correctly,
pronounced every syllable very distinctly, and put the right accent on every
word. Though I am not acquainted with the particulars of this truly remark-
able system, yet I dare say, that as far as I know, there does not exist any
system, nor did, which would express the most different peculiarities of
human speech and mode of utterance, in a manner so satisfactory as Mr Bell's
system really does. I am therefore happy to state, that in my opinion this
system, as being perfectly original, and, as far as outward appearance goes, most
simple indeed, is of the highest practical value ; the more so at a time when the
idea of a general alphabet is becoming a question of the highest importance.

" CENEK SERCL."

(* Pronounced

TABULAR EXPOSITION

VISIBLE SPEECH,

3
4*

5*
6*
7*
8*

11*
12*

13
14
15
1 6
17
1 8
19
20
21

25
26

COMPLETE TABLE OF RADICAL SYMBOLS.
The fundamental principle of Visible Speech is, that all Relations of
Sound are symbolized by Relations of Form. Each organ and each mode of
organic action concerned in the production or modification of sound, has its
appropriate Symbol ; and all Sounds of the same nature produced at different
parts of the mouth, are represented by a Single Symbol turned in a direction
corresponding to the organic position.

The following are all the Radical Symbols : —
i O The Throat open. [Aspirate.]
2* 0 " contracted. [Whisper.]

X " closed. [Glottal Catch.]

I sounding. [Voice.] 1 The Stems of all

J " " and the lips ' rounded.' j Vowels.

C Part of the Mouth contracted. "i ^

vThe Stems of all Consonants.
C " divided. /

( The Nasal Valve open. [Soft Palate.]

Vowel Definer. )

.... , Hoined to 4 and 5.

0 Wide Vowel Definer. )

Shutter. Joined to 6.

£ Mixer. Joined to 6 and 7.

{ Consonant Definer.

Y Force Director.

> Breath Director,

c Tongue Director.
Stopper.

H Divider.

$ Vibrator.

} Holder, or Long.

< Abrupt.

1 Hiatus.
o Link.

' Accent.

Modulators.

* Of these Symbols the Ten marked * make up all the Vowel and Consonant Letters, as shown in the
next Table.

THE TEN RADICAL SYMBOLS,

FROM WHICH ALL VOWEL AND CONSONANT LETTERS ARE FORMED.
i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

I I

0 I C C

Letters.

EXAMPLES OF LETTER-COMBINATIONS.
Letters.

\ 3 &c., combining I and 3.

1 3 &c., "

\ 3- &C., "

1 J &C.,

C I

3.
4.

i.
10.
6.

€£ combining 6, 8, and i.

O "6 and 9.
G 6, 9, and i.

Q 6, 9, and 10.

61 6, 9, 10, and i.

Q "7 and i.
C 7 and 8.

8 " 7, 8, and i.

Consonants.

COMPLETE ALPHABET OF TYPES.

CAPITALS.
16 in number. Vowels. — 20 in number.

I O 10 1 ClGICICiaiQl

i x i e I eieueiBlGiei

n in 1 13 1 nnii r 1 3 u i
mm i H mi 1 1 f i m i

' LOWER CASE' LETTERS (not employed in this Work.)

Consonants,
(28 in number.)

[Narrower and smaller letters of the
same shapes as the Capitals.]

GLIDES,
(7 in number.)

Vowels,

(20 in number.)

[Letters of the same shapes as the
Capitals, but ascending or de-
cending beyond the Consonants.]

MODIFIERS.
(14 in number.)

imsmmm n if i \\ n A i • i n c i > i *> i » i

TONES. — (4 in number.)

All the Types are reversible, to show kindred sounds of different organic formation.
The Letters are to be learned by their names independently of sounds.
The names of the Letters describe the organic positions which produce the sounds.
The following Table shows the name of each letter :—

COMPLETE TABLE OF LETTERS— WITH THEIR NAMES.

Consonants.

v owels.

Aspirate,

o . -a -d

•£ 0) r^ Q> ^ 0}

*| S ~ x-~ -g 1
t* ^ i^ »£H ;i •£« rt «j

o"^ S Q 3e S r<

High,

|l 1

MS* S

73 « *" *• »

ll § eg

1<? fe pE( ^-

T I I

Throat,

. Mid,

\ C C

Throat Voice,

Low,

I I I

Back,

Q High Round,

I £ f

Back Voice,

G Mid Round,

}

I I £

Front,
Front Voice,
Point,

o
o
o

CO
CO

Q Low Round,
CD
O

J !

I t t

Glides.

Point Voice,
Lip,
Lip Voice,

Q
0
3

00
3
3

Q
D
O

B |

*•• . r-i +£

15 8 1 § *
2 o § ft §

M >• rt H M

1 a
8 '3 .£•

Round.

•^' c "S
a S 'o .&
(£, fn PH >-)

<|I 115

ulu

1 1 I 1 U J

i 1 n | T 4 |

Modifiers and

Tones.

Nasal.

Trilled.

Suction Stoppe

d. c Abrupt.

Level Tone.

Nasal Mixed.

Divided.

Emission Stopp

ed. » Hiatus.

R.ising Tone.

Inner.

Inverted.

[To Back.]

Link.

<=> Whistle.

"ailing Tone.

Outer.

Protruded.

[To Lip.]

Accent.

<o> Voiced Whistle.

Compound Rise.

Close.

Stopped.

Emphasis.

r High

Key.

Compound Fall.

Open.

Suction.

Holder.

j Low

Key.

—

ORDER OF NOMENCLATURE.

CONSONANTS : — Organ, first ; 'Voice' last. Thus : Back C ; Back-mixed, voice (£ ; Front-
divided, voice 00 ; Front-mixcd-divided, voice QQ ; Point-shut Q ; Lip-shut, voice |3 ;
Point-nasal O ! &c-

VOWELS :— Elevation, first ; ' Round' last. Thus : High-back 1 ; Mid-back, wide ] ; Low-
mixed X ; High-front, Round f ; Mid-mixed-wide, Round \ ; &c.

GLIDES: — 'Glide' last. Thus: Brcath-glido ; Voice-glide, I; Lip Round-glide £; &c.

DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE PRIMARY
ORGANIC SYMBOLS TO THE ORGANS.

CONSONANTS.

X Glottis closed, (catch.)
I " narrow, (voice.)
O " open, (aspirate.)
0 Super- Glottal Passage

contracted, (whisper.)
J Soft Palate depressed,

(nasal.)

C Back of Tongue, (con-
tracting oral passage.)
O Front of do. ( do. )
O Point of do. ( do. )
O Lips, ( do. )

VOWELS.

} Back of Tongue high.
I Back and Front do. do.
f Front do. do.

[The dotted lines show the 'high,
'mid,' and 'low' positions of the
tongue, as subsequently explained.]

EXPLANATORY TABLE OF SYMBOLS FOR CONSONANTS
AND GLIDES.

Modifying.

Consonants.

Breath.

Voice.

Throat-passage contracted.

Back of tongue contracting mouth-passage.

dividing "

€1

closing "

" with nasal emission.

Front of tongue contracting "

dividing "

" closing "

with nasal emission.

10.

Point of- tongue contracting "

ii.

dividing

12.

closing

13-

" with nasal emission.

14.

Lips contracting mouth-passage.

IS-

" dividing

1 6.

" closing "

17-

with nasal emission.

1 8.

Back position (C) modified by partial effect of O

19.

Front " (O) O

20.

Si5

Point " (Q) " O

21.

Lip (0) C

22.

Divided emission with the organs in the position (^

23-

a ti a ^

24.

25-

Glides, or Transitional Semi- Vowels.

Partial

effect of 0 with vowel quality predominating.

O° 0

G°O

Modifiers.

\ Inner position. ^Applicable to any
\ Outer j of the Consonants.

c Inverted. ^Applicable to Point
o Protruded, j Consonants.

EXPLANATORY TABLE OF SYMBOLS FOR VOWEL
CONFIGURATIONS.

Explanation.

Primary. Wide. (1)

I. 1 1 Back of tongue(2) high and retracted.
2. ] 3 " retracted at a middle elevation.

" low and retracted.

Back

and front (3) of tongue high.

" at a middle elevation.

low.

Front

of tongue(4) high and advanced.

advanced at a middle elevation.

low and advanced.

10.

No. i,

rounded, (lip aperture narrow.)

}

" 2,

( " mid. )

12.

11 3.

( broad. )

13-

" 4,

" ( " narrow.)

14.

" 5,

( mid. )

IS-

" 6,

( " broad. )

1 6.

" 7,

" ( " narrow.)

17-

{

" 8,

( mid. )

1 8.

" 9,

( " broad. )

MODIFIERS.
Applicable to all Vowels

Nasalized.

" and gutturalized.

\ Long.

Abrupt.

Stopped in the throat.

Accented.

(1.) The 'Primary' and the 'Wide* Vowels have the same oral configurations; but for the 'Wide'
sounds, the voice channel from the throat to the configurative aperture is expanded.

(2.) For ' Back ' Vowels, the back of the tongue forms a narrow aperture with the soft palate, or (for the
' low-back ') with the pharynx.

(3.) For ' Mixed ' Vowels, the back and the front of the tongue both modify the voice-channel : the back
of the tongue does not descend below its ' mid ' position for the lowest of the ' Mixed ' series.

(4.) For ' Front' Vowels, the front of the tongue forms a narrow aperture between it and the roof of the
mouth — a free passage being left between the back of the tongue and the soft palate. From the ' low-back ' to the
' high-front' position, theconfigurative aperture progressively advances, by the nine stages J 1 1 X 1 T I Cf>
as illustrated in a subsequent Diagram.

TABLE SHOWING THE MUTUAL RELATIONS OF SYMBOLS

AND SOUNDS,
By which, a few Sounds being known, other Sounds may be deduced from their Symbols.

CONSONANTS AND GLIDES.

As Q is to O so are G to Q, Q to O, & to £3, 3 to Q, (£ to Q> &c-
" S5 " Q " G " G, CD " CD, and 0 to O-

" Q " Q " G " G, 0 " O, G to 3, &c.

" 00 " Q " 8 " G, CO " CD, 3 " G, &c.

" 00 " 0 " 8 " 6, 00 " O, 3 " 3, e*S to y, & to Q, &c.

" 5i5 " Q " 03 " 00, to " O, £13 " CO, &c.

11 O " IS 3 " 2, C " T, 0 " y, 0 to 5, &c.

VOWELS.
As £ is to £ so are t to t, 3 to ], 1 to }, J to J, &c.

" I " I " 1 " I- I " L 1 " J, J " J, &c.

<( 1 (< I " 3 " C, J " L J " t, &c.

" J " 3 f " I, J " J, I " C, &c.

" I " II " I " 3C, I " JL T " II, &c.

The relations of the Vowels are fully exhibited in the following arrangement.*
A B C D

114T7I Il4«r7r 14-4T7f 1 i. 4 T 7 p

3T6T9T 3 T 6 T 9 T 3J6T9J 3T6T9T

JJLL JJLl j ± t J ± t

As Class B is to Class A, so is Class D to Class C.
C " A, " D " B.

As are the Numbers, so are the Sounds in each Class, Thus :

Vertical Relation. Horizontal Relation.

2 is intermediate to I and 3, 4 is intermediate to I and 7.

5 " 4 " 6. 5 " 2 " 8.

8 " 7 « 9. 6 •« 3 « 9.

Diagonal Relation.

5 is intermediate to I and 9.

5 ^ 3 " 7-

* The practical application of these Relations in learning foreign sounds is shown in a subsequent section.

THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS,
EXERCISES, &C.

THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS AND EXERCISES.

The preceding Tables and Diagrams are intended to convey a general
knowledge of the principle of ' Visible Speech,' for the benefit of cursory
Readers.

In explaining the Symbols in detail, we take first those which represent the
elements of Interjectional or Inarticulate utterance.

Symbols. Names.

1. O Aspirate.

2. I Voice.

3. 0 Throat.

4. 0 Throat-Voice.

RUDIMENTAL SYMBOLS.

Explanation.

Emission of breath with the throat wide (H.)
The glottis narrow and sounding. (Vowel.)
Emission of breath with the throat contracted,

(whisper.)
Emission of voice with the throat contracted,

(hoarse murmur.)

5. X Catch. The glottis closed [and opened,] (a cough.)

6. | Nasal. The nasal valve open.

7. J Nasal-Mixed. The nasal valve open and the throat contracted.

8. \ Trill. Vibration of the organ symbolized.

9. A Close. Organic closeness or upward pressure, causing per-

cussive emission.

Organic openness with softness of emission.
Inward action of the air.
Transitional emission of breath from the symbolized

configuration.

13. ' Stop. A stop in the symbolized configuration, with cessa-

tion of the impulse of utterance. (An unfinished
element.)

14. > Hiatus. The preceding element finished independently of

the following.

Shorter than ordinary ' short quantity.'
The symbolized configuration ' held,' with the im-
pulse of utterance continued. (Long 'quantity.')
17. ' Accent. Impulse on the succeeding element or syllable.

10. Y Open.

11. < Suction.

12. > Breath-Glide.

15.' < Abrupt.

1 6. } Long or 'Holder.'

The numbers attached to the Symbols are merely for convenience of
reference to the subsequent explanatory paragraphs. The natural order of the
Symbols is shown in the Alphabetic Tables, page 37.

THE ORGANIC RELATIONS OF THE RUDIMENTAL

SYMBOLS.

The brief explanations of the Symbols given in the preceding Table are
supplemented by the following more complete descriptions, which explain the
rationale of the symbolization. The latter should be thoroughly understood by
those who study the Science of Universal Alphabetics for the purpose of
teaching, or with the view of symbolizing languages at hearing.

Symbols.

1. O When the glottis and the super-glottal passage are perfectly open,

the breath creates no sound in its emission. A moderate degree of
expulsiveness to render the ' aspiration ' audible is implied in Q- The
symbol is pictorial of the expanded breath-channel in the throat.

2. I When the glottis is contracted to a narrow chink, the breath in

passing sets the edges of the orifice — the 'vocal ligaments' — in vibra-
tion, and creates sonorous 'voice.' This vocalizing condition of the
glottis is pictured in the Symbol.

3. 0 When the glottis is open and the super-glottal passage is contracted,

the breath creates in the latter the non-sonorous rustling or friction
which is called 'whisper.' The relative expansion of the throat-
channel for O and 0 is pictured in the Symbols.

The organic effect of 0 will be understood by whispering a ' voiced-
consonant,' such as V. The result is clearly different from the sound
of the non-vocal consonant of corresponding oral formation (F.) For
the former, the fricativeness of the breath is audible from the throat,
through the oral configuration ; for the latter, the breath-friction is
audible only from the lip.

4. 0 The symbol 0 is a compound of 0 and I, and denotes whisper and

voice heard simultaneously ; — a vocal murmur modified by breath-
friction in the super-glottal passage.

5. X Symbol X pictures the conjoined edges of the glottis, and denotes

the ' catch ' of the breath which is heard (with violence of percussion)
in a cough. The linguistic effect of X is softer, but distinctly percus-
sive, when an aspiration or a vocal sound follows the ' catch.'

Symbols.

6. J The passage of the nostrils is governed by the soft palate, which

acts the part of a valve. When there is no nasal emission, the upper
surface of the soft palate presses against the inner end of the nostrils.
See Diagram, page 13. Symbol (, — which is pictorial of the pendu-
lous palate or its narrow prolongation, the uvula, — denotes that the
soft palate is depressed, so that the breath passes into the nostrils as
well as into the mouth.

7. f Symbol f is a compound of J and 0, and denotes guttural contrac-

tion with nasality, as heard in the French sounds in, on, &c. In these
elements there is a gliding semi-consonant effect in the throat as well
as nasal modification.

8. \ Symbol \ denotes a loose vibration or quiver of the organ to which

the symbol applies. Thus the tongue vibrates against the front of
the palate in forming the Scotch or Spanish R ; the uvula vibrates
against the back of the tongue in producing the French R ' grasseye,'
or the Northumbrian ' burr ;' the lateral edges of the tongue vibrate
in forming a close variety of L ; the lips vibrate when they are
relaxed and closely approximated ; and in the same way the edges of
the throat-passage vibrate, with a 'growling' effect, when the current
of breath is intercepted by sufficiently close but loose approximation.
Symbol \ thus refers to the element after which it is written ; as :

O \ a flutter of the breath.
I \ a quiver of the voice.
0 \ throat vibration : — a 'gruff' whisper.
0 \ hoarse vibratory murmur : — ' growling.'

9. A Symbols \ and Y, by themselves, refer to the aperture of the mouth
10. V as affected by the close (A) or open (V) position of the jaws. Following

other Symbols, \ denotes configurative compression, with consequent
percussion on leaving the configuration ; and Y denotes configurative
openness or organic laxity. Thus :

OA An exhaustive aspiration from upward pressure of the dia-
phragm ; — a wheeze.

Symbols.

OY ^ gentle inaudible aspiration.

XA Glottal closure with distension of the larynx from pressure on

the confined breath, and percussive emission on opening

the passage ; — a cough.

n. < Whisper or voice may be produced by air going inwards (<) or by

12. > breath coming out (>). All symbols except < and • imply emission.

Symbol > is used to denote a transitional emission from the symbolized
configuration in passing from one position to another. The effect is
different from the throat-aspiration, Q- Thus, from the ' shut' position
of the glottis (X) we may either open sharply upon an utterance of
voice (XI) or we may ease off tlie pressure of the ' catch' by interpola-
ting a 'breath-glide' Q>I).

13. ' Symbol • signifies that the organic separation or recoil from any

symbolized position — which is always implied in final elements when
the ' stop ' is not written — does not take place. Thus X- is an
unfinished ' catch,' in forming which the impulse ceases with the
closure of the glottis.

The effect of organic ' stop ' is implied between elements in
verbal combinations, such as tl in outlaw, td in outdo, &c. ; where,
necessarily, the t is not finished by organic recoil, as it would be at
the end of a word. In these cases, of course, the ' stop ' does not
require to be written.

The interruption of the throat-passage represented by X- is one of
the principal sources of difficulty in stammering.

14. > In verbal combinations of elementary sound, each element is insep-

arably joined to the succeeding one. When any element, except the
last in a combination, is finished independently of what follows, the
sign of 'hiatus' (>) is used. Thus in analysing or phonetically
'spelling' a syllable, we should say that QI consists of the elements
O'l — interposing a break. The effect of > will be understood by
pronouncing the word ' bedtime,' in which the d and t are not dis-
joined, in contrast with the separate pronunciation of the two words
' bed, time' Symbol > is an aspirated hiatus ; Symbol > is non-
aspirated — a mere interval.

Symbols.

15. < Symbol < denotes a very 'abrupt' utterance, shorter than ordinary

' short quantity.' The latter is implied in all symbols where no sign
of quantity is written.

1 6. } The sign of ' long quantity' or 'holder,' is of obvious application to

sounds ; but it applies also to organic configurations which yield no
sound, as to X|> where it denotes an interval of silence, from the con-
tinued closure of the glottis. The Symbol \ shows that the preceding
configuration, of whatever nature, is simply ' held ' for a moment.
Extra prolongation may be denoted by { },

17. ' The sign of 'accent' or stress distinguishes the syllable in a word,

or the element in a combination, which receives the principal impulse.
The mark is placed on the left side, or before the accented syllable.

The learner may usefully familiarize himself with the preceding rudimental
Symbols, by pronouncing them in expressive combinations, before proceeding to
the more definite elements of Articulate Speech.

When the breath, or the voice, is moulded by precise dispositions of the
parts of the mouth, ' Vowels ' and ' Consonants ' are formed ; but at present
let the Reader conceive only of a simple ' aspiration,' and a simple utterance
of ' voice,' unaffected by any definite arrangement of the mouth, as represented
by the Symbols Q and I-

The Alphabetic Writing of such effects as those in the following Illustra-
tions is at least a novelty, and it will no doubt be a sufficiently amusing one.
But there is also a practical utility involved in the mastery of these rudimentary
processes ; namely, in preparing the learner for the more important applications
that follow, and in giving him some command over the organs of utterance.
Such exercises will effectually obviate the difficulty in apprehending pure sound's
irrespectively of letters and verbal associations, which generally perplexes
beginners in their first attempts at speech-analysis.

The Reader may probably observe that many of the following combinations
might communicate other sentiments, &c., when pronounced with different
Tones or vocal Inflexions. But in the meantime, this prime element of Inar-
ticulate Expressiveness is left out of consideration. In a subsequent section
the effect of the Inflexions of the Voice is separately treated of.

EXERCISES ON THE RUDIMENTAL SYMBOLS,

FORMING INTERACTIONAL OR INARTICULATE UTTERANCES.

OY< OYl

silent respiration.

Oi<J(

0\< OI

sighing "

'00 0

O< O

panting "

OY<C

OH< OH

fluttering "

Ol<5(

0(1< 0(1

semi-nasal"

0<X-

01<XO

uneasy "

OX-

OI<X>OI

painful "

O<XOH

groaning "

OI<OI

guttural "

0(KO(I

naso-guttural

OOH<

01HOW

stertorous "

X0< 01

Voiceless.

OOI a sigh,
a sneer.

3 a yawn. XOI
OX* a sneeze checkd. XAO

X'X'X' suppressed
chuckling,
relief,
a short cough,

a hiccough. XAOX1 a cough checked-

an effort, XAO I a wheezing cough.

nausea. XAOX" XAOX- XA>acough,

disgust. X'0$ a hem.

a gasp. X? \ a grunt.

shuddering. X? H growling.

sobbing. XAO H clearing the throat.

Vocal

I a murmur of observation. I< a pang.

I( a drowsy murmur. I| a moan.

I? a murmur of disapprobation. I< a start.

1$ " sympathy. IXA'IfS a loud hem.

IA suffering. I'XAIO 1 1 a cough.

IO Belief. I(| I(< I(| I(< braying.

IX threatening. If||

']>I regret. OI

surprise.

disgust.

weariness.

'IOII "

lO'II " triumph.
IX A- a violent effort.
IX1 1 1 a baby's scolding.

Oil "
'OIOI "
OI'OI "

OI?
OIX'

lowing.

a murmur of
disappointment.
" ridicule.
vexation.
decision.
weariness.
annoyance.
discovery.

OI'XHI ahem,

XI t
XYII
XI H

a pang.

acute pain.
apprehension of
pain.

a grumble.

a growl.

a soft hem,

a sudden start

a cough.
XA'IO I la wheezing cough.
X0$ | clearing the voice.
XI? $ I clearing the throat

and nose.

XI (
XI? *
X > I

XI<
XAI'OI

51
CONSONANTS.

A Consonant is an action of some part of the throat or the mouth, yielding
an effect of friction or percussion from the squeezing, dividing, or stopping of
the breath. All Consonants may be considered as consisting of two parts :
I. a configurative position of the organs ; and, II. an action of recoil, or of
transition to the position for a succeeding element. These are, however,
inseparable parts of ordinary Consonants. When the configuration is more than
merely transitional, and is ' held ' for a perceptible time, the effect is separately
indicated.

All the Consonant Symbols are derived from the 'stem' C, which,
according to the direction in which the curve is turned, represents the Back, the
Front, or the Point of the Tongue, or the Lips. In each case the Symbol
denotes the same kind of fricative or sibilant emission of breath through a
centre-aperture formed between the closely approximated organs.

The outline of the Organic Curve is indented or 'divided' (Q) to show
emission by side-apertures, — of course with centre-stoppage ; — and the points of
the Primary Curve are suggestively closed by a straight line (Q) to denote com-
plete stoppage of the breath by the organic configuration. The sign of nasality
(() joined to the Shut-Consonant symbol (Q) shows oral stoppage with nasal
emission. The Organic Curves of opposite formation are united in the symbols
Q Q, &c. ( = C°O> O°O, &c.) to show the simultaneous action of the two
parts of the mouth denoted by the component Curves.

The symbol of Voice (I) is incorporated with each of the ' Primary,'
' Divided,' ' Shut,' or ' Nasal ' Letters, to denote the addition of vocal murmur
to the consonant action.

All the above varieties will be explained in detail, but the Reader will from
this sketch of the Consonant Alphabet, understand the Mono-symbolic plan on
which it is constructed.

The following Table exhibits the Primary Organic Symbols, and the
Diagrams which follow explain the relation of each Letter to the Organic

Configuration which produces its sound.

Symbols. Names.

Back.

2. O

3- O

4- O

5- Va

6- Q

Front.
Point.
Lip.

Back-Mixed.
Front-Mixed.

Point-Mixed.

8. £) Lip-Mixed.

TABLE OF ORGANIC SYMBOLS.

Explanation.

The Back of the Tongue contracting the oral passage

between it and the soft palate.
The Front of the Tongue contracting the oral passage

between it and the roof of the mouth.
The Point of the Tongue contracting the oral passage

between it and the upper gum.
The Lower Lip contracting the passage between it and

the upper lip, while the tongue lies in a neutral

' natural ' position.
The oral passage contracted by the Back of the Tongue

and the Lips, at the same time.
The Front and the Point of the Tongue both raised, so

as to bring the convex surface of the tongue close

to the front of the palatal arch and the point of the

tongue, at the same time, close to the upper gum.
The Point and the Front of the Tongue both raised —

the latter in a less degree than for Symbol 6, —

bringing the front surface of the tongue near the

rim of the palatal arch.
The Lower Lip and the Back of the Tongue — the latter

in a less degree than for Symbol 5, — contracting

the oral passage at the same time.

Modifiers.

The symbolized action farther back.
The symbolized action farther forward.
The Tongue inverted towards the Back of the mouth.

9. \ Inner.

10. \ Outer.

11. c Inverted.

12. o Protruded. The Tongue protruded towards the Lips.

DIAGRAM OF THE CONSONANT ORGANIC POSITIONS.

The centre dotted line, in each of the following Diagrams, shows the
position of the organs in forming the unmodified Consonants. The positions for
the 'inner' (\) and 'outer' (}) varieties are indicated by the other dotted lines.

DESCRIPTION OF THE 'INNER' AND 'OUTER' VARIETIES
OF EACH OF THE PRIMARY CONSONANTS.

f C { The Back of the Tongue depressed below the soft palate forms a

sibilation or friction of the breath between the parynx and the tongue.

| C I The Back of the Tongue raised to the top of the soft palate, with

sibilation.

f O { The Front of the Tongue curved downwards as for Oi forms a

sibilation between the highest part of the convex organ and the
2. •{ ' inner ' or posterior part of the roof of the mouth.

j O| The convex tongue directed forward at the top of the palatal

arch, with sibilation.

O { The Point of the Tongue turned within the palatal arch forms a

sibilation between the under surface of the tongue and the front
wall of the palate.
O \ The Point of the Tongue directed forward towards the teeth —

without centre-contact — forms a sibilation between the tip of the

3- "(

tongue and the teeth.

(J»c The Tongue inverted, forms a sibilant aperture between its point

and the back of the palate.
(Jo The Point of the Tongue protruded, forms a sibilant aperture

between it and the upper lip.
f Q \ The Lower Lip forms a sibilant aperture between its inner surface

and the upper teeth.
j Q \ The Upper Lip drawn downwards forms a sibilant aperture

between its centre and the lower teeth.

f Q\ In forming these 'inner' and 'outer' varieties of (%, the tongue

1 QJ takes the same positions as for the corresponding varieties of C> but

for the latter the lips are spread, while for the former a partial effect

of O modifies the ' Back ' sibilation.

f Q \ The same configuration of the tongue as for Q, but with the

I Qj point of the tongue drawn back to the edge of the palatal arch, pro-
duces the ' inner,' and with the tongue advanced towards the teeth,

produces the ' outer ' variety.

f £3 \ The same configuration of the tongue as for £J, but with the point

I £j> | of the tongue drawn back within the palatal arch, forms the 'inner,'

and with the tongue advanced towards the teeth, forms the ' outer '
[ variety.

In forming the 'inner' and 'outer' varieties of £), the lips take
the same positions as for the corresponding varieties of symbol Q ;
but for the latter the tongue lies in a neutral position, while for the
former, a partial effect of C modifies the lip sibilation.

The sign of ' closeness ' (\) applied to any of the preceding con-
sonants denotes a narrower aperture, with increased sharpness of
sibilation and percussiveness on leaving the configuration ; and the
sign of 'openness' (Y) denotes a widened aperture with consequent
dulness of sibilation and lessened percussion. Thus in forming 3
with ' closeness,' a mere thread of breath issues through the narrow
crevice between the lips — as in blowing to cool ; and in forming QY,
the breath flows through the wide orifice with the effect of a sigh on
the lips. The latter effect is interjectionally expressive of faintness,
or want of air.

( The sign of ' nasality ' applied to any of the p/ecedjng conson-

ants, shows that the breath flows through the nose as well as through
the symbolized configuration. The effect is to dull the oral sibilation,
and to deprive the transitional action of percussiveness.

$ The sign of ' trill ' applied to C or to C> denotes a vibration of

the uvula ; applied to O, it denotes a vibration of the point of the
tongue ; and applied to Q or to £), it denotes a vibration of the lips.

The symbolic curves introduced in this section have the same organic
value in all cases. They undergo modifications to express the ' mechanical
varieties' of consonants, as shown in the following Table:—

TABLE OF THE MECHANICAL VARIETIES OF CONSONANTS.

All consonants belong to one of the four mechanical classes represented by
the symbols C C Q Q 5 and the direction in which the curve is turned uniformly
denotes the organic formation of the consonant. Thus : —

Symbols. Names. Explanation.

( C O O O Organic Name, (Back, Front, Point, Lip.) Organic aperture

!• \ G Q £3 D " " and 'Mixed.' contracted to a

I centre chink.

f C CO CO 3 " " " ' Divided.' Organic aperture

2. \ C & & 3 " ' Mixed Divided.' divided by a

I centre check.

3- Q O O O " ' Nasal.' Mouth passage

shut and nasal
passage open.

4- O Q O D " ' Shut.' Oral & nasal pas-

sages both shut.

MODIFIERS APPLICABLE TO 'SHUT' CONSONANTS.

Symbols. Names. Explanation.

5. > Emission stopper. Organic separation without emission.

6. <k Suction stopper. Suction and organic separation without inhalation.

7. \ Side opener. Lateral or 'divided ' termination instead of organic

recoil,

8. ( Nasal opener. Nasal termination instead of organic recoil.

The following Diagrams exhibit the relation of the mechanical varieties of
Consonants to their Symbols.

Each element may take all the affections of ' inner,' ' outer,' ' close,' &c.
The numbers refer to the descriptive paragraphs which follow the Diagrams.

DIAGRAMS OF THE MECHANICAL VARIETIES OF

CONSONANTS.

DIVIDED CONSONANTS. When the organs are so placed as to check the
breath at the middle of the oral channel, and allow of its emission through
interstices at the sides of the obstruction, the breath issues with a comparatively
dull hissing or ' lisping ' effect ; and the subsequent removal of the centre
obstruction is attended with a slightly percussive flap, which is the essential
characteristic of the class of ' Divided ' Consonants.

All the organic positions which have been described as forming Centre-
aperture or ' Primary ' Consonants, yield also Side-aperture or ' Divided '
formations.

The mutual relations of the ' Primary ' and the ' Divided ' Consonants, and
the position of the Centre-check for the latter, will be understood from the
following Diagrams : —

PRIMARY, OR CENTRE-APERTURE CONSONANTS.
Back. Front. Front Point Point.

Mixed. Mixed.

Lip.

DIVIDED, OR SIDE-APERTURE CONSONANTS.

Back.

Front.

Front.
Mixed.

Point.
Mixed.

Point.

Lip.

CD 3

The ' Shut ' and the ' Nasal ' Consonants do not require additional illus-
tration. The oral passage is, for both classes of elements, uniformly closed by
the symbolized organic position. [See page 63.]

DESCRIPTION OF MECHANICAL VARIETIES OF CONSONANTS
[The numbers refer to the Table, page 56.]

1. PRIMARY CONSONANTS. — The elements of this class have been already de-

scribed in detail. [See preceding Section.]

2. DIVIDED CONSONANTS.

Symbols.

G The ' Back-divided ' Consonant has its centre check at the uvula. The
whole length of the tongue is compressed at the sides ; and there is gene-
rally a further centre-contact by the forepart of the tongue on the upper
gum ; but the ' divided ' aperture commences at the root of the tongue,
and gives the peculiar guttural quality which characterises this element.
This is perhaps the most difficult of all articulations to unpractised organs.
The easier C°CD is often substituted for Q, and the difference in effect is
very slight.

£J This is the same formation as the preceding, with modification by a
contracted lip aperture.

CO The ' Front-divided ' Consonant has its side apertures within the palatal
arch, the centre-check being given by the convex front of the tongue touch-
ing the front wall of the palate.

£Q The ' Front-mixed Divided ' Consonant has its centre check at the tip
of the Tongue, and its apertures between the edges of the flattened point
and the teeth or the upper gum ;— the front of the tongue having consi-
derable convexity within the arch of the palate.

Q The ' Point-Divided ' Consonant has its apertures over the sides of the
middle of the tongue — the point being in contact with the upper gum ;
the front surface of the tongue is flattened or slightly concave, so that the
apertures are large and productive of but little friction or sibilation. From
this circumstance, the ' Point-divided ' Consonant — which is always vocal in
English — has received the name of a ' semi-vowel.' The articulative recoil,
by removal of the centre-check, however, gives this element a distinct con-
sonant quality.

It is possible to pronounce words intelligibly — though, of course, with a
peculiarity — while the point of the tongue is held in contact with the
palate. This singular mode of utterance was at one time prescribed as the
secret of a vaunted method for the cure of stammering. The ' cure ' was,
certainly, not much better than the disease.

Symbols.

2<S The ' point-mixed divided ' Consonant has the apertures of Q narrowed
by convexity of the front of the tongue, and the breath is in consequence
strongly sibilant.

Q The ' lip-divided Consonant is formed by placing the centre of the lower
lip on the edges of the upper teeth, while the breath hisses through the
interstices between the teeth, or between the teeth and the lip.

A similar effect of ' divided ' formation results from placing the lower on
the upper lip, instead of the teeth, and directing the breath over the corners
of the lips. This peculiarity would be represented by the modifier (o)
(' to lip ') after the ' lip-divided ' symbol (33)-

J3 In forming 3 the tongue lies in a neutral position, and the friction of

the breath is heard only on the lip. For the ' lip-mixed divided' Consonant
(£3), the back of the tongue is retracted, and a partial effect of C modifies
the labial hiss.

INNER AND OUTER VARIETIES OF DIVIDED CONSONANTS.

The 'inner' and 'outer' formations of the 'divided' Consonants yield
less distinctive sounds than those of the Primary or Centre-aperture class.
The 'point-divided' Consonant (Q) is, however, susceptible of all varieties,
' inner,' ' outer,' ' inverted,' ' protruded,' &c. ; and the characteristic sound of
£2 may be produced with the tip of the tongue planted on any part of the
palate. The ' lip-divided ' Consonant ( Q ) has its ' inner ' formation when the
inner surface, instead of the edge of the lip, is brought in contact with the
teeth ; and its ' outer ' formation when the upper lip is drawn down to meet
the lower teeth.

UNI-LATERAL FORMATIONS.

When the breath issues by only one side aperture in forming any
' divided ' consonant, the modifier X cut in half ( H ) furnishes an appropriate
symbol for the peculiarity.

NASAL CONSONANTS.

When the organs completely close the passage of the mouth at any

point, and the nasal valve is open, the breath issues through the nostrils

with a very slight effect of friction. The necessary separation of the oral

The ' shut ' consonants are susceptible of all the modifications expressed

organs to form any subsequent vowel gives the audibility of oral effect which
is essential to a consonant.

A ' primary' or a 'divided' consonant modified by nasal emission is said
to be ' nasalized.' A ' shut ' consonant becomes a pure ' nasal/ and is altogether
changed in character by the opening of an oral channel for the breath.

The organic formation of the pure ' nasals ' corresponds in all respects
to that of the ' shut ' consonants. The number of the elements of these two
classes is consequently the same. The mere closing of the nasal valve con-
verts the ' nasal ' Q into the ' shut ' Q, Q into Q, &c, without any action of
the lips or the tongue.

The English 'Nasals' are always vocal; [see 'Voiced Consonants'] and
when the nostrils are normally free, the purity of the voice is so little affected
by consonant ' fricativeness,' that these beautifully sonorous elements have
been commonly, though improperly, called semi-vowels.

They may rather, while the oral passage remains shut, be considered as
nasal vowels ; and they are often used by themselves as syllables when their con-
figurations are momentarily ' held.' But in transitional formation the ' Nasals '
are true consonants.

It is quite possible, after a little practice, to utter words entirely through
the nose, while the lips remain closed. The effect is of course very peculiar, and
in many cases scarcely intelligible. But the motions of the tongue can be -heard,
and ears accustomed to this supremely lazy kind of articulation, can generally
distinguish vernacular phrases with but little difficulty.

SHUT CONSONANTS.

When the organs completely close the passage of the throat or the mouth
at any point, and the nasal valve is also shut, there is, of course, no emission
until the separation of the organs ; but the removal either of the oral or the
nasal check is attended with a degree of percussiveness proportioned to the
pressure on the confined breath during the organic contact.

The lowest, or most posterior ' shut consonant ' is Xj which represents a
percussion from the glottis. There can be no ' inner ' variety of the 'catch;'
but an 'outer' formation, or closure of the super-glottal passage (Xi)> yields a
distinct percussion, which is very common in Chinese and in many other
languages. The closure is effected by depression of the epi-glottis, as in the
act of swallowing, These ' throat-shut ' consonants can have no nasal corre-
spondents.

When a ' shut ' consonant precedes the ' nasal ' one of the same organic
formation, the oral organs are not disjoined, but the nasal valve is simply
opened; as in pin (D0) and dn ((^CD) in the words chapman, midnight, &c.
The independent completion of the ' shut ' consonant in such cases would be
inconsistent with the law of coalescence, which requires all the elements of a
word to be joined together without hiatus.

The nasal termination of a final 'shut' consonant is a peculiarity which
would be symbolized by subjoining the nasal sign to the consonant. Thus the
'lip-shut' symbol (Q) shows the complete stoppage of the mouth by closing
the lips; but it implies also the after-separation of the lips. The 'nasal' sign
subjoined (Q() would signify the closing of the lips, and the subsequent open-
ing of the nasal valve while the lips remain closed.

When a ' shut ' consonant precedes a ' divided ' one, formed by the same
organ — as tl (OCO), dl (QGO), &c- — the principle of coalescence applies in the
same way ; the ' shut ' consonant is finished by opening only the side apertures
for the next element while the centre contact is maintained ; as in the words
outlaiv, heedless, &c.

The 'divided' termination of a final 'shut' consonant is a peculiarity
for which .the special symbol 'side-opener' (K) is provided. Thus the 'point-
shut ' symbol (Q) shows the closing of the passage of the mouth by the point
of the tongue, but it implies also the removal of the tongue from the palate.
The 'side-opener' subjoined (OK) would signify that only the sides of the
tongue are removed while the point-contact is maintained. The opening of a
single lateral passage is shown by one half of the modifier. A common lingual
' click ' made by coachmen to incite the motion of a horse is formed by this
uni-lateral termination of the 'point-shut' consonant (OH).

The ' shut ' consonants are sufficiently distinguished for linguistic purposes
by the four radical varieties ' Back,' ' Front,' ' Point,' ' Lip,' with their ' inner '
and ' outer ' formations. The latter correspond with the ' inner ' and ' outer '
positions of the ' Primary' Consonants, as before described. The 'inner' ' Lip-
shut Consonant is formed by pressing the inner surface of the lower lip on the
upper teeth ; and the ' outer ' by pressing the upper lip on the lower teeth, so as
to ' shut ' in the breath.

The simple ' point-shut ' consonant (Q) may be written before or after
' point-mixed ' (^5, 2*5,) or ' front-mixed ' consonants (Q, 2*2,) because the coales-
cence of the elements is implied as a necessary part of the combinations.

by A, Y> •> \> &> &c- The 'holder' ({) after a 'shut' consonant, signifies that
the contact is more than merely transitional, and that the organs are not im-
mediately separated as a part of the articulative impulse. The ' stop' (•), shows
that the action is conjunctive only ; and the ' emission-stopper («>) signifies that
the organs are separated after contact, but that the breath is retained.

CONSONANT SUCTIONS.

The formation of the ' shut ' consonants by suction (<) gives rise to a
peculiar class of elements. The ' lip-shut ' symbol followed by the sign of
'suction' (D<) represents a sound inter] ectionally expressive of sudden pain ;
but there may be suction during the organic contact and separation of the
organs without ingoing air. For this effect the special sign ' suction stopper' (<•)
is provided. The 'lip-shut' (Q), 'point-shut' (O), and 'front-shut' (Q) actions
performed in this way, and the ' point-shut' with side-termination (OK), pro-
duce a series of sounds or ' clicks' which are very common in interjectional
or inarticulate utterance, and which are elements of ordinary speech in some
African languages. In these cases, an inner closure of the oral organs is ' held '
(Q-f), while the anterior suctions are made ; so that respiration goes on freely
through the nostrils during the formation of a series of the ' suctions.'

The ' Back Shut ' consonant may also be formed by suction without
ingoing air (Q<«) ; but in this case the inner closure of a glottal ' catch ' is
necessarily maintained (X-)> and the respiration is of course stopped.

CONSONANT ACTIONS WITHOUT BREATH.

All the consonant configurations of every kind — Primary and Divided as
well as Shut — may be formed, with more or less audibility, without either
emission or suction. If the breath within the mouth be compressed behind the
articulating organs while an inner closure is held, a distinct, and in some cases,
a powerfully percussive effect will be produced on the abrupt separation of the
organs. The signs £• and <k represent the two modes of this mere motion of the
organs of speech.

A workman in using the blow-pipe, maintains the ' Back-shut ' position (Q- {),
and the muscular compression of the breath enclosed within the mouth, between
the soft palate and the lips, suffices to continue the slender emission while the
operator breathes through his nostrils.

The following Diagrams give a comparative view of all the consonant
organic positions represented by the unmodified Symbols : —

COMPARATIVE DIAGRAMS OF THE RADICAL CONSONANT

POSITIONS.

EXAMPLE SHOWING THE APPLICATION OF THE MODIFIERS
TO A SINGLE CONSONANT ACTION.

Q The lips closed and opened (with pressure of breath implied.)

Q $ The opening of Q accompanied with vibration of the lips.

Qfl The closure of Q followed by lateral opening of the lips.

Qtt The closure of Q followed by uni-lateral opening. [A smoker's puff.]

QA The action of Q with strongly conjunctive closure.

QY 1ne action of Q with loose closure.

Q> The action of Q finished independently of the next element. (Implied
in final consonants.)

Q- The closure of Q without after separation of the lips.

Q j The closure of Q followed by opening of the nasal valve instead of labial
separation. [A suppressed chuckle.]

Q> The lips closed and opened with accompanying aspiration. [An interjec-
tion of contempt.]

The lips closed and opened with accompanying inspiration. [An inter-
jection of pain.
The lips closed with pressure of breath, and opened without emission

from the throat.
The lips closed with suction, and opened without inhalation. [A kiss.]

Q { The closure of Q ' held ' or prolonged, with subsequent separation of
the lips.

Q{- The closure of Q prolonged, without subsequent separation of the lips.
[Expressive of effort.]

Qt The action of Q very abrupt.

The following interjectional Exercises on the Consonant Configurations

may be usefully pronounced by the learner. This experimental practice will

be found the readiest means of obtaining a correct idea of the Consonant

positions : —

INTERJECTIONAL EXERCISES

ON THE RUDIMENTAL CONSONANT SYMBOLS.

C I disgust.
C $ \ snarling
snoring.

CH hawking.

CH gargling.

Q| hissing.

£3 1 hushing.

(j$ hurrying.

^)^3 silencing.

Q^l blowing to cool,

Q< sipping.

3YI faintness from heat.

£) | a semi-whistle.

D Oc3 incredulity.

DOD

3OI distaste.

G< pain.

*«\^ «

C0< acute pain.
O<

Q- quiet sneering.

Q-
O-
O-

D<D< sniffing.

O|< examination of odour

QO ridicule.

ac\ "

impatience.
• spitting.

blowing from point of
tongue.

D0O'< sucking.
•UCH tasting.
O<i O< Q< vexation.
O IN O N inciting.

CICi

a suppressed chuckle.

QQH snickering.

QOH

DOH

annoyance,
incredulity.

contempt.

.DU
DC
DG

D"^ kissing.
DO A {<* chirping.
015O'OA{^3 sneezing,
a flap of the tongue,
a clicking flap.
3<i " like the

gurgle of decanted liquid.
OCH the cry of a quail.
O CUt the grunt of a pig.
£3O$°O t thewhirrof a partridge.

oi'oio oi'oio n{'o}o

the sound of a grinding wheel.
CiCCiOi'OQ- the sound of
planing wood.

abhorrence.

C UJ C $< C V

C I \> O {< O O } Q the sound of sawing wood.

VOICED CONSONANTS.

All the Consonant actions have now been described, but each of them gives
rise to a second element of speech when the organic position modifies voice.
This uniform addition to the rudimental sounds is symbolized by the uniform
addition of a 'voice-line' (I) to the rudimental symbols. The 'voice-line' is
inserted within the consonant curve. Thus : —

Voiceless. Voiced.

occao eeeeiG

The vocalized Consonants are subject to the same affections of ' inner/
' outer/ &c., as the non-vocal elements. If therefore the Reader has mastered
the import of the organic and modifying symbols, he will be able, without
further explanation, to understand the exact phonetic value of all the symbols
for Voiced Consonants.

The following Table combines into one Scheme the Radical Consonant
Elements, vocal and non-vocal, as illustrated in the Diagrams of their mechanical
and organic formation, in preceding sections : —

GENERAL SCHEME OF CONSONANTS.
Voiceless. Voiced.

•si?

•B 3?
5 SS

T* -2 "

I *i

Throat

Back of Tongue.
Front of do.
Point of do.
Lip.

*•

Ci5

IMPERFECT AND VARIABLE VOCALITY OF CONSONANTS.

All consonants being merely transitional sounds in ordinary utterance, the
voice is not equally sustained from the beginning to the end of the vocalized
articulation. In pronouncing the word leave, for instance, the vocality of the v
is clearly heard only at the junction of that element with the syllabic sound —
the vowel ; and the initially voiced v sinks imperceptibly into its voiceless cor-
respondent f — as if the word were written leavf. This effect does not require to
be written, as it is inherent in the implied transitional character of the consonant.

When a voiced consonant comes before a non-vocal element, the murmur
of the vocal letter is heard only at the instant of its junction with the preceding
vowel, and immediately lost in the transition to the next element, as in the
words art, purse, else, felt, lance, cant, lamp, ink, &c. The abrupt effect of / m n
ng in such words might almost be written GDDOQ> instead of Q00^I3G> but as
there is a trace of vocality, the latter are the correct elements.

Foreigners, in pronouncing English words, generally fail to give the requisite
abruptness to these 'liquids' before voiceless consonants. The foreign pronun-
ciation of felt, for example, is OlOOlO- The native sound would be written
31GO<U or 31GOQU> were not the imperfect vocality of the I implied in the
combination.

Of course, where the voiceless correspondent of a vocal consonant is sepa-
rately heard before or after the latter, both elements should be written ; as in a
common dialectic pronunciation of the German word so (Q^53-{)-

The preceding observations show that the absolute ' quantity ' of voice in
a vocal consonant depends on the nature of the following element Thus the
I in felt (31GOU) though extremely short, does not require the mark of abrupt-
ness, because it is cut short by the t, in accordance with the law of coalescence
of syllabic elements ; and the /in felt [foreign] (3100IO) requires the mark of
long quantity (' holder ') to express the peculiarity of its prolongation before a
voiceless consonant, although the sound is really shorter than the final / in fell,
which would be expressed by GO alone. Five degrees of absolute quantity in
the sound of I will be recognised in the following combinations ; but no mark
of distinction is necessary in writing, because in each case the consonant has
the normal quantity due to the associated elements.

1. (shortest) felt 3 1 GOO

2. (longer) health OtCOS^

3. (longer) felled 3100Q

4. (longer) realm

5. (longest) fell

HELD CONSONANTS.

When the organic configuration for any consonant — vocal or voiceless — is
maintained, — otherwise than normally in a combination, as above explained, —
the element has a distinctive character, which is denoted by the sign ' holder' ({).
The consonants are often thus lingeringly formed for elocutionary effect, as in
the lines :

" Roll on (|), thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll (|)"

" Hush(|)cd, hush(|)ed ! How is it that I call

And that thou answerest not ?
When(|) was it thus ? Woe, woe, for all

The love ({) my soul forgot !"
" Stop({) ! for thy tread is on an empire's dust !"

A voiced consonant when ' held,' before a vowel or at the end of a word,
produces the effect of a syllable ; and the sounds of I m 11 — the most sonorous of
all consonants — are in English words frequently syllabic ; as in castfc, apple, tabfc,
chasw, rhythw, lis(te)«, kitt(e);z, butt(o);/, &c. The syllabic quality of a ' held '
consonant will be distinctly perceived after a vowel, as in the words lis(te)njer,
but(to)n}ing, &c. Such words are, however, often contracted into dissyllables
(GOIQOJIV, G3DG3IG, &c.) ; but the compound word apple-eyed (IDGOMCD)
contrasted with the word applied (IDC037iQ) — which is othenvise identical in its
elements — will clearly manifest the difference between a ' held,' and a normally
' transitional ' consonant.

CONSONANT COMBINATIONS.

There is no reason why all consonants should not be expressed in the same
manner, whether they occur singly or in combinations. Separate characters for
the double elements in such words as

(EnglisJi} cheer [tsh] (German} zeit [ts]

( „ ) jeer [dzh] (Italian} mezzo [dz], &c.,

are either superfluous or they are requisite in all cases of similar combinations ;
such as (EnglisJi} tr, dw, cl, gz, &c. ; (German} pf, &c.

English eyes might perhaps prefer a single type for the sound of J and G
in John, George, &c. ; or for X in six ; but French readers would not share the
prejudice in the former case, nor Spanish readers in the latter. Italians might
perhaps prefer a single type for the sound of their C in citta [English ch], but

neither English nor French readers would partake the feeling, as they are ac-
customed to associate a single though variable sound with the letter C.

In a UNIVERSAL ALPHABET all compounds must be written analytically.

Some persons fail to perceive the compound nature of sounds which they
have been accustomed to express by a single letter. But it should be borne in
mind that, though the two elements d and zh are undoubtedly present in the
English J ; and t and sh in the Italian C (before e and i] ; the first element is
not finished independently, but — by the law of coalescence, which compacts the
elements of a syllable and the syllables of a word — the second consonant takes
the place of the ordinary ' recoil ' which the first element would receive in sepa-
rate pronunciation. Each consonant, in fact, loses part of its normal sound when
two are combined in one syllable.

GLIDES.

The Primary' or Centre-aperture Consonants, as we have seen, are formed
by the breath or the voice — compressed behind the articulating organs — issuing
with a degree of friction, sibilation, or buzzing, through a narrow passage over
the ' Back,' the ' Front,' the ' Point/ &c., of the tongue, or between the ' Lips.'
When the configurative channel is so far expanded as to remove compression
or buzzing from the voice, a series of semi-consonant, semi-vowel sounds results,
which we call ' Glides.' These elements are only transitional sounds. If they
had a ' fixed configuration,' they would be vowels, and would form syllables ; as
even the closer consonants do when their configuration is ' held.'

The ' Glides ' being thus intermediate to consonants and vowels, are appro-
priately represented by the organic consonant curves joined subordinately to
vowel stems ; thus I fi f ^, &c. The ' Glides ' unite with vowels to form ' diph-
thongs,' or double sounds with a single syllabic impulse. The vowel ' stems '
(If) are now specifically employed by themselves to denote non-syllabic vowel
murmurs.

The latter sounds are very common in the mouths of speakers, and much
of the characteristic effect of individual utterance depends on these delicate
' Glides.' Many persons, for instance, habitually use the ' Voice-glide ' (J) or the
' Round-glide ' (f ) in commencing or finishing other elements ; and, however
accurately the vowels and consonants of such speakers might be written, the
result would not be a perfect representation of their utterance without the inter-
polated transitional sounds.

It is the aim of this System of Letters to write every sound which the
mouth can make, and to represent it exactly as the mouth makes it. Such
minute symbolization is not called for in the ordinary writing of languages ; but
the power must be inherent in a Universal Alphabet ; because the peculiarities
of utterance which, as idiosyncrasies, may be passed unheeded in writing a
speaker's language may possibly be essential characteristics of vernacular pro-
nunciation in some part of the world.

The following is a complete Table of the ' Glides.'

:OMPLETE TABLE OF THE GLIDES.

Symbol. Name.
i. > Breath-Glide.

2. I Voice-Glide.

3. J Round-Glide.

4. J Throat- Glide.

5. I Back-Glide.

6. \ Back Round-Glide.

7. fi Front-Glide.

8. ^ Front Round-Glide.

9. y Point-Glide.

10. ¥ Point Round-Glide.

11. \ Lip-Glide.

12. I Lip Round-Glide.

Explanation.

A Transitional aspiration, of organic quality corre-
sponding to that of the adjoining elements
[= a soft effect of GOOD, &c.]

Vowel murmur [= a non-syllabic effect of \.]

Rounded murmur [= a non-syllabic effect of \.]

A semi-vowelized sound of 0.

A semi-vowelized sound of G.

A semi-vowelized sound of (£.

A semi-vowelized sound of (•)•

A semi-vowelized sound of Q, with lip modifica-
tion.

A semi-vowelized sound of Q.

A semi-vowelized sound of Q, with lip modifica-
tion.

A semi-vowelized sound of Q.

A semi-vowelized sound of ).

VOWEL RELATIONS OF THE GLIDES.

No. 4 resembles the vowel J ; No. 5 resembles the vowel ] or 1 ; No. 6 re-
sembles the vowel } ; No. 7 resembles the vowel I : No. 8 resembles the vowel f ;
No. 9 resembles the vowel I ; No. 10 resembles the vowel J ; No. 1 1 resembles
the vowel I ; No. 12 resembles the vowel ^.

VOWELS.

A ' Vowel' is a syllabic sound moulded by a definite and momentarily fixed,
or tense, configuration of the free channel of the mouth, and creating no oral
sibilation or friction in its emission. A vowel without a ' fixed ' configuration
loses its syllabic effect, and becomes a ' glide ;' and a 'glide' with sibilation or
friction in the oral channel becomes a ' consonant.' Consonants, like glides, are
merely transitional sounds ; but their configurations may be ' held ' so as to
receive syllabic impulse, in which case a consonant without a vowel has the
effect of a syllable. All vowels make syllables.

Primary vowels are those which are most allied to consonants, the voice-
channel being expanded only so far as to remove all ' fricative ' quality. The
same organic adjustments form 'wide' vowels when the resonance-cavity is
enlarged behind the configurative aperture ; — the physical cause of 'wide' quality
being retraction of the soft palate, and expansion of the pharynx.

Voice, as formed in the throat, may be said to have no vowel quality. It
derives the latter entirely from the shape and size of the voice-channel in the
throat and the mouth. Thus ee and ah are one sound in the throat ; but, for
ee, the convex front of the tongue must be elevated and advanced close to the
front of the palatal arch, so as to contract the oral channel in the greatest degree ;
while, for ah, the root or back of the tongue must be retracted, and depressed
below the edge of the soft palate, so as to enlarge the oral channel in the greatest
degree. The point of greatest contraction, or the ' configurative aperture,' may
be shifted to any part of the back or the front of the palatal arch ; and every
different attitude of the tongue produces some change in the shape and dimen-
sions of the oral cavity, and consequently a change of vowel quality.

The sounds resulting from the various adjustments of the tongue to the
palate are susceptible of an additional modification from the contraction or
' rounding' of the guttural passage, — and, probably, of the upper aperture of the
larynx, — accompanied by a corresponding modification of the buccal cavities
and of the external aperture of the lips. All the palato-lingual vowels may
undergo this change. The dimensions of the labial orifice vary in accordance
with those of the oral channel ; thus, to ' round ' the narrow sound of ee, the
labial orifice is reduced to little more than a chink ; while the broad aperture of
ah is ' rounded ' by contracting only the corners of the lips.

The vowels — whether ' Primary,' ' Wide/ or ' Rounded ' — are divided into
three classes of palato-lingual formations, according as the oral cavity is moulded
mainly by the ' Back/ the ' Front/ or the ' Mixed ' (Back and Front) attitudes
of the tongue. The ' Back ' vowels have the largest oral cavities, the tongue
being disengaged from, or depressed below, the line of the upper teeth ; the
' Mixed ' vowels have smaller cavities, the edges of the tongue being raised to
the sides of the teeth ; and the ' Front ' vowels have the smallest cavities, the
convex tongue being elevated within the arch of the palate.

The general outline of the palato-lingual channel for the three classes of
vowels will be understood from a comparison of the Diagrams at page 73.

VOWEL SYMBOLS.

The symbol of ' Voice ' (I) is the basis or ' stem ' of all the vowel letters.
To this 'stem' a 'Primary' or a 'Wide' 'Definer' is added, to show the
organic formation of the sounds. The ' Definer' is joined to the inner or left
side of the stem for ' Back ' vowels ; to the outer or right side for ' Front '
vowels ; and to both sides of the ' stem ' for ' Mixed ' vowels. The ' Definer '
for ' Primary' vowels is a dot (1), and for 'Wide' vowels, a hook (]_).

Three degrees of elevation of the tongue in its ' Back/ ' Front/ or ' Mixed'
attitudes, are discriminated by the position of the ' Definers ' on the vowel
' stem.' The ' Definers ' stand at the upper end of the stem for the ' high ' vowel
of each class ; at the lower end for the ' low ;' and at both ends for the ' mid '
vowel of each series. Thus : —

VOWEL SYMBOLS.
PRIMARY VOWELS. WIDE VOWELS.

Back.

Mixed.

Front.

Back.

Mixed.

Front.

High,

Mid,

Low,

The relation of the Symbols to the organic positions is exhibited in the
next Section.

RELATIVE ORGANIC FORMATION OF VOWELS.
The relative positions of the tongue to the palate indicated by the Vowel
Symbols will be understood by comparing the following series of Diagrams.
From the ' Low Back ' to the ' High Front ' positions, the cavity of the mouth
is progressively diminished ; the ' Mixed ' vowels being intermediate to the
' Back ' and ' Front ' vowels. Conversely, the progressive enlargement of the
vowel cavity will be seen on comparing the Diagrams in the order from i to 9.

Back.

High.

f^L

Mixed.

Front.
I.

ff- -p-

Mid.

?^ v

r Ifa

Low.

The following additional illustrations of the relative apertures of the ' Front'
vowels will help the reader to a clear understanding of the mechanical cause of
variations in vowel quality. The eye is supposed to look down on the convex
surface of the tongue through the roof of the mouth. The front line is the rim
of the palatal arch.

Relative Apertures of Front Vowels.
Hiyh (Narrow.) Mid. Low (Broad.)

The following Diagram presents a further illustration of the Scale formed
by the progression of the ' configurative aperture ' for the radical Lingual Vowels.
[See 'Modulated Whisper!'] The diagram combines in one view the series of
nine positions separately illustrated at page 73.

SCALE OF LINGUAL VOWELS.

7.5

RELATION OF VOWEL TO CONSONANT POSITIONS.

The various positions of the tongue which produce ' centre-aperture ' Con-
sonants, form vowels when the channel between the organs is sufficiently
expanded and firm to allow the breath to pass without oral friction or sibilation-
The vowel positions thus bear a definite relation to the Consonant attitudes of
the different parts of the tongue. A knowledge of these elementary relations
will enable learners who are acquainted with the simple consonant-frictions to
interpret the Vowel Symbols with uniformity in different countries.

The 'Back' Vowels are allied to the 'Back' Consonant and its 'inner'
and 'outer' varieties; the 'inner' consonant corresponding to the 'Low-Back'
vowel, and the { outer' to the ' High-Back' vowel.

The ' Front ' vowels are allied to the ' Front ' consonant and its ' inner '
and 'outer' varieties; the 'outer' consonant corresponding to the 'High-
Front ' vowel, and the ' inner ' to the ' Low-Front ' vowel.

The ' Mixed ' vowels are allied to the ' Point ' consonant and the ' Mixed '
Point-and-Front varieties. The ' Front-Mixed ' consonant corresponds to the
'High-Mixed' vowel; the 'Point-Mixed' consonant to the 'Mid-Mixed'
vowel ; and the ' Point-Consonant ' to the ' Low-Mixed ' vowel.

The ' Mid-Mixed ' vowel brings the tongue into the ordinary position of
rest ; the ' Back' and ' Front' surfaces of the tongue are equi-distant from the
corresponding parts of the palate, and the quality of the sound is neutral. This,
therefore, may be called the ' Natural Vowel ' position.

These Vowel and Consonant Relations are illustrated in the following
Table :

MUTUAL RELATIONS OF 'PRIMARY' CONSONANTS AND

VOWELS.

Consonants. Vowels. Consonants. Vowels. Consonants. Vowels.

LIP-MODIFIED OR 'ROUND' VOWELS.

All the varieties of ' Primary ' and ' Wide ' vowels hitherto explained,
result from the shape and size of the cavity of the mouth as affected by the
Tongue, while the lips remain spread so as not to influence the sound. The
same lingual positions yield another series of vowels when the voice-channel is
' rounded ' and the aperture of the lips contracted. The mechanical cause of
' round ' quality commences in the super-glottal passage, and extends through
the whole mouth-tube, by lateral compression of the buccal cavities and reduc-
tion of the labial aperture. The last cause — lip-modification — being the 'visible'
cause of ' round ' quality, is assumed as representative of the effect

The amount of lip-modification corresponds to the degree of elevation of
the tongue ; ' High' vowels have the narrowest labial aperture ; ' Low' vowels
the broadest ; and ' Mid ' vowels an intermediate aperture.

This uniform addition of lip-modification is symbolized by a uniform
addition to the vowel ' stem.' The symbol expresses the organic action by an
obvious analogy. The lips are drawn across the aperture of a lingual vowel in
order to ' round ' its quality ; and the resulting effect is symbolized by a short
line drawn across the voivel 'stem? Thus : 1 I f , &c.

The 'rounded' vowels are called 'High-Back Round' (J), 'High-Back
Wide Round ' (J), &c. ; the syllable ' Round ' being added to the name of the
Tongue-vowel symbol.

The effect of ' round ' modification, not being dependent on the lips alone,
is producible — with some peculiarity — without contraction of the labial aperture ;
and this inner ' rounding' is practised as a concealment by ventriloquists. The
sign of 'inner' formation may be used to denote this mode of pronunciation.
Thus : iJ [oo, rounded without the lips.]

The Reader will now have a definite idea of the oral configurations repre-
sented by the symbols of ' Round ' vowels, as shown in the following Table : —

SYMBOLS OF ' ROUND ' VOWELS.

PRIMARY.

Back. Mixed. Front.
High. \ \ f

WIDE.
Back. Mixed. Front.

1 I f

Relative Lip
Aperture,

Mid. } t

Low.

Other faintly different shades of vowel sound are possible ; as, for instance,
from giving a greater or less than the ordinary or symmetrical degree of lip-
modification. Even these delicate varieties may be perfectly expressed by the
modifiers ' close ' (A), ' open ' (Y), ' inner ' ({). ' outer ' (\\ or by ' linked ' symbols ;
but such compound letters can never be required in the writing of languages,
except to show the curiously minute accuracy with which these plastic physio-
logical symbols may be applied.

NASALIZED VOWELS.

When the nasal valve is opened simultaneously with the formation of a
vowel, the breath or voice issues partly through the nostrils and partly through
the oral configuration. This, with a degree of 'gliding' semi-consonant
contraction in the guttural passage, is the formation of the common French
sounds represented by n after a vowel letter. To indicate the ' mixed-nasal ' or
naso-guttural quality of these elements, the special symbol f is provided. The
symbol is formed by uniting 0 subordinately with the ordinary nasal sign (.

The precise oral qualities of the French nasals must be settled by native
orthoepists. We write in accordance with, at least, a very general usage,

Examples.

an) Tn I?3a B^-SH?3!?-

en
in

]

ENFIN. MON-ENFANT.

CHACUN — A SON GOUT.

Partial nasality without guttural modification — such as is heard in some of
the American dialects, and from individual speakers — is represented by the
ordinary nasal sign (() placed after the affected vov/el.

Any vowel may be nasalized.

VOWELS OF GLIDING QUALITY— DIPHTHONGS.

All the Vowel Symbols represent sounds of ' fixed ' configuration —
monophthongs ; but many syllabic sounds have a superadded gliding quality,
which converts them into ' diphthongs ' or double sounds. The second element
of an ordinary diphthong is not, however, another vowel, as it has neither ' fixed
configuration ' nor ' syllabic impulse.' The initial element is a vowel ; the
second is a transitional sound or ' glide,' and the two, in combination, form but a
single syllable.

The difference between a ' diphthong,' thus explained, and a combination of
two vowels, will be manifest on comparing the diphthong I in knives (H^TiQ^)
with the dissyllabic combination of the same sounds in naive (G33I3) J or the
diphthongal a infamous (3C?iB3Q) w^tn tne dissyllabic compound of the same
sounds in phaeton (3CIDJ0)-

The diphthongal quality of the English a will not, at first, be admitted by
every reader ; but the double quality of the sound cannot fail to be apprehended
in slow pronunciation or in singing ; or, better, by contrasting the English with
the Scotch pronunciation of any word containing a under accent. The Scotch
a is — like the French e — a monophthong. Thus :

[Scotch:] 3CJGO, [English:] 3CMO,/<w7.

A diphthongal glide may be a transition either towards the ' natural ' vowel
(see page 75) or its ' rounded ' correspondent ; or towards the configuration for

a ' centre aperture ' consonant vowelized, i.e., formed without the friction or
buzzing of a consonant. All monosyllabic diphthongs are accurately sym-
bolized by the appropriate 'glide' placed after the initial vowel. In such words
as cruel, Creole, &c., two vowels, and consequently two syllables, are heard.

The following examples, which include only a few out of the vast number of
possible ' diphthongs,' will furnish the Reader with a useful organic exercise.

EXAMPLES OF DIPHTHONGS.

fli II II

IX Cl fl

tx u «

« II 11

\l Cl tl

i« ix n w ix ix u 11

a is j¥ iv ix ix- u n

n iv ji n ex H 31 ji

n u ji u n JA ji ji

VOWEL QUANTITY.

The vowel symbols imply ordinary ' short ' quantity, as the words it, if, ill,
&c. Abruptness (<), and prolongation (}), are separately denoted.

The absolute length of a syllable is greatly dependent on the nature of the
elements which follow the syllabic vowel ; as in the words

seek, seem, see. root, room, rue. late, lain, lay.

goad, goal, go. sought, sawed, saw. right, rhyme, wry.

fork, form, for. curt, curl, cur. deck, dealt, dell,

bit, built, bill. hat, hank, hand. rot, romp, wrong.

Vowels before non-vocal consonants are always shorter than before voiced
consonants, or when final, under accent. Such differences do not require to be
indicated, as they are implied in the nature of the combinations. The vowel in
the word meet, for instance, is considerably shorter than in the words meal or me;
but, notwithstanding the shortening influence of the voiceless consonant in meet,
the vowel should have the same mark of long quantity as in meal, because it is
' long ' as compared with its ' short ' correlative in meet (Scotch) or mit (German),

and only further lengthened by its association with the vocal I The ' short ' cor-
relative of the sound ' meal ' is heard in the French ' mille.'

The reader will bear this principle in mind, and not pronounce all long
vowels equally long, or all short vowels equally short.

Extra prolongation of a vowel — as in drawling — may be shown by doubling
the sign of long quantity (|{). Four degrees of quantity may be thus distin-
guished by the symbols ; as :

1. Abrupt or extra-short (ah), J<

2. Ordinary short, . . . J

3. Ordinary long, . . J {

4. Extra-long, . -Ill

LINKED SYMBOLS.

Some peculiar oral combinations are occasionally met with among indi-
vidual speakers, such as pronouncing R with a labial quality added to the
ordinary lingual formation ; or uniting a ' Point ' and a ' Back ' friction for the
same element ; modifying S with rounded lips, or with the lower lip in the
position or F, &c. All such peculiarities may be indicated at pleasure by
writing two organic symbols with a ' link ' (o) between them, to show that they
are to be pronounced simultaneously and not in succession. Thus : QoQ,
labialized r ; QoQ, gutturalized r\ QoQ, s modified by/; &c.

Any two elements — vowels, consonants, or one of each class — may be thus
' linked,' where a single alphabetic symbol does not express the whole mechanism
of a peculiar sound. Thus the ' Low-Back ' vowel ' linked ' to the ' Lip '-Con-
sonant (JoQ) would show close labial modification of a sound which, when
normally ' rounded,' is associated with a broad aperture of the lips, &c.

GOVERNING SIGNS.

A pair of 'linked' symbols within parenthesis (QoQ) (QoQ), &c., may
be used as Governing signs to denote habitual peculiarities of any kind, and to
save the writing of the latter at every instance of their recurrence. Thus the
' Nasal ' sign, or the ' Back ' or the ' Lip ' consonant, ' linked ' to any element,
will show a general nasalizing, gutturalizing, or labializing of that particular
sound ; as (G0°(0 ? nasal ; (QO°C) Z guttural, &c.

A more general indication of such peculiarities, without reference to any
specific element, will be furnished by writing the ' link ' before the ' nasal ' or
other organic sign by itself, within parenthesis ; as (oQY:) close lips ; (oQa:)
protruded tongue ; (o( :) general nasal quality ; (oj^:) strained voice, &c.

Habits of lisping, burring, &c. ; peculiar elementary substitutions ; huski-
ness, drawling, abruptness, hemming, monotony or prevailing tone ; audible
inhaling, ' windy suspiration of forced breath,' closing the teeth, jerking the
emphasis, licking or biting the lips, speaking from one side of the mouth, &c.,
may thus be simply conveyed to the eye.

This species of fac-simile writing may be found useful for directive pur-
poses, to composers of vocal music, dramatic authors and actors, teachers of
oratory or of singing, &c. ; as well as amusingly applicable, on special occasions,
by too faithful ' reporters,' in presenting a typic phonogram of the idiosyncrasies
of speakers.

Subjoined are a few examples of ' linked ' symbols :—

(Ci)°GO r> guttural.
(Q°30 r, labial.
(D° 30 wh, as w.
O°30 w, as v.
(QoM s, as th.
(Q°LS:) s, as sh.
(£3°Q:) *h, as s.
(QCOoUGO:) cl, as tl.
(QoQ: &c.) obstructed

nasals.

(G°GQO ng, as ngg.
(O°IO h omitted.
(I°O:) vowels aspirated.
(V°Ci):) r-glide, as r-con-

sonant.

(Cfto[:) Scotch a.
(Cfi°W Cockney a.
(Ho}:) Scotch o.

(H°1IO Cockney o.
(Cy°COO Scotch a before r.
(}y°}0 0 Scotch o before r.
(iy°iyO American e or i

before r.

(Ol°f 10 American 11.
(31°CliO American ow

in nozv.
(o}"{:) Inner rounding of

oo, [without the lips.]
(oQ$:) r trilled.
(oQ:) whisper.
(oQ:) husky voice.
(°IAO strained voice.
(°IYO soft voice.
(°I| 10 drawling,
(ojt :) abrupt vowels.
(oTi:) vocal tremor.

(o< :) audible inspirations.

(o> :) transitional aspira-
tions.

(opj:)transitional murmurs
[hemming and hawing.]

(o^:) keeping the mouth
close.

(<>Y:) keeping the mouth
open.

(°XI:) coughing the vowels.

(oX:) choking utterance.

(o> :) hesitancy.

(oQ- : &c.) ' stopping ' con-
sonants [stammering.]

(oQ>Q: &c.) repeating con-
sonants [stuttering.]

(o1:) marked accentuation
[rhythm.]

ANALYSIS OF 'MIXED' SYMBOLS, AND OPTIONAL EXTENSION

OF THE PRINCIPLE.

The ' Mixed ' Vowel and Consonant Symbols provided in the alphabet
may be considered as equivalent to ' linked ' letters, which are, for typographic
convenience, combined in one character. Thus the vowel I might be written
1°I ; I might be written ]o[ ; X might be written JoJ ; to express the same
sounds.

So, too, the consonant (^ might be written C°O \ Q might be written
O°O ; L3 might be written O°O 5 £) might be written QoC 5 but in the
case of the consonants the ' mixed ' symbols express more than combination,
as they are designed to show excess of one over the other element in the organic
compound.

On the same principle, other alphabetic forms may be introduced to show
the combinations C°O, C°O, O°G> O°O, &c., with excess of either element,
should it be found desirable for local convenience anywhere, to express such
organic compounds by single types. The principle of the system admits of an
extension of the alphabetic characters without danger of ambiguity ; as each
radical symbol retains its organic value with uniformity in all cases.

The sign of ' trill,' or of ' inner ' or ' outer ' formation, of ' stop ' or ' holder,'
or of ' nasal ' or ' naso-guttural ' modification, may be similarly combined, by
superposition or otherwise, ad libitum, with the letters to which they refer,
wherever convenience could be served by the incorporation of the symbols into
single types.

TONES.

The most important affection of simple voice is modulation, or change of
pitch. The qualities of tone are most clearly felt in connection with inarticulate
sound.- But even articulate speech is interpreted by tone ; and in all cases
where sentiment rather than the communication of ideas is concerned, the
modulations which accompany utterance are more expressive than words. In
the Chinese language, the same combinations of articulate elements pronounced
with different tones, are said to express an equal number of distinct meanings.
Hence the necessity of including modulative signs in a scheme of speech-
symbols adapted for universal application.

Chinese linguists, however, use the word ' tone ' in a peculiar sense. They
include under that name effects which are not properly varieties of intonation.
Thus, the sudden check given to a vowel by the closing of the glottis is reckoned
a ' tone.' In Visible Speech this effect is represented by the symbol for ' stop' (•),
or for ' catch' (X).

The degrees of modulation are almost infinitely numerous, and they are
perhaps incapable of exact symbolization ; but there are radical varieties of
inflexion, each of which conveys a distinct significance, and to some one of
which all minor modifications must be generically related. These radical
inflexions may be usefully symbolized. Thus :

Symbol.

Level tone.

/ Simple rising inflexion.

\ Simple falling inflexion.
v Compound rising inflexion : — falling and rising with a single impulse

of voice.
A Compound falling inflexion : — rising and falling with a single impulse

of voice.

The effect of a monotone is reflective ; the effect of a rising tone is prospec-
tive ; and of a falling tone retrospective. Thus a vocal murmur with monotone
(I-) expresses attention or observation; and a prolonged monotone (I|-)
musing. A simple rising inflexion, of limited range, expresses enquiry or
doubt (I') ; and a prolonged one, self-interrogation or prospective musing (If)-
A simple falling inflexion, of moderate interval, expresses assertion or assur-
ance (P) ; and a prolonged one, self-assurance or retrospective musing (IP).
When rising or falling inflexions are modified to intervals of pitch corresponding
to those of the ' minor mode ' in music, the effect is plaintive : a simple rise ex-
presses compassion or supplication ; and a simple fall, regret or lamentation.
When the rising or falling tone extends through greater intervals — of a fifth, an
octave, or more — the rise expresses surprise or incredulity ; and the fall, injunc-
tion or dogmatism.

The effect of the compound tones — which combine a fall and a rise, or a rise
and a fall, with one accentual impulse — is to suggest the expressiveness of their
first element in antithesis to that of their second element. Thus a compound
rising tone is appellatory or prospective by its termination, and affirmative by

its commencement : it suggests affirmatively that an effect or consequence will
follow the utterance. This tone (JV) thus expresses warning or discontent,
when of moderate range ; regretful supplication or unwilling detraction, when in
the ' minor mode ;' threatening or contemptuous appeal, when of extended
range ; and musing or reflection on contingent probabilities, when prolonged
(I|v). A compound falling tone is affirmative or retrospective by its termina-
.tion, and appellatory by its commencement : it suggests interrogatively that
enquiry, cause, or motive has preceded the utterance. This tone (I*) thus
expresses counter-assertion, or impugning, when of moderate range ; compas-
sionate affirmation or derisive commendation, when of 'minor' interval; dog-
matic counter-assertion, or sarcasm, when of extended range ; and reflection on
consistent certainties when prolonged (IU).

Illustrations in connection with words may help the reader to produce these
varieties of expressive inflexion. Thus :

I. Pronounce the word ' /' ' with simple rising tone, and the utterance will be

felt to be as plainly interrogative as the equivalent sentential expression
1 Is it I?'

II. Pronounce the word ' You"' with simple falling tone, and the utterance will

be felt to be as plainly assertive as the equivalent sentence, ' // was yoti /'

III. Pronounce the word 'go ^' with compound rising tone, and the utterance

will be felt to be equivalent to ' go — or an understood consequence will
follow!' Or pronounce the sentence '/"would not,' and the tone will
be felt to suggest the positive inference — ' but another might.'
IV. Pronounce the word 'go '"' with compound falling tone, and the utterance
will be felt to be equivalent to ' go — because an understood motive or
reason urges !' Or, pronounce the sentence ' Yon '^ did it /' and the tone
will be felt to suggest the negative or appellatory inference — ' and not
another person.'

The preceding analysis of Tones shows that the effects of intonation are
not less various in our own language than they can be in Chinese or in any
tongue. Modulative expressiveness is, in fact, the same in all countries : it is
not, like articulate utterance, arbitrary and conventional, but instinctive and
natural.

This statement may be thought to be at variance with the fact, that in every
dialect, and almost in every family, there is a prevailing modulative tune ; but

this habitual succession of tones is associated only with articulate language,
which is altogether habitual, artificial, and local. In the use of inarticulate
modulations, there is, no doubt, a universal agreement.

It is further to be noticed, that the prevailing tones of dialects, families, or
individuals, reveal the prominent points of individual or national character. Thus
a wide variety of pitch and inflexion in speech denotes vivacity and levity of
disposition ; and a general sameness of pitch, or a limited range of inflexions,-
denotes comparative dulness and gravity. A predominance of simple rising
tones characterizes timid, retiring, dependent, inconfident, querulous, scrupulous
conciliatory people ; a predominance of simple falling tones characterizes bold,
rash, independent, persevering, confident, dominating, stern, uncompromising
people ; a predominance of compound rising tones characterizes vain, forward,
self-aggrandizing, shrewd, calculating, clever, insinuating, wily people; and a
predominance of compound falling tones characterizes proud, self-confident,
supercilious, sarcastic, revengeful people. As a general rule, simple tones indi-
cate artlessness, and compound tones artfulness of character.

An accomplished speaker, in any country, cannot express himself with
habitual modulative tune of any kind. His voice will be constantly varied in
pitch, inflexion, and range, in accordance with his feeling of the inherent expres-
siveness of the tones. The association of this vocal vis naturce with the utter-
ance of conventional language, constitutes the great difficulty in acquiring, and
the great charm in listening to, the delivery of an effective reader, orator, or
tragedian.

In our notation of Tones, no more is aimed at than the discrimination of
the radical varieties : — level, and simple or compound rise or fall. The types for
tones — being, however, like all the 'Visible Speech' types, reversible — may be
used to indicate relative /z'Ar^ as well as inflexion. Thus :

J' high-pitched rise, (expressing simple enquiry).

J/ low-pitched rise, (expressing interrogative surprise).

1\ low-pitched fall, (expressing simple assertion).

]" high-pitched fall, (expressing dogmatic assertion).

One additional symbol for modulation, or change of KEY, furnishes all that
it can be desirable to indicate in connection with Tones in the writing of languages.

Thus :

r Key elevated. , Key depressed.

MODULATED WHISPER.

An observant car will detect the quality of modulation or change of pitch
even in a simple breathing. A sigh may thus be modulated. The rising modu-
lation of a sigh conveys a sentiment of anticipation ; the falling, a sentiment of
remembrance. The difference is due to a change in the size of the oral cavity,
and consequently a change in the vowel quality of the breath.

Every configuration of the mouth gives the breath an absolute pitch, so
that it will be found impossible to whisper any one vowel with changes of modu-
lation. There is no difficulty in changing the pitch of the breath ; but with every
change, the vowel quality — the oral configuration — is altered. As the tongue
increases in convexity, the cavity of the mouth is lessened, and the pitch rises •
and as the aperture of the lips is narrowed, the pitch falls. The lowest sound is
consequently that which has the root of the tongue most depressed and the lips
in the closest position.

Each of the consonant sibilations, as well as the vowels, will thus be found
to have an inherent pitch ; but the pitch of the consonants may be considerably
varied by 'inner' or 'outer' shifts of the configurative aperture, and by altera-
tions in the oral cavity, which do not destroy the essential character of the
sibilation. The following is the modulative order of the primary consonants : —

0 \

D G C! C CM O W Q0< O (U

In forming the first of these elements, the tongue is in the ' high-back '
position. A deeper series of sounds can consequently be formed by depressing
the back of the tongue while the lips retain the close position of £). Thus the
following form a lower descending series :

(oQ:) [the sign of whisper :] loO(=£)) ]oQ JoQ.

The ' divided ' formations are lower in pitch than the ' primary ' or centre-
aperture elements of the same organic mechanism. The following is the modu-
lative order of the ' divided ' consonants :

The vowels allied to the centre-aperture consonants yield whispers of
slightly lower pitch than that of the consonants, because of the greater expan-
sion of the breath-channel. For the same reason, the ' wide ' vowels of the

' front ' and the ' mixed ' series are a degree lower than the ' primary ' vowels ;
but the ' primary ' vowels of the ' back ' series are a degree lower in pitch than
the ' wride ' vowels, because the greater retraction of the tongue enlarges the
oral cavity. The following is the modulative order of the Lingual vowels :

^^^Jiil^J? 21

n n n n n T T n n n.

The ' rounded ' vowels are lower in pitch than their corresponding simple
' linguals.' The pitch of the highest of the ' rounded ' vowels is the same as
that of the ' high-mixed ' of the lingual series ; and the pitch of the ' low-
back ' vowel is the same as that of the ' low-mixed ' of the ' rounded ' series.
The unisons in the scales explain the similarity in effect of guttural and of
labial modification before referred to. [See page 76]. Thus in forming Q, the
tongue is in the neutral or ' natural ' position, and the breath is affected to the
same pitch either by contracting the passage between the back of the tongue
and the soft palate (Cl)> or by narrowing the labial aperture. The correspon-
dence may be thus represented :

Guttural. Neutral. Labial.

The modulative order of the vowels and the primary consonants, united
into one scale is the following :

0 t

DGOCMCClJOWn Oi O 0\

n } ^ j j u i * i i i t t « t f ij

Whatever practical use may be made of this scale, the relations it exhibits
as inherent in the elementary configurations may be found of some service in
securing uniformity of pronunciation of the symbols in different countries.
Thus to find the precise quality of the vowel represented by 1 prolong the con-
sonant Ci> the-ri vowelize or expand and tensify the configuration to remove the
friction of the breath ; and, keeping the organs in the same position, sound the

voice, and the result will be the vowel ]. Or whisper the vowel £ (oo), and entirely
spread the lips without moving the tongue, and the result will be \, or, with
sibilation, C^- [See page 75].

The best way to perform such experiments on configurative pitch, will be
to listen to the different elements as whispered by another person who does ;not
know the purpose for which he produces the effects : otherwise the subtle
power of variation before referred to — although all variations are absolutely
dependent on changes in the cavity of the mouth — will perplex the ear in its
attempts to catch the natural pitch of a configuration. Wide differences will
be best appreciated at first. These may be used to test the principle. No
person, for example, will be found to whisper the words way or we with a descent
of pitch from w to the vowel ; or the words yoke or you with an ascent of pitch
from y to the vowrel ; but, on the contrary, every person will be found to whisper
any given series of elements with exactly the same relations of pitch, when no
special effort is made to accommodate the result to a pre-conceived note.

WHISTLING is another form of modulated whisper. The varieties of pitch
in whistling are produced by changes in the cavity of the mouth, of the same
kind as those which produce varieties of vowel-sound. A whistle has a well-
understood — if a vulgar — expressiveness, and it may not be superfluous to provide
a sign for this effect (<=>). A whistle with rising modulation is a call of invitation ;
with falling modulation it is a call of imperativeness.

A whistle formed on the tongue— bearing the same relation to £J that the
labial whistle bears to £) — may be symbolized by adding the sign of 'inner'
formation (<=>\). This sound adds an intimation of secresy to the meanings
conveyed by the labial whistle.

A whistle formed on the tongue and modified by the lips — symbolized by
<=>JoQ — gives a loud and piercing signal of alarm.

Whistle and voice may be blended. The symbol of the combination
would be <x>.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF

VISIBLE SPEECH
TO LANGUAGES.

THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS OF LANGUAGES.

The scheme of Letters developed in the preceding pages provides the
means of alphabetically representing all languages exactly as they are spoken,
or according to any standard of pronunciation.

The symbols have been explained with reference only to the organic
adjustments which they represent, and not in connection with the elementary
sounds of languages ; because the sound intended necessarily results, in every
case, from putting the organs in the symbolized position.

The sounds of many of the symbols cannot be exemplified by ordinary
letters, or even by key-words, which are so differently pronounced by different
speakers ; but the relations of the various elements will be perfectly apprehended
from an attentive study of the Symbols themselves and the explanatory Dia-
grams. The effect will be found to be, that when the symbols of familiar
sounds are known, the sounds of other letters will be deduced from the forms
of the letters more accurately than they could be from key-words. [See ' Mode
of deducing Foreign Sounds from their Symbols.']

The elementary sounds in actual use in any language may be most con-
veniently ascertained by tabulation from the utterance of selected speakers ;
and a standard of the pronunciation of every tongue may thus be fixed for the
guidance equally of native and of foreign learners.

Languages also which have never been reduced to writing may now be
alphabetized by missionaries and travellers with such uniformity as — whatever
the nationality of the writers —to convey a faithful copy of the native pronuncia-
tion which readers in all countries will vocalize alike.

It has never hitherto been possible to write a language or dialect in such a
manner as to enable a stranger to the language and to the writer's native tongue
to read the transcript with even an approach to vernacular accuracy. This old
' impossibility' may now be accomplished simply, certainly, and universally.

The scales of sounds may be taught without the use of language as a
medium of instruction, and by means only of diagrams and oral exemplifications
of the elementary sounds. Thus it will be possible for a missionary or a
traveller, who is acquainted with ' Visible Speech,' to write an unknown language
as he hears it, and to teach its unlettered speakers to read their own tongue,
before their instructor himself has learned the meaning of a word.

The difference between many of the elementary sounds, when separately

pronounced, may appear to unaccustomed cars too slight to be of importance ;

but to those who use the sounds in vernacular speech, the slightest differences
are often real distinctions on which intelligibility depends. Each of the oral
configurations, when definitely formed, yields a perfectly distinct quality of
sound, and the nicest varieties will become appreciable when the configurative
differences are clearly apprehended.

A good ' ear ' and considerable practice will be necessary to enable a
person to analyze new combinations, and to identify foreign sounds, at hearing ;
but a good ear is in great measure a product of education, and the power of
discrimination will become sufficiently common when it is drawn out by exercise.
Ordinary learners of ' Visible Speech ' do not require any special aptitude.
Facility in reading will be attained by any person in a very brief period.

Some of the shades of sound distinguished to the eye will, no doubt, at
first, be difficult of appreciation by readers unaccustomed to exact observation.
The beginner should therefore content himself with associating with their respec-
tive symbols such sounds only as he habitually uses and can readily discriminate.
The power of minuter discernment will infallibly increase after the eye and the
mouth have become familiar with a few of these settled landmarks of sound.

There is often, however, a difficulty felt in recognizing familiar sounds when
they are heard under unusual circumstances — long instead of short, accented
instead of unaccented, and vice versa. The reader must lose sight of such habitual
associations of accent and quantity, and bear in mind that these accidents are
not inherent in any sound. The vowels, for instance, in ill, dl, at, up, on, &c.,
may be prolonged as much as those in eel, all, ooze, &c., and the latter may be
shortened to any extent, without affecting their essential quality. So, too, the
' obscure ' unaccented vowels in places, certain, sofa, mentzVw, picture, &c., may
have the fulness and definiteness of accent ; and considerable practice is neces-
sary to enable the ear to identify the sounds under the altered conditions. All
collated alphabets — that is those which are formed by an aggregation of the
elementary sounds discerned in different languages, like the ' Standard Alpha-
bet ' of Lepsius, Mr Ellis's ' Palaeotype,' &c. — contain repeated entries of the
same sounds, under differences only of accent, quantity, coalescence with ad-
joining elements, &c. In ' Visible Speech,' these elements would, of course,
have the same graphic sign.

Examples of the letter-value of the principal ' speech-symbols ' — taken,
when possible, from English and its "dialects — are furnished in the following
Tables, which will serve to establish a sufficient number of phonetic 'landmarks'
in the reader's mind : —

JETTER-VALUE OF THE PRINCIPAL CONSONANT AND GLIDE SYMBOLS.

CONSONANTS.

Am. American F. French Hu. Hungarian Pec. peculiar Sp. Spanish

Cock. Cockney Ga. Gaelic Ir. Irish. Po. Polish W. Welsh

E. English Ge. German It. Italian Sc. Scotch Z. Zulu.

fe (E.)

(Vowel whisp.)

variety of de-
fective r

bu'er for "butter
(west of Scot.)

nac/i (Ge.)
ttch (Sc.)

au^ (Ge.)
sou^/j (Sc.)

hiss of water-
fowl.

c, k, q, (E.)
aj kind (E.)

sink* (E.)

\ch (Ge.)

j, r, (E.)
QJciudad(Sp)

O
variety of de-
fective s

^2
//«n (E.)

QL
variety of t

variety of «*

theatre (F.)
-rh (W.)

£3
.svfow (E.)
^aud (F.)

O
temple (F.)
felt* (E.)

£J
/? (W.)
hi (Z.)

tie (E.)

tent* (E.)

variety of f
or wh

w/^y (E.)

/ie (E.)

gutturalized
variety of f

/ie (E.)

lamp* (E.)
m//m ! (Sc.)

tage (Ge.)
G} zei/7e(Ge.)
£ \ burred r

varty-of£-(Ge.)
and of defec-
tive r (E.)

Zaogh (Ga.)
barred 1 (Po.)

labialized
variety of
Gaelic I

£•0 (E.)
eU^uide (E.)

sing (E.)

jes (E.)

.seal (E.)

&\d, final (Sp.)

7/ano (Sp.)
gli (It.)

SQ
///en (E.)

Q
Magyar (Hu.)

Boulogne (F.)

race (E.)
Q$ r(Sc. Sp.
&c.)

pleasure (E.)
your (F.)

/ie (E.)

03
«%Z (Z.)

^ie (E.)

s'm (E.)

weg (Ge.)
*> (Sp.)

way (E.)

7/ie (E.)

gutturalized
variety of v

£uy (E.)

seew (E.)

* The nasals, and also 1, before non-vocal consonants, are often pronounced without vocality. The exact effect of the English
compounds in felt, ink, tent, lamp, &c., includes both the vocal and the voiceless I, m, n, &c. Thus : —

OtGXOO, IGQC1, OltfGa COIBOD-

The voiceless elements, howerer, do not require to be written in such words. [See ' Imperfect and Variable Vocality of Consonants.']

94
GLIDES.

p'aper

va'ry

now

are

our

di* (E.)

new

are(E.)

our(E)

liii (F.)

noz

(Ir.)

(E.)

(Am. & Cock.)

(pec.)

(smooth
burr)

(s. burr
labialized)

dar(E)

(North Ir.)

LETTER-VALUE OF THE PRINCIPAL VOWEL SYMBOLS.

laogh (Ga.)

first (Am.)

/I (F.) j
l\ee\ (E.)
I ft iille (F.)

5S}w

-shire (E.)
-rs (pi.) (E.)

zll (E.)

up (E.)

que (F.)
1ft zeit (Ge.)
If un (F.)

<?t (F.)
tfday(Sc)

[ft d^y (E.)

«sk (E.)
m#nn (Ge.)
3Rl«gh(E.)

31h^ (E.)

a [article] (E.)

-al ) ,_ .
i [•*-•'•)

\jf\ QCtV (Cock.J

ill (Sc.)
-m^nt^ /,-, v
-nrss /^ ''
C^rt/r (E.)

up (Sc.)

sz'r (Prov.)

*11 (E.)
11*11 (Sc.)
If v«« (F.)

m#n (Sc.)
J|ps«lm(E)
TV are (E )

J A \ '/

XV err (E.)
up (Cock.)

m/?n /F \

1 1 1 Li, 1 1 1 J^ j . 1

1 1 pap« (Ir.)
II eye (Sc.)

II n<9W (Cock.)

T xll^?//S( CjG )

1^ our(0ock.)

book (Sc.
11 P">1 (E.)
01{u(E.)

u (Sw.)

«ber[|](Ge)

t^, good (E.)
1¥ P^r (E.)

-«re (E.)
12 do (Am.)

b^t (noun)
(Sc.)

}

{

h0me[|](Sc)

h0mme (F.)
*? 0« (F.)

«ne (F,)

-^?/gh (E.)
ch^ad (F.)
}¥ ore (E.)

stone (Am.)
n<?te (Sc.)

]eu (F.)
boot (v. imp
behooved)
(Sc.)

all[{] (E.)
J¥war(E.)

sir (Ir.)
1ft / (Ir.)
I? «* (F.)

beurre [j]

£?n (E.)
iJYor (E.)
Jft b^y/ (E.)

«sk (Cock.)
not (Ir.)

/'ii (Sc.)

f I OM< (Cock.)

* Syllables preceded by a hyphen are unaccented terminations.

MODES OF TEACHING THE UNIVERSAL ALPHABET.

Teachers should, of course, be perfectly familiar with the Theory of the
Alphabet, as well as competent to exemplify all the elementary sounds, and to
recognise them with certainty when heard. Learners may be introduced at once
to the symbols.

The teaching of the symbols for vernacular sounds can in no case be
attended with difficulty ; and illiterate learners may begin to read with their
first lesson. A plan of .instruction applicable to children and illiterate adults is
shown in a subsequent section.

For other learners a different method will be preferable. The names of the
letters should first be taught, independently of sounds. When the names of all
the vowels and consonants are known — which, with oral teaching, will be in a
few minutes — the symbols of familiar sounds should be pointed out, and the
learner should repeat the pronunciation of these until he becomes conscious of
the organic actions by which he forms the sounds ; and of the correspondence
of the actions with those which he specifies in naming the letters. The relations
of the symbols will, in this way, be speedily felt, and the plan of the Alphabet
will be fully comprehended long before the whole of the sounds which the
learner habitually makes have been associated with their symbols.

The pronunciation of foreign sounds will not, of course, be so easy as the
discrimination of their letters ; but after the principle of symbolization has
been comprehended in connection with native sounds, the ' visible ' relations of
foreign to native sounds will be of the greatest possible assistance to the learner
in forming his mouth for unfamiliar elements. In most cases it will be found
that unknown sounds will reveal themselves with a fair approximation to
accuracy at the first effort, by means of their relation to sounds which are
known. [See ' Mode of Deducing Foreign Sounds from their Symbols.']

A simple method of teaching the names of the vowels and consonants will
be by means of four cards containing the four ' stems :'

with separate adjustible slips showing the requisite ' definers :'

By revolving the two Consonant Cards — with ' mixed,' ' shut,' ' nasal/ or
' voice ' signs attached — the organic varieties of each elementary aetion will be
exhibited ; and by shifting the vowel ' definers ' to the right or left of the two
vowel ' stems,' and inverting the Cards, all the varieties of vowel formation will
be presented to the eye.

Another mode — perhaps the best for teaching the sounds — will be by means
of a set of twelve square cards for the consonants and of twenty oblong cards for
the vowels. As the teacher turns the symbols individually, the learner will form
his mouth accordingly, and pronounce the sounds. The ' glides,' ' modifiers,'
and other symbols, may be similarly printed on separate cards, and their value
explained as they are brought into use. But the attention of beginners should
not be taken up with symbols which are not to be immediately brought into
application.

These methods are adapted for the simultaneous instruction of large
numbers of learners.

A single card containing all the symbols for Vowels and Consonants may
be conveniently used in teaching single pupils or small classes. The following
arrangement will present the alphabet of 88 elements as the Card is turned : —

C G C O d Q

C G 8 8 G G

1 I I 3 1 1 I 1 3

ll£M*ff}

The Glides and other symbols may be printed on the back of the card. Thus : —

(Uniform.)

0 I I 1

lit-

(Reversible.)

I V ¥ J A 0

> ?> < ' - x

In teaching foreigners, the instructor will make use of the Physiological
Diagrams to communicate the organic relations of the symbols. By placing his
own organs in the positions symbolized, he will pronounce the sounds for the
learner's imitation ; — always beginning with familiar sounds. In this way
persons of ordinary intelligence may be taught to read ' Visible Speech ' without
the use of language as a medium of instruction.

The Deaf and Dumb will be readily taught to adjust their organs in accord-
ance with the symbols, and consequently to speak. Their pronunciation may
not at once have the full variety of ordinary utterance ; but, without minute
accuracy, it will be sufficiently definite for intelligibility, and it will undoubtedly
improve, as a feeling of the organic positions becomes developed by exercise.
The Deaf and Dumb should practise before a glass, to get the assistance of the
eye as much as possible in directing the organs.

The Alphabet will, it is believed, be found to be peculiarly adapted for
tangible reading by the Blind. The quick perceptions of touch and ear usually
manifested by the Blind should enable such learners to pronounce foreign
languages with great accuracy from the symbols.

Persons who suffer from Stammering or other Impediments of Speech, or
who fail to pronounce any of the elementary sounds correctly, will find a
special value in the symbols of ' Visible Speech.' A knowledge of the true
actions of utterance, and an exact perception of the organic errors of impedi-
ments, are the foundation of all power over such affections, and the basis of
every rational system for the removal of Impediments and Defects of articula-
tion. In the mode of applying this knowledge, much, of course, depends on
individual ability and experience on the part of the teacher ; but the knowledge
itself is of the first importance to the learner, and this knowledge the symbols
communicate.

TYPOGRAPHY OF VISIBLE SPEECH.

The possibility of representing the organic actions of speech by the
revolutions of Single Radical Symbols was originally suggested by the fact, that
the elementary sounds of languages are produced mainly by the evolutions of
a single organ — the tongue. In ' Visible Speech ' typography, this mono-sym-
bolic principle is carried out with an effect which is practically the same to the
eye by whatever number of types the printing may be executed. The consonant-
forms ' Back,' ' Front,' ' Point,' ' Lip,' for instance, whether printed from one

type or from four types, are merely revolutions of one symbol ; and in like
manner all the ' Shut/ ' Nasal/ ' Divided/ aud ' Mixed ' Consonants are revolu-
tions of a single symbol for each of the varieties.

It would be possible to print all languages from a number of types
corresponding to that of the Radical Symbols [see page 35] ; but the effect
would be confusing to the eye, and otherwise objectionable. Convenience
requires that all elementary sounds — whatever number of ' rudimental symbols'
they may involve — should have their organic and other constituent signs
embodied in individual ' letters.' Thus : ' Front-mixed-divided, voice ' (th in
these) ; ' High-back-wide, round ' (po in poor) ; ' Low-back-wide, round ' (o in
on] ; have their four symbols combined in their respective alphabetic characters.
Even with these combinations, the number of types required for universal print-
ing does not exceed that in a common English ' fount ' of Roman letters.

To exhibit the alphabetic symbols in the present Work, the Fifty-two
Consonants have been printed from Sixteen types ; the Thirty-six Vowels
from Twenty types ; and the Twelve Glides from Eight types. In this arrange-
ment, however, the letters are all of equal height, and they consequently have
the effect of capitals. On this principle the symbols are well adapted for mixed
Romanic and Speech printing, as they stand out very clearly on a page of the
smallest Roman type ; but for speech-printing by itself a ' lower-case ' alphabet
would be preferable. This is obtained by casting the Consonants on oblong
instead of square bodies ; the number of additional types required being twelve.
The aspect which the letters will present when printed from a ' lower-case '
fount is illustrated in the Lithographed Examples.

The latter method presents several important advantages : it saves space,
gives a pleasing variety to the typography, and is more convenient to the printer,
as well as more perspicuous to the reader. In both modes, the forms of the
letters are identical ; but in ' lower-case ' printing the vowels ascend or descend
beyond the line of the consonants, and the eye is thus emphatically informed
of the number of syllables in every word.

A fount of ' capitals ' added to a ' lower-case ' fount would need only
thirty-six extra types, as the ' glides ' and ' modifiers ' would not require to be
cast in duplicate. But capitals may be altogether dispensed with. A simple
sign (/) may be used instead, to distinguish the first word of a sentence, or to
show proper names, &c. [See ' Visible Speech Writing.']

The simplicity of this Typic Alphabet will be manifest by comparison with
the ' Standard Alphabet ' of Professor Lcpsius, as used by the Church Mission-
ary Society. The latter alphabet consists of Roman and Greek letters, varied
by the addition of diacritic marks. Seventeen diacritics are used above, and
fourteen are used below the body of the letters ; so many as three diacritics
being in some cases applied to a single body. The number of ' lower-case '
letters thus employed exceeds 280, and of these above 200 require to be ' cut '
for every fount used. But even with this cumbrous typography, the ' Standard
Alphabet ' is not complete, and its letters are only arbitrarily associated with
their sounds. Some of the diacritics, indeed, have a uniform physiological
value, but the bulk of the letters — as in all other alphabets — directly tax the
learner's memory ; and the relations of sounds cannot be discovered from their
symbols. This source of difficulty — " as old as written language, and an
obstacle which has seemed to inhere in the nature of writing itself"* — is
effectually removed by ' Visible Speech.' In this respect the system stands
alone : so that even if an alphabet capable of representing all possible shades
of sound could be formed on the basis of old alphabets, and even if the number
of its letters did not exceed that of the Visible Speech Alphabet, the latter would
still have immeasurably the advantage ; because the sound of every symbol is
deducible from the form of the symbol itself, without any encumbrance to the
reader's memory. In the words of an eminent critic of the system : ' A great
many attempts have been made to spell words, but Visible Speech spells
spelling.'*

All the ordinary marks of punctuation and reference may be employed
as usual.

Various forms of typography of the system are illustrated in the Plates at
the end of the volume.

VISIBLE SPEECH WRITING.

In adapting the Alphabet for current writing, the print-forms of the letters
have been so closely preserved that a learner who has mastered the one will
have no difficulty in familiarizing himself with the other. The Script Symbols,
as shown in the Plates, produce a flowing and elegant caligraphy, easily written
and easily read. The arrangement was arrived at after much experiment, and

* See Article from the ' Atlicna>um,' page 29.

100

it has been tested for a considerable period in the writing of several languages.
Care has been taken to avoid ambiguous lines, and distinctions depending on
' dots ' and ' strokes,' as in the i and the / of the common script alphabet.
With the exception of the ' Rounded Glides,' each character is conveniently
written without lifting the pen.

The following Principles of Symbolization are introduced in the Script
Alphabet :—

I. Voiced Consonants and Primary Vowels are distinguished by a loop
formed in the 'hair-stroke' of the letters. Characters without a loop are there-
fore ' voiceless ' consonants, or ' wide ' vowels.

II. Rounded Vowels have a bend or hook in the 'body-line' of the letters.
The 'round glides' alone preserve the 'cross-stroke' of the print symbols.

III. Nasal Consonants have the ordinary nasal sign, written horizontally.
In the case of the ' front ' (and ' point ') ' shut ' (and ' nasal ') consonants, the
' voice-loop ' is not added to the ' voiceless ' forms ; but, for simplicity, the
' organic symbol,' in these letters, is held to include a loop, when it is formed by
crossing the body-fene of the letter.

In the case of the ' front ' (and ' point ') ' divided ' consonants, the ' voice-loop '
might have been inserted in the centre of the symbol — as in the ' back ' (and
' lip1) ' divided ' consonants — so as to save a motion of the pen ; but symmetry
and perspicuity in combinations, have been preferred to mere brevity. The
writing of English is, notwithstanding, one-fifth shorter than in common
long-hand.

Initial letters are distinguished as 'capitals' by a stroke (/) prefixed. In
&z#dT-writing this sign may be limited to Vowels, because the consonants admit
of being written, ad libitttm, on a larger scale for ' capitals ' — as in common
writing.

The Script Alphabet is composed of a remarkably small number of forms,
being, in this respect, even simpler than the Print Alphabet ; and in both sets
of letters the symbols are uniformly reversible to show the organic relations of
the different elements. Thus : —

Lip-Consonants are the reverse of Back-Consonants.
Point-Consonants " " Front-Consonants.

Front- Vowels " " Back-Vowels.

Low-Vowels " " High-Vowels.

The only exception to this arrangement is in the case of the ' front-mixed '
and ' point-mixed ' consonants, which are necessarily varied, because the ' pot-
hook,' which is their appropriate organic sign, presents no difference of shape
when inverted. Otherwise the number of types required to ' letter-press ' the
Script Alphabet corresponds exactly to the number in ' lower-case ' printing,

The vowels, it will be observed, are represented in script by a single symbol
for each class of vowels ; the varieties of ' high,' ' mid,' and ' low,' in each class,
being shown by the mere ascent and descent of the lines. The same principle
might, of course, be applied to the other alphabet, for ' lower-case ' printing ;
the different positions of the ' defmers ' to mark ' high,' ' mid,' and ' low '
varieties in the ' capital ' alphabet, being only necessary with . letters of equal
height. In this way the vowel scheme of thirty-six elements might be com-
pletely presented in ' lower-case ' print, by no more than twelve symbols.

The Script Alphabet would itself form an excellent ' lower-case ' alphabet
for general use. The characters would, of course, have the slope of italics, or
of Greek letters ; but they would be learned, by beginners, almost as easily as
the other symbols, and their employment in general printing would be attended
with this advantage that the letters in hand-writing and in press-printing, would
in all points exactly correspond. The aspect of the Script Symbols, as they
would appear in letter-press, is shown in one of the Plates.

VISIBLE SPEECH TELEGRAPHY.

The indefiniteness of ordinary letters is productive of much inconvenience
in international Telegraphy. Messages cannot be transmitted in their original
languages through foreign countries, but, for the convenience of operators, must
be translated, — of course at the serious risk of error, and to the entire destruc-
tion of verbatim accuracy. The system of ' Visible Speech ' will render the
telegraphing of words through any country equally certain and easy, in all
languages. The operator, while he may not understand a syllable of the writing,
will transmit the ipsissima verba, and the very sounds of the original, as a viva
voce utterance to the receiver.

In connection with Printing Telegraphs, no special training will be required
by the operator ; as the new types are ' composed ' side by side in the same
manner as ordinary types. A glance at the Table will show that the characters,
when properly arranged, will be unmistakably selected with facility by the
merest novice.

102

For Needle Telegraphs which communicate arbitrary signs, dial, and other
instruments, the ' Visible Speech ' symbols must, of course, be associated with
a sufficient code of signals. The symmetrical tabulation into which the symbols
naturally fall renders transmission by serial numbers extremely simple. Two
numbers must be signalled for each letter ; — the first referring to the column,
and the second to the line where the letter stands in the Telegraphic Table.
The numbers i to 12 denote, in this way, the places of all the symbols, and
leave ample room for punctuation, and for other necessary or convenient signs.
Telegraph clerks who become expert at sounding the symbols, will soon be
enabled to act as receivers and deliverers of messages for the convenience of
those who cannot put their words into Visible Speech, or decipher them from
the symbols. Thus it should ultimately be possible for a stranger to enter a
Telegraph Office, pronounce his message, and have it despatched in his mother-
tongue by one totally ignorant of the import of the sounds ; and for the receiver
of the message to hear it intelligibly pronounced from the writing by an official
equally unacquainted with the meaning of what he reads.

The following is the arrangement of the symbols for a complete

COSMOPOLITAN TELEGRAPHIC TABLE,
i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

£3

)

{

10.

11.

}

{

12.

103

Plan of the foregoing Table.

Column. Line.

i to 4.

[ I. to 6. Voiceless.
Consonants. 4

\7- " 12. Vocal.

Glides, )

7. " 12. Round.

6 to 8.

Vowels. )

9, 10.

Aspirates and Modifiers.

II, 12.

Punctuation and Special Signs.

Example.

*4-9, 8-4, 2-8, 8-4, 4-11, 3-9, 10-2,
8 I & I 0 CO {

V I S I B L E

2-2, 4-5, 8-1, 10-2, 3-5, 3-2,

n D I

S P E

a u

C II

3-5, 8-5, 3-9, 8-3, i-u, 3-7, 7-5, 4-3, 8-4.

a c GO i a o i 3 i

TELE G RATIIY

Proposed Needle- Signals for Numbers.

The Signals at present in use will perfectly suffice for the transmission of
Visible Speech. The first twelve of the ordinary alphabetic signs may be used
to express the columns, and the second twelve the lines of the Table. But a
simpler code of signals may be substituted. The following is proposed : —

[Needle to Left v, Needle to Right ^.]

i 2 3 4 5 ; 6 7 8 9 10; ii 12

\ \\ u\ W v ; / // /// /A A ; vi M

* The first number refers to the column, and the second to the line, in the Table. Thus: 4-9 [col. 4:
line 0 ]

104

PRACTICAL TESTS.

The practical effect of the principle of ' Visible Speech ' may be thoroughly
tested by means of the examples furnished in the next page, and at the end of the
volume. All readers who master the principle of symbolization in connection with
any language, should vocalize these words and sentences with perfect uniformity.
The illustrations have been selected from the tests dictated in the course of the
experiments referred to at page 19. The examples embrace such a wide range
of phonetic elements, that the reader who can pronounce these with accuracy will
have little to learn in connection with the utterance of any tongue.

The Vocabularies of Test Words are arranged with the initial letters in
alphabetic order, to exemplify the proper classification of the elements for works
of reference. The first of these lists is printed from the experimental types ; but,
in order to show the different modes in which the symbols may be presented to
the eye, the other illustrations are given in Plates at the end of the volume.

The alphabetic order of the Consonants is : —

i. Throat; 2. Back; 3. Front; 4. Point; 5. Lip.

The varieties of each Organic class follow the order : —
i. Primary ; 2. Mixed ; 3. Divided ; 4. Mixed Divided ; 5. Shut ; 6. Nasal.

The ' voiced ' consonant of each species immediately follows the
' voiceless ' element of the same mechanism.

The Vowels arc correspondingly classified : —

i. Back ; 2. Mixed ; 3. Front ; 4. Round.

The ' wide ' sounds of each Organic class immediately follow the
'Primary' sounds of the same mechanism.

The elements in each class of Vowels follow the order : —
i. High ; 2. Mid ; 3. Low.

The Illustrations in the Plates include, besides English in various forms, a
number of foreign and dialectic sentences. A large proportion of the latter arc
selected from the Scottish Dialects, which are particularly rich in sounds, and
consequently difficult to unaccustomed organs. A Caledonian ear may be
found in every quarter of the globe, so that readers may have the means of
readily testing the accuracy of their phonetic essays in connection with these
sentences. But the experimentum cnicis, applicable everywhere, is uniformity
amon? different readers.

105

ALPHABETIC VOCABULARY OF TEST WORDS.— Initial Vowels.

1JC_

30'3IG01 (Sc.)

nc_
rpKDOitf (Sc.;

3<x)3'QJlB3
3 DC?*

JQ-I
JlIKSc.)

(Am.)

1GD'03C

13'CttlCOB

(Sc.)

(Ga.)

(Sc.)

ICDOVGOIIQ)

IVOCQO

(it.)

(Sc.)
fQ'OnQ (F.)
CU'hlHOGOI

}J_,CJ_11 (Sc.)
!DlQBlQD(Pro.)

HDBCQO (Prov.;

CIQOI00JC (Sc.)

H001

icm

tQOJ'OHD

JOOf

JDlf

JO'OK

ICC01'31COI (Sc.)
I1BOI (Sc.) HQCO

lOQl'DlQIDl iQ^l-
IDQI QICIQIO

(Prov.)

CQOQI-B3QI (Sc.) ifDIp (Prov.)
CH'OJf 11 (Port.) ilOOSCDIO (Sc.

JfQCi (Cock.)

1050
(Ge.)

^GIO (Sc.)
IQO^

(F.)

,U{|0 (Sc.)

1D3B Ql'DCI
11 JlKSc.)

till (F.)

tl 01 CK3 (Sc.

(Manx)

HGOW

1001(1)^300! ^1B ,GKG5 (Sc.)
Jl ,11 (Sc.) t}Q rtlQ (Cock.)

Tlie accent is on t!ie first sylluLle, unless otherwise expressed.

VISIBLE SPEECH
APPLIED TO ENGLISH.

100

VISIBLE SPEECH APPLIED TO ENGLISH.

The purpose of this Work is served when the details of the system are
presented with completeness, so as to enable orthoepists in different countries to
define their various native sounds, and to tabulate the appropriate physiological
symbols into a standard alphabet.

Many syllabic sounds are matters of dispute, and are variously analyzed
by different authorities. The readiest way to settle all such questions will be
to symbolize the exact utterance of some approved speakers, and from a com-
parison of the independent pronunciations of two or three such selected oralists
to fix the alphabet for Visible Speech printing.

The characteristic sounds of individual languages must obviously be thus
discriminated from native utterance ; and there will be a manifest advantage to
international consistency in the application of the physiological symbols, from
having a series of alphabets constructed by the same symbolizers. The atten-
tion of British, American, and Foreign Academies is directed to the desirability
of adopting this method of obtaining a complete tabulation of their national
sounds, for the use of native as well as of foreign learners.

The Author's professional familiarity with the native sounds of English,
enables him to furnish a Standard English Alphabet, which may be accepted,
in the meantime, as conveying a faithful representation of vernacular usage.
The scheme will also serve as a model which may be followed in the arrange-
ment of other local alphabets.

110

TABLE OF ENGLISH ELEMENTS,

SHOWING THEIR POSITION IN THE UNIVERSAL ALPHABET.

CONSONANTS.
Back. Front. Point. Lip. Key W

ords.

Back.

VOWELS.*
Mixed. Front. Key Words.

see
ear

yes

race

up
urn

say

show

why

ell

fcS

ooze

rouge

-tion
-tious
-er

the

•es

ill

few

ask

a
-al
-ance

air
-ed
-ment

lay

view

ah
arm

err

thin

pool

then

key

tea

pea

law

gay

day

bay

poor
good

-ure
-ful

ore

-ory

sing

sin

him

on
or

-or
-ward

ASPIRATE, GLIDES, AND MODIFIERS.

¥*

weary

now

boy

air

our

know

kind

long

accent

high

fiery

out

fie

sir

soul

girl

day

arm

now

* The sounds marked * occur only in unaccented syllables, and in colloquial speech.

Ill

ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION.

The irregularities of Letters have made the mere deciphering of English
words a work of difficulty to learners ; and the accurate pronunciation of the
language has become a special art, the teaching of which has called into
existence an extensive literature of phoneticised Vocabularies and Dictionaries.
' Visible Speech' furnishes a simpler — in fact, the simplest possible — key to
Orthographic Reading. The use of the system for this purpose will be attended
with the advantage that pronunciation will be taught with certainty and
uniformity, according to any standard — whether scholastic, colloquial, or
dialectic — without in any way interfering with ordinary letters, or unsettling the
aspect of words to the eye, as by phonetic spelling.

The following Table exhibits the English Sounds in connection with their
various ' orthographies.' The pronunciations indicated exemplify the varieties
of accentual and unaccentual utterance, according to colloquial — but not vulgar —
usage : —

THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH LETTERS, AND 'ORTHOGRAPHIES'

OF ENGLISH SOUNDS.

CONSONANTS.

symbols Equivalent Orthographies.

O h, wh ; in hole, whole.

Cl c, cc, cch, ch, ck, cq, cqu, gh, k, ke, kh, Ik, q, qu, que, x (ks, ksh) ; in

can, account, Bacchus, character, back, acquit, lacquer, hough, kill,
lake, khan, walk, quit, quay, pique, tax (QQ), anxious (Q£J).

CH c> k ; in card, kind.

Q ckgu, g, gg, gh, gue ; in blackguard, leg, egg, ghost, plague.

€H g, gu J in girl, guard, guide.

0 n, nd, ng, ngue ; in ink, handkerchief, song, tongue.

O e, i, j, u (yoo), y ; in righteous, pinion, hallelujah, use, you.

Q c, ce, ps, s, sc, sch, se, ss, tzs ; in cell, ice, psalm, sale, science, schism,

base, loss, britzska.

112

Speech
Symbols.

£12 ce, cz, ds, s, sc, se, sh, ss, x, z, zc, zz ; in suffice, Czar, Windsor, as, discern,

ease, dishonour, scissors, xystus, zeal, baize, buzz.

£*2 h, phth, th, tth ; in eighth, apophthegm, thing, Matthew.

£12 th, the ; in then, breathe.

Q r, rh, rr, rrh ; in race, rhubarb, mirror, myrrhine.

£J c, ch, chs, psh, s, sc, sch, sh, ss, t ; in ocean, chaise, fuchsia, pshaw, tension,

conscience, schedule, shame, omission, nation.

P|5 g, ge, j, s, ss, t, z; in giraffe, rouge, jambeaux, vision, abscission, transi-
tion, azure.

00 gl, I le, 11, In, si, sle ; in seraglio, late, tale, all, kiln, island, isle.

03{ le, tie; in apple, castle.

Q bt, ct, cht, ed, ght, phth, t, te, th, tt ; in debt, indict, yacht, stopped.

bought, phthisic, at, late, thyme, cottage.

Q bd, d, de, dd, ddh, Id ; /;/ bdellium,, sad, bade, add, buddhism, would.

£5 dn, gn, hn, kn, mn, mp, n, ne, nn, sn, sne ; in Wednesday, sign, John,

know, hymn, compter, dun, done, inn, puisne, demesne.

£5| on, ten ; in button, fasten, softening (when a trisyllable).

£) wh ; in what.

3 o, u, w ; in one [^£5], quick, suite, way.

3 f, fe, ff, ft, gh, If, ph, phe, pph ; in leaf, safe, staff, soften, laugh, half,

physic, ouphe, sapphire.

Q f, ph, v, ve, zv ; in of, nephew, vain, save, rendezvous.

Q gh, Ifp, p, pe, ph, pp ; in hiccough, halfpenny, pay, tape, ophthalmia,

tippet.

O b, bb, be, pb ; in crab, ebb, globe, cupboard.

Q chm, gm, 1m, m, mb, me, mm, mn, sme ; in drachm, paradigm, calm, aim,

lamb, same, common, condemn, disme.

0 j m ; in chasm, rhythm.

113

VOWELS AND GLIDES.

Symbols. Equivalent ' Orthographies'

3 0,00, ou, u, wo ; Undone, blood, young, up, twopence. [In unaccented

syllables, generally changed to 1].
3V or, our, ur; in word, journey, furnish. [Variously pronounced IV, I V

(Cockney), ](,) (Scotch), jy (Irish).]
1 (for 3 unaccented), eo, io, iou, o, oa, oi, ou, ow ; in dungeon, motion,

conscious, abandon, cupboard, avoirdupoise, honour, bellows (noun).

IV (for jy unaccented), er, ir, wer, yr ; in paper, circuitous, answer, martyr.

3| a, au ; in ask, path, half, chant, aunt. [Variously pronounced Jf, Jf,

(Cockney), \\ (Scotch), \\ (Irish).]

3 ..-(for J unaccented), a ; in artistic, participate, cartoon.

H eigh, ey, eye, i, ie, igh, ui, uy, y, ye; in height, eyeing, eye, time, tie,

nigh, guide, buy, by, r'ye. [In unaccented syllables, generally

changed to £, as in infinite, futile ; otherwise, pronounced Ifi, as

in likewise],
ire, yre, oir ; in fire, lyre, choir. [In liar, pliers, prior,. &c., the sound

heard is dissyllabic QUV, 3JUV, Ofijy, &c.)]

ir, ier, &c. ; in wiry, fiery, &c.

o, ou, ow ; in compter, thou, now. [In unaccented syllables, generally

changed to 3 (or ]_), as in conscious ; otherwise pronounced "\,l, as

in outshine].
our, ower; in hour, power. [In unaccented syllables, generally changed

to 3 (or 1), as in honour ; otherwise, pronounced 3 ¥, as in ourselves.

31IQ (or 3iQ), owery, &c. ; in dowery, flowery, showery, &c.

J{ ah, al ; in ah,, palm, salve.

JV ar, er, ear, uar ; in hard, clerk, heart, guard. [In unaccented syllables,

pronounced 3 V, as in barbarian ; in terminations, generally XV, as

in altar, grammar, particular.]

JIG (or J|Q), arr, &c. ; in starry, tarry (adjective).

Jfi ai, ay, aye ; in aisle, ay, ayes. (In naive, naivete, the sound heard is

dissyllabic (JJ).]

I a, ai, e; in cabbage, certain (see I), the, pretty, places (noun).

1 (for 3 unaccented), as in ana, aside, away, identify, mountaineer;

for "[, unaccented), as in annoy, appear, assist, capital, chapman,

114

Speech
Symbols.

distant, instance; and (XV for jy, in terminations), as in peculiar,
notary, &c.

jy . er, ear, ir, yr, uer ; in prefer, earnest, firm, myrrh, guerdon.

£f e, ea, ee, e'e, ei, eo, ey, eye, i, ie ; in eve, eat, see, e'en, conceive, people,

key, keyed, fatigue, field.

£ ae, e; in minutiae, before, decide, erect, return secure.

£y ear, eer, ere, e're, ier ; in near, beer, here, we're, pier.

£10 aer, er, ear, eer; in aerie, era, weary, peeress.

Cfi a, ai, ac, au, ay, aye, ea, ei, ey, eye ; in age, aim, gaol, gauge, day, aye,

steak, vein, obey, preyed. [Before R, changed to £ ; and i n
unaccented syllables, pronounced [ ; in terminations, generally
I or 1].

\ a, ai, ay, e, ea, ei, eo, ie, u, ue ; in many, said, says, very, bread, heifer,

jeopardy, friend, bury, guess. [Before R, when not followed by a
vowel, changed to J, as in her, term ; and in unaccented syllables,
generally changed to [].

£... a, ai, e, ea, ee, ei, ey, i, ia, ie, o, u, ui, uy, y ; in cabbage, certain (often

X), England, antelope, guinea, breeches, forfeit, monkey, ill, in-
finite, spirit, miniature, sieve, women, busy, build, plaguy, hymn,
happy. [Before R, when not followed by a vowel, changed to X,
as in sir, firm].

[ (for \ unaccented), e, &c. ; in sacred, forest, minstrel, peremptory,

majesty, effeminate, elliptic, emphatic, endeavour, erroneous, ex-
cept, goodness, element (IGOiB CCDO), &c-

[y are, aer, air, ayr, ayer, ere, ear, e'er, eir, eyre; in care, aer, pair, Ayr,

prayer (petition), there, bear, ne'er, their, Eyre. [Variously pro-
nounced iy, jy (Cockney), [|0 (Scotch), [|Q (Irish). In gayer,
greyer, layer, prayer (one who prays), &c., the radical sound of [
is heard, and the combination is dissyllabic (Cfiiy). In Mayor the
pronunciation is generally monosyllabic (C¥) ; distinguished from
mare only by the ' rounded ' quality of the termination. Thus :
QCy, mare; Q($, mayor].

QQ ar, aer, air, ere, ear, eir, &c. ; in canary, aeronaut, fairy, therein, bearing,

heiress, &c. [Scotch, [{0 ; Irish, £{(,)].

"[ a, ai ; in man, amber, carry, accept, admit, alternate, alphabet, acci-
dent, plaid. [In terminations and in prefixes — when followed by

115

Speech

Symbols.

a single consonant sound — generally changed to \, as in fatal,

errand, appoint, attend, £c.]
if ......... eu, ew, ewe, o, oe, ceu, oo, ooe, ou, u, ue, ui, wo ; in rheum, grew, brewed,

do, shoe, manoeuvre, bloom, wooed, through, rule, rue, fruit, two.

[Before R, and in unaccented syllables, changed to J].
-} ........... o, ewe, &c. ; in doer, brewer, &c. [These words are dissyllables

...... eau, eo, eu, ew, ewe, iew, u, ue, yew, you, yu ; in beauty, feodal, feud, few,

ewe, view, use, due, yew, youth, yule. [After R and SH, pro-
nounced \\. After L and S, pronounced \\\. Before R, changed
to Ol]-

\\\ ........ ew, u, ue, ui ; in lewd, lute, sue, suit. [Before R, changed to ^.

S preceding f\ is apt to be changed into SH, as in the vulgar pro-
nunciation of suit (£J?1{O)' The tendency is legitimized by
custom in the words sugar, and sure, and in the terminations
scions, sial, sion. In sue, suit, and other words, Qfi is correctly
heard.]

}^ ........ .aut, eau, eo, ew, ewe, o, oa, oe, oo, ou, ow, owe ; in hautboy, beau,

yeoman, shew, sewed, old, oak, foe, brooch, soul, crow, owed.
[Before R, and in unaccented syllables, pronounced }.]

} ........... o, ow, &c. ; in goer, mower, &c. [These words are dissyllables (Q3I1)!,

BUY, &c.)]

J | ......... a, au, aw, awe, &c. ; in all, laud, fraught, taught, s:uv, lawyer, awed, &c.

J ........... a, au, £c. ; in salt, want, laudanum, &c.

jy ......... ar ; in war, ward, swarm, dwarf.

JI0 (or JjO) arr; in warrior.

5- ........... (for i unaccented) o, oo, ou, u, ue ; in to, into, together, arrowroot,

rendezvous, virulent, brutality, tissue : (for J accented) woman,
book, cook, should, courier, bull, put, sugar, hurrah. [J is heard
in the Scotch pronunciation of book, cook, &c.]

J^ ......... oor, our, ure, &c. ; in poor, moor, tour, sure.

'J-JQ ...... oor, ur, &c. ; in poorer, surer, assuring, tourist.

(t)^.y ...... ure, &c. ; in cure, pure, endure, ensure, immure, &c.

01IQ...ur, &c- ; in fur7> Purer> enduring, &c.

ure, &c. ; in lure, allure, &c.
..... ur, &c. ; in lurid, alluring, &c.

116

Speech
.Symbols.

J o; /// voracious, original, oriental, forensic, &c. ; (for }]. unaccented)

aoh, o, ow, &c. ; in Pharaoh, obey, theology, philosophy, vocation,
borrow, &c.

3-^ oar, o'er, oor, or, ore, orps, our, owar ; in boar, o'er, door, floor, borne,

torn, sore, corps, pour, tournament, towards.

3-IQ or, &c. ; in glory, horal, soaring, pouring, &c.

J| oa, ou, &c. ; in broad, thought, sought, c*(:c.

J o, oa, ou, ow ; w often, honest, foreign, horrible, orifice, groat, hough,

knowledge. [In the termination on, ] (or 1) is generally heard ;
as in abandon, lemon, &c.]

jy ... aor, eor, or; in extraordinary, George, order, born, nor. [The termina-
tion or is pronounced jy, as in spectator, tailor, &c.]

Jfl eoi, oe, oi, oy ; in burgeois, oboe, oil, coin, rejoice, boy, joy, royal.

jy (for IV unaccented) ure ; in azure, fissure, measure, pleasure, seizure.

(for 0)1 unaccented) u, &c. ; ///volume, solitude, superior, musician, £c

(f°r O1V unaccented) ure ; in nature, feature, stature, &c.

\ (for } before R, unaccented) o ; in history, victory, &c.

jy (for jy unaccented) or ; in razor, visor, orator, curator, &c.

THE TENDENCIES OE ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION.

The varied pronunciation of the letter R, and the influence of R on a
preceding vowel in the same syllable ; the tendency of long vowels to become
diphthongs ; and the comparatively indefinite sounds of unaccented vowels, are
the most marked characteristics of English. These have long been noticed, but
the precise nature of the peculiarities has not hitherto been determined.

Chiefly on account of these delicate and unascertained varieties of sound,
the native pronunciation of English has been found excessively difficult for
foreigners to master. It will no longer be so. The symbolism of Visible
Speech enables us to define and exhibit the unaccentual, as well as all other
national, dialectic, and even individual peculiarities, with the utmost exactitude.
' Knowledge is power !' The simplest work is performed with difficulty while
we are ignorant of its precise nature, as well as of ' how to do it ;' but nothing-
is difficult when we know the exact requirements for its accomplishment. Any
language dialectically transcribed will be pronounced by every practised reader
of Visible Speech just as it is spoken by those ' to the manner born/

117

ENGLISH CHARACTERISTICS.

The sounds of R : R before a vowel is always a consonant (Q) ; and R
before a consonant, or final, is always a glide (^). R between two vowels is
simply a consonant when the preceding vowel is not in the same syllable,* as
in sorry (£"^J-(i)I) ; and R represents both a glide and a consonant (IQ) when
the preceding vowel is syllabled with the R, as in soaring (QH-QIGO-

The influence of R on a preceding vowel : Vowels before R in the same
syllable become ' widened ' pharyngally and orally. Thus : —

aid, air, [ftQ, [tf hand, hard, QIQQ-

ode, ore, }|Q, M held, herd, QIOOQ, OIVQ

pool, poor, Qij GO, Dl¥ spilt, spirt, QDICOU,

A similar tendency is illustrated in the common pronunciation of such
words asj^A/andj^r(0)I|C00, OfV or OIV), come and curl (Q39, CI1VGO,

or aiyco), &c.

The, tendency of long vowels to become diphthongs : This is illustrated in the
change of the consonant R into a ' glide ' after a long vowel ; and in the regular
pronunciation of the vowels in aid, ail, aim, ache, &c. ([ft), ode, oa?c, globe, &c. (}^).
The same tendency leads to the ' Cockney ' peculiarity of separating the labio-
lingual vowels } } (oo, o) into their lingual and labial components, and pronoun-
cing the latter successively instead of simultaneously. Thus we hear 1^, \\, 11,
for}; andH, 31, IL for J.

The indefinite sounds of unaccented vowels : The difference between unaccented
and accented vowels in colloquial pronunciation is one not merely of stress, but,
in general, of quality also. The following are the tendencies of unaccented
vowels : —

I. From Long to Short.

II. From Primary to Wide.

III. From Low and Mid to Mid and High.

IV. From Back ynd Front to Mixed.

V. .From ' Round ' (Labio-Lingual) to Simple Lingual.

VI. From Diphthongs to single intermediate sounds.

The 2nd, 3rd, and 4th tendencies combined, affect all vowels in unaccented
syllables, and give a general sameness to their sounds. The ' High-Mixed

* Si'c ' Syllabif Analysis,' pnpr' 118.

118

Wide' vowel (1) is the one to which these tendencies point as the prevailing
unaccentual sound.

The next in frequency are: — the ' high-back-wide' (]_) — which takes the place
of the 'mid-back' vowels (] and j) ; the 'high-front-wide' (_[) — which takes
the place of the 'front' (I and [^) ; the ' mid-front-wide' ([) — which takes the
place of I ; and the ' mid-mixed-wide' (%} — which takes the place of "[. Greater
precision is rarely heard even from careful speakers ; but among the vulgar the
sound X almost represents the vowel-gamut in unaccented syllables.

The 5th tendency is illustrated in the vulgar pronunciation of unaccented
u, (in borough, pronounce, geobgy, philosophy, &c.) as ] instead of } ; and the
] constantly tends forwards and upwards to | 1, 1 and J.

The 6th tendency is illustrated in the vulgar pronunciation of the pronouns
/and our (\ and \V) ; in the change of my (GH) into 31 or Qf, when tmem-
phatic ; in the regular pronunciation of the terminations -our, -ous (]y, ]Q) ; in
the change of the diphthong day (^[S) into 0[, Qf, QX, in Monday, &c.

The possibility of alphabetically expressing such fluctuations of sound is a
new fact in the history of writing. In ordinary 'Visible Speech' printing, a
standard of pronunciation must, of course, be adopted. Custom is the law-
giver ; but the habits of the vulgar are not to be reflected in such a standard.
The principle may be safely laid down that the less difference a speaker makes
between accented and unaccented syllables — save in quantity — the better is his
pronunciation. The Table at page 1 10, exhibits the extent to which distinctive
sounds for unaccented vowels may be written in accordance with educated usage.

SYLLABIC ANALYSIS.

Good pronunciation is distinctly syllabic, but the boundaries of syllables,
as uttered, do not correspond with the customary divisions made to the eye. The
latter are regulated by etymology and by letters ; the former are governed by
the natural action of the organs of speech, which is always from close to open,
or from consonants to vowels.

In the analysis of the word table, for instance, the division ' ta-ble ' is
organically correct ; but in the analysis of the word dabble, the division ' dab-ble '
is organically wrong. If the vowels in dabble, meddle, middle, huddle, &c., had
been provided with distinctive letters, the idea of a different principle of division
from that of ' ta-ble,' ' bri-dlc,' £.c., would never have been entertained. The
error is due to the orthography, which requires consonants to be doubled in

119

order to indicate a peculiar power of the preceding vowel letter. In 'Visible
Speech,' each element of sound having its own invariable symbol, the words
table, dabble, &c., would be correspondingly syllabled OCX-GOD |, Ql-GGOj, &c. ;
the first syllable in each case ending with the vowel. This division is purely
analytic of the sound of the word ; it corresponds with the practical divisions
which the voice always makes in singing ; and it preserves the transitional
character of the consonants and the syllabic function of the vowels.

The associations of letters in syllables — b a, la, a b, ab, &c. — are altogether
conventional. Such arrangements are rendered necessary only by an imperfect
alphabet. Yet this conjunction of a final consonant with the nominally ' short'
vowels has led orthoepists to discriminate vowels terminated by consonants as
a separate class of ' shut ' sounds. There is no physiological ground for the
distinction. All vowels are affected in their termination by the sound which
follows them ; but ' shut ' vowels are not more so than other elements. The
combinations GCfi, CKG> an<^ GL IG (ba, abe, and ba, ab), are precisely ana-
logous to the organs of speech.

The shut-vowel theory has the effect of making speakers clip their vowels
unnecessarily short, and of depriving these elements of the volume which is
essential to effective vocalization whether in speaking _or in singing.

In the phonetic syllabication of words, any consonant between two vowels
belongs to the following and not to the preceding vowel ; and clusters of medial
consonants are only divided to show the elements of compound words, or when
all the consonants do not admit of monosyllabic union with the following vowel.
Thus, in the division of the word critical, when using definite symbols for sounds,
we should write as we pronounce, GOf-Of-QlCO, and not ' crit-ic-al.' On
the same principle, the word apple is divisible into I-DGOj, and not ' ap-ple ;'
but in such a word as ample, the division is necessarily ID-DGO|, because the
letters GDCDj by themselves would make two syllables. In such a word as
testament the division may be, optionally, either DtQ-OJ-DIvDD, or Ol~
QU3-Dl'u5O; ^e latter is preferable, because it preserves the transitional
character of the consonants, and because ' £"^U3 ' is a perfectly monosyllabic
combination ; the former is admissible, because, both of the medial consonants
being non-vocal, their separation makes no phonetic difference.

The principle of syllabication, as above explained, is dependent on the
uniform action of the organs of utterance — from close to open — and is thus,
of course, common to all languages.

120

We now present the Reader with an Outline Course of Lessons illustrating
the mode in which Vernacular Reading may be taught to children and illiterate

adults.

VISIBLE SPEECH APPLIED TO ENGLISH FOR TEACHING THE

ILLITERATE TO READ.

LESSON I.

Show the learner the Alphabet,, and tell him that the broad round-looking
letters mean puffs and hisses in the mouth, and that the thin straight letters
mean sound in the throat. Then teach him

The breathing, O-

The puffs, d O D-

The throat sounds, - £ f .

The sign of a long sound, {.

These letters will be perfectly learned in a few minutes, and they will
furnish a number of words and sentences which should be read at once.

Unexplained letters may occasionally be introduced in cases where the
reader would, from mere habit, pronounce the letters where they occur. Thus,
in this lesson, Q and £T^ may be used in making up such sentences as :

01 non ID- ciroi OIIOQ ID-

or QIIDQ 10. 01 DIOI& aioi.

In arranging initiatory lessons in other languages, the same principle may
be applied in connection with any elements which would naturally suggest
themselves in a given context. This expedient may be safely adopted, to give
variety to the first exercises ; but, of course, each letter must receive sufficient
explanation in its proper place, in a subsequent lesson.

LESSON II.

Call the learner's attention to the shape of the letters Q Q Q, and to the
parts of the mouth from which he has made the puffs. Explain that all letters
pronounced at any given part of the mouth resemble each other in shape. Then
ask him to point out from the Alphabet any other letters formed by the back

121

of the tongue— by the point of the tongue — and by the lips. This he will do

•\\'i f TT/-M i f rl t ff-t r*i 1 1 f w ^N* M or*t*

vithout difficulty. Select

The lip hisses, - D 3-

The tongue hisses, £J Q £Q.

The vowels, 3 3 3 A-

A comparatively wide range of sentences may now be read ; and there will
be no need to limit the selection to monosyllabic words — which are, on the
whole, more difficult than longer words. Nor need unknown vowels be ex-
cluded. The eye will learn a great deal from the relations of the symbols ; and
the teacher will, of course, at first, pronounce all words for the learner's imitation.

LESSON III.

Give the learner to understand that he can make a puff or a hiss and a
sound in the throat at the same time. Let him hear the effect in the sounds
Sl5, £12 > SQ> S> 3- Then show him that these letters, and also Q Q 0, are
the same which he has already learned, but that they now have the sign of
throat sound united with them ; and consequently are to be pronounced with
a murmur of voice mixed with the puff or the hiss. Thus :

Puffs and hisses already known : QODQ^^DQ-

Corresponding murmurs and buzzes : QQOQQQ^BQ.

The new letters will be at once understood ; and this lesson may embrace some
additional elements.

Select 0. The learner will discover by its shape that it is a lip letter, and
also that it is made with sound in the throat. Tell him that the additional
mark by which J>3 differs from 0 means that the letter is sounded in the nose.
He should then select the other ' nasals ' from the alphabet for himself. Point
out the relation, by shape, of Q to Q and of Q to Q , and illustrate the sounds

of G, Q, 0-

This lesson has introduced a large number of letters, but these involve only
two new symbols, so that the learner can have felt no difficulty ; and the symbol
for ' round ' vowels may be added.

Begin with }. Explain the meaning of the short cross line, and pronounce
3 and } several times, that the relation of these letters may be clearly compre-
hended. The series \ } J may then be presented. The relations of the three

122

sounds will be readily felt, and their differences will be perfectly remembered
after a few repetitions.

The mark \ may be associated with } (J^), with the explanation that the
lips are to move a little closer at the end of the vowel.

Reading will now be comparatively easy, and the learner will know with
certainty whether any unknown vowel is to be pronounced with the lips or
otherwise.

LESSON IV.

Call the learner's attention to the mode in which he has pronounced the
letters

O 0 C,

and let him discover that he has made them by raising the point of the tongue
to the palate. Then show him the letters

Q 00 (r, /,)

and he will see by their shapes that they also require the point of the tongue
to be raised. Tell him that

Q has its murmur coming out over the point of the tongue, and that
CO has its murmur coming out over both sides of the tongue.

Let him hear the sounds of the letters, by themselves, and in words, such as

Oil CD, 001 1 Q, Of |CO, (read, lead, reel).
OHQ, GOHQ, <i)HO>, (road, load, roll).

There is only one other consonant to be learned, namely

Explain that the sound of O is made with the tongue in about the same shape
as the letter, — the middle raised and the point turned downwards, — and that
the sound is very like that of the vowel f , but shorter and closer, and with a
little buzzing added. Let him hear the sound by itself, and in words such as

Oil, OI|COCD> Oil, OHO, O3G (ye, yield, you, yoke, young).

The particulars in this lesson will have presented no difficulty, and a new
vowel series may be added.

123

Let the sounds £ [ \ be pronounced a number of times, and the relations
between them, as well as between the symbols, cannot fail to be discerned.
The learner knows the position of the tongue for £ : explain that the shape of
the tongue is nearly the same for [ and { ; but that the high part of the tongue-
is a little further back, and the point of the tongue a little lower for [ than for
f, and for \ than for [.

The mark ^ may be associated with [ (as in Q[fi, day?) and explained as
meaning a very soft sound of 0.

LESSON V.

Call the learner's attention to the two vowels which he first learned, namely,
£ and f. He will observe the resemblance in the shapes of the letters, and he
will be conscious of a resemblance between their sounds. He will also feel that
the front of the tongue is in almost the same position for both vowels, and that
the difference between the two sounds arises from some change at the back part
of the mouth. His attention being directed to the matter, he will probably
have a sensation of widening the back part of the mouth in sounding £. He
will be conscious of a similar sensation — whatever it may be — in pronouncing
the pair of vowels ] and "], which he learned in the second lesson ; and he wili
now notice — if he has not done so sooner — the resemblance between these
letters, and perceive that the difference between them is exactly the same as
that between £ and f .

After this preparatory exercise on sounds, which were already practically
known, introduce the letters C I 1 3" J- These will be seen to differ from the
letters [ I 1 } J exactly as £ differs from £ and ] from ]. Explain that their
sounds differ in precisely the same way, and these new varieties will probably
be pronounced with accuracy at the first effort.

There are only two other accented vowels to be learned ; namely J and J,
The letter J is J without the cross-line ; and if the learner try to pronounce }
with the lips spread instead of rounded, he will produce J. He will feel too
that the sound is very like } ; and he will perceive the correspondence between
the letters 3 J and the letters [ \. Explain that their sounds correspond in the
same way ; that is : — the forepart of the tongue is very low for { and the back-
part of the tongue is very low for J.

The only remaining vowel is J. The letter is formed by joining J{ together,
and the sound of I will be produced by trying to sound JI at the same time.

124

The vowel X is always followed by ^ in. English. Explain that y is a very-
soft sound of Q.

The English reader has nothing more to learn. This short course of in-
struction will have, undoubtedly, excited his interest, and thus given him the
best possible stimulus to perseverance in exercise.

LESSON VI.

Revise the Complete Alphabet, sounding and naming the letters.

Practise Reading on subjects easily comprehended.

Unaccented syllables may be printed either with the shades of sound
actually heard in current pronunciation, or with the vowel which would be given
to each syllable in separate syllabic utterance.

The latter mode should be adopted at first, for the sake of simplicity, and
because the unaccentual variations are rather accidental than intended ; and the
learner intending the written sound will, very likely, fall short of it in the
customary degree, when he has attained the power of reading with fluency.
Besides, good reading is always syllabically distinct ; and a reader may with
propriety aim at a finer syllabication than that of conversational speech.

The only advantage attending the discrimination of unaccented varieties,
is that a knowledge of them prepares the learner for a more ready recognition
of foreign sounds. The writing of unaccentual shades will occasion no difficulty
after the more important elements are known. [See next Section.]

MODE OF DEDUCING FOREIGN SOUNDS FROM THEIR SYMBOLS WHEN THE
SYMBOLS OF VERNACULAR SOUNDS ARE KNOWN.

When the letters which represent vernacular sounds are known, foreign
sounds will be deduced from their symbols with facility and certainty. Thus
the English learner knows the vowel \, If he try to pronounce the sound with
the lips spread instead of ' rounded ' (with no superadded effort of guttural
compression), the result will be 1. The finger and thumb may be used to spread
the lips while sounding \, in order to get the true result. The vowel f is, of
course, known ; and by endeavouring to pronounce H simultaneously, the sound
of X will be produced.

In like manner, the attempt to form the known sounds ] [ simultaneously,
will give the quality of \. So, too, X will result from the effort to blend the
sounds of JJ ; \ is a common English vowel, and J will be obtained by spreading
the lips while sounding J.

125

The vowel £ will be formed by trying to sound [ with the lips as close as
for J ; •£ will be formed by trying to sound [ with the lips contracted as for 3 ;
and J, by trying to sound I with the lips ' rounded ' as for J. So, likewise, the
vowel I will be formed by the effort to blend the sounds of Jf ; \ by blending
}{ ; and J by blending J^.

Unknown varieties of ' wide ' vowels will be produced by a similar
coalescence of known sounds. Thus : IClI3Jl3-Jare English elements ;
the quality of the vowel 1 will be obtained by removal of lip-modification from
1 ; I by blending If ; arid 1 by blending } [. The unknown f will be obtained
by pronouncing £ with the lips contracted as for J ; I by blending ^f ; { by
trying to sound C with the lips ' rounded' as for 3 ; 1 by blending J{ ; \ by
trying to sound I with the lips ' rounded ' as for J ; and J by blending J{.

These various relations, it will be. observed, are all expressed in the symbols
themselves. [See 'Table showing the Mutual Relations of Symbols and
Sounds,' page 41.]

NOTE ON THE ZULU CLICKS.

The formation of these peculiar linguistic elements has been explained at
page 62 ; but it seems necessary to add a note with reference to their symboliza-
tion. The Rev. Dr Callaway states, in the Preface to his ' Izinganekwane,'
(p. iv) that in Zulu the clicks ' are never heard without an accompanying con-
sonantal sound ' — of g, k, or n. In all such cases, the writing of the sign <i after
the consonant expresses the click without another consonant letter. The click
is the mere removal of the organic contact which is involved in all ' shut ' and
' nasal ' consonants ; and the sign «3 indicates that the disjunction is made with
' suction stopped/ instead of with the expulsive recoil or transition which com-
monly finishes the consonant.

A click only requires the consonant action, of which it is the conclusion, to
be written, when the click is used alone, before or after a vowel ; or when it
follows another than its cognate consonant, — as GQ<.

The nature of the clicks will be best understood by prolonging a voiced
nasal consonant — G (D or O — an<^> without stopping the sound, removing an
anterior organic contact with an audible effort of suction. The suctions Q<t,
O<s, or Q<j, may thus be made if G be ' held ;' Q<s or Q<* may be made while
CQ is ' held ;' and Q<* can alone be made while £D is ' held ' — without inter-
rupting the sound of the nasal consonant. The clicks Q< and XH cannot be
formed with continued vocality ; Q<s can only follow Q €1 or G, or occur before
or after a vowel ; and XH can only precede or follow a vowel.

126

While this sheet is passing through the press, an opportunity has occurred
for an independent study of the Zulu Clicks, from the utterance of a native of
Natal. The Author's Son (A. G. B.) writes, as the result of his observation of
these elements : —

"The 'Dental Click' (represented by c in Dr Callaway's Work) is O<«-
This, and the ' Palatal Click,' I got at once to the satisfaction of my visitors.
The latter (q) is Qc<« (no flap). The words given were IGU<j'33Of and
iGlOc^} '00 C ICDL In the former word the voice was continuous from Q to Q ;
in the latter word, the click made a break in the sound.

It was some time before I was equally successful with the third or ' Lateral
Click' (x], which I pronounced QH<«. In the course of some forty or fifty
repetitions— in the word Q] G'Q'O 03 O£— I gave a slight prolongation to the
' suction,' and then it was admitted that I had the sound perfectly. This click
is decidedly »tt2-lateral.

These are all of the Clicks. But the Zulu sailor gave me another sound,
which I should term an expulsive Click. It is Dr Callaway's ' Lateri-Guttural
Fricative' (kh}. The sound is QA*>> as I pronounced it in the word IQA«>|93,-—
which the sailor said was perfect. As I heard the sound, there was no lateral
emission. A compressed Q is formed while X is ' held,' and the explosive sound,
heard before the 3, has quite the effect of a Click.

The sound of hi is £J ; Ng initial is, as I caught it, GQ. But the sailor
could not distinguish any difference between QQ{ and QQf (' Ngi')."

The explanation given in the preceding page shows why a click after a
nasal consonant does not interrupt the continuity of the voice ; while between
two vowels it necessarily makes a break in the sound.

The sound of hh, written CU*" in the above experiment, is perhaps \\ —
a closure of the super-glottal passage, as in the act of swallowing.

PROFESSIONAL CARD.

MR A. MELVILLE BELL, Author of ' Visible Speech,' may be consulted in all
Cases of Impediment or Defect of Speech, Vocal Weakness, Monotony, Oratorical
Ineffectiveness, &c.

STAMMERING AND STUTTERING.

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References of the highest class are furnished to inquirers.

A limited number of Pupils can be accommodated as Boarders ; but residence in the
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DEFECTS OF ARTICULATION.

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ALPHABETIC YOCABULARYor TEST WORO5.-

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PL IV.

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PL. VIII.

SHAKSPERIAN ENGLISH.

Portia's Speccli on M c r c~y

AS PRONOUNCED IN THE TIME OF SUAKSPERE

WriCUn fioiTi l))£ Dictation of

JOHN ELLIS , Esq., F K.S.

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VISIBLE SPEECH WRITING.

CONSONANTS.

BACK. |

c £ L L a a

BACK-VOICE

C £ fe & ¥ %?

FRONT. .

/ / 7 "2 / 2

FRONT-VOICE.

/; y3 /? a J J

LIP.

LIP-VOICE.

POINT.

L ^ L 'L 6 t

POINT-VOICE.

U V U W jf If

VOWELS.

Written, as under, for 'High,' 'Mid,"1 and 'Low' varieties: —
Primary. Wide.

BACK. MIXED. FRONT.

ROUND.

ASPIRATE, GLIDES, MODIFIERS, &c.

X 0 1 1 1 1 t L 1 ? tt* *? i t 1 1 f y^ /-/

X O 0 0 I 5 I I I I I I I ¥ 1 ( f \ \ \ \ A Y 1

The following require no change in Script :

PRINCIPLES.

Voice-Consonants and Primary Vowels have a loop formed in the hair-stroke of the letters.
Round Vowels have a break, or bend, in the body line of the letters.
Round Glides have a cross-slrohe, as in the ' print '-letters.
Nasal Consonants have the nasal-sign written horizontally.

' High ' Vowels ascend, ' Low ' Vowels descend, and ' Mid ' Vowels ascend and descend beyond the
line of the Consonants.

PL. XIII.

, XSV.

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PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

Bell, Alexander Melville
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