The water world; a popular treatise on the broad, broad ocean. Its laws; its phenomena; its products and its inhabitants ... with chapters on steamships, light-houses, life saving service ..

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The Water World;

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ON THE BROAD, BROAD OCEAN. ITS LAWS ; ITS PHENOMENA ; ITft
PRODUCTS AND ITS INHABITANTS ; GRAPHICALLY DESCRIBING ITS
CURRENTS, TIDES, WAVES; ITS WHIRLPOOLS, WATER-SPOUTS,
TYPHOONS AND TRADE WINDS; ITS CORAL REEFS,
PEARLS, SHELLS, SPONGES, FISHERIES ; ITS ANIMAL
LIFE, MINUTE AND MAMMOTH, FROM THE BUT-
TERFLIES OF SUB-MARINE FORESTS AND
MEADOWS, TO SHARKS, WHALES AND
SEA DRAGONS; WITH CHAPTERS ON
STEAMSHIPS, LIGHT - HOUSES,
LIFE SAVING SERVICE

&C., AC, &C. '- - '-

BY ^

PROF. J. W. VAN DERVOORT.

EDITOR OF «

THE TWO HEMISPHERES.

Wn^immmly Illmstrat^d,

SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION,

1886.

UNION PUBLISHING HOUSE,

NEW YORK.
Cincinnati, O. Atlanta, Ga.

v\:

• • •

• • •

• ••• • • •

• •

TO

MY ESTEEMED FRIEND,

MR, JAMES MONTEITH,

TESTIMONIAL OF HIS SUCCESS IN POPULARIZma "^HB

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNITED STATES,

THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

Qlf I Off

COPYRIGHTED BY

UNION PUBLISHING HOUSE.

Eardi has not a plain

So boundless or so beautiful as thine ;

The eagle's vision cannot take it in ;

The lightning's glance too weak to sweep its space,

Sinks half-way o'er it, like a wearied bird ;

It is the mirror of the stars, where all

Their hosts within the concave firmament ,

Gay marching to the music of the spheres,

Can see themselves at once.

— Campbell,

M95599

Introduction.

TERY little, comparatively^
has heretofore been writ-
ten on this subject. This is
most singular when it is consid-
ered that this majestic ocean^
" whose mighty heart throbs in
sympathy with the pulse of
God," covers more than three-
fourths of the entire globe.

We write about the ocean be-
cause it is a subject of univer-
sal interest, and for the reason
that a knowledge of its laws,
phenomena, and inhabitants i&
conducive to right-living and
enjoyment.

It has been our aim to write
for the people and by avoiding
technical terms clothe the sub-
ject in such language as shall
make it interesting and easily
comprehended by all.

INTRODUCTION. 7

We have endeavored to fill these pages, not with dry and
uninteresting facts compiled from the cyclopsBdia, but with
living, breathing thoughts, which, if rightly entertained, will
lessen some of the weariness of daily life, give a greater im-
pulse to right living, and cause us to revere and adore a
Creator who has multiplied, everywhere in nature, countless
objects for our present and future well-being.

Of our fifty millions of people, many will live and die
without ever having heard the voice of the sea. All want
to see it; all are interested in its majestic power and the
life with wdiich it teems. To those who are denied the
privilege of witnessing it for themselves, as well as to the
dwellers on its border, do we send this pen picture. *' God
gave this beautiful world — the luliole of it — to subdue and
enjoy." We have denied ourselves a great boon and benefit
by heretofore confining our research too exclusively to the
narrow earth. We see the sun rise, approach its meridian,
and decline in the West ; we are interested in the changing
seasons, to know when to sow, to reap and to rest ; we are
interested in the beautiful flowers, growing shrub, fruitful
vine, and majestic forests ; we are interested in the animal
species, both wild and domestic ; and this is right and reason-
able, for such knowledge is enjoined and is necessary for our
well-being and prosperity.

Moisture is as necessary to animal and vegetable life as
is the heat radiated from the sun. The rain and the dew
com© not by accident. Over the whole world the rain-fall is
about the same, year in and year out. So interesting and
wonderful is the machinery that pumps out of the ocean, day
by day, all the waters conveyed to it by the rivers, and
distributes it over the land back to the sources of the rivers
again, that the reader can but enjoy and be profited by a
contemplation of the causes that produce such marvellous
effects. This subject, together with the Gulf Stream, — that

8 INTRODUCTION.

wonderful equalizer of terrestrial climate — all the currents,
aerial and oceanic ; the tides, trade winds, typhoons, mon-
soons, saltness and specific gravity of the sea, and other laws
and phenomena, will be found described and treated in
detail in their proper places in this book. Modern research
has defined absolutely many things that heretofore have
been but imperfectly understood. Arduous and protracted
though the labor has been, we have carefully examined and
weighed the conclusions of the late scientists, and therefore
write with more confidence than as if we had depended
entirely upon our own unaided observations.

Under the divisions of Laws and Phenomena, quotations
and conclusions will be found from a book entitled the " Phy-
sical Geography of the Sea,'' by the late Capt. Maury. For
this kindly courtesy we are indebted to Colonel Richard L.
Maury, of Richmond, Ya., son and legal representative of
the late Capt. Maury.

We have drawn to some extent from other sources for
many of the incidents so graphically illustrating some of the
subjects considered.

In the chapter entitled " The Frozen Ocean,'' will be
found something new respecting late expeditions, and much
that is of varied and thrilling interest. In the considera-
tion of the subject of " Deep Sea Dredging," and the " Beds
of the Waters," Ave have taken advantage of researches
prosecuted by late Government expeditions, in arriving at
the conclusions presented to the reader.

We should be negligent did we not call attention to the
subject of " Life in the Ocean," minute and mammoth.

We have called attention to those that must be objects
of universal interest, from the tiny polyp, the wonderful
rock-builder of the ocean, to the *' monarch of the deep."
Neither have we contented ourselves by giving a mere bar-
ren technical description, but we have alluded to their hab-
its, their uses in creation, methods, dangers and exciting in-
cidents relative to their capture. The forests of the deep

INTRODUCTION. 9

are infinitely more densely inhabited than the mountains of
the earth. God has created nothing in vain. Each being
has its use in the scale of creation, and nowhere can we see
His works in such perfection as in the vast deep. Here we
see perfect and marvelous adjustment; we see such exquisite
care displayed in the sustenance of an infinitesimal creature ;
we may also see what important agents are these little crea-
tures in preserving the equilibrium of the ocean. Surely
such contemplations must cause man to think more and
better of himself, for he realizes that God thinks much of
him. There is reverence in such thoughts.

We believe we have not exceeded the license of an
author in the preparation of this volume. We trust the
reader may be as much entertained and benefited by the
perusal as has been the author in the preparation of this
book. If so, "The Water World" shall not have been
written in vain, but may go forth on its humble mission of
exalting the handiwork of the Creator..

J. W. Y.

Mount Vernon, N. Y.

CONTENTS,

CHAPTER I.

THE OCEAN— ITS LAWS AND ELEMENTS.

Pagb

Vastness and sublimity of creation — The sea a laboratory — The many
wonderful objects it contains — The ocean essential to the exist
ence of man and vegetation — If the existing waters were increased
only one-fourth — There is perhaps nothing more beautiful — What
is water? — The saltness of the ocean — Why was the sea made
salt? — Currents — The Gulf Stream — Its influence on climate —
Utilizing currents to carry messages — Brig towed by the under-
current— Recent invention — Gulf Stream the great " weather
breeder" of the North Atlantic — Its influence on commerce —
Tides — Wind waves — The crossing of waves — Variety of color —
Milky sea — Luminosity of the sea — Divisions of the ocean — Atlan-
tic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic — Extreme breadth of
Atlantic — Its relation to civilized countries — Mediterranean Sea —
The central ocean of the ancients — Pacific discovered by Balboa —
Indian Ocean , 23— 4S

CHAPTER II.

THE FROZEN OCEAN.

Instances of extreme cold in the Arctic regions — Human endurance
of cold — McClure and Parry — Dr. Kane — Esquimaux — Arctic voy-
agers— Ice dwellings — Attempts to discover a shorter passage to
India across the Northern seas — Sir John Franklin — His sad
end — Relics of the expedition discovered — Discovery of the
Northwest passage — Release from a perilous position — The Arctic
and Antarctic circles — The reason of the cold in the polar re-
gions— Dangers from floating ice — Fearful incident in the frozen
seas- -Frozen to death — Expedition of Capt. Francis Hall — His
search for Franklin — His appeal to Congress — The "Polaris"

CONTENTS. 11

Pack

sailed — ^Award of Paris Geographical Society— The Jeannette
Expedition— Return of the survivors — Polar Stations — The Greely
Expedition— Retreat to Cape Sabine— Starvation— The Relief
Squadron—Home again 43—71

CHAPTER III.

ICEBERGS.

Icebergs among the wonders of the ocean world — Grand and im-
posing— Imitating every style of architecture — Differ in color —
Strange and sudden formations — Many of great height — Origin —
Greenland — Glaciers — Their immense length — Birthplaces of ice-
bergs— Moved by powerful currents — Dangers from icebergs on
their floating voyages — Terror excited by them among the early
navigators — Awful sublimity of the floating ice mountains — Hair-
breadth escape — Supposed loss of the "President" and other
vessels from collisions with icebergs — Danger of mooring vessels
to icebergs — A picnic on an iceberg — The " Resolute" exploring
ship — Formation and destruction of ice — Beautiful provision of
Nature , . . 72 82

CHAPTER IV.
LIFE IN THE OCEAN.

Sublime ideas of the infinite — Mystery of life — Two great powers —
Death is the foster mother of life — Life maintains life — Exuber-
ance of life — The ocean in its profound est depths — Sea influ-
ences— Seashore deposits — Source of greath wealth — Unity and
diversity 83—87

CHAPTER Y.

MINUTE ANIMAL LIFE.

Vastness of organic life in the ocean — Food to the larger marine
animals — Abundance in the Northern seas — Sea nettles — They
color the waters — Microscopic determinations — A naturalist's
calculation of the number of animalculae — Animals in a drop of
water— Illustrates the immensity of creation — Seaweeds — Ani-
mated worlds — Minute creation governed by the same laws as
larger — Jelly-fish — Abound in the South Atlantic — Curious
shapes — Sea-worms — Sea-mouse — Its beautiful color — Curious

12 CONTENTS.

arms of marine worms — Nereids — Beautifully colored — White
rag worms — Sea-leech — Leaping- worms — "Jumping Johnnies" —
Butterflies of the deep 88 — 97

CHAPTER YI.

CORAL— THE ROCK BUILDERS.

Beauty of color — Its curious form in the ocean — Formerly supposed
to be marine plants — Discovered to be the work of minute ani-
mals— Coral wonders described — How their habitations are
made — Coral examined under the microscope — Continents built
by the polyps — Wonderful instinct of the coral workers by
building walls on the windward side — Qualities and varieties of
coral described — Manufacture of false coral — Superstitions re-
specting the changing of color — Perils of the coral reefs — An
incident of shipwreck , 98 — 109

CHAPTER VII.

PEARLS.

Rare and valuable objects of creation — Perilous employment of the
divers — Condemned criminals formerly employed — Character-
istics of the pearl divers — Shark charmers — Pearl fishing in the
Gulf of Manaar — Off the Bahrem Islands — Cingalese divers —
Separation of the pearl from the oyster — Extent of the pearl
fishery in Ceylon — System pursued at the Pearl Islands — Oriental
pearls — Their preparation for market — How pearls are formed in
the oyster — Amusing account given by Pliny — Suppositions re-
specting pearls — Curious methods pursued by the Chinese — The
pearl oyster not the only mollusk which produces pearls — Pearls
found on the British coasts — Incidents — Extravagant fancy of the
ancients — Names applied to various kinds — Largest pearls on
record — Runjeet Sing and his string of pearls HO — 119

CHAPTER VIII.
SPONGES.

Ancient use of the sponge for helmets, etc. — One of the most valuable
spoils taken from the ocean — Long undecided whether sponges

CONTENTS. 13

belonged to the animal or vegetable kingdom— Ranked as
"zoophytes" or animal plants — Aristotle's definition of the
sponge — Finest qualities come from the Ottoman Archipelago —
Sponge fishery at tlie island of Calymnos — Numbers of persons
engaged in the sponge fishery — Depth at which sponges are
found — Methods pursued in diving — Average quantity taken —
Preparation for market — The sponge in its natural state — Growth
and increase of the sponge — Article of commerce — Digestion and
respiration — Preservation of the sponge fisheries , , , ,120 — 127

CHAPTER IX.

SEALS.

Arctic summer the proper season for seal fishing — Divisions of labor
by the Esquimaux — Seal's flesh their chief food — Ancient super-
stitions— Use of blubber — Methods of capturing the seals — Seal
fishing the great employment of the Greenlanders — Dangers at-
tending— Different species of seals — The sea-calf — Peculiar char-
acteristics— Enemies of seals — The bearded or great seal — The
hoop-seal — The fur seal — Description, habits, and use — Seals
fond of music — Tame sepals — Incidents — The marbled seal — Con-
trast between seals of northern and southern seas — Sea elephant —
Sea lions — The sea leopard — The otories 128 — 141

CHAPTER X.

WHALES THE MONARCHS OF THE OCEAN.

Peculiarities in whales — Distinct from fishes and land animals,
though resembling both — Description — Strength and utility of
its tail — Size of the head — Smallnes3 of the throat — Food of the
whole — Whalebone — Tongue of the whale — The skin — The blub-
ber— Quantity of oil taken from a whale — Ears, eyes, and fins of
the whale — Age when they attain their growth — Anecdotes rela-
tive to the capture — Different species — The northern rorqual —
The smaller rorqual — The sperm whales — The white whales —
The deductor — Great capture of whales — Fight between a whale
and a grampus — Other enemies of the whale — Anecdotes — Attach-
ment of whales to their young 142— 15S

14 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XL

THE WHALE FISHERY AND ITS PERILS,

Page

Description of ships employed in the whale fishery — Hard work in

the Polar seas — Mode of fisliing — The harpoon — Struggles of the
■whale — Disappointment of a Dutch whaler — Dead whales — Cut-
ting up the whales — Whale fishery in the southern seas — Inci-
dent to the Elssex in the Pacific Ocean — Ship destroyed by a
collision with a whale— Story of a Dutch harpooner — New
Zealand Tom— Incident in the Pacific to the whaling vessel
Independence — Paying out the rope — Incident to the whaling
vessel Aimwell — Loss of the Princess Charlotte — Wonderful
escape of the Trafalgar — Calamities of a whaling squadron — The
Rattler— The Achilles 154—167

CHAPTER XII.

SHARKS THE PIRATES OF THE 6CEAN.

Fossil sharks — Enormous teeth — The white shark — Its extreme vo-
racity— Great tenacity of life — Its preference for human flesh —
Horrible tragedy — Habit of bounding out of the sea — Punishing
a shark — Manner of catching sharks in the South Sea Islands —
Captain Basil Hall's account of the capture of a shark — Worship
of sharks by the inhabitants — Rapacity of the shark — Hooks for
shark fishing — Fearful incident to the crew of the "Magpie" —
The hammer headed shark — The smooth shark — Dog fish — Angel
fish — Greenland shark — Basking shark — Taken for the sea ser-
pent— ^Pilot fish— Companion to the shark— Pilot fish described. 168—185

CHAPTER XIII.

SEA-HORSES AND NARWAHLS.

The morse walrus or sea-horse — Description — Immense slaughter of
them — For what purposes — Ferocity when attacked — Affec-
tion for its young — Battles between the walrus and the Polar
bear — The sword fish a fierce enemy — Sea unicorn — Described —
Color — Their habits — Mode of catching them — Herd in flocks —
Playfulness — Its speed , , 186—195

CONTENTS. 15

CHAPTER XIV.

Paok

NAUTILI THE FLOATING NAVIGATORS OF THE OCEAN.

The nautilus " the ocean mab " and " fairy of the sea " — The fish de-
scribed by Prof. Owen — Real method of its propulsion — The
paper nautilus — Its supposed sails — Glaucus a real rover on the
ocean — A wonderful builder — Intel lig^ence displayed — Pearly
nautilus — Gem of the deep — The argonaut — Sea bladder or Por-
tuguese man-of-war — Beauty of its colors — Appear like prismatic
shells — Their stinging properties — Specimens of fossil nautili in
the British museum — Ammonite — Most beautiful of all fossils —
Petrified snakes — The cuttle fish — One of the feasts of fisher-
men— Their ink bags — Prodigious size of some species — Mode of
fishing with the cuttle fish described by Columbus — Belongs to
a period before the flood 196 — 210

CHAPTER XV.

MODES OF FISHING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
Use of nets dates from the earliest times — Great improvements of
late in the manufacture of nets — Variety of nets used by fisher-
men— Description of them — Fishing by electric light — Birds
trained to catch fish — Their wonderful sagacity — South Sea
Islanders expert fishermen — Singular mode of taking the needle
fish — Fishing by the light — Indians' method of taking the candle
fish — The white porpoise — Fishing for the sea pike — The tunny
fishery — Sturgeon fishery — Conger-eel fishery — Great conger-eel
described — Sand-eel fishery — Mackeral fishery — Nets employed —
Herring fishery — Modes of fishing — Curing herring — Dog fish —
Hake — Pilcherd — Sprats and white bait, and how taken — The
Sardine — Cod fishery on the banks of Newfoundland — The modern
cod sinock — The haddock — The coal fish — Common hake — The
turbot — The turtle — Modes of taking them — Crabs — Mode of
taking them — Hermit crab — King crab — Prawns and shrimps —
Mussels — Mussel farms — Oyster farming — Age at which the
oyster is ready for the table — Its best qualities — The enemies of
the oyster — Lobsters 211 — 260

CHAPTER XVI.

ODDS AND ENDS ABOUT FISHES.
Strange and varied characters of fishes — The money of commerce in
some countries- -Form of fishes — The tail the great organ of

16 COJS^TBNTS.

Page
motion — Air or swimming bladder — Respiration — Baits made
attractive by scents — Nostrils of fishes — Taste — Touch. — Scales —
Eyes — Teeth — Hearing — Brain — Eggs — Uses of fish — Curative
properties of certain fish — The torpedo — Violent shocks — Electric
apparatus described — Effects produced on fishermen — The elec-
tric eel — Its physical properties — The sting ray — Enormous fins —
The great and little weever — Stinging powers of the physalis —
Sucking fishes — Sea owl — Snail — Lumpsucker — The sea lam-
prey— Its powerful sucker — Lampreys fed on human flesh — The
gunard fish — Peculiarities — Many species remarkable for beauty
of colors — The sea scorpion — Sticklebacks — The flying gunard —
Emits phosphoric light — Flying fishes — Musical fish — The devil
fish — Its enormous size and strength — Devil fish taken in Dela-
-ware Bay — Monstrous skates — The fishing frog or angler —
Description — Mode of attracting its prey — Capture of an immense
saw fish — An East Indiaman attacked by a sword-fish — Dolphin —
Atlantic species — Cat-fish — Sucking fish — Sea peacock — Blue
fish — The true dolphin described — Pursue the flying fish — The
common mackerel a beautiful fish — The John Dory — The boar
fish — The opah or king fish — The red mullet — Purchased at
enormous prices — The basse or sea perch — The Mediterranean
Apogon — The lettered seranus — The choetocion — The Archer —
A favorite with the Chinese — The Riband shaped fish family —
The butterfly fish — Wrasses, or old wives of the sea — The rain-
bow— Parrot fish — The scarus — The sea horse — The chimera or
rabbit fish — Repulsive form — Beauty of colors intended for the
admiration of man. , , , , 261 — 308

CHAPTER XVII.
SHELLS.

Wonderful shaping and moulding of shells — The structure of shells
adapted to the requirements of the inhabitant — Apparatus of two
shelled animals — Power over the valves — Concholoi^y — Shells
formerly regarded as toys — Shells of southern Europe — Greater
portion of shell animals carnivorous — Shells of tropical Americar-
Western coasts of Africa — The harp shell — The cockle — The
cowry — Beautiful and rare shells found on the coasts of Austra-
lia— Deep sea shells — Lowest part of the earth consist of shell
remains — Shells used for making roads — Helix or snail genus —
The clam or bear's paw — Varieties of shells — Formation of

CONTENTS. 17

Pagb
sliells — Sea sliells perform an important part in the economy of

nature — Use of sliells multifarious — Trumpet shell — Shell fish

as an article of food — Giant clams — Porcelain shells — Roaring

buckie harp shells — Fountain shells — Razor shells — Trough

shells 309—322

CHAPTER XVIIL

feEA BIRDS.

Number and variety of marine birds — Roosting places — The gull
family — General description — Some gulls expert in breaking the
shells of mollusks — Tricks played by seamen on gulls — The
skuas — The petrels — Among the most interesting of marine
birds — The storm petrel — Sea swallows — The albatros — A great
fish eater — The divers — Expert fishers — The guillemots — The
great ausk — Puffing or sea parrot — The penguins — Darwin's de-
scription of the "jackass" penguin — The cormorant — Trained
to fish by some nations — The pelican- -Peculiar pouch for storing
fish — The ganet — Assemble at breeding times in myriads on the
bass rock — The hooper or wild swan — The great sea eagles — The
osprey and its fishing habits — The tropic sea birds — The frigate
bird — Its tyrannical treatment of the booby 323 — 351

CHAPTER XIX.

SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH THE OCEAN.

Seamen naturally superstitious — Incidents regarded as prodigies —
Phantom ship — Power of raising tempests at sea by witchcraft —
Incident to James VI. of Scotland — Wind pillars — Double sight
— Apparitions at sea — Rats leaving a ship — Omens for good or
evil — Crows as guides to mariners — The ancient mariner — Carry-
ing dead bodies in ships — Good luck — Bad luck — Curious re-
flections— Sea divinities of the ancient times 352 — 359

CHAPTER XX. •

MARINE PRODIGIES.

The Krasken a wonderful sea monster — Able to pull men-of-war to
the bottom of the ocean — The sea serpent — Marvelous stories re-

18

CONTENTS.

Page

lated by our sailors — Account forwarded to the admiralty — Fishes
of the ribbon family may give rise to what are called sea serpents
— Mermaids and women — Icelandic description of a mermaid —
P. T. Barnum's famous exhibition — The manatee — The dugong
— The stellerus— A mermaid shown in London in 1822 ,360—368

CHAPTER XXL

MONSTERS OF THE DEEP— SEA DRAGONS,

Gigantic reptiles inhabiting the ocean before the deluge — Huge sea
lizards — Limestone rocks at Lyme Regis — Dragons in story books
— Description of the sea lizard — Head like a crocodile — Numer-
ous immense teeth — Enormous eyes — Body like that of a fish —
The plesiosaurus — Peculiarities of this huge monster — Head like
a lizard — Teeth of a crocodile — Neck of enormous length — Body
rounded like that of a marine turtle — Its habits described — The
teleosaurus — The great pirate of the ocean — Armed to the teeth
— Its enormous jaws — Able to swallow animals as large as an ox
— The moesusaurus— -Thought to be a crocodile 369—373

CHAPTER XXII.

SUBMARINE SCENERY— ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE.

The earth has its counterpart in the ocean — Glory of submarine
scenery — In the tropics — China seas — Deepest colors of fishes and
marine vegetation in the tropical seas — The Indian Ocean —
Splendid colors of tropical fishes — Flowers of the ocean — Abun-
dance and beauty of marine fauna — Wonders of coral scenery —
Coput medusae, or basket fish — Anemones the loveliest ornaments
of sea-gardens — Sea anemones a hungry class — Clearness of the
"vaters of the red sea — Sea slug and sea cucumber — Waters of
the North Sea remarkable for its transparency — Submarine forests
and meadows — A sea covered with weeds — Enormous expanse of
ihe Atlantic Ocean covered with vegetation — Seaweeds brought
from a great depth — The true seaweed — Beauty of smaller varie-
ties— Marine plants vie with land -flowers — Seaweeds as food —
jj^umerous applications of seaweeds 374 — 391

CONTENTS. 19

CHAPTER XXIIL

THE BED OF THE OCEAN. DEEP SEA SOUNDINGS.

Page
Beauty of the tropical ocean — Average depth of the sea — Long a diffi-
cult question — First determined by the U. S navy — Mode of
taking soundings — Broolvs' sounding apparatus — The telegraph
plateau — No currents below 3,000 feet — No decomposition at
extreme depths — The sea a great nursery — Animal life at extreme
depths — Preservition of marine life — Conclusions of Professors
Bailey and Ehrenburg — De^p sea dredging expeditions — Food of
deep water animals — Limestone formations 392 — 412

CHAPTER XXIV.

PHENOMENA OF THE OCEAN.
Optical illusions in Arctic seas — The mirage — Vivid description by
Dr. Hayes — Aurora Borealis, or "Northern Daybreak" — Origin
supposed to be electrical — Other luminous meteors — Halos and
mock suns — The ice blink — Tide rip and Sea drift — Evaporation
and precipitation — Formation of water-spouts — Perilous escape
from a water-spout — Tornadoes and typhoons — The trade winds —
Explanation of atmospheric currents — Their functions — The
monsoon — Its beneficial effects — Hurricanes and cyclones — De-
scription of the Bore and Egre — Sub-marine earthquakes and
volcanoes — Islands rising from the sea — Cause — Red fog, or
shower-dust 413—444

CHAPTER XXV.

OCEAN STEAMSHIPS.
Universal interest respecting the "ocean palaces" — Fulton's "Cler-
mont"— Her size and rate of speed — Her first trip from New York
to Albany — Terrific appearance — Contrasted with modern steam-
ships— The Anchor Line of Steamships — The City of Rome — The
largest passenger steamer afloat — Her remarkable dimensions —
minute description of her interior 444 — 449

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE SIGNAL SERVICE.
Various modes of signaling — Field telegraph trains — Instruction of
officers and men for the service — Branches taught — Number of

20 CONTENTS

Pack

Stations with equipments — Inauguration of tlie "Weather Bu-
reau " — Co-operatioii of Agricultural and other societies — Rapid
expansion of the worli — Improvement of instruments — Superior
to European systems — Mode of preparing the daily weather-map —
Predicting rise and fall of great rivers — Great benefit to inter-
state commerce — Storm signals described — Universal benefit of
the Signal Service. — International code of flag-signals — Incidents
illustrating the 'service 449 — 475

CHAPTER XXVII.

THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE.

Development of the system — Number of stations — Appliances — Patrol
men on duty— W^ reck of the "J. H. Hortzell"— The "Life Boat
Coming" — A terrible journey — Relief at hand — The "short-
cut"— The frightful spectacle — The perilous descent — Prepar-
tions for the rescue — The breeches-buoy — Life car attached — The
crew saved — Wreck of the schooner "A. B. Goodman" — To the
rescue — Sublime heroism displayed 475 — 498

CHAPTER XXVIII.

LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS.

The "Pharos" — The oldest lighthouse — One of the seven wonders of
the world — Colossal statue of Apollo »t Rhodes — Lighthouse on
the Eddystone rocks — Originally built by Winstanley— His sad
fate — The Bell-Rock — The " Skerry vore" on coast of Scotland —
Minot's Lodge lighthouse — Modes of signaling in fogs — Coal or
wood fires formerly used — Later adaptations — The electric light —
Life in a lighthouse — Appointments to position of keeper — How
obtained — The sea veteran 498—512

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE.

Frontispiece 2

Aurora Borealis in Artie Regions. .417

Albatross 138

Archer Fish 242

Arctic Chimaeridar 275

Boats Stranded by the Tide 35

Breaking up of Icebergs 78

Boobie 336

Common Carp 242

Cormorant 336

Cramp Fish 276

Coral 106

Drag Net *.380

Diver at Work 401

Devil Fish 210

Electric Eel 268

Esquimaux Seal Hunters 131

Frozen to Death 51

Fleet of Medusae 93

Flying Fish 284

Frog Fish 287

Father Lasher 304

Fight between Walrus and Polar

Bears 194

Frightful Encounter with Sharks. . . 180

Gurnard 261

Greenland Whale 154

Gigantic Cuttle-Fish 205

Globe Fish 220

Great Auk 336

Golden Penguin 138

Hurricane 436

Halibut 220

Herring Fishing 247

Ice Blink 421

Luminosity of the Sea 40

Launching the Life Boat 480

Lamprey Eel 276

Lump Fish 233

Monsters before the Flood 371

Montauk Lighthouse 505

Mirage 414

Northern Lights 75

Ocean Shells 315

Penguins 323

Pipe Fish 276

Piles Covered with Mussels 253

Pearl-Divers at Work 113

Pearl-Producing Shells 118

Potwal 142

Punt of the Marsh 253

Skate Fish 295

Sword Fish 308

Sea Shells... 309

Swell at Sea 351

Sticklebacks — Nest-building Fishes. 281

Shark Fishing 173

Stratagem of the White Bear 189

Submarine Scenery of the Indian

Ocean 375

Sections of Ocean Cable 412

Steamship City of Rome 445

Ship in a Storm 462

Spring Tide 35

Ship under Full Sail 22

Ship in the Ice 82

Submarine Scenery 87

Sponge-Divers at Work 120

Sponge in its Natural State 124

' Sea Lions 138

Tree Coral 98

TheNautilus 197

The Albatross 330

Whiting Fish 242

Wandering Chaetodon 233

Walrus 186

Water-spout, First and Second

Stages ...424

Water-spout, Third Stage 429

Water-spout in the Mediterranean.. 414

CHAPTER I. ^ . ^

THE 00EAIT—IT8 LAWS AND ELEMENTS.

:N the beginning," the sacred historian informs
us, " God created the heavens and the earth:
and the earth was without form and void, and
darkness was upon the face of the deep, and
THE Spirit of God moved upon the face

OF THE waters."

How wondrously solemn and grand are these inspired and
holy words! What human imagination can fully realize
their sublimity? In a few plain but soul-stirring sentences
the great mystery of creative power is unfolded, and the
mind gets bewildered in the contemplation of such vastness,
beauty, and beneficence. We may exclaim with the royal
psalmist, " Thou, even Thou, art Lord alone ; Thou hast
made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host;
the earth, and all things that are therein ; the seas, and all
that are therein; and Thou preservest them all."

On the second day, or generation, uprose progressively
the fine fluids or waters of the firmament, and filled the blue
ethereal void with a vital atmosphere. The third day, or
generation, the waters . more properly so called, or the
grosser or more compact fluids of the general mass, were
gathered together into the vast bed of the ocean, and dry
land began to make its appearance.

No subject, surely, could be more delightful than the study
of the " world of waters " and its strange inhabitants, and
there is none upon which the mind of man has been more
absorbed in inquiry and research.

24 ESSENTIAL TO THE EXISTENCE OF MAN.

We never tire of the sea ; it is a laboratory in which de-
lightful processes are continually being wrought out for our
adiniratioi3L,aji4 use. Its flora and its fauna, its waves and
ilsUi'des; jtp ,3^Jt^ i^nd its currents, all afford grand and profit-
able themes of stud v and thought. But, as interesting as
tiieyjia;r^sej)arajteljr,'ai:jd as wonderful, too, they are not half
BO niarVelous' as thd offices which, with their aid, the sea
performs in the physical economy of our planet.

Viewed in this light, the ocean, its inhabitants, and its
vapors, is a mechanism constructed by the All Wise, of per-
fect workmanship.

It is so fixed and true in its work that nothing can throw
it out of gearing ; and yet its returns are so delicate that
the task of preserving them is allotted to the minutest of
sea dwellers, and to agents apparently the most subtle and
fickle.

They preserve its intricate relations, making its adjust-
ments, in beauty and sublimity of effect, to vie with the
heavens. These marvelous wonders proclaim, in songs di-
vine, that they, too, are the work of holy fingers.

We may but imperfectly represent this great body of
water and the many wonderful objects it contains, but any
deficiencies may be supplied later, when the open book of
nature is read by thoughtful minds eager for knowledge.

The ocean is essential to the existence of man and of all
vegetation ; it is the great moderator and equalizer of terres-
trial climates, purifying the atmosphere that we breathe, and
sending off a perpetual supply of vapors, which condense
into clouds, and are the sources of moisture and fertility to
the soil. We must also think of the facilities afforded for an
intercourse with distant nations. It has been remarked that
contact with the ocean has unquestionably exercised a bene-
ficial influence on the cultivation of the intellect and form-
ation of the character of many nations, on the multiplication
of those bonds Avhich should unite the whole human race, on

COMPOSITION OF WATER, 25

the first knowledge of the true form of the earth, and on the
pursuit of astronomy, and of all the mathematical and physi-
cal sciences.

Since Columbus was sent to unbar the gates of ocean,
man has boldly ventured into intellectual as well as geo-
graphical regions before unknown to him. How perfect. 0
Infinite One, are all thy works, and how shortened our
aspirations I

If the existing waters were increased only one-fourth of
their present area, they would drown the earth, with the
exception of some high mountains. If the volume of the
ocean were augmented only by one-eighth, considerable por-
tions of the present continents would be submerged, and the
seasons would be changed all over the face of the globe.
Evaporation would be so much extended, that rains would
fall continually, destroy the harvests, fruits, and floAvers, and
overturn the whole economy of nature.

There is, perhaps, nothing more beautiful in our whole
system than the process by which the fields are irrigated
from the skies, the rivers are fed from the mountains, and
the ocean restrained within bounds which it never can ex-
ceed so long as that process continues on the present scale.
The vapor raised from the sea by the sun floats wherever it
is lighter than the atmosphere ; condensed, it falls upon the
earth in water. And what is water? It is composed of
two important gases — oxygen and hydrogen — these being,
probably, the two most abundant and essential substances in
nature, as regards ourselves and our earth.

These, when combined, become converted into vapor,
many gallons of them in this state forming one small drop
of fluid water. It is the simplest of combinations, and the
compound most resembling a simple element ; the most uni-
versal solvent at all temperatures; the most widely dis-
tributed substance in nature; the most powerful agent; the

26 SALTNESS OF TEE OCEAN,

most perfect representation of perpetual motion, penetrating
everything, passing everywhere, always present, in sight or
out of sight, and everywhere producing a marked effect.
When it is remembered that a very large proportion of the
w^eight of every living being, animal or vegetable, consists
of water, and that for life to continue at all, an incessant
supply of fresh fluid is required, the necessity of water will
be fully understood.

The Saltness which distinguishes the waters of the ocean
is explained by the circumstance that chloride of sodium
(common salt) and other dissolvable salts, which form essen-
tial ingredients of the earth, are being constantly washed
out of the soil and rocks by rain and springs, and carried
down by the rivers ; and as the evaporation which feeds the
rivers carries none of the dissolved matter back to the land,
the tendency is to accumulate in the sea. We know that
beds of rock-salt, of enormous thickness, form part of the
crust of the globe; and Ave may infer that immense banks of
salt exist in the bed of the deep. The uniformity of this
saltness is preserved by the constant movement of the
waters, caused by the regular and perpetual action of the
winds. It has been said that if all the salts of the sea were
spread equally over the northern half of this continent, it
would cover the ground to the depth of one mile I What
force could move such a mass of matter on dry land ? Yet,
the machinery of the ocean, of which it forms a part, is so
wisely, marvelously, and wonderfully compensated, that the
most gentle breeze that plays on its bosom — the tiniest in-
sect that secretes solid matter for its sea-shell — is capable of
putting it instantly in motion. Still, when solid and placed
in a heap, all the mechanical contrivances of mankind, aided
by the tremendous forces of all the steam and water power
of the world, could not move so much as an inch in centuries
of this matter, which the sunbeam, the zephyr, and the in-
fusorial insect keep in perpetual motion and activity.

EFFECTS OF ITS SALTNESS. 27

Why was the sea made salt ? If the sea were not made
salt, the rays of the sun could not so readily penetrate it.
This penetration of the waters by the sun's rays produces
expansion. The force or dynamical power resulting from
this expansion, or the spreading up and outward of the
waters, increases the circulation of the currents. Were the
waters of the sea fresh instead of salt, Ave should probably
have no such thing as a Gulf Stream nor marine climate ;
the torrid zone would have been hotter and the frigid zone
colder ; and the climate of England would have vied with
Labrador for inhospitality : all for the lack of the watery
circulation. With no salts in the seas, evaporation, volume
of our rivers, and the quantity of rain, would all have been
different. The thunderbolt of the heavens, the sheet light-
ning of the clouds, and the fitful flashes of the storm, all
have their beginning principally in the salts of the sea.

With a few exceptions, such as the Red Sea, Great Salt
Lake, etc., the salts of the sea are everywhere the same.
They could not be made so, were they not well shaken to-
gether. The circulation of the currents of the sea is quite
as perfect and wonderful as the circulation of the blood in
our bodies. Evaporation in some waters is more rapid than
in others. Water can hold only a given amount of salt in solu-
tion. We cannot see that the quantity of salt deposits is
increasing. It reasonably follows from all this that there
must be a system of circulation in the waters, whereby an
equilibrium is produced, making each and all of the waters of
the same degree of saltness. The currents which produce
these results do not flow from chance, but in accordance
with physical laws, assisting to maintain the order and pre-
serve the harmony which is so apparent in every depart-
ment of God's handiwork.

The coral islands of the Pacific were built up of matter
which a certain kind ofanimalquarried from the ocean. These
rivers of the sea become the hod-carriers of the little animal.

28 CURRENTS OF THE OCEAN.

If the currents of the sea were not employed to carry off
from this animal the waters that have been emptied by it of
their lime, and to bring to it others supplied with more, it is
apparent that it would have died for want of something to
eat long before its work was completed. But for the benign
current, the emptied drop of water would have remained,
not only as the grove of the little builder, but as a monu-
ment recording a monstrous failure in the beautiful system
of terrestial adaptations.

It may be reasonably concluded that the marine animals,
whose secretions are so constituted as to alter the specific
gravity of the water, to disturb its equilibrium, to originate
currents in the ocean, and to control its circulation, are not
in any place nor doing this work by accident. Nature is
sublime and perfect in adaptation through all her domain.

Currents, which exercise so great an influence on the cir-
culation of the waters, and in producing remarkable changes
in the form of coasts, are described as constant, periodical,
and variable ; the two latter classes being determined chiefly
by the wi,nds and tides. The first motion of the ocean
waves is derived either from the attraction of the sun or
moon, or from w4nds which blow over the surface of the
waters; the second arises from the sun, which directly
through its heat, and indirectly by scorching dry winds,
produces evaporation, to a great extent, of the parts most
exposed to its influence ; and by its similar action on the
atmosphere, causes a transference of this vapor to remote
latitudes, where it descends as rain, and by destroying the
equilibrium of the ocean, gives rise to currents. The prin-
cipal currents of the ocean are four, two warm, and two
cold ; these originate, the former among the islands of the
Archipelago and in the Gulf of Mexico, and the latter in the
Arctic and Southern Oceans.

The most important and best known of ocean currents, the
Gulf Stream — the river in the ocean, one of the most mar-

THE G ULF STBEA3f. 20

velous things In this world of waters — derives its name
from the Gulf of Mexico. The general direction of this
stream is -in the arc of a great circle, towards England, by
which it is divided; one branch, passing to the west and
north, reaches the coast of Norway, and can be perceived on
the southern borders of Iceland and Spitzbergen. The
Avaters are of a deep indigo blue, and are so distinctly
marked that their line of junction with the common sea-
water may be traced by the eye.

The existence of the Gulf Stream can also be readily as-
certained by means of a thermometer, the temperature be-
ing so elevated. It is this warmth which tempers and
softens the climate of all Western Europe. It is the influ-
ence of the Gulf Stream upon the climate that makes Ireland
the Emerald Island of the sea, and clothes the shores of
England with evergreen robes ; while in the same latitude,
on our side of the Atlantic, the shores of Labrador are
fast bound in fetters of ice. How wonderful is this benefi-
cent operation of Providence, when we think that this warm
stream felt on England's shores, which are thus bathed with
water heated under a tropical sun, comes from a distance of
four thousand miles I Nor is its influence thus circum-
scribed. In mid-winter, off the inclement coasts between
Cape Hatteras and New Foundland, ships, when beaten
back from their harbors by fierce north-westers, loaded
down with ice, and in danger of founding, turn their
prows to the east, and seek relief and comfort in the Gulf
Stream. In high northern latitudes, after having run three
thousand miles towards the north, it still preserves even in
winter the heat of summer. With this temperature, it
spreads itself out for thousands of square miles over the
cold waters around, and covers the ocean with a mantle of
warmth thjat serves so much to mitigate in Europe the
rigors of winter.

With a breadth of about fifty miles in its narrowest por-

30 TEE G ULF STREAM.

tions, the Gulf Stream has a velocity, at times, of five miles
an hour, pouring on like an immense torrent.

The cause of these phenomenal ocean river currents, up
to the present time, is only conjectured, and the nature and
extent of this work will hardly warrant any extended theo-
retical discussion.

Each current seems to have a circulation of its own, t.e.,
an upper and lower stratum. In the warm currents, the
upper portion only is warm, while beneath runs a counter
cold current. In the cold currents, the order of stratums is
reversed.

There is a constant tendency of polar waters toward the
tropics, and of tropical waters toward the poles.

It is a custom often practiced by seafaring people to
throw a bottle overboard, having inside a paper, stating the
time and place at which it is done. These minute little
vo^^agers leave no trace behind them, and therefore their
routes cannot be exactly ascertained, though we can approx-
imate closely, knowing where they were cast and where they
were found. Charts have been prepared showing the routes
of over one hundred bottles, by drawing straight lines from
the starting to returning point, with the time elapsed. From
this it appears that the waters from every quarter of the
Atlantic tend towards the Gulf of Mexico and its stream.
Good circumstantial evidence exists to prove that bottles
cast overboard in the Gulf Stream have performed the entire
tour of that current.

Other currents as well as the Gulf Stream are utilized in
a similar manner. As an instance of this we quote the in-
structions of Mr. G. M. Robeson, Secretary of our Navy, to
C apt. Francis Hall, of the Polaris expedition in 1869, as fol-
lows: " To keep the Government as well informed as possible
of your progress, you will, after leaving Cape Dudley Digges^
throw overboard daily, as open water or drifting ice may
permit, a bottle or small copper cylinder, closely sealed, con-

GULF STREAM UTILIZED BY NAYIGATOHS. 31

taining a paper, stating date, position, and such other facta
as you may deem interesting. For this purpose yoti will
have prepared papers, containing a request, printed in sev-
eral languages, that the finder transmit it by the most direct
route to the Secretary of the Navy, U. S. of A."

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, a Dutch brig,
pursued by the French corsair, Phoenix, w^as overhauled be-
tween Tangier and Tarifa, and seemed to be sunk by a sin-
gle broadside ; but in place of going down, the brig, being
freighted with a cargo of oil and alcohol, floated between
the two currents, and, drifting toward the west, finally ran
aground in the neighborhood of Tangier, more than twelve
miles from the spot where she had disappeared under the
waves. She had therefore floated that distance, driven by
the action of the under current, in a direction opposite to
that of the surface current.

Recent invention has wrought out an improved plan of
warming houses in winter by hot water. A furnace heats
the water; this heated water and steam is conveyed by
pipes to the place to be warmed.

This convenient mode of warming our offices and dwell-
ings was probably suggested by two things : first, because
of its utility ; and, second, the fact that we have a similar
heating apparatus in nature, in the warm waters of the Gulf
of Mexico. The heater is the torrid zone ; the Gulf and the
Caribbean Sea are the boilers ; the Gulf current is the means
of conveyance ; from New Foundland to Europe is the reser-
voir. According to Maury, '* the quantity of heat discharged
over the Atlantic by the Gulf Stream in a winter's day
would be sufficient to raise the whole column of atmosphere
that rests upon France and the British Islands from the
freezing point to summer heat."

How benign is the influence of this wonderful stream,
and how a contemplation of it leads one to revere its creator.

" He treadeth upon the waves of the sea, and is seen in

32 INFLUENCE UPON CLIMATE.

the waters of the deep. Yea, He calleth for its waters, and
poureth them out uu the face of the earth."

Investigation as to the causes of the severe storms raging
so frequently in certain portions of the Atlantic, and which
have proved so disastrous to navigation, led to the conclusion
that they were caused by the irregularity between the tem-
perature of the Gulf Stream and neighboring regions, both
in the air and water. " To use a sailor's expression, the
Gulf Stream is the great * weather breeder ' of the North
Atlantic." It is a " storm fiend " that out-tops the " stormy
capes," and out-vies the furious storms of the North Pacific
and China Seas.

Storms from the right and left of the Gulf Stream break in
upon it; and, turning about, rush along with it, leaving be-
hind a steamy mist, caused by the cold water and warm air
coming in contact, to mark its course.

Formerly the Gulf Stream exercised a greater influence
npon commerce than it does at the present day. Up to the
last century, the navigator guessed as much as he calculated
the place of his ship.

For three centuries navigators had been crossing and re-
crossing this Gulf Stream daily, without using it as a means
of giving them their longitude, or warning them of their ap-
proach to this continent.

Before the warmth of the Gulf Stream was known, a voy-
age from Europe in winter to portions of our own coast was
exceedingly perilous. Gales and snow storms would be met
which would set at naught the seaman's skill. His vessel be-
comes incrusted with ice and her crew benumbed and helpless.
She remains obedient only to her helm, which almost in-
stinctively guides her to the Gulf Stream. She crosses its
magic boundary and is embraced by its healing presence.
The ice vanishes from her garments ; the weary sailor laves
in its healing properties, being invigorated by its genial
warmth. He is now ready to make another effort to enter

EFFECTS OF CURRENTS UPON NA VIGATION. 33

his port, perhaps to be as rudely driven back again. But
each breathing spell renews his energies, until at last he
may enter his haven in safety, though many, in this terrible
•contest, may sink to rise no more

Other currents as well as the Gulf Stream materially af-
fect navigation. While an intimate knowledge of them is
necessary, in order to avoid the danger of mistaking the
true position of a vessel, its progress to port may be facili-
tated by falling in with a local stream, or steering clear of
it, according as its direction is favorable or adverse.

The effect of currents was perceived long before anything
was known of their direction and velocity, and Columbus
was strengthened in his belief that land might be reached
across the Atlantic westward, by substances which had
drifted from that quarter. After the commencement of his
great undertaking, when, day after day, nothing had been
seen but a shoreless horizon, and hope had nearly expired
in his own breast, while his crew were on the verge of open
rebellion, the effect of the oceanic currents restored his con-
fidence and allayed their clamors. A branch of thorn, with
berries on it, appeared ; a reed was picked up, and a staff
artificially carved — intimations that an inhabited land lay
before the adventurers, which was at length revealed to their
gaze, and terminated forever the mystery which had rested
upon the western flood.

A Tide is a wave of the whole ocean, which is elevated
to a certain height, and then sinks after the manner of a
common wave. The interval between the two positions
forms the tide. The principal cause is the attraction of the
sun and moon, the latter being the more potent agent. The
sea rises or flows, as it is called, by degrees, about six hours ;
it remains stationary about a quarter of an hour ; and then
retires or ebbs during another six hours, to flow again after
a brief repose. Thus every day, or the period elapsing
between successive returns of the moon to the meridian of a

34 TIDES.

place — which is twenty-four hours, fifty minutes and a half —
the sea ebbs and flows twice, much less, indeed, towards the
poles than within the tropics, where the waters lie under
the direct influence of the lunar attraction. It is in the
southern hemisphere that the tidal wave originates, and
from thence moves northward, influenced in its direction by
the motion of the earth. Almost excluded from the North-
ern Pacific by the barrier of islands and coral reefs which
stretch across from Australia nearly to South America, the
effect of the tides, excepting on the west coast of that con-
tinent, is little felt in that ocean. In the Indian Ocean,
compressed between Africa on the north and Australia and
Sumatra on the east, it bursts in full strength on the shores
of Hindoostan. In the narrow channel of the Atlantic the
tidal wave progresses northward with great rapidity, and on
the shores both of Europe and America, producing, as in
Southern India, the Bore, which is described in the chapter
on the " Phenomena of the Ocean,"

The highest floods and the lowest ebbs occur at the
period of new and full moon, near the equinoxes, in March
and September, when the moon is nearest the earth.

Winds have also a powerful influence over the tidal cur-
rents, especially in narrow seas, keeping them back when
blowing from an opposite quarter, and quickening their flow
when pursuing the same direction ; but the motion of the
water in the tide-wave is totally unlike that in an ordinary
surface-wave, such as the wind produces ; and it differs, also,
in affecting the ^vhole depth of the ocean equally from the
bottom to the surface, while the wind-waves, even in the
most violent storms, agitate it to a very trifling depth. In
the deep water of the ocean, the tidal-wave does not exceed
twelve feet in height.

The ancients knew that the time of high water, and also
the height of the tide, were in some way connected with the
age of the moon. It was the illustrious Sir Isaac Newton

SPEING TIDE.

36 WIND-WAVES.

who made the first attempt to explain the phenomena of
the tides, on the principle of the influence of gravitation,
the grand agent in the movement of the universe.

What are called ivind-waves are small at their first origin,
commencing with a mere ripple, or,^s the sailors term it, a
" cat's-paw." But each wave, as it advances, acquires in-
creased height by the continued pressure of the wind. Thus
it is that the larger waves are not developed in narrow seas,
or where the wind blows off the land ; they require breadth
of water and continued pressure for their formation. The
greatest waves known are those off the Cape of Good Hope,
under the influence of a north-west gale (the storm-wind of
that region), which drifts the swell around the Cape, after
traversing obliquely the vast area of the South Atlantic. In
such gales, the waves attain a height of above forty feet, so
that two ships in the trough of the sea, with such a wave
between them, lose sight of one another from their decks.
Off Cape Horn, also, the waves reach upwards of thirty feet
in height. In our own seas, they rarely exceed eight or
nine feet.

The crossing of waves, instead of dividing the water into
parallel ridges, causes the pitching and rolling so distressing
to passengers and trying to vessels. When more than two
series of waves cross one another, they give rise to the term
chopping seas.

Whatever relates to the color of the ocean is a matter on
which many and various opinions have been expressed.
Very curious is the statement of Martyn, one of the early voy-
agers, attributing these changes in the sea to the color of the
skies : *' If," he says, " the sky be clear, the sea looks as blewe
as saphire ; if it is covered somewhat with clouds, the sea is
as greene as an emeralde ; if there be a foggy sunshine, it
looketh yellow ; if it be quite darke, like unto the color of
indigo ; in stormy and cloudy weather, like blacke sope, or
exactly like unto the color of blacke leade."

VABIETT OF C0L0R8 OF THE SEA. 37

The Greenland sea varies in color from ultramarine blue
to olive green, differences which have been found, on exam-
ining the water, were due to the presence of innumerable
minute animals. The red, brown, and white patches of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, are attributed to the presence of
swarms of animalculae, and the colors of the Red and Yellow
Seas to matters of vegetable origin. On both sides of the
island of Ceylon, during the south-west monsoon, a broad
expanse of the sea assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter
than brick-dust; and this is confined to a space so distinct,
that a line seems to separate it from the green water which
flows on either side. On examining some of this water with
a microscope, it proved to be filled with animalculse, prob-
ably similar to those which have been noticed near the
shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted
a name to the Yermillion Sea off the coast of California.

Captain Kingman passed through a tract of water twenty-
three miles in breadth, and of unknown length, so full of
minute (and some not very minute) phosphorescent animal
organisms, as to present the aspect at night of a boundless
plain covered with snow. Some of the animals were ser-
pents six inches in length, of a transparent jelly-like nature.
This appearance is noticed by Dr. Collingwood as a '* milky
sea," the whole surface composed of a white fluid-like milk.
The contrast of the ocean, thus colored, with the dark sky,
is very striking.

This proceeds from a great variety of marine organisms,
some soft and gelatinous, and some minute shelly animals.
They mostly shine when excited by a blow or by agitation
of the water, as wheu a fish darts along or oar dashes, or,
in the wake of a ship, when the water closes on its track.
In the latter case are often seen what appear to be lamps
of light rising from under the keel, and floating out to the
surface, apparently of many inches in diameter. One of the
most remarkable of these luminous creatures is a species of

38 LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA.

shell animals with mufF-shaped bodies upwards of an inch in
length, which, when thrown down on deck, burst into a glow
so strong as to appear like lumps of white-hot iron.

There are few subjects of study more interesting than
the luminous appearance presented by the sea under various
circumstances. That the sea, the great extinguisher of fire,
should be turned into flame — that the darkness of night
should be illuminated by the luminous glow which bathes
every ripple and breaks over every wave — that globes of
light should traverse the ocean, or that lightning flashes
should coruscate no less in the billows of the sea than in the
clouds of the air — are all facts which seize on the imagina-
tion. Nor is the interest lessened by the knowledge that
all these phenomena are produced by animals whose home
is in the great waters ; that not only do the fiery bodies of
large animals give out steady patches of light, but that of
the myriad animalculse with which the sea teems, like motes
in a sunbeam, each contributes its tiny scintillation, the ag-
gregate forming a soft and lovely radiance.

A vivid description of a luminous sea is given by an emi-
nent French naturalist, as follows :

*' It exhibited to us in all its splendor the glorious phe-
nomena of its phosphorescence. For more than an hour the
waters around us seemed to be kindled into a blaze of light,
as if they had borrowed some of the hidden fires of Strom-
boli. The waves, as they broke along the rocky shores of
Sicily, encircled it with a glowing band of light, while every
projecting cliff was circled with a wreath of fire. Our boat
seemed as if it were opening for itself a passage through
some glowing and fused liquid, while in its wake it left a
long track of light, each stroke of the oar brightening the
bosom of the waves with a broad silver gleam. The water
that was taken up in a bucket presented the appearance of
molten lead, as it was poured back into the sea. Every-
where over this brilliant surface of calm light, myriads of

LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 39

dazzling green sparks and globes of fire were flashing,
quivering, and dying amidst the undulations of the waves,
and these sparks and globes of fire were so many living
beings. At certain times of the year these microscopical
beings acquire the property of emitting light at each mus-
cular contraction ; and hence every movement in these ani-
malculse is made apparent by a luminous flash."

Mr. Edmonds alludes to the luminous waters frequently
witnessed in Mount's Bay :

'* On these occasions, particularly when the night is dark,
if a fish rise from the calm water, a most brilliant and beau-
tiful effect is produced. Were you, from a boat, to look
down into the sea while fishes were darting to and fro, their
paths would be luminous, and the deep would be traversed
by streams of light as bright and beautiful as those of stars
shooting through the sky. If you draw in your fishing-line,
it will appear as a line of fire, and the fish at the end of it
like a ball of fire coming near you. A net suspended in
the sea appears * like a brilliant lacework of fire,' and the
fishes may be seen carefully avoiding it. When fishermen
by night wish to know whether any fish are near, they stamp
on the bottom of the boat, and instantly, if there are any
beneath, they will be seen darting away in all directions."

To these observations may be added the interesting de-
scription of this phenomenon, as witnessed in the vicinity of
the Plata by the distinguished Darwin :

'' One very dark night the sea presented a very beautiful
and singular appearance. There was a fresh breeze, and
every part of the surface which, during the day, is seen as
foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove be-
fore her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her
wake she was followed by a milky train. As far as the eye
reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the sky
above the horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid
flames, was not so utterly obscure as over the vault of the

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE OCEAN 41

heavens. Farther south, the sea is seldom phosphorescent,
probably owing to the s,carcity of organic beings in that
part of the ocean. The same torn and irregular particles of
gelatinous matter seem, in the Southern as well as in the
Northern Hemisphere, to be the common cause of this phe-
nomenon. The particles were so minute as easily to pass
through fine gauze, yet many were distinctly visible by the
naked eye. The water, when placed in a tumbler and agi-
tated, gave out sparks, but a small portion in a watch-glass
scarcely ever was luminous. All these particles retain a
certain degree of irritability. My observations gave a dif-
ferent result. Having used the net one night, I allowed it
to become partially dry, and twelve hours after, having
occasion to use it again, I found the whole surface sparkle
as brightly as when first taken out of the water. It does
not appear probable, in this case, that the particles could
have remained so long alive. When the waves scintillate with
bright green sparks, it is generally owing to minute shell-
covered animals ; but there can be no doubt that very many
other pelagic animals, when alive, are phosphorescent. The
phenomenon is the result of the decomposition of the or-
ganic particles, by which process the ocean becomes purified.''

Having briefly glanced at some of the most important
features of the world of waters, it may not be amiss to call
attention to some of its principal divisions, and these are
^YQ'. the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic
Oceans. Although no one portion is completely set off from
the rest, it has been found desirable to arrange it into these
divisions.

The extreme breadth of the Atlantic system is about five
thousand miles, and its narrowest part about sixteen hun-
dred miles. The extent of its shores is immense — above
fifty thousand miles — several thousand more than the Pacific
and Indian Oceans combined. The Atlantic, from its relation
to civilized countries, and as the most frequented highway

42 DI8G0VEBY OF THE PACIFIC.

of communication for commerce, is regarded as the most im-
portant, and is, consequently, much better known than the
Pacific. Its waters wash the eastern coasts of North and
South America, and the western coasts of Europe and
Africa. Its northern and southern extremities are the Polar
waters.

The Mediterranean Sea, one of the arms or tributaries of
the Atlantic, with which it is connected by the Straits of
Gibraltar, is one of the greatest inlan^' seas of the world.
Its shores were the successive seats of the governments
of the earth for thousands of years. It was the central
ocean of the Ancients, on which all the early discoveries
and hardships of navigation were experienced.

The Pacific was discovered by Balboa, in 1513, not quite
four hundred years ago. The causes that led up to this im-
portant discovery, and the effect it produced upon what
was then called the Old World, are matters of common his-
tory, and need not be related nor discussed here. As a high-
way of commerce, it does not compare with its sister, the
Atlantic, though each decade increases its importance in this
respect ; for the light of the Gospel, and the rigor of modern
research, and commercial enterprise, is gradually but surely
opening up a lively correspondence and communication be-
tween the civilized inhabitants of North and South America
bounding its eastern shores, and the benighted hosts of Asia
on its west.

The Indian Ocean, an arm of the Pacific, and embraced
by Africa on the west, Asia on the north, and Australia on
the east, possesses a remarkable interest, inasmuch as the
earliest voyage on record, made by the navy of Solonic, was
taken on its romantic waters.

CHAPTER 11.

THE FROZEN OCEAN.

'HOSE of us who pass our days in a sun-favored
and temperate portion of the earth, with
every comfort we could desire around us, the
green face of nature only covered at brief
wintry intervals with a mantle of snow,
and a wide-spread fertility attesting the
bounty of an indulgent Providence, cannot realize the dark
and repelling picture of the frozen North.

We can only fancy, with a shudder, a winter of nine
months reigning over the boundless regions of ice ; and we
might wonder how human nature is able to support such an
intensity of cold with its attendant privations, did we not
know that the inhabitants of this bleak climate, accustomed
to hardships which we could not endure, pursue an exist-
ence which we might consider miserable, but which they,
active, self-reliant, and with but few wants to satisfy, except
the cravings of hunger, are contented with, and would not,
probably, exchange for what we might consider a hap-
pier lot.

It is astonishing what amount of cold can be endured by
the human frame. Dr. Kane, one of the Arctic navigators,
records, 7th of February, 1851, a frost three degrees below
the freezing-point of mercury ! Only a few degrees above
this, the crew of the ship engaged in the expedition per-
formed a farce, called " The Mysteries and Miseries of New
York.'^ One of the sailors had to perform the part of a dam-
sel with bare arms, and when a cold flat-iron, which was

44 HUMAN END URANGE OF COLD.

employed in the play, touched his skin, the sensation was
like that of burning with a hot iron. On the 22d of the
same month (Washington's birthday), there was another
theatrical performance. "The ship's thermometer outside
was at 46^ ; inside, the audience and actors, by aid of lungs,
lamps, and hangings, got as high as SO*^, only sixty-two de-
grees below the freezing-point, perhaps the lowest atmos-
pheric record of a theatrical representation. It was a
strange thing altogether. The condensation was so exces-
sive, that we could barely see the performers ; they walked
in a cloud of vapor. Any extra vehemence of delivery was
accompanied hj volumes of smoke. Their hands steamed ;
when an excited Thespian took off his coat, it smoked like a
dish of potatoes."

As another instance of extreme cold in these fearful re-
gions, it may be mentioned how, under a temperature of
15° below zero. Captain M'Clure, one of the most adven-
turous of Arctic explorers, spent the night of the 13th of
October, 1851, on the ice, amid prowling bears, and that
without food or amunition, his only guide being a pocket
compass, which, however, the darkness, aided by mist and
drift, rendered useless. He, nevertheless, wiled away the
time by sleeping three hours on " a famous bed of soft
dry snow," and by wandering ten miles by the crow's flight,
over a surface so rugged with ice and snow as to endanger
his limbs. It was at the close of a walking expedition of
nine days, on a very short allowance of food and water, he
accomplished his desire of reaching the winter quarters of
the expedition, so as to ensure a warm meal ready for his
men when they arrived at their destination.

Edward Parry mentions his experience of Arctic rigors
thus: " Our bodies appeared to adapt themselves so readily
to the climate, that the scale of our feelings was soon re-
duced to a lower standard than ordinary, so that after being
some days in a temperature of 15° or 20°, it felt quite

EFFECTS OF THE COLD. 45

mild and comfortable when the thermometer rose to zero —
that is, when it was 32° below the freezing-point !" One
of Dr. Kane's crew put an icicle into his mouth to crack it,
when the thermometer was at 28°; one fragment stuck
to his tongue, and two to his lips, each taking off a bit of
skin, burning it off, if this term might be used in an inverse
sense. The same writer observes, " that at 25° the
beard, eyebrows, eyelashes, &c., acquire a delicate, white,
and perfectly enveloping cover of venerable hoar-frost. The
moustache and under-lip form pendulous beads of dangling
ice. Put out your tongue, and it instantly freezes to this
icy crusting, and a rapid effort and some hand-aid will be
required to liberate it. Your chin has a trick of freezing to
your upper jaw by the biting aid of your beard. My eyes
have often been so glued as to show that even a wink may
be unsafe.''

One day Dr. Kane walked himself into "a comfortable
perspiration " with the thermometer seventy degrees below
freezing-point ! A breeze sprang up, and instantly the sen-
sation of cold was intense. His beard, coated before with
icicles, seemed to bristle with increased stiffness, and an un-
fortunate hole in the back of his mitten " stung like burning
coal." On the next day, while walking, his beard and mous-
tache became one solid mass of ice. Inadvertently he put
out his tongue, and it instantly froze fast to his lip. This
being nothing new, costing only a smart pull and a bleeding
afterwards, he put up his mittened hands to " blow hot," and
thaw the unruly member from its imprisonment. Instead of
succeeding, his mitten was itself a mass of ice in a moment;
it fastened on the upper side of his tongue, and flattened it
out like a batter-cake between the two disks of a hot griddle.
It required all his care with the bare hands to release it, and
then not without laceration.

Such is the relation of the rigors experienced by Arctic
navigators in the frozen regions. The Esquimaux, on the

46 EARL T ARCTIC VO YAGERS.

approach of winter, cut the hard ice into tall square blocks,
with which they construct their dwellings. They pass their
nights covered with bear and seal skins, near a stove or
lamp, every portion of the hut being closed against the
piercing cold. Their provisions are often frozen so hard as
to require to be cut with a hatchet. The whole of the inside
of the hut sometimes becomes lined with a thick crust of
ice ; and, if a window is opened for a moment, the moisture
of the confined air it immediately precipitated in the form
of a shower of snow.

Without interest and adventure to stimulate the energies
and excite the curiosity of mankind, these gloomy regions
might not, probably, have been penetrated by the brave
seamen who have imperilled their lives amidst those icy
waters or on the inhospitable coasts, and whose explorations
have developed and tested more heroism and skill than,
perhaps, the exploration and discovery of all the rest of the
world since the age of Columbus. But for these Arctic voy-
agers, we should have been ignorant of the strange and
wonderful countries of the North, and their inhabitants.
These voyages originated in an attempt to discover a shorter
passage to India across the Northern seas. In 1553, an ex-
pedition of three vessels for this purpose left England. The
results to two of these ships were most disastrous; the
crews, seventy in number, and the commander of the expe-
dition. Sir Hugh Willoughby, being frozen to death. Since
this period, upwards of a hundred expeditions have been
made in search of the North-west Passage — that is, a navi-
gable channel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, round
the northern margin of America. Among the heroic leaders
of these expeditions are the conspicuous names of Parry,
John and James Ross, Back, Franklin, Beecher, Austin, Kel-
lett, Osborne, Collinson, M'Clure, Rae, Simpson, M'Clin-
tock, Hayes, Kane, Hall, and other famous men.

The fate of the unfortunate Sir John Franklin, one of the

MODERN EXPEDITIONS. 4T

bravest and boldest of the Arctic explorers, is well known :
how, in 1845, when nearly sixty years of age, he started on
his last and fatal voyage to the frozen regions, with the
ships "Erebus" and '-Terror." The vessels were seen three
months afterwards, but for eleven years their fate remained
a mystery, although twenty expeditions were sent, at the
cost of a million sterling, to discover traces of the missing
crews. In 1857 the '*Fox," commanded by the gallant
M'Clintock, was fitted out, at the expense of Lady Franklin,
on the same mission ; and in 1859, the sad end of Franklin
and his associates was ascertained. The " Erebus" and
" Terror" had been beset by ice and abandoned in 1848 ; the
commander himself had died the year previously (11th of
June), and was thus spared the agony of witnessing and
sharing the sufferings of his crews, all of whom had, it is
presumed, perished on those fearful shores. Many sad and
interesting relics of the Franklin expedition were recovered
and brought home. The discoverers obtained their infor-
mation in a remarkable manner : lying amongst some stones,
which had evidently fallen off from the top of a pillar, was
a small tin case, deposited on this spot by the crews of the
abandoned vessels and containing a record of the long-lost
expedition.

It was in one of the attempts in search of Franklin and
his companions that the discovery of the North-west Passage
was effected in 1850, by the successful though perilous ex-
ertions of Captain M'Clure, who had shared in the Arctic
expedition of Captain Back in 1836, and in the voyage of
James Ross in 1848. Captains M^Clure and Collinson
were sent out in the "Investigator" and the "Enterprise."
The course of the latter vessel was chiefly in open waters,
close to our shores ; but M'Clure steered in a more northern
route, and encountered fearful perils from the ice in those
storm-bound regions. During four years he underwent
trials and exposures, which would have daunted many a

48 DISCOVBBT OF THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.

navigator, however accustomed to these dangers. His ves-
sel, several times beset by ice, was at length so firmly
locked in, that M'Clure, seeing no hope of release, decided
upon sending thirty of his crew to make their way home-
wards ; some by way of North America, up the Mackenzie
River, and the others by Cape Spencer, Beechey Island;
while he himself, with the remainder of the officers and
crew% would stay by the ship, spend a fourth winter in those
dreary regions, and then, if not relieved, endeavor to retreat
upon Lancaster Sound. Such was the arrangement, w^hen
an incident occurred that thrilled their hearts with joy.
The captain and his first lieutenant were walking near the
ship conversing, when they perceived a figure rapidly ap-
proaching them from the rough ice at the entrance of the
bay. When about a hundred yards from them, he shouted
and gesticulated, but without enabling them to guess who
he might be. At length he approached, and to their aston-
ishment thus announced himself: "I am Lieutenant Pym,
late of the * Herald,' and now in the * Resolute.' Captain
Kellett is in her at Denby Island." Lieutenant Pym had
come from Melville Island, in consequence of one of Captain
Kellett's parties having discovered an inscription left by
M'Clure on Parry's famous sandstone rock in Winter Harbor.

The ship was abandoned, and the commander and his
crew, released from a very perilous position, returned to
England in 1854. Although he was obliged to leave his
ship blocked in mountains of ice, and had to walk and sledge
over hundreds of miles of ice, to reach other ships w^hich
had entered the frozen regions in the opposite direction,
still, he had water under him all the way, and was thus the
first commander of a vessel who really solved the problem
of the famous North-west Passage.

The Arctic and Antarctic Circles are the boundaries
which separate the frigid and temperate zones. At the
poles themselves there is only one day of six months, during

FEARFUL INCIDENT IN THE FROZEN SEAS, 49

which the sun never sets, and one night of six months, when
the sun never rises. At the Arctic Circle the greatest
length of continuous light is twenty-four hours, at the sum-
mer solstice or Midsummer's day ; while, at the same time,
at the Antarctic Circle, the sun is twenty-four hours below
the horizon, and the reverse at the opposite seasons of the
year.

The coldness of the Polar regions arises from the fact of
the rays of the sun striking the earth obliquely, as, at the
equator, the heat is produced by the sun's rays falling upon
the earth vertically. In the Arctic Ocean — that part of the
universal sea which surrounds the North Pole — lie the most
fearful dangers which can beset the seaman on his perilous
course, arising from floating ice, the ship being frozen in, the
fogs, the blinding snow, the darkness, the storms, and the
tides and currents, comparatively unknown, which he has to
encounter.

The following thrilling incident, described in the West-
minster Review, is one of the most fearful histories that
have been recorded :

" One serene evening in the middle of August, 1775, Cap-
tain Warrens, the master of a Greenland whale-ship, found
himself becalmed among an immense number of icebergs, in
about 77^ of north latitude. On one side, and within
a mile of his vessel, these were of an immense height and
closely wedged together, and a succession of snow-covered
peaks appeared behind each other as far as the eye could
reach, showing that the ocean was completely blocked up in
that quarter, and that it had probably been so for a long
period of time. He did not feel altogether satisfied with his
situation; but, there being no wind, he could not move one
way or the other, and he therefore kept a strict watch, know-
ing that he would be safe as long as the icebergs continued in
their respective places. About midnight the wind rose to
a gale, accompanied by thick showers of snow, while. ^ sue-

50 FEARFUL INCIDENT IN THE FROZEN SEAS,

cession of thundering, grinding, and crashing noises gave
fearful evidence that the ice was in motion. The vessel re-
ceived violent shocks every moment, for the haziness of the
atmosphere prevented those on board from discovering in
what direction the open water lay, or if there was actually
any at all on either side of them. The night was spent in
tacking as often as any case of danger happened to present
itself, and in the morning, the storm abating, he found, to his
great joy, that his ship had not sustained any serious injury.
He remarked with surprise that the accumulated icebergs,
which had the preceding evening formed an impenetrable
barrier, had been separated and disengaged by the wind,
and that in one place a canal of open sea wound its course
among them as far as the eye could discern.

It was two miles beyond the entrance of this canal that a
ship made its appearance about noon. The sun shone
brightly at the time, and a gentle breeze blew from the
north. At first some intervening icebergs prevented the
captain from distinctly seeing anything but her masts; but
he was struck by the strange manner in which her sails
were disposed, and w^ith the dismantled aspect of her yards
and rigging. She continued to go before the wind for a few
furlongs, and then grounding upon the low icebergs, re-
mained motionless. His curiosity was bo much excited that
he immediately leaped into his boat, with several seamen,
and rowed towards her.

On approaching, he observed that her hull was consider-
ably weather-beaten, and not a soul appeared upon the deck,
which was covered with snow to a considerable depth. He
hailed her crew several times, but no answer was returned.
Previous to stepping on board, an open port-hole near the
main chains caught his eye, and on looking in he perceived
a man reclining on a chair, with writing materials be-
fore him ; but the feebleness of the light made everything
indistinct. The party went upon the deck, and having

62 FROZEN TO BEATS.

uncovered the hatchway, they descended below to the cabin
which the captain had viewed through the port-hole. A
tremor seized him as he entered it. Its inmate retained his
former position, and seemed to be insensible to the presence
of the strangers. He was found to be a corpse, and a green
damp mold had covered his cheeks and forehead, and veiled
his eye-balls He had a pen in his hand, and a log-book lay
before him, the last sentence in whose unfinished page ran
thus: *' — November 11th, 1762. We have now been en-
closed in the ice seventeen days. The fire went out yester-
day, and our master has been trying ever since to kindle it
again, but without success. His wife died this morning.
There is no relief"

The captain and his men hurried from the spot w^ithout
uttering a word. On entering the principal cabin, the
first object that attracted their attention was the dead body
of a female, reclining on a bed in an attitude of deep interest
and attention. Her countenance retained the freshness of
life, and a contraction of the limbs alone showed that her
form was inanimate. Seated upon the floor w^as the corpse
of an apparently young man, holding a steel in one hand and
a flint in the other, as if in the act of striking fire upon some
tinder which lay beside him. In the forepart of the vessel
several sailors were found lying dead in their berths, and
the body of a boy was found crouched at the bottom of the
gangway stairs.

Neither provisions nor fuel could be discovered any-
where ; but Captain Warrens was prevented, by the super-
stitious prejudices of his seamen, from examining the ves-
sel as minutely as he wished to have done. He therefore
carried away the log-book already mentioned, and returning
to his own ship, immediately steered to the southward,
deeply impressed with the awful example which he had just
witnessed of the danger of navigating the Polar seas in
high northern latitudes. On returning to England, he

AWAED TO CAPT. FBAJ^CIS HALL. 53

made various inquiries respecting vessels that had disap-
peared in an unknown way ; and by comparing these results
with the information which was afforded by the written
documents in his possession, he ascertained the name and
history of the imprisoned ship and of her unfortunate mas-
ter, and found that she had been frozen in thirteen years
previous to the time of his discovering her imprisoned in
the ice."

One of the most successful Polar expeditions was that of
the late Capt. Francis Hall, ship Polaris.

The Geographical Society of Paris voted, at its session,
April 21, 1875, the biennial prize, a gold medal, devoted to
Arctic explorations, to Capt. Hall. In giving a brief
account of his explorations, we shall quote a few extracts
from the report of the Geographical Society, both as a de-
served tribute to the memory of Capt. Hall, and as helping
to furnish the reader with a description of the voyages
undertaken by him.

" The Prize Commission has before it several enterprises,
which have had for their object either Smith's Sound, East-
ern Greenland, Spitzbergen, or Nova Zembla. All of these de-
serve our tribute of praise ; but especially that of ih.Q Polaris,
the ship in which the American Francis Hall, passed be-
yond Smith's Sound and Kennedy's Channel, as far as 82^
16^'' — that is to say, the nearest to the pole that any vessel
has reached under sail — has particularly commended the
unanimous vote of the Commission."

Capt. Hall was a veteran in arctic explorations. In 1850
he was seized with the desire to take part in the expedition
sent out in search for Franklin. Laying aside his grav-
ing-tools, he devoted all his leisure hours to the study of
the polar regions of America. He designed taking part in
the McClintock expedition, failing in which, ho resolved to
organize a new expedition. He succeeded in interesting
in his enterprise, Mr. Henry Grinnell and other distin-

54 PREPARATIONS FOR BIS POLAR EXPEDITION.

guished philanthropists ; be left New London, Conn., in 1860,
in the whale ship George Henry. The loss of his own boat
prevented him from completing his expedition; but he sat-
isfied himself, among otiier geographical determinations,
that what on previou.s charts had been marked as Fro-
bisher's straits is a long open bay, without any communi-
cation with the bay of Hudson.

On his return here, in 1862, he published the results of
his researches, in a work entitled, " Life with the Esqui-
maux." In 1864, he returned to the Polar regions with his
faithful companions, Joe and Hannah. The five succeeding
years he spenir in these regions in explorations. Sharing
the daily life of this rude people, lie made himself thoroughly
acquainted with their language, customs and traditions,
and thus Avas prepared on his return to this country, in
1869, for his great expedition to the Pole — the final object cf
all his eflbrts.

He busied himself very promptly in organizing it, ap-
pealing to Congress for assistance, and while awaiting its
action, sustained himself and his dusky friends, by lectures
upon his preceding voyages. He met with many hind-
rances, but finally obtained the use of a tug of 400 tons,
Avhich he admirably fitted up for its rough navigation in
the ice, significantly naming her the Polaris.

The following is an extract quoted from a letter written
by Capt. Hall, in 1869: '* There is a great sad blot upon the
present age, which ought to be Aviped out, and this is the
blank on our maps from about the parallel of 80° North
up to the North Pole. I, for one, hang mv head in shame,
when I think how many thousands of years ago it was that
God gave to man this beautiful world — the whole of it — to
subdue ; and yet that part of it which must be most interest-
ing and glorious, at least to me, remains as unknown to us as
though it had never been created. Neither glory nor money

VOYAGE OF THE POLARIS. 55

has caused me to devote my very life and soul to Arctic ex-
plorations."

The Polaris sailed from New London, July 3, 1871. Capt.
Hall died, November 8, 1871. Capt. Budington then took
charge of the expedition.

The voyage from this time on, and until most of its sur-
vivors providentially returned to their homes, is very sad,
though full of heroic endurance. The sad tale has been
read in most of our homes with moist eyes and aching
hearts ; how the Polaris left Thank God Harbor, drifted
south and west, sprung a leak, requiring the most constant
efforts to keep her from going down ; how, on that terrible
stormy night of October 15, 1872, it was thought the vessel
must sink, and orders were given to take to the ice. Instru-
ments, charts, boats, etc., were hurriedly transferred to the
floe ; but the drift changes its direction, the Polaris is re-
leased from her grim pressure, the floe parts assunder, and
the vessel, breaking from her moorings, drifts away in the
darkness and howling tempest, leaving Capt. Tyson and
eighteen of the crew on the ice. ** Several men were seen
hurrying toward the ship as she was leaving, but they failed
to reach her. The voice of the steward, John Herron, was
heard calling out, ' Good-bye, Polaris P^^

We will not attempt to picture the consternation of the
separated voyagers, nor try to describe their after adven-
tures; suffice it to say, that most of them marvelously
escaped the thousand dangers incidental to their perilous
position.

In concluding this meager description of the Polaris ex-
pedition, we quote from the closing paragraphs of the re-
port of the Paris Geographical Society :

*' In consideration of these results, your Prize Commis-
mission has judged it their duty to award to Captain
Francis Hall, the promoter and chief of the Polaris expedi-
tion, that which is otherwise due him for his previous

56 THE JEANNETTE EXPEDITION.

labors, the gold medal of the Roquette Foundation. But
Francis Hall, like his fellow countryman Kane, seven-
teen years before him, has fallen a victim to his suffer-
ings, and it is on a tomb that we must once more deposit a
crown. If we are denied the gratification of giving to
Francis Hall the medal which we have awarded him, we will
have at least the consolation of transmitting it to his family.
It will bear witness across the seas that death itself cannot
prevent the just tribute of your gratitude for services ren-
dered to geographical science. The Prize Commission
awards this year the gold medal of the Roquette Founda-
tion to the Arctic Explorer, Francis Hall, a medal which will
be sent to the family of the unfortunate explorer."

The Jeannette Expedition, — On July 8, 1879, about ten
years after Capt. Hall started out on his voyage of discovery
with the Polaris, Mr. James Gordon Bennett sent out an
Arctic expedition from San Francisco, commanded by Lieu-
tenant De Long, U. S. N. The details respecting route and
purpose were withheld from the public. The Jeannette was
early caught in the ice drift, and having no volition of her
own, was driven hither and thither by the mechanical impulses
of the pack for nearly two years. Thus day after day she
drifted like Coleridge's ancient mariner. In this manner
passed the year 1880 and the following spring, in monotony
and hopelessness, when she was finally overwhelmed, and
went down, June 11, 1881. Before she sank, provisions and
boats were transferred to the ice, and the crew camped on
an ice floe for four days, while preparations were being made
for a retreat southward. Provisions were abundant, and the
party, so long accustomed to danger, faced the perilous
situation with courage, each trying to improvise amusement
to raise the spirits of the party and make them forget for a
time the anxiety caused by the loss of tlie ship.

On June ITth, the entire party moved southward, hoping
to reach the New Siberian Islands, and from there by boat

SEPARATION OF THE BOATS. 57

to tlie coast of Siberia. Tliey had five sledges and boats
which carried nearly seven thousand pounds of provisions,
besides lire-arms, clothing, etc. There being only twenty-two
dogs, each man was obliged to assist in hauling the heavily
laden sledges. As the party proceeded southward, openings
in the ice became frequent, ^vhich had to be bridged over
with blocks of ice. This tedious work employed more than
one half their time.

As summer advanced, the floes became more broken, and
piled so as to form huge mounds which were often thirty feet
high. The dragging of the heavy sledges over this uneven
surface was a work of infinite danger and exhaustion, and
great was the rejoicing on July 29th when land was sighted.
It proved to be an island of considerable size and possessing
many valuable products. This land was named Bennett
Island. Game was found in abundance, and here the party
remained till August 7th, when open sea was discovered
southward. As the weather was favorable, De Long thought
it expedient to abandon the island and take to the sea in
boats.

The provisions were equally distributed among the three
boats. De Long appointed Melville to take command of the
whale boat, and placed the second cutter in charge of Lieut.
Chipp. De Long himself remained in the first cutter. He
then instructed them to keep as near him as possible, and in
case of separation to make for the Lena Delta. After a week
of fearful battling with the waves and heavy floes, they had
only gained forty miles, and starvation stared them in the
face if the Siberian coast could not soon be reached.

On the 12th of September the boats were caught in a ter-
rific storm in which they were separated. De Long reached
the Lena Delta seven days later with hardly sufiicient food to
last the party two days, and set out to find the nearest Rus-
sian settlement.

They were able to find game occasionally; but, owing to the

58 THE SAD FATE OF BE LONG.

illness of several of the men, progress was slow. Erickson
had for many days undergone most dreadful suffering on
account of his feet having been frozen. The very sinews and
muscles of his feet were exposed ; yet in this condition he was
forced to travel and carry a load of nearly forty pounds.
Thus the terrible journey continued till October 6th, when
Erickson died and was buried in the Lena River.

Their situation now became most desperate. The provi-
sions were entirely exhausted. Nindemann and Noros, being
the strongest of the party, set out, in obedience to their com-
mander, in search of relief. Having no food, they had to sub-
sist on pieces of their seal skin clothing. After untold suffer-
ing, they reached a E-ussian settlement, called Ku Mark
Surka, where they were kindly received. Through these peo-
ple they had the joy of learning that Melville and party were
in the neighboring settlement of Bulem. On meeting, expe-
riences were soon exchanged. Melville had barely escaped
being swamped at sea. Upon landing at Lena Delta they had
been fortunate in meeting natives and obtaining food. The
terrible condition of De Long was soon told Melville, who
immediately prepared to go to his relief after sending all
save Nindemann to Yakoutsk.

Melville with INindemann and two exiles started with ten
days provisions to the relief of De Long. They were gone
twenty-three days in a fruitless search, as a heavy snow storm
had completely covered the trail of Noros and Nindemann.
They continued the search, with starvation staring them
in the face, but no traces were found of the missing men,
although they traversed a distance of 663 miles.

Upon returning, Melville communicated with the Ameri-
can Minister at St. Petersburg, to whom he gave a full ac-
count of the expedition. Melville remained till the following
spring to continue the search for his lost comrades, but sent
nearly all the other survivors to the United States. March
16th, 1882, they again set out on their mission of mercy, hav-

HONORING THE BRA VE DEAD. 59

ing received instructions from tlie Secretary of Navy to spare
no pains for the recovery of tlie remains of the lost explorers.
They traveled over many miles without finding any traces of the
lost De Long party. Finally they came upon the remains
of a camp fire. Near by were found the bodies of De Long
and his brave followers deeply buried in the snow.

The bodies, thirteen in number, were placed in a common
grave and a cairn of stones was erected to mark the place, that
could be seen at a considerable distance.

Melville then made a thorough search for Lieut. Chipp and
j)arty, but was unsuccessful. Nothing bas ever been heard of
them since the boats were separated in the gale. They were
probably lost at sea.

Lieut. Danenhower, with the survivors of the Jeannette crew,
reached New York in May, 1881. Great interest and pity
was felt when the sad story was told, and Congress gener-
ously appropriated $25,000 to fit out a vessel with which to
prosecute a diligent search for the lost parties. The Imagers,
Commander Lieut. Berry, reached Wrangle Land, August,
1881. Three parties immediately commenced the search.
When found, the bodies were carefully conveyed to Yakoutsk,
where they were placed in caskets. They sailed for New
York, reaching there early in 1883. On the 22d of February,
the bodies were taken from the Brooklyn Navy Yard across
the bay to the battery, and then escorted through the streets
of New York by marines, regular troops and a vast concom'se
of people. On the 23d, they were conveyed to the Church
of Holy Trinity, where services were held before they were
consigned to their last resting-place.

Ovvinff to the unfortunate accident attending: the Jeannette
expedition, so early in its course, but few new geographical
determinations or scientific knowledge was attained, but by
wliatever we know of the awful sufierings and the unflinching
adherence to duty of the Jeannette crew, we are lead to
reverence the spirit of the brave and noble men who sacrificed
themselves for the good of many.

60 THE OBJECTS OF POLAR EXPLORATION.

The Greely ExpedAtion. — Lieat. Karl Weyprecht, as
Commander of a successful Austrian Expedition in 1872
and discoverer of Franz Josef Land, had become famous as
an able and daring explorer. When, therefore, he appeared
in September, 1875, before a meeting of German scientists
with an original and definite project for establishing a
series of co-operative Polar stations, his opinion carried
great weight. He pointed out that the nu^nerous costly
expeditions that had previously been sent out, had done
little more for physical research than to show that the Polar
regions offers one of the most fertile fields for the investiga-
tion of natural phenomena, particularly in reference to the
physical condition of the earth.

True, recent expeditions had been abundantly furnished witli
their scientific men and the most approved instruments, but
it was a fact that each expedition had had no fixed plans laid
down for the observation of phenomena, and tlie results had
been unsatisfactory to the scientific world. It lias long been
admitted that the laws governing the winds and the great
ocean currents will never be thoroughly understood until the
physical condition of the Polar basin and the movements of
the great ice masses are known. Hence the importance of
scientific explorations in Polar regions. There are also many
problems of magnetism and electricity wliich might have a
most interesting solution, provided systematic experiments
were conducted in the far north.

Weyprccht's plan was, that each country should establish
one or more Polar stations, to remain several years, and con-
duct a series of simultaneous observations according to a pre-
arranged plan. He thought that year by year these stations
might be gradually advanced toward the north, and finally, in
some favorable season, a dash might even be made to the Pole
itself He soon had many enthusiastic followers. In 1879
the International Polar Conference was organized and at once
took active measures to secure the co-operation of a sufficient

THE CIRCUMPOLAR STATIONS

Map Showing the Scientific Colonies Established in the; Arctic Circle
According to the Directions of the Polar Conference.

CmCUM.POLAR STATIONS. gl

number of governments. The United States readily acqui-
esced in the scheme. March 3, 1881, Congress made an
appropriation for the fitting out of two expeditions — one to
establish a station at Point Barrow on the northern coast of
Alaska — the other at Lady Franklin Bay in Smith's Sound.
The Point Barrow station was successfully established under
the command of Lieut. Rae. He remained two years and
carried out instructions to the letter. He returned safely to
San Francisco in August, 1883, and was commended for his
very successful work.

In July, 1881, the Polar Conference held its third meeting
at St. Petersburg and reported the requisite number of sta-
tions as secured.

It was decided that the observations at all the circum-Polar
stations should begin as soon after August 1, 1882, as possi-
ble and that they should be continued until September in the
following year.

The stations were finally resolved upon as follows :

United States — at Lady Franklin Bay, also Point Barrow.

Denmark — at Godthaub, in Greenland.

Germany — at Cumberland Sound, west side Davis' Strait and South
Georgia Islands,

England — at Fort Rae, near Great Slave Lake.

Russia — at Mouth of Lena River, and Nova Zembla.

Holland — at Dickson's Haven, near Mouth of Yenesei River.

Norway — at Bossekop.

Sweden — at Spitzbergen.

Austria — at Jan Mayen Island.

France — at Cape Horn.

Finland — at Sodankyla.

At this important meeting, a very elaborate programme for
work at each of the above stations was agreed upon. The
programme included meteorological and magnetic observa-
tions to be made every hour during the whole period, and on
the 1st and 15th of each month, observations were to be made
every 20 seconds at a certain hour at all of the stations. All
of the observations and calculations were finally to be pub-

62 THE VOYAGE TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY.

lished. This programme lias for the most part been success-
fully carried out, and the important and far-reaching results
will be made known to the world in due time.

Lieutenant Adolphus W. Greely, an able Officer in the
United States Signal Service, an enthusiast on the subject
of Arctic discovery, and a man of acknowledged bravery,
was appointed to take command of the Lady Franklin Bay
Expedition. Two other Acting Officers from the Signal Ser-
vice, Second Lieutenants Frederick F. Bislingbury and James
B. Lockwood were also selected. The expeditionary force
when completely organized consisted of twentj^-five men,
including Dr. Octave Pavy the surgeon of the party, and
two Esquimaux which were taken on board on the coast of
Greenland.

Lieutenant Greely sailed from St. Johns, N. F., July T,
1S81, on the steamship Proteus^ bound to Lady Franklin
Bay. Five days afterward, the expedition encountered
huge bodies of ice. Passing safelj through the pack, the
harbor of Godhaven, on the coast of Greenland, was reached.
Here the first stop was made, and fourteen dogs and two
sledges were taken on board, also several tons of walrus
flesh and dried fish. Upernavik, the last point of communi-
cation between Europe and America, was safely reached on
the 23d, where a six days halt was made to procure addi-
tional supplies. Proceeding due north, Melville Bay, which
usually abounds in the treacherous ice pack, was soon entered.
All went well. Tlie previous winter had been unusually
mild, and the ice had broken up some time before, leaving
the passage clear. Steaming onward at full speed, Littleton
Island was reached August 2. Three hours later Cape
Sabine was passed. Here the Neptune the following year was
turned back, and the Proteus^ in 1883, was crushed in the pack;
strange to say Lieut. Greely passed through at full speed, and
August 4th arrived in Lady Franklin Bay. Here the first
obstruction was found. For seven days he was detained by an

WOBK OF THE OREELY ARCTIC COLON T. 63

immense barrier of ice from twenty to fifty feet tliick, when
within only a few miles of his destination. The paclv finally
broke up, allowing the vessel to pass tli rough, and tiiey arrived
at Fort Discovery, where Greely had decided to estabhsh tlie
station. The work of unloading the stores and building a
house began at once. Lieut. Greely named tlie station Foi-t
Conger, in honor of Senator Conger of Michigan, who liad
been instrumental in securing the passage of the bill which
authorized the expedition.

The jProteus left the party on August 18 and returned in
safety to St. Johns, N. F. The comparative ease witli which
tlie Froteus made the vojage to and from Fort Conger was
unfortunate in one respect : it blinded people as to the real
dangers of 1 he route. The impression seemed to prevail, that
the difficulties of the way had been exaggerated, and tliat
Greely could be reached with case. It was forgotten that
only three vessels had ever before been successful in passing-
Kane Sea, and they only with the greatest difficulty.

The party itself seems to havQ, been blinded to the fact,
that it miglit be impossible for another vessel to reach them
for years. They confidently expected another vessel would be
sent to visit them the next summer, and again in 1883, as had
been promised. With courageous hearts, and witli no appre-
hensions for the future, they settled down to their work. A
large house had been built to contain their instruments, sup-
plies, etc. They immediately began scientific work. Beside the
work required of them by the International Series, they made
voluntary observations covering almost every field of natural
science. These included the g^dvanic earth currents in con-
nection with magnetic and auroral phenomena, atmospheric
electricity, the growth and structure of ice, temperature of the
soil, snow and ice, hydrographical, spectroscopical and pendu-
lum observations, etc. They accuraulatod large collections of
Zoological, Geological and Botanical specimens. They also
engaged in the more brilliant work of exploration. One of

64 THE HIGHEST POINT EVER REACHED.

these exploring parties succeeded in pushing farther north
than any discoverer had ever done before. It is briefly
described in a dispatch from Greely to the Signal Office on
his homeward voyage in 1884: — " For the first time in three
centuries England yields the honor of the farthest north.
Lieut. Lockwood and Sergeant Brainerd, May 13, reached
Lockwood Land, lat. 83^ 24' N., long. 44^ 5' W. They saw
from 2,000 ft. elevation no land north or N.W , but to north-
east Greenland, Cape Robert Lincoln, lat. 83° 35', long. 38°.
Lieut. Lockwood was turned back in 1883 by open water on
North Greenland shore, the party barely escaping drift into
the Polar Ocean. Dr. Pavy, in 1882, followed Markham's
route, was adrift one day in the Polar Ocean, north of Cape
Joseph Henry, and escaped to land abandoning nearly every-
thino" "*********

This unparalleled reach was made May 13th, 1882.
Parry, in 1827 reached lat. 79°. Dr. Kane, in 1854, lat.
80° 30'. Dr. Hayes, 81° 31 in 1861. Hall, 82° 17^ in 1871
and Nares, 83° 20' in 1876. Lieut. Lockwood reached 83°
24', being four miles farther north than civilized man had
ever been before, but saw and computed 83° 35', which most
northern point he named Cape itobert Lincoln. Lieut.
Greely himself, in the summer of '82, discovered Lake Hazen
in the interior of Grinnell Land. This Lake, about one-fourth
the size of Lake Erie, is the most northern body of fresh
water on the globe. Lying near this were two ranges named
respectively after Senator Conger and the late President
Garfield. Here were found evidences of a former Esquimaux
Village, in all probability, the most northern habitation ever
attempted by man.

Lieut. Greely's instructions, before leaving the United
States, had been to remain at Lady Franklin Bay two years.
Vessels were to be sent to the station in 1882, and also in
1883, which were to bring " supplies for, and such additions
to, the present party as are deemed needful." If these vessels

QBEELY'S RETREAT TO CAPE SABINE. 65

were unable to reach Greely, they were to land a portion of
their supplies on the coast of Grinnell Land and at Littleton
Island. In case neither vessel reached the station, Lieut.
Greely was to abandon it, not later than Sept. 1, 1883, and
proceed southward by boats until Jie should meet the relief
vessel at Littleton Island.

Lieut. Greely remained at Fort Conger two years, and,
receiving no tidings from the United States, in accordance
with his instructions, he abandoned the station, Aug. 9, 1883,
and, with his entire party in good health, set out for Cape
Sabine, where he arrived two months later. The journey
was attended with much suffering and many narrow escapes.
At Baird's Inlet, the boats had to be abandoned. For thirty
days they were afloat in Smith's Sound on an ice floe, when
they were providentially driven upon Cape Sabine. Here
they learned of the loss of the Proteus^ which had been sent
out to them with supplies in 1883, and to their dismay, saw
that another long Arctic winter, with scanty food, was before
them. The food brought with them from Fort Conger was
exhausted ; only a small quantity of food was found that had
been saved from the Proteus. The prospect was most dis-
heartening. Game abounded in abundance, but could not be
secured on account of the loss of their boats. As a last
resource from threatened starvation, Greely sent Elison,
Rice, Linn and Fredericks to Cape Isabella, thirty miles dis-
tant, to find, if possible, the beef cached by Captain Nares in
1879. The four men set out on their perilous journey,
and reached their destination in four days time. They found
the meat and started on their return journey ; a strong gale
was blowing, and it was intensely cold. Elison suffered
greatly from thirst, and to relieve it ate snow against the
advice of his companions. His hands became wet, and were
soon frozen. His mouth and tongue |were blistered. His
feet also were frozen. He was placed in his sleeping bag
and the others worked over him the entire night to restore

66 EXECUTION OF PRIVATE HENRY.

circulation. The next day they resumed the journey. Elison
soon gave out, and begged them to leave him to die and push
on with the meat. They left the meat cached, and continued
the march ; Elison having to be supported at nearly every
step. Linn next gave out, and it was decided then that Rice
should leave them and go on to camp for assistance. The
men remained in their sleeping bags until twenty-four hours
later, when Searg't Brainerd reached them with restoratives,
which soon revived them. The remainder of the relief party
soon arrived, and they were taken into camp. Elison lost the
use of his feet, and all of his fingers and thumbs. Linn never
recovered entirely from the exposure. The situation now of
the little band was most critical, on account of the failure to
bring the meat from Cape Isabella. They were at last
obliged to resort to soup made of boiled seal-skin, mixed
with reindeer moss and small shrimps. This was an extremely
innutritions and indigestible diet. The men rapidly grew
weak, and after January 1st the death rate was appalling.

We have now to record a very serious incident, which is
the only blot on a long chapter of heroism and unselfishness.
Private Henry had many times been caught in the act of
stealing provisions. Lieut. Greely's expostulations and
warnings were of no avail. At last Greely, feeling that the
safety of all depended upon Henry's removal, ordered him to
be shot, which was quietly done, and the entire justice of the
act was concurred in by the rest of the party, and has since
been sanctioned by public opinion.

One more effort was made to obtain the meat which had
been abandoned by the Elison party. Rice and Fredericks
volunteered to go for it, and bravely started forth. But they
were both weak from their scanty diet, and after wandering
three days, they became completely exhausted. Rice sank
down and died in his comrade's arms. Fredericks, after burying
his friend, nerved himself for a mighty effort, and after three
days wandering, succeeded in finding his way back to camp

SAILING OF THE RELIEF SQUADRON. 57

again. His return, alone and empty-handed, cut off all hope
from the despairing party ; nothing remained, but to die by
a gradual process of starvation.

At the time Greely was carrying out his plans and doing
his meritorious work at Fort Conger, the Government at
home were taking measures to fulfill their part of the agree-
ment, to dispatch supplies in both the following years. The
I^eptune, in 1882, was fitted out with supplies for the
station at Fort Conger, but she found Smith's Sound an
impassable barrier of ice, and after battling with the pack
from July until September, she turned back and returned
to St. Johns.

In June of 1883, another Relief Expedition was fitted out,
under Lieut. Garlington, bound for Fort Conger and points
south, where supplies were to be cached. But misfortune
awaited the trial. Not far from Cape Sabine the Proteus was
crushed in an ice nip and sank. Her crew were rescued by
the Yantic and returned to St. Johns, with nothing accom-
plished for the men whose lives were already in peril. Blame
is attached to the management of the Expedition on account of
the failure of the Proteus to land a greater quantity of sup-
plies at Cape Sabine or Littleton Island, before attempting to
go farther north in the ice pack, thereby risking the loss of
nearly all the stores, which caused the suffering that soon
followed, when Greely and his men returned to Cape Sabine,
where they expected to find sufficient supplies.

Notwithstanding the ill-fated results of the former expedi-
tions, and the general opinion that the Greely party could not
have survived the last hard winter. Congress promptly appro-
priated another large sum for making one more attempt to
find the lost explorers. England kindly offered the use of
the steamship Alert to aid in the search, and expressed great
sympathy. The Expedition was commanded by Commander
W. S. Schley, and consisted of three ships, the Thetis^ the
Bear and the Alert. At no previous time had an expedition

68 DISCOVERY OF THE GBEELY CAMP.

been fitted out so thoroughly, and great hope was entertained
for its success.

The Belief Expedition left New York about May 1, 1884,
bound on its errand of mercy. The voyage to the ice-bound
north was made with few adventures, and the ice-pack prov-
ing favorable, they found themselves off Cape Sabine on the
22d of June. By whistling at frequent intervals, and by keep-
ing a sharp look-out, their efforts were at last rewarded.
The unusual sound of the steam-whistle had attracted the
attention of Long, who left the Greely tent, and went to a
large rock that afforded an extensive view of the sea. At
first nothing was visible, but he was finally rewarded by the
welcome sight of one of the relief vessels. Long succeeded
in attracting their attention by means of a signal flag, and a
small steam launch was immediately dispatched from the
ship, bearing Colwell and a few others. As the boat reached
the shore. Long ran to meet it, falling every few steps from
weakness. Colwell hailed him from the boat, and inquired,
<* Who all are there left ? " Long answered, " Seven left."
The cutter touched the shore, Colwell sprang quickly out and
greeted Long, who soon informed them where to find the
camp. He was then taken into the cutter, while the others
hastened to the camp. It. was found that the tent had been
partly blown down by a gale that had been blowing for sev-
eral days, so that there was very little room left inside. The
party had been too weak to raise it. Colwell and his com-
panions raised the tent and looked in; a sight of horror
greeted them. It is thus described by Commander Schley
in his Official Repoi't :

" Lieut. Greely was found in his sleeping bag, his body
inclined forward, and head resting upon his left hand. The
book of Common Prayer was open in his right hand. He
appeared to be reading prayers to Private Connell, whose
condition was most desperate and critical. He was cold to
the waist ; all sensation of hunger gone ; his eyes were fixed

STARVATION, 69

and glassy ; indeed his weakness was such, that it was with
difficulty that he swallowed the stimulants given him by
Drs. Green and Ames.

*' This tender scene, of a helpless, almost famished
officer consoling a dying companion, was, in itself, one
that brought tears to the eyes of the strongest of
those who stood about them on the merciful errand of relief.
To look upon such wretchedness and destitution, eyes that
had not wept for years were moistened with tears, in the
solemnity of that heroic hour in the lives of that little heroic
band of sufferers, until that moment so hopeless and helpless.
At length they were safely placed on board the rescuing
squadron, where every preparation had been made to insure
their recovery."

The next day was spent in collecting the belongings of the
camp, and in exhuming the bodies of the dead to be carried
home with the survivors. This was carefully done, and in a
manner that no mistake could be made in regard to the iden-
tity of the bodies, which was of the more importance, as it was
afterwards found, in preparing the bodies for burial, that six
of them had been mutilated by the knife and the flesh
removed.

Through a sensational press, it has since become generally
known that the men, in the last stages of starvation, did act-
ually eat the flesh of their dead comrades. At first, great
indignation and disgust was expressed at this inhuman act,
but, in calm after-thought, society has been lead to look upon
the deed in a charitable light, and perhaps to even wonder if,
had they themselves been placed in so trying a position,
whether they, too, might not have done the same in fulfilling
the first law of nature — self-preservation.

The survivors, though out of danger, were still in a very
weak condition upon their arrival at St. Johns, July ITth.
Here they were received with the greatest enthusiasm and
excitement. A dispatch was immediately sent to the Secre-

70 HOME AGAIN.

tary of Navy, giving a full account of the expedition. The first
message from Greely to his wife was also sent.

The following is an extract from a dispatch from Lieut.
Greely to Gen. W. B. Hazen, Chief Signal Officer at
Washington, D. C. :

" The survivors owe their lives to the indomitable energy
of Capt. Schley and Lieut. Emory, who, preceded by three and
accompanied by five whalers, forced their vessels from Uper-
navik through Melville Bay into North Water at Cape York,
with the foremost whaler. They gained a yard wherever
possible and always held it. Smith's Sound was crossed and
the party rescued during one of the most violent gales I have
ever known. Boats were handled only at imminent risk of
swamping. Four of us were then unable to walk and could
not have survived exceeding twenty-four hours. Every care
was given us. I saved and bring back copies of meteorolog-
ical, tidal, astronomical, magnetic, pendulum and other
observations ; also pendulum Yale and standard thermome^rs ;
forty-eight photographic negatives, a collection of blanks and
photographic proofs. Esquimaux relics and other things were
necessarily abandoned."

To this dispatch Greely received the following reply, from
Gen. Hazen :

" Our hearts are overflowing with gladness and thanks to
God for your safety, and in sadness for those who, without
fault of yours, are dead. Your family are well in San Diego.
Your dispatches are most satisfactory and show your expedi-
tion to have been in the highest degree successful in every
particular. This fact is not aftected by the disaster later."

August 2d they arrived at Portsmouth, N. H., where they
were met by a large fleet of war vessels. They were warmly
greeted by the Secretary of Navy, the Chief Signal Officer
of the United States, and by many friends of both expe-
ditions.

The first person to come on board the Thetis was Mrs.

PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED. 71

Greely. The meeting between husband and wife was most
affecting. Their stay in Portsmouth was one continued ova-
tion. August 8, the squadron arrived at New York. Sailing
up the Bay they were saluted by twenty-one guns from Fort
Columbus. At Governor's Island, the batteries of the 4th and
5th Artillery, with a large number of prominent citizens and
officers of high rank, were drawn up to receive them. Every
tribute of respect was shown the honored dead, and to the six
brave survivors was accorded by their countrymen a hearty
welcome home.

Every decade of modern history witnesses renewed attempts
to draw aside the veil that seems to shroud the beginning of
earth's distance in impenetrable mystery. Does the magic
circle encompass vast treasures hoarded by natiire, that God
in His own good time will reveal to man for his admiration
and use ? Will the North Pole ever be discovered ? Will
such discovery explain the attraction of the magnetic needle,
and tell us what is electricity ? Will gravitation cease to be a
law^, and a new law take its place that will be the basis of
new departures and inventions ? These queries remain to be
answered, and the solution of the enigma is engaging the
best thought of the world.

CHAPTER III.

ICEBERGS.

' ' These are
The palaces of Nature, whose vast walls
Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps.
And throned eternity in icy halls,
Of cold sublimity."

Byron.

■MONGr the most imposing and grand of the
many wonders of the ocean world, are the
fixed and floating icebergs, the " palaces of
nature," which assume extraordinary and fan-
tastic shapes, and more than realize the most
sublime conceptions of the imagination. Well indeed may
the mind become awe-struck and the heart almost cease
to beat as the lips exclaim, " Wonderful Thou art in all
Thy works I Heaven and earth are full of the majesty
of Thy glor}^ I" on beholding these mighty and surpassing
works of the great Creator. East and west, north and
south, the Arctic regions present a picture of grandeur
and magnificence nowhere to be equalled — great beyond
conception — impossible to be portrayed.

These icebergs are described by Arctic navigators as
imitating every style of architecture on earth ; cathedrals
with pillars, arches, portals, and towering pinnacles, over-
hanging clifis, the ruins of a marble city, palaces, pyramids,
and obelisks; castles with towers, walls, bastions, fortifica-
tions, and bridges ; a fleet of colossal men-of-war under full
sail; trees, animals, and human beings: one is described as
an enormous balloon lying on its side in a collapsed state.

CHANGING TINTS OF ICEBERGS. 73

A number of icebergs seen at the distance of a few miles
presented the appearance of a mountainous country, de-
ceiving the eyes of experienced mariners.

These icebergs differ somewhat in color, according to
age, solidity, or the atmosphere. A very general appear-
ance is that of cliffs of chalk, or of white-gray marble. A
few have a blue or emerald-green tint. The sun's rays re-
flected from them give a glistening appearance to their sur-
face, like that of silver. In the night, they are readily
distinguished in the distance by their natural effulgence,
and, in foggy weather, by a peculiar blackness of the atmos-
phere.

A writer thus describes the strange and sudden trans-
formations and the changing tints of icebergs. " One re-
sembled, at first, a cluster of Chinese buildings, then a
Gothic cathedral of the early style. It was curious to see
how all that mimicry of a grand religious pile was soon to
change to another like the Coliseum, its vast interior now a
delicate blue, and then a greenish white. It was only neces-
sary to run on half a mile to find this icy theatre split
asunder. An age of ruin seemed to have passed over it,
leaving only to view the inner cliffs, one a glistening white,
and the other blue, soft and airy as the July heavens.'' An-
other berg shone like polished silver, dripping with dews,
the water streaming down in all directions in little rills and
falls, glistening in the light like molten glass. Veins of gem-
like transparency, blue as sapphire, crossed the mass.

" Solomon, in all his glory," was not clothed like the flowers
of the field. Would you behold an iceberg appareled with
a glory that eclipses all floral beauty, and makes you think
not only of the clouds of heaven at sunrise and sunset, but
of heaven itself, you must come to it at sunrise and sunset.
Lofty ridges of the shape of flames have the tint of flames;
out of the purity of the lily bloom the pink and the rose.
We will not say cloth of gold drapes, but water of gold

74 ORIGIN OF ICEBERGS.

washes — water of green, orange, scarlet, crimson, and purple
wash — the crags and steeps ; strange metallic tints gleam in
the shaggy caverns, copper, bronze, and gold : endless grace
of form and outline.

These icebergs — so beautiful in summer, so grand and
awful under a wintry aspect — project above the surface of
the sea like high hills composed of rugged and steep rock.
Navigators have frequently stated that they have seen them
rising from four to five hundred feet above the water, and
extending more than a mile in length. A Danish navigator
examined an iceberg on the eastern coast of Greenland, and
estimated its circuit, at its base, at four thousand feet. In
height it was one hundred and twenty feet above the sea-
level. He calculated that its contents amounted to upwards
of nine millions of cubic feet.

The reader may be interested to know the origin of
these stupendous floating bergs, whence they come, how
they are formed, and their ultimate destination. It has
been ascertained, beyond all doubt, that they originate in
the land, being nothing more than fragments of glaciers —
a name given to immense masses of ice, or appendages to
snow mountains. By far the larger number of these are
formed on the coast of Greenland. The mountains are
always covered with snow ; the valleys between them are
filled with ice, derived from the higher portions of the
mountains, and are thus converted into enormous glaciers.
If the extent of all the shores of Greenland, in which the
glaciers advance to the very sea, were put together, it is
probable they would constitute a coast-line exceeding six
hundred miles in length. These are the birth-places of the
icebergs. The average height or depth of the ice at its free
edge, or seaward, in these valleys is about twelve or fifteen
hundred feet. As the glaciers advance farther into the sea,
the rise and fall of the tide undermine the base, and enor-
mous masses become detached and fall into the sea with a

iiil

76 TERBOBS OF NA VIQATOBS AMONG ICEBERGS.

crash like thunder. The icebergs thus formed — vast moving
mountains or islands — are drifted along, some finding their
way to the North Atlantic — a distance of more than two
thousand two hundred miles from the place of departure —
brought down by a strong current which appears to origi-
nate under the immense masses of ice which surround the
Arctic Pole.

Fearfully appalling are the dangers arising from these
icebergs on their floating voyages, and we cannot wonder at
the terror excited by their appearance among the early
navigators among these ice-bound seas. In the expedition
of Captain James Hall, under Danish auspices, for exploring
Greenland, the sailors were in sight of the south point of
that country, and, to avoid the ice, which encompassed the
shore, they stood to the westward, and fell in with "mighty
islands of ice, being very high, like huge mountains of ice,
making a hideous and wonderful noise," and on one of them
was observed ''a huge rockstone of the weight of three
hundred pounds or thereabouts." Finding nothing but ice
and fog from the 1st to the 10th of June, the LiovUs people
hailed the admiral, " calling very fearfully, and desiring
the pilot to alter his course, and return homeward." The
alarm spread to the admiraFs ship, and they had determined
to put about, had not Cunningham (the captain) protested
he would stand by the admiral, "as long as his bloode
was warme, for the good of the Kinge^s majestic." This
pacified the seamen for a moment, but the next floating
island of ice renewed the terrors of those on board the Lim,^
who, having fired a piece of ordnance, stood away to the
southward.

All later voyagers in the Arctic Seas describe the su-
blimity of these moving mountains and islands of ice, and
the fearful perils encountered among them. The following
thrilling instance of hairbreadth escape is related : " It was
awful to behold the immense icebergs, working their way

ESCAPES FBOM ICEBERGS. 77

to the northeast from us, and not one drop of wate/ to be
seen ; they were working themselves right through the mid-
dle of the ice. The dreadful apprehensions that assailed us
yesterday, by the near approach of the iceberg, were this
day awfully realized. About three P. M. the iceberg came
in contact with our floe, and in less than one minute it broke
the ice we were frozen in quite close to the shore ; the floe
(similiar to field ice, but smaller, as its extent can be seen),
was shivered to pieces for several miles, causing an explos-
sion like an earthquake, or one hundred pieces of cannon
fired at the same moment. The iceberg, with awful but
majestic grandeur (in height and dimensions resembling
a vast mountain), came almost to our stern, and every one
expected it w^ould have run over the ship. The intermediate
space between the berg and the vessel was filled with heavy
masses of ice, which, though they had been previously bro-
ken by the immense weight of the iceberg, were again
formed into a solid body by its pressure. The iceberg was
drifting at the rate of about four knots an hour, — and by its
force on the mass of ice, was pushing the ship before it, and,
as it seemed, to inevitable destruction. A gracious Provi-
dence ruled this otherwise : the iceberg, that so lately threat-
ened destruction, was driven completely out of sight to the
northeast."

It has been supposed that the unfortunate steamship the
President, which left England for New York in 1841, was
crushed to pieces between icebergs. In the year that
this magnificent vessel was lost, the Atlantic Ocean was
more thickly beset with icebergs, and at an earlier season,
than commonly occurs. This is ascertained from a report
of the Great Western steamer, which was published in New
York. This vessel left England about the middle of April
in the same year, and encountered an ice-field, which ex-
tended far more than a hundred miles, and along the south-
ern edge of which she proceeded. This edge was lined by

BREAKING UP OF ICEBERGS.

VESSELS LOST B Y CONTACT WITH ICEBERGS. 79

a broad border of loose ice, consisting of numerous floes
and icebergs, and a considerable quantity of floating ice.
To make way between these masses, the steamer was com-
pelled frequently to change her course, for fear of coming
in contact with them. The number of icebergs which were
in sight of the vessel amounted to three hundred, and the
largest was three-fourths of a mile long, and about a hun-
dred feet high. A similar calamity to that which is sup-
posed to have befallen the President is said to have well-
nigh occurred to the brig Anne, of Poole, which, in a voy-
age from Newfoundland to England, was so completely be-
set by ice that no means of escape were visible. The ice
in its whole extent rose fourteen feet above the surface of
the water. It drifted toward the southeast, and bore the
ship along with it for twenty-nine successive days. An
opening most providentially occurred, by which the vessel
became disengaged.

The President in 1841, the City of Glasgow in 1854, the
Pacific in 1856, and, later, the City of Boston, have disap-
peared, from, it is supposed, their contact with icebergs.

Captain Ross draws a vivid picture of what a vessel is ex-
posed to in sailing amidst these moving hills. He reminds his
readers that ice is like stone, as solid as if it were granite,
and he bids them *' imagine these mountains hurled through
a narrow strait at a rapid rate, meeting with the noise of
thunder, breaking from each other's precipices huge frag-
ments, or rending each other asunder, until, losing their
former equilibrium, they fall over headlong, lifting the sea
around in breakers, and whirling it in eddies. There is not
a moment in which it can be conjectured what will happen
in the next; there is not one which may not be the last."

It is generally found that a strong current runs along the
sides of an iceberg, and a vessel approaching too near is vio-
vently forced against the mass, and dashed to pieces.

Another source of danger arises from mooring vessels to

80 DANGER OF MOORING TO ICEBERGS.

icebergs, which is frequently done for shelter in strong ad-
verse winds, or when the vessel is rendered unmanageable by
the accumulation of drift-ice around ; but there is this dan-
ger: the icebergs are very nicely poised; if a large piece of
ice breaks off from one side, the whole mass is suddenly and
rapidly turned over, by which vessels have often been
wrecked or destroyed, while boats have been upset, even at
a considerable distance, by the vast waves produced by the
sudden change of position of an iceberg.

An incident is related of two sailors who were attempt-
ing to fix an anchor to an iceberg. They began to hew a
hole in the ice, but scarcely had the first blow been struck,
when suddenly the immense mass split from top to bottom,
and fell asunder, the two halves falling in contrary direct-
tions with a prodigious crash. Fortunately the men
escaped.

Sometimes vessels moor to icebergs when in want of
water, and obtain it from the deep pools which, in the
summer season, are found on the depressed surface of some
bergs, or from the streams running down their sides ; but
if, meanwhile, the iceberg should fall to pieces, which is
likely at any moment during the summer season to be the
case, the vessel is liable to be buried under its icy mooring.
The precarious character of these huge mountains of ice
will be understood from an anecdote related by Dr. Hayes,
the Arctic navigator : " A few years ago, while a French
man-of-war was lying at anchor in Temple Bay, Labrador,
the younger officers resolved on amusing themselves upon
an iceberg a mile or more distant in the straits. They
made sumptuous preparations for a picnic upon the very
top of it, the mysteries of which they were curious to see.
All w^arnings of the fishermen in the ears of the smartly-
dressed gentlemen who * had seen the world,' were useless.
It was a bright summer morning, and the jolly-boat with a
showy flag went off to the iceberg. By twelve o'clock the

PICNIC ON AN ICEBERG. 8 1

<jolors were flying from the icy turrets, and the wild young
midshipmen were shouting from its walls. For two hours
or so they hacked and clambered the crystal palace, frolicked
and feasted, drank toasts to the King and the ladies,
and laughed at the thought of peril where all seemed
so fixed and solid. As if in amazement of such rashness,
the grim Alp of the sea made neither sound nor motion.
A profound stillness reigned on its shining pinnacles and in
the blue shadows of its caves. When the youngsters, like
thoughtless children, had played themselves weary, they
went down to their boat. As if the time and distance were
measured, they were scarcely out of harm's way when
the mighty iceberg collapsed and broke into a myriad
fragments, which filled the surrounding waters. This
was, no doubt, the first and last day of amusement on an ice-
berg by the daring young seamen."

Icebergs are not affected by the swell of the sea, which
breaks up the largest fields of ice in the space of a few hours ;
they rise and fall with a tremendous noise, though their size
^nd form remain the same. But, when acted upon by the
sun or a temperate atmosphere, they become hollow and
fragile. Few icebergs are destroyed in the Northern seas;
a large number get as far as the great banks of Newfound-
land, which is occasionally crowded with them.

The fields of ice that float in the Polar Seas are often
twenty or thirty miles in diameter, and some hundreds of feet
in thickness. It is calculated that upwards of twenty-thou-
sand square miles of drifting ice come down every year
along the coast of Greenland into the Atlantic, moving on
•during the winter at the rate of about five or six miles
a day. The Resolute exploring ship, which was abandoned
in Melville's Straits, on account of its being enclosed firmly
in a vast field of ice, was afterwards found in Bafiin's Bay,
having been carried a thousand miles from its former posi-
tion by the drift of an icefield three hundred thousand square

82

THE WISE PROVISION OF NATURE.

miles in extent and seven feet thick. This will give an
idea of the quantity of ice which is carried out of the Polar
regions, independent of the icebergs, and drifted into
warmer climates.

The formation and destruction of ice within the Arctic
Circle is a beautiful provision of Nature for adjusting the
inequality of temperature. Had only dry land been thus
exposed to the sun, it would, in summer, have been actually
scorched by its beams, yet severely pinched during the
darkness of the winter by the most intense and penetrating
cold. None of the animal or vegetable tribes could have
supported such extremes. But in the actual arrangement
the surplus heat of summer is spent in melting away the ice.
As long as ice remains to thaw or water to freeze, the tem-
perature of the atmosphere can never vary beyond certain
limits.

CHAPTER lY.

LIFE IN THE OCEAN.

The appearance of the open sea/' says Fridol,
" far from the shore — the boundless ocean —
is to the man who loves to create a world
of his own, in which he can freely exercise
his thoughts, filled with sublime ideas of
the Infinite. His searching eye rests upon
the far distant horizon. He sees there the ocean and the
heavens, meeting in a vapory outline, where the stars ascend
and descend, appear and disappear in their turn. Presently
this everlasting change in Nature awakens in him a vague
feeling of that sadness, which, says Humboldt, ' lies at the
root of all our heartfelt joys.' ''

Emotions of another kind are produced by the contem-
plation and study of the habits of the innumerable organized
beings which inhabit this great deep. In fact, that immense
expanse of water which we call the sea, is no vast liquid
desert; light dwells on its bosom as it does on that of dry
land. Here this mystery of life reigns supreme. It is
among the most beautiful, the most noble, and the most in-
comprehensible of His manifestations. Without life, the
world would be as nothing. All the beings endowed with it
transmit it faithfully to other beings, they, again, to their
successors, which will be, like them, the depositories of the
same mysterious gift ; the marvelous heritage thus traverses
years and hundreds of years without losing its powers ; the
globe is teeming with the life which has been so bounteous-
ly distributed over it.

84 DEATH THE FOSTER-MOTHER OF LIFE.

In every living being there are two powers, between which
a silent but incessant combat is being carried on — life, which
builds up ; and deaths which pulls asunder. At first, life is
all powerful — it lords it over matter; but its reign is
limited.

Beyond a certain point, its physical vigor becomes gradu-
ally impaired ; with old age, it feebly struggles ; and it is
finally extinguished with time, when the chemical and physi-
cal law^s seize upon it, and its organization is destroyed. But,
in turn, the very elements, though inert at first, are soon re-
animated and occupied with new life. Every plant, every
animal, is bound up with the past, and is a part of the future ;
for every generation which starts into life is only the corol-
lary upon that which is about to be born. Life is the school
of death ; death is the foster-mother of life.

Life, however, does not always exhibit itself at the actual
moment of its formation. It is visible later, and only after
other phenomena. In order to develop itself, a suitable
medium must be prepared, and other determinate physical
and chemical conditions provided.

If we expose a quantity of pure water to the light and
air, in the spring-time or summer season, we would soon see
it producing minute spots of a yellowish or greenish color.
These spots, examined through the microscope, reveal
thousands of vegetable forms. Presently thousands of Rhiza-
pods and Infusoria appear, which move and swim about the
floating vegetable forms upon which they nourish themselves.
Other infusoria then appear, which, in their turn, pursue
and devour the first.

In short, life transfers unorganized into organized matter.
Vegetables appear first, then come herbivorous animals, and
then come the carnivorous. Life maintains life. The death
of one provides food and development to others ; for all are
bound up together, all assist at the metamorphosis continu-
ally occurring in the organic as in the inorganic world, the

INNUMERABLE ORGANIZED BEINGS, 85

result being general and profound harmony — harmony always
worthy of admiration. The Creator alone is unchangeable,
omnipotent, and permanent ; all else is transition.

The inhabitants of the water are at least as numerous as
those of the solid earth. " Upon a surface less varied than
we find on continents," says Humboldt, " the sea contains
in its bosom an exhuberance of life, of which no other por-
tion of the globe could give us any idea. It expands in the
north as in the south ; in the east as in the west. The seas,
above all, abound with this life ; in the bosom of the deep,
creatures corresponding and harmonizing with each other
sport and play. Among these the naturalist finds instruc-
tion, and the philosopher subject for meditation. The
changes they undergo only impress upon our minds more
and more a sentiment of thankfulness to the Author of the
universe."

Yes, the ocean, in its profoundest depths — its plains and
its mountains, its valleys, its precipices — is animated and
beautified by the presence of innumerable organized beings.
Among these we find the Algae, solitary or social, erect or
drooping, spreading into prairies, grouped in patches, or
forming vast forests in the ocean valleys. These submarine
forests protect and nourish millions of animals, which creep,
which run, which swim among them ; others, again, sink into
the sands, attach themselves to rocks, or lodge themselves in
their crevices; these construct dwellings for themselves;
they seek or fly from each other; theypursueor fight, caress
each other lovingly, or devour each other without pity. Our
terrestial forests do not maintain nearly as many living be-
ings as those which swarm in the bosom of the sea.

The sea influences its numerous inhabitants, animal or
vegetable, by its temperature, by its density, by its saltness,
by its bitterness, by the never-ceasing agitation of its waves,
and by the rapidity of its currents.

When the tide retires from the shore, the sea leaves upon

86 8EA.SE0RE DEPOSITS.

the coast some few of the numberless beings which it car-
ries in its bosom. In the first moments of its retreat, the
naturalist may collect a crowd of substances, vegetable and
animal, of various characteristic color and properties. The
inhabitants of the coast may find there their food, their com-
merce, their occupations.

At low water, the nearest villages and hamlets send their
contingents, old and young, to gather the riband seaweed,
a source of great wealth to the dwellers by the sea, being
much used in making kelp ; others gather the small shells
left on the sand ; boys mount upon the rocks in search of
whelks and of mussels, and detach limpets from the rocks to
which they attach themselves.

On some coasts, shells are sought for their beauty. By
turning the stones, or by sounding the crevices of the rocks
with a hook at the end of a pole, cuttles and calmars are
sometimes surprised, sometimes even a young conger eel
which has sought refuge there ; while the pools, left here
and there by the retiring tide, are dragged by nets of very
small mesh, in which the smaller Crustacea, mollusks, and
small fish are secured.

In the Mediterranean and other inland seas, where the
tide is almost inappreciable, there will be found to exist a
great number of animals and Algse belonging to the deep
sea, which the waves or currents very rarely leave upon
the sea-shore. There are others again so fugitive, or
which attach themselves so firmly to the rocks, that we can
watch them only in their habitats. It is necessary to study
them, floating on the surface of the waves, or in their mys-
terious retirements.

" We find in the sea," says Lacepede, *' unity and divers-
ity, which constitutes its beauty ; grandeur and simplicity,
which give it sublimity ; puissance and immensity, which
command our wonder."

SUB-MARINE SCENERY

CHAPTER V.

MINUTE ANIMAL LIFE.

Oh, what an endless work hath he in hand
Who'd count the sea's abundant progeny;
Whose fruitful seed far passeth that on land,
And also them that roam the azure sky,
So fertile be the floods in generation,
So vast their numbers, and so numberless their nation."

—Spencer.

^UE and just are the words of the British
poet; though the surface of the ocean is
less rich in animal and vegetable forms
than that of continents, ^ill, when its depths
are searched, perhaps no other portion of our
planet presents such fullness of organic life.
It has been said that our land forests do not harbor so many
animals as the low-wooded regions of the ocean, where the
sea-weeds, rooted to the shoals, or long branches detached by
the force of waves and currents, and swimming free, up-
borne by air-cells, unfold their delicate foliage. The micro-
scope still further increases our impression of the profusion
of organic life which pervades the recesses of the ocean,
since throughout its mass we find animal existence, and at
depths exceeding the height of our loftiest mountain chains.
Here swarm countless hosts of minute animals, which, when
attracted to the surface by particular conditions of weather,
convert every wave into a crest of light. The abundance
of these minute creatures, and of the animal matter supplied
by their rapid decomposition, is such, that the sea-water

PROFUSION OF ANIMAL LIFE. 89

itself becomes a nutritious fluid to many of the large inhab-
itants of the ocean.

Even in the bleak and dreary regions of the Northern
world the wintry seas are filled with a profusion of animal
life. The smaller species, of which the herring may be
taken for an example, are found amidst the depths of the
Arctic zone in immense shoals ; countless millions of crea-
tures, sometimes known as sea nettles, a genus of Acalephce,
signifying "nettles" (so named from the stinging power
which many of them possess), of higher organization than
the Medusce, or jelly-fish, exist here, with globular or oval
bodies of a delicate or jelly-like substance, strengthened by
bands which are covered with rows of large cilia (a peculiar
sort of moving organs resembling microscopic hairs), the
motion of which is extremely rapid, and is evidently con-
trolled by the will of the little animal. Jelly-Fish, Zoophytes^
etc., swarm also to such an extent as to convert the surface
water in some places almost into a kind of soup, which fur-
nishes food not only to small fish, but to whales and animals
of the largest growth. Even the color of the ocean is influ-
enced by the enormous quantity of the organic life it sus-
tains. The application of the microscope — for by far the
most numerous of the animalcules can only thus be traced —
shows them to be the cause of a peculiar tinge observed
over a great extent of the Greenland Sea. This color is
olive-green, and the water is dark and dense compared to
that which bears the common cerulean hue. The portion of
the ocean so distinguished amounts to not less than twenty
thousand square miles, and hence the number of animalculas
which that space contains is far beyond human calculation.

Some of the calculations of an ingenious and clever writer
are very curious and instructive. In a drop of water there
were fifty of these animalculae, on an average, in each square
of the micrometer-glass of an eight hundred and fortieth of
an inch ; and as the drop occupied a circle on a plate of

90 ANIMALCULE IN A DROP OF WATER.

glass containing five hundred and twenty-nine of these
squares, there must have been in this single drop of water —
taken out of the yellowish-green sea, in a place by no means
the most discolored — about twenty-six thousand four hun-
dred and fifty of these animalculsB ! Hence, reckoning sixty
drops to a dram, there would be a number in a gallon of
water exceeding, by one-half, the population of the whole
globe I It gives a wonderful conception of the minuteness
and vastness of creation, when we think of more than twen-
ty-six thousand animals — living, obtaining subsistence, and
moving perfectly at their ease, without annoyance to one
another — in a single drop of water !

The diameter of the largest of these animalculaa was only
the two-thousandth part of an inch, and many only the four-
thousandth. The army which Bonaparte led into Russia in
1812, estimated at five hundred thousand men, would have
extended — in a double row, or two men abreast, with two
feet three inches space for each couple of men — a distance
of one hundred and six and a half English miles ; the same
number of these animalculsB, arrayed in a similar way in two
rows, but touching one another, would only reach ^t;e/ce^ two
and a half inches ! A whale requiresi an ocean to sport in,
but about one hundred and fifty millions of these animalculae
would have abundant room in a tumbler of water! What a
stupendous idea is thus afforded of the immensity of crea-
tion, and of the bounty of Divine Providence, in furnishing
such a profusion of life in regions so remote from the habi-
tations of men! Even if we consider the number of animals
in a space of two miles square as great, what must be the
amount requisite for the discoloration of the sea through an
extent of, perhaps, twenty or thirty thousand square miles!

If we turn from the Arctic seas to the warmer regions of
the ocean, we find the same wonderful profusion of animal
life existing in minute forms of infinite variety : small Mol-
luska (soft animals inhabiting shells) ; Crustacea (with artic-

INHABITANTS OF THE SEA- WEED. 91

ulated limbs and hard coverings;, and luminous creatures,
as Salpce, of which vast gelatinous shoals are met with at sea,
associated in a round mass like a chain, transparent, and of
beautiful colors, of which, we are told, that during a journey
of nearly eight hundred miles, they were thickly abundant
throughout the track of the ship in the ocean. Each por-
tion of the vast masses of floating seaweed consists — when
carefully examined — of a little densely populated world, be-
ing crowded with living beings, all active and full of bust-
ling animation — strange-shaped little fishes, bright sea-slugs,
tiny shells of the nautilus tribe, grotesque sea-spiders, and
whole gangs of odd crabs, jelly-fish, and transparent shrimps.
" The number of living creatures of all orders," observes
Darwin, " whose existence intimately depends on the kelp
(marine plants) is wonderful. A great volume might be
written describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of
seeweed. Almost all the leaves, excepting those on the sur-
face, are so thickly encrusted with coralines as to be of a
white color. We find exquisitely delicate structures, some
inhabited by simple hydra-like Polypi, others by more or-
ganized kinds and beautiful compound Ascidice (from the
Greek ctskos, a bottle or pouch, these little molluscs resem-
bling sacs everywhere closed, except at two orifices.) In-
numerable Crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On
shaking the great entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells,
cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, star-fish, and animals
of a multitude of forms all fall out together. Often as I re-
curred to a branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover
animals of new and curious structures. I can only compare
these great aquatic forests of the Southern Hemisphere with
the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any
country a forest were destroyed, I do not believe nearly so
many species of animals would perish as would here from the
destruction of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant
numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find

92 hJiJA JSETTLE8.

food or shelter ; with their destruction, the many cormorants^
and other fishing birds, the otters, seals, and porpoises, would
soon perish also."

How elevating is the thought that amidst all this pro-
digious variety and profusion, the boundless extent of which
no human mind can conceive, yet the minutest animated par-
ticle that is revealed by the microscope is governed by the
same laws that regulate the highest objects in creation!

"Each moss.
Each shell, each crawling insect, holds a rank
Important in the scale of Him who framed
This scale of beings; holds a rank which, lost.
Would break the chain, and leave a gap behind,
Which Nature's self would rue."

Very interesting is the study of those curious inhabitants
of the ocean, constituting what are termed by naturalists
Acalephce, as has been previously mentioned, but which are
more commonly known by such names as jelly-fish, sea-blub-
ber, etc., and are sometimes called sea-nettles. Most of
them were included in the Linnsean genus Medusa, and the
name Medicsce is still frequently applied to them. They
abound in all parts of the ocean, although some are tropical
and others belong to cold latitudes. Some are of a large
size, reaching two feet in diameter, and others are very
small. They are of an extremely soft jelly tissue, which ini
most of them, and all in the true Medusae, is unsupported
by any harder substance. The latter comprise various
species that shine with great splendor in the water. The
South Atlantic abounds with them, and much amusement
may be derived in a long sea voyage by observing these
beautiful organisms, for endless are the moulds in which
prolific Nature has cast them. Some are shaped like a
mushroom, others are like ribbons, or globular, flat or bell-
shaped; others again resemble a bunch of berries. Their
motions are generally slow, their sensations dull and directed

<5-. '•n?^:^

FLEET OF MEDUS-E.

94 SSA WORMS.

entirely to the procuring of food. They often float without
any apparent animation, trusting in the winds and waves to
waft them about, and to carry them their food ; some keep
a little beneath the surface, and propel themselves by con-
tracting their pellucid disks. They have been termed the
*' living jellies of the deep," and some are endowed with an
acrid secretion, which irritates the skin, and has thus caused
them to be termed sea-nettles,

" Those living jellies which the flesh inflame,
Fierce as a nettle, and from that the name;
Some in huge masses, some that you may bring
In the small compass of a lady's ring.

Figured by hand Divine — there's not a gem
Wrought by man's art to be compared to them;
Soft, brilliant, tender, through the wave they glow.
And make the moonbeam brighter where they flow.'*

There is one large species common in the Straits of Singa-
pore dreaded by the Malays on account of the violence of
this power.

Sometimes these animals are colorless, and as transparent
as crystal; others are embellished with the most brilliant
hues, and seem as if adorned with the richest enamel. Ste-
vens, one of the first voyagers to the East Indies, describes
the jelly-fish he saw in the Gulf of Guinea as " a thing swim-
ming on the water, like a cock's comb, but the color much
fairer, which comb standeth upon a thing almost like the
swimmer of a fish in color and bigness."

Another curious and widely-distributed class of marine
animals are the Annelides or Sea- Worrns, the bodies being
composed of rings and joints. Some species are only met
with in the high seas, swimming freely, while most of the
others are to be found on the sea-shore, burrowing in the
sand or mud, or living under stones, or amidst seaweed. A
few construct a sheath or case for themselves, in which they

THEIR WONDERFUL BEAUTY. 95

ordinarily live, but which are not essential to the existence
of the tenant, as they can leave it without inconvenience, and
wander at liberty for their food elsewhere. Their bodies are
formed of more or less numerous rings, each of which is
furnished with feet, which are the chief organs of motion,
and are truly wonderful. They are generally in the form of
small tubercles, and for the most part are composed of two
branches. Their summit or tip is frequently armed with
one or more bundles of bristles, which play an important
part in the history of the animals. They form an orna-
mental appendage to the worm, and at the same time are
used as organs of defence and offence. Notwithstanding
they live in situations in which they are seldom seen by the
human eye, yet in some species these organs have a remark-
able degree of brilliancy, shining with a metallic lustre and
splendor of the richest kind. The common Sea-Mouse, for in-
stance, has a very large bundle of them attached to each foot,
which are -very fine and of considerable length. Gold, azure,
purple, and green play on their surface in a thousand reflec-
tions, and these rainbow colors are in perfect harmony with
the changing reflections and rings of the body. The wing
of the butterfly has not received a more brilliant dress than
these worms, concealed at the bottom of the waters, and
sometimes buried in black and fetid mud. They are bril-
liant as gold, and changeable to every hue of the rainbow.
The colors they present are not surpassed in beauty by the
scale-like feathers of 'the humming-bird nor by the most
brilliant gems. These bristles, however, are as useful as
they are ornamental. Surrounded on every side by enemies,
usually dwelling in the waters where the worms live, they
require powerful weapons of offence for resistance or for
securing their prey.

Some species of these worms are armed with a weapon
like a harpoon, a lancet, or a knife. Some have an appen-
dage, falchion-shaped, and others a bayonet fixed upon a

96 THE NEREIDS.

musket, while others present the appearance of a barbed
arrow. These weapons are used to pierce the bodies of
their enemies, and they frequently leave them in the wounds
they have made. The tubercles of the feet, from which the
barbed arrow-shaped bristles spring, are, in reality, quivers
full of arrows, stored there for the use of the animals to pro-
tect them from violence ; or, as Gosse fancifully observes,
*' You may imagine you behold the armory of some bel-
ligerent sea-fairy, with stores of arms enough to accouter a
numerous host."

The number of such-like weapons in these worms is im-
mense. " Let me ask the naturalist," says Dr. Johnson, " to
count the number which may be. required to furnish the
garniture of a single individual. There are worms which
have five hundred feet on each side : each foot has two
branches, and each branch has at least one spine and one
brush of bristles, some of them simple, some of them com-
pound. This individual has therefore two thousand spines
at least, and if we reckon ten bristles to each brush, it has
also twenty thousand of them ! Let us look a little further,
not merely to the exquisite finish of each bristle, but to the
means by w^hich the host is put in motion. There is a set
of muscles to push them forth from their port-holes ; there is
another to replace each and all of them within their proper
cases ; and the uncounted crowds of these muscles neither
twist nor knot together, but play in their courses, regulated
by a will that controls them more effectually than any brace ;
now spurring them to convulsive energy, now stilling
them to rest, and then putting them into action with an ease
and grace that charm us into admiration, and fix the belief
that even these creeping things participate largely in the
happiness diffused throughout creation!"

The Nereids^ which belong to the same class of sea-worms,
have a long body, narrowed towards the inferior extremity,
and divided into numerous segments, with well-developed

''JUMPING johnnies:' 97

appendages, a head, eyes, horns or feelers, and, in general, ^
a large proboscis, armed with a pair of jaws, curved, hooked,
and strong, with teeth on the inner margin. The Fearly
Nereis, which is one of the finest and commonest of the kind,
is thus described : " The upper surface is of a warm fawn
brown, but the beautiful flashes of rainbow blue that play
on it in the changing light, and the exquisite pearly opales-
cence of the delicate pink beneath, are so conspicuous as to
have secured for it the title of 'pearly^ par excellences^

Another species of the group of the Nereids, the '' White-
Bag Worm,^^ a common inhabitant of the shores of Great
Britain, var3dng from six to ten inches in length, is of a beau-
tiful pearly lustre, exactly similar to that of mother-of-pearl.
The foot, when magnified, resembles a horse'a hoof, and is a
very marvelous piece of Nature's mechanism. The animal
swims rapidly in the sea. Another species is of a rich green-
ish color, varied with bluish shades, reflecting a metallic lus-
tre, and varying like the hues of the rainbow.

With the tribe of sea-worms may be also mentioned the
Sea-Leach or Skate-sucker, so named because the worm lives
on fish, and attaches itself chiefly to the skate, from which
it is scarcely ever found free. The mouth of this animal is
not provided with jaws, so it sucks up the juices of the body
of its host by a kind of pumping process.

The Leaping- Worms, found on the coasts of Borneo, are
curious creatures. Each step in advance to take them
causes them to jump in a rapid manner, and in a series of
leaps they reach the margin of the water, when it is impos-
sible to capture them. When lying at rest, they are scarce-
ly distinguishable from the mud in which they lie. They are
wedge-shape in form, about three or four inches long, with
flat pointed tails, and broad heads and prominent eyes. The
sailors have nicknamed them " Jumping Johnnies."

CHAPTER YI.
COBAL-THE BOCK BUILDEB8.

|ll0 art can imitate the delicate tracery, the rich color,
■^[^ and the singular forms that coral assumes. It has been
called by some, the '* Queen of the Ocean," and no term
could be more appropriate. A celebrated naturalist, on
viewing the coral-beds of the Red Sea, exclaimed, '* Where

BEAUTY OF CORAL. ' 99

is the Paradise of flowers that can rival such variety and
beauty ?''

Mr. J. Beete Jukes, in giving his own vivid impressions
on seeing some coral-beds in the Pacific, says:

*' I had hitherto been rather disappointed by the aspect of
the coral-reefs, so far as beauty was concerned ; and, though
very wonderful, I had not seen in them much to admire.
One day, however, on the lee side of one of the outer reefs,
I had reason to change my opinion. In a small bay of the
inner edge of the reef was a sheltered nook, where the ex-
treme slope was well exposed, and where every coral was
in full life and luxuriance."

Mr. Jukes describes them as of every shape ; some deli-
cate and leaf-like, others with large branching stems, and
others, again, exhibiting an assemblage of interlacing twigs
of the most delicate and exquisite workmanship. Their
colors were unrivaled, vivid greens contrasting with more
sober browns and yellows, mingled with rich shades of pur-
ple, from pale pink to deep blue. Among the branches, cov-
ered with their beautiful drapery of ocean vegetation, float-
ed fish of various colors, radiant with metallic green or
crimson, or fantastically banded with yellow and black
stripes. Patches of clear white sand were seen here and
there for the floor, with dark hollows and recesses. All
these, seen through the clear crystal water, the ripple of
which gave motion and quick play of light and shadow to the
whole, formed a scene of rarest beauty, and left nothing to
be desired by the eye, either in elegance of form, or bril-
liancy and harmony of coloring.

It is only in the ocean, however, that the glorious homes
of the rock-builders are to be seen in perfection ; for, im-
mediately after drawing the coral from the water, so rapidly
does atmospheric exposure afi'ect them, that it would be
diflScult to recognize the lovely objects which a moment be-
fore were glowing in the still waters.

100 BELIEVED TO BE FLOWERS.

Such are the grand and mysterious operations of Provi-
dence in the depths of the ocean! We will now attempt to
describe the singular animals to whom the accomplishment
of these marvels is due, but must first mention that coral was
formerly supposed to be a marine plant. This ancient no-
tion rested not merely on its shrub -like form, but from the
circumstance that its branches are covered with a soft coat-
ing while in the water, but which dries up immediately on
its extraction. An Italian naturalist perceived small objects
in the coral-cells, which he thought were flowers; but at
length a French physician at Marseilles discovered that
there was life in the coral, and that these assumed flowers
were in reality minute animals. Thus, by the aid of the
microscope, an object which might be said to belong to
mineralogy, and by its trunk and branches to botany, was
now admitted to a rank in the animal world. This discovery,
the result of thirty years' studious research into the nature
of coral, was laughed at by many persons at the time and
treated as absurd, but LinnaBus, the great Swedish naturalist,
saw the truth at once, and did not hesitate to place coral at
the head of the zoophytes, or animal plants, an appropriate
designation, because it indicates at the same time the double
nature of the substances.

A common characteristic of these animals is that their
mouths are surrounded by radiating tentacles or feelers, ap-
pendages by which they attach themselves to surrounding
objects, arranged somewhat like the rays of a flower. By
this will be understood the term pohjpij by which these ani-
mals are also known, signifying " many" and " foot." Of
these the individuals of a few families are separate and per-
fect in themselves, but the greater number of zoophytes are
compound beings, or each zoophyte consists of an indefinite
number of individuals, or polyps, connected together.

This polyp is an extraordinary creature, and has a tenac-
ity of life truly remarkable. If one cut off* the branch of a

HEPRODUCTIVI^ rOW£JB OF THE POLYP. 101

tree, or sever the limb of an animal, these parts will wither
and decompose by passing into other parts of matter. Cut
a tree carelessly, and its natural symmetry is disfigured ; or
slit it down its centre, it is destroyed. Animals thus treat-
ed die, with the exception of the polyp, for it will put
forth new limbs, form a new head or tail, and, if divided, be-
come two separate existences.

If a polyp be cut in two, the fore part, which contains
the head and mouth and arms, lengthens itself, creeps, and
eats on the same day. The tail part forms a new bead and
mouth; at the wounded end shoot forth arms; if turned
inside out the parts at once accommodate themselves to these
new conditions. If the body were cut into ten pieces, every
portion would become a new perfect living animal. A polyp
has been cut lengthways at seven in the morning, and in
eight hours afterwards, each part had devoured a worm as
long as itself I How astonishing it is to see a creature so
apparently frail in structure, possessing the actions, sensa-
tions, and powers of higher organized beings ! The stomach
is without membrane or cell ; the outside surface-cells form
a kind of double skin, and the inside consists of a wall of
cells running crosswise, with a velvet-like surface, being red
or brown grains held together by a sort of gluey substance.

These minute builders of the ocean rocks make their
habitations, and form the wonderful coral groves and islands,
sometimes hundreds of miles in extent.

The various species of these animals appear to be fur-
nished with glands containing gluten, converting the carbo-
nate of lime which is in the ocean, and other earthy matters,
into a fixed and hard substance, twisted — as may be ob-
served in coral — in every variety of shape.

If a piece of coral be examined with the microscope, it
will be seen to be covered with a multitude of small pits, which
are cells of the most beautiful construction, made with the
greatest regularity, and in such a manner that the most ex-

102 NATURE OF CORAL.

perienced builder would pronounce faultless. How this is
effected, and what peculiar instincts the little toilers of the
ocean possess that enable them to construct their dwellings
with s'lch mathematical nicety, are among those mysteries
of Nature we cannot comprehend ; but it is certain that
large masses of solid rock are framed by these animals, ever
working to the music of the waves. ''Verily,'' observes
Baker, " for my own part, the more I look into Nature's
works, the sooner I am inclined to believe of her, even those
things that seem incredible." But here we have the certainty
of Natures operations : we know that islands and continents
are constructed for the habitation of man by these minute
animals ; that mountains like the Appenines, and regions to
which our own country is but trifling in comparison, are the
results of their toil. South-west of Malabar, there is a chain
of reefs and islets of coral extending four hundred and
eighty geographical miles ; on the east side of New Holland
are unbroken reefs of three hundred and fifty miles long ;
and between that and New Guinea, a coral formation of
seven hundred miles in length.

The process by which these great changes are effected is
still going on extensively in the Pacific and Indian Seas,
where multitudes of coral islands emerge from the waves,
and shoals and reefs, where the rock builders are ever busy,
appear at small depths beneath the water.

How truly wonderful it is to know that the Polynesian
Archipelago, now one of the great divisions of the globe,
has its foundations formed of coral reefs, the spontaneous
growth of once living animals! As one generation of the
coral-builders dies and leaves its chalky remains, another
succeeds, until the mass of coral appears above the ocean,
when the formation ceases, for it is only in that element the
laborers can live.

"Ye build ! ye build 1 but ye enter not in,

Like the tribes whom the desert devoured in their sin ;

WONDERS OF THE CORAL FORMATION. 103

From the land of promise ve fade and die,
Ere its verdure gleams on your wearied eye."

One marvel ceases here, and another commences. The
vegetation of the sea, cast on its surface, undergoes a chem-
ical change ; the rains assist in filling up the little cells of
the dead animals ; the fowls of the air and the ocean find a
resting-place, and assist in clothing the rocks ; mosses car-
pet the surface ; seed brought by birds, plants carried by
the oceanic current, animaculee floating in the air live, prop-
agate and die, and are succeeded through the assistance
their remains bestow by more advanced animal and veg-
etable life ; and thus generation after generation exist and
perish, until at length the coral island becomes a Paradise,
filled with the choicest exotics, the most beautiful birds and
delicious fruits.

Here is a glowing theme for the imagination to dwell
upon ! How wonderful to think that the surface of the
globe is being changed by these diminutive living agents ;
that in tropical climates they are encircling islands wdth
belts of coral, enlarging their coasts, forming stupendous
reefs, and working out the plans and the will of the great
Architect of the Universe !

We feel surprised, when travelers tell us of the vast di-
mensions of the Pyramids and other great ruins ; but how
utterly insignificant are the greatest of these when com-
pared to the mountains of stone accumulated by the agency
of various minute and tender animals !

How wonderful is the instinct and design of self-preser-
vation in insects so exceedingly minute as the coral workers
or ocean rock builders! Pope graphically says:

•* Who taught the natives of the field and wood
To shun their poison or to choose their food?
Prescient, the tides and tempests to withstand,
Build on the wave, or arch beneath the sand ?"

104: INSTINCT OF THE BOCK BUILD HIIS.

To protect their dwellings from the violent storms by
which the waters of the deep are frequently agitated, they
erect a breastwork, which effectually shields them from
wind and wave. In the early stages of their operations they
work perpendicularly, so that the highest part of the coral
wall, on reaching the surface, is on the windward side,
and affords protection to the busy laborers in their opera-
tions. These breastworks, or breakwaters, w^ill resist more
powerful seas than if formed of granite, rising as they do fre-
quently from a depth of a thousand or fifteen hundred feet,
and adapted in a way that no human skill or foresight could
equal to the utmost powers of the heavy billows that contin-
ually lash against them.

Another observation we may make on this subject, is,
that in one species a remarkable arrangement is found ; the
upper openings of the cells in which they live, have a vase-
like form, shutting with a lid : when the animal wishes to
expand itself, it opens the lid like a trap-door, and protrudes
itself; and when it re-contracts itself and retreats, the lid
falls and closes the aperture so exactly that the animal is
perfectly protected.

Coral differs in quality and color. The common Red
Coral which is used for many ornamental purposes, and is
so much admired for its fine color, is chiefly obtained from
the Mediterranean, in some parts of which extensive " fish-
eries " are carried on. It is brought up from the depths of
the sea by means of a kind of grappling apparatus dragged
after a boat, the pieces being broken from the bottom by
beams of wood wliich are sunk by weights, and then en^
tangled among hemp. Great care is necessary to preserve
the pieces from being lacerated. Red coral has a shrub-like
branching form, and grows to the height of about a foot, with
the thickness of a little finger. Much of the coral obtained
from the Mediterranean is sent to India, where it is much
prized by the natives. Many of the arms and horse-capari-

VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF CORAL. 105

sons of the Oriental chiefs are studded with this beautiful
ornament.

Red coral is also found in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf,
Messina, the Dardanelles, and a few other places. The
French and the Sicilians are the only people who make coral-
fishing a regular source of interest. As the precious sub-
stance requires eight or ten years to come to any perfection
by the labors of its industrious architects, the spots
where it is finished are divided each into ten portions, and
only one of these is finished in the year, so that each may
remain to "grow" during the time necessary to bring it to
maturity.

Black Coral is most esteemed, but it is scarce : the red,
white, and yellow are chiefly used for ornamental purposes.
The Pink Coral is esteemed for its scarcity.

The ingenuity of man continually exerted to imitate na-
ture, and frequently with great success, is practised in the
fabrication of" false coral, made with powdered marble and
fish-glue, and colored with vermilion and red lead.

Coral beads were anciently worn in India, as sacred amu-
lets or charms. The Romans tied little branches round chil-
dren's necks to keep off the influence of the "evil eye," a
superstition which had also many believers in the middle
ages among the inhabitants of England, and which still exists
in some foreign countries.

Coral was said to preserve houses from the efl'ects of
thunder storms, and to be of much finer color when worn by
men than by women. Even at the present time there are
people so credulous as to believe that coral necklaces be-
come pale Avhen the wearer is about to be ill. There is no
doubt that coral loses its color by time and exposure, and
this may have given rise to the superstition. The small
pointed branches, mounted with a ring at one end for sus-
pension, are extensively manufactured at Naples as " charms ;"
and Ferdinand I., King of that country, was a devout be-

106 PERILS OF THE CORAL REEFS.

liever in their efficacy, and used to point the coral towards
anyone whom he suspected of having a malicious influence.

The vast coral reefs are often the source of great dangers
to navigators, and numberless instances have occurred of
entire or partial destruction of ships, and heavy losses of life
in consequence. One case, that happened some years ago
in the Indian Seas, nearly proved fatal to the whole crew of
a fine large ship called the " Cabalve.'* The story of this
shipwreck, as related in a letter to a friend by one of the
surviving officers, is deeply interesting. The vessel was
bound for Bombay, and was proceeding on its way at a quick
rate, with every feeling of security in those on board,
w^hen one morning, between four and five o^clock, the weather
being dark and cloudy, an alarm was given of "breakers
ahead!'' Every effort was instantly made to free the vessel
from her dangerous position ; but in vain, for she struck on
the coral reef, and the shock was so violent that every per-
son was instantly on deck, with horror and amazement de-
picted upon every countenance at what appeared to be cer-
tain destruction. The vessel soon became fixed upon the
coral reef, and the sea struck upon her with tremendous

SHIPWRECK ON THE CORAL REEF. 107

violence, staving in the exposed side, washing through the
hatchways, and tearing up the decks.

" We Avere now/' observes the officer alluded to, "uncer-
tain of our distance from a place of safety: the surf broke
over the vessel in a fearful cascade ; the crew despairing
and clinging to her sides to avoid its violence, while the ship
was breaking up with a rapidity and crashing noise, which,
added to the roar of the breakers, dro^vned the voices of the
officers. The masts were cut away to ease the ship, and the
cutter cleared and launched in readiness. When the long
wished-for dawn at length broke upon us, instead of alleviating
it rather added to our distress. We found that the ship had
run on the south-east extremity of a coral reef, surrounding
on the eastern side those sand-banks or islands in the Indian
Ocean, called by the natives Carajos; the nearest of these
was about three miles distant, but not the least appearance
of verdure could be discovered, or the slightest trace of any-
thing on which we might hope to subsist. In two or three
places some rocks in the shape of pyramids appeared above
the rest like distant sails, and were repeatedly cheered as
such by the crew, until it was perceived that they had no
motion, and the delusion vanished. The masts had fallen
towards the reef, the ship having fortunately canted in that
direction, and the boat was therefore protected in some
measure from the surf. Our commander, whom a strong
sense of misfortune had entirely deprived of presence of
mind, was earnestly requested to get into the boat, but he
would not, thinking it unsafe. He maintained his station on
the mizzen-topmast that lay along the wreck, the surf which
was rushing round the bow and stern continually overwhelm-
ing him. I was myself close to him on the same spar, and
in this situation we saw many of our shipmates meet an un-
timely end, being either dashed against the rocks or swept
away by the breakers.

*' The large cutter full of officers and men now cleared a

108 BREAKINO-UP OF THE VESSEL.

passage through the mass of wreck, and being furnished
with oars, watched the proper moment and pushed off for
the coral reef, which she fortunately gained in safet}", but
they were all washed out of her in an instant by a tremen-
dous surf; yet out of more than sixty persons whom she
contained, only one man was drowned. Our captain, seeing
this, wished he had taken advice which was now of no use.
Finding I could no longer maintain myself on the same spar,
and seeing the captain in a very exhausted state, I en-
treated him to return to the wreck ; but he replied that
since we must all inevitably perish, I should not think of
him, but seek my own preservation. An enormous breaker
now burst on us with tremendous violence, so that I scarce-
ly knew what had occurred to him afterwards, being washed
down by successive seas.

" At length, after most desperate efforts, I was thrown
on the reef, half drowned and severely cut by the sharp
coral, when I silently offered up thanks for my preservation^
and crawling up the reef, waved my hand to encourage
those who remained behind to make an effort. The cap-
tain, however, was not to be seen, and most of the others
had returned to the wreck, and were employed in getting
the small cutter into the water, which they accomplished,
and safely reached the shore. About noon, when we had
all left the ship, she was entirely broken up. The whole of
the upper works — from the after-part of the forecastle to
the break of the poop-deck — had separated, and was driv-
ing in towards the reef. Most of the lighter cargo had
floated out of her : bales of cloth, cases of wine, puncheons
of spirits, barrels of gunpowder, hogsheads of beer, and
other articles, lay strewed on the shore, together with a
chest of tools. Finding the men beginning to commit the
usual excesses, we stove in the heads of the spirit-casks to
prevent mischief, and endeavored to direct their attention
to the general benefit. The tide was floAving fast and we

ESCAPE TO A DESERT ISLAND. I09

saw that the reef must soon be covered ; we therefore con-
veyed the boats to a place of safety, and filling them with all
the provisions that could be collected, proceeded to the
highest sand-bank, as the only place which held out the re-
motest chance of safety.

"The people now collected together to ascertain who of
the crew had perished, when sixteen were missing: the
captain, surgeon^s assistant and fourteen seamen. We di-
vided our men into parties, each headed by an officer: some
were sent to the wreck and along the beach in search of
provisions, others to roll up the hogsheads of beer and butts
of water that had floated on shore ; but the greater number
were employed in hauling the two cutters up, which the
carpenters were directed to repair."

Such is a graphic account of a fearful shipwreck on a
barren coral reef, from one of the survivors among the crew.
One can thus form an idea of the dangers to wliich seamen
are exposed by these colossal works of tiny polyps:

** For often the dauntless mariner knows

That he must sink beneath,
Where the diaaiond on trees of coral grows

In the emerald halls of death."

CHAPTER YII.

PEARLS.

" Ocean's gems, the purest
Of Nature's works ! What days of weary journeyings
Wliat sleepless nights, what toils on land and sea,
Are borne by men to gain thee ! "

^MONGr the rare and beautiful objects of cre-
ation may be mentioned Pearls, which rank
with the most valuable of precious gems, and
are highly prized as ornamental appendages
by the rich and the noble in all countries.
While admiring these jewels, you may not know, perhaps,
at what perils and cost of life they are obtained, for it is neces-
sary to seek for them in the depths of the ocean, and al-
though the divers employed for this purpose are very strong
and expert, still in the Indian Sea and the Eastern Arch-
ipelago, where the true pearl-oysters are found, sharks aro
numerous, and it is necessary to take every precaution
against those voracious monsters. This occupation w^as
formerly considered so dangerous that only condemned
criminals were thus employed, but many thousand persons
now obtain a livelihood by these means in the Persian Gulf
and at Ceylon. At one time, when the Dutch had possession
of this beautiful island, the number of large pearls obtained
there was considerable.

These pearl-divers are a hardy race of men, singularly
adapted to their hazardous occupation, and very super-
stitious ; for before commencing operations, they consult

PEARL DIVERS AND SHARK CHARMERS. Ill

the " shark-charmer," a wise-acre who pretends to have the
power of " preserving his dupes from the angry jaws of the
great sea-scourge, and makes a good living by it, the office
being handed down from father to son as hereditary. The
divers have such confidence in their powers, or spells, that
they will not descend to the bottom of the deep without
knowing that one of the enchanters is present in the expe-
dition. Two of the '* charmers " are constantly employed,
one going out regularly in the head pilot's boat, while the
other performs certain ceremonies on shore, such as consult-
ing the auguries, which, if auspicious, ensure the divers in
their perilous submarine occupations by closing the mouths
of the sharks at the word of command. The " charmer " is
shut up in a room where nobody can see him, from the
period of the sailing of the boats until their return. He has
before him a brass basin filled with water, containing one
male and one female fish made of silver. If any accident
should happen from a shark at sea, it is believed that one of
these fishes is seen to bite the other. The divers also say
that if the conjuror is disatisfied, he has the power of mak-
ing the sharks attack them, on which account he is sure of
receiving liberal presents daily.

The Gulf of Manaar, where the pearls are found (and
which separates Ceylon from the continent of India on the
north-west), abounds in sharks ; and, however the divers
may consider their lives " charmed," the risks are lessened
by the sea-monsters being alarmed at the unusual number of
boats, the noise of the crews, and the constant descending
of the baskets for the shells. It is not improbable that the
dark skins of the divers are also some protection. It seems
that the pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf in former times
were so conscious of this advantage of color, that they were
accustomed to blacken their limbs in order to baffle their
powerful enemy. This is related by one of the earliest of
Arabian geographers, who adds, " that the divers filled their

112 METHOD PURSUED BY CmGALESE DIVERS.

ears with cotton steeped in oil, and compressed their nos-
trils with a piece of tortoise-shell."

The pearl fishery of the Bahrem Islands (in the Persian
Gulf) produces a nriost abundant supply of these ocean gems,
the produce of a two months' season realizing nearly five
hundred thousand dollars of our money. Persians are chief-
ly engaged in this pursuit, and the divers belong to that
nation.

The method pursued by the Cingalese divers is very sim-
ple. They proceed in boats to the place of operation at
the season, which lasts about two months, commencing in
February and ending in April. Each boat contains about
twenty men, half of whom are divers, while the others row
the boats and assist their companions in reaching the sur-
face of the water after diving. Five of the divers descend
at the time, and w^hen they come up, the other five take
their turn; the fatigue and exhaustion of the body is very
great in continuing under water, and a minute — in some
cases a minute and a half, or nearly two minutes — is about
the utmost time these men can sustain their breath. Many
divers suffer severely from overtaxing their powers of endur-
ance, and bloodshot eyes and spitting of blood are common
to them. It is to be hoped that the modern improvements
in diving-bells and suitable apparatus for divers will be
much more generally adopted than they have been in a few
places, that life may be rendered more secure, and other dis-
tressing consequences be obviated.

To facilitate the descent of the diver into the water, a
stone weighing about twenty pounds is suspended over the
side of the boat, with a loop attached to it, in which he in-
serts his foot; a bag of network is attached to his toes; his
right hand grasps the rope, and after inhaling a full breath,
he presses his nostrils with his left hand. He now raises
his body as high as possible above the water to give force
to his descent, and liberating the stone from its fastenings,

lii, liii! ; '

.a,*^3K_... ^.A&

114 , SEPARATION FROM THE OYSTER.

he sinks rapidly below the surface. As soon as he reaches
the bottom, the stone is drawn up, and the diver, throwing
himself on his face, collects into his bag as many oysters a&
he can. This, on a signal, is hauled to the surface, the diver
springing to the rope as it is drawn up. The sea, at the
oyster-beds, is generally from twenty-four to sixty feet deep.
The number of oysters thus collected varies; sometimes
several thousand are obtained in one day, and at other times
a few hundred only. The oysters are landed from the boats^
and are placed underground to putrify, and it is amidst such
a mass of corruption that the pearl,

* Purest of Nature's works/*
is obtained.

The pearl-fishers in ancient times used to place the shells
in vessels filled with salt, and leave them until all the fish
were dissolved, the gems remaining at the bottom. The or-
dinary operation now is, that as soon as putrification is suf-
ficiently advanced, the oysters are placed in a trough, and
sea-water is thrown over them. They are then shaken and
washed. Inspectors stand at each end of the trough, to see
that the laborers secrete none of the pearls, and others are
in the rear to examine the shells thown out. The workmen
are not allowed to raise their hands to their mouths while
washing the pearls, lest they might attempt to swallow some.
Sometimes the pearls, instead of adhering to the shells as is
usually the case, are in the bodies of the oysters, which are
boiled before being thrown aside as useless. The number
of pearls in a shell differs : one may contain a considerable
number, while hundreds are without any.

To give an idea of the extent to which the pearl fishery
in Ceylon has been carried for several ages, the shore in
some parts of the island has been raised to the height of
many feet by enormous mounds of shells, millions having
been flung into heaps that extend to the distance of many
miles.

THE PEARL ISLANDS, 115

At the Pearl Islands, near the Isthmus of Panama, the
divers use a very simple method of obtaining the oysters.
They traverse the bay in canoes that hold eight men, all of
whom dive in the water to a depth of from fifty to sixty feet,
where they remain sometimes nearly two minutes, during
which they collect all the oysters they can in their hands,
and rise to deposit them in the canoes, repeating the oper-
ation for several hours.

In Sweden the oysters are taken with a pair of long tongs.
The fishermen are in small boats, painted white on the bot-
tom, which reflects to a great depth, and enables them to
see the oysters and seize them.

The most beautiful and costly pearls are obtained from
the East, and are called " Oriental ; " the color of those found
in Ceylon is generally a bluish silvery white, but they are
met with of several other hues. Those from the Persian
Gulf are of great purity and richness. The preparation of
the pearls for market occupies a considerable number of
the inhabitants of Ceylon. After being thoroughly cleaned,
they are rounded and polished with a powder made of the
pearls themselves, and arranged into classes according to
their various sizes and quality. They are then drilled and
strung together, the largest being generally sent to India,
where they are highly prized, while the smaller ones are
forwarded to Europe. The operation of drilling is a very
delicate one, and the black people are very expert in it. It
is done with a wooden machine in the form of an inverted
cone, in the upper flat surface of which are pits to receive
the pearls. The holes are made by spindles of various
sizes, which revolve in a wooden head by the action of a
bow-handle, to which they arc attached. During the oper-
ation (which is done by one hand, while the other presses
on the machine), the pearls are moistened occasionally, and
the whole is done with astonishing rapidity.

As to how the pearl is formed within the oyster-shell,

116 HOW PEARLS ABE FORMED.

is a subject that has been much debated in ancient and mod-
ern times. The illustrious Pliny (who died in the year 79),
as one of the most enlightened of the old philosophers, says
that '' the pearl was produced by the dews of heaven fall-
ing into the open shells at the breeding-time. The quality
of the pearl varied according to the amount of the dew
imbibed, being lustrous if that were pure, dull if it were
foul ; cloudy weather spoilt the color, lightning stopped the
growth, and thunder made the shell-fish unproductive, and
to eject hollow husks called bubbles."

The same naturalist also relates a story how the shoals
of pearl-oysters had " a king, distinguished by his age and
size, exactly as bees have a queen, wonderfully expert in
keeping his subject out of harm's way, but if the divers once
succeeded in catching him, the rest straying about blindly,
fell an easy prey. Although defended by a body-guard of
sharks, and dwelling among the rocks of the abyss, they
cannot be preserved from ladies' ears."

These are very pretty and fanciful ideas, as were many
fictions of the pagans, and the British poet Moore, has al-
luded to them in one of his sweet melodies : —

** And precious the tear as that rain from the sky
Which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea."

Some naturalists have suggested that pearls are the un-
fructified eggs of the oyster, others that the jewel is a mor-
bid concretion produced by the endeavor of the animal in
the shell to fill up cavities ; the general opinion, however,
seems to prevail thus : most shelly animals which are
aquatic are provided with a fluid secretion with which they
line their dwellings to render them smooth and polished for
their tenderly-formed bodies. This fine even lining is seen
in shells of every description. The fluid is laid in extreme-
ly thin semi-transparent threads, which gives the interior of
the shell the benutifnl play of color, so often observed. As

CHINESE METHOD OF PROCURING PEARLS. 117

for the pearl in the shell, small rounded portions are formed
in the lining, which are supposed to be the result of ac-
cident, such as grains of sand or other substances getting
into the shell, and, irritating the animal inside, causes it, by
an instinct of nature, to cover the cause of offence, not hav-
ing the power to remove it. As the fluid goes on regularly
to supply the growth and wear of the shell, the prominences
continue to increase, and being more brilliant than the rest
of the shell, they become a pearl, a composition of carbon-
ate of lime and a little animal matter.

If a pearl is cut tranversely and observed through a mi-
croscope, it will be found to consist of minute layers,
resembling the rings which denote the ages of certain trees
when cut in a similar manner.

The Chinese, who are never at a loss for expedients, are
in the habit of laying a string with five or six small pearls,
separated by knots, inside the shells, when the fish are ex-
posing themselves to the sun. These, after some years, are
taken out, and found to be very large fine pearls. The same
ingenious people also introduce into the shell of a mussel
different substances such as mother of pearl, the beautiful
white enamel which forms the greater part of the substance
of most oyster shells, fixed to wires, which thus become
coated with a more brilliant material. Another practice
among the Chinese is to serve the purpose of a deception
upon the credulous. They place small metal images of
their god Buddha in the shells, which are soon covered with
a pearly secretion, and become united to the shells. These
are sold as miraculous proofs of the truth of their worship.
The Chinese are also said to employ a means of procuring
pearls artificially by the introduction of shot between the
mouth of the animal and its shell.

The pearl-oyster is not the only mollusk which produces
pearls : an oyster with a thin transparent shell, which is
used in China and elsewhere as a substitute for glass win-

IIB

PEARLS IN ANCIENT TIMES.

dows, produces small pearls, as also the fresh-water mussel
of England, pinna, a genus of the same family with the
pearl-mussel, and even in limpets.

PEARL PRODUCING SHELLS.

The ancients were extravagantly fond of these beautiful
jewels: necklaces, bracelets, and earrings were worn in pro-
fusion ; a string of pearls was estimated by a Roman writer
at about forty thousand dollars of our money ; the single
pearl which Cleopatra dissolved and swallowed was valued
at nearly four hundred thousand dollars ; and a similar act

LARGE PEARLS. 119

of folly is reported in later times, in the reign of Queen Eliz-
abeth, when Sir Thomas Gresham, one of London's merchant
princes, reduced a pearl to powder worth seventy-five thou-
sand dollars, and drank it in a glass of wine to the health of
his sovereign, in consequence of a wager with the Spanish
ambassador that he would give a more costly dinner than
the other. Quite as absurd was the notion in former times
that powdered pearls were unfailing remedies in all stomach
complaints.

Pearls are esteemed according to their size, color, form,
and lustre : the largest, usually about the dimensions of a small
walnut, are called " paragons" and are very rare ; those the
size of a small cherry are next in rarity, and are called "dia-
dem" or head pearls. They receive names also according
to their form, whether quite round, semicircular, or drum-
form, or that of an ear-drop, pear, onion, or as they are
otherwise irregularly shaped. The small pearls are termed
" ounce pearls," on account of their being sold by weight,
and the very smallest " seed pearls."

The largest pearl on record is one, pear-shaped, brought
from India in 1620, by Gongibusde Calais,andsold to Philip
IV. of Spain. It weighed four hundred and eighty grains.
The merchant, when asked by the monarch how he could
venture to risk all his fortune in one little article, replied
with great tact, ''because he knew there was a King of
Spain to buy it of him." This pearl was said to be in the
possession of the princely family of Yousoppoff, in Russia.

Hunjeet Sing, the former possessor of the famous Koh-i-
Noor diamond, had a string of pearls which was considered
nearly equal in value to the " Mountain of Light." They
were about three hundred in number, and the size of small
marbles, all choice pearls, round and perfect both in shape
and color. Two hours before he died he sent for all his
jewels, and gave the magnificent string of pearls to a Hindoo
temple.

CHAPTER YIIL

SPONGES.

MONG ancient na-
tions the sponge was
used as a soft and elastic
lining for the brazen hel-
mets of their soldiers, and
many other purposes. It
has long been a matter of
debate among naturalists
whether sponges should be
classed among the vegeta-
ble or animal kingdoms ^
they are now generally
placed under the order Zoo-
phytCy or plant animals.

Aristotle, the greatest of
ancient philosophers, who
was born three hundred
and eighty-four years
before Christ, de-
scribed the sponge as
a stationary or root-
ed animal: but

EXPERIMENTS ON SPONGES. 121

from other statements he made it is certain that he consid-
ered its place as between the animal and vegetable. Some
modern naturalists have placed sponges among marine vege-
tables, and their appearance, if one casually looks at them,
would seem to justify such an opinion; but the researches
of Mr. Ellis, a merchant of London, who made similar
branches of natural history a particular pursuit, gave addi-
tional interest to this case. In the course of his microscopic
investigations, he was astonished at discovering that sponges
possessed a system of pores and vessels, in which sea-water
passed with all the appearance of the regular circulation of
fluids in animal bodies, and a seeming purpose of conveying
small minute animals to itself for food.

Afterward, Dr. Grant gave the result of his experiments
on the same subject. The account is so interesting that we
will give it in his own words. ** Having placed a portion of
sponge in a watch-glass with some sea-water, I beheld for
the first time the splendid spectacle of this living fountain
vomiting forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent
of liquid matter, and hurling along in rapid succession opaque
masses, which it strewed everywhere around. The beauty
and novelty of such a scene in the animal kingdom long ar-
rested my attention ; but after twenty-five minutes of con-
stant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye from
fatigue, without having seen the torrent for an instant change
its direction or diminish the rapidity of its course. In ob-
serving another species, I placed two entire portions of this
together in a glass of sea-water, with their orifices opposite
to each other, at the distance of two inches. They appeared
to the naked eye like two living batteries, and soon covered
each other with the materials ejected. I placed one of them
in a shallow vessel, and just covered its surface and highest
orifice with water. On strewing some powdered chalk on
the surface of the water, the currents were visible to a great
distance : and on placing some pieces of cork or dry paper

122 HOW SPONGES ABE OBTAINED.

over the orifices, I could perceive them moving by the force
of the currents at the distance of ten feet from the table on
which the specimens rested."

So interesting are the sponges, which, although ranked as
creatures of very low intelligence, yet are by no means the
least curious of those manifestations of the Divine Power

** That built tlie palace of the sky.
Formed the light wings that decorate the fly;
The Power that wheels the circling planets round,
Rears every infant floweret on the ground;
That bounty which the mightest beings share.
Feeds the least gnat that gilds the evening air."

All of our young readers must be conscious of the useful
qualities of the sponge, but many are unacquainted with the
manner in which and where they are obtained. The finest
qualities of sponge come from the Ottoman Archipelago,
and form one of the principal articles of commerce with
Turkey. The island of Calymnos is the principal station
for the sponge fishery, and more than three hundred boats
are employed, averaging each about six tons, and carrying
six to eight men, of whom two are rowers. It may be
readily seen that this business furnishes occupation for
a great number of people. One thousand men are em-
ployed in the Grecian Archipelago, alone; and thou-
sands besides with the necessary boats and appliances,
are busy in the Gulf of Machia, on the Barbary Coast and
elsewhere, so that in many hamlets in these latitudes, from
May to September — the best diving time — only old men,
women and children are to be seen. The finest qualities
are sent in large quantities to our own country, and the com-
mon and coarser kinds are forwarded to France, Austria
and Constantinople.

The average depth at which the best sponges are found
is about one hundred and eighty feet; those of an inferior
quality are brought from a lesser depth. The method of

PBEFARATION FOR MARKET. 123

-diving is much the same as we have described i-H the coral-
fishing. The diver, who goes head-foremost into the water,
takes with him a trianguhir-shaped stone, to which a strong
line is attached to assist him in his descent, and direct him
like a rudder to any particular spot. On reaching the bot-
tom, the diver tears off a number of sponges, which adhere
in masses to rocks and stones, sometimes to large shells, and
are either round, flat, or hollow like a funnel ; and then,
pulling a line, he is drawn up, with the sponges in his arms,
by the rowers. An experienced diver will make from eight
to ten dives during the day. The proceeds of the fishery
are divided into shares, the divers receiving a whole share,
and the rowers two-thirds of a share. Formerly the divers
used to sell their sponges by weight, to increase which they
put sand into them, a practice still continued, though now
sold, by quantity.

The best quality is brought from the Agean Sea. At day-
light, in the summer time, when the weather is pleasant — for
it requires smooth water — the boats will leave the shore
-and proceed to where the water is of suitable depth. The
divers then descend as before described. After being busy
thus until mid-day, they return to some of those pleasant
little nooks which abound in this locality to prepare what
they have gathered ready for the market. This is done by
pressing out the soft part of the animal. Then they beat
and trample the animal until no life is left, after which
process the remainder is bleached out by the sun. The
skeleton part is thoroughly washed and otherwise treated
until it is quite clean, and grows to be a dull yellow color;
it is then packed in bags, and shipped to various parts of
the world.

The sponge, in its natural state, would not be recognized
as that we are accustomed to use daily. In its primitive
condition it is covered with a thin dark skin, inside of which
there is a liquid like milk, and of the same consistency. If

SPONGE IN ITS NATURAL STATE.

COMPOSITION OF THE SPONGE. 125

^we examine a drop of this liquid by the microscope, it would
^appear entirely composed of very small transparent grains,
nearly of the same size, with some moisture. This jelly mat-
ter connects the different parts of the framework of the
•sponge, and lines the various canals or passages. The pores,
or apertures for perspiration, are minute openings on the
surface, protected by the framework, and into which the
water enters in currents, and after traversing the interior
passages, is ejected by means of openings which are larger
than the pores, and in many species are elevated above the
surface. To examine closely the framework or skeleton of
the sponge, it is necessary to macerate it in hot water, which
removes the gelatinous matter, and leaves it in a condition
to be examined by the microscope. This framcAvork con-
sists principally of two materials, one animal, the other min-
eral ; the first of a thready, horny, elastic nature ; the second
(the species most commonly used for domestic purposes) of
a flinty or chalk material. The thready portion consists of a
light pale-colored network, with some few exceptions always
solid, and varying considerably in size. The mineral por-
tion has little spines, which, if examined with the microscope,
show traces of a central cavity or canal, the extremities of
which are closed.

How the growth and increase of the sponge is effected
affords matter of the deepest interest, and this, like every-
thing else in nature, shows the unerring wisdom of an all-
sustaining Providence.

From the framework or skeleton of the sponge emerge, at
■certain seasons of the year, a yellow kind of grain, which
projects as it increases in size into the cavities of the sponge,
and forms the germ or seed of another race ; these are egg-
like in appearance ; and a large portion of its surface be-
comes covered with little hairs, called eyelashes from their
resemblance to such. These hairs act as oars to the little
germ, to convey it away as soon as it falls on the water to

126 DIGESTION AND RESPIRATION

some other spot to which it may attach itself, The hairs^
after accomplishing their purpose, fall off, leaving the germ
to gradually develop into the sponge.

This sponge is a natural production, and we have already
hinted, has been known from the times of highest antiquity.
As is well known, all naturalists are now satisfied of the
animal nature of this species of creation, although they were
once thought to represent the lowest and most obscure
grades of animal existence, and that so close to the confines
of the vegetable world, that it was considered difficult in
some species to determine whether they were on one side
or the other.

According to a generally accepted view, the channels of
the sponge perform the two functions of digestion and respi-
ration. The rapid currents of aerated water which traverse
them lead into them the substances necessary to the nourish-
ment of these strange creatures, and at the same time carry
off all excremental matter. At the same time, the walls of
these animals present a large absorbing surface which sep-
arates the oxygen with which the water is charged, and dis-
engages the carbonic acid which results from respiration.
But science is far from being settled in its views as to the
organization and development of these obscure and complex
creatures ; nor is it more advanced in its knowledge of the
duration of life and the quickness of growth in sponges.
Nor can it be denied, also, that these beings constitute, in
spite of the investigations of modern naturalists, a group
still somewhat problematical as to their position in the scale
of animal life, and that they still are very imperfectly known
as regards their internal organization.

The demand for sponges is increasing annually, and it is
only a question of time when the trade must cease. The
submarine fields are constantly being cleared, and the de-
struction is such that the reproduction will cease to b©
adequate.

PRESERVATION OF SPONGE FISHERIES. 127

In order to prevent this result, it has been suggested
that attempts should be made to naturalize the several
species of sponges, and that their cultivation and reproduc-
tion should be protected. The first thing to consider is
what waters have the same or nearly the same temperature
as that in which the sponges now dwell. This being com-
paratively easy, the next and most difficult part would be to
transfer the animals in such a shape as would insure repro-
duction in their new homes. Some such submarine boat as
has been used recently in making scientific operations con-
ducted in deep water, might, probably, give the necessary
facility for collecting sponges for the purpose. Such a boat
can descend to great depths, and its crew can even dwell
there for a considerable time, for it is continually fed with
fresh air ; so that the men could readily select such specimens
as were suited for acclimatizing, removing whole blocks of
rock along with them.

It might be possible too to collect the very young forms
of sponge in the months of April and May, shortly after they
have commenced their independent existence, and to trans-
plant them to favorable localities. At the end of a few
years, when these true submarine fields would be probably
ripe for harvesting, they could he farmed out for methodical
collection, which would be effected by means of diving
boats.

CHAPTER IX.

SEALS.

** Man bends the ocean monsters to his sway.
No terrors daunt him on his arduous way;
Through frozen waters, or in sunlit waves,
He seeks the Seal, unnumber'd hardships braves
To gain a prize so rich in useful store. "

fT the approach of the Arctic 8ummer, all is
bustle and activity among the natives of the
Arctic regions. The materials for the summer
huts are prepared, and the whole household,
consisting of five or six families, move down to
the fishing-place, which is generally an island
with a low beach, in a southern aspect, for the convenience
of launching their boats or drawing the seals which have
been taken ashore. They are not confined to any particular
spot in the summer, unless abundance of seals are seen; but
they generally shift to some other station, which, in the
course of former seasons, they may have observed as more
suitable.

The Esquimaux have their regular divisions of work.
The men are the carpenters ; the women are the tailors,
shoemakers and cooks, helping their husbands or fathers oc-
casionally in their fishing. It is heavy work for these poor
females, but Providence has endowed them with a strength
of constitution and powers of endurance far greater than
women in more genial climates possess. They have to haul
the seals that have been taken by the men, ashore, and con-
vey them to the huts. They also flay and cut up the spoil.

U8E8 OF THE BLUBBER OF SEALS. 129

Seal's flesh forms their chief food, and they employ various
methods for preserving it for future use. The most com-
mon plan is to cut it into thin strips, and dry them over a
line in the interior of the huts. The seal-skins, which the
Esquimaux have a mode of rendering waterproof, form the
chief articles of dress ; when tanned, they make excellent
shoes.

It may be mentioned here that the Romans believed a
seal's skin was a preservative against lightning, and they
made tents of it to shelter themselves during thunder-
storms. The Emperor Augustus is said by Suetonius never
to have traveled without one of these skins, having a great
dread of lightning.

The blubber of the seal is most carefully preserved by
the Esquimaux, being useful in many ways to their domestic
comfort, and more precious to them by far than wine is to
others. The oil is the luxury of their meals, and is of a su-
perior quality to that of the common whale ; their bread is
nothing more than the dried muscular parts of seals or
birds. Whatever may be thought of the Esquimaux's par-
tiality for seal-flesh, it is well to remember that our English
ancestors considered it a delicacy. The seal and the por-
poise are mentioned in the bill of fare of a feast given at
the enthronization of George Neville, Archbishop of York,
in 1465. The meat is described as tender, but it certainly
has a look and smell which would not be agreeable to any
but very hungry persons.

The Esquimaux are exceedingly expert in their mode of
capturing the seal. This is done either individually or in
company, or in winter on the ice. Their kayaks, or skin
boats are very curious : they are about eighteen feet in
length, pointed at the head, and shaped like a weaver's shut-
tle ; they are, at the same time, scarcely a foot and a half
wide over the middle, and not more than a foot deep. They
are built of a slender skeleton of wood, consisting of a keel

130 MODES OF CAPTURING THE SEAL,

and long side-laths, with cross-ribs like hoops, but not quite
round. The whole is covered with seal-skin. In the mid-
dle of this covering is a round aperture, supported with a
strong rim of wood or bone ; the Esquimaux slip into this
cavity, their feet resting on a board covered with skin. The
lance, harpoon and tackle are arranged before the boatman.
He uses his oar or paddle with wonderful dexterity, striking
the water on either side alternately, by which means he can
proceed at the rate of sixty miles or more in a day. In this
frail bark, which only those accustomed to such can manage,
the Greenlander fears no storm or the roughest breakers,
so long as he retains his oar, which enables him to sit up-
right ; and if overturned, while the head is downward in the
water with one stroke he can recover himself.

"Train'd with inimitable skill to float,
Each balanced in his bubble of a boat,
With dexterous paddle steering through the spray.
With pois'd harpoon to strike his plunging prey,
As though the skill, the seaman, oar and dart
Were one compacted body, and one heart,
While instinct, motion, pulse, empowered to ride —
A human nautilus upon the tide."

As the natives are ever on the watch, as soon as they dis-
cover a herd of seals — driven usually by stormy weather in-
to some creek or inlet — they endeavor to cut off their retreat,
and frighten them under water by shouting, clapping, and
throwing stones. As, however, the seals must speedily come
to the surface of the water to breathe, they are surrounded
and killed with long or short lances.

There are various modes of capturing seals on the ice.
As the animals make holes in it for breathing, the Esqui-
maux seat themselves on stools, watching their appearance at
the apertures, and rarely fail to harpoon them, enlarging the
holes to withdraw and kill them. Sometimes, on seeing a
seal lying on the ice near a hole, the Greenlander slides along

132 EXPERTNES8 OF THE ESQUIMAUX.

on his stomach towards it, wagging his head, and making a
sound like a seal, thus deceiving the poor animal into a be-
lief that it is one of his companions. But tlie seal is usually-
wary — that is, the older ones — and takes every opportunity
of escaping from its pursuers. When one is seen at sea, a
signal is passed to the different boats engaged in the chase,
and the animal is surrounded ; a careful watch is kept for
the moment of its reappearing, and on this taking place, one
of the boats having advanced near enough, a dart is hurled
with unerring aim. The seal, terrified and wounded, dives
in the greatest hurry ; but a float being attached to the dart,
it is soon forced up again and dispatched. The wounds of the
seal are then carefully staunched, to save as much of the
blood as possible, and the body is distended by blowing into
the cellulat part, in order to render the animal buoyant, or,
otherwise, it would sink to the bottom as soon as dead.

The chase of the seal, however, is not free from danger,
even to the expert fisherman of the Arctic shores. If the
animal is not too much exhausted when pursued, it some-
times turns on its adversary, seizes his frail skin boat, and
with its sharp teeth pierces a hole, when the kayak sinks
with its unfortunate owner. Many risks also occur from the
lines to which the floats are attached getting foul of the pad-
dle or the arms or neck of the fisherman, when the seal dives
suddenly on being wounded. The males are very pugna-
cious, and have terrible fights among themselves.

Seal-hunting, or fishing, as it is often called, is the great
occupation of the Greenlanders, and is also extensively pur-
sued by various nations in other northern parts of the
world.

A great many species of seals are met with on the west-
ern coast of Greenland ; but the most highly prized by the
natives is what sailors call the Sea-Calf, so named from a
supposed resemblance of the voice to that of a calf. These
animals live in families, the old male being attended by hi&

HABITS OF THE SEAL. 133

progeny for several generations. They are cliiefly seen in
flocks, amounting sometimes to hundreds. The teeth are
very sharp, and the bite is severe. The habits of the seal
are filthy, and singularly mischievous. A perpetual tyrant
over weaker animals, it is also an object of constant pursuit
with others. The white bear — with whom the seal is a great
dainty — is constantly on the watch to surprise it when sleep-
ing on the ice ; but the cautious animal usually selects a sin-
gle piece of ice for a nap, from which it may gain a full view of
all around, and the proximity of the water may afford a ready
means of escape. They are also said to have a great dread
of the toothed whales. If a grampus perceives a seal of any
species basking on floating ice, it does its best to upset the
ice, or beat the seal off with its fins, when the animal be-
comes any easy prey.

Seals are easily stunned by a blow on the forehead ; but
from this state they often recover, and are desperate in their
revenge. The sea-calf, in particular, is subject to violent
fits of anger. After it has been hoisted on board a ship from
the boat in which it had been carried, apparently dead from
the blows it had received, it has been known to recover un-
expectedly, and seizing with its teeth the nearest object
within reach, tear away such a portion as it could grasp.
Even after death this irritation manifests itself, as the mus-
cular parts of the animal — though stripped of its outer in-
teguments or coverings — still retain the principle of vitality,
starting and quivering long after the dismemberment of the
body has taken place.

When seals are observed making their escape in the wa-
ter before the boat reaches the ice, the sailors give a loud,
prolonged shout, which, causing them to stop in amazement
at a sound so uncommon, sometimes delays their retreat until
arrested by the fatal blows of their pursuers.

In the higher latitudes, the Bearded or Great Seals are
mostly found. These are usually of an enormous size, some-

134 THE FUR SEAL.

times ten or twelve feet in length, and of proportionate mag-
nitude of body. This seal migrates in families, the elder
ones leading the van, while the young follow confusedly
behind, playing, tumbling, and frisking along in the highest
enjoyment, and frequently in the extravagance of their fun,
flinging themselves quite out of the water. The sailors call
these antics *' seals' weddings. '^

Though the bearded seal does not yield much oil, yet its
fat is esteemed delicious by the northerners. The Harp
Seal, so named from a large black crescent-shaped mark on
each side of the back, belongs also to the ice regions, though
sometimes seen on the British coast. It attains the length
of eight, and even nine feet.

The seal belongs to the Mammalia, or animals that suckle
their young, and constitute the family Fhocidoe. All the-
animals of this class are mainly aquatic, but also frequently
resort to land, or ice-islands, where they remain for days, and
even months, suckling their young, or basking in the sun
during the brief summer. The Fur Seal seems to posses*
remarkable powers of agility on land, often escaping when
pursued by the men running fast. They cannot walk, but
shuffle along, especially over the ice, very quickly. On land
the hind feet are never employed, nor the fore feet unneces-
sarily, but in moving forward it bends the hinder part of the
spine underneath it, thus making a kind of arch, and then
fixing the latter end, it suddenly straightens out the whole
body in front, and in a repetition of this movement consists
the peculiar kind of jerking leap for which these animals are
remarkable. When the seal ascends an ice-island or rock,.
the ease with which it accomplishes its purpose is wonderful
It then makes especial use of its fore paws, and those which,
have claws are implanted into them like so many grap-
pling-irons, and, having thus secured a fixed point, they raise;
their monstrous bodies with the greatest rapidity. The
general shape of a seal resembles i its trunk that of a fish

THE COMMON SEAL. 135

and a common quadruped ; the head is like that of a dog ;
the arms, which are destitute of collar-bones, are so hid
beneath the skin of the body that only the wrists and hands
appear, and they are then so short that they can scarcely be
advanced forward at all. But what they lose in extent they
gain in power. They are admirably adapted for swimming,
and serve also for seizing or holding. The fingers have an
intervening membrane, but they can be separated so as to
diminish or increase the surface of the paws. In all the
species, the fingers can be distinguished through the paw,
and in most the nails appear at the termination ; but in one
group of seals there is this difference, that the membrane or
web extends beyond the nails, not joined, but hanging down
in the water like broad leathern strips, which the sailors
call " flippers." The face is provided with strong whiskers
placed on each side of the mouth and at the corner of the
eye, communicating with nerves of considerable size, and the
slightest impression produces sensation.

The ground color of the hair or skin of the common seal,
when the animal is alive and dry, is a pale whitish-gray,
with a very slight tinge of yellow. When just out of the
water and wet, the color is ash ; after death, and as seen in
museums, the ground color is pale yellowish-gray, the oil
having penetrated the skin and rendered the hair of a more
yellow hue. The fur of seals is very smooth, and abun-
dantly lubricated with an oily secretion. There is generally
an inner coating of rich fur, through which grow long hairs,
forming an outer covering. Another adaptation to aquatic
life and a cold climate is the layer of fat under the skin,
from which the oil is obtained, and serving, as in the case
of the whale, not only for support when food is scarce, but
protection from the cold, besides rendering the whole body
lighter. The respiration of the seal differs considerably
from what has been observed in most animals : the nostrils
are habitually closed, instead of being uniformly opened.

136 8EAL8 FOND OF MU8IG.

Bufibn examined a tame seal, and remarked that the period
between its several inspirations was very long : the crea-
ture opened its nostrils to make a strong expiration, which
was immediately followed by an inspiration ; after which it
closed them, often allowing two minutes to intervene with-
out taking another breath. This power of suspension for a
considerable time is of great use, enabling the seals to pur-
sue their prey under water. Seals are often subjected to
enormous pressure under water, which must be resisted, at
the respective apertures of the body, by an appropriate
mechanism. A similar provision is made for the eyes, as
well as the nostrils, in more ways, perhaps, than one.
At the inner angle of the eye (which is very large and
round) there is a third eyelid, which can be drawn over the
whale eye. The ears as well as the eyes, can be closed at
will, so as to resist pressure.

How very wonderful is the provision thus afforded to the
seal, as, in fact, to all created objects, and how the contem-
plation of such subjects should raise our hearts to the
Omnipotent God!

To know and feel His care for all that lives.**

Captain Scoresby, who had numerous opportunities of
observing the habits of the seal, states that the animal hears
well under water, and that music, and particularly a person
whistling, draws it to the surface, and induces it to stretch
out the neck to the utmost extent, so as to prove a snare, by
bringing them within reach of the shooter. Many similar
observations of this curious faculty in seals have been re-
lated by different writers. One remarks : " In walking along
the shore, a few notes of my flute would bring half a score
of seals within thirty or forty yards of me ; and there they
would swim about, with their heads above water, like so
many black dogs, evidently delighted with the sounds. For
half an hour, or indeed for any length of time I chose, I

TAME SEALS. 137

could fix them to the spot ; and when I moved along the
water edge, they would follow me with eagerness."

The food of the seal appears to be chiefly fish, although
it does not reject other animal food, and it is said to derive
part of its nourishment from marine vegetables. It has been
found that seals have a remarkable habit of swallowing
large stones, for which no probable reason has been yet as-
signed. The keeper of the celebrated " talking seal" in the
Zoological Gardens is reported to have given his pet fifty
pounds' weight of fish in a day, but this is by no means a
limit of appetite, for double the quantity would no doubt
have found a ready reception. This will give you an idea
of the vast consumption of fish in its native element. A
good-sized Spitzbergen seal in good condition is about ten
feet in length and six feet in circumference, weighing about
six hundred pounds or upwards. The skin and fat amount
to about one-half the total weight. The blubber yields
about one-half of its own weight in oil.

It has been supposed that seals can be easily tamed, but
such cases are exceptional. Some of the common species,
however, have shown great attachment to their owners, and
oxhibited considerable powers of intelligence. An anecdote
is related of a seal that performed very cleverly what it was
ordered to do, and would raise itself on its hind legs, take a
staff in its paws, and act the sentinel. At the word of com-
mand it would lie down on its right side or left, and tumble
head over heels. It would give either of its paws when de-
sired, and was equally ready at a kiss. Another was kept by
Cuvier for a considerable time, and became very tame.
When teased it resisted, and when much irritated barked
very feebly. It was particularly attached to the old woman
who had charge of it, and recognized her at a considerable
distance, keeping its eyes upon her as long as she was in
sight, and running to her as soon as she approached its en-
closure. If free when food was brought; it ran and urgently

THE "MARBLED" SEAL. 139

solicited it by the motion of its head, and still more by the
expression of its countenance.

Of another species of seal called the Marbled, and found
on the coast of France,which was kept for several weeks in the
Jardin des Plantes at Paris, Cuvier says: '* I have never
known any wild animal which was more easily tamed, or
attached itself more strongly. When it first came it endeav-
ored to escape when I wished to touch it, but in a very few
days all its apprehensions vanished ; it had discovered my
intentions, and rather desired my caresses than feared them.
It was in the same enclosure with two small dogs, which
amused themselves by frequently mounting on its back, with
barking, and even biting it; and although these sports and
the vivacity of the attending movements were little in har-
mony with its own actions and habits, yet it appreciated
their motive, and seemed pleased with them. It never
offered any other retaliation than slight blows with its paws,
the object of which was to encourage rather than repress
the liberties taken. If the puppies escaped from the enclo-
sure, the seal endeavored to follow them, notwithstanding
the difficulty it experienced in creeping along the ground
covered with stones and rubbish. When the weather was
cold, the three animals huddled closely and kindly together,
that they might contribute to their mutual warmth." The
creature did not exhibit any alarm at the presence of man or
animals, and did not get out of the way unless when threat-
ened to be trod upon. Though very voracious, it did not
show any opposition or anger when robbed of its food.
" Often,*^ adds Cuvier, " have I tried him when pressed with
hunger, and never opposed my will ; and I have seen the
dogs, to whom he was much attached, amuse themselves
when he was feeding, by snatching the fish from his mouth,
without his exhibiting any rage. On the other hand, when
their mess was supplied to the seals (for he had a companion),
as they were lying in the same trough, a battle was the usual

140 THE SEALS OF SOUTHERN SEAS,

result, and blows with their paws followed, and as usually
happened, the more feeble and timid gave way to the
stronger.''

The seals of the Southern seas are quite different from
those of the Northern. The most remarkable of these ani-
mals is the Sea Elephant, or Proboscis Seal^ named thus,
partly on account of the very peculiar appearance of its
short trunk, and also from its being much the largest of its
kind, doubling the dimensions of its terrestrial namesake,
reaching the enormous length of twenty-five and thirty feet,
and being also of a proportionate thickness. Its color is
sometimes gray or blue-gray, and more rarely blackish-
brown. There is an absence of everything like external
ears ; it has great whiskers of strong coarse hairs, very long,
and twisted somewhat like a screw, with other similar hairs
over each eye, supplying the place of eyebrows ; the eyes
are very large and prominent ; strong and powerful swim-
ming paws, having at their margins five small black nails ;
a very short tail, which is almost hid beneath two flat hori-
zontal fins: these form the distinguishing peculiarities of
this strange animal. When the sea-elephant is in a state of
repose, its nostrils, shrunk and hanging down, serve only to
make the face appear larger: but whenever he rouses him-
self, when he respires violently, or when about to attack or
defend himself, the proboscis becomes lengthened in the
form of a tube to the length of about a foot; and then not
only is the countenance changed, but the character of the
voice is modified in a not less striking manner. Though
furnished with large and powerful tusks, the sea-elephant is
mild and inoffensive in his habits ; but when assailed is a
formidable adversary. It has been related that a sailor
having killed a young one, and skinned it in the presence of
its mother, she came up behind him, and seizing his head in
her mouth, so injured his skull, that he died in a day or two
afterwards. This is not, however, their usual habit, as has

SEA LIONS. 141

been stated. A young one, petted by an English seaman^
became so attached to his master from kind treatment for a
few months, that it would come at his call, allow him to
mount upon its back, and put his hands into its mouth.

The cry of the female and the young is said to be like
the lowing of an ox ; but the hoarse, gurgling, singular voice
of the male — strengthened by the proboscis — is heard from
a great distance, and is wild and frightful. They are found
in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans. The great object for
which this animal is hunted is for the oil, which is remark-
ably pure in quality ; the skin is used extensively for car-
riage and horse harness, on account of its thickness and
strength.

The Sea Leopard is a rare species of seal, in length about
nine feet ten inches, which has been found in South Shet-
land. The Monk Seal frequents the southern shores of
Europe.

The Otaries are a species of seal thus named because
their heads are furnished with external ears, of which the
others are deprived, and from whom they also differ in other
particulars. These include the Sea-Lion of the Northern
seas, about fifteen feet in length, and found chiefly on
rocky coasts and islet rocks, on the ledges of which it
climbs, and its roaring is sometimes useful as warning sailors
of danger. The old males have a fierce aspect, but it is
only when driven to extremities that they fight furiously.
The Sea-Bear, or Ursine Seal, is an inhabitant of the North-
ern Pacific, and attains a length of about eight feet. The
hinder limbs of this animal being better developed, it can
stand and walk almost like a land quadruped. It swims
with great swiftness, and is fierce and courageous. The
skin is much prized for clothing in the regions where it
abounds.

POTWAL.

CHAPTER X.

WHALES— THE MONARGHS OF THE OCEAN.

all the industrial pursuits which engage the
venturous seaman on the wide ocean, those
connected with the capture of the Whale, —

"the mightiest that swims the ocean stream,"

and, it may be said, in point of dimensions
the monarch also of creation, — are the most exciting and
perilous ; requiring the greatest endurance, hardihood and
courage, and at the same time yielding, under favorable cir-
cumstances, a substantial return for the dangers encountered.

Before relating some of the exciting adventures which
occur in the pursuit and capture of the unfortunate whales,
a few particulars will be given about the animals them-
selves.

There are many peculiarities to be observed in these huge
monarchs of the ocean. They comprise a class of animated

PECULIARITIES CONNECTED WITH THE WHALE. 143

creatures distinct from both fishes and land animals, though
partaking of the characters of both. They are classed in the
order of warm-blooded Mammalia, that is to say, tney breathe
as the land Mammalia, and yet are as completely aquatic as
true fish, which are cold-blooded. Fish never breathe, and
if removed from the water into the air, they immediately die ;
but whales, if deprived of air, and confined under the water,
would be literally drowned. They usually come to the sur-
face to breathe at intervals of eight or ten minutes, but they
are capable of remaining under water nearly an hour. The
whale has no gills, but a heart with two ventricles or cells,
and very elastic lungs in a great bony chest, into which the
air is freely admitted, not through the mouth ; for, although
the animal is of such prodigious dimensions (some species at-
taining upwards of one hundred feet in length, and a weight
of nearly as many tons), yet the throat is so small that it
could not dispose of a morsel w^hich is swallowed by an ox.
Through what are popularly called " blowers " or spiracles,
huge nostrils which open on the summit of the head, from
eight to twelve inches long, but of small breadth, the whale
can send a column of moist vapor forty to fifty feet high ;
and when this breathing or blowing is performed under the
surface of the ocean, a vast quantity of water is also thrown
into the air, and the noise made in this operation can, it is
said, be heard at the distance of between two and three
miles.

Another peculiarity about these wonderful creatures —
which belong to the class Cetacea, and which comprises not
only all the varieties of the whale tribe, but likewise the
grampus, the porpoise, the dolphin, the dugong, amd some
others of comparatively very small size — is the tail, which is
not vertical as in most fishes, but level, by which they are
able to reach the surface of the water with greater facility
for the purposes of respiration ; and such is the strength of
this tail that even the largest whales are able, with its as-

144 WONDERFUL POWER IN THE TAIL.

sistance, to force themselves entirely out of the water ; in
the large whales the surface of the tail comprises from eighty
to one hundred square feet. In length it is only from five
to six feet, but in width it measures from eighteen to twenty-
six feet.

Providence has given this immense power to serve as a de-
fense, as well as a means of propulsion, to the huge ani-
mal, for the tail is nearly the sole instrument of its protec-
tion. With one stroke of it the whale will send a large boat
with its crew into the air, and shatter the wood into a thou-
sand pieces. The tail enables the animal to rise in the water
by striking a few slight blows with it downwards, when th&
head is naturally carried in an opposite direction, and when
the whale wishes to sink, a few similar strokes with the tail
upwards at once serve to bury the head beneath the surface.

Sometimes the animal takes a perpendicular position in
the water, with the head downwards, and, rearing the tail on
high, beats the waves with fearful violence. On these occa-
sions the sea foams for a wide space around, and the lashing
is heard at a great distance, like the roar of a tempest. This
performance is called by the sailors " lob-tailing. ''

The head is of enormous size, being about one-third of the
entire bulk of the whale, and the lips, nearly twenty feet
long in some species, show a cavity large enough to hold a
ship's jolly-boat and crew ; but, as I observed before, the
throat is very narrow. It is stated to be no more than an
inch and a half in diameter even in a large whale, so that only
very small animals can pass through it. The basis of the
head consists of the crown-bone from each side of which de-
scend the immense jaw-bones, from sixteen to twenty feet in
length, extending along the mouth in a curved line until
they meet and form a kind of crescent.

In the Arctic seas whales find an abundance of food in the
shape of animalculae, several species of marine worms, jelly-
fish, crabs, and especially shrimps, which abound in those

DESCRIPTION OF THE WHALE. 145

regions. John Parry relates that joints of meat hung by
his crew over the sides of the ship were in a few days picked
to the bone by shrimps.

Some species of whales are entirely destitute of teeth, but
Nature has provided them with an apparatus of whalebone,
for the purpose of straining out of the water the small ani-
mals which form their nourishment. There are several hun-
dreds of these plates on each side of the mouth, the whole
quantity in that of a large whale sometimes weighing nearly
two tons.

The tongue of the whale is a soft thick mass, not extend-
ing beyond the back of the mouth. It was formerly consid-
ered a great delicacy of the table, and a right of royalty.
The sword-fish, an implacable enemy of the whale, has a sim-
ilar relish for tlie tongue, and, it is said, leaves the rest of
the carcass untouched. The skin of the whalo is naked and
smooth, with the exception of a few bristles about the jaws,
and is covered with an oily fluid, which renders it very slip-
pery; beneath tliis is a thick layer, from eight to twenty
inches, of a fatty substance, called blvhber^ the most valuable
part of the animal, and which yields on boiling nearly its own
bulk of thick coarse glutinous oil. It is by this wrapper that
Providence enables the whale, a warm-blooded animal, to
defy the utmost extremity of cold, and to retain a sufficient
proportion of lieat even under the icy Polar seas. It also
serves to make the specific gravity of the body much lighter
than it otherwise would be, so as to resist the pressure of the
water at the great depths to which the whale descends. Yet
it is this warm covering, so essential to the animal itself,
that has excited the cupidity and deadly pursuit of man,
causing him to brave the most appalling dangers, trusting to
the resources of art in the instruments of destruction where
brute force alone could never prevail.

To give an idea of the quantity and the value of the oil
obtained from a Greenland whale of sixty feet in length, it

146 ESQ UIMA UX METHOD OF A TTACKINQ WHALES,

has been stated that the weight of the animal being seventy
tons would be nearly that of three hundred fat oxen. Of
this vast mass the oil of a rich whale comprises about thirty
tons, which renders it a valuable capture.

The whale has no external ear, but, when the skin is re-
moved, a small opening is perceived for the admission of
sound. This sense may seem imperfect, yet the animal, by
a quick perception of all movements made on the water, dis-
covers danger at a great distance. The eyes appear small
for such a huge animal, being about the size of those of an
ox; but the sense of seeing is very acute. Behind them are
the fins; these are about nine feet long and four or five feet
broad, and are enclosed by very elastic membranes, also pro-
vided with bones, similar in form and number to those of the
human hand.

The whale does not attain his full growth under twenty-
five years, and is said to reach a very great age. The flesh
is red, firm, and coarse, and is eaten raw by the Esquimaux,
who also drink the oil with much enjoyment. In the bleak
Polar regions, where the means for satisfying hunger are very
scant)^ the capture of a whale by the natives is an occasion
for great rejoicing.

Captain McClure mentions the Esquimaux method of
attacking the whale :

"A woman's boat, is manned by ladies, having as bar-
pooner a chosen man of the tribe, and a shoal of small fry in
the form of kayaks, or single men canoes, are in attendance.
The harpooner singles out a whale and drives his weapon
into its flesh. To the harpoon an inflated seal-skin is attached
by means of a walrus-hide thong. The wounded fish is then
incessantly harrassed by men in the kayaks with harpoons, a
number of which, when attached to the whale, baffle its
efforts to escape, and wear out its strength, until, in the
course of a day, the whale dies from sheer exhaustion and
loss of blood.

THE NORTHERN RORQUAL. 147

" The liarpooner, after a successful day's sport, is a very
great personage, and is invariably decorated with the Esqui-
maux order of the blue ribbon, that is, he has a blue line
drawn down his face over the bridge of his nose."

The whale not only serves for food to the hardy Green-
landers, but is also valuable in many other ways: some mem-
branes of the stomach are used for the upper articles of
clothing : the bones are converted into harpoons and spears
for striking the seals or darting at sea-birds, and are also
employed in the erection of their tents, and some tribes use
them in the formation of their boats.

The preceding remarks have applied to the whale tribe
generally, but with a more direct allusion to the "Greenland"
or " right '' whale, as it is called, from its producing the
greatest amount of oil. This animal inhabits the seas of the
Northern parts of the world, and abounds chiefly in the Arc-
tic regions. The ** Southern," or " Cape " whale is a distinct
species, the head being smaller in proportion than its North-
ern relative, and its color a uniform black. It attains the
length of from fifty to sixty feet.

The Northern Borqual, which exists in great numbers in
the Northern seas, is the largest of the whale tribe, the
mightiest giant among giants, attaining the vast length of
from one hundred to one hundred and ten feet, w^th a bodily
circumference of from thirty to forty feet. The amazing
speed and activity of this immense animal renders it a dan-
gerous object to attack; besides the small quantity of oil it
aifords does not repay the fisherman for his risk. This whale
has no teeth. When struck by a harpoon, it has been known
to run off two thousand eight hundred and eighty feet of
rope in a minute. An old Arctic navigator mentions an in-
stance of a "razor-back," as the great rorqual is called by
seamen, dragging a large boat with its crew amongst loose
ice, where they all perished.

The Smaller Borqucd, measuring from fifteen to twenty-

148 CURIOUS PECULIARITIES OF SPERM WHALES,

five feet, frequents the rocky bays of Greenland, and is con-
sidered a tender morsel by the natives. There is also a
" Rorqual " of the Southern seas, an animal of great power
and a fast swimmer, very difficult to capture. The most
valuable whale in the Southern seas is the Cachalot or
Sperm whale, which supplies the spermaceti and amber-
gris of commerce. This immense animal, which grows to
the length of seventy to eighty feet, is found in almost every
part of the warm latitudes. It has some curious peculiar-
ities : the head has in front a very thick, blunt extremity
called the snout or nose, and constitutes one-third of the
whole length of the animal ; at its junction with the body,
the animal has what the whalers call a " bunch of the neck,"
a large protuberance en the back, immediately behind which
is the thickest part of the body, which from this part grad-
ually tapers off to the tail ; and where this commences there
is another large prominence called the " hump " after which
the body contracts so much as to become finally not thicker
than the body of a man. An immense cavity in the head
contains cells filled w^ith oil, which is fluid when the animal
is alive, and after its death takes a concrete form known as
spermaceti. The size of this cavity may be judged from
what is said, that in a large Avhale it sometimes contains a
ton, or more than ten barrels of spermaceti. The food of
this huge monster consists principally of a species of poly-
pus called '* squid "by the sailors, and it is supposed that
they are attracted by the shining white of the inner part of
th-e whale's mouth. The sperm whale is generally seen in
herds, or " schools" as they are called, consisting of several
hundreds. With each herd of females, large males or
"schoolmasters" are always associated, who are extremely
jealous of intruders, . and fight fiercely to maintain their
rights. The large whale is generally incautious, and if
alone is attacked without much difficulty, and is easily
killed, as he frequently after receiving the first plunge of the

THE WUITE WHALE. I49

harpoon appears hardly to feel it, but continues lying like
a log of wood before he attempts to escape. Large whales,
however, are sometimes very cunning and courageous, and
commit fearful havoc with their tails and jaws. When
alarmed they are said to perform many unusual actions ; one
of these consists in moving the tail slowly from side to side
on the surface of the water, as if feelnig for any object that
may be near. It also rolls over and over on the surface,
especially when harpooned, and in this v.-ay will coil an
amazing length of line around it. One of its most surprising
feats is leaping out of the water. Darwin remarks that off
Terra del Fuego he saw several spermaceti w^iales perform-
ing this stupendous leap, and as they fell into the water side-
ways the sound reverberated like distant thunder.

The White Whale is described as a very beautiful animal,
frequenting chiefly the Arctic seas, varying in length from
ten to twenty feet. It is usually of a cream color, though
some have been seen of a yeUowish color, approaching to
orange. In the dreary monotony of the icy regions, a lively
herd of these animals, by their gambols and the exhibition
of their smooth, slippery white bodies, affords a pleasing
relief. The shape of this whale is highly symmetrical, re-
sembling a double cone, one end of which is considerably
shorter than the otiier ; the tail is very powerful, and being
bent under the body in swimming, is worked with such force
as to impel the animal forward with the velocity of an ar-
row. The food of this whale is said to be cod, haddock,
flounders and smaller fish of this description. They are not
at all shy, but often follow ships and tumble about amidst
the boats in herds of thirty and forty. Fortunately for
them, this fearlessness of danger does not often expose them
to the deadly harpoon, their comparative little value being
their preservative from the whale-fishers. They do not, how-
ever, experience the same immunity from the natives of the
Greenland coast, where they arrive in great numbers at the

150 GREAT CAPTURE OF WHALES.

close of the year in stormy weather. They are then chiefly
captured by nets, which are extended across the narrow
sounds between the islands, and when thus entangled they
are killed with lances.

Another whale, called the Deductor^ resembles somewhat
the white whale, and appears to be the most sociable of all
the Cetacean tribe, herding together in innumerable flocks.
This leads, however, to a prodigious slaughter of these poor
animals when (although frequenting chiefly the Northern
Ocean), they wander away from their usual haunts, and get
driven on shore by the fishermen, the main body of the
drove following the leading whales as a flock of sheep.

There is an account given of the capture of ninety-eight
of these whales, in 1832, on the island of Lewis:

" An immense shoal of whales was, early in the morning,
chased to the mouth of the harbor of Stornoway by two
fishing-boats, which had met them in the offing. The cir-
cumstance was immediately seen from the shore, and a host
of boats, about thirty or forty in number, set off to join the
others in pursuit, and engage in combat with these giants of
the deep. The chase soon became one of bustle and anxiety
on the part both of man and whale. The boats were ar-
ranged by their crews in the form of a crescent, in the fold
of which the whales were collected, and where they had to
encounter tremendous showers of stones, splashings of oars,
frequent gashings with harpoons and spears, whilst the din
created by the shoutings of the boats' crews and the multi-
tude on shore was in itself sufficient to stupefy and stun the
bottle-nosed foe into a surrender. On more than one occa-
sion, however, the floating phalanx was broken, and it re-
quired the greatest activity and tact before the breach could
be repaired and the fugitives regained. The shore was
neared by degrees, the boats advancing and retreating by
turns, till at length they succeeded in driving the captive
monsters on the beach opposite the town and within a few

FIGHT BETWEEN A WHALE AND A GRAMPUS. 151

yards of it. Tlie movements of the whales were now vio-
lent, but, except when one became unmanageable and en-
raged when harpooned, or his tail fixed in a noose, they were
not dangerous to approach. One young sailor, however, re-
ceived a stroke from the tail of one of the largest of them,
which promised to be fatal. In a few hours the whales were
captured, the shore was strewed with the dead carcasses,
while the sea presented a troubled and bloody appearance,
giving evident proof that it was w^ith no small effort that
they were subdued and made the property of man."

The deductor whale has a very prominent head, short
and round, with something like a pad over its mouth, which
gives it a peculiar appearance. In length it is from sixteen
to twenty-four feet, and in circumference ten or eleven feet.
Almost the whole body is black, smooth, and shining like
oiled silk. When the mouth is shut, the teeth lock into
each other like those of a rat-trap. They are generally very
fat, and yield a large quantity of good pale oil.

It is impossible not to feel an emotion of pity for the
whale — timid and inoifensive, with all its immense power for
mischief, apparently unconscious of it until roused by dan-
ger— subjected to such cruel treatment by the cupidity of
man: the deadly harpoons inflict tremendous wounds, and
the blood, rushing in torrents from its sides, crimsons the
sea for a wide space around.

The whale has, however, other enemies to contend with
besides man. Commodore Wilkes gives an animated ac-
count of a sea-fight between a whale and a grampus, or
"killer," as this fish is called.

"At a distance from the ship a whale was seen floundering
in a most extraordinary manner, lashing the smooth sea into
a perfect foam, and endeavoring apparently to extricate
himself from some annoyance. As he approached the ship,
the struggle continuing and becoming more violent, it was
perceived that a fish, apparently about twenty feet long,

152 OTEER ENEMIES OF THE WHALE.

held him by the jaw, his contortions, spouting, and throes
all betokening the agony of the huge monster. The whale
now threw himself at full length from the water, with open
mouth, his pursuer still hanging to the jaw, the blood is&n
ing from the wound and dyeing the sea to a distance around ;
but all his flounderings were of no avail, his pertinacious
enemy still maintaining his hold and evidently getting the
advantage of liim. Much alarm seemed to bo felt by the
other whales around. These * killers,' as they are called, are
of a brownish color on the back, and white on the belly, with
a white dorsal fin. They attack a whale in the same man-
ner as dogs bait a bull, and worry him to death. They are
armed with strong sharp teeth, and generally seize the whale
by the lower jaw. It is said that the only part of the huge
monster that they eat is the tongue. The whalers give
marvelous accounts of the immense strength of these " kill-
ers." They have been known to drag a whale from several
boats which were towing it to the ship."

The saw-fish is also a most formidable assailant of the
Avhale. The upper jaw of this fisti is prolonged into a pro-
jecting flattened snout, the greatest length of which is six
feet, forming a saw, armed at each edge with about twenty
large bony spines or teeth. An account is given here of a
combat that occurred on the west coast of Scotland, between
a whale and some saw-fishes, aided by an auxiliary force of
" thrashers " (fox sharks). The sea was dyed in blood from
the stabs inflicted by the saw-fishes under the water, while
the thrashers, watching their opportunity, struck at the un-
wieldy monster as often as it rose to breathe.

The sword-fish is also said to attack the whale, furnished,
also, with a powerful weapon for defensive or aggressive
war, in the shape of a bony snout about four or five feet long,
not serrated like the saw-fish, but of a much stronger con-
sistency— in fact, the hardest material known.

Beset by powerful enemies, the whale must have a

ATTACHMENT OF WHALES TO THEIR YOUNG. 153

troublous existence ; and if one thing can enlist our sympa-
thies for these animals more than another, it is the well-
known attachment they have to each other, and particularly
for their young. It is said that when a female whale is
wounded, her companions will remain around her until the
last moment, or when they are themselves wounded. The
whalers strike the young cubs, or *' suckers," as they are
called, not for their value, for these would hardly produce a
barrel of oil, but the men know that the mother will start
forth in their defence. She joins her cub at the surface
whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration, encourages
it to swim off, and seldom deserts it while life remains. She is
then dangerous to approach, but affords frequent opportuni-
ties of attack. She loses all regard for her own safety in
anxiety for the preservation of her young, dashes through
the midst of her enemies, and even voluntarily remains with
her offspring after various attacks on herself.

"In 1811," says Scoresby, "one of my harpooners struck a
sucker with the hope of leading to the capture of the mother.
Presently she arose close to the * fast boat,' and, seizing the
young one, dragged about six hundred feet of line out of the
boat, with remarkable force and velocity. Again she rose to
the surface — darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped
short, or suddenly changed her direction, and gave every
possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time
she continued thus to act, though pursued closely by the
boats, and, inspired with courage and resolution by her con-
cern for her young, seemed regardless of the dangers around
her. At length one of the boats approached so near that a
harpoon was hove at her: it hit, but did not attach itself. A
second harpoon was struck, but this also failed to penetrate ;
so that, in a few minutes, three more liarpoons were fastened,
and in the course of an hour afterwards she was killed."

GBEENLAND WHALE.

CHAPTER XL

TEE WHALE FISHERY AND ITS PERILS.

,HE preparation for a cruise among the whales
is very exciting; not so much as it used to
be, because the supply of oil from other
sources, the general use of gas, and other
circumstances, have diminished the neces-
sity which formerly prevailed for a means
of illumination. Still there is a considerable demand for the
valuable products of the whale — the oil, the whalebone, the
spermaceti, and the ambergris, which constitute essential
articles of commerce.

The Arctic regions have for several centuries been the
chief haunts of the whale fishery. There has been, how-
ever, of late years a great decrease in the number of whales,
and the fishery as a speculation has become more preca-
rious.

Within a period of twenty years, no less than twenty

ATTACK ON THE WHALE. 155

whale-ships were wrecked or crushed by the ice, and the
sufferings of the crews were fearful.

The ships employed in the Northern fishery are con-
structed expressly for that object, and strengthened so as
to encounter exposure in the ice regions. They are gener-
ally of from three to four hundred tons, each having a crew
of about fifty men — experienced, hardy sailors — accustomed
to the dangers of these particular expeditions. Six or seven
light swift boats are requisite for each vessel; and another
requirement is what is called a " crow's-nest," a kind of
watch-tower, placed on the main-topmast to shelter the man
on duty, whose ofiice it is to keep a steady look-out with a
telescope, for the spout of a whale in the distance, or the
approach of drifting ice.

On reaching the Polar seas, the real hard work com-
mences, the men being on watch night and day, and the
boats kept ready for instant use whenever a whale is seen.
On receiving an indication to that effect from the man in the
"crow's-nest," a boat is launched, having a harpooner, a man
to steer, one to look after the ropes, together with three or
four rowers, and provided with an immense quantity of rope
ready for use. The boat is steered rapidly and silently
towards the whale, and on arriving within a few yards of it,
the harpooner hurls liis weapon so that it may enter under
one of the monster's fins — a vulnerable part. The harpoon,
in its most simple form, is a spear of about five feet in
length, with a much flattened point, having sharp cutting
edges, and two large flattened barbs. These are attached
to a long line at the opposite end of the barbed joint. The
gun-harpoon is a short bar of iron with the barbed spear at
the end, and a ring with a chain for the attachment of the
line. This is fired from a small swivel cannon attached to
the whaler's boat ; but the difficulty in whale fishing is to
secure the capture of the animal, who sinks to a great depth
on being struck, alternately rising to breathe, and sinking,

156 THE FINAL CAPTURE.

so that the only chance of success is to tire it out. This is
a critical moment for the creAv in the boat, who are exposed
to the most violent blows of the w^iale's head or fins, and
still more of the tail, the tremendous power of which has
been mentioned. The moment that the wounded whale dis-
appears, a flag is displayed in the boat, at sight of which
those who are on w^atch in the ship give the alarm by stamp-
ing on the deck, and those of the crew who are sleeping be-
low, hastily throwing on a few clothes, launch the boats,
and proceed to the assistance of their companions.

The greatest care is necessary by the boatman who has
charge of the rope, in letting out and guiding the line to
which the harpoon is attached. Should it be entangled for
a moment, the whale would draw the boat beneath the
weaves. The time a wounded Avhale remains under water is
generally half an hour, but some stay much longer. The
boats take up a position near which it is likely to rise, when
each harpooner strikes his weapon into the animal, and long
and sharp lances are thrust into its side, until, exhausted
with the loss of blood, the whale gives signs of approaching
death by discharging blood from the blow-holes or nostrils,
sometimes drenching the ice, boats, and men with it. As
the huge animal plunges along in agony, its course is
marked by a broad line of oil on the sea, issuing from its
wounds.

The final capture is generally preceded by an awful and
convulsive struggle ; the tail lashes the water with fury, and
the circles formed on the surface of the violently agitated
waves extend to a great distance. When dying, the whale
turns over on its side or back, a circumstance announced
from the boats by loud cries and striking the flags. No
time is lost : the tail is pierced and fastened with ropes to
the boats, which drag the carcass to the ships with bois-
terous cheers.

A curious instance is related of a Dutch whaling crew.

ANECDOTE OF A DUTCU WEALING CREW. 157

who had, as they thought, secured their capture to the side
of the ship, after towing it in triumph from the scene of con-
flict, missing their prize. The crew were giving vent to
their delight, and the security seemed complete, for they
were sailing a long distance from the ice-banks. They were
having a good dinner to strengthen themselves before pro-
ceeding to the nauseous task of cutting up the animal. The
feast was prolonged, but at length the men selected for the
operation went on deck, with an air of importance, and full
confidence. What was their astonishment to find that the
whale was no longer alongside! It seems that the ship,
driven before the wind, had dragged at the animal, the cord
had broken, and the rich prize, which had caused so much
peril and fatigue, had sunk to the bottom of the seal

A dead whale, if left in the water, soon putrifies : it swells
to an enormous size, until at least a third of the carcass ap-
pears above the surface of the Avater, and sometimes the
body bursts by the force of the air generated within.

After the whale has been secured to the ship's side, the
next operation is what is called *' flensing," or securing the
blubber and. whalebone, which occupies about four hours,
and is, as may be well imagined, anything but an agreeable
occupation. The harpooners, having spikes on their feet to
prevent their falling from the slippery surface, begin with
a kind of spade and huge knives to make long parallel cuts
from end to end, which are divided by cross-cuts into pieces
of about half a ton. These are hoisted on deck, and after
being reduced into smaller pieces, are put into casks and
stowed away in the hold. When the flensing is proceeding
and reaches the lips, wliich contain much oil, the whalebone
is exposed and detached by means of bone handspikes and
bone knives, and is hoisted upon deck in one mass, where it
is split and stowed away. The two jaw-bones, for the quan-
tity of oil they contain, are taken on deck, after which the

158 WHALE FISHER Y IN THE SO UTHERN SEAS.

huge carcass is abandoned to the birds and sharks, which
are always waiting for their share, and speedily devour it.

In the early period of the Northern whale fishery, the
animals being numerous and easy of capture, settlements
were formed on the ice-coasts for boiling the blubber and
extracting the oil, which was sent home in cabks ; but when
the whales diminished, and the fishermen were obliged to
seek them in the open sea, the capture became more diffi-
cult and dangerous, the settlements were abandoned, and
the blubber was, for economy's sake, sent home to be boiled.
In the different parts to which whale-ships are bound, there
are establishments for extracting the oil; those at Hull are
on the outskirts of the town. The blubber when conveyed
to the boiling house is emptied from the casks into large
vats, where it undergoes certain processes for extracting
the oil.

The whale fishery in the Southern seas does not present
the same amount of dangers which beset the whalers of the
ice-regions, and differs in some particulars, being specially
for the capture of the sperm whale.

It w^as well remarked by an old whaling captain that " if
the Almighty had gifted the whale with a knowledge of his
strength, few indeed would be caught." It is truly so, and
there are occasions w^hen the w^hale, inoffensive in its general
habits, displays an amount of power and hostility which
forms one of the grandest and most exciting spectacles that
could be witnessed. In fact, the dangers which the whalers
incur in their hazardous occupation, are most imminent.

As an instance of the spirit of mischief which sometimes
animates the ocean monarch, I will relate what happened to
the whale-ship, the Essex, Captain Pollard, in the Pacific
Ocean. A number of sperm whales being signalled by the
look-out, three boats were manned and sent in pursuit. The
mate's boat was struck by one of them, and he was obliged
to return to the ship to repair the damage. While he was

THE " ESSEX" ATTACKED BY A WHALE. 159

thus engaged, a sperm whale, thought to be about eighty-
five feet long, broke water about twenty yards from the ship
on the weather-bow. He was going at the rate of about
three knots an hour, and the ship at nearly the same rate,
when he struck the bows of the vessel just forward of her
chains. At the shock produced by the collision of two such
mighty masses of matter in motion, the ship shook like a leaf.
The whale passed under the ship, grazing her keel, and then
appeared at about the distance of a ship's length, lashing the
sea with fins and tail, as if suffering intense agony. He was
evidently hurt by the collision, and greatly enraged. In a
few minutes he seemed to recover himself, and started with
great speed directly across the vessel's course to windward.
Meanwhile the hands on board discovered the ship to be
gradually settling down at the bows, and the pumps were in-
stantly rigged. While working at them, one of the men
cried out *' God have mercy! he comes again!''

The whale had turned about one hundred yards from the
ship, and was making for her with double his former speed,
his pathway white with foam. Rushing head on, he struck
her again at the bow, and the tremendous blow stove her in.
The whale dived under again and disappeared, and the ship
went down in ten minutes from the first collision.

The crew took to their boats as the vessel was sinking,
and after fearful hardships and sufferings, the survivors of
this catastrophe reached the low island called Ducies. It was
a mere sandbank, nearly barren, and they could only obtain
water and some wild-fowl. On this uninhabited island,
dreary as it was, three of the men chose to remain, rather
than experience again the uncertainties of the sea. The
poor fellows were never afterwards heard of. The three
boats, with the remainder of the crew, put off for the island
of Juan Fernandez, two thousand miles distant. The mate's
boat was taken up by the Indian, of London, ninety-three
days from the time of the catastrophe, with only three sur-

160 SING ULAR ANECDOTE OF A D UTCH SEAMAN

vivors. The captain's boat was fallen in with by the Dau-
phin, but with only two men living. Thus, out of a crew of
twenty, only five remained to tell the story of the whale's
victor}'.

If the huge monster, in the exercise of his enormous
strength, can shatter a large sailing vessel in such a way
as to cause its destruction, you may readily imagine what
perils are encountered by the hardy crews of the whaling-
boats. A singular story is related of a Dutch harpooner,
James Yienkes. A wounded whale had disappeared by
diving, and the seamen were preparing to deal it a second
stab, when the animal, on returning to the surface, struck
its head against the boat and dashed it to atoms. Vienkes
was hurled into the air, and fell on the monster's back, but"
contrived to bury his harpoon, which he had not let go, into
it, and by means of this and the line he still held in his hand,
he secured himself from slipping off. He called the other
fishermen to his assistance, but their efforts to approach
the whale Avere in vain. " The captain of the ship, seeing no
other way of saving his life, called out to him to cut the
rope; but the harpooner was unable to do this, as his knife
was in his trousers pocket, and he could not let go his hold
for an instant. The whale was meanwhile advancing along
the surface of the water at a swift rate, and it was fortunate
for its rider that it did not dive. The sailors were begin-
ning to despair of their comrade's life, when the harpoon by
which he Avas supporting himself came out of the animal's
body. He profited by the circumstance to cast himself into
the sea, and struggling against the waves, regained the
boats which had been unable to succor him. He was picked
up at the moment his strength was exhausted, and his com-
panions, furious at the disaster, pursued the whale, and
killed it.

A waiter relates : *' Being myself in the first boat which
approached a whale, I struck my harpoon at arm's length,

NARROW ESCAPE OF A WHALING CREW. 161

by which we fortunately evaded a blow which appeared to
be aimed at the boat. Another boat then advanced, and an-
other harpoon was struck, but not with the same result, for
the stroke was immediately returned by a tremendous blow
from the fish's tail. The boat was sunk by the shock, and
at the same time whirled round with such velocity that the
boat-steerer was precipitated into the water on the side next
to the fish, and carried down to a considerable depth by its
tail. After a minute or so he arose to the surface, and was
taken up along with his companions into another boat."

"In one of my earliest voyages," observes the same
writer, " I remarked a circumstance which excited my high-
est astonishment. One of the harpooners struck a whale : it
dived, and all the assisting boats had collected round the
fast boat before it rose to the surface. The first boat that
approached it advanced incautiously. It rose with unex-
pected violence beneath the boat, and projected it and all
the crew to the height of some yards into the air. It fell on
its side, and cast all the men into the water; one was some-
what injured, but the rest escaped."

In the year 1804, the ship Adonis^ being in company with
several others, struck a large whale off the coast of New
Zealand, which became furious, and destroyed nine boats
belonging to the different vessels, and then escaped. It was
eaptured afterwards, however. Many harpoons of various
vessels were found in its body.

This whale was extensively known to the fishermen un-
der the name of "New Zealand Tom."

Sometimes the rope to which the harpoon is attached
gets carried off, at a prodigious rate, by a whale in its efforts
to escape, and the boat is carried far out to sea, and exposed
to fearful perils. The annals of the whale fishery have
many thrilling stories of wonderful escapes in such instances.
A very remarkable instance occurred in connection with the
sliip Independence, Captain Belair. While cruising in thr

162 NARROW ESCAPE OF A WHALING CREW.

Pacific Ocean, a whale was seen, and two boats were sent ta
capture it. The harpoon was fixed, and the boats were
soon out of sight of the ship. An hour or two passed away,
when suddenly another whale rose in the water, only a few
yards from the vessel. The temptation to effect its capture
was too strong for the captain, who ordered the remaining
boat to be lowered, and, leaving but one man and two boy»
to take care of the ship, sprang into the boat with the rest
of the crew. The harpoon was plunged into this whale also^
and they were carried with the speed of the wind about
fifteen miles from the ship. Then the whale plunged per-
pendicularly into the depths of the ocean. It was not long
before they saw him, fathoms deep in the crystal waters,,
rushing up with open jaws to destroy the boat. By skilfully
evading the attack, they escaped twice ; but the third time,
as the monster rose, he struck the boat in the centre of the
keel, scattering the fragments and the crew over the waves,
and then, plunging into the deep, disappeared. The captain
and the men were now in the water, clinging to the pieces
of the demolished boat. They were many miles from the
ship, and could not be seen from the deck. The other boats
were gone they knew not where. The hours passed slowly
away, as they were drifting along at the mercy of the waves,
until six o'clock in the evening.

The sun had now disappeared behind the distant waves,
and a dreary night was settling down over the ocean. Just
then they saw in the distance one of the absent boats re-
turning to the ship. It was, however, far off, apparently
beyond the reach of their loudest cries, and their hopes
again fell. The boat at length drew nearer, and they re-
doubled their shouts ; and at length they were heard, taken
from the water, and carried almost lifeless to the ship.

The utmost care is requisite in " paying out" the rope
when the whale is harpooned, so that no impediment occurs.
The safet}^ of the boat's crew depends upon the watchful-

FATAL ACCIDENT TO A HARPOONER. 163

ness of the man entrusted with this important duty, Scores-
by, one of the most distinguished whalers that has ever
been known on these perilous enterprises, records an in-
stance which had a fatal consequence :

" As soon as the boats came within hailing distance (sent
in pursuit of the whales), my anxiety induced me to call out
and inquire what had happened. * We have lost CarrI'
This awful intelligence, for which we were altogether unpre-
pared, shocked me exceedingly, and it was some time before I
was able to inquire into the particulars of the accident
which had deprived us of one of our shipmates. As far as
could be collected from the confused accounts of the crew of
the boat of which he went out in charge, the circumstances
were as follow: The two boats that had long been absent on
the outset, separated from their companions, and, allured by
the chase of a whale and the fineness of the weather, they pro-
ceeded until they were far out of sight of the ship. The whale
they pursued led them into a vast shoal of the species. They
were, indeed, so numerous that their ' blowing' was inces-
sant, and there could not have been less than one hundred.
Fearful of alarming them without striking any, the crews in
the boats remained for some time motionless, watching a
favorable opportunity for commencing the attack. A whale
at length arose so near the boat of which William Carr was
harpooner, that he ventured to pull towards it, though it
was meeting him, and afforded but an indifferent chance oi
success. He, however, fatally for himself, succeeded in har-
pooning it : the boat and fish, passing each other with great
rapidity after the stroke, the line was jerked out of its place,
and instead of ' running over' the stern, was thrown over
the gunwale. Its pressure in this unfavorable position so
careened the boat that the side sank below the water, and it
began to fill. In this emergency the harpooner, who was a
fine active fellow, seized the bight of the line, and attempted
to relieve the boat by restoring it to its place ; but, by some

164 DANGERS TO WHALERS FROM THE IGE.

singular circumstance which could not be accounted for, a
turn of the line flew over his arm, in an instant dragged him
overboard, and plunged him under water to rise no more!
So sudden was the accident, that only one man, who had his
eye on him at the time, was aware of what had happened ;
BO that when the boat righted — which it immediately did —
though half full of water, they all at once, on looking round
at the exclamation of the man who had seen him launched
overboard, inquired, * What has got Carr?' It is scarcely
possible to imagine a death more awfully sudden and unex-
pected."

Some boats of the whale-ship Aimwell being in pursuit of
these monarchs of the ocean, harpooned one. When struck,
the animal only dived for a moment, and then rose again be-
neath the boat, struck it in the most vicious manner with
its tail and fins, broke and upset it, and then disappeared.
The crew, seven in number, got on the bottom of the boat;
but the unequal action of the lines, which remained entan-
gled with the boat, rolled it over occasionally, and thus
plunged the men repeatedly beneath the water. Four of
them recovered themselves, and clung to the boat ; but the
other three were drowned before assistance could arrive.

In the Arctic seas the whalers are exposed to many dan-
gers from the ice. About the year 1856, Captain Deuchars,
a most experienced navigator, in command of a fine strong
vessel, the Princess Charlotte, lost it in Melville Bay. It
was a fine morning, and all on board were anticipating a
very successful voyage; the steward had just reported
breakfast ready, when the captain, seeing the floes of ice
closing together ahead of the ship, remained on deck to see
her pass safely between them ; but they closed too quickly
— the vessel was almost through when the points of ice
caught her sides abreast of the mizzen-mast, and passing
through, held the wreck up for a few minutes, barely alloAv-
ing time enough for the crew to escape and save their boats.

WONDERFUL ESCAPE OF THE TRAFALGAR. 165

Poor Captain Deuchars thus lost his breakfast and his ship
within ten minutes.

A wonderful case of deliverance from apparently certain
destruction among the ice is recorded of the Trafalgar^ an
Arctic whale-ship. The account is given by Mr. Gibson,
surgeon of the ship :

" Blowing a fresh gale, with rain, the floe to which the
vessel was made fast set down under the lee ice, so as to
render our situation perilous. Towards midnight we became
unexpectedly entangled among heavy pieces of ice and floes,
when the ship received some severe blows on her beams.
Finding it impossible to get out, we lay to, and in half an
hour the ship was close beset. Though I retired to bed
when the ship was enclosed, I expected every minute to be
called to quit it. Soon after, a large piece of ice pressing on
the vessel opposite my bed-cabin, broke two or three of the
timbers with a dismal noise. Thinking all was over, I sprang
out of bed and found to my great consternation that the
ship was under an enormous pressure from numerous large
masses of ice surrounding her on all sides, without an open-
ing of water sufficient for about two miles ; and no other
ship was in sight, although the weather was clear. Most of
the crew were providing for shipwreck, and many of the peo-
ple were supplicating Divine mercy for deliverance. Four
days* allowance were cooked with all speed, other provisions
were taken on deck, and everything of importance placed in
readiness to be thrown on the ice. At noon, the man on the
mast-head saw a ship, on which we instantly made signals of
distress. At this time a dead silence prevailed throughout
the ship, the crew looking on one another in awful suspense.
At one time the pressure was so strong that the panels of
the captain's state-room were forced out of their framing.
About half an hour after this the ship was suddenly thrown
upon her larboard side, on which all hands sprang upon
deck. I shall never forget the confusion of the poor men,

166 APPALLING CALAMITIES TO WHALING VESSELS.

nor their wild looks when they gained the deck — for half of
them were below at the time of the shock, and from the
smallness of the hatch only one could get up at a time. Some
leaped upon the ship's side and were going upon the ice,
when the captain cried out to them to behave like men, and
to stick to the ship so long as she remained above the water.
We all stood on that part of the vessel nearest the ice, with
our bags of clothing on our shoulders. For about fifteen
minutes we had patiently waited our doom, w^hen, by the in-
terposition of Divine Providence, the wind changed, the ice
began to set off from the ship, and in fifteen minutes more
she recovered her upright position. The water now rapidly
spread among the surrounding ice, and finally the vessel was
warped out and floated safely on the waves."

A feaful series of calamities befell a small squadron of six
very fine whaling vessels in 1830, during a storm in Baffin's
Bay. Masses of ice were driven upon them, by which they
were completely beset. The ships were ranged under the
shelter of a large floe,*liaving water barely sufficient to float
them. Here they formed a line, one behind the other, stand-
ing close, stern to stem, and being at the same time so pressed
against the ice, that in some places a boat-hook could with
difficulty be inserted in the space. The sky darkened, the
gale increased, the floes began to overlap each other, and
closed upon the ships in an alarming manner. The sailors
then attempted to saw out a sort of dock, where they hoped
to be relieved from this severe pressure ; but soon a huge
flow was driven upon them with irresistible violence. The
Eliza Sivan, of Montrose, received the first shock, and was
saved only by the ice raising her up. It next ^struck the
St, Andrew, of Aberdeen, amidship, breaking about twenty
of her timbers, and staving a number of casks; but it then,
fortunately, moved along her side, and went off by the stem.
It now reached successively the Baffin^ of Leith ; the Achilles,
of Dundee; the Ville de Dieppe, a French ship; and the

APPALLING CALAMITIES TO WHALING VESSELS. 167

Battler, of Leith, and dashed against them with such tre-
mendous fury, that these four noble vessels, which had
braved for years the tempests of the Polar seas, were in a
quarter of an hour shattered into fragments. The scene
was awful : the grinding noise of the ice, tearing open their
sides, and the masts breaking off and falling in every direc-
tion, were added to the cries of two hundred sailors, leaping
upon the frozen surface with only such portions of their
clothes as they could snatch in a single instant. The Battler
is said to have become the most complete wreck ever known.
She was literally turned inside out, and her stem and stern
carried to the distance of a gun-shot from each other ; and
the Achilles had her sides pressed together, and her stern
thrust out, and her decks and beams broken into innumerable
fragments.

Such are some of the perils which have been related by
the hardy travelers of the ocean whose years have been
spent in continued struggles, not only with the element,

" Boundless, endless, and sublime,
The image of eternity, — "

but with the huge monarch of the waters, whose reign has
been disputed by a greater power in creation, who '* sees all
things for his use."

•' Thou little knowest
What he can brave, who, bom and nurst
In Danger's paths, has dared her worst!"

CHAPTER XII.

SHARKS— THE PIRATES OF THE OCEAN.

IMAGINE a Shark seventy feet long, with a
tooth four inches and a half in the enamel, or
the part visible above the socket, jaws with
the bow about thirteen feet, and a mouth
capable of stretching more than twenty-six
feet around! This was one of the species of
fossil sharks, an antediluvian animal, which has been dis-
covered in the limestone rocks, the teeth and the vertebrae
(small bones or joints composing the spine or back-bone) en-
abling the geologist to determine the species to which the
animal belongs.

A tooth, the size of that mentioned, was shown to the
distinguished I^rench naturalist, Lac^pMe, and, in order to
discover the proportions of the animal to which it belonged,
he measured first the teeth, and next the stuffed specimens
of all the sharks preserved in the Museum of Natural His-
tory in Paris, and he found in every instance that the rela-
tive proportions they bore to each other was one to two
hundred, and he was thus enabled to ascertain the pro-
digious size and capacity of this formidable antediluvian
animal.

Although the sharks of our own time are not of the same
monstrous proportions, they are, from their immense strength
and voracity, the objects of dread to those who behold them
in their native element.

" The type of horror and remorseless hate,
Of villainy the worst."

INDISCRIMINATE APPETITE OF THE SHARK. 16^

The White Shark in particular, one of the largest of the
tribe, and frequently weighing as much as a thousand
pounds, sometimes measuring from twenty-five to thirty feet
in length, abounding in warm latitudes, and attacking every-
thing within his reach, deserves the title given to him of
*'the pirate of the ocean." When we relate that a lady's
work-box has been found in the stomach of one of these
sharks, and the papers of a ship that had been thrown over-
board : that the baskets, shavings, cordage, ducks, hens, and
buffalo-hides, etc., which had been thrown into the sea one
morning from Captain HalFs ship, the Alceste, were found in
the body of a captured monster shortly afterwards ; that in
another was discovered a tin canister, which, on being opened,
was found to be nearly filled with old coins, you will have
some idea of his indiscriminate appetite. He will devour
even those of his own species. An anecdote is related of a
Laplander capturing a shark, and fastening it to his canoe ;
he soon missed it, however, without an idea of how it had
happened. A short time afterwards he took another shark
of much larger size, in which, when opened he found the
shark he had lost. An officer states that when some mid-
shipmen had caught a shark, they pulled him into their boat,
cut open his stomach, and then sent him back into the water.
His body was instantly attacked by the sharks nearest to
him, and was torn in pieces. The experiment was repeated
with the same result.

The tenacity of life in the shark family is something ex-
traordinary. The fish has been known to be active for
many hours in the sea after its head has been taken off. In-
stances have been known of a shark having taken a bait in
the depth of the sea, after its liver had been taken out for
the purpose of extracting oil, and also when the whole of
the entrails had been removed.

But a far worse character attaches itself to the shark,
which is, his preference for human flesh : of all other food,

170 PREFERENCE FOR HUMAN FOOD,

it is this which he most prizes, and numbers of persons fall
victims to his voracity in the seas he frequents. It is ter-
rible to think of such a fate, for the huge monster is not
only capable of snapping off a limb in a moment, or biting a
person in two, but has been known to swallow a man alive.
It is also stated on good authority that a shark was taken off
the island of St. Margaret, which weighed fifteen hundred
pounds, and the stomach was found to contain the whole
body of a horse, which had probably been thrown over-
board from some ship.

The following horrible tragedy is related: "As the ship
Karnak W3i8 leaving the port of Nassau, a pilot fell overboard
from her boat, in which he was being towed. The ship was
istopped, and the boat instantly left for his rescue, while two
life-buoys were thrown from the ship. The boat got close
enough to give him the end of an oar, which he took, and
cried, * For God's sake save me!' The men were about to
haul him into the boat, when he was carried down by a large
shark which came up at the moment, taking the oar with
him.

"A few days after the fatal accident, a shark was captured

in Nassau harbor, and on being opened, the pilot's right

^hand and wrist, with a portion of his shirt (by which the

hand was identified), a goat's head, with horns nine inches

long, and a turtle's head were found in his stomach."

The French name this fearful animal the Bequin, or Re-
quiem (the rest or stillness of death), in allusion to the deadly
character of his habits : to add to the horror of his appear-
ance, a phosphoric light is emitted from his huge body when
near the surface of the water. To get at human flesh, the
shark has been known to bound several feet out of the sea,
and seize the unwary sailor occupied in the rigging of the
vessel, when in full sail, and to leap into fishing-boats, and
grapple with the men at their oars.

" No wonder that every man's hand should be raised

THE VULNERABLE PART OF TEE SHARK. 171

•against this ferocious monster ; and although of such fearful
strength and audacity, he is sometimes overcome. The na-
tives on the African coast show great courage and dexterity
in attacking him. The mouth of the shark being placed in
the lower part of the head, he is obliged, in order to seize
his prey, to turn round in the water, and the negroes, taking
advantage of this, thrust a knife into his stomach, the part
where he is most vulnerable, for the skin on the upper por-
tion of his body is so hard and rough that it forms a kind of
armor, defending him from the bites of any animal he may
encounter in the deep. This skin is even made use of by
^carpenters for polishing hard-grained wood, and it is also
■employed for other purposes where hardness and strength
are required.

An amusing instance of punishing a shark for his greedi-
ness was related some years ago. The author of the article
•says :

" Looking over the bulwarks of the schooner, I saw one of
these watchful monsters winding lazily backwards and for-
wards like a long meteor ; sometimes rising until his nose dis-
turbed the surface, and a gushing sound, like a deep breath,
rose through the breakers, at others, resting motionless on
the water, as if listening to our voices and thirsting for our
blood. As we were watering the motions of this monster,
Bruce, a lively little negro and my cook, suggested the pos-
.sibility of destroying it. This was, briefly, to heat a fire-
brick in the stove, wrap it up hastily in some old greasy
cloth as a sort of disguise, and then to heave it overboard.
This was the work of a few minutes, and the effect was tri-
umphant. The monster followed after the hissing prey; we
saw it dart at the brick like a flash of lightning, and gorge
it instanter. The shark rose to the surface almost immedi-
ately, and his uneasy motions soon betrayed the success of
the manoeuvre. His agonies became terrible: the waters
appeared as if disturbed by a violent squall, and the spray

179 BAITING THE SHARK.

was driven over the taffrail where we stood, while the gleam-
ing body of the fish repeatedly burst through the dark
waves, as if writhing with fierce and terrible convulsions.
Sometimes, also, we thought we heard a shrill, bellowing
cry, as if indicative of anguish and rage, rising through the
gurgling waters. His fury was, however, soon exhausted;
in a short time the sounds broke away into distance, and the
agitation of the sea subsided. The shark had given himself
up to the tides, as unable to struggle against the approach
of death, and they were carrying his body unresistingly ta
the beach."

In the South Sea Islands sharks are caught by means of
a log of wood, set afloat with a strong rope attached to it,
having a noose at the head. The fish, with his natural im-
petuosity, gets his head entangled, and, floundering about in
attemps to escape, becomes tired out, and is then easily dis-
patched.

Captain Basil Hall gives an interesting account of the
capture of one of these huge monsters. He says :

" The sharp, curved dorsal (the back) fin of an enormous
shark was seen rising about six inches above the water, and
cutting the glazed surface of the sea by as fine a line as if a
sickle had been drawn along it. * Messenger, run to the cook
for a piece of pork,' cried the captain, taking the command
with as much glee as if an enemy's cruiser had been in sight.
'Where's yoar hook, quarter-master?' 'Here, sir, here!'
cried the fellow, feeling the point, and declaring it was as
sharp as any lady's needle ; and at the next instant piercing
with it a huge junk of pork, weighing four or five pounds.
The hook, which is as large as a little finger, has a curvature
about as large as a man's hand when half closed, and is six
or eight inches in length, while a formidable line, furnished
with three or four feet of chain attached to the end of the
mizzen-top tail-halyard, is now cast into the ship's wake.

" Sometimes the very instant the bait is cast over the

SHAEK FISHING.

174 EXTRAORDINARY STRENGTH OF THE TEETH.

stern, the shark flies at it with such eagerness that he actu-
ally springs partly out of the water. This, however, is rare.
On these occasions he gorges the bait, the hook, and a foot
or two of the chain, without any mastication, and darts off
with the treacherous prize with such prodigious velocity
that it makes the rope crack again as soon as the coil is
drawn out. Much dexterity is required in the hand which
holds the line at this moment. A bungler is apt to be too
precipitate, and jerk away the hook before it has got far
enough into the shark's maw. The secret of the sport is to
let the monster gulp down the whole bait, and then to give
the line a violent pull, by which the barbed point buries
itself in the coat of the stomach. When the hook is first
fixed, it spins out like the log-line of a ship going twelve
knots.

" The suddenness of the jerk with which the poor devil is
brought up often turns him quite over. No sailor, however,
thinks of hauling a shark on board merely by the rope fas-
tened to the hook. To prevent the line breaking, the hook
snapping, or the jaw being torn away, a running bowline is
adopted. This noose is slipped down the rope, and passed
over the monster's head, and is made to join at the point of
junction of the tail with the body ; and now the first part of
the fun is held to be completed. The vanquished enemy is
easily drawn up over the taffrail, and flung on deck, to the
delight of the crew."

A sight of this voracious monster in his own element is
never to be forgotten. It has been observed that the word
'* villain " has never been written in more unmistakable
characters on any living creature than the shark. His
appearance exhibits every character of ferocity. The head
is large ; the mouth wide and grasping ; but the teeth, the
most appalling features of the animal, are remarkable for
their power of mischief: there are six rows in the upper jaw,
and four in the lower. The teeth are triangular, some-

WORSHIP OF SHARKS, 175

times two inches in breadth, sharp-edged, and notched like a
saw, and as they are so planted in the jaw that each tooth
is capable of independent action, being furnished with its
own muscles, and as the strength of the jaws is enormous,
they form a most terrific and formidable apparatus of de-
struction.

Although no part of the shark is wholesome for food, the
flesh being coarse and leathery, yet it is eaten by the na-
tives of Guinea, after being kept a considerable time to
render it tender. The fins being gelatinous are used by the
Chinese for making a rice soup. The liver yields an abun-
dance of oil which is much esteemed. I have already men-
tioned the uses to which the skin is applied.

On some of the African coasts there are human beings so
depraved and superstitious as to worship this fearful mon-
ster, and who believe that a person swallowed by him is sure
to go to heaven. Their mode of adoration is thus : The
negroes proceed in their boats to offer sacrifices of goats,
poultry, and other things. But far more horrible still is the
offering of an infant, reared for the purpose until it reaches
the age of ten. The poor child is bound to a post on a
sandy point at low water ; as the tide rises the sharks ar-
rive, and the infant is devoured, the parents fully believing
that it will enter Paradise. We may ask ourselves if it is
possible to find a more atrocious and dismal proof of human
depravity !

The South Sea Islanders had some strange superstitious
ideas relative to some of the shark species. Although they
would not only kill but eat certain sharks, the large blue
kind {Squalus glaucus) were deified by them ; and rather
than attempt to destroy them, they would endeavor to pro-
pitiate their favor by prayers and offerings. Temples were
erected, in which priests officiated, and offerings were pre*
sented to the deified monsters ; while fishermen and others,
who were much at sea, sought their lavor. Many funny

176 FEARFUL INSTANCES OF SHARKS' RAPACITY.

legends were formerly in circulation among the people rela-
tive to the regard paid by the sharks at sea to priests of
their temples, whom they were always said to recognize, and
never to injure. But for the sharks, the South Sea Islanders
would be in comparatively little danger from casualties in
their voyages among the islands ; and although, when armed,
they have been known to attack a shark in the water, yet,
when destitute of a knife or other weapon, they become an
easy prey, and are consequently much terrified at such mer-
ciless antagonists.

A fearful instance is related of the rapacity of the shark,
when a number of chiefs and people — altogether thirty-two
• — were passing from one island to another in a large double
canoe. They were overtaken by a tempest, the violence of
which tore their canoes from the horizontal spars by which
they were united. It was in vain for them to endeavor to
place them upright, or empty out the water, for they could
not prevent their incessant overturning. As their only re-
source, they collected the scattered spars and boards, and
constructed a raft on which they hoped to drift to land.
The weight of the whole number who were now collected on
the raft was so great as to sink it so far below the surface
that they sometimes stood above their knees in water.
They made very little progress, and soon became exhausted
by fatigue and hunger. Destitute of a knife or any other
weapon of defence, they fell an easy prey to these monsters.
One after another was seized and devoured or carried away
by them, and the survivors, who with dreadful anguish be-
held their companions thus destroyed, saw the number of
assailants apparently increasing as each body was carried
away, until only two or three remained. The raft, thus
lightened of its load, rose to the surface of the water, and
placed them beyond the reach of the voracious jaws of their
relentless destroyers. The voyage on which they had set
out was only from one of the Society Islands to another, con-

HOOKS FOR SHARK FISHING. 177

.sequeiitly they were not very far from land. The tide and
the current now carried them to the shore, where they
landed, to tell the melancholy fate of their fellow-voyagers.

The natives of Tahiti use hooks made of wood, and of the
most formidable character, for shark fishing. These are a
foot in length and an inch in diameter. They are such
frightful implements that no fish less voracious than a shark
would venture to approach them. In some, the marks of the
sharks' teeth are numerous and deep, and show the effect
with which they have been used.

One of the most sad and thrilling episodes of shark en-
counters was published some years since. A small schooner
called the Magpie was cruising between the island of Cuba
and the Havannah, in search of pirates. One evening the
sea and the air were so calm that the vessel lay on the bosom
of the water like some huge animal asleep, with her head
towards the shore. The crew were engaged in telling those
marvelous stories which seamen believe, and never fail to
narrate to each other in their hours of idleness, for such oc-
vcasionally visit even the mariner afloat. Lieutenant Smith,
the commander, who had been on the look-out for the pirate
ship as long as twilight enabled him to do so, laid aside his
glass and descended into the cabin. All above, below, and
around was now lulled as in slumber, for the laugh and the
voice of the story-teller had become silent. Presently the
mate of the watch observed a small black cloud resting over
the land. The cloud was gradually increasing, and although
the mate saw no ground to apprehend danger, he thought it
right to communicate the fact to his superior officer. Mr.
.Smith commanded him to keep a sharp look-out, and he would
join him on deck immediately. A moment after, a squall,
as strong as it was sudden, burst from the cloud, and just as
the lieutenant had ascended to the deck, the schooner was
upset, and immediately sank.

Two of the crew were below, and they went down with

178 ATTACK OF SHARKS ON A BOAT.

her; the others, twenty- two in number, were left struggling
with the quiet deep, for the squall had passed, and the sky
and the sea were again tranquil. It was now discovered
that the boat had drifted from the vessel, and floated. A
rush was made towards her, and several of the men at-
tempted to get into her on the same side. The consequence
was that she became half full of water, upset, rolled over and
over, and at length lay with her keel upwards. Some got
across her keel, others supported themselves by holding on
to her with their hands, and thus all were for a time safe.

Mr. Smith now reminded the crew that it was impossible
for them to remain long in this predicament, and exhorted
them to right the boat and bale the water from her. He
was immediately attended to ; the men on the keel relin-
quished their seats, the boat was turned over, and two men
were ordered into her to bale out the water. This they
commenced doing with their hats, and it seemed probable
that by perseverance their task would be accomplished. At
this moment a man called out that he saw the fin of a shark.
Immediately all was confusion; everyone endeavored to
save himself, and in so doing rushed into needless danger.
Smith begged them to persevere in attempting to clear the
boat of water, and directed those not engaged in baling the
water to keep splashing with their legs to frighten away
the sharks. Again he was attended to ; four men were in
the boat baling, and the water was rapidly decreasing, when
a noise was heard, and more than a dozen sharks darted in
amongst them. In the panic which ensued the boat was
again upset, and the men were at the mercy of the marine
monsters. At first the sharks played about among the men,^
occasionally rubbing against them; but presently a loud
shriek arose from one of them — his leg was bitten from his
body! The attack was now general; shrieks arose from one
and another. Some were torn from the boat, and several sank
into the abyss, either through being bitten or from fear.

HORRIBLE FATE OF SOME SEAMEN. 179

In this critical moment Lieutenant Smith was not dis-
mayed. He still gave orders to the crew firmly and coolly,
and was still obeyed by them. The boat was again righted,
and the baling again commenced. Smith clinging to the
stern while he directed and encourged his crew. For a mo-
ment he ceased to splash, while he looked into the boat to
see what progress his men were making. At this instant a
shark bit off both his legs above the knees. With fortitude
scarcely to be believed, he endeavored to conceal the fact
from his remaining crew, but, in spite of all his endeavors to
suppress it, a deep groan escaped him ; he loosed his hold of
the boat and was about to sink, when two of his men caught
hold of him and placed him in the stern-sheets. Although
bleeding and in agony, he still exerted himself for his crew.
He expressed his sorrow for their situation, gave them ad-
vice affectionately yet coolly, and ended with these words :
" If any of you survive this fearful night and return to
Jamaica, tell the admiral that I was in search of the pirate
when this lamentable occurrence took place ,• tell him that I
hope I have always done my duty, and that I " At this mo-
ment some of the men endeavored to get into the boat, which
was thus drawn on one side, and Lieutenant Smith rolled over-
board, and sank to rise no more. The boat was now again
upset. Some of the bleeding seamen placed themselves on
the keel, but one by one dropped into the ocean. It was at
eight o'clock when the Magpie sank, and before nine all on
board of her were eaten by the sharks or drowned, with the
exception of two, who succeeded in righting the boat and
getting into her. They immediately began baling, and
worked until they were nearly exhausted. The sharks swam
round the boat, and endeavored to upset her, but failing,
and perhaps gorged already, at length departed. The men
worked at intervals, until the boat was nearly free from
water, and then lay down and slept until after daylight. The
morning was fine but sultry. The men were hungry, thirsty,

A FRIGHTFUL ENCOUNTER WITH SHARKS.

PEBILO US CONDITION OF THE SUM VIVORS 181

and fatigued: they looked around themj an unbroken
ocean, a cloudless sky, and a burning sun were all that were
within their view. They began to think of the only re-
source remaining for either — to kill his comrade and devour
his flesh. They were men of equal strength, and both had
knives. Each, however, seemed unwilling to resort to this
horrible expedient except in the last extremity. The man
at the stern (for they had separated from each other, in mu-
tual apprehension, by nearly the whole length of the keel)
knelt down and prayed, and his comrade followed his ex-
ample.

As the morning went on they suffered intensely from
thirst, and aggravated their sufferings by attempting to
allay it with salt water. The madness of despair was begin-
ning to develop itself in one of them when a sail appeared
in sight, which afterwards proved to be a brig steering
towards them. One flung his jacket in the air, while the
other hailed again and again, and sometimes both hailed
together, although the brig was at such a distance that it
was not possible their cries would be heard. She approached
nearer and nearer, and so riveted were their minds on the
brig that hunger and thirst were forgotten in the excite-
ment of hope. The people on board the ship appeared to
notice them, but just as they had reason to think that such
was the case, she changed her course and hoisted additional
sail. Still they attempted to gain their attention, and at-
tempted to propel the boat with their hands; but all was in
vain; the ship was becoming every moment more distant,
and their chance of release from such a horrible condition,
'of course, fainter.

At this moment one of the sailors conceived the bold
project of swimming to the brig, which was by this time
two miles and a half from them. His comrade remonstrated
with him, so wild and hopeless did the undertaking appear
to him,' especially as the fins of sharks were seen here and

182 TEE SHARK FAMILY.

there above the water. After a little hesitation, caused by
the appeal of his shipmate, and a short prayer, he jumped
over. The splash occasioned by his doing so caused the
sharks to disappear, and the man in the boat well knew that
they were in search of his comrade. Immediately after-
wards, three of them passed the boat towards him.

With the greatest anxiety the sailor in the boat watched
his messmate : he swam well, kicking and splashing as he
went, to frighten the sharks. Once he beheld one of them
close to him ; but he only swam the faster, and kicked more
vigorously. The wind had freshened, the brig was sailing
more fleetly, his cries were unheard by the crew, and he began
to think he must yield himself a prey to the sharks. At last
he saw a man look over the side of the vessel ; he held up
both his hands, jumped up in the water, and was at length
seen. A boat was got out, the brave swimmer was picked
up, and was soon joined by his comrade on board the brig.
The sharks were defrauded of their prey. The two sur-
vivors of the Magpie were tried by a court-martial, and as a
reward for their perseverance, industry, and obedience to
their commander in circumstances of such peculiar peril,
promoted to be warrant officers.

To this family of the sharks, belongs the blue species,
to which we have alluded, and which visits the coasts of
England, during the pilchard and herring fishery, but whose
chief residence is the Mediterranean. It is about seven feet
long. The whole of the upper part is of a slate-blue color,
and the under side nearly pure white.

The Hammer-headed species are distinguished, as the
name implies, from each side of the head being extended —
hammer-shaped — into a kind of branch, which has the eyes
at the outer extremity. Its habits are of the family charac-
ter, and it never hesitates to attack man whenever an op-
portunity offers. The Smooth Shark is so named from the
smoothness and softer nature of its skin than its other rela-

THE GREENLAND SHARK. I83

tions; it is about four feet in length, and is a frequent visitor
to the British seas. The Dog-Fish is the most common of the
minor members of the shark family. The Spinous Shark, so
named from its " prickles," which resemble those on the
istems of a rose-bush, is not, happily, a frequent visitor to
British waters, though of inferior size to most of the family,
being from four to eight feet. The Angel-Fish, or Monk-
Fish, or Shark-Ray, closes our list of the " ocean pirates/'
The depressed form, rounded head, with the eyes on the up-
per surface, and the singularly expansive pectoral fins (which
may, under the imaginative form of wings, have originated
the designation of" angel") distinguish this strange, and, on
the whole, uncouth fish, w^hich partakes something of the
•character of the ray and the shark. It is not unfrequent on
British coasts, and attains a considerable size, some weighing
a hundred-weight. It is a fierce and dangerous fish to con-
tend with, and fishermen tell strange stories of its strength
and fury.

The Greenland Shark which abounds in the Northern
seas, although smaller than his powerful relative, being
usually about fourteen feet long and six or eight feet in
girth, partnkes of his ferocity, and is a fearful enemy to the
w^hale, whom he frequently worries to death, and feasts upon
afterwards, scooping out pieces from his body as large as a
man's head. The blubber appears to be a peculiarly '^dainty
dish" to this Arctic monster, and, while the crew of a ship
are employed in cutting up a whale, he will come in for his
;share, and is so greedy for his favorite food that the men
consider themselves safe from his gripe. Insensible to pain
tind tenacious of life as are all the larger sharks, the Arctic
member of this ferocious tribe has been proved to be so in
a remarkable degree. A few ugly wounds do not spoil his
appetite, and even when pierced through the body with a
sailor's knife, he does not desert the whale's carcass until his
appetite is fully satisfied. Even w^hen the body is cut into

184 TEE BASKING SEAUK.

parts, the separate portions continue to show signs of life
for some time, and it is unsafe to put the hand into his
mouth a good while after the head has been separated from
the trunk.

The Greenlanders eat the flesh of this fish both fresh and,
dried, and twist his rough skin into a kind of rope. This
shark is known to have seized a canoe covered with seal-
skin (which was probably the attraction) in his mouth from
beneath, and by closing his jaws, destroyed both th© canoe
and its inmate.

The largest of this terrible tribe, the Basking Shark, visits
the British seas occasionally, though most abundant in the
tropics. He has been seen off the coast of Scotland, and
taken, from his enormous length, for the " sea-serpent," at-
taining upwards of fifty feet. One of this size was captured
some years ago at Kuraci, at the mouth of the Indus. Hap-
pily, however, his voracity is not proportioned to his size,
being satisfied chiefly with sea-slugs, small fishes, jelly-fish,
etc. Pennant mentions a basking shark twenty-six feet in
length, taken off Anglesea, from which one hundred and
fifty-six gallons of oil were obtained.

It is said that the pilot-fish is a guide and companion to
the shark in his pursuit of prey. Whether this pretty fish,
which is only about a foot in length, really does befriend and
assist the ocean monster is not quite certain, but some ac-
counts give an air of probability to the belief. One of the
first voyagers to the East Indies, alludes to this circumstance
in a fanciful manner. Describing the sharks, he says:
"These have waiting on them six or seven small fishes,
which never depart, with guards (bands), blue and green,
round their bodies, like comely serving-men, and they go
two or three before them, and some on every side.'' We
have seen three instances in which the shark was led by the
pilot. When the former neared the ship the latter swam
close to his snout or near one of his breast-fins; sometimes it

THE PILOT FISH. 185

darted rapidly forwards or sideways, as if looking for some-
thing, and constantly went back again to the shark. When
we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a great
hook, the shark was about twenty paces from the ship. With
the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the
dainty morsel, and instantly swam back again to the shark,
swimming many times around his snout and splashing, as if
to give him exact information as to the bacon. The shark
now began to put himself in motion, the pilot showing him
the way, and in a moment he was fast to the hook."

Dr. Bennett, a Naturalist, says: " I have observed that if
several sharks swim together, the pilot-fishes are generally
absent; whereas, on a solitary shark being seen, it is equally
rare to find it unaccompanied by one or more of these reputed
guides. The only method by which I could procure this
fish was, that when capturing a shark, I was aware that
these faithful little fishes would not forsake him until he was
taken aboard : therefore, by keeping the shark, when hooked,
in the water until he was exhausted, or, as the sailors term
it, " drowned," the pilot-fish kept close to the surface of the
water over the shark, and. by the aid of a dipping-net, fixed
to the end of a long stick, I was enabled to secure it with
great facility."

The pilot-fish, like the mackerel in shape, has five con-
spicuous transverse bands round the body, and the general
color is a silvery grayish-blue. It is common in the Medi-
terranean and abounds in the warmer parts of the ocean.

CHAPTER XIII.

8EA-H0RSES, AND NARWAHLS,

LL the shores and borders of the Arctic zone
are crowded with amphibious animals, which
appear to form an intermediate link between
whales and quadrupeds. Among these we
will now notice the Morse (derived from the
Bussian morss) or Walrus (from the Norwegian hval-ros,
whale-horse), also called by sailors the Sea-Horse. It is
^ large, shapeless, unwieldy creature, from twelve to fifteen
feet in length, and eight to ten feet in circumference ; the
head small, the limbs short, and of an intermediate char-
acter between fins and legs. The eyes are small and bril-
liant; the nostrils are large, somewhat round, and placed on
the upper part of the snout or muzzle. The lips are remark-
ably thick and covered with bristles. The neck is short.
The insides of the paws are protected by a rough horny kind
of coating, of a quarter of an inch thick ; the fore-paws, or
webbed hands, are from two to three feet in length, and, be-
ing expansive, can be stretched to a considerable width. The
color varies with age ; the young are black, they then be-
come brown, and gradually pale, until in old age the walrus
is white. The hairs, thick as a crow-quill, together with the
long white tusks and fierce-looking eyes, give the animal a

THE WALRUS. 187

most diabolic look as it raises its head above the waves.
Previous to the development of the tusks in the young wal-
rus, the front face, when seen at a little distance, bears a
striking resemblance to the human countenance ; and this
appearance seems to have given rise to the fanciful reports
•of mermen, or mermaids, in the Northern seas. Captain
Scoresby mentions that he has seen a sea-horse in such a
position and under such circumstances that it was easy to mis-
take it for a human being. The surgeon of his ship actually
reported to him that he had seen a man^s head just appearing
above the water!

The most remarkable feature of the walrus consists in the
two teeth or tusks, which are directed downwards from the
upper jaw, and are sometimes nearly two feet in length, di-
verging at their points, and weighing from five to ten pounds.
They are of beautiful white bone, almost equal to ivory, and
are much employed in the fabrication of teeth, chessmen,
umbrella-handles, whistles, and other small articles. The
Greenlanders and other people of the North make hunting
weapons from them, and domestic tools. These tusks not
•only serve the animal in procuring its food — which is said to
be shell-fish and marine vegetables — but are formidable
weapons against its foes. They also enable the walrus to
raise its unwieldly bulk upon the ice, when its access to
•shore is prevented.

The speed of this animal in the water is very great, and
a contrast to its sluggish appearance on the ice. Large num-
bers of them crowd together on the shore, and present a
curious spectacle. The moment the first lands, so as to be dry,
it will not stir until another comes, and urges it forward by
beating it with its great tusks ; this one is served in the
same manner by the next, and so on in succession, until
the whole are landed, tumbling over one another in the
•operation.

In the voyages of the early navigators of the Arctic seas.

188 COOK'S ADVENTURE WITH TEE WALRUS,

they found the walrus, hitherto a partially unmolested ani-
mal, easy of capture. Stephen Bennet, the captain of the
God-speed, a vessel of sixty tons, writes : '* We saw a huge
morse putting his head above water, making such a horrible
noise and roaring, that they in the boat thought he would
have sunk it." In another place they found a multitude of
these monsters of the sea lying like hogs upon a heap."
They shot at them in vain until their muskets were spoilt
and their powder was spent, when " we would blow their
eyes out with a little pease-shot, and then come on the blind
side of them, and with our carpenter's axe cleave their heads ;;
but for all that we could do, of about a thousand were killed
but -fifteen." They filled a hogshead with the loose teeth
found on the island. The navigators became more expert in
their cruel onslaught upon the poor animals, for in a subse^
quent voyage the same captain relates that in six hours they
slew from seven hundred to eight hundred, not only for the
sake of the teeth, but boiling the blubber into oil. They
also contrived to get on board two young walruses, male and
female ; the latter died on the passage, but the other reached
England, and was taken to Court, " where the King and
many honorable personages beheld it with admiration." It
soon, however, fell sick and died.

Captain Cook, who was among the first to give anything
like a distinct account of this curious animal, says :

" We got entangled with the edge of the ice, on which
lay an innumerable multitude of sea-horses. They were ly-
ing in herds, huddled one over the other, like swine, and
were roaring and braying very loud, so that in the night, or
in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of the
ice before w^e could see it. They were seldom in a hurry to
get away until after they had been fired at, when they would
tumble over each other into the sea in the utmost confusion.
Vast numbers of them would follow us, and come close up tO'
the boats, but the flash of a musket in the pan, or even the

190 ENCOUNTERS WITH THE WALRUS.

bare pointing of one, would send them down in an instants
We never found tlie whole herd asleep, one being always on
the watch. This, on the approach of a boat, would rouse
the next, and the alarm being gradually communicated, the
whole herd would speedily awake."

The walrus is hunted chiefly for its oil and tusks ; the na-
tives of the northern shores esteem its flesh highly, and it is
greedily eaten along with the lard and even the skin. It has
been calculated that about a thousand walruses were cap-
tured yearly in the seas about Spitzbergen.

Though generally of a peaceful and harmless nature, yet
when attacked by foes, and especially by man, these huge
animals will defend and support each other with remarkable
courage and fidelity, fearlessly proceeding to the rescue of
an unfortunate associate, and striving even to death for its
deliverance. Martens relates having killed some sea-horses
on the ice ; ** the rest came all about our boat, and beat
holes through the sides of it so that we took in abundance
of water, and were at length forced to row away because of
their great numbers, for they gathered themselves more and
more together, and pursued us, as long as we could perceive
them, very furiously."

A similar incident is given, where a boat's crew pro-
ceeded to attack two hundred of these animals, but they
made almost desperate resistance ; some of them with their
cubs on their backs; and one of them tore open the planks
of the boat in two or three places.

Captain Phipps relates that two officers engaged in an
encounter with a walrus, who, on being wounded, plunged
into the water, and obtained a reinforcement of its fellows,,
who made a desperate attack on the boat, wresting an oar
from one of the men, and had nearly upset her, when another
boat came to her assistance.

The affection of the mother for its young is remarkable*
Captain Cook, in his third voyage, says:

AFFECTION OF THE WALRUS FOR ITS YOUNG. 191

" We hoisted out the boats, and sent them in pursuit of
the sea-horses that surrounded us. Our people were more
successful than they had been before, returning with three
large ones and a young one. On the approach of our boats
towards the ice, they took all their cubs under their fins, and
endeavored to escape with them into the sea. Several,
whose young ones were killed or wounded, and were left float-
ing on the surface, rose again, and carried them down, just as.
our people were going to take them into the boat, and they
might be traced bearing them a great distance through the
water, which was colored with their blood. We afterwards
observed them bringing them up at times above the surface,
as if for air, and again diving under it with a dreadful bel-
lowing. The female in particular whose young had been de-
stroyed and taken into the boat, became so enraged that she
attacked the cutter, and struck her tusks through the bot-
tom of it.

Another instance is mentioned, where, in the vast sheet
of ice which surrounded the ships there were occasionally
many pools, and when the weather was clear and warm,
animals of various kinds would frequently rise and sport
about in them, or crawl from thence upon the ice, to bask in
the warmth of the sun. A walrus rose in one of these pools
close to the ship, and finding everything quiet, dived down
again, and brought up its young, which it held to its breast
by pressing it with its flipper. In this manner it moved
about the pool, keeping in an erect posture, and always di-
recting the face of its young towards the vessel. On the
slightest movement on board the mother released her flip-
per, and pushed the young one under water; but when
everything was quiet, again brought it up as before, and
for a length of time continued to play about the pool, to the
great amusement of the sailors."

Man is not the only assailant of the sea-horse. On land
its especial foe is the great Polar bear, and between these

192 BATTLES OF THE WALRUS AND POLAR BEAR.

timmals there are often terrible battles. On these occasions
the tusks of the walrus stand in good service, for they man-
age, usually, to beat off the grizly enemy, though at the cost
of many severe wounds.

An amusing instance is given of the cunning displayed
by Bruin in his chase after the walrus :

" One sunshiny day, one of these animals, about ten feet
in length, rose in a pool of water not very far from us, and
after looking round, drew his greasy carcass upon the ice,
where he rolled about for a time, and at length laid himself
down to sleep. A bear which had probably been observing
his movements crawled carefully upon the ice on the opposite
side of the pool, and began to roll about also, but apparently
more from design than amusement, as he progressively
lessened the distance that intervened between him and
his prey. The walrus, suspicious of his advances, drew him.
self up preparatory to a precipitous retreat into the water,
in case of a nearer acquaintance with his playful but treach-
erous visitor. On this the bear became instantly motionless,
as if in the act of sleep, but after a time began to lick his
paws and clean himself, encroaching occasionally a little
more upon his intended prey. But even this artifice did not
succeed : the wary walrus was far too cunning to allow him-
self to be entrapped, and suddenly plunged into the pool,
which the bear no sooner observed than he threw off all
disguise, rushed toward the spot, and followed him in an in-
stant into the water, where he was as much disappointed in
his meal as we were of the pleasure of witnessing a very
interesting encounter."

At sea, the sword-fish is the most nimble and fiercest ene-
my of the walrus. We should scarcely imagine from the
uncouth and heavy appearance of the animal that it would
exhibit any striking traits of intelligence ; but it seems that
when young it is not difficult to domesticate. Lamont men-
tions having seen one about the size of a sheep on board a

THE SEA UNICORN. 193

Norwegian vessel, and the most comical fac'simile imagin-
able of an old walrus. It had been taken alive after the
harpooning of its mother, and was as playful as a kitten. It
was a great favorite with all on board, and the only thing
annoyed it was pulling its whiskers.

Another tusky inhabitant of the Arctic seas is the Nar-
wahlj or 3Ionodon, or what is popularly called the Sea-Uni-
corn, also an animal of the Mammalian order, about sixteen
feet long and eight feet in circumference. In appearance
the narwahl resembles a small whale, but with the addition
of two long, straight, and pointed tusks, like spears, spirally
twisted, directed forwards, and differing in length, the left
one being about seven feet and a few inches, and the right
one seven feet. It frequently happens, however, that only
•one of these tusks grows, and the other, somehow strangled,
remains shut up in the bone like a nut. This will account
for the appellation given to the narWahl of the "sea-unicorn.^^
These tusks are of a whiter and harder substance than ivory.
The Kings of Denmark possess a magnificent throne in the
Castle of Rosenberg made of this material.

In former times, when the origin of the horns of this
animal was not well known, they were supposed to possess
miraculous powers for healing diseases. The monks, in partic-
ular, fostered the delusion, and pretended that every ill under
the sun could be removed by their power. The narwahl has
no true teeth in either jaw ; the mouth is small and the lips
are stiff, but it is able to catch and swallow so large a fish as
the skate, the breadth of which is nearly three times as much
as the width of its own mouth. It seems probable, however,
that the horn serves them in this need, the fish being pierced
with it, and killed before devoured. It is used, also, in dig-
ging sea-plants from the rocks at great depths, in order to
drive from their retreats the shrimps and other animals on
which the narwahl feeds. The tail is about twenty inches
long and four feet broad. It has no dorsal or back fin, but

FIGHT BETWEEN WALRUS AND POLAR BEARS.

HABITS OF THE SEA UNICORN. 195

in place of it there is an irregular, sharp, fatty ridge, two
inches in height, extending between two and three feet along
the back, nearly midway between the snout and the tail.
The prevailing color of the animal is bluish-gray on the back,
variegated with numerous dark spots, with paler and more
gray marks on a white ground at the sides. In old sea-horses
the color is wholly white, or yellowish-white, with dark-gray
spots. They are quiet and inoffensive in their habits, and
swim with great rapidity. When respiring on the surface of
the water, after blowing repeatedly, they frequently lie
motionless for several minutes with the back and head just
appearing above water. When harpooned, they dive to a con-
siderable depth, and on returning to the surface for respira-
tion, are readily killed in a few minutes with the lance. Near
the coast they are always seen in flocks in the severest win-
ters. The Greenlanders drive them with their sledges to
fissures in the ice, where they are dispatched. The blubber,
enwrapping the whole body, is from two to four inches in
thickness.

When a number of sea-horses are together, they divert
themselves in gambols, when, their horns appearing above
the water, as if brandished about like weapons, have a singu-
lar effect, and the clattering noise they produce, with a kind
of gurgling sound of the animals themselves, would lead one
to suppose that some hostile proceedings were going on; but
it is merely a playful movement of instruments which, if ag-
gressively employed, would be dangerous. The force with
which the narwahl urges its speed may be conceived by the
circumstance that its tusk has been sometimes found driven
through the planks of vessels.

CHAPTER XIY.
NAUTILI THE FLOATING NAVIGATORS OF THE OCEAIT,

" Spread, tiny nautilus, the living sail,
Dive at thy choice, or brave the freshening gale
If unreprov'd the ambitious eagle mount
Sunward, to seek the daylight in its fount,
Bays, gulf, and ocean's Indian widths shall be
Till the world perishes a field for thee." — WORDSWORTH.

MONGr the most interesting and poetical illus-
trations of the wonders of the ocean are the
singular floating animals, of which the Nauti-
lus— called by Byron *'the ocean Mab," "the
Fairy of the Sea" — will be, undoubtedly,
familiar to you from the great beauty of its shell, which
renders it a favorite ornament in many houses.

Very interesting stories and verses have been written on
the sailing and rowing habits of these curious animals ; and
their appearance, when seen skimming the water, would
strongly favor sucli ideas. The Dutch naturalist, Rumphius,
in giving an account of the rarities at Amboyna, the princi-
pal of the Molucca islands, says : " When the nautilus floats
on the water, he puts out his head and all his tentacles, and
spreads them upon the water ; but at the bottom he creeps
in a reversed position, with his boat above him, and with his
head and tentacles (feelers) on the ground, making a toler-
ably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on the
ground, creeping also, sometimes, into the nets of the fisher-
men ; but after a storm, as the weather gets calm, they are
seen in troops, floating on the water, being driven up by the

THE NAUTILUS.

198 THE PAPER NAUTILUS.

agitation of the waves. This sailing is not, however, of long
continuance, for having taken in all their tentacles, they
upset their boat and so return to the bottom.

Until a comparatively recent period, very little was
known of the nautilus ; for, although shells were plentifully
found on the shores of the warm seas it inhabits, the fish
itself, living chiefly at the bottom of the sea, creeping like a
snail, or lying in wait for runaway crabs or suchlike food,
was difficult to obtain. However, a specimen was captured
by Mr. Bennett, a naturalist, at the New Hebrides, and the
great naturalist. Professor Owen, described the fish in a
valuable memoir. The specimen is still preserved in the
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in London. Little
could be known from the shell itself; but here was the tiny
navigator of the ocean, that would ride out a storm in which
the strongest man-of-war might founder, revealed in all its
most curious mechanism: the oars and aerial sails — disap-
pearing, to give place to its real method of propulsion.

The Paper Nautilus has eight tentacles, and one pair of
these expand at their extremities into broad and thin mem-
branes, which compose a web of several sorts of fibres, inter-
woven for the wrapping up of some parts, the fibres giving
them an elasticity by which they can contract and grasp the
parts they contain — whence the fable received through so
many ages, of its sails ; the membranous arms of the fish are
the organs for secreting and repairing the shells.

The functions of the supposed sails of the paper nautilus
were determined by an experiment. One of the " sails " was
cut off in several living specimens, the right sail being
removed in some, the left in others ; and the creatures were
then kept in a submarine cage, and supplied with food.
Some of them survived the operation for four months, when
it was found that the shell had grown only on that side on
which the membranous arm had been preserved ; thus show-

A WONDERFUL BUILDER. [99

ing the animal to be the builder of its own habitation, and
that the expanded arms do not serve the purposes of sails.

The real rower on the ocean is the beautiful little blue
and silver shell-fish, the Glaucus, also a tenant of the warm
•seas, who swims with great swiftness by aid of its conical
and oar-like appendages.

A wonderful builder is the nautilus, as may be seen by
the chambers it fashions for its own accommodation ; for the
shell is divided into partitions, and as the animal increases in
size it forms another and larger apartment proportionate to
its growth, leaving the others empty as it proceeds, until,
satisfied with its labors, it becomes the occupant of the
highest chamber, though still communicating with the cham-
bers it has abandoned, by means of a membranous tube
which passes through the centre of each, enabling the nau-
tilus by throwing air or gas into the empty chambers, or by
exhausting them of air, to rise or sink into the water at will.

How truly wonderful is the intelligence displayed by
the tiny nautilus in its chambered dwelling I " These beau-
tiful arrangements," Dean Buckland once remarked, " are
and ever have been subservient to a common object — the
construction of hydraulic instruments, of especial importance
in the economy of creatures destined to move sometimes at
the bottom, and at other times upon or near the surface of
the sea. The delicate adjustments whereby the same prin-
ciple is extended through so many grades and modifications
of a single type, show the uniform and constant agency of
some controlling intelligence ; and in searching for the origin
of so much method and regularity amidst so much variety,
the mind can only rest when it has passed back through the
subordinate series of second causes to the great First Cause,
which is found in the will and power of a great Creator."

The Pearly Nautilus, thus named from the shell being
lined with a layer of the most beautiful pearly gloss, inhabits
the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Nothing can exceed the

200 THE ARGONAUT.

pure loveliness of this "gem of the deep;" the interior
being white, like the finest porcelain, and streaked with red-
dish chestnut. It is highly prized in Eastern countries,
where it is made into drinking cups. The Chinese are par-
ticularly expert in manufacturing it into various ornaments.

There are other floating navigators of the deep ; among
others, the Snail-slime-fiskes, which frequent the Arctic seas,
and are found in immense quantities on the coast of Spitz-
bergen. The shell is the boat of this animal, which it rows^
through the water by a dip of its raised fins. In this act
the open extremity of the shell is its prow, the opposite endi
occupies the place of a poop, and the margin of the body
resembles and performs the office of a keel. A writer says :
*' I have often seen it with admiration and pleasure. He
can move in a retrograde manner. When weary with row-
ing, or when touched, the little boatman contracts his oary
fins, and drawing within the shell, sinks to the bottom,,
where he rests for a short time. Then again he rises up-
wards, rowing obliquely until the surface is attained, when
his course is held in a straight line over the trackless surge.
When taken out of the shell, although without injury and in-
the water, he immediately dies."

Before quitting the nautilus, we may add, that the shells
of this " ocean navigator" abound in the coral seas, and are
cast on shore in such profusion, that many tons' weight are
collected at New Caledonia and the Fiji Islands, and are con-
veyed to Sydney. The young shells when polished obtain
a high price.

The Argonaut differs from the true nautilus, inasmuch as
the shell is not divided into chambers, but has one spiral
cavity, into which the animal can entirely withdraw itself.
Prom the disproportionate size of the last whorl (a wreath
or turning of the spires of univalves, or shells of one piece
only), it has some resemblance to a canoe, the spire repre-
senting %he poop. If the waves rise or danger threatens.

THE SEA BLADDER. 201

the argonaut withdraws all its arms into the shell, contracts^
itself there, and descends to the bottom. The body does
not penetrate within the spire of the shell, nor does it
adhere to it; at least, there is no muscular attachment,
which led to the supposition that it occupied a shell belong-
ing to some other animal. This freebooting stigma does not
belong to the argonaut, for experiments have proved that
the animal is its own builder, and consequently a rightful
tenant of his mansion.

There is a curio as and highly interesting floating object
to which we may call the reader's attention, the Sea-Bladder,
called by seamen the '* Portuguese man-of-war, and by the
French sailors the "galley" or "frigate." This singular
zoophyte, or animal plant, for it combines the two natures, is
seen floating, sometimes singly, at other times in vast num-
bers, in the tropical seas, and attracted the attention of
naturalists from a very early period. The notion of its sailing
properties may have arisen in consequence of the crest which
it has the power of erecting along the ridge of his back, which,
when caught by the wind, assumes somewhat the appear-
ance of a natural sail, by means of which it seems enabled
to glide over the surface of the ocean. This, however, is not
the case, as the creature does not move by this means, nor
does it appear to possess the power of imparting any special
direction to its course, which is entirely at the mercy of the
wind and waves. The body itself, upon which the ridge or
crest erects itself, is of a slight half-transparent character,
and has somewhat the appearance of an unusually solid soap-
bubble, glistening with a more than ordinary amount of
various colored hues.

Mr. Bennett describes this body as of delicate crimson
tints, as he saw it floating on the waves. There are alsa
veinings of rich purple, and opaline flashes of azure, orange,
and green, changing in color at every movement; and its^

202 QUE AT BEAUTY OF SEA BLADDERS,

long dependant tentacles or feelers are of the deepest
purple.

Dr Collingwood mentions having observed these splendid
zoophytes in the Atlantic Ocean, near the equator, sailing
by from time to time during the day, and attracting atten-
tion by their large size and brilliant color. ''They had the
appearance of beautiful prismatic shells, standing upright
on a rich blue cushion, the cell being radiated from the base
or cushion to the circumference, which was fringed with a
rich and bright rose color." He captured several specimens,
and the largest measured in the bladder eight inches, and
the greatest vertical circumference ten inches and a quarter.
The long dependant tentacles or feelers are from four to
five feet in length, and are capable of being extended much
farther when shot off for the capture of prey.

But the glory of these magnificent objects, so developed
in their native element, fades, like sea-weeds, as the zoo-
phyte is taken from its watery home, with the exception of
the long tentacles, which retain their color (dark purple)
until decomposition takes place. " There is no rose without
a thorn," is a well-known saying ; and this gaily-colored
zoophyte has a dangerous stinging property to those who
handle it incautiously. An instance is related of a sailor
seeing one within reach from a boat, who took it up with
his naked hands ; the threads or elastic tentacles clung to
his arm, causing the man to yell with agony. He was quickly
brought on board, and ran about like a maniac, requiring
several men to hold him. When secured, and the proper
remedies applied, he rolled about for some time groaning
with pain; his arm was red, inflamed, and swollen, and
remained so for some hours.

Its earliest modern name of '* sea-nettle" is derived from
that conferred upon this class of marine creatures by Aris-
totle, in consequence of the burning sting caused by the
poisonous tentacles or feelers of several members of this

THE AMMONITE. 203

group ; a sting which leaves after it a white pimple, like
that caused by a nettle.

A remarkable interest is attached to the nautilus from
the very remote periods of time to which it can be traced ;
fossils being found in the most ancient rocks in which shell
animals have been discovered, in various parts of the world,
living ages before the Flood in temperate and tropical seas.
In the London clay, which forms such a large extent of the
substratum of the great metropolis, lie buried vast numbers
of the pearly shells of the nautilus, which, evidently at a
great distance of time, found in that country a congenial
climate and home. The largest British specimens of the fos-
sil nautilus occur in the carboniferous limestone, and speci-
mens of these are preserved in the British Museum more
than a yard in length, and thick in proportion.

In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in
London, is a specimen of the entire animal, soft parts and
shell, of the pearly nautilus : a portion of the shell has been
removed to show some of the chambers, and the membranous
tube or syphon which traverses them. There is also a
specimen of the paper nautilus suspended as when floating,
with the expanded membranous arms in their natural posi-
tion spread over the shell which they form and repair.

Resembling somewhat in appearance the nautilus, the
shell being chambered and spiral, but differing otherwise in
some respects, was the primitive navigator of the ancient
seas, the ammonite, of which the shells now only remain, the
most beautiful of all our fossils, and found in almost every
country in the world, upwards of two hundred species hav-
ing been described. The name is derived from a fancied
resemblance of its shell to the ram's horn ornaments on
sculptured heads of Jupiter Ammon. They are of very
different sizes, varying to even three or four feet in diameter.
The larger ones were formerly taken for petrified snakes,
and were found in great numbers at Whitby in Yorkshire.

204 FLOATING SHELLS.

Sir Walter Scott alludes to this popular superstition in his^
poem of *' Marmion,^ where the nuns of Whitby exultingly

told

" How of thousand snakes, each one
Was changed into a coil of stone
When holy Hilda pray'd."

The visitors to Whitby are still invited to buy a pet-
rified snake, and to add to their natural appearance, the
mouth ,of the ammonite is carved into a head, and eyes are
introduced made of colored glass.

The ammonite,with a shell a yard across,would have been
an animal large in proportion to its body-chamber, and
requiring a certain amount of water to be displaced by its
shell, to move at ease along the bottom of the sea in search
of its food. The shell of the ammonite,though of the same flat
character as that of the nautilus, appears to have been much
thinner ; but, to compensate for this, there were flu tings
which are seen in the surface, occasioned by the transverse
ribs. The round knobs or bosses studding some of the am-
monites were like gems on a diadem, adding strength as
well as beauty to their form. The whorls or wreaths of the
shell were rounder and more in number than that of the
nautilus, and the tubes — the hydraulic instinct by which the
chambers were supplied with air, or exhausted, for the as-
cent or descent of the animal — instead of running through
the cells like that of the nautilus, went round the chambers
of the ammonite.

How strange are the vicissitudes of all created things I
While some survive the shocks and rents of time, others are
known only as fossil memorials of the primitive world. The-
nautilus still rides on the crest of the ocean waves, but the
ammonite — long, long since removed from the element in
which it lived — only remains as a petrifaction to tell of its
existence in ages before the Flood.

We also mention the little floating Pterojpoda or Wine-

GIGANTIC CUTTLE FISH.

206 CUTTLE FISH.

shells, the inhabitants of which pass their entire life in the
sea far away from any shelter except that afforded by the
floating Gulf-weed, and whose organization is peculi-
ary adapted to that sphere of existence. In appearance
they strikingly resemble the fry of the ordinary sea-snails,
swimming, like them, by the vigorous flapping of a pair of
fins. To the naturalist on shore they are almost unknown,
but the voyager on the great ocean meets them where
there is little else to arrest his attention, and marvels at
their delicate forms and almost incredible numbers. They
swarm in the tropical, and no less the Arctic seas, where by
their myriads, the water is discolored by them for leagues.
They are seen swimming on the surface in the heat of the
day, as well as in the cool of the evening. In high latitudes
they are the principal food of the whale and of many sea-
birds.

Another floating inhabitant of the deep is described as the
beautiful lanthina or Ocean-Snail, which is quite blind, and
has large horny jaws, furnished with sharp, curved, slender
teeth. This animal is remarkable for floating shell down-
wards in the water, and the anterior part of the foot forms
a shallow cup, which embraces the smooth anterior rounded
part of the float. Thus the fish can raise or lower itself in
the water at pleasure. When it wishes to bring its head to
the surface of the water, this part of the foot is made to
glide over the back of the float. The floats are made of a
mucous film containing air ; and when cut with scissors, the
animal descended to the bottom of the vessel in which it
was consigned, and did not make a new one.

The nautili belong to a class called Cephalopoda, so
named from the singular attachment of the feet to the head
— locomotive organs employed as oars or feet when moving
along the bottom of the sea, and consisting of a circlet of
muscular arms or tentacles, in addition to which many of
this class have fins. To this same definition of Linnaeus

CUTTLE FISH DESCRIBED, 20T

belong the Cuttle-fish, the bony scale on the back of which
is employed for making pounce, tooth-powder, for polishing,,
and other purposes in the arts.

The common cuttle-fish is abundant on the English coasts.
Its skin is smooth, whitish, and dotted with red. It attains
the length of a foot or more, and is one of the pests of the
fishermen, devouring partially the fish which have been
caught in their nets. The eggs of the cuttle-fish are
frequently cast on shore clustered together. Singularly in-
teresting is the study of these creatures, which are
provided with means of escaping danger, in their ink-bags,
from which they can at will emit a fluid, darkening the water
and thus enabling them to get ofi*. This natural ink o/ the
fish is employed in painting ; Cicero tells us that it was
anciently used for writing with.

Another property possessed by this class of animals is,
that if any of its tentacles or feelers are bitten off, which is
often the case — the conger eel having a special relish for
the dainty morsel — others supply their place, the power of
reproduction being given to them. The whale also regales
on the cuttle-fish, and the plaice tribe have the same
partiality. The most common species form the bait with
which one-half of the cod taken at Newfoundland are
caught.

The general description of the cuttle-fish may be thus
described: the body oblong, or longer than broad, and
depressed, sac-like, with two narrow lateral fins of similar
substance with the mantle (the outside skin of shell-fish,,
which covers a great part of the body, like a cloak). There
is an internal shell lodged in a sac on the back part of the
mantle, somewhat 6val and bladed-shaped, being compar-
atively thick near the anterior end, where it is terminated
by a sharp point, affixed, as it were, to its general outline.
The whole shell is light and porous, and is formed of thin
plates, with intervening spaces, divided by innumerable

208 STORIES BESPEGTING THE CUTTLE FISH.

partitions, and consists chiefly of carbonate of lime, with a
little gelatinous and other animal matter, which is most
abundant in the internal harder part of the shell. The eyes
are very large, and the head is furnished with eight arms,
each of which has four rows of suckers and two long tenta-
cles, expanded and furnished with suckers on one side at the
extremity. Cuttle-fish are enabled to leap out of the water
by the sudden extension, not of their tails, but of their nu-
merous arms, or other processes from their bodies.

In hot climates some of the species of cuttle-fish grow to
a prodigious size, and are furnished with a fearful apparatus
of arms with suckers, by which they can rigidly fasten upon
and convey their prey to the mouth. In the eight-armed
species which inhabit the Indian seas these tentacles are
said to be no less than nine fathoms in length.

Extraordinary stories have been related of these animals.
Pliny mentions the head of one which was as large as a cask,
the arms thirty-six feet long. They are described as first
darting from side to side in the pools, and fixing themselves
so tenaciously to the surface of the stones that great force
was required to remove them. When thrown upon the
sand, they progressed rapidly in a sidelong shuffling man-
ner, throwing about their long arms, ejecting their inky
fluid in sudden violent jets, and staring about with their
shining eyes in a grotesque and hideous manner. As food
it was highly prized by the ancients, and is still much
esteemed in some parts of the world. It is regularly
exposed for sale in the markets at Naples, Smyrna, and in
the bazaars of India. In a curious Japanese book there is
a picture of a man in a boat engaged in catching cuttle-fishes
with a spear ; and also a fishmonger's shop in Japan, where
a number of enormous cuttle-fishes are represented hanging
up for sale.

Columbus describes the mode of fishing with the cuttle-
fish pursued in his time by the natives of Santa Marta :

FISHING WITH THE GUTTLE FISH. 209

" They had a small fish, the flat headf of which was
furnished with numerous suckers, by which it attached it-
self so firmly to any object as to be torn in pieces rather than
abandon its hold. Tying a line of great length to the tail of
this fish, the Indians permitted it to swim at large. It
generally kept near the surface of the water until it per-
ceived its prey, when, darting down swiftly, it attached
itself by its suckers to the throat of a fish, or to the under
shell of a tortoise, nor did it relinquish its prey until both
were drawn up by the fisherman, and taken out of the
water."

In this way the Spaniards witnessed the taking of a
tortoise of immense size, and Fernando Columbus himself
afiirms that he saw a shark caught in this manner on the
coast of Veragua.

This account, strange as it may seem, has been corrob-
orated by various navigators, and the same mode of fishing
is said to be employed on the eastern coast of Africa, at
Mozambique, and at Madagascar.

The South Sea Islanders have a curious contrivance for
taking the cuttle-fish, which resort to the holes of the coral
rocks, and protrude their arms or tentacles for the bait, but
remain themselves firm within the retreat. The instrument
employed for taking them consists of a straight piece of hard
wood, a foot long, round and polished, and not half an inch
in diameter. Near one end of this a number of the most
beautiful pieces of the cowry or tiger-shell are fastened, one
over the other, like the scales of a fish or the plates of a
piece of armour, until it is about the size of a turkey's e^^,
and resemble the cowry. It is suspended in an horizontal
position by a strong line, and is lowered by the fisherman
from a small canoe until it nearly reaches the bottom. The
fisherman then gently jerks the line, causing the shell to
move as if it were inhabited by a fish. The cuttle-fish,
attracted, it is supposed, by the appearance of the cowry

210 BELONGED TO A PERIOD BEFORE THE FLOOD.

(for no bait is used), darts out one of its arms, which it
winds round the shell and fastens among the openings
between the plates. The fisherman continues jerking the
line, and the fish puts out successively its other arms until
it has fastened itself to the shells, Avhen it is drawn up into
the canoe and secured.

m

DEVIL FISH.

In conclusion, we will mention that the cuttle-fish belongs
to a period before the Flood, like the nautili ; their undi-
gested fossil remains are frequently noticed within the ribs
of the Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri in the limestone rocks,
showing that then, as in the present day, to eat and to be
eaten was the general law of nature.

CHAPTER XY.

MODES OF FISHING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

' ' A thousand names a fislier might rehearse
Of nets intractable in smoother verse." — Oppian.

,HE space devoted to this subject here must
of necessity be brief. It will therefore be
understood by the reader that many impor-
tant and interesting details will have to
be omitted. Though, as announced by the
heading of this chapter, it is proposed to
consider the manner of catching fish ; this cannot be done
without treating to some extent of the fish themselves, and
the implements employed. This at once opens up a subject
so extensive and varied, and withal so desirable to know
and enjoy, that we have been somewhat embarrassed as to
just what it would be desirable to omit in the list of de-
scription.

It will be noticed that the American fisheries have not
been given the importance here that their magnitude would
seem to demand. Of course, this omission has been pur-
posely, and we believe the reader will decide, before he has
finished reading this chapter, wisely made. In the first
place, it is not proposed to present a compendium of dry,
and, to some extent, uninteresting facts ; and, secondly, we
have deemed it best not to cumber these pages with descrip-
tions of what many of our readers daily see and are therefore
familiar with. On the contrary, we have in our illustrations
compared primitive modes of fishing in foreign latitudes.

212 USE OF NETS FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS.

with the more modern appliances, and, to some extent,
European methods with our own. By this plan our matter
must certainly be more picturesque, vivid, and interesting.

The use of nets for entrapping the finny inhabitants of the
deep date from the earliest periods. Besides the frequent
mention of them in the Holy Scriptures, we find illustrations
in the bas-reliefs of Assyria, Greece, and Rome, and in the
mural or wall paintings of Egypt. The latter nation
delighted in fishing, and, not contented with the abundance
afibrded by the Nile, they constructed in their grounds
spacious sluices or ponds for fish, like the vivaria of the
Romans, where they fed them for the table, and amused
themselves by angling. The fishermen, who composed one
of the sub-divisions of the Egyptian castes, generally used
the net in preference to the line. The ancients entertained
a number of prejudices relative to the wholesomeness or
injurious qualities of certain fish. The priests in Egypt
were prohibited from eating fish of any kind. For fear
of leprosy, the people also were forbidden the use of any
fish not covered with scales. Moses adopted the same prin-
ciples with the Jews: "Whatever hath fin or scales in the
water in the seas, them shalt thou eat; whatever hath no
fins or scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination to
you."

The Greeks and Romans used nets ; trawling at sea was
also a favorite mode of angling, and harpoons were in gen-
eral use, by means of which many large fish were secured.
Some mosaics discovered at Palestrina represented men
engaged in taking fish out of a ready decoy by means of
small hand-nets. Arrian, in his " Indian History," mentions
a people on the coasts of the Persian Gulf, who had nets
capable of covering a quarter of a mile of sea, not made of
twine, for hemp and flax were unknown in the land, but of
the inner bark of palm trees, being, in fact, papyrus nets.

In the dialogues composed by Elfric to instruct the Saxon

VARIOUS BESURIPTIONS OF NETS. 213

youths in the Latin language, which are yet preserved in
the Cottonian manuscripts, a fisherman is asked how he
secures his prey, and he answers, " I ascend my ship and
cast my net into the river ; I also throw in a hook, a bait,
and a rod f which shows that in the earliest periods of the
history of that country, nets of various kinds were employed
for entrapping fish; indeed, although St. Wilfred is said to
have taught the people of Sussex the use of the net
(probably an improved kind), such means have been em-
ployed in difi'erent ways from remotest times. Until late
years fishing nets have always been made by hand, and
generally tlie thread has been a more or less thick twine of
hemp, or flax, the thickness of the twine and the size of the
mesh depending upon the kind of fish for which it was made ;
recently, however, great improvements have been made in
the manufacture of nets, and machinery of the most beautiful
minute kind has been invented for the purpose.

A great variety of nets are in use among fishermen, but the
principal are the seine, trawl, and drift nets. The first is a
very long but not very wide net, one side of which is loaded
with pieces of lead, and consequently sinks; the other,
or upper, is buoyed with pieces of cork, and is consequently
kept on the surface of the water. Seines are sometimes
upwards of a thousand feet in length. When stretched out
they constitute walls of network in the water, and are made
to enclose vast shoals of fish. The trawl is dragged along
the bottom of the sea by the fishing-boat ; and the drift-net
is like the seine, but is not loaded with lead, and is usually
employed for mackerel fishing. In the two fishery exhibi-
tions at Arcachon and Boulogne in France, several years
ago, a number of curious implements for the capture of the
inhabitants of the deep were shown. In one corner were
curious tongs for taking eels. Long stretches of netting for
the sardine fishery, woven with thread so fine that it might
be used for the manufacture of ladies' hose, Avere festooned

214: FISHING BY THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.

over a division of the buildings. At another place was a
leech-lifter, and near it were deadly traps for taking crabs
and lobsters. From the roofs hung stretches of Scotch-made
herring-nets, by far the best of their kind ; and with such a
wall of meshes floating in the sea as these nets present to
the fish, each stretch being about a mile long, and with
a fleet of a few hundred boats nightly centered on some well
known fishing-ground, the wonder is, not that fishes are
scarce and dear, but that a single herring could escape.

In 1864 an attempt was first made to fish by the electric
light at Dunkirk, on the coast of France. A magneto-elec-
tric machine was afterwards employed. The light was
constant at one hundred and eighty feet under water, and
it extended over a large surface. As soon as the submarine
lantern was immersed, shoals of fish of every description
came to sport in the illuminated circle, while the fishermen
outside of it spread their nets from the boats. The light
illuminating the deep sea, the fish arriving in shoals, at-
tracted by the fictitious sun, the boats at the edge of the
lighted circle, the deep silence interrupted only by the
grating of the electro-magnetic machine, formed altogether
an imposing sight.

Before leaving this part of our subject, we may notice a
curious invention stated in Rymer's *' Foedera," for which
Charles I. granted a patent in 1632 to a physician, " for a
fish-call or looking-glass for fishes in the sea, very useful for
fishermen to call all kinds of fishes to their nets."

A singular method of getting fish is that in which other
animals are employed for the purpose. Birds are thus
trained by the Chinese. Falcons are not more sagacious in
the pursuit of their prey in the air than in another element.
They are called alvoau^ and are about the size of a goose,
with gray plumage, webbed feet, and have a long and slen-
der bill, crooked at the point. Their faculty of diving, or
remaining under water, is not more extraordinary than that

BIRDS TRAINED TO FISH. 216

of many other fowls that prey upon fish, but the wonderful
circumstance is the docility of these birds in employing their
natural instinctive powers at the command of the fishermen
who possess them, in the same manner as the hound, the
spaniel, or the pointer submit their respective sagacity to
the huntsman or the fowler. The number of these birds in
a boat is proportioned to the size of it. At a certain signal
they rush into the water and dive after the fish, and the
moment they have seized their prey, they fly with it to their
boat, and though there may be a hundred of these vessels
together, the birds always return to their own masters ; and
amidst the crowd of fishing-junks which are sometimes
assembled on these occasions, they never fail to distinguish
that to which they belong. When the fish are in great
plenty, these astonishing purveyors will soon fill a boat with
them, and will sometimes be seen flying along with a fish of
such size as to make the beholder suspect his organs of
vision ; and such is their sagacity that when one of them hap-
pens to have taken a fish which is too large for a single fal-
con, the rest immediately lend their assistance. While they
are thus laboring for their masters, they are prevented from
paying any attention to themselves by a ring which is passed
round their necks, and is so contrived as to frustrate every
attempt to swallow the least morsel of what they take.
They eat thankfully what is afterwards given them in
reward. One of the old domestic sports of the Earls of
Monteith, in their island home of Talla, was fishing with
geese. A line with a baited hook was tied to the leg of a
goose, which was made to swim in water of proper depth.
A boat well filled escorted this formidable knight-errant. A
marauding fish would take hold of the bait, and put his
mettle to the test. A combat ensued, in which, by the dis-
play of both contending heroes of much strength and agility
the goose always came off victorious, and would drag his
prisoner to the boat in triumph.

216 CLEVER TBIGK8 OF THE CHINESE FISHERMEN.

No nation on the earth puts in practice a greater variety
of modes for catching fish than the Chinese. One method
is to nail on each side of long narrow boats a plank two feet
broad, covered with white shining japan, and placed by a
gentle inclination so that its lower edge just touches the
surface of the water. This device is used at night, with the
intent that the reflection of the moon should increase its de-
ceptive influence ; and whether the fish which are sporting
around are dazzled by the splendor, or merely mistake the
lustrous plank for the sparkling water, it is impossible to
say, but in their moonlight gambols great numbers either
fall on the plank and are secured, or fairly vault into the
body of the boat.

In some places the Chinese soldiers have acquired the
dextrous art of shooting fish with bows and arrows. To the
arrow a long piece of packthread is attached, by means of
which, when the fish is pierced, it is drawn to hand. In
other places the muddy bottom is so replenished with the
finny tribes, that men standing up to the waist in the water
strike them with sticks. Besides these various devices,,
another is in general use, and consists in stretching out a
net on four pieces of bamboo suspended by a long pole.

The South Sea islanders are expert fishermen, and their
methods for the capture of the finny tribe are numerous,
and some very ingenious. They have a singular mode of
taking a remarkably timorous fish, which is called the needle,,
on account of its long, sharp head. A number of rafts are
built, each about fifteen or twenty feet long, and six or eight
wide. At one edge a kind of fence or screen is raised four
or five feet by fixing the poles horizontally one above the
other, and fastening them to upright sticks placed at short
distances along the raft. The men on the raft go out at a
distance from each other, enclosing a large space of water,
having the raised part or frame on the outside. They
gradually approach each other till the rafts join, and form a

MODE OF FISHING OF SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS 21 T

connected circle in some shallow. One or two persons then
go in a small canoe towards the centre of the enclosed space^
with long white sticks, which they strike in the water with
a great noise, and by this means drive the fish towards the
rafts. On approaching these the fish dart out of the water,
and in attempting to spring over the raft, strike against the
raised fence on the outer side, and fall on the surface of the
horizontal part, when they are gathered into baskets or
canoes on the outside. In this manner great numbers ot
these and other kinds of fish, that are accustomed to spring
out of the water when alarmed or pursued, are taken with
facility. Fishing-nets are remarkably well made, and those
for casting are used with great dexterity, generally as the
islanders walk a-long the beach. When a shoal of small fish
appear, they throw the net with the right hand, and some-
times enclose the greater part of them.

Next to the net the spear is most frequently used. This
is darted at the fish, sometimes with one hand, but more
frequently with both, and very successfully. When fishing
on the reefs, they wear a kind of sandal made of closely-
netted cords of the cloth plant, to preserve their feet from
the edges of the shells, the spikes of the sea-urchins, etc.

It would be interesting to gaze upon a group of fishermen
standing on a coral reef or rock, amidst the roar of the
billows, and the dashing surf and foam that broke in mag-
nificent splendor around them. With unwavering glance
they have stood, with a little basket in one hand and a
pointed spear in the other, striking with unerring aim such
fish as the violence of the wave might force within their
reach.

The shell, or shell and bone hooks, are curious and use-
ful, answering the purpose of hook and bait, the small ones
being made circular, and bent so as to resemble a worm ;
but the most common one is that used in catching dolphins,
albicores, and bonitos. The shank of the hook is made with

218 INGENIO US ABT8 IN FISHING.

a piece of the mother-of-pearl shell, five or six inches long
and three-quarters of an inch wide, carefully cut and finely
polished, so as to resemble the body of a fish. A barb is
fastened by a firm bandage of finely twisted flax ; to the
lower part of this the end of the line is securely fastened.
When taken out to sea, the line is attached to a strong bam-
boo cane about twelve or fifteen feet long. When a shoal
of fish is seen, the natives who angle, sit in the stern of the
canoe, and hold the rod at such an elevation as to allow the
hook to touch the edge of the water, but not to sink. When
the fish approach it, the rowers ply their paddles briskly,
and the light bark moves rapidly along. The deception of
the hook is increased by a number of hairs or bristles being
attached to the end of the shell, so as to resemble the tail of
a flying-fish. The victims, darting after and grasping their
prey, are at once secured. During the season two men will
sometimes take twenty or thirty large fish in this way in the
course of the forenoon.

The most ingenious method, however, of taking these
large fish is by means of a Tnast. A pair of ordinary-sized
canoes is usually selected for this purpose, and the lighter
and swifter the more suitable they are esteemed. Between
the fore part of the canoes a broad, deep, oblong kind of
basket is constructed with the stalks of a strong kind of fern,
interwoven with tough fibers of a tree : this is to contain the
fish that may be taken. To the fore part of the canoes a long
curved pole is fastened, branching in opposite directions at
the outer end ; the foot of this rests in a kind of socket fixed
between the two canoes. From each of the projecting
branches lines with pearl-shell hooks are suspended, so ad-
justed as to be kept near the surface of the water. To that
part of the pole which is divided into two branches strong
ropes are attached ; these extend to the stern of the canoe,
where they are held by persons watching the seizure of the
hook. The tira, or mast, projects a considerable distance

THE CANDLE FISH. 219

beyond the stern of the canoe, and bunches of feathers are
fastened to its extremities. This is done to resemble the
aquatic birds wiiich follow the course of a small fish. As it
is supposed that the bonito follows the birds with as much
ardor as it does the fishes, when the fishermen perceive the
birds they proceed to the place, and usually find the fish.
The undulation of the waves occasions the canoe to rise and
sink as they proceed, and this produces a corresponding
action in the hook suspended from the mast ; and so com-
plete is the deception that if the fish once perceives the
pearl-shell hook, it seldom fails to dart after it, and if it
misses the first time is almost sure to be caught the second.
As soon as the fish is fast, the men in the canoe, by drawing
the cord, hoist up the mast and drag in the fish, suspended
as it were from a kind of crane. When the fish is removed,
the crane is lowered, and as it projects over the canoe the
rowers hasten after the shoal with the greatest speed.

These and a variety of other methods of fishing are pur-
sued by daylight, but many fish are taken by night. Some-
times the fishery is carried on by moonlight, occasionally in
the dark; but fishing by torchlight is the most picturesque.
The torches are bunches of dried reeds firmly tied together.
Sometimes the natives pursue their nocturnal sport on the
reef, and hunt the hedge-hog-fish. Large parties often go
out to the reef and it is a beautiful sight to see a long line
of rocks illuminated by the flaring torches. These the
fishermen hold in one hand, and stand with the poised spear
in the other, ready to strike as soon as the fish appears.

The Indians on the coasts of the Pacific have also a singu-
lar mode of taking the Candle-fish, or Eulachon, a most valu-
able acquisition to their domestic comforts. Immense shoals
approach the shores in summer, and are caught in moonlight
nights, when they come to sport on the surface of the water,
which may often be seen glittering with their multitudes.
The Indians paddle their canoes noiselessly amongst them,

THE GLOBE FISH.

HALIBUT.

THE WHITE PORPOISE. 221

rand catch them by means of a monster comb or rake — a
piece of pine-wood from six to eight feet long, made round
for about ivfo feet of its length at the place of the hand-
:gripe, the rest flat, thick at the back, but having a sharp
^edge at the front, where teeth are driven into it, about four
inches long and an inch apart. One Indian, sitting in the
.stern, paddles the canoe ; another, standing with his face to
the bow, holds the rake firmly in both hands, the teeth
pointing sternwards, sweeps it with all his force through the
glittering mass, and brings it to the surface teeth upwards,
usually with a fish, and sometimes with three or four, im-
paled on each tooth. This process is carried on with wonderful
rapidity. This fish, although not larger than a smelt, enjoys
the distinction of being probably the fattest of all animals,
•comparatively speaking : to boil or fry it is impossible, as it
melts entirely into oil. Even in a dried state the Indians
use it as a lamp, merely drawing through it a piece of rush
pith as a wick, and the fish then burns steadily until con-
;sumed. By a peculiar mode of preparation, these fishes are
preserved as a winter food, and notwithstanding their great
fatness, they are said to be of an agreeable flavor. Drying
is accomplished without any cleaning, the fish being fastened
on skewers passed through their eyes, and hung in the thick
;smoke at the top of sheds in which wood fires are kept burn-
ing. They are then stowed away for winter.

We will now glance at the White Porpoise fishing in the
iSt. Lawrence River. The animal mentioned is a species of
whale, and is chiefly common in those quarters, being valu-
able for its oil, which gives a brilliant light only surpassed
by gas, and its skin, which is manufactured into leather
which has no equal for quality. The fish was formerly taken
in enclosures made of light and flexible poles fixed in the
beach, within which the porpoise pursued the small mem-
bers of the finny tribe during high tide, and where, its
appetite once satisfied, it became heavy and almost asleep

222 MODE OF TAKING WHITE PORPOISE.

from gluttony, and seemed to forget for several hours the
dangers that surrounded it as the tide went out. The
fishermen, silent, and on the look-out on the cliif, having seen
that the waves had retreated, give the signal : two or three
light skiffs (either bark or wooden canoes), manned by three
or four expert rowers, appear upon the waves, which they
scarcely touch with their oars. Standing in the bow of each
of these canoes, a man with bare and muscular arm, a steel
spear in his hand, intently follows with his eye the track of
the fish, indicating the course to be taken, Avhether to the
right or left, and strikes the mortal blows. Often after one
of these vigorous strokes, Avhich are enough to kill the
largest porpoise, the spearsman may be seen, w^hen he does
not strike aright, urging on the pursuit for a new contest
of speed between his skiff and the wounded animal : some-
times the blood which reddens the surface of the water
indicates the course to be followed, and sometimes the sound
of the subdued breathing of the porpoise, which comes to the
surface of the water to breathe, throwing up a stream which
descends in the form of a curve. The porpoise might break
through this fence of flexible poles, eighteen or twenty
inches apart, but it is afraid, and it returns by the way it
came: a new stroke is given, but it is by a harpoon which
has a rope attached to it. The struggle becomes more in-
tense and exciting. The paddle at the stern of the frail
skiff is alone put in requisition. It is now the boatman's
turn to display his skill. The animal leaps out of the water,
stops, dives, and turns about in every way; a white foam
rises on each side of the boat, and its progress, hitherto so
swift, is suddenly stopped; the animal is fatigued by its
wound, wants to breathe, but fear keeps it below the water,
and immediately the man in the bow rolls up at his knee
the line which he had allowed to run out, and the boat is
brought silently forward towards the victim. Again he stands
up and with one hand brandishes the spear, while with the

P0RP0I8E SERVED AT ROYAL TABLES. 223

other he suddenly pulls the rope, inflicting fresh wounds :
the fish once more leaps, but this time is the last, for a vigor-
ous blow aimed at the spine between the head and the
neck is fatal.

Another plan is to use nets for entrapping the porpoise.
The weight of one of these fishes is about two thousand
five hundred pounds : the largest are sometimes four thou-
sand pounds, and these are about twenty-two feet long and
fifteen in circumference.

We may remark here that the flesh of the common por-
poise was formerly much esteemed in England, and was
reckoned fit for the royal table. Among the singular direc-
tions for the management of the household of King Henry
VIIL, we find among the dainty dishes to be *' set before the
king" a porpoise, " and if too big for a horse-load, an extra
allowance to be given to the purveyor." In the time of
Queen Elizabeth it was still used by the nobles of England,
and was served up with bread-crumbs and vinegar.

A curious mode of fishing the Gar-fish or Sea-Pike, in
the Ionian Islands, is mentioned by a tourist. A small tri-
angular raft is formed of three pieces of bamboo, each a foot
and a half long ; a little thwart is inserted, in which a small
mast is fixed ; it is then rigged with a sail, etc., in imitation
of the boats of the country. The fisherman, taking his
station on a projecting rock, with deep water alongside, and
an ofi"-shore breeze, commits his little raft to the wind, car
rying with it a line of about two hundred feet in length. A
float is fixed at about every six feet, and from each float de-
pends a fine hair-line with a baited hook. When the fish
bites it draws the bait down violently once, and then seems
to resign itself to death. The fisherman waits till ten or
twelve are hooked ; he then hauls in his raft, relieves it of
its freight, and again launches it for another cruise. Fifty
or sixty are sometimes caught in this way during half an
hour.

^24 CAPTURING THE TUNNY.

The gar-fish is not uncommon on English coasts, and is
abundant in the Baltic. It attains a length of two or three
feet. The upper parts of the body are of a dark greenish-
blue mackerel tint, and a curious circumstance is that its
bones are green. It has been noticed that when this fish is
taken by the hook, it mounts to the surface often before the
fishermen have felt the bite, and there, with its slender
body half out of the water, struggles with the most violent
contortions to wrench the hook from its hold.

In various chapters of this book we have already men-
tioned the mode of capturing the large inhabitants of the
deep — the whale, the seal, the shark, sea-unicorn, and oth-
ers. We must not omit another important fish of large di-
mensions, the Tunny ^ sometimes nine feet in length and up-
wards of a thousand pounds in weight, and belonging to the
Mackerel family. This fish is found in the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic Ocean, but chiefly in the former, where this
particular fishery is of great importance, and constitutes
one of the greatest branches of Sicilian commerce. The
fish appear at the latter end of May, at which time the ton-
naire, as they are called, are prepared for their reception.
This is a kind of aquatic castle, formed, at a considerable
expense, of strong nets fastened to the bottom of the sea
by anchors and heavy-laden weights. The tonnaires are
fixed in the passages amongst the rocks and islands that are
most frequented by the tunny-fish. Care is taken to close
wHh nets the entrance into these passages, except one small
opening, which is called the " outer gate." This leads into
the next compartment, which we may term the " hall." As
soon as the fishes have entered here, the fishermen who
stand sentries in their boats during the season shut the
outer entrance, which is done by letting down a small piece
of net, portcullis-fashion, which effectually prevents the
tunnies from returning by the way they came. The inner
door of the " hall " is then opened, which leads to another

THE STURGEOjS'. 225

compartment, and by making a noise on the surface of the
water the tunnies are soon driven into it. As soon as the
whole have been got into this compartment, the inner door
of the " hall " is again closed, and the outer entrance is
opened to receive more fishes. This last compartment of
network is called the " chamber of death." This is com-
posed of stronger nets and heavier anchors than the others.

As soon as a sufficient number of tunny-fish has been col-
lected here, the slaughter begins. The fishermen attack
the poor defenceless animals on all sides, who dash the
water about in their efibrts to escape, but are at length sub-
dued, and yield themselves a prey to their conquerors.

*' There is something," says a witness of this fish massa-
cre, " extremely exciting in seeing the wholesale capture of
a herd of these great black fish, intermixed, as they gener-
ally are, with the forms of many of their large congeners,
and occasionally with a sword-fish or a dolphin besides ; and
no one ever left the spot after one of these enormous hauls
without feeling that, however superior the whale fishery
may be in enterprise, it cannot yield its votaries half the
pleasures or charms of these scenes."

A very questionable kind of pleasure, however, we think
it must be to many, to see the agonies and the butchery
which must necessarily take place on these occasions.

The Sturgeon fishery is carried on to a very considerable
extent in the Russian dominions on the coasts of the Caspian
and Aral Seas. They are caught in an enclosure formed by
large stakes, representing the letter Z repeated several
times. These fisheries are open on the side nearest the sea,
and closed on the other, by which means the fish, ascending
in its season up the rivers, are caught in these narrow an-
gular retreats, and are easily killed. The Hon. Captain
Keppell, describing the method of catching sturgeon in the
fishery of Karmaizack, says:

" Two persons are in each boat : one (generally a female)

226 THE STURGEON A MOYAL FISH

rows, while the other hauls in the fish. The instruments
used consist of a mallet and a stick, with a large unbarbed
hook at the end. Every fisherman has a certain number of
lines. One line contains fifty hooks; these are placed at
regular distances from each other ; they are without barbs,
sunk about a foot under water, and are kept in motion by
small pieces of Avood attached to them. The sturgeon gen-
erally swims in a large shoal near the surface of the water,
and upon being caught by one hook, he generally gets en-
tangled with one or two others in his struggles to escape.
Immediately on our arrival the boats pulled from shore.
Each fisherman proceeded to take up his lines. On coming
to a fish he drcAV it with his hooked stick to the side of the
boat, hit it a violent blow on the head Avith the mallet, and,
after disengaging it from the other hooks, hauled it into the
boat. On every side the tremendous splashing of the water
announced the capture of some huge inhabitant of the
deep.''

The sturgeon belongs to a numerous species inhabiting
both sea and fresh water — those of the former, and the
largest kind, being especially plentiful in the Caspian and
Black Seas, where they attain a length of from twenty to
twenty-five feet, and have been known to weigh nearly three
thousand pounds. The flesh has the appearance and con-
sistency of veal, and Avas highly esteemed by the ancients.
Pliny states that it Avas brought to table Avith much pomp,
and ornamented Avitli floAvers, the slaA^es Avho carried it be-
ing also decorated Avith garlands and accompanied Avith
music.

In England, Avhen caught in the Thames and Avithin ju-
risdiction of the city, it is reserved for the Sovereign as a
*' royal fish." In ihe Illustrated London Neivs for the 15th
of April, 1860, is a notice of a fine sturgeon thus taken, and
forAA^arded to the Queen at Windsor by order of the con-
servators of the river.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEA CONGERS AND EELS. 22T

The famous caviare of the Russians is made from the roe
of the sturgeon, freed from its membranes, washed in vine-
gar, and dried in the open air. It is then salted, put into
a bag and pressed, and finally packed in small barrels for
sale.

The principal fishery of the Conger Eel in England is
upon the Cornish coast. They are chiefly caught by what
are termed " bulters," which are strong lines, several hun-
dred feet long, with hooks about eight feet apart, baited
with sand-launces, pilchards, or mackerel. The bulters are
sunk to the ground by a stone fastened to them. Sometimes
«uch a number of these are tied together as to reach to a
considerable distance. It is not unusual for a boat with
three men to bring on shore from one to two tons as the
produce of a night's fishing, the conger being caught most
readily at night.

On some of the French coasts the conger fishery is still
more abundant than in Cornwall.

Tiio great sea-conger has so great a resemblance to the
<jommon eel, the inhabitant of our rivers and ponds, that
many persons believed the former was merely an eel of
larger growth; but the difference may be readily discerned.
The conger, whether large or small, has always the snout
tind upper jaw projecting beyond the lower one; whilst the
fresh-water eel is remarkable for its protuberant lower jaw.
The tail is also more lengthened and pointed, the dorsal fin
commencing much nearer the head, and the teeth of the
tipper jaw, although slender, placed so close together as to
form a cutting edge. The internal structure of these fishes
•differs more widely, the conger having a great many more
bones than the eel, particularly towards the tail, and in pos-
sessing a greater number of vertebrae (the spine or back-
bone).

The common conger of the Atlantic coasts is a large fish,
sometimes exceeding ten feet in length, and weighing up-

228 THE SAND EEL FISHERY.

wards of a Imndred pounds, but its ordinary dimensions are
from five to seven feet. It is entirely a marine species, al-
though frequently found in the mouths of rivers, its object
being, it is thought, that of feeding on the fish that ascend
or descend the stream. Of these it devours large quanti-
ties, not objecting to crabs and shell-fish, which the strength
of its jaws permits it to masticate without difficulty. The
smaller kinds of fish it swallows entire, and thus fortified by
good nourishment, it becomes a formidable adversary when
hauled into the boat by a fisherman's line, or found among-
the rocks, where it is sometimes left by the retiring tide.

This does not seem to be a matter of complaint in our
time. The conger, however formidable, also finds a danger-
ous adversary in the spiny lobster of the Mediterranean
Sea, which is said to enter into a fierce battle with the con-
ger, and generally becomes the victor, from the superiority
of its weapons of defence, the claws, which lacerate and
wound the monstrous eel, proving the death summons.

The conger, when properly cooked, has a most delicious
flavor, but somehow or other there is a great antipathy to this
fish, as being, probably, too much of the serpent form ; but
travelers in Cornwall find a conger-pie delicious, and those
persons who have visited the Channel Islands will not
easily forget the delicious soup that is made from this fish.
Even as far back as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, there was
a singular mode of curing congers in Cornwall, which Avas
merely to slit them in half, and without any further prepa-
ration to hang them up in a kind of shambles erected for
that purpose ; such parts of them as were not gone^ were
considered fit for use, and exported to Spain and Portugal.

The Sand-Ed fishery, although of a very primitive char-
acter, being mostly carried on with spades, shovels, three-
pronged forks, rakes, and in fact any implement of a raking
character at hand, is very exciting and amusing. Large
slioals are observed frequently swimming near the shore.

THE MACKEREL. 229

and it often happens that, instead of retiring with the ebb-
ing tide, they dig into the sand, and remain there until the
water covers them again. Advantage is taken of this, and
hundreds of men, women, and children set to work with the
readiest implements they can find, and the scene becomes
very animated. When dug from the sand, the fish leap
about with singular velocity, and the gathering of them af-
fords a fine amusement to the younger parties, who are
•commonly the most numerous and eager in this pursuit. It
is remarkable with what ease and rapidity these slender and
delicate-looking fish penetrate the sand, even when it is of
a pretty firm texture. They are a favorite meal with many,
and are sometimes salted and dried ; but their principal use
is as bait for the capture of more valuable fishes, there be-
ing scarcely any other found to answer the purpose so effec-
tually. This well-known fish scarcely ever exceeds seven
or eight inches.

The Mackerel belongs to the same family as the tunny-
fish previously described, but is a compai:atively small mem-
ber as regards size, being usually about fourteen inches long
and about two pounds in weight. This beautiful fish is
readily caught by bait, and particularly when the bait —
which is usually a piece from one of its own kind — is moved
quickly through the water. The boats engaged for this
fishing are often under sail. Besides the line, drift-nets and
seines are employed. The size of the mesh is one inch and
•one-sixth from knot to knot Avhen the twine is wet, or in the
square, from one corner to another. A row of corks runs
along the head-line, and the lower border is left suspended
by its own weight. The number of nets in each boat de-
pends upon its size. A boat may carry eleven score of nets,
and as these are fastened in length to each other, they will
extend to a distance of a mile and three-quarters. The
boats on the various fishing-grounds are shot across the
•course of the tide twice between evening and morning; for

230 MODE OF CATCHING THE MACKEREL.

fish avoid the nets during the day, and scarcely less so dur-
ing very dark nights. This latter circumstance is caused
by the light produced in the sea by luminous animals, which
then appears most conspicuous; and hence a hazy atmos-
phere is judged beneficial. The use of lights is employed
in some countries. Blocli, in speaking of the mackerel fish-
ery, says, that at St. Croix, on the approach of night, when
the sea is smooth, they prepare their torches, and hold them
as close to the water as possible. The fish soon show them-
selves, and rise above the surface, when the nets are imme-
diately shot, and soon taken in with abundant success.

When the shoal of mackerel approaches the land the
seine comes into operation. This consists of a single net,,
which is about seven hundred feet in length, and seventy in
depth at the middle. The full size of the mesh from corner
to corner is two and three-quarter inches at the sides, Avhich
is the same dimension allowed to the drift-net ; but for
about two hundred feet of the hollow, the size of the mesh
is lessened to two and a half inches, to prevent the fish
from being hung in the meshes ; for if this should happen,,
the net would not be raised from the bottom, and fish and
net would be lost. Shoals of mackerel are rapid in their
motion, and exceedingly uncertain, as well as easily alarmed.
They rarely stay long at the surface, and when they sink
below it is doubtful in what direction the}^ may again ap-
pear. The whole proceedings are, therefore, full of excite-
ment, and great haste is employed to enclose them in the
circle of the seine.

The mackerel is a favorite article of food, but its flesh
soon changes ; and a capture that might have proved valu-
able, may be rendered worthless if the fishes are not at once
sent to the market. A principal object of the French fishery
is to prepare the mackerel salted for use at home, for which
purpose they are immediately stored in bulk on board the
boats. In the west of Cornwall, also considerable numbers

THE HERRING FISHER Y. 23 1

are salted, chiefly for the use of miners, who seem to prefer
salted fish to even the fresh that abound in the finest con-
dition in their markets.

It was formerly supposed that great migrations of mack-
erel took place, but it is now believed, as in regard to the
herring, that they merely leave the deep water and approach
the coast for the purpose of spawning. The mackerel is of
less importance than the herring fishery. It is a restless,
ever-wandering rover, and unlike the herring in its habits
in that respect. It is found in large numbers in the Medi-
terranean.

The Herring fishery affords one of the best illustrations
of British enterprize. We must now proceed to the Nor-
folk coast, for it is there that this most valuable fish is found
in the greatest abundance, perhaps more so than in any other
part of the world. The name of the fish is derived from the
German heer, "an army," in reference to the vast shoals in
which they arrive. The herrings appear on the Norfolk
coast in the last week of September for the purpose of
spawning, and are then in the best condition to become the
food of man. Having fulfilled this obligation of nature, they
return to their former haunts about the commencement of
December. A few, however, may be found at other periods
of the year, particularly about midsummer; and, although
small, they are much esteemed for their delicate flavor.
The Yarmouth herring has less oil than the Scotch herring,
but is unrivalled in point of quality. It seldom measures
more than fourteen inches in length, in girth six inches and
a half, and it weighs about nine ounces. The vessels em-
ployed by Yarmouth in this fishery are usually decked boats,
of from forty to fifty tons burthen, and carrying a crew of
ten men. Besides the boats belonging to the town, there
are many others called " cobles," which come from Scar-
borough, File}^, and other northern ports. Each fishing-
boat is provided with from sixty to one hundred nets, each

232 THE EN0RM0U8 qUANTITT TAKEN.

net about fifteen yards long upon the rope, fastened by small
cords called "seizings." These nets are floated by corks
placed at intervals of a few feet from each other; the warp
which supports the whole is frequently a mile in length, and
is borne up by small^ buoys. The nets themselves are
usually made in four parts or widths, called '* lints," one be-
ing placed above another, and so forming a wall in the sea,
against which the fish are invited to drive their heads.

This fishing is carried on during the night only, it being
supposed that the stretching of the nets in the daytime
would drive away the shoal. In the dusk of the evening
the nets are thrown over the side, and the boat is then
steered under an easy sail, or allowed to drift with the tide
until daylight, when the nets are hauled in. A single boat
has sometimes, in one night, taken twelve or fourteen lasts
of hearings, each *' last" numbering ten thousand fish, or, by
the fisherman's calculation, thirteen thousand two hundred ;
but it often happens that a boat does not obtain more than
this quantity during the season. The average catch for each
boat is about thirty " lasts" (three hundred thousand) ; but
a boat has been known to bring in the enormous quantity
of two hundred and sixty-four thousand herring at one time.
Like all fisheries, the result is very uncertain. It is a curious
and bountiful provision of nature that forces the herring,
and other fish usually distributed through the deep, to congre-
gate together, and visit the shores in such immense abun-
dance, at a time when they are in the highest perfection,
and when most fitted for human food.

The herring dies as soon as it leaves the water, hence
the phrase *' as dead as a herring." The fishes are therefore
salted as soon as caught, and when the boat has reached
land they are brought to shore, and carried to the fish-house
in " swills," which are open coarse wicker baskets. Arrived
at the fish '* office," the herrings, after being sufficiently
salted, remain on the floor for twenty-four hours if intended

WANDERING CHAETODON.

LUMP FISH.

234 CURING HERRING.

to be slightly cured, or for ten days if intended for the
foreign market; they are then washed in large vats filled
with fresh water ; " spits," (pieces of wood about four feet
long and of the thickness of a man's thumb) are passed
through their heads or gills, and they are then hung up in
rows to the top of the building. Wood fires are then kindled
under them, and are continued day and night, with slight
intermissions to allow the fat and oil to drop, until the fish
are sufiiciently cured, which, if they are intended for the-
foreign market, is at the end of fourteen days, but if for
home consumption, three or four days suffice. The first
are called " red" herrings, from the deep color which they
acquire, and the others are known as " bloaters." When
cured, the herrings are taken doAvn and placed in bar-
rels which contain each about seven hundred fish. From
thirty to forty thousand barrels are sent yearly from Yar-
mouth to the towns on the Mediterranean coasts. The
'annual supply of herrings at Billingsgate Market is estimated
at one hundred and twenty thousand tons, valued at one
million two hundred pounds sterling! The greatest enemy
to the herring fishermen is the dog-fish, which, in pursuit of
the herring, frequently becomes entangled in the nets, and
does great damage to them in endeavoring to escape.

The herring fisheries sometimes suff'er very considerably
from the ravages of this fish, the popular name of some of
the smaller species of shark, owing this designation to their
habit of following their prey like dogs hunting in packs.
These predaceous fishes are seldom abundant when the her-
rings are in a compact body ; but sometimes they commit
great destruction when a shoal is first drawn in near land.
They have been known to consume as many herrings as
would fill a dozen barrels out of one boat's nets in the
course of an hour. They are also very destructive to the
nets when they get entangled, their hard fins tearing them
to pieces. In like manner they make sad havoc with otlier

THE DOG-FISH AND THE HAKE. 235

fishes. Occasionally only a few escape with their heads, the
tails of others are snapped off, and pieces bitten out of the
belly. A cod-fish sometimes comes up a mere skeleton,
stripped to the bone on both sides.

The Dog-fish attains a length of three or four feet, and is
found in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the South seas.
One of the most abundant species on English coasts is the
common dog-fish, which sometimes appears in prodigious
numbers, twenty thousand having been taken at Cornwall
at one time in a net, and the fishermen of the Orkneys and
Hebrides, where they are much used for food, sometimes,
load their boats to the water's edge with them.

Another voracious enemy of the herring (and the pil-
chard) is the Hake, a member of the Cod family, with the
same predatory instincts. It is sometimes three or four feet
in length, coarse in quality, but valuable as a " stock" fislu
It is generally taken by lines, like cod and ling, but in the
spawning season, when it keeps near the bottom, it is some-
times caught by trawl-nets.

Allied to the herring, but differing in some respects,
being nearly equal in size, but rather thicker, and the lines
of the back and belly being straighter, the scales also being
larger and fewer, is the Pilchard, a fish also of immense im-
portance in the British fisheries, and plentiful on the coasts
of Devonshire and Cornwall. These fish congregate in deep
waters, within limits extending from the Scilly Isles, as far,
sometimes, as the Irish, Welsh and Cornish coasts. A por-
tion strikes the land north of Cape Cornwall, and turns in a
north-easterly direction toward St. Ives, constituting its
summer fishery. The great bulk passes between the Scilly
Islands and the mainland. " To look from Cape Cornwall,'^
says an eye-witness, "or from any of the high lands of St.
Just, and see this immense mass of fishes, extending as far
as the eye can reacli, approaching the shores and reddening

236 THE ST. IVES PILCHARD FISHERY.

the waters, is a sight of great interest and beauty, and such
as would repay any exertion to see."

The seine or net used in St. Ives Bay for capturing pil-
chards is nearly twelve hundred feet long, and nearly sixty
feet in depth. More than two hundred and fifty of such
nets are kept at St. Ives, each having its own boat to carry
it. Every seine or net-boat, when its turn arrives, is attended
by one or two tow-boats with stop-nets, and also by a smaller
boat called the " follower," used principally for carrying the
men to and from the larger boats. When the huers or sen-
tinels stationed on the hills perceive a shoal of pilchards,
they immediately signal to their respective boats, and by
«igns give the necessary directions for their capture. They
are enabled to do this by observing on the water a reddish
hue, like that of sea- weed (very different from their color
out of water), and the denser the shoal of fish, the deeper
is this hue. As soon as the seine-boat and tow-boat are
within reach of the shoal, they start for the same point in
opposite directions, and are rowed rapidly round the fish,
while the nets which they carry are being shot or cast into
the sea. When the seine and the stop-net meet, they are
immediately joined, and form a complete circular wall round
the pilchards about eighteen hundred feet in circumference,
and reaching from the surface to the bottom, the nets being
kept in a vertical position by corks strung on their head-
ropes and leads on their foot-ropes. This net-work enclo-
sure, with all its contents, is then warped towards the shore
into the securest part of the bay, out of the reach of the
strong tidal current, and there moored with anchors so
placed as to keep it as open or as nearly circular as possi-
ble. Within this large net a small one, called the tuck-net,
is introduced at low water, so that the fish are raised to the
surface, dipped up in baskets into the boats, taken to shore,
and carried in barrows to be cured and salted. The St. Ives
«eine fishery does not differ materially from that in Mount's

CUBING THE PILCHARD. 237

Bay, except that in the latter place, owing to the greater
depth of water, the nets are about thirty "feet deeper, and
they are also longer. Besides the method of capturing pil-
chards with deep nets in shallow water in the day-time,,
there is a far more common mode in Cornwall of taking them
in shallow nets, in deep water, by night. As these drii't-
nets are always spread in the open sea, Avhere they might
be destroyed by vessels sailing over them, their head-ropes
are sunk about eighteen feet below the surface, and kept
suspended at that depth by cork buoys fixed at regular in-
tervals. By this contrivance, not only are the nets pre-
served, but larger quantities of fish are taken. These nets,
each with a driving-boat attached, are left to go with the
wind or tide all the time the net remains in the water.

As soon as the pilchards caught by the seine or drift-
nets are landed, some are sold in the neighboring towns and
villages, and the rest, when cured and placed in barrels, are
exported to the Mediterranean, where, during Lent, they
are much sought after.

The method of curing the pilchards is very simple. Tliey
are placed in cellars, and women are employed in arranging^
them in layers, with salt between. After remaining in bulk
about five weeks, during which oil and other matters drain
from them, they are put into troughs of water, washed quite
clean, and then carefully laid in casks, where they are sul)-
jected to heavy pressure for about a week. The oil tlnis
expressed flows out from holes at the bottom or crevices in
the sides of the untightened casks, and as this reduces their
contents, more fish are added, until each cask, when the
pressure is removed, weighs at least four hundredweight.
The capital employed in the Cornish pilchard fishery
amounts to at least two hundred and fifty thousand pounds,,
and afibrds employment to about ten thousand persons.

The Sprat was formerly considered by naturalists to be
the young of the herring, as well as that of the pilchard ; it

238 BPEAT8, WHITEBAIT, AND SARDINES.

is now generally admitted to be a distinct species. This fisli
€omes into season in November, and continues so all the
winter months, during which the sale, especially in London,
is immense. About five hundred boats are annually em-
ployed in the sprat fishery. So great is the abundance
sometimes, that thousands of tons are sold to farmers for
manure. Most fish are caught on dark and foggy nights.

The Whitebait, little fishes from three to six inches in
length, the delicious flavor of which the reader may have
often enjoyed, are caught by means of bag-nets, sunk four
or five feet below the water. They are very abundant in
many parts of the British coasts, particularh' in the estuary
of the Thames in spring and summer, when they arrive in
shoals to deposit their spawn. For several months they
continue to ascend the river with the flood tide, and descend
with the ebb tide, not being able to live in fresh water. It
was formerly supposed that this fish was the young of the
shad, or sprat, but is now regarded as a distinct species.

The Sardine, a fish of the same genus with the herring
and pilchard, smaller than the latter, abounds in the Medi-
terranean, and is found also in the Atlantic Ocean. The
sardines of the west coast of France, which are largely im-
ported into other countries, are generally young sprats, and
sometimes young herrings. This "sardine" fishery is a
great business in France, and especially at Concarneau,
where as many as thirteen thousand men aid in the fishery.
This is conducted in a way remarkable for the extravagance
it involves. The sprat fisheries on the British coast — in-
deed, all other net fisheries — are carried on in the most
primitive way; but the French have made it a "bait" fisli-
ery, and use the roe of the cod, which is brought at a con-
siderable expense from tlie North seas for the purpose. The
fish are gutted, beheaded, sorted' into sizes, and washed in
sea-water, then dried on nets or willows; they are then
placed in a pan, kept over a furnace, and filled with boiling

THE COD FISHERY. 239

oil. The fish are plunged into the cauldron, two rows deep,
arranged on wire gratings. They are afterwards placed to
drip, the oil being carefully collected, after which they are
packed in the tin boxes with which we are so familiar. It
is said that, besides the quantity exported, as many as four
millions are annually prepared for the home market.

We need not enter into any particulars about the Cod
fishery on the banks of Newfoundland, which presents noth-
ing new or very interesting except in the value attached to
•every part of this valuable fish. The tongue of the cod,
whether fresh or salted, is a great delicacy ; the gills are
used as baits in fishing; the liver, which is large and good
for eating, also furnishes an enormous quantity of oil, now
much esteemed for consumptive patients; the swimming-
bladder furnishes an isinglass ; the head is eaten, and the
Norwegians give it, with marine plants, to their cows, to
produce a greater quantity of milk ; the vertebrae, the ribs,
and the bones are given by the Icelanders to their cattle;
'even the intestines and eggs are eaten. The coast of Ice-
land abounds in fish, especially of the cod tribe, and this
abundance has not only from a very early time supplied tlie
inhabitants w^ith their chief food, but enabled them to pro-
cure other necessaries. As the principal fishings begin on
the Newfoundland coast, at the Feroe Islands, in Norway,
and in Iceland at the same time, it seems evident that the
€od is not a migratory fish, but a dweller w^iere it finds its
food. The Icelanders fish chiefly from open boats, and
sometimes from decked ones. Only the largest boats, with
six or twelve oars, are used in the cod fishery, and in these
the natives often go out man}^ miles to sea in the depth of
winter to fish. They are a most hardy set of mariners.
-Their mode of capturing the cod is either by small drift-
nets, deep-sea or hand lines, and the ordinary long line.
The fish caught by the net are diff'erent from those taken
by the line, being more plump, with smaller heads. The

240 MODE OF TAKING CODFISH.

number of Iceland boats employed in the cod fisheries aver-
age nearly five thousand, and the number of persons em-
ployed exceeds ten thousand.

The modern cod-smack usuall}^ carries from nine to eleven
men and boys, including the captain. The line is chiefly
used for the purpose of taking cod or haddock. Each man
has a line of three hundred feet in length, and attached to
each of these lines are one hundred '' snoods/' with hooks
already baited with mussels, pieces of herring, or whiting.
Each line is laid " clear " in a shallow basket or " skull f that
is, it is so arranged as to run freely as the boat shoots ahead.
The three hundred feet line, with one hundred hooks, is
called in Scotland a " taes.'' If there are eight men in a boat»
the length of the line will be two thousand four hundred
feet, with eight hundred hooks (the lines being tied to each
other before setting). On arriving at the fishing-ground,
the fishermen heave overboard a cork buoy with a flag-staff
affixed to it, about six feet in height. The buoy is kept
fixed by a line reaching to the bottom of the water, and
having a stone or small anchor fastened to the lower end.
To this line, called the " pow-end," is also fastened the fish-
ing-line, which is then " paid " out as fast as the boat sails.
Should the wind be unfavorable, the oars are used. When
the line is all out the end is dropped, and the boat returns
to the buoy. The pow-end is hauled up, with the anchor
and fishing-line attached to it. The fishermen then haul in
the line with whatever fish may be on it. Eight hundred
fish might be taken by eight men in a few hours by this
operation. Many a time the fish are eaten off the line by
-the dog-fish and other enemies, so that a few fragments and
a skeleton or two remain to show that fish have been caught.
The fishermen of '* deck-welled cod-bangers " use both hand-
lines and long lines. The cod-bangers' tackling is, of course,
stronger than that used in open boats. The long lines are-
called "grut lines" or great lines. Every deck-welled cod-

THE HADDOCK AND COAL-FISH, 241

banger carries a small boat on deck, for working the great
lines in moderate weather. This boat is also provided with
a well, in which the fish are kept alive till they arrive at the
banger, when they are transferred from the small boat's well
to that of the larger vessel.

The Haddock, which has a striking family resemblance to
the cod, is taken both by trawl-nets and lines, and being in
great esteem by fish-eaters for the excellence of its flavor,
we ought to be pleased that the fish is so partial to our own
coasts, where it appears in vast shoals at particular seasons.
Fishermen sometimes find haddocks and other fishes caught
in their lines reduced to mere skin and skeleton by the Hag,
one of the species allied to the Lamprey family, resembling
an eel or worm, and a perfect anatomist in its way. It is
believed to enter by the mouth of the haddock, and thus
prey upon it: the fish thus treated is called a ** robbed " fish.
As many as six hags have been taken out of a single had-
dock, and they are also said to make their way into fishes
through the skin, and are hence sometimes called " borers.'*
It is supposed, however, that the hags are swallowed by
fishes, and, in retaliation, work out their insides.

The Coal-fisli — a relative of the cod, with a very vulgar
name, derived from its black coat, but a fish of really hand-
some form, and about two or three feet in length — takes a
bait with extraordinary eagerness: when a boat falls in with
a shoal, they may be kept beside it by being thus attracted
till the whole are captured. It is abundant in all Northern
seas, and is taken on the British coasts. In many parts of
Scotland they are well known to juvenile anglers, who take
them in plenty from the end of piers, often with a rude
tackle and almost any kind of bait. In the winter-time,
while the fry of this fish is in the harbor of Orkney, it is
common to see five or six hundred people, of all ages, fishing
for them with small angling-rods about six feet long, and a

COMMON CARP.

THE LING AND TURBOT. 243

line a little longer ; but with this simple apparatus they kill
vast numbers. The whole harbor is covered with boats.

Other members of the cod family are caught much in the
same manner as their representative, and are very valuable
as food, especially the Ling. The sounds (air-bladders), are
pickled, and the roes are preserved in brine, and eaten as
food, or used as a means of attracting fish by throwing it
about the nets, as is often done by French fishermen. The
Common Hake, a fish sometimes measuring three feet, is also
plentiful on the English and Irish coasts, and very voracious.
When enclosed in a net with pilchards — as frequently hap-
pens on the Cornish coast — it gorges itself with them : It
is to this species, and the common cod when dried and salted
for exportation, to which the name of " stock " fish is usually
applied. Forty thousand hakes have been landed on the
shores of Mount's Bay in Cornwall in a single day, and the
quantity captured on the Irish coast is immense. Galway
Bay is sometimes called the "Bay of Hakes" from the numbers
of that fish taken.

The Turbot, an especial delight of fish epicures in all
times, is taken, with other flat fish, by lines and hooks, the
fishermen going out in parties of three to a " coble," each
man carrying his long line, the united ends of which are a
league in length, and draw after them fifteen hundred baited
hooks; these lines, as they are to lie across the current, can
only be shot twice in twenty -four hours, when the rush of the
water slackens as the tide is about to change. The Italians
christen the turbot the "sea pheasant," from its flavor. The
Romans were particularly fond of this dainty, and frequent
allusion to its size occur in their writers; thus :

*' Great turbots and late suppers lead
To debt, disgrace, and abject need.**

•* Tbe border of broadest dish

Lay hid beneath the monster fish."

244 CAPTURING THE TURTLE.

But the size mentioned by the ancient writers is of a fabu-
lous character. However, it sometimes attains a weight of
between seventy and ninety pounds. It is now chiefly
obtained by beam-trawling, a triangular purse-shaped net
about seventy feet long, usually having a breadth of about
forty feet at the mouth, and gradually diminishing to the
end of the net, Avhich is about ten feet long, and of nearly
uniform breadth. The turbot is of all the flat fishes the most
valuable. The Brill belongs to the same tribe, as well as
other less important fishes. The turbot is shorter, broader,
and deeper than almost any other kind of flat fish. It gen-
erally keeps close to the bottom of the sea, and is found
chiefly on banks wdiere there is a considerable depth of
water. Some of the banks in the German Ocean abound in
turbots, as the Doggerbank, and yield great quantities to the
London market.

In proportion to the benefits derived from the spoils of
the Turtle, the shell of which is so ornamental and useful in
the arts, the ingenuity of man has been sharpened by his
eagerness to acquire them. The modes by which the peo-
ple of Celebes take them are by the harpoon and the net, or
by falling on the females when they resort to the strand to
lay their eggs. The turtle is turned on its back, when,
unable to turn again, it lies helpless. It sometimes also falls
into the hands of the dwellers on the coast through means
of their fishing-stakes, into which it enters like the fish, and
from which it can find no outlet. It is then killed and
robbed of its upper shield ; but, as the shells adhere fast to
each other, and would be injured by being torn ofi*, the usual
plan is to wait a few days, by which time the soft parts
become decomposed, and the shells are removed with little
trouble. When the turtles lie floating on the sea either for
the purpose of sleep or respiration, the fishermen approach
them quietly with a sharp harpoon, carrying a ring at the
butt-end, to which a cord is attached. The harpooner strikes.

SINGULAR METHODS OF CHINESE FISHERMEN. 245

and the wounded animal dives, but is at last secured by the
cord. In the South Seas skilful divers watch them when so
floating, and getting under the animals, suddenly rise, and so
seize them. Mr. Darwin describes a curious method of
capturing turtles which he witnessed at Keeling Island in
1836:

" I accompanied,'^ he remarks, '* Captain Fitzroy to an
island at the head of the lagoon : the channel was exceed-
ingly intricate, winding through fields of delicately-branched
corals. We saw several turtles, and two boats were then
employed in catching them. The water is so clear and
shallow, that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of
sight, yet, in a canoe or boat under sail, the pursuers, after
no very long chase, come up to it. A man standing ready in
the bows at this moment dashes through the water upon the
turtle's back ; then clinging with both hands by the shell of
the neck, he is carried away until the animal becomes
exhausted, and is secured. It was quite an interesting sight
to see the two boats thus doubling about, and the men dash-
ing into the water to secure their prey."

But the most singular mode of capturing turtles is that
practised on the coasts of China and the Mozambique, by
the aid of living fishes trained for the purpose, and thence
named "fisher-fishes." This fish is a species of remora
(sucking-fish), and the islanders who use it are said to pro-
ceed in the following manner :

They have, in their little boat, tubs containing many of
these little fishes, the top of whose head is covered with an
oval plate, soft and fieshy at its circumference. In the mid-
dle of this plate is a very complicated apparatus of bony
pieces disposed across in two regular rows, like the laths of
Persienne blinds. The number of these plates varies from
fifteen to thirty-six, according to the species : they can be
moved on their axis by means of particular muscles, and
their free edges are furnished with small hooks, which are

240 THE HERMIT GRAB.

all raised at once like the points of a wool-card. The tail of
each of the trained fishes in the tubs is furnished with a
ring for the attachment of a fine but long and strong cord.
When the fishermen perceive the basking turtles on the
surface of the sea, knowing that the slightest noise would
disturb the intended victims, they slip overboard one of
their fish tied to the long cord, and pay out line according
to their distance from the turtles. As soon as the fish per-
ceives the floating reptile, he makes towards it, and fixes
himself so firmly to it that the fishermen pull both fish and
and turtle into the boat, where the fish is very easily de-
tached from its prey, and the turtle is secured.

Crabs, which belong to the highest order of Crustaceans,
(a hard covering) are taken by traps — baskets which readily
permit an entrance, but not their escape, and which are
baited with meat or animal garbage of some kind — or pots,
or are caught in the holes of the rocks at low tide with a rod
and hook. These animals require very careful handling
when found on the rocks or the sea-shore. Their fighting
propensities are not confined to other prey, but they have
fierce encounters among themselves, by means of their for-
midable claws, with which they lay hold of their adversary's
legs, and dexterously amputate them.

The Hermit Crab is one of the most curious of this
numerous family. A more daring little burglar could not
be found than this animal, appropriating to its own use the
shells of whelks and periwinkles, after basely dislodging and
killing their lawful owners. It is curious to see this crab
busily parading the sea-shore, dragging its old incommodious
habitation behind it, unwilling to part with it until another
and more convenient one is found. It stops first at one shell,
turns it, pssses by, then goes to another, looks at it atten-
tively for a time, and then tries it. Not being found suit-
able, it resumes the old one, and in this manner frequently
changes, until at length it finds one light, roomy, and com-

ITS PBEDACEOUS EABn'8.

247

modious ; into this it enters, and takes up its abode. Fre-
quently two of them will have a severe contest for possession,
and a fierce fight ensues. With such very bad instincts
and unscrupulous habits, it is not surprising that the

HERRIXG FISHING.

hermit crab should be a very suspicious animal. On the
slightest alarm it retires into its shell, guarding the entrance
to it with its largest claw. The structure of the animal
renders it equal to most emergencies. The part which in
the lobster becomes a fan-like expansion at the end of the
tail, is an appendage to the hermit crab for firmly holding
on by the shell, and so tenacious is the hold that it may be
torn to pieces, but cannot be pulled out. As they increase

248 KING C11AB8 AND PILL-MAKER CRABS.

ill size, the hermit crabs are compelled to enter on a fresh
career of crime. The ancients were well acquainted with
the predaceous habits of this little marauder.

Crabs are inhabitants of almost all seas. The different
kinds vary much in the form of the carapace, or back, which
in some is round or nearly so : in others longer than broad ;
in some prolonged in front into a kind of beak, etc. ; also in
smoothness or roughness, with hairs, excrescences, or spines;
in the length of the legs, etc. The King Crab, an inhabitant
of tropical seas, is a remarkable species, having a tail which
forms a long and powerful dagger-like spine, sometimes-
exceeding in length the whole body. Some of these crabs
exceed two feet in length, and in the Asiatic islands the
spine is often used for pointing arrows; in tropical America
the shell is used as a ladle. At Labuan and Sinf!;apore Dr.
Collingwood met with a new species of crab, the "Pill-
maker." It is a small creature of its kind, many being the
size of large peas. Its habit is to take up particles of sand
in its claws, deposit them in a groove beneath the thorax,
and afterwards eject them as pellets or pills from its mouth,
after having extracted what nutriment they may contain.

The crab (as also the prawn) may be quoted as exercising-^
the virtue of conjugal affection to the highest degree, for
the male takes hold of his mate, and never quits her side,,
swimming with her, crawling about with her; and if she is
forcibly taken away, the faithful animal will seize hold of
and endeavor to retain her.

A traveler mentions a curious example of instinctive
stratagem in a crab on the shores of the Pacific, about six
inches in circumference, which covers itself with decaying
vegetable rubbish, mud, sand, etc., and thus lies in ambush
for its passing prey. It maintains a sluggish character until
taken into the hand, or otherwise alarmed, when it becomes
very active. The spines upon its body to retain the rub-
bish, the short but strong claws easily concealed, the eyes

PRAWNS AND SHRIMPS. 249

placed at the end of long foot-stalks, curving upwards and
thus raised above the mass, show the beautiful adapation of
its structure to its habits.

Prawns in general form resemble lobsters, cray-fish, and
shrimps, but belong to a family remarkable for a long saw-
like beak projecting from the carapace or back. There are
many species, and some of those inhabiting the warm seas
attain a large size. Many of them are semi-transparent, and
have very fine colors. The common prawn is from three to
four inches in length, is generally taken in the vicinity of
rocks at a little distance from 'he shore, and osier baskets^-
similar to those employed for catching lobsters — are em-
plo3^ed for their capture, and nets.

Shrimps are generally taken by nets in the form of a
wide-mouthed bag, stretched by means of a short cross-beam
at the end of a pole, and pushed along by the shrimper, wad-
ing to the knees in water. Sometimes a net of larger size is
dragged along by two boats. The common shrimp is about
two inches long, and the short beak readily distinguishes it
from the prawn. When alarmed, it buries itself in the sand
by a peculiar movement of its fan-like tail.

Dr. Collingwood mentions a new species of shrimp, which
he discovered in the warm seas, of a deep violet color (those
on the Atlantic coast are of a greenish-gray color, dotted
with brown), and with the claw of remarkable construction.

" I placed it," he says, *' in a basin of water with a small
crab, whose appearance appeared violently to offend it.
Whenever the crab came in contact with the shrimp, the lat-
ter produced a loud sound, the explanation of which is as
follows: the shrimp possessed two claws — one large and
stout, and the other long and slender. When irritated, it
opened the pincers of the large claw very wide, and then
suddenly closed them with a startling jerk. When the claw
was in contact with the bottom of the basin, a sound was
produced as if the basin were struck ; but when the claw

250 PERIWINKLES AND MUSSELS.

was elevated in the water, the sound was like the snap of a
finger, and the water was splashed in my face."

The same authority called this animal the " trigger "
shrimp, from the action of this claw resembling that of a
pistol trigger. If only put upon half-cock, this trigger closed
without noise.

How wonderful are the means that the Omnipotent Cre-
ator has provided (as in all things) for the protection of the
shelly inhabitants ! The hard covering accommodates itself
to their growth, and at the same time is sufficiently light as
not to interfere with the m_ vements and functions of the
interesting tenant. All the various tribes of shell-bearing
animals are thus defended from the injuries and attacks to
which their situation exposes them. Thus, some are pro-
tected by multivalve, or more than two formed tubular shells,
the tenant protruding its organs at the summit, which is
defended by the lid, consisting of more than a single piece ;
in the univalve, or one shell, the animal protrudes itself at
the sides, and has no valve, as in the common barnacle. The
bivalves, or animals of two shells, bury themselves in the
sand, perforate rocks, or suspend themselves by the byssus,
or thready filaments; others, again, as the oyster, fix them-
selves to any convenient substance.

In the common Periwinkle (a molluscous, or soft-shelled
animal), the mouth of its shell is closed by a horny cover-
ing ; this is called the " patch," which is attached to the foot,
or rather neck, by its convex or lower surface : this is the
lid.

The Mussel, belonging to the molluscous animals, and the
common species of which are very abundant on our own
and English coasts, are much used as bait by fishermen.
As an article of food it is much consumed in our own country,
but especially so in Europe. The French people are remark-
ably clever in their method of cultivating this shell-fish by
artificial means. About four miles from Roclielle there may

A WONDERFUL MUSSEL FARM. 251

be seen a wonderful mussel " farm," which has been a
source of considerable profit for hundreds of years. The
mussels are grown on frames of basket-work carefully made,
and are larger and of finer flavor than the natural fish. In
the year 1035, an Irish bark loaded with sheep was thrown
in a heavy storm on the rocks near Esnande, on the coasts
of Saintonge, and the only person on board who was saved
was the captain, named Walton, who amply repaid the ser-
vices which had been rendered him, for having saved some
of the sheep from the wreck, he crossed them with the ani-
mals of the country, and this produced a fine race, which is
still known under the name of the "marsh sheep." He next
•devised a kind of net, which was stretched a little above
the level of the open sea, where it caught large flocks of
.shore-birds which skim the surface of the water at twilight
or after dark. In order to render these nets thoroughly
<efiective, it was necessary to go to the very centre of the
immense bed of mud where these birds seek their nourish-
ment. Walton discovered on examining the poles which
supported his nets that they were covered with mussel-
spawn. He then increased the number of the poles, and,
after various attempts, constructed his first artificial mussel-
bed. At the level of the lowest tides, he drove into the
mud stakes that were strong enough to resist the force of
the waves, and placed them in two rows about a yard dis-
tant from one another. This double line of poles formed an
angle whose base was directed toward the shore and whose
apex pointed to the open sea. This palisade was roughly
fenced in with long branches, and a narrow opening having
been left at the extremity of the angle, wicker-work cases
were arranged in such a manner as to stop any fishes that
were being carried back by the retreating tide. Walton
had thus combined in one a sort of fish preserve, with a bed
for the breeding of mussels. The plan soon became very
popular, and the beds were extended in every direction.

252 GREAT UTILITY OF THE MUSSEL.

The little mussels that appear in the spring are called"
seeds, and are scarcely larger than small beans till toward
the end of May ; but at this time they rapidly increase, and
in July they attain the size of a full-grown bean. They are
then fit for transplanting and are placed in bags made of
old nets, which are set upon the fences that are not quite so
far advanced into the sea. The young mussels spread them-
selves all round the bags, fixing themselves by means of
those silky filaments or threads, called byssus, by which the
little animals attach themselves to rocks or other substances.
In proportion as they grow or become crowded together
within the bags, they are cleared out and distributed over
poles lying somewhat nearer the shore, while the full-grown
mussels, which are fit for sale, are planted on the beds near-
est the shore. It is from this part of the mussel-beds that
the fishermen reap their harvests, and every day enormous,
quantities of freshly gathered mussels are transported in
carts or on the backs of horses to La Rochelle, whence they
are sent to all parts of France.

As an instance of utility, the common mussel maintains
the long bridge across the Torridge River, near its junction
with the Taw, at the town of Bideford in North Devon. At
this bridge the tide runs so rapidly that it cannot be kept
with mortar. The corporation therefore keep boats em-
ployed to bring mussels to it, and the interstices of the
bridge are kept filled with them. The bridge is supported
against the violence of the tide by the strong threads of the
byssus which these mussels fix to the stonework.

Closely connected with this subject is that of Oyster farm-
ing, which is practiced quite extensively in England and
France as well as in our own country- A single visit to the
shores of Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, Long Island
and Connecticut would amaze one who had not given this
subject much thought, and convince them that it was a

PUNT OR PIROGUE OF THE MARSH.

PILES, WITH BASKET WORK COVERED WITH MUSSELS.

254 OYSTER FARMING.

thriving business in more senses than one, and every year
becoming more important and extensive.

Farming, as a term descriptive of this calling or industry^
may at first seem a misnomer; but the word is significant
as used in this sense : Anyone engaging in this undertaking
buys or secures a plot of water ^ and proceeds to stake it out
in a direct line from the shore ; a neighbor secures a plot
adjoining, surveys and bounds it in a similar manner. These
fenced-in water fields present a novel and picturesque scene
to one who beholds it for the first time.

To the oyster farmer the times and the seasons are dis-
tinctly worked and rigidly observed. If he sow and cultivate
not, neither can he reap. There are comparatively few
places on our inland Atlantic shores where oyster culture is
not carried on in some one of its various methods ; there are
places for keeping them alive until wanted, places for breed-
ing them in, and places in which they are fattened. Most
oysters cast their spawn in the months of April or May.
The spawn is by the fishermen called " spat," and in size and
figure each resembles the drop of a candle. As soon as it
is cast, or thrown off, these embryo disks adhers to stones,
old oyster shells, pieces of wood, or whatever substance
comes in their way ; a limy secretion issues from the surface
of their bodies, and in the course of a day begins to be con-
verted into a shelly substance. It is about two years, how-
ever, before oysters acquire their full size, and are ready for
the table.

Many curious discussions have arisen as to whether
oysters possess the faculty of locomotion. It is well known
that, in general, they are firmly attached to stones, to any
submarine substance, or to each other, and it is generally
believed that they are not endowed with any power of
changing their position. It is certain that they are the
most inanimate of the mollusca, remaining adhered to the
substance under the waves that they have fixed upon, enjoy-

TEE ENEMIES OF THE OYSTER. 255

ing only the nourishment brought it by the waves, and giv-
ing scarcely any sign of life, except the opening and shut-
ting of its valves.

The oyster, particularly when eaten raw, is easy of diges-
tion, and very nutritous. Its best qualities become impaired,
however, by cooking, and, though very piquant culinary
preparations are made from it, such as sauces, ragouts, etc.,
these tempting effects are produced by the sacrifice of the
best quality of the fish, and should be carefully shunned by
the invalid.

The enemies of the oyster are many. The sea-crab seats
itself upon the shell, and drills a little hole in his back, and
so kills him. On the sea-shore bushels of shells are found
quite riddled with holes by this crab. The star-fish was
known in ancient times to prey upon the oyster. Oppian
says:

' The prickly star-fisli creeps on with fell deceit.
To force the oyster from his close retreat.
When gaping lids their widen'd void display.
The watchful star thrusts in a pointed ray
Of all its treasures spoils the rifled case,
And empty shells the sandy hillocks grace.

The drum-fish — in weight about thirty pounds, and about
two feet long — swallows oyster and shell; sometimes two or
three pounds of shells are found in the stomach of this fish.
The star-fishes hug the oyster, and wrap their five rays about
him, but the embrace is one of death to the poor victim.

It is not surprising that the inhabitants of the ocean
should feed partly on shell fish ; but it is curious to find
animals strictly terrestrial preying upon them. Monkeys-
are said to descend to the sea to devour what shell-fish they
may find on the shore. The ourang-outangs are said to feed
in particular on a large species of oyster ; and, fearful of
inserting their paws between the open valves lest the
animal should close and crush them, they first place a toler-
ably large stone in the shell, and then drag out their victim

256 IMMENSE QUANTITIES OF OYSTERS TAKEN

with safety. Monkeys are no less ingenious. Dampier saw
several of them take up oysters from the beach, lay them on
a stone, and beat them with another until they had demol-
ished the shells. Even the fox, when pressed by hunger,
will eat mussels and other bivalves ; and the raccoon when
near the shore subsists on them largely, particularly on
oysters.

' A curious anecdote appeared in *' BelFs Weekly Messen-
ger," of 7th January, 1821. A tradesman at Plymouth,
having placed some oysters in a cupboard, was surprised on
finding in the morning a mouse caught by the tail by the
sudden snapping of the shell. At Ashburton, a Mrs. All-
ridge had placed a dish of oysters in a cellar. A large
oyster soon expanded its shell, and at the instant two mice
pounced upon the " living luxury," and were at once crushed
between the valves. The oyster, with the two mice dang-
ling from its shell, was for some time exhibited as a curiosity.
A better natural mouse-trap could not be imagined.

Among birds the mollusks have many enemies. Several
of the duck and gull tribes derive a portion of their subsis-
tence from them. The pied oyster-catcher derives its name
from this habit. Several kinds of crows likewise feed upon
shell-fish. Vultures and aquatic birds detach shell-fish
from the rocks.

The consumption of oysters is recorded in earliest his-
tory, but their cultivation in the manner just described is a
modern invention. This may account in some sense for the
excessive and greatly superior production of this country.
Though England and France have made lately rapid strides
in this direction, their production combined could hardly
equal that of our own land. The quantity taken from our
waters is far greater than is generally supposed by those
not familiar with this important business. The best statis-
tics are necessarily very incomplete, and also uninteresting
reading, though much might be said respecting the number

PEGULIABITIES OF THE LOBSTER. 257

of men and boats employed, the packing and pickling estab-
lishments with the force employed, the quantity of oysters
consumed here and exported, we will merely say in conclu-
sion that the value of the trade in 1877 amounted to over
twenty-five million dollars in this country alone.

The Lobsters .(which belong to the Crustacea or hard-
shelled animals), the common species of whicli is so plentiful
on the rocky coasts of our own country, and most parts of
Europe, are generally taken in traps, sometimes made of
osier twigs, also by nets, sometimes pots, always baited with
animal garbage, and in some countries by torchlight, with
the aid of a wooden instrument which acts like a forceps or
a pair of tongs. They are also taken by the hand, but this
requires dexterity, for the claws are powerful weapons of
defence : one is always larger than the other, and the pincers
of one claw are knobbed on the inner edge, those of the
other are serrated. It is more dangerous to be seized by the
serrated than by the knobbed claw. A great authority on
fish matters says :

*' I once heard a clergyman at a lecture describe a lob-
ster as a standing romance of the sea; an animal whose
clothing is a shell, which it casts away once a year, in order
that it may put on a larger suit; an animal whose flesh is in
its tail and legs, and whose hair is on the inside of its breast ;
whose stomach is in its head, and which is changed every
year for a new one, and which new one begins its life by
devouring the old. An animal which carries its eggs within
its body until they become fruitful, and then carries them
outwardly under its tail; an animal which can throw off its
legs when they become troublesome, and can in a brief time
replace them. Lastly, an animal with very sharp eyes
placed in movable horns."

The London market alone requires two millions and a
half of crabs and lobsters annually. Large numbers are sent
from the Scottish coasts. The west and north-west coasts of

258 LOBSTERS GHANOE THEIR COLOR.

Ireland abound with fine lobsters, and welled vessels bring
from them supplies for the London market of ten thousand
Aveekly. A large number of lobsters is brought from Norway,
as many as thirty thousand arriving from that country in a
single day, conveyed in wells on board steam vessels, and
kept in wooden reservoirs, some of which may be seen on
the Essex side of the Thames. In order that the great mass
of lobsters may be kept on their best behavior in these
reservoirs, the great claw is rendered paralytic by means of
a wooden peg driven into a lower joint : however cruel this
may seem, it prevents them from tearing each other to
pieces, so pugnacious are the animals. A good-sized lobster,
we are informed, will yield about twenty thousand eggs;
and these are hatched (being so nearly ripe before they are
abandoned by the mother) with great rapidity, it is said in
forty-eight hours, and grow quickly, although the young lob-
ster passes through many changes before it is fit to be pre-
sented at table. During the early period of growth it casts
its shell frequently. This wonderful provision for an increase
of size in the lobster is perfectly surprising. It is indeed
astonishing to see the complete covering of the animal cast
off like a suit of old clothes, when it hides, naked and soft.
in a convenient hole, awaiting the growth of its new crust
or coat. Lobsters and crabs change their shell about every
six weeks during the first year of their age ; every two
months during the second year ; and afterward the changing
of the shell becomes less frequent, being reduced to four times
a year. Previously to putting off their old shell, they appear
sick, languid, and restless. They acquire an entirely new
covering in a few days; but during the time they remain
defenseless they seek some lonely place, lest they should be
attacked and devoured by such of their brethren as are not
in the same weak condition. In casting their shells, it is
difficult to conceive how the lobsters are able to draw the
flesh of their large claws out, leaving the shells of these

VORACITY OF THE LOBSTER. 259

entire and attached to the shell of the body. The fishermen
say that previous to this operation the lobster pines away
till the flesh in its claw is no thicker than the qnill of a
goose, which enables it to draw its parts through the joints
and narrow passage near the trunk. The new shell hardens
by degrees.

It is supposed that the lobster becomes reproductive at
the age of five years. Lobsters are very voracious; they
are also full of fighting propensities, and have frequent
combats among themselves, in which limbs are often lost ;
but the limb is soon replaced by the growth of a new one,
rather smaller than the old one. In the water lobsters can
run nimbly on their legs or small claws, and if alarmed, can
spring tail foremost to a surprising distance as swift as a
bird can fly. Fishermen can see them pass about thirty
feet, and, by the swiftness of their motion, suppose they may
go much farther. When frightened, they will spring from
a considerable distance to their hold in the rocks, and will
force their way into an entrance barely sufficient for their
bodies to pass.

Like some of the crabs, lobsters are said to be attached
to particular parts of the sea.

** In shelly armor wrapt, tlie lobsters seek
Safe shelter in some bay or winding creek ;
To rocky chasms the dusky natives cleave,
Tenacious hold, nor will the dwelling leave,
Nought like their home the constant lobsters prize,
And foreign shores and seas unknown despise.
Though cruel hands the banished wretch expel,
And force the captive from his native cell,
He will, if freed, return with anxious care,
Find the known rock, and to his home repair."

In some parts of Europe the fishermen endeavor, by mak-
ing violent noises, to drive the fish into theirnets; but these
are so cunning, that when surrounded by the net, the whole

260 BOGS TRAINED FOR FISHING.

shoal will sometimes escape, for if one of them springs over
it, the rest will follow like sheep.

The Danish fishermen have a similar mode of taking the
horn-fishes, called "green-bone" from the color of their
bones. They are timid, and afraid of the nets, and when
the shoals approach, the fishermen commence a regular
bombardment with stones, and so frighten them into their
meshes.

A writer mentions a similar practice in Wales :
*'The fishermen," he observes, "commenced their opera-
tions at every ebbing of the tide, by stretching a seine
across the river, several hundred paces above the coast;
and whilst drawing it towards the sea, they incessantly dis-
turbed the water by beating the surface, as well as hurling
into it the heaviest stones they could poise. The affrighted
fish made at once for the sea, which, however, they could
not reach except by passing through the intervening shal-
lows. Here they were pursued by dogs trained for the
purpose, and clubbed or speared by the men. I have
frequently seen from one to two hundred fine fish, weighing
from ten to twenty pounds each, taken in this extraordinary
way."

av'ranocKHAUs.x
GURNARD.

CHAPTER XYI.

ODDS AND ENDS ABOUT FISHES

'HE description we have quoted of fishes in-
habiting the Mediterranean Sea corresponds
entirely with the strange and varied charac-
ter ascribed to them by ancient and mod-
ern writers. We will, however, before al-
luding to any particular species of fishes,
give a brief outline of their nature generally. From the
earliest ages fishes were most extensively used as articles of
diet, and at the present time they form a considerable por-
tion of the food of mankind generally. In some countries
they were the only money of commerce, and dried fish were
paid as current coin. Mythological honors were rendered
to them by the ancients ; and in the case of sharks, as men-
tioned in the chapter on *' The Pirates of the Ocean," they
are deified on the African coasts. Fish have been perpetu-
ated in coins and sculptures, from which many of the spe-
cies in ancient use can still be traced.

262 VARIETY IN FORMS OF FISHES.

Fishes people the ocean with their shoals, and serve to
keep in check the innumerable creatures of still lower con-
struction, while they themselves are held in check, and af-
ford sustenance to millions which have been placed in our
system above them. In form they are the most varied be-
ings in creation, and the most inventive fancy could scarcely
imagine a shape or appearance to which a resemblance would
not be found. They are of hideous or loathsome bulk or the
most graceful form, and of gorgeous and resplendent colors ;
all wondrously adapted to the diiFerent modes of obtaining
their food, whether by stealth or deceit, strength or swift-
ness. The general form of a fish is admirably adapted to
its native element. In all fishes which require swiftness to
secure their prey, the tail is the great organ of motion. The
absence of any neck gives the advantage of a more exten-
sive and resisting attachment of the head to the body, the
greater proportion of which is left free for the play of the
muscular masses which move the tail. Besides serving as
the rudder or paddle, it is the tail of the fish that enables
many of them to make those leaps out of the water to which
we have frequently alluded to in theso pages. From the
enormous whales and sharks to the small stickleback, this
power seems to belong to the greater number of fishes.

They?7is on the upper surface of the fish serve to balance
the body; those on the lower surface to turn it, to move it
slowly, and to keep it suspended in strong currents ; but in
all these movements the assistance of the tail is observable.

Some of the fins of fishes are vertical, constituting a kind
of keel or rudder. They differ in number, size, and the na-
ture of the rays which support them, being sometimes spiny,
and in other cases soft and articulated. Those correspond-
ing to arms or wings are the pectorals (the chest), invariably
fixed behind the gills.

Pal^, in his " Natural Theology," thus sums up the actions
of the fins of fishes : '* The pectoral, and more particularly

SWIMMING BLADDERS IN FISHES. 263

the ventral (belonging to the stomach) fins serve to raise
and depress the fish : when the fish desires to have a retro-
grade motion, a stroke forward with the pectoral fin effectu-
ally produces it; if the fish desires to turn either way, a
single blow with the tail the opposite way sends it round at
once; if the tail strike both Avays, the motion produced by
the double lash is progressive, and enables the fish to dart
forwards with an astonishing velocity. The result is not only
in some cases the most rapid, but in all cases the most
gentle, pliant, easy, animal motion with which we are
acquainted. In their mechanical use, the anal fin may be
reckoned the keel; the ventral fins, the outriggers; the pec-
toral fins, the oars [and, we may now add, the caudal fin,
the screw-propeller]. And, if there be any similitudes
between those parts of a boat and a fish, observe," adds
Paley, " it is not the resemblance of imitation, but the like-
ness which arises from applying similar mechanical means
to the same purpose."

Another powerful aid to the buoyancy of fishes is the air
or swimming-bladder, which is described as a philosophical
apparatus in the body of an animal. It is easy to see at the
back-bone of the herring and other fishes a shining pearly-
looking membrane, almost enveloped by the roe or milt of
the fish. This is the air or swimming-bladder; and it is of
this, as found in the sturgeon, the carp, the ling, and many
other fishes, when dried and prepared by certain processes,
that the substance called isinglass is manufactured.

It is the swimming-bladder that serves the fish for rising
or sinking in the waters; but in such fishes as reside at the
bottom of the sea or never come to the surface, this bladder
is almost always wanting. How truly wonderful is this pro-
vision of nature! It would be very worthy of inquiry to
know by what method an animal which lives constantly in
water is able to supply a repository of air.

The bodies of fishes are nearly the same specific gravity as

264 RESPIRATION, SMELL, AND TASTE OF FISHES.

the water in whicli they live, owing to the great quantity
of fat they contani, so that very little effort is required to
keep them at any given height, and their ascent or descent
in the water.

The circulation of blood is peculiar. There is but a
single heart in fishes, that is, a heart consisting of only two
cavities; and these correspond not to the left heart of mam-
mals or birds, but to their right or pulmonic heart.

Respiration is carried on by means of the gills, Avhich
take the place of lung?, and consist of a large number of
blood vessels, placed near the forward extremity of the ani-
mal, and protected by a bony case or covering, often
defended by strong spines. The gills are placed in imme-
diate communication with the heart. Water, which is
impregnated with atmospheric air, entering at the mouth, is
forced out again by the apertures at each side of the neck,
and thus maintains almost a constant stream or rush through
them, entering and again expelled at intervals. When
fishes are taken from the water, the delicate thready
structure of tlie gills immediately collapses; when exposed
to the air a kind of suffocation ensues, and death is the
result. This is the general principle of respiration in fishes,
but in some cases the structure varies.

The smell of fishes in some species is remarkable:
they scent their prey at a great distance, and the very per-
fection of this function is often fatal to them. Some fishes
are so allured by scents, that by smearing the hand over
with them, and immersing it in water, fishes (not sharks,
let us hope) will often flock toward the fingers, and may
easily be taken. Fishermen have the habit of making their
bait more attractive by steeping it in some strong-smelling
ingredient. On the American shores, tlie fishermen use
putrid or damaged fish as bait for mackerel. They are
thrown in a box hopper, in which a cylinder studded with
knives is made to revolve by a crank. This is called the

TO UCH AND SIGHT OF FISHES. 265

" bait-mill," and by its aid the contents are reduced to a
kind of paste, which is thrown into the sea to attract the
fish, which are then caught by lines with hooks, having a piece
of polished pewter attached as a lure. In all fishes, nostrils
or external openings are very apparent, and in these the
nerves of smell are distributed.

Taste in fishes (as in animals who almost invariably
swallow their food without mastication) cannot be very
acute, since their tongue is in great part bony, and is often
furnished with teeth and other hard coverings.

The organ of touch is in general as imperfect as that of
taste: without prolonged members, and flexible fingers
capable of grasping, they can scarcely explore the forms of
objects by any other means than by their lips. Certain little
fleshy tendrils which some fishes possess may supply the im-
perfections of touch in the other organs.

The bodies of most fishes are covered with small brilliant
plates of a horny nature called scales, but in some kinds
these are wanting, as in the turbot and others, in place of
which are found bony protuberances in some species, and in
others a very smooth skin without scales, and covered with
a thick gelatinous secretion from the body. The scales con-
sist of a substance chemically resembling the composition of
bones and teeth. They usually overlap each other like tiles.
Some are very thick forming a kind of armor.

In general, fish have large eyes, and in particular the
pupil is very broad and open, as might be expected in crea-
tures who require great powers of vision in the deep, where
light penetrates but scantily. The eyes have no real eye-
lids, the skin passing over them mostly in a transparent form,
to admit light; and they are sometimes opaque or dense.
Home varieties of fish, whose eyes are fixed on the upper
surface of their bodies, cannot see what prey they swallow ;
others have no outward indication of an eye. *' No tear
moistens, no eyelid shelters or wipes the surface ; the eyes

266 TEETH, HEARING, AND BRAIN OF FISHES.

offish are only representations of that beautiful and ani-
mated organ which is found in the superior class of animals."

" The teeth of fishes," says Professor Owen, '* whether we
study them in regard to their number, form, substance,
structure, situation, or mode of attachment, ofier a greater
and more striking series of varieties than do those of any
other class of animals. In number they range from zero to
countless quantities. In the sharks and rays the teeth are
supported by the upper or lower jaws, as in most quadrupeds ;
but many other fishes have teeth growing from the roof of
the mouth, from the surface of the tongue, from the bony
hoop or arches supporting the gills, and some have them
developed from the bone of the nose and the base of the
skull." In all fishes the teeth are shed and renewed not
once only as in mammals, but frequently during the whole
course of their lives.

Fishes have but small occasion for the sense of hearing^
being condemned to reside in the empire of silence, where
all around is mute. In most fishes the auditory parts are
buried in the skull, and send no process to the surface.

Singular stories, however, are told of fishes being sensible
to the sound of music. Ancient writers — ^lian and Aris-
totle— mention some fishes, and particularly skates, who are
attracted in this manner. Two men embark in a boat, one
with a musical instrument and the other with a net, and by
this music the fishes become so entranced as to be taken
easily. A somewhat similar mode is said to be practised by
the boatmen of the Danube, who use bells for the purpose.
Carp have been known to distinguish the sound of a bell,
and the voice of their keeper when called to be fed.

The hrain of fishes is remarkably small in proportion to
the size of the animal, the quantity of nerves arising out of
it, and the size of the cavity which contains it. The space
thus left vacant is often filled with oil or fat.

Some fishes are not altogether indifferent to the fate of

VARIED USES OF FISIL 267

their brood. We have already alluded to the attachment
of the mEimmalian order for their young. Some fishes leave
the depths of the ocean, and deposit their spawn in the
shallows, where the young fry are comparatively safe from
the voracity of their numerous enemies. Some build nests
for their young, as we will further explain in this chapter.

The eggs of fishes are generally deposited on the surface
of the water, where they float during the period of their
development.

It is in the Northern seas that fishes display their most
astonishing fecundity — not so much in the variety of species
as in the multitude of individuals of a species; and the
ocean nowhere else produces an abundance of fish approach-
ing to the myriads of herring and cod in that quarter.

The uses to which fish are applied are numerous. They
afi'ord a valuable manure when they are to be had in plenty.
Fishery-salt is also a great fertilizer. Pretty ornaments are
made from fish-scales, as brooches, bracelets, &c.; the eyes
of fishes are also employed by the makers of shell flowers for
imitating buds. Mock pearls are made from an essence
obtained by scraping the scales off the bleak (a fresh-water
fish) and the whitebait. The natives of the north-west
coast of this country make from the entrails of fishes brace-
lets, fishing-lines, thread, work-bags, head-dresses, and
needle-cases ; fish-hooks and needles are made of the bones.

We have already alluded to isinglass, which is made from
the dense membrane which forms the air-bladder of the
sturgeon and other fishes. Oil forms a staple article of
commerce. The dog-fish is caught principally for the oil
from its liver — a large fish yielding about a barrel-full. The
skin of this fish is used to refine liquors, clear coffee, &c.

Our English ancestors were firm believers in the curative
properties of certain fish. Pickled herrings were applied
to the soles of the feet in fevers; pilchards were in great
request for the swellings of the gums and legs ; the flesh of

268

ELECTMIG FISHES.

tlie tunny was considered an antidote to poison; the teeth
of thornbacks, bruised in a mortar, were used for sore eyes;
the gall for complaints of the ear; the bones of the sturgeon
were reduced to powder and applied in rheumatic cases;
oyster and mussel-shells ground to powder were also em-
ployed.

Wonderful is the property of several species of fish of
inflicting electric shocks so severe as to produce exhaustion
and numbness of the nerves exposed to its action. That
God should arm certain fishes, in some sense, Avith the light-
ning of the clouds, and enable them thus to employ an
element so potent and irresistible as we do gunpowder, to
astound, and smite, and stupefy, and kill the inhabitants of
the water, is one of those wonders of an Almighty arm
which no terrestrial animal is gifted to exhibit.

ELKCTRIC EEL.

The Torpedo, popularly named by fishermen " numb-fish "
and " cramp-fish," a genus of fishes of the Ray order,is a living
electrical machine, which has the power of striking its enemies
even at a very considerable distance. Fishermen constantly
witness evidences of the singular faculty of this fish. As
soon as it enters their net they are made aware of the fact
by the shocks which are transmitted through the tackle by

ELECTRIC APPARATUS OF THE TORPEDO. 269

which it is suspended. These have been known to be suffi-
ciently violent to compel the men to let go when they are
drawing their nets, and thus allow the whole haul to fall
back into the sea.

The Torpenididoej as this family is termed, has been
divided into a number of genera. They have a short and
not very thick tail, cylindrical towards the end, and in out-
ward appearance somewhat resemble a skate, and have
nearly the same habits. Two species of the torpedo are
occasionally found on the southern coasts of England, the
common, or Marmorata, which sometimes attains a large
size, weighing a hundred pounds; and the Nohiliana, which
is more rare. They are readily distinguished by the spira-
cles behind the eyes, which are round and fringed at the
edges in the former and perfectly smooth in the latter.
These and other species are found more plentifully in the
Mediterranean. When the torpedo is disposed to " astonish "
any one, she furnishes to a careful observer the following
premonitory indications of her intentions: the back — which,
unlike that of the cat — is gibbous and raised when she is in
good humor, iSiattens as she waxes angry, till the convex
surface, gradually drawn in, becomes at length slightly con-
cave ; and at the same time the eyes, remarkably prominent
during the repose of the creature, are retracted far back in
the orbits. These are the precursory signals that the phials
of her wrath are to be poured forth; the shock then
instantly follows, and the fish as suddenly swells out again,
recovering its usual form, generally to prepare for a new
attack. These shocks follow in rapid succession: she some-
times inflicts forty or fifty broadsides in the course of one
minute, and they are sufficiently powerful to destroy, as by
lightning, small animals exposed to their influence.

Cuvier describes the electric apparatus of this fish to
consist of a series of honeycombed-looking cells, filled with

270 INCIDENTS RELATED,

a thickish gelatinous fluid, and abundantly supplied with
nerves, situated between the gills and the head of the fish.

The electrical organs are two in number. The number
of cells varies according to the size of the fish ; thus, in
each organ of one fish were counted four hundred and sev-
enty, and in another large fish one thousand one hundred
and eighty-two. This natural electricity can be drawn from
the fish by means of a conductor, and a shock is felt through
a circuit formed by several persons joining hands.

The electrical efi'ects produced on the fisherman who
seize them were noted from early times ; but Redi, the Ital-
ian naturalist of the seventeenth century, was the first who
studied them scientifically. He caught and landed one of them
with every precaution. " I had scarcely touched and pressed
it with my hand," says the Italian artist, " than I experi-
enced a tingling sensation, which extended to my arms and
shoulders, which was followed by a disagreeable trembling,
with a painful and acute sensation in the elbow joint, which
made me withdraw my arm immediately."

Reaumur also made some observations upon the Torpedo.
" The benumbing influence," he says, *' is very different from
any similar sensation. All over the arm there is a commo-
tion which it is impossible to describe, but which, so far as
comparison can be made, resembles the sensation produced
by striking the tender part of the elbow against a hard sub-
stance." Redi remarks, besides, that the pain and trembling
sensation resulting from the touch diminishes as the death
of the Torpedo approaches, and -that it ceases altogether
when the animal dies.

In the seventeenth century the fishermen affirmed that
the sensation was even communicated through the line by
which it was caught, and even by the water. Redi does
not deny this phenomenon, neither does he confirm it. He
states that the action of the animal is never more energetic
than when it is strongly pressed by the hand, and makes

ELECTRIC EEL. 271

violent efforts to escape. Neither Redi nor Reaumur, how-
ever, could explain the cause of the strange phenomenon.
It was reserved for Dr. Walsh, a Fellow of the Royal Soci-
ety of London, to demonstrate the fact that the power was
electrical in its nature. This he did by numerous experi-
ments which he made in the Isle of R6. The following are
some of the experiments:

He placed a living torpedo upon a clean wet towel ; from
a plate he suspended two pieces of brass wire by means of
silken cord, which served to isolate them. Round the tor-
pedo were eight persons, standing on isolating substances.
One end of the brass wire was supported hj the wet towel,
the other end being placed in a basin "full of water. Tlie
first person had a finger of one hand in this basin, and a
finger of the other in a second basin, also full of water.
The second person placed a finger of one hand in this sec-
ond basin, and a finger of the other hand in a third basin.
The third person did the same, and so on, until a complete
chain was established between the eight persons and nine
basins. Into the ninth basin the end of the second brass
wdre was plunged, w^hile Dr. Walsh applied the other end
to the back of the torpedo, thus establishing a complete
conducting circle. At the moment when the experimenter
touched the torpedo, the eight actors in the experiment felt
a sudden shock, similar in all respects to that communicated
by a shock of a Leyden jar, only less intense.

Another fish little inferior to the torpedo in its " shock-
ing " properties is the electric eel. Its physical properties
enable it to arrest suddenly the pursuit of an enemy or the
flight of its prey, to suspend on the instant every movement
of its victim, and subdue it by an invisible power. Even
the fishermen themselves are suddenly struck and rendered
torpid at the moment of seeing it, while nothing external
betrays the mysterious power possessed by the animal.
At Calabozo on the Orinoco, the electric eel abound in

272 MODE OF TAKING THEM.

great numbers. The natives have a unique and most curious
mode of securing these formidable eels; the Indians them-
selves Avould describe it as " intoxicating by means of
horses." From the neighboring savannahs a score or more of
half-wild horses and mules are encircled by the natives and
gradually driven to some adjacent marsh or stagnant basin
surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and known to abound
with the G3^mnotis. The animals being forced from all sides
are surely forced into the water, when a grand battle com-
mences and a wonderful spectacle may be witnessed. The
Indians, armed with long canes and harpoons, plsice them-
selves around the basin, some of them mounting the trees,
the branches of which hang over the water, and by their
cries, and still more by their canes, prevent the animals
from landing again. The eels stunned by the noise, defend
themselves by repeated discharges of their batteries. To one
witnessing such a scene for the first time, it would probably
seem that the eels must come off victorious. Such a picture
is truly indescribable : groups of Indians surrounding; the
basin ; the horses with bristling manes, terror and grief in
their eyes, trying to escape from the storm which had
surprised them; the eels yellow and livid, looking like
great aquatic serpents swimming on the surface of the
water, and chasing their enemies, are objects at once appal-
ling and picturesque. In a few moments, many of the horses,
benumbed by the repeated shocks of the eels are drowned.
But gradually the eels themselves become bewildered or
intoxicated, shun in place of attacking, and are slowly
driven toward the banks, where they are easily taken by
means of the little harpoon thrown at them. Being landed,
the eels are transported to little pools dug in the soil and
filled with fresh water; such is the terror inspired that
the natives are very reluctant to take them from the har-
poons, until life has expired, for fear of receiving the terri-
ble shock.

STmama fishes. 273

A remarkable power of stinging is possessed by some of
the inhabitants of the deep. What is called the Trygon, or
Sting-Ray, is able to inflict severe wounds by its muscular
and flexible tail, which it winds around the object of attack,
and with the sword or spine at its base, pierces and lascer
ates. This weapon is armed with rows of serrated tee*h at
each side, every tooth of which is a small saw. The worst
and most dangerous wound, however, is when the elastic
tail dashes the apparatus, saws and all, into an unfortunate
fisherman's thigh (as has frequently happened, in spite of
the ordinary precautions), dragging it out again to make a
new lunge before the unhappy victim has had time to escape ;
and so expert is this fish in this small-sword exercise, and
so swiftly does stroke follow stroke, that persons who have
seen it in operation report that, but for the spouting of
fresh blood, and the larger display of raw surface, they
would have declared the weapon motionless all the time.
The terrible suffering inflicted by this atrocious caudine
weapon — which is borne by four other colossal skates, as
well as by the sea-eagle — has caused it to be regarded with
as much superstitous reverence by fishermen as was the tail
of his music-master, Chiron, by the youthful Achilles.

The Sting-Ray fish attains a colossal size in the Mediter-
ranean. He possesses an enormous pair of fins, w^iich,
stretching out from either side of the body, offer a striking
resemblance to a pair of wide-spread wings; and he has,
moreover, a detached head, terminating in a porrect (ex-
tended) process, like a beak, and a large pair of piercing
bright eyes, whence the origin of its appellation of " sea-
eagle."

The Great Weever or Sting-Bull, and the Little or Yiper
Weever, possess the same formidable properties as the
stinging ray. Both are found on English coasts, the former
being about a foot long, and the other about four or five
inches. Though of such small dimensions, these fishes are

274 TROPICAL DOCTOR FISHES.

troublesome to encounter. The fins are spiny, and the gill-
cover is furnished with a strong and sharp spine, Avhich is
directed backward, but is capable of being made erect to
meet an enemy. This they use by a sudden bending of the
body. The little weever buries itself in the sand, watching
for its prey, leaving only its snout exposed, and if trod upon,
it immediately uses its weapon with great force.

We have, in the chapter on " The Floating Navigators of
the Ocean," alluded to the stinging powers of the Physalis,
or ''Portuguese man-of-war." It is a common trick with
sailors to make a novice pick up one of these beautiful crea-
tures, and then enjoy his discomfiture.

The Acanthuri (signifying " a spine " and " tail"), tropical
fishes, some of Avhich are remarkable for beauty of form and
variety of colors, possess also a power of inflicting dangerous
stings or wounds, which has obtained for them the name of
" doctors " from our sailors, on account of the severe wounds
they inflict on such as handle them unwarily. They have
teeth trenchant and notched, and a strong spine at each
side of the tail as sharp as a lancet, whence they are also
called lancet-fishes. With these weapons they defend them-
selves with courage and success against the largest of their
assailants. Many other fishes possess the same power of
inflicting stings and wounds : living a life of constant warfare
in the deep, Nature has bestowed upon them means of de-
fence and for procuring their prey.

It is worthy of observation that, with very few excep-
tions, the immense population of the ocean is carnivorous.
The principal circumstance that regulates the choice of diet
among fishes seems to be the power of mastery. Of terres-
trial creatures, a very large number are peaceful, never, un-
der ordinary circumstances, willingly taking the life of even
the most helpless around them ; but the sea is a vast slaugh-
ter-house, where nearly every inhabitant dies a violent death,
and finds a grave in the maw of his fellow. Yet let us not

THE BEMORA OR SUCKING FI8H. 275

arraign the providence of God, as if it were cruel and un-
kind: a sudden termination of existence is the most merci-
ful mode, as far as we can conceive, by which the overflow
of animal life could be checked.
As James Montgomery says:

*' 'Twas wisdom, mercy, goodness that ordain'd
Life in such infinite profusion — Death
So sure, so prompt, so multiform to those
That never sinn'd, that know not guilt, that fear
No wrath to come, and have no heaven to lose."

A very interesting family of fishes, for the peculiar prop-
erties which they possess, are the Sucking-fishes — remarka-
ble for having the ventral fins united under the surface of
the body to form the apparatus which distinguishes them.
To this family belong the Sea-Owl Snail, and one or two
British species, including the Lump-sucker. This animal
has a grotesque and clumsy form, but the colors which orna-
ment it are very fine, combining various shades of blue, pur-
ple, and orange. It attains a tolerably large size — about
nineteen inches — weighing sometimes seven or eight pounds.
Its sucker is so powerful that a pail, containing some gallons
of water, has been lifted, when one of these fishes contained
in it was taken by the tail.

To this family Cuvier also referred the far-famed Remora ;
noticing, however, the different position of the sucking disc,
and other important distinctions, on account of which a very
different place is now assigned to it. The use of the suck-
ing apparatus is, however, much the same — that of attacliing
the animal to fixed substances, so that it may remain and
obtain its food, where otherwise it would be swept away by
the current.

The remora was the subject of much imaginative terror
to the ancients, who believed that it had the power to im-
pede or stop the course of a ship. Oppian says:

Illllllll™^

THE SEA LAMPREY. 277

" The seamen run confus'd, no labor spared,
Let fly the sheets, and hoist the topmast yard;
The master bids them give her all the sails,
To court the winds and catch the coming gales;
But though the canvas bellies with the blast,
And boisterous winds bend down the cracking mast.
The bark stands firmly rooted on the sea.
And all unmov'd as tower or towering tree."

Pliny writes : ** Wliy should our fleets and armadas at
sea make such turrets on the walls and forecastles, when one
little fish (see the vanity of man!) is able to arrest and stay,
perforce, our goodly and tall ships?"

These are droll fancies ; but, tested by the fact, the adhe-
sive powers of this fish are very remarkable, great weights
being dragged by it, and retaining its hold with a bull-dog
tenacity, even submitting to be torn to pieces before it will
relinquish its hold. It is frequently seen among other fishes
in the Atlantic, attaching itself to some one or other by its
sucker, and often, also, to the rudder or bottom of a ship.

The length of the Mediterranean remora is about eight-
een inches, and the length of the head is nearly one-fifth of
the proportion of the whole fish. Feeding principally on
the small animals diffused throughout the waters of the
ocean, it probably receives a suflSciency of food even when
attached to a moving object, as a ship or large fish, merely
by opening its mouth, which has a very large gape.

Belonging to a distinct family, but employing its mouth
as a powerful sucker, is the Sea-Lamprey, a species resem-
bling eels in the rounded shape of the body and a certain
similarity of habits. The mouth is circular, armed with
hard tooth-like processes, and provided with a flexible lip.
So great is the power of suction which it possesses, that a
stone has been raised by it out of the water, weighing ten
or twelve pounds, and yet the fish measures but from two
to three feet.

The historical renown of the lamprey is very great. It

278 FED ON HUMAN FLESH.

was the favorite dish of the Romans, Avho kept the fishes in
ponds at a great expense. The best lampreys were pro-
cured from Sicily as presents to the reigning emperors and
high officials. A hundred pieces of gold were sometimes
paid for them.

A horrible story is told of Pollio, a friend of Augustus
Cgesar, who, on the supposition that lampreys fed on human
flesh were more delicate, ordered his slaves, when accused
of the slightest fault, to be thrown into his fish-pond. This
cruelty was discovered when one of his servants broke a glass
in the presence of the Emperor, who had been invited to a
feast. The master ordered the slave to be seized, but he
threw himself at the feet of the Emperor, and begged him
to interfere, and not suffer him to be devoured by the lam-
preys. On examining into the matter, the Emperor, aston-
ished at the barbarity of his favorite, caused the fish-ponds
to be filled up.

Respecting this fish, there is another use to which the
mouth or sucker is applied. The whole of its interior arch
is studded with rows of teeth, each one of which, on a broad
base, is furnished with one or two apparently reversed
points, and these teeth which are most remote and con-
cealed are larger than others, and more effectually crowded
with these points. For simply biting they are useless, but
when the breadth of the mouth is brought into contact with
the surface of a fish on which the lamprey has laid hold, by
producing a vacuum these roughly-pointed teeth are brought
forward so as to be able to act on it by a circular motion ;
and the limited space of the captive prey is thus rasped into
a pulp and swallowed, until a hole is made which may, per-
haps, penetrate to the bones, and from the torture of which
the most strenuous exertion of the victim cannot deliver it.
This is frequent on the mackerel and on other fishes, as the
gurnard, coal-fish, cod and haddock.

The "Mail-Cheeked or Gurnard group of fishes offer

THE MxUL-CUEEKEB GROUP OF FISHES. 279

some very interesting subjects for notice, including a con-
siderable number of species, all characterized by sharp
projecting cheeks, and heads cased in armor of bony plates,
among which we may mention the Flying Gurnard, the Sea-
Scorpion, and the Father-Lasher.

The name " gurnard*' is derived from the growling, grunt
ing noise which these fishes make, by means of the throat
and gills, when taken out of the water, and which has
obtained for one species the name of " piper." The Romans
used to call the latter " lyres," rather, perhaps, on account
of their fancied resemblance to an ancient lyre, than to
the very unmusical sound they emit. Many of the gurnards
are distinguished by beauty of color.

The New Zealand G-urnard, about eighteen inches in
length, is a splendid fish : the upper part is brownish-red,
the fins are very large and of an emerald green, broadly
bordered with azure blue, and having an oval patch of vel-
vety black beautifully relieved with snow-white spots.

The Sea-Scorpion differs from its land namesake, the
possessor of one solitary but dangerous tail-sting, the head
of the fish being surrounded with goads and prickles, which
render it a formidable enemy to contend with, by swelling
out its cheeks and gill-covers to a large size, realizing Ovid's
description of it, —

" Scorpoena's poison'd head, beset with spines;"

excepting that the stings, beyond inflicting a sharp pain,
are not venomous. Some of these animals are remarkable
for their ugliness, and others exhibit very fine colors. They
abound in the warm seas, and are often taken on the Atlan-
tic shores, sometimes exceeding a foot in length.

The Marine Sticklebacks, which are thus named from the
spines Avhich arm their back, ventral fins, and other parts^
are inhabitants of the seas in cold and temperate regions,
and are curious little animals, a kind of Liliputian warriors

280 PUGNACITY OF THE MARINE STICKLEBACKS.

armed at all points for warfare, protected at the sides by
shell-like plates, and with spears that play terrible havoc
among the Crustacea and small animals on which they feed.
They are objects of peculiar interest from the beauty of
their colors, which they change in a remarkable manner.
They are excessively pugnacious and predatory in their
habits, the larger species eating the smaller, and destroying
the eggs and fry of fishes to a prodigious extent. An
observer relates of the fifteen-spined stickleback, about six
inches in length, — sometimes called the " sea-adder,^' — " that
it keeps near rocks and stones clothed with sea-weeds,
among which it takes refuge upon any alarm. Though less
active than its brethern of the fresh water, it is scarcely less
rapacious. On one occasion I noticed a specimen engaged
in taking its prey from a clump of sea-weed, in doing which
it assumed every posture between the horizontal and
perpendicular, with the head downwards and upwards,
thrusting its projecting snout into the crevices of the stems,
and seizing its prey with a spring. Having taken this fish
with a net, and transferred it to a vessel of water, in company
with an eel three inches long, the latter was attacked and
devoured head foremost ; not, indeed, altogether, for the eel
was too large a morsel, so that the tail remained hanging out
of the mouth, and it was obliged to disgorge the eel partly
digested."

A writer relates some interesting observations on the
fighting propensities of these animals when confined in a tub
of water :

"A few at first are turned in, and swim about in a shoal,
apparently examining their new habitation. Suddenly one
will take possession of a corner of a tub, or, as it will
sometimes happen, of the bottom, and will instantly com-
mence an attack on its companions; and if any of these
venture to oppose its rule, a regular and most furious battle
ensues. The two combatants swim round and round each

THE STTCKLEBACKS-NEST-BUILDING FISHES.

282 THE STICKLEBACKS NEST-BUILDING FISHES.

Other with the greatest rapidity, biting and endeavoring to
pierce each other with their spines, which on these occa-
sions are projected. I have witnessed a battle of this sort
which lasted several minutes before the other would give
w^ay; and when one does submit, imagination can hardly
conceive the vindictive fury of the conqueror, who, in the
most persevering and unrelenting w^ay, chases its rival from
one part of the tub to another until fairly exhausted with
fatigue. They also use their spines with such fatal effect
that, incredible as it may appear, I have seen one, during
a battle, absolutely rip an opponent quite open, so that it
sank to the bottom and died. I have known three or four
parts of the tub taken possession of by as many other
little tyrants, who guard their territories with the strictest
vigilance, and the slightest invasion invariably brings on
a battle."

It is pleasing to add for the honor of the sex that the
females take no part in these ferocious proceedings; a
redeeming feature in the belligerents, however, is the care
which they take in building their nests and w^atching over
the welfare of the females and their eggs. The reader may
not have heard of nest-building fishes, and, indeed, although
the ancients were acquainted with this instinct in some
fishes, it was not until 1838 that modern naturalists proved
this by the discovery of a stickleback nest. These ani-
mals collect small pieces of straw or stick, with which the
bottom of the nest is laid among water-plants, and these
they cement together by a transpiration from their own
bodies, which forms a thread through and round them in
every conceivable direction. The thread is whitish, fine,
and silken. The sides of the nest are made after the
bottom.

Not many fishes are yet known as nest-builders. The
Goramy, a native of the China seas, forms at the breeding-
season a nest by interlacing tlie stems and leaves of aquatic

OTHER NE8T-BUILDING FISHES. 283

grapes. Both male and female watch these nests for a
month or more with great vigilance, violently driving away
every other fish until the spawn is hajtched. The Gobies or
Sea-Gudgeons, have similar instincts. Many, however, are
known not to construct nests. Salmon and others exhibit
an approach to the nest-building habit, in making a place
for their eggs in the sand or gravel.

We must now notice the Flying Gurnard, remarkably dis-
tinguished from the others of the family to which it is allied
by the great size of its pectoral fins, which are long enough,
and their webs sufficiently broad, to sustain the fish in the
air during its long flying leaps out of the water. These fins,
however, are very different in appearance from those of the
flying-fish {Exocetus, " fishes out of the water "), which be-
longs to another family. The flying gurnard is an inhabi-
tant of the warm seas ; one species is common in the Medi-
teranean, and is sometimes fifteen inches in length. Its
flight is said not to extend more than about forty yards, but
it sometimes rises high enough to fall on the decks of large
ships. At particular times, and especially on the approach
of rough weather in the night, numbers of them may be
seen by the phosporic light which they emit, making their
passages in apparent streams of fire.

Flying-fishes have the power of raising themselves out
of the water, and continuing suspended in the air until their
fins become dry, by which means they escape some of their
marine enemies, such as the dolphin and many others.

" So fishes rising from the main,

Can soar with, moisten'd wings on high;
The moisture dried, they sink again,
And dip their wings again to fly."

But they run the gauntlet of the long-winged sea birds,
which seize them in the air; and between themselves and
their swimming and flying enemies, they furnish one of

284

FLYING FISHES.

the most singular sights in the warm seas of the tropics.
One species of the Exocetus sometimes visits the EngKsh
coasts, and are said to leap more than two hundred yards
in distance, and upwards of twenty feet in height.
Although these fishes are called "flying," their
action has more resemblance to a long and vigorous leap
than the flight of birds. Birds have an elegant, fearless,
and independent motion ; while that of the fish is hurried,
stiff, and awkward, more like a creature requiring support
for a short period.

THE FLYING FISH.

STBANQE SOUNDS AT SEA.

285

Very curious are the statements regarding what have
been called " musical " fish, but how far such a title is war-
ranted is doubtful. It is known that many fishes, notwith-
standing their being characterized as mute, are remarkable
for giving utterance to a peculiar sound called " drumming.'^
This is very perceptible in the famous Maigre of the Medi-
terranean, the Umhrina of the Romans, a fish which swims in
groups, and often utters a low bellowing sound beneath the
water, which is heard from a depth of one hundred and
twenty feet, and is rendered stronger by placing the ear
upon the gunwale of the boat.

Lieutenant White of the U. S. Navy, in his " Voyage to
the China Seas,'' published in 1824, relates that being at the
mouth of the Cambodia, his crew and himself were ex-
tremely astonished by hearing certain unaccountable sounds
from beneath and around the vessel. These were various,
like the bass notes of an organ, the sound of bells, the croak-
ing of frogs, and a pervading twang which the imagination
might have attributed to the vibrations of some enormous
harp. For a time the mysterious music swelled upon them,
and finally formed a universal chorus all around ; but as the
vessel ascended the river, the sounds diminished in strength,
and soon altogether ceased.

Humboldt was witness to a similar fact in the South Sea,
but without suspecting the cause. Towards seven in the
evening the whole crew were astounded by an extraordinary
noise, which resembled that of drums which were beating in
the air. It was at first attributed to the breakers. Speedily
it was heard in the vessel, and especially towards the poop.
It was like a boiling, the noise of the air which escapes

286 MUSICAL FISHES.

from fluid in ebullition. The sailors began to fear there
was some leak in the vessel. It was heard unceasingly in
all parts of the vessel, and finally, about nine o'clock, it
ceased altogether.

It would form a curious matter of research to ascertain
by what organs these sounds are produced at so great a depth,
and without communication with the exterior air. The
illustrious naturalist further remarks that such of the Scicen-
idee (the Maigre family) as are the most remarkable for the
faculty in question, having the swimming-bladder very large
and thick, furnished with extremely strong muscles, and are,
in several species, provided with more or less complicated
prolongations, which penetrate between the intervals of the
ribs. But what renders the phenomenon more unaccounta-
ble is that these swimming-bladders have no communication
with the intestinal canal, nor, in general, with any part of
the exterior.

The interpreter belonging to Lieutenant White's ship
stated that the marine music which had so much surprised
the crew was produced by fishes of a flattened oval form,
and which possess the faculty of adhering to various bodies
by their mouths. This fish might have been the Pogonia,
Avhich produces much more sound than any of the other
Maigre tribe to which it belongs, on which account it is
sometimes called the " drum-fish." Schoeff reports of them
that they will assemble round the keel of a vessel at anchor,
and serenade the crew. Some of the species attain a large
size — one hundred pounds or more — and are excellent for
the table.

Sir James Emerson Tennant, in his account of Ceylon,
states: " In the evening, when the moon had risen, I took a
boat and accompanied the fishermen to the spot where mu-
sical sounds were said to be heard issuing from the bottom
of a lake, and which the natives supposed to proceed from
some fish peculiar to the locality. I distinctly heard the

MUSICAL FI8HE8.

287

sounds in question. They came up from the water like the
gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a
wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a wet finger. It was
not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny sounds, each
clear and distinct in itself, the sweetest treble mingling with
the deepest bass. They came evidently and sensibly from
the depths of the lake, and appeared to be produced by
mollusca, and not by fish."

Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some
places on the western coast of India, especially in the har-
bor of Bombay.

Among the foremost of queer fish is the Sea-Devil, a
most inharmonious name, but which seems to have been given
to it on account of its hideous, strange, and uncouth appear-
ance. A species of this extraordinary fish of the Skate fam-
ily frequents Kingston harbor in Jamaica, Avhere they are
seen floating on the surface, or swimming just beneath the
water. An interesting account is given by Lieutenant La-

288 THE SEA-DEVIL.

mont of the escape of a devil-fish and the capture of an-
other at Port Koyal. The lieutenant had been called to the
beach by seeing a multitude assembled to look at one of
these fishes floating past. His curiosity turned to surprise
when he saw, flapping on the water, about twenty yards
from the shore, a large dark-colored mass, whose shape
and size he could not immediately determine, but which
seemed prodigiously big beyond anything he could conceive,
since it so much exceeded all he had ever seen or heard of
fishes. The boats were started oif to pursue it, and it was
harpooned, but no sooner was the monster struck than it
made off with amazing velocity, towing the boat of the har-
pooner after him. A succession of boats now came up.
These strung themselves on to the harpooner one after an-
other, striking each a harpoon as the boats came up. They
consecutively formed a long line, but such was the force of
the fish that all the boats were drawn out ten miles to sea.
Night was drawing on. To bring the chase to a close, an-
other harpoon was struck into the monster, when it made one
convulsive effort to get away, and broke loose, carrying
away eight or ten harpoons and pikes, leaving every one as-
tonished at the success of its escape.

Another devil-fish was not so fortunate, and Lieutenant
Lamont gives the history of its capture within the harbor,
which the animal traversed up and down, dragging with
such velocity the boat from which it had been struck, that
the other boats following could not overtake the fish. Its
struggles were tremendous, plunging into the midst of the
boats that at length surrounded it, darting from the surface
to the bottom of the water, and then rising swiftly, dashing
the foam about on every side and rolling round and round to
extricate itself from the poles and lines. Unable to get
away, it swam off, towing all the boats after it, and then
laid itself at the bottom of the water. From this position
the stretch and strain of all the boats* crews could not move

CAPTURE OF A SEA-DEVIL. 289

it. Slackening their efforts gradually, tlie monster rose
again to the surface, when a shower of musket-balls and
pikes riddled it through. Until this capture was effected,
it was believed that a sea-devil was beyond the might of
human art and strengh. The dimensions of this fish were
not more than half that of the common size, being only
fifteen feet in width. A man, however, entered the mouth
with ease, the space being two feet and a half. The weight
of the fish was so great, that, with difficulty, forty men with
two lines attached to it dragged it along the ground.

A devil-fish taken at Barbadoes required seven yoke of
oxen to draw it.

In the account of the fish taken in Delaware Bay (remarks
the Hon. Richard Hill in an interesting article on the subject
of the devil-fish), it was stated that drawing a boat after it
with the celerity of a whale when harpooned, it caused a
wave to be raised on each side the trough of the sea, several
feet higher than the boat; that during the- scuffle the vast
fins of the fish lashed the sea with such vehemence that the
spray rose to the height of thirty feet, and rained dropping
water around to the distance of fifty feet, and yet the meas-
urement of this fish was only half of those generally seen,
being only eighteen feet in breadth. Three pairs of oxen, one
horse, and twenty-two men, all pulling together, with the
surges of the Atlantic to help, could barely convey the mon-
ster to the dry beach.

The monstrous skate said by Pere Labat to have been
observed by the natives of Guadaloupe, and described as
fourteen feet broad, and ten feet from the head to the com-
mencement of the tail, with the tail fifteen feet more, alto-
gether twenty-five feet long, was no doubt a kindred species
of the devil-fish ; and the monster spoken of by the early
voyagers as suffocating the pearl-divers in the water, and
known by the name of Mania, was a similar animal.

Surprising stories are related of these fishes. Le Yaillant

290 TEE FISHING FROG.

speaks of three that he saw in the Atlantic — one so large
that it seemed fifty or sixty feet wide ; they all three carried
each on his horns a white fish about half a yard long, which
appeared to be stationed there on duty as sentinels, to keep
watch for the safety of the " devils," and to guide their
movements: that these sentinels passed over their backs
when they rose too high, and repassed under them until
they descended deeper, disappearing and being seen no
more for a time, but reappearing and resuming their post as
sentinels when the fish again ascended to the surface.

Among other "queer " fish, is the Fishing Frog, or Ang-
ler, belonging to the " Wristed " family (so named from the
prolongation of the wrist-bones, forming a kind of arm, sup-
porting the pectoral fin on a kind of hand), and one of the
most extraordinary and repulsive-looking animals that
inhabit the deep.

Let the reader imagine a gigantic tadpole blown out to
the size of a porpoise, with an immense head, and a mouth
extending on either side far beyond the width of the body,
opening to view a capacious den, shagged throughout with
hooked and mobile teeth, a triple tier in the upper, and
an equal number in the lower jaw, the palate, tongue^
fauces, pharynx, and far down the throat, glistening with a
like display of 'ivory fangs; unfishy orbs, resembling those
of the " star-gazer " (the " priest-fish," so named from the
whites of its eyes, looking constantly heavenward), planted
high in the forehead ; a scaleless skin, which is reeking
cold, and clammy ; its surface, from near the tail to the cor-
ners of the mouth, as crawling with long wriggling caruncu-
lated (fleshy) appendages, like so many worms in agony;
the flesh "boggy" to the touch, save where it is padded out
with an enormously extended liver, or just over the branchial
(apertures for the passage of water from the gills) cavity ;
a pantry constantly replenished with provisions; add to all
these a large pair of Caliban-hand-like fins, planted close

VORACITY OF THE FISHING FROG. 291

under the throat; a fierce, malevolent aspect, and an
ungainly mode of wallowing, rather than swimming, through
the brine, and it will be apparent, even from this very im-
perfect sketch, that such a fish scarecrow could not fail to
arrest attention, even had their been no other claim to
regard than his portentous ugliness.

Of its boldness and voracity many anecdotes are related.
A fisherman had hooked a cod-fish, and whilst drawing it up
he felt a heavier weight attach itself to his line. This
appeared to be a frog-fish of a large size, which he com-
pelled to quit its hold by a heavy blow on the head, leaving
its prey still attached to the hook. In another instance one
of these fishes had seized a conger eel which had taken the
hook ; but after the latter had been engulfed in the enor-
mous jaws, and perhaps in the stomach, it struggled
through the gill-aperture of its captor, and in that situation
both were drawn up together.

An incident is related of its swallowing a large ball of
cork employed as a buoy to a butler or deep-sea line.

It has also been stated that when this fish is captured in
a net, its rapacious appetite is not in the least diminished,
but it generally devours some of its fellow-prisoners.

The sea-frog, as it can live longer out of water than most
other fish, is said to pass some of its time on shore. The
naturalist, Rondolet, tells a curious story of one being found
on land, holding a fox fast by the leg. The cunning quad-
ruped, outreached for once by a fish, had put his foot into
the mouth of the sea-frog, who, instantly closing upon it,
held it fast as in a trap till next morning, when Rondolet
surprised them in this strange position.

The name of "angler" given to this singular fish is
derived from its habit of crouching close to the ground, and
stirring up with its fins the sand or mud. In the obscurity
thus produced the animal moves its appendages, tentacles
or feelers, in various directions, by way of attracting as a

292 THE SA W-FlJSff.

bait, and the small fishes approaching to examine or seize
them are soon conveyed to the capacious jaws of the angler.
Nature has added to this provision for obtaining food, inas-
much as a filament shooting up close to the upper lip of the
fish carries upon its extremity a little membrane or flag, of
brilliant metallic lustre, which, it is supposed, the angler
uses as a means of alluring its prey ; and the relative posi-
tion of the flag, the eye, and the mouth, favor such a pur-
pose. The upper part of the body is brown, inclining to
dusky, and the lower parts are white. The sea-frog is com-
mon in the Northern Ocean and the Mediterranean ; it is
also taken sometimes on the British coasts.

In the chapter on the " Monarchs of the Ocean." we
have alluded to the Saw-fish and the Sword-fish as formid-
able enemies to the whale ; but is not merely on their fel-
low-inhabitants of the deep that these powerful fishes exer-
cise their aggressive propensities. Some singular instances
are related of their attacking even the "wooden walls " that
glide tranquilly through their watery domain.
Captain Wilson, of the Halifax packet, states:
"Being in the Gulf of Paria, in the ship's cutter, I fell
in with a Spanish canoe, manned by two men, then in great
distress, who requested me to save their lines and canoe,
with which request I immediately complied, and going
alongside for that purpose, I discovered that they had got
a large saw-fish entangled in their turtle-net, which was
towing them out to sea, and but for my assistance they must
have lost either their canoe or their net, or perhaps both,
which were their only means of subsistence. Having only
two boys with me at the time in the boat, I desired them
to cut the fish away, which they refused to do. I then took
the bight of the net from them, and with the joint endeav-
ors of themselves and my boat's crew, Ave succeeded in
hauling up the net, and to our astonishment, after great
exertions, we raised the "saw " of the fish about eight feet

VIOLENCE OF THE 8A W-FItiH. 293

above the surface of the sea. It was a fortunate circum-
stance that the fish came up Avith the belly towards the
boat, or it would have cut the boat in two.

" I had abandoned all idea of taking the fish, until, by-
great good luck, it made towards the land, when 1 made
another attempt, and having about three hundred feet of
rope in the boat, we succeeded in making a running bowline-
knot round the saw of the fish, and this we fortunately made
fast on shore. When the fish found itself secured, it plunged
so violently that I could not prevail on anyone to go near it ;
the appearance it presented was truly awful. I immediately
went alongside the Lima packet. Captain Singleton, and got
the assistance of all his ship's crew. By the time they
arrived, the fish was less violent. We hauled upon the net
again, in which it was still entangled, and got another three
hundred feet of line made fast to the saw, and attempted to
haul it toward the shore; but although mustering thirty
hands, we could not move it an inch. By this time the ne-
groes belonging to Mr. Danglad's estate came flocking to our
assistance, making together about one hundred in number,
with the Spaniards. We then hauled on both ropes for
nearly the day, before the fish became exhausted. On
endeavoring to raise the fish it became most desperate,
sweeping with its sword from side to side, so that we were
compelled to get strong ropes to prevent it from cutting us
to pieces. After that, one of the Spaniards got on its back,
and at great risk cut through the joint of the tail, when ani-
mation was completely suspended. It was then measured,
and found to be twenty-two feet long and eight feet broad,
and weighed nearly five tons."

An East Indiaman was attacked by a sword-fish with such
prodigious force as to drive its ** snout" completely through
the bottom of the ship, and must have been destroyed by the
leak had not the animal been killed by the violence of its
own exertions, and the sword remaining imbedded in the

294: PRODIGIOUS STRENGTH OF THE SWORD-FISH.

wood. A fragment of this vessel, with the sword fixed
firmly in it, is preserved as a curiosity in the British
Museum.

Several instances of a similar character have occurred,
and one formed the subject of an action in the courts of law
so recently as 1868, brought against an insurance company
for damages sustained by a vessel from the attack of one of
these fishes. It seems the Dreadnought^ a first-class mercan-
tile ship, left a foreign port in perfect repair, and on the
afternoon of the third day a " monstrous creature" was seen
sporting among the waves, and lines and hooks were thrown
overboard to capture it. All efforts to this effect, however,
failed: the fish got away, and in the night-time the vessel
was reported to be dangerously leaking. The captain was
compelled to return to the harbor he had left, and the dam-
age was attributed to a sword-fish, twelve feet long, which
had assailed the ship below water-line, perforated her
planks and timbers, and thus imperilled her existence on
the ocean.

Professor Owen, the distinguished naturalist, was called
to give evidence on this trial as to the probability of such
an occurrence, and he related several instances of the pro-
digious strength of the " sword." It strikes with the ac-
cumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers; its
velocity is equal to that of a swivel shot, and it is as dan-
gerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile would be.

Oppian describes the sword-fish when attacked :

" He summons to Lis instant aid
The oft-tried prowess of his trusty blade ;
Selects some boat, and runs his puissant sword
Full many an inch within the fatal board."

In remarking upon beautiful fishes, it would be quite out
of the limits of a small publication like the present to
attempt more than a bare mention of a few species of the

BEAUTIFUL FISHES.

295

ocean inhabitants which possess, in a special degree, the
attributes to which this term may be applied. Among the
most prominent of beautiful fishes is the Dolphin, which,
however, belongs to an extensive family, including the por-
poise, grampus, <fec., and animals which, on account of their
large size, are commonly called whales.

SKATES.

There are, however, many other fish that change color
before they die. We have seen species of the cat-fish
change from a warm and glowing smalt during the last

296 CHANGING COLORS OF THE DOLPHIN.

pangs to a dull leaden hue, losing at the same time the deli-
cate pinky tinge of the sides and abdomen. The common
sucking-fish, from a brown, bright, shining, blackish color,
changes even in the Avater to a leaden hue, and as it dies
assumes a tan-color, which grows paler by degrees and turns
to a dingy white.

When swimming near the surface of the water, and glit-
tering beneath the light of a cloudless sky, the dolphins
appear clothed in the richest gold, and to have the starry
lustre of the topaz and sapphire. Two species have been
named, from the variety and vividness of their tints, the
*' sea-peacock" and the "blue-fish."

The true dolphin has the snout prolonged into a rather
slender beak, Avhence the French have applied to it the
name of " the goose of the sea." It was very differently
regarded and designated by the ancients, who looked upon
it as a sacred fish, and dedicated it to Appollo, who was
worshipped at Delphi Avith dolphins for his symbols. The
name is given to one of the fairest provinces of France —
Dauphiny, from Avhich the heir-apparent of the throne form-
erly derived his title of " Dauphin."

Wondrously beautiful, indeed, are these gay inhabitants
of the seas, especially when seen playing and springing from
the Avater, when they assume the curved shape that is not
natural to them, but which old painters and sculptors have
always given them.

" Upon the swelling waves the dolphins show
Their bending backs, then swiftly darting go.
And in a thousand wreaths their bodies throw."

They are, however, very voracious animals, and are said
to prey not only on other fishes, but their own species. The
flying-fish in particular comes in for a share of their pursuit.
Captain Basil Hall gives a vivid discription of their opera-
tions :

DOLPHINS m P UR8UIT OF FL YING FISHES. 297

" Shortly after observing a cluster of flying-fish rise out
of the water, we discovered two or three dolphins ranging
past the ship in all their beauty, and watched with some
anxiety to see one of those aquatic chases of which our
friends, the Indiamen, had been telling such wonderful
stories. We had not long to wait, for the ship, in her pro-
gress through the Avater, soon put up another shoal of these
little things, which, as the others had done, took their
flight directly to windward. A large dolphin, which had
been keeping company with us abresst of the weather gang-
way, at the depth of two or three fathoms, and, as usual,
glistening most beautifully in the sun, no sooner detected
our poor dear little friends take wing than he turned his
head towards them and, darting to the surface, leaped from
the water with a velocity little short, as it seemed, of a can-
non-ball. But, although the impetus with which he shot
himself into the air gave him an initial velocity greatly
exceeding that of the flying-fish, the start which his fated
prey had got enabled them to keep ahead of him for a con-
siderable time.

" The length of the dolphin's first spring could not be
less than ten yards, and after he fell we could see him glid-
ing like lightning through the water for a moment, when he
again arose and shot forwards with considerably greater
velocity than at first, and, of course, to a still greater dis-
tance. In this manner the merciless pursuer seemed to
stride along with fearful rapidity, while his brilliant coat
sparkled and flashed in the sun quite splendidly. As he fell
headlong on the water at the end of each huge leap, a series
of circles were sent far over the still surface, which lay as
smooth as a mirror.

" The group of wretched flying-fish, thus hotly pursued,
at length dropped into the sea; but we were rejoiced to
observe that they merely touched the top of the swell, and
scarcely sank in it ; at least, they instantly set off again in a

298 THE DOLPHIN A SEA-SPOBTSMAN.

fresh and more vigorous flight. It was particularly inter-
esting to observe that the direction they now took was
quite different from the one in which they had set out, im-
plying but too obviously that they had detected their fierce
enemy, who was following them with giant steps on the
waves, and now gaining rapidly upon them. His terrific
pace was, indeed, two or three times as swift as theirs, poor
little things!

" The greedy dolphin, however, was fully as quick-sighted
as the flying-fish which were trying to elude him, for when-
ever they varied their flight in the smallest degree, he lost
not the tenth part of a second in shaping a new course, so
as to cut off the chase ; whilst they, in a manner really not
unlike that of the hare, doubled more than once on their
pursuer. But it was soon too plainly to be seen that the
strength and confidence of the flying-fish were fast ebbing.
Their flights became shorter and shorter, and their course
more fluttering and uncertain, while the enormous leaps of
the dolphin appeared to grow more vigorous at each bound.
Eventually, indeed, we could see, or fancied that we could
see, that this skilful sea-sportsman arranged all his springs
with such an assurance of success that he contrived to fall
at the end of each just under the very spot on which the
exhausted flying-fish were about to drop. Sometimes this
catastrophe took place at too great a distance for us
to see from the deck exactly what happened; but on
our mounting high into the rigging, we may be said to have
been in at the death, for then we could discover that the
unfortunate little creatures, one after another, either popped
right into the dolphin's jaws as they lighted on the water, or
were snapped up instantly afterwards.

*' It was impossible not to take an active part with our
pretty little friends of the weaker side, and accordingly we
very speedily had our revenge. The middies and the sailors,
delighted with the chance, rigged out a dozen or twenty

THE MACKEREL. 299

lines from the jibboom-end and spritsail-yard-arms, with
hooks baited merely with bits of tin, the glitter of which
resembles so much that of the body and wings of the flying-
fish that many a proud dolphin, making sure of a delicious
morsel, leaped in rapture at the glittering prize."

The dolphin, however, in turn becomes the prey of other
fishes, and especially of the Fox-Shark, or Sea-Fox as it is
sometimes called, a genus of sharks containing only one
known species, belonging to the Mediterranean Sea, and the
Atlantic, and occasionally seen on English coasts. This
powerful fish attains a length of thirteen feet, including the
tail-fin, which is remarkably long, nearly half the dimensions
of the animal, and which, as a weapon of offence, is very for-
midable. The furious lashing of this appendage has obtained
for this fish the popular name of " thresher." A whole herd
of dolphins will take flight at the first splash of this tail,
and even the grampus, the largest of the dolphin family,
and, it is said, a formidable adversary of the whale, comes
off badly in an encounter with the fox-shark.

The numerous and interesting Mackerel family include
many species remarkable for rich coloring. The common
Mackerel itself, which is described in the chapter on "Meth-
ods of Fishing," is a very beautiful fish, with its brilliant
blue and green tints, besides its elegant form. The Dory,
or John Dory as it is popularly called, is said to derive its
name from the golden tint that prevails over it when taken
from the water; Jaune in French being ''yellow," and c?ore',
"golden." Along the shores of the Mediterranean, where
this fish abounds, it is called among other names "St. Peter's
Fish," from a legend that the apostle obtained from it the
coin to pay the tribute mone}^, and that the impression of
his two fingers marks the species to the present day; a dis-
tinction, however, which is claimed also for the haddock.
The dory is very common on some parts of the Atlantic
coasts. The prevailing color of the body (which is oval) is

300 THE GLORT OF THE MACKEREL FAMILY.

an olive-brown tinged with yellow, reflecting in different
lights blue, gold, and white. When the fish is taken, the
varying tints of these beautiful colors pass in rapid succes-
sion over the body. Though flat in form, the fish swims
erect, and both surfaces being thus equally exposed to the
light, are alike of a coppery hue.

The Boar-fish, a relative of the dory, is of inferior preten-
sions as regards shape and color, the mouth having some
resemblance to the snout of a hog, which doubtless originated
the name. The eyes are very large and prominent, and the
bod}^ of a pale carmine color, with orange bands on the
back.

But the glory of the Mackerel family, at least for splen-
dor of appearance, is the Opah, or King-fish, an inhabitant
of the seas of high northern latitudes, and occasionally found
on the British coasts, sometimes five feet long and one hun-
dred and fifty pounds in weight. The colors are, indeed,
magnificent. The whole back is of a steel blue, wdiich, on
the flanks, becomes rich green, reflecting in different lights
purple and gold, and a lovely rose-color on the abdomen.
Numerous oval spots, some milk-white, others of a beautiful
silvery lustre, adorn this groundwork, while small ones orna-
ment the head. The gill-covers are very brilliant, and the
iris of its large eye is of a beautiful golden color : all the fins
are vermilion.

Among marine members of the perch family, we may
mention the Red Mullet as very beautiful in its delicate rose-
color, striped with yellow j which colors, however, soon fado
after death.

"On fish a different fate attends, nor reach they long the shore
Ere fade their hues like rainbow tints, and soon their beauty's o'er."

It was one of these mullets which was so celebrated among
the Romans for the excellency of its flesh, its great beauty,
and the extravagant prices it brought. In the days of

MULLETS AND SEA-PEBCHES. 301

Horace this fish was valued in proportion to its size, not be-
cause the larger were better, but (as happens in the fashion-
able world frequently in our own time) because they were
procured with greater difficulty. Enormous sums were paid
for these fishes. Juvenal tells us,

" The lavish
Six thousand pieces for a mullet gave,
A sesterce for each pound."

amounting altogether to a sum of nearly two hundred and
fifty dollars of our money, while, according to Pliny, a con-
sul named Asinius Celer gave a sum equal to nearly four hun-
dred dollars of our currency for a single fish of this kind ;
an infatuation we can only feel paralleled by the " tulip
mania " of former days. Neither did the extravagance of
these people end even here, for Senaca informs us they were
so exceedingly fastidious about the freshness of this fish
that, according to the luxurious habits of those days, rich
epicures kept aquariums in their dining-rooms, so that the
fish could be taken out alive under the table : one reason
besides the freshness of the fish, being, that the guests
might see them change their colors when they were dying.
In these feasts they revelled over the expiring mullet, while
the bright red color of health passed through various
shades of purple, violet, blue, and white, as life gradually
ebbed and convulsions put an end to the revolting specta-
cle. They also put these devoted fishes into crystal vessels
filled with water, over a slow fire upon their tables, a refine-
ment of cruelty which required an *' imperial " Humane Soci-
ety to see after.

The Basse or Sea-Perch is an elegant fish, with chaste
and pleasing colors, the upper parts gray with bluish tints
shading into silvery white ; tolerably common on our coasts
during the summer. The armed Enoplessus, another mem-
ber of the Perch family, very abundant in the New Holland

302 B^A UTIFUL MEMBERS OF THE PEUCH FAMIL Y,

seas, is remarkable for its chaste coloring, the ground-shade
being of a silvery gray, relieved by eight narrow black
bands, which either entirely or in part surround the body.
The fins have a yellowish tint. It is about eight or ten
inches in length. The Two-banded Diploprion, an inhabi-
tant of the coast of Java, also claims the same relationship ;
the colors are a fine reddish-yellow, relieved by two cross-
ing bands of black; length of the fish about six inches.
Another genus is the Mediteranean Apogon, about the same
length as the last-named fish, but of far more brilliant colors.
The prevailing color is of a crimson-red, paler on the lower
parts, with three deep black markings. The whole surface
of the body is covered over with small black spots or dots.

To the same extensive family belong the Lettered Sera-
nus, a beautifully-marked fish, found on the coasts of the
Mediterranean. The general ground-tint of the skin is a
reddish-orange, sometimes inclining to olive, and shading
to a pale tint on the lower parts. The back is banded, as
in the Perch, with dull brown bands, but the most showy
marks are the narrow irregular lines of rich blue which run
on the nose below the eyes and on the cheeks, which assume
the form of written characters (hence the name "lettered").
The ground color of the fins is gray, spotted sometimes
with reddish-orange, and sometimes with purple. The
Spined Seranus, belonging also to the same warm seas, is of a
brilliant red or scarlet, which on the sides assumes a golden
tint, and on the belly becomes pale or almost silvery. Upon the
sides of the head are three bands of golden yellow, and on
the forehead are bands of bronzed green: the fins are
tinted with red and yellow. This fish in length is generally
from five to seven inches.

The Beautiful Pledropoma, also of the Perch family, mer-
its its name from the lovel}^ colors it exhibits. This fish in-
habits the tropical seas, and some species are unusually
lovely. The ground-tint of the body is olive, crossed by six

CURIOUS INSTINCT OF THE ARCHER FISHES. 303

bands of olive black. A line of blue surrounds the orbit;
the fins are tinted with olive and yellow, the pectorals
sometimes with a delicate rose-color. This fish is about
four or five inches in length. A formidable rival in point of
beauty, however, is the the One-spotted 3Iesoprion, of the
same family, a native of our seas, and as remarkable for the
elegance of its form (length about fourteen inches) as the
richness and lustre of the coloring. The back, upper part
of the head, and cheeks are of a rich steel blue, the lower
part of the cheeks and sides of a rich rose-color, and the
belly silvery J the whole body is striped with seven or eight
bands on a rose-colored ground, and the others are gamboge
yellow. The coloring is subject to a considerable variety
in tint, from golden orange to silvery. The Golden-tailed
Mesoprion is of similar richness.

What is called the " Scaly-finned " family of fishes is a
large one, containing about one hundred and fifty species,
most of which, however, frequent the Indian and Polynesian
seas, and are conspicuous for their splendid coloring. It
has been observed that if the " feathered tribes of the warm
regions are bedecked with the most brilliant and gorgeous
hues, the neighboring oceans contain myriads of the finny
race which in this respect excel them. Upon the'first of
three groups of this family especially, nature has most pro-
fusely lavished these splendid ornaments. The purple of
the iris, the richness of the rose, the azure blue of the sky,
the darkest velvet black, and many other hues are seen com-
mingled with metallic lustre over the pearly surface of the
resplendent group, which, habitually frequenting the rocky
shores at no great depth of water, are seen to sport in the
sunbeams as if to exhibit to advantage their gorgeous
dress.

In the chapter on "Submarine Scenery,'^ we have described
the Ghoetodon (signifying I contain a tooth), one of the most
beautiful of this family of fishes. Another animal ranged

THE RIBAND-SHAPED FISH. 305

with the " scaly-fins," is the Archer, a fish about six or eight
inches in length, which, when it perceives a fly or other
winged insect hovering over the surface or settled on a
twig, propels against it with considerable force a drop of
liquid from its mouth, so as to drive it into the water; in
attacking an insect at rest, it usually approaches cautiously,
and very deliberately takes its aim. It is said to be an amuse-
ment with the Chinese in Java to keep this fish in confinement
in a large vessel of water, in order that they may witness its
dexterity. They fasten a fly or other insect to the side of
the vessel, when the fish aims at it with such precision
that it rarely misses its mark. This Japanese fish is called
the Chelmon rostratus. Another genus — the Toxotus jacu-
lata — shoots its watery deluge to the height of three or four
feet, and strikes with unerring aim the insect attacked.

The family of " Riband-shaped Fish " includes the most
singular and extraordinary fishes in creation. The form of
the body when compared to fishes better known is much
like that of the eel, the length being in the same propor-
tion as the breadtli; but then it is so much compressed
that these creatures have obtained the popular name of
"riband-fish," 'Math" or "deal-fish.^ The body, indeed, is
often not thicker, except in its middle, than is a sword;
and being covered with the- richest silver, and of great
length, the undulating motion of these fishes in the sea
must be resplendent and beautiful beyound measure. But
these w^onders of the mighty deep are almost hidden from
the eye of man. These metoric fishes appear to live in
the greatest depths, and it is only at long intervals, and
after a succession o^ tempests, that a solitary individual
is cast on the shore, with its delicate body torn and mu-
tilated by the elements on the rocks.

The family of the " Wrasses," or '' Old Wives of the Sea"
— as they are commonly called — include some very beautiful
species, and are distinguished by their elegant, regular, and

306 THE OLD WIVES OF THE SEA.

oval form. The Rainbow is remarkable for the beauty of
its coloring, as the name would imply : it is the ornament of
the markets on the coast of the Mediterranean, for the
various colors of the fish do not yield in their brilliancy and
beauty to the most lovely fishes of tropical seas. The sum-
mit of the head and back is of a rich brown, mixed with blue
and red ; beneath this brilliant tint there is a broad band,
with a denticulated margin of orange red: below this band,
and at the origin of the gill-ray, the middle portion of the
side is colored by a deep blue band. This marking extends
to near the tail in a band of ultramarine blue. An ultra-
marine streak of the lovliest hue arises at the angle of the
mouth, crosses the cheek, and is prolonged in fainter hues
along the inferior border of the deep blue marking of the
side. The dorsal fin is of an olive-color, mixed with red,
having the margin light blue.

The Parrot-fish belongs to this numerous family, deriving
its name partly from a fancied resemblance in their jaws to
a parrot's bill. These fishes are remarkable for their bril-
liant colors, some of them being of wonderful splendor. One
species, found in the Mediterranean, is supposed to be the
famous Scarus of the ancients, of whose ruminating powers
extraordinary accounts have been related.

To the family of the pipe-fishes belong the Hippocampus^
or Sea-horse, which is, perhaps, more remarkable for the
singularity of its form — the upper parts having some resem-
blance to the head and neck of a horse in miniture — than
for any ornament or color, although these are not wanting.
The singularity of this fish is in the shape and disposition
of the plates on the tail, which are such as to admit of its
being easily curved inwards, and by the aid of which the
animal twists itself around the stems of marine plants, wait-
ing in that position with its head free, ready to dart at any
passing object which it desires to make its prey.

THE GOLD AND SIL VER FISH OF NOB WA Y. 307

For beauty of coloring, irrespective of shape and other
repulsive peculiarities, we may mention the Chimoera^ or
Rabbit-fish, an animal little known, as it frequents the deep
recesses of the ocean, and is only an occasional visitant of
our coasts. In Norway, however, it is more common, and
receives the name of "gold and silver fish," from the
resplendent colors which form the ground of the body, set
off by dark spots. It is also called by the Norwegians the
'' sea-rat," from the, form of the tail, and " king-fish," from a
thready filament, terminating in a tuft, which is found on
the head of the male. The colors are very beautiful: the
upper parts dark brown, varied with yellowish-brown
and silvery; the lower parts bright silver; the eyes large,
green, and brilliantly lustrous, so much so, that the Medi-
terranean fishermen called this fish the " cat." The form of
the fish does not correspond with the vivid colors we have
mentioned, the repulsive shape of the head, and the rat-like
tail, giving it an appearance somewhat allied to sea-
monsters.

In concluding these brief notices of a few out of the mul-
titude of beautiful fishes which give a charm and lovliness
to the element in which they live, we w^ould have the
reader remember that these works of a beneficent Creator
are intended to raise our thoughts in reverent admiration
to that Holy Being, who made all things for our comfort and
delight :

' *' The inhabitant of the waters, generally speaking, knows
no attachments, has no language, no affections; feelings of
conjugality or paternity are not acknowledged by him;
ignorant of the art of constructing an asylum, in danger he
seeks shelter beneath the rocks or in the darkness of the
deep ; his life is silent and monotonous. The cravings of
Toracity alone influence his instinct sufficiently to teach him
some kind of obedience in his movements to external signs.
Although so small a share of enjoyment and intelligence is

308

SPLENDOR OF CERTAIN FI8IIEH.

their lot, fish are, nevertheless, adorned by the hand of
Nature with every kind of beauty : variety in their forms,
elegance in their proportions, diversity and vivacity in their
colors — nothing is wanted to attract the attention of man,
and indeed it seems as if that attention was the principal
object Nature wished to excite. The splendor of every metal,
the blaze of every gem, glitter on their surface ; iridescent
colors, breaking and reflecting in bands, in spots, in angles,
or in undulating lines, always regular, symmetrical, gradua-
ting or contrasting, but always with admirable effect and
harmony, flashing over their sides : for whom else have they
received such gifts, they who at most can barely perceive
each other in the twilight of the deep ; and if they could see
distinctly, w^hat species of pleasure could they receive from.
such combinations?"

SWORD FISH.

CHAPTER XVIL
SHELLS.

MONG the many wonderful productions of na-
ture are the sea shells. How beautifully is
the wisdom of God manifested in shaping out
and moulding them, and especially in the par-
ticular angle which the spiral of each species
of shell effects, a valve connected by necessary relation with
the material of each, and with its stability, and the condi*
ditions of its buoyancy.

310 WONDERFUL STRUCTURE OF SHELLS.

This is shown in many waysj for in the structure of
Shells there is a general adaptation of the wants of the
animal to which they belong. Thus, there are light shells
for the floaters and swimmers, strength for the limpets and
periwinkles, and other adjustments as needed for others.
What can be more wonderful than the apparatus essential
to what are commonly called bivalves, or molluscous ani-
mals protected by two shells? The hinge which connects
them shows a singular contrivance for the necessities of the
animal. It is formed entirely of the inner layer of shell,
and consists of either a simple cardinal (a hinge) process, or
of serrated projections, or teeth as they are called, with cor-
responding cavities or sockets into which they are inserted.
To this hinge is superadded a ligament, the external sub-
stance by which the shells are united, which binds the twO'
parts together, and keeps those composing the hinge in
their places. This ligament is highly elastic, being com-
posed of a number of fibres, parallel to each other and per-
pendicular to the valves which they connect. When the
animal is undisturbed, the elastic ligament keeps the valves
open, and the functions are carried on without any effort.
When danger is apprehended, or circumstances require it,.
the adductor muscle or muscles contract, overcome the re-
sistance of the hinge, and shut the valves close until they
may be opened with safety.

Conchology, is the science which teaches the arrangement
of shells into classes, species, etc. Formerly, these beauti-
ful productions of Nature were looked upon as merely pleas-
ing toys and objects of curiosity, but gradually this inno-
cent trifling came to be viewed in its true light, by some-
collectors worthy of better employment, who put off childish
things and went deeper into the subject. In anticipation
of this, shell-collectors began to look upon their treasures as
an assemblage of gems, and, indeed, the enormous prices
given for fine and scarce shells, joined with the surpassing

GREAT VALUJil OF SOME SHELLS. 311

beauty of the objects themselves, ahuost justified the view
which the possessor took of his cabinet of treasures. But
after all, these were mere trinkets, and the study of shells
and their inhabitants at length became a science of the
utmost importance, not only to naturalists generaly, but to
the geologist, to whom it is of the greatest value in indicat-
ing the difference of strata and their comparative ages.

In Southern Europe some very beautiful shells are found,
especially in the Italian seas. Tarento is singularly rich in
shells. The Indian seas, more than any other part of the
world, abound with the greatest variety of shell-fish, which
exhibit a remarkable contrast, comparatively speaking, to
the few species found under the parallel latitudes of Africa
and America. It is also a singular fact that nearly three-
fourths of these shells belong to the animals entirely carnivo-
rous, who, to support life, must be continually carrying on a
destructive warfare against the weaker animals of their own
class.

Many beautiful shells are brought from the coasts of
Chili and Panama in tropical America. From the western
coast of Africa are obtained many attractive shells, such as
the blood-spotted Harp, the sharp-ribbed Cockle, etc. The
small Cowry, well-known as a substitute for coin among the
barbarous nations of Western Africa, is the same species as
that so abundant in the Indian seas.

Passing to Australia, there are found on the coasts many
of the most beautiful and rare rolled shells known: the
Snow-spotted kind being most valued. They have two dark
bands on a flesh-colored ground, the surface being entirely
covered with white dots.

Man}^ deep-sea shells are so firm in their structures, that
they are brought to the beaches, especially of the tropical
seas, in an entire state, and are eagerly sought after by col-
lectors. Independent of their shape, color and lustre, many

312 IMMENSE Q UANTITIES OF SHELLS.

of them are valuable, inasmuch as they inhabit the seas at
such depths as not to be known in the living state.

The number of shells is far, very far beyond human cal-
culation. An examination of the rocks on the English sea-
shore during the summer will prove this in a slight degree.
These are so covered with shells that scarcely a pin^s point
could be introduced between them. Many apparent grains
of chalk are in reality microscopic shells and fragments of
marine coral, of w^hich upwards of a thousand have been ob-
tained from one pound of chalk.

The most level and lowest parts of the earth, when pene-
trated to a very great depth, exhibit nothing but horizontal
strata, composed of various substances, and containing,
almost all of them, innumerable marine productions. Similar
strata, with the same kind of productions, compose the hills
even to a great height. Sometimes the shells are so numer-
ous as to compose the entire body of the stratum. They
are almost in such a perfect state of preservation, that even
the smallest of them retain their most delicate parts, their
sharpest ridges, and their finest and most tender processes.
They are found in elevations, far above the level of every
part of the ocean, and in places to which the sea could not
be conveyed by any existing cause. The summits of the
Pyrenees and the Andes, at the height of thirteen or four-
teen thousand feet above the level of the sea, present them
to our notice.

The sea-banks and coasts are covered with broken shells,
of which lime is the ingredient. This generally exists in
the state of carbonate, the same as in chalk, common lime-
stone, and marble. Many of the more tender shells and
shelly matters are broken by the agitation of the waters,
and form a variety of sand which is truly a product of the
sea, and forms a valuable manure on land. Great deposits of
this article are found oh the coasts of Devonshire and Corn-
wall, and in many other parts of tlie British coast.

OROANIG STB UCTUBE OF SHELLS. 313

A species of shell, the Cerithium telescopium, is so abundant
near Calcutta as to be used for burning into lime. Great
heaps of it are first exposed to the sun, to kill the animals,
and then burnt. In some places they are so plentiful as to
be used in road making. Mobile, Ala., is built on a shell-
bank.

It was formerly believed that shells were not only devoid
of vessels, but completely without organs, being composed
of the transpiration of particles, chiefly carbonate of lime,
cemented together by a kind of animal glue. It is now
known that shells possess a more or less distinct organic
structure, which in some cases resembles that of the external
skin of the higher animals, while in others it approaches to
that of the true skin.

In the limited space to which our remarks on the subject
of this chapter is necessarily confined, we cannot give more
than a brief outline of this exceedingly interesting depart-
ment of science. We may briefly observe that what are
•called the Testacea (a shell), comprise animals surrounded
with a shelly covering, and may be generally described as of
three kinds : those that possess a single shell, of whatever
form or character, and hence called univalves; those which
have two shells, the bivalves, or Conchce; and others having
more than two shells, or multivalves. Of these, the uni-
valves are the most numerous and exhibit the greatest
variety of forms, being for the 'most part regularly or irreg-
ularly spiral. Among the most common may be mentioned
the ZTeZiOJ, or snail genus ; the Paletta^ or limpet; and the
Turbo, or wreath genus, of which the periwinkle is a species.

The shell of the Clam, or Bear's Paw, is described as,
perhaps, the most ornamental of bivalves, in regard to form,
texture and color. It comes from the South Seas, and is
much used for decorative purposes.

Among the most curious shells is the Murex, or Purpie-
shell, so highly valued by the ancients for the exquisite dye

314 VARIETIES OF SHELLS.

it is capable of producing; the Volute, or Mitre-shell, includ-
ing the fine polished spiral shells, without lips or perforation,
which are often exhibited on chimney-pieces as ornaments,
sometimes embellished with dots and with colored bands.
The Strombus comprise larger shells, spiral like the volute,
but with a large expanding lip, spreading into a groove on
the left side, and often still farther projecting into lobes or
claws, the back frequently covered with large excrescences,,
in some species called Cormorant's foot.

And now for a few observations on the use and value of
shells. Even as mere objects of attraction they tend to
raise the thoughts to that great and glorious Being,

"Our God, omnific, sole original,
Wise, wonder-working wielder of the whole:
Infinite, inconceivable, immense."

who has shaped and adapted them to the wants of number-
less creatures, of which science at the most can have but a
feeble comprehension. Beautiful, since more exquisite sam-
ples of elegance of form and brilliancy of color cannot be
found through the wide range of natural objects, whether
organized or unorganized ; surprising, when we consider that
all these durable relics were constructed by soft and fragile
animals, among the most perishable of living creatures.
Still more surprising is an assemblage of shells, when we re-
ject upon the endless variation of pattern and sculpture
which it displays; for there are known to naturalists more
than fifteen thousand perfectly distinct kinds of shells.
Every one of these kinds has a rule of its own, a law which
every individual of each kind, through all its generations,
implicitly obeys.

The formation of the shell itself is but an example of a
process at work equally in the animal and vegetable king-
doms. A shell, whether simple or complicated in the con*
tour or color, is tiie aggreixate result of the function opera-

OCEAN SHELLS.

316 IMPORTANCE OF SHELLS.

tion of numberless minute membranous cells, the largest of
Avhich does not exceed one hundredth of an inch in diameter,
and in the majority of instances is less than one thousandtii
of an inch. In the cavities of these microscopic chambers is
■deposited a crystalline carbonate of lime, which gives com-
pactness to the beautiful dwelling-house, or rather coat-of-
mail, that protects the tender mollusk. How astonishing is
the reflection, that myriads of exactly similar and exceedingly
minute organs should so work in combination that the result
of their labors should present an edifice rivalling, nay,
exceeding in complexity, yet order of detail and perfection
of elaborate finish, the finest palaces ever constructed by
man!

Sea-shells perform also an important part in the econ-
omy of the universe. Maury remarks on this subject, that
shell-fish and various other tribes that dwell far down in the
•depths of the ocean, although regarded as being so low in
the scale of creation, spread over certain parts of the waters
"those benign mantles of warmth which temper the winds,
and modify more or less all the marine climates of the earth.
The sea-breezes and the sea-shells perform their appointed
offices, acting so as to give rise to a reciprocating motion in
the waters, and thus imparting to the ocean forces also for
its circulation. Sea-shells and sea-insects are the conser-
vators of the ocean. As the salts are emptied into the sea,
these creatures secrete them again, and pile tliem up in
solid masses, to serve as the bases of islands and continents,
to be in the course of ages upheaved into dry land, and then
again dissolved by the dews and rains, and washed by the
rivers into the seas."

The use of shells is multifarious : in China, some descrip-
tions are prepared as medicines; as articles of ornament
they were employed in the earliest times. Several per-
forated shells found in Aquitaine, in France, show that they
must have been worn as decorations or charms by primitive

THE USE OF SHELLS. 31 T

races. The custom of using shells as necklaces is common
not only among savages, but among civilized people at the
present day. Nacreous or pearl-like shells are employed for
making buttons and other articles ; colored and pearl ones
form the ornaments of papier-mach6 work, card-cases, etc.
Various small shells are made into flowers and decorations
for head-dresses; very beautiful cameos are carved upon
some description of shells for brooches, bracelets, ear-rings,,
and other attractive objects. The Fountain-shell of the West
Indies is one of the largest known univalve shells, weighing
sometimes four or five pounds. Immense quantities are im-
ported from the Bahamas for the manufacture of cameos..
The secret of cameo-cutting consists simply in knowing that
the inner stratum of porcellanous shells is differently colored
from the exterior. Some shells are manufactured into-
spoons, handles for knives, cups, lamps, etc. The purest
kind of lime is made from calcined shells, and their use as a
manure has already been mentioned.

Mother-of-pearl is the beautiful white enamel, or pearly
lining, which forms the greater part of most oyster-shells,
but especially the larger ones found in the seas of the Pacific
and Indian Oceans.

In the cathedral and some of the churches in Panama the
upper portions are studded with pearl shells, which give-
them a strange and not unpleasing appearance.

It has been stated that in many of the houses in the capi-
tal, the outer side of the verandah or corridor is composed
of coarse and dark-colored mother-of-pearl shells, of little
value, set in a wooden framework of small squares, forming^
w^indows, which move on slides. Although the light ad-
mitted through this sort of window is much inferior to what
glass would give, it has the advantage of being strong.

The use of spiral shells as trumpets or horns is traced
back to the Romans, and they are thus employed by the
Africans, the natives of the Eastern Archipelago and New

318 THE TRUMPET SHELL.

Zealand, and also in Japan. The fine Trumpet-shell is found
in most warm climates, in the African, the American, and
Asiatic seas, also on the coasts of the islands of the South
Pacific.

An eminent writer, in speaking of the Tahitians, observes,
*^ The sound of the trumpet or shell used in war to stimulate
in action by the priests of the temple, and also by the herald,
and others on board their fleets, was more horrific than that
of the drum. The largest shells were usually selected for
this purpose, and were sometimes above a foot in length,
and seven or eight inches in diameter at the mouth. In
order to facilitate the blowing of this trumpet they made a
perforation, about an inch in diameter, near the apex of the
shell. Into this they inserted a bamboo cane about three
feet in length which was secured by binding it to the shell
with fine braid; the aperture was rendered air-tight by
cementing the outside of it with a resinous gum from the
bread-fruit tree. These shells were blown when a proces-
sion walked to the temple, or their warriors marched to
battle, at the inauguration of the king, during the worship
at the temple, or when a tabu or restriction was imposed in
the name of the gods. The sound is extremely loud, but the
most monotonous and dismal that it is possible to imagine."

This is the shell generally represented by painters in the
hands of the *' Tritons '^or sea-monsters.

In Ceylon shells of a certain kind are used to contain the
sacred oil for anointing the priests. On the western coasts
of South America there is a species of limpet which attains
the diameter of a foot, and the shell of which is employed
by the natives as a basin^

Another general application of shells is as weights to nets
and barbs for harpoons and hooks.

To shell-fish, as articles of food, we have already alluded
with regard to the lobster, crab, oyster, mussel, etc. The

PORCELAIN AND COWRY SHELLS. 319

scallops are now almost as much eaten as oysters, but re-
quire cooking first.

The giant clam of the Indian Ocean, the shell of which
often weighs upwards of five hundred pounds, contains an
animal sometimes weighing twenty pounds, which has been
found to be very good eating. The rock-limpet is much used
by fishermen for bait. In the north of Ireland they are eaten.
The whelk is also employed for bait, and many tons' weight
of these, cockles, and winkles, are consumed by shell-fish
amateurs.

The mention of cockles remindes me of a statement in
Drake's *' Voyage round the World, the quaint style of
which is amusing :

'* Our sta3^ being longer than we purposed (in Patagonia)
our diet began to wax short, and small mussels were good
meat, yea, the sea-weeds were dainty dishes. By reason
whereof we were driven to seek corners very narrowly
for some refreshing, but the best we could find was shells
instead of meat. We found the nests, but the birds were
gone — that is, the shells of the cockles on the sea-shore,
where the giants had banqueted, but could never chance
with the cockles themselves in the sea. The shells were so
extraordinary that it would be incredible to the most part;
for a pair of shells did weigh four pounds, and what the
meat of two such shells might be may be easily con-
jectured."

The shells called Porcelain-shells by the French and
Germans are almost entirely composed of lime, are richly
enamelled, and are often very beautiful. They are most
abundant and attain their largest size in the seas of warm
climates. Only a few species are found on the British
coasts. The Cowry-shell, to which we have alluded as a
substitute for money, is not of great beauty, being yellow or
white, often with a yellow ring about an inch long, and
nearly as broad as long. In Bengal three thousand two

320 THE VOICE OF A SUELL.

hunderd cowries are reckoned equal to a rupee, so that a
cowry is equal to oiie-thirty-sixth of a farthing. Yet cow-
ries to the value of two hundred thousand rupees are said to-
have been imported annually into Bengal. Many tons of cow-
ries are annually imported into England to be used in trade
with Western Africa. Of the cowries a very remarkable
fact has been stated, that when the animals find their shells.
too small for the increased dimensions of their body, they
quit them and proceed to the formation of new ones of lar-
ger size, and, consequently, more adapted to their wants.
As soon as the cowry has abandoned its covering, the hinder
part of its body begins to furnish anew the shelly matter
which is afterwards condensed on its surface. This secre-
tion is continued until at length the shell appears of the
consistence of paper; and the mouth or opening of the shell,
which at this period is very wide, soon afterwards contracts
to its proper form and dimensions. The edges are thickened^
and form into those beautiful folds or teeth which are so
remarkable on each side of the opening of these shells.
The porcelain and cowry-shells belong to a family which in-
cludes also the shells called Poached Eggs, and the Weaver's
Shuttle, remarkable for its prolongation at both ends.

A well-known shell, distributed over the whole world, is
the Fusus (a spindle), so named from its shape. In Scotland
it is called the "roaring buckie," from the continuous sounds
as of waves breaking on the shore, heard when the empty
shell is applied to the ear, Wadsworth alludes to this
*' voice " of a shell in some sweet lines:

" I have seen
A curious child, who dwelt upon a tract
Of inland ground, applying to his ear
The convolutions of a smooth-tipp'd shell,
To which, in silence hush'd, his very soul
Listen'd intensely, and his countenance soon
Brighten'd with joy; for murmurings from w'+^^'ri

ORNAMENTAL SHELLS. 321

Were heard — sonorous cadence, wlierebj.
To Lis belief, the monitor express'd
Mysterious union with his native sea."

In the cottages of Zetland, this shell, generally about six
inches long, is used for a lamp, being suspended horizontally
by a cord, its cavity containing the oil, and the wick passing
through the canal.

The shell of the Haliotis (the sea, the ear), is very orna-
mental, and valued, on account of its pearly lining, for
adorning papier mache articles. These shells, which are
very numerous, and some of splendid appearance, come from
the tropical seas, and are commonly called, from their shape,
" ear-shells," or " sea-ears." One species, however, is found
on the Southern European coasts, and on those of the Chan*
nel Islands. From the warm regions are obtained the beau-
tiful Harp-shells, the delicate and brilliant colors of which
render them highly prized; also the Fountain-shells to
which has already been alluded as used for cameos, and are
much esteemed as garden ornaments for their solid and deli-
cately-tinted substance. One of these shells sometimes
weighs four or five pounds.

A shell called the Razor, a common species of which is
often picked up on the English coasts — some straight, about
an inch long and eight inches broad ; and another curved
like a sword — attain a large size in tropical seas, and are of
great beauty. They are found in the sands of all seas,
except in the cold regions, the solen, the name of the inhabitant
of this shell, burrowing in the sands, and ascending from its
holes by means of the foot, which can be lengthened or con-
tracted at will.

What are called Top-shells, from their spiral and very
generally top-shape, are frequently found on the English
coasts, and many of them are very ornamental, but not equal
in this respect to the tropical specimens.

From Australia we obtain a large number of the richly deco-

322 VALUE OF BABE SHELLS.

rated Pheasant-shells, formerly of great rarity, and expen-
sive, but now comparatively cheap.

The Wentletrap-shells, the common kinds of which are
found on our own coasts and those of Europe, are very
pretty: they are spiral, with many whorls or wreaths,
deeply divided, and crossed by remarkably elevated ribs.
The triie shells of this species come from the warm seas, and
are generally very beautiful. One kind, called the Precious
Wentletrap, is of such rarity and richness, that it is said to
have been sold to shell collectors at the price of two hun-
dred guineas, but it may now be had for a few shillings. It
is nearly two inches in length, snow-white or pale flesh-col-
ored, with eight separated wreaths. Trough-shells, several
small species of which are very abundant on British sea-
shores, are triangular, broader than long, and the valves equal.
Some of them have a very attractive appearance.

PENGUINS.

CHAPTER XYIIL

SEA BIRDS.

:N the chapter on " Superstitions Connected
with the Ocean," we have alluded to a few
marine birds which are considered by sea-
men as good or evil portents in their pas-
sage over the ocean. We will now briefly
describe some of the more prominent sea-birds which per-
form their part in the economy of nature, and derive their
chief sustenance from the finny inhabitants of the ocean.
They constitute a very extensive family all over the world,
ever on the alert to indulge in their fishing propensities,
and voracious in their appetites ; so that the poor fishes,
what with numberless foes in their own element, with sea-
birds continually on the watch to prey upon them, together
with all the ingenious arts practiced by man to ensnare
them, cannot lead the happy and peaceful life which some
fanciful writers have imagined them to enjoy.

Many, man}^ miles out at sea the oceanic birds are seen
pursuing their predatory instincts, ever restless and untiring,

324 EXCITING SCENES AT THE BREEDING SEASON.

while, nearer shore, thousands in summer seek precipitous
coasts and headhmds as breeding stations.

In winter, others, scarcely less numerous, flock from their
more northern homes, and fill our bays and marine inlets.

A writer describes an interesting spectacle which met
his gaze after mounting a rock at Saldanha Bay, near the
Cape of Good Hope.

*' All of a sudden there rose from the whole surface of the
island an impenetrable cloud, which formed, at the distance
of forty feet above our heads, an immense canopy, or rather
sky, composed of birds of every species and all colors : cor-
morants, sea-gulls, sea-swallows, pelicans, and, I believe the
whole winged tribe of that part of Africa, were here assem-
bled. All their voices, mingled together and modified
according to their different kinds, formed such a horrid noise
that I was obliged every moment to cover my head to give
a little relief to my ears. The alarm that we spread was so
much the more general among the innumerable legions of
birds as we principally distured the females, which were
then sitting. They had nests, eggs, and young to defend.
They were like furious harpies let loose against us, and their
cries rendered us almost deaf. They often flew so near us
that they flapped their wings in our faces, and, though we
fired our pieces repeatedly, we were not able to frighten
them; it seemed almost impossible to disperse the cloud."

Many of the precipitous rocks and islands of our own
country present greatly exciting spectacles at the breeding
season. Myriads of ocean birds,

* ' Ranged in figures, wedge their way,
Intelligent of season, and set forth
Their airy caravan. High over seas
Flying, and over lands, with mutual wing
Easing their flight. The air
Floats as they pass, fanned by unnumbered plumes."

Certainly not the lenst interesting of marine birds is the

SYMMETRY AND BEA UTY OF SEA GULLS. 325

Gull, belonging to a very numerous family, which includes
also the squas, terns, petrels, shearwaters, albatrosses, nod-
dies, skimmers, and others, all preying chiefly on fishes and
mollusca, together with animal garbage of every kind.
From the latter circumstance Buffon calls the gulls "the
vultures of the ocean ." Several of this family are the most
oceanic of all birds, being seen hundreds of miles out at sea,
apparently unwearied and restless. The gulls have very
powerful wings, flying with ease against the roughest
storms. In fine weather they fly high in the air, descend-
ing with great rapidity to seize the fishes on the surface
of the water, or diving slightly for herrings and small fish
within reach. Their plumage being close and thick, they
are good swimmers. They have a close resemblance to the
terns, or " sea-swallows/' as they are sometimes called, but
the bill is stronger, and the upper mandible much more
curved towards the end. The symmetry and strength of
gulls are remarkable, showing how Nature has adapted
them in. every particular for all the purposes of their preda-
tory instincts.

" Let the reader," remarks Mr. Frank Buckland, " examine
the pectoral or breast muscles of the next gull he kills: he
will find them one solid mass of firm, hard muscle, admirably
adapted to sustain and work the wings. What models of
beauty and lightness are those wings! The bones are com-
posed of the hardest possible kind of bone material, arranged
in a tubular form, combining the greatest possible strength
with the greatest possible lightness. If we make a section
of the wing-bone of a gull, or, better still, of that of an alba-
tross, we shall find that it is a hollow cylinder, like a wheat-
straw; but, in order to give it still further strength, we see
many little pillars of bone about the thickness of a needle
extending across from side to side; these buttress-like
pillars are in themselves very strong, and do not break
easily under the finger. Again, at the top of the bone we

326 RAPACITY OF THE LARGE G ULLS.

find two or three holes, which communicate with the interior ;
through these, when the bird is alive, pass tubes, which are
connected with the lungs; so that, when the bird starts for
flight, he fills his wings and other bones with air, causing
them to act something like a balloon on each side of him.
This explains on© of the chief reasons why man will never be
able to fly : his arm-bones are filled Avith marrow, which he
cannot by any means get rid of, should he be ever so anxious
to fly like a bird."

Some of the larger gulls are very expert in breaking the
shells of the mullusks on which they feed, by taking them
up to a sufiicient height in the air, and dropping them on a
rock. Audubon, our famous naturalist, mentions an instance
in which the gull, finding the shell not broken by the fall,
carried it up a second and a third time, and dropped it from
a loftier height, by which its purpose was effected. Gulls
are able to endure hunger for a long time. An instance is
related of one being kept without food for nine days, and
yet retained a considerable degree of strength. When their
prey is before them, they dart at it with such violence that
they will swallow both bait and hook, and split themselves
on the point placed by the fisherman under the fish which
he presents to them.

The selfishness and rapacity exhibited by some larger
members of the gull family has often been observed ; the
Glaucous is a notable instance, and is called by the Dutch
sailors the "Burgomaster," from the tyranny which in virtue
of its size and strength it exerts over most of the smaller
birds of the Northern seas, compelling them to relinquish
the fish they have taken; bad qualities, shared in a like
degree by the Parasiticus Gull. Mr. Lament describes these
marine bashaws very amusinu'ly:

*' None of these birds ever seemed to take the trouble of
picking up anything for themselves, but as soon as they
observe any other gull in possession of a morsel which he is

SAILORS' TRICKS ON THE GULL. 327

not able to swallow outright, they dash at him and hunt him
through the air until the victim is obliged to drop what-
ever he has secured, and the ravenous burgomaster appro-
priates and swallows it himself. I have watched many of
these nefarious transactions, and the result is always the
same: the small gull turns, and twists, and doubles, and
dodges, screaming all the time so pitifully that one would
think he expected to lose his life instead of his dinner, but
at last he is compelled to give up possession, and the burgo-
master then ceases to molest him."

Sailors are very fond of playing off a joke upon the gulls,
which are always hovering about ships. They take three
or four pieces of sail-twine about six feet in length; these
are tied together in the middle, and to the end of each a
small piece of blubber or fat is attached tightly, and then
thrown into the sea. A gull comes and swallows one piece,
another then sees there is plenty to spare, and swallows the
next ; perhaps a third gull takes possession of another ; but
as they are all attached by the sail-yarns, whenever they try
to fly away one or the other is compelled to disgorge his
share ; and this is continued, to the tantalizing suspense of
the poor gulls, and the great fun of the sailors. This may
be a confirmation of the old popular term applied to persons
easily duped, but in most cases the gull shows great wari-
ness and cleverness, especially in escaping from its insatiable
enemy the heron.

The glaucous gull is an occasional visitor to English
shores from its habitat in Northern Europe. One was shot
at Galway during the " famine" year in Jreland, 1846. A
soup kitchen had been established within some distance of
the coast, and each day the stately-looking fellow left its
maritime domain, and attracted by the smell, sailed about
the vicinity of the soup. Many of the poor famished peas-
ants regarded it Avith an unfavorable eye, not being accus-
tomed to observe a white bird of such dimensions floating in

328 TUE FEATHERED DERVISHES OF THE AIR.

the air, and uttering its hoarse cries overhead, as if laughing
at their misery.

Another inhabitant of the cold regions is the Iceland
Gull, smaller in size, and elegant in shape. Some species of
this family are remakably beautiful: one of the smallest, the
" Little Gull," from the Arctic shores, has a lovely roseate
tint overspreading the white under-plumage. The Black-
headed Gull abounds on English shores during autumn and
winter, and is a fine bird, familiar and unsuspicious in his hab-
its, and additionally interesting from the circumstance that
this species was protected by the Druids, and was figur-
atively adopted as an emblem connected with the Deluge,
and formed an important feature in their ceremonies.

The Great Black-backed Gull, distinguished also by the
appellations of the Goose Gull, Gray Gull, and Parson Gull,
the latter name arising from the contrast between the black
back Avith the snow-white of the under-plumage, is a large
and handsome bird. To every frequenter of the coast the
stately and graceful form of this bird is well known, and
whether observed in summer, when quietly sunning itself
on the strand, or in winter amidst the conflicting war of ele-
ments steadying itself in the eddying blast, it cannot fiiil to
excite admiration. At no time more attractive than when
observed during hazy, foggy weather, a black-backed gull,
looming through a cloud, with its immense sweep of wing
(often exceeding five feet), increased by the state of the
atmosphere to a giant size, almost reminds us of the al-
batross.

The Herring or Silvery Gull, is distinguished by the
spotless purity of its plumage, and ranks among the most
beautiful of the gulls that frequent our shores, and has been
called the feathered dervish of the air from its rapid
and gyratory mode of flying.

The Kittiwake is, with the exception of the " black-
headed," the smallest of our common gulls, and during the

REMARKABLE PUGNACITY OF THE SKUA. 329

summer the most frequent visitor on our coasts. Almost
exclusively maritime in its habits, it never ventures inland
like the other species, but contents itself with the food that
it obtains on the sea.

The Skuas are ranked by naturalists in successive order
after the gulls, who find in them determined antagonists.
Armed with a powerful bill, the skua is capable of doing
much mischief. It is related that one of these birds, which
had received a slight injury in the wing-joint, was taken,
and sent by the captain of a vessel on shore, in charge of a
sailor^ with instructions that the bird should be killed and
stuffed. The sailor opening the basket in which it was
confined rather hastily, the skua dashed ferociously at him,
striking with its bill and buffeting with its wings, drawing
blood with every successive stroke it made, until at last the
sailor drew out his clasp-knife in self-defence, but so deter-
mined was the bird, that had not a table-cloth been thrown
over it, the contest would have been of long duration.

The pugnacity of the skua is remarkable. No sooner
does a skua observe an eagle within its domains than it
makes a violent attack upon him. Mr. Drosier relates a
very interesting anecdote on this subject. He was stand-
ing at the foot of the loftiest hill in Foula, Shetland : " an
eagle was returing to his eyrie, situated on the face of the
western crags, in appearance perfectly unconscious of ap-
proaching so near to his inveterate foe, as, in general, the
eagle returns to the rocks from the sea without even cross-
ing the smallest portion of'the island. As I was intently
observing the majestic flight of the bird, on a sudden he
altered his direction and descended hurriedly, as if in the
act of pouncing. In a moment five or six skuas passed ON^er
my head with astonishing rapidity, their wings partly
closed and perfectly steady, without the slighest waver or
irregularity. The gulls soon came up with the eagle, as
their descent was very rapid, and a desperate engagement

330 THE STORM PETREL.

ensued. The short bark of the eagle was clearly discerna-
ble above the scarcely distinguishable cry of the skuas, who
never ventured to attack their enemy in front, but taking a
short circle around him, one made a desperate sweep or
stoop, and striking the eagle on the back, darted up again
almost perpendicularly. This cowardly attack was imitated
by each of the other gulls, and continued some time, the
eagle wheeling and turning as well as his ponderous wings
would allow, and evidently harassed unmercifully, until I
lost sight of the combatants among the rocks."

The Petrels are among the most interesting of marine birds.
The name is said to be derived from the circumstance that
besides the faculty of swimming, they possess that of sup-
porting themselves on the water by striking very rapidly
with their feet, which has caused them to be compared
to St. Peter walking upon the water. These birds are
to be seen in all seas of the globe from one pole to the other,
and are the inseparable companions of mariners during
their long navigations, following the vessels in great flocks
to pick up any garbage thrown into the water. Their flight
is almost always performed by hovering, and without pre-
senting apparent vibrations. They drop promptly on their
prey, which seems to consist chiefly of the blubber or fat
of whales, mollusca, marine worms, and the spawn of fish.
Neither the habits of the petrels, nor the structure of the bill
adapt thom for fishing. They have the faculty of spouting
oil, as a means of defense, in the face of any one who may
attempt to take them. Persons not aware of this fact have
lost their lives by falling into the sea or down precipices.

The Storm-Petrel, the bird of ill omen among mariners,
as has been already mentioned in another chapter, is about
the size of a house-swallow, in length six inches, and the
extent of the wings thirteen inches. The whole body is
black except near the tail, some feathers of which are white.
The ancients believed that the petrel hatched its eggs be-

THE TERN8 OB SEA-SWALLOWS. 331

neath its wing, as at all seasons and in every sea they had
been remarked flying, while there appearance on land was
never noticed:

"The bird of Thrace,
Whose pinion knows no resting-place."

It is true that the petrels do not quit the sea except at the
time of laying, and for the purpose of making their nests
upon very precipitous rocks, where they feed their young
on half-digested animals. They retire there during the
night, and utter a most disagreeable cry, resembling the
croaking of a reptile.

The Terns or " Sea-swallows " have remarkably long
wings and slender bills; the tail is forked, and the plum-
age generally is of a delicate pearl-white, with more or
less black upon the head. The terns are continually on the
wing, and although web-footed, are not seen to SAvim ; they
rest but seldom, and only on the land, feeding for the most
part on small fish and mollusca, which they seize upon the
surface of the water, but they also catch aerial insects. In
flying they send forth sharp and piercing cries. The most
elegantly formed of the terns is that called the " Roseate,"
the mantle of which is a pale tint, the under-parts of a
rosy hue. Mr. Selby tells us that on the Fame Islands it
breeds abundantly. "When intruding on the nest, the
bird showed great anxiety, approaching so near that Ave
knocked one or two down with a fishing-rod used by the
keeper of the lighthouse for fishing from the rocks. All the
terns are very light, the body being comparatively small,
and the expanse of wings and tail so buoys them up that
when shot in the air they are sustained, their wings fold
above them, and they whirl gently doAvn like a shuttlecock."
The species are numerous and occur in both hemispheres.

The Skimmers, although possessing much of the general
habits of the terns, are distinguished by the singular form
of the bill, the upper mandible of which is considerably

832 THE ALBA TROSS,

shorter than the other. They skim over the surface of the
ocean with great swiftness, and scoop up small marine insects.
The Albatross, whose habitual dwelling is the Austral
Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope as far as New Holland,
belongs to the genus Biomedia, and is the most powerful
and bulky of the whole family. The extent of their out-
spread wings is enormous, yet their flight, except in
stormy weather, is by no means lofty : like all the rapacious
birds of the ocean, they are most voracious. They devour
fish with so much gluttony that often one-half of the body
remains outside of the bill until the part which is swal-
lowed, being dissolved by digestion, leaves a passage for
the rest. They are often gorged to such a degree as to
be unable to fly, or escape the boats which pursue them.
Although the flesh of the Albatross is hard and rank, yet
sailors contrive to render it eatable, when they are in want
of fresh provisions, by taking off the skin, and soaking the
body in salt for twenty-four hours, then boiling it, and eat-
ing it with some strong sauce.

In spite of the strength and powerful bill of the alba-
tross, it is by no means warlike, and will remain on the de-
fensive against some of the gull tribe w^iich liarass them,
and to escape such attacks they plunge their body into the
water. They experience some difficulty in rising to their flight,
and then strike the water rapidly with their feet and clap
with their wings ; but after this impulsion the wings remain de-
veloped, and they do nothing but balance themselves alter-
nately from right to left, shaving the surface of the water
with rapidity, and plunging in their heads now and then in
search of food to a certain depth.

The divers are great destroyers of fish, and expert in
their method of getting supplies, as their name would sug-
gest. Indeed, they are said to dive with such celerity that
they often evade a shot directed against them, sinking at
the very moment the fiash appears. These birds cannot

THE DIVERS GREAT DESTROYERS OF FISH. 333

support themselves on land except in a position nearly ver-
tical, and by the assistance of their wings, which thus act as
oars. Sometimes they fall with their stomach flat on the
ground, and have some difficulty in raising themselves up.
They are seen in our climates only when the rivers and
ponds of cold countries are frozen, and they return to their
homes in the north after the thaw. iThey undergo a peri-
odical change of plumage in one form or another. The Red-
throated Diver is tolerably common around the coasts, enter-
ing the mouths of rivers after shoals of sprats, etc. The
Great Northern Diver, a remarkably handsome bird, occurs
on our shores during winter, frequenting the vicinity of the
ovster-scalps, and is there well known to the fisherman from
its loud and monotonous call. Leemius remarks of the Lap-
landers, that if a person hears the cry of any of the divers
in spring, and while fasting, the milk from his flocks will not
curdle for the whole year. Vigilant and shy, if pursued, it
exerts its admirable locomotive powers, and advances with
immense speed. Nature has provided means of escape and
safety to the divers in the flattened form of the body and
the wonderful mechanism of the foot, the membrane of
which can be closed preparatory to each stroke.

From the divers we are easily led to the family of the
Auks, by means of the Guillemots, ocean birds to which the
attribute of stupidity has been applied, but probably with-
out sufficient reflection on their peculiar conformation, the
wings being short and narrow so that the bird can scarcely
flutter; the legs also from their position are quite unfit for
the purpose of walking; and the natural element of the
bird is only on the bosom of the sea, where it swims with
the greatest swiftness, and even dives below the ice.

The common is the only one of the British guillemots
that can be called abundant, the others being comparatively
rare, and some only straggling visitants. It is found around
English coasts, to the Shetland and Orkney islands, and also

334: THE GUEAT A UK.

around the shores of temperate Europe. When near tlieir
breeding-places at the proper season, they assemble in thou-
sands, at times blackening the sea.

Sitting closely along a ledge of rock, no matter ho^v elevated
above the sea, they impart all the appearance of being
ranged in file, or, as they have been compared by the Manx-
men, resembling an apothecary's shop — the even ledges of
the rock, the shelves, and the birds the pots; while on the
least alarm the entire range of the birds sweep downward
in a line to the sea. Such successful divers are they, and
rapacious feeders, that twenty-five herring fry have been
counted in the stomach of a single bird. Congregated in
parties of from eight to thirty, the}^ evince the umost amia-
bility towards each other, fishing and winging their way in
small fiocks to and from their breeding haunts.

The Great Auk is an inhabitant of Northern Europe, and
has been rarely captured on our coasts. Of considerable
size, its power of progression is limited only to the water, the
shortness of its wings rendering it incapable of flight, and
from the backward position of its legs, it stands erect and
stately. Breeding in remote northern latitudes, the eggs
are obtained with great difiiculty. The length of the bird
is said to be from thirty inches to three feet; the bill four
inches long, is black with transverse furrows, the grooves
white. In the dress of winter the chin, throat, and sides
of the neck are white. The Razor-bill Auk is nearly equally
abundant with the guillemot on all our coasts, breeding in
the same manner together on rocks, and appearing off our
shores durin the winter in small parties.

The Puffin, or "Sea-Parrot," so named from the bill,
which, in comparison with the size of the bird, is strongly
developed, is a summer visitant to English shores, repairing
to them for the purpose of incubation. It sometimes breeds
in fissures of the rocks; but its most general resort is in
holes and burrows, either formed by itself or supplied by

SmG ULAB HABITS OF THE PENG UINS. 335

rabbits, if they happen to be inhabitants of the same local-
ity. On the Bass Rock, the holes in the ruins of the old
fortifications afford a retreat. The Puffin is used as an arti-
cle of food by various islands and northern tribes in whose
vicinity they breed. They are caught by stretching a
piece of cord along the stony places where they chiefly as-
semble, to which nooses are attached.

The Penguins occupy habitually the most northern
points and islands of Europe, of Asia, and of America; but
they cannot remain at sea, except in calm weather. When
the tempest surprises them far from shore, great numbers
of them perish. Though they usually only shave the surfVice
of the water in flying, they can elevate themselves to a certain
height. By night they retire into the clefts of rocks and cav-
erns. In their tottering walk they seem to rock from one
side to the other. Their food consists in crustaceous ani-
mals, and they also live on shell mollusca and small fish,
which they take in diving. They make their nests in holes
on the sea coasts, which they enlarge with their bills and
feet. These birds are singular in their habits. Darwin
relates:

''One day, having placed myself between a penguin and
the water, I was much amused by watching its habits. It
was a brave bird, and until reaching the sea it regularly
fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy
blows would have stopped him: every inch gained he
firmly kept, standing close before me erect and determined.
When thus opposed he continually rolled his head from side
to side in a very odd manner, as if the power of vision lay
only in the anterior and bassel part of each eye. This bird
is commonly called the 'jackass penguin,' from its habit
while on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and making
a loud, strange noise, very much like the braying of that
animal ; but while at sea and undisturbed, its note is very
deep and solemn, and is often heard in the night time. In

BOOBIE.

CORMORANT.

ALBATROSS.

GREAT AUK.

CORMORANTS TRAINED TO FISH. 337

diving, its little plumeless wings are used as fins, but on
land as front legs. When crawling (it may be said on four
legs) through the tassocks, or on the side of a grassy clifiF, it
moved so very quickly that it might readily have been mis-
taken for a quadruped. When at sea and fishing, it comes
to the surface for the purpose of breathing with such a
spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy any-
one at first sight to be sure that it is not a fish leaping for
sport."

One of the greatest distroyers of fish is the Cormorant,
belonging to the family of Pelicans, and the common species
of which is widely distributed, extending around the w^hole
coasts of our mainlands and islands, constructing their nests,
on the summits of rocks most generally, of sea-weeds or
materials collected on the waters. The bird is not easily
approached at sea, but gets out of harm's w^ay by flight, not
by having recourse to diving, like so many of the true
aquatic tribes: the flight, powerful and overland, is per-
formed at a great height. When swimming it is easily dis-
tinguished by its long upright neck. So keen in fishing is
the cormorant that advantage has been taken of the circum-
stance to train it for that purpose in the manner hawks are
trained for fowling, a tight collar being put around the
throat to prevent the swallowing of the prey. A bird of
this species kept by a Colonel Montague was extremely
docile, of a grateful disposition, and by no means vindictive.
He received it by coach after it had been twenty-four hours
on the road; yet, though it must have been hungry, it
rejected every sort of food he could offer to it, even raw-
flesh ; but as he could not procure fish at the time, he was
compelled to cram it with meat, which it swallowed with
evident reluctance, though it did not attempt to strike him
with its formidable beak. After seeing it fed he withdrew
to the library, but was surprised in a few minutes to see the
stranger walk boldly into the room, and join him at the fire-

338 VORACITY OF THE CORMORANT.

side with the greatest familiarity, Avhere it continued,
dressing its feathers, Tintil it was removed to the aquatic
menagerie. It became restless at the sight of water, and
when set at liberty, plunged and dived without intermission
for a considerable time, not capturing, or even discovering,
a single fish; and, apparently convinced there were none to -
be found, it made no further attempt for three days.

The dexterity with which tlie cormorant seizes his prey
is incredible. Knowing its own powers, if a fish is thrown
into the water at a distance, it will dive immediately, pur-
suing its course underwater in a direct line toward the spot,
never failing to take the fish, and that frequently before it falls
to the bottom. The quantity it will swallow at a meal is aston-
ishing : three or four pounds twice a day are readily devoured,
the digestion being excessively rapid. If, by accident, a
large fish sticks in the gullet, it has the power of inflating
that part to the utmost, and Avhile in that state the head and
neck are violently shaken, in order to promote its passage.
In the act of fishing it always carries its head under water,
in order that it may discover its prey at a greater distance
and with more certainty than could be effected by keeping
its eyes above the surface, Avhich is agitated by the air, and
rendered unfit for visional purposes. If the fish is of the
flat kind, it Avill turn it in the bill, so as to reverse its natu-
ral position, and by this means only could such be got with-
in the bill. If it succeeds in capturing an eel — which is its
favorite food — in an unfavorable position for gorging, it will
throw the fish up some height, dexterously catching it in a
more fiivorable position as it descends. The cormorant
lives in perfect harmony with the wild swan, goose, various
sorts of duck, and other birds ; but to a gull with a piece of
fish it will instantly give chase.

A writer relates : *' Several years ago I took a pair of
these birds from a nest among the rocks of Howth (Ireland),
and kept them for nearly two years, by which time they had

FISHING PELICANS. 339

attained their full growth. They were pleasant pets enough,
unless when pressed by hunger, when they became out-
rageous and screamed most violently; when satisfied with
food, they slept, roosting on a large trough placed for hold-
ing water. But woe to the man or beast attempting to ap-
proach them when hungry. It happened once that a gentle-
man's servant went to look at ihem while in this state : he
wore a pair of red plush breeches that immediately attracted
the attention of the birds, which I had been in the habit of
feeding with livers and lights ; the consequence was they
made such a furious attack that I had to run to his assistance
with a stick, and could not beat them off without the great-
est difficulty. Their attack on cats, dogs, and poultry, if
unprotected, was always fatal. They fought at once with
their bills, wings, and claws, screaming frightfully all the
time. In fact, the cause of my parting with them was their
having destroyed a fine Spanish pointer : he had incautiously
strayed into the place where I kept them, and they imme-
diately flew at and attacked him in front and rear. His
loud howling brought me to his aid, when I was astonished
to find they had got him down, and before I could rescue
him from their fury, they had greatly injured him in one of
his shoulders, so much so that he afterwards died of the
wound."

The Druids believed the appearance of a cormorant during
the celebration of their mysteries was an evil omen. Milton
describes the arch-fiend, who —

"On the Tree of Life—
Tlie middle tree, the highest there that grew —
Sat like a cormorant.

The Pelican, being furnished with a peculiar organ for
storing up its prey, would seem to be still better adapted
than the cormorant for being trained to fish. Labat men-
tions that the Indians adopt this practice, and dispatch a

34:0 OREAT STRENGTH OF THE PELIGAJTS WING.

pelican in the morning, after having stained it red, and that
it returned in the evening with its bag full of fish, which it
was made to disgorge.

The sac or bag of the pelican is an elastic flesh-colored
membrane, which hangs from the lower edges of the under
mandible, reaching the whole length of the bill to the neck,
said to be capacious enough to hold about four gallons of
water. The bird has the power of contracting the bag by
wrinkling it up under the mandible, so that it is scarcely
visible; but after a successful fishing, it is incredible to
what extent it is frequently distended. It preys chiefly on
the larger fish, with which it fills its capacious pouch in or-
der to digest them at leisure.

The great stretch of wing in the pelican, extending to
eleven or twelve feet, and consequently double that of the
swan or the eagle, enables it to support itself a long time in
the air, where it balances itself with great steadiness, and
only changes its place to dart directly downwards on its
prey, which rarely escapes ; for the violence of the dash, and
its Avide-spread wings, by striking and covering the surface
of the water, make it boil and whirl, and at the same time
stun the fish, and deprive it of the power of escape. When
the pelicans are in flocks they act in concert, and, forming a
great circle which they diminish by degrees, they thus en-
close the fish, and all, at a certain signal, strike the water at
the same moment, and amidst the disorder thus occasioned
they plump in and seize their prey. These birds spend in
fishing the hours of the morning and evening, when the finny
tribe are most in motion, and they choose the places where
they are most plentiful.

The pelican belongs more to warm than cold climates.
It is very common in Africa and in some parts of Asia; it is
met with also in this country and in the southern parts of
Australia. It perches on trees, but does not nestle there,

SINGULAR METHOD OF CATGHINQ GANNETS. 341

constructing on the ground a nest a foot and a half in diam-
eter, furnished with soft sea-plants.

The flesh of the pelican was forbidden to the Jews as
unclean. It has an ill taste, and in our country is used for
its oil. The pouches of these birds have also been used to
hold tobacco, and this skin, when dressed, is very soft.

To the pelican tribe also belongs the Gannet, Solan
Goose, much larger than the gulls, from which they may be
distinguished at a distance by a greater length of neck, the
intense whiteness of the plumage, and the black tip of their
wide-spread wings. The mode in which the Gannet fishes
18 peculiar. " In flight," remarks the Rev. C. A. Johns, " it
circles round and round, and describes again and again the fig-
ure of eight, at a varying elevation above the water, in quest
of herrings, pilchards, and other fishes, whose habit it is to
swim near the surface. When it has discovered a prey, it
suddenly arrests its flight, probably closes its wings, and
descends with a force sufficient to make a jet of water visi-
ble two or three miles off, and carry it many feet down-
wards. When successful it brings its prize to the surface,
and devours it without troubling itself about mastication.
If unsuccessful, it rises immediately and resumes its hunt-
ing. It is sometimes seen swimm'ng, perhaps to rest itself,
for I did not observe that it ever dived on these occasions.
My companion told me that the fishermen on the coasts of
Ireland say that if this bird be chased by a boat when seen
swimming, it becomes so terrified as to be unable to rise.
The real reason may be that it is gorged with food. He
was once in a boat on the Lough, when a gannet being seen
a long way off, it was determined to give chase, and ascer-
tain whether the statement was true. As the boat drew
near, the gannet endeavored to escape by swimming, but
made no attempt to use its wings. After a pretty long
chase the boatmen secured it, in spite of a very severe bite
which it inflicted on his hand. It did not appear to have

34:2 FISHING EXPLOITS OF THE OANNET.

received any injury, and when released on the evening of
the same day, swam out to sea with great composure. A
fisherman at Islay told me that in some parts of Scotland a
singular method of catching these birds is adopted. A her-
ring is fastened to a board, and sunk a few feet deep in the
sea. The sharp eye of the gannet detects its prey, and the
bird, first raising itself to an elevation sufficient to carry it
down to the requisite depth, pounces on the fish, and in the
effort penetrates the board to which it is attached. Being
thus held fast by the beak, it is unable to extricate itself.
Frequently also gannets are caught in the herring-nets at
various depths below the surface. Diving after the fish,
they become entangled in the nets, and are thus captured
in a trap not intended for them. They perform good ser-
vice to fishermen by indicating at a great distance the exact
position of the shoals of fish."

Some idea may be formed of the fishing exploits of the
gannet from what Buchanan states, that one hundred and
^\Q millions of herrings are destroyed annually by these
birds at St. Kilda. They are summer visitants to the Eng-
lish coasts, and although from their power of flight they
seem to be widely scattered, yet their real stations or
breeding-places are few and local. The Bass Rock, St.
Kilda, and Ailsa Craig have long existed as Scotch locali-
ties; while Lundy Island on the coast of Devon, and the
Skelig Isles in Ireland, are less-known English and Irish
stations.

It is on the Bass Rock, in the Firth of Forth, that they
assemble in countless multitudes, and present an extraor-
dinary sight to the beholder, nestling upon their eggs, greet-
ing their mates on their arrival from the sea, or quarrel-
ling if one happens to intrude a little to near another.
Troops of birds in adult, changing, and first yearns plum-
age, pass and repass, sailing in a smooth, noisless flight.
The great proportion build on the ledges of the precipi-

AIR CELLS OF THE GANNET. 3^3

tous face of the rock, but a considerable number also place
their nests — generally made carelessly of a few dried stalks
of seaweed, rudely put together — on the summit near the
edge, where they can be walked among; there the birds
are very tame, allowing a person to approach them, but
when a foot is held out aggressively they will bite at it.

Most, if not all, of these breeding stations are rented from
the proprietors, the rent being paid chiefly by the feathers.
The young geese are killed and cured. The inhabitants of
St. Kilda, the most western of the Hebrides, are said to
consume twenty-two thousand of the young birds every
year, besides eggs. The gannet is easily kept in confine-
ment, though the required supply of fish renders its keep-
ing expensive. It is indifferent alike to cold or stormy
weather; the air-cells which give lightness to the body are
developed in an extraordinary degree. Montague remarks
" the gannet is capable of containing about three full inspir-
ations of my lungs, divided into nearly three equal portions,
the cellular parts under the skin on each side holding nearly
as much as the cavity of the body. In the act of respiration
there appears to be always some air propelled between the
skin and the body, as a visible expansion and contraction is
observed about the breast, and this singular conformation
makes the bird so buoyant that it floats high on the w^ater,
and does not sink beneath the surface, as observed in the
cormorant and shag."

The Hooper or Wild Swan is the most common of its
epecies in England and America, being a general winter
visitant. The length to the end of the toes is five feet; to
that of the tail, four feet ten inches; extent of wings,
seven feet three inches; and weight from thirteen to
sixteen pounds. The lower part of the bill is black; the
base of it, and the space between that and the eyes, is
covered with a naked yellow skin ; the whole plumage in
the old birds is of a pure white, the down being very short and

344 THE GREAT SEA-EAGLE.

thick. The cry of the wild swan is very loud, and may be
heard at a great distance, from which the name of '* Hooper "
is derived. When they fly high, and numbers of different
ages and sexes are mingled together, their notes are far from
disagreeble.

Belonging to the family of the Fulconidce are birds of the
eagle kind, which fish on their own account, robbing others
of their prey when they can, and pursuing nearly the same
method of dashing from a height upon the fish in the Avater.
The Great Sea-Eagle is a distinguished member of this pre-
datory family, measuring in length three feet, and in extent
of wings six feet six inches. This bird often presents a
fine feature in the Avild and desolate landscape. Its most
favorite haunts in Britain are the northern coasts of Scot-
land, where the headlands reach a stupendous height, are
perpendicular on the face, and where the shelvej and ledges
selected for breeding or roosting-places are secure from
aggression either from above or beneath. Here the sea-
eagle resides constantly at one season, or he finds a safe
shelter during the night, after his more extended hunting
excursions. Here he is monarch of all he surveys ; amidst
the numerous sea-fowl, his companions, his pale gray-tinted
plumage and outspread tail being conspicuous when opposed
to the dark green sea or the deep and rich shades of many
of these splendid precipices. Although of great size and
imposing aspect, it is less elegant than the golden eagle,
and inferior in courage and activity to many of the smaller
species of the tribe. When standing, its postures are by no
means graceful, but the keenness of its bright and fierce eye
enlivens its appearance, and under excitement it throws
itself into beautiful and picturesque attitudes, drawing back
its head, and erecting the narrow and pointed feathers of
the neck.

Besides a fondness for fish — in capturing which, however,
the sea-eagle is not half so dexterous as the osprey — the bird

BURNING THE NESTS OF THE SEA-EAGLE. 345

is such a predaceous intruder on the farm-yard, that in the
Hebrides a fierce war is waged against him.

The farmers of the isles of St. Kilda proceed to their
extermination, some carrying coils of rope, others bundles
of dry heath and burning peat, and ascend to the brow of
the mountains, where the fissured and shelved precipice
hangs over the foamy margin of the Atlantic. Strings of
gannets, cormorants, and guillemots are seen winding
round the promontories, while here and there over the curl-
ing waves is seen hovering a solitary gull. They have
reached the brink of the cliffs, over which the more timid
scarce dare venture to cast a glance, for almost directly
under their feet is the unfathomed sea, heaving its heavy
billows some hundred feet below the place to which they
cling. The eagles are abroad, sailing at a cautious distance
in circles, uttering wild and harsh screams, and as they
sweep past displaying their powerful talons. One of them
fastens the rope to his body, passing it under his arms, and
securing it under upon his breast by a firm knot. The rest
dig holes with their heels in the turf, and sitting down in a
row, take firm hold of the cord. The adventurer looks over
the edge of the clifi*, marks the projecting shelf which over-
hangs the eagle's nest, and is gradually lowered towards
it, bearing in one hand the bundle of heath wdth the cord
attached to it, and the peat burning in the middle, and with
the other pushing himself from the angular projection of the
rock. At length he arrives on the shelf, and calls to those
above to slacken the rope, but keep fast hold of it. Then
creeping forwards and clinging to unstable tufts of vegeta-
tion, on the sides of the rock, he looks downwards and ascer-
tains the precise position of the nest, in which are two
eagles covered with down, skeletons of fishes, birds, and
lambs heaped around them. At sight of the human face —
which to their imagination is anything but divine — the
young eagles shrink back in terror, cowering beneath the

346 THE OSPREY OB FISEING-EAOLE.

projecting angle that partly roofs the nest. Their enemy
now retreats, disposes the bundle of heath in a loose manner,
blows the peat into a flame, and partially encloses it. Once
more he approaches the brink, casting an anxious eye
towards the old' eagles which are wheeling in short circles
and uttering confused and piercing cries ; then blowing the
flame, kindles the bundle of combustibles, and rapidly lowers
it right into the nest. The young birds scream and hiss,
throwing themselves into attitudes of defence. The heath
smokes and crackles, and at length blazes into full flame;
then the sticks, sea-weeds, wool, and feathers of the nest
catch fire, and the ascending column of smoke indicates to
the ropemen above that the deed is doing. Flames and
smoke conceal the young birds from the avenger's gaze, but
he stirs not until they have abated, and he sees the huge
eyrie and its contents reduced to ashes. He then calls to
his friends, who tighten the rope, and preparing himself
for the ascent, is hauled up, encountering no small danger
from the fragments which are loosened from the rock, and
the difiiculty of keeping his face and breast from the ragged
points which project from the cliff. Birds have feelings
as well as men, and those of the eagle are doubtless acute,
for the old birds Avheel and scream along the face of the rock
for many days in succession, and as by this time the summer
is far advanced, they form no new nest.

But the king of winged fishers is the famous Osprey, the
Fishing Eagle par excellence, or Fishing Hawk, as it has been
variously named, a bird remarkable among the rapacious
kind for the peculiar adaption it enjoys for fishing. The
wings of the male osprey are sixty inches in length, the
body being twenty-three ; the female, however, is larger,
but does not differ much in color, which is generally in the
upper parts a deep brown, beautifully glossed with light
purple, the margins and tips of the feathers being pale

FISHINO HABITS OF THE OSPBET. 347

brown or brownish-white. The osprey finds a worthy an-
tagonist in the white-headed eagle.

Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic tree that
commands a wide view of the neighboring shore and ocean,
the white-headed eagle seems calmly to contemplate the
motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their
busy avocations below: the snow-white gulls slowly winnow-
ing the air; the busy sand-pipers coursing along the sands;
trahis of ducks streaming over the surface ; silent and
watchful cranes, intent and wading ; clamorous crows ; and
all the winged multitude that subsist by the bounty of this
vast liquid magazine of Nature. High over all these hovers
one whose actions instantly arrest all the attention of the
observer, ^j his wide curvature of wing and sudden sus-
pension in air he knows him to be the osprey, the "fish-hawk,'^
settling over some devoted victim of the ocean. His eye
kindles at the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened
wings on the branch, he watches the result. Down — rapid
as an arrow from heaven — descends the distant object of his
attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disap-
pears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At
this moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardor ; and
levelling his neck for flight, he sees the osprey once more
emerge struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air
with screams of exultation. These are the signals for our
hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, soon
gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts its utmost to mount
cbove the other, displaying in the struggle the most elegant
and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered sea-eagle
rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his
opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair
and honest execration, the osprey drops his fish ; the eagle,
poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain
aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp

348 OSPRBYS' CAPACITY FOR CATCHING PREY,

before it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty
to the woods.

The osprey on leaving its nest, usually flies direct until it
reaches the sea, then sails round in easy curving lines, turn-
ing sometimes in the air as on a pivot, apparently without
the least exertion, rarely moving its wings. Suddenly it
checks its course as if struck by a particular object, which
it seems to survey for a few moments with such steadiness
that it appears fixed in the air, flapping its wings. This ob-
ject, however, it abandons, and is again seen sailing round
as before. Now its attention is again arrested, and it
descends with great rapidity, but before it reaches the sur-
face shoots off on another course, as if ashamed that a second
victim had escaped. It now sails at a short distance above
the surface, and by a zig-zag descent, and without seeming
to dip its feet in the water, seizes a fish, which, after carry-
ing a short distance, it drops and probably yields up to the
bald eagle, and again ascends by easy spiral circles to the
higher regions, where it glides about with all the ease and
majesty of its species. From hence it descends like a per-
pendicular torrent, plunging into the sea with a low rushing
sound, and with the certainty of a rifle. In a few moments
it emerges, bearing in its claws the struggling prey, which
is always carried head-foremost, and having risen a few feet
above the surface, shakes itself as a water-spaniel would do,
and then seeks land. If the wind blows hard, and its nest
be in a quarter from which it comes, it is amusing to see
with what judgment the osprey beats up to windward ; not
in a direct line, but like an experienced navigator, making
several successive tacks to accomplish its purpose.

The ospreys watch and pursue fish with as much avidity
as the true eagles hunt their game on land ; and Nature, as
we have remarked, has provided them with the means for so
doing. Fish are slippery, and therefore its claws are long

TEE TROPIC SEA BIRDS. 349

and much curved, its toes nearly of equal length, and capa-
ble of being applied in the most effectual manner, in pairs,
two and two opposite each other. It must also possess con-
siderable power, and therefore its legs are strong and mus-
cular, and to prevent its being inextricably entangled the
claws are smooth and rounded, so that they can, if necessary,
be readily withdrawn. The animals on which it feeds live
in the water, ordinarily beyond its reach, coming occasionally
to the surface; the bird, therefore, has a comparatively
slender form, with very long wings, so as to enable it to
remain without fatigue sailing or hovering over the water
until an opportunity of pouncing occurs. To prevent its
plumage from being injured by its sudden immersion into
the water, the feathers of the lower surface are rather more
compact and considerably shorter than in eagles and most
other birds of tlie family, and those of the leg are short all
round, while most other species have a large tuft of short
feathers. The structure of the wings is also curious : in the
osprey they are very long, yet length is not of itself an
indication of great speed so much as the power of easy sus-
pension in the air and of continued flight. The osprey re-
quires to hover long over the waters, often over the open
sea at some distance from land, sometimes for hours together
before an opportunity for pouncing on its prey occurs. Its
form, therefore, is as light as is compatible with strength.

"True to the season, o'er our sea-beat shore.
The sailing osprey high is seen to soar,
With broad unmoving wing, and circling slow,
Marks each loose straggler in tlie deep below —
Sweeps down like lightning, plunges with a roar.
And bears his struggling victim to the shore."

We have now to notice another family, the Phaeton or
Tropic Birds, so named because, from their habitual residence
under the burning zone, bounded by the tropics, they seem

350 TEE FRIGATE BIRD AND THE BOOBY.

attached to the chariot of the sun, to use a classical meta-
phor. From this climate they remove but little, and their
appearance indicates to seamen their approaching passage
under this zone, from whatever side they may arrive. Still,
they advance seaward many hundreds of miles.

The Frigate-Bird is the representative of this species,
the swiftest ranger of the ocean, whose extended wings
measure a width of seven feet. How this bird treats the
unfortunate '* booby" (also a fish-hunter) is described by a
writer, who says:

"Every one who has read the romantic naratives of the
old voyagers is familiar with the name of the booby, so
termed by seamen from its apparent stupidity and familiar-
ity, suffering itself to be knocked down by a stick, or taken
by the hand when it alights, as it often does, on the spars or
shrouds of a vessel. This habit seems quite unaccountable.
Many birds have manifested a similar fearlessness of man
when first discovered, but have soon learned the necessity
of precaution; but the booby will manifest the same unnat-
ural tameness after being long accustomed to the cruelty ol
man. It does not arise from helplessness, as it is a bird of
powerful wing, like its relative the common gannet; neither
is it a sufficient explanation to affirm, as is sometimes done,
that it arises from a peculiar difficulty in rising to flight
after alighting, because it is not unfrequently caught in the
air by the hand, so incautiously does it approach man. Not-
withstanding this apparent stupidity, the booby is a dexter-
ous fisher. Hovering over a shoal of fishes, he eagerly
watches their motions, turning his head from side to side in
a very ludricous manner. He presently sees one of the un-
wary group approach the surface : down he pounces like a
stone, plunging into the waves, which boil into foam with
the shock. Nor fails ho to seize the scaly victim, with
which he emerges into the air, and soon it is lodged whole

THE FRIGATE SLEEPS ON THE WING. 351

in bis capacious stomach. But the frigate-bird has watched
the proceeding, and instantly betakes himself to the pursuit.
Sweeping down upon the unfortunate booby, he compels
him to disgorge the fish which he has just swallowed, and
which, long before it can reach the water, is seized and again
devoured by the oppressor.

" The frigate-bird neither swims nor dives ; the seamen
even believe that it sleeps on the wing: whether this be so
or not, there is good evidence that the same individuals will
remain in the air for several successive days; they are never
known to alight on a vessel. Though the chase of the booby
is so usual as to be considered one of its constant means of
dependence, yet it also fishes for itself; precluded, however,
from plunging into the sea, it can only take such as, like the
flying-fish, leap into another element.

CHAPTER XIX.

8TIPEB8TITI0NS CONNECTED WITH THE OCEAN.

** I saw the new moon late yestreen
With the old moon in her arm;
And if we go to sea master,

I fear we'll come to harm." — Old Ballad.

:T is not surprising that men accustomed to the
monotony of a seafaring life, remote from
the educational influences afforded to those on
land, with the many wonders of the vast ocean
around them, full of strange mystery, which
science only can partially unveil ; with minds thus generally
untutored, and consequently more susceptible to supersti-
tious fancies, it is not astonishing that such persons should
be among the most credulous of mankind. It is true that
the spread of knowledge in modern times has removed
many of the absurd notions peculiar to seamen ; but, as a
class, they may still be considered among the foremost be-
lievers in the supernatural.

From the earliest times the sea has been regarded as the
region of fabulous marvels. The ancient mariners per-
formed their voyages in a vague mist of capricious doubts
and fancies, omens and prognostics, which excited terror or
inspired confidence. Every object that met their gaze was
endowed by them with some miraculous agency for good or
for evil. Their course over unknown waters, peopled by
their mythology with imaginary creatures, would naturally
create awe and suspicion.

PRODIGIES AT SEA IN ANCIENT TIMES. 353

Horace, lamenting at Virgil's departure for Athens, rebukes
the impiety of the first mariner, who ventured, in the auda-
city of his heart, to go afloat, and cross the briny barrier
between nations. He esteems a merchant favored specially
by the gods should he twice or thrice return in safety from
a distant cruise. He tells us he himself had known the ter-
rors of the dark gulf of the Adriatic and had exuerienced
the treachery of the western gale.

Ancient writers are diffuse in the description of prodi-
gies Avitnessed by mariners at sea, many of which, doubtless
originating from simple causes, received the addition of a
divine interposition. The sudden breaking up of a dense
fog, and tlie sun shining in undimed splendor, was attributed
to the appearance of Apollo himself, as the saints in later
ages were supposed to miraculously intervene for the pro-
tection of seamen. ApoUonius of Rhodes, the Greek poet,
describes the Argonauts (Greek heroes who, under the com-
mand of Jason, went in search of the Golden Fleece) as sud-
denly benighted at sea in broad daylight by a dense black
fog. They pray to Apollo, and he descends from heaven,
and alighting on a rock, holds up his illustrious bow, which
shoots a guiding light farther to an island. The delusions
of these pagan times continued through succeeding ages,
modified only by the change of religion and a better knowl-
edge of navigation. These notions, under various forms,
still prevail in some foreign countries, where the divine
light of evangelical truth has not pierced, while other
phases of superstition still linger among our own sailors as
regards omens, gook luck, and a number of other senseless
notions.

Legends of a ridiculous character abound in most all of the
old writings, but we will now pass on to later superstitions.
You have no doubt heard of the " Phantom Ship," which
was supposed, Avhen seen by sailors — or rather present in
their imaginations only — to foretell disaster. This story

354 THE PHANTOM SHIP.

originated with the Dutch, and found believers among sea-
men of all countries. Sir Walter Scott alludes to this
spectral illusion as a harbinger of woe :

" The pliantom ship whose form
Shoots like a meteor througli the storm.
When the dark scud comes driving hard.
And lower'd is every topsail-yard,
And canvas wove in earthly looms
No more the brave the storm presumes
Then 'mid the roar of sea and sky.
Top and top-gallant hoisted high.
Full spread and crowded every sail,
The demon frigate braves the gale,
And well the doom'd spectators know
The harbinger of wreck and woe."

Water-spouts at sea were regarded in olden times with
great terror. Sailors were accustomed to discharge artil-
lery at these moving columns to accelerate their fall, from a
fear lest the vessel should be sunk by them. The principal
danger, however, arises from the wind blowing in sudden
gusts in the vicinity of the spout from all points of the com-
pass, sufficient to capsize small vessels carrying much sail.
Another practice was to cut the air with a knife, while
reciting some prayers, by which simple enchantment it was
supposed the water-spouts would be reduced to submission.
If it happened, however, to be in an obstinate mood, two
sailors would draw their swords, and strike at each other, in
true gladiator style, taking care between each blow to make
the sign of the cross.

It is a cheering instance of human progress that, by the
introduction of lightning-conductors into ships, the fearful
electric currents which destroyed many noble vessels is now
placed under control and rendered powerless.

Among the ancients it was believed that certain persons
had the power of raising tempests at sea. In the " Odys-
sey," -^olus is described as possessing these attributes, and

STORMS RAISED BY WITCHES, ETC. 355

-Calypso, in the same work, is said to have been able to con-
trol the winds.

The belief in human agency to influence the ocean was
prevalent in the fifteenth century. A curious confession was
made in Scotland about the year 1469, by one Agnes Samp-
son, a reputed sorceress, who avowed that " at the time His
Majesty (James YI.) was in Denmark, she took a cat and
christened it, and afterwards bound to each part of that cat
the chiefest parts of a dead man, and several joints of his
body ; and that in the night following, the said cat was con-
veyed into the midst of the sea, by herself and other
witches, sailing in their baskets, and so left the said cat right
before the town of Leith in Scotland. This done, there
arose such a tempest in the sea as a greater hath not been
seen, which tempest Avas the cause of the perishing of a
boat or vessel wherein were sundry jewels and rich gifts,
Avhicli should have been presented to the new Queen of
Scotland at Her Majesty's coming to Leith."

Such was the language of a silly old woman, probably
extorted by torture from a Aveak imagination.

King James, in his " Demonology," states " that witches
can raise stormes and tempestes in the aire, either on sea or
land," which was in answer to Reginald Scot, Avho in his
** Discoverie of Witchcraft " ridiculed the " black art ''
severely, and he had the advantage of his royal master, the
"British Solomon," as he had been equivocally termed, in
this and many other statements.

The Evil One was supposed to have a direct influence on
the winds and waves.

Some sailors have a strange opinion of satanic power and
agency in stirring up winds, and that is the reason they so
seldom whistle on shipboard, esteeming it to be a mockery,
and consequentl}^ an enraging of the devil.

We should scarcely expect that the mere turning of a
stone was supposed to have had an effect in procuring favor-

356 CUSTOMS ON SAINTS' DATS BY FISHERMEN

able breezes, yet we read that the inhabitants of some-
parts of the Western Islands had implicit faith in this charm^
In the chapel of Fladda Chuan there was a blue stone fixed
in the altar, of a round form, which was always moist. It
was the custom of any fishermen who were detained on the
island by contrary winds to Avash this blue stone with
water, expecting by this to obtain a favorable wind. So-
great was the regard paid to this stone, that any oath sworn
before it could never be broken. Another mode of these
primitive islanders to secure auspicious winds was of a
bucolic character, and consisted in hanging a he-goat to the
mast-head.

A similar feeling with regard to the efficacy of stones,,
though for another object, existed among the fishermen of lona
This took tlie shape of a pillar, and the sailor who stretched
his arm along it three times in the name of the Trinity
could never err in steering the helm of a vessel. The Fin-
landers are said to have used a cord, tied with three knots,
for raising the wind: Avhen the first was loosed, they could
expect a good wind; if the second, a stronger; and if the
third, such a storm would arise that the sailors would not be
able to direct the ship, or avoid rocks, or stand upon the
decks. The French seaman in former days had a comical
notion that the spirit of the storm was propitiated by flog-
ging unfortunate midshipmen at the mainmast.'

Particular seasons of the year and saints' days were held
in superstitious regard among mariners, and peculiar cus-
toms were attached to them. The old practice of setting
the nets at Christmas Eve was general among Swedish fish-
ermen. The sailors at Folkestone, in Kent, chose eight of
the largest and best whitings out of every boat, when they
came home from the fishery. Out of the profit arising
from these they made a feast every Christmas Eve. On
Allhallow's Even, or the vigil of All Saints' Day, the fisher-
men of Orkney sprinkled what was called fore-spoken water

BLESSING THE WATERS. 35T

over their boats when they had not been successful. They
also made the sign of the cross on their boats with tar. The
sailors in the Island of St. Lewis had an ancient custom of
sacrificing to a sea-god called Shony, at Hallow-tide. They
came to the church of St. Malvay, each seaman having his
provisions with him. Every faniily furnished a peck of
malt, and this was brewed into ale. A fisherman was se-
lected to wade into the sea, carrying a cup of ale in his hand
and crying, ** Shony, I give you this, hoping you will send
us plenty through the year.'^

The fishermen of Finland believed that any among them
who created a disturbance on St. George's Day would pro-
voke storms and tempests. At Dieppe, in Normandy, even
to a late period, All Saints' Day was religiously observed by the
sailors of that port. Those who ventured out to sea on that
anniversary were supposed to have the *'double sight;" that
is, each one beheld a living likeness of himself seated in
•close contact, or when engaged in any work, doing the same.
If the nets were cast out, they were found, on drawing them
in, to contain nothing but bones. On the same day to-
ward midnight, a funeral car was heard driven slowly by
a team of eight white horses, preceded by dogs of the same
■color. Those who listened might hear the voices of those
sailors who had died in the course of the year, Those per-
45ons who dared to look at this fearful sc^ne were doomed to
die shortly afterwards ; so, as the hour approached, every
house was barred and windows closed.

The Russian Twelfth day (18th of January) is devoted to
the singular custom of blessing the waters of the Neva,
there being no parallel ceremony in any other country, ex-
<jept the practice once observed at Yenice, of the Doge es-
pousing the sea. On the same day at Constantinople, the
Greek Patriarch performs a similar custom by throwing a
cross into the sea, and it is said that skillful divers gener-
ally succeed in obtaining it before reaching the bottom.

358 APPARITIONS AT SEA.

The fishermen who dwell on the coasts of the Baltic never
used their nets between All Staints' Day and St. Martin'&
Day, believing that any infraction of this rule would pre-
vent them from getting fish through the whole year. A
similar observance, for the same reason, was held on St.
Blaise's Day. They also considered sneezing on Christmas
Day a favorable omen for the ensuing year.

The fishermen of Hartlepool preserve many old customs,
such as Carling and Palm Sundays, and Easter Day. At
Christmas the children sing carols, and sword-dancers go-
about the streets; and on the first Monday after the Epiph-
any, the stot or fool-plough (a small anchor) is dragged
through the town, and donations requested.

Sailors have always had their prejudices with regard to-
certain days of the week. That ominous day, Friday, so
dark-lined to so many weak-headed individuals — not only at
sea but on shore — was and is still considered by many mariners
a blank day for sailing. A Cornish saying places Candlemas
Day as ill omened for sailing. Bishop Hall, speaking of a
superstitious man, observes, " he will never set to sea except
on Sunday." At Preston-Pans, it seems, that holy day was
usually selected for sailing to the fishing grounds: a clergy-
man of the town preached against this Sabbath-breaking,,
and the sailors, to prevent any ill befalling them in conse-
quence, made a small image of rags, and burnt it on the top
of their chimneys.

Apparitions have always been a fruitful source of terror
to seamen. A few years ago half a dozen sailors on board a
man-of-war took it into their heads that there was a ghost in
the ship, and declared they smelt him. The captain laughed
at them, and called them a parcel of lubbers. A few nighta
afterwards they were in great terror, saying the ghost wa»
behind the beer-barrels. The captain, annoyed at their
folly, ordered a dozen lashes to each of them, which effectu-
ally stopped all talk about the spirit. When the barrels

,.^^=--?^:^?^^^^^';5^^

.■^

SUBMARINE SCENERY IN INDIAN OCEAN.

376 SUBMARINE GLORIES OF THE INDIAN OCEAN.

Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft
Bank the mid-sea ;

Or, sporting with quick glance.
Show to the sun their waved coats dropp'd with gold.
Or in the pearly shells at ease attend
Moist nutriment, or under rocks their food
In painted armor watch."

The Indian Ocean, one of the ^ye grand divisions of the
universal ocean, is especially rich in its submarine scenery.
We dive into the liquid crystal of its waters, and it opens
to us the most wondrous enchantments of the fairy tales of
our childhood's dreams. The strangely branching thickets
bear living flowers. Dense masses of Meandrinus (a genus
of polyps), and Astreas (" a star ;" animalculge which form
coral), contrast with the leafy cup-shaped expansions of the
Explanarius, the variously ramified Madrepores^ which are
now spread out like fingers, now rise in trunk-like branches,^
and now display the most elegant array of interlacing
branches. The coloring surpasses everything : vivid green
alternates with brown or yellow ; rich tints of purple, from
pale red-brown to the deepest blue. Brilliant rosy, yellow^
or peach-colored Nullipores overgrow the decaying masses,,
and are themselves interwoven with the pearl-colored plate&
of the RetiporeSy resembling the most delicate ivory carvings.
Close by wave the yellow and lilac fans, perforated like
trellis-work, of the Gorgonius, The clear sand of the bottom
is covered with the thousand strange forms and tints of the
sea-urchins and star-fishes. The leaf-like Flustras and Escha-
ras adhere like mosses and lichens to the branches of the
corals; the yellow, green, and purple-striped limpets cling
like monstrous cochineal insects upon their trunks. Like
gigantic cactus-blossoms, sparkling in the most ardent colors,
the Sea-Anemones expand their crowns of tentacles upon the
broken rocks, or more modestly embelish the flat bottom,
looking like beds of variegated ranunculuses. Around the

SUBMARINE GARDENS AT NIGHT. 377

blossoms of the coral shrubs play the humming-birds of the
ocean — little fish sparkling with red or blue metallic
lustre, or gleaming in golden green, or in the brightest
silvery tints.

Softly, like spirits of the deep, the delicate milk-white or
bluish bells of the jelly-fishes float through this charmed
world. Here the gleaming violet and gold-green Isabelle,
and the flaming yellow, black, and vermilion-striped coquette
chase their prey; there the band-fish shoots snake-like
through the thicket, like a long silver ribbon, glittering with
rosy and azure hues. Then comes the fabulous cuttle-fish,
decked in all colors of the rainbow, but marked by no defi-
nite outline; appearing and disappearing, inter-crossing,
joining company and parting again, in most fantastic ways ;
and all this in the most rapid change, and amidst the most
wonderful play of light and shade, altered by every breath
Df wind and every slight curling of the surface of the ocean*
When day declines, and the shades of night lay hold upon
he deep, the fantastic garden is lighted up with new splen-
dor. Millions of glowing sparks, little microscopic medusas
and crustaceans, dance like glowworms through the gloom.
The sea-feather, which by daylight is vermilion-colored,
waves in a greenish phosphorescent light. Every corner of
it is lustrous. Parts which by day were dull and brown,
and retreated from the sight amidst the universal brilliancy
)f color, are now radiant in the most wonderful play of
green, yellow, and red light; and to complete the wonders
of the enchanted night, the silver disc, six feet across, of
the moon-fish, moves, slightly luminous, among the crowd of
Jittle sparkling stars.

How like a dream of romance and fairy beauty is this
vivid description of submarine scenery in the tropics I
What exquisite loveliness exists in those still, transparent
waters ! far exceeding in richness and coloring the most
attractive objects that meet the eye on land. And wliile