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VITICULTURE  AND  BREWING 


IN 


THE  ANCIENT  ORIENT 


BY 


H.  F.  LUTZ 


,  < 


LEIPZIG 
J.  C.  HINRICHS'scHE  BUCHHANDLUNG 

1922 
Auslieferung  fiir  die  Vereinigten  Staaten  von  Nord-Amerika: 

G.  E.  STECHERT  &  Co.    . 
151 — 155  WEST  2$TH.  ST. 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


Druck  von  August  Pries  in  Leipzig. 


O' 


TO 

PROF.  DR.  ARTHUR  UNGNAD 

UNIVERSITY   OF  BRESLAU 

THIS  VOLUME  IS  INSCRIBED 
IN  AFFECTION 


Introduction 

A  century  ago  little  was  known  about  the  ancient  Near 
East,  and  that  little  had  been  transmitted  by  unreliable  hands; 
moreover,  most  of  it  came  from  a  time  which  itself  was  much 
later  than  the  period  in  which  the  ancient  Oriental  nations 
played  an  all-important  role.  Only  a  few  decades  ago  the 
whole  of  Western  Asia  and  Egypt  were  like  an  immense  field 
of  ruins  lying  in  impenetrable  silence,  and  the  little  we  knew 
about  it  came  from  the  pen  of  a  few  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  who  on  account  of  their  foreign  way  of  thinking,  lack 
of  familiarity  with  the  psychology  of  the  Oriental  and  their 
inability  to  master  the  Oriental  languages  were  little  fitted  to 
become  absolutely  safe  guides.  They  understood  only  that 
which  was  similar  to  their  own  culture.  The  treasures  of 
Babylonia,  Assyria,  Asia  Minor,  Syria  and  Arabia  had.  been 
hidden  away  by  fate;  and  Egypt  had  already  undergone  a 
process  of  decay  when  the  Greeks  entered  that  country  and 
wrote  down  their  cursory  notices  about  the  land  and  its  people. 
There  were  only  fragments  —  miserable  fragments  —  by  which 
posterity  could  behold  the  ancient  world. 

The  darkness  has  been  lifted,  thanks  to  untiring  work  of 
Oriental  scholars  in  Europe  and  America,  who  have  worked 
feverishly  during  the  last  few  decades.  The  day  has  dawned 
over  the  Orient,  but  though  the  morning-sun  has  appeared,  it 
very  often  hides  itself  behind  dark  clouds.  Some  of  these 
clouds  will  undoubtedly  be  dispelled  by  later  researches  and 
it  will  depend  on  the  results  of  future  excavations  whether 
the  sun  will  reach  its  zenith  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  culture- 
land  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers  is  concerned,  Egypt, 
it  seems,  has  now  yielded  up  most  of  its  treasures. 


VI  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

The  following  pages  purport  to  place  together  the  most 
important,  but  by  no  means  the  entire,  material  which  has  come 
to  light  regarding  the  viticulture  and  brewing  in  the  ancient 
Orient,  material  which  to  a  large  degree  can  at  best  be  found 
only  isolated  in  the  respective  literatures.  To  some  whom  the 
Orient  interests  only  as  a  country  of  religious  systems  or  for 
purely  linguistic  or  historical  questions,  the  gathering  of  such 
materials  as  contained  in  this  volume  will  seem  banal,  but 
still  the  question  tt  Jticop.ev  was  at  all  times  a  cardinal  question 
to  humanity,  and  the  saying  of  Pliny  "if  any  one  will  take  the 
trouble  duly  to  consider  the  matter,  he  will  find  that  upon  no 
one  subject  is  the  industry  of  man  kept  more  constantly  on 
the  alert  than  upon  the  making  of  wine"  is  fully  verified  in 
our  present  time.  In  spite  of  all  modern  legislation  it  is  still 
a  question  often  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  many  peoples 
whose  governments  have  made  tabula  rasa  with  it.  And  thus 
it  will  probably  always  remain. 

The  present  treatment,  which  considers  the  matter  from 
the  beginning  of  historic  time  down  to  the  wine-prohibition  of 
Muhammed,  still  contains  many  gaps,  which  can  be  filled  only 
by  later  discoveries.  In  many  cases  our  information  consists 
"merely  of  names,  for  instance,  the  many  beer-and  wine-names; 
and  wherever  technical  details  might  have  been  considered 
more,  fully,  I  have  avoided  such  details,  as,  for  instance,,  in 
regard  to  the  Old-Babylonian  beer  recipes;  of  these  we 
already  possess  a  very  elaborate  treatment  by  Hrozny,  who 
has  also  announced  that  he  will  offer  another  work  on  the  in- 
tricate question  of  the  materials  used  in  the  Babylonian  brewery. 

It  will,  finally,  be  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  regarding 
the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  by  the  ancient  Orientals.  Far 
be  it  from  me  to  represent  the  Orientals  to  my  readers  in  the 
light  of  drunkards.  From  the  testimony  of  the  Classical  writers 
and  according  to  the  ideas  of  some  modern  scholars  it  might 
appear  as  if  they  had  been  such.  But  this  is  not  the  case. 
In  certain  circles,  it  is  true,  there  have  existed  at  all  times 
some  debauchers,  but  history  has  never  seen  a  whole  people 
absolutely  given  to  drunkenness.  Wherever  suggestions  are  to 
be  found  which  might  lead  to  such  a  conclusion,  they  are 
nothing  but  strong  exaggerations.  A  sane  human  intelligence 


Introduction.  VII 

has  preached  at  all  times  and  in  all  climes  moderation  —  and 
so  also  in  the  ancient  Orient.  The  morality  of  the  ancient 
Near  East  was,  after  all,  not  much  inferior  to  our  modern 
morality,  only  customs  have  become  more  refined.  Examples 
of  very  lofty  ideals  are  found  quite  early  both  in  Babylonia 
and  in  Egypt. 

If  the  history  of  mankind  should  really  teach  us  absolutely 
nothing,  it  teaches  us  at  least  this  one  thing,  that  mankind 
has  by  no  means  kept  equal  pace  in  its  intellectual  and  moral 
development.  Even  though  we  may  have  become  wiser,  we 
certainly  have  not  improved  very  much  morally.  Therefore 
we  should  not  sit  in  judgement  over  the  ancient  Orientals,  but 
should  rejoice  with  them  in  our  journey  through  their  world, 
in  which  we  see  them  engaged  in  preparing  the  precious  juice 
of  the  grape  and  in  the  brewing  of  beer,  in  order  to  gladden 
their  hearts  at  festivals  and  to  drive  away  the  dull  cares  of 
every-day  life.  Perhaps  after  the  perusal  of  this  book  there 
may  arise  in  the  minds  of  some  of  its  readers  the  painful 
thought: 

Sic  transit  gloria  mundi! 


Chapter  One 

The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient 

The  vine  is  a  prehistoric  plant.  As  such  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  determine  the  country  of  its  origin.  It  is  generally 
maintained  that  the  wooded  regions  which  extend  from  Tur- 
kestan and  the  Caucasus  to  the  mountains  of  Trace  are  to 
be  considered  the  homeland  of  the  vitis  vinifera^.  When 
the  dark  mist  that  envelops  the  prehistoric  age  passes  away, 
and  we  find  ourselves  at  the  beginning  of  historic  times,  the 
vitis  mnifera  occupies  such  an  extended  area,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  ascribe  to  the  plant  any  special  country  as  its  place 
of  origin.  The  Classical  writers  mention  quite  a  number  of 
places  as  having  originated  the  vine,  but  this  merely  indicates 
the  very  ancient  extension  of  the  plant  in  Mediterranean 
countries,  where  the  conditions  of  the  soil  and  the  climate 
were  and  still  are  most  favorable  for  its  culture.  Athen.  XV, 
675 a  names  the  countries  about  the  Red  Sea  as  its  place  of 
origin;  Ach.  Tat.  II,  2  mentions  Tyre;  Hellanic.  Fragm.  hist, 
gr.  I,  p.  67  Egypt;  Pausan.  IX,  25,  l  Boeotia;  Theopomp.  Fragm. 
hist.  gr.  Car.  Mueller  I,  328  Chios;  and  Hecat.  I,  26  Etolia.  It  is 
quite  possible  to  think  of  a  spontaneous  growth  in  many  re- 
gions2 in  view  of  its  wide  spread  in  the  earliest  historic  times. 

1)  Grisebacb,  Die   Vegetation  der  Erde,   I,   p.  323;    Koppen,    Geogr.   Ver- 
breitung  der   Holzgeu'iichse  des    europUi&cktn   Rttsslands    und    des   Kaukastis,    I, 
p.  97;    De   Candolle,    Orig.  des  planles  cultivces,  p.  153;    Schrader,     Tier-  und 
Pfianzengeogr.,  p.  27. 

2)  Regarding    the    soil    favorable    to    the    culture    of  vine   see   Theophr. 
Caus.  //.,  II,  4,  4.     For  references  in  Classical  writers  to  wild-growing  vine  see 
Pliny,  N.  h.  XXIII,   13—14,  Strabo  XV,   i,  58  and  Diod.  Ill,  62,  4-     On  wild- 
growing   vine   (four   to  five  kinds)  in  Middle-  and  Northern  Syria  see  ZDPV, 
XI,  p.  161. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  I 


2  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

The  culture  of  the  grapevine  started  very  early  in  Egypt1. 
We  learn  that  during  the  time  of  the  Thinitic  rulers,  and  even 
in  pre-dynastic  Egypt,  vineyards  had  been  planted  for  the 
purpose  of  providing  funerary  wines  for  the  early  rulers  of 
Egypt  \  Viticulture  seems  to  have  been  particularly  engaged 
in  during  the  time  of  the  IV.,  V.,  XII.,  XVII.  and  XVIII.  to 
XIX.  dynasty,  judging  from  the  pictorial  representations  of 
those  periods,  which  refer  to  viticulture,  vintage  and  the  mak- 
ing of  wine. 

The  best  vineyards  of  Egypt  were  situated  in  the  Delta 
and  the  country  not  far  south  of  it.  The  oldest  vineyards 
had  been  planted  in  the  vicinity  of  Memphis.  South  of  the 
Delta  the  wine  produced  particularly  in  the  Arsinoitic  nomos 
(i.  e.,  modern  Fayyum)  was  renowned.  The  capital  of'the  Arse- 
noi'te  nome  was  Crocodilopolis-Arsinoe,  Egyptian  Shedet. 
Modern  Kiman  Paris,  "the  riders'  hills",  mark  the  side  of  the 
ancient  city.  Regarding  the  Arsinoite  nome  Strabo  XVII, 
i>  35  (C  808)  says  "It  produces  wine  in  abundance".  This 
contradicts  Herodotus'  statement  (II,  77),  where  he  says  of 
Egypt  oi)  yap  tfcpi  eicsi  ev  rfj  X^P1]  &p.JteXoi.  But  this 
author  contradicts  also  his  own  words.  In  II,  42  and  144 
Osiris  is  considered  to  be  Dionysos.  In  II,  60  he  narrates 
the  journeys  to  Bubastis,  where  all  Egypt  gets  drunk  with 
wine,  and  when  more  wine  is  drunk  than  during  all"  the 
rest  of  the  year.  Again  he  states  that  every  man  of  the 
body-guard  receives  four  cups  of  wine  (II,  168).  In  II,  133 
he  mentions  the  drinker  Mykerinos  and  in  II,  37  he  states 
that  even  priests  drink  wine.  Finally  in'  II,  121  he  mentions 
the  chief-mason's  son,  who  made  the  guards  drunk  with 
wine.  Athenaeus  found  pleasure  in  the  Mareotic  wine.  The 
grape,  according  to  him  was  remarkable  for  its  sweetness.  The 
wine  is  thus  described  by  him:  "Its  color  is  white,  its  quality 
excellent,  and  it  is  sweet  and  light,  with  a  fragrant  bouquet; 
it  is  by  no  means  astringent,  nor  does  it  affect  the  head" 
(Virg.  Georg.  II,  91).  The  grape  was  white  and  grew  in  a  rich 

1)  For  an  indication  of  viticulture  in  Nubia  in  predynastic  times  may 
be  taken  the  grape-seeds   that  were  'found   in   the   stomach   of   the  Nubians.  •' 
Cf.  Bull.  Nub.  2.  55  grape-seeds  together  with  melon-seeds  and  barley  husks. 

2)  See  Chapter  II. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  2 

soil,  principally  composed  of  gravel.  Strabo  1  ascribed  to  the 
Mareotic  wine  the  merit  of  keeping  well  to  a  great  age.  It 
was  even  exported  to  Rome  and  enjoyed  by  those  who  were 
used  to  the  much  heavier  Italian  wines2.  Horace,  Od.  I,  37 
mentions  it  as  a  favorite  beverage  of  Cleopatra.  The  town 
from  which  the  wine  received  its  name,  Marea  (Mapea;  Steph. 
Byz.  Mdpeia;  Diod.  I,  68  Mapicx;  Ptol.  IV,  105  naXaipxxpia  Kcbp.r| 
is  the  Egyptian  Pa-mer,  the  capital  of  the  autonomous  district 

Pa-mer-ti  (  A^  *5\  rWA®/     According  to  Athen.  I,  330, 

Marea  owes  its  name  to  that  of  a  companion  of  Dionysos,  who 
was  named  Maron.  The  town  (now  called  Maryut)  stood  on 
a  peninsula  south  of  Lake  Mareotis.  It  was  adjacent  to  the 
mouth  of  the  canal  which  connected  Lake  Mareotis  with 
the  Canopic  arm  of  the  Nile.  Superior  to  the  Mareotic  wine  was 
the  Teniotic  wine,  at  least  in  the  estimation  of  some  writers. 
"Still,  however,"  says  Athenaeus,  "it  is  inferior  to  the  Tenio- 
tic, a  wine  which  receives  its  name  from  a  place  called  Tenia3, 
where  it  is  produced.  Its  color  is  pale  and  white  and  there 
is  such  a  degree  of  richness  in  it,  that  when  mixed  with  water, 
it  seems  gradually  to  be  diluted,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
Attic  honey,  when  a  liquid  is  poured  into  it;  and  besides  the 
agreeable  flavor  of  the  wine,  its  fragrance  is  so  delightful  as 
to  render  it  perfectly  aromatic,  and  it  has  the  property  of 
being  slightly  astringent".  Athenaeus  mentions  the  Plinthinic 
wines.  He  states,  on  the  authority  of  Hellanicus,  that  the  vine 
was  first  cultivated  about  Plinthine,  and  to  which  circumstance 
Dion  attributes  the  love  of  wine  amongst  the  Egyptians 
(Lib.  I,  25). 

The  Sebennyticum  was  another  renowned  Egyptian  wine. 
Pliny4,  in  fact,  cites  it  among  the  best  of  foreign  wines.  It  is 
"the  produce  of  three  varieties  of  grape  of  the  very  highest 
quality,  known  as  the  Thasian,  the  aethalus  (i.  e.,  the  'smoky' 


1)  Strabo  XVII,  p.  799. 

2)  See,  however,  Columella  (R.  R.  Ill,  2),  who  states  that  it  was  too  thin 
for  Italian  palates,  accustomed  to  the  stronger  Falernian. 

3)  Rather  so   called  from   a  long  narrow  sandy  ridge  (raivia)  near  the 
Western  extremity  of  the  Delta. 

4)  Pliny  XIV,  7. 

i* 


A  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

grape)  and  the  peuce  (i.  e.,  the  'pitchy'  grape)".     The  Thasian 
grape  is  described  by  the  same  writer1  as  such  which  excels  all 
other  grapes  in  Egypt  in  sweetness  and  as  having  remarkable 
medicinal  properties.     Sebennytos  (modern  Samanud),   Egyp- 
tian Zeb-nuter,  Coptic  Jemnuti,  was  situated  on  the  Damietta 
arm   of  the   Nile.     Athenaeus   praises   the   wine   of  Anthylla. 
"There  are  many  other  vineyards  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile, " 
he  says,    "whose  wines  are  in  great  repute  and  these  differ 
both  in  color  and  taste,    but  that  which  is  produced  about 
Anthylla2  is  preferred  to  all  the  rest".     Less  favorably  spoken 
of  is  the   ecboladic   wine3.     According  to  Pliny  (XIV,  18)  it 
was  possessed   of  the  singular  property  of  producing  miscar- 
riage (XIV,  9;  XIV,  22}.     It   is  possible  that  to  the  Egyptians 
it  was  a  particularly  strong  wine,  and  as  such  only 'drunk  by 
men.     This,    we   may   conjecture,    may  have  been  the  reason 
for  Pliny  to  make  this  statement,   since  he  probably  saw  the 
Egyptian  women   abstaining  from  its   use.     Pliny  knows  also 
the  wines   of  Mendes4  (modern  Tell  Roba  or  Tell  al-Kasr  at 
the  village  of  Tmei  al-Amdid),  which  are  mentioned  again  by 
Horace    and   Clemens    of  Alexandria5.     The  Mendesian   wine, 
according   to   the   latter   writer   seems   to    have    had    a    sweet 
flavor.      The   wine    of    the   Thebais     was     particularly     light, 
especially   about  Coptos.     The   wine  of  the  latter  city  was  .so 
thin   that   it  could   be  'easily  thrown   off.     It  was    "so  whole- 
some", says  Athenaeus,  "that  the  invalids  might  take  it  without 
inconvenience  even  during 'a  fever".     Upper  Egypt,  according 
to  Athen.  I,  60  produced  a  poor  quality  of  wines.     Viticulture 
was  engaged  in   as  far  south  as  Meroe  the  ancient  capital  of 
Ethiopia  since  c.  600  B.  C. ,  at  which  time  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was   transferred  from  Napata  to   that  place.     The  wine 
of  Meroe  has   been  immortalized  by  Lucian  6.     On  the  whole 

1)  Pliny  XIV,   18. 

2)  Anthylla  ("AvOuXXcc)  was  a  town  of  considerable  size  on  the  Canobic 
branch  of  the  Nile,  some  few  miles  south-east  of  Alexandria. 

3)  Ecbolas  from  ^KpdXAuj  "to  eject". 

4)  See  Pliny,    Hist.  Nat.  XIV,  9.      Cf-   also   Athenaeus,    Deipnos.  I,  30 
"Afendaeum  vinnm  coelestia  numina  meiunf. 

5)  Pacdagog.  II,  c.  2. 

6)  Athen.  I,  p.  33  f;  Strabo,  XVII,  p.  799;  etc.     Here  it  may  also  be  men- 
tioned that  the  story  of  the  shipwrecked  sailor,    which  contains  popular  ideas 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient. 


5 


the  Classical  writers  pass  a  favorable  judgement  on  the  qua- 
lity of  the  Egyptian  wines.  An  exception  appears  to  be 
Martial.  This  writer  considered  them  all  as  being  of  an  in- 
ferior grade,  judging  from  his  statement  that  the  vinegar  of 
Egypt  is  better  than  its  wine  (XIII,  122).  Also  Apollodorus, 
the  physician,  in  a  treatise  on  wines,  addressed  to  Ptolemy, 
king  of  Egypt,  recommended  for  medicinal  purposes  foreign 
wines  rather  than  those  of  his  own  country.  He  praised  par- 
ticularly the  Peparthian  J,  and  the  wine  ol  Pontus.  This  may 
have  been  due  merely  to  psychological  reasons.  The  imagi- 
nation thus  was  a  factor  introduced  to  effect  a  cure,  by  the 
mere  prescription  of  a  foreign  wine,  which  was  little  known  in 
the  home  country. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  writers  in  the  last  centuries  before 
and  after  our  era  laud  Egypt  also  as  a  country  with  plenty 
of  wine.  We  have  seen  above  that  the  Mareoticum  was  even 
exported  to  Rome,  yet  it  appears  that  Egypt  produced  just 
enough  wine  for  its  own  home  consumption. 

The  introduction  of  Islam  in  Egypt  limited  the  culture  of* 
vine  to  a  great  extent.  In  the  year  401  a.  H.  during  the  reign 
of  Hakim  many  people  of  Cairo  were  beaten  and  led  shame- 
fully through  the  streets  of  the  city,  because  they  had  sold 
wine,  amongst  other  forbidden  merchandise.  In  402  a.  H. 
Hakim  prohibited  the  sale  of  raisins,  and  issued  orders  against 
their  importation.  A  large  quantity  of  raisins  was  thrown 
into  the  Nile  or  burned,  while  other  immense  quantities  were 


regarding    the    wonderful    country    of   Punt,       ij       a    ,    situated   along  the 


African  and  Asiatic  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  does  not  fail  to  give  refe- 
rence to  viticulture  in  that  country  (lines  47  and  48).  In  the  country  of  the 
Niam-niam,  on  his  journey  from  Marra  to  the  bill  of  Gumango,  Dr.  Schwein- 
furth  "had  time  to  explore  the  magnificent  vegetation  of  the  adjacent  hills. 
The  wild  wine  (»//«•  Schimperi]  was  loaded  with  its  ripe  clusters  and  afforded 
me  a  refreshment  to  which  I  had  been  long  unaccustomed.  These  grapes 
were  less  juicy  than  those  that  grow  upon  the  vine-clad  hills  of  Europe,  and 
they  left  a  somewhat  harsh  sensation  upon  the  palate;  but  altogether,  and 
especially  in  colour,  they  reminded  me  of  our  own  growth"  (Schweinfurth, 
The  Heart  'of  Africa,  2nd  Engl.  edition,  Vol.  II,  pp.  234  and  235). 

i)  Pliny,  XIV,  7.     Some   scholars  read  Praeparentium.     Preparethos  was 
one  of  the  Cyclades,  famous  for  its  wines  (Ovid.  Met.,  VII,  470). 


6  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

thrown  into  the  streets  and  trodden  down.  The  vineyards  of 
Gizah  were  cut  down  and  orders  promulgated  everywhere  to 
do  the  same  all  over  the  country1.  In  Miniet  ibn  al-Khasib 
(^^oil  ^\  A^i*)  vine  was  cultivated  in  Idrisi's  time. 

The  travelers  who  visited  Egypt  in  the  Middle  Ages 
have  little  to  say  regarding  its  wines.  Hans  Jacob  Breuning 
von  und  zu  Buchenbach  visited  Egypt  in  1579.  He  says  that 
Egypt  has  no  wine,  but  for  the  sake  of  pleasure  some  vines 
have  been  planted  occasionally  in  the  gardens 2.  Pater  Wans- 
leben  who  on  June  30,  of  1672,  went  by  boat  from  Rashid 
(Rosette)  up-stream,  met  with  an  occurance  which  shows  how 
strictly  the  Mohammedan  Turks  prohibited  the  use  of  wine. 
Some  young  Turkish  sailors  discovered  that  the  pater  had 
a  supply  of  wine  which  he  had  brought  with  him  from  Mar- 
seilles. They  became  infuriated  and  wanted  to  throw  the 
wine  bottles  into  the  Nile3.  L.  F.  Norden  narrates  that  he 
received  plenty  of  coffee  and  grapes  on  his  journey  through 
Egypt  and  Nubia  in  the  year  of  1737.  These  grapes  were 
indeed  small,  but  ,of  an  excellent  taste4.  Savary5  in  his 
description  of  the  old  Arsinoitic  nomos  shows  that  the  Copts 
at  that  time  still  cultivated  the  vineyards  of  their  ancestors 
and  that  they  gathered  excellent  grapes  from  which  they  pre- 
pared a  white  wine  of  agreeable  taste.  Maillet6  who  wrote 
a  few  decades  earlier  remarks  that  most  of  the  Egyptian 
vineyards  are  situated  in  the  Fayyum.  He  notes  also  that  the 
Egyptians  esteemed  the  leaves  of  the  grape-vine  much  more 
highly  than  the  fruit  itself.  They  were  accustomed  to  wrap 
chopped  meat  with  these  vine-leaves  and  to  cook  the  whole 
to  a  tasty  dish.  Jomard 7  again  mentions  the  vineyards  of  the 

1)  S.  de  Sacy,   Chrest.  Arab.  I,  p.  ir,    ir. 

2)  Orientalische  Keys*    desz  Edlen    und  vesten  Hansz  Jakob  Breuning  Ton 
und  zu  Bouchenbach  etc.    Printed  at  Strassburg  by  Johann  Carolus,  1672,  p.  156. 
Quoted  from  Wonig,  Die  Pflanzen  ini  alien  Aegypten,   1886,  p.  254. 

3)  Retazione  ddlo  stato  presence  dell  Egitto,   Perigi,    1677,  p.  59.     Quoted 
from  Wonig,  o.  c.,  p.  261. 

4)  See  Wonig,  o.  c. 

5)  Lettres  sur  I'Egypte,  II  L.  troisieme,   1777.     Quoted  from  W'onig,  o.  c. 

6)  Rescription  de  I'Egypte,   1740,  L.  XI;  quoted  from  Wonig, 'o.  c. 

7)  Description    de    I'Egypte,    Edit.  II,    Tom.  IV,    p.  439;    quoted    from 
Wonig,  o.  c. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient. 


Fayyum.  According  to  him,  however,  vineyards  are  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere  in  Egypt. 

The  oldest  Egyptian  inscriptions  refer  to  different  kinds  of 

wine.  They  distinguish  between  white  wine,  (|          AA a  lion1, 

and  red  wine,  M  -AA.C3Q.  Besides  the  most  common 
word  for  wine  (j  <?>  Q  ,  there  appear  other  designations  for  it2. 
In  the  inscriptions  of  Edfu  appears  the  name  $3, 


"their  heart  is  i< 
toxicated  with  genuine  wine".     Dend.  Mar. 

C""'^=v!3    (c)    ^A  o.tt.rt    f~*\   a^^= 

xs*  r\         J»m   ,    -,  "The  inhabitants  of  Dendera  are  intoxicated 

^  O  ^»  I  *       *  |  \j= 

from  wine".     S3izv  (Medic.  Pap.  4,  3)  refers  probably  to  a  spe- 
cial kind  of  wine.     A  certain  wine  produced  in  the  great  oasis3 

bore  the  name  "The  green  Horus-eye",  *     .  *yA  j[  AA. 
T ^T  A          A  sacrificial  stone  which  was  found  in  Pompeii  and 
which  is  referred  to  king  Psammetichos  II.  refers  to  this  wine. 
It  reads: 


Ib-r'-nfr-lb-r')  has  come  to  thee,  O  Atum,  lord  of  On;  he  has 
offered  unto  thee  the  (produce  of  the)  Horus-eye.  It  has  ho- 
nored thee,  O  Atum,  lord  of  On,  the  son  of  the  sun,  Psam- 
metichos, by  (presenting)  the  double-jars".  Regarding  the  wine- 
cellar  in  Esna 4  it  is  written  in  one  of  its  texts  J?U  T  ^->*S 

1)  While  wine,   n  <~>  O ^ D   I   I 1  AA,    T  iiga;  „ Q  S!  CUD  O 

-d  ^ 

N456a;    T  119 a;    W  148 a   has   the   reading  ^         =n=;comP-  's-beer.    White 

I        I    U 
wine   seems   to   have  been  preferred  by  the  Egyptians  to  the  red  wine. 

2)  'Irp  occurs  as  a  geographic  designation  in  LD  II,  46,  47,  50 a;  Mariette, 

Mastabas,  p.  185,  325  (I       ~  £S,  i.  e.,  "the  wine  domain". 
1:U  P 

3)  See  Aeg.  Z.,  1868,  p.  85  ff. 

4)  Esna   (L^\)  was  renowned  for  its  grapes  iu  the  days  of  Idrist.     They 


8  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

IN ^/  9  ?    ?,  "furnished  with  all  good  things  and  with  the 

produce  of  the  Horus-eye  (i.  e.,  wine)".    Diimichen,  Hist.  Insc/tr., 


II,  53,  6,  20  JjIsJ  O  JH  V  ^  ^_  j^j  ^  ..The  vineyard  of 
Sohet  has  (the  produce  of)  the  green  Horus-eye".  This  pas- 
sage and  that  of  Dum.,  Hist.  Inschr.,  II,  53,  b,  18  AM  Jgg  *»--=> 
^»  ?  _  ?  / [1  „  5S>  "The  fertile  field  contains  gra- 

AAAAAA    O    O    O  A  I         LJ 

pes1,  the  produce  of  the  'Horus-eye'  is  wine",  makes  it  cer- 
tain that  the  "green  Horus-eye"  designates  a  wine  and  not 
another  intoxicating  drink  2.  The  'green  Horus-eye'  was  a  pro- 
duct of  3^»  Ombosl.  112:  IpS  ±±jtr  H  0  anc*  of  Hat- 
uVimnt,  Diimichen,  Temp.  Inschr.  I,  73,  4  ?  y  Tl 

••*    A   -L  / 


According    to    Dum.    Kal.   Inschr.    Tafel  109    it  causes  good 

humor'  ®o™^^^=51^  "The  golden  fe°ddess) 

became  good-humored  on  account  of  the  'green  Horus-eye'-wine". 

On  the  stele  of  Khabiousokari,  in  the  Museum  of  Cairo 3, 

a  certain  wine  is  called  k3y,   £  lfc\  (].     The  same  stele  men- 

-CC^    I 

tions  also  a  wine  named  irp-w3,  \\  .-,  £).  Another  brand 
of  wine  is  met  with  under  the  designation  sdw-ib,  M  C^3  "O1  J  QA, 
which  probably  means  either  "satisfying  beverage",  or,  "thirst- 


grew  there  in  such  abundance  and  such  superior  quality,  that  they  were  dried 
and  shipped  all  over  Egypt  (Jaubert,  Geo.  d'Idrisi,  p.  128). 

i)  See  also  Mar.  Dend.  I,  17,  21:  "He  brings  to  thee  the  fertile  field, 
bearing  grapes  (and)  the  Horus-eye  wine  —  pure  things,  which  thou  drinVest 
(and)  which  gladden  thy  heart  and  cause  joy  to  overflow  in  thee".  Wns  = 
grapes,  not  coriander  (Loret,  V.  in  R.  T.  XV,  105  flf.).  Maspero,  Et.  Eg.  I,  233: 

"My  clusters  of  grapes  (  /?*^»  V\  .25s»  ]  beget  thy  drunkenness". 

V3  ^  /WVA    O  / 


-CS>-  ft  <^> 
2}  The  "white  Horus-eye",    .0  _  ^  T   _  <>   is  milk.     The   "green  Horus- 

*5*  A  O 

eye"  is  probably  a  spiced  wine,  judging  from  an  inscription  in  Esna. 

3)  See  Weil,   Raymond,   Des  monuments  et  de  rhistoire  des  IF  et  IIP 
dynasties  egyptiennes,  Paris,  1908,  p.  251. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  g 

quenching   beverage"1.     Whether   the   beverage   called  Sbb.t, 

P.  is  a  wine-brand   remains    doubtful.     The  same 
x  !jl 


doubt  exists  as  to  hlwh.t,   W  £v      £>•     Since  it  is  found  in 


one  passage2  together  with  ///,    ^0,  "intoxicating  beverage", 

i.  e.,  wine,  it  is  doubtless  a  drink,  either  a  special  brand  of  beer 
or  wine,   and  it  is  not  the  name  of  a  special  drinking-vessel. 

The   inscriptions   further  mention  the  w;/-wine,    i*"^  "Wf",  i.  e., 

dark  wine.   In  Pap.  Anast,  IV,  12,  11  a  Semitic  loanword  occurs 
which  refers  to  the  wine-must  as  it  comes  from  the  wine-press. 

~\     AAAW     <^^>    *\^  I  4 

The  word  is  tinrekw,    A  v\  O  i  named  together  with 

Ui    i    i  ^r^  Jl       i 


irpw,       7@|:i,  "wines",  $dhw,  m,  "pomegranate- 

I  c=^a  A  _U.    I  I  I 


O 


_. 

wine"  and  dbw,  <z^*  1  ^\  jyj   fig-wine  3.      Ti(n)rkw    is    derived 

from   ?p_n,    "to    tread",    "to  press  the  grapes",  (cf.  ttTPfi  D^p? 
"must"   from  ttT^  -|-  Dp^,    "to   tread")4  according  to   Brugsch. 

-\     A/VAAAA 

Loret   (in    Rec.  trav.  XV,    p.  105  ff.)    considers     Jl 
to    be    a   liquor   prepared   from    dnrgZ  , 


<:=: 
I 

the  fruit  of  which,   according  to  Pap.  Anast.  Ill,  2,  3—  4,   has 
the  taste  of  hone: 


.     He  furthermore  identifies  the  plant  with  the  carob, 

^ 

stating  "en  Egypte,   et  dans  d'autres  pays  on  fait  encore  de 


7\  mentioned  for  the  first  time  on  the  stele  of  Tetiankhni, 

in  the  Museum  of  Liverpool.  See  Maspero,  Histoire,  I  (1895),  p.  250;  Gatty, 
Catalogue  of  the  Mayer  Collection;  I.  Egyptian  Antiquities,  No.  294,  and  Weil, 
o.  <-.,  p.  240. 

2)  In  Dend.  Mar.  Hathor  is  called 


i.  e.,  "the  mistress  of  intoxicating  drinks,  the  lady  of  hlwh.t". 

3)  On   dlb ,    "fi^-wine"   see   below  p.  18.     Written  c— =^a    If    //    in  Pvr. 

n^-  J  6 

W  1463;  c^^.        '          N  454 a. 
-J  ^-^ 

4)  See  Brugsch,    WB,  s.  v. 


1O  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

nos  jours  une  boisson  rafraichissante  avec  le  sue  de  Caroube 
mele  a  de  1'eau  ou  a  d'autres  liquides".  We  may  finally  men- 
tion the  wine  A  O  prepared  either  from  the  sap  or  J:he  fruit 
of  the(|J^|  tree. 

Besides  these  different  designations  for  the  word  "wine" 
of  which  irp,  n    ~    0  is  by  far  the  most  common  *,  the  wines 

or  their  special  brands,  are  also  named  according  to  their 
places  of  origin.  Through  these  geographic  attributes  we  are 
enabled  to  locate  the  most  important  vine-growing  districts 
of  Egypt.  The  Pyramid  texts  mention  the  "wine  of  Lower 
-\  Egypt"2.  Another  wine  is  called  irp  rs,  "wine  of  Upper- 
Egypt".  Most  of  the  place-names  refer  naturally  to  places  or 
districts  situated  in  the  Delta.  Important  is  an  inscription  at 
Esna  for  the  enumeration  of  different  kinds  of  wine.  This  in- 


scription  has  the  following  passage  •       _  £  [jgg  £  f  o  J 


.0 
I 


O    ^^      "The   produce    of  Pelusiumf?),    of  Hat-seha- 

<nr>    @      I      u 

Hor:\  together  with  (that  of)  the  oasis  Kenem,  and  the  pro- 
duce of  the  oasis  Dsds.  .(Whenever)  the  delivery  occurs,  then 
appears  hearty  joy  and  drunkeness  in  it,  and  they  intoxicate 
themselves  totally  in  its  district".  In  the  tomb  of  Ptah-Hotep 
at  Saqqara4  mention  is  made  of  three  of  the  most  important 

i)  This  word  is  preseived  in  Greek  in  a  verse  of  Sappho  [Athen.  Deipn. 

n,  39] 


cEp|itdc  b'  £\i6v  £puiv  0eoic 
A   general   name  for  wine,   used  less  frequently  than  Irp  is  sB  .t,    JtTtT   • 


«)  fl^^^,  Pap.  T.  1,8-  W.  I47-N.  SiS;  later  ()  " 
passim. 

3)  The    most   westernly   city   of  the   Libyan   nomos.     See    below    p.  12, 
note  i. 

4)  Bum.  Result.  XIII,  7. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  H 

wines  of  Ancient  Egypt,  i.e.,  irp  im.t,  n*    r'^TJJ^  ~,  "wine 

1      LI  £± 

of  'Imet"  J,  irp  sjn,  (1  ...  /P]  19,  (vocalized  sajn\  the  name 
is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  Ezek.  XXX,  15  "po,  Sept. 
Saiv) 2  "wine  of  Pelusium",  and  irp  him  (j  ^^  ffi\  j  ^j)  "wine 
of  the  fishermen-village"3. 

i)  'Imt  (Yemet]  =  modern  Nebesheh,  about  8  miles  to  the  S.  E.  of  Tanis 
and  9  miles  to  the  N.  W.  of  as-Salihtyeh.  The  wine  of  Nebesheh  is  men- 
tioned iu  Pyr.  T  i2Oa;  W  I49a;  N  457a;  j^jl  ~  Beni  Hasan  I,  pi.  17; 

'O     f\* 


LD  II.  67,  Saqqara,  Dyn.  5.     Regarding  the  city  of 

Ptahhotep  (see  above;  cf.  Hawara,  reprod.  Petrie,   Hist.  I,  fig.  no);         77  Aby- 
_^_  L  ^  II 

dos  i,  337J   '"T^    Pieret  II,  31   (26.  Dyn.)  and  ^~~^  cf.  BHI,  23;  for  etymology 


|   see  Pyr.  T  347  ff.f  cf.  RIH  (Dyn.  3-4,  the  title) 
I 


Petrie,  Nebesheh  11          ~       ©  I2>  where  situation  of  city  is  given; 
" 


.6.  ,  . 

2)  Spiegelberg,  in  Aeg.  Z.,  49,  p.  81  has  shown  that  the  city  of  £ajn,  written 
I  \\  O  »-  —  i  in  the  demot.  pap.  Cairo  31  169,  3,  26  is  identical  with  Pelu- 
sium. Spiegelberg  ad  /.  gives  also  the  different  writings  of  the  place  as  con- 
tained in  the  old  winelists,  i.  e.  ,  „  (Cairo,  1693);  p.  (L.  D.  II,  67); 


(Saqqara,  Mereruka  B  5);  £    (Saqqani,   Mereruka  B  C  3);    0  Q 

Papyr.  92  Kagemui-Saqqara);    f|Q  (Diim.   Result.  XIII,  6  —  Ptah-hotep,    ed 

Davies,  I,  pi.  30).  ;In  the  same  article  Spiegelberg  also  established  the  reading 
of  that  name  as  jf/»,  (vocalized  &ajri).  See  p.  83  of  the  Aeg.  Z.  In  Ashur- 
banipal,  Cylinder  A,  Col.  I,  line  93  Sjn  is  written  >^y^^ffx^»f^ 
aiuSi-^i-nu,  which  makes  the  vocalization  Sajn  doubtful.  The  Assyrian  text, 
however,  confirms  Spiegelberg's  identification  of  S}n  with  Pelusium.  The  vici- 
nity of  Pelusium  appears  to  have  been  most  noted  also  for  its  beers  ;  see  below 
p.  76.  For  wine  of  Sajn  in  the  Pyramid  Texts  see  T  122  a;  W  151  a  and 
N  459  a. 

3)    A    ^C  ^w.name  of  a  locality  of  Lower  Egypt  (near  Lake  Mareotis?). 


A    ^jC 


1  2  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

A  territory  is  several  times  mentioned  in  the  texts,  renowned 
for  its  wines,  i.  e.,  ^j?  imn,  TflVT  t]  (  ,  "the  vine-bearing  region 

I    >WW\A       I 

of  Amon".     This  is  the    name    given   in   the    lists    of  nomes 
to   a   territory   which    belonged    to    the    city    of   mvt-nt-Hapi, 

>   «the    city  of  the  Apis-bull",    which  is  "Asti-  of 


. 

c±  \c±  u 
the  Classical  writers1.     This   district  was  also  known   by  the 

name  of  $3-mnh.  Dend.  Mar.  says  of  this  district  "the  vine- 
yard of  Mnh  has  wine",  TtTtT.  ^  i  ^^^  0  n  =rt  •  It:  was  si- 

/WWVA     V|  I    U    " 

tuated  in  the  third  nomos  of  Lower  Egypt,  called  imn.t  A^ 

that  is,  the  Libyae  nomos  (Ptolemy  IV,  5  §  5).  Pliny  calls  the 
capital  of  this  nome  nobilis  religione  Aegypti  locus,  and  accord- 
ing to  Strabo  XVII,  p.  799  it  was  loo  stadia  distant  from 
Paraetonium.  The  Libyan  nomos  was  near  the  Lake  Mareotis, 
renowned  for  its  excellent  wines.  The  banks  of  a  canal  or  of 
a  lake  in  this  third  nome  of  Lower  Egypt,  which  bore  the 

name  *»,  """  "~,   were   planted   with   vines.     An  inscription 

AAAAAA      1         E 

narrates  "(the  locality  of)  An  bears  grapes  (and)  $3-mnh  bears 


wine"—  -H-       •»-rOi-    The 

AAAAAA     T         '  AA/WVA    O    O   O  /WWW     V         I 


Pyramid  Texts   mention   the   wine   of  NhSmw,   (1 


n 


See  also  Diimichen,  Die  Oasen  der  Libyschen  Wuste,  Tafel  XIX  (]  *\ 

1 


i)  The  city   of  Apis   of  Ptolemy   IV,  5,  §  5  seems  to  refer  to  the  city 
called     Hat-seha-Hor 


Brugsch,  Geo.,  p.  513),  which  is  identical  with  Hat-itar-imn .  t,      I  ^Tf^.     The 

LD  -Jl  I  \tg 

city  of  Apis  to  which  Herodotus  (II,  18)  refers  can  hardly  be  the  same  place. 
On  the  city  of  Apis  see  also  above  p.  10,  note  3. 


2)  Mar.   Dend.  I,  66,   16     R 


•WW\A    O   O    O 

->  "I    bring 


unto  thee  lAn  bearing  grapes  (and)  SB-mnh   bearing  wine which  will 

cause  thy  heads  to  wag". 


/wwv\ 

reotic  wine. 


The  Wines  of  the  Aucient  Orient. 

w  15°a;  T  121a;  N  458a>  that  is»  the 


One  of  the  most  renowned  vine-districts  of  Upper  Egypt 
belonged  to  the  city  of  Diospolis  parva,  in  the  seventh  nomos. 
The  most  famous  vineyard  of  Diospolites  was  that  called  Sft.t, 

3J[  c  c^i.  Sft.t  is  the  name  of  a  mountain  situated  in  the  se- 
venth nome,  according  to  the  investigations  of  de  Rouge2. 
Brugsch  later  held  it  possible  that  the  name  Sft.t  may  be 
an  oasis  of  the  Libyan  desert  near  al-Khargeh  but  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  results  of  de  Rouge's  investigations  should 
be  doubted.  A  possible  indication  of  viticulture  at  Diospolis 
parva  is  contained  also  in  the  name  of  a  certain  district  of 

Ht-shm,  which  is  called  knm.t,  *  ^m>  J'*  e>'  "the  vineyard",  or, 
"the  vine-domain".  Brugsch,  Diet.  Geogr.  p.  1345:  "Art  thou 
not  in  Knm.t  of  Ht-shm  (Diospolis  parva)?",  O^/Q^ 

^  fin  The  oldest  reference  to  the  wines  of  the 


oases  of  KMrgeh 


capital  m  and  Dakhel  capital 

is  found  in  Osorkon's  I.  record    of  temple   ^ifts3.     It   reads: 
,,His  .......  J  tribute  is  (the  produce  of  the  oases  of)  Dakhel 

and  Khargeh,  consisting  in  wine  and  pomegranate  -wine;  Hemy 
wine   and   wine   of  Telusium5   likewise,    in  order  to   maintain 
.........  his   house   according   to   the   word  thereof".     The 

wine  of  Khargeh  was  of  a  very  good  quality;   DGI,  Tafel  89 

1.  3        T//wwvAGj    ,  "very  good  wine  of  Khargeh",  also  Brugsch, 


i)  Cf.  Diim.,  Kal.  Iwchr.  103  "the  vine-branches  of  Sft.t  flourish  in  their 
hands 


Oasen  der  Libyschen   VVuste,  plates  XV  and  XVII. 

2)  Text,  geogi-.  du  temple  d'Edfou,  p.  83. 

3)  See  Naville,  Bubastis,  I,  pis.  51  and  52. 

4)  The  name  of  the  god  is  broken  away. 

5)  I.  e.,  &jn,  {§*jn\ 


14  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Geogr.,  Tafel  LI,  No.  1422  ( ''    Another 


wine-producing  district  was   Tbui,  a  ffiHrx/^i  and  the  city  of 

AAAAAA   /VA.  £^ 

Nham.t,    V|>        -.    The  two  are  named  together  with  the  oases 

Khargeh  and  Dakhel  and  the  cities  of  Nebesheh  and  Pelu- 
sium1.  The  Egyptians  received  also  wine  from  the  oasis 
called  Bahriyeh  (the  "northern"  oasis  of  the  texts) 2.  De  Rouge, 

Edfou  XXXIX.  4  V\  ^ o  £\  (1  <z^>  ,  *w*  would   contain  a 

J^\2  W    H (J     1    O  O     O       I      AAAAAA 

reference  to  viticulture  at  Heroo(n)polis,   in  case  that  v\    °° 

_M^  © 
is  but  a  somewhat  unusual  writing  of  the  name  of  the  city. 

We  have  seen  above  that  Athenaeus  knew  of  the  wine  of  Coptos. 
A  reference  to  the  viticulture  of  that  city  is  found  in  J.  de 


Rouge,  L,x.giogr.,  p.  72  m  •  L  e- 

\ 


I 

"its  riverbanks  and  its  vines".  That  the  vine  was  cultivated 
about  Coptos  is  seen  particularly  from  the  name  of  a  territory 
belonging  to  the  fifth  nome  of  Upper-Egypt  (the  Coptites  of 


the  Ancients),  which  was  called  ht  hsp.t,        /]  9         ,  "the  vine- 

c±  "-—I  /\  U  a 

terrace".  Vineyards  were  planted  in  Egypt  proper  as.  far  south 
as  Elephantine.  In  the  lower  country  of  the  first  noinos  of 
Upper  Egypt,  whose  capital  was  Elephantine,  we  meet  with 
the  name  of  a  district,  which  was  called  simply  "the  wine- 

district",  fl  ^  The  culture  of  vine  at  that  district,  as  well 

1     U      i=r 

as  for  all  parts  of  Upper-Egypt  and  the  oases,  was  compara- 
tively late.  It  is  not  until  the  Ptolemaic  times  that  viticulture 
is  actively  engaged  in  about  Elephantine. 

Vineyards  were  planted  also  in  the  vicinity  of  Heracleo- 
polis.     We  have  the  testimony  of  an  officer  of  the  Saitic  pe- 


i)  "The  grapes  of  Knm  (Khargeh),  the  produce  of  Dsds  (Dakhel),  the 
wine  of  the  districts  of  Tbui,  the  cities  of  Neham.t,  fm,  and &/>»",  Diimichen, 
DieOascn  der'^Lib.  Wuste,  pi.  XVI.  —  The  grape,  or  raisin,  of  Dakhel  appears  to  have 
come  on  the  market  by  the  name  "Oasis- grape";  see  Br.,  WB.,  Vol.  VII,  p.  1129 


2)  See  Steindorff,  Durch  die  Libysche  JVuste  zur  Amonsoase,  1904,  p.  1446*". 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  jc 

riod,  called  Hor1.  He  states  upon  his  stele  that  he  had 
planted  two  vineyards  there,  in  order  to  provide  wine  for  the 
god  Huneb.  Judging  from  the  vineyard  scenes  in  the  tomb 
of  Paheri  at  al-Kab,  viticulture  was  practised  also  in  the  vici- 
nity of  this  ancient  city. 

One   of  the   most   famous   vineyards    of  Egypt   was   the 
vineyard   of  Arrion,   situated   in   the  Delta   near   the   city   of 

L  e.,  OWtpfi  Gen.  XL VII,  n.     The  city 


was  situated  "on  the  bank  of  the  canal  Ptry\ 

(Pap.  Anast  IV,  6,  11)     It  may  possibly  be  identical  with  the 

ancient    city    of  Tanis   (Egyptian 


/WWVA  «=       _       WWW    /VAAAAA 


1?S  of  the  Old  Testament;  Assyrian  >  A^1^).  In  this 
case  Ptry  would  be  the  modern  bahr  al-Mashra.  The  vineyard 
bore  the  name  Ka-ti-kemtt*.  How  far  this  vineyard  reaches  back 
in  the  history  of  Egypt  is  not  known.  But  we  know  that  it  existed 
in  the  time  of  Ramses  II.  In  the  wine-cellars  at  the  Ramesseum 
have  been  found  many  sherds  from  broken  wine-jars,  which 
bear  the  name  of  this  vineyard3.  According  to  Pap.  Anast. 
3,  2,  6  it  yielded  sweet  wine.  In  Pap.  Harris,  pi.  8,  1.  5  ff. 
Ramses  III.  says  "I  made  for  it  Ka-n-kemet,  inundated  like 
the  two  lands,  in  the  great  lands  of  olive,  bearing  vines, 
(being)  surrounded  by  a  wall  around  them  by  the  iter".  King 
Ramses  III.  took  great  interest,  it  seems,  in  viticulture.  He 
paid  particular  attention  to  Ka-n-kemet,  but  he  also  extended 
this  interest  to  distant  places.  Thus  we  read  in  the  Papyrus 
Harris,  pi.  7  lines  lofif.  "Vineyards  I  made  for  thee  in  the 
Southern  Oasis,  and  the  Northern  Oasis  likewise  without  num- 
ber; others  (I  planted)  in  the  South  with  numerous  lists.  They 
were  multiplied  in  the  Northern  country  by  the  hundred- 
thousand.  I  furnished  them  with  gardeners  from  the  captives 

of  the  countries,   provided  with  lakes ,   supplied   with 

lotus  flowers,  and  with  pomegranate-wine  and  wine  like  draw- 


1)  See  Pierret,  Mon.  du  Louvre,  I,  p.  14. 

2)  I.  e.,  "The  genius  of  the  Black  Land  (=  Egypt)". 

3)  See  Aeg.  Z.,   1883,  33  ff.,  and  Spiegelberg,  Ostraca,  pis.  19 — 34. 


16  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

ing  water,  for  the  purpose  of  presenting-  them  for  thee  in 
"Victorious  Thebes"1. 

Since  the  Egyptians  were  cpiAoivot2,  i.  e.,  lovers  of  wine, 
it  is  but  natural  that  they  expended  their  genius  and  their 
time  also  on  the  preparation  of  all  kinds  of  artificial  wines. 
The  home  production  of  grape-wine  was  never  sufficient  to 
meet  the  home  consumption.  To  meet  this  deficiency  they 
either  imported  foreign  wines3,  or  else  made  their  own  arti- 
ficial wines.  The  wine  import  into  Egypt  is  well  attested 
in  the  inscriptions.  Herodotus  III,  6  mentions  it.  Twice 
a  year  a  considerable  quantity  of  wine  was  received  from 
\  Phoenicia  and  Greece.  In  the  ruins  of  Daphnae  (modern  Tell 

JAA/WVA 
,©,    Hebr. 
£±    I  ' 

cnjEOH;  the  city  was  situated  to  the  North  of  the  caravan- 
route  between  al-Kantara  and  as-Salihiyeh)  wine -jars  of 
distinctly  Greek  style  were  found,  having  been  sealed  with 
the  seals  of  Amasis  (first  half  of  6th  cent.  B.  C.)4.  These  wine- 
jars  were  imported  filled  with  wine.  Herodotus  also  makes 
the  statement  that  the  earthen  jars,  in  which  the  wine  was 
imported,  when  emptied,  were  used  for  quite  a  different  pur- 
pose. They  were  then  collected  and  sent  to  Memphis  from 
every  part  of  Egypt  and  then,  after  these  jars  had  been  filled 
with  water,  they  were  returned  to  Syria.  Amongst  the  wines 
imported  into  Egypt  from  Phoenicia  figure  largely  those  of 
Tyre 5  and  Laodicea.  The  caravan-route  which  the  Phoenician 
wine-merchants  travelled  led  from  Gaza  through  the  desert  via 
Raphia,  Rhinokorura,  Ostracine,  past  the  station  at  mount  Kasius 
to  Pelusium.  The  journey  from  Gaza  to  mount  Kasius  took 


i)  See  also  Pap.  Harris  p.  27,  8:  "I  gave  pomegranate-wine  and  wine  a.s 
daily  offerings,  in  order  to  present  the  land  of  On  in  thy  splendid  and  myste- 
rious seat".  Cf.  also  line  9:  "I  made  great  gardens  for  thee,  fitted  out,  con- 
taining their  groves,  bearing  pomegranate-wine  and  wine  in  the  great  house 
of  Atum1'.  During  the  thirty -one  years  of  his  reign,  Ramses  III.  bestowed 
514  vineyards. 

2}  Athen.  I,  34,  b — c.  Athepaeus,  Deipnos.  I,  35  "Dion  academicus  vino 
sos  ac  bibaces  Aegyptios  esse  iniquit". 

3)  Egypt,  according  to  the  Periplus  of  the  Erythraean  Sea,  28,  exported 
a  little  wine  into  Cana,  of  the  kingdom  of  Eleazus,  the  frankincense  country 

4)  See  Petrie,  Nebesheh,  64.  5)  Heliod.  Aethiop.  V,  27. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  17 

five  days,  and  thence  to  Pelusium  one  day1.  Since  the  difficul- 
ties in  the  transportation  of  wine  were  great,  it  was  completely 
lacking  in  the  earliest  times;  where  local  production  was 
limited,  as  in  the  case  of  Egypt,  they  were  compelled  to  make  . 
artificial  wines.  Pliny,  XIII,  5  states  that  in  the  former  times 
figs,  pomegranates,  the  myxa2  and  other  fruits  were  used  in 
Egypt  in  the  preparation  of  artificial  wines.  Datewine 3  appears 
to  have  been  a  favorite  beverage,  according  to  Pliny  (XIV,  19) 
and  Dioscorides  (V,  4),  who  tell  us  that  this  wine  was  greatly 
esteemed.  Two  modes  of  making  this  wine  seem  to  have  been 
in  use.  The  Egyptians  either  scratched  the  stem  of  the  date-  / 
palm  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  gathered  the  sap  into  jars  and 
let  it  ferment,  or  else  they  pressed  the  fresh  dates,  and  the 
juice  thus  gained  was  brought  to  fermentation.  The  first 
method  produced  a  wine  which  spoiled  within  a  few  hours, 
while  by  the  other  method  the  wine  could  be  kept  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  Datewine,  which  was  used  also  for  cleansing 
the  entrails  of  the  dead,  formed  an  excellent  and  cheap  drink 
for  the  poorer  people4.  For  cheapness  it  was,  perhaps,  only/ 
surpassed  by  the  barley-beer.  According  to  Xenophon5  date- 
wine  brought  on  severe  headache 6.  A  beverage  is  frequently 

named  in  Egyptian  inscriptions,  called  shedekh,     ^  x  0  •   The 


oases  of  Dsds\\t£A\          \  and  Kn  m  ./ 


/wwv\ 


1)  Josephus,  JB.  y.,  IV,  ii,  5;  Herod.  Ill,  5,  6  and  Strabo  I,  3,  17. 

2)  The  cordia  myxa  of  Linnaeus. 


4)  Herodotus,  II,  86. 

5)  Cyr.  II,  3. 

6)  Datewine  was  used  for  medicinal  purposes.     The  fruits  of  the  ed-Dom 
palm,  mama,      M?,    ^,       ^?^\        %?  1k    A '  (Hyphaent   thebaica  Mart. 


=  Cuceifera  thebaica  Desfon.)  were  used  for  making  beer.     The  dates  of  Egypt 
were  considered  delicacies  in  Rome  fGellius,  VII,  16). 


7)  ^>    hTDum.,  Kal.  Inschr.  120,  I.  n;    cf.  119,  i.  10;    Pap.  Anast.  I, 

5,  2  —4,  7,  4  and  often. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  2 


18  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

produced  shedekh  as  well  as  wine  *.  It  must  have  been  a  very 
expensive  beverage,  since  in  the  winelists  it  generally  precedes 
the  name  of  the  grapewine.  It  is  most  likely  the  pome- 
granate-wine of  which  Pliny  states  2  that  it  was  in  use  amongst 

the  Egyptians.     A  third  artificial  wine  was  called  baqa.  fej  .£. 

jjr  v 

It  was  probably  made  from  figs  or  dates.  This  wine  was  im- 
ported into  Egypt  from  Palestine8.  A  liquor,  made  of  figs, 

was  called  dbjj  c±^  i)  Q  Q  0  (Med.  pap.  19,  i),  dbjj.t  < 


V 

(Pap.  Anast.  3,  3,  5).  See  also  Pap.  Anast.  4,  12,  l.  This  liquor 
is  compared  to  a  flame,  since  it  burned  the  throat  (Pap.  Anast. 
3,  3,  5).  In  regard  to  fig-  wine  in  the  Pyramid  Texts  see  W  146  a, 
T  11/a,  N  4543,  Pepi  II,  1.  154.  See  also  Dumichen,  Der  Grab- 
palast,  Vol.  I,  pi.  XXV.  1.  95. 

Mixed  or  spiced  wines  were  common  in  Egypt4.  The 
Egyptians  mixed  or  flavored  their  wines  with  the  juices  of 
rue,  hellebore  and  absinthium5.  Whether  mixed  or  spiced 
wines  were  admissible  for  use  in  the  religious  cult,  is  unknown, 
but  it  is  possible,  to  conjecture  that  contrary  to  the  practise 


i)  Diimichen,  Kal.  119,  10;    RecueillV,  82,  5;    83,  7  etc.     In  RecueillV, 
79,  2  occur  the  writings  <o^  ^>  and 


2)  Pliny  14,  19;  see  al?o  Dioscor.  5,  34. 

3)  According  to  Pap.  Anast.  3  and  4,  Sangar,  ihe  raountainious  country 
between   the   Euphrates   and  Tigris    (modern   Sindjar)  exported  the    following 
beverages    to    Egypt:    qad'auar,    khenaua,    nekfet'er    and   yenbu.      The    Hittite 

country,  i.  e.,  Northern  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  furnished  the  ^  \N     A 

-  ^ 


\          7^  /VAAAAA   X^.^_  -\     [\         \\ 


_  -\     [\ 

Sangar    furnished    the  A  (I  <c=r>       ;   Alashiya  the 


and  the  country  beetween  the  Orontes  and  the  Balikh 


(Pap.  Anastasi  4,  pi.  15,  lines  2  —  4). 

4)  Of  interest   is    in  this  connection  the  popular  etymology  of  the  royal 
name   Psammetichus  =  pl-s3-n-mtk,    "the    mixer",    that    is,    he"  who  iuvented 
mixed  drinks.     See  Spiegelberg,  in  OLZ,  1905,  Vol.  8,  559  ff.      Assyrian:    Pi- 
$a-me-il-ki,   Pi-sa-mi-is-ki  ,    Tu-sa-me-il-ki  ,    Tallqvist,   Knut,    Assyrian  Personal 
Names,  pp.  181,  182. 

5)  Pliny.  XIV,   16. 

•   •.  J 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  IQ 

of  the  Hebrews  the  Egyptians  had  no  religious  scruples  in 
presenting  as  offerings  adulterated  or  even  artificial  wines. 
Wine- offerings  were  made  at  the  common  offerings  and  the 
offerings  of  the  dead.  Wine  always  heads  the  list  of  liquid  / 
offerings.  In  Heliopolis,  however,  wine  did  not  belong  to  the 
offerings,  according  to  Plutarch1.  He  states  that  the  priests 
brought  no  wine  into  the  temple  and  that  they  considered 
drinking  during  day-time  as  unseemly  TOU  Kopioo  KCU  |3atfi)\.ea)c; 
(scil.  'HXiou)  ecpopcovTO^.  The  same  writer  also  states  that  the 
priests  abstain  from  the  use  of  wine  only  on  days  of  fasting. 


No.  i.  An  Egyptian  Siphon  (after  Wilkinson,    The  Ancient  Egyptians]. 

For  the  mixing  of  wine  the  Egyptians  used  the  siphon.  The 
process  is  illustrated  on  a  tomb-painting  in  Thebes  (see  Illu- 
stration No.  l).  A  servant  is  seen  directing  the  wine  of  three 
raised  wine  jars  by  means  of  three  long  siphons  into  a  two- 
handled  wine-cup.  Two  siphons  are  represented  as  being 
already  in  action.  To  exhaust  the  air  the  servant  has  put  the 
end  of  the  third  siphon  into  his  mouth.  He  sucks  it,  and  thus 
causes  the  contents  of  the  third  jar  to  flow.  Another  ser- 
vant is  seen  holding  two  small  siphons  in  his  left  hand.  He 
stands  behind  the  frame-work  and  re-fills  the  slowly  emptying 
jars  with  a  cup. 


[)  Plut.,  Is.  Chapt.  VI. 


2* 


2O  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

The  Egyptian  monuments  of  the  early  time  are  silent 
regarding  the  question  of  a  wine-tax.  This,  of  course,  does 
not  imply  that  there  was  none  such  existing.  It  is  rather  to 
be  conjectured  that  the  contrary  was  the  case.  For  the  time 
before  the  end  of  the  twentieth  dynasty  we  possess  testimony 
that  the  wine  tax  was  levied  and  that  this  tax  consisted  in 
kind.  That  is,  the  wine  tax  was  paid  with  wine.  In  the  stele 
of  Bilgai1,  the  Overseer  of  the  Fortress  of  the  Sea,  who  pro- 
bably lived  in  the  time  of  Tewosre,  Bilgai  boasts  in  the  last 
section  of  the  inscription  of  the  greatness  of  the  revenues  for 
which  he  was  responsible.  His  people  he  assessed  to  an  ex- 
cess of  25,368  measures  of  wine.  Lines  17bff.  read:  "4632 
measures  of  wine  was  the  (assessed)  produce  of  my  people. 
I  delivered  them  as  30000,  an  excess  of  25,  368".  The  title  of 
Bilgai  "overseer  of  the  Fortress  of  the  Sea"  shows  that  the 
wine  spoken  of,  was  wine  produced  in  the  Delta.  The  wines 
imported  from  Syria  and  Greece  were  most  likely  subject  to 
a  custom  house  tax  even  in  the  time  of  the  end  of  the  Middle 
and  the  beginning  of  the  New  Empire.  Although  the  Egyp- 
tian records  are  silent  on  this  matter,  yet  it  seems  that  the 
treasury  of  the  State  drew  no  small  income  from  the  custom 
house  receipts  of  foreign  wines.  In  a  letter  of  the  king  of 
Alashiya  and  one  of  the  "rabisu'of  Alashiya  to  the  king  of  Egypt 
we  seem  to  have  an  indication  that  the  Egyptian  state. had 
its  custom-house  officials  at  the  Delta-harbors.  These  letters 
call  the  official  of  the  customs  amel pagari-ka,  "the  man  who 
makes  claim  for  thee  (i.  e.,  the  king)".  No.  39  lines  17 — 20 
read:  a\me\l  pa-ga-ri-ka  ulia-ga-ar-ri-ib  it-ti-su-nu,  i.e.,  "Thy 
custom-house  official  shall  not  draw  nigh  unto  them  (i.  e.,  my 
merchants  and  my  ship)".  No.  40,  lines  24—26:  a[me\lu  an- 
nu-u  ardu  $a  Sarri  be[-li-ia\  u  amel  p\a\-ga-ri-ka  it-ti[-$u]-nu 
ul  i-gi-ri-ib  muhhi-hi-nu,  i.  e.  "the  men  are  servants  of  the 
king,  my  lord,  and  thy  custom-house  official  (who)  is  with 
them,  shall  not  draw  nigh  against  them".  Merchants  and  ser- 
vants of  foreign'  kings  thus  seem  to  have  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  exemption  from  paying  custom-house  duties2.  Under  the  rule 


1)  See  Gardiner,  in  Aeg.  Z.,  50,  p.  496°.  and  pi.  4  facing  p.  56. 

2)  Knudtzon,  Die  El-Amarna   Tafeln,  No.  39  and  No.  40. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  21 

of  the  Ptolemies  the  winetax  seems  to  have  been  paid  in  money  !. 
Wilcken,  Griechische  Ostraka,  p.  270,  §  86  discusses  the  winetax  of 
the  Roman  period,  called  oivou  TSAOC;.  The  tax  is  levied  in  the 
Roman  period  from  the  owners  of  the  vineyards,  who  produce 
wine2.  This  tax  may  be  viewed  either  as  constituting  an 
assessment  placed  upon  the  amount  ol  the  produce  of  wine 
yielded  from  the  individual  vineyards,  or  as  a  tax  placed  on 
the  consumption  of  wine,  which,  according  to  Wilcken,  may 
have  been  levied  indirectly  on  the  producer,  in  order  ultima- 
tely to  be  paid  by  the  consumer.  The  difference  in  the  quality 
of  the  grapes  and  the  wine  was  seemingly  instrumental  in  the 
varying  amount  of  the  winetax.  Theban  0 strata,  University 
of  Toronto  Studies,  1913,  pp.  124 — 125  gives  three  wine- tax 
receipts.  No.  88  (G.  280)  is  as  follows:  "Tithoes,  son  of  Peto- 
sorkon  has  paid  through  Horos  for  the  valuation  of  wine  for 
the  tenth  year  in  the  Upper  toparchy  4  obols.  Year  1O  of 
Domitianus  our  Lord,  Hathur  ll"  (i.  e ,  90  A.  D.).  No.  89  (Gr.  70), 
dated  in  181 — 2  A.  D.  reads:  "Miusis  and  his  colleagues,  super- 
visors of  the  valuation  of  wine  and  palms  to  Pekrichis,  son 
of  Pekrichis,  son  of  Heraklas.  We  have  received  from  you 
for  the  valuation  of  wine  of  the  produce  of  the  twenty-second 
year  eleven  dr.  2  obols  =  11  dr.,  2  obols,  which  we  will  pay 
into  the  official  bank".  The  third  document  dates  back  to 

the   early   third    century   A.  D.:    "Aurelios athes,   son 

of  Inaros  and  Plenis,  son  of  Psenenphos,  collectors  of  the 
valuation  of  wine  and  palms  of  the  third  year,  in  respect 
of  Aurelios  Pechutes,  son  of  Premtotes,  on  */6  arura  24  dr. 
Year  3,  Mesore  8.  Also  for  the  fourth  year  8  dr."  A 
custom-house  receipt  for  wine  imported  upon  a  donkey  is 
preserved  to  us  in  the  Tebtunis  papyri3.  It  reads  "Aure- 
lius  Plutammon  has  paid  through  the  custom-house  of  Kaine 
the  tax  of  Vioo  anc^  Vso  on  importing  upon  one  donkey 


1)  Wilcken,  Griechische  Ostraka,  §  86,  No.  327. 

2)  The  wholesale  wine- mere hant  =  oive|UTTOpoc,  Grenf.  II,  61,   and  Pap. 
Oxyr.  I,  43.     The  wine-merchant  «  oivoirpdrric  or  oivoTOJuXric  BGU  34;    Pap. 
Berl.  P.  1410.     The  wine-administrator  =  OiVOX€ipiO"Tr]C  in  Byz.  [time,  P.  Oxyr. 
14  r,  150  (Wilcken,  o.  c.,  p.  693). 

3)  Grenfell  and  Hunt,   The  Tebtunis  Papyri,  Part  II,  No.  362. 


22  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

six  jars  of  wine.     The  fifth  year,    Phamenoth,    the  fifth,   the 
fifth"i. 

We  turn  next  to  the  wines  of  Syria.  Syria  was  the  wine 
country  par  excellence  of  the  Ancient  Near  East2.  Its  climate 
invited  the  culture  of  the  vine,  and  the  Syrian  wines  were 
considered  most  excellent 3.  We  have  seen  above  that  together 
with  Greece,  Syria  supplied  Egypt  with  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  wine4.  In  the  tomb  of  Rekhmare,  the  Syrians  are 
represented  as  bringing  their  wines  as  tribute.  At  the  time 
of  the  XII.  Dynasty,  a  region  called  Yaa  in  Syria  is  mentioned 
as  having  more  wine  than  water5.  Tothmes  III.  describes 
the  wine  in  the  presses  of  Daha  to  have  been  "like  running 
water",  or.  "like  a  stream"6.  The  most  famous  wine  of  Syria 
was,  perhaps,  that  of  Chalybon,  which  was  exported 'from  Da- 
mascus to  Tyre  7  and  into  Persia.  It  was  the  wine  drunk  by 
the  Persian  kings,  and  preferred  by  them  to  the  exclusion  of  any 
other  kind8.  The  wine  of  Chalybon  is  mentioned  also  in  the 


bi(d)  iruA(r|<;)  KaivP|<;  p'  xai  v 
Aupr)\(io<;)  TT\ouT(i|U|uiuv 
iacpfujv  £rri  dvuu  ivi 
oivou  Kepa(iuia)  '&.    (£TOU<;)  e 
0auevu)d  ir(euirrrj) 
e 

2)  Pangeum    in  Syria  is   considered   by  Hesychius   as  one   of  the  itiany 
places  claiming  to  be  the  birth-place  of  Dionysos. 

3)  Ezek.  27,  18:  Hos.  14,  7;  Herod.  Ill,  6;  Athen.,  deipn.  i;  Strabo,  geogr. 
XVI;  Pliny,  hist.  nat.  XV,  9. 

4)  Herod.  Ill,  6;  Strabo,  geogr.  XVII. 

5)  Tale    af    Sinuhe:    (81)   "there   were   figs    (82)   in   it   and   vines,    more 
plentiful  than  water  was  its  wine".     Sinuhe  further  narrates  that  following  his 
appointment,  as  sheikh  of  the  tribe  by  Emuienshi  (87)  "I  portioned  the  bread 
daily  and  wine  (88)  for  every  day". 

6)  de  Rouge,  Rev.  Arch.,   1860,  p.  297;    Lepsius,  Auswahl,  12,  5;    Sethe, 
Urkunden  IV,  687,  lines   11  — 13.     Daha  [=i!iT;    itaiHT(?)]   is  a  name  generally 
used  in  a  very  vague  sense.     Partly  it  correspondents  to  Syria  (and  Phoenicia) 
and   partly   to   the  Semitic  Canaan.     Its   meaning   cannot   be  narrowed  to  that 

of  "Phoenicia".     Daha  wines,  }^J jj  1  "^ PD "^ ^  »«  mentioned 
Pap.  med.  Berlin  XI,  i. 

7)  Ezek.  27,  18;  see  also  Delitzsch,  Die  Bibel  und  der  Wein,  p.  12. 

8)  Herodotus   (I,  188)   narrates   that  the  clear,   goodtasting  water  of   the 
Choaspes  formed  the  ordinary  drink  of  the  Persian  kings.     They  used  to  take 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  23 

Cuneiform  literature1.  The  wine  of  Libanios  had  the  odor  of 
incense  according  to  Pliny.  He  states  "The  Libanian  vine  also 
produces  a  wine  with  the  smell  of  frankincense  with  which 
they  make  libations  to  the  gods"2.  Praiseworthy  of  mention 
was  also  the  wine  of  Apamea.  "It  is  remarkably  well  adapted 
for  making  mulsum 3,  like  that  of  Praetutia  in  Italy" 4.  Elaga- 
bulus  supplied  his  horses  at  Rome  with  Apamene  grapes 
(Lampr.  Elag.  21).  An  inscription,  probably  of  the  fourth 
century  A.  D.;  over  the  door  of  a  large  wine-press  near  Apa- 
mea, refers  to  the  sweetness  of  the  wine  in  the  sunny  Oron- 
tes  valley: 

Nectareos  succos,  Baccheia  munera,  cernis 
Quae  bitis  genuit  sup  aprico  sole  refecta 

(CILIII,  188  [Bara]).  The  district  of  Damascus  which  is  the 
paradise  of  the  Orient,  must  have  been  rich  in  vineyards 
and  wine.  A  subtle,  although  faulty,  etymology  finds  in  the 
name  Damascus,  pttJE";,  an  allusion  to  the  red  juice  of  the 
vine.  According  to  Posidonius  (in  Athenaeus)  vines  of  Cha- 
lybon  had  been  transplanted  to  Damascus.  Hieronymus  testi- 
fies that  still  at  his  time  Damascene  wine  was  exported  to 
Tyre  in  his  Comment,  in  Ezech.  c.  27,  p.  Ill,  887:  " significat 
autenij  quod  inter  ceteras  negociationes  Tyri,  ad  nundinas  eius 
de  Damasco  deferebatur  vinum  pinguissimum  et  lana  prae- 
cipua,  quod  usque  ho  die  cernimus".  Famous  was  the  wine 
of  Laodicea5.  Laodicean  wine,  according  to  the  Periplus, 
was  imported  into  Abyssinia,  the  Somali  Coast,  East  Africa,  South 
Arabia  and  India.  Ibn  Batuta  I,  p.  152  praises  the  vineyards  of 
Aleppo.  According  to  Strabo  Laodicea  "is  a  very  well-built 
city,  with  a  good  harbor;  the  territory',  besides  its  fertility  in 


along    whole   wagon-loads   of  this   water  in  vessels  of  silver.     For  this  reason 
the  xootarreiov  ubwp  was  also  called  pamXiKOV. 

1)  See  below  p.  43,  note  2. 

2)  Pliny,  XIV,  22,  2.     Cf.  Hosea  14,  7  revised  version  "the  scent  thereof 
shall  be  as  the  wine  of  Lebanon",  -jfaab  -p^  i-qt. 

3)  I.  e. ,    honeyed  wine.     Either  honey  mixed  with  must  or  grape-juice, 
or  honey  mixed  with   fermented  wine.     To  both   kinds  the  name  mulsum  is 
applied.     For  a  reference  to  the  wine  of  Apamea,  see  also  Waddington,  Insc. 
d'As.  Min.  n.  2644. 

4)  Pliny,  XIV,  9.         5)  Alexand.  Trail,  II.  p.  483;  Strabo,  XVI,  751. 


24  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

other  respects,  abounds  with  wine,  of  which  the  greater  part 
is  exported  to  Alexandria.  The  whole  mountain  overhanging 
the  city  is  planted  almost  to  its  summit  with  vines".  The  country  of 

Alashiya,  Q^<T>lA  \^>  situated  near  Qadesh,  according  to 
Pap.  Anast.  IV,  pi.  15,  line  2,  furnished  a  liquor  which  was 


called  fity,  ,  *><>  b*to>,  ,  '  a  sPe' 

cial  kind  of  grape-wine  (see  E.  de  Rouge,  Memoire  sur  la 
propagation,  p.  97  ^^a).  In  Nasir-i-Khusran's  Diary  of  a  Jour- 
ney through  Syria  and  Palestine  l  mention  is  made  of  the 
grapes  of  Ma'arrah  an  Nu'man,  southwest  of  Qinnasrin: 
"There  are  here  also  fig-trees  and  olives,  and  pistachios  and 
almonds  and  grapes  in  plenty".  The  culture  of  vine  at 
Macarra  an  Nu'man  is  also  mentioned  by  Idrisi.  In  Pap.'  Anast., 
IV,  15,  3  the  name  of  a  certain  beverage  is  given,  which  came 

fromthecountr)  ofAmurru,  MQA  J^vi          1    .    It  is  called  keny, 

or  also  kenny.  It  is,  however,  likely  that  this  name  does  not 
refer  to  a  certain  brand  of  grape-wine,  but  that  it  is  a  special 
fruit-juice,  or  a  must'2.  cAmr,  Mucallaqat  7  mentions  the  wines 
of  Baalbek  and  Qasirin.  Idrisi  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  vine- 
yards of  Baalbec  produce  more  grapes  than  the  people  need 
for  home-consumption.  Strabo  3  mentions  the  wine  of  Seleucia. 
Good  wine  was  grown  in  the  Syrian  Androna,  which  exported 
it  to  Arabia4.  Hassan  ibnThabit5  mentions  the  wine  of  Bait 
Ras.  The  wine  of  al-Khuss  in  the  neighborhood  of  Qadesia 
is  mentioned  in  Imruulqais  XVII,  8:  "merchants,  who  go  up 
from  al-Khuss  with  wine,  until  they  discharge  it  at  Yusur''. 
In  the  Hauran  the  wines  of  Sarkhad  and  Bosra  enjoyed 
renown  6. 

1)  See  Palestine  Pilgrims'  Text  Society,  Vol.  IV,   p.  3.     Nasir-i-Khusran 
wrote  in  1047  A.  D. 

2)  Aeg.  Z..  1877,  32.          3)  Strabo,  VII,  5,  8. 

4)  lAnir  Mu'allaqat  I.     "Now  then,  awake,  and  bring  our  morning  draught 
from  thy  goblet,  and  do  not  keep  the  wines  of  Anderein". 

5)  Ibn  Hisham,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  829,  v.  4.     Yaqut  knows  of  two  localities 
of  that   name,    one  at   the  Jordan,    the   other  near  Aleppo.     Both   possessed 
vineyards.  . 

6)  Hamasa,  646;  Kitab  al-'aganl  XI,  87,  7  and  Yaqut  III,  380. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  25 

/  We  read  in  Num.  XX,  5  that  the  Hebrews  regretted  to 
leave  behind  the  wines  of  Egypt,  at  the  time  of  their  depar- 
ture. Yet  Palestine  was  a  country  richly  blessed  with  vine- 
yards long  before  the  Hebrews  arrived.  This  is  attested  even 
in  the  Old  Testament l.  Wine,  indeed,  was  one  of  the  chief 
products  of  the  land2.  It  is  probable  that  the  proper  ren- 
dering of  the  expression  "A  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey" 
(Ex.  3,  8)  should  be:  "A  land  flowing  with  leben*  (i.  e.;  sour 
milk  and  dibs  (i.  e.,  grape-syrup)".  The  words  are  equivalent 
to  "a  land  abounding  in  flocks  and  thickly  planted  with  fruitful 
vineyards".  The  grapes  of  the  vicinity  of  Hebron  were  parti- 
cularly renowned.  Nasir-i-Khusran 4  says:  "From  the  Holy 
City  to  Hebron  is  six  leagues,  and  the  road  runs  towards  the 
south.  Along  the  way  are  many  villages  with  gardens  and 
cultivated  fields.  Such  trees  as  need  little  water,  as  for  example 
the  vine  and  the  fig,  the  olive  and  the  sumach,  grow  here 
abundantly,  and  of  their  own  accord".  A  number  of  place-names 
bear  witness  to  viticulture.  A  valley  near  Hebron  bears  the 
name  Nahal  Eshkol  (bsit^  bn?)5,  i.  e.,  "the  valley  of  grapes". 
South-west  of  Hebron,  in  the  mountain  of  Judah,  lay  the  city 
of  'Anab  (S3*).  Abel  Keramim  (DTQ-$  55»)  6,  a  village  of  the 
Ammonites,  was  still  rich  in  vineyards  at  Eusebius'  time, 
according  to  Onomastica  sacra,  ed.  Lagarde,  225,  6.  Beth 
Hakkerem  (D"V2Jl  rns) 7  in  Judah  is  another  place-name  indi- 
cating the  culture  of  vine.  MNidda  1,  7,  T  3,  11,  b  2Oa  biq'ath 
beth  kerem  (DID  mD,  fl^pl)  is  a  place-name  testifying  to  the 
culture  of  vine  in  the  plain.  The  plain  of  Sharon,  and  farther 
south  the  old  country  of  the  Philistines,  were  renowned  wine- 
districts  in  Rabbinic  times  until  the  beginning  of  the  Middle- 


1)  Num.  XIII,  24,  The  Hebrew   tradition  (Gen.  9,  20)  saw  in  Noah    the 
originator  of  viticulture.     The  variety  of  grapes  in  ancient  times,  as  now,  was 
very  great  in  Palestine,  and  each  kind  had  its  special  use. 

2)  Dt.  6,  ii ;  7,  13;  8,  8;  Hos.  2,  10.  14.  17;  Jer.  5,  17;  39,  10. 

3)  Sour  milk,  according  to  the  Kitab  al-'agani  VIII,  74  and  75  was  con- 
sidered to  be  food  for  slaves  in  Ancient  Arabia.     Cf.  also  the  Diwan  of  the 
Hudhailites,  96,  9 ;  but  compare  Lebid  XI,  4. 

4)  Pal.  Pi).  T.  S.,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  $2—53. 

5)  Nu.  13,  23  ff.;  22,  9;  Dt.  i,  24.  6)  Jdg.  ii,  33. 
7)  Jer,  6,  i;  Neh.  3,  14. 


26  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Ages.  According  to  the  Mishna  Qeruchim  and  Chatulim  pro- 
duced the  best  grades  of  wine.  Next  follow  the  wines  of  Beth 
Rima  and  Beth  Laban  in  the  mountain,  and  Kefar  Signa  in 
the  plain.  These  places  were  probably  situated  in  the  plain 
of  Sharon.  MKil.  6,  5  mentions  also  the  vineyard  of  Kefar  'Aziz 
b  Sabb.  147  b  mentions  the  wine  of  Perugitha 
Regarding  the  wine  of  the  valley  of  Genne- 
saret  see  Neubauer,  Geogr.  45.  215.  Solomon  possessed  a  vine- 
yard in  Baal-Hamon  ("pEjn  b#3) l,  The  vineyards  of  Shilo  are 
mentioned  in  Jdg.  21,  19  ff.  According  to  II.  Chron.  2,  9,  14  the 
people  of  Tyre  were  furnished  with  Judaean  wine  during  the 
building  operations  of  the  first  temple,  while  at  the  time  of 
the  second  temple  this  wine  was  furnished  to  both  the  people 
of  Tyre  and  of  Sidon 2.  Viticulture  about  the  city  of  Lachish 
is  attested  by  -a  representation  of  the  Assyrian  king  Senna- 
cherib, in  which  the  king  is  shown  seated  upon  his  throne  in 
a  hill-country,  planted  with  figtrees  and  vines  (see  Illustr.  No.  2). 

In  the  Inscription  of  Una  lines  24  and  25  we  read  0<wwvv^ 

Jj  Jin 

"this  army  returned  in  safety  (after)  it  had  cut  down 
its  figs  (and)  its  vines",  referring  to  the  country  of  the  Herusha 
(—r—  *"  ^\  °  °  °),  that  is  Southern  Palestine.  The  wine 

of  Haru  or  Northern  Palestine  is  not  infrequently  mentioned 
by  the  Egyptians3. 

The  wines  of  Palestine,  as  well  as  those  of  Syria,  were 
very  sweet,  like  syrup.  The.  wine  of  the  plain  of  Sharon 
was  extremely  strong.  After  it  had  been  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  */3  wine  to  2/3  water  it  still  was  equal  in  strength 
to  undiluted  Carmel-wine.  Different  kinds  of  wines  were 
known  to  the  Hebrews.  The  Babylonian  Talmud4  men- 
tions the  hlllston  (rjXiotfTOv),  a  sweet  and  weak  new  wine. 


i)  Cant.  8,  n.  2)  Esra  3,  7. 

3)  See   for   instance   Pap.  Anast.  3,   verso  2;    4.  16,  I    and  Pitomstele   17 


m>      =f  1s  /WSAAA  Q 

_.      £5  I  I 

U  66     o     XC± 


"prima  wine  of  Kharu". 
4)  Baba  Bathra  97  a  ff. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  27 

In  preparing  this  wine,  the  grapes  were  exposed  to  the  sun 
for  a  few  days  prior  to  pressing.  Another  new  wine  was 
called  "the  smoked  wine".  "Three-leaf"  wine  (tfZ"ibm  13  VTfan 
b  Sabb  1 29  a)  was  the  name  of  a  wine  pre  ssed  from  the 


No.  2.    Sennacherib  before   Lachish;    vine-clad  hills  in   the    background  (after 
Gressmann,  Altorient.  Texte  und  Bilder). 

grapes  of  a  vinestalk  that  had  borne  leaves  for  the  third  time. 
Simmuqlm,  i.  e.,  the  Psythia  or  Amminea  of  the  Romans,  was 
the  name  of  a  wine  prepared  from  raisins.  Kushi  was  a  dark 
red  wine  prepared  from  dark  blue  grapes.  From  the  grapes 


28  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

of  the  wild-growing  vine  (Vitis  labrusca  L.)  was  prepared 
a  wine  called  tVWbS,  Greek  oivdvx)r),  which  seems  to  have 
been  used  more  generally  for  medical  purposes  *.  For  ritual 
purposes  and  days  of  festivities  only  Yayin  was  permitted  to 
be  used.  Yayin  was  an  old,  unadultered  grape-wine.  The 
custom  of  mixing  the  wines  with  water  seems  to  have  been  first 
introduced  in  the  Graeco-Roman  times2.  It  was  considered 
a  deterioration  of  the  precious  and  noble  juice3.  So  it  was 
considered  also  in  Rabbinic  times,  whenever  wine  was  mixed  with 
honey  or  spices 4.  Honey-wine  was  not  known  to  the  ancient 
Hebrews.  Its  foreign  origin  is  shown  by  the  nomenclature 
otvojieXi,  "pbttlStf  in  the  Talmud5.  Four  parts  of  wine  were 
used  to  one  part  of  honey.  A  second  honey-wine,  vinum 
conditum,  'ptPl^p  was  a  spiced  wine,  which  received  a /certain 
quantity  of  frankincense  («iDllb)  and  pepper  ("pbsbS).  The 
fcttlpT,  also  called  "pFO^OSK,  Greek  d\]/iv£iov,  or  (bJnvOiTr^ 
was  a  bitter-tasting  herb-wine. 

The  vineyards  of  Engedi  are  mentioned  in  Cant.  cant.  I,  14. 
Felix  Fabri,  writing  about  1480 — 1483  of  our  era0  gives  us  the 
following  account  of  the  vineyards  of  Engedi.  "Moreover  upon 
these  mountains  there  once  stood  that  exceeding  famous  vineyard 
of  Engedi,  wherein  grew  balsam  beyond  all  price.  This  vineyard 
was  planted  in  this  place,  Engedi,  by  King  Solomon.  The  author 
of  the  Speculum  Historiale  says,  by  the  mouth  of  Josephus, 
that  the  queen  of  Sheba,  who  came  to  Jerusalem,  from  the  ends 
of  the  earth  to  hearken  to  the  wisdom  of  Solomon,  as  is  told 
in  I.  Kings  1O,  brought  him  many  precious  gifts,  among  which 
was  the  root  of  the  balsam,  as  being  a  gift  beyond  all  price, 
which  root  the  king  planted  on  the  Mount  of  Engedi,  and  it 
was  grown  in  the  vineyard  there.  This  vineyard  is  mentioned 
by  Solomon  in  the  Song  of  Songs,  where  he  says:  "My 
beloved  is  like  a  cluster  of  camphire  in  the  vineyards  of 
Engedi".  This  vineyard  is  now  in  Egypt,  and  I  shall  tell 
who  it  was  who  dug  it  up  and  transplanted  it,  and  of  the 


1)  The   vitis  laorusca  L.   is   possibly   mentioned   in   Is.  5,  2.  4  under  the 
name  ttJN3. 

2)  II.  Mace.  15,  39  3)  Is.  i,  22.  4)  Maas.  sheni  2,  i. 
5)  M.  Shabb.  20,  2.           6)  Pal.  Pilgr.  T.  S.,  Vol.  IX,  p.  189. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  29 

virtues  of  balsam  and  camphire,  in  Part  II,  p.  68.  I  have  read 
in  an  ancient  pilgrim's  book  that  some  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land  once  wandered  over  these  mountains  searching  carefully, 
and  that  in  one  place  they  found  shoots  of  balsam,  but  no 
shrubs.  Beside  balsam  there  once  grew  on  this  mountain  an 
excellent  wine,  wherewith  it  is  believed  that  Lot's  daughters 
made  their  father  drunk,  as  we  read  in  Gen.  19".  Burchard 
of  Mount  Sion1  (1280  A.  D.)  praises  particularly  the  wine  of 
Bezek,  west  of  Bethlehem.  He  writes  "Half  a  league  west  of 
Bethlehem  is  a  village  called  Bezek,  which  abounds  with  ex- 
cellent wine,  so  that  there  is  no  better  to  be  found  in  the 
land".  The  same  author  mentions  also  the  wines  in  the  Valley 
of  Rephaim,  of  Sidon,  of  the  Lebanon,  of  Antaradus  and  of 
Margat.  Regarding  the  vineyards  of  Samaria  and  Moab  see 
Jud.  9,  12—13.  Judging"  from  the  name  of  the  city  of  Gath 
(n|,  Assyr.  Gi-im-tu  =  Gi-in-tu]  it  appears  that  viticulture  and 
the  making  of  wine  must  have  been  very  prominent  here  as 
well  as  in  "isnirj  nil  and  "jiBi  nil.  According  to  Babyl.  Tal- 
mud, Meg6a  the  country  of  Naphtali  was  everywhere  covered 
with  fruitful  fields  and  vineyards.  In  Galilee  little  wine  was 
produced,  and  for  this  reason,  it  was  more  greatly  esteemed 
than  oil  (Nazir,  31  b:  KnBBB  5pTP  KTQrn  13E  tfb  Kb^bto)- 
Josephus,  Wars,  B  III,  c  X,  8  states  that  Gennesaret  "supplies 
men  with  the  principal  fruits,  with  grapes  and  figs  continually, 
during  the  months  in  the  year". 

The  Talmud  mentions  certain  wines  which  were  prohibited 
at  a  certain  period,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  these  wines 
were  grown  in  places  which  were  situated  near  settlements 
inhabited  by  Samaritans.  Thus  Abod.  zar.  4:  "The  wine  of 
Ogdor  is  forbidden  to  be  drunk  on  account  of  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Kefar  Pagesh;  that  of  Borgatha  on  account  of  the 
neighborhood  of  Birath  Sariqah;  that  of  'Ain-Kushith  on  ac- 
count of  the  neighborhood  of  Kefar  Shalem",  TT3n«  btt  r 

btt?  rip^no  nn*o  ^DDIO  ^nsms  5toi  TDD»E  IBD  ^SSB  iio&s  &on 

DbtD  152   ^DSia   rpETD   "p*.     In  Abod.   zar.  31  a  the  reading  is: 

"fiotf  tfnpn  bttn  KP^HO  rrru  ^a&B  mox  ^ans  "p*  ^  "P 

"ISO 


[)  Pal.  Pilgr.  T.  S.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  89  ff. 


^O  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

The  Hebrews1  liked  to  strengthen  the  wine  by  adding 
spices,  thus  making  it  more  palatable2.  Wherever  the  Old 
Testament  speaks  of  "mixing  the  wine"3,  the  preparation  of 
such  "spiced  wines"  is  meant.  Spiced  wines  were  prohibited, 
however,  for  ceremonial  purposes.  Wine  mixed  with  myrrh 
was  considered  a  narcotic4,  while  amongst  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans,  myrrh-wine  was  esteemed  as  less  intoxicat- 
ing, therefore  being  favored  as  a  drink  for  women.  The 
Mishna  (Baba  Bathra  98  a)  mentions  perfumed  wine,  which 
is  possibly  identical  with  spiced  wine.  The  Classical  writers 
do  not  dwell  on  the  discussion  of  the  strictly  Palestinian 
wines.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  much 
of  the  wine  that  was  exported  from  Phoenicia  was  labelled 
as  Phoenician,  or  thought  to  be  Phoenician  wine  by  Ihe  fo- 
reign receivers,  whereas  it  was  originally  prepared  by  peoples 
living  in  the  countries  adjacent  to  Phoenicia. 

Pomegranate- wine  (C^iB")  0^0?)  is  mentioned  in  Cant.  8,  2. 
The  pomegranate,  an  apple-shaped  red  fruit  of  5—10  cm  dia- 
meter, contains  a  large  number  of  juicy  fruitstones.  It  was 
from  this  juice  that  pomegranate-wine  was  prepared.  Apple- 
wine  seems  also  to  have  been  known  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine5.  During  the  time  of  harvest  a  sour  beverage  called 
pph  (Rt.  2,  14;  cf.  Ps.  69,  22)  was  sometimes  used.  Chomez 
(Coptic  £MX,  £FMX;  Aram,  sbn;  Syr.  j^;  Arab.  JsL)  is  the 
common  word  for  "vinegar",  which  was  customarily  prepared 
from  a  poor  quality  of  wine  (vinum  culpatum}.  It  was  con- 
sidered a  refreshing  and  strengthening  beverage  even  in  later 
times;  cf.  f.  i.,  jSabb.  Ud,  1O  ttfiirt  riK  M^ti  pfcinfi.  There 
remains  some  doubt  whether  the  following  beverages  should 
be  classed  with  the  wines  or  the  beer.  According  to  Rabbinic 
usage  they  should  be  enumerated  amongst  the  beers,  but  we 
shall  rather  follow  the  Greek  and  Roman  usage  and  refer  to 
them  here.  From  the  fruit  of  the  laurel-tree  was  prepared 
the  K»-n  K"Ott>  (bPesach.  56  a).  The  leaves  of  the  MD,  i,  e., 


1)  All  the  ancient  people  were  fond  of  spiced  wines. 

2)  Yayin  harekakh\  Cant.  8,  2. 

3)  Is.  5,  22;  Ps.  75,  9;  Prov.  9,  2.  5  (-rjOa).         4)  Mk.  15,  23. 
5.)  Talm.  M.  Terum.  11,2 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  3! 

the  laurus  malabathrum,  also  were  used  for  making  wine. 
"Brier-wine",  ^ttW  btt?  "Ott  was  a  date-wine  mixed  with  cus- 
cuta,  which  grows  on  a  thorn-bush  ("Win).  Similar  was  the 
beverage  called  1:08,  prepared  from  the  fruit  of  the  USD  brier 
(See  bKethub.  77  b  and  bPesach.  107  a). 

Phoenicia  also  was  one  of  the  important  wine  countries 
of  the  Orient.  According  to  Schol.  Apoll.  Rhod.  IV,  540  and 
983  it  shared  the  distinction,  amongst  other  countries,  to 
have  contained  the  birthplace  (Nysa)  of  Dionysos.  Phoenicia 
cultivated  wine  of  excellent  quality  and  great  quantity.  Phoe- 
nician wine  was  exported  together  with  the  wines  bought  in 
Palestine  and  Syria  and  elsewhere.  Most  of  it  was  shipped 
to  Egypt,  but  also  Arabia,  eastern  Africa  and  India  were 
supplied  with  the  famous  stocks  of  the  Phoenician  wine-mer- 
chants. Diod.  5,  17  states  that  the  traffic  of  wine  led  the 
Phoenician  traders  even  to  Spain  and  the  nearby  islands. 
Wine  constituted  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  the  Phoenician 
traders  and  the  gain  from  this  export  article  must  have  been 
enormous.  Compare  f.  i.,  Horace,  Od.  I,  31,  lo:  dives  et  aureis 
mercator  exsiccet  culullis  vina  Syria  reparata  merce  Dis  earns 
ipsis\  quippe  ter  et  quater  anno  revisens  aequor  Atlanticum  im- 
pune.  The  wine  of  Tyre  is  mentioned  in  Alex.  Trail.  II,  p.  327, 407, 
457,  485,  and  495;  Pliny  14,  9(7).  It  claimed  distinction  together 
with  the  Syrian  Chalybonium  !.  Tyre  was  richer  in  beer  and 
wine  than  in  water,  for  we  read  in  Pap.  Anast.  18  that  "water 
is  brought  to  her  by  ship".  An  inscription  of  Heraclea  in 
Lucania2,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  B.  C., 
speaks  of  |3u(3)ua  and  of  (BupAiva  u.atfx«Aa  which  has  pro- 
bably reference  to  the  viticulture  of  Byblos.  The  BipAivoc; 
oivoq  is,  at  least  in  some  instances,  understood  to  be  a  wine, 
which  came  from  the  Phoenician  city  of  Byblos3.  The  vine- 
stalk  of  Byblos  was  planted  in  Luciana  as  well  as  in  Sicily4 

1)  The  Chalybonium   came  originally  from  Beroea,   but  afterwards  grew 
also  in  the  neighborhood  of  Damascus.     For   this   wine  see  Pliny,    Hist,  n., 
XIV,  73;  Geop.  2,  and  Athen.  I,  p.  28  d. 

2)  CIG  III,  5774  lines  58  and  92. 

3)  Byblos,    i.  e.,    Gubel,  Arabic  el-Kobyle,  modern  Djibeil;  Jo.  Phokas 


4)  It  is  stated  that  a  certain  king  TT6\Xiq  of  Sikyon   or  Syracuse,    or 
else  an  Argeian  called  TT6\ioc  (Poll.  VI,  16)  brought  the  plant  to  Sicily.     The 


22  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

and  some  other  places1.    All  the  wines  made  from  the  ori- 
ginal Byblos  vine-stalk  were  called  |3i3>uvoc;  olvoc.     Not  every 
|3ip)uvoc;    olvoc,    therefore,    was    a   wine   of  Phoenicia.     The 
BupXio;  olvoc  of  Archestratos  (in  Athen.  I,  29  b)  refers  cer- 
tainly to  the  wine  of  the  Phoenician  city.     The  wine  of  Sarepta 
is  mentioned  in  Alexand.  Trail.  I,  p.  335.  483;   II,  p.  217.  325, 
and  407;   and  in  Sid.  Apoll.,   Carm.  17,  16.     Pliny  (XIV,  9  (7)) 
mentions    the    wine    of  Berytos2,    and   the   wine   of  Tripolis 
(XIV,  9  (7)).    Idrisi   also  mentions  the  vineyards  of  that  city. 
Regarding   the   viticulture  of  Horns  he   states   that  this    city 
possessed  many  vineyards  at  the  time  of  the  Muhammedan 
possession,    that  is  prior  to  the  Crusades,   but  that  they  are 
now   nearly  completely  destroyed.     The  wine  of  the  country 
of  Arvad  is  mentioned  in  an  Egyptian  inscription3.    'For  the 
wine  of  Gaza  see  Sid.  Apoll.,  Carm.  17,  15  and  Isid.  Orig.  XX, 
3,  7.     Gaza  was  the  center  of  the  wine-trade  for  Egypt  and 
Syria.    This  city  had  built  up  a  considerable  industry  in  the 
i manufacture  of  wine-jars  for  the  export  trade4.     The  harbor 
of  Gaza,  called  Maioumas,  contained  a  colony  of  wine  dealers  5. 
Mention   is   made  of  the  wine  of  Gaza  also  in  the  Code  of 
Justinian,  together  with  the  other  famous  wines  of  that  time6. 
This   wine   was  known  in  the  Occident  under  the  names  of 
"Gazetum"  and    "Gazetinum" 7.     The   wine   was   considered  a 
luxury  at  the  court  of  Guntram,   king  of  Burgundia  (Gregor. 
Turon.  7,  29).     Pap.  Anast.  25,  2  ff.  contains  a  reference  to  the 
vineyards   of  Joppa.     It  reads:    "When   thou    enterest  Joppa 
thou   findest   a   garden   green  as  the  spring.     Thou    enterest 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  food,   and  thou  findest  there  the 

Bu|3Xi(v)o<;  olvo<;  of  Sicily  .was  therefore  also  called  TT6XXio<;  (Ael.  v.  h.  XII,  31). 
Hippys  (in  Athen.  I,  31  b)  states  that  an  Argeian  TT6XXi<;,  king  of  Syracuse, 
had  brought  the  fyuueXo?  pipXia  to  Syracuse,  but  from  Italy. 

1)  The  famous  vine-plant  of  Byblos  was  moreover  cultivated  in  Thrace. 
Armenides  (in  Athen.  I,  31  a)  knew  of  a  Thracian  Bi^Xia,  also  called  Antisare 
and  Oisyme.     Achilles  Tatios   (II.  2)   names   this  wine  besides  the  maroneic, 
which  is  a  Thracian  wine. 

2)  See   also   Imhoof  Blumer,   op.  I,  p.  62.      Raisins   of  excellent   quality 
were  exported  from  Berytus  (Plin.  XVI,  18). 

v    3)  See  Breast.  Egypt,  II,  p.  461.  4)  Tot.  Orb.  Dtscr.,  c.  29. 

5)  Marc.  Diac.,  c.  V.         6)  Corp.  de  laud.  Just,  min.,  Ill,  88  ff. 
7)  Stark,  p,  562. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient. 


33 


ovely  maiden  who  takes  care  of  the  wines".  Idrisi  refers 
to  the  viticulture  of  this  city  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Ascalon 
and  Arsuf1.  In  Edfu  the  wine  of  the  Fenkhu  is  called  an 
import  article  of  the  foreign  country2. 

Wherever  the  climate  permitted  it,  vineyards  were  also 
in  the  ancient  times  planted  in  Arabia.  According  to  Diod. 
I,  1 5  Osiris  had  even  discovered  the  vine  at  Nysa  in  Arabia 3. 
The  Periplus  advised  the  sailors  to  load  little  wine  for  Arabia 
as  a  place  of  destination,  because  that  country  produces  much 
of  it  (Peripl.  erythr.).  Into  Muza  in  South  Arabia  were  im-  - 
ported  "wine  and  grain,  however  not  much,  for  the  country 
itself  produces  a  fair  quantity  of  wheat,  and  a  larger  one  of 
wine".  The  fertile  valleys  of  al-Yaman  produced  at  least 
sufficient  wine  for  home-consumption.  The  poet  al-A'sha  of 
Bakr4  sings  of  the  pleasures  of  the  vintage  at  a  place  called 
Athafit.  He  was  in  possession  of  his  own  winepress.  Re- 
garding cAnafit  [CUiUp]  in  al-Yaman  Idrisi  states  that,  in  his 
time,  it  was  surrounted  by  vineyards.  According  to  Bukhari 5 
the  inhabitants  of  al-Yaman  also  used  to  drink  honey-wine 
(bif).  Sprenger,  citing  Hamdani's  Iklil  about  the  Wadi 
Dahr  in  al-Yaman  (p.  l8lff.)  says:  "It  is  situated  two 
hours  or  less  (west)  of  San'a  and  a  brook  waters  both 
sides  of  the  wadi,  which  produces  about  twenty  different 
kinds  of  grapes  and  all  other  kinds  of  fruit  of  excellent 
quality".  Mordtmann-Miiller,  Sabaische  Denkmliler,  No.  11  con- 
tains an  inscription  which  testifies  to  the  culture  of  vine 
amongst  the  Batac,  who  dwelled  near  the  Wadi  Dahr.  Miiller 
D.  H.,  ibid.  p.  46  states  that  according  to  Hamdani  the  Wadi 


i)  Jaubert,  Geogr.  d'Edrisi,  Vol.  I,  p.  348. 


2}  jQ©.    (see  Br-   WB.,   Vol.  V,  p.  434).     Diet. 


j\ 

0 

_ 

i.  e.,    (to  Buto   of  Am,    who  resides  in  Egypt)  the  Fenkhu  sail 


AWWN 
Geogr.  p.  650  it  is  said  of  an  Egyptian  coast  city, 

__..__ 

(1       „ 

I    LJ    O   /WWW 

southward  with  their  wine". 

3)  See  also  Diod.  Ill,  64.  66;  IV,  2;  cf.  Virg.,  Aen.  6,  805  und  Ovid,  met. 
4,  13.     According  to  Hesychius  Nysa  and  the  Nysaean    mountain,    amongst 
other  countries  mentioned,  is  also  placed  in  Arabia. 

4)  A  contemporary  of  the  prophet.  5)  Bukhari,  III,  78. 
Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  3 


34  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

s 

Dahr  produces  a  certain  kind  of  grape,  called  £_?;••*>  regarding 
which  the  Tag  al-'Arus,  s.  v.  says:  ^^\  «^A^.±W  ^>\  Jls  (£_^>) 
*U\  J~XS  vJU.1  ^  Jxol  i'l^b  u^O*  ^UxJb 
-xwo^JI.  Sanca  is  mentioned  by  Yaqut  as 
having  vine-culture.  Shibam,  a  mount,  which  is  situated  eight 
parasangs  west  of  San'a,  according  to  Imr."59,  lo  possessed 
vineyards,  the  fruit  of  which  was  used  to  make  wine.  G'  en- 
wan  (c>ly*^)>  which  is  72  m.  distant  from  San'a  and  48  m. 
from  Sa'da,  abounded  in  vines  which  produced  grapes  of  an 
extraordinary  size.  The  dried  grapes  were  of  an  excellent 
taste  and  expensive.  The  raisins  of  G'enwan  were  exported 
near  and  far1.  According  to  Wellsted  I,  p.  103  ft,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  G'abal  akhdar  in  'Oman  are  engaged  in  viticulture  and 
make  wine.  Idrisi2  states  that  fOman  is  growing  wine.  Oppo- 
site Masqat  (ksL**~o)  in  'Oman,  on  the  island  of  Kaish  (^u^), 
in  the  middle  of  the  Persian  gulf  vine  was  cultivated3.  The 
mountain  valleys  of  'Oman  were  the  regions  originally  pro- 
ducing the  muscatel  -grape.  The  Periplus  even  states  that 
wine  was  exported  from  Arabia  to  Barygaza  in  India.  Of 
the  latter  place  he  says:  "Wine  is  imported  in  the  trading 
place,  predominantly  Italian,  Laodicean  and  Arabian". 
Mecca  produced  but  a  small  quantity  of  grapes4.  The 
vineyards  of  Petra5  are  mentioned  by  Pliny  (XIV,  9,  7).  The 
island  of  Tylos  in  the  Arabic  gulf  contained  remarkable  vines0. 
The  surroundings  of  at-Ta'if  and  of  al-Cathif  were  renowned  for 
the  excellence  of  their  grapes7.  Mohammed  caused  the  vine- 


i)  Jaubert,  o.  c.,  Vol.  I,  p.  144.  2)  Jaubert,  o.  c.,  Vol.  I,  p.  151. 

3)  Jaubert,  o.  c.,  Vol.  I,  p.  153.  4)  Jaubert,  o.  c.,  Vol.  I,  p.  139. 

5)  Doubt,  however,  exists,  if  Pliny  had  in  mind  Petra  in  Arabia.     Fee 
suggested  Petra  in  the  Balearic  Islands.     See  Dalman,  G.,  Petra  und  seine  Fels- 
heiligtumer  ,    p.  I:    "Feigen,    Granatapfel,   Aprikosen  und  Weinstocke  sind  die 
Fruchtbaume,  welche  hier  gedeihen".     lu  a  papal  bull  of  Honorius  III.,  dated 
Aug.  6,  1218  and  which  was  repeated  Jan.  20,  1226,  giving  an  enumeration  of 
the  landed  property  of  the  monastery  of  Mount  Sinai,  are  mentioned  also  the 
vineyards   of  wadi   musa   near   Petra.     See  ZDPV.,   Vol.  X,    p.  238;    Rohricht, 
Studien-  zur  mittclaltcrl.  Geographic  und  Topographic  Syriens. 

6)  Pliny  XII,  23,  I  ;  Theophr.,  Hist.  pL  IV,  7.  8. 

7)  See  Abulfeda,  Annal  tnosl.,  p.  49.  126.    The  Omayyade  caliph  Yazid  T. 
procured  his  wine  from  at-Ta'if  (v.  Kremer,  Culturgeschichte  des  Orients,  I,  p.  141). 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient. 


35 


yards  of  at-Ta'if  to  be  destroyed  when  he  beleaguered  that 
city1.  Qazwini  II,  64  praises  the  grapes  and  the  raisins  of  at 
Ta'if.  At-Ta'if  furnished  Mecca  with  grapes  (Idrisi,  Vol.  I,  p.  139). 
A  troop  of  the  Sulaim  goes  to  at-Ta'if  in  order  to  buy  pro- 
visions and  wine  (Diwan  of  the  Hudh.  No.  21 6).  In  Medina, 
which  abounded  in  dates,  generally  date-wine  seems  to  have 
been  drunk2.  Several  large  kegs  filled  with  strong  drink 
were  broken  to  pieces  and  wine-skins  were  emptied  on  the 
ground  at  the  time  when  one  of  the  castles  of  Chaibar  was 
taken  by  the  forces  of  Muhammed  (Waqidi,  151  a,  15lb)3. 
The  sixteenth  Sura  of  the  Koran  (v.  69)  testifies  to  the  viticul- 
ture of  the  Arabs,  and  it  shows  also  that  they  prepared  palm- 
wines4.  This  was  before  Mohammed  placed  the  prohibition 
of  intoxicating  liquors  upon  his  followers.  On  festive  occasions 
the  Arabs  of  pre-Mohammedan  times  were  accustomed  to  use 
wine  to  excess 5.  A  significant  case  of  inebriation  is  narrated, 
for  instance,  in  Abulfedae  Historia  Anteislamica 6.  For  a  men- 
tion of  the  grapes  of  ad-Damr  see  Lebid,  XLI,  48.  Sadurn 
Rah  (-£\j  {£**•**>),  a  well-inhabited  fortress  of  considerable  size, 
possessed  many  vineyards".  Palgrave8,  describing  the  G'auf, 
makes  a  casual  mention  of  viticulture  in  that  district  of  Nor- 


1)  Ibn  Hisham,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  873,  and  Wellhausen,  J.,  Muhammed  in 
Medina.     Das  ist  Vakidi's  Kitab  al-Maghazi,  Berlin   1882,  p.  370. 

2)  Bukhari,  III,  Kitab  al-Ashriba. 

3)  Wellhausen,  J.,  Muhammed  in  Medina,  p.  275. 

4)  U 


Geopn.  II,  c.  21;  see  also  chapter  IV. 


(ed.  Fleischer,  Lipsiae, 
MDCCCXXXI,  p.  1  86,  lines  6—8).  I  may  add  here  the  interesting  passage, 
Yaqut,  Vol.  IV,  p.  380,  lines  3  and  4: 

£X$  (i.  e.  the  black   stone  and  the  Zemzem-well)   l^.«s  *lj 

0 


7)  Jaubert,  o.  c.,  Vol.  I,  p.  145. 

8)  Palgrave,  W.  G.,  Narrative  of  a   Year's  Journey  through  Central  and 
Eastern  Arabia,  London,  1866,  Vol.  I,  p.  184. 

3* 


^6  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

them  Arabia.  He  says:  "Sometimes  a  comfortable  landed 
proprietor  would  invite  us  to  pass  an  extemporary  holiday 
morning  in  his  garden,  or  rather  orchard,  there  to  eat  grapes 
and  enjoy  ourselves  at  will,  seated  under  clustering  vine-trel- 
lises, with  palm-trees  above  and  running  streams  around". 
He  further  states;  "The  apricot  and  the  peach,  the  fig-tree 
and  the  vine,  abound  throughout  these  orchards  and  their  fruit 
surpasses  in  copiousness  and  flavour  that  supplied  by  the 
gardens  of  Damascus  or  the  hills  of  Syria  and  Palestine"1. 
For  a  casual  remark  on  vines  in  Ha'il  see  Palgrave,  Narra- 
ive  of  a  Year  s  Journey  through  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia, 
London,  1866,  Vol.  I,  p.  74. 

Wine  grown  in  Arabia  seems  to  have  been  generally  of 
a  red  color,  Judging  from  its  designation  damu-'z-zicjq  '2,  i.  e., 
"blood  of  the  slough".  €Amr  Mucallaqat  2  speaks  of  the  saffron 
color  of  the  wine  and  Imr.  59,  lo  compares  it  to  gazelle-blood. 
Lebid,  IX,  11  mentions  dark  wine.  From  the  blackish,  old, 
tightly  bound  wine-skin  flows  wine,  which  foams  ^reddish  in 
the  cup,  Lebid,  XVIII,  15.  16.  Pure  red  wine,  ^/^  *U-^.*>, 
Krenkow,  F.,  The  Poetical  Remains  of  Muzakim  al  *Uqaili, 
Leiden,  1920,  I,  13.  Aged  wine  was  highly  esteemed.  cAbid  V, 
13,  14:  "And  ofttimes  the  wine,  in  fragrance  like  broken  pieces 
of  musk  —  long  time  has  it  spent  in  the  wine-jar,  year  after 
year  passing  by  -  -  have  I  quaffed  in  the  morning  before  the 
Dawn  shone  forth  to  our  mirth1,  in  the  tent  of  a  man  rich  in 
bounty,  pouring  it  freely  to  all"3.  Good  wine  was  supposed 
to  heal  headaches 4.  Wine  was  quite  frequently  mixed  with  rain- 
water, Lebid,  XVIII,  16;  XL,  47.  48;  XLI,  14—16  (wine  mixed 
with  rain-water  and  bee-honey).  Old  wine  mixed  with  rain- 
water, also  Kais  ibn  al-Hartm,  ed.  Kowalski,  XIV,  17.  The  Pre- 
Islamic  Arabs  prepared  a  punch  from  grape-juice  by  adding 
spices  and  hot  water5.  A  beverage,  prepared  from  raisins, 


1)  Palgrave,  o.  c.,  -Vol.  I,  p.  59. 

2)  Ham&sa,  ed  Freytag,  p.  559. 

3)  Lyall,   Sir  Charles,    The  Diwans  of^Abid  ibn  al-Abras,    of  As  ad  and 
ibn  at- 7  uf ail,  of  '* Amir  ibn  SaftraA,  Leyden,  '1913. 

4)  'Alqama  XIII,  9. 

5)  4Amr  Mu'all.  2.     Wine  simply  mixed  with  hot  water,  Lebid,  XVII.  38. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient. 


37 


was  called  ma  sebtb,  "raisin-water".  It  had  a  sour  taste;  honey 
was  added  to  sweeten  it  (Diwan  of  the  Hudhailites,  100,13). 
Ancient  Arabia  imported  most  of  its  wines  from  Syria. 

Babylonia  was  no  real  wine  country.  The  conditions  of 
the  soil  and  the  climate  in  Southern  Babylonia  prohibited  an 
extensive  culture  of  vines.  A  myth,  stating  the  reasons  for 
the  lack  of  extensive  viticulture  in  that  country,  tells  us  that 
Dionysos  was  angered  with  the  Babylonians  who  drank  beer 
(sikera),  and  turned  away  from  these  countries1.  Yet  viti- 
culture was  practised  in  Southern  Babylonia  at  a  very  early 
date.  The  earliest  reference  which  we  possess,  so  far,  regard- 
ing the  planting  of  vineyards  in  Babylonia,  is  that  in  Cylinder  A, 
XXVIII,  10—11  of  Gudea.  It  reads:  ne-sag-bi  kur-ge$tin-bi- 
bi-x ',  i.  e.,  "The  ne-sag  was  like  a  mountain  (planted)  with 

vines ".     We  know  also  of  the  fact  that  the  Babylonian 

vineyards  had  their  special  names  as  was  the  case  in  ancient 
Egypt2.  This  bit  of  information  we  gain  from  Gudea,  Cyl.  A, 
XXVIII,  23 — 24:  er& sar-gig-edin  e-^u  sig-ga-bi  kur-gestin-bi- 
bi-x  ki-ni-ldm-e  ma-dm,  i.  e.,  "The  garden  'anqullu  (that  is 
the  name  of  the  vineyard  1)  which  was  planted  by  the  temple, 

was  like  a  mountain  (planted)  with  vines ,   which  rises 

up  on  a  magnificent  place".  This  same  passage  is  instructive 
from  another  point  of  view.  The  alluvial  ground  of  southern 
Babylonia  would  have  been  detrimental  to  viticulture,  but 
the  early  Babylonians  knew  this  fact  and  planted  their  vine- 
yards on  artificially  raised  plots  (Gudea:  "which  rises  up  on 
a  magnificent  place").  This  fact  has  been  overlooked  by 
scholars  so  far.  When  we  come  to  speak  of  the  viticulture 
of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  in  detail,  we  shall  see,  that  the  very 
same  mode  of  planting  vineyards  was  used  by  them.  To 
speak  of  borrowing  would  be  very  hasty.  The  genius  of  both 
civilizations  was  such  that  each  one  could  come  upon  this 
devise  without  the  help  of  the  other.  In  view,  however,  of 
the  fact  that  the  Babylonians  at  this  early  date  at  least3, 

i)  Jul.  Afric.  Kecrroi,  c.  25:  -rrivoum  £udov  AIYUTTTIOI,  KaXajaov  TTaioveq, 
KrjXroi  peppriaiav  (i.  e.,  cerevisia),  aixepa  BapuXwvioi.  Aiovuaoc  Y<*P  KaT^Xmev 
ujptitfjudvoi;.  2)  See  following  chapter. 

3)  This  instance  in  Gudea  is  the  only  reference  to  the  custom,  as  far  as 
Babylonia  is  concerned. 


38  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

gave  special  names  to  their  vineyards,  it  seems  that  if  any 
borrowing  occured,  in  this  instance  the  Babylonians  were  the 
borrowers1.  In  Northern  Babylonia  the  conditions  were  more 
favorable  to  the  vine.  In  some  localities,  we  may  suppose,  vines 
even  flourished  luxuriantly.  Nabon.  606,  lo  and  869,  5  show  that 
branches  bearing  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  grapes  were  no  rarity. 
The  Babylonian  wine  was  called  nectar  by  Chaereus  in  Athen. 
I,  p.  29  f.  More  extensive  viticulture  was  introduced  into  Baby- 
lonia during  the  time  of  the  Macedonians  2.  During  the  century 
preceding  the  advent  of  Islam  the  wines  of  Babylonia  were 
renowned  and  exported  to  Arabia.  According  to  'Abid,  XXVI,  3 
the  wine  matured  in  Babylonia  was  of  a  pale  color: 


The  kings  of  Assyria  seem  to  have  shown  a  great  interest  in  the 
viticulture  of  Assyria.  According  to  Herodotus  I,  c.  193  Assyria 
suffered  from  too  moist  a  climate,  which  was  detrimental  to 
the  raising  of  the  vine.  Herodotus,  however,  is  emphatically 
wrong.  Assyria  was  preeminently  a  land  of  corn  and  wine. 
Sanherib  himself  boasts  that  his  land  is  such,  according  to 
II.  Kings  18,  32  DTg-p*!  ±nb  ing  t&'rvn']  pi  fig.  Strabo  speaks 
about  the  vines'  of  Mesopotamia3.  Asurnasirpal  planted  vine- 
yards in  Kalah4,  while  Sanherib  tried  to  acclimatize  all  kinds 
of  foreign  vines  in  Nineveh  5.  As  a  particularly  good  grade 
of  wine  is  mentioned  the  "mountain-wine".  It  seems  that  the 
wine  of  the  mountain  of  Arzabia  was  one  of  the  famous  wines 
in  Assyrian  times6.  Hi-hi  was  likewise  a  mountain  renowned 
for  its  vines.  In  the  legend  of  the  god  of  pestilence,  the  god 
is  said  to  have  cut  down  its  grapes.  The  mountain  called 
Habur  (II  R  51,  No.  1,  3  b)  probably  produced  the  Karan  Ha- 


1)  The  ne-sag  in  Gudea's   cylinder  A  is  undoubtedly  the  "raised  plot", 
or,  "the  terrace"  of  the  vineyard. 

2)  Strabo,  XV,  3. 

3)  Strabo,  geogr.  XV.     Vines  on  the  bank  of  the  Araxes  (Xenoph.  Anab. 
I,  4,  19);  wine  of  Caen ae  (ibid.  II,  4,  28).     For  wines  of  Babylonia  in  pre-islamic 
times,  see  Lebid,  I,  7;  XVII,  37  and  XL,  47. 

4)  I  R  27,  No.  2,  8.         5)  CT  XXVI,  8,  16  ff. 

6)  For  the  mountain-vines  which  grew  on  the  heights  see  CT  XXVI,  8,  2 1 
and  Thureau-Dangin,  Huitieme  campagne  de  Sargon,  line  239:  "[kimai]?u  gap- 
ni  tar-bit  sadi-i  eli  ubanatsadd  Ar-za-bi-a  a-su-ni". 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  30 

bu-ru  (IIR44,  13g).  The  most  famous  wines,  however,  came 
from  tfie  Hamrin-  mountain,  the  holy  wineland  of  the  goddess 
Siris1.  In  the  mountain  of  Hamrin  was  situated  a  city  called 
Ninua2  which  was  noted  for  its  wines.  The  district  about 
Bakuba  north-east  of  Bagdad  produced  plenty  of  wine.  The  vil- 
lage Sunaya,  i.  e.,  the  al-cAtiqa  or  Mahalla  al-cAtiqa  of  Bagdad; 
was  renowned  for  its  black  grapes,  which  ripened  sooner  at 
this  place  than  all  others  elsewhere;  YaqutHI,  197,6:^.^  ^o. 


The  cloister  Dair  Darmalis  (JjJ  j*>)  seems 
to  have  contained  a  hanut,  or  wineshop,  judging  from  the 
words  of  Yaq.  II,  660  :  "It  is  large  and  frequently  visited  by 
people  on  account  of  the  revelries,  the  entertainments,  and 
drink  and  festivities",  *j^xJ^  ui*a£Jb  J£*AX  J^>T  ^S  _^AJ 
^U^l^  c.jj-uJ^.  Regarding  the  Dair  az-Zandaward  in  Bagdad 
Yaq.  II,  665,  17  states  that  "it  has  the  most  excellent  grapes 
of  all  that  are  pressed  in  Bagdad",  ^Jl  w_jUft\Jl  y^Ll  ^  ^*$ 
^IvXsLo  j***->.  Abu  No  was  sings  (ibid^}\  "Bring  me  wine  of  the 
grapes  of  Zandaward  the  forenoon  ;  I  shall  sip  it  in  the  shade 
of  (grape)-clusters", 

iLo 


During  the  rule  of  the  Sasanides  the  Nestorian  and  Jacobite 
Christians  possessed  many  cloisters  in  the  clraq  whose  inmates 
were  extensively  engaged  in  viticulture.  These  cloisters  were 
the  meeting-places  of  poets  and  cavaliers  during  the  time  of 
the  Omayyades  and  the  first  'Abbaside  caliphs.  Here  they 
were  more  or  less  safe  to  enjoy  the  excellent  wines  that  were 
stored  in  the  cellars  of  the  cloisters.  Even  nunneries  possessed 
their  wineshops.  Thus  we  read  in  Yaq.  II,  679  regarding  the 
Dair  al-cadara  (the  cloister  of  the  virgins),  which  was  also 
called  Dair  al-cAlt  from  its  location  near  'Alt:  "Halidi  says: 
I  have  seen  it;  virgins  live  in  it;  there  are  also  wineshops  in  it 
^a»  OUUw^  ^^  a^-uJ  <*oj  <*6\XfcUo2  ^xJU.1  JUy  It  never 
became  empty  of  pleasure-seekers  (Yaq.  II,  68l,  3).  According 
to  Muqaddasi  grapes  abounded  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 

1)  See  Hommel,  Grundriss,  p.  280. 

2)  CT  X,  pi.  49  (14434),  line  10. 


40  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

city  of'Ukbara.  A  famous  wine  was  grown  in  the  village  of 
Qutrabbul  (J?^)'  Yaq.  IV,  133,4  states:  "It  is  a  village  be- 
tween Bagdad  and  'Ukbara,  from  which  originates  a  well-known 
wine.  It  is  a  constant  pleasure-resort  for  people  who  have 
leisure,  and  a  shop  for  wine-merchants;  the  poets  frequently 
make  mention  of  it",:  +±\  U^  u-^^^o  \^^  .>luXob 


lAj£>.  Hauqal  167  mentions  the  extensive  vineyards  about  the 
city  of  Samarra.  Accordings  to  Johns,  Assyr.  Deeds  and  Docu- 
ments, 362,  5  one  single  garden  in  Singara  bore  2400  vinestalks. 
Some  vineyards  about  Harran  numbered  even  15000  and 
29000  vinestalks  (Johns,  An  Assyr.  Doomsday  Book,  p.  29,  Col.  I, 
lines  21  and  35).  Idrisi  states  that  vineyards  were  ,  planted 
along  the  river  Hawaii  (<J>^)  which  comes  from  Diyar  Rebiac 
(^j*..o^  J^).  These  vineyards  were  probably  tended  to  by 
the  Arabs,  who  lived  in  settled  habitations  on  the  banks  of 
this  river  J.  Regarding  Susa,  the  ancient  capital  of  Elam,  the 
classical  writers  assert  that  there  were  no  vines  at  that  place 
before  the  conquest  of  Alexander.  Only  special  means  assured 
the  growth  of  the  vine.  Instead  of  loosening  the  ground,  the 
better  to  admit  the  heat,  they  simply  drilled  a  hole  with  a  rod 
which  was  fitted  with  an  iron  on  one  end.  Into  these  holes 
they  placed  the  shoots2. 

Hommel3  conjectures  that  the  Semites  did  not  know  the 
vine  at  all  in  the  oldest  time.  This  he  supposes  from  such 
words  as  "vine",  "wine",  and  "vineyard",  which  according  to 
him  are  either  non-Semitic  words,  or  else  imply  still  another, 
more  general  meaning.  Thus  karanu,  Greek  Kapoivov,  talm. 
tf?"1!?  is  non-Semitic  to  him.  Inu  (f^,  0^.5  [grape],  fD£"»,  is 
West-Semitic,  and  a  foreign  importation  as  far  as  it  regards 
Babylonia.  He  further  notices  that  karmu  "vineyard",  gupnu, 
"vine",  and  *inafru,  "grape",  have  in  Assyro-Babylonian  still 
the  general  meanings  "acreland",  "stem,  pluck"  (Assurnasirpal 
2,  43  and  71)  and  "fruit"  (inbu). 

In  Strassm.  896,  16  we  possess  a  reference  to  fig-  wine,  inu 
$a  titti.^Inu  =  wine  is  late  in  Babylonian  and  Hommel  is  right 

1)  Jaubert,  o.  c.,  Vol.  II,  p.  149. 

2)  Strabo,  geogr.  XV.  3)  Aufsatze  und  Abhandlungen,  p.  93. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  A  j 

in  saying  that  -inu  as  well  as  tittu  (==  tintu)  are  West-Semitic 
borrowings.  Meissner,  Assyr.  Studien,  VI  mentions  three  brands 
of  wine: 

gi$-gestin-igi-gud  =  i-ni  alpi  =  ox-eye  * 
gi$-ge$tin-sur-ra  =  sa-ah-tu  =  pressed  wine 
gis-ge$tin-ha-babbar-a  =  mu-zi-qu  =  mixed  wine2. 

The  date-palm  grew  in  abundance  in  Babylonia.  This  is 
shown  by  its  Sumerian  name  =  ka-lum(-ma) ,  which  signifies 
"fruit  (ka)  (which)  grows  in  abundance,  or,  which  grows  luxu- 
riantly (lum)"*.  Thus  date-wine  supplied  a  cheaper  drink  for 
the  poorer  classes  of  Babylonia.  According  to  Xenophon 
(Anab.  II,  5,  14)  it  was  a  pleasant  drink,  but  caused  headache. 
Pliny  (h.  n.  23,  51)  states  that  fresh  dates  cause  intoxication 
and  headache.  Kurunnu  was  the  name  applied  to  datewine, 
to  which  some  sesame-oil  had  been  added.  Sometimes  also 
cassia-leaves  were  used  to  flavor  and  improve  the  quality  of 
the  date-wine.  Meissner,  Babylonien  und  Assyrien,  Heidelberg, 
1920,  p.  240  observes  that  during  the  Nee-Babylonian  time 
1  kur  (=  121  1)  of  dates  yielded  one  ton  of  date-wine.  Tabatu 
was  a  beverage  prepared  from  water  and  a  small  addition  of 
fermented  fruit-juices  or  wine.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
medical  texts.  The  national  drink  of  the  Babylonians,  how- 
ever, was  always  beer4.  Harper  43  (K.  122)5  is  important  , 
for  our  investigation,  since  it  supplies  us  with  a  number  of 
names  of  towns  and  districts  in  which  the  vine  [was  culti- 
vated. Obv.  lines  l8ff.  read:  am^lurab-kar-man  m-Daian-Adad 
(19)  &lul-sa-na  m*tuHal-zi-ad-bar  (20)  &luBir-tum  *luAr-zu-hi-na 
(21)  *IuArba-ilu  aiuGu-za-na  (22)  iluSa-ris  &luTam-nu-na 


1)  Ini  alpi  in  Meissner,   Assyr.  Sttidien,   VI,   as  well  as  inu  sa  Ukari  in 
Delitzsch,  HW,  49,   are  naturally  different  words  from  inu,    wine.     A  compa- 
rison between  V  R  52,  64 — 65  a  with  II  R  25,  383,  b   shows   that   a  word  inu 
=  mutin  =  kar&nu   existed.     See    also  Syl.  S  (b),   line    168   (Delitzsch,    AL, 
3.  ed.,  57)  inu  =  namzitu  =  pressed  wine.     Namzitu  is  probably  in  some  in- 
stances the  same  as  the  sahtu  above.     See  ZDMG,  48,  705.     Namzitu  =  "must" 
in  Str.,  Nbd.  278. 

2)  Also  written  mnnziqu  and  munzuqu.     "Pressed"  wine?    More  probably 
a  "filtered"  wine  =  C^J?^Tp  D-patZJ,  Is.  25,  6;  Jer.  48,  II. 

3)  Delitzsch,  Sum.  67.'  s.  v. 

4)  See  chapter  III.  5)  See  also  J3AIV,  p.  5136°. 


42  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

(23)41uRi-mu-su,  i.  e.,  "the  overseers  of  the  vineyards  Daian-Adad 
of  Isana,  in  the  country  of  Halziadbar,  of  Birtum,  of  Arzuhina; 
of  Arba'ilu,  of  Guzana,  of  Sharish,  of  Tamnuna,  of  Rimusu". 
The  city  Isan,  mentioned  first,  is  Tell  Isan,  Isan  Koi,  be- 
tween Aleppo  and  Biregik,  in  the  plain  between  Sadjur  and 
Kerzun,  45'  north  of  Zembur1.  The  city  is  here  stated  to  be 
situated  in  the  country  (or  district)  of  Halziadbar.  Birtu  was 
situated  west  of  the  Euphrates,  and  was  a  Hittite  city2.  Since 
the  name  Birtu  occurs  frequently,  it  remains  doubtful,  however, 
whether  this  city  is  meant3.  The  texts  mention  the  following- 
names  of  cities  compounded  with  Birtu:  Birtu-sa-Kar-ilu-bel- 
matati,  Birtu-sa-Labbanat4,  Birtu-sa-Kinia 5  and  Birtu-sa-Sarra- 
giti.  It  is  more  likely  that  one  of  the  two  latter  cities  is  in- 
tended here,  both  of  which  seem  to  have  been  situated  in  the 
district  of  the  Gurumu  on  the  lower  Zab  6.  Arzuhina  (written 
also  Ur-zu-hi-na  in  Harper,  Assyr.  and  Babyl.-Letters,  IV)  and 
Arba'ilu  are  well  known  cities.  The  former,  according  to  II R65, 
15.  16  b7  was  situated  on  the  lower  Zab  river  and  opposite  the 
city  of  Zaban.  Arba'ilu  (ApjBrjXa,  modern  Erbil)  lay  between  the 
upper  and  the  lower  Zab.  Guzana  is  a  city  which  is  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament  (ffte,  II.  Kings  17,  6;  IS,  11;  19,  12;  Is. 
37,  12;  I.  Chr.  5,  26) 8.  It  was  situated  on  the  river  Habur.  The 
last  city  mentioned  in  the  Harper  text,  Rimusu  lay  on  a  canal 
of  the  river  Husur9.  All  of  these  cities  had  vineyards  over 
which  a  rab-karmani,  "an  overseer  of  the  vineyards"  was 
placed.  Tablet  K.  346 10  mentions  an  overseer  of  the  vineyards 


1)  See  PSBA,  June  1882,  p.  117  and  BA  II,  p.  49. 

2)  Thus  according  to  Salm.  Obel.,  33 — 35. 

3)  This  doubt  is  raised  in  BA  IV,  p.  513. 

4)  Tigl.  Pil.,  Claytablet  inscr.  8.  5)  Ibid. 

6)  See  Schiffer,  Die  Aramaer,  p.  123. 

7)  Ina  eli  aluZa-ban  §u-ba-li-e  ina* tar-si  alu  Ar-zu-hi-na. 

8)  raufoviTK;  in  Ptol.  V,  18,  3.  4.  (Cf.  Delitzsch,  Par  ad.  184  and  Winckler, 
KAT,  269). 

9)  BA  IV,  p.  516  cites  San.  Bav.,  8— 11  "ultu  libbi iluRi-mu-sa 

1 8  narate  uSahra  ana  libbinaru  Husur  uSesir".     It  is  the  sixth 

of  1 8  villages  which  were  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  river  Choser,  which 
sheds  its  waters  into  the  Tigris  south  of  Kuyungik.     See  also,   Delitzsch,  Pa- 
rad.  187  ff. 

10)  III  R  48,  No.  4  (==  KB  IV,  p.  114,  No.  2  . 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient.  A? 

of  the  city  of  Maganuba.  Since  the  document  is  dated  in 
the  eponymate  of  Ilu-ittia,  the  governor  of  Damascus1,  it  is 
most  likely  that  the  city  of  Maganuba  lay  within  the  district  of 
Damascus.  This  would  give  us  an  additional  Assyrian  testimony 
of  the  viticulture  of  the  district  of  Damascus 2.  In  mat  Asalli 
Adad-'i-me  brings  to  Asurnasirpal  in  the  year  of  877  B.  C. 
among  other  tribute  also  wine.  Bit-Adini  was  an  excellent 
wine-growing  country.  Ahuni  of  Bit-Adini  offers  wine  as  tri- 
bute to  Salmanassar  II.  in  859  B.  C.  Wine  is  also  mentioned 
among  the  tribute  of  Hapini  of  Tilabne,  Ga'uni  of  Safrugi], 

i.  e.,   yrfto  (Gen.  X,  20—23)  and  Giri-Dadi  of 

Sarugi  is  the  district  of  Serug,  between  Belih  and  the  Euphra- 
tes, south-east  of  °Arab-Dagh 3.  Mutallu  of  Gurgum,  whose 
capital  was  Marqasi,  modern  Mar'ash,  also  furnishes  wine  to 
Salmanassar  II,  according  to  the  list  of  tribute.  So  does  Arame 
apil  Gusi,  king  of  the  Patinaean  cities  of  Taia,  Hazaz  (cAzaz), 
Nulia  and  Butamu.  Nebukadnezzar  praises  the  wines  of  mat 
Izallam,  mat  Tu'immu,  mat  Simmini,  mat  Hilbunim,  mat  Ara- 
nabanim,  mat  Suham  (extenting  from  above  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Belih  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Habur;  probably  rrtttj 
Job  II,  11),  mat  Bit-Kubatim  and  mat  Bitatim  (I  R  65  I,  22 — 25, 
Grot.  Cyl.).  The  wine  of  these  countries  he  offered  up,  con- 
tinually, like  the  water  of  the  river  on  the  altar  of  Marduk 
and  of  Zarpanitum.  Imr.  59,  10  and  cAlqama  (ed.  Socin  II,  41) 
mention  the  wine  of  eAna  at  the  upper  Euphrates.  At  al- 
Bahrain  the  vines  were  planted  between  the  date-palms.  In  Pre- 
Islamic  times  Babylonia  exported  some  wine  to  Arabia4. 

Amongst  the  multitude  of  business  documents  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  there  are  some  which  refer  to  the  sale  of  wine, 
which  we  shall  presently  discuss.  K.  423  5  reads:  "[.  .  .  shekel]s 


i)  Year  694  B.  C. 

2)  I  R  65 — 66'a,   21 — 23;  b  31 — 32  end,  II  R    mentions  as   wine-countries 
Hulbum  and  Izallu. 

3)  Schiffer,  Die  Aramaer,  p.  64. 

4)  Lebid,  I,  7;  XVII,  37;  XL,  47. 

5)  See  Johns,  Assyr.  Deeds  and  Documents,  125: 

(i)  [.  .  .  Siklu]mes  £a  matuGar-ga-mis  (2)  [Sa  m..  .  .  .,-abu-u-a  (3)  a-na 
m-Bel-ahhemes  jna  Hbbibi  (4)  9  imeru  karanimes  ina  gib-bar  s"a  9  qa  (5)  ina 
mini  Bit- Za-ma-a-ni  iddanana  (5)  [Sum] -ma  la  iddinini  a-ki  ma-hi-ri  (7)  sa 


AA  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

of  silver  of  Carchemish  [belonging  to j-abua,   for  Bel- 

ahhe.  For  it  he  shall  give  nine  inter  of  wine  to  the  measure 
of  nine  qa  in  Bit-Zamani;  if  he  does  not  give  (the  wine),  he 
shall  give  according  to  the  marketprice  of  Nineveh.  In  the 
presence  of  Riba,  of  Batiti,  the  shelapu- officer,  of  Shepa- 
Ashur,  of  Ubuku,  of  Mannu-ki-Ninua,  of  Nabu-bel-ilani.  The 
third  day  of  Shebat(?)  in  the  eponymate  of  Sin-ahhe-eriba"  !. 
The  money  paid  for  the  delivery  of  the  nine  imers  of  wine 
is  that  of  the  standard  of  Carchemish,  the  capital  of  the  former 
Southern  Hittite  kingdom,  after  the  break-up  of  the  unified 
Hittite  empire  of  Shubbiluliuma.  Since  876  B.  C.  that  part  of 
the  former  Hittite  kingdom  was,  however,  in  the  hands  of 
the  Assyrians.  But  it  still  uses  in  687  B.  C.  its  own  mone- 
tary standard.  The  wine  shall  be  given  in  Bit-Zamani.  The 
country  of  Bit-Zamani  was  situated  north  of  the  Kashiari 
mountain,  modern  Tur-cAbdin,  mons  Masius,  TO  Mdtfiov  opo^ 
of  the  classical  writers,  along  the  river  Tigris.  Its  capital  was 
Amedi  (or  Amedu),  i.  e.,  Amida  of  the  Classics,  modern  Diyar- 
Bekr,  turk.  Kara -Amid2.  K.  361  refers  to  the  sale  of  wine 
to  be  imported  to  Nineveh.  "2  imer  50  qa  of  wine,  be- 
longing to  Mannu-ki-Ninua  (are)  at  the  disposition  of  Ut- 
tama.  In  the  month  of  lyar  he  shall  give  the  wine  [in]  Nine- 
veh. [If]  he  does  not  give  (the  wine),  he  shall  give  silver 
according  to  the  marketprice  of  Nineveh.  The  25th  day 
of  Tebet,  of  the  eponymate  of  Mannu-ki-Adad" 3.  A  similar 
text4  speaks  of  the  delivery  of  wine  according  to  the  measure 


aluNinua  iddanimes  (8)  mahar  m.Ri-ba-a-a  (9)  mahar  m.Ba-ti-i-ti  (10)  ameluge- 
la-pa-a-a  mahar  m.gepa-Agursur  (n)  mahar  m.CT-bu-ku  (12)  mahar  m.Man-nu- 
ki-aluNinua  (13)  mahar  m.ilu Nabu-bel-ilani mes  (14)  arhuSabatu(P)  umu  3-kam 
(15)  [lim-mu]  m.ilu  Sin-ahhemes-eriba". 

1)  I.  e.,  687  B.  C. 

2)  Cf.  Schrader,  E.,   Die  Keilinschriften  und  Geschichtsforschung,  p.  146; 
Delitzsch,  Fr.,    Wo  lag  das  Paradies,  p.  276;    Streck,  ZA,    1893,  XIIIi  P- 73 
and   Schiffer,  Die  Aramaer,  pp.  76 — 80. 

3)  "2  imeru  50  qa  isukaranimes  (2)  §a  m-Man-nu-ki-Ninuaki  (3)  ina  pan' 
m.Ut-ta-a-ma  (4) [ina]  arfcuAiaru  isukaranumes  (5)  [ina  alu]Ni-nu-a  iddanan  (6)Sum- 
ma]  la  i-di-ni  (7)  [ki  ma-h]i-ri  Sa  Ninuaki  (8)  [kaspu]  iddanan  (9)  [arfcuTebetu 
umu]  25-kam  (10)  [lim-me  m.Man-n]u-ki-»luAdad  (n)"  follow  witnesses.     The 
year  is  that  of  683  B.  C. 

4)  Johns,  Assyr.  Deeds  and  Documents,   124,  81-2-4-151. 


The  Wines  of  the  Ancient  Orient. 


45 


of  the  king  *.  In  case  the  wine  is  not  delivered,  the  wineseller 
must  give  another  wine  corresponding  with  the  marketplace  of 
Nineveh.  All  these  documents  show  that  the  price  of  wine  was 
subject  to  a  special  tariff  in  Assyria.  The  wines  imported  into 
Assyria,  it  seems,  were  subject  to  an  extra  custom-house  tax. 
This  additional  tax  naturally  made  the  imported  wines  much 
more  expensive  than  the  home-grown  wines.  In  case  the 
winesellers  from  districts  outside  of  Assyria  proper  did  not 
fill  their  orders,  they  were  compelled,  according  to  these  docu- 
ments2, to  giv"e  an  equal  quantity  of  wine  ordered,  subject 
only  to  the  tariff  of  Nineveh.  In  this  case,  therefore,  the 
revenue  on  the  wine  would  have  to  be  borne  by  the  wine- 
seller,  and  not  by  the  buyer. 

1 )  5  inter  of  wine  according  to  the  ^(-measure)  of  the  king. 

2)  ki  ma-hi-ri  sa  Nimtaki. 


Chapter  Two 

The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and 
the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient 
ilUll^^p  Orient  -    *£ 

The  numerous  wall-paintings  in  Egyptian  tombs    enable 
us   to    reproduce   a   fairly  detailed   account    of  the    Egyptian 

vineyard  J«TV[.    W;   W   Irrr  ,  ^  \  f"  Q  (]  SES  W  Rec.tr  av, 

_CE\S'  A   V  i  <^2>    I       ' 

6,  7,  Coptic  lAeaAoAt;  fcrf.f,  \  \^^\\  ^b.t,  J  (1 

n     AAAAAA     A      .  pi  <--'-^    o 

«  Irr  ,    1  D  ^s  ^  W^AA  [I  <=>  o   Her  us  ate  f  Stele    135; 
2s      JL  2  i  .—  >^—  .  o 


(D"'"); 
.  29,  157.  |          -:  J 


U    I 

J    "U==?jj,  bnd.t  see.  Mariette,  Mastabas,  pp.  181  and  1861.     The 

^^/^A    ^©\ 

vineyard  was  generally  planted  on  an  artificially  raised  plot, 
whenever  the  district  lacked  hills  or  mountains.     It  was  always 


i)  Also  called  hsp,   9  IIHI  ,    in   Rosettana.     See  also   Diim.,    KaL 

U 


Inschr.  36,  47  :TTfff  J^T      \   ^      >  \fr,  "The  vineyard  is  plan- 

LJ  <n> 


ted   with  vines".     Variants 
etc. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      AJ 

surrounded  by  a  stone-,  or  clay-wall,  judging  from  the  wall- 
paintings  (see  Illustration  No.  3).  But  since  these  paintings  pre- 
sent to  us  only  the  vineyards  of  distinguished  and  rich  persons, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  poorer  vineyard  owners  contemied  them- 
selves with  the  less  costly  hedges.  There  is  a  strong  doubt,  how- 
ever, whether  during  the  early  periods  of  the  Egyptian  history 
vineyards  were  in  the  possession  of  Egyptian  commoners. 


1!  if*  13 


No.  3.    A   large  garden  with  vineyard  in  centre  (after  Wilkinson,   The  Ancient 

Egyptians}. 

The  political  and  economic  conditions  of  the  time  of  the  Thinites 
and  the  Old-  and  Middle  Kingdoms,  probably  did  not  permit  it. 
Vineyards  at  that  early  age  were  an  expensive  luxury  which 
the  king  and  some  great  officials,  like  Methen,  could  indulge 
in,  rather  than  a  profitable  investment. 

The  sealing-inscriptions  on  the  clay  stoppers,  which  closed 
the  large  wine  jars  of  the  pre-dynastic  and  Thinitic  graves  bear 


48  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

the  first  testimony  to  vineyards  in  Egypt.  According  to  these 
inscriptions  the  earliest  vineyards,  which  were  situated  near  the 
so-called  "White  Wall",  near  Memphis  *,  were  of  an  oval  shape,  and 
enclosed  by  a  spiked  wall.  Every  king  of  the  early  dynasties 
possessed  a  special  vineyard,  which  furnished  the  funerary 
v  wine  for  the  royal  family  and  the  royal  servants2.  It  is  of 

7  course  only  an  accident  that  we  know  only  of  these  vineyards, 
dedicated  to  ceremonial  purposes.  Besides  these  "sacred  vine- 
yards" the  early  kings  undoubtedly  also  possessed  their  pri- 
vate gardens,  whose  produce  adorned  the  royal  table.  From/ 
these  sealing  inscriptions  we  learn  that  each  vineyard  had 
its  special  name.  Whether  this  was  true  of  the  vineyards  in 
private  possession  is  not  known.  All  the  vineyards  known 
to  have  had  special  names  are  vineyards  dedicated  ,to  cere- 
monial purposes,  or,  as  was  seemingly  the  case  with  the  vine- 
yard called  ka-n-kemet,  i.  e.  "the  genius  of  Egypt",  to  cere- 
monial purposes  and  to  the  royal  usufruct.  The  vineyard, 
called  "anqullu",  which  we  have  seen  Gudea  planted,  was  also 

.  intended  solely  for  religious  purposes.  These  vineyard  names 
are  thus  no  forerunners  of  the  present  custom  of  American 
farmers  to  call  their  farms  by  names  such  as  "Fair- View 
Farm",  "Glen-Side  Farm",  "Sunny  Brook  Farm",  etc.  The 
names  of  the  Egyptian  vineyards  always  refer  to  some  reli- 
gious idea.  In  the  oldest  names  is  contained,  in  each  instance, 
an  expression  of  a  certain  divine  quality  of  the  god  Horus. 
King  Zoser's  vineyard  was  named  "Praised  be  Horus,  who  is 
in '  the  front  of  heaven"  3.  Khasekhemui's  vinegarden  bore  the 
name  "Praised  be  the  souls  of  Horus"4.  These  expressions, 


1)  The  vineyards  of  Nebesheh,   NhBmw  and  Sajn,  however,   seem  to  go 
back  to  the  same  remote  age,  according  to  the  Pyr.  texts;  see  above  p.  n. 

2)  Quite    a    number    of    wine    jars    were    found    in    the    tomb    of    king 

Hnt  fjTh.     Most  of  them   had   been  broken,    but   a   few  still  preserved  their 

conical    stoppers.     See    Amelineau,    M.,    Le    Tdmbeau    d' Osiris,    Paris,    1899, 
chapt.  5,  p.  91  ff.  and  Petrie,  Royal  Tombs. 

3)  ^c  \*v    flThl?=:=;!'  D^-Hr-bnty-pt '•  or,  "Praise  of  Horus,  the  First 

rr^V  1 1 1 1 1 

of  Heaven".     Over  the  vineyard   estate   founded  by  Zoser  was  placed  a  local 
governor;  see  Sethe,   Urkunden  I,   n — 15. 
4) 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      AT\ 

however,  have  undergone  already  a  stage  of  development, 
for  the  name  of  the  vineyard  of  the  Horus  Dja,  of  the  pre- 
dynastic  time,  is  still  simply  "Beverage  of  Horus",  or  else, 
"Enclosure  of  the  beverage  of  Horus".  On  one  of  Dja's 
cylinders  the  name  is  also  called  "Beverages  of  the  Double 
(kS)  of  the  enclosure  of  the  beverages  of  Horus"  *.  Commen- 
cing with  the  time  of  king  Den,  ,  the  vineyards  bear  in- 

/WWVA 

variably  the  name  "Enclosure  of  the  beverages  of  the  body 
of  Horus". 

Viticulture  is  a  sure  sign  of  a  higher  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, since  it  required  a  greater  amount  of  labor  than  the 
cultivation  of  grain  and  demanded  years  of  patient  waiting 
and  tending,  until  the  young  shoots  had  grown  up  to  bear 
fruit.  Irrigation  was  one  of  the  tasks  to  which  the  Egyptian 
vinedresser  had  to  give  much  of  his  time.  The  gardener 
"passes  the  morning  watering  vegetables,  the  evening  vines" 
(Pap.  Sail.  II;  Pap.  Anast.  VII).  The  Egyptian  vineyard  is 
often  pictured  as  having  a  water-basin.  The  vines  were  trained 
on  espaliers  or  trellis  work,  which  was  supported  by  trans- 
verse rafters,  resting  on  beautifully  carved  and  painted  columns. 
Rows  of  columns  formed  pleasant  arcades.  The  avenues  were 
generally  wide  enough  to  permit  an  easy  communication  from 
one  end  of  the  vineyard  to  the  other,  and  yet  not  too  wide; 
the  rays  of  the  sun  being  kept  away  from  the  ground  in  order 
that  it  might  retain  its  moisture.  The  vine-arbors  of  a  more 
simple  make-up  consisted  simply  of  pliable  branches,  whose 
ends  were  placed  in  the  ground,  thus  forming  a  large  arch. 
A  third  way  was  that  of  erecting  two  wooden  pillars,  whose 
upper  ends  were  forked,  over  which  a  wooden  pole  was  layed. 
Vinedressers  who  were  less  careful,  simply  allowed  the  vine- 
stalks  to  shoot  up  without  any  props,  as  is  seen  in  an  illustra- 
tion from  Beni- Hasan,  or  else  they  let  them  grow  up  in 
hedges.  Such  vines,  as  were  allowed  to  grow  up  as  bushes, 
were  kept  low  and  required  no  support.  The  different  modes 


a 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


CQ  Lutz,'  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

of  propping  the  vine  are  exemplified  in  the  hieroglyphs  for 
vine  and  vineyard,  Egyptian  tirr,  tell,  jjjjjfr,  rfjjf,  %***$, 
^n>~Y'i'  The  Egyptians  do  not  seem  to  have  attached  the 

vine  to  trees.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  they  trained  them 
sometimes  on  papyrus,  whenever  this  was  practicable.  We 
possess  no  Egyptian  references  to  this  mode  of  training 
the  vine,  but  since  the  Mishna  refers  to  that  practise,  we 
may  infer  that  it  was  also  an  Egyptian  custom2.  The 
various  modes  of  arranging  the  vineyards  and  the  different 
ways  of  training  the  vines  naturally  depended  much  upon 
the  tastes  of  the  owners  and  on  the  nature  of  the  locality 
and  the  ground.  In  the  tomb-painting  of  Paheri  at  al-Kab 
the  vinestalks  round  about  the  roots  are  banked  wfth  earth. 
The  earth-heaps  are  cup-shaped  in  order  to  hold  the  water 
for  a  greater  length  of  time.  The  hieroglyph  of  the  vine 
in  Ptah-hotep,  Vol.  I,  PI.  X,  No.  l663  which  is  painted  shows 
the  props  in  red,  the  vine-foliage  green  with  dull  maroon  longi- 
tudinal stripes  indicating  the  stems,  and  the  grape-clusters 
blue.  More  often  the  grapes  are  painted  red  or  reddish  brown. 
The  leaves  are  seldom  drawn  and  show  sometimes  the  same 
color  as  the  grapes.  One  picture  from  Thebes  shows  an 
espalier  on  which  lotus-plants  are  climbing  up.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  already  had  a  knowledge  that  certain  grapes  do 
not  promise  any  fruit.  These  grapes  were  cut  off  with  a  spe- 
cial knife  which  was  of  a  sickle-shaped  form.  The  grape 

(-cluster),  M  iff  •  U*^^'  ifi  represented  in  different  forms 
on  the  monuments.  In  the  temple  of  Der-el-Bahri  we  meet 


with  this  form:  HRV\;  L.D.,  III,  244  =  E&\,  and  frequently  with 


the  form  '•  w  1  •  Purely  realistically  drawn  grapes  are  mostly 
seen  in  the  \". <\  paintings  of  the  l/th,  l8th  and  the  following 
dynasties.  \^\The  color  is  then  of  a  beautiful  dark  blue, 


i)  See  L.  D..  II,  53;  and  III,  II. 

2}  Kilaim  6,  3  ni^B^BN  nspE  by  •jsnn  nx  nVron  "whoever  trains  the 
vine  over  a  part  of  the  espaliers  of  papyrus".  J.  Kilaim  6,  3  ni-^S^B  TUB 
"two  espaliers  of  papyrus";  Kilaim  7,  3  nTViB^BK  into  "the  rest  of  the 
espaliers  of  papyrus".  3)  See  also  No.  173  =  No.  405. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


while  the  berries  are  indicated  by  black  dots.  Sometimes 
the  cluster  is  painted  in  pink  or  a  pale  violet.  According  to  the 
wallpaintings  the  Egyptians  knew  white,  pink,  greenish,  red 
and  dark  blue  grapes.  Whenever  the  grapes  are  painted  / 
black,  as  for  instance,  in  the  tomb  of  Sennofri  near  Sheikh- 
abd-al-Gurnah,  blue  or  dark  blue  is  naturally  intended.  The 
Egyptians,  as  well  as  all  Orientals,  have  great  difficulty  in 
distinguishing  between  these  two  colors.  In  the  tomb  of 
Thut-hotep  at  al-Bersheh1  the  grapes  are  of  a  greenish  color. 
At  the  time  of  the  ripening  of  the  grapes  great  care  was 
taken  to  preserve  the  clusters  from  the  birds. 


No.  4.    Vintage-scene  (after  Petrie,  Deshasheti}. 

Men,  women  and  children  participated  at  the  time  of  vin- 
tage2, wfa  ilrr.t,  \>  §  %,  (]%,  <^  Wa,  in  the  picking  of 

77   A    rr\S>  I    rr\S'    r\       I      I 

the  grapes  (see  Illustrations  Nos.  4,  5, 6  and  7).  The  bunches  were 
carefully  put  into  deep  wicker-baskets 4.  When  these  were  filled, 
men  carried  the  baskets  either  on  their  head,  or  shoulders,  or 
slung  upon  a  yoke  to  the  winepress.  These  men  are  sometimes 

Q     /WWVA 

seen  marching  in  file,  and  in  the  tomb  of  Ti  the  legend    A 

"the  bringing  of  the  grapes  for  press- 


1)  See  Newberry,  El-Bersheh,  I,  pi.  24,  26,  31. 

2)  The  vintage  took  place  in  the  month  Epiphi,  towards  the  end  of  June.  X 
or  the  commencement  of  July. 

3)  Tomb  of  Ptah-hotep.  4)  So  according  to  Virg.  Georg,  II,  241. 

4* 


|J2  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

ing"  is  written  below  the  picture  of  the  carriers.  Those  gra- 
pes, however,  which  were  not  used  for. the  making  of  wine, 
were  placed  in  flat,  open  baskets,  which  were  then  covered 


No.  5.  Gathering  grapes  (after  Wilkinson,   The  Ancient  Egyptians], 

with  palm  leaves,    or  vine  foliage.     Tomb  No.  XIV  in  Sauiet 
al-Meitin,   which  dates  back  to  the  sixth  dynasty1  represents 


No.  6.  Vintage-scene. 

in  one  of  its  paintings  the  end  of  the  vintage.     The  espaliers 
are   seen   without  foliage  and  without  grapes.     The  workers 

l)  L.  D.,  II,  53  and  m. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      53 

are  seen  below  with  the  grape-filled  baskets.  In  the  wall- 
painting  of  Beni-Hasan  two  long-horned'  goats  climb  up  the 
bush  and  browse  on  the  vine  foliage.  It  seems  thus  that 
after  the  vintage  was  over  the  domesticated  animals  were 
allowed  to  enter  the  vineyards  in  order  to  browse  upon  the 
vines. 

The  grapes  were  put  into  large  vats,  inside  of  which  at 
least  four  men  could  find  sufficient  room.  The  paintings 
sometimes  show  five  or  six  men  standing  in  such  vats.  The 
vat  was  always  placed  on  a  slight  elevation,  and  during  the 
New  Empire  was  round  in  form.  The  paintings  do  not  show 
very  distinctly  the  form  of  the  vat  in  the  time  preceding  the 
New  Empire,  but  it  is  possible  to  think  that  they  were  gene- 
rally round  in  form.  The 
layer  of  grapes  in  the  vat, 
which  was  of  acacia  wood, 
was  not  deep.  It  hardly 
went  beyond  the  ankles  of 
the  vine-pressers,  who  pres- 
sed the  grapes  with  their 
feet.  The  large  vat  was 
sometimes  covered  with 

a  roof.  From  the  roof  Or  No>  ;<  Plucking  grapes  and  frigthening 
the  cover  hung  down  as  away  birds  with  a  sling  (after  Wilkinson, 

many  ropes    as  men   were  The  Ancient  Egyptians}. 

able  to  find  standing  room 

in  the  vat.  In  case  that  there  was  no  roof  or  cover  supplied  with 
ropes  which  were  held  by  the  men  in  order  to  hold  their  balance, 
the  men  at  both  extremities  of  the  vat  held  on  to  poles,  which 
were  placed  on  both  sides.  The  men  between  the  two  secured 
their  position  by  holding  each  other  by  the  hips.  The  wine- 
pressers  next  made  the  round  in  the  vat,  while  singing 
a  rhythmic  song.  Two  men  near  the  winepress  marked  the 
rhythm  by  simply  clapping  their  hands,  or  else  by  a  special 
object,  which  was  of  a  rectangular  form1.  It  is  possible  that 
sometimes  women  were  called  upon  to  mark  the  rhythm, 
and  to  keep  time  for  the  dancing  men  inside  of  the 


i)  See  L.  D.,  Ergamungen,  pi.  21. 


54 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


press !.  In  the  tomb  of  Mera  the  work  of  these  time,  keepers  is  called 
i.  e.,    "to    clap",    "to    produce   a    sound   by 


clapping".  The  grape  juice  flowed  through  a  bung  on  the 
side  of  the  press  into  smaller  vats,  in  which  the  juice  was 
brought  to  fermentation2.  A  second  pressing  was  necessary 
in  order  to  extract  the  juice  which  still  remained  in  the  gra- 
pes3. We  observe  on  the  wall-paintings  of  Beni-Hasan4  an 
oblong  linen  slough,  which  is  filled  with  wine-lees  removed 
from  the  winepress  (see  Illustration  No.  8).  This  slough  is 


No.  8.    Winepress  (after  Wilkinson,    The  Ancient.  Egyptians]. 

stretched  out  between  a  strong  wooden  frame 5.  Men  are 
turning  the  cloth  with  sticks,  which  are  placed  through  the 
ends  of  the  slough.  The  pressed  wine  flows  into  a  large 

i)  In  the  tomb  of  Ti,  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  workmen  is  seen  un- 
wrapping herself  and  going  up  to  the  press.  She  is  probably  one  of  the 
musicians  or  timekeepers.  See  also  L.  D.  II,  96. 

2}  The  Egyptian   word  for  "fermentation"    occurs   f.  i.  in  d'Orb,  12,  10 


was    fer- 


menting", 


3)  See  Klebs,    Die  Tiefendimension  in  der  Zeichnung  des  alten  Reichs,  in 
Aeg.  Z.  1914,  pp.  24  —  28,  and  Montet,  Rcc.  d.  trai\  XXXV,  p.  120  flf. 

4)  See  Newberry,  Beni-Hasan  I,  pi.  29,  II,  4,  13. 

5)  In  A.  St.  G.  Caulfeild,  The  Temple  of  the  Kings  of  Abydos,  Egypt.  Res. 
Account,    1902,   pi.  XX,   there  is  an  additional  crosshead  attached  to  the  end 
of  the  slough,  which  permits  the  cloth  to  be  twisted  tighter.  —  The  winepress 

AAAAAA  /VWvAA 

J 

and  Sethe,   Urkunden  der  18.  Dyn.,  Leipzig,    1906  —  09,  p.  687. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      zc 

earthen  jar,  which  is  placed  below  the  linen  slough.  To 
twist  it  must  have  been  a  very  difficult  task.  It  generally 
required  four  persons.  A  fifth  person  seen  on  the  wall  painting 
of  the  tomb  of  Ismaih  at  Gizeh,  of  the  fifth  dynasty,  seems 
to  keep  both  poles  apart  by  holding  the  poles  at  the  proper 
distance  with  both  his  hands  and  his  feet  (see  Illustration 
No.  9).  This  is  of  course  an  acrobatic  trick  which  it  was  im- 
possible to  perform.  But  these  drawings  are  not  faithful  to 
perspective.  The  fifth  person  was  in  the  centre,  but  since 
he  could  not  be  drawn  without  some  part  of  his  body  being 


No.  9.    The  pressing  of  wine-lees  (after  Newberry,  Percy  E.,  El-BersheK]. 

hidden  by  the  cloth,  the  artist  chose  this  impossible  position 
for  him.  This  person's  work  consisted  in  seeing  that  the  wine 
flowed  exactly  into  the  large  jar  and  that  nothing  was  spilt. 

He  is  called  shd  $ms,    (•?()>    while    the   other   men   are    the 

smsw,  n . 

While  the  winepress  ofBeni-Hasan  referred  to  above  shows 
already  a  solid  structure  at  the  two  ends  of  which  the  linen 
slough  is  attached  *,  the  tombs  of  the  Old  Kingdom  show  us  still 
the  more  rude  way  with  men  wrenching  the  poles'  in  opposite 
directions.  This  process  of  pressing  the  grapes  in  the  slough 

(see  Illustration  No.  9)  is  designated  by  the  word  "f,  "  ^~ 
in  the  Middle  Kingdom.  In  Beni- Hasan2  its  orthography 

1)  So  also  Caulfeild,    The  Temple   of  the  Kings   of  Abydos ,    Egypt.  Res. 
Account,  1902,  pi.  XX. 

2)  Newberry,    Beni-Hasan,   I,   pi.  29;    II,  4,  13  (PI.  29  in   Newberry  = 

L.  D.,  II,  126).     L.  D.,  Ill,  163  —  ^V^IT";    %""~^       /]•     This   W0rd 

^ 


56  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


is  fft  (j         »   which  means   "to  press,    to  turn,    to  wring,   to 

turn  the  linen  slough".  Rosellini  II,  66  shows  two  women 
turning  a  slough,  filled  with  winelees.  Rec.  trav.  21,  p.  6  pictures 
a  wine-press  with  two  sloughs  instead  of  the  customary  one.  In 
the  Thebaid  the  footpress  is  only  represented  and  thus,  we  may 
conjecture,  was  only  used  there,  without  the  second  process  of 
pressing  the  winelees.  The  wallpainting  of  Ptah-hotep  in  Beni- 
Hasan1  representing  the  pressing  of  the  lees  is  unique.  The 
sticks  cross  each  other,  and  the  slough  is  attached  to  the  lower 
extremity.  These  modifications  are  due  to  the  artist's  desire 
to  show  the  completion  of  the  work  of  pressing.  The  slough 
is  completely  curled  up.  By  pushing  the  linen  slough  towards 
the  end,  the  workers  gained  greater  force.  This  pould  of 
course  not  be  done  as  long  as  the  sack  was  still  filled  with 
winelees,  since  it  wrould  have  shifted  all  the  pressure  and  the 
greatest  amount  of  work  and— weight  on  the  worker  nearest 
to  the  slough.  L.  D.,  II,  53  shows  further  the  heating  of  the  grape- 
juice,  probably  in  order  to  hasten  the  process  of  fermentation. 
Next,  the  wine  was  filtered.  Two  men  stretch  a  large  piece 
of  cloth  over  a  kettle  while  a  third  pours  the  wine  into  the  cloth. 
The  wine  finally  is  poured  into  large  variegated  stone-  and 
earthen  jars  (sle  Illustration  No.  lo).  The  short,  but  wide-necked 
jars  were  then  closed  with  covers,  stone  plates,  globular  or 
differently  shaped  stoppers  and  sealed2.  The  wine  which  was 
destined  for  funerary  purposes,  however,  was  put  into  very 
small  vases 3,  which  were  closed  in  the  manner  of  perfume 
vases4.  The  Egyptians,  before  pouring  the  wine  into  the  jars, 
generally  smeared  the  bottoms  with  resin  or  bitumen.  This 


is  also  used  for  "braiding  the  hair",  cf.  Chab.  voy.  119.     The  original  meaning 
seems  to  have  been  "to  wrap  into  a  bundle". 

1)  Newberry,  Beni-Hasan,  I,  pi.  36. 

2)  On  the  east   wall  of  the  mastaba   of  Akhethotep  at  Saqqareh,    men 
are  emptying  wine  into  large  open-necked  jars.     The  two  storage  jars,  which 
are  long-necked,  stand  near  b4. 

3)  See  Petrie,  Medum,  pi.  11. 

4)  L.  D.,  II,  96  with  the  legend:      ^  Q  ^      1  < 

c±  * 

-T- 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


was  done  in  order  to  preserve  the  wine.  It  was  also  thought 
to  improve  the  flavor  of  the  wine.  Wine  was  sometimes  also 
put  into  skins,  a  mode  which  probably  prevailed  throughout 
all  times  of  Egyptian  history,  whenever  such  wine  was  intended 
to  be  taken  on  long  journeys.  Lepsius,  Auswahl,  12,  5  refers 

to  this  mode  of  storing  the  wine:    "^   [Jq?'sv*M  (1 


i.  e.,  "their  wines 

which  were  stored  in  their  cellars   as  well   as   in   the   skins"1. 
When    the   wine   had  been  stored  away  in  the  cellars,    they 


No.  10.    Pouring  wine  into  jars  (after  Wilkinson,   The  Ancient  Egyptians]. 

were  marked  with  wine  labels.    In  Aeg.  Z.,  1883,  p.  336°.,  the 
first  Theban   ostracon   of  this  kind  was   discussed.     It  reads: 


AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 


n 


© 


t\    jj  jj  ^  !  ^  ft  R  V&,  "In  the  year  1 .     Good  wine  of  the  large 

irrigated  terrain  of  the  temple  of  Ramses  II.  in  Per-Amon.  The 
chief  of  the  wine-dressers,  Tutmes".  Many  of  such  wine  labels 
have  been  published  since  by  Spiegelberg,  Hieratic  Ostraca 

i)  The  wine-skin  is  also  called       Q,  a  word  used  to  denote  more  com- 
monly  the  leather-bag  and  ^^^  tP       =0=  Rcc.  trav.  21,  77  and  96. 


5  8  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

and  Papyri^.  In  these  ostraca  reference  is  made  to  the  vine- 
yards ka-n-kemet  and  to  the  "large  irrigated  terrain  in  Per- 
Amon"2,  which  is  on  the  west-side  of  the  landing-place.  The 
same  publication  offers  two  additional  names  of  vineyards,  to 
which  W.  Max  Miiller  first  drew  attention  in  OLZ,  1 896,  Vol.  II, 
p.  367.  The  one  is  called  the  "vineyard  (hsbtl\  N(e}-h-'ira-y-na^ 
(determ.  water)  =  nahlayn  "double-brook",  a  dual-formation 
of  bW,  Assyr.  nahlu\  III R  35,  No.  4  Obv.  12:  na-lial m&t Mu-sur 
asar  ndru  la  isu,  "the  brook  of  the  country  of  Musur,  where 
there  is  no  river".  The  other  vineyard  was  named  p-N-s-bu 
(determ.  tree),  =  113,  "the  prop".  These  wine  labels  served 
two  purposes.  First,  to  show  the  age  of  the  wine  in  the  diffe- 
rent jars,  and  second,  to  mark  the  quality  of  the  wine.  The 
quality  is  expressed  by  "good  wine"  (Spiegelberg,  Ostraca, 
Nos.  140,  162,  248,  257,  259,  262,  291  and  299),  "sweet  wine", 
(Nos.  186,  224,  266),  and  "very  good  wine"  (Nos.  177,  195, 
197,  229,  255,  256).  The  wine  was  inspected  and  tested  by 
special  officers  called  "inspector  of  the  wrine  test"  (Pap.  Leiden, 
I,  348,  lo)3.  The  paintings  show  us  also  the  mode  of  storing 
away  new  wine  in  Egypt  (see  Illustration  No.  ll);  The  jars, 
which  were  pointed  at  the  bottom  4,  rested  either  in  the  ground, 
or  they  were  attached  to  a  wooden  stand  or  a  stone  ring  (see 
Illustration  No.  12).  They  were  placed  in  successive  rows.  That 
row  which  rested  against  the  back  wall  of  the  wine  cellar  was  the 
last  one  used  and  therefore  contained  the  oldest  wines.  A  wine 
cellar  in  Esna5  contains  the  legend:  "This  is  the  wine  cellar. 

i)  Egyptian  Research  Account,  1898,  pi.  XIX— XXXV. 

Jo       ^      /wvw\T r 
V    '&x  /wv^ 

— flA  V-^<q  AAAAAA      V 

see  Spiegelberg,  Rec.  trav.  16,  p.  64  ^Irit,  the  daughter  of  the  ship-captain 
Bln-nty  (has  become)  the  wife  of  the  royal  prince  Sl-mntw ,  who  is  in  the 
vineyard  of  the  temple  of  Ramses  II.  at  Memphis". 

3)4    IU&U-/lC7f'   TT^AiQ^S!-     ^e   also 


•waltung  Aegypt,  unter  den  Phar. 

4)  Large,    hard-baked   clay   winejars,    which   were   pointed   at   the  base, 
were  in   use  by   the  Orientals   and    Greeks   and   Romans   alike.      In   Hebrew 
these  jars  are  called  Kad,   while  in  Syriac  they  bore  the  name  danna,  which 
word  passed  later  into  the  Arabic  language,  dann,  pi.  dinan.     Babyl.  dannu. 

5)  See  Brugsch,    WB,  Vol.  VI,  p.  611.     A  rare  word  probably  denoting 
,  wine-cellar'    occurs    in   Miiller,    W.  Max,    Die  Liebespoesie  der  alten  Agyprer, 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      50 

The  place  for  the  produce  of  the  vine  is  in  it.     One  is  merry 
in  it,  and  the  heart  of  him,  who  goes  forth  from  it,  rejoices", 


j 


o.  ii.    The  storing  of  wine  (after  Wilkinson,   The  Ancient  Egyptians], 


D 


v          1 1.     And  again  another  passage  reads : 

-J\  '  AAAAAA   I 

"This  is  the  white(washed)  room  of  the  grapes,  furnished 
with  the  best  ingredients  for  the  pre- 
paring of  the  produce  of  the  Horus-eye. 
Different  spices  are  there  in  their  mul- 
titude and  the  grape  is  in  its  closed 
room  at  the  going  forth  from  the  stalk", 

ID     X 


The  official  vineyards  of  Egypt  were  No.  I2.  wine-jar  sup- 
under  the  Special  Care  of  an  officer  Cal-  ported  by  a  stone-ring 
i  j  <  »  ^t~=^  c  A-\  •  j  Jl  r  (after  Wilkinson,  The 

led  nd-mr,    A^°,    of  the  vineyard,  or  0    of 

i  —  i  Ancient  Egyptians). 


Leipzig,  1899,  3,  12  dldi ,    i.  e.,    the   place   where   the   rt'/atf-vessels   are   stored. 
For    an    interesting    graphic    variant    of    'wine-cellar'    see    BWB,    I,    p.    234: 


60  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

the  vineyard,    or  §>  I    of  the  vineyard,  i.  e.,  "the  superinten- 

a 
dent  of  the  vineyard" l.    Vineyards  owned  by  the  temple-fiscus 

or  the  king  were  naturally  exempt  from  taxes.  In  the  early 
Ptolemean  times  there  existed  a  tax,  called  drtojioipa,  which 
was  paid  by  the  possessors  of  vineyards  and  gardens  for  the 
support  of  the  temples.  This  tax  amounted  to  the  sixth  part 
of  the  yearly  produce  of  each  vine-land.  Ptolemy  II.,  Phila- 
delphos, however,  took  away  the  benefit  of  this  tax  from  the 
priests  and  appropriated  it  to  the  use  of  the  queen  Arsinoe 
Philadelphos,  who  had  earlier  been  declared  a  goddess,  and 
now  was  regarded  as  having  a  perfectly  legitimate  right  to  it. 
The  tax  was  presumeably  only  partially  used  for  the  cult  of 
the  new  goddess,  while  the  remainder  went  into  the  state 
treasury.  Prior  to  the  decree  of  Philadelphos,  the  owners  of 
vine-land  paid  their  tax  in  furnishing  a  certain  stipulated  quan- 
tity of  wine,  or,  in  isolated  cases,  in  the  payment  of  money. 
Philadelphos  later  permitted  certain  classes  (f.  i.  the  military  colo- 
nists) to  pay  a  SeKdrrj  instead  of  the  usual  eKtr).  In  the  Impe- 
rial Roman  time  a  tax  ujrep  cxujteXebvtov  i.  e.,  "for  vineyards"* 
was  raised,  which  was  a  land-tax  for  the  owners  of  private 
vineyards.  This  tax  was  either  paid  to  the  6ioiKr]tfiq,  i.  e., 
the  state-resort,  or  to  the  iepcc,  the  temple-resort.  Dr.  Wilcken-' 
has  shown  that  the  amount  of  taxes  paid  for  vineyards  varies 
at  this  time  between  twenty  and  three-hundred  and  fifty 
drachmae  per  arura.  This  difference  in  taxation  was  due  to 
the  different  qualities  of  the  vineyards  and  to  their  different 
locations.  In  case  of  a  poor  inundation  a  lighter  tax  was 
sometimes  placed  on  the  owner  of  a  vineyard3.  Wilcken  also 
observed  that  a  tax  of  twenty  to  forty  drachmae  per  arura 
was  regularly  raised  for  the  6ioiKr|tfiq,  while  a  tax  of  75,  150 
or  even  350  drachmae  was  regularly  due  to  the  iepcc.  He 
established  the  fact  that  the  land  tax  of  the  best  and  most 
productive  vineyards  of  the  Theban  district  was  raised  for 
the  temple  treasury.  The  taxes  for  vineyards  had  to  be  paid, 


1)  Pap.  Anast.,  IV,  pi.  7,  3  mentions  a  master  of  the  vineyard,  in  whose 
storehouses  a  rich  quantity  of  wine  was  placed. 

2)  Griechische  Ostraka,  pp.  147  ff. 

3)  See  Grenf.  (II)  LVI  and  compare  chapt.  V  of  Wilcken,   Griech.  Ostr. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      6l 

not  in  kind,  not  jrpoc;  yevrjiiara,  as  the  phrase  is  used  in  the 
documents,  but  in  money,  ftpoc;  dpyupiov.  This  was  already 
the  rule  in  the  Ptolemaic  times1.  For  instance  in  the  petition 
ofKXecovAiOTip.ou2:  jrapayeypajiiiai  rax  jrpdKtopi  cbc;  6[cpeGuov] 
jtpoq  rd  apjreXiKcc  rod  XI  — fq  i.  e.,  "I  was  noted  down  by  the 
praetor  for  being  ninety  drachmae  in  arrears  for  the  land  tax 
of  the  vineyard  of  the  thirtieth  year".  Since  the  third  century  ' 
B.  C.  the  land  tax  for  vineyards  was  always  paid  in  cash  and 
Wilcken  notes  only  one  exception.  He  cites  line  30  ff.  of  the 
decree  of  Rosette,  according  to  which  Ptolemy  V.,  Epiphanes 
freed  the  temples  of  Egypt  in  the  eigth  year  of  his  reign 
from  TYJC;  d[jtoTeTay]p.evr)c;  dprdprjc;  rfji  dpoupcu  rfjc;  iepdc;  yfjc; 
Kai  tfjc;  dp.jreXiTi8o^  ojioifcoq]  TO  Kepdu-iov  TTJI  dpoupai.  The 
temples  up  to  that  time  thus  paid  one  keramion  of  wine  per 
arura  of  vineland. 

The  Demotic  ostracon  D45,  published  and  translated  in 
Theban  Ostraca,  Univ.  of  Toronto  Libr.,  1913,  dating  back  to 
102  B.  C.,  is  another  document  which  shows  that  the  vine- 
yard tax  was  paid  in  kind.  "Herakleitos,  son  of  Aristippus, 
has  paid  for  the  rent  of  his  vineyard  in  the  cornland  of  Ophi, 
which  was  conveyed  before  Amonrasonther  the  great  god, 
together  with  his  wine  for  one  vineyard  two  (keramion  of) 

wine  for  his  vineyard  (and)  for  the (of)  the  produce 

half  a   (keramion    of)    wine,    making   2*/2    (keramia   of)   wine. 

They  are  received  by  reckoning (?).     Written  by son 

of  Khapokhonsis,   year  15  =  year  12,  Thoth(?)  day  25  etc."3. 

In  the  well  known  comparison,  the  prophet  Isaiah  speaks v 
of  the  laying  out  of  a  vineyard  (DID)  in  Palestine.  For  the  vine- 
culture  a  sloping  tract  of  ground  was  selected 4.  Care  was 
taken  to  rid  the  ground  from  the  superabundance  of  stones 5. 
This  was  a  task  which  the  Hebrews  could  undertake  to  do 
even  during  the  Sabbatical  year6.  According  to  Pliny7  the  / 


ii  See  Wilcken,  o.  c.,  pp.  150  and  151.  2)  Petr.  Pap.  II.  13,  17. 

3)  I  follow  the  translation  of  Thompson,  but  change  the  word  "garden" 
to  "vineyard".     Km  has  both  meanings. 

4)  Is.  5,  i;  Jer.  31,  5;  Amos  9,  13;  Jo.  4,  18;  Ps.  80,  n  etc. 

5)  Mishna,  I,  6;  Is.  5,  2  (b|3O).  6)  Mishna,  Shev. 

7)  Hist,  nat.,  XVII,  35.     The   wine   gained  from  low  growing  vines  was 
superior  to  that  gained  from  vines  trained  on  espaliers. 


52  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Palestinians  cultivated  on  the  mountain  slopes  generally  a  low 
growing  vine.  Vineyards  were,  however,  also  planted  on  low- 
land (!"#p3,  plain),  for  instance,  in  the  plain  of  Yisreel1,  the 
plain  of  Sharon2  and  probably  also  in  the  Negeb3.  The  vine- 
yards were  surrounded  with  hedges4,  or  walls,  sometimes  pro- 
bably with  both5,  in  order  to  protect  them  against  the  wild 
animals  6  and  the  pasturing  cattle  I  Sometimes  vineyards  were 
simply  surrounded  with  thorns,  cf.  Jesus  Sirach,  28,  24a  ,,Thou 
fencest  in  thy  vineyard  with  thorns".  In  the  vineyard  either 
simple  huts8,  or  watchtowers9  were  erected.  The  latter  con- 
sisted of  a  square  building  of  solid  masonry.  The  tower  some- 
times reached  a  considerable  size,  rising  to  the  height  of  forty 
feet.  The  top-story  contained  several  apartments,  with  suffi- 
cient windows.  These  towers,  called  pyrgos10  (D*»b"3MS),  often 
contained  on  the  ground  floor  a  stable  and  the  wine-press. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  tower  had  also  a  small  door  and 
a  few  narrow  windows  at  a  considerable  height  from  the 
ground.  The  pyrgos  was  used  as  a  dwelling  place  of  the 
vinedressers11,  or  the  guardians  of  the  vineyard12.  Great  care 
was  taken  to  weed  the  ground13.  According  to  the  experience 
of  the  Hebrews  it  was  harmful  to  the  culture  of  vines  to 
sow  other  plants  between  the  vines  and  this  was  legally  for- 
bidden14, although  it  was  the  custom  of  antiquity  K).  In  Rab- 
binic time,  however,  it  was  permissible  to  raise  other  crops 
between  the  rows(McOrla  3,  8  p-p  Jhttt  DID).  While  Pliny  testifies 
to  the  culture  of  low  growing  vines,  the  Hebrews  certainly  knew 
also  of  the  practise  of  training  the  vines  to  wooden  poles, 
trellis  work  of  cane-reed  and  to  trees10.  They  often  propped 

i)  Jdg.  9,  27;  I.  Kings  21,  I  ft".  2)  According  to  the  Talmud. 

3)  See  Palmer,    Wuslemvanderung  Israels,  pp.  271  ff.,  283,  286,  and  289. 

4)  rt3J|iZJa.  5)  Is.  5,  2.  5;   17,  ii.  6)  Ps.  80,  14;  Cant.  2,  15. 

7)  Is.  7,  25;  Jer.  12,  10.     Cf.  also  Sir.  36,  30    "without   a  hedge  the  vine- 
yard is  being  fed  off",  D"C  "iS1!^  1*1*1:   "p&Q. 

8)  Is.  i,  8.          9)  Is.  5,  2. 

10)  Matth.  21,  33;  Mark.  12,  i.  n)  2.  Chron.  26,  10. 

12)  Job  27,  18;  Cant,  i,  6;  8,  11  ff. 

13)  *ns  Is.  5,  6;  the  weeding  hoe,  Tasa  Is.  7,  25. 

14)  Deut.  22,  9.  15)  Pliny,  h.  n.,  XVII,  21. 

1 6)  Mishna,    Kilaim,   Bava-Bathra  and  Bava-mezia.    —    The  fruit  of  the 
low   growing   vine   matures   earlier   than    that   of  the   trained   vines.     But   the 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      63 

the  poles  with  long  sticks  and  drew  them  together,  binding 
them  with  willows  *.  Generally  cane-reeds,  but  sometimes  also 
more  expensive  wooden  staves  ("plpl!  i.  e.,  SoKcxpiov),  which 
were  pointed  below  and  notched  above,  were  used  for  espa- 
liers. The  vinestalks,  that  were  raised  on  espaliers,  stood  in 
straight,  sometimes  also  quadratic  rows.  In  order  to  get 
a  straight  line,  a  cord  (tain)  was  stretched  alongside  the 
vines  and  the  branches  were  entwined  on  the  stalks  and  the 
cord.  The  vineyard  was  plowed  two  to  three  times  a  year, 
or  worked  with  the  hoe2.  The  foliage  was  carefully  pruned 
and  the  superfluous  shoots  broken  offa.  The  vines  were 
often  multiplied  by  means  of  props4,  but  the  Hebrews 
must  certainly  have  known  also  the  way  to  propagate  the 
vines  by  means  of  shoots.  Only  the  latter  practise  would 
explain  the  acquittal  from  military  service,  which  would 
have  taken  on  too  great  proportions,  if  such  acquittal  had 
been  given  to  every  one  who  had  made  some  props  or 
who  had  made  a  layer,  in  order  to  replenish  the  gaps  caused 
by  the  withering  of  the  old  vinestalks.  It  seems  clear, 
that  this  acquittal  could  only  be  granted  to  those,  who 
actually  had  planted  a  new  vineyard,  for  which  they,  of  course, 
needed  shoots 5.  In  some  instances  vineyards  were  attached 
to  the  houses  of  a  city  or  village.  These  vineyards  were 
greatly  prized  as  being  accessible  and  enjoyable  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year6.  Those  vineyards  which  lay  a  considerable 
distance  off  from  the  villages,  contained  not  infrequently 
a  summer  cottage  for  their  owners.  The  family  would  com- 
mence to  occupy  it  in  spring,  at  the  time  of  the  digging  of 
the  vineyards  and  again  later  at  the  time  of  the  vintage.  The 
custom  of  remaining  throughout  the  summer  season  in  these 
cottages  also  prevailed 7.  The  cutting  of  the  vines  was  for- 


climbing    vines    produce    a    much    larger    fruit,    which   also  keeps  longer  on 
account  of  the  thicker  skin, 

i)  Mishna,  Kilaim.  2}  Is.  5,  6. 

3)  Is.  2,  4;  5,  6;   18,  5;  Mi.  4,  3.  4)  Mishna,  Kilaim. 

5)  The  fact,   that  he  who  planted  a  new  vineyard,   should  be  free  from 
military  service  until  its  dedication ,  which  occured  possibly  at  the  fourth  year 
(Deut.  jo,  6),  shows  the  high  estimation  of  the  Hebrews  for  the  culture  of  vine. 

6)  I.  Kings  ai,  i.  7)  Amos  3,  15. 


64  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

bidden  in  the  seventh  year,  but  the  cleaning  out  of  the  vine- 
branches  was  permitted  *.  This  was  really  a  piece  of  bad 
legislation,  because  the  vinestalks  exhausted  themselves  by 
over-production  and  they  were  much  harder  to  cut  in  the 
following  year. 

The  preferred  kind  of  grape  seems  to  have  been  the  dark 
blue  grape,  which  furnished  a  dark  red  wine.  This  is  indicated 
by  the  designation  of  "blood  of  the  grape"  (njirtn,  E"OD2  Q1!)2 
for  the  grape-juice.  Another  indication  that  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  cultivated  particularly  the  red  or  dark  blue  grape  vines 
is  the  name  pi®3  or  «"J£"V04  for  a  special  wine,  which  undoubtedly 
received  its  name  from  its  red  grapes.  Later,  however,  the 
cultivation  of  the  white  grapes  superseded  that  of  the  red  and 
dark  blue  grapes.  At  what  time  this  change  took  place  is  hard 
to  tell  but  with  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  export  of 
Palestinian  wines  was  that  of  white  wines.  In  the  vicinity  of 
Jerusalem,  of  the  two  kind  of  Tabuke-v'mzs,  the  one  bears  white 
grapes,  the  other  dark  blue  grapes,  Only  the  latter,  together 
with  the  white  Dskenda/e-grape,  are  used  for  the  making  of 
wine,  while  the  white  Tabuke  grape  is  eaten5. 

The  vintage  (ISD,  T2D,  ft-pSD)  was  a  time  of  great  rejoicing6, 
as  in  all  wine-growing  countries.  But  this  festive,  joyful  mood 
is  much  greater  in  the  Orient  than  in  Europe,  where  early  frosts 
often  disturb  this  joy.  In  the  Orient  after  the  blazing  summer 
heat  generally  follow  beautiful  days,  which  greatly  help  to  make 
the  time  of  the  vintage  the  most  favored  season  of  the  year. 
The  inhabitants  of  Shilo  celebrated  at  the  end  of  each  year 
(B^n  nsnpnb  I.  Sam.  1,  20)  the  hag  Yahveh,  JlW  Ml,  which 
was  the  old  festival  of  the  gathering  of  grapes  and  olives.  It 
developed  later  into  a  general  harvest  festival,  the  CpOfctfl  ^ 
at  which  the  young  girls  used  to  perform  dances.  This  festi- 
val of  Shilo  was  not  merely  of  a  local  character,  but  accord - 


1)  Lev.  25,  5. 

2)  Gen.  49,  n;   Dt.  32,  14;   comp.  Gen.  49,  12;   Is.  63,  2ff.;   Prov.  23,  31 ; 
Sir. -50,  15;  I.  Mace.  6,  34;  Matth.  26,  27  ff.;  Apoc.  14,  19  ff. 

3)  Is.  5,  2;  Jer.  2,  21.  4)  Gen.  49,  11. 

5)  Anderlind,    Die  Rebe  in   Syrien,    insbesondtre  Pahstina,    ZDPV,   XI, 
p.  161. 

6)  Judg.  9,  27;  Is.  16,  10 ;  Jer.  25,  30;  48,  33. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      65 

ing  to  I.  Sam.  1  people  attended  it  from  far  and  near.  The 
time  of  the  grape  harvest  is  in  the  month  of  September 
and  part  of  October.  Burchard  of  Mount  Sion  (1280  A.  D.) l 
informs  us  of  the  marvellous  vintage  in  Antaradus  thus:  "But 
I  have  seen  a  wondrous  thing  at  Antaradus,  for  there  the 
natives  told  me  that  from  one  and  the  same  vine  grapes  are 
gathered  thrice  in  a  year,  in  the  following  manner.  In  spring- 
time the  vine-dressers  see  when  the  vine  has  formed  as  many, 
bunches  of  grapes  as  each  vine  and  each  branch  usually  does; 
then  they  straightway  cut  off  all  that  remains  of  the  branch 
beyond  those  bunches,  and  throw  it  away.  This  is  done  in 
March.  In  April  a  new  branch  sprouts  from  it  with  new 
bunches  of  grapes.  When  they  see  this  they  again  cut  off 
all  of  the  branch  that  reaches  beyond  these  bunches  of  grapes 
In  May  the  trunk  puts  forth  a  third  branch,  with  its  bunches 
of  grapes,  and  thus  they  have  three  sets  of  grapes,  which  all 
grow  alike;  but  those  which  budded  in  March  are  gathered 
in  August,  those  which  budded  in  April  are  gathered  in  Sep- 
tember, and  those  which  budded  in  May  are  gathered  in 
October.  Thus  they  have  three  vintages  in  one  year". 

The  eating  grapes,  however,  are  gathered  somewhat  ear- 
lier, commencing  with  August.  At  some  places  as  for  instance 
at  the  sea  of  Tiberias  and  at  Ror  the  grapes  commence  to 
ripen  even  as  early  as  June.  After  the  vintage  the  old  Ca- 
naanitish  inhabitants  of  Palestine  used  to  celebrate  their  fall- 
festival2,  which  was  their  New  Year  festival.  Every  stranger 
was  allowed  to  eat  grapes  until  satiated  in  the  vineyards,  but 
he  was  not  permitted  to  take  any  grapes  along  on  his  jour- 
ney3. The  vineyard  owner,  on  the  other  hand,  was  not  per- 
mitted to  clean  and  pick  up  the  grapes  that  had  fallen  to 
the  ground.  These  had  to  remain  to  be  gathered  by  the 


1)  See  Pal.  Pilgr.  T.  S.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  89  ff. 

2)  So  the  Canaanitish  inhabitants  of  Sichem,  Judg.  9,  27. 

3)  Dent.  23,  25.   —   According  to  Jos.  Ant.  jud.  4,  8   an  old  custom  was 
to  offer  grapes  to  the  passing  traveler.     This  generosity  later  ceased  on  account 
of  the  great  number  of   travelers.     Also  the  state  fiscus  claimed  a  large  part 
of  the  produce  of  the  vineyards  in  later  times,  which  naturally  tended  to  curb 
the  old-time  liberality. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  5 


66  Liitz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

poor1.  The  vine-dresser  (n±lD)  cut  the  grapes  (ppy)with  a  special 
knife  (DVWa),  as  was  the  custom  in  Egypt.  In  order  to  pro- 
tect the  grapes  from  falling  to  the  ground  during  the  time  of 
the  vintage,  large  baskets  (ftbDbD)  were  placed  below  the  vine- 
stalks.  The  grapes,  which  were  not  used  for  the  making  of 
wine,  but  were  used  as  raisins,  seem  not  to  have  been  strip- 
ped by  the  Hebrews  from  the  stems,  but  were  dried  in  the 
bunch,  as  is  the  present  custom  in  the  district  of  Malaga  in 
Spain2.  The  grapes;  which  were  sold  as  eating-grapes  on  the 
market  (pltDb  1SD)  were  generally  of  the  white  color. 

The  grapes  were  carried  to  the  winepress  in  baskets, 
called  Kdpiakoq  in  the  Septuagint  (Hebrew  D^o,  NH  "pbo)  or 
in  vats  (niDIp).  The  winepress  (gath,  na),  was  situated  in  the 
vineyard.  It  was  sometimes  covered  by  a  roof3,  The  con- 
siderable size  of  some  presses  can  be  gathered  from  the  fact 
that  Gideon  was  able  to  use  it  as  a  threshing  floor,  in  order 
to  conceal  his  wheat  from  the  marauding  Midianites.  The 
winepress  consisted  of  two,  and  sometimes  three  or  four,  vats 
which  were  cut  into  the  rock  of  the  mountain.  The  vats  were 
either  round  or  angular,  or  the  pressing  vat  (piira,  rrfiS,  ^qvoc;, 
acus  vinarius,  or  more  specifically  wbyn  D3,  jrpoXfjviov) 
was  angular  and  the  lower  vat  (yeqeb,  agi,  NH  mannnfi  na, 
or  T,D,  ujroXfjviov)  round.  The  winepress  near  cArtuf4  shows 
the  pur  a  in  angular  form,  with  two  yeqebs  also  angular, 
but  a  fourth  and  lowest  vat  had  a  round  form.  The  press- 
vat  reached  a  diameter  of  up  to  four  meters.  The  winepress 
at  Tell  el-Hessy5  exhibits  mud- walls,  while  its  flooring  is 
cemented  and  sloping  slightly  to  a  hollowed  stone,  which  was 
placed  in  the  cement.  Prior  to  pressing,  the  piira  and  the 
yeqeb  were  carefully  washed  and  cleansed.  In  Rabbinic  times 
the  grapes  used  to  be  pressed  by  men  (ZYDTTi)  hired  especially 
for  this  work.  In  the  pur  a  the  grapes  were  trodden  with  the 


1)  Num.  19,  10.     Cf.  also  Sir.  36,  i6a  and  30,  25  (Smend,   Die   Weisheit 
des  Jesus  Sirach,    Berlin,    1906)  "And  I   have   come   as    one   who   had  tarried 
ong,  like  one  who  gleaneth  behind   the  gatherers  of  grapes". 

2)  I,  Sam.  25,  18;  30,  12;  II.  Sam.  16,  i ;  I.  Chron.  12,  40. 

3)  Judg.  6,  n, 

4)  Schick,  ^Artttf  und  seine  Umgebung,  ZDPV,  X  (1887),  pp.  146  ff. 

5)  Bliss,  A  Mound,  p.  69.    This  winepress  belongs  to  the  Xlllth  cent  B, 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  ot"  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      67 


feet  (darak,  •p'n  or  -|±£)  l,  which  was  the  more  general  custom, 
or  by  .means  of  laying  heavy  stones  on  the  grapes,  or  finally, 
by  means  of  levers.  The  pressed  wine  flowed  from  the  pura 
into  the  yeqeb,  which  was  connected  with  the  pura  by  a 
channel  (TlDS)).  Whenever  desired,  this  channel  could  be 
stopped  up  (pp&)  in  order  to  get  a  closed  vat  called  ffl 
npipfe.  Wherever  there  were  more  wine-vats,  the  first  ser- 
ved the  purpose  of  letting  the  pressed  wine  settle  the  lees2, 
and  then  the  clarified  juice  was  allowed  to  run  into  a  second 
vat.  The  grape-juice  was  then  poured  into  jars3,  or  into 
skins  4.  It  was  allowed  to  ferment  in  them,  which  commenced 
within  six  to  twelve  hours.  It  was  also  laid  for  some  time 
on  yeast.  Then  the  new  wine  was  poured  into  other  jars  or 
skins.  The  wine  at  that  stage  was  called  "yeast-wine"5. 
According  to  Luke,  5,  39  by  this  procedure  the  wine  grew 
milder.  Sometimes  they  waited  until  the  next  year,  when  the 
second  fermentation  set  in,  in  order  'to  transfuse  it  into  other 
jars  or  skins.  The  wine  was  filtered  before  being  used  (D"nip1p 
D^pj^Tl?)6.  A  piece  of  cloth,  or  willow-work,  served  as  sieve. 
For  this  purpose  in  Rabbinic  times  a  certain  kind  of  siphon 
was  used  which  consisted  of  a  long  and  a  short  hollow  glass- 
tube.  They  were  put  together  at  an  oblique  angle,  while  a 
hole  was  permitting  communication  with  both.  One  end  of 
the  siphon  was  placed  into  the  full  wine-jar  and  the  s.econd 
into  the  vessel  or  wine-skin  into  which  the  wine  was  desired 
to  flow.  The  wine  was  drawn  (nb^H)  from  one  vessel  into 
the  other  with  the  mouth  being  placed  at  the  hole  of  the 
bend.  This  kind  of  siphon  seems  to  be  identical  with  the 

1)  Is.  1  6,  10  ;  63,  2;  Jer.  25,  30;  48,  33. 

2)  In  Talmudic  times,  and   probably   much   earlier,    the   skins   and  the 
grape-  seeds,    which   remained  at  the  bottom  of  the  vat  were  formed  by  hand 
into  loaves  or  balls.     According  to  their  form  they  were  eithet  called  "bread" 
(Dfib)  or  "apple"  (men).     These  were  placed  into  pits  (ni^BlA)  and  covered 
with  boards,  on  which  were  placed  heavy  clay-rollers  ("pVttS),  which  had  the 
form    of  a    mill-stone.     The    pressing-beam    (Jimp)   finally   was  lowered  and 
pressed  against  the  boards,  causing  the  juice  that  remained  in  the  lees  to  flow 
forth.     See  Krauss,  S.,   Taltnudische  Archaologie,-^"3M&  II,  pi  235. 

3)  Jer   I3r  12  ff.,  48,  ii. 

4)  Jos.  9.  4-  13;  Job  32,  19;  Matth.  9,  17. 

5)  Jer.  48,  n  ;  Zeph.  i,  12;  Is.  25,  6.  6)  Is.  25,  6;  Jer.  48,  u. 

5* 


68  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

so-called  8ia(3r)Tr):;  of  the  Greeks.  A  more  simple  siphon  was 
called  "the  sucker"  (fem.)  (np^B).  The  task  of  transfusing 
the  wine  into  other  jars  was  called  ftBtt?.  The  vintner  was 
called  ^?fc. 

In  1909  the  German  expedition,  excavating  on  the  site 
of  ancient  Jericho,  disinterred  a  house  which  brought  to  light 
a  wine  cellar  of  the  Jewish  period.  This  cellar  was  situated 
in  the  Northern  corner.  Four  large  wine  amphoras  stood  side 
by  side  on  the  ground  towards  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
cellar-room.  Three  of  these  amphoras  were  well  preserved. 
On  top  of  two  of  these  amphoras  lay  a  large  two-handled  plate 
with  spout.  A  large  four-handled  amphora  was  found  broken 
in  pieces  before  the  north  wall.  Amphoras,  plates,  large  and 
small  jugs,  a  sieve  and  a  spindle- whorl  in  the  debris  were 
discovered.  They  hung  probably  to  the  wall  on  wooden 
plucks  or  were  placed  on  wall-boards,  according  to  Sellin, 
since  these  vases  were  found  somewhat  higher  in  the  debris. 
This  room  possessed  especially  strong  inner  walls.  It  was 
accessible  by  means  of  a  stairs,  which  led  down  to  the  cellar {, 
King  David  placed  special  overseers  over  his  wine  cellars 
Cn*«!J  tTnyitf)  '2-  When  the  wine  was  pressed  and  brought  to 
town,  in  order  to  be  put  into  the  cellar,  it  was  subject  to 
the  tax.  The  tax-gatherers  met  the  wine-pressers  at  their 
entrance  to  the  city-gate  and  levied  the  accustomed  tenth 
part3.  The  wine  was  stored  in  the  cellar  either  in  clay-bar- 
rels (t^Drt,  OWS  =  jriOcx;;  called  851  in  Syria  and  Babylonia) 
or  in  wine-skins  (115;  called  also  ma,  man,  535  and  »3p"n 
according  to  their  form),  or  finally  in  jars,  pointed  at  the  bot- 
tom, in  order  to  be  placed  into  the  ground.  These  pointed 
jars  seem  to  have  been  out  of  use  in  Talmudic  times.  The 
wine-skins  were  kept  closed  by  means  of  pieces  of  bone, 
which  were  wrapped  either  with  bast  or  papyrus,  or  were 
simply  tied  with  a  cord  (850^3).  The  clay-barrels  had  stop- 
pers of  clay,  lime,  pitch  or  gypsum,  but  sometimes  a  piece 
of  leather  or  cloth  or  papyrus  was  simply  placed  over  the 
mouth  of  the  cask.  As  soon  as  the  barrel  or  the  wine-jar 


i)  Sellin,  Jericho,  p.  77,  2)  I.  Chron.  27,  27. 

3)  I.  Sam.  8,  15. 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      (5g 

wa  s  closed,  it  was  sealed  and  the  name  of  the  owner  and  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  content  attached  in  writing. 

Babylonia  has  left  us  no   monuments,    which  would  illu- 
strate the  laying  out  of  their  vineyards  and  the  process    of 
making  grape-wine.     But  we  may  conjecture  that  in  the  low- 
land of  Babylonia  viticulture  was  essentially  the  same  as  in 
Egypt,   where  conditions  were  very  much  alike,   and  that  it 
differed  from  that  of  Syria  and  Palestine.    We  had  occasion   x 
to  refer  above  to  the  vineyard   planted   by   Gudea,   and   we 
found  that  this  vineyard  was  planted  on  an  artificially  raised 
plot  of  ground.     This  practise,    probably,   prevailed  all  over 
Babylonia.    Vine,    however,   was  never   extensively  cultivated 
in  that  country  and  the  documents  refer  comparatively  seldom 
to  wine,    while  they  mention  very  often  fruit-wines,   such  as 
date- wine,   and  particularly  a  multitude  of  different  kinds  of 
beer.     It   is   strange,   however,    that   at   the  earlier  stages  of 
Babylonian  history,  we  never  hear  of  "beer-houses",   but  that 
the  Code  of  Hammurabi,    for  instance,   refers  only  to  wine- 
shops.   We  will  have  occasion  in  Chapter  Four,  to  enter  into 
a  detailed  account  of  that  part  of  Babylonian  legislation,  which 
deals   with   the   wineshops.     Contrary   to    Babylonia,   Assyria 
cultivated  the  vine  very  extensively,  in  the  vicinity  of  Nineveh 
as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  land,  since  the  vineplant  grows 
well  in  many  districts  of  Assyria.     The  Assyrian  monuments 
represent  the  vines  very  realistically  and  with  a  great  deal  of  truth 
(see  Illustrations  Nos.  1 3  and  14).  In  the  Assyrian  documents  there 
is  mention  of  an  officer  called  rab  karani.     This  title  represents 
the  "Chief  winemaster",  and  the  office  may  refer  to  a  state  posi- 
tion as  well  as  to  a  position  held  in  the  service  of  some  large 
temple.    Tablet  K.  342  a  und  b  1  is  important  for  our  present 
investigation,  since  it  mentions  not  only  the  chief  winemaster, 
but  also  his  assistant  called  am*lusanu,  i.  e.,  the  second  (wine- 
master).     The  text,  moreover,  deals  with  a  transaction,  in  which 


l)  (i)  kunuk  m.Zeru-u-ti  rab  karani  (2)  kunuk  m.  ar^uUlula-a-a  am£lu|anuu 
(3)  9  mane  15  §ikil  kaspu  (4)  ina  i  mane  3a  aiu  Gar-ga-mis"  (5)  gi-nu-u  3a 
Agursur  (6)  §a  m.As'ursur-re'gu-i-s'i  (7)  ina  pan  m.Zeru-ti  rab  karani  biti  eSSi 
(8)  ina  pan  m.  arfcuUlula-a-a  am^luganu"  (9)  arfcuSimanu  umu  i6-kam  (10)  lim- 
mu  m.ga-iluNabu-§ti-u  am£Jure§u(?)  etc.  The  text  is  translated  in  Kohler  and 
Ungnad,  Assyr.  Rechtsurkunden. 


70 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


money  is  paid  in  order  to  obtain  wine  for  sacrifical  purposes. 
Amongst  the  witnesses  two  are  of  special  interest,  namely 
Marduk-ibni,  the  a"<*l«$aku,  that  is  the  "beer-house  keeper", 
and  Mutakkil-Ashur,  the  sim -\-gar,  that  is,  the  brewer.  The 


No.  13.    Bas-relief  of  Nimrud   (Calah)    in    the   British  Museum    (after   Lenor- 
mant,  Fr.,  Histoire  ancienne  de  I'Orienf). 

tablet  reads:  "Seal  of  Zeruti,  the  chief  winemaster,  seal  of 
Ulula,  the  second  (i.  e.,  the  assistant  winemaster).  Nine  minas, 
fifteen  shekels  of  silver,  according  to  the  mina  of  Carchemisb, 
sacrificial  offering  of  the  god  Ashur,  belonging  to  Ashur- 
reshu-ishi,  at  the  disposition  of  Zeruti,  the  chief  winemaster 


The  Vineyard,  the  Vintage,  and  the  Making  of  Wine  in  the  Ancient  Orient.      j\ 

of  the  New  House  (and)  at  the  disposition  of  Ulula,  the  second 
(winemaster).  The  l6th  day  of  Sivan,  in  the  eponymate  of 
Sha-Nabu-shu,  the  chief-officer  etc." 

The  pressman  was   called  siratu.     He  not  only   pressed 
the  wine  and  filled  it  into  kegs  or  wine-skins,    but  also  retai- 


No.  14.      Climbing  vine  of  a  bas-relief  in  the  palace  of  Sennacherib  at  Kuyunjik 
(after  Lenormant,  Fr.,  Histoire  ancienne  de  1'Orient). 

led  it.  In  CTXXII  38,9  a  Neo-Babylonian  temple-official  informs 
his  master,  a  priest  of  Sippar,  that  "the  wine  has  been  pressed 
in  my  presence".  The  manufacturer  of  spiced  wines,  accord- 
ing to  Oriental  custom,  was  at  the  same  time  a  perfumer  (see 
Meissner,  Babylonien  und  Assyrien,  p.  242). 


Chapter  Three 

The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient 

Peoples  in  all  ages  and  climates  have  prepared  naturally 
fermented  beverages  from  any  available  material.  The  state- 
ment of  Pliny 1  "if  any  one  will  take  the  trouble  duly  ,to  con- 
sider the  matter,  he  will  find  that  upon  no  one  subject  is  the 
industry  of  man  kept  more  constantly  on  the  alert  than  upon 
the  making  of  wine",  can  be  augmented  by  the  addition  "and 
of  beer".  The  brewing  industry  in  its  beginnings  in  historic 
times  was  a  home  industry  like  that  of  baking  bread.  Indeed 
the  work  of  the  baker  and  that  of  the  brewer  was  very  much 
alike  in  the  initial  stages  of  brewing.  The  earliest  Egyptian 
texts  enumerate  quite  a  number  of  different  beers.  One  of  the 

oldest  generic  terms  for  beer  seems  to  be  Sfhpet,    I  n  .     Shpt- 

\  c± 

beer  Pyr. Texts  W  143  a;  Tli4a;  N451  a;  Beni  Hasan  I,  pi.  17  etc. 
On  the  stele  of  Khabiousokari  in  the  Museum  of  Cairo  a  certain 

beer  is  called  hn- ',  ^^  ~  .  In  the  pyramid-texts  we  meet  with 
a  "dark  beer",  an  "iron  beer"  and  the  7^-beer,  i.  e.t  "garnished 
beer" 2.  The  pyramid-texts  furth  er  mention  the  /$-beer,  ^ , 
(W  I44a;  T  115  a;  N  452  a,  which  is  probably  the  same  as  the 
/$J-beer,  S"^,,  *n  Beni  Hasan  I,  pi.  17),  the  0  t\  -beer 

(W  141  a;  T  H2a;  N  44Qa)  and  the  beer  of  Nubia,  hk.t 
ty,  \  A  \  (W  145  a;  T  ll6a;  N  453  a).  Under  the 

A  d  u 
rubrique  sfhpet,    "beer",    are   also    mentioned   very   early  the 

1)  Pliny,  XIV,  22. 

2)  See  Unas  46,  53,  54,  55. 


The  beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


beverages  ££QJ  /wvwv  (probably  identical  with  the  beverage  cal-. 

/WWVA 

led  LM^\  tx^f^land//^,  ^    %.    The  former  only  is  found 

==*    >¥^,H^S  II  —A-~JI 

again  by  Hathorneferhotep  in  the  same  category,  but  there 
it  is  again  mentioned  under  the  heading  of  hw.t,  8  ji>^  and 
of  nms.t,  f)  t\~\  A  fl^.  Probably  these  latter  two  names  refer 

cLI  _c!r^      Y  tU 

also   to  certain  kinds  of  beer1.     Nms.t  may  possibly  be  con- 

nected with  the  name  for  cellar,  nmw,    f\  f\     \\  !V"    ,  as  the 

^  Jo^  -!L  \\  \ 

designation  of  a  beverage,  which  was  kept  in  the  cellar.  In 
the  Egyptian  bazaar-scene3,  dating  back  to  the  fifth  dynasty, 
the  second  row  shows  a  woman  offering  for  sale  a  beverage, 

which  bears  the  name  nmst,  /WWVA  (Ibv    Ms  —  >,  to  a  man,  who 

^1  Ji^  I 

kneels  before  a  parfume  vase.  The  woman  is  saying  to  him  . 
"It  is  »;/*.&  that  satisfies  thee",  ^^  (Ilk  n£=~^%4<cr>c^= 

^d^^fcl  1/J&  JJL  ^-  __  *  ' 

The  liquor  is  contained  in  two  white  bowls,  which  she 
extends  towards  the  prospective  buyer.  This  market-scene 
is  of  interest,  since  it  shows  that  even  at  that  early  time 
liquors  were  sold  by  women  in  public  places.  In  Diimichen, 
Kal.  Inschr.,  46,  1  appears  a  certain  kind  of  beer  ,  called 

"friends-beer"     or,     "beer    of    the     protector"     §  *  ^  ®  (I  H 

A  o  1  1  1        vl  I  . 


Beni  Hasan  I,  pi.  17),  ftk.t  hnms,   which  was  probably  an  old 
beer,    or  lager-beer.     Sweet  beer  is  mentioned,   f.  i.,   in  Med, 


1)  Weil,   Raymond,   Des  monuments   et  de  I'histoirc  des  He  et  III*  dyn. 
egypt.,  Paris,   1908,  pp.  249  and  253. 

2)  The  nmw   is   a  cellar  in  which   any  kind  of  beverages  were  stored* 

^ Q  O  £   T 

The  beer -cellar  proper  was  called  Q        U,  Journ.  Asiat.,  1867,  p.  449. 

^n  X^lr 

3)  LD  II,  96  and  Maspero,  Bibliotheque  Egyplologique,  VIII,  (1900)  plate 
facing  p.  256.     On  the  element  jig      •*  =  beverage,  see  above,  p.  79,  n.  i. 

4)  Mistake  for /to,   []  "v\. 


•7 A  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Papyr.  Berlin,  1 3,  2,  3  A  O  ?  f\    Jj   hk  .t  ndm.     A    fermented 

/x  d         A  -WvV  U 

liquors  appears  in  Papyrus  Ebers  under  the  name 


,  ^ 


Ox  II   i  n  ™W*M 
v  ......  —        74.  2),  m  I  l(L  -  and  Pap.  med.  Berl.  7,  3 

I  I  I   I        U      I  /VWAA 

*V\      ,M  (or  \Ir),  which  is  nritttt.     In  the  Panammu-inscription 

_M^     1  1  1 

1.  6  iTCJE  is  a  special  beverage,  while  XtilO  is  the  general  word 
for  "drink,  beverage",  Hadad  9.     For  a  reference  to  the  beve- 

rage called  thviw,   C±3^K  (1  ^  Q  see  Budge,  ^^  ^/"//^  Dead, 

P-  3^7,  3  and  382,  5.     The  latter  passage  reads:  ,,The  beautiful 
West-land,    in  which  the  gods  live  upon  cake  and  ^fe 


The  following  five  beverages,  whose  names  we  register,    may 
either    denote    certain    kinds   of    beer   or   wine;    hbt,    S  Jrv» 

O 


f 


The  commonest  beer  was  prepared  irom  barley,  of  which 
grain  two  kinds  have  been  found  in  Egypt,  the  hordeum 
hexastichum  L.  and  the  hordeum  tetrastichum  Kche.  The 
former  was  the  most  common  grain  in  Egypt1.  The  barley 

beer  of  Egypt,  hk.t,  fi      O>  was  called  'C.uOo;  or  ';uro;  by  the 
A  o 

Classical  writers.  This  name  j^OOo;  is  found  for  the  first  time 
in  Theophrastos2,  who  reckons  it  to  those  beverages,  which 
were  prepared,  like  those  made  of  barley  and  wheat,  of  rotting 
fruits.  Herodotus  states  3  oivcp  8e  BK  Kpi^ecov  jrcn:oti]p.evcp  8ta- 
Xpecovrat  "they  use  wine  made  of  barley".  Athenaeus,  on  the 
authority  of  Hecataeus,  mentions  the  fact  "that  the  Egyptians 
were  great  bread-eaters,  eating  loaves  of  rye,  called  KiAArj- 

1)  Sclnveinfurth,  in  Wissenschattl.  Veroffentl.  der  deutschen  Orientgesell- 
schaft,  VIII,  p.  153.     See   also  Unger,    Sit/.ungsber.  d.  Wiener  Akad.,    math.- 
nat.  Kla^se  54'!,  p  41. 

2)  Theophr.,  de  c.  pi.,  VI,   n,  2. 

3)  Herod.  II,  77;    see  also  Diod.  I,  34;    Strabo,  XVII;    Pliny  XXII,  25  , 
Athen.,  X. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


75 


;,  and  bruising  barley  to  extract  a  drink  from  it1.  The 
name  £ox)oc;  or  £,UToq  is  not  Egyptian.  It  is  derived  fro  m  the 
verb  £eco,  an  old  Greek  word,  as  old  as  Homer  and  Hesiod. 
£eo>  means  "to  boil",  "to  foam"  and  the  Greeks  applied  it  to 
the  beer,  which  they  learned  from  Egypt.  £0x)oc;  goes  back 
to  the  same  verb  ^eco  as  goes  the  word  ^6|J.r),  "leaven,  yeast". 
According  to  Diodorus2  the  j^u^oc;  was  considered  an  inven- 
tion of  Dionysos,  while  according  to  the  same  writer3  Osiris 
made  it  known  in  those  countries  where  the  wine  does  not 
grow.  The  beer  constituted  an  indispensable  beverage  in  those 
parts  of  Egypt,  in  which  the  vine  did  not  grow.  It  was  the 
drink  of  the  peasant,  the  shepherd,  the  sailor  and  the  fisher- 
man. It  is  stated4  that  it  was  nearly  as  good  as  wine,  but 
the  Greeks  despised  the  Egyptians,  who  drank  a  beverage 
which  was  prepared  from  barley5.  Dioskorides  taught  that 
zythos  causes  urination,  affects  the  kidneys  and  the  nerves, 
endangers  the  brain  membrane,  causes  bloating,  bad  phlegms 
and  elephantiasis.  Since  the  zythos  was  a  product  of  decayed 
materials  it  caused  bad  phlegms6.  The  best  that  is  said  about 
it  by  the  Classical  writers  refers  not  to  its  use  as  a  beverage, 
but  to  its  property  of  softening  ivory,  which  made  it  possible 
to  bend  the  ivory  into  any  desired  form.  This  property  of 
the  zythos  was  due  to  its  element  of  acid.  Since  hops  were 
unknown  to  the  Egyptians  as  well  as  to  all  the  ancient  Oriental 
peoples,  they  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  other  plants, 
in  order  to  improve  the  taste  of  the  beer  and  to  keep  it  for 
*a  longer  period  of  time.  The  lupin  (lupinus  termis  Forskal; 
Arabic  termus],  the  skirret  (siser',  the  slum  sis  arum  L.)  and 
the  root  of  an  Assyrian  plant  were  used  by  them  for  that 
purpose7.  In  Hellenistic  times  Egyptian  beer  was  imported 


i)  Athen.,  B  X,   13.  2}  Diod.  IV,  2. 

3)  Diod.  I,  20.  4)  Diod.  I,  20.  5)  Aesch.  Hik.,  953. 

6)  Orib.  XV,  i,  6,  6.    Gal.  Act.     The  Greeks  also  considered,  strangely, 
the  barley  beer  as  being  the  direct  cause  of  leprosy. 

7)  Columella,  de  cultu  hort.,  X,  114 — 116:  "iam  siser ,  Assyrioque  venit  quae 
semine   radix    sectaque   praebet-ur    madido    satiata    lupino  ut  Pelusiaci  proritet 
poctda    zythi".     This    passage  is,    however,    understood  by   some  scholars   in 
suite   a   different  way.     They   say   that   it  refers  to  the  previous  eating  of  ra- 
dishes and  lupins,  in  order  that  they  should  arouse  the  appetite  for  drinking; 


76  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

into  Palestine,  probably  from  Pelusium,  which  seems  to  have 
been  the  most  noted  city  for  its  beers  in  Egypt.  Pelusian  beer 
was  also  exported  to  Rome 1. 

The  Egyptian  word  for  "brewing  beer"  is  V//,         fl  ^  ^2 
The  name  for  the  brewer  is  '/#/,  "MH"^  (Leiden,  Stele  V,  6) 
v^>  (Louvre,  Stele  C,  196)  and  JK^,  g^(  Aeg.  £1897,  p.  133)  3 
or  also  ""        ~,MjM^l,    "those  who  crush  the  grain  for  beer". 

/-^  ^3  jy      r\  Nl      ' 

The  brewery,  which  was  a  special  part  of  the  kitchen,  is  called  "the 
pure",  /J  r^,4.  Beer,  according  to  the  Egyptian  texts,  is 
either  prepared  from  barley,  it,  n  ,  Coptic  FIODT,  of  which 

1  CCO  ' 

three  kinds  were  distinguished :  the  white,  black  and  red  barley 
or  of  spelt,  bd.t,  Jje  ^y»  Coptic  BO)TF.  Barley  beer  was 
the  most  common  beverage,  the  national  drink  of  Egypt. 
Besides  the  name  it,  n  ,  the  texts  mention  another  name  for 

it,  which  is  a  Canaanitish  loanword,  srt,  <=>  .."^,  Hebrew 

£^      • 


de  Sacy,  Chrest.  Arab.  I,  p.  179:  "Dans  ces  vers  .  .  .  .  je  n'apercois  autre  chose 
que  la  couturae  ou  Ton  etoit  de  servir  a  table  du  chervi  et  de  la  racine  dont 
parle  1'auteur,  maceree  dans  des  lupins  en  fermentation,  pour  exciter  les  con- 
vives a  boire  de  la  biere."  Cf.  Hor.  sat.  II,  8,  8;  Diosc.  II,  152  and  Pliny 
XXII,  155.  This  may,  after  all,  be  more  correct,  since  we  should  expect 
otherwise  a  similar  practise  in  Babylonia,  where  we  do  not  find  bitterplants 
added  to  the  beer.  —  See  also  Sprengel,  Versuch  einer  pragmatischen  Geschichte 
der  Arzncikttnde  I,  p.  75. 

1)  See  Col.  Econ.  X,  4,  114. 

2)  Aeg.  Z.  42,  p.  27,  Gardiner,  Hymns  to  Amon  from  a  Leiden  Papyrw. 
..       n  (c) 


r~^  i  /WWVA  o          ^    •    "beer  is  brewed  for  him  on 
C9  X^j     O 

the  day  of  festival".    "  Mj   Amherst  Pap.  34. 

3)  See  Aeg.  Z.  1896,  p.  161;  see  also  Newberry,  Bent-Hasan  I,  pi.  29 
==*  L.  D.,  II,  126.  For  a  reference  to  a  female  brewer,  *y^  _  ^n  \  \  Jl) ,  see 
Aeg.  Z.  1897,  p.  123. 


4)  Pap.  Anast.  4,  16,  3  =~  Pap.  Anast.  3,  8,  5. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


77 


Syriac  \i-r±ul.  It  is  probable  that  whenever  this  latter  word 
is  used,  it  refers  to  an  imported  kind  of  barley,  which  came 
from  Syria,  according  to  Pap.  Harris  I2. 

The  word  hkt,  \  A  Q,  is  most  likely  derived  from  the  root 
A  ^ 

y^,  "to  squeeze,  to  press  out".  Hrozny,  Uber  das  Bier  im 
alien  Babylonien  und  Agypten  (Anzeiger  der  Wien.  Ak.  phil. 
Cl.  1910,  Dez.),  connects  hkt  with  the  Babylonian  beer  called 
hiqu,  deriving  the  word  from  fyaqu,  "to  mix".  It  is  hardly 
possible  to  suppose,  apart  from  other  considerations,  that  a 
word  like  Egyptian  hkt,  which  occurs  innumerable  times  in 
texts  of  every  period,  should  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
Babylonian  hiqu,  a  word,  which  is  not  at  all  met  with  fre- 
quently in  Babylonian  texts.  Certain  beers  used  for  religious 

purposes  exclusively  were  called    9      fi  (I  0  vb\ 

A  £^       1        Jyv^     Q 

T288;   M65;   with  the  determinative   8      5  \\  0  t\ 

A  a         i         _£r^ 
•IT          Jr"**O  O    £        WWAA 

\o\  /       N  126,  i.  e.    "beer  which  does  not  sour(r)";  9      J 
Jfi^s.  I  A  c±        C2± 

'CL  \\*  P  391;  M  5575  N  1164  "beer  of  eternity",  and  8  A  & 

_ZT^  A  A  A  ^  M  I 

\y  s=>  ^^n  [)  Jj  "beer  of  the  goddess  Maat",  or  simply,  "beer 

of  truth".  The  latter  was  a  beer  drunk  by  the  12  gods  who 
guarded  the  shrine  of  Osiris. 

Durra-beer  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  Egyp- 
tians until  a  very  late  time.  Pliny's  statement3  that  the  durra 
was  brought  in  his  time  from  India  to  Italy  may  be  correct 
and  explain  the  fact  that  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  do  not 


1)  F.    i.,    Totenbuch ,     173    "beer    of    white    srt".     Aeg.   Z.,    1877,   p.   30 

* s.tSv'  f^©^\<=> ••"n ? o- ui pfepared beer 

o  ^sr^,     U     Jl       x^sK->     d     '  A  O 

in  the  city  of  Tpn  from  white  srf\  White  srt  appears  to  have  been  preferred 
for  brewing,  while  the  black  srt  was  more  generally  used  for  the  making  of 
bread.  The  white  and  red  barley,  called  //,  are  also  more  generally  mentioned 
in  the  making  of  beer  than  the  black  it.  Totenbuch  189,  14  "bread  of  black 
barley  (//)". 

2)  The  chief  barley  growing   district  of  Palestine  was  the  southern  part 
of  the  country.  3)  Plin.,  H.  n.  XVIII,  17. 


78  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

mention  it.  An  Egyptian  word,  which  could  mean  durra,  has 
never  been  found.  See,  however,  Maspero,  G.,  Bibliotheque 
£gyptologique ,  XXVIII,  p.  252:  "La  dourah  est  originaire  de 
1'Afrique  tropicale,  et  j'ai  cru  la  deviner  sous  le  nom  de  Di- 
rati,  Dourati  dans  une  lettre  d'affaires  ecrite  vers  le  milieu  de 
la  XIXe  dynastic"  (i.  e.,  Pap.  Anastasi  IV,  pi.  13  line  12  and 

pl.17  Hne4,    On  ^)^,  °^^]^-^ 

see  also  Loret,  V.,  La  Flore  pharaomque,  2e  edit.  p.  26,  144. 
The  word  is  generally  translated:  "fine  flour",  Hebrew  nbb* 
Assyr.  siltu,  yW<2/«,  to  crush.  In  Coptic,  however,  appears 
a  word  which  may  refer  to  the  merisa,  or  merise  of  the  Nu- 
bians, a  beverage  which  is  prepared  from  durra.  If  this  is 
the  case,  it  would  still  be  a  late  evidence  for  durra^beer  in 

-Q  ^  -r^^ 

Egypt.    The  Egyptian  plwr,  AX    ^^  £j 1  hardly  equals  Coptic 

MplC,  FMTTplC,  "mustum"1. 

Zosimus  of  Panopolis  in  the  Thebais,  a  chemist  who  wrote 
probably  before  the  time  of  Photios,  has  left  us  a  description 
of  the  method  of  brewing  beer  amongst  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians. He  says: 

About  beer-making 

"Take  fine  clean  barley  and  moisten  it  for  one  day  and 
draw  it  off  or  also  lay  it  up  in  a  windless  place  until  morn- 
ing and  again  wet  it  six  hours.  Cast  it  into  a  smaller  per- 
forated vessel  and  wet  it  and  dry  it  until  it  shall  become 
shredded  and  when  this  is  so  pat  it  (i.  e.,  shake,  or  rub)  in 
the  sun-light  until  it  falls  apart.  For  the  must(?)  is  bitter. 

Next  grind  it  and  make  it  into  loaves  adding  leaven,  just 
like  bread  and  cook  it  rather  raw  and  whenever  (the  loaves) 
rise,  dissolve  sweetened  water  and  strain  (it)  through  a  strainer 
or  light  sieve. 

Others  in  baking  the  loaves  cast  them  into  a  vat(?)  with 
water  and  they  boil  it  a  little  in  order  that  it  may  not  froth 
nor  become  luke-warm  and  they  draw  up  (=  absorb)  and 
strain  it  and  having  prepared  it,  heat  (it)  and  examine  (it)3". 

i)  Mel.  Ill,  p.  89  ff.  2)  Brugsch,    WB*  Vol.  VI,  467. 

3)  TTepi  2u&ou  iroirjaeu)? 

xpidr]v  KctOctpiav  KaXrjv  Pp^£ov  aa  xai  dvdairaaov  ^\  xai  KCUTCKJOV 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


79 


Ludwig  Borchardt  was  the  first  scholar  who  explained  the 
meaning  of  those  pictures  and  statues  which  refer  to  the 
brewing  industry l  in  Egypt  and  who  indirectly  helped  to 
understand  also  the  Babylonian  texts,  which  contain  the  ear- 
liest beer-brewing  recipes  that  have  come  down  to  us2. 
A  certain  amount  of  grain,  either  barley,  spelt  or  wheat3  is 
poured  into  a  mortar  and  ground,  after  being  moistened. 
After  that  yeast  was  added4  and  worked  into  the  dough. 

On  the  east- wall  of  the  tomb  of  Rahenem  (  y  ^\  ),  sur- 
named  JIsy  ((]  — H— (]j,  at  Deir  el-Gebrawi5  we  see  the  dough 

piled  up  in  many  earthenware  vessels.  Some  of  these  vessels 
are  taken  by  a  man  and  stacked  for  baking  (see  Illustration 
No.  15).  Below  these  vessels  was  then  set  a  slow  fire.  The 
man,  who  is  about  to  slightly  bake  the  loaves  in  the  ves- 
sels, is  pictured  shading  his  face  from  the  heat.  When 
the  bread  was  'half  baked,  it  was  broken  into  pieces  and 


€\  dvrjvtjatu  Toiriu,  £(uc,  irpun  Kai  irdXtv  Ppe"£ov  uipaq  e.  e'mpaXXe  ei<;  Ppa- 
Xiuuviov  dYY€i°v  udjuoeibec;  Kai  Ppe'xe,  irpoava£r|paive  ^uuq  ou  f£vr\ta\,  dx; 
TiXri,  Kai  O'TC  Y^vrjTai,  vyf|?:ov  iv  rjXiiu,  e\ju<;  ou  Tre'arj  TO  (uaXiov  Y«P  TtiKp6v. 
AOITTOV  aXeaov,  Kai  Troirjaov  dpTOuq  irpoa^dXXajv  2u|ur|v,  dicnrep  dpTov, 
Kai  6rrTa  obnoTepov,  Kai  OTav  ^iravdujaiv,  bidXue  (ibuup  Y^UK^  K0t^  n^l111^ 
bid  rjd|Liou  f|  KOCJKIVOU  XeTTToO. 

"AXXoi  be  oiTTOVTec;  apToui;  pdXXoumv  eic  KXoupov  |ueTd  ObaTO?,    Kai 
lniKpov,    i'va    |ur)    KOxXdarj,    |LirjT€    rj    x^iaP°v    Kai    dvao"Tri»o~i    Kai 
/,  Kai  Trepio"Keudo"avTe<;  Oeojuaivouaiv,  Kai  dvaKpivouaiv. 
(Zosimi  Panopolitani  de  Zyihorum   confectione  fragmentum ,    ed.   C.  G.  Gruner, 
Solisbachi,   1814).     See  also  Dioscor.  II,  109  and   no. 
i)  Aeg.  Z.  36,  p.  128  ff.  2)  See  below  p.  88. 

3)  That  sometimes  also  wheat  was  used  is  indicated  in  Theophrast.,  De 
causa  plant.,  6,  11,  2:  oi  TOU<;  oi'vou<;  iroioOT€£  ^K  TUJV  Kpidi&v  Kai  TUJV  irupOuv 
Kai  TO  ^v  AIYUTTTUJ  KaXoujaevov  Z[0x>o<;.     See  also  Ulp.  t)ig.,  XXXIII,  6,  9  pr. 

4)  M^\    O>    CP-  Hebrew  *iett3;    see  f.  i.,  Rec.  I,  72,  3:    A n    I  ^s.     O 

^v  :  1 1  /wwv\  I   -£*^  !  I  I 


i.  e.,  "I  put  the  yeast  into  a  jar 

(and)   the   beer  into  the  cellar".     Another  word  for  yeast  is  f=^=T% —  y 

d    —    \\    II! 

$.,  see  Br.,   WB,  Vol.  VI,  p.  660. 


5)  Davies,   The  Rock-Tombs  of  Deir  el  Gtbrawi,  part  II,  pi.  XX. 


8o 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


soaked  for  several  days.  The  bread  pieces  were  then  pla- 
ced into  a  large  fermentation-vat,  which  was  large  enough 
to  hold  a  man  or  woman,  and  the  soaked  pieces  were  then 
trodden  by  the  feet  (see  Illustration  No.  16).  A  small  statue1 


No.  15.    Women  soaking   bread-loaves   in   large   bo^vls;    at  right  man  staking 
loaves  for  slight  baking  (after  Davies,  Rock  Tombs  of  Deir  el-Gebrawi). 

shows  a  woman  standing  in  the  vat,  holding  her  hands  at  the 
top  of  the  vat.  In  the  painting  at  Deir  el-Gebrawi  we  see 
the  process,  which  was  most  characteristic  to  the  Egyptians 


No.  1 6.    Man  in  centre  pressing  the  soaked  beer-loaves  in  large  vat.     Men  at 

left  and  right   filtering  beer   through  woven   baskets  over  large  bowls   (after 

Davies)  Rock   Tombs  of  Deir  el-Gebraiut]. 

for  brewing,   so  that  the  hieroglyph   "brewer"  is  taken  from 
the  act,  performed  by  a  man.     In  the  latter  painting  the  artist 


i)  Found  in  Neggada  and  preserved  in  the  Berlin  Museum ;  see  Aeg.  Z., 
1896,  p.  161,  illustrations  12  and   13. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient.  3l 

has  even  gone  so  far  as  to  show  the  yellow  grains  on  the 
exterior  of  the  vat,  which  is  painted  red.  Next  we  see  the 
sieving  of  the  beer-mash.  The  semi-liquid  mass  is  poured 
into  a  flat,  wide-woven  basket,  in  which  we  see  sometimes 
one,  sometimes  two  servants  kneading  the  mass  with  both 
hands.  The  basket  is  placed  over  a  large  jar,  which  stands 
either  in  a  turned  over  basket  or  in  a  foot-stand  of  basket- 
work.  When  the  beer  loaves  had  been  thoroughly  kneaded 
and  stirred,  the  liquid  filtered  through  the  basket  into  a  large 
jar  below,  from  which  it  was  finally  poured  into  the  large 
beer  jars.  This  work  of  filling  the  beer  jars  was  called  mh  kk.t, 

kg  g      .In  Rifeh  l  large  conical  bowls  with  a  hole  in  the 
X  X  o 

bottom  have  been  found,  which  served  the  purpose  of  pressing 
and  stirring  the  beer  loaves,  in  order  to  squeeze  out  the  fer- 
mented beer  from  the  loaves.  Petrie  notes  that  one  still 
contained  a  pressed  cake  of  barley  mash  and  grains.  In  grave 
No.  29  were  also  found  mud-models  of  vases  with  blue  line 
pottery  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  XVIII th  dynasty.  Some 
of  these  vases  were  closed  with  mud  caps,  many  of  which 
still  containing  barley  grain  and  barley  mash.  The  persons 
represented  as  filling  the  beer  bottles,  are  always  seen  sitting 
on  the  ground.  One  hand  is  inside  the  long  bottle,  while  the 
other  is  holding  it  (see  Illustration  No.  17).  It  seems  that 
before  the  bottles  were  filled  with  beer,  they  were  smeared 
with  bitumen  or  the  like,  as  was  done  with  the  wine  bottles. 
These  bottles,  when  filled,  were  finally  closed  with  large  balls 
o  f  Nile-mud. 

A  recipe  to  prepare  Egyptian  beer  is  also  found  in  the 
Rabbinic  literature,  to  which  J.  H.  Bondi  first  called  attention 2. 
In  Mishna  Pesackim,  III,  1  are  enumerated  pttim  ""HEft  "OB 
•nsm  cnmn  *WlSfi  "Median  beer  and  Idumaean  vinegar  and 
Egyptian  zythos\  The  Gemara  (B.  Pesackim  42 b)  remarks 
that  barley  is  put  into  the  first  two.  It  says  regarding  the 
Egyptian  beer:  "What  is  Egyptian  zythos^  Rabbi  Joseph 


1)  Flinders   Petrie,    Gizeh   and  Rifeh  (British  School   of  Archaeology   in 
Egypt  and  Egyptian  Research  Account,  i3th  year,  1907),  p.  23. 

2)  Aeg.  Z.,  33,  p.  62. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  6 


82 


Lutz,  \7iticulture  and  Brewing. 


teaches:    a   third    of  barley,    a   third   of  saff lower   seed1    and 
a  third  of  salt.     Rabbi  Papa  took  barley  off  (the  recipe)  and 

placed  instead  (of  it)  wheat They  moisten  it,  roast  it, 

.grind  it  and  drink  it  from  Passah  unto  the  week-festival.   It  causes 
diarrhea   to    whosoever   is   costive,   and   whosoever   suffers   of 

diarrhea,  him  it  makes  cos- 
tive. It  is  a  danger  for  the 
sick  and  the  pregnant  wo- 
man" 2.  The  "foaming"  of  the 
beer  was  expressed  by  the 

word  stf,     a    /"^ 

The  Egyptians  also  im- 
ported beer.  The  greatest 
beer  export  country  seems 
to  have  been  along  the  Syrian 
and  Asia  Minor  coast,  which 
was  known  geographically  as 

The  Qode- 

Ju 4  was 

probably  not  a  Syrian  pro- 
duct, but  came  from  inland, 
either  from  Babylonia,  .  or 
more  likely,  from  the  Hittite 
country.  Qode  may  be  iden- 
tical with  the  Biblical  "coast 
of  the  Kittians",  i.  e.,  the 
coast-land  which  formerly 
reached  from  Cilicia  to  Pe- 

lusium;  cf.  Solin.  38,  1:  Ciliciam,  qua  de  agitur,  si,  ut  mine 
est  loquamur,  derogasse  videbimur  fidei  vetustatis:  si  ter- 
minos  sequimur,  quos  habuit  o/im,  absonum  est  a  con- 


No.  17.      Coating   the   interior  of  beer 

bottles  with  bitumen  (after  Aeg.  Zeit-schr. 

Bd.  3X 


1)  Carthamus  tinctorius  L.,  which  grows  in  Egypt. 

2)  xrbri  ^BTip  xrbr  •nrus  Krbn  tibi*  31  tor 
inb  ^inai  inb  ibpi  inb 

n^b  a^c« 


oirvn 
XBB  a^ 
ia  inb 


3)  Pap.  d'Orb.  8,  6. 


4)  Pap.  Anast.  3  verso  2;  4,  12,  n. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


3  3 


temptations  rerum  praesentium.  Cilicia  antea  usque  Pelu- 
sium  Aegypti  pertinebat,  Lydis,  Medis,  Armeniis,  Pamphilia, 
Cappadocia,  sub  imperio  Cilicum  constitutis:  mox  ab  Assy  r  Us 
subacta,  in  breviorem  moduni  scripta.  •  This  beer  played  an 
important  role  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  often  imitated1* 
In  a  letter2,  the  writer,  who  was  stationed  in  Qenqen-tane3 
writes  to  his  superior  that  the  food  at  that  place  was  bad 
and  the  best  drink  he  could  get  was  beer  from  Qode.  Two 
kinds  were  known  in  Egypt,  the  imported4  and  that  which 
was  brewed  in  Egypt  by  foreign  slaves  5.  The  genuine  Qode 

beer  was  differentiated  by  the  name  8      ®.d    .x     TL/vww  \^ 

/>  Ci  1  1  1  I     \\    &L-£  Jarofc 

^(j^1\j^j,  i.  e.,  "imported  Qode  beer".     In  Pap.  Leid.  I, 
345,  rev.  G.  VII  is  mentioned  "a  thirst,  which  empties  the  Qode 


1)  Hierat.  Inschr.  5637. 

2)  Pap.  Anast.  4,  12,  11: 


i.e.,  "Sometimes  when  bottles  are  opened,  filled  with  beer  from  Qode,  then(?) 
the  people  go  forth  to  make  a  drinking-bout  outside.  There  are  200  great 
dogs  and  300  jackals,  $00  in  all.  They  stay  all  day  at  the  door  of  my  house. 
Each  time  that  I  go  out  while  they  sleep,  whenever  the  n:ck  of  the  bottles 
is  broken  and  when  the  jug  is  opened,  I  should  be  excluded,  if  I  did  not 
have  the  little  jackal-dog  of  N'hr-hw,  the  royal  scribe,  who  dwells  with  me 
in  my  house.  It  is  he  who  saves  me  from  them  (scil.  the  dogs)". 

3)  Location  unknown.  4)  Pap.  Anast.  3,  3,  6. 

5)  Pap.  Anast.  4,  16,5;  3,  8,  5. 

6* 


84  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

countries",  which  also  indicates  that  Qode  was  the  beer  country 


The  inscriptions  refer  to  an  officer    called    "inspector   of 
the  brewery",  0%*w**        °  §  ^  5m1*  and  to  the  "royal  chief 

V  JL  ^Cl  Ao  A  II  I 

beer-inspector",  I  "7^    Za§^    ^    2.       The    "royal    butler", 

T          A          /WWVAA^I        I        I 

1<=^,   was    a   high   court-official.     In   the   representation    of 
Wiedemann,  Hierat.  Texte,  Tafel  8  (Pap.  Louvre  3308)  the 


stands  behind  the  king  with  a  fan.          a  selon  DHI  40  e;  Mar 


Abyd  II,  50  (cf.  Ill,  1  !36)  1  =7:  -^  —  SL  |  HI 

T    8    /wyvAA^ncnDn  n  1  il  t 

(sic) 

_  a?  A\   (time   of  Merenptah);   1  *>  ?  /^T"^1    (time   of 

/WWV\/N£^  T  A'  -     -  /I  \\ 

IO      ^-tO  JL         n         /WAAAA 

Vf  |    ,  Var.  V  -  -Ji  0   I     Rec.  trav.  15,  37 

(Amarna);  J  J^,  —  ^  ^37  |^^'  Var-  f  J  ^  etc- 

Var.  $  1]  ^  _  /l  etc.,  Stele  of  Marseille,  Rec.  trav.  13,  1  19  (18.  dyn.X 
-A--=dl 

O  \\    9  21  n  00   on  a  ste^e   °f  the   12.  dyn.,    ed.  Wiedemann, 
_Mx&  luii 

Marseille.   Next  to  butler  the  Q  ^\  with  bottles  and  jars,  LD  II, 
129  (Hnmhotep).   A  servant,  whose  hair-dress  seems  to  point  to 

foreign   origin,   is   called    ^r!r   A  \  JV  ^1  L    "The    cool   one", 

O  V.   —/)    ^xj  IA  ^      o 


LD  III,  242.  For  a  graphic  variant  of  the  name  "butler"  (jug 
in  bowl)  from  Bab-el-Moluk  see  Desc.  II,  pi.  85  ;  similar  Wilkinson, 
I,  425.  For  a  good  picture  of  the  butler  see  Champ,  mon.  434. 
Characteristic  are  the  sleeves  and  the  double  garment  in  the 
dress  of  the  butler  (see  Mar.  Ab.  II,  49  and  Champ,  mon.  22$). 
For  the  best  and  largest  representation  of  the  butler  of  Me- 
dinet  Abu  see  Desc.  de  t£g.  II,  8  (smaller  II,  lo).  The  upper- 
garment  is  most  likely  a  sleeve-apron,  which  the  butler  wore 
in  order  to  protect  his  chief-garment.  It  is  of  interest  to  note 
in  this  connection  that  the  pre-Islamic  Arabic  waiter  also 

1)  Stele  C  45  in  the  Louvre. 

2)  Stele  of  Ramessai-m-pr-S  in  Bulaq. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient.  85 

wore  a  kind  of  apron,  or  a  woman's  garment,  of  course  for 
the  identical  purpose.  Regarding  the  chief-butler  of  Pharaoh 
the  d^pttJEft  "ite  see  Gen.  40,  2,  9,  20,  21  and  41,  9,  Emperor 
Augustus  is  represented  in  the  temple  of  Denderah  as 

^  QA  A/VVVNA  ^  "the  butler  of  Re'".  An  inscription  in  the  same, 
temple  calls  the  emperor:  ^  \$\  /vwwv  ^?  -<s>-  <WWVN  >/  ^ 

(5      £_]/  Q       1  AAAA/A    ^J  I 

;S=*    x  off  ]£=::- a  flO   "the  butler  of  Rec,   who  prepares 

X      HA         \\|  ±5=C    V 

the  drink  for  Rec,  filling  the  vessels  with  "green  Horus-eye"- 
wine  (see  Diimichen,  Die  Oasen  der  Libyschen  Wiiste,  p.  1  and 
plate  XVII). 

Under  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Roman  emperors  the  Egyp- 
tian beer  was  subjected  to  a  tax  (^uTi]pcc,  sciL  <bvfj).  This 
tax  was  paid  by  the  producer,  the  ^UTOJCOIOC.  .  It  was  leased 
jrpoc;  ^ccXKov  i(5ovou.ov,  i.  e.,  was  to  be  paid  in  copper  without 
agio  i. 

The  tax  on  beer  played  a  great  role  in  the  finances  of 
the  Ptolemies  and  of  Roman  times.  A  papyrus  in  the  British 
Museum  2  refers  to  the  taxation  of  a  large  brewery  firm,  named 
"Pasion  and  Sentheus".  This  text  makes  us  acquainted  with 
a  brewery,  which  must  have  done  a  tremendous  business,  as 
the  tax  receipts  show.  For  each  month  of  the  year  the  two 
brewers,  who  lived  in  the  first  century  B.  C,  paid  five  copper 
talents,  as  cpopoc,  which  according  to  Wilcken3  is  the  tax  for 
production. 

The  consumption  of  beer  in  Egypt  for  all  periods  of  its 
long  history  must  have  been  considerable.  According  to  an 
inventory,  for  instance,  of  the  income  and  the  expenses  of 
the  royal  court  at  Thebes,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  Middle 


1)  Wilcken,  Gricchische  Ostraka,  p.  369. 

2)  See  Grenfell  and  Hunt,  II,  39 

YccniuriTixcx;  TTaaiuuv  (read  TTam'uw) 
xai  levdeuuc  (read  levfrei)  ZUTOTTOIOIC; 
Xaipeiv. 
(q>)6pov  [roO 
[rcxXa]v[Ta  Trevre 


3)  Wilcken,  Griech.  Ostr.,  p.  371. 


8(5  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Kingdom  (c.  1800  B.  C.)  *  there  were  brought  daily  130  jars 
of  beer  to  the  royal  court,  and  the  queen  received  on  one 
day  five  jars  filled  with  beer. 

Egypt  until  recently,  was  considered  the  oldest  beer 
country  in  the  world.  Since  the  last  decades,  however,  from 
the  materials  published,  we  learn  that  Babylonia  was  not  less 
engaged  in  the  brewing  industry  than  Egypt.  The  oldest 
evidences  of  beer  brewing  in  Babylonia  reach  back  to  the 
very  threshold  of  its  history.  The  material  is  so  large  and 
so  detailed  that  we  are  enabled  to  receive  a  pretty  complete 
insight  into  the  work  of  the  Sumero-Akkadian  brewer 2. 

The  commonest  beer  (Sumerian:  kas,  Akkadian  sikaru) 
in  Babylonia  was,  like  that  of  Egypt,  prepared  from  barley 
($eum).  But  also  spelt  (as-a-ari)  was  extensively '  used  for 
that  purpose-,  and  it  is  possible  in  some  instances  also  wheat 
(*'GIG,  GIG,*eGIG.BA).  Essentially  the  method  of  the  Sumero- 
Akkadian  brewing  industry  differed  very  little  from  that  of 
Egypt.  We  have  seen  that  in  Egypt  beer  brewing  to  a  large 
extent  was  connected  with  the  baking  of  bread  loaves.  In 
the  Sumerian  beer  recipes  which  go  back  to  c.  2800  B.  C,  we 
meet  continually  with  the  word  KAS+  NINDA,  that  is  the 
"beer-loaf".  Also  the  name  in  Sumerian  for  brewer,  lu-KAS-\- 
NINDA*,  i.  e.,  the  "man  of  the  beer-loaf",  points  to  the  close 
relation  of  the  brewer  and  the  baker.  The  texts  acquaint  us 
with  a  great  variety  of  beers.  We  meet  with  the  kas-gig,  the 
"black  beer",  kas-si,  the  "red  beer",  ka$-sig}  "fine-beer", 
Ka$-as-an-na ,  or  ka$-as-a-an  •=  u-lu-si-in,  Akk.  u-lti-si-in-nu, 
"spelt-beer",  kas  "barley-beer",  kurun-babbar,  "fine  white  beer", 
kurun-gig,  "fine  black  beer",  kas-sag,  "prima  beer",  kas-sag- 
as-a-an,  "prima  spelt-beer,  kas-2o-qa,  "20  qa  beer",  kat-jo-qa, 
"30  qa  beer",  kas-^o-qa,  "40  qa  beer",  ka$-as-a-an-mah  = 
ululinmah,  Akk.  ulusinmahhu,  "fine  spelt  beer".  In  addition 
to  these  we  also  find  a  large  number  of  so-called  mixed  beers, 
as  for  instance,  kas-a-sud,  "beer  mixed  with  water",  also  called 
ka$-bir,  and  the  many  beer  names  composed  with  the  element 

1)  See  Borchardt,  in  Aeg.  Z.,  XXVIII,   1890,  pp.  66  ff. 

2)  The   first  scholar,    who  explained   these  texts  was  Hrozny,    Das  Ge- 
trcide  im  alien  Babylonien,  Wien,   1914. 

3)  Later  written  /w-SlM  -j-  NINDA  —  bappir  —  Akk.  bappiru. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancien    Orient.  £-7 

u-sa,  which  according  to  Hrozny  are  all  mixed  beers.  There 
are  found  the  ka$-u-sat  ka$-ii-sa-al-pu-bal,  kas-u-sa-as-a-an 
—  dida  imgdgd  —  Akk.  dttiptahhu  or  alappanu,  "a  sweet  mixed 
beer",  ka$"£-sa-&&rQ)-a* t  ka$-ii-sa-gin ,  the  "common  mixed 
beer",  kal-u-sa-e-da-di^,  ka$-u-sa-e-du-di*,  ka$-u-sa-gu-la*, 
ka$-u-sa-ka-kak'f>,  kaS-u-sa-ka-gi-kak1 ,  kaS-it-sa-ku-an^,  ka^-ii- 
sa-ku-an-mah^,  kas-u-sa-laliQ,  kas-u-sa-sim-dug-a^,  a  mixed 
beer  flavored  with  spices,  kaS-u-sa-stg,  "fine  mixed  beer",  ka$- 
ic-sa-sag-gi-pu  (?) l2 ',  kas-u-sa-ud-sal-la 1 3,  kas-u-sa-ud-tab-ba 1 4. 
A  special  kind  of  beer  was  called  kas-nag-lugal^*,  "the  royal 
beverage",  as  distinguished  probably  from  the  common  beer 
called  ka$-lu-gal-la,  "the  beer  of  man"16.  The  saleable  barley 
beer  appears  under  the  name  kas-se-ri-a  17.  In  BE,  XIV,  161,  7 
is  found  a  beer  called  kas-dur-an-ki.  See  farther  Kas-tiis, 
kas-tin,  a  "fine  beer",  &aJf~m-5-}i9,  kaS-ti-ri-a™,  kas-ti-Sar'1^, 
fcas-umfy-ra.22  and  &a$-um-ri-a**.  The  multitude  of  names, 
which  the  above  list  does  not  aim  to  exhaust,  and  which 
describe  the  different  kinds  of  beer,  show  how  many-sided 
and  specialized  was  the  industry  of  the  Sumero-Akkadian 
breweries. 

It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  some  of  the 
beverages  mentioned  above,  which  are  taken  from  so-called 
"lists",  may  refer  to  artificial  wines  just  as  well  as  to  beer. 
So  long  as  such  names  composed  with  ka$  are  not  found  in 
texts  in  which  the  context  can  assist,  the  interpretation  of 

1)  Ni.   10815;    Dr.  Chiera   has   kindly   placed  the  lists   of  beers   to    my 
disposition. 

2)  Ni.  10820.  3)  Ni.  10872.  4)  Ni.  10872. 

5)  Ni.  10816,  Ni.  10873. 

6)  Kas-u-sa-ka-kak  =  plhu,  Meissner,  5^7,  No.  3498.  7)  Ni.  10813. 

8)  Ni.  10810,  Ni.  10811;  or  read  kas-u-sa-as($}-an~: 

9)  Ni.  10812,  or  read  kas-u-sa-as(\)-an-mak'r 
10)  Ni.  10815,  a  beer  mixed  with  fruit-juices. 

n)  Ni.  10814.  12)  Ni.  10819.  13)  Ni-  10818. 

14)  Ni.  10817.  15)  Ni.  10877.  l6)  Ni-  "329- 

17)  Ni.  11324.  1 8)  Ni.  11385. 

19)  Ni.  11204;  probably  qa  is  to  be  supplied. 

20)  Ni.  11386.  21)  Ni.  11080. 

22)  Ni,  11326;  probably  identical  with  the  following. 

23)  Ni,  11325, 


gg  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing 

some  of  these  names  must  remain  doubtful.     This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  Babylonian  h&aru,  Arabic      ~^o,  Hebrew  nyc  (as 


loanword   in  Egyptian   ta-ki-ra   J^-r  "         |?      Piehl,  K.,   In- 

fc^    \\    «S$ 

script.  Hierogl.  12)  is  one  of  the  most  ambiguous  words  in  the 
Semitic  languages.  It  may  mean  any  intoxicating  beverage 
prepared  from  grains,  grapes,  fresh  or  dried  dates1,  pomegra- 
nates, apples,  honey  etc.  But  even  though  some  of  the  names 
mentioned  may  ultimately  be  recognized  as  words  for  arti- 
ficial wines,  there  still  must  remain  a  great  variety  of  beers, 
which  is  surprising. 

The  cheapest  beer  of  the  oldest  time  was  seemingly  the 
"black  beer",  kas-gig,  which  was  prepared  of  barley  only2. 
An  exception  is  a  text3  which  enumerates  an  addition  of  spelt. 
A  brewer  furnishes  8  nigin  (=  80  qa)  of  black  beer.  For  its 
brewing  he  needs  18  qa  of  spelt,  18  qa  of  ninda-tam-ma- 
loaves,  24  qa  of  beer  loaves  and  36  qa  of  germinated  grain4. 
The  materials  used  for  the  "good  black  beer",  kas-gig-dug-ga, 
differ  little  from  the  common  "black  beer".  In  order  to  brew 


0"  ^  ?            " 

i)  Compare   for   instance   the  Arabic   Js-*<o  called   vX*-o  which  was  pre- 

pared   from    dried    dates     (so    in    the    Koran).  JL«-o    was    also'   made   from 

•             "      **  *                   "*'* 


dried  dates  and  from  i^j^JLvS  a  species  of  cuscuta,  or  dodder. 
is  growing  profusely  in  Babylonia,  and  was  probably  used  already  in  ancient 
times  by  the  Babylonians,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  it  with  their  beverages. 
Whenever  the  cuscuta,  ^b^D,  was  not  sufficiently  cleansed  from  other  herbs, 
on  which  it  grows,  the  date-wine  lost  in  quality  according  to  Sar  Shalom 
Gaon.  For  the  occurence  of  the  cuscuta  in  Babylonia  see  Pliny,  XIII,  46. 

2)  de  Genouillac,  No.  34,  Obv.  IV,  5  ff. 

3)  de  Genouillac,    No.  45,  Obv.  II,  i  ff.  ;    see   Hrozny,    Das   Getreide  im 
alien  Babylonien,  p.  154. 

4)  The   translation  of  bulug,   by  Hrozny,    =  buqlu  as  "malt",  does  not 
seem   to   me   to   be   correct.     Malt   is   out   of  place  in  the  Babylonian  method 
of   brewing.     Since  the  Babylonian  method  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tian, where  the  process  of  boiling  was  unknown,  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
what  purpose  malt  could  have  served.     We  can  get  along  very  well  with  the 
common  meaning  of  JJo,  "to  appear,  to  break  forth",   Ethiopic  fJ*f>A   "to 
germinate".     Bulug,  then,  seems  to  refer  to  a  certain  kind  of  grain,  seemingly 
always   barley    (notice  se-bulug  besides   bulug)   that   was   dug  into  the  ground 
and  left  there  until  it  had  commenced  to  germinate.     It  is  still  the  custom  in 
modern  Egypt  to  use  germinated  grain  for  purposes  of  brewing. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient.  89 

lo  nig-in  of  red  beer1  there  were  necessary  96  beer-loaves, 
72  qa  of  (hulled)  spelt  and  12O  qa-sag-gdl  of  ground  germi- 
nated grain.  Hrozny2  has  further  shown  that  the  Babylonian 
beers  are  valued  according  to  the  amount  of  spelt  that  was 
added  to  the  barley  and  the  barley  products.  The  Babylo- 
nian "Prima  beer",  kas-kal,  thus  was  composed  often  with 
somewhat  more  than  */4  of  hulled  spelt,  or  somewhat  more 
than  2/5  of  husked  spelt3.  The  "good  black  beer"  was  some- 
times prepared  from  barley  exclusively.  So  in  Allotte  de  la 
Fuye,  No.  169,  Rev.  I,  5ff.,  and  No.  170,  I,  iff.  In  this  case 
the  more  valuable  barley  products  were  used  in  larger  quan- 
tity. The  texts  mention  further  a  beer,  which  was  of  a  syrupy 
thickness  and  was  eaten.  The  name  of  this  beer  is  written 
ideographically  ^A<MS^,  U,  HUBUR+GUG+BULUGi 
We  have  followed  so  far  the  exposition  of  Hrozny,  who 
gives  a  very  detailed  account  of  the  composition  of  the  Baby- 
lonian beers  prepared  with  an  addition  of  spelt  in  particular. 
Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  surely  erroneous  idea  that 
the  Babylonians  used  malt  with  the  preparations  of  their  beers, 
Hrozny 's  investigations  have  given  us  valuable  informations 
concerning  the  composition  of  the  old  Sumerian  beers.  The 
Sumerian  beer  recipes  give  us  only  knowledge  of  the  mate- 
rials of  grain  that  were  used  by  the  Babylonian  brewer,  or 
the  composition  of  different  grains,  with  a  statement  of  their 
respective  amounts.  They  contain,  however,  no  statements  re- 
garding the  method  of  brewing  itself.  Since  the  texts,  refer- 
ring to  brewing,  always  mention  the  beer  loaves,  it  indicates 
that  the  method  of  brewing  must  have  been  very  similar  to 
the  method  employed  by  the  Egyptians.  For  the  making 
of  beer  loaves  we  may  refer  back  to  what  has  been  stated 
above  p.  78  ff.  The  barley,  or  barley  with  the  addition  of  spelt, 
was  kneaded  with  the  beer  loaves  in  the  same  way  as  was 
customary  with  the  Egyptians.  We  have,  above,  mentioned 
that  amongst  the  vessels  found  in  Rifeh  there  still  remained 
in  many  a  quantity  of  barley  grain  and  of  barley  mash.  In 

1)  See  Allotte  de  la  Fuye,  No.  168,  Obv.  I,  i  ff.  and  Hrozny,  /.  c.,  p.  159. 

2)  Hrozny,  /.  *-.,  p.  161   and  p.  174. 

3)  Hrozny,  /.  c.,  p.  161.  4)  Hrozny,  /.  c.,  p.  172. 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


the  tomb-painting  at  Deir  el-Gebrawi  we  also  noticed  that  the 
artist  indicated  the  hidden  contents  of  the  brewing  vat,  showing 
the  yellow  grain  in  the  white  mass  representing  the  beer  loaves, 
which  were  trodden  by  the  feet  of  a  man  who  stands  up  to  his 
knees  in  the  vat.  While  with  the  Egyptians  the  process  of  tread- 
ing the  beer  loaves  and  the  grain,  or  the  working  and  kneading 
of  these  substances  with  both  hands  was  most  characteristic  as 

the  work  of  the  brewer 
(see  Illustration  Nos.  18 
and  19),  the  Sumero-  Akka- 
dians considered  the  mak- 
ing of  beer  loaves  as  the 
activity  most  characteristic 
for  the  brewer.  Thus,  while 
the  Egyptians  called  the 
brewer  *fty  and  represen- 
ted him  ideographically  by 


the  sign 


,  the 


Sumero-Akkadians  called 
the  brewer  /«-KAS  + 
NINDA,  or  bappir,  i.  e., 
"the  man  of  the  beer 
loaf".  It  is  thus  probable 
that  the  verb  "lahamii\ 
which  is  used  to  indicate 
a  certain  activity  of  the 
brewer,  contains  plainly 
and  simply  the  word  for 
brewing,  originally  pro- 
bably "to  make  loaves". 
Lahamu  is  of  course  connected  with  the  Hebrew  word  nnb  "bread", 
and  indicates  that  the  activity  which  to  the  minds  of  the  Egyptians 
was  most  characteristic  of  the  brewer,  was  also  so  considered 
by  the  Sumero-Akkadians,  and  probably  means  also  the  same 
as  the  Egyptian  *ftt  "to  wring,  to  knead,  to  press,  to  stir"- 
The  industry  of  brewing  beer  thus  was  alike  both  in  Egypt 
and  in  Babylonia.  Both  countries  supplement  in  their  literary 
and  pictorial  remains  our  knowledge  of  the  making  of  beer 


No.  1 8.     An  Egyptian  brewer  (after 
Aeg.  Zeitschr.  Bd.  35). 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient.  gi 

in  the  Ancient  Orient.  Egypt  contributed  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  methods  used  in  brewing  beer,  and  Babylonia  gave  us 
the  earliest  beer  recipes.  It  may  finally  be  remarked  that 
whenever  Babylonian  texts  speak  of  honey  l  in  connection 
with  beverages,  this  refers  not  to  beehoney,  but  to  a  syrup 
prepared  from  fruit-juices,  which  was  thickened  with  Sikaru, 
"beer".  Also  the  Hebrews  prepared  this  beverage,  which 


No.  19.     Brewer  and  bottle  washer  (after  Aeg.  Zeitschr.  Bd.  35). 

according  to  Lev.  2,  11  was  excluded  for  ceremonial  purposes2. 
Strassmaier,  Inschriften  von  Darius  I,  No.  168,  line  2,  men- 
tioning "one  year  old  beer",  £Z«  P^^^w^f-^T,  makes  it 
evident  that  the  Babylonians  knew  well  to  preserve  the  qua- 
lity of  the  beer  for  a  longer  period. 


I)  Mun,  dug-ga,  tab  In. 


2)  -rsn-ss*.  nxitf-bs  "< 
rv.sx 


Q2  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

A  contract  of  the  time  of  Xerxes  narrates  the  hiring  of 
a  certain  brewer  named  Nabu-usallim  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
paring mixed  beer  for  the  repast  of  the  god  Nabu.  It  reads  * : 
300  clay  jars2  of  beer  for  the  repast  of  the  god  Nabu,  be- 
longing to  Rimut-Bel,  the  son  of  Iddina-Nabu,  the  descendant 
of  Ilu(?)-abusu(?),  he  has  given  for  preparing  unto  Nabu- 
usallim,  the  son  of  Nabu-aplu-iddin,  the  descendant  of  La- 
kuppuru.  For  the  keg  Rimut-Bel  shall  give  to  Nabu-usallim 

78  qa  of  barley  and  6  qa  of cassia-spice.     Then  he  shall 

mix  the  kegs  to  the  amount  of  300,  execute  (it)  and  give  (the 
kegs)  for  the  cellar(?)  of  Rimut-Bel  and  of  Marduk-balatsu- 
iqbi,  beginning  with  the  month  of  Kislev  of  the  36th  year3 
according  to  his  document.  He  shall  stand  good(?)  for(?)  the 
correct  delivery  of  good  mixed  beer  before  the  cellars  (?)  of 
Rimut-Bel  and  of  Marduk-balatsu-iqbi.  He  shall  stand  secu- 
rity for  it  that  the  offering  of  the  repast  (of  the  god  Nabu) 

suffers  no  delay  and  for Nabu-usallim  shall  give 

nine  kegs unto   Rimut-Bel.     Therefrom  (!)  Nabu-usallim 

has  received  from  the  hand  of  Rimut-Bel  80  gur  of  barley 
and  the  remainder  of  the  barley  in  Barsip(?) Rimut- 
Bel  shall  give  to  Nabu-usallim.  The  cassiaspice(P)  Rimut-Bel 

shall  give  to  Nabu-usallim  in 1  gur Rimut-Bel 

shall  make  with  Nabu-usallim.  In  the  house  of  Rimut-Bel, 
which  is  closed  up,  Nabu-usallim  shall  dwell.  He  shall  take 
care  of  the  work  of  repair  of  the  walling.  For  three  years 
he  shall  cover(?)  the  roof.  The  work  of  tiles,  cane  and 
beams,  as  much  as  Nabu-usallim  shall  make  in  the  house 
of  Rimut-Bel,  which  is  closed  up,  Nabu-usallim  shall  reckon 
up  to  the  charges  of  Rimut-Bel.  For and  house- 
furniture,  which  Rimut-Bel  shall  entrust  to  Nabu-usallim  in 

the  closed-up  house,  Nabu-usallim  is  responsible.     Nine - 

jars,  18  clay-kegs two  bukannu,  one  mixing- 
machine  of  cane,  one of  cane, one 


1)  See  VS,  VI,  182. 

2)  Tuns,    barrels    and   casks,    which   were   made    of  wooden   staves  and 
held  together  with  hoops  are  an  invention  of  the  Gauls.     See  Pliny,  XIV,  132: 

circa  Alpes  vi-num  ligneis  vasts  condunt  tectis  circulisqtte  cingnnt. 

3)  That  is  the  36th  year  of  Darius  I.',  which  was  the  accession  year  of 
Xerxes. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


93 


belonging  to  Rimut-Bel  are  entrusted  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  Nabu-usallim"1.  The  brewer,  according  to  the  docu- 
ment, is  hired  for  the  period  of  three  years  in  order  to  pre- 
pare mixed  beer,  for  which  he  receives  certain  quantities  of 
barley  and  cassia-spices.  In  return  for  his  labor  he  is  given 
a  house  with  its  furnishings  and  the  brewing  outfit,  for  the 
good  keeping  of  which  he  is  held  responsible. 

The  Old  Testament  mentions  the  tekhar  (Deut.  29,  6; 
Judg.  13,  4ff.;  I.Sam.  1,  15;  Lev.  1O,  9;  Is.  28,  7  etc.).  On 
account  of  the  too  general  meaning  "intoxicating  drink"  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  in  each  instance  whether  a  certain 
kind  of  artificial  wine  or  beer  is  intended.  Nor  does  Jerome 
know  what  kind  of  beverage  it  was2.  From  passages  such 
as  Lev.  2,  11  it  becomes,  however,  evident  that  the  word 
sekhar  was  also  applied  to  the  beer.  For  the  Sekhar  pre- 
pared from  grain,  see  Pesach.  Ill,  1.  The  brewery  was  known 
in  Rabbinic  times  by  the  name  "place  of  the  brewing  vat", 
tfm'nD  iD,  or  "place  of  pounding",  WTlO  hD.  The. Arabs  drank 
a  certain  beer  called  fokka 3.  Simon  Seth4  characterized  it  in  the 
same  way  as  the  zythos  by  the  earlier  writers.  He  states  that 
the  fokka  is  a  good  beverage  for  those  who  have  a  very  warm 
constitution,  particularly  in  the  stomach  and  the  abdomen,  and 
for  those  persons  who  suffer  considerably  from  thirst  on  account 
of  excessive  heat.  The  fokka  is  particularly  good  on  hot 
days,  if  it  is  free  from  any  spices.  It  drives  away  thirst, 
stimulates  appetite,  is  laxative,  and  causes  frequent  urination. 
It  is,  however,  harmful  to  a  watery  stomach  and  persons 
with  cold  temperament.  The  Arabian  beer  was  drunk  by  the 
Byzantines  under  the  name  cpouicac;.  According  to  Temimy 
a  variety  of  beers  were  called  by  the  name  fokka.  This  writer 
gives  the  following  account  of  its  property  and  its  ingredients: 
,,Different  kinds  of  beer  are  made.  There  is  one  which  is  pre- 


1)  Follow  the  names  of  witnesses. 

2)  Ep.   ad  Nepotian,   ed.  Vallarsi  I,  266:    Sicera  hebraeo   sermone   ontnis 
patio ,    quae   inebriare  potest ,    slye  ilia   quae  fruniento  conficitur  sivt  pomorum 
succo,  aut  quum  favi  decoquuntur  in  dulcem  et  bar  bar  am  potionem,  aut  palma- 
rum  fructus  exprimuntur  in  liquorem,  coctisque  frugibus  aqua  pinguior  color  atur. 

3)  See  de  Sacy,  Chrestomathie  arabe,  II,  437. 

4)  p.  iiSff. 


94  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

pared  from  germinated,  dried  (and)  ground  barley-flour,  being 
fermented  with  mint,  rue,  dracunculus  hortcnsis,  leaves  of  the 
lemon-tree  and  pepper.  It  is  warm,  dry,  exceedingly  putrid 
(and)  harmful  to  the  stomach.  It  produces  flatulence  and 
rumbling  and  injures  the  brain-nerves,  because  it  fills  the  brain 
with  thick,  warm  vapors,  which  pass  off  with  painful  diffi- 
culty. And  often,  on  account  of  its  bitterness  and  its  pudri- 
dity,  it  causes  diarrhoea;  and  often  it  causes  diseases  of  the 
bladder  and  heartburn  to  those  who  make  a  habitual  use  ol 
it  As  for  (the  beer)  prepared  with  bread  of  the  best  grade 
wheat  flour,  well  prepared,  of  parsley,  and  of  fine  germinated 
wheat,  or  germinated  barley  flour  —  it  is  less  dangerous  than 
the  first  kind.  It  is  more  suitable  for  choleric  persons.  But 
those  who  are  of  a  rather  moderate  temperament,  and  who 
desire  to  prevent  its  (causing)  flatulence,  winds  and  rumbling, 
and  to  render  it  moderately  warm,  and  to  strengthen  the 
stomach,  put  into  it  some  aromatic  plants,  which  benefit  and 
strengthen  the  stomach  on  account  of  their  aromatic  nature, 
and  their  absorption  of  its  moisture,  as  e.  g.,  hyacinth,  mastix, 
cinnamon,  long  pepper,  musk,  some  cardamom  and  nutmeg 
and  clove.  Of  the  powder  thus  made  from  these  spices  let 
one  mithkal  (two  drachms  in  weight)  serve  for  each  twenty 
jars  of  beer  (the  jars  being  of  the  kind  called?)1.  If  it  is 
desired  to  render  it  agreeable  of  taste,  there  must  be  .put 
into  each  jar  a  heart  of  dracunculus  hortensis,  and  two 
leaves  [of  the  heart]  of  a  lemon-tree,  with  a  little  rue  and 
mint.  They  make  also  a  more  simple  kind  of  beer,  with 
water,  bread  of  best  grade  wheat  flour,  well  prepared, 
having  been  filtered,  and  an  infusion  of  musk  and  mastix  only, 
with  a  heart  of  mint  in  each  jar,  or  a  heart  of  dracunculus 
hortensis  only."  I 


i)  De  Sacy  reads:  JOjLiJl.     We  should  evidently  expect  here  the  name 
of  a  vessel  with  a  specification  of  its  size. 


The  Beer  in  the  Ancient  Orient. 


?.  O1       111    (Jv^U.11 


JjJ.Xs  ^IjJI 

Lo  ^X^.  jJ-l     <LcoU^Jl      x,     iXSlxJI 


-  ^o     _ 


1  j,y  J^  ^  5-00.  Another  kind  of  beer  was 
called  wz>r,  misar,  )y*  which  the  Kamus  explains  as  ^-o 
^*^)J1^  i^JJl  "wine  of  durra  and  barley".  De  Sacy  (Oirest. 
Arab.  I,  p.  150,  151)  identified  misr  with  the  Greek  Kouppit, 
a  stronger  kind  of  beer  than  the  '^COoc;.  This  identification, 
however,  is  doubtful.  According  to  Ibn  Baitar  II,  513  it  was 
prepared  of  wheat,  durra  and  barley  and  was  the  national 
drink  of  Egypt  long  after  it  had  embraced  Islam.  The  misr- 
beer  was  subject  to  a  government  tax  (Makrizy,  Chitat  I.  105). 
Bokhary  mentions  the  use  of  this  beer  also  in  South-Arabia. 

w  * 

Dadiyy  (^£>\>),  or  dadiyy  (^^)  was  the  name  of  an  intoxi- 
cating beverage,  which  was  probably  prepared  from  a  seed 
of  the  same  name.  This  seed  tasted  bitter,  and  resembled 
the  barley,  being,  however,  somewhat  thinner  and  longer  (see 
Reinaud,  Relations  des  voyages  faits  par  les  Arabes  et  les  Per- 
sans,  Paris  1845,  55).  According  to  Gawaliky  108  the  Abys- 
sinian beer,  called  ghobaira,  or  sokorkah  (sokorka  ),  which 
was  introduced  into  Arabia  at  a  very  early  time,  was  espe- 
cially prohibited  to  be  drunk,  since  Mohammed  had  placed 
it  in  the  same  class  as  wine.  The  sawiq,  (J>^**»),  a  parti- 
cularly favored  drink,  seems  to  have  been  quite  harmless.  It 
was  a  barley-water,  which  was  imbibed  from  the  vessel  by 
means  of  straws,  and  was  generally  drunk  bj'  sick  persons. 


o5  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

When  Niebuhr  visited  Arabia,  he  found  the  Arabs  drinking 
a  beer  that  was  white  and  thick,  being  prepared  from  flour1. 
In  the  subterranean  dwellings  of  the  North  Armenians 
Xenophon2  saw  jars  filled  with  barley  beer.  Barley  was  mixed 
with  it  up  to  the  brim.  The  Armenian  barley  beer  was  very 
strong  if  it  was  not  diluted  with  water.  One  who  became 
accustomed  to  the  taste  of  this  beer  found  it  very  agreeable . 
Old  Cappadocian  documents3  show  that  during  the  third 
millenium  B.  C.  beer  was  brewed  in  Asia  Minor  by  the  same 
methods  used  in  Babylonia. 

1)  Niebuhr,  p.  57. 

2)  Anabasis  IV,  5,  26   they   (the   peasants   of  the  Armenian   mountains) 
had:  oivo<;  Kpixhvog  dv  KpaT?|po"iV  dvPjaav  b£  Kai  abiai  ai  Kpidal  itfoxeiXeu;, 
Kai  KCt\a(iioi  dv^xeivTO,  oi  jnev  ^ei£ou<;  oi  b£  ^XXdTrou?,  fovara  Oftk  gXOvre^ ' 
TOUTOU?  b'    £bei  6-iroTe  TI<;   biif/ibri  Xa^ovra  ei?  TO  arojua  jauZieiV   xai  irdvu 

r|v  €i|ar|Ti(;  ubujp  dmx^or    Kai  TTCIVU  r]bu  aumua^ovn  TO  rrojua  fiv* 

3)  GolenischeiF,   Vingt-quatre  tablettes  cappadociennes. 


Chapter  Four 

Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and 
Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals 

In  Egypt,  as  well  as  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  we  find 
only  one  view  regarding  intoxicants.  This  view  is  of  a  favo- 
rable character,  as  far  as  the  national  conscience  of  these 
peoples  is  concerned.  It  was  impossible  during  the  early 
stages  of  the  national  development  of  these  peoples  that  any 
considerable  group  should  rise  up  in  protest  against  the  ex- 
cessive use  of  beer  or  wine.  Intoxication  was  not  yet  con- 
sidered as  constituting  a  moral  offence  against  the  drinker's 
own  self  and  against  society  at  large.  It  was,  on  the  whole, 
rather  considered  in  the  light  of  a  harmless  pleasure  in  which 
one  might  indulge.  The  moral  sense  was  still  too  undevelo- 
ped to  put  a  different  construction  on  excessive  drinking. 
In  Pap.  Anast.  IV,  3,  7  it  is  stated  that  the  mouth  of  a  per- 

fectly happy  man  is  filled  with  wine,  beer,  etc.,         *  1\    n  * 

r  w,"i  JzF^fc   1      LJ 

I  x      iPji    The  same  text  refers  to  the  hilarity  that  it  caused 


But  there  were  always  individuals  who  took  a  different  view- 
point, and  as  ages  passed,  the  moral  sense  of  wider  groups 
of  people  reached  a  stage  where  it  found  intoxication  un- 
becoming to  the  dignity  of  a  man.  So  at  the  time  of  Athe-  ' 
naeus  the  Egyptians  were  described  by  him  as  temperate  in 
banquets  of  every  kind  and  that  they  used  only  so  much 
wine  as  was  necessary  to  gladden  the  heart.  The  statement 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  7 


98 


Lutz.  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


of  Athenaeus  reflects,  however,  only  one  group  of  Egyptians. 
Herodotus 1  presents  us  with  the  second  group.  The  drinking' 

bouts  (~  ~  q=n  |  li  (]  r-~-i  [Dum.  Hist.  Inschr.  I,  20]  =  rtPil&E,  tfup.- 

jrotfiov)  generally  started  after  a  meal.  Then  a  wooden  image 
of  a  dead  person  was  carried  about  and  to  each  guest  was 
given  the  admonition:  "Behold  this  one,  drink  and  be  happy, 
for  after  thy  death  thou  wilt  be  like  this  one!"  That  the 
second  and  probably  far  the  larger  group  heeded  this  ad- 
monition well  is  richly  illustrated  in  the  tomb-paintings  of 
Beni-Hasan.  They  show  us  that  beer  and  wine  were  drunk 


No.  20.    Slave  ottering  Avine  cup  to  a  lady  (after  Wilkinson). 

by  the  Egyptians  often  to  excess  and  that  the  women  of  the 
upper  classes  were  also  not  free  from  this  habit.  Illustration 
No.  20  shows  a  slave  offering  wine  to  a  lady.  Two  slaves 
carry  their  totally  drunk  master,  one  at  the  foot,  the  other 
at  the  head.  They  are  followed  by  three  slaves  who  have  lifted 
their  master  on  their  heads  and  carry  him  away  like  a  stiff  pole 
(see  Illustrations  No.  21).  The  first  slave  holds  with  his  hand  the 
head  of  the  master.  On  a  wall-painting  at  Thebes  we  behold  an 
even  more  unesthetic  picture.  Ladies,  overcome  by  the  use  of 
too  much  wine,  pay  a  painful  and  ugly  sacrifice  to  Dionysos 
(see  Illustration  Nos.  22  and 23).  The  lotus-flower,  bent  over  the 
arm  of  a  drunken  ladv  indicates  her  condition,  for  this  flower 


i)  Herod.  II.  78. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.       QQ 

determines  also  the  concept  of  intoxication {.     These  ladies  are 
held  by  their  female  servants.     For  an  Egyptian  banquet  scene 


No.  21.    Scene  after  the  close  of  a  banquet  (after  Wilkinson). 


Nos.  22  and  23.    From  a  Theban  tomb  (after  Wilkinson). 


i)  So  in  Demotic        00  ^>     The    lotus-flower,    in    a    more  general 
way,  serves  as  determinative  of  joy,  f.  i.,  in  the  verb  ''to  rejoice,  to  be  in  an 


lOO  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

see  Illustration  No.  24.  In  the  banquet  scene  of  the  tomb  of 
Paheri  we  are  enabled  to  become  quasi  listeners  to  the  form  and 
tone  of  conversations  that  prevailed  at  these  banquets.  A  ser- 
vant had  offered,  to  Amen-sat,  one  of  the  daughters  of  Kem, 
a  drinking-bowl.  The  lady  was  of  another  type  than  her 
sisters  of  Thebes.  She  refused  the  proffered  drink.  The  ser- 
vant, forgetful  of  his  position  while  the  drinking-bout  pro- 
gresses says  jokingly:  "(It  is)  for  thee1,  drink  unto  drunken- 
ness (and)  celebrate!  O  listen  to  what  thy  companion  is  saying, 

do   not   weary    of  taking (?)",   AAAAAA[    )|Q— * 


AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 


A  Tk    The  companion  of  Amensat,   to 
&  JL 

which  the  servant  refers,  called  Nub-mehy,  is  her  distant  cousin. 
She  is  of  a  different  type,  as  we  can  judge  from  her  words, 
with  which  she  addresses  the  porter:  "Give  me  eighteen  cups 
of  wine",  she  calls  out  unto  him,  "dont  you  see2  I  want  to 

f\    «|  /NAAAAA      f*i 

get  drunk!    My  ins  ides  are  as  dry  as  straw!",  (I  v\    I   J]  \A  J.L 


0 — D 

}(P  \J[  I .     Another  lady  is  depicted  making  a  gesture 

of  refusal  with  her  hand.  It  is  the  nurse  Sensenbet,  whom 
another  servant  invites  to  drink,  saying:  "Drink!  Do  not  refuse (?). 

ft    AAAAAA    g) 

You   see3,   I   shall   not   leave!"     — -*—  "^=^ <=^> (I  'VAAAAA  K\    ^s>- 

1   AAAAAA   _H^> 

**'***  n      n      r\  -f\        o  <^>  o      *-* 

\\  v\  fl  ^\  W <n> ¥  g         .     Here  again  .the  artist 

J     \_£^        ^^        AAAAAA     1    JH     211  A    A       <^ 

has  grouped  Sensenbet  with  a  lady,  the  nurse  Tupu,  who  calls 
upon  her  to  drink  and  not,  by  her  refusal,  spoil  the  enter- 
tainment. She  says:  "Drink!  do  not  spoil  the  entertainment. 

exalted  mood",  o-=>  M  M  ^^  DKI,  112;  ^.      DKI,  105.    ^-^  "to  rejoice", 


IP"  Hi- 


1)  Lit.  "(It  is)  for  thy  ka". 

2)  Lit  "Behold",  which  in  English,  is  too  formal. 

3)  Lit.  "Behold'*. 


1O2  •    Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Let  the  cup  reach  me.     You  know1  it  is  due  unto  the  ha  to 

drink- 


f)    AA/WVA  -O   ^^  £"N  -  M-  —    l\    I 

~~1  \\  n&  "^^  AAAAAA  ^^  U  t-     See  also  Lepsius,   Aus- 

„     /         l/JT*  _  0  <IZ>  1  | 

wahl,  16,  line  16:    "Do  not  cease  to  drink,    to  eat,    to  intoxi- 
cate thyself,   to  make  love,   (and)   to   celebrate   good    days", 


n 

t 


The  Egyptian  toast  seems  to  have  consisted  in  the  address: 
k'l-k,  i.  e.,  "to  thy  double",  or  rather  k'i-frr-k'l,  LjTLJ  which 

word  is  preserved  in  the  name  of  the  month  Koiahk.  KIA^K, 
XOlAgK,  XOIAK;  \OICLK  and  in  the  name  of  the  vessel  ku-i- 
ih-ku  (Winckler,  Amarnataf.  No.  294;  see  OLZ,  1899,  Vol. 

II,  105). 

A  few  songs,  which  seem  to  have  been  most  popular  at 
banquets,  have  come  down  to  us.  They  contain  exhortations 
similar  to  the  one  Herodotus  had  taken  down.  The  Egyp- 
tians are  advised  therein  to  enjoy  life  to  the  utmost,  and  to 
use  every  day  for  mirthmaking  until  the  day  shall  come  to 
depart  for  the  land  whence  none  returns.  Pap.  Harris  500, 
6,  10—  7,3  2: 

"Place  aromatics  on  thy  head! 

The  garment  on  thyself  (let  be)  of  byssus, 

Dipped  into  the  precious 

(and)  genuine  things  of  the  gods! 

Surpass   (even)  thy  life  of  pleasure  (shown  hitherto)! 

Let  [not]  thy  heart  get  weary! 


Perform  thy  affairs  on  earth 


i)  Lit.  "Behold". 

2)  See  Goodwin,  TSBA,  III,  387;  Maspero,  Journ.  Asia*.,  1880,  404 
also  Etud.  Egypt.  I,  164;  Erman,  Aeg.  516,  Griffith,  World's  Best  Lit.  5316  and 
Miiller,  Liebespoesie,  pp.  29  and  30.  See  also  Miiller,  ibid.  pp.  31 — 33  and  the 
text  published  in  Reinisch,  Aegypt.  Chrestomathie  I,  20,  in  which  the  deceased 
lady  Ta-imhotep,  the  wife  of  the  high-priest  of  Memphis,  implores  her  hus- 
band to  enjoy  this  present  life  to  the  utmost,  since  the  underworld  is  a  land 
of  dense  darkness  and  a  dreary  place  for  the  dead. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     1Q3 

according  to  the  bidding  of  thy  heart! 
That  day  of  lamentation  will  come  to  thee, 
(in  which)  he  of  a  paralyzed  heart  will  not  (be  able 

to)  hear  their  mournings. 
Weeping  will  not  compel 
the  heart  of  a  man  (to  beat)  in  the  tomb. 
Moral(?):  Celebrate  the  joyous  day! 
Do  not  rest  in  it! 
Behold!   It  was  not  granted, 
to  take  along'  one's  possession. 
Behold!   There  is  none,  who  has  gone  hence 
and  has  returned  again. 

At  banquets  the  harp-player  was  seldom  missing.  We 
possess  an  interesting,  though  very  difficult  text1,  which 
describes  the  manner  of  life  this  minstrel  lived  and  parti- 
cularly his  struggle  for  existence.  He  is  in  want  and  priva- 
tion. He  knows  only  one  song,  of  which  the  theme  is  "I  am 
hungry  and  thirsty".  When  he  goes  to  the  banquets  of  the 
rich,  he  first  eats  and  drinks.  But  moderation  in  eating  and 
drinking  is  an  unknown  virtue  to  him.  "He  drinks  for  two, 
he  eats  for  three,  he  satiates  himself  for  five".  When  he  is 
called  upon  to  play  his  harp  and  accompany  his  instrument 
with  his  song,  he  is  so  drunk  that  he  is  unable  to  perform 
and  the  guests  chase  him  away  from  the  banquet-hall. 

"He  has  doctrine  and  he  has  not.  (He  is)  like  one  who 
can  not  speak,  although  (being)  intelligent,  and  who  does 
not  know  to  answer  in  a  satisfactory  way.  (He  is)  like 
a  fool  who  has  digested  a  book,  in  which  is  contained 
every  teaching,  and  (yet)  he  is  able  to  sing  only  one 
song,  since  he  was  born:  "I  am  hungry,  I  wish  to  drink. 

Is  there  nothing  to  eat(?)" when  before  him 

he  sees  meat.  He  searches  after  the  blood  more  than 
the  fly,  (more  than)  the  vulture  that  has  decried  the  mas- 
sacre. 

He  will  be  able  to  pass  four  days  awake,  to  look  for 
provisions,  being  fully  dressed  they  call  unto  him  "There  is 

i)  Vienna  Demotic  papyrus  No.  31.  This  text  was  first  transl  ated  by 
Revillout  in  the  Revue  egypt.  After  this  first  endeavor,  Krall  published  partly 
a  new  translation.  See  now  Revue  Egypt.,  1919. 


1O4  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

meat  in  such  and  such  a  bad  place  1",   and  he  is  already 

there  with  the   harp.     He  has   no (it   is)   the 

throat  (?)  of  the  man,  who  destroys  his  own  self.  As  soon 
as  he  has  found  wine  (and)  meat  before  him  he  goes  there 
without  being  invited.  He  converses  with  the  guests: 
"I  can  not  sing,  I  am  hungry.  I  can  not  bring  the  harp 
in  order  to  chant  (it),  without  having  drunk,  (and)  eaten 

from  the  jar And  he  uses  wine  for  two, 

meat  for  three,  food  for  five  together.  The  harp  presses 
(against)  his  heart;  it  is  like  a  heavy  load.  He  causes 
them  to  call  to  him  three  times  for  a  song.  He  is  ac- 
customed to  carry  the  harp  in  order  to  inebriate  himself, 
in  order  to  exhibit  every  kind  of  vice  in  him.  He  plays 

(on)  the  harp  in  entire  discord "Serve  food". 

He  turns  it  to  his  side.     He  responds  to  recite  the  .  . . 

He  is  accustomed  to  exaggerate  his  art.     (For) 

his  mouth  is  his  strength,  (and)  his  words  do  not  bear 
witness  to  his  art.  It  differs  his  voice,  it  differs  the  harp ; 
his  bad  behavior,  his  art  speak  against  him,  against  the 
order  to  sing.  "Shame  with  thy  splendor!"  They  are 

unaccustomed until the  pupil  of  his 

eye.  They  will  not  receive  him  at  another  place  because 
of  his  many  vices.  Once  satiated  he  leaves  the  harp,  he 
flees,  he  departs.  He  causes  the  hour  to  pass  to  show(r) 
his  face." 

Krall  was  the  first  scholar  who  recognized1  that  this  text 
belongs  to  the  same  class  of  literature,  which  depicts  in 
a  satirico-humorous  way  the  life  and  doings  of  men  of  different 
professions  and  crafts,  as  contained  in  Pap.  Anastasi  III,  3,  9 — 
4,  4;  V,  8,  1—9,  l;  Anast.  Ill,  5,  5—6,  2;  IV,  9,  4—10,  1;  Anast. 
V,  15,  6—17,  3  and  Pap.  Sallier  I,  6,  1—9;  Pap.  Sallier  II,  4,  6—8. 
In  a  company  of  high-living  guests  the  harp-player  fell  an 
easy  prey  to  a  debauched  life.  The  text  was  probably  written 
as  a  warning  to  those  who  desired  to  choose  the  tempting 
life  of  a  musician  and  minstrel  as  their  life's  work.  The  harp- 
player  is  no  uneducated  person,  "he  has  doctrine",  but  is  of 
a  mind  that  seeks,  since  his  early  childhood,  his  highest 


i)  See  Rec.  de  trav.  V,  pp.  76—78. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     105 

ideals  in  good  and  plenty  of  food  and  drinks,  until  he  be- 
comes so  depraved  that  his  presence  is  offensive  even  in  those 
circles,  which  otherwise  are  all  but  Puritan  themselves.  The 
intoxicated  husband,  who  returns  home  from  the  banquet, 
does  not  meet  an  enfuriated  wife  who  showers  him  with  re- 
proaches and  moral  lectures.  She  removes  the  wreaths,  the 
banquet-adornment,  when  he  has  retired  (Pap.  Harris,  500,  7, 
11,  12).  The  young  Egyptian  student,  it  appears  from  a  let- 
ter written  by  a  teacher  to  his  pupil1,  was  prone  to  forget 
his  studies  and  frequent  the  taverns  of  the  city  in  order  to 
get  drunk  on  home-made  and  imported  wines.  The  teacher 
writes : 

"I  am  told  that  thou  forsakest  books 

(and)  dost  abandon  thyself  to  pleasure. 

Thou  dost  wander  from  tavern  to  tavern. 

Every  evening  the  smell  of  beer, 

the  smell  of  beer  frightens  men  away  (from  thee). 

It  corrupts  thy  soul, 

(and)  thou  art  like  a  broken  oar. 

Thou  canst  guide  to  neither  side. 

Thou  art  like  a  temple  without  a  god, 

(like)  a  house  without  bread. 

Thou  art  detected  as  thou  climbest  up  the  walls, 

and  breakest  the  plank. 

The  people  flee  from  thee, 

and  thou  dost  strike  and  wound  them. 

O,  that  thou  wouldst  comprehend  that  wine  is  an 

abomination 

and  that  thou  wouldst  abjure  the  pomegranate-drink; 

that  thou  wouldst  not  set  thy  heart  on  fig-wine, 

and  that  thou  wouldst  forget  the  carob-wine. 

The  Egyptian   public   beer-  and  wineshops   (         $      O , 

nj^ft^ojj        0  "nflp  ^?.)  were,  it  seems,  often 

I  <rz>  i /WWVA      A.oLJI       o          i  IJ  @  III7 

also  dens  of  prostitution.  We  see  on  one  monument 
girls  in  the  company  of  an  intoxicated  man.  The  Egyptian 
demimondaines  embrace  him  in  this  condition  in  which  he 


i)  Pap.  Anast.  IV,  1 1 ,  8  ff. ;  cf.  also  Sallier,  I,  9,  9  ff. 


1O6  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

was  an  easy  mark  to  their  lures.  The  girls  have  placed 
a  wreath  around  his  neck  and  have  anointed  him  with  oil. 
Wild  scenes  and  disorder  may  often  have  ended  the  drink- 
ing bouts,  as  we  read  in  a  love-song:  "The  banquet  is  dis- 
ordered by  drunkenness"1.  The  keepers  of  public  taverns 
stood  very  low  in  the  estimation  of  the  better  class  of  their 
fellow-citizens.  We  gain  this  information  from  a  satirical 
remark  in  which  a  taverner  figures  as  criterion  for  the  moral 
depravity  of  a  certain  scribe  Roye,  the  cattle-counter  Kasa 
and  an  official  of  the  treasury  called  Amen-wah-se.  It  says2: 
"Well  then,  I  describe  (?)  unto  thee  Nakht,  him  of  the  wine- 
shop; he  is  ten-times  better  for  thee  than  these", 


''    n  „.     At  social  gatherings   the  participants  were  invited 

AAAAAA    LJ    Q) 

to  drink  heartily.  In  the  tomb  of  Ahmes  at  el-Kab  we  read: 
"drinking  unto  intoxication  and  celebrating  a  festive  day" 
swry  r  tht  iry  hrw  nfr.  A  servant  carries  to  Amenemheb a 

and  his  wife  a  beverage  ^  0  I      *~ ,  "good  intoxicating  drink". 

Holidays  were  always  especially  days  of  great  drinking  bouts. 
Thus  we  read4:  "The  soldiers  of  his  Majesty  were  drunk  of 
wine  and  anointed  with  oil  each  day  as  on  a  holiday  in  Egypt" 


consumption  of 

wine  and  beer  must  have  been  enormous5.  It  was  brought 
to  kings,  warriors  and  priests  by  right  of  state  in  specific 
quantities.  Every  warrior,  for  instance,  if  we  can  trust  the 
statement  of  Herodotus6,  of  the  royal  body-guard,  which 
consisted  of  2000  men  received  four  measures  of  wine* 


1)  Turin  love-songs,  Maspero,  Etud.  Egypt.,  I,  228. 

2)  Pap.  Anast.  I,  9,  4  ff.     See  also  Aeg.  Z.,  44,  pp.  124  and   125. 

3)  Sethe,  Urk-unden\M,  pp.  916  and  917. 

4)  Sethe,   Urkunden  IV,  p.  688. 

5)  Ramses  III.   says:    "I    gave    every   day   wine   and  must,    in  order  to 
equip  with  abundance  the  land  of  On"  (Pap.  Harris  I,  27,  8). 

6)  Herod.  II,  168. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals,     lo? 

Every  priest,  who  performed  service  at  the  temple,  received 
one  measure.  The  Egyptian  calender  contained  a  "day  of 

m,--^    >WW\A  X!Si 

PSrt1-      Tht  ^^    was  a  monthly   festival, 

<d>   |    0"  ^<LJ 

which  was  celebrated  on  the  twentieth  day  of  the  month  of 
Thot,  Coptic  OooyT,  0O)OyT,  Greek  6co£,  Bootid.  The 
name  of  the  first  month  of  the  year,  Thot  was  probably  ori- 
ginally called  thy,  \\,  which  referred  to  the  "vintage-festi-^ 

val",  or,  "vine-festival",  which  originally  inaugurated  the  New- 
Year  of  the  Egyptians.  The  old  Canaanites  similarly,  com- 
menced the  New  Year  with  the  vintage,  or  rather  after  the 
wine-harvest.  It  is  possible  that  the  origin  of  the  Purim  festi- 
val goes  back  to  the  old  Canaanitish  vintage-festival  (Purim 
etymologically  connected  with^rtf,  "the  wine-press").  Hero- 
dotus II,  59  mentions  that  at  the  /^^-celebration  of  the  bac- 
chanal Bubastis  (Bestis)-festival,  there  was  more  wine  drunk 
on  one  day  than  throughout  the  entire  year.  These  festivals, 
celebrated  in  honor  of  the  catgoddess,  were  of  proverbial  gaity 
and  men,  women  and  children  came  from  all  parts  of  Egypt 
to  take  part  in  them.  "The  gods  of  heaven  rejoiced,  the  an- 
cestors diverted  themselves,  those  who  were  present  became 
drunk  with  wine,  their  heads  were  crowned  with  flowers,  the 
inhabitants  ran  merrily  to  and  fro,  their  heads  streaming  with 
perfume,  in  honor  of  the  goddess;  the  children  skipped  sport- 
ively about  from  sunrise  to  sunset"  (Dumichen,  Bauurkunden, 
p.  21).  In  the  inscription  of  Tehutineht,  son  of  Nehera,  in  the 
quarry  of  Het-Nub,  the  dead  is  praised  as  (lo):  "loved  by 
alls  his  town(s-folk),  women  as  well  as  men,  not  conspiring 

evil,  (11)  great  of  beer  f  *^L  |Mo!)",  etc. 

\_ fl   _CE\S>  A  £^          V 

Although  the  Egyptian  monuments  make  it  clear  that  x 
the  Egyptians  were  heavy  beer-  and  wine-drinkers,  and  that 
from  their  early  youth,  according  to  a  passage2,  which  states 
that  a  good  mother  is  accustomed  to  bring  to  her  rson, 
who  attends  school,  three  loaves  of  bread  and  two  jars  of 
beer  daily,  yet  there  were  at  all  times  voices  raised  against 

i)  Cf.  Diim.  Resultate,  51,  25:  m  hrw  tpy  n  th. 
2}  Pap.  Ani,  20,  20;   cf.  Pap.  Sail.  II,  10,  6. 


1O8  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

drunkenness.  Sentences  such  as  "A  cup  of  water  satisfies  the 
.thirst"1,  or,  "A  short  minute  overpowers  the  heart"2,  or,  "Do 
not  set  thy  heart  on  fig-wine"3,  show  this  conclusively.  The 
scribe  Ani  indulges  in  the  following  warning:  "Do  not  pass 
(thy  time)  in  the  beer-house  and  thou  shalt  not  speak  evil 
about  thy  neighbor  even  in  intoxication.  Then  (if)  thou 
fallest  to  the  ground,  and  thou  breakest  the  limbs,  none 
reacheth  out  the  hand  to  help  thee.  Behold,  thy  companions! 
They  drink  and  say:  Go  home,  thou,  who  hast  drunk  enough!". 
It  is  pretty  certain  that  moderation  in  drinking  was  recom- 
mended to  the  kings  more  than  to  any  other  class,  in  view 
of  the  dietetic  and  other  laws  by  which  the  priests  have  regu- 
lated and  assured  the  life  of  the  king4. 

Many  references  to  drinking  are  found  in  the  Egyptian 
love  poetry.  The.  lover  is  even  satisfied  to  go  without  his 
accustomed  beer,  as  long  as  he  enjoys  the  pleasant  company 
of  his  sweetheart5.  A  beautiful  lovesong,  with  a  reference  to 
the  sweetheart  making  her  lover  drunk  with  love  as  well  as 
beer  or  wine,  is  the  following6: 

"The  little  sycomore 

which  she  has  planted  with  her  hand, 

commences  to  speak, 

and  its  (words  are  as)  drops  of  honey. 

It  is  charming,  its  foliage  is  beautiful, 

more  green  than  the  (papyrus). 

It  is  laden  with  fruits 

redder  than  ruby. 

Its  leaves  are  like  malachite, 

their  color  is  (transparent)  like  the  glass; 

its  stem  is  like  the  color  of  the  (yellow)  neSmet-stone, 


i)  Pap.  Prisse,  i,  5;  cf.  also  i,  8  etc. 
2}  Pap.  Prisse,  i,  4. 

3)  See  also  Pap.  Anast.  I,  10,  3  ff. 

4)  Diod.  I.  Jo.  Clemens   Alexandr.  Stromata,    VI,   p.  633    mentions    rdv 
xXof KJJUOV  paaiXiKoO  piou. 

5)  See  Miiller,  W.  Max,  Liebespoesie. 

6)  Maspero,  Turin  pap.  79—83.  Etud.  Egypt.,  I,  p.  217  ff.  and  Erman,  A., 
Agypten  und  agyptisches  Lebcn  im  Altertum,  Tubingen,   1885,  pp.  272  and  273, 
W.  M.  Miiller,  Liebespoesie,  pp.  39  and  40. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals. 

round  (?)  like  the  Besbes(-trze)t 

its  shade  cooleth. 

It  sends  its  letter  through  a  small  girl, 

the  daughter  of  the  chief-gardener. 

It  causes  her  to  hasten  to  the  much-beloved: 

"Come  and  tarry  amongst  the  young  people. 

The  meadow,  full  of  bushes,  celeb  rates  (?)  its  day. 

The  arbor  and  the  tent  are  to  thy  disposal. 

Thy  village-chiefs  rejoice, 

(and)  the  young  folks,  who  behold  thee! 

They  send  thy  slaves  ahead  of  thee     . 

The  servants,  who  belong  to  thee 

furnished  with  their  tools, 

are  drinking,  while  hastening  to  thee, 

before  they  have  (started  drinking), 

(when  they)  hear  their  comrades, 

coming  with  their  utensils. 

They  bring  beer  of  every  (kind), 

all  kinds  of  mixed  bread, 

many  flowers  from  yesterday  and  to-day, 

and  all  kinds  of  refreshing  fruits. 

Come,  celebrate  this  day, 

and  to-morrow  and  the  day  after  to-morrow  three  days 

sitting  in  my  shade. 

Her  companion  sitteth  to  her  right  side, 

(and)  she  maketh  him  drunk,1 

she  obeying  that  which  he  sayeth 

(when)    the    drinking-bout    becomes    disordered    by 

drunkenness 

(and)  she  is  left  alone  with  her  brother 

unwrapping  herself  below  me, 

the  sister,  on  her  promenade. 

I  am  of  a  silent  mind, 

and  do  not  say  anything,  that  I  see, 

and  I  do  not  tell 

In  the  records  of  the  so-called  Harem  conspiracy  we 
read  that  certain  persons  had  forsaken  the  king's  instruction 
and  that  the  women  had  gone  to  these  men,  one  an  infantry- 
officer,  the  second  a  captain  of  police,  the  third  a  butler,  the 


HO  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

fourth  a  scribe  of  the  archives,  and  the  fifth  a  standard-bearer 
of  the  infantry.  Both  men  and  women  had  gotten  drunk,  or 
as  the  phrase  expresses  it,  they  had  "made  a  beershop", 
1  .t-hk.t.  The  butler  evaded  court-proceedings  by  taking  his 
own  life.  The  standard  bearer  Hor  was  acquitted.  Tefnahte, 
in  his  message  of  submission  expressly  states  "I  have  not  sat 
in  the  beershop"1. 

Beer  has  found  a  place  in  Egyptian  mythology.  Once 
upon  a  time  in  primeval  days  Re*  reigned  as  king  over  men 
and  gods.  But  he  grew  old,  his  bones  were  silver,  his  limbs 
gold  and  his  .hair  was  genuine  lapis-lazuli.  He  had  become 
old  and  stiff.  Mankind  became  aware  of  this  and  had  put  it 
in  their  minds  to  blaspheme  the  old  god.  But  their  thoughts 
became  known  to  Rec  and  he  caused  the  gods  to  assemble 
before  him  in  order  to  inflict  a  punishment  upon  mankind. 
This  he  did  so  secretly  that  the  people  were  kept  completely 
ignorant  of  his  plans.  Re1  sent  his  eye,  which  descended  as 
the  goddess  Hathor.  She  killed  the  people,  who  had  started 
to  take  refuge,  stream-upward,  into  the  mountains.  The  rage 
of  Hathor  was  so  furious  that  it  became  too  much  for  Rec. 
But  Hathor's  fury  knew  no  bounds.  She  did  not  want  to 
stop  the  slaughter,  until  the  last  man  was  destroyed.  She 
waded,  against  the  will  of  the  sungod,  for  a  number  of  nights 
in  the  human  blood,  until,  finally,  Rec  conceived  of  a  trickery. 
He  caused  immense  quantities  of  beer,  which  was  red-colored, 
in  order  to  look  like  the  blood  of  men,  to  be  poured  over  the 
fields2.  The  beer  attracted  the  goddess.  It  tasted  good  to 
her  and  she  returned  home  in  an  intoxicated  condition,  not 
recognizing  the  people.  Thus,  some  people  were  saved,  who 
had  taken  their  refuge  in  the  desert.  The  beer,  according  to 
this  myth  was  prepared  of  barley  and  dada-fruit,  i.  e.,  the 
mandrake- fruit  from  Ethiopia.  "Hasten  to  the  island  of  Ele- 
phantine, and  bring  me  much  dada-fruit",  is  the  order  given 
by  Re1  to  his  messengers.  When  they  had  brought  it,  Rec 


1)  Pianty  Stele,  i,   133  ff. 

2)  "On   that  day  Rec    [stood   up]    in  the   best  part(?)   of  the  night  for 
causing  this  sleeping  draught  to  be  poured  out ,    and  the  fields  were  flooded 
four  spans  high  by  [that]  liquid  through  the  power  of  the  majesty  of  this  god". 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals,     m 

gave  it  to  the  goddess  Sektet l  of  Heliopolis,  in  order  to 
grind  it.  The  dada-fruit  was  added  to  the  barley  which  was 
crushed  by  the  slaves,  and  the  whole  was  mixed  together 
with  the  blood  of  men,  making  thus  7000  jugs  of  beer 
Another  version  has  it  that  wine  was  made,  instead  of  beer, 
out  of  "the  blood  of  those  who  formerly  fought  against  the 
gods"2.  Plutarch  in  this  connection  asserts  that  before  the 
time  of  Psammetichus,  the  kings  had  abstained  from  wine, 
and  had  even  not  allowed  themselves  to  offer  it  up  as  sacri- 
fice, since  wine  was  held  to  be  the  blood  of  the  one-time 
enemies  of  the  gods.  The  one  version  gives  us  the  origin  of 
the  beer,  the  other  that  of  the  wine.  For  it  states  that  when 
these  enemies  of  the  gods  were  killed  and  their  blood  ming- 
led with  the  earth,  the  vinestalk  was  created.  The  story  of 
the  first  version  winds  up  with  the  statement:  "Thus  originated 
the  girls  in  the  Pleasent  City.  Rec  said  to  that  goddess: 
'Make  sleeping-draughts  for  her  at  the  time  of  the  New  Year 
festival!  Their  number  (shall  be)  according  to(?)  that  of  my 
(temple)  slave-girls.'  Thus  originated  the  making  of  sleeping- 
draughts  for(?)  the  number  of  slave-girls  at  the  festival  of 
Hat-hor  by  all  men  since  that  day",3.  The  goddess  Hathor 
is  generally  brought  into  connection  with  the  .invention 
of  making  beer.  She  is  called  "she  who,  first,  has  made 

the  beer",  or,  "the  inventress  of  brewing",  Iftlu  *~  8  „  4.  From 
the  temple  inscription  of  Dendera  we  learn  that  Hathor  is 

called  "the  mistress  of  intoxication",  ^^^O,    or  even,   "the 

d 

intoxicated  one",  tehy.t,  probably  in  connection  with  the  myth 
of  the  destruction  of  mankind.  Dendera  and  its  temple  bore 

the  name  "the  place  of  drunkenness",  r L^-J-^  (Diim.,  Dend. 
10,  Si  S -5- ~  (Diim-'  Hist'  InscJir-  n>  57  a)«  A  special 


part  of  Hathor's  temple  was  named  "the.  house  of  drunkenness", 
ml — 1^"&"    (^um->    Dend.    14).      Hathor    figures    also    as    the 

1)  Or  read  "the  miller" (?),  see  Miiller,  Max  W.,  Myth.  p.  75. 

2)  Cf.  Plutarch,  De  Iside  (ed.  Parthey),  VI. 

3)  See  Miiller,  Max  W.,  Myth.  p.  76.  4)  Diim..  Kal.  Inschr.  100. 


H2  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

patron  goddess  of  wine.     As  the  patron  goddess  of  the  Ma- 
reotic  wines  she  is  called  "Hathor,  the  mistress  of  neka,  who 


resides  in  hat-ii ar-lmnt, 


In  Dendera2 


is  represented  the  festive  offering  of  the  mnw-]a.r  unto  the 
goddess  of  wine.  Between  the  king,  who  offers  the  wine  jar 
with  his  right  hand,  and  the  goddess,  who  sits  on  her  throne, 
there  is  a  long  inscription,  -which  contains  the  songs,  which 
were  sung  on  the  20  th  day  of  the  month  of  Thot  before  the 
mistress  of  intoxication  during  the  ceremony  of  presenting 
he  wine  jar  to  the  goddess.  With  reference  to  this  mnzv-jar 
Hathor  is  called  "mistress  of  the  mnw-ja.r,  whose  ka  was  first 
prepared  on  the  2Oth  day  of  Thot3.  This  day  was  the  "feast 

of  drunkenness  of  the  mistress  of  Dendera", 


The   song   of  the   seven  Hathors   is    of  especial  interest.     It 
reads  5: 

"We  gladden  daily  thy  majesty, 

And  thy  heart  rejoiceth,  when  thou  hearest  our  songs. 

We  shout,  when  we  behold  thee, 

Every  day,  every  day. 

And  our  hearts  rejoice  at  the  sight  of  thy  majesty, 

Fof  thou  art  the  mistress  of  the  wreath, 

The  mistress  of  the  dance, 

The  mistress  of  drunkenness  without  end"6. 


i)  See  Diim.,    Tempel  Inschr.  I,  73,  i.     In  the  same  passage  she  is  also 
called  "mistress  of  the  jars,  mistress  of  Yemet." 


W    «: 

SI©' 

2)  Mariette,  Dendera,  I,  31. 

3) 

4)  Mariette,  Dendera,  III,  200. 

5)  Mariette,  Dendera,  60,  e— h,  =  Diim.  Res.,  XLV;  see  also  Junker,  H., 
Poesie  aus  der  Sfdtzeit,  Aeg.  Z.,  43,  pp.  101 — 128. 

6) 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     \  \  --2 

By  the  side  of  Hathor  appears  the  goddess  Menqet,  as 
a  beer-goddess  of  the  Egyptians.  Menqet  is  mentioned  as 
a  vegetation  divinity,  and  as  such  she  is  orthographically 
connected  with  a  tree.  But  later  she  is  shown  as  a  woman 
holding  two  (beer?-)jars.  She  is  often  described  as  maker  or 
giver  of  beer,  f.  i.,  "Menqet,  the  goddess  who  makes  beer", 

"  "  "  '      /(  ff\    tt   /—  \     O\    O     AA/VAAA 

O1*     "°    Menqet,     give     me     beer!", 

thee  beer" 


.  A 

ii  i  Hi  i  /^ 


The  Classical  writers  most  frequently  identified  Osiris 
with  Dionysos5.  Herodotus  states  "Otfipid;  Se  £tfri  Ai6vutfo<^ 
Kara  EXXcxSa  yXtbtftfav.  The  identification  of  the  two  gods 
was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  similarity  of  the  rites  of  the 
Anthesteria  (dv^etftrjpta)  to  those  Egyptian  festivals  which 
took  place  in  the  month  Choiak,  commemorating  the  passion 
and  resurrection  of  Osiris.  The  holy  plant  of  Osiris  as  well  as 
of  Dionysos  was  the  ivy6,  but  also  the  vine.  The  reproduction 


,  ,,c 

no® 
•HI 

Ton?; 

^ 

^~>  i  j  > 

v^ 

muh] 


,  , 


1)  Rec.  XXIII,  p.  167. 

2)  Lieblein,  Z/Vr^  $rw^  mon  nom  fleurisse,  XXXIII,   16. 

3)  Aeg.  Z.,  50,  p.  42. 

4)  See  further  De  Morgan,  Ombos,  No.  112;  Mariette,  Dcndera,  IV,  6,  15; 
Piehl,  in  Melanges  Charles  de  Harlez,  p.  222;  v.  Bergmann,  Buck  vom  Durch- 
wandeln,  1.  71. 

5)  Diod.  I,  u,   13  if.,  96;   IV,  i;    Plutarch,    de  Iside  17,  28,  34  ff.,  37;   Ti- 
bull.  I,  7^  29  ff.;   Anson.  ep.,  29 — 30;   Dio  Cass.  50,  5,  26;   CIG,  4893;   Tertull., 
cor.  7,  etc. 

6)  Plutarch,    de  Iside  37.     According  to  Plutarch  the  ivy  was  called  by 
the  Egyptians  xevoaipiq,  or  the  "plant  of  Osiris";  cf.  Diod.  I,  17,  19. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  8 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

of  vegetation  in  general,  and  the  fructification  of  the  vine  in 
particular,  symbolized  to  the  Egyptians  the  successive  phases 
of  the  rebirth  of  Osiris.  In  this  mystic  signification  the  vine- 
plant  figures  for  instance  in  the  tomb  of  Sennofri  near  Sheikh- 
abd-el-Gurnah.  The  observation  made  by  the  Ancients  of 
the  vine's  reproduction  and  multiplying  without  seed,  tended 
naturally  to  see  something  divine  in  this  plant.  It  was,  there- 
fore, a  befitting  symbol  of  Batau1,  or  Osiris,  who  revives 
again,  in  spite  of  his  mutilation2.  According  to  Pyr.  1082  the 
sky-goddess  conceived  Osiris  by  wine.  In  a  bilingual  the  element 
IDS  of  the  name  of  a  man  of  Tyre,  called  "1D&TDP,  corresponds 
to  Aiovudio^,  Baudissin,  Der  phonizische  Gott  Esmun,  ZDMG, 
Vol.  59,  (1905)  p.  485,  note  1.  A  second  Egyptian  Dionysos 
was  Antaeus,  who  is  known  to  us  only  by  this  classical  name 
Antaeus  (or  Antaios),  and  who  was  worshipped  at  Antaiopolis 
in  Middle-Egypt.  Also  to  him  the  vine  or  the  ivy  was  holy. 
Golenischeff3  wished  to  identify  him  with  the  Semitic  god 
Resheph,  5|tth,  Respu,  referring  to  Plutarch's  de  Is.  et  Os., 
chapter  37,  in  which  it  is  said  that  Dionysos  is  called  in  Egyp- 
tian Aptfcccpfjc;.  The  god  Osiris  of  the  Ethiopians  of  Meroe 
has  been  considered  very  early  as  a  Dionysos4.  Also  Horus 
is  sometimes  identified  with  Dionysos  by  the  Greeks 5.  A  deity, 
identified  with  the  l6th  decan  star,  the  principal  star  of  the 
constellation  Shesmu  (Sedjjir))  is  written  with  the  hieroglyph 
of  a  press.  In  Pyr.  P  707  he  appears  to  give  water  and  wine. 
Pyr.  T  41  brings  him  into  connection  with  a  "vine-city".  See 
Miiller,  Myth.  p.  58.  Tenemet  also  seems  to  have  been  a  pa- 
troness of  intoxicating  drink,  according  to  de  Morgan,  Ombos 
No.  65. 

It  may  finally  be  remarked  that  the  misshapen  god  Bes, 
of  Punt(?),   who  gained  a  footing  in  Egypt  as  well  as  in  Asia 


1)  Pap.  d'Orb. 

2)  On  the  identification  of  Osiris  with  Dionysos  see  Revue  des  Questions 
historiques,  avril,  1893  and  Rec.  XX,  p.  211  if.     See  also  Miiller,  Max  W.,  Mytho- 
logy, p.  113,  fig.  117  Osiris  under  the  vine. 

3)  Aeg.  Z.,    1882,    p.  138  ff.  and   plates  3  and  4.    —    Antaeus  sometimes 
in  the  monuments  is  identified  with  Seth. 

4)  Herod.  II,  29  and  Origines,  c.  Celsum  V,  37  and  38. 

5)  Diod.  I,  17  and  Plut.,  de  Is.  et  Os.,  cap.  37. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     \  \  t 


and  the  islands  of  the  Greeks,  was  very  fond  of  drinking  and 
is  represented  on  scarabs  as  sucking  beer  from  a  large  vessel 
in  the  fashion  of  the  ancient  Hittites,  the  Armenians  and 
early  Babylonians  (see  Illustration  No.  25).  He  "is  no  other 
than  the  benificent  Dionysos,  who  as  a  pilgrim  through  the 
world,  dispensed  with  hand  rich  in  blessings,  mild  manners, 
peace  and  jollity  to  the  nations"1. 

The  frequent  mention  of  wine  and  beer  in  the  Sumero- 
Akkadian  documents  makes  it  quite  certain  that  the  quanti- 
ties of  intoxicating  liquors  consumed  by  the  ancient  Babylo- 
nians and  Assyrians  were  enormous.  The  Babylonians  had 
the  reputation  of  being  heavy  wine-drinkers,  and  they  sur- 
passed even  the  Persians  in  the  consumption  of  wine,  who 
were  notorious  as  wine- 
drinkers  2.  We  possess 
not  many  documents 
which  refer  to  drunken- 
ness in  Babylonia,  but  this 
lies  in  the  nature  of  the 
case.  The  Babylonians, 
also,  were  less  prone  to 
picture  their  own  vices 
than  the  more  careless 
Egyptians.  But  such  docu- 
ments, nevertheless,  have 

come  down  to  us.  In  an  Assyrian  letter 3  to  the  king  three  army- 
officers  who  had  recently  been  raised  to  higher  military  posts, 
are  accused  by  the  writer,  Bel-iqisha,  of  drunkenness.  The 
letter  reads:  "To  the  king,  my  lord,  thy  servant  Bel-iqisha. 
May  Nabu  (and  Marduk)  be  gracious  unto  the  king  my  lord! 
The  servants  of  the  house  of  my  lord,  whom  the  king,  my 
lord  has  distinguished  to-day,  Tabzua,  son  of  Bel-harrani-ah- 
usur,  whom  the  king  my  lord  has  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a  major,  (and)  Nabu-sakip,  whom  the  king  my  lord  has  raised 
to  (the  rank  of)  third  commander  of  the  regular  cavalry,  (and) 

1)  Brugsch,  History  of  Egypt,  London,  1879,  Vol.1,  p.  115. 

2)  Curt.  V,  i,  37:  CowvvoaUs  ludi  tota  Per  side  regibus  purpuratisque  cordi 
sunt;  Babylonii  maxime  in  vinum,  et  quae  ebrietaUm  sequuntur,  effusi  sunt. 

3)  K.  613;  Harper  85;  see  also  VR  54,  No.  2. 


No.  25.  God  Bes  drinking  beer  through  a  reed 
(alter  Miiller,  W.  Max,  Egyptian  Mythol.}. 


116 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


Emur-ilishu,  whom  the  king  my  lord  has  raised  to  (the  rank 
of)  body-guard  —  these  three  men  are  drunkards.  As  soon 
as  they  are  inebriated,  none  turns  away  the  iron  dagger  from 
him,  who  is  in  front  of  it.  The  information,  which  I  know, 
I  write  unto  the  king  my  lord.  The  king  my  lord  may  do 
as  he  pleases"1.  For  a  drinking  scene  in  a  fortress  see  the 
second  tent  from  the  left  in  the  middle  row  of  Illustration 
No.  26.  In  the  right  compartment  we  notice  the  army-brewer 
and  a  huge  beer-vessel.  In  the  third  tablet  of  the  Babylonian 


No.  26.     Interior  of  a  fortress  (after  Klio,  VI,  p.  396). 

creation  series  Anshar  speaks  unto  Gaga,   his  minister:  '"Let 
the  gods,   all  of  them,    prepare  for  a  feast,    let  them  sit  at  a 

i)  A-na  sarri  be-li-ia  (2)  ardu-ka  m.Bel-ikisV  (3)  Nabu  Marduk  a-na 
§arri  beli-ia  (4)  lik-ru-bu  (5)  ardani  la  bit  beli-ia  (6)  3a  Sarru  be-li  u-mu 
(7)  an-ni-it  it-par-ri-su-u-ni  (8)  ni.Tab-zu-a-a  mar  m.Bel-harrani-ah-usur  (9)  Sa 
a-na  amelurab  ki-sir-u-tu  (10)  Sarru  be-li  il-sVlu-u-ni  (11)  m.Nabu-sa-kip  Sa 
ana  amSluHI  rakbe  (12)  ka-a-ma-nu-tu  (13)  iarru  be-li  xi-se-lu-u-rii  (Rev.  i) 
m.Emur-ili-s'u  (2)  §a  ana  am61umutir-pute  (3)  garni  b£lu  ii-§e-lu-u-ni  (4)  III  an- 
nu-tu  sabe  (5)  §a-ak-ra-nu-tu  iu-nu  (6)  ki-ma  i-lak-ki-ru  (7)  amelu  patra  par- 
zilli  (8)  ultu  pa-an  me-hi-ri-5u  (9)  la  it-sa-ah-ra  (10)  a-bu-tu  §a  u-du-ii-ni 
(n)  a-na  Sarri  be-li-ia  (12)  as-sa-pa-ra  (13)  Sarru  be-li  (14)  ki-i  §a  i-la-u-ni 
li-pu-u§. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     117 

banquet,  let  them  eat  bread,  let  them  mix  wine."  The  closing 
lines  give  a  vivid  description  of  a  banquet  of  the  gods: 

iksahmimma  illak\kuni\ 

Hani  rabuti  kaliSunu  mu$im[mu  $imti\ 

trubuma  muttti  An$ar  imlu 

inniSku  afyfi  ahi  ina  puhri 

lisanu  iSkunu  ina  kireti  \usbu\ 
a$nan  zkulu  iptiku  [kurunua] 
Sir  is  a  matku  usanni  beradisu\rui\ 
sikru  ina  Sate  habasu  zum\ri\ 
madiS  egu  kabittaSun  itel[li] 

"They  came  together  and  went, 

The  great  gods,  all  of  them,  who  decree  fate. 

They  entered  and  before  Anshar  they  filled 

They  kissed  each  other,  in  the  assembly 

They  prepared  for  the  feast,   they  sat  at  the  banquet; 
Bread  they  ate,  strong  wine  they  mixed.  . 
Sweet  herb-wine  confused  their  minds (?). 
They  became  intoxicated  with  drinking,   (their)  bodies 

were  filled. 
They  were  wholly  at  ease,  their  spirit  was  exalted." 

In  the  recently  published  version  of  the  Gilgamesh  epic 
Enkidu  is  decribed  in  these  words:  ul  idi  iluEnkidu  aklam 
ana  akalim  sikaram  ana  Satim  la  lummud,  "Enkidu  did  not 
know  to  eat  food.  He  had  not  been  taught  to  drink  beer." 
From  the  Assyrian  version  we  know  (see  Tablet  I,  2,  39—40; 
3-  3—7,  33—34;  4,  3—4)  that. 

"He  ate  herbs  witfi  the  gazelles, 
Drank  out  of  a  through  with  cattle." 

The  woman,  who  introduces  him  to  civilized  life,  speaks  to  him : 

akul  aklam  UuEnkidu 
simat  balatim 
sikaram  siti  Zimti  mati 

"Eat  food,  O  Enkidu,  the  provender  of  life!  Drink  beer,  the 
custom  of  the  landl"  So  "Enkidu  ate  food  till  he  was  satiated. 
Beer  he  drank,  seven  goblets.  His  spirit  was  loosened,  he 
became  hilarious.  His  heart  became  glad  and  his  face  shone" 


Il8  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

(see  Jastrow-Clay,  An  Old  Babylonian  Version  of  the  Gilga- 
mesh  Epic,  p.  65).  Drinking  was  practised  on  a  large  scale  at 
the  courts  of  Babylon  and  Persia1,  and  Nineveh2.  From  the 
latter  city  we  possess  monumental  representations  of  Assyrian 
banquets3.  The  banquet  scenes  represent  the  guests  only  as 
drinking.  The  sculpture  never  shows  them  eating.  We  see 
the  servants  emptying  a  huge  wine-bowl  with  drinking-cups. 
The  wine-bowl  stands  on  the  ground  and  is  of  a  tremendous 


No.  27.     As's'urbanipal  reclining   in  a  bower  (after  Jeremias,    Das  Alte  Testa- 
ment im  Lichte  des  Alien  Orients). 

size,  reaching  up  to.  a  man's  chest.  The  prophet  Nahum  cha- 
racterizes the  Ninevites  as  drunkards,  saying4:  "While  they 
are  drunken, as  drunkards,  they  shall  be  devoured,  as  stubble 
fully  dry".  Ishtar  bids  Assurbanipal:  "Eat  food,  drink  strong 
wine,  make  music  (and)  exalt  my  divinity,"  a-kul  a-ka-lu  H-ti 

1)  Herod.  9,  no;  Dauiel  5,  i;  Esther  i,  3;  Diod.  Sic.  II,  20. 

2)  Nahum  i,  10. 

3)  See  Botta,  Monument,  plates  51—67:   107—114. 

4)  Nahum  i,  10. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     \\g 

ku-ru-un-nu  nin-gu-tu  $u-kun  nu--id  ilu-ti  (Assurbanipal,  Annals 
Cyl.  B  Col.  V,  65,  66  and  K  2652,  Rev.  5).  A  marble  slap  from 
Nineveh,  now  in  the  British  Museum  pictures  Assurbanipal  with 
his  consort  in  a  bower,  enjoying  the  precious  juice  of  the 
grape  (see  Illlustration  No.  27).  The  Assyrian  banquet  scenes 
depict  the  guests  as  sitting  together  in  the  company  of  always 
four  on  one  table,  two  on  each  side.  Each  table  had  its  special 
waiter.  In  one  case  there  are  depicted  some  forty  or  fifty 
guests  present  at  the  banquet.  The  artist  has-  brought  little 


No.  28.     An  Assyrian  banquet  scene  (after  Meissner). 

animation  into  his  picture.  Each  guest  is  shown  in  the  same 
pose,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  wine  cup,  raised  to  the  level 
with  the  head  (see  Illustration  No.  28).  The  wine  cups  are  very 
beautifully  worked.  They  show  the  form  of  a  lion's  head,  from 
which  the  cup  itself  rises  forth.  The  Assyrians,  as  well 
as  the  Egyptians  reveal  a  great  deal  of  good  taste  in  the 
form  of  their  drinking-ctips.  These  cups  had  different  shapes 
and  were  made  from  different  material.  Herodotus'  state- 
ment1 that  the  Egyptians  drank  wine  only  out  of  brass 

i)  Herod.  II,  37:  £K  xaXxeuuv  irorripiujv  irivouai,  biao>iuwT€<;  diva  udaav 
£,u^pr|V,  OI»K  8  u£v  8  b'oO,  ciXXd  TrcivT€<;.  Hellanicus,  fr.  149  makes  a  similar 
statement. 


12O  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

or  bronze  cups  is  wrong.  Joseph1,  we  are  told,  had  a  wine 
goblet  wrought  of  silver,  while  golden  cups  are  mentioned  in 
the  demotic  novel  (Papyr.  Mariette),  "and  they  had  set  down 
many  golden  cups  2  on  the  drinking-table.  Each  of  the  golden 
goblets  was  filled  with  wine".  Also  Papyrus  Harris  pi.  6  mentions 
vessels  of  gold  for  wine  and  beer.  Amongst  the  many  jugs  and 

bowls,  there  have  been  found  particularly  often  the  ,    l<) 

<K\  ""        „  (1         ,  f  .t~irp,  i.  e.,  "wine-cup"3.     Wine-cups  were 

rr^  -       fl  O    1      LJ 

often  made  of  alabaster,  porcelain,  and  perhaps  also,  judging 
from  the  pictures,  of  glass.  They  had  either  the  form  of  an 
opening  flower,  which  was  held  in  a  stand,  or  contained,  like 
the  Assyrian  representation,  heads  of  animals,  or  birds,  from 
whose  necks  they  drank  (see  Illustration  No.  29).  A  simpler  drink- 
ing-vessel  had  the  form  of  our  own  coffee-cups  or  saucers  (see  Illu- 
stration No.  30).  These  latter  forms  seem  to  have  been  most  custo- 
mary with  the  Syrian  neighbors  of  the  Assyrians.  In  one  monu- 
ment we  see  representatives  of  conquered  Semitic  principalities 
bringing  their  tribute  of  wine  in  such  bowls,  while  one  bears  a 
wineskin  on  his  neck  and  shoulder  (see  Illustration  No.  31 ;  see  also 
the  drinking-scene  on  the  Stele  of  Nerab,  Illustration  No.  32). 
The  Assyrians  also  had  musical  entertainments  with  their  drink- 
ing bouts,  as  is  seen  in  the  banqueting  scene  of  Khorsabad. 
Two  players  are  playing  on  ten-stringed  lyres,  which  were 
of  a  square  shape,  and  hung  around  the  neck  of  the  musician 
by  a  string.  Among  the  high  court-officials  we  meet  with  the 
rab  $aqe,  chief-cup-bearer",  or  "chief  butler"  and  the  rab  bap- 
piri,  "chief-brewer".  These  titles  were  rather  honorary,  since 
we  find  the  rab  saqe  employed  as  military  commander,  f.  i., 
II  Kings  18,  17  "And  the  king  of  Assyria  sent  Tartan  and 
Rab-saris  and  Rab-shakeh  from  Lachish  to  king  Hezekiah 

1)  Gen.  44,  2,  5. 

A   PI  Tx  /VVWVA 

2)  0      v)rs^rf^»    fa  n  n^'     F°r  wine-cups  "made  of  gold",    see  Diim., 

J  /~S  ^  \    ^"*    I 

Recueil  de  mon*  Egypt.  II,  10,  59. 

3)  This    word    represents    at    the    same    time    a    certain    measure.      On 

(determ.  O  or  £}),  "wine-cup",  see  Bnrchardt,  M.,  Die  ah- 


leu  i     i 

kanaan&ischcn  Fremdworte  und  Eigennamen  imAgyptischen,  Leipzig,  1909 — 10, 106. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     121 

with  a  great  army  unto  Jerusalem."  On  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient relics  of  Sumerian  art  dating  back  to  the  time  of  Ur- 
Nina,  the  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  Lagash,  we  see  the  king 
in  the  guise  of  a  laborer,  surrounded  by  his  children  and  the 


No.  29.     Assyrian   eunuchs   carrying  drinking  vessels  (after  Lenormant,    Fr., 
Hist,  ancienne  de  I'Orienf). 

royal  cup-bearer.     Thus  it  appears  that  this  official  must  have 

held  one  of  the  highest  court-positions  even  at  this  very  early  time. 

From  the  cylinders  B  and  C  of  Urukagina,  the  last  king 

of  Lagash,    who  stood  forth  prominently  as  a  great  reformer, 


122 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


No.  30.     Sennacherib   upon  his  throne  (after  Lenormant ,    Fr. ,    Hist,  ancienne 

de  I'Orienf). 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     122 

we  learn  that  it  was  customary  for  the  priests  to  receive 
a  certain  quantity  of  beer  besides  other  things,  when  officiat- 
ing at  funerals.  "(When)  a  dead  body  (was)  laid  in  the  grave 
his  beer  (amounted  to)  seven  jars",  lu-idim  ki-mah-su  gub 
kas-ni  7  dug.  In  Cylinder  A,  V,  1  ff.  he  narrates  what  took 
place  after  order  was  again  restored1.  "(When)  a  dead  body 
(was)  laid  into  the  grave,  his  beer  (amounted  to)  three  jars",  lii- 
idim-idim-a  ki-mah-$u  gub  kas-ni  3  dug.  The  priests  were 
restricted,  by  Urukagina's  reform,  to  contend  themselves  with 
three,  as  against  formerly  seven,  jars  of  beer.  In  an  other 


No.  31.     Representatives   of  conquered  peoples   bringing   their  tribute   to   the 
Assyrian  king  (after  Lenormant,  Fr.,  Hist,  ancienne  de  I' Orient}. 

passage2  he  fixes  the  quantity  of  beer  for  the  lamentation- 
priest3  of  Girsu,  the  lamentation-priest  of  Lagash,  and  the 
artisans.  It  reads:  Two  hubur  and  one  amphora  of  beer  for 
the  lamentation-priest  of  Girsu,  490  loaves  of  bread,  two  hubur 
and  one  amphora  of  beer  for  the  lamentation-priest  of  Lagash; 
406  loaves  of  bread,  one  hubur  and  one  amphora  of  beer 
for  the  lamentation-priests;  250  loaves  of  bread,  one  hubur  of 
beer  for  the  artisans;  180  loaves  of  bread,  one  hubur  of  beer 


1)  See  also  Cylinder  B  and  C,  IX,  26— X,  i  ff. 

2)  Cyl.  B  and  C  X,  21  ff. 

3)  Kaln. 


124 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


No.  32.     The  stele  of  Nerab  (after  Ball,  Light  from  the  East). 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     125 

for  the of  the  city  of  Nina"  etc.1     Hubur  and  sd-dug 

designate  in  the  pre-Sargonic  tablets  measures  of  liquids.  The 
specific  amount  of  these  measures  is  not  known.  The  dug- 
measure,  which  was  smaller  than  the  sd-dug,  contained  either 
20  or  30  qa,  which  equalled  about  8  to  12  liters.  The  fyubur 
was  again  larger  than  the  sd-dug'1.  In  the  oldest  periods  of 
the  Babylonian  history  it  is  known  that  also  the  women 
received  their  special  quantity  of  wine  or  beer.  One  text 
interests  us  in  this  connection,  since  it  shows  that  wine  was 
drunk  by  the  ladies  of  the  harem3.  The  text  reads:  "130 
pomegranate  cakes,  40  qa  of  wine,  Etur;  90  pomegranate 
cakes,  30  qa  of  wine,  Urki;  138  pomegranate  cakes,  20  fig 
cakes,  1O  qa  of  wine,  Etae;  total:  358  pomegranate  cakes,  20  fig 
cakes  (and)  80  qa  of  wine  the  gardeners  have  returned.  Shakh, 
the  superindendent,  brought  it  into  the  harem.  Year  l  (of 
Lugal-anda)". 

Wine  and  beer  were  offered  up  as  sacrifices  to  the  gods 4, 
and  Gudea  ordered  his  donkey-shepherd  Ensignun  "to  make 
plenty  beer"5  for  the  god  Ningirsu,  Bel-Marduk  received 
daily  six  metretes  of  wine  (Hist.  Bel.  v.  3).  The  daily  wine- 
offerings  were  presented  in  gigantic  golden  chalices.  'Upon 
a  golden  table  of  offering,  measuring  41  feet  in  length  and 
15  feet  in  width,  and  weighing  500  talents,  stood  two  golden 
chalices  (Kccpxrjtficc)  weighing  1 5  talents  each,  and  three  golden 
chalices,  the  one  of  1200  talents  and  the  other  two  of  each 


1)  Cyl.  B   and  C  X,  21  ff. :    2   kas   hubur    i    sd-dug   its-ku   Gir-suki-kam 
60x8 -{-io  ninda  2  kas-hubur  i  sd-dug  us-ku  &irpurlaki-kam  6ox6-\-  10x4. -{-6 
ninda  i  kas  hubur  i  sd-dug  us-ku-an  60x4  +  10  ninda  i  kas  hubur  nam-um- 
ma-an  60X3  ninda  i  kas  hubur  AB.AS.SI  Ninaki-na-me. 

2)  See  Zeitschrift  f.  Assyr.,  XVII,  pp.  94  und  95. 

3)  H.  de  Genouillac,    Tablettes  Sumeriennes  archa'iques,  No.  43.     In  Rev. 
d'Assyr.,  VI,  p.  134,  AO  4424,  Obv.  i  ff.  (neo-Babylonian)  ladies  of  the  palace 
receive  each   three  qa   of  spelt-beer  as   their  daily   portion.     In   the   suratotal 
(Rer.  i)   it  is   called,    however,    kas-ka-lum-ma.    i.  e.,    "datewine".     See  also 
AO  4423  in  Rev.  d'Assyr.,  VI,  p.  134  and  often. 

4)  Gudea,  Cyl.  B  III,  18;   Cyl.  B  V,  21  (wine  libated  in  a  vessel  of  lead, 
bur-an~na  mu-tum  din  mti-ni-de-de)\    Cyl.  B  VI,  26    (beer-    and    wine-libation 
named  together,    kas  bur-ra  de-da-  din  kas-a  de-da,    "in   order  that  he  libate 
beer,  in  order  that  he  libate  wine  with  the  beer". 

5)  Cyl.  B  X,  3  "kas  ha-da".  ^ 


126 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


600  talents  (Diod.  II,  9).  Diodor's  account  is,  of  course,  ex- 
aggerated. Varro  (Plin.  XXXIII,  15)  speaks  of  a  chalice  of 
Semiramis,  taken  by  Cyrus  in  Babylonia,  which  only  weight 
15  talents,  while  according  to  Diodorus  its  weight  was 
600  talents.  Assurbanipal ,  on  one  of  his  hunting-inscriptions, 
is  pictured  as  offering  a  drink-offering  over  four  dead  lions  (see  Illu- 
stration No.  33).  The  inscription  states:  "An  offering  I  offered 
up  over  them.  Wine  I  libated  over  them,"  muh-hu-ru  e-li-su-mi 
u-ma-hir  karana  ak-ka-a  e-li-hi-un.  The  same  king  refers 
to  a  corner-stone  rite  of  the  bit  riduti  in  Nineveh  in  the  follow- 
ing words:  "With  strong  wine  and  wine  I  sprinkled  its  cellar, 
I  poured  (it)  on  its  foundation-wall (?),"  (Annals,  Col.  X,  83 — 84 


No.  33.     Ashurbanipal  pouring  a  drinking-offering  of  wine  over  lions  slain  in 
the  chase  (after  Ball,  Light  from  the  East). 

ina  kurunni  u  karani  ka-lak-ka-$u  abjulul  am-ha-sa  sal-la-ar- 
su).  K  2674,  26  refers  to  a  libation  of  wine  after  the  beheading 
of  enemies:  "The  heads  of  my  enemies  I  cut  off,  (and) 
I  libated  wine  over  them,"  kakkademel  \nakir  e\me*-ia  ak-kikis 
karana  ak-ka  [e-li-$u-nu].  Illustration  No.  34  shows  king  ASsur- 
nasirpal  about  to  pour  a  wine  libation,  after  a  successful 
lion  hunt.  The  fermented  liquors  were  conserved  in  the  e- 
KAS  +  NINDA,  i.  e.,  "the  brewery",  or,  "the  beer-cellar". 
We  have  seen  above  that  Babylonia  imported  much  grape- 
wine.  The  wine  was  brought  from  the  Eastern  mountains 
in  large  jars1.  From  a  text2  it  appears  that  brewers  were 

1)  Tab.  pier.  d'Urukll,  6:   MtAS-f-NINDA  gestin  qa-gal  kur-ta  tum-a. 

2)  Sippar  I23*>is  (No.  12  in  Friedrich,    Altbabyl.  Urkunden   aus  Sippara\ 
BA»  Vol...V,  p.  491   and  pp.  422 — 424). 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     12? 

drafted  into  the  army,  probably  to  provide  the  soldiers  with 
beer  rather  than  to  serve  under  arms.  It  perhaps  contains 
a  list  of  military  conscripts,  who  were  called  to  the  colors1. 
In  the  second  tent  in  the  middle  row  of  Illustration  No.  26, 
which  pictures  a  fortress  we  see  in  one  apartment  two  sitting- 
men,  of  whom  one  is  drinking.  The  second  compartment  shows 
a  large  vessel  probably  filled  with  beer. 

Babylonia  possessed  its  wineshops  and  beerhouses2,  which 
seems  to  have  been  located  generally  near  the  water  of  a  river 
or  of  a  canal.  See  f.  i.,  Ebeling,  KAR,  I,  No.  16,  Rev.  35,  36,  kar 


No.  34.     Ashurnasirpal  about  to  pour  a  wine  libation  over  dead  lion 
(after  Ball  Light  from  the  East}. 

ge$tin-na-ge  ma  ne-in-u$\  ina karkarani  elippu  um-mid-ma,  "The 
ship  stopped  at  the  'wine- wharf".  See  also  references  below,  p.  130, 
n.  4.  The  Babylonians,  however,  considered  the  frequenting  of  a 
public  tavern  by  any  respectable  person  as  disgraceful.  In  a  moral 
text3  it  is  said  (line  15):  ^TTT ^T?^i, (belnm ana]  bit  Hkari 
la  tirrub,  i,  e.,  "O  lord,  thou  shalt  not  enter  the  beer-house". 
The  same  view  prevailed,  as  is  well  known,  amongst  the 
Greeks,  for  whom  it  was  likewise  improper  to  visit  a  kapeleion. 

1)  Date-formula   is    mu   ugnim(M}   ab-nun-naki ,    i.  e. ,    the   32th   year  of 
Hammurabi. 

2)  For  instance,    Bu.  88-5-12,  58  lines  2 — 3,   "bit  $ikari"\    see  Meissner, 
Beitrage  zum  Altbabyl.  Privatrecht. 

3)  S.  A.  Smith,  Misc.  Texts. 


128  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

In  Athens,  a  visit  to  a  tavern  was  a  sufficient  cause  to  bring 
about  expulsion  from  the  Areopagus.  According  to  tradi- 
tion Kish  owed  its  existence  to  queen  Ku-Bau,  who  was 
a  woman  of  obscure  and  humble  origin.  It  is  told  of  her 
that  she  achieved  her  first  popularity  and  influence  as  the 
keeper  of  a  wine  shop.  There  seems  to  be  sufficient 
reason  to  believe  that  the  public  inns  (without  exception) 
were  at  the  same  time  places  of  prostitution.  The  Code 
of  Hammurabi  devotes  four  paragraphs  to  the  regulation 
of  inns,  which  are  "called  "wineshops".  A  striking  feature 
of  the  Code  is  the  fact  that  it  speaks  only  of  female  taver- 
ners,  salgestin-na ,  sabitu.  Men  in  the  liquor-business  are  not 
mentioned.  But  this  is  merely  accidental.  The  Code  may, 
after  all,  refer  only  to  such  wineshops  as  were  also  /  brothels, 
kept  by  women  only.  Paragraph  108  (Col.  XVIII,  lines  15—25) 
makes  it  clear  that  it  was  illegal  to  accept  money  for  drinks. 
The  price  of  a  drink  had  to  be  paid  in  grain.  The  taverner 
was  also  bound  by  law  to  give  full  measure.  Severe  punish- 
ment was  inflicted  upon  her  in  case  the  measure  for  drink 
was  not  in  proportion  to  the  measure  of  grain.  The  para- 
graph reads:  "If  a  liquor  dealer  do  not  receive  barley  as  the 
price  of  drink,  but  if  she  receive  money  by  the  great  stone, 
or  make  the  measure  for  liquor  smaller  than  the  measure  for 
barley,  they  shall  call  that  liquor  dealer  to  account,  and  shall 
throw  her  into  the  water"  l.  BM  26961  (King,  L.  W.,  The  Let- 
ters and  Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi,  No.  85)  illustrates  the 
application  of  this  section  of  the  law-code.  King  Abiesu 
(2042 — 2015  B.  C),  in  a  letter  to  Sin-idinnam.  writes:  "Unto 
Ibni-Samas,  Sin-idinnam,  the  board  of  trade  (?)  of  Sippar  and 
the  judges  of  Sippar  speak  as  follows:  Thus  says  Abi-esu: 
Messengers  and.  chief-shepherds  (?) are  going  from  Ba- 
bylon to  Sippar- Yahrurum.  They  will  reach  you  on  the  24th 
day  of  Tisritu.  As  soon  as  you  see  this  tablet  of  mine,  buy 
300  (kegs)  of  mixed  barley-beer  (=  pihu)  from  taverners  in 
Sippar-Amnanu,  for  refreshment(?).  When  they  send  you  in- 


i)  summa  sals&bitum  and  sim  sikarim  se'am  la  imtahar  ina  abnim  rabitim 
kaspam  imtahar  u  mahtr  sikarim  ana  mahtr  se'im  umtati  sa-habitam  suati  ukan- 
nusi-ma  ana  me  inaddusi. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     \  2Q 

formation,  ship  the  barley (?)-beer  to  Sippar-Yahrurum.  Re- 
garding the  barley  to  be  given  to  the  taverners,  about  which 
you  have  written  unto  me  (I  reply):  It  has  been  ordered  (that) 
they  shall  give  the  barley  in  Sippar  to  the  taverners."  The  second 
paragraph  prohibits  riotous  gatherings  in  public  drinking  places 
and  fixes  the  deathpenalty  on  the  innkeeper  in  case  she  does  not 
cause  the  arrest  of  the  outlaws,  "If  outlaws  collect  in  the  house  of 
the  liquor  dealer,  and  she  does  not  arrest  these  outlaws  and 
bring  them  to  the  palace,  that  liquor  dealer  shall  be  put  to 
death"1.  The  tavern,  thus,  was  a  favorite  haunt  for  all  kind 
of  rabble  that  shunned  the  light.  It  was  a  breeding-place  for 
all  kinds  of  crime  and  the  best  way  for  the  state  to  pro- 
tect itself  and  its  citizens  was  the  imposition  of  a  severe  pu- 
nishment on  the  innkeeper  herself.  It  would  be  interesting 
to  know  how  this  law  worked  in  actual  practice.  The  inn- 
keeper certainly  was  immensely  concerned  to  keep  order 
and  not  to  allow  outlaws  to  make  her  house  a  meetingplace 
or  a  place  of  refuge.  According  to  the  verbal  form  employed 
in  the  paragraph  it  would  seem  that  the  innkeeper  had  the 
power  of  arrest  in  her  own  hands,  for  otherwise  we  should 
expect  the  causative  form,  "cause  them  to  be  arrested",  and, 
"cause  them  to  be  brought".  The  next  paragraph  (§  no, 
Col.  XVIII,  lines  36—44)  provides  for  the  punishment  on  the 
stake,  in  case  a  vestal  virgin  leaves  her  house  to  open 
a  wine-shop  or  to  frequent  it  for  strong  drink.  It  reads:  "If 
a  votary,  who  is  not  living  in  a  cloister  open  a  tavern,  or 
enter  a  tavern  for  a  strong  drink,  they  shall  burn  that 
woman"2.  Only  two  cases  are  mentioned  in  the  Code  of 
Hammurabi,  in  which  the  horrible  punishment  of  death  by 
burning  is  ordered.  The  one  referred  to  above,  and  the 
other  in  §  157,  dealing  with  the  heinous  crime  of  incest  of 
mother  and  son.  The  last  paragraph  (§  111,  Col.  XVIII, 
lines  45 — 49)  regulates  the  price  of  liquor  sold  on  time 
payment.  "If  a  liquor  dealer",  it  states,  "give  one 


1)  summa  s^sabitum  sarrutum  ina  biti-sa  ittarkasu-ma  sarrutim  sunuti  Id. 
issabtam-ma  ana  ekallim  la  irdiam  s^sabitum  si-i  iddak. 

2)  summa  natitum   entum    sa   ina  gagim    la    wasbat    bit  sabi   iptete  &  lu 
ana  sikarim  ana  bit  sabl  iterub  awiltam  suati  iqallusi. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  9 


12O  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

on  credit,  at  the  time  of  harvest  she  shall  receive  50  qa  of 
barley"1. 

Zimmern  has  recently  published2  the  transliteration  and 
translation  of  a  text,  which  is  of  interest  in  this  connection, 
It  contains  incantations  and  rituals,  which  were  intended  to 
increase  the  business  of  a  taverner,  which  had  for  some 
reason  or  other  fallen  off3.  Two  incantations  were  to  be  re- 
cited by  an  incantation-priest,  while  the  third  incantation, 
a  love  charm,  was  to  be  used  by  a  demimondaine,  or  a  vo- 
tary of  Ishtar,  in  order  to  bring  back  the  lovers,  who  had 
stayed  away  from  the  inn  and  the  brothel.  The  text  con- 
tains an  additional  proof,  if  proof  were  necessary,  that  the 
Babylonian  inn  was  at  the  same  time  a  brothel.  All  three 
incantations  are  addressed  to  Ishtar,  the  goddess  of  love,  and 
possibly  also  a  goddess  of  beer  and  wine,  like  her  Egyptian 
counterpart  Hathor.  Some  passages  may  illustrate  the  general 
character  of  the  text.  "O  Ishtar,  enter  at  my  word,  and  this 
tavern  let  be  thy  tavern!  O  Ishtar,  support  thy  hand  on  the 
jug  and  the  pressing  vat!  May  profit  enter  unceasingly,  (since) 
thou  takest  upon  thyself  responsibility!"  The  harlot  recites: 
"Come  enter  into  our  house;  thy  beautiful  bed- fellow  may 
enter  with  thee,  (and)  thy  lover  and  thy  courtesan".  The  in- 
cantation of  the  harlot  ends  with  the  sentence:  "As  the  heaven 
fructifies  the  earth  (and)  plants  are  plentiful,  so  may  be  plen- 
tiful the  (saying):  'Be  sweet  unto  me'". 

In  mythology  we  meet  with  a  divine  female  taverner, 
Siduri  sabitu,  who  dwells  at  the  "seat  of  the  ocean"4.  Gilga- 


i)  summa    salsabitum    isten  $iham    ana   qiptim   id  din    ina   eburim  jo  qa 
se'im  iliqi. 

2}  Zeitschrift  fur  Assyriologie,  Vol.  XXXII.  pp.  164 — 184. 

3)  Inim-nim-ma   summa^a   mi-hi-ir-tum   ina   bit  amelusa~bi-i  par-sat,  "In- 
cantation in  case  that  the  profit  has  ceased  in  the  house  of  the  taverner" ;  inim- 
nim-ma  is-di-ih  sa-bi-i  ka-ri-ka,    "Incantation   for  the   profit  of  the  innkeeper 
at  the  dyke". 

4)  Kusse  tamti;    Zimmern,   ZA,  Vol.  XXXII,  p.  169  explains   this  phrase 
quite  naturally,    by   referring   to   the  sabu  kari,    "the  innkeeper  of  the  dyke" 
and  to  the  si-bi-'-i   ka-a-ri  in  Gray's  Hymn  to  Samas,  Col.  Ill,  45  (=  Jensen, 
KB,  Vol.  VI,  2,  i,  p.  104)  and  ZA,  Vol.  XXXII,  114,  16.     See,   however,   also 
Albright  (AJSL,  Vol.  XXXVI,  p.  260)   who  considers   the  phrase  "a  yery  cu- 
rious detail". 


Wine  and  B  eer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     1 3  j 

mesh  in  his  burning  quest  for  eternal  life,  having  passed 
the  abodes  of  men,  finally  reached  the  gate  of  the  sun. 
Giant  scorpion  men  guard  this  gate.  He  is  unwillingly  ad- 
mitted to  pass  on  the  dark  road  of  the  sun.  He  travels 
for  twentyfour  hours,  and  at  last  he  comes  to  a  beautiful 
vineyard. 

"Amethyst  it  bore  as  its  fruit, 
Grape-vine  was  trellised,  good  to  behold; 
Lapis-lazuli  it  bore  as  grape-clusters, 
Fruit  it  bore,  magnificent  to  look  upon"1. 

Gilgamesh  meets  Siduri,  the  taverner,  in  this  her  vineyard. 
The  vineyard  is  her  domain,  the  vinestalk  the  tree  of  life 
and  the  noble  and  precious  fluid,  which  she  prepares,  the 
means  of  imparting  eternal  life.  As  the  Babylonian  female 
taverner  was  primarily  concerned  with  the  preparing  of  beer 
or  wine,  and  secondarily  with  the  serving  of  beer  or  wine2, 
so  Siduri,  the  taverner,  is  described  as  engaged  in  the  pre- 
paration of  wine.  To  this  purpose  "they  have  made  her  ajar, 
they  have  made  her  a  pressing  vat"3. 

One  of  the  oldest  divinities  of  the  pantheon  of  the 
ancient  Sumerians  was  a  vinegoddess,  called  dinsirGestin 4,  or 
also,  dingirAma-gestin,  i.  e.,  "the  mother  vinestalk".  A  temple 
was  dedicated  to  her  in  the  city  of  Lagash,  which  is  men- 
tioned in  an  inscription  of  Urukagina 5.  At  a  very  early  date, 
however,  she  loses  all  characteristics  of  a  vinegoddess,  and 
appears  as  the  goddess  Nina,  "the  lady  of  the  waters".  This 
was  but  natural,  when  we  consider,  how  little  vine  was  culti- 
vated in  Babylonia,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other, 


i)  sdmtu  nasdt  inibsa 

isfyunnatum  ullulat  ana  dagala  t&bat 

uknu  nan  hashalta 

inba  nasi-ma  ana  amari  sa'd/i. 

2}  Scluvenzner,  Altbabyl.  Wirtschaftsleben,  p.  25  ft'.  (MVAG,  1914,  III). 

3)  Gilgamesh-Epos ,    Tablet  X,  3:    epsusi  kannu  epsusi  namzltu.     On  the 
restoration  nam-zi-tu  see  Zimmern,  1.  c.,  p.  169. 

4)  Or  dingirMu-tin  and  dingirMu-ti.     As  the  consort  of  the  god  of  heaven 
she  is  later  called  Ges"tin-anna,  "the  vinestalk  of  heaven",  or  Mu-tin-an-na. 

5)  Urukagina,  Clay  Tablet,  Rev.  II,  i   and  3. 

9* 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

how  important  a  role  water  and    irrigation  played   in  Baby- 
lonia1. 

A  vinegod  appears  by  the  name  dingirPa-gestin-dug 2,  "the 
good  vinestalk",  whose  consort  was  dinsirNin-kasi,  "the  lady  of 
the  inebriating  fruit",  also  called  din«irSa-bil,  i.  e.,  "she  who 
causes  burning".  She  is  also  mentioned  by  the  name  dinsirKas- 
tin-nam,  "the  intoxicating  beverage,  which  decreed  life".  As 
her  mother  appears  the  goddess  dingirNin-til,  "the  lady  of  life". 
dinsirSa-bil  is  the  mother  of  nine  children 3,  who  seem  all  to 
have  some  connection  with  intoxicating  drinks,  or  describing 
an  effect  of  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  In  the  list 
dingirSiffs  is  mentioned  first.  Her  name  refers  to  "beer"  or 
any  intoxicant  not  prepared  from  grape-vine.  This  goddess 
is  followed  by  din£irSIM -f- K  AS.  a  certain  kind  of  beer  prepared 
of  barley  and  an  addition  of  spices,  and  dinsirSIM-}-KAS-gig,  pro- 
bably a  dark  kind  of  beer.  The  names,  which  follow,  describe 
the  effects  of  beer  or  wine.  Here  we  meet  with  dinsirMe-hus,  who 
may  perhaps  best  be  translated  by  "the  brawler",  literally, 
"he  of  frightening  speech".  The  fifth  child  is  called  dinsi  Me- 
azag,  i.  e.,  "he  of  a  clear  speech";  the  sixth,  din&irEme-te,  i.  e., 
"he  of  an  eloquent  tongue";  the  seventh  dinsirKi-dur-ka-zal, 
i.  e.,  "he  of  the  abode  of  mirth";  the  eighth,  dinsirNu-silig-ga, 
i.  e.,  "the  braggart",  or,  "the  boaster",  and  the  last,  dinsirNin- 
ma-da,  i.  e.,  "the  lord  of  the  land".  Ninkasi  lives  on  Mount 
Sabu,  which,  of  course,  is  not  a  geographical  designation,  but 
means  either  "the  mount  of  the  taverner",  or,  "the  mount  of 
retailing  (scil.  beer  or  'wine)"4.  The  god  Ninurta,  at  least 
in  one  instance  (see  Meissner,  Altorient.  Texte  und  Untersuchun- 


1)  For  -wine  in  the  incantation  literature  see  Ebeling,  KARI,  II,  No.  62, 
lines    10 — 13.    karanu  tt-pat-ra   qable-ka  lis-sa-pah  sepe-ka   dan-nu   ki-ri-mu-ka 
li-ir-mu-ka. 

2)  See  CT  XXIV,  10,  22  ff. 

3)  They    are   sailed   ilinimu-dm   dumu-mes    dingii'Nin-ka-si-ge   mus-lah-lah- 
e-ne  an-na-ge,  i.e.,  "they  are  the  nine  children  of  Ninkasi,  the  "snake-drivers" 
of  "heaven". 

4)  Ninkasi   is   called   in   CT,   XV,  41,  24:    geme-tug-tug  dagar-ra  me-U- 
gar  —  sinnistu  itpistu  ummu  sa  ana  simati  saknat ,  i.   e. ,    "the  clever  woman, 
who  tends  to   the   giving  of  drinks".     Sim&ti  seems  to  be  etymologically  con- 
nected with  sibii,  and 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals,     1 33 

gen,  I,  279,  39)  is  referred  to  as  one  who  knows  "well  to  pre- 
pare strong  wine." 

In  passing  on  to  Palestine,  we  may  finally  remark  that 
the  Babylonian  literature  has  not  yet  produced  anything  like 
moral  prescription  in  which  a  warning  is  contained  in  regard 
to  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  beverages.  That  such  "pro- 
verbs", however,  were  existent  is  seen  from  such  passages  as: 
pukli  napi  me$tu  ul  uhhurSu,  i.  e.,  "(as  for)  the  strength  of  the 
worm,  the  drunkard  is  not  inferior  to  it"  *. 

The  Hebrews,  like  their  neighbors,  appreciated  wine,  and  x 
no  festivity  was  held  without  it,  for  the  very  name  "festivity"  ./ 
—  mishteh,  points  to  this2.  Numerous  passages  in  the  Old 
Testament  praise  the  vinestalk  and  its  fruit.  "Wine  cheers 
man's  heart"3,  yea  even  the  gods4.  It  is  indispensable  at  the 
meals  of  the  Hebrews 5,  and  was  not  allowed  to  be  missed  on 
the  altar  of  Yahweh  as  a  drink-offering.  Drunkenness  was  by 
no  means  unknown  to  them5.  Only  the  Rekhabites  and  the 
Nasiraeans  abstained  from  its  use.  The  majority  of  the  people, 
probably,  always  regarded  wine  with  favor.  The  numerous 
wine-presses  still  testify  to  that  The  religious  leaders,  of 
course,  took  quite  another  view-point,  regarding  the  use  of 
wine7.  During  the  early  days  of  the  history  of  Israel,  no 
opposition  from  that  side  was  as  yet  encountered.  But  it 
soon  set  in.  Viticulture  represents  a  higher  form  of  culture, 
which,  like  every  other  form  of  an  advanced  stage  of  human 
progress,  was  looked  upon  with  disfavor.  The  simple  beduin 


1)  II  R  1  6,  lines  23  —  24  d;  see  also  BA,  II,  p.  296.     Cf.  Sir.  34,  30  "(wine) 
diminishes  the  strength]',  M3  *l[0]lna. 

2)  This   designation   occurs    first  in  Gen.  21,8.     It   becomes   more  com- 
mon,  however,    at  a  later  time.     It  is  strange  that  in  the  story  of  Abraham's 
reception   of  the   strangers   (Gen.  18,  6  —  9),    and   even   at  the   mention   of  the 
deliveries  for  the  royal  court  of  Solomon,  only  bread  and  meat  are  mentioned 
(I  Kings  5,  2,  3)   but   not   wine,    while   the   possesssion   of  a   privately   owned 
vineyard  is  ascribed  to  every  citizen  (I  Kings  5,  5). 

3)  Psalm   104,    15.      Sir.   40,  20  a:    "wine  and  beer    gladden    the    heart", 


4)  Judg.  9,  13.  5)  I.  Sam.  i,  9.  13. 

6)  I.  Sam.  25,  36;   i,  13;  II.  Sam.  n,  13;  Jer.  5,  22;  23,  9;    Hos.  7,  3  etc. 

7)  On  a  discussion  of  the  "Wine  in  the  Pentateuchal  Codes",  see  Jastrow, 
in  JAOS,  Vol.  XXXIII,  pp.  180—192. 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

life  of  the  nomadic  patriarchs  was  the  ideal  life  to  which 
Israel's  religious  leaders  looked  back.  Each  step  of  an  ad- 
vance to  a  more  refined  mode  of  living  is  a  step  farther  away 
from  Yahweh.  To  warn  against  viticulture  and  wine-drinking  is 
narrated  an  occurrence  in  the  family  of  Noah 4,  and  another 
in  the  house  of  Lot,  in  which  the  use  of  wine  led  to  shame- 
ful intercourse  with  his  two  daughters2.  The  lawgiver  permits 
parents,  whose  son  is  living  in  debauchery  and  is  a  drunkard 
to  accuse  him  to  death  before  the  judges3.  This  is  an  extra- 
ordinary ordinance,  which  stands  without  parallel.  Drunken- 
ness, for  instance,  is  never  mentioned  in  the  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi, or  any  other  legal  regulations  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria.  This  fact  is  significant  and  tends  to  show  that 
drunkenness  was  not  considered  a"  crime  by  the  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians.  On  the  other  hand,  Deut  21,  20  permits  the 
most  severe  punishment  to  be  imposed  upon  the  drunkard. 
The  Ancient  Orient  otherwise  knows  no  punishment  for  into- 
xication. A  change  was  wrought  in  this  respect  by  the  intro- 
duction of  Islam.  The  Muhammadan  law  provides  for  forty 
beatings  in  case  of  drunkenness.  They  could  be  augmented 
up  to  eighty  strokes  in  case  of  habitual  drunkenness4.  The 
Hebrew  lawgiver  forbids  the  priests  to  partake  of  intoxicating 
drinks  during  their  services5.  The  assumption  of  the  pre- 
exilic  Hebrew  leaders  is  that  he  who  drinks  wine  necessarily 
becomes  inebriated.  This  is  still  evident  in  a  later  period  of 
Hebrew  history.  There  is  preserved  a  pleasant  song,  in  which 
the  mother  warns  the  royal  prince  of  wine-drinking6: 

"It  is  not  for  kings  to  drink  wine, 
Nor  for  rulers  to  mix  strong  drink; 
Lest,  drinking,  they  forget  the  law, 


i)  Gen.  9,  21  ff.  2)  Gen.  19,  32  ff.  3)  Deut.  21,  20. 

4)  Mawerdi,  388.     Cf.  also  Lane,  An  Account  of  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Modern  Egyptians,    5th  ed.,    London,    1871,  p.  137:    "Drunkenness  was 
punished,  by  the  Prophet,  by  flogging;  and  is  still  in  Cairo,  though  not  often: 
the   lhadd',    or  number   of  stripes,    for   this  offence,    is  eighty  in  the  case  of 
a  free  man,  and  forty  in  that  of  a  slave." 

5)  Levit.  10,  9. 

6)  Proverbs,  3 1 ,  4 — 7 ,   given   according  to  Toy ,    Critical  and  Evangelical 
Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  p.  539. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     135 

And  disregard  the  rights  of  the  suffering. 
Give  strong  drink  to  him  who  is  perishing, 
Wine  to  him  who  is  in  bitter  distress; 
That,  drinking  he  may  forget  his  poverty, 
And  think  of  his  misery  no  more". 

Motive  and  close  of  the  admonition  are  equally  interest- 
ing. The  Book  of  Proverbs  takes  a  decidedly  unfavorable 
position  to  wine.  "Wine  is  a  mocker,  strong  drink  a  braw- 
ler"1; "he  who  loves  wine  and  oil  will  not  be  rich"2;  "look 
not  on  wine  when  it  is  red,  when  it  sparkles  in  the  cup"3; 
"thou  shalt  not  be  with  the  wine-bibbers,  with  the  gluttonous 
eaters  of  flesh,  for  the  drinker  and  the  gormandizer  shall 
impoverish,  and  drowsiness  shall  clothe  a  man  with  rags"4. 
"Who  crieth:  'Woe'?  who:  'Alas'?  Who  hath  contentions ?  who 
hath  raving?  who  hath  wounds  without  cause?  who  hath  red- 
ness of  eyes?  They  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine;  they  that 
go  to  try  mixed  wine"5.  The  opposition,  however,  from  the 
religious  leaders,  becomes  weaker  as  the  time  passes  on.  The 
establishment  of  the  kingdom,  which  marked  a  real  political 
and  material  progress  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews,  but 
making  also  higher  claims  regarding  the  mode  of  living, 
undermined  the  ultra  conservative  position  of  the  religious 
leaders,  and  by  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  the  opposition 
towards  wine  and  other  intoxicants  had  ceased.  In  post-exilic 
times  only  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  is  con- 
demned6. It  is  now  considered  as  a  distinct  blessing  of  God, 
when  the  vine-harvest  showed  a  good  crop  and  the  wine- 
cellars  could  be  fully  stored  with  wine.  Sir.  30,  25:  "I  stood 
in  the  blessing  of  the  Lord,  and  like  a  gatherer  I  filled  my 
wine-press."  According  to  Jastrow 7  "the  later  view  of  post- 
exilic  Judaism  is  reflected  in  the  juxta-position  of  'bread 
and  wine',  as  the  accessory  to  the  blessing  formula  in  Gen. 

i)  Prov.  20,  i.  2)  Prov.  21,  17.  3)  Prov.  23,  31. 

4)  Prov.  23,  20—21.  5)  Prov.  23,  29—30. 

6)  In  spite  of  all  the  bad  experiences  of  Judah  with  wine,    he  does  not 
prohibit  the  use  it,  but  only  warns  against  its  excessive  use.     (See  Das  Testa- 
ment Judas,    p.  47 1  ff.    in   Kautzsch ,    Die    Apokryphen    und   Pseudepigraphen, 
Vol.  II). 

7)  JAOS,  Vol.  XXXIII,  p.  182. 


136  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

14,  18".  Also  the  stereotyped  phrase,  characteristic  of  Deu- 
teronomy, ddgan,  ttrbS  yishar  ("in$11:  tBiTft  "J^r)  undenvent 
later  a  change  due  to  the  view  taken  by  the  post-exilic 
prophets  towards  wine.  In  place  of  tiros,  which  according 
to  Jastrow  "represents  a  preparation  of  the  grape-juice  in 
a  less  advanced  stage,  than  the  finished  fermented  product" 
the  word  yayin  was  inserted  *.  This,  of  course,  does  not  imply 
that  at  the  time  of  the  Deuteronomistic  writer  "the  process 
of  manufacturing  a  thoroughly  fermented  article  had  not  yet 
been  perfected"  2,  but  that  for  quite  another  reason  yayin  was 
not  used  in  a  phrase,  which  summed  up  the  products  of  the 
land.  In  this  phrase  ttrbs  is  used,  with  means  "new  wine". 
Each  year  the  land  yielded  "corn,  new  wine  and  oil",  but 
not  yayin,  which  refers  to  "old  wine",  and  which  was  'the  pro- 
duct of  the  land  of  former  years.  Yayin  was  introduced  due 
to  a  change  of  view  taken  towards  strong  old  wine,  it  is  true, 
but  the  change  to  yayin  is  really  less  correct  than  the  tiros 
of  DeuterOmy. 

Sir.  9,  10,  11  likens  new  wine  to  a  new  friend:  "Do  not 
give  up  an  old  friend,  for  a  new  one  does  not  equal  him. 
New  wine  is  a  new  friend,  when  it  becomes  old,  then  thou 
mayest  drink  it." 

ten  btf 


Cf.  here  Alcharisi's    Tachkemoni  (p.  70  b): 

t^tpag  is  fsinp1]  nb;n.  nan       D^J 

tntM^!  tntfba  ttato       1$^!  ftbai  "iip$  bs  \y\  • 

No  feast  was  considered  to  contain  true  joy  for  men  unless. 
it  was  celebrated  with  wine,  while  women  found  their  pleasure 
rather  in  beautiful  dresses  (bPesach  109  a),  although  custom 
permitted  women  to  drink  wine,  as  f.  i.,  in  the  example  of 
Hannah.  Wine  nourishes  fp^t),  refreshes  (120)  and  cheers 
(n»tt)  (bBerakh  35  b;  cf.  also  bSukka49b).  Wine  is  the  fore- 
most of  all  medicines;  wherever  wine  is  lacking,  medicines 
become  necessary.  Sir.  34,  27,  28:  "Wine  is  like  water  of  life 

1)  And  instead  of  d&gan  (corn)  hittim  and  in  place  of  yishar,  semen: 

2)  See  Jastrow,  p.  183. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals,     j  37 

for  man,  whenever  he  drink  it  moderately.  What  is  life  for  him 
who  is  without  wine,  since  it  is  destined  from  the  beginning 
for  joy!  Joy  of  heart  and  jubilation  and  life  of  pleasure  is 
wine,  which  is  drunk  at  the  right  time  and  for  satiation." 
"Wine  and  aroma  clarify"  [(i"?  tfW)  D^npS  ^n^.1  «T9tf]- 
But  the  use  of  wine  may  become  also  dangerous.  Sir.  34,  29: 
"Headache  and  shame  and  ignominy  is  wine,  which  is  drunk 
in  quarrel  and  anger.  Wine  often  brings  the  fool  to  ruination, 
it  diminishes  the  strength  and  multiplies  the  wounds."  Sir. 
34,  25:  "The  must  has  killed  many."  "Man  is  known  by 
three  things:  by  his  (wine)-cup,  by  his  purse  and  by  his 
anger,"  (SttinDfi;  iOSD^  ^^  '10'iDSl  IM  Dltfn  t3*ny]  fittbtpa 
mp).  "When  the  wine  goes  in,  the  secret  goes  out/' 
^ft  I1*.  D5??>  var->  'the  sense',  rtrrft;  Tanchumah,  Shem). 
He  who  sings  Bible-verses  in  the  tavern  has  no  part  in  the 
eternal  blessed  life  (Sanh.  loi  a). 

The  Hebrews  seem  to  have  practised  a  good  deal  of 
luxury  at  the  banquets  of  the  rich  and  at  the  royal  court. 
Solomon,  we  are  told,  had  golden  drinking  vessels1.  Jere- 
miah speaks  of  "chalices"  filled  with  wine,  ("p.  ^tib®  &$$$ 
Fiiobl),  with  which  were  given  drinking  cups,  probably  in  order 
to  take  out  the  wine  with  them  from  the  chalice,  as  was  the 
fashion  in  Assyria.  This  indicates  that  the  wine  was  served 
in  large  chalices,  similar  to  those  in  Assyria.  In  the  time  of 
the  prophet  Amos  wine  was  drunk  also  from  flat  dishes,  or 
flat  bowls2.  These  flat  wine-bowls,  it  seems,  were  an  object 
of  bitter  reproach  of  the  prophet,  since  they  let  the  spirit  of 
wine  evaporate  quickly  and  thus  necessitated  faster  drinking, 
which  led  so  much  more  readily  to  debauchery. 

The  public  inns  of  Palestine,  we  may  conjecture  from 
the  story  of  Rahab,  had  the  same  evil  reputation  as  those  of 
Babylonia.  Rahab,  the  innkeeper  was  at  the  same  time  a  har- 
lot3. The  public  inns  were  attended  by  singing-girls,  who 
played  some  kind  of  musical  instruments.  Cf.  Sir.  9,  4:  "Do 
not  have  intercourse  with  a  cither-player  in  order  that  thou 
art  not  caught  in  her  snares." 


i)  I  Kings  10,  21.  2)  Amos  6,  6  ",^  ijD^ '.?.  3)  Joshua  2,  i, 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

(Smend,  Die  Weisheit  des  Jesus  Sirach,  Berlin,  1906).  In  view 
of  conditions  in  Arabia,  we  may  judge  that  these  singing-girls 
in  Palestine  constituted  a  large,  if  not  the  largest,  class  of 
prostitutes.  Here  as  well  as  in  Arabia  she  was  a  foreigner, 
a  mTJ,  which  means  both  the  foreign  woman  and  the  harlot 
(Prov.  2,  16;  5,  3;  5,  20;  7,  5;  22,  14;  23,  27).  The  Palestinian 
tavern  ("j^Sl  Sn^)  was  distinguished  by  a  sign,  the  bin,  Arabia 
&*  (see  below  p.  149).  Correct  singing  at  drinking-bouts1  is 
likened  to  a  seal-stone  of  carbuncle  on  a  golden  neck-chain 
and  to  a  seal-stone  of  emerald,  Sir.  35,  5,  6: 

sm  M  b?  DTK 
bip       zipni  Dimw  t£> 

The  custom  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  to  wreath  oneself  at 
banquets,  had  been  introduced  also  by  the  Jews  (Wisd.  2,  8;  cf. 
Is.  28,  l — 5).  Johns2  has  pointed  out  that  there  exists  a  striking 
parallel  between  the  Code  of  Hammurabi  and  Lev.  21,  9. 
Death  by  burning  is  decreed  to  the  daughter  of  a  priest  who 
is  unchaste.  The  Code,  we  have  seen  above,  mentions  the 
horrible  punishment  only  twice,  but  so  does  Hebrew  legisla- 
tion, and  in  the  same  cases.  Josephus  directly  states  that  in 
the  case  of  the  priest's  daughter  it  is  not  unchastity  alone 
that  brought  upon  her  this  fearful  punishment  of  burning, 
but  this  punishment  was  imposed  upon  her  in  case  that  .she 
at  the  same  time  opens  a  tavern.  The  Talmud  seems  to  in- 
dicate that  the  rabbis  also  connected  the  crime  of  the  priest's 
daughter  with  the  tavern,  for  they  ask:  Shall  not  a  priestess  or 
priest's  daughter  be  treated  better  than  a  tavern-keeper? 
There  appears  to  have  remained  thus  in  Talmudic  time 
a  recollection  that  in  certain  circumstances  the  law  had  pre- 
scribed the  death-penalty  by  burning  for  innkeepers. 

Wine  was  sold  at  the  market.  An  inspector  (plE  31  in  the 
inscriptions;  NH  pwn  b^,  more  often  DIB^i-fta  and  DlBTflK, 
i.  e.,  dyopavopo^)  who  controlled  the  market-prices  and  weights 
and  examined  the  provisions  and  the  grain,  tasted  (WB)  the 


1)  The   name   of  Josiah   is   likened  to   a   song   at   a   wine    drinking-bout 
(Sir.  49,  I)- 

2)  Johns ,   C.  H.  W. ,    The  Relations  between  the  Laws  of  Babvlenii   and 
the  Laws  of  the  Hebrew  Peoples,  The  Schweich  Lectures,   1912. 


Wine  and  Beer. in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     139 

quality  of  the  wine  by  means  of  a  reed,  a  siphon  or  a  special 
cup,  or  by  simply  smelling  the  wine.  -The  price  of  wine  was 
of  course  fluctuating.  A  sextarius  (Vlb,  KoruXr]),  which  is 
32  ounces,  i.  e.,  one  quart,  of  common  tavern-wine  cost  four 
pieces  of  the  small  coin  lumi  (tf£lbv  "pttlb,  vooiip-tov,  nummus). 
According  to  another  reckoning  a  sextarius  of  wine  cost  ten 
follars  (obIB  and  "ib"!5  —  cpoXXic;  =follis  and  cpoXXdpiov;  GenR 
49,  4;  LevR  27,  2).  Wine  was  drunk  to  excess  at  wedding- 
festivals  (bBerakh  9 a,  ibid.  6b,  3ob  etc.)  and  at  funeral-feasts 
it  was  not  missing,  but  in  order  to  prohibit  over-indulgence, 
ten  cups  of  wine  were  the  maximum  set  for  the  seven  days 
of  mourning.  The  slaves,  in  Rabbinic  times,  had  the  reputa- 
tion of  often  being  drunkards,  and  "the  slave,  who  frequents 
the  wine-house,  is  not  worth  his  food"  (tltB  tfb  rTO'ni  D1W  »"D2 
bBm  64 b).  The  effects  of  chronic  alcoholism  are  mentioned 
neither  in  the  Old  Testament  nor  in  the  Talmud.  A  legal 
distinction  was  made  between  the  Satkuy,  the  person  slightly 
intoxicated,  and  the  sikkbr,  the  person  totally  drunk  (Erub.  64a; 
Erub.  65 a;  Eben  haezer  44,  3  and  Choshen  hamishp.  235,  22). 
Aged  wine,  according  to  Ned,  IX,  8  (66 b)  is  beneficial  to  the 
intestines,  while  new  wine  is  harmful.  As  a  rule,  unmixed 
wine  should  be  drunk  after  letting  blood,  but  in  case  one  is  unable 
to  buy  wine,  seven  black  dates  should  be  eaten  instead  (Sabb. 
129  a).  Wine  was  also  used  as  an  application  (Sabb.  109  a). 
In  Northern  Syria  the  custom  seems  to  have  prevailed 
of  sipping  beer  or  wine  through  a  long  cane  directly  out  of 
a  large  vessel,  in  which  the  liquor  was  brewed.  On  a  tomb- 
stone1 of  a  Syrian  mercenary  found  in  Tell  el-Amarna  this 
custom  is  proved  for  Syria  in  the  fourteenth  century  B.  C. 
This  custom  prevailed  amongst  the  Hittites  and  the  peasants 
of  the  Armenian  mountains.  In  the  cylinder  of  black  serpen- 
tine, which  was  found  in  Kueltepe,  the  main-scene  shows  two 
seated  men,  who  drink  barley-beer  through  a  long  reed.  The 
same  custom  of  drinking  appears  in  Babylonia  in  the  oldest 
time  2,  but  seems  to  have  been  unknown  amongst  the  Hebrews. 

1)  Berlin  Museum,   No.  14122;    see  plate  17,   facing  p.  126  in  Aeg.  Z., 
Vol.  36. 

2)  See  Ward,    Seal-Cylinders,    Nos.  83,  84,  85,  86,  87,  88,  95,  99,  732,  734 
and  738. 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

Wiedemann,  in  OLZ,  1901,  Vol.  IV,  7  drew  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  Armenian  tubes  for  sucking  beer  differed 
in  so  far  from  those  used  in  Egypt,  as  Xenophon  states  regard- 
ing the  Armenian  KdcAajioi:  yovara  OUK  e-xovtec,  while  the 
Egyptian  tubes  possessed  the  yovu.  Drinking- tubes  were  pro- 
bably used  in  order  to  avoid  swallowing  the  particles  of  yeast, 
which  gathered  on  top  of  the  brew  (see  OLZ,  1900,  Vol.  Ill,  307), 
as  well  as  the  barley-grains. 

Yahweh  the  austere  god  of  the  Hebrews,  strange  as 
may  seem,  was  identified  in  Classical  times,  with  Dionysos, 
the  god  of  wine  and  merry  life.  In  the  Symposion  of  Plu- 
tarch1, it  is  stated  by  one  who  is  initiated  into  the  Athenian 
Dionysian  mysteries,  that  the  god  of  the  Hebrews  is  the  same 
as  Dionysos.  He  makes  this  assertion  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  the  Hebrews  commence  other  festivals  some  days  after 
the  feast  of  the  tavernacles,  which  they  themselves  call  those 
of  Bacchos2.  Movers3  explained  this  statement  in  Plutarch 
by  referring  to  the  Hallelu-yah  shouts  at  the  feast  of  the  taver- 
nacles, which  lasted  for  eight  days.  The  Athenian,  thus,  was 
led  to  his  statement  on  account  of  the  Hallelu-yah  shout 
which  reminded  him  of  the  lately,  i.  e.,  the  iau-shout  of  the 
Dionysian  rites.  Baudissin4  has  shown  beyond  doubt  that 
the  identification  of  Dionysos  with  Yahweh  is  due  to  misunder- 
standings. The  eud^eiv,  i.  e.,  the  euoi,  or  eiixx-shout  as  well 
as  the  icrxstv,  i.  e.,  the  laO-shout  had  been  considered  the 
same  rite  as  the  Fa-shout,  i.  e.,  the  Hallelu-yah  of  the  Hebrew 
priests,  while  on  the  other  hand,  the  thyrsos-staves  of  the 
festivals  of  Dionysos  were  wrongly  brought  into  connection 
with  the  palm-  and  myrrh-branches  of  Jewish  festivals.  The 
feast  of  the  temple-dedication,  particularly,  according  to 
II.  Mace,  lo,  7,  at  which  hymns  were  song,  while  carrying 
thyrsos-staves,  palm-branches  and  other  branches,  was  respon- 
sible for  this  mistake  of  identification.  Tacitus  5  also  mentions 


1)  L.  IV,  6,  2. 

2)  doprriv  oiJK  ftv  bi'  aivrfudriuv ,    dX\d  avriKput;  BCXKXOU 

3)  Movers,  Die  Phonizier,  Bd.  I. 

4)  See    Baudissin,    W.  W. ,    Studien    zur    Semitischen    Religions geschichte, 
Leipzig,   1876;  III.  Der  Ursprung  des  Gottesnamens  'loiuj,  pp.  181  —  254. 

5)  Hist.  1.  V  c.  5. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     \A\ 

this  confusion  of  the  ceremonies,  but  he  rejects  it:  ....  quia 
sacerdotes  eorum  *  tibia  tympanisque  concinebant,  hedera  vin- 
ciebantur,  vitisque  aurea  templo  reperta,  Liberum  pair  em  coli, 
domitorem  orientis,  quidam  arbitrati  sunt,  nequaquam  con- 
gruentibus  institutes :  quippe  Liber  festos  laetosque  ritus  posuit, 
Judaeorum  mos  absurdus  sordidusque. 

The  names  of  Dionysos,  Eoac;,  Euioc;,  EiHjioq,  Evan  and 
Ebon  are  derived  from  the  exclamation  eucc,  or  euoi,  and  the 
name  lacchos  ("laK^cc;)  from  the  Homeric  la^eiy,  "to  call 
aloud"2. 

While  the  identification  of  Yahweh  with  Dionysos  must  be  X' 
rejected,  there  is  a  strong  probability  of  identifying  the  Phoe- 
nician god  Esmun  with  Dionysos 3t.  Dionysos  appears  on  coins 
of  Tyre4  since  the  time  of  Seleucus  IV  (167 — 175  B.  C.)  and 
on  coins  of  Sidon5  since  111  B.  C.  In  the  time  of  the  emperor 
Gordianus  the  representation  of  Dionysos  appears  also  on  coins 
of  Berytos6.  A  Hittite  wine-god  appears  in  Illustration  No.  35. 

According  to  Baruch  II,  4,  the  tree  that  seduced  Adam 
was  the  vinestalk.  It  was  planted  by  the  angel  'SamaeF.  This 
angered  God,  and  he  cursed  it  and  did  not  permit  Adam  to 
touch  the  plant.  But  Satan  seduced  Adam  through  the  vine. 
The  vine  was  swept  away  from  Paradies  through  the  waters 
of  the  flood,  but  it  was  not  completely  destroyed.  Noah 
found  the  plant  after  the  Flood.  He  was  troubled  in  his  con- 
science whether  to  make  use  of  the  plant  or  not.  In  order 
to  ascertain  the  will  of  God  regarding  it  he  prayed  for  forty 
days.  Finally  God  sent  his  angel  Sarasael  with  the  permission 


1)  Scil.  Judaeorum. 

2)  Baudissio,  o.  c.,  pp.  209  and  210.  —  In  Homeri  Hymni,  XXVII,  El! 
APTEMIN,  7:  idxei  b'  em  bdaiaoi;  uXrj  bevvov  OTTO  K\crfYf|<;  dipuiv,  the  verb 
idxeiv  goes  back  to  iarjxew.     lar^xeiv  >  ir^xeiv  >  idxeiv.     It,  therefore,  has  no 
bearing  on  the  question. 

3)  See  Baudissin,    Der  phonizische  Gott  Esmun,   ZDMG,   Vol.  59  (1905), 
pp,  482-489. 

4)  Rouvier,  Journ.  Intern,  d'archeol.  numismat.,  Vol.  KI,  p.  279,  n.  1829 
-1835;  Vol.  VII,  p.  76  n.  2366. 

5)  Rouvier,    o.  c.,    Vol.  V,  p.  131,  n.  1279;    p.  230,  n.  1298;    p.  230  ff., 
n.  1299  —  1302;    p.  245,  n.  1397;    p.  248,   n.  1417;    p.  248  ff.,  n.  1418 — 1437 ; 
p.  267  ff.,  n.  1528;  p.  277,  n.  1573;  p.  282  ff.,  n.  1613  and  1614, 

6)  Rouvier,  o.  c.,  Vol.  IIT,  p.  307  ff.,  n.  603 — 606. 


142 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


to  plant  the  vine.  Tanchumah,  Noah  contains  the  story  as  to 
what  happened  at  the  time  when  Noah  was  about  to  plant 
the  first  vineyard.  "When  Noah  began  to  plant  the  vineyard, 
came  Satan  up  to  him  and  said  to  him:  What  art  thou  plant- 
ing?'; he  said  to  him:  'A  vineyard'.  'What  are  its  properties?'. 


No.  35.     Rock- sculpture  at  Ibriz  —  a   king   or  noble  worshipping  a  god  of 
corn  and  wine  (after  Ball,  Light  from  the  East}. 

'Its  fruits  are  sweet  and  pleasant,  green  as  well  as  dried;  and 
wine  is  made  from  them,  which  gladdens  the  hearts,  as  it  is 
written:  'Wine  gladdens  the  heart  of  man'  (Ps.  104,  15).  Satan 
said  to  him :  'Come  on  and  let  us  both  lay  out  this  vineyard'. 
,Alright'  he  said.  What  did  Satan  do?  He  brought  a  lamb 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancit?nt  Orientals.     143 

and  killed  it  under  the  vinestalk,  and  again  he  brought  a  pig 
and  killed  it  and  again  he  brought  a  lion  and  killed  it,  and 
again  he  brought  a  monkey  and  killed  it  under  the  vine  and 
caused  the  blood  to  drip  on  the  vinestalks,  and  they  were 
moistened  from  their  blood.  He  indicated  thereby,  that  man, 
before  he  has  drunk  of  the  wine,  is  innocent  like  a  lamb,  which 
knows  nothing  and  like  a  sheep  that  before  its  shearers  is  dumb 
(Isaiah,  52/7).  Has  he  drunk  moderately,  (then)  he  is  strong 
like  a  lion,  and  is  saying  that  none  is  like  him  in  all  the  world. 
Should  he  drink  wine  beyond  measure,  he  will  become  like 
a  pig,  trodding  about  in  the  mire  and  if  he  has  become  drunk, 
he  will  act  like  a  monkey,  jumping  about  and  speaking  filthy 
words,  without  knowing  what  he  does."  i^b  hi  fctttt? 

"6  -)£»  staia  nntf  rra  ib  "IES  -pssb  -roan  TBE  »a 
d^hb  ^n  d^pinft  iw^s  ib  -ifcK  is^ta  ma  ib 
nnb  nw  1^1  rrnDi  imnnb  httftfrn  ^  ^ 
ib  niatf  nr  d-on  i^stt?  cinncsi  xn  "jtstt  ifb  "i»»  (V't:  "i"p 
aoift  ID  nn»i-  ^s^n  nnn  mm  innD  «^n  pw  nwy  ma 
nnn  n^m  C|ip  x^nn  ^D  inxi  na-im  ^i«  K^sn  ID  ins 
D-npw  ib  TEH  .dn^ttiB  impt?m  diDrt  ini»a  d*n  is^tj 
bn-iDi  dibD  JHV  15^10  tr^DD  dn  «ih  ^n  i^n  p  di«n 

('r  a  "5  n^w^  ntab^i  mm 


ns  nibns  bDrr  ^s 

Pre-Islamic  Arabia  has  left  us  sufficient  material  to  form 
an  idea  of  the  use  of  wine  in  that  country.  Our  sources  are 
exclusively  Old-Arabic  poems.  Wine-drinking  was  a  habit 
freely  indulged  in  by  the  pre-Islamic  Arabs,  and  no  old  poem, 
which  pictures  the  daily  life  of  the  Arab,  is  without  a  refer- 
ence to  it.  Ibn  Haldun  (see  S.  de  Sacy,  Chrest.  arab.  Vol.  I, 
pp.  ifi,  ifv),  makes  the  strange  statement  that  the  pre-Islamic 
noble  Arabs  abstained  from  the  use  of  wine,  that  the  vine  was 
not  one  of  the  trees  cultivated  in  Arabia  and  that  old  and 
young  regarded  wine-drinking  as  shameful: 


^\.    There 
always  were,  of  course,  to  be  found  individuals  in  pre-Islamic 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

time,  who  abstained  from  the  use  of  wine  and  other  liquors. 
But  these  were  rather  isolated  cases,  so  f.  i.,  'Asad,  the  son  of 
Kurz  ibn  cAmir  ('Ag.  XIX,  53,  22).  'Asad's  father  "a.  man  of 
high  qualities"  was  seemingly  always  well  supplied  with  wine 
(see,  Kais  ibn  al-Hatim,  ed.  Kowalski,  XIV,  16—17).  Self- 
imposed  temporary  abstinence  from  wine  (and  food,  women, 
etc.)  is  often  undergone  before  starting  on  the  mission  of  blood- 
revenge.  Amruul-Kais,  at  the  news  of  the  murder  of  his  father 
at  Demmun  in  al-Yaman  vowed,  after  seven  nights  spent  in 
drinking,  to  abstain  from  it  until  he  had  taken  blood-revenge 
(Kitab  al-'agani,  VIII,  p.  68).  'Abu  Kais  ibn  al-'Aslat  swore 
to  abstain  from  wine  for  thirty  nights  (var.,  years;  Kais  ibn 
al-Hatim,  ed.  Kowalski,  IV,  28).  Ta'abbata  Sharran,  after  hav- 
ing accomplished  his  task  of  avenging  his  uncle,  slain  by  the 
tribesmen  of  Hudhayl,  sings1: 

"Lawful  now  to  me  is  wine,  long  forbidden: 
Sore  my  struggle  ere  the  ban  was  o'erridden. 
Pour  me  wine,  O  son  of  'Amr'!    I  would  taste  it, 
Since  with  grief  for  mine  uncle  I  am  wasted." 
Three   motives   are   always   recurring.     The   poet   boasts 
of  his  drinking  powers,   mentions  his   liberality   when   drunk, 
and    the    exorbitant    price    he    paid    for    the    drinking-bout. 
Yet,    the  Arab  had  not  always   a  chance  to  drink  wine.     He 
was  dependent  upon  the  wine  merchant,   the  tagir,    who  was 
generally  a  Jew 2,  and  sometimes  a  Christian.     In  'Ag.  VIII,  79 
the  Christians  of  Hira  are  mentioned  as  being  engaged  in  the 
sale  of  wine.     Wine  was  very  expensive  in  all  parts  of  Arabia. 
In  the  deathsong  of  'Abd-Yaghuth,   son  °f  Waqqas,  chief  of 
the  Banu-1-Harith,  of  Najran,  he  sings:  "Now  am  I  as  though 
I  ne'er  had  mounted  a  noble  steed,  or  called  to  my  horsemen 
-  "Charge!   gain  space  for  our  men  to  breathe",   or  bought 
for  a  wealth   of  gold  the  full  skin  of  wine"3.     cAmr  ibn  Qa- 
mfah4  XII,  3:    "The  wine-skin  is  a  kingdom  to  him  who  pos- 

1)  Hamasa,  p.  382  ff. ;  translated  by  Micholson,  R.  A.,  A  Literary  History 
of  the  Arabs,  p.  100. 

2)  Goldziher,    ZDMG,   Vol.46,  1892,  p.  185.     Mufaddaliyat,    ed.  Lyall 

II,  34. 

3)  Lyall,  Ch.  J.,   Transl.  of  Anc.  Arab.  Poetry,  London,  1885,  p.  86. 

4)  Lyall,  Charles,  The  Poems  of  ^ Amr  son  ofQamfah,  Cambridge,  1919. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     IAC 

sesses  it,  and  the  kingdom  therein,   though  small,  how  great 
it  is!"    'Abid  VII,  17—18:    "We  bid  up  the  price  of  all   old 
wine,  strong  and  fragrant,  whiles  we  are  sober.    And  we  hold 
of  no    account,   in  pursuit  of  its   delights,    the   mass   of  our 
inherited  wealth,    when  we  are  drunken1."     When  'Abd-Yag- 
huth    was    taken    prisoner    and    "was    about    to    be    gagged, 
lest  he  should  utter  satires  against  them  before  being  put  to 
death:  for  he  was  a  famous  poet ......  then  he  said  —  "Ye 

men  of  Taim,  if  ye  must  slay  me,  let  me  die  as  befits  one 
noble".  "And  how  wouldst  thou  die?"  asked  they.  "Give  me 
wine  to  drink,  and  let  me  sing  my  death-song,  'he  answered'"2. 
Mutalammis3  describes  the  wine  as  his  sweetheart4,  who 
exercises  such  a  great  power  over  him,  that  his  own  volition 
completely  succumbs  to  his  beloved,  It  has  made  him  light- 
minded,  frivolous.  But,  finally,  he  severs  the  bonds  and  gives 
up  drinking,  after  he  recognized  that  fear  of  god  and  thrift 
are  after  all  more  profitable.  He  says(5: 

"My  heart  is  frivolous  after  a  period   of  rest  and  it  is  gene- 
rous in  submissiveness  to  the  friend. 


i)  Lyall,  o.  <:.,  p.  29;    see  also  'Abid  XXVIII,  4  (Lyall,  o.  c.,  p.  59):    "If 
I  drink  wine,  if  I  buy  the  costly  juice  at  its  price." 
'2)  Lyall,  o.  c.;  pp.  84  and  85. 

3)  See    Vollers,    Arabische    Gedichte    des    Mntalammis,    in    BA,    Vol.   V. 
pp.  189—  190  and  p.  218. 

4)  The  poet  really  turns  it  around  and  describes  his  sweetheart  as  wine. 
His  love  is  filled  for  woman  as  though  he  is  a  drinker  etc. 

5) 


(8) 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing.  IO 


146  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

I  am  like  a  drinker  on  the  day  they  go  their  own  way,  and 
the  driver  rouses  them  for  the  departure  to  the  desert, 

(a  drinker  of)  wine  that  has  aged  in  the  wine-jar,  until  the 
drops  of  its  foam  are  like  the  eyes  of  the  locust. 

A  curse  upon  it!  a  curse  upon  it!  And  thou  shalt  never  say 
to  it,  when  it  is  mentioned:  Praise  unto  it!1 

Its  love  is  either  non-enduring,  or  like  the  joy  for  every  pre- 
cious thing  from  which  one  draws  profit. 

But  (now)  I  know  with  absolute  certainty,  without  a  doubt, 
since  the  fear  of  god  is  of  the  best  endowment: 

To  guard  the  wealth  is  easier  than  to  seek  it  and  to  wander 
about  in  the  country  without  provisions. 

A  little  which  is  kept  in  good  order  multiplies,  but  abun- 
dance does  not  remain  with  corruption." 

In  a  second  poem  the  same  author  thinks  of  death  and 
the  grave  and  he  asks  his  friends  to  think  of  him  when  he  is 
gone.  In  this  mood  he  turns  back  and  remembers  the  joy 
which  he  experienced  in  life.  Amongst  the  pleasures  he  does 
not  fail  to  mention  also  the  wine: 

"And  did  not  a  maiden  give  him  to  drink  of  a  well-tasting, 
agreeable,  cool  beverage,  which  the  people  guard? 

And  has  he  not  taken  a  morning-drink  of  wine,  whose  fire 
permeates  his  members,  be  the  day  warm  or  cold?"2 

cAmr  ibn  Qami'ah'3  deplores  his  lost  'youth,  in  which  he 
often  used  to  sit  in  the  wine-shop,  in  the  following  verses: 

"O  woe  unto  me  for  the  youth  which  I  miss  — 
(I  miss  in  it  no  small  thing!)  — 


1)  A  similar  sentiment  is  expressed  in  cAmr  'ibn  Qamfah,  XII,  6. 

2)  L>      £ 


3)  lAmr  was  a  contemporary  of  Imruul-Qais  ,  with  whom  he  journeyed 
to  the  Court  of  the  Greek  Emperor  Justinian  (C.  535  A.  D.).  He  died  on  the 
way  in  Asia  Minor  at  a  great  age. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion-  of  the  Ancient  Orientals. 

When  I  trailed  my  garments   of  silk  and  wool  to  the 

nearest  of  my  wine-sellers, 
And  I  shook  my  locks"  l. 

-    "• 

A  slight  intoxication  was  considered  as  constituting  one 
of  life's  joy  by  Sulmi  ibn  Rabfah  of  Dabbah2; 

"Roast  flesh  and  a  slight  intoxication 


These  are  life's  joy"3. 

Burdj  ibn  Mushar  of  Tai  describes  his  care-free  life  with 
his  friend  in  the  following  song4: 

"And  many  a  drinking-companion,  who  increased  the  cup's 

sweet  odor,  - 

I  gave  to  drink,  when  the  stars  disappeared. 
I  lifted  his  head  and  removed  from  him, 
With  pure  wine,  the  rebuke  of  him  who  found  fault. 

>\     <*0    jJiil    ^    ^_jl^JL)\   J*   ^jX^AJ    CAj^J  \S 


.?  J>\  4  i,^  i£i  4^-1  >. 


2}  He  seems  to  have  lived  some  two  generations  before  Muhammad.        ['   > 

^    ^   ^ 

3)  ***»?j  \$y* 


*  ^ 

•    ^^      9  s       <^VI-          ^^9S  .  S    1    <x^  ^          •*    *'"    t    \ 

*  **>  *     "'    ^^  > 

Jy*.  ri$  ^JLS  ^f  liw  (3) 
^••-?       •  ^    & 

(5) 


(7) 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

When  he  was  inebriated,  he  rose  up  — 

The  most  liberal  youth  (and)  a  well-bred  lavisher  — 

Unto  a  strong  and  fat  camel.     It  limped 

And  its  knee-joint  and  tendon  was  torn, 

An  old  (and)   noble  (camel)  which  belonged  to  a  sheikh, 

Whose  disposition  was  feared  by  the  creditor. 

He  satiated  his  drinkers  and  hastened  unto  them 

With  two  wine-jars;  whose  cup  filled  to  the  brim. 

You  see  it  in  the  vessel  having  strength,  reddish  even 

As  the  red  goat's  skin  (of  Yaman). 

Its  drinkers  stagger,  so  that  they  seem 

Like  warriors,  whom  wounds  have  exhausted." 

The  wineshop,  or  tavern,  is  called  hanut.  Tarafa,  Mu'all.  46: 
"If  you  seek  me  in  the  circle  of  the  people,  you  will  meet 
me,  and  if  you  hunt  for  me  in  the  taverns,  you  will  find 
me"1.  The  hanut  which  is  most  generally  frequented  by  a 
person  is  called  malaf,  «-*Jl*,  "the  customed,  familiar 
place",  i.  e.,  die  Stammkneipe,  f.  i.,  Kais  ibn  al-Hajim,  XII,  4. 
The  tavern  was  most  likely  a  wooden  booth,  which  could 
easily  be  erected  and  taken  down,  since  these  wine-booths  were 
to  be  found  particularly  at  fairs2.  In  some  instances  it  may 
have  consisced  of  a  special  compartment  of  the  bazaar-booth, 
being  separated  from  the  bazaar  proper  by  means  of  cur- 
tains. cAbda3  describes  the  tavern  as  a  cube  (kaba],  which 
was  illuminated  by  lamps.  Carpets  or  rugs  with  elaborate 
designs  of  animals,  etc.4,  were  spread  on  the  floor.  The  Arabs, 
like  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  reclined  at  their  banquets5, 
a  custom  which  was  introduced  into  Arabia  probably  through 
Syrian  influence.  The  tavern  contained  (sometimes)  also  a 
table  (khiwan\  f.  i ,  in  €Abda  Mufaddaliyat  XXV,  77,  which  is 
a  piece  of  furniture  which  is  otherwise  unknown  in  the  Arabic 


2)  Ibn-Hisham,  ed.  Wiistenfeld,  438. 

3)  Mufaddaliyat,  XXV,  72. 

4)  'Abda,  Mufadd.  XXV,  70.  71. 

5)  Jacob,  Georg,  Sfudien  in  arabischen  Dichtern,  Heft  III,  p.  102. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Lite  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     lAQ 

household.  The  Ghassanid  king  Jabala1  sat  on  a  couch  of 
myrtle  and  jasmine  and  other  sweet-smelling  flowers  when  he 
would  drink  wine.  About  him  were  gold  and  silver  vessels 
full  of  ambergris  and  musk  (Agani,  XVI,  15  1.  24  ff.).  The  wine 
was  served  by  a  waiter,  whose  finger-tips  were  colored  red 
with  firsad.  He  also  wore  a  woman's  upper-garment  and  was 
adorned  with  ear-rings2.  The  wine  was  drunk  either  from 

<5  £'-' 

a  glasscup  (J^)  or  from  a  goblet,  called  sahn  (c^"*5)  or  from 
a  bowl,  called  qadah  (£***).  The  tavern  was  distinguished 
by  a  sign,  probably  a  green  branch3,  which  indicated  that 
the  wineshop-keeper  had  still  a  supply  of  wine  for  sale.  When 
the  wine  had  run  out,  the  sign  was  taken  down.  cAntara 
calls  him  a  gallant  man  "who  causes  to  be  taken  down  the 
taverner's  sign".  Lebid4  sings:  "Moreover,  you  do  not  know 
how  many  serene  nights ,  pleasant  in  their  amusement  and  mirth- 
ful revelry  I  passed  in  gay  conversation  and  how  many  a  sign 
of  the  wine  merchant  I  went  to,  when  it  was  raised  and  the 
wine  had  become  high  in  price".  The  drinking  bouts  were 
attended  by  singing-girls.  "My  companions  are  bright  as 
stars,  and  a  singing-girl  comes  to  us  at  night,  clad  in  a  striped 
robe  and  saffron-colored  mantle" 5.  In  A'sha  m.  30  the  singing 
girl  (Qaine)  wears  a  wide  kimono  and  is,  therefore,  called 
fudul.  According  to  Tarafa  m.  50  the  singing-girl  was  by  no 
means  bashful.  She  is  asked  to  sing  by  calling  to  her  "as- 
mfina",  i.  e.  "let  us  hear".  "When  we  say:  'Let  us  hear',  she 
steps  before  us  at  her  ease,  gently,  in  a  voice  not  forced. 
When  she  repeates  her  tones,  you  would  believe  her  voice  to 
be  that  of  a  camel  lamenting  her  lost  young"6.  Abu  Mihgan 
compares  her  song  to  the  buzzing  of  flies  of  the  meadow  7. 


1)  Jabala   was   a   contemporary  of  the  ruler  of  Hlra  lyas  ben  Qabisa  of 
the  tribe  of  Tayyi',  who  ruled  from  602—611  A.  D. 

2)  al-Aswad  ibn  Ja'fur  in  Mufaddallycit,  ed.  Thorbecke,  XXXVII,  23  and 
A'sha   muall.  29.     The  upper-garment  is  called  ^a^S  kurtak.     Compare  with 
this  garment  that  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  butler,  p.  84. 

3)  See  Jacob,  Georg,  Studien  in  arabischen  Dichtern,  Heft  I,  p.  18. 

4)  Lebid,  m.  57—58;  see  also  Lebid,  XII,  20. 

5)  Tarafa,  m.  49. 

6)  Tarafa,  m.  51  —  52.  7)  See  Jacob,  Georg,  o.  c.,  Heft  III,  p.  103. 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

In  €Antara,  m.  23  the  song  of  a  man  inebriated  with  wine 
is  likewise  compared  to  the  humming  of  the  fly.  In  Lebid 
XVII,  37  the  song  of  the  drinker  is  'whining'.  The  singing- 
girl  accompanied  her  song  sometimes  with  musical  instru- 
ments1. As  presents  the  qaine  received  the  drinker's  cloak, 
which  was  torn  apart  in  case  two  singing-girls  were  present2. 
In  the  description  of.  the  Ghassanid  court  by  Hasan  ibn 
Thabit  (Agani,  XVI,  15,  line  22  ff.)  mention  is  made  of  ten 
singing-girls,  of  whom  five  were  Greeks,  singing  Greek  songs 
to  the  music  of  lutes,  and  five  came  from  Hira,  probably  Chri- 
stian girls,  who  had  been  presented  to  king  Jabala  by  lyas 
ibn  Qabisa,  who  was  the  successor  of  Nu'man  III.  of  Hira. 
The  Hira  singing- girls  sang  Babylonian  airs.  In  addition, 
Arabic  singers  were  accustomed  to  come  from  Mecca.  The 
singing-girls3  were  disrespected  (Diwan  of  the  rfudhailites, 
107,  30)  and  prostitutes  (Lidzbarski,  M.,  Das  Johanne struck  der 
Mandaer,  Giessen.  1915,  p.  97  and  99).  For  the  evil  influence 
of  the  tavern  see,  ibid.,  p.  99:  "Einen  jeden  der  in  einer  Schenke 
Wein  trinkt,  sich  bei  Pauken  und  Liedern  berauscht  und  in 
diesem  Zustande  Unzucht  treibt,  wird  man  mit  Kammen  von 
Ketten  zerkammen  und  er  wird  seine  Augen  an  Abathur  nicht 
sattigen." 

The  tavern  was  often  visited  during  the  early  morning- 
hours.  The  morning  draught  is  called  sabuh  (^y^).  Lebid, 
m.  60,  6l :  "Many  a  morning  draught  of  pure  wine  I  quaffed, 
the  singing-girl  taking  her  stringed  instrument,  which  her 
thumb  manages  skilfully.  I  hastened  in  the  early  morning 
before  the  cock  for  want  of  it,  that  I  might  take  a  second 
draught  from  it,  when  the  sleepers  awoke"4.  Kais  ibn  al- 
Hatim,  I,  3:  "As  often  as  I  take  my  morning  draught,  —  four 


1)  See  Lebid,    m.  60,  61;    Imr.  63,  5,  6;    'Alqama  XIII,  37.     For  the  use 
of  the  tambourine  (duff']  see  Gabir  ibn  Hunay,  Mufadd.  XXXV,  9. 

2)  'Abda,  Mufadd.  XXV,  81;  Kitab '  al-agani.  XV,  76. 

3)  The   oraayyade    caliphe  Yazid  II.  was  completely  under  the  influence 
of  two   singing-girls   Hababa   and   Salama.     When  Hababa   died,    he   worried 
himself  to  death  over  her  loss  (Kremer,  Culturgeschichte  des  Orients,  I,  p.  150). 

4)  See  also  lAbda,  Mufadd.  XXV,  66  ff.  ar.d  Tha'laba,  Mufadd.  XXI,  17, 
and    'Abid    ibn    al-Abras   V,    14   (Lyall,    The   diivans  of  ^Abid  ibn   al-Abras, 
etc.  1913). 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     151 

(cups)  —  ,  my  mfzar  draws  lines  (in  the  sand)  and  in  generosity 
I  let  my  pail  follow  its  pulling-rope," 


Also  Acsha  makes  mention  of  his  early  walks  to  the  tavern, 
stating  that  he  is  followed  by  a  zealous,  quick  and  active 
cook  (de  Sacy,  Chrest.  Arab.,  p.  ior,  verse  ro).  Acsha  was  buried 
in  Manfuha  in  Yamama.  Revellers  were  accustomed  to  meet 
at  his  grave  and  to  pour  wine  over  it  (Nicholson,  R.  H.,  A  Lite- 
rary History  of  Arabs,  New  York,  1907.  p.  124).  cAntara,  m.  37 
speaks  of  the  time  of  the  midday-heat:  "And  I  quaffed  after 
the  midday  -heat  had  abated,  old  wine  bought  with  bright 
and  well-stamped  coin".  Fortunes  were  squandered  in  the 
tavern,  on  account  of  the  great  expense  of  wine  *.  "When 
I  have  drunk",  says  cAntara  2,  "verily,  I  am  the  squanderer  of 
my  property,  but  my  fame  remains  great  and  unsullied".  The 
generous  host  is  praised  even  though  wine  has  overcome  him 
(Lebid  XII,  21).  Liberality  was  a  characteristic  trait  of  the 
host.  "And  if  you  meet  my  drinking  companions  they  will 
tell  you  that  I  am  the  string  of  a  purse,  from  which  I  never 
took  refuge  in  poverty  (i.  e.,  by  pleading  poverty)",  Kais  ibn 
al-Hatim,  fr,  v,  r: 


Kais  ibn  al-Hatim  probably  reviles  the  Banu  Harita  in  the 
following  verses:  "But  there  are  in  aS-Saut  some  servants 
from  Yathrib,  whose  price  will  perish  in  wine.  The  al-'Aus 
consider  their  price  despiceable,  when  one  of  their  drunkards 
staggers  at  evening"  (III,  16,  17) 


\M 


1)  The  price  of  a  wine-skin  filled  with  wine  was  a  three-year  old  camel  ; 
see  reference  in  Jacob,  Georg,  Studien  in  arabischen  Dichtern,  Heft  III,  p.  104. 
Jacob    also   cites  a  passage  in  which  it  is  said  that  also  mares,    stallions  and 
slaves  were  spent  iu  drinking. 

2)  Antara,  m.  39. 


1«J2  Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

The  drinker,  in  his  intoxicated  condition,  is  compared  to  a  male 
hyaena  (Lyall,  'Amr  ben  Rami'ah.  XII,  15). 

The  Nabataeans,  who  were  of  the  Arabic  race,  wor- 
shipped as  their  chief-god  Dushara  (Nabataean  fcOtBTi,  Greek 
Aoutfccprjq),  whose  chief  sanctuary  was  situated  at  Petra  '. 
The  Classical  writers  identified  Dushara  with  Dionysos- 
Bacchus.  The  Nabataeans  from  about  the  sixth  century 
B.  C.  occupied  the  old  Edomite  country,  with  Petra  as  the 
capital.  In  history,  however,  they  do  not  appear  before 
312  B.  C,  when,  according  to  Diodorus2,  Antigonus  sent  two 
expeditions  against  them.  In  the  first  century  of  our  era 
the  kingdom  extended  from  Petra  northward  «ast  of  the 
Jordan  over  Hauran.  Twice  it  reached  even  as  far  as  Damas- 
cus 3.  In  the  third  century  A.  D.  coins  were  struck  a"t  Bostra 
in  Hauran,  which  show  a  wine-press  and  the  legend  AKTICC 
Aoutfdpia.  Since  Petra,  as  we  have  seen  above,  cultivated  the 
vine  extensively,  it  is  altogether  possible  to  suppose  that  the 
Bacchic  character  of  Dushara  is  original  and  that  he  did  not 
change  from  a  solar  deity  to  that  of  a  Nabataean  Dionysos4. 
Gods  of  Bacchic  character  are  otherwise  unknown  in  Pre-Islamic 
Arabia. 

In  a  Palmyrene  inscription  (Littmann,  E.,  Sem.  Inscr.  p.  70 
=  Ephemeris  1,  345)  '5  appears  the  god  Saic  al-Kaum,  who  seems 
to  have  been  worshipped  by  a  group  of  Nabataeans  in  op- 
position to  the  cult  of  Dushara-Dionysos.  The  votive  inscrip- 
tion reads  in  lines  4  and  5:  "to  Sai*  al-Kaum,  the  good  and 
gracious  god,  who  does  not  drink  wine," 


We  may  finally  mention  the  old  tradition  concerning  the 
destruction  of  the  peoples  of  cAd  in  the  Hadramaut,  in  which 
wine  and  two  famous  singing-girls  play  an  important  part 
(Tabari,  Annals,  I,  231  ff.).  The  cAdites  were  of  great  stature 


i)  See  Epiphanius.  Haer,  1.  22.  2)  Diod.  XIX,  94. 

3)  In  85  B.  C.  and  about  34—62  A.  D. 

4)  For  wine-prohibition  amongst  the  Nabataeans  see  Diod.  XIX,  94,  3. 

5)  See  also  Dussaud,    Rene,    Les  Arabes  en  Syrze  avant  I' Islam,    Paris, 
1907;    Clermont-Ganneau ,  Rec.  d'arch.  or.,  IV,  p.  382 — 402,  and  Wellhausen, 
Gotting.  gelehrte  Anzeigen,   1902,  p.  269. 


Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     1  e? 

and  strength.  They  committed  all  sorts  of  evil  deeds.  Fi- 
nally God  sent  the  prophet  Hud  un  to  them,  to  preach  repen- 
tance. The  'Adites,  however,  disregarded  the  warning  of  this 
messenger  of  God  and  answered:  "O  Hud,  thou  hast  brought 
us  no  evidence,  and  we  will  not  abandon  our  gods  for  thy 
saying,  nor  will  we  believe  in  thee.  We  say:  'One  of  our 
gods  has  afflicted  thee  with  madness'"  (Koran,  XI,  66,  57).  The 
divine  punisment  at  last  overtook  the  evil  cAdites.  A  fearful 
draught  fell  upon  the  land.  A  number  of  cAdite  chiefs  were 
sent  to  Mecca  to  pray  for  rain.  Mu'awiya  ibn  Bakr,  an  Ama- 
lekite  prince  sent  his  envoys  on  their  arrival  to  the  city  and 
he  received  the  'Adites  hospitably.  They  were  entertained 
by  him  with  wine  and  music.  Two  famous  singing-girls,  known 
as  al- Jar  ad  at  an,  took  part  in  these  entertainments.  For  an 
entire  month  they  neglected  their  mission.  When  they,  at 
last,  executed  it,  there  appeared  three  clouds  in  the  sky,  one 
red,  one  black  and  one  white.  However,  by  choosing  the 
black  cloud1,  they  brought  about  the  destruction  of  their 
people,  for  God  drove  the  cloud  unto  the  land  of  'Ad  and 
from  it  issued  a  roaring  wind,  which  consumed  all  the  people, 
except  a  few  who  had  listened. 

The  prohibition  of  wine-drinking  by  Muhammed  brought 
about  a  great  change  in  the  attitude  towards  wine  and  other 
intoxicants.  This  prohibition  was  never  felt  to  be  very  severe 
in  a  country,  such  as  Arabia,  since  wine  was  always  expen- 
sive and  often  difficult  to  procure.  And  in  Syria,  the  chief  / 
wineland  of  the  Orient,  it  never  vitally  affected  the  culture  of  ? 
vine,  on  account  of  its  strong  Christian  and  Jewish  population, 
while  amongst  the  Persians  the  new  conquering  religion  of  Islam 
very  seldom  took  a  great  enough  hold  on  the  people  in  order 
to  break  them  away  from  the  customs  of  their  wine-growing 
country.  The  prohibition  of  wine  in  Sura  V,  93  is  stated  as  being 
due  to  the  fact  that  Satan  causes  dissentions  in  the  congre- 


i)  The  'Adites  quite  naturally  choose  the  black  cloud,  sfnce  it  was  con- 
sidered  to    contain   much   water.      Compare  here:    133S   "pttJh 

(o"p  bxiDii:  aipVi    .a"s  "*  n*2$n)  *i»rra  "pwt  1153$  11  r 

"In  Palestine  it  is  said :  The  dark  clouds  contain  much  water,  the  white  clouds 
contain  little  water." 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 

I  gation  through  wine  and  gambling.  But  this  is,  however,  not  the 
real  cause  which  induced  Muhammed  to  introduce  his  injunc- 
tion. Palgrave1  held  that  "the  strongest  arguments  would  lead 
us  to  assign  it,  with  considerable  probability,  to  the  Prophet's 
antipathy  to  Christianity,  and  to  a  desire  to  broaden  the  line 
of  demarcation  between  his  followers  and  those  of  Christ." 
"Wine"'  he  proceeds  to  say,  "has,  in  fact,  been  not  only  to- 
lerated by  the  Founder  of  Christianity,  but  even,  if  I  may  so 
say,  patronized,  and  raised  to  a  dignity  of  the  highest  reli- 
gious import;  nay,  in  the  belief  of  three-fourths  of  the  Chri- 
stian world,  absolutely  supernatural.  Close  on  its  religious 
and  mystical  use  follows  its  social  quality  and  among  all 

^  nations  who  own,  in  Eastern  phrase,  "the  Gospel  for  their 
book",  that  is,  are  Christians  in  the  most  comprehensive  sense 
of  the  term,  wine  has  always  been  in  high  favour,  the  accom- 
paniment of  civilization,  of  friendship,  of  cheerful  and  elegant 
life,  of  social,  domestic,  even  of  political  union,  and  in  this 
view  has  been  everywhere  greatly  esteemed  and  largely  em- 
ployed. This  Mahomet  well  knew;  his  Greek  neighbors  alone, 
with  whose  ways  and  customs  he  was  by  no  means  unacquain- 
ted, might  suffice  him  for  a  good  example  of  the  fact.  Mean- 
while his  &eer-like  sagacity,  in  which  he  had  few  equals,  led 
him  to  anticipate  from  the  Christians  far  more  dangerous 
opponents,  and  a  more  lasting  and  more  perilous  hostility 
than  whatever  might  be  expected  from  Jews  or  Persians;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  prudent  and  almost  respectful  toleration 
which  numbers  and  strength  exacted,  rendered  pre-eminently 
necessary  the'  establishment  of  distinctive  nay  disjunctive 
marks,  calculated  to  maintain  his  followers  in  a  permanent 
antagonism  with  those  whom  they  could  not  lightly  despise, 
nor  yet  securely  persecute.  To  declare  the  social,  the  sacred 
liquor  which  had  become  well  nigh  typical  of  Christianity, 
and  in  a  manner  its  badge,  "unclean",  "an  abomination",  and 
"the  work  of  the  devil",  was  to  set  up  for  his  own  followers 
a  counter-badge,  equally  unmistakable  and  irreconcilable,  of 
a  nature  to  last  through  all  time,  of  daily  occurence,  and  of 
equable  application  in  the  mosque  that  antithesis  of  the  sanc- 


i)  Palgrave,  W.  G.,  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia,  Vol.  I.  p.  428. 


,Wine  and  Beer  in  the  Daily  Life  and  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Orientals.     155 

tuary,  and  in  the  harem  that  contradiction  of  the  house."  Pal- 
grave  really  ascribed  to  the  prophet  greater  wisdom  and  insight 
than  he  actually  possessed.  Historical  evidences  also  would  v 
point  to  another  direction.  Since  the  law  falls  within  the  time, 
when  Muhammed  was  engaged  in  a  warfare  of  extermination 
of  the  Jews,  i.  e.,  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  Hedjra,  during  the 
campaigne  against  the  Jewish  tribe  Nadir,  it  is  probable  to 
suppose  that  this  law  was  primarily  directed  against  the  Jews,  1 
in  order  to  undermine  their  flourishing  wine-trade  in  Arabia1.  / 
During  the  earliest  period  of  the  new  religion  prohibition  was 
strictly  observed,  although  it  was  not  always  easy  to  enforce 
the  law  on  unwilling  Arabs.  In  Mas'udi,  Murug  edhdhahab 
VI,  I532  it  is  said  of  the  tribe  Garm:  "They  did  not  drink  it, 
when  it  was  permitted,  and  did  not  raise  its  price  on  the 
market-day,  but  since  the  prohibition  of  wine  has  come  from 
heaven,  behold  no  Garmi  is  sober  anymore". 

Under  the  Omaiyades  a  tolerant  attitude  was  taken  towards 
the  wine-prohibition 3,  but  the  'Abbasides  introduced  a  stricter 
enforcement  of  the  law.  Transgressors  were  threatened  with 
severe  punishments',  which,  however,  had  not  always  the  de- 
sired effect.  Already  Omar  II.  was  forced  to  issue  a  special 
order  prohibiting  the  use  of  fermented  wine,  but  allowing  the 
use  of  ma  zebib  and  date-wines.  In  South-Arabia  the  muslims 
continued  to  drink  the  misr-bttr  as  well  as  their  national 
beverage  of  honey-wine  (pif  also  called  madi}.  The  lower 
classes  in  the  Irak  continued  to  drink  date-wine,  and  sakar, 


1)  This  view  was  first  expounded  by  Georg  Jacob,  Stud,  in  arab.  Dick- 
tern,  Heft  III,  p.  106. 

2)  Cited  after  Jacob,  o.  c.,  p.  107. 

3)  At  the  court  of  the  Omayyades  in  Damascus  wine-drinking  was  intro- 
duced  by  Yazid  I. ,    of  whom  it  is  said  that  he  intoxicated  himself  daily  and 
that  he   hardly    ever    was    sober.     Abdalmalik   drank  wine  once  every  month 
emptying  his   stomach   by   means   of  emetics,    in  order  to  be  well  again  next 
morning.     His   son  Walid  I.   drank   wine   every   second  day.     Walid  II.  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  the  circle  of  musicians,    singers  and  his  drinking-compa- 
nions.     When   in    1 10  a.  H.    his   uncle   Hisham   appointed   him   leader   of  the 
pilgrim-caravan  to  Mecca,  he  entered  Mecca  with  great  pomp  and  even  desired 
to  have  his  tent  erected  on  the  roof  of  the  Kaaba,  in  order  to  carouse  therein 
with  his  drinking-companions. 


.  Lutz,  Viticvilture  and  Brewing. 

which  was  prepared  from  dried  dates  and  addition  of  bitter 
herbs  and  myrrh.  The  court-poet  Abu  Nowas  frequently  men- 
tions the  khumar,  the  effect  of  excessive  drinking,  in  his  wine- 
songs."'  When,  in  time,  a  stricter  application  of  the  prohibi- 
tion had  taken  place  among  the  people,  other  narcotic  and 
stimulating  substances  came  more  generally  into  use,  as,  for 
instance,  the  chewing  of  the  leaf  of  the  £<$<£-shrub  (catha 
edulis),  a  plant  which  grows  only  in  South-Arabia,  and  the 
consumption  of  coffee. 


Index 


Abel  Keramim,  25. 

Absinthium  18. 

abstinence,  tempory  144. 

Abyssinia,  wine-import  into  23. 

Adam  14!. 

cAin-Kushith,  wine  of  29. 

Alashiya  20,  24. 

alcoholism,  chronic  139. 

Aleppo  23,  42. 

Alexandria  24. 

'Alt,  city  of  39. 

Ama-gestin,  goddess  1.31. 

Amedi,  city  of  44. 

Amminea  27. 

cAmr  ibn  Qamfah  146. 

Amt,  wine  of,  see  Yemet. 

Amurru  24. 

fn  12. 

cAna,  wine  of  43. 

cAnab,  25. 

€Anafit,  vineyards  of  33. 

*nd-mr  59. 

Androna,  wine  of  24. 

anqullu  37,  48. 

Antaeus  114. 

Antaradus  29,  65. 

anthesteria,  rites  of  the  113. 

Anthylla,  wine  of  4. 

Apamea,  wine  of  23. 


Apple-wine  30. 

cArab-Dagh  43. 

Arabia,  vineyards  of  33. 

— ,  wine  of  36. 

— ,  wine  export  from  34. 

— ,  wine  import  into  24,  31,  43. 

Aranabanim,  country  of  43. 

Arba'ilu  41,  42. 

Arsinoitic  nomos,  wine  of  2,  6 

Artificial  wine  16,  17,  19. 

'Artuf  66. 

Arvad,  wine  of  32. 

Arzabia,  mountain  of  38. 

Arzuhina  41,  42. 

Asalli,  country  of  43. 

Ascalon  33. 

cA$^-beer  7  n.  l 

assistant  wine  master  69, 70, 71. 

Assyria,  viticulture  of  38. 

Athafit,  in  al-Yaman  33. 

'Atiqa,  mahalla  al-,  of  Bagdad 

39- 

B 

Baalbek,  wine  of  24. 
Baal-Ham  on  26. 
Babylonia,  beer  of  4!,  86. 
— ,  viticulture  of  37,  38. 
— ,  wine  of  38. 
— ,  wine-export  43. 


158 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


Bagdad  39,  40. 

Bahr  al-Mashrac  15. 

Bahrain  43. 

Bahriye,  oasis  of  14. 

Bait  Ras,  wine  of  24. 

Bakuba  39. 

banquets,  Assyrian  11 8,  119. 

— ,  Arabic  148. 

— ,  Hebrew  137.  138. 

baqa  18. 

barley  74,  75,  76,  78,  79,  81,  82, 

86;  89,  92,  no. 
Barygaza  34. 
Batac  33. 

beer,  in  Arabia  93,  94,  95,  96. 
— ,  in  Babylonia  41,  86. 
— ,  in  mythology  1  lo. 
— ,  Nubian  72. 

beer-house  69, 105, 108, 1  lo,  127. 
— ,  keeper  of  [a-ka$lub  ==  saku] 

70. 

beer-loaves  8l,  86,  89,  90. 
beer-mash  8l. 
beer-tax  85. 

"beer  which  does  not  sour"  77. 
"beer  of  eternity"  77. 
"beer  of  the  goddess  Maat"  77. 
Belih  43. 

Berytos,  wine  of  32. 
— ,  coins  of  141. 
Bes,  god  114. 
Beth  Hakkerem  25. 
Beth  Laban  26. 
Beth  Rima  26. 
Bezek,  wine  of  29. 
Bilgai,  stele  of  20. 
Biqcath  beth  Kerem  25. 
Birath  Sariqah  29. 
Biregik  42. 


Birtu  41,  42. 

Bit-Adini  43. 

Bit-Kubatim  43. 

Bitatu  43. 

bitumen  56,  8l. 

Bit-Zamani  44. 

black  beer  88. 

Boeotia  1. 

Book  of  Proverbs  135. 

Borgatha,  wine  of  29. 

Bosra,  wine  of  24. 

Bostra,  coins  of  152. 

bottles,  beer-  8l. 

Brewers  70,  72,  76,  85,  86,  89, 

90,  92,  93,  116,  120,  127. 
brewery  76,  87,  93,  126. 
"brier "-wine  31. 
Bubastis  2,  107. 
|  Butamu  43. 
butler  84,  85,  120,  121. 
Byblos,  wine  of  31. 


Caesarea,  wine  of  23. 

Cairo  5. 

Cana,  of  Eleazus  16  n.  3. 

Carchemish  44,  70. 

cardamom  94. 

carob  9,  lo. 

catha  edulis  156. 

Cathif,  grapes  of  34. 

Caucasus  1. 

Chaibar  35. 

Chalybon  22,  31. 

Chatulim,  wine  of  26. 

chief  wine-master  69,  70. 

Chios  1. 

cinnamon  94. 

clapping,  of  hands  53,  54. 


Index. 


159 


clay-barrels  68. 

clove  94. 

City  of  the  Apis-bull  12. 

Code  of  Hammurabi  128,  134, 

138. 

—  of  Justinian  32. 
coffee  156. 

consumption,  of  beer  85. 
— ,  of  wine  115. 
conversations,  at  banquets  loo. 
cuscuta  31. 

cup-bearer,  see  butler. 
Coptos,  wine  of  4,  14. 
Crocodilopolis-Arsinoe  2. 
custom-house  20,  41. 
— ,  official  of  the  20. 

—  tax  45. 


18. 

Dadiyy  95. 

Dair  al-'adara,  wineshops  of  39. 
Dair  al-'Alt,  wineshops  of  39. 
Dair  az-Zandaward,  grapes  of 

39- 

Dair  Darmalis  39. 
Dakhel,  oasis  of  13,  14. 
Damascus  22,  23,  36,  43. 
Damr,  grapes  of  ad  —  35. 
Daphnae  16. 
dark  beer,  72. 
dark  wine  9,  36. 
date-wine  17,  31,  35,  41. 
day  of  drunkenness  107. 
dbw  9. 
dby(y}.t  18. 
Delta  2,  10,  15,  20. 
Dendera  112. 
desert,  Libyan  13. 


Diyar-Bekr  44. 

Dionysos  2,  113,  114,  115,  140, 

141,152. 

Diospolis  parva  13. 
dnrgB  9. 

dracunculus  hortensis  94. 
drinking-bouts  98,  loo,  106, 138. 
drinking-custom  139,  140. 
drinking-tubes  140. 
drinking- vessels  133,  143. 
drunkenness  1O,  35,  97,  98,  loo, 

108,  115,  133,  134. 
durra-beer  77,  78,  95. 
Dushara  152. 
Daha,  the  presses  of  22. 
Dsds,  oasis  of  1O,  17. 
Dshendale-grape  64. 
74. 


East  Africa,   wine-import  into 

23,  31. 

Ecboladic  wine  4. 
Edom  152. 
Egypt  i,  2,  5,  6  etc. 
Elephantine  14,  llo. 
Eme-te,  god  132. 
Engedi,  vineyards  of  28. 
Esmun,  god  141. 
Esna  7,  lo. 
Ethiopia  llo. 
Etolial. 

Euphrates  42,  43. 
Expense,  of  wine  137,  144. 


Fall-festival  65. 

Fayyum,  vineyards  of  the  2, 6,  7. 

Fenhu,  wine  of  the  33. 


l6o 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


fermentation  54,  56. 
— ,  vat  80. 
figs  17,  25. 
fig-wine  9,  18,  40. 
filtration,  of  wine  56. 
y£#/-beverage  24. 
fokka  93. 

foreign  wines  16,  20. 
frankincense  23. 
"Friends"-beer  73. 
funerary  wine  56. 

G 

Galilee  29. 

Garm,  tribe  155. 

Gath,  viticulture  of  29. 

Gath-Hahefer  29. 

Gath-Rimon  29. 

Gaza  16,  32. 

G'abal  akhdar,  in  cOman  34. 

Gennesaret  26,  29. 

G'enwan,  grapes  of  34. 

Gestin,  goddess  131. 

ghobaira  95. 

Gilgamesh  131. 

G'izah,  vineyards  of  6. 

gods  of  inebriating  liquors  1312. 

G'auf,  viticulture  of  the  35. 

grapes  3,  4,  6,  8,  9,  14,  23,  24, 

25,29,33,  34,  35,  36,  38,  39, 

40,  50,  51  etc. 
grape-juice  54,  56,  65. 
Greece,  wine-export  of  16,20, 22. 
Gurgum,  country  of  43. 
Gurumu  42. 
Guzana  41,  42. 

H 

fcwfr.t  9,  74- 
Habur,  mountain  38. 


Habur,  river  42,  43. 
hag  Yahweh  64. 
Ha'il,  vines  of  36. 
Halziadbar  41,  42. 
Hamrin-mountam  39. 
harp-player  103,  104. 
Harran,  vinestalks  of  40. 
Haru,  wine  of  26. 
Hathor,  inventress  of  beer  ill. 
— - ,  patron  goddess  of  wine  112. 
Hat-seha-Hor ,  produce  of  lo. 
Hat-ur-imnt,  produce  of  8. 
Hauran,  wine  of  the  24. 
Hawaii,  river  40.     ,;^-- 
Hazaz  (cAzaz)  43. 
^/-beverage  74. 
Hebron  25. 
Heliopolis  19,  ill. 
hellebore  18. 
Hemy-vj'mz  13. 

Heracleopolis,  vineyards  of  14. 
Herb-wine  28. 

Heroonpolis,  viticulture  of  14. 
^^-beer  72. 
Hihi,  mount  38. 
Hilbunum  43. 
hiliston  26. 

hinwaya-beveragQ  74. 
Hira  144,  150. 
hk.t  74,  77- 
72. 

72. 
hbmez  30. 
Horns  32. 
honey  88,91. 
honey-wine  28,  33. 
hops  75. 

horteum  hexastichmn,  L.  74. 
— ,  tetrastichum,  Kche.  74« 


Index. 


161 


Horus  114. 

Horus-eye,  the  green  7,  8,  59. 

-  the  white  8  n.  2. 
"house  of  drunkenness"  111. 
ht-hsp.t  14. 
Huneb,  god  15. 
Husur,  river  42. 
^ze/.^-beer  73. 

u 

lacobite  Christians  39. 

lynbu  24. 

'Imet  11. 

' Imn.t,  nomos  of  12. 

import,  of  wine,  into  Egypt  16. 

— ,  of  beer,  into  Egypt  82,  83. 

incantations  130. 

India  23,  31. 

inn-keepers  Io6,  128,  129,  130, 

137- 

inspector,  of  brewery  84. 
inspector,  of  wine  test  58. 
'Iraq  39. 
irrigation  49. 
iron-beer  72. 
Irp  7,  9,  10. 
Irp-wl  8. 
i'-p-lm.t  11. 
irp-hm  11. 
irp-rs  10. 
lrp-mh  1O. 
Irp-sjn  11. 
Isana  41,  42. 
fc  76. 

Izallu,  country  of  43. 
Jaradatan,  al-  153. 
Jemnuti,  city  of  4. 
Jericho  68. 
Joppa,  vineyards  of  32. 

Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


Kab,  al-  15. 

ka  ^/-leaves  156. 

Kaine,  customhouse  of  21. 

Kaish,  island  of  34, 

Kalah,  vineyards  of  38. 

ka-n- kerne t  15,  48,  58. 

Kantara,  la-  16. 

Kara  Amid  44. 

Kasiari-mountain  44. 

Kasius,  mount  16. 

Kas-tin-nam,  goddess  132. 

Kefar  €Aziz,  vineyard  of  26. 

Kefar  Pagesh  29. 

Kefar  Shalem  29. 

Kefar  Signar,  wine  of  26. 

Kerzun  42. 

Khargeh,  oasis  of  13,  14. 

Khuss,  wine  of  al-24. 

Kiman  Paris,  mounds  of  2. 

knm.t,    of  Diospolis  parva  13. 

knm.t,  oasis  of  1O,  17. 

Koran  35,  153. 

kurunnu  41,  117,  119. 

kushi  27. 


Lachish,  vines  of  26. 

Lake  Mareotis  3,  12. 

Laodicea,  wine  of  16,  23. 

laurel-tree  30. 

laurus  malabathrum  31. 

laws.regarding  drunkenness  1 34. 

— ,  regulating  sale  of  beer  128, 

129. 

Lebanon,  wine  of  23,  29. 
lemon  tree,  leaves  of  the  94. 
Libyae  nomos  12. 

Lot  29,  134. 

ii 


162 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


lotus  flower  98,  99. 
Love-poetry,  Egyptian  108. 
lupin  75. 
luxury,  at  banquets  137. 

M 

ma  zebib  37,  155. 

Macarrah  an-Nucman  24. 

madi  155- 

Maganuba,  vineyards  of  43. 

Maioumas,  harbor  of  32. 

Malaga,  in  Spain  66. 

malt  88  n.  4,  89. 

mandrake  llo. 

Marcash  43. 

Marea,  wine  of  2,  3,  5. 

Mar  gat,  wine  of  29. 

Maryut  3. 

Maron,    companion  of  Diony- 

sos  3. 

Marqasi  43. 
Masius,  mount  44. 
Masqat  34. 
mastix  94. 
Me-azag,  god  132. 
Mecca  34,  150,  153. 
Medina  35. 
Memphis  2,  16. 
Mendes,  wine  of  4. 
Menqet,  beer-goddess  113. 
Meroe,  viticulture  of  4. 
Mesopotamia,  vines  of  38. 
Miniet  ibn  al-Khasib,  vine  of  6. 
mint  94. 

mixed  wines  18,  41. 
mizr,  mizar,  Arabian  beer  95, 

155; 

mn-wine  9. 
morning-draught  150. 


Mutalammis  145. 

mulsum  23. 

muscatel  grape,  original  home 

of  34- 

musk  94,  149. 
must  24,  78. 

Muza,  in  South  Arabia  33. 
Mykerinos  2. 
myrrh  30. 
myrrh  wine  30. 
myxa  17. 


Nabataeans  152.  ;• 

Nahal  Eshkol  25. 
nahlayn  58. 
Naphtali  29. 
Nasiraeans  133. 
Nebesheh  11  n.  1.  14. 
Negeb  62. 
Nestorians  39. 
Nh3mw,  wine  of  12,  13. 
Nham.t,  city  of  14. 
Nineveh  38,  44,  45,  69,  126, 
Nin-Kasi,  goddess  132. 
Nin-mada,  goddess  132. 
Nin-til,  goddess  132. 
Ninua  39. 
Ninurta,  god  132. 
nms.t-beer  73. 
Noah  134,  142. 
noon-day  draught  151. 
72/r-beverage  74. 
Nubia  2  n.  1,  6. 
Nulia  43. 

nunneries,  wineshops  of  39. 
Nu-silig-ga,'  god  132. 
nutmeg  94. 
nvut-nt-Hapi  12. 


Index. 


163 


Nysa,  in  Arabia  33. 
— ,  in  Phoenicia  31. 


Oasis,  the  northern  13.  14. 

— ,  the  southern  13,  14. 

Ogdor,  wine  of  29. 

oinomeli  28. 

olive  25. 

'Oman,  viticulture  of  34. 

Orontes,  valley  of  the  23. 

Osiris  2,  113,  114. 

Ostracine  16. 

overseers,  of  wine-cellars  6 

"ox-eye"-wine  41. 


Pa-gestin-dug,  god  132. 
Palestine  18,  24,  25,  26,  31,  36, 

6l,  64  etc. 
palm-wine  35. 
Pa-mer  3. 

Pa-merti,  district  of  3. 
Pangeum  22  n.  2. 
Paraetonium  12. 
parsley  94. 

Patin,  country  of  43. 
Pelusium  lo,  13,  14,  1 6,  17,  76. 
Peparthian  wine  5. 
pepper  28,  94. 
Per- Ramses- Mery-Amon  1 5  • 
Persia,  wine-import  into  22. 
Perugitha,  wine  of  26. 
Petra,  vineyards  of  34,  152. 
peuce  4. 
/$-beer  72. 
Phoenicia  16,  30,  31. 
Plinthinic  wine  3. 
r  73. 


poetry,  pre-islamic  143,  144. 
pomegranate -wine   9,    13,    15, 

17,  18,  30. 
Pontus,  wine  of  5. 
pressed  wine  41. 
pressing- vat  53,  66,  130. 
priests,  Babylonian  123. 
priests,  Egyptian  2;  107. 
prima  beer  89. 

prohibition,of  wine-drinkingl  53. 
props  63. 
psythia  27. 
ptry,  canal  15. 
Purim  107. 
pura  66,  67. 
Pyramid-texts  lo. 
pyrgos  62. 


Qadesia  24. 
Qasirin  24. 


24. 

Qenqen-tane  83. 
Qeruchim,  wine  of  26. 
Qode-beer  82,  83,  84. 
Qutrabbul,  wine  and  wineshops 
of  40. 


raisins  prohibition  of  the  sale 

of  5. 

raisin-water  37. 
Raphia  16. 
Rashid  6. 
recipes,    beer-    78,  8l,   89,   91, 

93,  94- 
red  beer  89. 
red  wine  7,  36. 


164 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


Rekhabites  133. 
Rephaim,  wine  of  29. 
Resheph,  god  114. 
Rome,  beer  export  to  76. 
— ,  wine  export  to  3,  5. 
resin  56. 
Rhinokorura  16. 
Rimusu  42. 
Ror  65. 
rue  18,  94. 


7,  46. 


12. 
12. 


73. 


7. 


Sa-bil,  goddess  132. 

Sabu,  mount  132. 

sajn  11. 

sacrificial  offering  of  beer  and 

wine  ill,  125,  126. 
Sadjur  42. 
Sadum  Rah  35. 
safflower-seed  82. 
Saic  al-Kaum,  god  152. 
Salihiyeh,  as-  11  n.  1,  16. 
salt  82. 

Samaria  29.  . 

Samarra,  vineyards  of  40. 
San'a  33,  34. 
Sarepta,  wine  of  32. 
Saris,  city  of  41,  42. 
Sarkhad,  wine  of  24. 
Sharon,  plain  of  25,  26,  62. 
Sarugi  (Serug)  43. 
sathuy,  the  139. 
Sawiq  95. 
Ub.t  9. 


Uh  9,  17,  18. 

sdw-ib  8. 

Scbennytic  wine  3,  4. 

sehpet  72. 

Ukk&r  93. 

Seleucia,  wine  of  24. 

sft.t  13. 

Shedet,  city  of  2. 

Shesmu,  constellation  114. 

Shibam,  mount  of  34. 

Shilo  26,  64. 

shoots  63. 

Sicily  31. 

Sidon,  wine  of  26,  29. 

— ,  coins  of  141. 

Siduri,  sabitu  130,  131. 

sign  of  wineshop  138,  149. 
'\  sikkor,  the  139. 

SIM  +  KAS,  goddess  132. 

SIM  +  KAS-gig,   goddes:,  132. 
!  Simminu,  country  of  43. 
j  simuqim  27. 

Singara,  vinestalks  of  40. 

singing-girls,  Hebrew  137,  138. 
i  singing-girls,  Arabian  149,  150, 

152. 

I  siphon  19,  67,  68,  139. 
Siris,  goddess  39.  133. 
!  skirret  75. 

:  slough,  linen  54,  55,  56. 
j  smh- beverage  74. 
"smoked"  wine  27. 
Sohet,  vineyard  of  8. 
sokorkah  95. 
,  Somali  Coast,  wine  import  to 

the  23. 
South    Arabia,     wine    import 

into  23. 
Spain  31. 


Index. 


165 


spelt  76,  79,  86,  89. 
spiced  wines  1 8,  30. 
*rt  76. 

storage,  of  wine  58. 
Suhu,  country  of  43. 
Sulmi  ibn  Rabi'ah  147. 
sumach  25. 
Sunaya,  grapes  of  39. 
superintendet,of  the  vineyard6o. 
Susa  40. 
sweet  beer  73. 
sweet  wine  15,  26. 
Syria  16,   20,    22,    24,    26,    31, 
32,  36,  37,  153- 


tabatu-wme  41. 

Tabuke-grapes  64. 

Taeniotic  wine  3. 

Taia  43. 

Ta'if,  grapes  of  at-  34,  35. 

Tamnuna,  city  of  41,  42. 

Tanis  15. 

tavern  127,  128,  129,  137,  148, 

150,  151. 

tax,  for  vineyards  60,  6l. 
Tbui,  district  of  14. 
Tell  Defenneh  16. 
Tell  al-Kasr  4. 
Tell  Roba  4. 
Tenemet,  goddess  114. 
Thasian  grape  3,  4. 
Thebais,  wine  of  the  4. 
th  9. 

"Three-leaf'-wine  27. 
Tiberias,  sea  of  65. 
Tilabne  43. 
tinrekw  9.  • 
Tmei  al-Amdid  4. 


toast,  Egyptian  102. 
Trace,  moutains  of  1. 
transportation,  of  wine  17. 
tribute,  wine-  22. 
Tripolis,  wine  of  32. 
Tu'immu,  country  of  43. 
Tur-'Abdin  44. 
Turkestan  1. 
Tylos,  island  of  34. 
Tyre  1,  16,  22,  26,  31. 
— ,  coins  of  141. 

U 

cUkbara,  grapes  of  40. 
Upper  Egypt,  wine  of  4. 
— ,  vineyards  of  13,  14. 
use  of  wine,  in  Palestine  I33ff. 


vats  53,  54. 

vine    1,   6,    14,   22,  23,  24,  25, 

26  etc. 
"Vinebearing  Region  of  Amon" 

12. 

vine-city  114. 

vinedresser  49,  62,  66. 

vinegar  5,  30. 

vinegod  132. 

vine-goddess  131. 

vineyard  2, 6,  8, 13,  14, 15, 21  etc. 

vintage  50,  52,  53,  64,  65. 

vintage- festival  64,  107. 

vintner  68. 

vinum  conditum  28. 

vinum  culpatum  30. 

vitis  labrusca,  L.  28. 

vitis  Schimperi  5. 

vitis  vinifera  1. 


166 


Lutz,  Viticulture  and  Brewing. 


w 

wadi  Dahr  33,  34. 
waiter,  Arabian  149. 
warning    against    drunkenness 

105,  108,  137. 
wheat  79,  82,  86,  94. 
wine-god,  Hittite  141. 
"White  Wall",  near  Memphis 48. 
white  wine  7. 
wicker-baskets  51. 
wine,  price  of  139,  151. 
— ,  mixed  with  rain-water   36. 
— ,  in  mythology  111,  130,  131. 
— ,  new  136. 

wine-cellar  7,  15,  58,  59,  68. 
wine- wharf  127. 
wine-cups  119,  120. 
"Wine-district",  the  14. 
wine-drinking,   in  Arabia  143. 
wine-jars  1.6,  32,  47,  58,  68. 
wine-labels  57,  58,  69. 
wine-lees  54,  56,  57. 
wine-merchants,  in  Arabia,  144. 
— ,  Phoenician  16. 
wine-must  9. 

wine-offering  19.  [62,  66. 

wine-press  33,  51,  53,  54,  55,  56, 


wine-presser  53,  66,  68,  71. 
wineshop  39,  69,  105,127,  128, 

148. 

wine-skin  36,  57,  68. 
wine-tax  20,  21,  68. 
wns  8  n.  1 . 


Yaa,  in  Syria  22. 
Yahweh  133,  134,  140,  141 
Yaman,  wine  of  al-  33. 
yayin  28. 
yeast  75,  79. 
yeast-wine  67. 
Yemet,  wine  of  11. 
yeqeb  66,  67. 
Yisreel,  plain  of  62. 
Yusur  24. 


Zab  42. 

Zaban,  city  of  42. 
Zanet,  city  of  15. 
Zeb-nuter,  city  of  4. 
Zembur  42. 
Zoan,  city  of  15. 


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