The Vulgate: the source of the false doctrines

THE VULGATE: THE SOURCE
OF FALSE DOCTRINES

Works by the same ^Author

THE SPIRITUAL TEACHING OF
CHRIST'S LIFE. 55. net.

CHRIST, NO PRODUCT OF
EVOLUTION, is.

THE AT-ONE-MENT, OR THE
GOSPEL OF RECONCILIATION, is.

THE ARGUMENT OF
ADAPTATION, is.

THE SPIRITUAL TEACHING
OF BIBLE PLANTS, is.

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE

THE VULGATE

THE SOURCE OF FALSE
DOCTRINES

BY

REV. PROF. G. HENSLOW,

M.A., F.L.S.,!F.G.S.,

AUTHOR OF "EVOLUTION AND RELIGION";

' CHRISTIAN BELIEFS RECONSIDERED IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN THOUGHT

" PRESENT-DAY RATIONALISM CRITICALLY EXAMINED " J

"CHRIST, NO PRODUCT OF EVOLUTION";
11 THE AT-ONE-MENT, OR THE GOSPEL OF RECONCILIATION " ;

" THE SPIRITUAL TEACHING OF CHRIST'S LIFE " J
ETC. ETC.

OF THE

f UNIVERSITY |

Of

LONDON
WILLIAMS & NORGATE

14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN
1909

PREFACE

" DOCTRINAL restatement " is in the air ; and it
becomes necessary to consider why it is desirable
to reconsider our ecclesiastical doctrines and to
discover in what, and why, they, any or all, are
defective. It is sometimes argued that doctrines
are like the discoveries of scientific truths, in that
they are said to be " developed," just as scientific
hypotheses come in time to be recognised as
truths. But with regard to the Church's doctrines,
it is not so much a question of development as a
recasting that is necessary ; nor, indeed, is this
quite correct, when it is added that they must be
adapted to modern ideas, for we shall see that they
have really arisen from erroneous interpretations
of the Greek words. Such occur first in the Latin
of the Vulgate, and thence appear in our own
tongue ; so that " degradation " would seem to be
sometimes a more applicable term than develop-
ment ; and what is therefore wanted is a restora-
tion to the original meaning of the Greek of the

189147

vi PREFACE

New Testament, as meant by the authors of the
Gospels and Epistles, and understood by their
readers.

My object, therefore, is to show that, since the
knowledge of the Bible in the early centuries of
our era was based entirely upon the Vulgate, a
familiarity with the Greek language being in
abeyance, this Latin version supplied nearly all
the terms required for ecclesiastical doctrines.

As the first English Bible, by Wiclif, in 1380,
was a translation of the Vulgate, and the several
versions of the sixteenth century, as well as the
A.V. and R.V., all more or less follow his lead,
the influence of the Vulgate is very apparent
throughout. The reader will at once perceive
this in the mere enumerations of doctrinal terms in
common usage. Some refer to Christ (included in
Part I.), others to man and his salvation (Part II.).

I propose considering each term separately,
and comparing, or rather contrasting, its meaning
with the Greek equivalent ; then it will be dis-
covered where the Latin fails to represent the
Greek, and how sometimes very disastrous
consequences have issued from the error. It
need hardly be added that there are false doc-

PREFACE vii

trines, as we believe, taught by the Roman
Church, which have been promulgated at different
periods, but have no direct origin in the Vulgate :
as the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary,
the infallibility of the Pope, etc. — though that
Church may try to find texts appropriate in
support of them. These I have not considered.

The editions of the Vulgate in my possession
are entitled as follows : —

(1) Biblica Sacra vulgatae editionis Sixti V.
Pontificis Maximi jussu recognita et dementis
VIII. auctoritate edita. Parisiis, etc. (1844.)

This edition first appeared in 1590. For a
full description of it, as of Jerome's work in revis-
ing the older Latin translations, the reader is
referred to Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, s.v.
" Vulgate."

(2) Jesu Christi Domini nostri Novum Testa-
mentum. Ex interpretatione Theodori Bezae ;
impressa Cantabrigiae. A.D. 1642. (1876.)

CONTENTS

PART I
DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO CHRIST

CHAP. PAGE

1. THE SUPPOSED THEOLOGICAL UNITY BETWEEN

THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS . . I

2. THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD ... 7

3. OBLATION 17

4. PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION ... 26

5. SATISFACTION 30

6. REDEMPTION . . . . . 36

7. THE ATONEMENT . . . . . . . 45

8. SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST ... 54

PART II

DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO MAN

9. REPENTANCE . . . . . . 72

10. PURGATORY 78

11. CONFESSION 87

x CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

12. JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION ... 93

13. REMISSION ....... 98

14. ABSOLUTION 1OI

15. RECONCILIATION, REGENERATION; AND "GOOD

WORKS," OR THE " CHRIST-LIFE " . . I lo

1 6. PREDESTINATION AND ELECTION . . . 119

17. SALVATION 123

1 8. DOCTRINE AND CREED 127

INDEX . . . . . . . .137

of

THE VULGATE

THE SOURCE OF FALSE DOCTRINES
PART I

DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO
CHRIST

CHAPTER I

THE SUPPOSED THEOLOGICAL UNITY BETWEEN
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS

THERE is a very general impression that some of
the ecclesiastical doctrines taught by the Church,
not only the Roman but the Protestant as well,
require, to say the least, some restatement, as not
being in exact accordance with the teachings of
the New Testament when strictly deduced from
the Greek text. My object is to show that it is
in the Latin Vulgate that we shall discover the

2 THE VULGATE

original source of most of the still remaining
errors. The consequence is that our ecclesiastical
doctrinal terms are almost entirely of Latin origin,
for the most part being taken direct from the
Vulgate ; and as the English Bible grew out of
translations of the sixteenth century, all being
based on the Vulgate, mistranslations reappear in
an English dress; for, although the Hebrew and
Greek originals were appealed to by translators
and revisers during and since the Reformation, it
is easy to see that important words derived from
the Latin still remain unchanged, even in our
latest revision.

The consequence is that false doctrines, started
in the early centuries and added to or confirmed
by later writers — as by Anselm in the eleventh —
being based on the Vulgate, not only still persist
in the Roman Church but hold their ground with
Protestants, as they can, unfortunately, be sup-
ported by our own English translations.

Now this may seem to be a serious charge against
our established theology ; but I shall endeavour
to show that the Vulgate is primarily responsible
for existing misinterpretations.

The ecclesiastical terms which I propose con-

OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS' UNITY 3

sidering are, first, those which are associated with
Christ, and more especially with His death.
Secondly, there are those which are especially
applicable to the Christian.

Before dealing with each term separately, the
" theoretical unity," as it might be called, which
was supposed to underlie both the Old and New
Testaments, must be alluded to, as this was a
fundamental error of itself. The Old Testament
was regarded, as not only equally important as
the New ; but the doctrines framed upon the latter
were supposed to be all foreshadowed, and were
actually supported, and even regarded as proved
to be true, by texts isolated from the context of
the Old. This is especially illustrated by the
conception of "sacrifice" and its object. The
reader need but glance at the headings of many
chapters in the Old Testament of the A.V. (1611)
to see how this false conception was carried through
and over the Reformation into the seventeenth
century, and thence onwards until the nineteenth ;
all such headings being cancelled in the R.V.
(1880). Thus, opening it at random, at the fortieth
chapter of Isaiah we read : " i. The promulga-
tion of the Gospel. 2. The preaching of John

4 THE VULGATE

Baptist." These are substituted for the headings
in the Genevan Bible, in which occurs : " I. Re-
mission of sinnes by Christ. 2. The coming of
John Baptist."

Of the many serious consequences of transferring
Old Testament ideas and customs to the New, is
what is known as sacerdotalism. Thus, in the
INDEX BIBLICUS at the end of the Sixtine Vulgate,
ed. 1844, we read, s.v. SACERDOS — Sacerdos, non
Lex aul Scriptura sola, est judex, qucestionum exori-
entium (A priest, not the Law or Scripture only,
is a judge of questions as they arise).

When we remember how the word " priest "
arose out of " presbyter " (Greek 7rpe<7/3irre/oo?, an
" elder "), who was identical with the eTr/cr/coTro?,
"overseer," hence "bishop" — eTno-AcoTro? indicating
the " function " and Trpecr/Svrepo? the " dignity " 1 —
it certainly seems rather far fetched to select the
following texts as proofs of the judicial function of
modern priests : z — " And it shall be when he [the
king] sitteth upon the throne of his kingdom, that
he shall write him a copy of this law in a book,
out of that which is before the priests the levites.

1 See Thayer's Lexicon.

2 Other references as proofs are Deut. xvii. 9, 12 ; Mai. ii. 7.

OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS' UNITY 5

In controversy they [the priests the levites] shall
stand to judge ; according to my judgments shall
they judge it; and they shall keep my laws and
my statutes in all my appointed feasts ; and they
shall hallow my sabbaths." 1 " For the priest's
lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek
the law at his mouth : for he is the messenger of
the Lord of hosts." 2

From these three passages referred to as proofs,
it is obvious that all the priests could do was, not
to judge of themselves, but simply to pronounce
what was God's or Yahweh's judgment, as applic-
able to any case in question.

When we turn to the New Testament, who or
what was to be a judge under Christianity ? We
do not even read that it is God, the Father. " For
neither doth the Father judge any man, but he
hath given all judgment unto the Son. . . . Verily,
verily, I say unto you, He that heareth my word,
and hath faith in [believeth, R.V.] him that sent me,
hath eternal life, and cometh not into judgment." 3
" He that rejecteth me, and receiveth not my sayings,
hath one that judgeth him : the word that I spake,
the same shall judge him in the last day."4

1 Ezek. xliv. 24. 2 Mai. ii. 7. 3 John v. 22 ff. 4 John xii. 48.

6 THE VULGATE

A Christian, therefore, requires no priest to tell
him that. He can judge himself by the standard
of Christ's life ; for he knows whether he is honestly
trying to live up to it or " rejecting His sayings " ;
and, if so, he is consequently self-condemned.

Though the word " priest " is etymologically
derived from Trpeo-ftvTepos, it seems to be regarded
by ecclesiastics as if equivalent to iepcfa, because he
is looked upon as the successor of the priesthood
under the Mosaic law. Hence the terms and
offices of the Aaronic priesthood were regarded
as guaranteeing those of the Christian ministry ;
and as the priestly duties and authority were
exercised under the direct sanction of Yahweh,
this conception was then transferred to priests of
the Christian dispensation. If, therefore, a priest
can claim to give his own judgment, how much
more may not a pope ! And such has been the
case, for now he is regarded as infallible.

So that the modern priest is looked upon much
more as a lepev?, sacerdos, than a Trpea-fivrepo? or
elder.

CHAPTER II

THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD

THE terms attributed to Christ with special refer-
ence to His death upon the cross may be arranged
in the following order, in accordance with the
supposed sequence in the effects and results.

His death, speaking generally, was regarded
theologically as a SACRIFICE (sacrificium). This
involved His OFFERING or OBLATION (oblatio) of
His body upon the cross ; His object being to pro-
pitiate God (propitiatid), in order to expiate the
sins of humanity (expiatio), and so satisfy God's
justice (satisfactio). He thus redeemed man from
punishment in hell (redemptio) and reconciled God
to man (reconciliatio, or atonement; i.e., at-one-
ment, in the sixteenth century). Thus He became
our Saviour, and secured man's salvation (salvatio).

The celebration of the Lord's Supper to-day
7

8 THE VULGATE

consists of our "sacrifice of prayer and praise"
(eucharistia)', but into this has been read "the
Real Presence" and "transubstantiation" (tran-
substantiatio), from misunderstanding the meaning
of the words, " This is my Body " and " This is
my Blood."

SACRIFICE (sacrificium). — The first question that
arises is, Of what nature was Christ's sacrifice?
Was it vicarious and involuntary like that of the
animals offered up of old, by means of the oblation
of which a man's sin was " covered " ; or was it
done " on behalf of " and not " instead of " man ?

In the book of Ezra we read that Cyrus made a
decree that the priests should be supplied with
animals, "that they may offer sacrifices of sweet
savour unto the God of heaven." l St Paul uses a
very similar expression in speaking of our Lord,
who "loved you, and gave himself up for us, an
offering and a sacrifice to God for an odour of
a sweet smell."2 The expression is outwardly
identical, but obviously only metaphorical in the
case of Christ. The "sweet smell" represents the

1 Ezra vi. 10.

2 Eph. v. 2. The Vulgate has Oblationem ; tt hostiatn Deo in
odorem suavitatis. So, Phil. iv. 1 8.

THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 9

free-will or voluntary offering of Himself to death,
whereas He might have called down twelve legions
of angels to avert it.1

This is the fundamental difference between the
two Testaments, and it must never be lost sight
of. All such " sacrificial " expressions in the New
Testament are metaphorical \ the spiritual mean-
ing must be read into the material. The old sacri-
ficial system of rams, bulls, goats, etc., was utterly
abolished by Christ. All His disciples and the
Apostles knew this well ; and their converts came
to know it at once, too. Hence there could not
have been any possibility of a mistake at that
time. Moreover, there are no signs of any.

Subsequently, however, the belief arose that the
Old Testament was an authority for the New ;
that what was said of Christ was also meant in the
Old Testament. This involved a material sacri-
fice on His part. Consequently, as sacrifices were
offered daily,2 so it is said : " The sacrifice of
the New Testament is called a perpetual sacrifice.
It shall be celebrated until the Lord may come." 3

1 Matt. xxvi. 53.

2 Exod. xxix. 38 ; Num. xxviii. 3.

3 Novi Testamenti sacrificium appellatur Juge sacrificium. Cele-
brabitur donee venial Dominus (The sacrifice of the New

io THE VULGATE

This was thought to be corroborated by, " For
as often as ye eat of this bread," etc.1 But it is
obvious to the impartial reader that " often " can-
not possibly mean " daily."

The mistake of the Vulgate is twofold : first, in
making the Old Testament an interpreter of the
New ; and secondly, in regarding the symbolism of
the latter as being literally true2 in the concrete
sense.

With regard to the word " sacrifice " as applied
to our Lord, there are thus two ways in which it
has been considered. One is the voluntary and
purely spiritual surrendering of His will to God,
in which all thoughts of self are ignored in His
dying upon the cross on "behalf of"3 Humanity.
This might be expressed as, " He saved others,
himself he will not save."

Testament is called a sacrifice in perpetuity. It shall be celebrated
until the Lord cometh). Vulg., INDEX BIBLICUS. Cp. Dan. xi.
3 1 , xii. 1 1 ; refs. to the cessation of the daily sacrifice.

1 i Cor. xi. 26.

2 The following expressions occur in Latin in the INDEX BIB-
LICUS to the Vulgate:— "The sacrifice of the Mass was predicted
and announced before." "The sacrifice of the Mass was signified
by means of various figures in the Old Testament." " Nor shall one
be wanting to offer the sacrifice."

3 virep is always used in the New Testament in reference to
Christ's death. It is never avrl, ' ' instead of. "

THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 11

In the other view, materialistic ideas more or
less linger, as, e.g., in transubstantiation, consub-
stantiation, the Real Presence, etc., in which false
dogmas the concrete materials of bread and wine
are supposed to be somehow changed into the
" essence " of Christ's flesh and blood ; but as no
change appreciable to the senses can be recognised
in the " accidents," the interchange is imagined to
take place between their "substances," meaning
what Plato called "the real1 nature" of any-
thing. It will be shown hereafter how that fiction
arose, and how modern science proves that there
is no evidence of the existence of any " substance,"
in the old philosophic sense, underlying any con-
crete matter whatever.

The position then is this: (i) The whole of the
Jewish and heathen systems of objective sacrifices
was abolished for ever, never to be revived. (2)
The Apostles, in preaching "Jesus Christ and Him
crucified," use what may be called " sacrificial ex-
pressions," but solely in a metaphorical sense ; for
they knew perfectly well that neither Jew nor

1 Perhaps this gave rise to the expression "Real Presence."
The meaning of "substance," i.e. ovvla, virforaffis, and persona
will be explained later.

THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

12 THE VULGATE

Gentile could possibly misunderstand them. A few
passages will be quite sufficient to illustrate this.

In writing to the Ephesians St Paul says : " Be
ye therefore imitators of God as beloved children ;
and walk in love, even as Christ also loved you,
and gave himself up for us,1 an offering and a
sacrifice to God for an odour of a sweet smell." 2

He uses the same expression for the material
self-sacrifices made by the Philippians for Paul's
sake : " I have all things, and abound : I am
filled, having received from Epaphroditus the
things that came from you, an odour of a
sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable, well-pleasing
to God."3

St Paul thus applies the term " sacrifice " to him-
self: " If I am offered upon the sacrifice and service
of your faith, I joy and rejoice with you all." 4 And
so he bids the Romans : " I beseech you therefore,
brethren, by the mercies of God, to present your
bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God." 5

There is no need to multiply passages : they all
breathe the same spirit of self-sacrifice.

1 vvfp r)fj.cov. 3 Eph. v. I, 2.

3 Phil. iv. 18. The expression "sweet savour" occurs some
forty times in the Old Testament in reference to the sacrifices.

4 Phil. ii. 17. 5 Rom. xii. I.

THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 13

What is the "sweet savour" well-pleasing to
God?

The origin of the expression is obvious. It was
supposed to appease the Deity. Thus it is said
of Noah's sacrifice, " The Lord smelled the sweet
savour."1 In the polytheistic Assyrian flood story,
the corresponding passage is : " The gods gathered
at the smell, yea, the gods gathered at the savour,
like flies they gathered at the sacrifice."

The "sweet savour" of our Lord's death was
therefore a metaphorical expression to indicate
His voluntary surrendering Himself, rather than
use force as He indeed told Pilate.2 He re-
pudiated all idea of employing force to establish
His kingdom at the beginning of His ministry when
undergoing the temptation in the wilderness ;
and He would not use it to save Himself from
death at the close.

The conclusion is now clear that the Greek
words Ovaria and 7rpoV0o/oa for "sacrifice" and
"offering," can only be used in the metaphorical
sense for self-sacrifice, all concrete and materialistic
ideas being totally wanting ; and wherever such are
included, as in transubstantiation or the " Real

1 Gen. viii. 21. 2 Matt. xxvi. 53.

14 THE VULGATE

Presence," as it is called, there is not a line or a
word in the New Testament to support it.

Though all heathen sacrifices of old had for
their object the appeasement of the deity, this
notion, as Dr Westcott has so fully explained,1 is
not only quite foreign to the New Testament, but
even also to the LXX. It may be observed that
such an idea is totally opposed to the words of St
Paul : " God was in Christ, reconciling the world
unto himself, not reckoning unto them their
trespasses."2

As forgiveness was believed in olden times to
require the sacrifice of some living creature, inas-
much as its death represented the " death unto sin "
of the offerer, while its blood (i.e. the life) poured
on the altar represented the sinner's life now
dedicated to God ; so, this idea is carried over to
Christianity, but transformed into a metaphor only,
and is especially dwelt upon by the author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews, who well shows the change
from the concrete to the spiritual in the words :
" Sacrifices and offerings and burnt offerings and
sacrifices for sin thou wouldest not, neither hadst

1 The Epistles of St John, pp. 85 ff.

2 2 Cor. v. 19.

THE SACRIFICE OF OUR LORD 15

pleasure therein. (But) Lo, / come to do thy will.
He taketh away the first that he may establish
the second."1

But, again, the very essence of Christ's sacrifice
is expressed as surrendering His will to God's. It
is the loving self-sacrifice, I repeat, which was the
sweet savour.

Now our Liturgy guards against any materialistic
view in the words : " We spiritually eat the flesh
of Christ and drink His blood " ; that is, we resolve
to surrender our will to God's. This is expressed
in the words: "Ye that do truly and earnestly
repent you of your sins, and are in love and charity
with your neighbours, and intend to lead a new
life, following the commandments of God and walk-
ing from henceforth in his holy ways, etc." This
represents the " Christ-life," and that is the result
of metaphorically eating Christ's flesh and drinking
His blood.

A point is here worth noticing, viz., that writers
often use the word " vicarious " as if it implied any
suffering undergone by one person, or even an
animal, by which another is benefited. This is
not at all the meaning of the word, which is limited

1 Heb. x. 8, 9.

16 THE VULGATE

to the sense of suffering "instead of" another, and
not on " behalf of" that other. Thus, a man may
get terribly burnt in rescuing someone from a fire ;
but he does not suffer "instead of" that other.
When Dickens, in his Tale of Two Cities, represents
a man going to the guillotine to save another's life,
he died instead of the other. This alone was a
vicarious sacrifice. A parson or vicar stands in
the place of, or instead of, Christ when preaching,
i.e. he represents Him.

CHAPTER III
OBLATION

OVERLOOKING the spiritual self-sacrifice, the
Church regarded the body as constituting the chief
material of Christ's sacrifice for man. This is
another mistake which arose out of the transfer-
ence of an Old Testament command to the New ;
for it was insisted that the sacrifice of Christ
should be repeated daily, as it is now regarded in
the Mass. The ground for this was found in the
following passage, as it occurs in the Rhemes
translation from the Vulgate : " This is it which
thou shalt doe vpon the Altar ; Two lambes of a
yeare old (c) euerie day continually ; one lambe in
the morning, and an other at euen, the tenth part
of flowre tempered with oile beaten, which shal
haue in measure to one lambe. And the other
lambe thou shalt offer at euen, according to the

i 2

i8 THE VULGATE

rite of the morning oblation. ... It is a sacrifice
to the Lord, by perpetual oblation vnto your
generations." l

The marginal note (c) runs as follows : " Diuers
things were offered at diuers times, and al signified
Christ's Sacrifice in his Church. 5. Aug. lib. i.
c. 1 8, contr. aduers. Leg. et Prophet^ yet none dailie
but a lambe: more particularly signifying the
daylie offering of the lambe of God, and perpetual
effect thereof. Origen in loan, i."

In connection with this there is another mis-
application in the Vulgate, as being a translation
of the LXX, itself being wrong. It will be as well
to quote the passage first, as given in our R.V. :

" Sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not,
But a body didst thou prepare for me ;
In whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin

thou hadst no pleasure :
Then said I, Lo, I am come
(In the roll of the book it is written of me)
To do Thy will, O God." 2

But if we turn to the Fortieth Psalm in the
Hebrew Bible, from which the unknown author of

1 Ex. xxix. 38-42. 2 Heb. x. 5-7.

OBLATION 19

the Epistle to the Hebrews is quoting, we find no
mention of a " body " at all :

" Sacrifice and offering thou hast no delight in.

Mine ears hast thou opened."

What this means we understand from the following
verses, viz. :

" I delight to do thy will, O my God :
Yea, thy law is within my heart.
I have published righteousness in the great

congregation :

Lo, 1 will not refrain my lips,
O Lord, thou knowest," etc.

It is quite clear that David here sees the useless-
ness of sacrificing bodies, but that it is the spiritual
sacrifice of doing God's will that is the only kind
acceptable to Yahweh.

If we now turn to the LXX, we at once see how
the words " A body thou wilt fit for me " are
obviously inserted :

" Sacrifice and offering thou wiliest not,
[But a body thou wilt furnish for me]
Holocausts also for sin thou askest not for."

In the Latin version the translator has changed
the future tense into the past : Hostiam et obla-

20 THE VULGATE

tionem noluiste, corpus autem aptasti mihi (A
victim and oblation thou hast not wished for, but
a body hast thou fitted for me).

It will be noted how the introduction of the
extra line quite destroys the usual parallelism in
the sentence of Hebrew poetry.1 This parallelism
is well brought out in Wellhausen's translation : —

" Sacrifice and offering thou dost not desire,
Burnt offering and sin-offering thou dost not

demand.

Mine ears hast thou opened
By means of the book of the law prescribed

to me ;

To do thy will, my God, is my delight,
And in my heart is thy law."2

If we now turn to the Epistle to the Hebrews,
we shall find the writer arguing from this inter-
calated line the theory of Christ's body being the
instrument of sacrifice, by means of which man can
become sanctified spiritually, or reconciled, or put
"at one" with God. "He taketh away the first,

1 Jerome's translation is said to have been from the Hebrew, but
the above seems to show that this passage is from one of the older
Latin versions, from the LXX.

2 The Christian Use of the Psalms, by Dr Cheyne, p. 131.

OBLATION 21

that he may establish the second. By which will
we have been sanctified through the offering of the
body of Jesus Christ once for all." l

In the margin to the Annotations to this chapter
in the Rhemes Version we read : " The old
Sacrifices obscurely shadowed, but the Sacrifice of
the Altar most plainly representeth the Sacrifice
on the Crosse." " That Christ should haue a body
was necessarie for his Priesthood and Sacrifice."
"The body of Christ's is the Sacrifice of the
altar."

The Annotation quotes the words "BVT A
BODY THOV HAST FITTED TO ME" in
large capitals, to show the basis of the theory of
the daily sacrifice of Christ's body in the Mass
at the present day. Having shown how Scripture
appeared to substantiate the necessity of a body,
and texts found to declare such to have been
prepared (fitted) for the Messiah, the Church
could accept the words "This is my body" as
corroborating the fact, and so reduced the sacra-
ment of the Lord's Supper to a corporeal or
carnal level. The following quotations, presum-
ably authenticated by the Roman Church, may

1 Heb. x. 9, 10.

22 THE VULGATE

be taken as the grounds for believing in " the Real
Presence," these words being in the margin to the
following " annotation " : —

" ' This is my body.' l Although sense tel thee it
is bread, yet it is the body, according to his
wordes, let faith confirme thee, judge not by
sense. After the wordes of our Lord let no
doubt rise in thy mind (Cyril, mystag. 4). Of
the veritie of flesh and bloud there is left no
doubt: by the profession of our Lord him self,
and by our faith it is flesh and bloud indeed.
Is not this truth? To them be it vntrue, which
deny IESV CHRIST to be true God (Hilar.,
li. 8, de Trinity

It will be seen subsequently that "to be"
is the only verb used throughout the Bible to
mean "represent" when the subject and predi-
cate are nouns referable to the same thing :
as, " The white linen is the righteousness of
the saints."2

Next, to establish the "sacrifice of the Mass,"
the Church based it on the three words " which is
given " ; for thus it is written : " As the former
wordes make and proue his body present, so these

1 Luke xxii. 19. 2 Rev. xix. 8.

OBLATION 23

wordes plainely signifie, that it is present as giuen,
offered, or sacrificed for vs : and being vttered in
the present tence (quod datur), it signifieth not
only that it should afterward be giuen or offered
on the Crosse, but that it was then also in the
Sacrament giuen and offered for vs. Whereby it
is inuincibly proued that his Body is present as
an Host or Sacrifice : and that the making or con-
secrating thereof must needes be Sacrificing. And
therefore the holy Fathers in this sense cal it a
Sacrifice." Numerous references to the Fathers
follow the above ; while the margin has in reference
to it : " Christ sacrificed his body and bloud in
Sacrament at his supper."

It may be pretty safely said that the disciples
saw nothing of all this at the time ; and no one
could or would attempt to extract the above
meaning had they not a theory of sacrifice to
establish somehow.

But more is required. If the sacrifice of Christ's
body and blood has to be offered in perpetuity,
then authorised persons are required to do it ;
so the Church seized upon the words : " ' Doe this/
In these wordes the holy Sacrament of Order
is instituted, because power and commission to

24 THE VULGATE

doe the principal act and worke of Priesthood,
is giuen to the Apostles : that is, to doe that which
Christ then did concerning his body : which was,
to make and offer his body as a Sacrifice for vs
and for al that haue need of Sacrifice, and to
giue it to be eaten as Christes body sacri-
ficed, to al faithful. For as the Paschal lambe
was first sacrificed, and then eaten; so was
his body : and thus to doe he here giueth
commission and authoritie to the Apostles, and
to al Priests which be their successours in this
matter."

In the margin by this paragraph we read : " The
Apostles are made Priestes, and the Sacrament of
holy Orders instituted." Of course, the disciples
did not regard themselves as priests, but the
Rhemes Version was made hundreds of years
after bishops, priests, and deacons had arisen in
the Church, which felt that some support was
necessary from Scripture.

Thus was it that the word oblatio came to be
used in the New Testament ; but " oblation " does
not occur in our English versions. Oblatio was
the word applied to the sacrifices of the bodies
of animals in the Old Testament ; and as Christ's

OBLATION 25

body was considered necessary, so oblatio was
applied to Him as well. But our Church has no
authority for either term where in our Communion
Service it speaks of an " oblation and satisfaction
for the sins of the whole world."

CHAPTER IV

PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION

THE two terms mentioned here appear to have
arisen in the same way, and apparently by a
reaction through the influence of Calvin. Pro-
pitiation only occurs thrice.1 St Paul says,
" Whom God set forth to be a propitiation " (R. V.).
Wiclif (1380) translated it, "Whom God ordayned
forgiver by faith in his blood." Cranmer (1539)
has "obteyner of mercy thorow fayth ." The
Genevan has " to be a reconciliation," etc. Now
the Bishops' Bible first adopted the word " pro-
pitiation," and has, "Whom God hath set forth
to be a propitiation " ; and adds the marginal in-
terpretation, " Which is a pacifying of God's dis-
pleasure." The Rhemes, A.V. and R.V. follow

J Rom. iii. 25 (i\a<rr'fipiov) ; Vulg. propitionem ; I John ii. 2 and
iv. 10 (focKT/irfs).

26

PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION 27

suit. The verb (iXda-KearOcu) only occurs twice.1
Thus the publican says, " God be merciful to me
a sinner": while in the Epistle to the Hebrews
it is "to make propitiation for the sins of the
people" (R.V.); but A.V. had "to make re-
conciliation."

The above quotations appear to show that from
the Bishops' Bible (1568) to the R.V. of to-day
there has been a return towards the heathen con-
ception of appeasing God in order to reconcile
Him to man; and that the R.V. is even more
pronounced than the A.V.

Dr Westcott, however, has pointed out that the
constructions in which these three Greek words
are used " stand in remarkable contrast with the
classical and Hellenic usage. They show that the
Scriptural conception of the verb (tXaovce<r0at) is
not that of appeasing one who is angry, .... but
of altering the character of that which from with-
out occasions a necessary alienation, and interposes
an inevitable obstacle to fellowship."2 In fact,
it is not God, but man, so to say, who is pro-
pitiated. Dr Westcott shows that the prevailing

1 Luke xviii. 13, and Heb. ii. 17.

2 Epistles of St John, p. 87.

28 THE VULGATE

construction of this verb in the LXX nowhere
permits the sense of man appeasing God ; hence it
would seem that the LXX translators shrank from
regarding Yahweh in the same light as that of a
heathen deity, who is supposed to be regularly
appeased and propitiated by his devotees.

This reaction can be traced with great probability
to Calvin.1 As propitiatio is the word used in the
Vulgate in all the three passages referred to, " pro-
pitation " has passed into our Bibles ; and the idea
of Christ's propitiating God, like that of expiation,
is thus traceable to the Vulgate, and subsequently
restored by Calvin.

The word expiation is of frequent occurrence in
the Rhemes Version, but it does not occur in the
A.V. Atonement is given as the corresponding
word in the Old Testament, but reconciliation in
the New.2 There would seem to be no doubt that
the application of this term to Christ was a natural
result of regarding His sacrifice as material ; for
the word expiation keeps up the idea of a bodily
sacrifice required for appeasing the Deity.

1 For a fuller discussion on the word propitiation^ see an article
by the present writer in the Homiletic Review, October 1907.
3 Rom. v. ii ; cp. A.V. with R.V.

PROPITIATION AND EXPIATION 29

In a work on The Design of Christianity, by G.
Fowler (1671), the author writes: "As the death
of Christ was likewise a Sacrifice for sin, it was in
an Eminent manner effectual to this great purpose.
In the death of Christ, considered as an Expiatory
and Propitiatory Sacrifice, is the offence that God
Almighty hath taken against sin, and the hatred
He bears to it, as well as His love to us sinners
infinitely declared ; in that He would not forgive
it to us without the intervention of no meaner an
offering than the Blood of His Onely-Begotten
Son."

Where our Bible has to " atone " in the Old
Testament, the Vulgate has expiare, placare, pro-
pitiare, deprecari, rogare, orare, etc. ; but expiare is
by far the most usual term ; so that although
reconciliatio is the true and only equivalent of
at-one-ment, we see that the Vulgate is after all
largely responsible for the modern meaning of
atonement, through the intervention of Calvin, as
a synonym for expiation.

CHAPTER V

SATISFACTION

THIS word only occurs twice in the A.V., and is
replaced by " ransom " in R.V. The LXX has
\vrpov. Satisfactio is one of the few ecclesiastical
terms which does not occur in the Vulgate, for
there is no Greek word equivalent to it. In the
INDEX BIBLICUS the reader is referred to pceni-
tentia. The classic usage of satisfacere was "to
make amends " ; as when one confesses his fault
by which another is injured, and asks forgiveness
of him. Such was exactly the position of the
Prodigal Son, who instantly receives forgiveness
in full.

The early Church used the word in the same
sense, as applied to repentance towards God ; but
unfortunately introduced the idea of appeasing
Him. " They held that God being offended and

30

SATISFACTION 31

angered by our sins was, first by confession, then
by tears, by sorrow, and by penitence, to be
satisfied ; i.e. that His wrath was in this way to
be appeased and deprecated."1 So, too, St
Cyprian says : " Hold fast humility and make
amends (satisfacere) to the Lord."2

It must be noted that there was no idea of
anything punitive or of payment to Divine justice.
This was a later addition, when the word satisfac-
tion came to be transferred to Christ. Perhaps we
may see the germ of this in St Cyprian's words :
" If He laboured and watched and prayed for us
and our offences, how much more ought we to be
earnest in prayer, and first pray the Lord Him-
self, and then through Him make amends to the
Father."3 In St Cyprian's view, satisfaction and
prayer were each equivalent to repentance. The
only thing he recognised as appeasing God was
alms-deeds, but not lying in sackcloth and ashes,
nor fasting, etc.

As a third part of penitence, satisfaction came

1 Quoted from Heraldus (Disr. ii. 4) in note K, Tertullian
(Library of the Fathers, p. 371).

2 Loc. cit.

3 Ep. xi. (8), quoted in loc. cit. , p. 372.

32 THE VULGATE

to stand for more severe courses. Thus St Augus-
tine says: "The third sort of penitence is that
to be undergone for the sins contained in the
Decalogue, of which the Apostle says, ' They who
do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of
God.' In this penitence, then, every one ought to
exercise on himself a greater severity, that, judged
by himself, he be not judged of the Lord,"1

We can thus trace the progress of the word
from its primary meaning of repentance, as when
St John Baptist preached the baptism of repent-
ance for the remission of sins ; and as he was
followed by St Peter, who said : " Repent ye and
be baptized every one of you, in the name of
Jesus Christ, unto the remission of sins."2 This
free forgiveness following upon sincere repentance
suggested St Paul's calling it the "Gospel of
Grace." There would be no " grace " at all if the
"legal satisfaction" of a vicarious sacrifice were
demanded. Christ said nothing about such in
His last instructions to His disciples: "Thus it
is written that the Christ should suffer, and rise
again from the dead the third day; and that

1 Serm. 351, c. 4, quoted be. fit., p. 376
Acts ii. 38.

SATISFACTION 33

repentance and remission of sins should be
preached in his name [not blood] unto all the
nations." 1

Repentance, therefore, being all that was
required, was identical with satisfaction or " mak-
ing amends " ; but in the third century we found
that satisfaction passed over into penance and
became the third part of it (contrition, confession
and satisfaction). We here see how the grace of
forgiveness by God is being overriden by ecclesi-
astical interference, till a vicious system was estab-
lished of escaping the being obliged to undergo
severe treatment as ordered by the Church, who
fixed the penances, by the payment of money.

We now pass on to the time, probably impossible
to be actually fixed, when satisfaction passed from
the penitent to our Lord Himself. At all events,
the idea became crystallised, so to say, by Anselm
in the eleventh century in his Cur Deus Homo.
He thus wrote: A. "It is plain that God demands
proportionate satisfaction." B. " I cannot deny it" 2
Again: A. "Thus it is needful that He should
complete what He designed in human nature;
but, as we said before, He cannot do this except

Luke xxiv. 46. 47. * Lib. i. 21.

3

34 THE VULGATE

through an entire satisfaction for sin, which no
sinner can make."1 Lastly: A. "God alone can
make this satisfaction." 2

It is true as stated, that the actual word satis-
factio does not occur in the Vulgate New Testa-
ment ; but it is a natural sequence or development
of pcenitentia, penance; the Latin word being a
totally erroneous rendering of /xerayota, as will be
explained below. In demanding acts of penance
and satisfaction of penitents, and still more in
applying the term satisfaction to Christ, the
Church was in fact in direct opposition to the
Vulgate, for the Latin equivalent to our English
"And their sins and their iniquities will I
remember no more. Now where remission of
these is, there is no more offering for sin" is as
follows : Et peccatorum, et iniquitatum eorum jam
non recordabor amplius. Ubi autem horum remissio :
jam non est oblatio pro peccato." 3 But the Church
has regarded the oblatio as implying satisfactio.

It will thus be seen that not only is there no
Scriptural warrant for the use of the word " satis-
faction" in our Communion Office, in the prayer

1 Lib. ii. 4. 2 Lib. ii. 6.

3 Heb. x. 17, 18.

SATISFACTION 35

of consecration of the elements ; but the Church
has simply taken it from Anselm, who declared :
" Hold thou most firmly, that without satisfaction
— that is, without the spontaneous payment of the
debt — neither can God release the sinner un-
punished, nor the sinner attain to such bliss as he
enjoyed before his sin ; not in that way could man
be restored to what he was before sinning. " l

Anselm completely overlooked the fact that Jesus
Christ never asked for more than faith and repent-
ance, to which forgiveness follows as a natural
result, without punishment, penance, or satisfaction
of any kind whatever.

Thus do we see the far-reaching result of error
upon error, all starting from pcenitentia of the
Vulgate, upon which more will have to be said.

1 Op. a'f., lib. i. ch. 19.

CHAPTER VI

REDEMPTION

HAVING considered the terms applicable to the
process which was supposed necessary to secure
man's salvation, the first term dealing with the
result is Redemption.

Redemption is the usual word employed by
some theologians of the seventeenth century, who
less frequently speak of the " atonement " of Jesus
Christ. Literally meaning "to buy back," the
Latin verb (redimere) passes over to the idea of
" rescuing " : a meaning in the Bible, as in the
sentence " God redeemed Israel from Egypt," and
the Jews from Babylon ; and again, as they hoped
Christ would from the Romans in the first century
of our era.1

As an example of redeeming property we read

1 See Luke i. 68, and Acts i. 6.
36

REDEMPTION 37

that the land shall be sold under the condition of
redemption.1 As examples of the meaning "to
rescue," the Vulgate has redemit vos de domo servi-
tutis, i.e. " rescued you from the house of slavery " ; 2
from afflictions ; 3 from the loss of time.4

In the Christian sense, the word is, of course,
used only metaphorically and spiritually. Thus
the Vulgate has nos redimeret ab omni iniquitati,
reproduced in our Bible as " might redeem us from
all iniquity."5 Similarly the verb is applied to
temptations,6 to sin,7 to the curse of the law.8

The Greek words translated by redimere are
( l)\vrpovv, (2) egayopdfciv and ayopd^eiv^S) e£aipeiv.
With regard to the first, Yahweh said to Moses, " I
will redeem you with a stretched out arm."8 The
third is a common word in the LXX. Both the
first and the third occur in the same verse (R. V.) :
" For the Lord hath ransomed (redemit, cXvTpuxraro)
Jacob and redeemed (liberavit, e^e/Xaro) him from
the hand of him that was stronger than he."10

1 Lev. xxv. 24.

2 Deut. vii. 8; cp. Jer. xxxiv. 13, eduxi eos de terra SEgypti,
i.e. " I led them out from the land of Egypt."

3 Ps. xxv. 22. 4 Eph. v. 16 ; Col. iv. 5.

6 Tit. ii. 14. 8 2 Pet. ii. 9.

7 Gal. iv. 5 ; Rom. iii. 24. 8 Gal. iii. 13.

9 Ex. vi. 6. 10 Jer. xxxi. II (38, LXX).

38 THE VULGATE

In the INDEX BIBLICUS to the Vulgate,1 we
find the general meaning of redimere expressed by
the sentence — Redimere novit Deus suos multis
modis ex angustia (God knows how to rescue (or
extricate) his own people from difficulty).

This and the above references will be sufficient
to show that both the Greek and the Latin words
always meant "to rescue" when applied to
temporal foes, difficulties, and even sins.

Analogous to the use of redimere, " to buy back,"
is emere,uto buy" ; so that " price " is equally meta-
phorical in such passages as " Ye are bought with
a great price " (Empti enim estis pretio magno)?

With regard to the metaphorical sense of
" redeeming," Dr Westcott observes : " The work of
Christ offered the perfect spiritual antitype [to the
redemption of Israel from Pharaoh]. This parallel
is of importance ; for it will be obvious from the
usage of the LXX that the idea of ransom
received by the power from which the captive is
delivered is practically lost in \vrpovcrOai, etc. It
cannot be said that God paid to the Egyptian
oppressor any price for the redemption of His
people. On the other hand, the idea of the

1 1592, Ed. 1844. 2 i Cor. vi. 20, vii. 23.

REDEMPTION 39

exertion of a mighty force, the idea that the
'redemption' costs much, is everywhere present."1
As " redemption " in its primary signification is a
" price paid," so this imagery is seen in the use of
the word ayopafav, " to buy in the market."

Another unfortunate result of the Vulgate's
inaccuracy is in using pro, " for," in the place of
inrep and also of aim. This error reappears in
English in our Bibles in making no distinction
between the meanings of " for." Yet, whenever it
is said that our Lord died " for " man, the Greek
invariably uses vwep, i.e. " on behalf of" ; never aim,
i.e. " instead of." By taking the latter meaning, the
doctrine of " substitution " has been erected on this
error.

As a few examples of the use and meaning of
aim, we read : " Will he for a fish give him a
serpent. " 2 " Her hair is given her for a covering. " 3
" For that ye ought to say ' if the Lord will " 4 (avrl
TOV \eyeiv). " Esau, who for one mess of meat
sold his own birthright." 5 " The Son of man came
.... to give his life a ransom for many." 6

1 Hebrews, p. 296. a Luke xi. n. 3 I Cor. xi. 15.

4 Jas. iv. 15. 5 Heb. xii. 16.

5 Matt. xx. 28. This is the only passage (copied from Mk.) where

40 THE VULGATE

On the other hand, in the sentence " This is my
body which is given for you," l and in all, some
twenty-six, passages where our Lord is spoken of
as dying or suffering for man, the preposition is
invariably v-Trep, i.e. "on behalf of" man.

It is obvious that it becomes a question of vital
importance to note this fact in any consideration
of what " atonement " or " redemption " means with
regard to Christ, as it destroys at once all ground
for the idea of " substitution," or that Christ died
" instead of" man.

When we study the usage of these two pre-
positions, we find that each can bear the meaning
of the other, but such usage is very exceptional.
If any act is done by one person instead of its
being done by another, it is of course on behalf of
him as well, and vice versa. But taking the general
meanings and omitting exceptional usages, avri
always signifies one thing and virep another.
Hence Trench, believing in the theory of " substi-
tution," observes : 2 " It must be admitted . . . that,
had we in the Scripture only statements to the

avrl is used with reference to our Lord. St Paul alters it to ayri-
\vrpov virep ir<ivT<av (l Tim. ii. 6).

1 Luke xxii. 19. 2 New Test. Synonyms, 312.

REDEMPTION 41

effect that Christ died virep fawv — that he tasted
death virep TTOLVTOS — it would be impossible to draw
from these any irrefragable proof that His death
was vicarious." But it is said that the one ex-
ceptional case referred to above l proves that His
death was vicarious,2 and therefore all the twenty-
six places where virep is used must yield to that
meaning of "instead of" or substitution.

Let us observe, however, that in the single
passage where avrl occurs in reference to our
Lord's death, it is associated with the word XJr/ooi/,
"a price," and therefore the value of avri turns
upon the real signification of this word. It is a
word which troubled early interpreters, or rather,
the readers of the Vulgate.3

The question arose from the meaning of redemp-
tio, " a buying back," viz., To whom was the " price "
(pretium] paid? As man was regarded as being
in the power of Satan, therefore for centuries it
was supposed that the price of Christ's blood was
paid to him. Later, Satan was in theory replaced

1 Matt. xx. 28.

2 See above on a mistaken idea as to the meaning of vicarious
(p. 15).

3 This has detque anintam suam in redemptionis pretium pro
multis.

42 THE VULGATE

by God the Father, whose justice was satisfied by
this terrible price. It has now come to be seen
that there was no actual price paid at all, and
that there was no one to receive it. Instead of
translating \vrpov by redemptio, as representing,
as it were, an actual concrete price, the metaphori-
cal meaning is now regarded as being the only
true one, in that it was Christ's own sufferings
which were " the price He had to pay " for saving
man from his sins, as Dr Westcott has so well
explained. Suppose a man (as has been suggested
as explaining the word vicarious) nobly risks his
life to save that of some one who may be quite
unknown to him, from a house on fire. He gets
terribly burned, but succeeds in rescuing the
man. We say he did a noble, self-sacrificing act,
but he " paid a heavy price " in doing it ; meaning,
of course, his personal injuries. It is thus, too,
that Christ would save the sinner from his own
sinful life; and by His gracious self-sacrifice in
submitting to the death upon the cross He
attracted the admiration and love of sinful man,
who surrenders himself to Him. Thus did Christ
pay the \vrpov in His own sufferings. The meta-
phor is based upon the .expression " the Lord

REDEMPTION 43

redeemed His people Israel," i.e. from Pharaoh in
Egypt ; but it will be at once seen, as Dr Westcott
points out, that there was no payment to be made
to anyone, and that " redeemed " really signifies
"rescued." Man's redemption from sin, therefore,
is the same thing as the giving up a sinful life ;
such is his "salvation," to be worked out by a
man himself.

Now it may be noticed that in using the word
\vrpov the preposition aim is quite compatible ;
because, since the wages of sin are suffering and
death, and since Christ came to suffer inrep iravros,
"on behalf of " everyone, He did pay the price which
man would undoubtedly have had to bear as a
sinner, though of course in a totally different
way ; but this is not what the dogma of substitution
means. Christ not only " saves men from their
sins," but by forgiveness they are exempt from the
price too. 'Ayr/, therefore, is a quite legitimate
preposition in conjunction with \vrpov ; but it is
obvious, from the otherwise universal use of virep
in connection with Christ's mission and death, that
"on behalf of " man and not " instead of " is the
true reading of Christ's self-sacrifice for us all.

The conception of a vicarious sacrificial act to

44 THE VULGATE

appease God has therefore no place whatever in
the transaction. He did not die to satisfy God's
justice, but to win men to heaven by drawing all
men unto Himself on being " lifted up " on the
cross. The former idea was based on the false
notion that all men being sinners must be punished
for their sins, as was so strongly emphasised by
Anselm in his Cur Deus Homo. But the New
Testament doctrine is that, if a man truly repent,
i.e. ''change his mind and disposition," as the Greek
word /uLcrdvoia signifies — even if it be seventy
times seven — he is at once forgiven without any
punishment at all ; and such is God's grace to man
through Jesus Christ our Lord.

St Paul, in referring to the single passage (for
Matthew only quotes St Mark verbatim x) coins the
word avriXvTpov2 and then supplies the preposition
uTrep, as if he himself felt that there might be a
possible misconception in the phrase.

1 Mark x. 45. 2 i Tim. ii. 6.

CHAPTER VII

THE ATONEMENT

THE most important passage upon which the
doctrine of the Atonement was most probably
based, is in the Epistle to the Romans.1 But
St Paul, as A. Sabatier observes, was "a disciple
of Gamaliel before he became a follower of Christ,
and borrowed this fine oratorical amplification from
Rabbinical speculation." 2

The actual facts, however, concerning the " one
man " Adam are imaginary. St Paul is en-
deavouring to draw out a parallel between physical
together with moral death, which he regards as
having been brought into the world through the
guilt of Adam, and their opposite, viz. spiritual
life, a free gift of Christ to mankind. We may

1 Rom. v. 12 s.

2 The Doctrine of the Atonement ', etc., p. 16.

46 THE VULGATE

accept in a general way the conclusion of his
argument, though some materials of his logic
may be incorrect. There is no want of evidence
to show that man has gone astray, but it was not
an inevitable consequence of any so-called original
sin derived from Adam and Eve. Such appears
to have been the origin of the doctrine of the
Atonement which lies at the foundation of the,
so-called, covenant of grace.

The word atonement only occurs in the New
Testament once, in A.V.,1 but this has been re-
placed by " reconciliation " in R. V. The Greek
word is KardXXayri, which is rightly translated
reconciliatio in the Vulgate. So, too, in writing
to the Corinthians St Paul says : " All things are
of God, who reconciled us to himself through
Christ, and gave unto us the ministry of reconcilia-
tion ; to wit, that God was in Christ reconciling
the world unto himself, not reckoning unto them
their trespasses, and having committed unto us
the word of reconciliation."2 The earlier trans-
lators of the Bible in the sixteenth century used
the words " attonement " and " reconciliation " as

1 Rom. v. II.

2 2 Cor. v. 1 8, 19. See also Eph. ii. 14-16.

THE ATONEMENT 47

synonyms in the primitive sense — as used often
by Shakespeare — of "at-one-ment." To atone
meant to put two who had quarrelled "at one."
But the Rhemes Version, following the common
use of expiatio in the Vulgate, has generally
"expiation" where the R.V. has "atonement."

Though the change, as will be seen, was prob-
ably due to Calvin in the middle of the sixteenth
century, the meaning of reconciliation was still
held in the seventeenth. Thus, in A Learned
and Excellent Treatise, containing all the Principal
Grounds of Christian Religion, by Stephen Egerton
(1609), the author uses the word " attonement "
in the original sense : " Wherein it is to be
marked how neere an attonement God hath
entred into with us, by Christ." x " It is a
spiritual bond : by the which men in a holy
attonement are united to God."2

In The Whole Duty of Man (1657) and in
The Design of Christianity, by G. Fowler (1671),
we find that Christ's expiatory and propitiatory
sacrifice has become a recognised belief.3

1 Op. «?., p. 2. z op. «/., p. 16.

8 See At-one-ment, or the Gospel of Reconciliation, in which are
quotations, etc. (Williams & Norgate, is.)

48 THE VULGATE

In order to show how " atonement," i.e. as at-
one-ment or reconciliation, changed its meaning,
the following passage will suffice. In Tavener's
edition (1551) of Tyndale's version (of 1526) we
read : " Thou shalt offre euery daye an oxe for a
syn offrynge to reconcyle with. And thou shalt
halow the alter, when thou reconcylest it, and shalt
annoint it, to sanctifie it. Seuen daies thou shalt
reconcyle the alter, and sanctifie it, that it maye be
an alter most holye : so that no man may touche it,
but they that be consecrate."1

In the Genevan Bible (1560) we read: "Thou
shalt offer euery day a calfe for a sinne offering,
for reconciliation-, and thou shalt dense the altar
when thou hast offered vpon it for reconciliation,
and shalt anoint it to sancifie it. Seuen dayes
shalt thou dense the altar and sanctifie it, so the
altar shall be most holy, and whatsoeuer toucheth
the altar, shal be holy."

Here the changes are verbal, as to spelling, etc. ;
but in the margin we read, in explanation of the
word "reconciliation": "To appease God's wrath
that sinne may be pardoned."

In the Bishops' Bible (1568) the above is re-

1 Ex. xxix. 36, 37.

THE ATONEMENT 49

peated with one important alteration : " Thou
shalt dense the altar when thou hast offered upon
it the sacrifice of expiation? The margin has also
the above explanation from the Genevan Version.
Who was responsible for the above-quoted
marginal note? As Calvin was mainly instru-
mental in securing a hospitable reception for the
English divines who fled to Geneva during the
persecution of Mary's reign, we read in the History
of the Troubles of which Whittingham was probably
the author : " There is nothinge more requisite to
attaine the right and absolute knowledge off the
doctrine of saluation, whereby to resist all heresie
and falshod, than to haue the texte off the
Scriptures faithfully and truly translated, the
consideration whereoff moued them with one
assent to requeste 2 off their brethern, to witt,
Calvin and Beza, essonnes to peruse the same
notwithstandinge their former trauells."1

In the Rhemes Version (1609) we read: "Thou
shalt offer a calfe for sinne euery day for expiation.
And thou shalt cleanse the Altar when thou hast
offered the hoste of expiation^ and shalt anoynt
it vnto sanctification. Seuen dayes shalt thou

1 Quoted by Mombert, English Versions of the Bible , p. 249.

4

50 THE VULGATE

expiate the altar and sanctifie it, and it shall be
most Holie, euerie one, that shal touch it, shal be
sanctified."

Lastly, the A.V. and R.V. read as follows:
" Every day shalt thou offer the bullock of sin
offering for atonement : and thou shalt cleanse the
altar, when thou makest atonement for it ; and thou
shalt anoint it, to sanctify it. Seven days thou
shalt make atonement for the altar, and sanctify
it," etc.

It will be sufficient to quote the following
passages from Calvin's Institution of the Christian
Religion to show that in all probability he was
mainly responsible for substituting the meaning of
" expiation " for " reconciliation " or " atonement,"
i.e. at-one-ment : —

" No man, sith mankinde is in this ruine, can
perceiue God to be eyther a father or author of
saluation, or in any wise fauourable, vnles Christ
come as a meane to pacifie him towarde us ....
to embrace the grace of reconciliation offered vs in
Christ."1

" Christes death had bin to no effect, if he had
suffred only a corporal death : but it behoued also

1 Book i. ch. 2, § i.

THE ATONEMENT 51

that he should feele the rigor of Gods vengeance :
that he might both appease his wrath and satisfie
his just judgement" l

" It pleased God by him to reconcile all things
to himselfe, appeasing himselfe through the bloud
of the Crosse by him."2

Explaining St Paul's words : " We rejoice in
God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom
we have now received the reconciliation " (R.V.),3
Calvin has : " As Paul witnesseth, we are reconciled
and have receiued reconciliation by his death.
But reconciliation hath no place, but where there
went offence before. Therefore the meaning is
that God, to whom we were hatefull by reason of
sinne, is by the death of his sonne appeased, so
that he might be fauourable vnto us."4

A remarkable feature appears from the above,
in which Calvin has followed the teaching of
Anselm in his Cur Deus Homo^ in that reconcilia-
tion is by means of, or following on, punishment ;
and as man could not satisfy God's justice, so
God in Christ came to satisfy Himself!

1 Book ii. ch. 16, § 10. 2 Book ii. ch. 17, § 2.

3 A.V. has "the atonement." This was still a synonym for
reconciliation in 1611.

4 Book ii. ch. 17, § 3.

52 THE VULGATE

But, as we have seen, there is no word in the
Greek New Testament for satisfaction, nor is there
any conception of punishment as applied to Christ ;
consequently Calvin has added to the word for
" reconciliation " the notion of " expiation " ; so
that at last " expiation " came to be a synonym
for " atonement " ; or rather, at-one-ment came
to mean "vicarious expiation." Although Calvin
says, " It pleased God by him to reconcile all
things to himselfe, appeasing himselfe through the
bloud of the Crosse by him. . . . Againe, God
was in Christ, reconciling the world to himselfe,
not imputing to men their sinnes " l ; yet he fails
to see how the last words imply complete forgive-
ness on repentance, without any appeasement
whatever. Consequently the whole theory of a
necessary punishment falls to the ground, having
arisen out of the word pcenitentia wrongly used to
represent yueraj/ota.

The question now arises, What was the means
by which Christ is supposed to have made this
appeasing sacrifice? Was it spiritual or carnal?
As the Church supported its views of Christ, and
more especially of His death, by the Old Testa-

1 Op. cit., book ii. ch. 17, [§ 2.

THE ATONEMENT 53

ment, it has been seen that great stress was laid
upon the necessity of His having a body which
could suffer ; and so the whole conception of salva-
tion was based on a purely carnal or corporeal
offering, comparable, but not identical with that of
bulls, goats, and especially lambs.1

Attempts are sometimes still made to combine
the two ideas of a " vicarious sacrifice " with
" reconciliation " in the one word " atonement."
The writer from whose book the following is
quoted thus, perhaps unconsciously, is following
Calvin : —

" Atonement, as commonly used, signifies the
result of Christ's atonement, i.e. reconciliation, or
the making man at-one with God ; though strictly
it denotes the means whereby man is reconciled to
God through Christ, who has made an atonement,
an amends, to God for us."2

This author does not seem aware that "atone-
ment " had no other meaning whatever than " at-
one-ment," i.e. " reconciliation," in the sixteenth
century.

1 See ch. iii. p. 17 ff.

2 The Catholic Faith, by "Esegar," p. 189.

CHAPTER VIII

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST

WE have now arrived at the goal, the end and aim
of our Lord's life and death upon the cross;
namely, the salvation of man. Hence our Lord is
called our Saviour. We were told at His birth that
"he shall be called Jesus, for he shall save his
people from their sins." x Popular theology, how-
ever, has long supposed Him to save man from
hell. What, then, is the true meaning of "Saviour"
as applied to Christ? Here, again, we shall see
that the Church has gone wrong by transferring
the Old Testament signification to the New.

The Hebrew word for "to save" is yasha, i.e.
" to give safety " or " ease." The great occasion
of its uses was when the Lord Yahweh " saved,"
i.e. rescued, the Israelites fiom the hand of the

1 Matt. i. 21.
54

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 55

Egyptians under Pharaoh at the Red Sea.1 This
was the typical instance, which is described as the
one when Yahweh "redeemed Israel"; so that to
save or redeem meant to "rescue." 2 Subsequently
Yahweh was called their Saviour.3

When the Psalmist said " Create in me a new
heart,"4 his inspiration rose to a greater height,
and he saw that " saviour " might refer to spiritual
things as well as external foes, etc.

Now it was the old idea of saving from external
evils, as human foes, which was carried over into
the New Testament ; hence Christ came to be
regarded as a saviour from the Romans; so that
even after His resurrection His disciples asked :
" Lord, dost thou at this time restore the kingdom
to Israel?"5

It was not till after this that the disciples learnt
to know Him as a " Saviour from sins," that is
spiritual, not external, foes.6

But the old idea of saving from external afflictions
still prevailed, and so the Church came to regard

1 Ex. xiv. 30. a See Isa. xliii. 1-3.

3 Ps. cvi. 21 ; Isa. xliii. n. 4 Ps. li. 10.

5 Acts i. 6.

9 May not this be a reason for inferring that the first two chapters
of St Matthew's gospel were later additions ?

56 THE VULGATE

" salvation " as " safety from hell." This error has
prevailed to the present day, whereas salvation
from sin means, as the Vulgate indeed translates it,
salus, i.e. the spiritual health of the soul, or
freedom from the disease of sin.

The Eucharist (Eucliaristia, the Latin transcript
of Evxapurria) is a word used by St Paul for " the
giving of thanks " for God's blessings. The word
was probably adopted from the institution itself, in
which our Lord " gave thanks." The Apostle uses
it in alluding to the speaking in unknown tongues :
" How shall he that filleth the place of the un-
learned say the Amen at thy giving of thanks ? " 1
Thanksgiving, however, was an important part of
the Eucharist in the early liturgies. Thus in St
Clement's, after detailing the sufferings and death
of Christ, it is said : " Calling therefore to remem-
brance these things which He endured for our
sakes, we give thanks unto Thee, O God Almighty,
not as we ought, but as we are able, to fulfil His
institution." This is followed by the usual prayer
for the Holy Spirit : " Send down Thy Holy Spirit,
the Witness of the sufferings of the Lord Jesus, on
this sacrifice, that He may make the bread the

1 I Cor. xiv. 1 6.

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 57

Body of Thy Christ and this cup the Blood of Thy
Christ." In this we see transubstantiation es-
tablished, and the word Eucharistia actually
becomes identified with Christ's body ; for in the
INDEX BIBLICUS at the end of the Vulgate there
is : Eucharistia sub altera tantum, nimirum pants
specie (" The Eucharist [is] without doubt, only
bread under another form "), and references are
given to the Gospels and Acts.1 Again, Eucharistia
non renianet substantia panis post consecrationem,
sed est verum Christi corpus et sanguis (" The
Eucharist does not remain the substance of bread
after consecration, but is the true body and blood
of Christ "). References for proofs are made to the
four accounts of the institution. Lastly, it is said :
Eucharistiam in publicis supplicationibus circumfer-
endam esse pr<z figurataty,. This refers to the Ark
being carried about on certain occasions. Lastly,
Eucharistia adoranda, the references being to
certain psalms and to the man born blind
" worshipping Jesus."

It is quite clear that the idea of transubstantia-
tion included under Eucharistia was, from the
above, attributable to the word is in " This is

1 E.g. John vi. 58 ; Luke xxiv. 30 ; Acts ii. 42, xx. 7.

58 THE VULGATE

my body." Indeed, the whole of the theories of
the " Real Presence" have issued out of it. The
important question is, What did the disciples under-
stand by it? What significance does the word
" is " bear when compared with other passages in
which it occurs in a similar manner?

Now when we look for what might be called
parallel instances, we soon discover that it was
the universal custom to use the verb " to be,"
where we should adopt "represent" or some
equivalent expression. A few examples will soon
prove this. In Joseph's interpretation of the
dreams of the butler and baker we read that it
runs thus : " The three baskets are three days,"
and " the three branches are three days." So, too,
" the seven good kine are seven years," etc. When
Aaron made the golden calf he said, " This is thy
god, O Israel." Ezekiel said, "These bones are
the whole house of Israel."

Similarly, in the New Testament St John the
Baptist disclaimed the idea that he was Elijah, i.e.
in the flesh ; but Christ said that he was, i.e. as a
spiritual representative of that prophet. Our Lord
repeatedly used the same form of expression, as
in His interpretation of the parable of the Sower :

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 59

" The good seed are the children of the kingdom,"
etc. In describing His own flesh and blood He
says metaphorically, " The bread which I will give
is my flesh ; . . . my flesh is meat indeed, and my
blood is drink indeed," alluding to the Jewish
idea that " the blood was the life " ; so that, as
Dr Westcott shows, by dying for, i.e. on behalf
of, man, His blood was at the disposal of all who
would drink it.

St Paul follows suit ; when he mentioned the old
tradition of the rock which was believed to have
followed the children of Israel and supplied them
with water in the desert, he adds, " And that Rock
was Christ." Again, in alluding to the Eucharist
he says, " The bread which we break, is it not a
communion of the body of Christ [i.e. does not
the bread represent the fellowship abiding among
all Christians ?], seeing that we who are many are
one bread, one body?" This tallies with the
instruction given in the Didache or " The Teaching
of the Apostles " : " But with regard to the broken
bread, ' We give thanks to Thee, our Father, for
the life and knowledge which Thou hast made
known to us through Thy child Jesus ; to Thee be
glory for ever. As this broken bread was scattered

6o THE VULGATE

upon the mountains and gathered together into
one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from
the ends of the earth into Thy kingdom, for Thine
is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ
for ever/"

These few quotations are enough to prove that
the word " is " must have been used and understood
to mean " represent." None of the disciples could
possibly have supposed that a miracle was per-
formed at the Last Supper when Christ spoke these
words. They knew nothing of Plato's " substance."

Starting from this mistaken meaning of the
word " is," it became necessary to explain how
Christ's body and blood could become identical
with the bread and wine. It was in 1551 that
the Council of Trent established the present dogma
of transubstantiation and supplemented it by an
anathema : Si quis dixerit in sacrosancto euchar-
isticz Sacramento remanere substantiam panis et vini
cum corpore et sanguine Domini nostri Jesu Christi
.... valde Anathema sit (" If anyone shall have
said that the substance of bread and wine remain
in the most holy sacrament of the Eucharist,
together with the body and blood of our Lord Jesus
Christ, .... let him be strongly accursed "),

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 61

The question now arises, What is this supposed
" substance," whether in bread, wine, body, or
blood, without which it is obvious that neither tran-
substantiation or consubstantiation can exist?

Substantia represents ova-la, a synonym of
which was vTroa-raa-i^ sub-stantia being the Latin
equivalent of i/7ro'-o-Ta<n?, finally represented by
persona, ie. a "character" or "mask." Plato was
the first to use the word ova-la, as signifying
"essence" (essentia, from esse, "to be") for the
"true nature of a thing" j1 but Aristotle regarded
it much as we do now, viz. the material sub-
stance, for he says : ova-Lai &e jmaXia-r elvai SOKOVO-I
TO, (rw/xara.2

As applied to Deity, it signified spiritual sub-
stance or nature ; and although ova-la and VTTOO--
rctcn? were identical in meaning or synonyms at
first, the former came to be translated as sub-
stantia and the latter persona (literally " a mask ").
Ova-la is of course derived from etVat, " to be" ; so
that 6 wvf " I AM," represents the underlying idea
of a real individual, self-existing Being. This,
too, appears to underlie the contention between

1 Pkado, 78 c. 2 De An., ii. I.

3 Exod. iii. 14, etc.

62 THE VULGATE

6/moovario$ and 6/motovariog. One still asks, however,
what is this " substance " ? We know nothing of
the nature of spiritual incorporeal beings ; names
only hide our ignorance of the nature of God.

Turning to material objects, what is, or where-
in lies the ova-la of bread and wine as well
as of flesh and blood? Here we are on safer
ground, and at once see that modern chemistry
has dissipated into nothingness all the ancient
ideas of any " essence," substantial, or ova-la " un-
derlying" matter of all kinds whatever.

It was imagined by ancient philosophy that
everything had an underlying "essence" or a
" real nature," while its changeable properties
appreciable to the senses were its "accidents."
Perhaps the simplest illustration may be seen in
ice, water, and steam, or the solid, liquid, and
gaseous condition of the same thing, the imaginary
ova-la, while the differences experienced by our
senses were the "accidents." Since everything
can now be analysed into its constituent elements
and their compounds, we find that bread consists
of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with
some mineral matters ; these being compounded
into cellulose, starch, gluten, etc., beyond which

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 63

there is nothing^ so that unless these undergo
some change, nothing can change, for there is no
" substance " in the old philosophical sense at all.

Another point may be noted. When a miracle
takes place, as is supposed to in changing water into
wine, the proof lay in the change in the accidents
or properties perceptible by the senses ; but in
transubstantiation, since the senses can detect no
difference, it is necessary to locate the changes in
the " substance," which cannot be proved.

What, then, is the obvious result? "Is" really
meant " represents " ; and all conception of
" substance " is based on the imagination alone.
All ideas of change of any kind whatever in
the bread and wine is a pure fiction; and any
benefit supposed to be derived from the con-
sumption of the bread and wine itself by its
being, in some mysterious and miraculous way,
impregnated by the " Real Presence," is entirely
unfounded.

All such materialistic ideas have no warrant
from Scripture ; the pure, unadulterated, spiritual
aid to the soul is expressed in the words of our
liturgy already referred to.

As the partaking of the bread and wine is re-

64 THE VULGATE

garded as eating Christ's flesh and blood, it will
be desirable to consider briefly what is understood
by our Lord's words.

In the Acts converts are baptized for the re-
mission of their sins ; but nothing is stated as to
Christ's blood as guaranteeing that forgiveness.
It is dependent upon repentance only.

There are several expressions in which Christ's
blood is mentioned, but they all imply His life,
not His death. Thus we are justified,1 redeemed,2
made nigh,3 made at peace,4 cleansed,5 washed,6
and sanctified7 by His blood. Substituting "a
holy life" for "blood," the true meaning of that
word will be at once perceived.

What is the true meaning of the word Com-
munion ? The Vulgate is responsible for a wide-
spread or practically a universal error with regard
to this word. We designate the Eucharist as " the
Holy Communion " ; but we speak of receiving
the elements as " communicating," and apply this
word individually, so that the priest might ask,
" Have you communicated ? "

1 Rom. v. 9. 2 Eph. i. 7 ; Col. i. 14 (A.V.) ; Rev. v. 9.

3 Eph. ii. 13. 4 Col. i. 20. 5 Heb. ix. 14, 19, 20.

6 Rev. i. S (A.V. ; loosed, R.V.). 7 Heb. xiii. 12.

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 65

The Greek word translated " communion " in our
Bibles is rendered communicatio in the Vulgate,
while the verb Koivwveoo, communico in Vulgate,
means to " share in common " ; so that if a man
possessed something of which he gave a part away,
he was said xoivooveiv ', and in this sense the verb
is used several times by St Paul, meaning a money
contribution, either to a church x or to a teacher.2

St Paul appears to have introduced the Eucharist
in the middle of his remarks upon idolatry,3 in
order to show that the motive for partaking of
the bread and wine had nothing in common with
that of the sacrificial feasts among the Corinthians.
He tells them that they cannot drink of both the
cup of the Lord and the cup of devils, nor partake
of the table of the Lord and of devils. Now there
is nothing to indicate a transubstantiation or a
Real Presence in the one case more than the other.
No Corinthian thought he was eating the devils.
Therefore no Christian imagined that he was eating
Christ. St Paul treats it entirely as symbolical.
It was not the bread and wine nor the meat which
was of any importance ; it was the motive in both

1 Rom. xii. 13 ; Phil. iv. 15. a Gal. vi. 6.

3 Cp. Rom. xiv. 14, 20, and 21.

5

66 THE VULGATE

cases. The Koivwvla was in one sense a partaking
in common of the bread ; but this symbolised the
Koivwvia or fellowship of all Christians, who now
united — like the scattered grains of corn becoming
one loaf — became the one church. Similarly,
drinking the wine — representing Christ's blood —
indicated the determination of all to live the one
common life, i.e. the Christ-life.

St John corroborates this view of St Paul, for
he says : " That which we have seen and heard
declare we unto you, that ye also may have fellow-
ship with us] yea, and our fellowship is with the
Father and with his Son Jesus Christ. ... If we
say that we have fellowship with him, and walk in
darkness, we lie and do not the truth; but if we
walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have
fellowship one with another, and the blood of Jesus
his Son cleanseth us from all sin."1

The Rhemes Version was the first to introduce
" communication," but the Genevan has " com-
munion." This was followed by the A.V. as the
translation of Koivuvla, for which the Vulgate has
communicatio : " Calix benedictionis, cui benedicimus,
nonne communicatio sanguinis Chris ft est ? et panis
1 i John i, 3, 6.

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 67

quern frangimus, no?me participatio corporis Domini
est?"1

As "communicating" frequently meant else-
where, as stated, the giving and receiving of money,
the idea of " fellowship " is lost, and the notion of
" receiving " Christ's blood takes its place. But as
no perceptible changes take place in their so-called
"accidents," the fiction was invented that we
receive the " substance " of Christ's blood instead.
It may be added that the error is retained in the
custom of administering the elements to each
"communicant" severally; as it destroys the
underlying idea of "fellowship" between all
present. The old custom of the priest saying the
words once only at the altar, and then administering
to the whole railful at once, more nearly represented
the fundamental idea of a family kneeling before
a common Father — God.

It will be advisable to consider a little further the
meaning of Koivcovia, or fellowship, as used in the
New Testament, and to compare the Latin Vulgate
with the Greek and our English versions. The
first occasion, subsequent to our Lord's dis-

1 I Cor. x. 1 6. The Greek has ttoivvvla, both for comnmnicatio
and participatio.

68 THE VULGATE

appearance, is after Peter's exhortation and the
baptism of converts had been performed, when
3000 souls were added to the Church.1 The edition
of Clement VIII. (1592) has Erant autem persever-
antes in doctrina apostolorum, et communication*
fractionis paniS) et orationibus. But in the edition
of Beza (1642) we find Perdurabant autem in
doctrina apostolorum et communications, et fractione 2
paniS) et orationibus.

Now may we not trace the present use of
the word "communicating" in the sacrament to
the above error of punctuation (note the comma
AFTER communicatione in Beza and its absence in
the other edition of the Vulgate)? The Koivuvia
has nothing to do with the eating the bread.

In St Paul's account of the institution,3 the Vul-
gate (1592) has communicatio sanguinis and par-
ticipatio corporis ; but communio occurs in both
sentences in the later edition (1642). The R.Vt
has " communion," following this edition of the
Vulgate.

The question arises whether Jerome did not

1 Acts ii. 42.

Greek «eiu TTJ Kotvcaviq, rrf K\&<rei rov &prov, referring to the
Agapai or Love Feasts.
3 i Cor. x. 1 6.

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 69

misunderstand St Paul's usage of the word
i.e. the " fellowship of the saints," by supposing him
to mean the actual eating the bread and drinking
the wine? That the Apostle had the "human
fellowship" in his mind is clear from the words
immediately following, by which he seems to refer
to the symbolical meaning of the "one loaf of
many grains."

Whereas Jerome and subsequent translators
have made the word imply the eating and drinking
Christ's body and blood, having in their minds
our Lord's own symbolical term, by so doing
the emphasis ever since has been on the supposed
importance of " communicating," as it is now called,
i.e. partaking of the actual bread and wine. The
spiritual meaning of the human fellowship having
been thrown into the background, it has almost,
if not quite, become lost sight of by ordinary
" communicants."

Turning to Wiclif's version (1380), the passage
runs as follows: — " And weren lastynge stable in
the techynge of the Apostlis and in comynyng
of the brekinge of breed and in prefers," following
the Vulgate closely; whereas Tyndale (1534) has,
" fellowshippe, and in breaking of breed," being

70 THE VULGATE

followed by later translations, as in our R.V. On
the other hand, the Roman Catholic version of
Rhemes (1582) follows Wiclif and the Sixtine :
" And they were perseuering in the doctrine of the
Apostles, and in the communication of the breaking
of bread, and praiers."

Similarly, in St Paul's account, Rhemes has :
" The chalice of benediction which we do blesse :
is it not the communication of the bloud of Christ ?
And the bread which we breake, is it not the
participation of the body of our Lord ? "

It seems quite clear from the preceding refer-
ences, etc., that the Apostles understood the Lord's
Supper to be representative of a bond of fellowship
between Himself and His Church, and between
all Christians one with another. Therefore it
is natural to find that the converts were firm in
fellowship, and in breaking of bread at the Agapai,
the outward and visible sign of the common
spiritual nature of all who joined the Christian
society.

There is not a word or a hint of the earliest
Church regarding the bread and wine as transformed
into Christ's body and blood. The accepted idea
was totally different, viz., as shown by KOIVWVIO. or

SAVIOUR AND THE EUCHARIST 71

fellowship of love between the members. To
translate the word by "communion" or "communi-
cation " of Christ's body and blood, i.e. as supposed
to be carnally eaten and drunk, is a totally false
exegesis. They stand for the spiritual character of
Agape, which the partakers of the elements there-
by outwardly profess to cultivate, and so assimilate
the spirit of the Master.

I would here strongly recommend the reader
to study the fifteenth chapter, on THE LORD'S
SUPPER, in Sir J. Seeley's Ecce Homo.

PART II

DOCTRINAL TERMS APPLICABLE TO MAN

CHAPTER IX
REPENTANCE

THE ecclesiastical or doctrinal terms, which the
Church established referring to man's religious
career, from his conversion to Christianity to his
acquired salvation, were as follows : — The Jew and
Gentile of old were, and any sinner of to-day is,
called upon to show REPENTANCE (p&nitentia)
and make CONFESSION (confessio) of his sins.
FAITH (fides) is required of him, and OBEDIENCE
(pbedientid) to Christ's and the Church's com-
mands. If the preceding be genuine and from
the heart, he has his JUSTIFICATION (justificatio).
His CONVERSION (conversid) is described as PRE-
DESTINATION (predestinatio) and ELECTION (electio).

He receives REMISSION (remissio) of sins and

72

REPENTANCE 73

ABSOLUTION (absolutio), after due penance and
SATISFACTION (satisfactio) has been made. The
result is his RECONCILIATION (reconciliatio) or
" at-one-ment " (sixteenth century). Then follows
his growth in grace or SANCTIFICATION (sanctifi-
catio], and the perfect result is SALVATION
(salvatio, salus, or salutare) or spiritual " health."

To these terms observations will be added upon
Doctrina and Credo.

Repentance is the English translation of pceni-
tentia in the Vulgate ; both are connected with
pcena, a penalty, being allied to punire, to punish.
Hence the word " penance " finds its place in the
Rhemes Version, as in " Doe penance for the
Kingdom of Heaven is at hand"1; the " Annota-
tion "on which runs as follows: — "He preacheth
Satisfaction by doing worthy fruits or workes of
penance, which are fasting, praying, almes and
the like." The Greek word is fj.eravoia\ but the
Latin word comes nearer to yueTa/Ae'Xem, just as
/merajULeXei agrees with p&nitet me ; but that noun
does not occur in the New Testament. MeraWa
is a much stronger term, and signifies a " change
of mind or understanding " leading to a new life,

1 Matt. iii. 2, 8.

74 THE VULGATE

i.e. an inward, spiritual change ; whereas ptzni-
tentia led to outward forms of penance only, which
do not afford any necessary guarantee of heart-
felt repentance and sorrow, which may or may not
accompany them. Consequently, by representing
/xeraVofa by pcenitentia and translating this by
" penance," the whole force of the Greek word has
become inverted', and this has issued in the most
disastrous consequences imaginable. The absolute
necessity of punishment has replaced the free
pardon of grace offered to all who repent of
their iniquities. True Christianity has no system
of external punishments or of rewards.

What has been the consequence of this wrong
translation by the Vulgate of jmerdvoia? It gave
rise to the whole penitential system of Church
discipline. It began in the Greek Church, and
was followed by the North African and Roman, in
which it was dignified as a sacrament. Let us
read Tertullian's description of its several elements :
" ' Exomologesis ' is the discipline of prostrate
humiliation, enjoining such a course as may move
Divine pity: the substitution of sackcloth and
ashes for a man's usual habit and regimen; the
defilement of the body with dust and dirt; the

REPENTANCE 75

abasement of the spirit with grief; the alteration
of every particular sin by afflictive treatment.
And besides this, the use of the simplest food and
drink, eating not to pamper the appetite but to
maintain life. Especially to feed up prayer with
fasting. To sigh, to weep, to groan whole days
and nights before the Lord God ; to prostrate
one's self before the presbyters and kneel before
the altars of God; to bid the brethren to take
upon them the mediation of intercession."1

On the other hand, how would /xercwota apply
to the Greek and Roman converts ? They had
paid due respect to the gods and worshipped
according to their light, though their lives might
have been grossly immoral from the Christian
point of view. St Paul therefore calls upon them
to abandon such worship and turn to the living
God, who regarded a pure life as part of religion,
and would "overlook" the past. But if, when
Christians, they sinned against God, then ^erai/ota
would mean " repentance " in the ordinary sense.2
The Prodigal Son came to see the error of his
ways and "repented." What was the conse-
quence ? He was received with open arms by his

1 De Pctnitentict) 9. a See I Cor. v. and 2 Cor. vii.

76 THE VULGATE

father, who in the parable represents God. This
parable assures us that true repentance guarantees
forgiveness. "Punishments," like "rewards," do
not exist under Christianity as outward effects
of conduct; they stand for the natural results —
i.e. by natural laws — of character and conduct.

Penance may enhance the power and authority
of ecclesiasticism ; but it is at the expense of
ignoring the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ.

Thus, then, do we see how the Vulgate, by intro-
ducing poenitentia, has opened the way to an
intolerant system of outward observances of
penance, and elevated this false dogma into a
sacrament.

To show how an evil may grow, we see a good
example in penance. Blunt tells us : " In later
times corporal austerities were largely introduced,
and menial offices to break down the proud spirit
of rebellion ; solitude and silence, the endurance
of heat and cold, hair-shirts and bodily chastise-
ment. These, however, were commutable for a
money payment, although this rule could not apply
to the poor. Penance was made so painful
[intentionally?] as to drive penitents to this
easier method of satisfaction. . . . Such money

REPENTANCE 77

payments after the Reformation were directed to
be applied to the use of the poor."

Penance, as established by the Church, included
contrition, confession, and satisfaction; prayer
always formed a main element of satisfaction due
to God. Fasting also was added, and the restitution
to man for wrongs done to him, etc. This last is,
of course, a true Christian duty ; but all external
acts, including mere fasting, are not supported by
any New Testament authority referable to Christ's
teaching. It has already been shown that satis-
faction was never applied to Christ nor to anyone
else in the New Testament ; nor is it a translation
of any Greek word. In the INDEX BlBLICUS of the
Vulgate, the reader is referred s.v. Satisfactio to
Poenitentia, to which there are plenty of references.

CHAPTER X
PURGATORY

ANOTHER erroneous consequence of poenitentia is
the theory of purgatory, the history of which is
briefly as follows. Nothing is known of it in the
first two centuries. In the third, Tertullian had
joined the Montanists, and refers to Dives and
Lazarus as a proof of future punishments and
rewards in an intermediate state ; but this gave
no inference as to purgatorial necessities. He
seems to have interpreted the words, "Thou
shalt by no means come out thence, till thou
have paid the last farthing,"1 as signifying that
offences are expiated by delay of the resurrec-
tion ; but he derived this conception from the
Montanists.

Origen considered that all the pains of the

1 Matt. v. 26.
78

PURGATORY 79

damned were purgatorial and would be expiated
by fire,1 basing this view on St Paul's teaching.2

But this idea that the soul itself shall be subjected
to a future, purgatorial fire, continued even in the
popular theology of to-day, arises out of a mis-
conception of this passage. St Paul compares
different preachers' work to gold, silver, and
precious stones, which can resist the action of fire,
as well as to hay and stubble, which will be burnt.
Fire is obviously a metaphor for whatever shall
test a man's preaching, represented by the above
things.

With regard to the preacher himself, if his work,
i.e. preaching, be proved faulty, he will necessarily
suffer ; " but he himself shall be saved [assuming
he was honest and preached what he believed to
be true], yet so as by fire."3 That is, he shall
suffer mentally in some way, but certainly not
by actual flames of fire.

This clearly proves that St Paul never regarded
Christ's expression of hell-fire or fire of Gehenna,
etc., to be other than metaphorical. Fire is used

1 De Principiis, lib. i . cap. 10, n. 5.

2 I Cor. iii. 13-15.

3 Greek, ofrrwy 8£ &s 5ii xvpts. Vulgate, sic tamen quasi ptr
ignem.

8o THE VULGATE

in two senses — either as purgatorial or as penal.
St John Baptist employs both. "He shall
baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire."
Here it stands for a purifying enthusiasm for
holiness. But he adds : " The chaff He will burn
up with unquenchable fire " 1 ; that is, as penal.

It may be worth while here to notice some of
the references to fire in the Bible. The first
mention in connection with the Deity is when
the angel of the Lord appeared unto Moses in
a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush.2 Here,
as on Sinai, when " the glory of the Lord was like
a devouring fire on the top of the mount,"3 it
appears to be a symbol of purity and holiness.
On the other hand, Moses speaks of Yahweh : " the
Lord thy God is a devouring fire, a jealous God."
Fire there stands for the punishment of the
wicked, represented symbolically.4

Fire is also used as a metaphor for whatever
purifies, as in the phrase "saved as by fire."

1 Matt. iii. II, 12. A parallel passage occurs in Isa. iv. 4:
"When the Lord .... shall have purged the blood of Jerusalem
from the midst thereof, by the spirit of judgment and by the spirit
of burning."

2 Exod. iii. 2. 3 Exod. xxiv. 17.
4 Deut. iv. 24. See Ezek. xxxvi. 5 and Ps. 1. 3.

PURGATORY 81

So God is " like a refiner's fire. . . . He shall sit
as a refiner and purifier of silver."1

Besides these metaphorical uses of fire, the
actual results of nature's physical fires were
familiar to all ; such as the account of the destruc-
tion of Sodom and Gomorrah by "brimstone
and fire." 2 Our Lord uses this as an illustration :
" The same day that Lot went out of Sodom, it
rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and
destroyed them all. Even thus shall it be in
the day when the Son of man is revealed." He
thus uses a concrete instance as a figure of what
will spiritually happen to the impenitent, just as
He did when speaking of the tower of Siloam.8

In Isaiah we first read of Tophet in the valley
of Hinnom, just outside Jerusalem. It was a
place where Manasseh had offered human sacri-
fices,4 and where refuse was burnt.

Now if the reader will compare the passages
given in the notes with St John's Revelation,5
it will be pretty evident that he was familiar with

1 Mai. iii. 2, 3. See Isa. i. 25 ; Ezek. xxii. 18 ; I Pet. i. 7.

2 Luke xvii. 29. Cp. Deut. xxix. 23; Job xviii. 15 ; Ps. xi. 6;
Isa. xxxiv. 8-10.

3 Luke xiii. 4. 4 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6 ; Isa. xxx. 33.
8 Rev. xiv. 8-1 1.

82 THE VULGATE

them, and is using the terms " fire and brimstone "
in a similarly metaphorical or symbolical manner.

Note, too, the source of the brimstone. At
first and afterwards it is described as coming
from heaven. As a physical fact, we may not
be far wrong in recognising lightning as repre-
senting this supposed source of it. Secondly, it
is the "dust on the ground." Such we know to
be the highly inflammable bitumen which abounds
in the regions of the cities of the plain by the
Dead Sea. The streams are next said to be
turned into pitch. This is scarcely to be doubted
as a description of the liquid bitumen or petroleum
which constituted the "slime pits" of the vale
of Siddim.1 Lastly, in the Revelation we find
the place of destruction, not a " plain " nor " valley,"
but a "lake" of brimstone. This last term is
equally suggestive of a localisation near to Rome ;
where was the Lake Avernus, the crater of a
volcano and the mythical descent to the lower
regions; so that St John uses a "lake" as the
crater of an active volcano — a familiar object by
the Mediterranean Sea — wherewith to describe
in graphic metaphorical language the fiery

1 Gen. xiv. 10.

PURGATORY 83

indignation of the Lord God upon the heathen
world, and upon Babylon, i.e. Rome, in particular.

Having thus acquired the erroneous idea of a
material instead of a metaphorical meaning of fire
and brimstone, we find Pope Gregory I. giving
it out as a positive fact : " There is a purgatorial
fire before the Judgment for lighter faults."1

Having fixed this error as an article of belief,
the Church followed it up by establishing pardons
and indulgences, etc., to enable souls to escape
the punishments of purgatory.

The relaxation of penances had existed in the
primitive Church, which had been enforced for
acts which had incurred the censure of the Church ;
and the intercession of martyrs had great weight.
In process of time liberal alms-giving was accepted
in lieu of or mitigation of penance. "The sub-
sequent sale of indulgences easily rose out of the
permission to substitute charity to the poor or to
the Church for mortification and humiliation before
God."2

These exemptions are a wholly different thing

1 De quibusdam levibus culpis esse ante judicium purgatorius
ignis credendus est (Dial., lib. iv. cap. 39).

2 Browne on The Articles, p. 503. I have italicised four words
for a purpose, as will be seen.

84 THE VULGATE

from the modern doctrine of indulgences, i.e.
" exemptions from the temporal punishment of sins"
This includes not only Church censures, but the
pains of purgatory ; and it is held that the Bishop
of Rome has a store or treasure of the merits of
Christ and of the saints, which, for sufficient
reasons, he can dispense, either by himself or his
agents, to mitigate or shorten the sufferings of
penitents whether in this world or the world to
come. Dr Harold Browne adds that "before the
end of the twelfth century it is hardly possible to
discover any traces of them. . . . The first jubilee,
or year of general indulgence, is said to have been
kept in the pontificate of Boniface VIII., thirteen
hundred years after Christ. ... It reached its
greatest height of corruption in the pontificate
of Leo X., when Tetzel, the agent of that
pope, openly selling indulgences in Germany,
roused the spirit of Luther and so hastened the
Reformation."

Present-day Roman Catholics say that it is not
the sin, but \.\\z punishment, which is removed by the
indulgence, and that venia peccatorum and remissio
peccatorum are " technical expressions " referring to
the punishment but not the guilt. " An indulgence

PURGATORY 85

is rightly described as a remission of temporal
punishment due for sins already remitted as to their
guilt." One naturally asks wherein is there any
justice in continuing the punishment if the guilt
or sin is already pardoned or remitted ?

The payment of money for the indulgence is
explained as a "fee" for the document received,
like that for a title-deed ; but when the prices of
different sins are said to be publicly seen in Italy,
and a Maltese friend told me that the priests in
Malta "could not live without purgatory," one
cannot set much value upon the excuses of the
author of the book referred to.1

But this interpretation of an indulgence not
referring to sins is contradicted by other authorities.
Thus, in a form of absolution by Anthony Egane,
B.D., Confessor-General of the Kingdom of Ire-
land, in his Book of Rates, there are the words:
" I restore thee to that innocency in which thou
wast at the time of baptism. I absolve thee from
all thy sins, and from all torments due to thee in
purgatory for thy sins and transgressions," etc.

1 Indulgences ; Sacramental Absolutions and the lax-Tables of the
Roman Chancery and Penitentiary, considered in reply to the Charge
of Venality, by Rev. T. L. Green, D.D. (1872).

86 THE VULGATE

The following are the prices of absolutions and
dispensations : l —

A layman having murdered a priest

shall be pardoned for . . . £6 2 o
He that kills a bishop, . . 36 6 o

For murdering a layman, . .324
A general absolution for all sins, . 8 19 o

etc. etc.

1 Quoted by P. W. Crowther's Christian Manual, compiled from
the Enchiridion Militis Christiani of Erasmus (1516).

CHAPTER XI

CONFESSION

THE Vulgate, as standing between the original
Greek and the English Bible, has been the cause
of some confusion as to the meanings of the Greek
word oytioXoy/a. The verb "to confess," as sins,
or when St John said " I am not the Christ," is
o/xoXoye'o>; but when it is used with «/, as "whoso-
ever shall confess me," l o/xoXoy^o-et eV e/xo/, /c.r.X.,
it means " profess." The middle voice with prefix
*£ €£o/u.o\oyovfjLcu, is also used in both senses, as
at St John's baptism in Jordan the converts " con-
fessed " their sins. On the other hand, " Every
tongue shall confess to God " 2 ; margin — " give
praise " (R.V.) : this implies " profession " rather
than "confession."

The noun 6/zoXoy/a is used in two senses also ;

1 Matt. x. 32. 2 Rom. xiv. II.

87

88 THE VULGATE

and the A.V., recognising the inadequacy of " con-
fession " in certain passages, has " profession." 1
The Vulgate has always confessio^ and the R.V.
uniformly restores " profession " to " confession."

With regard to the Latin terms, Cicero strongly
contrasts confiteor with profiteer: — Professio fidei,
Confessio peccatorum ; 2 so that a distinction might
have been made in the Vulgate in accordance with
the sense of the passages ; but as confessio alone
was used, so confession appears in our Bible ; and
although the A.V. did draw the distinction, the
R.V. has destroyed it!

A typical passage occurs in St Paul's Epistle to
the Romans. The following is the R.V. :— " If
thou shalt confess with thy mouth Jesus as Lord,
and shalt believe in thy heart that God raised him
from the dead, thou shalt be saved : for with the
heart man believeth unto righteousness ; and with
the mouth confession is made unto salvation."3

The Greek for the words italicised is 6yUoXoy>i(r^9
ev TU> (TTO/maTi — TTKTTeva-fls ev Tfl KapSla — 6/aoAoye*-
TCU el ?

1 See, e.g., 2 Cor. ix. 13; i Tim. vi. 12; Heb. iii. I, iv. 14,
x. 23.

2 Cic., Pro Sest., 51, 109. 3 Rom. x. 9, 10.

CONFESSION 89

The Vulgate has "Si confitearis in ore tuo
Dominum Jesum, et in corde tuo credideris ....
salvus eris. Corde enim creditur ad justitiam : ore
autem confessio fit ad salutem"

Here " confess " stands for " profess," and
" believe " for " have faith." It is the " profession
of faith," not a " confession," which the Christian
holds. Similarly, St Paul writes to Timothy :
"Fight the good fight of the faith, lay hold on
the life eternal, whereunto thou wast called, and
didst confess the [hast professed a, A.V.] good
confession in [profession, A.V.] the sight of many
witnesses."1 It is curious that in the next verse
o/AoXoy/a in reference to Christ is translated
" confession " in A.V., following the Vulgate : Qui
testimonium reddidit sub Pontio Pilato bonam
confessionem.

Though the Vulgate is right in using confiteor
and confessio in connection with sin, it is un-
fortunately wrong wherever the Greek means
" profession." The doctrinal errors connected with
the word arose much later in the history of the
Church. The duty of confessing sins openly was
always considered a necessary part of repent-

1 i Tim. vi. 12.

90 THE VULGATE

ance.1 It might perhaps be regarded as equivalent
to the oath of a witness ; because the Law was
both divine and politic with the Jews, religion not
being differentiated from the State requirements.
On the other hand, we find the oath already the
necessary adjunct to civil law in the code of
Hammurabi, king of Babylon (B.C. 2285); e.g.t
" The witnesses of a theft shall say out before God
what they know" (§9). A public asseveration or
confession by the Jew was therefore a testimony
to Yahweh on the part of the repentant sinner.2
It was an outward and audible sign of repentance;
the confession being regarded as honest, being
uttered before the multitude and before Yahweh.

Similarly, when St John Baptist called upon
the Jews " to repent," we read that they confessed
their sins (e^o/xoXoyoiVeyo*).3

In the early centuries, public confession was
found to lead to irregularities, and private confes-
sion became more customary ; but it was not until
A.D. 1215 that Pope Innocent III. promulgated the
2ist Canon, Omnis utriusque sexus, which enjoins

1 See Hooker, EccL /*<?/., VI. iv. 4, where the whole subject is
discussed in detail.

3 As by the priest over the scape-goat. Jer. xvi. 21 ; Neh. ix. 2.
3 Matt. iii. 6.

CONFESSION 91

all the faithful who have arrived at years of dis-
cretion to confess their sins once a year at least
to their own parish priest. Penalties for dis-
obedience were subsequently added ; then some
time before the Reformation it was taught that
confession was part of the sacrament of penance,
which is necessary to salvation.1

It need hardly be added that a true Christian
who feels a true repentance need not go to any
fallible person, but confess to God privately if he
deem it right so to do ; as St John says : " If we
confess our sins, he is faithful and righteous to
forgive us our sins, and to cleanse us from all
unrighteousness." 2

With regard to the use of o/moXoyia in the LXX,
the first occasion is in Leviticus,3 where Kara Trda-av
o/uLoXdytav avrwv occurs. The Vulgate has vota
solvens, " for all his vows " ; but while R. V. translates
" any of their vows," the A. V. has " all his vows,"
apparently following LXX. 'O/moXoyla elsewhere
corresponds to "vow" in our Bible.4

'QjuioXoyla is very rarely used in the canonical

1 Blunt's Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology, s.v.
CONFESSION.

3 i John i. 9. 3 Lev. xxii. 18.

4 Deut. xii. 6, 17 ; Jer. xliv. 25.

92 THE VULGATE

books, but occurs in Job: o/moXoytfcrto cm SvvctTat Y\
Segla arov o-wo-a^1 The Vulgate has confitebar quod
salvare te possit dextera tua — a literal translation.

It need hardly be necessary to add that to
confess one's sins voluntarily one to another
affords no foundation for any system of compul-
sory auricular confession. The INDEX BIBLICUS
can only refer to Matthew v. 6, James v. 16, and
i John i. 8, 9, which are all irrelevant.

1 Jobxl. 9 ( 14 in A. V.).

CHAPTER XII
JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION

THE first is derived from Justus and facere, i.e. ,
etymologically, " to make righteous " ; but used
to mean " to act justly towards one," and is the
translation of SIKCUOW. Justificatio does not appear
to be known in classical Latin, but was appar-
ently invented for the Vulgate, and only occurs
elsewhere in ecclesiastical Latin of a later date ;
but the above derivation has given rise to the
whole of the Roman Catholic theory of the
"infusion of righteousness."

With regard to SIKCUOW, Thayer (Greek Lexicon)
observes that as the word Sov\6c» means " to
make a man a slave," so this might mean " to make
a man righteous " ; but this meaning is extremely
rare, if not altogether doubtful, and he gives no
example. The true meaning is " to declare one to

93

94 THE VULGATE

be righteous," just as agiow never means " to make
worthy " but " to judge worthy." l A*/cato'a> means
" to declare righteous," or, in a forensic sense,
" to acquit." It therefore implies that the sinner's
sin, or the heathen convert's past life, is forgiven.
Christianity has no system of punishments for the
obliteration of the past, as forgiveness follows
repentance by a natural law. Then, repentance
is followed by faith, which carries justification
with it. Finally, faith is proved by means of
" good works," i.e. the Christ -life.

Hooker has a long paragraph on the theory of
infused or imputed righteousness or justification,
according to the Roman Catholic Church ; from
which the following sentences are extracted, being
the answer to the hypothetical question to a
Roman Catholic, " What is the righteousness
whereby a Christian is justified ? " " It is a divine
spiritual quality; which quality, received into the
soul, doth first make it to be one of them who are
born of God ; and secondly, endue it with power

1 It may be observed that, as ar as possible, our criminal laws
follow the Christian method. For, when a convict has completed
his sentence, it is expressly laid down that he leaves the prison with-
out a stain upon him, and is free to start afresh a new life as a
"justified " man.

JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION 95

to bring forth such works as they do that are
born of Him. ... It maketh the soul gracious and
amiable in the sight of God, in regard whereof
it is termed grace; that it purgeth, purifieth,
washeth out, all the stains and pollutions of
sin. . . . This grace will have to be applied by
infusion . . . and is made capable of increase . . .
so the soul may be more and more justified
according as grace shall be augmented, the aug-
mentation whereof is merited by good works, as
good works are made meritorious by it."1

Hooker then follows this supposed answer ot
a Roman Catholic, of which there is much more
than is given above, by quotations from the
Apostles, showing its disagreement from their
teaching. Thus he points out how St Paul deter-
mined "to win Christ" for himself.2 Hooker adds
that God, " beholding the truly repentant sinner
with a gracious eye, putteth away his sin by not
imputing3 it, taketh quite away the punishment
due thereunto, by pardoning it : and accepting
him in Jesus Christ, as perfectly righteous, as if

1 A Learned Discourse of Justification, etc. The Works or
Mr R. Hooker, arranged by Rev. J. Keble, vol. iii. p. 487.
3 Phil. iii. 8, 9. * a Cor. v. 19.

96 THE VULGATE

he had fulfilled all that is commanded him in the
law." i

What is deducible from the preceding? It is
that, if the Roman Church be correct, man must
be a mere machine; for the being made good is
due to an infusion from without^ not to his own
free-will within. His righteousness would be the
result of a sort of spiritual mechanism ; while
"good works" are merely the wheels of the
machine which grinds out salvation.

True repentance carries the obliteration of the
sin ; so that the sinner is " acquitted," i.e.t forensi-
cally, "justified." He then has to "work out his
own salvation," i.e. to live the Christ-life. " In-
fusion," therefore, would destroy his free-will.

The words italicised in the quotations from
Hooker point to the mechanical action of the
notion of " infusion " upon the man.

Conversion (conversio, eTna-rpotyrj) only occurs
once in allusion to the conversion of the Gentiles
to Christianity.2 The verb convertere, irt<TTpe<j>€n>t
" to turn to," e.g. the worship of the true God, is
frequent. It implies " a change of conduct." 3

1 Op. cit., p. 490. 2 Acts xv. 3.

3 In the Jews, Mark iv. 12 ; in Peter, Luke xxii. 32 ; etc.

JUSTIFICATION AND CONVERSION 97

It is parallel to /merdvoLa, " a change of mind,"
which precedes it.1

The modern abuse of the term is due to the
Methodists, followed by Revivalists of the last
century in the English Church. They regarded
a " sudden conversion " as all-important, and if
once anyone has been got to say " I believe," he
would be safe for ever ; overlooking the fact that
though a sinner may be convinced of his sin by a
preacher, and come to the " stool of repentance "
in contrition, his salvation is a life-long process
to be slowly worked out by himself.

1 See Liike xvii. 4.

CHAPTER XIII

REMISSION

Remissio in the Vulgate stands both for a<
and Tra/oeov?. The former signifies "sending
away" or "releasing," as from bondage, as in
Isaiah1 and Jeremiah,2 who spoke of the release
or liberty of captives; but a^eo-t? is not used in
the LXX for sins. It occurs for "Jubilee" in
Leviticus. In the New Testament it occurs nine
times in the sense of remission of sins ; but always
in connection with Jews,3 or when spoken to the
Jews4 or by our Lord to His disciples.5 When St
Paul is speaking to heathens or to the Romans he
uses the word Trct/oeo-/?, " a passing over," 6 or, as to
the Greeks, he uses the verb \nrepeiSw, "to overlook."7

1 Isa. Ixi. i. 2 Jer. xxxiv. 8.

3 Acts ii. 38, v. 31. 4 Mark i. 4.

5 Matt. xxvi. 28 ; Luke xxiv. 47. 6 Rom. iii. 25.
7 Acts xvii. 30.

98

REMISSION 99

The reason for this difference is obvious. The
Jews had Moses and the prophets, and had they
listened to them, St John Baptist would have had
less to complain of in their conduct. To repent,
with them, not only meant " a change of under-
standing " but a change of heart as well. On the
other hand, the Greeks and Romans had no such
sources of information as the prophets. They
had acted up to their religious ideas, although
they were mistaken. Hence, it had been a time
which God would " overlook " or pass over, if they
would now " change their mind and understanding "
and accept the teaching of Paul.

But to all who accept Christ, but fall again into
sin, there is the promise of forgiveness or remis-
sion of sins, though the Christian fall seventy times
seven, but as often honestly and truly repent. Not
that he may sin that grace may abound ; if he do
that, he is wilfully crucifying the Son of God
afresh, and may accept the consequences.1

According to the Vulgate, the first necessity after
repentance, as we have seen, is to do penance, or
rather the two are identical ; that is to say, the
repentant person must undergo punishment of

1 Luke xvii. 4, 5 ; Heb. vi. 6.

ioo THE VULGATE

some sort before he can be reinstated in the
Church.1

There is nothing of this required in the gospels.
The prodigal son was brought to himself by a
natural law. As long as he had money to spend,
he had no reason or wish to go home ; but poverty
made him take a different view. It " changed his
mind " ; he humbled himself and returned. That
was enough ; the father asked for no more. He
imposed no penance upon him, but received his
son back with open arms. That father represents
God. God's grace demands no punishment, only
repentance. If a man will not repent, he punishes
himself.

1 Of course this is the fundamental error of Anselm, and under-
lies his Cur Deus Homo.

CHAPTER XIV

ABSOLUTION

THOUGH this word does not occur in our Bible, it
corresponds in meaning with the Latin remissio
and the Greek a^eo-f?, a " sending away " ; but the
doctrine of priestly absolution is presumably based
on the words first said to Peter and then to all the
disciples collectively : " I will give unto thee the
keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever
thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven ;
and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be
loosed in heaven." * Similar words were uttered
to all the disciples collectively : " Whose soever sins
ye forgive, they are forgiven unto them ; whose
soever sins ye retain, they are retained." 2 A third
passage corroborates this, for we read : " In that
hour came the disciples unto Jesus/'3 From

1 Matt. xvi. 19. 2 John xx. 23. 3 Matt, xviii. I ff.

101

102 THE VULGATE

among them he called a little child and set
him in the midst of them, etc. He then gives
instructions l for the establishment of a little court
of justice2 for the future Church; and secondly,
if that be ineffectual, then the whole Church must
resolve itself into a higher court.3 If this fail to
bring the sinner to repentance, then the offending
brother is to be excommunicated; because he
persists in being impenitent.4 Then follows the
promise : " Verily I say unto you, what things
soever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in
heaven ; and what things soever ye shall loose on
earth shall be loosed in heaven." The plural "ye"
shows that the injunction was not confined to
Peter alone.

In the INDEX BIBLICUS it is said: Peccatum solus
Deus propria auctoritate r emitter e potest ("God
alone can remit a sin by His own authority").
Peccatum remittitur per Christum; peccatum
sacerdos remittit auctoritate divina (" A sin is
remitted through Christ ; a priest remits a sin by
divine authority"); and Matt, xviii. 1 8, John xx. 23,
are referred to in support.

1 Matt, xviii. 15-20. 2 Matt, xviii. 16.

3 Matt, xviii. 17. 4 Matt, xviii. 17.

ABSOLUTION 103

We read of an occasion when our Lord's in-
structions thus given to his disciples ought to
have been followed ; for St Paul l rebukes the
Corinthian Christians for going to law before the
unbelievers, instead of before the Church. As
actual cases of binding and loosing, perhaps
that of Ananias and the one mentioned in
his First Epistle to the Corinthians would
apply.2

With regard to the " power of the keys," accord-
ing to Jewish metaphors this merely signified the
right to teach: "Woe unto you lawyers, for ye
took away the key of knowledge : ye entered not
in yourselves, and them that were entering in ye
hindered." 3 But the key was also used to indicate
authority and power. Thus Christ says : " I am
alive for evermore, and I have the keys of death
and of Hades."4 Again: " He that hath an ear let
him hear what the Spirit saith to the churches.
And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia
write : These things saith he that is holy, he that
is true, he that hath the key of David,5 he that

1 i Cor. vi i ff. 2 i Cor. v. i ff.

3 Luke xi. 52. 4 Rev. i. 17, 18.

5 Rev. iii. 6, 7 (from Isa. xxii. 22).

104 THE VULGATE

openeth and none shall shut, and that shutteth and
none openeth."

The key to the abyss is also referred to.1

It would almost seem as if the Church based its
assumed " power of the keys " on these passages
rather than on the true meaning as applying to
Peter and the rest of the Church ; and that the
Pope delegated to princes the power to rule seems
implied in their custom, according to Gregory, of
sending a golden key to them, wherein they
enclosed a little of the filings of St Peter's
chain. This key was worn in the bosom of the
prince who received it, probably as a charm.

That the Apostles themselves laid no claim what-
ever to any delegated authority to forgive sins,
but only to preach forgiveness by Christ, is obvious
if we read the following passages together: —

" Peter said unto them, ' Repent ye, and be
baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus
Christ unto the remission of your sins; and ye
shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost ' " 2

" As they spake unto the people, the priests and

1 Rev. ix. i, xx. i.

2 Acts ii. 38. Would Peter have thus spoken had he known the
words, " To baptize in the name of the Father and of the Son and of
the Holy Ghost" (Matt, xxviii. 19)?

ABSOLUTION 105

the captain of the temple and the Sadducees
came upon them, being sore troubled because
they taught the people, and proclaimed in Jesus
the resurrection from the dead."1

"Be it known unto you therefore, brethren,
that through this man is proclaimed unto you
remission of sins/'2

Similarly, St John says : "If we confess our sins,
he is faithful and righteous to forgive us our sins,
and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness."3

"To 'remit,' like the 'retain,'" writes Dr
Farrar,4 "is referred, not to individuals but to
classes ; and, as even Peter Lombard teaches in the
SententicE, is not a power solvendi et legandi but
ostendendi solutos vel legates (lib. iv. 14-20). The
absolution,' he says, 'is not judicial, but the
declaration of God's decree ; just as the Jewish
priest did not cleanse lepers, but declared them
clean.' The sinner (quoting Cassiodorus) is for-
given by God as soon as he repents, and is not,
therefore, liberated by the priest from God's anger,
from which his repentance set him free. . . .
There is not a trace of the form absolve te before

1 Acts iv. 1,2. 2 Acts xiii. 38. 3 i John i. 9.

4 The Bible, its Meaning and Supremacy ', p. 21, note.

io6 THE VULGATE

the thirteenth century. . . . Scripture only teaches
us to confess to God."

In the form of absolution of Anthony Egane,
formerly Confessor-General of Ireland, we read as
follows : —

"Our Lord Jesus Christ absolve thee; and by
virtue of His authority with which I am charged
I do absolve thee ; first, from all the bonds of
excommunication, whether great or small. ... I
also absolve thee from all thy sins and from all
torments due to thee in purgatory for thy sins and
transgressions, etc." The claim to absolve or
forgive sins is here perfectly clear.

With regard to the terms "binding" and
"loosing," Dr Edersheim1 observes: "Our first
inquiry must be, what it [this saying of Christ to
Peter] would convey to the person to whom the
promise was addressed. And here we recall, that
no other terms were in more constant use in
Rabbinic Canon-Law than those of ' binding ' and
'loosing.' The words are the literal translation
of the Hebrew equivalents Asar, which means
' to bind/ in the sense of prohibiting ; and Hittir,
which means ' to loose,' in the sense of permitting.

1 The Life and Times ofjesus, vol. ii. p. 85.

ABSOLUTION 107

. . . ' Binding ' and * loosing ' referred simply to
things or acts, prohibiting or else permitting them,
declaring them lawful or unlawful. This was one
of the powers claimed by the Rabbis. As regards
their laws (not decisions as to things or acts), it
was a principle, that while in Scripture there were
some that bound and some that loosed, all the
laws of the Rabbis were in reference to ' binding.'
If this, then, represented the legislative, another
pretension of the Rabbis, that of declaring * free '
or else ' liable/ i.e. guilty, expressed their claim
to the judicial power. By the first of these they
' bound ' or ' loosed ' acts or things ; by the second
they ' remitted ' or ' retained/ declared a person free
from, or liable to punishment, to compensation, or
to sacrifice. These two powers — the legislative and
the judicial — which belonged to the Rabbinic office,
Christ now transferred, and that not in their pre-
tension, but in their reality, to His Apostles : the
first here1 to Peter as their representative; the
second, after His resurrection, to the Church." 2

The very expression " bound and loosed in
heaven " was rabbinic ; as Dr Edersheim continues :
" In the view of the Rabbis, heaven was like earth,

1 Matt. xvi. 19. 2 John xx. 23.

io8 THE VULGATE

and questions were discussed and settled by a
heavenly Sanhedrin. Now in regard to some of
their earthly decrees, they were wont to say that
1 the Sanhedrin above ' confirmed what * the
Sanhedrin beneath' had done."

Our Lord, however, while thus adopting phrase-
ology familiar to the Jew, elevates His promise into
a spiritual sphere, just as He added: " Where two
or three are gathered together in my name, there
am I in the midst of them."1

But there is another sense or application of the
terms. As the " sins " refer to character on the part
of the offender, so tt\z judgment lies in the character
of the Christian. Just as the mere presence of a
holy man or woman or even of an innocent child
unconsciously condemns the man who is impure
of heart, so was this the reason why the disciples
were likened to a candle that all might see, and
enjoined, as well as ourselves now, to let their
light so shine before men that they might see their
good works and glorify God likewise. Thus would
the disciples be — figuratively — set on thrones
judging the twelve tribes of Israel.

These texts, therefore, do not mean that only

1 Matt, xxviii. 20.

ABSOLUTION 109

the twelve apostles had some miraculous power
transmitted to them for the purpose of absolving
a penitent, much less that it should be passed on
through them to an English priest of to-day. Nor,
on the other hand, was the " retaining " a presum-
ably refusing to absolve a sinner according to their
own imperfect judgment ; for a modern priest has
no proof that he can judge aright, even supposing
the Apostles to have some miraculous gift of
insight by the Spirit, endowing them with an
infallible power of detecting duplicity or of
recognising honesty. The quotations, therefore,
mean that Christ would have all His disciples truly
spiritual and Christ-like. And just as St Paul in
his large heart, always ready to cover a multitude
of sins in others, addressed his converts as
"saints" indiscriminately, so Jesus would wish
to look at all His faithful disciples as so many
" Christs," or at least His " vicars " on earth, and
" perfect " as their Heavenly Father is perfect ; so
that no one who was not yet a Christian could
look at the disciples or hear their preaching with-
out being convicted of their errors and convinced
of the truth. This, by creating repentance, brings
true absolution or remission of sins with it.

CHAPTER XV

RECONCILIATION, REGENERATION ; AND " GOOD
WORKS," OR THE " CHRIST-LIFE "

THE only passage (A.V.) where "atonement"
occurs in the New Testament, it will be re-
membered, is now altered to " reconciliation "
(R.V.),1 which is a synonym for " at-one-ment."
The Vulgate has therefore correctly translated
/caraXXay/} by reconciliatio. The error which
came to be involved in the use of this word followed,
as we have seen, on the false conception of our
Lord dying as an expiatory sacrifice to appease
God, and so it came to be said that " He reconciled
God to man." The true result of Christ's life and
death was the " reconciling man to God," i.e. the
making the two, man and God, to be " at one," i.e.
He " atoned " them, to use the word in its sixteenth

1 Rom. v. ii.

1 10

THE "CHRIST-LIFE" in

century meaning. A few passages will be enough
to show that this is the true and only meaning in
the New Testament.

"For if, while we were enemies, we were
reconciled to God through the death of his Son,
much more, being reconciled, shall we be saved by
his/^";1 i.e., living His life is our salvation. It
may be added that St Paul is here alluding to the
imagery of sacrifice ; for the death of the victim
implied the death to sin in the guilty person ; but
Christ's blood being the life, is now offered to
him to drink and so acquire salvation, i.e. a pure,
Christ-like character and conduct.

So he writes to the Corinthians : " God recon-
ciled us to himself through Jesus Christ, and gave
unto us the ministry of reconciliation."2

Lastly, he wrote in a similar strain to the
Colossians : " You, being in time past alienated
and enemies in your mind in your evil works, yet
now hath he reconciled in the body of his flesh
through death, to present you holy and un-
reprovable." 3

REGENERATION.— This is the exact rendering
of the Greek 7raA*yyey«r/a. It is often alluded to

1 Rom. v. 10. 2 2 Cor. v. 18. s Col. i. 21, 22.

112 THE VULGATE

both in the Gospejis and the Epistles, and always
means a change of character and conduct, as
represented by a new, i.e. spiritual, birth. It
follows on repentance, or, as the Greek word
//ercu/oia means, a "change of understanding,"
i.e. on learning what the Christian character and
conduct must be. There was always an outward
and visible sign required as a public witness to the
genuineness of the spiritual change within. For
adult converts our Lord insisted upon a public
baptism as a proof to all that the baptized person
intended to forgo his past life, probably well
known to all who were present at his public pro-
fession of faith in Jesus. Baptism thus was
required to follow, not precede, conversion.
The new convert had already, as it is described,
"received the Holy Ghost," or, as we might say,
a religious inspiration. It did not come as an
accompaniment to baptism.

But the tendency of the human mind is to
materialise spiritual conceptions; hence, when
idols were made, the deity was supposed to enter
them. Similarly, when the bread and wine were
consecrated, the Holy Spirit was besought in our
ancient liturgies to perform the miracle of infusing

THE "CHRIST-LIFE" 113

them with the substance of Jesus Christ ; l conse-
quently the dogma of transubstantiation was framed
upon it. Similarly, in the baptism of infants — who
can know nothing of character and conduct —
regeneration was supposed to apply equally with
them as to adults, as stated in our own Liturgy.
With the new, i.e. spiritual, birth of adults, their
outward sign of baptism was only the preliminary
one. Other signs were the subsequent "works
of faith," i.e. their whole character and conduct,
namely, the "Christ-life" spent on earth. This
alone proves their faith to be genuine.

Another outward sign is the " laying on of hands,"
whether in infancy, at confirmation, ordinations,
etc. The hand can convey nothing. It is the spirit
alone in the man's mind which the hand bears
witness to. It is a dedication only.

GOOD WORKS AND WORKS OF SUPEREROGA-
TION.— The idea that good works are meritorious
and receive rewards, as if presented to the doer by
God, as well as the word "merit" itself (which
does not occur in our Bible), are due to the
Vulgate. In the INDEX BlBLlCUS texts are given

1 The question naturally arises, Why was not the prayer made to
Jesus Christ Himself \u come down and enter the bread and wine?

8

114 THE VULGATE

referring to — Operum merita et retributio seu merces
(" The merits of works, and recompense or reward "),
Ps. 112, 1 1 8, etc. Opera mala Deo displicent, et
pcenam merentur (" Evil works displease God,
and deserve punishment"). In the first sentence
retributio (i.e. recompense) and merces (reward) are
the rewards of good works; the words propter
retributionem occurring after the following, Inclinavi
cor meum ad faciendas justificationes tuas, in the
Psalm mentioned, correspond to Si' avraiJiei'^siv
in the LXX, a word which does not occur else-
where, and means literally " an exchanging." *

Another verse quoted is, Majores divitias cestimans
thesauro ^Egyptiorum^ improperium Christi ; aspicie-
bat enim in remunerationem? Several passages are
quoted from the New Testament,3 but the point
overlooked is that under the old dispensation
temporal rewards and punishments were believed
to come direct from Yahweh on obedience or dis-

1 "To requite or punish" is the meaning of the verb

(Lidd. and Scott). This shows that the Vulgate was translated from
the LXX : for these two words are not represented in our Hebrew
text. Moreover, the number of the Psalm, 1 18, is that of the LXX,
but is 1 19 in our version.

2 Heb. xi. 26.

3 E.g.) Matt. v. 12 ; Rom. ii. 6.

THE "CHRIST-LIFE" 115

obedience to His statutes; whereas in the New
Testament the word "reward," whether for good
or bad deeds, is metaphorical only, there being no
word to express the fact that they are the results
of God's natural law in the spiritual world. The
so-called " reward " of " a good conscience towards
God " comes spontaneously to the true Christian ;
but if he do wickedness, knowing it to be such,
then he brings his own condemnation on his own
head.

A Christian is told to be " perfect as our heavenly
Father is perfect." 1 St Paul strove to " apprehend
Christ" ; his converts are told "to put on Christ,"
to strive for the " crown of glory." Whatever the
symbol may be, it is to make Christ the absolute,
perfect, ideal type to be imitated. This no man
has ever yet attained. It is practically impossible
to acquire " the measure of the stature of Christ." 2
This being so, it is obvious that no man, however
saint-like, can have done more good works than
were necessary for his salvation. So that " works
of supererogation," as far as man is concerned, are
impossible.

A man-made moral law expresses what a man

1 Matt. v. 48. 2 Eph. iv. 13.

ii6 THE VULGATE

ought to be. A natural moral law stands for what
always is ; and if all men would live the Christ-
life, then all character and conduct among
Christians would be the universal result of a
natural law in the heart of man. Man would be-
come what St John calls "begotten of God,"
and then he cannot sin. " Whosoever abideth in
him sinneth not. . . . Whosoever is begotten of
God doeth no sin, because his seed abideth in
him ; and he cannot sin, because he is begotten
of God." 1 But the Church went further, and con-
sidered that a man's good works might be more
than what God required of him, notwithstanding
the words of our Lord : " When ye shall have
done all the things that are commanded you, say,
We are unprofitable servants, we have done that
which was our duty to do " 2 ; for that " scholastic "
spirit was still retained by the Church, her
punishments being "penance," and her reward
" absolution."

Of course the Church appealed to Scripture to
support this idea of "supererogation," as it was
called. Thus St Paul says : " For if I preach the
gospel, I have nothing to glory of; for necessity

1 i John iii. 6, 9. 2 Luke xvii. 10.

THE "CHRIST-LIFE" 117

is laid upon me ; for woe is unto me, if I preach
not the gospel, etc." ; 1 but he would not be paid
for preaching, and asks, " What is my reward ?
That, when I preach the gospel, I may make the
gospel without charge, so as not to use to the full
my right in the gospel." In the " Annotations "
on this passage in the Rhemes (R.C.) Version we
find it expressed, " I shal haue my reward of
God, yea and a reward of supererogation, which is
given to them that of aboundant charitie doe more
in the seruice of God than they be commanded,
as S. Augustin expoundeth it. De op. Mon.y c. 5."
We may safely say, that if St Paul could sub-
sequently write, in this very same chapter, " I
buffet my body .... lest by any means, after that
I have preached to others I myself should be
rejected," he would be the last person to think
that he had been better than he needed! It is
obvious, as Dr Harold Browne says, " that, whereas
he, as an Apostle, had a right to be chargeable
to the Church, he had refused to be so, that he
might have the more influence for good over those
among whom he ministered." 2

1 i Cor. ix. 1 6 ff.

2 Exposition of the' Thirty-nine Articles, pp. 336 ff.

ii8 THE VULGATE

"But the most cogent argument from Scripture,
in favour of works of supererogation, is drawn
from the passages in which our Lord and St Paul,
whilst highly honouring marriage, yet give the
preference to a life of celibacy." 1 But our Lord is
not alluding to merits of celibacy, but to physical
conditions which may require it ; while St Paul is
alluding to the anticipation of Christ's early
return.2

1 Op. cit., p. 340. 2 i Cor. vii. 29.

CHAPTER XVI

PREDESTINATION AND ELECTION

THESE terms, derived from the Vulgate, are usually
combined to express the title of a dogma so
rigidly condemned in our Seventeenth Article.
It arose from a very common mistake in inter-
preting the Bible, namely of regarding as a direct
and immediate act of God what is really the
result of natural law. It is akin to the Mahom-
medan " Kismet," that everything that happens is
the will of Allah. The Jews of old thought Job
must have been a wicked man to be so directly
afflicted by Yahweh: an idea which our Lord
once and for ever refuted.1 So, too, this theory
of predestination and election places God's sup-
posed and arbitrary act on another but analogous
footing, viz. that — while his condemnation and

1 Luke xiii. 4.
119

120 THE VULGATE

salvation are regarded as quite irrespective of a
man's free-will, or of his wickedness or goodness —
they are solely due to God's " selecting " him for
either hell or heaven. It is a worse violation of
justice than was the Jewish conception.

Now when it is said that the Christian conyerts
were all " elected " 1 or " saints " 2 without exception,
as St Paul calls the members of his churches, the
question arises, Who elected them? The dogma
says, God ; but the true answer is the convert
elected himself, or, as we use the word now, he
" elected " to follow Jesus. The " calling," typified
by Christ's " fan," was to test all who will follow
Him, i.e. those who had faith enough to do so.
But all who will not prove themselves " fitted to
survive," i.e. to become saints, under this spiritual
natural selection, are self -excluded or self-
condemned.

The " chosen of God," 3 therefore, does not mean
chosen by God, but only that they now " belong
to," or are, as St John says, "begotten" of God.
"Chosen" means the "choice" ones, the "select"
or " elect " of God. They become e/cAe/cro/ by their

1 i Pet. i. i, 2, Electis .... secundum prascientiam Dei, etc.

2 Rom. i. 7, etc. 3 i Cor. i. 27, 28.

PREDESTINATION AND ELECTION 121

own willing and faithful obedience. So Christ was
called 6 e/cXe/cro? TOV Oeov, but the Messiah was not
chosen or selected out of candidates.

Connected with the foregoing theory is the
mistaken sense of " saved," viz. the Old Testament
meaning of "salvation," £*. "safe," whereas the
Christian meaning is "health." Instead of "saved
from hell," salvation now means the perfect char-
acter void of sin.

The Scriptural apparent support of this strange
dogma is to be found in the ninth chapter of
St Paul's Epistle to the Romans. It is clear,
however, that the Apostle was labouring under
the difficulty of explaining how — if man be
responsible for his own wickedness, as stated or
implied everywhere in his epistles — God could also
determine that some men and some nations only
should become Christian ; while others would
remain unchristianised. He could not express
himself in modern scientific language, but only in
the phraseology of the day, in which God was
believed to do everything; but all he means to
imply really is the " calling " and the letting men
or people who hear the Gospel for the first time,
" elect " to become Christians of their own free-will.

122 THE VULGATE

As an old example of the way men spoke, we
find it said in Proverbs,1 " The Lord hath made
everything for its own end ; yea, even the wicked
for the day of evil " ; so it is said God raised up
Pharaoh in order to show His power, etc.2 But, as
if to avoid his words being misunderstood, St Paul
gives the reason why " Israel did not arrive at the
law of righteousness,"3 i.e. to become Christian,
because " they sought it not by faith, but as it were
by works. ... He that believeth [i.e. hath faith]
on him shall not be put to shame." The result,
therefore, of not being adopted into the family of
God is entirely due to Israel's own perversity, not
to God.

1 Prov. xvi. 4. 2 Exod. ix. 16, and cp. Job xxi. 30.

3 Rom. ix. 20.

CHAPTER XVII
SALVATION

THIS word, which is now recognised as the funda-
mental term in Christian theology, had a very
insignificant origin ; for salvatio only occurs three
times in the Vulgate. Thus in a psalm of David
we read, " He is a strong hold of salvation to his
anointed." x David had previously called Him
" his strength and shield," and concludes, " Save
thy people, and bless thine inheritance."

Joel has the sentence, In Jerusalem erit salvatio ;
corresponding to which the R.V. has," In Jerusalem
there shall be those that escape."2

Lastly, Habakkuk says in a metrical prayer : —
" Thou didst ride upon thine horses,

Upon thy chariots of salvation.

Thy bow was made quite bare." 3
He thus represents Yahweh as a warrior.

1 Ps. xxviii. 7-9. 2 Joel ii. 32. 3 Hab. iii. 8.

123

124 THE VULGATE

" Saviour " and " salvation " often occur in the
English Bible in the Old Testament, but almost
invariably refer to safety from enemies, afflictions,
etc. The LXX has (rwTqp, crwTtjpia, and the n. adj.
crwTijpiov. These correspond to salvator, salus^ and
salutare in the Vulgate.

In the Gospels and Acts the old idea is often
retained, meaning "safety." Hence we see its
applicability in the song of Zacharias : " He hath
raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house
of his servant David, .... salvation from our
enemies, and from the hand of all that hate us."
It represents the implicit trust felt in a great
general, just as in Habakkuk's prayer.

In the Epistles the meaning of salus, translated
" salvation," meant " health of the soul," equivalent
to a holy life. This is what Christ secures for us ;
it is not "safety from hell" which is meant, for
" He came to save His people from their sins"

The Church, however, by regarding Christ as a
saviour from hell, places " salvation " as the result
of the concrete sacrifice of His body and blood.
The work of salvation is thus supposed to have
been wrought entirely by our Lord "instead of"
man.

SALVATION 125

This doctrine is strongly emphasised by Anselm
in his Cur Deus Homo. He often uses the words
salus, salvus^ salvare, and salvari. Thus in bk. ii.
ch. v., Boso asks the question, " How shall we
impute our salvation to His free grace if He saves
us of necessity ? "

The word " salvation " came into use about the
twelfth century (just after the time of Anselm), and
had then both meanings : " safety," and " salvation "
or " health " of the soul. " Salvation " frequently
occurs in Chaucer (fourteenth century), as in the
oath " by my savacion " l in the Manciple's Prologue
in the Canterbury Tales.

Tracing the later history of the word " salvation,"
it appears that in the Anglo-Saxon and in Wiclifs
Bible it does not occur; the word "health," a
meaning of salus ^ uniformly represents the Greek

Tyndale (1534) is the first writer to insert
"salvation," in one passage only.2 We thus see
the source of the word " salvation," being first used
in the sixteenth century.

1 Savacion and salvation were the French spellings in the twelfth
century.

2 John iv. 22.

126 THE VULGATE

Myles Coverdale followed him (1535). He, too,
adopts it in this same text, but adds two more in
the Gospels,1 and replaces the word " health " by
"salvation" in the Epistles. Henceforth all the
subsequent versions of the Bible followed suit ; and
so salvation has passed into our A.V. and R.V.,
and has become the most important term of
Christianity itself.2

1 Luke i. 69 and 77.

2 The above is partly taken from my book, The Spiritual
Teaching of Christ's Life, pp. 32 ff. (Williams & Norgate).

CHAPTER XVIII

DOCTRINE AND CREED

DOCTRINE, in its Latin form doctrina, means "teach-
ing," and is used in the Vulgate for tiiSacricaXia (the
substance of teaching) and &<5a%r; (the act of
teaching) ; not at all what we now understand by
ecclesiastical "doctrines" or "dogmas." When
St Paul determined not to know anything among
the Corinthians but "Jesus Christ and him
crucified," he did not call upon them to believe
doctrines about our Lord, but \htfacts of His life
and death and their effects upon man. Doctrines,
in the modern sense of the word, did not exist in
the first century.

In the INDEX BIBLICUS to the Vulgate, s.v.
Doctrina, we find a number of texts referred to in
the Gospels and Epistles ; but they all refer to what

may be called teachings and exhortations to

127

128 THE VULGATE

Christian conduct, i.e. a pure and Christ-like life,
etc., which is the sum and substance of the preach-
ing and teaching of St Paul and the other Apostles.

This change of meaning grew up with another,
viz. that of Trionrewo, to the false rendering of
credo, " I believe." For, since the Scriptures
emphasise the fact that there is no " salvation " in
the Christian sense without " faith " — i.e. a heartfelt
loyalty to Christ's person and teaching, with an
outward and visible witness to faith in a Christ-life,
or life of character and conduct — so when 7no-rei;a>
came to be represented as credo, doctrina followed
suit, and to believe in doctrines came to be regarded
as the sole necessity of eternal salvation.1

Probably no word has brought more disasters in
its train than the Latin word credo, the translation
in the Vulgate of -THOTWO). This Greek word has
two senses : to believe with the head, as in saying,
"If any man shall say unto you, ' Lo, here is the
Christ,' or ' Here ' ; believe it not " 2 ; but by far the
oftener it signifies to " have faith " in the Lord
Jesus Christ,3 especially in St John's Gospel.
Fortunately Wort? is always represented \>y fides,

*iAs emphasised in the Athanasian Creed.

2 Matt. xxiv. 23. 3 Actsxvi. 31.

DOCTRINE AND CREED 129

hence our " faith." The only word which
approaches Trio-revoo is fido, a late Latin word
derived from, or of the same etymology as,
-jreiOcDy translated by "believe" in the only three
passages where this word occurs.1 Fido has
given us "con-fide," or trust, in anyone.

Credo had the following meanings : — " to loan,"
hence our " creditor " and " credit " ; " to entrust " ;
" to confide " in a person ; to give " credence " to an
assertion, or to believe ; to " admit as true,'" or to
" be of an opinion." Hence credulitas, " credulity "
and " credulous," etc. The word is thus seen to be
quite devoid of all religious significance, and so
came to mean the mere believing dogmas to be
true.

Faith, on the other hand, is a loyalty to Christ's
Person, as He is the Way, the Truth, and the Life,
coupled with the determination to live the Christ-
life on earth. It involves the emotion of love.

What has been the consequence ? The Church
has emphasised the importance of accepting or
believing whatever has been promulgated as
" doctrine," so that we are told whoever does not
believe the "Catholic faith," by which is meant

1 Acts xvii. 4, xxvii. n, xxviii. 24.

130 THE VULGATE

" doctrine," of the Trinity will perish everlast-
ingly. Moreover, all the horrible iniquities of the
Inquisition have followed upon the one word —
Credit* !

If the reader will substitute " have faith in"
wherever he reads "believe in Jesus," he will
discover not only a new, but the true, meaning of
Scripture.

Let us take for an example the words of St Paul
to the jailer at Philippi. The words in the Bible
are, " Believe on the Lord Jesus, and thou shalt
be saved." l We turn to the Vulgate and find it
rendered, Crede in Dominum Jesum, et salvus eris
tu et domus tua.

We see, therefore, that our Bible is a literal
translation from the Vulgate, whereas the Greek is
Tllcrrcvarov e-TTi TOV KJ/otov 'Iqcrovv Xpurrov, ic.T.X.
What our Lord invariably demanded of His hearers
was not " belief," butfaM.

The Church, however, constructing its dogmas
from the Vulgate, exalted " belief" to a position of
all-importance to which it had no sort of title ;
and by enforcing the acceptance of dogmas,
converted "belief" into mere "credulity." The

1 Acts xvi. 31.

DOCTRINE AND CREED 131

Protestant Church has similarly suffered; so that
the cry of the revivalists of the middle of the last
century was, " Believe or be damned ! " and they
interpreted the above words of St Paul as meaning,
" Believe in Jesus, that He died instead of you, and
you will be safe for ever." Three errors are here
involved: believe should be "have faith"; instead
of you for "on behalf of you"; and safe instead
of "you must work out your own salvation," i.e.
spiritual health.

If we turn to the Hebrew of the Old Testament,
the Hebrew verb aman, rendered in English " to
believe," primarily means "to support" or "to
sustain " ; and as " salvation " in the Old Testa-
ment was primarily the " rescuing " from an enemy
or from afflictions of any kind by Yahweh, thus
securing safety and peace, so trust in Yahweh
was based upon the belief that He would sustain
His own people Israel.

This Hebrew word aman is specially used for
" supporting with the arm," as in carrying a child.1
Hence, intransitively, it came to be used as
signifying "to be stayed up" or "to be firm";
hence, metaphorically, " to be faithful " ; and the

1 Num. xi. 12 ; Isa. Ix. 4.

132 THE VULGATE

noun emunah is consequently rendered by " faith-
fulness" (R.V.) as an alternative to "truth" (A.V.).

The first occasion where belief in God is
mentioned is where it is said of Abram : " He
believed (amari) in the Lord ; and he counted it to
him for righteousness." *

In the Epistle to the Hebrews, Abraham is said
to have had faith? There was no "sign" from
God, but simply Abram's heartfelt trust in God.

On the other hand, the children of Israel are
said to have "believed the Lord and his servant
Moses " because of the signs.3

Similarly, the Lord said unto Moses, " Lo, I
come unto thee in a thick cloud, that the people
may hear when I speak with thee, and may also
believe thee for ever. " 4

So our Lord said to the nobleman, " Unless ye
see signs and wonders, ye will not believe." 5

Whereas he said of Abraham that he " rejoiced
to see my day."6 May not this mean that
Abraham's faith was based on a firm conviction
in the truth of Yahweh's character, and not based
on merely outward proof by signs, etc. ? For this

1 Gen. xv. 6. * Heb. xi. 8. » Ex. xiv. 31.

4 Ex. xix. 9. § John ir. 48. • John viii. 56.

DOCTRINE AND CREED 133

is exactly what our Lord insisted upon as proof
that He Himself was one with God, namely, His
Personality, that He was the Way, the Truth, and
the Life.

Christ elsewhere said the God of Abraham
was not the God of the dead but of the " living " ;
hence he could see or know that Christ had come
into the world, and advocating that kind of faith
of which he had been so conspicuous an example.1

But the word "faith" is not prominent in the
Old Testament, and is replaced by its more
appropriate meaning of "faithfulness." This is
rendered by WO-T*? in the LXX, as in the ex-
pression, " The just shall live by his faithfulness" ;
such is better than "by his faith" (A.V.).2

In the Apocrypha TrtWi? generally means " faith-
fulness," but is sometimes translated by other
words, as : " Whoso discovereth secrets loseth his
credit" \* "A wise man shall inherit glory among
his people " ; * " True dealing shall endure for ever." 5

If we turn to ancient Greek writers, irurreveiv
first meant simply " to believe " anything, as a

1 St Paul declares a Christian's faith is the same as that of
Abraham (Rom. iv. 16).

• Hab. ii. 4. * Ecclus. xxvii. 16.

4 Ecclus. xxxvii. 26. • Ecclus. xl. 12.

134 THE VULGATE

man's word, etc. So we read, " It is hard to be-
lieve " so and so.1 Euripides has " Believe my
word " ; he uses the verb in the sense " to feel
sure " or " confident " that anything is, was, or
will be. Herodotus, as far as is known, was the
first writer to use the verb as relying on a person?'
It is thus equivalent to the Hebrew aman.

The primary meaning of Trio-reva) is " to believe
a thing to be true," " to place confidence in one's
words"; but this verb acquired a special moral
and religious sense in Christianity. It is an
absolute trust in Jesus, seen in perfect loyalty to
Him as our great Master, first seen in a firm faith
in His miraculous powers, as by the woman in
the crowd, who touched the hem of His garment.

But most especially is the faith in Jesus as
the Messiah, the author of the means of salvation
in the kingdom of heaven. This conception was
not that of the Jews in general, but the elevated
type of religious faith depicted in the Old Testa-
ment, of the servant of Yahweh, the true Israelite,
which found its ideal in Jesus Christ alone. ILWi?
in the New Testament carries this same meaning
as Triarrevew. And as faith in Jesus holds possession

1 Thuc., i. 20. 2 Herod., i. 24, etc.

DOCTRINE AND CREED 135

of the soul it necessarily leads to obedience ; hence
a man with pure faith in Christ is said viraKoveiv TQ
Tritrrei. And so "faith without works is dead."
Faith and works together constitute Christian
righteousness,1 or " faith working through love " 2 ;
and, as Paul said to the Thessalonians : " Remem-
bering without ceasing your work of faith and
labour of love."3

In St James's epistle we see the effort to dis-
tinguish " faith " from " belief." As faith with works
is true faith, faith without works is false faith, or,
as now, distinguished as belief. " The devils," he
says, " believe and tremble " ; but we could not now
say that they have faith. St James has only
7r/(TT£9 and TTujTeveiv for both.

CONCLUSION. — As stated at the commencement,
several dogmas of the Church are not referred to,
as being later " developments," for which it would
be hard to find any support, either from the Greek
or Latin versions of the New Testament. But
those I have dealt with seem to me to be the
most important as far as our own Protestant
Church is concerned.

1 Rom. ix. 30 ; PhiL iii. 9, etc. 2 Gal. v. 6.

3 I Thess. i. 3.

Sit*

136 THE VULGATE

I trust these descriptions of the doctrinal terms
will have made it clear to any minds, in which the
mediaeval and erroneous ideas are still retained un-
consciously, that their want is Scriptural authority.
By clearing the mind of these false influences, the
true teaching (not doctrine or dogma) of Jesus
Christ and His Apostles will be found to be all
one requires, viz. faith and works, i.e. loyalty to His
person and teaching proved by living His life.
Such only is salvation.

INDEX

ENGLISH TERMS

ABRAHAM, faith of, 132 ff.

Absolution, 101 ; Apostles' view
of, 104 ; of A. Egane, 106 ;
prices of, 86.

"Accidents," II.

Anselm, on satisfaction, 33, on
punishment, 44.

Apostles falsely regarded as
priests, 24.

Appeasement, false idea of, in
Christianity, 14.

Atonement, meaning "At-one- I
ment," 7 ; St Paul on, 45 ;
for Reconciliation, 46; for Ex-
piation (Rh ernes), 47, 52 ;
seventeenth - century writers
on, 47 ; history of, in Bible,
48 ; change of meaning, 48
ff. ; Calvin's influence on, 49.

BAPTISM necessary for converts,

112.

Baptist, St John, on the mean-
ing of fire, 80.

Begotten of God, meaning of,
120.

Believe, to, 128 ; meaning in
O.T., 131 ; in classics, 134.

Binding and loosing, Dr Eders-
heim on, 106 ff.

Blood, meaning of, 64 ff.

Body, mistaken origin of, in the
sacrament, 18 ff.

Brimstone, actual and meta-
phorical meanings, 83.

CALVIN responsible for "Ex-
piation," 49 ff.

Chosen, not by God, 120 ;
"choice" ones, 120; self-
elected, 120.

Christ, doctrinal terms concern-
ing, 7 ff.; to put on, 115.

Christ-life, the, 15, iioff.

Communicate, to, St John on,
66, meaning of, 67 ; false
interpretation of, 71.

Communication, 64 ff.; Rhemes,
first used by, 66 ; meaning of,
67 ; origin of error, 68.

Communion, meaning of, 65 ff.

Confession, 87 ff. ; explained,
89 ; and repentance, 90 ;
only to God, 91.

Consubstantiation, n.

Conversion, 93, 96 ff., 1 12.

Credulity, 129.

Creed, origin of term, 127.

Crown of glory, 115.

Cur Deus Homo, on satisfaction,
33 ff. ; on necessity of punish-
ment, 99, ioo (note).

'37

138

INDEX

DOCTRINAL TERMS applicable

to man, 72 ff.
Doctrine, meaning of, in N.T.,

127.

EDERSHEIM, Dr, on binding
and loosing, 106.

Election, 119 ff.; not selection,
120; St Paul on, 121 ; in
O.T., means self-elected, 121,
St Paul on, 121, 122.

Eucharist, origin of term, 56 ;
used for Christ's body, 57 ;
St Paul on, 65.

Expiation, wrong use of, for
Reconciliation, 26 ff., 28 ; Cal-
vin responsible for use of, 49
ff. ; in O.T. used for atone-
ment, 50.

FAITH, of Abraham, 132 ff.; in
N.T., 134 ff. ; to have, 128;
described, 129 ; meanings of,
in Apocrypha, 133 ; without
works, 135.

Faithfulness, 133.

Farrar, Dr, on "remit" and
"retain," 105; errors of re-
vivalists on, 131.

Fellowship, St Paul on, 65 ; St
John on, 66.

Fire, purified or tried as by,
79 ; of hell, 79 ; metaphorical
meanings of, 80 ff.; physical,
in nature, 81, 82.

" For," two meanings of, IO
(note), 39 ff.

Forgiveness, 101 ff.; Apostles
laid no claim to, 104.

GEHENNA, 79.

Good works, iioff., 113.

HEALTH, real meaning of salva-
tion, 121.

Hell, hell-fire, 79 ; evolution of
the idea of, 81 ff.; salvation,
not from, 124.

Holy Spirit, as consecrating the
bread and wine, 112.

Hooker on Justification, 94.

INDULGENCES, 83 ff.
"Is," i.e. represents, 58 ff.

JOHN, St, on fellowship, 66.
Judge, the Word as, 5.
Judgment, 108.

Justification, meaning of, 93 ff. ;
not imputed, 94.

KEYS, power of, meaning of,
103 ff.

LAW, moral and natural, 115 ff.
Laying on of hands, 113.
Loosed, meaning of, 101 ff.;

Farrar on, 105 ; Edersheim

on, 1 06.

MASS, supposed support of, in

O.T., 10, and note.
Merit, 113.

OATH, early use of, 90.

Oblation, 17 ff.

Offering, 13.

Old and New Testaments, funda-
mental difference between, in
meaning of sacrifice, 9.

Old Testament, two mistakes
about, 10.

PAUL, St, on Eucharist, 65.

Penance, satisfaction of, 31 ff. ;
origin of, 73; works of, 73;
developments of, 76, 77 ; alms-
giving instead of, 83 ; sale of
indulgences, 83.

Perfect, to be, 115.

Predestination, 1196°.

INDEX

139

Price, metaphorical meaning of,
38, 42.

Priests, their duty to pronounce
Yahweh's judgments, 4 if. ;
not required by Christians, 6.

Profession, 87 ff.

Propitiation, meaning of, 26 ff.

Punishment, supposed necessary,
74 ; none external in Christi-
anity, 76.

Purgatory, 78 ff. ; as a means of
income to the Church, 85 ff.

REAL PRESENCE, the, n, 13;
Rhemes on, 21 ff. ; a fiction,
23 ; origin of, 58, 66.

Recompense, 114.

Reconciliation, as used in six-
teenth-century versions, 48 ;
meaning of, no ff.

Redemption, meanings of, 36 ff. ;
the Christian sense, metaphor-
ical, 37 ; Dr Westcott on, 38.

Regeneration, meaning of, no
ff. ; inapplicable to infants,
113.

Remission, meaning of, 98.

"Remit" and ''retain," Dr
Farrar on, 105.

Repentance and satisfaction, 33,
73 ; how applied to the
heathens, 75; true, guarantees
forgiveness, 76 ; and confes-
sion, 90.

Revivalists, 97, 131.

Rewards, none external in Chris-
tianity, 76; O.T. and N.T.
meanings of, 114; mean
results due to natural laws,
115 ff. ; what St Paul looked
for, 117.

Righteousness not imputed, 94.

SACERDOTALISM, origin of, 4.
Sacrifice, of Christ, 8 ff., 52, 53 ;
meaning in O.T., 8 ff. ; N.T.

* ' sacrificial " terms meta-
phorical only, 9, 13 ff. ;
Apostles' view of, 12; materi-
alistic view of, 13 ff . ; the
daily, origin of, 9 (note), 17;
Christ's, as expiatory, !in seven-
teenth century, 47.

Safety from hell, a misuse of the
term, 56.

Salvation, 123 ; two meanings
of, 121 ff. ; origin of the term,
123 ff. ; history of, 125.

Satan, the ' ' price " supposed to
be paid to, 42.

Satisfaction, 30 ff. ; Anselm on,
33 ; applied to Christ, 33 ; no
warrant for, 33.

Save, to, two meanings of, 54
ff., 121.

Saviour, two meanings of, 54
ff.

Self-election, 120.

Substance, n, 61 ; non-existent,
62 ff.

Supererogation, 84, 113; con-
trary to Scripture, 116;
imaginary support of, 116,
117.

Sweet savour, meaning of, 8,

13 ff-

" To BE " signifies ' ' represent,"

22, 58 ff.
Transubstantiation, n, 57, 60 ;

non-existent, 65.

UNITY, supposed, between Old
and New Testaments, I ff.

VICARIOUS, meaning ' ' instead
of "only, 15, 1 6, 32.

WESTCOTT, Dr, on appease-
ment, 14 ; on price, 38 ; on
i\daKt<rdai, 27.

Word, the, as judge, 5.

140

INDEX

LATIN WORDS

ABSOLUTIO, 73, 101.

COMMUNICATIO, 6$.
Communio, 65.
Confessio, 88 ff.
Confiteor, 88 ff.
Conversio, 96.
Convertere, 96.
Credo, 128 ff.
Credulitas, 129.
Cur Deus Homo, 33, 44, 51.

DEPRECARI, 29,
Doctrina, 127.

ELECTIO, 119.
Emere, 38.
Essentia, 61.
Eucharistia, 8, 56 ff.
Expiare, 29.
Expiatio, 7, 28, 47.

FIDES, 128.
Fido, 129.

HOSTIA, 19.

JUSTIFICATIO, 93.
LlBERARE, 37.

MERGES, 114.

OBLATIO, 7, 19, 24, 34.
Opera mala, 114.
Operum merita, 114.
Orare, 29.

PERSONA, n (note), 61.

Placare, 29.

Poena, 73.

Poenitentia, 30, 34, 35, 52, 72,

73 ff-

Poemtet me, 73.
Predestinatio, 119 ff.
Pretium, 38 ff.
Professio, 88 ff.
Profiteer, 88 ff.
Propitiare, 29.
Propitiatio, 7, 26 (note), aS

(note).
Punire, 73.

RECONCILIATIO, 7, 29, 46, no.
Redemptio, 7, 41.
Redimere, 36 ff.
Regeneratio, 73, in.
Remissio, 98.
Retributio, 114.
Rogare, 29.

SACERDOS, 4.

Sacrificium, 8.

Salus, 125.

Salutare, 124.

Salvare, salvari, 125.

Salvatio, 7 ; meaning of in O.T.,

123.

Satisfacere, 30, 31.
Satisfactio, 7, 30, 34.
Substantia, 61.

TRANSUBSTANTIATIO, 8.

INDEX

141

GREEK WORDS

37, 39-
}«, 114 (note).

114.
i, 10 (note), 39 ff.

/, 44.
94.

"A0€(TIS, 98, 101.

127.

, 59, 127.
93.

, 120.
37.
^v, 37-

37-

, 87.
, 4.
t»', 9^«
, 96.

13.

, 6.

27.
'I\aa><k, 26 (note).

, 26 (note).

, 46, I IO.

, 65.
66-71.

Aurpov, 30, 42.
, 37.

Mera/xeAeta, 73*
Mertii/om, 34, 73

66>, 87.

S, 62.

'O/ioAo7ta, 87, 91.
'O^oouo-tos, 62.
Quo-fa, U (note), 61 ff.

IlaAi776j/€o-fa, III.

Tldpeois, 9^-
Ilefflw, 129.
ni<rT€vw, 128 fF.

IT/OTIS, 128 ft

npeo-/3uTepos, 4, 6.
ripo(r<popa, 13.

124.

2wT7jpta, 124 ff.
V, 124.

'Tirep, 10, 12 (note), 39 ff.

, 98.

s, II (note), 61.

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INDEX UNDER AUTHORS & TITLES

Abhidhanaratnamala. Aufrecht, 33.
Acland, Sir C. T. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Acts of the Apostles. Adolf Harnack, 12.
Addis, W. E. Hebrew Religion, n.
^Eneidea. James Henry, 56.
African Tick Fever, 50.
Agricultural Chemical Analysis. Wiley, 54.
Alcyonium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Allin, Rev. Thos. Universalism Asserted, 14.
Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Contemporary

Evolution of Religious Thought, 14.
Alviella, Count Goblet D'. Idea of God, 13.
Americans, The. Hugo Munsterberg, 22.
Analysis of Ores. F. C. Phillips, 51.
Analysis of Theology. E. G. Figg, 17.
Ancient Arabian Poetry. C. J. Lyall, 34.
Ancient Assyria, Religion of. Sayce, 14.
Ancient World, Wall Maps of the, 57.
Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Annett, H. E. Malarial Expedition, Nigeria,4g.
Annotated Catechism, 14.
Annotated Texts. Goethe, 39.
Antedon. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Anthems. Rev. R. Crompton Jones, 20.
Anti-Malaria Measures. Rubert Boyce, 44.
Antiqua Mater. Edwin Johnson, 20.
Anurida. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Apocalypse. Bleek, 7,

Apologetic of the New Test. E. F. Scott, 12.
Apostle Paul, the, Lectures on. Pfleiderer, 13.
Apostolic Age, The. Carl von Weizsacker, 6.
Arabian Poetry, Ancient, 34.
Arenicola. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Argument of Adaptation. Rev. G. Henslow, 18.
Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of, 29.
Army Series of French and German Novels, 38.
Ascidia. Johnstone, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 47.
Ashworth, J. H. Arenicola, 48.
Assyrian Dictionary. Norris, 35.
Assyrian Language, A Concise Dictionary of.

W. Muss-Arnolt, 35.

Assyriology, Essay on. George Evans, 34.
Astigmatic Letters. Dr. Pray, 51.
Alhanasius of Alexandria, Canons of, 37.
Atlas Antiquus, Kiepert's, 57.
Atonement, Doctrine of the. Sabatier, 10.
At-one-ment, The. Rev. G. Henslow, 18.
Aufrecht, Dr. T. Abhidhanaratnamala, 33.
Auf Verlornem Posten. Dewall, 38.
Autobiography. Herbert Spencer, 30.
Avebury, Lord. Prehistoric Times, 55.
Avesti, Pahlavi. Persian Studies, 33.

Babel and Bible. Friedrich Delitzsch, 9.
Bacon, Roger, The " Opus Majus" of, 28.
Bad Air and Bad Health. Herbert and Wager,

56.

Ball, Sir Robert S. Cunningham Memoir, 45.
Ballads. F. von Schiller, 41.
Bases of Religious Belief. C. B. Upton, 14, 26.
Bastian, H. C. Studies in Heterogenesis, 44.
Baur. Church History, 7 ; Paul, 7.
Bayldon, Rev. G. Icelandic Grammar, 38.
Beard, Rev. Dr. C. Universal Christ, 15 ;

Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 13.
Beeby, Rev. C. E. Doctrine and Principles, 15.

Beet, Prof. J. A. Child and Religion, 10.

Beginnings of Christianity. Paul Wernle, 4.

Beliefs about the Bible. M. J. Savage, 24.

Benedict, F. E. Organic Analysis, 44.

Bergey, D. G. Practical Hygiene, 44.

Bernstein and Kirsch . Syriac Chrestomathy, 33.

Bible. Translated by Samuel Sharpe, 15.

Bible, Beliefs about, Savage, 24 ; Bible Plants,
Henslow, 18 ; Bible Problems, Prof. T. K.
Cheyne, 10 ; How to Teach the, Rev. A. F.
Mitchell, 21.

Biblical Hebrew, Introduction to. Rev. Jas.
Kennedy, 20, 34.

Biltz, Henry. Methods of Determining Mole-
cular Weights, 44.

Biology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30.

Blackburn, Helen. Women's Suffrage, 55.

Bleek. Apocalypse, 7.

Boielle, Jas. French Composition, 40 ; Hugo,
Les Miserables, 39 ; Notre Dame, 40.

Bolton. History of the Thermometer, 44.

Book of Prayer. Crompton Jones, 20.

Books of the New Testament. Von Soden, 1 1.

Bousset, Wilhelm. Jesus, n.

Boyce, Rubert. Anti-Malarial Measures, 49;
Yellow Fever Prophylaxis, 44, 50 ; Sanita-
tion at Bathurst, Conakry and Freetown, 49.

Breinl, A. Animal Reactions of the Spiro-
chaeta of Tick Fever, 50; Specific Nature
of the Spirochaeta of Tick Fever, 50.

Bremond, Henri. Mystery of Newman, 15.

Brewster, H. B. The Prison, 28; The Statu-
ette and the Background, 28; Anarchy and
Law, 28.

British Fisheries. J. Johnstone, 47.

Broadbent, Rev. T. B. Sermons, 15.

Brown, Robert. Semitic Influence, Origin of
the Primitive Constellations, 55 ; Gladstone
as I Knew Him, 55.

Bruce, Alex. Topographical Atlas of the
Spinal Cord, 44.

Buddha. Prof. H. Oldenberg, 35.
Burkitt, Prof. F. C. Anglican Lib

iberalism, 12.

Calculus, Differential and Integral. Harnack,

46.

Caldecott, Dr. A. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Campbell, Rev. Canon Colin. First Three

Gospels in Greek, 15.
Cancer. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Cancer and other Tumours. Chas. Creighton,44.
Canonical Books of the Old Testament, 2.
Cape Dutch. J. F. Van Oordt, 41.
Cape Dutch, Werner's Elementary Lessons in,

42.

Cardium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Carlyle, Rev. A. J. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Casey, John. Cunningham Memoirs, 45.
Catalogue of the London Library, 56.
Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn. E. Hogan, 39.
Celtic Heathendom. Prof. J. Rhys, 14.
Celtic Studies. Sullivan, 41.
Centenary History of South Place Society.

Moncure D. Conway, 16.
Chadwick, Antedon, 48 ; Echinus, 48.
Chaldee Language, Manual of. Turpie, 37.

62

INDEX-Continued.

Channing's Complete Works, 15.

Chants and Anthems, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and
Canticles. Crompton Jones, 20.

Character of the Fourth Gospel. Rev. John
James Tayler, 25.

Chemical Dynamics, Studies in. J. H. Van't
Hoff,46.

Chemistry for Beginners. Edward Hart, 46.

Chemistry of Pottery. Langenbeck, 47.

Cheyne, Prof. T. K. Bible Problems, 10.

Child and Religion, The, 10.

Chondrus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.

Christ no Product of Evolution. Rev. G.
Henslow, 19.

Christian Creed, Our, 15.

Christian Life, Ethics of the, 2.

Christian Life in the Primitive Church. Dob-
schutz, 3.

Christian Religion, Fundamental Truths of
the. R. Seeberg, 12.

Christianity, Beginnings of. Wernle, 4.

Christianity in Talmud and Midrash. R.
Travers Her ford, IQ.

Christianity? What is. Adolf Harnack, 5.

Chromium, Production of. Max Leblanc, 47.

Church History. Baur, 7. Schubert, 3.

Clark, H. H. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath-
urst, 44.

Closet Prayers. Dr. Sadler, 24.

Codium. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.

Coit, Dr. Stanton. Idealism and State Church,
16 ; Book of Common Prayer, 16.

Cole, Frank J. Pleuronectes, 48.

Collins, F. H. Epitome of Synthetic Philo-
sophy, 28.

Coming Church. Dr. John Hunter, 19.

Commentary on the Book of Job. Ewald, 7 ;
Commentary on the Book of Job. Wright
and Hirsch, 27 ; Commentary on the Old
Testament. Ewald, 7 ; Commentary on the
Psalms. Ewald, 7 ; Protestant, 8,_ 24.

Common Prayer for Christian Worship, 16.

Communion with God. Herrmann, 5, n.

Conductivity of Liquids, 54.

Confessions of St. Augustine. Harnack, 17.

Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought.
Count Goblet D'Alviella, 14.

Contes Militaires. Daudet, 38.

Conway, Moncure D. Centenary History, 16.

Cornill, Carl. Introduction to the Old Testa-

Cosmology of the Rigveda. H. W. Wallis, 37-
Creighton, Chas. Cancer and other Tumours,

44 ; Tuberculosis, 45.
Crucifixion Mystery. J. Vickers, 26.
Cuneiform Inscriptions, The. Schrader, 8.
Cunningham Memoirs, 45.
Cunningham, D. J., M.D. Lumbar Curve in

Man and the Apes, 45; Surface Anatomy

of the Cerebral Hemispheres. Cunningham

Memoir, 45.
Cussans, Margaret. Gammarus, 48.

Daniel and its Critics; Daniel and his Pro-
phecies. Rev. C. H. H. Wright, 27.
Darbishire, Otto V. Chondrus, 48.
Daudet, A. Contes Militaires, 38.

Davids, T. W. Rhys. Indian Buddhism, 13.
Davis, J. R. Ainsworth. Patella, 48.
Dawning Faith. H. Rix, 23.
Delbos, L. Nautical Terms, 39.
Delectus Veterum. Theodor Noldeke, 35.
Delitzsch, Friedrich. Babel and Bible, 9;

Hebrew Language, 33.

Democracy and Character. Canon Stephen, 25.
Denmark in the Early Iron Age. C. Engel-

hardt, 56.

De Profundis Clamavi. Dr. John Hunter, 19.
Descriptive Sociology. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Development of the Periodic Law. Venable, 54.
Dewall, Johannes v., Auf Verlornem Posten

and Nazzarena Danti, 38.
Dietrichson, L. Monumenta Orcadica, 56.
Differential and Integral Calculus, The. Axel

Harnack, 46.

Dillmann, A. Ethiopic Grammar, 33.
Dipavamsa, The. Edited by Oldenberg, 33.
Dirge of Coheleth. Rev. C. Taylor, 25.
Dobschiitz, Ernst von. Christian Life in the

Primitive Church, 3, 16.

Doctrine and Principles. Rev. C. E. Beeby, 15.
Dogma, History of. Harnack, 18.
Drey, S. A Theory of Life, 32.
Driver, S. R. Mosheh ben Shesheth, 16.
Drummond, Dr. Jas. Character and Author-
ship of the Fourth Gospel, 16 ; Philo Judaeus,

28 ; Via, Veritas, Vita, 13.
Durham, H. E. Yellow Fever Expedition to

Para, 49.
Duiham, J. E., and Myers, Walter. Report

of the Yellow Fever Expedition to Para, 45.
Dutton, J. E. Vide Memoirs of Liverpool

School of Tropical Medicine, 49, 50.
Dutton, J., and Todd. Vide Memoirs of Liver-

pool School of Tropical Medicine, 45, 49, 50.

Early Hebrew Story. John P. Peters, 10.
Early Christian Conception. Pfleiderer, 10.
Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland. Rev.

P. H. Wicksteed, 26.
Echinus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Echoes of Holy Thoughts, 17.
Education. Spencer, 31 ; Lodge, School

Reform, 40.

Egyptian Grammar, Erman's, 33.
Electric Furnace. H. Moisson, 50.
Electrolysis of Water. V. Engelhardt, 46.
Electrolytic Laboratories. Nissenson, 50.
ElementaryOrganic Analysis. F.E.Benedict,44.
Engelhardt, C. Denmark in Iron Age, 56.
Engelhardt, V. Electrolysis of Water, 46.
Engineering Chemistry. T. B. Stillman, 53.
England and Germany. Erich Marcks, 58.
English Culture, Rise of. E. Johnson, 57.
English-Danish Dictionary. S. Rosing, 41.
English-Icelandic Dictionary. Zoega, 43.
Enoch, Book of. C. Gill, 17.
Epitome of Synthetic Philosophy. Collins, 28.
Epizootic Lymphangitis. Capt. Pallin, 51.
Erman's Egyptian Grammar, 33.
Erzahlungen. Hofer, 38.
Espin, Rev. T., M.A. The Red Stars, 45.
Essays on the Social Gospel. Harnack and

Herrmann, n.

INDEX-Continued.

Essays. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Ethica. Prof. Simon Laurie, 28.
Ethical Import of Darwinism. Schurman, 29.
Ethics, Data of. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Ethics, Early Christian. Prof. Scullard, 24.
Ethics, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30.
Ethiopic Grammar. A. Dillmann, 33.
Eucken, Prof. Life of the Spirit, 12.
Eugene's Grammar of French Language, 39.
Evans, A. Anti-Malaria Measures at Bath-

urst, etc., 44.

Evans, George. Essay on Assyriology, 34.
Evolution, A New Aspect of. Formby, 17.
Evolution, Christ no Product of, 19.
Evolution of Christianity. C. Gill, 17.
Evolution of Knowledge. R. S. Perrin, 22.
Evolution of Religion, The. L. R. Farnell, u.
Evrald. Commentary on Job, 7 ; Commentary

on the Old Testament, 7 ; Commentary on

the Psalms, 7.

Facts and Comments. Herb«rt Spencer, 31.

Faith and Morals. W. Herrmann, 10.

Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh, B.D. A Moslem
Present ; Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry, 34.

Farnell, L. R. The Evolution of Religion, n.

Fertilizers. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis,
54 •

Figg, E. G. Analysii of Theology, 17.

First Principles. Herbert Spencer, 30.

First Three Gospels in Greek. Rev. Canon
Colin Campbell, 15.

Flinders Petne Papyri. Cunn. Memoirs, 34.

Formby, Rev. C. W. Re-Creation, 17.

Four Gospels as Historical Records, 17.

Fourth Gospel, Character and Authorship of, 16.

Frankfurter, Dr. O. Handbook of Pali, 34.

Free Catholic Church. Rev. J. M. Thomas, 26.

Freezing Point, The, Jones, 47.

French Composition. Jas. Boielle, 39.

French History, First Steps in. F. F. Roget, 41.

French Language, Grammar of. Eugene, 39.

Fuerst, Dr. Jul. Hebrew and Chaldee Lexi-
con, 34.

Gammarus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.

Gardner, Prof. Percy. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

General Language of the Incas of Peru, 40.

Genesis, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C.
H. H. Wright, 27.

Genesis, Hebrew Text, 34.

Geometry, Analytical, Elements of. Hardy, 46.

German Idioms, Short Guide to. Weiss, 42.

German Literature, A Short Sketch of. V.
Phillipps, B.A., 41.

German, Systematic Conversational Exercises
in. T. H. Weiss, 42.

Gibson, R. J. Harvey. Codium, 48.

Giles, Lt.-Col. Anti-Malarial Measures in
Sekondi, etc., 49.

Gill, C. Book of Enoch ; Evolution of Chris-
tianity, 17.

Gladstone as I Knew Him. Robert Brown, 55.

Glimpses of Tennyson. A. G. Weld, 59.

Goethe, W. v. Annotated Texts, 39.

Goldammer, H. The Kindergarten, 56.

Gospels in Greek, First Three, 15.

Greek Ideas, Lectures on. Rev. Dr. Hatch, 13.
Greek, Modern, A Course of. Zompolides, 43.
Greek New Testament, 6.
Green, Rev. A. A. Child and Religion, 10.
Gulistan, The (Rose Garden) of Shaik Sadi ol

Shiraz, 36.
Gymnastics, Medical Indoor. Dr. Schreber, 52.

Haddon, A. C. Decorative Art of British
Guinea, Cunningham Memoir, 45.

Hagmann, J. G., Ph.D. Reform in Primary
Education, 39.

Handley, Rev. H. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Hantzsch, A. Elements of Stereochemistry, 46.

Hardy. Elements of Analytical Geometry, 46 ;
Infinitesimals and Limits, 46.

Harnack, Adolf. Acts of the Apostles, 12 ;
History of Dogma, 4 ; Letter to the " Preus-
sische jahrbucher," 18 ; Luke the Physician,
12 ; Mission and Expansion of Christianity,
3; Monasticism, 17; The Sayings of Jesus,
12 ; What is Christianity? 5, 10.

Harnack, Adolf, and Herrmann, W. Essays
on the Social Gospel, n.

Harnack and his Oxford Critics. Saunders, 24.

Harnack, Axel. Differential and Integral
Calculus, 46.

Harrison, A. Women's Industries, 56.

Hart, Edward, Ph.D. Chemistry for Begin-
ners, 46 ; Second Year Chemistry, 46.

Hatch, Rev. Dr. Lectures on Greek Ideas, 13.

Haughton, Rev. Samuel, M.A., M.D. New
Researches on Sun-Heat, 45.

Hausrath. History of the New Test. Times, 7.

Head, Sir Edmund, translated by. Viga
Glums Saga, 42.

Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. Dr. Fuerst, 34.

Hebrew Language, The. F. Delitzsch, 33.

Hebrew, New School of Poets, 35.

Hebrew Religion. W. E. Addis, n.

Hebrew Story. Peters, 10.

Hebrew Texts, 18.

Henry, Jas. ^Eneidea, 56.

Henslow, Rev. G. The Argument of Adapta-
tion, 18 ; The At-pne-ment, 18 ; Christ no
Product of Evolution, 19 ; Spiritual Teach-
ings of Bible Plants, 18 ; Spiritual Teaching
of Christ's Life, 19 ; The Vulgate, 10.

Henson, Rev. Canon Hensley. Child and
Religion, 10.

Herbert, Hon. A. Sacrifice of Education, 56.

Herbert, Hon. A., and Wager, H. Bad Air
and Bad Health, 56.

Herdman, Prof. W. A. Ascidia, 47.

Herford, R. Travers, B.A. Christianity in
Talmud and Midrash, 19.

Herrmann, W. Communion, 5, n ; Faith and
Morals, 10.

Herrmann and Harnack. Essays on the Social
Gospel, ii.

Heterogenesis, Studies in. H. Bastian, 44.

Hewitt, C. Gordon. Ligia, 48.

Hibbert Journal, The, 19.

Hibbert, Lectures, The, 13, 14.

Hickson, Sydney J. Alcyonium, 48.

Hill, Rev. Dr. G. Child and Religion, 10.

Hindu Chemistry. Prof. P. C. Ray, 51.

INDEX— Continued.

Hirsch, Dr. S. A., and W. Aldis Wright,

edited by. Commentary on Job, 27.
History of the Church. Hans von Schubert, 3.
History of Dogma. Adolf Harnack, 4.
History of Jesus of Nazara. Keim, 7.
History of the Hebrews. R. Kittel, 5.
History of the Literature of theO.T. Kautzsch,

20.

History of the New Test. Times. Hausrath, 7.
Hodgson, S. H. Philosophy and Experience,

28 ; Reorganisation of Philosophy, 28.
Hoerning, Dr. R. The Karaite MSS., 19.
Hofer, E. Erzahlungen, 38.
Hoff, J. H. Van't. Chemical Dynamics, 46.
Hogan, E. Cath Ruis Na Rig For Boinn, 39 ;

Latin Lives, 39 ; Irish Nennius, 39.
Homer, G. Statutes, The, of the Apostles, 36.
Horse, Life-Size Models of. J.T.ShareJones,47;

the, Surgical Anatomy of, 47.
Horton, Dr. R. Child and Religion, 10.
Howe, J. L. Inorganic Chemistry, 46.
How to Teach the Bible. Mitchell, 21.
Hugo, Victor. Les Mise'rables, 39; Notre

Dame, 40.

Human Sternum, The. A. M. Paterson, 51.
Human Tick Fever, Nature of. J. E. Dutton

and J. L. Todd, 46.
Hunter, Dr. John. De Profundis Clamavi, 19;

The Coming Church, 19.
Hygiene, Handbook of. Bergey, 44.
Hymns of Duty and Faith. Jones, 20.

Icelandic Grammar. Rev. G. Bayldon, 38.
Idea of God. Alviella, Count Goblet D'~, 13.
Imms, A. D. Anurida, 48.
Incarnate Purpose, The. Percival, 22.
Indian Buddhism. Rhys Davids, 13.
Individualism and Collectivism. Dr. C. W.

Saleeby, 29.

Indoor Gymnastics, Medical, 52.
Industrial Remuneration, Methods of. D. F.

Schloss, 58.

Infinitesimals and Limits. Hardy, 46.
Inflammation Idea. W. H. Ransom, 51.
Influence of Rome on Christianity. Renan, 13.
Inorganic Chemistry. J. L. Howe, 46.
Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis.

Leavenworth, 47.

Introduction to the Greek New Test. Nestle, 6.
Introduction to the Old Test. Cornill, 2.
Irish Nennius, The. E. Hogan, 39.
Isaiah, Hebrew Text, 34.
Ismailia, Malarial Measures at. Boyce, 49.

esus of Nazara. Keim, 7.

esus. Wilhelm Bousset, n.

esus, Sayings of. Harnack, 18.

esus, The Real. Vickers, 26.

ob, Book of. G. H. Bateson Wright, 27.

ob, Book of. Rabbinic Commentary on, 37.

ob. Hebrew Text, 34.

ohnson, Edwin, M.A. Antiqua Mater, 20;

English Culture, 20 ; Rise of Christendom, 19.
Johnstone, J. British Fisheries, 47 ; Cardium,

48.

Jones, Prof. Henry. Child and Religion, 10.
Jones, Rev. J. C. Child and Religion, 10.

Jones, Rev. R. Crompton. Hymns of Duty

and Faith, 20 ; Chants, Psalms and Canticles,

20 ; Anthems, 20 ; The Chants and Anthems,

20 ; A Book of Prayer, 20.
Jones, J. T. Share. Life-Size Models of the

Horse, 47 ; Surgical Anatomy of the Horse,

47-

Jones. The Freezing Point, 47.
Journal of the Federated Malay States, 60.
Journal of the Linnean Society. Botany and

Zoology, 47, 60
Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club,

47, 60.
Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society,

47. 6o-
Justice. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Kantian Ethics. J. G. Schurman, 29.

Karaite MSS. Dr. R. Hoerning, 19.

Kautzsch, E. History of the Literature of the
Old Testament, 20.

Keim. History of Jesus of Nazara, 7.

Kennedy, Rev. Jas. Introduction to Biblical
Hebrew, 34 ; Hebrew Synonyms, 34.

Kiepert's New Atlas Antiquus, 57.

Kiepert's Wall-Maps of the Ancient World, 57.

Kindergarten, The. H. Goldammer, 56.

Kittel, R. History of the Hebrews, 5.

Knight, edited by. Essays on Spinoza, 32.

Knowledge, Evolution of. Perrin, 22.

Kuenen, Dr. A. National Religions and Uni-
versal Religion, 13 ; Religion of Israel, 8.

Laboratory Experiments. Noyes and Mulli-

ken, 51.

Ladd, Prof. G. T. Child and Religion, 10.
Lake, Kirsopp. Resurrection, 12.
Landolt, Hans. Optical Rotating Power, 47.
Langenbeck. The Chemistry of Pottery, 47.
Latin Lives of the Saints. E. Hogan, 39.
Laurie, Prof. Simon. Ethica, 28 ; Meta-

physica Nova et Vetusta, 28.
Lea, Henry Chas. Sacerdotal Celibacy, 21.
Leabhar Breac, 40.
Leabhar Na H-Uidhri, 40.
Leavenworth, Prof. W. S. Inorganic Quali-
tative Chemical Analysis, 47.
Leblanc, Dr. Max. The Production of

Chromium, 47.

Le Coup de Pistolet. Merimee, 38.
Lepeophtheirus and Lernea. Vide L.M.B.C.

Memoirs, 48.
Letter to the " Preussische Jahrbucher."

Adolf Harnack, 18.
Lettsom, W. N., trans, by. Nibelungenlied,

40.

Liberal Christianity. Jean R^ville, 10.
Life and Matter. Sir O. Lodge, 21.
Life of the Spirit, The. Eucken, 12.
Lilja. Edited by E. Magnusson, 40. _
Lilley, Rev. A. L. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Lineus. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.
Linnean Society of London, Journals of, 60.
Liverpool, A History of. Muir, 58.
Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs,

I.-XVI., 47-

INDEX— Continued.

Liverpool, Municipal Government in. Muir

and Platt, 58.
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

Memoirs, 49.

Lobstein, Paul. Virgin Birth of Christ, 9.
Lodge, Sir O. Life and Matter, 21 ; School

Teaching and School Reform, 40.
Logarithmic Tables. Sang, 52 ; Schroen, 53.
London Library, Catalogue of, 56.
Long, J. H. A Text-book of Urine Analysis,

48.

Luke the Physician. Adolf Harnack, 12.
Lyall, C. J., M.A. Ancient Arabian Poetry,

34-

Macan, R. W. The Resurrection of Jesus

Christ, 21.

Machberoth Ithiel. Thos. Chenery, 35.
Mackay, R. W. Rise and Progress of Chris-
tianity, 21.
Mackenzie, Malcolm. Social and Political

Dynamics, 28.

Magnusson, edited by. Lilja, 40.
Mahabharata, Index to. S. Sorensen, 36.
Mahaffy, J. P., D.D. Flinders Petrie Papyri.

Cunningham Memoirs, 45.
Malaria Expedition to Nigeria, Report of.

Annett, Button, and Elliott, 44.
Man versus the State. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Maori, Lessons in. Right Rev. W. L.

Williams, 43.

Maori, New and Complete Manual of, 40.
Marchant, James. Theories of the Resurrec-
tion, 21.

Marcks, Erich. England and Germany, 58.
Markham, Sir Clements, K.C.B. Vocabularies

of the Incas of Peru, 40.
Martineau, Rev. Dr. James. Modern

Materialism, 21 ; Relation between Ethics

and Religion, 21.
Mason, Prof. W. P. Notes on Qualitative

Analysis, 48.

Massoretic Text. Rev. Dr. J. Taylor, 25.
Masterman, C. F. G. Child and Religion, 10.
Meade, R. K., Portland Cement, 48.
Mediaeval Thought, History of. R. Lane

Poole, 22.
Memoirs of the Liverpool School of Tropical

Medicine, 49, 50.

Menegoz, E. Religion and Theology, 21.
Mercer, Right Rev. J. Edward, D.D. Soul

of Progress, 21.

Merimee, Prosper. Le Coup de Pistolet, 38.
Metallic Objects, Production of. Dr. W.

Pfanhauser, 51.
Metallurgy. Wysor, 54.
Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta. Prof. Simon

Laurie, 28.

Midrash, Christianity in. Herford, 19.
Milanda Panho, The. Edited by V.

Trenckner. 35.
Mission and Expansion of Christianity. Adolf

Harnack, 3.
Mitchell, Rev. A. F. How to Teach the

Bible, 21.
Modern Materialism. Rev. Dr. James

Martineau, 21.

Moisson, Henri. Electric Furnace, 50.
Molecular Weights, Methods of Determining.

Henry Biltz, 44.

Monasticism. Adolf Harnack, 17.
Montefiore, C. G. Religion of the Ancient

Hebrews, 13.

Monumenta Orcadica. L. Dietrichson, 56.
Moorhouse Lectures. Vide Mercer's Soul of

Progress, 21 ; Stephen, Democracy and

Character, 25.

Morrison, Dr. W. D. Anglican Liberalism, 12.
Mosheh ben Shesheth. S. R. Driver. Edited

by, 16.
Moslem Present. Faizullah-Bhai, Shaikh,

B.D., 34.
Muir and Platt. History of Municipal

Government in Liverpool, 58.
Muir, Prof. Ramsay. History of Liverpool, 58.
Miinsterberg, Hugo. The Americans, 22.
Muss-Arnolt, W. A Concise Dictionary of

the Assyrian Language, 35.
My Struggle for Light. R. Wimmer, 9.
Mystery of Newman. Henri Bremond, 15.

National Idealism and State Church, 16 ; and

the Book of Common Prayer, 16.
National Religions and Universal Religion.

Dr. A. Kuenen, 13.
Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Dr. A.

Reville, 14.
Naturalism and Religion. Dr. Rudolf Otto,

22.

Nautical Terms. L. Delbos, 39.
Nestle. Introduction to the Greek New Test., 6.
New Hebrew School of Poets. Edited by H.

Brody and K. Albrecht, 35.
Newstead, R. Another New Dermanyssid

Acarid, 50; Newstead, R., and J L. Todd.

A New Dermanyssid Acarid, 50.
New Zealand Language, Dictionary of. Rt.

Rev. W. L. Williams, 42.
Nibelungenlied. Trans. W. L. Lettsom, 40.
Nissenson. Arrangements of Electrolytic

Laboratories, 50.
Noldeke, Theodor. Delectus Veterum, 35 ;

Syriac Grammar, 35.
Norris, E. Assyrian Dictionary, 35.
Norseman in the Orkneys. Dietrichson, 56.
Noyes, A. A. Organic Chemistry, 51.
Noyes, A. A., and Milliken, Samuel. Labora-
tory Experiments, 51.

O'Grady. Standish, H. Silva Gadelica, 41.
Old and New Certainty of the Gospel. Alex.

Robinson, 23.
Oldenberg, Dr. H., edited by. Dipavamsa,

The, 33 ; Vinaya Pitakam, 37.
Old French, Introduction to. F. F. Roget, 41.
Oordt, J. F. Van, B.A. Cape Dutch, 41.
Ophthalmic Test Types. Snellen's, 53.
Optical Rotating Power. Hans Landolt, 47.
" Opus Majus " of Roger Bacon, 28.
Organic Chemistry. A. A. Noyes, 51.
Otia Merseiana, 58.

Otto, Rudolf. Naturalism and Religion, n.
Outlines of Church History. Von Schubert, 3.
Outlines of Psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, 32.

66

INDEX— Continued.

Pali, Handbook of. Dr. O. Frankfurter, 34.

Pali Miscellany. V. Trenckner, 35

Pallin, Capt. W. A. A Treatise on Epizootic
Lymphangitis, 51.

Parker, W. K., F.R.S. Morphology of the
Duck Tribe and the Auk Tribe, 45.

Patella. FzV/f L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.

Paterson, A. M. The Human Sternum, 51.

Paul. Baur, 7 ; Pfleiderer, 13 ; Weinel, 3.

Paulinism. Pfleiderer, 8.

Pearson, Joseph. Cancer, 48.

Peddie, R. A. Printing at Brescia, 58.

Percival, G. H. The Incarnate Purpose, 22.

Perrin, R. S. Evolution of Knowledge, 22.

Persian Language, A Grammar of. J. T.
Plaits, 36.

Peters, Dr. John P. Early Hebrew Story, 10.

Pfanhauser, Dr. W. Production of Metallic
Objects, 51.

Pfleiderer, Otto. Early Christian Conception,
10 ; Lectures on Apostle Paul, 13 ; Paulinism,
8 ; Philosophy of Religion, 8 ; Primitive
Christianity, 2.

Phillips, F. C. Analysis of Ores, 51.

Phillipps, V., B.A. Short Sketch of German
Literature, 41.

Philo Judaeus. Dr. Drummond, 16.

Philosophy and Experience. Hodgson, 28.

Philosophy of Religion. Pfleiderer, 8.

Piddington, H. Sailors' Horn Book, 51.

Pikler, Jul. Psychology of the Belief in
Objective Existence, 29.

Platts, J. T. A Grammar of the Persian
Language, 36.

Pleuronectes. Vide L.M.B.C. Memoirs, 48.

Pocket Flora of Edinburgh. C. O. Sonntag, 53.

Poole, Reg. Lane. History of Mediaeval
Thought, 22.

Portland Cement. Meade, 48.

Pray, Dr. Astigmatic Letters, 51.

Prayers for Christian Worship. Sadler, 24.

Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury, 55.

Pre-Islamitic Arabic Poetry. Shaikh Faizul-
lah-Bhai, B.D., 34.

Primitive Christianity. Otto Pfleiderer, 2.

Primitive Constellations, Origin of. Robt.
Brown, 55.

Printing at Brescia. R. A. Peddie, 58.

Prison, The. H. B. Brewster, 28.

Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 29.

Proceedings of the Optical Convention, 51.

Prolegomena. Reville, 8.

Protestant Commentary on the New Testa-
ment, 8, 23.

Psalms, Hebrew Text, 34.

Psychology of the Belief in Objective Exist-
ence. Jul. Pikler, 29.

Psychology, Principles of, Spencer, 30 ; Out-
lines of, Wundt, 32.

Punnett, R. C. Lineus, 48.

Qualitative Analysis, Notes on. Prof. W. P.

Mason, 48.

Ransom, W. H. The Inflammation Idea, 51.
Rapport sur 1'Expedition au Congo. Dutton
and Todd, 45.

Rashdall, Dr. Hastings. Anglican Liberalism,

12.

Ray, Prof. P. C. Hindu Chemistry, «.

Real Jesus, The. J. Vickers, 26.

Reasons for Dissenting from the Philosophy of

M. Comte. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Re-Creation. Rev. C. W. Formby, 17.
Reform in Primary Education. J. G. Hag-

mann, 39.
Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Rev.

Dr. C. Beard, 15.
Rejoinder to Prof. Weismann, 31.
Relation between Ethics and Religion. Rev.

Dr. James Martineau, 21.
Religion and Modern Culture. Sabatier, 10.
Religion and Theology. E. Menegoz, 21.
Religion of Ancient Egypt. Renouf, 14.
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. C. G.

Montefiore, 13.

Religion of Israel. Kuenen, 8.
Religions of Ancient Babylonia and Assyria.

Prof. A. H. Sayce, 36.
Religions of Authority and the Spirit. Auguste

Sabatier, 3.
Renan, E. Influence of Rome on Christianity,

!3-

Renouf, P. L. Religion of Ancient Egypt,

14.

Reorganisation of Philosophy. Hodgson, 28.
Report of Malarial Expedition to Nigeria, 44.
Report of the Yellow Fever Expedition to

Para, 1900. Durham and Myers, 49.
Reports on the Sanitation and Anti- Malarial

Measures at Bathurst, 44.
Reports of Thompson-Yates Laboratories, 52.
Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Lake, 20 ;

R. W. Macan, 21 ; Marchant, 21.
Reville, Dr. A. Native Religions of Mexico

and Peru, 14.
Reville. Prolegomena, 8.
Reville, Jean. Liberal Christianity, 10.
Rhys, Prof. J. Celtic Heathendom, 14.
Rise and Progress of Christianity. R. W.

Mackay, 21.

Rise of Christendom. Edwin Johnson, 19.
Rise of English Culture. Edwin Johnson, 20.
Rix, Herbert. Dawning Faith, 22 ; Tent and

Testament, 22.
Robinson, Alex. Old and New Certainty of

the Gospel, 23 ; Study of the Saviour, 23.
Roget, F. F. First Steps in French History,

41 ; Introduction to Old French, 41.
Rosing, S. English-Danish Dictionary, 41.
Ross, R. Campaign against Mosquitos in

Sierra Leone, 49 ; Malaria at Ismailia and

Suez, 49 ; Malarial Expedition to Sierra

Leone, 49 ; Malarial Fever, 49.
Royal Astronomical Society. Memoirs and

Monthly Notices, 60.
Royal Dublin Society. Transactions and

Proceedings, 60.
Royal Irish Academy. Transactions and

Proceedings, 60.
Royal Society of Edinburgh. Transactions

of, 60.
Runcorn Research Laboratories. Parasite of

Tick Fever, 50.

INDEX-Continued.

67

Runes, The. Geo. Stephens, 58.

Runic Monuments, Old Northern. Geo.

Stephens, 58.
Ruth, Book of, in Hebrew Text. Rev. C. H.

H. Wright, 27.

Sabatier, Auguste. Doctrine of the Atone-
ment, 10 ; Religions of Authority and the
Spirit, 3.

Sacerdotal Celibacy. Henry Chas. Lea, 21.

Sacrifice of Education. Hon. A. Herbert, 56.

Sadi. The Gulistan (Rose Garden) of Shaik
Sadi of Shiraz, 36.

Sadler, Rev. Dr. Closet Prayers, 24 ; Prayers
for Christian Worship, 24.

Sailors' Horn Book. H. Piddington, 51.

Saleeby, C. W. Individualism and Collec-
tivism, 29.

Sang's Logarithms, 52.

Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast Town.
Taylor, M. L., 49.

Sanitation and Anti - Malarial Measures.
Lt.-Col. Giles, 46.

Saunders, T. B. Harnack and hib Critics, 24.

Savage, M. J. Beliefs about the Bible, 24.

Sayce, Prof. A. H. Religion of Ancient
Assyria, 14.

Sayings of Jesus, The. Adolf Harnack, 12.

Schiller. Ballads, 41.

Schloss, D. F. Methods of Industrial Re-
muneration, 58.

School Teaching and School Reform. Sir O.
Lodge, 40.

Schrader. The Cuneiform Inscriptions, 8.

Schreber, D. G. M. Medical Indoor Gym-
nastics, 52.

Schroen, L. Seven- Figure Logarithms, 53.

Schubert, Hansvon. History of the Church, 3.

Schurman, J. Gould. Ethical Import of
Darwinism, 29 ; Kantian Ethics, 29.

Scott, Andrew. Lepeophtheirus and Lernea,
48.

Scott, E. F. Apologetic of the New Test., 12.

Scripture, Edward W., Ph.D. Studies from
the Yale Psychological Laboratory, 29.

Second Year Chemistry. Edward Hart, 46.

Seeberg, R. Fundamental Truths of the
Christian Religion, 12.

Seger. Collected Writings, 53.

Semitic Influence. Robt. Brown, 55.

Seven-Figure Logarithms. L. Schroen, 53.

Severus, Patriarch of Antioch. Letters of, 25.

Sharpe, Samuel. Bible, translated by, 15.

Shearman, A. T. Symbolic Logic, 29.

Shihab Al Din. Futuh Al-Habashah. Ed.
by S. Strong, 36.

Short History of the Hebrew Text. T. H.
Weir, 16.

Sierra Leone, Campaign against Mosquitoes in.
Ross and Taylor, 49.

Sierra Leone, The Malarial Expedition to,
1899. Ross, Annett, and Austen, 49.

Silva Gadelica. Standish H. O'Grady, 41.

Sleeping Sickness, Distribution and Spread
of, 50.

Smith, Martin R. What I Have Taught My
Children, 25.

Snellen's Ophthalmic Test Types, 53.
Snyder, Harry. Soils and Fertilisers, 53.
Social and Political Dynamics. Malcolm

Mackenzie, 28.

Social Gospel, Essays on the, IT.
Social Statics. Herbert Spencer, 31.
Sociology, Principles of. Herbert Spencer, 30.
Sociology, Study of. Herbert Spencer, 31,

Soden, H. von, D.D. Books of the New
Testament, n.

Soils and Fertilisers. Snyder, 53.

Soils. Vide Wiley's Agricultural Analysis, 54.

Sonntag, C. O. A Pocket Flora of Edin-
burgh, 53.

Sorensen, S. Index to the Mahabharata, 36.

Soul of Progress. Bishop Mercer, 21.

Spanish Dictionary, Larger. Velasquez, 42.

Spencer, Herbert. Drey on Herbert Spencer's
Theory of Religion and Morality, 32.

Spencer, Herbert. An Autobiography, 30 ;
A System of Synthetic Philosophy, 30; De-
scriptive Sociology, Nps. 1-8, 31 ; Works by,
30-32 ; Theory of Religion and Morality, 32.

Spinal Cord, Topographical Atlas of. Alex.
Bruce, M.A., etc., 44.

Spinoza. Edited by Prof. Knight, 32.

Spiritual Teaching of Christ's Life, Henslow, 18.

Statuette, The, and the Background. H. B.
Brewster, 28.

Statutes, The, of the Apostles. G. Homer,
25> 36.

Stephen, Canon. Democracy and Character. 25.

Stephens, Geo. Bugge's Studies on Northern
Mythology Examined, 58 ; Old Northern
Runic Monuments, 58 ; The Runes, 58.

Stephens, J. W. W. Study of Malaria, 53.

Stephens, Thos., B.A., Editor. The Child
and Religion, 10.

Stephens and R. Newstead. Anatomy of the
Proboscis of Biting Flies, 50.

Stereochemistry, Elements of. Hantzsch, 46.

Stewart, Rev. C. R. S. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Stillman, T. B. Engineering Chemistry, 53.

Storms. Piddington, 51.

Strong, S. Arthur, ed. by. Shihab Al Din, 36.

Study of the Saviour. Alex. Robinson, 23.

Studies on Northern Mythology. Geo.
Stephens, 58.

Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory.
Edward W. Scripture, Ph.D., 29.

Sullivan, W. K. Celtic Studies, 41.

Surgical Anatomy of the Horse. J. T. Share
Jones, 47.

Symbolic Logic. A. T. Shearman, 29.

Synthetic Philosophy, Epitome of. F. H.
Collins, 32.

Syriac Chrestomathy. Bernstein and Kirsch,

Syriac Grammar. Theodor Noldeke, 35.
System of Synthetic Philosophy. Herbert
Spencer, 30.

Tayler, Rev. John James. Character of the

Fourth Gospel, 25.

Taylor, Rev. C. Dirge of Coheleth, The, 25.
Taylor, Rev. Dr. J. Massoretic Text, 25.

68

INDEX— Continued.

Taylor. Sanitary Conditions of Cape Coast

Town, 49.

Ten Services and Psalms and Canticles, 25.
Ten Services of Public Prayer, 25-26.
Tennant, Rev. F. R. Child and Religion, 10.
Tent and Testament. Herbert Rix, 23.
Testament, Old. Canonical Books of, 2 ; Re-

ligions of, n ; Cuneiform Inscriptions, 24;

Hebrew Text, Weir, 26 ; Literature, 20.
Testament, The New, Critical Notes on. C.

Tischendorf, 26, 27.
Testament Times, New. Acts of the Apostles,

12; Apologetic of, 12; Books of the, n ;

Commentary, Protestant, 8 ; History of, 7 ;

Luke the Physician, 1 2 ; Textual Criticism, 6 ;
Test Types. Pray, 51 ; Snellen, 53.
Text and Translation Society, Works by, 36.
Theories of Anarchy and of Law. H. B.

Brewster, 28.
Theories of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ.

James Marchant, 21.

Thermometer, History of the. Bolton, 44.
Thomas, Rev. J. M. L. A Free Catholic

Church, 26.
Thomas and Breinl. Trypanosomiasis and

Sleeping Sickness, 50.

Thornton, Rev. J. J. Child and Religion, 10.
Tischendorf, C. The New Testament, 26.
Todd Lectures Series, 41, 42.
Tower, O. F. Conductivity of Liquids, 54.
Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, 54.
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, 54.
Transactions of the Royal Societyof Edinburgh,

54-

Trenckner, V. Pali Miscellany, 35.
Trypanosomiasis Expedition to Senegambia.

J. E. Button and J. L. Todd, 45, 49.
Turpie, Dr. D. M'C. Manual of the Chaldee

Language, 37.

Universal Christ. Rev. Dr. C. Beard, 15.
Universalism Asserted. Rev. Thos. Allin, 14.
Upton, Rev. C. B. Bases of Religious Belief, 14.
Urine Analysis, A Text-Book of. Long, 48.

Vaillante, Vincent, 38.

Various Fragments. Herbert Spencer, 31.

Vega. Logarithmic Tables, 54.
eiled

ry,
Venable, T. C. Development of the Periodic

Veiled Figure, The, 59.

Velasquez. Larger Spanish Dictionary, 42.

Law, 54; Study of Atom, 54

Via, Veritas, Vita. Dr. Drummond, 13.

Vickers, J. The Real Jesus, 26; The Cruci-
fixion Mystery, 26.

Viga Glums Saga. Sir E. Head, 42.

Vinaya Pitakam. Dr. Oldenberg, 37.

.Vincent, Jacques- Vaillante, 38.

Virgin Birth of Christ. Paul Lobstein, 9.
Vulgate, The. Henslow, 19.
Vynne and Blackburn. Women under the
Factory Acts, 59.

Wallis, H. W. Cosmology of the Rigveda, 37.

Was Israel ever in Egypt? G. H. B.Wright, 27.

Weir, T. H. Short History of the Hebrew
Text, 26.

Weisse, T. H. Elements of German, 42 ; Short
Guide to German Idioms, 42 ; Systematic
Conversational Exercises in German, 42.

Weizsacker, Carl von. The Apostolic Age, 6.

Weld, A. G. Glimpses of Tennyson, 59.

Werner's Elementary Lessons in Cape Dutch,
42.

Wernle, Paul. Beginnings of Christianity, 4.

What I Have Taught my Children. Martin
R. Smith, 25.

What is Christianity ? Adolf Harnack, 5, 10.

Wicksteed, Rev. P. H. Ecclesiastical Institu-
tions of Holland, 26.

Wiley, Harvey W. Agricultural Chemical
Analysis, 54.

Wilkinson, Rev. J. R. Anglican Liberalism,

Williams, Right. Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Diction-
ary of the New Zealand Language, 42.

Williams, Right Rev. W. L., D.C.L. Lessons
in Maori, 42.

Wimmer, R. My Struggle for Light, 9.

Women under the Factory Acts. Vynne and
Blackburn, 59.

Women's Industries. A. Harrison, 56.

Women's Suffrage. Helen Blackburn, 515.

Woods, Dr. H. G. Anglican Liberalism, 12.

Wright, Rev. C. H. H. Book of Genesis in
Hebrew Text, 27 ; Book of Ruth in Hebrew
Text, 27 ; Daniel and its Critics, 27 ; Daniel
and his Prophecies, 27 ; Light from Egyptian
Papyri, 27.

Wright, G. H. Bateson. Book of Job, 27 ;
Was Israel ever in Egypt ? 27.

Wright, W., and Dr. Hirsch, edited by. Com-
mentary on the Book of Job, 27.

Wundt, Wilhelm. Outlines of Psychology, 32.

Wysor. Metallurgy, 54.

Yale Psychological Laboratory, Studies from,

Yellow Book of Lecan, 43.

Yellow Fever Expedition, Report of. Durham

and Myers, 45.
Yellow Fever Prophylaxis. Rubert Boyce, 44.

Zoega, G. T. English-Icelandic Dictionary, 43.
Zompolides, Dr. D. A Course of Modern

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