LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
GIFT OF"
Class
V
r
Bulletin No. 33.— W. B. No. 294. Price £5 cents.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
WEATHER BUREAU.
WEATHER FOLK-LORE
AND
LOCAL WEATHER SIGNS.
Prepared under the direction of WILLIS L. MOORE, Chief U. S. Weather Bureau.
BY
EDWARD B. GARR1OTT,
PROFESSOR OF METEOROLOGY.
/TY
WASHINGTON:
•
(GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1903.
CONTENTS.
WEAT
HER ]
Parr
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20
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WEA'
Page.
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52
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53
54
55
55
56
57
58
58
59
60
61
61
63
64
65
65
FOLK-LOBE.
Insects
Page.
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25
25
27
28
29
30
34
38
38
41
46
Page.
66
67
68
68
69
70
71
73
74
74
75
76
77
77
78
78
79
80
80
81
82
83
83
Plants
Clouds
The sun
The moon
Unseasonable weather due to ab-
normal barometric conditions . .
The physical effect on animal life
of changes in atmospheric pres-
sure
The stars
Long-range weather forecasts
Sun spots
The moon and the weather
The stars and the weather
Tern perature
Animals, birds, etc -
Humidity
Days, months, seasons, and years.
An innovation in barometric obser-
vation
Animals
Birds
Fish
DHER SIGNS.
Cincinnati Ohio ...
LOCAL
Abilene Tex
Albany N. Y
Cleveland, Ohio -.
Alpeia Mich
Columbia, Mo .
Amarillo Tex •
Columbia S. C
Atlanta, Ga
Columbus, Ohio.
Atlantic City N J
Concordia, Kans
Augusta Ga
Corpus Christi Tex
Baker City Oreg
Davenport Iowa
Baltimore, Aid
Denver Colo .
Binghamton N Y
Des Moines Iowa
Bismarck N Dak
Detroit Mich
Block Island, R. I
Dodge City, Kans
Boise, Idaho
Dubuque, Iowa
Boston Mass
Duluth Minn
Buffalo, N. Y. .
Eastport, Me .
Cairo, 111
Elkins W. Va
Cape May N J
El Paso Tex
Carson City, Ney
Erie, Pa .
Charleston, S. C
Escanaba Mich
Charlotte, X. C
Eureka Cal
Chattanooga, Teim
Evansville, Ind
Cheyenne, AVvo.
Flagstaff Ariz
Chicago, 111..
Fort Smith, Ark .
116864
Local weafJier signs — Continued.
Fort Worth, Tex
Fresno, Cal
Grand Haven, Mich . .
Grand Junction, Colo
Green Bay, Wis
Hannibal, Mo
Harrisburg, Pa
Havre, Mont
Helena, Mont
Huron, S. Dak
Independence, Cal . . .
Ithaca, N. Y
Jacksonville, Fla
Jupiter, Fla
Kalispell, Mont
Kansas City, Mo
Keokuk, Iowa
Kitty Hawk, N. C....
Knoxville, Tenn
La Crosse, Wis
Page.
84
85
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
95
96
97
98
99
99
Lander, Wyo 100
Lewiston, Idaho 100
Lexington, Ky . 101
Little Rock, Ark 102
Los Angeles, Cal 102
Louisville, Ky 103
Lynchburg, Va 104
Macon, Ga 104
Memphis, Tenn 105
Marquette, Mich 106
Meridian, Miss 107
Milwaukee, Wis 108
Minneapolis, Minn 109
Mobile, Ala 309
Montgomery, Ala 110
Moorhead, Minn Ill
Nantucket, Mass Ill
Nashville, Tenn 112
Neah Bay, Wash 112
New Haven, Conn 113
New Orleans, La 113
New York, N. Y 114
Norfolk, Va 115
North Platte, Nebr 116
Oklahoma, Okla 116
Omaha, Nebr 117
Oswego, N. Y 118
Palestine, Tex 118
Parkersburg, W. Va 119
Page.
Pensacola, Fla 120
Philadelphia, Pa 121
Phoenix, Ariz 121
Pierre, S. Dak 122
Pittsburg, Pa 123
Pocatello, Idaho 123
Port Crescent, Wash 124
Portland, Me 125
Portland, Oreg 125
Port Huron, Mich 126
Pueblo, Colo 126
Raleigh, N. C 127
Rapid City, S. Dak 128
Red Bluff, Cal 129
Richmond, Va 129
Rochester, N. Y 130
Roseburg, Oreg- . 131
Sacramento, Cal 131
St. Louis, Mo 132
St. Paul, Minn 133
San Antonio, Tex 133
Salt Lake City, Utah 134
San Diego, Cal 135
Sandusky, Ohio 136
San Francisco, Cal 137
San Luis Obispo, Cal 138
Santa Fe, N. Mex 138
Savannah, Ga 139
Sault Ste. Marie, Mich 140
Scranton, Pa 140
Seattle, Wash 140
Shreveport, La 142
Sioux City, Iowa 142
Springfield, 111 143
Springfield, Mo 143
Spokane, Wash 144
Tacoma, Wash : . . . 145
Tampa, Fla 146
Toledo, Ohio 147
Valentine, Nebr 147
Vicksburg, Miss 148
Walla Walla, Wash 149
Washington, D. C 149
Wichita, Kans 150
Wilmington, N. C 151
Williston, N. Dak 152
Winnemucca, Nev - - 152
Yuma, Ariz 153
WEATHER FOLKLORE.
INTRODUCTION.
It is safe to assume that our first parents acquired weather wisdom
by observing weather sequences and noting the foreshadowed effects
of certain atmospheric conditions on objects animate and inanimate.
We may assume further that the knowledge thus acquired was com-
municated to their descendants, and that it was handed down, with
additions and amplifications, from generation to generation. We find
in the earliest writings and in the Scriptures expressions of weather
wisdom, many of which appear in collections of the popular weather
sayings of to-day. Thus by assumption and deduction we know that
man has ever employed inherited and acquired weather wisdom in the
daily affairs of life. When flocks and herds have constituted his
earthly possessions he has been prompted to lead his charges to places
of safety when signs of impending storms appeared. As a navigator
his interpretation of the signs of the air has, in innumerable instances,
enabled him to adopt measures calculated to avert disaster to his frail
craft. As an husbandman he has closely scanned the sky, the air, and
the earth for signs that would indicate the weather of the coming day
and season.
. The wisdom thus acquired has been perpetuated in the form of trite
sayings or proverbs. Many^ of these sa}7ings are polished gems of
weather lore, others have lost their potency by transfer to foreign
lands where dissimilar climatic conditions obtain, and a large propor-
tion have been born of fancy and superstition.
The object of this paper is to segregate from the mass of available
data the true sayings that are applicable to the United States, and to
combine the material thus collected with reports on local weather signs
that have been officially and specially prepared by observers of the
United States Weather Bureau.
The laws that govern the distribution of the earth's atmosphere and
control its phenomena necessarily produce different results on different
parts of the earth's surface. The seasonal distribution of the atmos-
phere, as indicated by the greater, or so-called permanent, areas of
high and low barometric pressure, is governed largely by the temper-
ature of the land and water surfaces. In summer the pressure of the
5
6
atmosphere is greater and its surface temperature is lower over the
oceans than over the continents, and in winter the reverse of these
conditions obtains. And the differences in atmospheric pressure and
temperature control the seasonal directions of the winds. Similarly
the smaller areas of high and low barometric pressure that appear on
our daily weather maps produce the varying temperatures and winds,
and, incidentally, the weather that we experience from day to day.
In the United States the centers of areas of high barometric pres-
sure generally move in a south of east direction immediately preceded
by winds that blow from points between west and north, low temper-
ature for the season, and fair weather. Areas of low barometric
pressure, or general storms, usually move in a north of east direction,
and the winds in their east quadrants blow from easterly or southerly
points of the compass, with high temperature for the season, and pre-
cipitation in the form of rain or snow.
Chart No. I shows the distribution of atmospheric pressure and
temperature, the circulation of the winds, and the general character
of the weather that attends the passage of well-defined areas of high
and low barometric pressure over the United States.
It will be observed from the foregoing remarks and Chart No. I
that wind directions, as influenced by areas of high and low barometric
pressure, produce high and low temperatures, fair and foul weather,
and the fact will be recognized that all true popular weather sayings
of ancient origin have been coined from the utterances, born of expe-
rience, of men who have observed, without understanding the causes
thereof, the first indications of approaching weather changes.
References and sayings relating to wind, clouds, atmospheric pres-
sure, temperature, and moisture, the habits and actions of animals and
birds, and to plant life will in turn be briefly quoted and discussed,
and reference will be made to sayings regarding times, days, and
seasons, and the sun, moon, and stars. Many of the sayings quoted
have been taken from Weather Proverbs, 1883, by Col. H. H. C. Dun-
woody, U. S. Army, and Weather Lore, 1893, by Richard Inwards,
F. R. A. S. Finally a summary, illustrated by charts, will be given
of local weather signs as observed at regular stations of the Weather
Bureau.
WIND.
Every wind has its weather. — Bac,on.
Charts II to V show, for the several seasons, the winds that usually
precede the beginning of rain or snow in the United States.
Weather proverbs that have been based upon observations of the
wind conform to a notable degree with modern meteorological knowl-
edge. In the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere easterly
winds are proverbially rain winds and westerly winds are invariably
associated with fair or clearing weather. The reason for this is
apparent when the circulation of winds about areas of high baro-
metric pressure, and areas of low barometric pressure, or general
storms, is observed.
The Temple of the Winds at Athens indicates the knowledge pos-
sessed by the Greeks of the weather that is associated with winds from
the various points of the compass. It is a little marble octagon tower,
the eight sides of which are built to face the eight principal winds,
and on each side is sculptured a human figure, symbolizing the char-
acter and qualities of the particular wind it faces. The north wind,
which is cold, is represented by the figure of a man warmly clad and
blowing on a trumpet made out of a seashell. The northeast wind,
which brought, and still brings, to the Athenians cold, snow, and
sleet or hail, is figured by an old man with a severe countenance,
who is rattling slingstones in a shield, expressing emblematically the
noise and power of a hailstorm. The east wind, which brings to
Athens rain favorable to the growth of vegetation, is expressed by
the image of a young man with flowing hair and open countenance,
having his looped-up mantle filled with fruit, honeycomb, and corn.
The west wind is indicated by the figure of a slightly-clad and beauti-
ful youth with his lap full of flowers. And so on with the winds
from all around the compass, each has its qualities fixed in stone by
its appropriate sculptured figure, and thus modern science learns
from ancient poetry and art the fact that the climate of Greece has
not materially changed, at any rate in respect to winds, after the
lapse of about twenty centuries.
When the* wind is in the north,
The skillful fisher goes not forth;
When the wind is in the east,
'Tis good for neither man nor beast;
When the wind is in the south,
It blows the flies in the fish's mouth;
When the wind is in the west,
There it is the very best.
Isaak Walton.
The terms employed in man}r proverbs to indicate wind directions
are indefinite and confusing. The term north or northerly is often
indiscriminately applied to winds blowing from the north quadrants,
or from a range of 180° of the compass. As a matter of fact, a varia-
tion of the wind of a few points in the compass frequently changes
absolutely the. character of the weather that it indicates. In the case
of north or northerly winds, directions from a few points east of
north indicate rain or snow and ofttimes the severest storms to which
a great part of the United States is subject. On the other hand, winds
from points west of north generally indicate fair or clearing weather.
East or easterly winds blow from the eastern quadrants, or from the
8
180° of the compass between north and south by way of east. From
90° of this semicircle, or from points between east and north, the
winds often indicate, as before stated, OUT most violent storms of wind
and snow or rain, while following* winds from the southeast quadrant
the character of the storms is less severe. South or southerly winds
are, in many cases, considered as winds that blow from any part of the
southern quadrants. These quadrants also cover one-half of the points
of the compass, and their winds indicate weather of a very different
character. Winds from the southeast quadrant are rain winds, and
those from the southwest quadrant are fair-weather winds. Westerly
winds, both from the northwest and the southwest quadrants, are,
essentially, fair weather winds, the principal distinction between these
winds being that the southwest winds are warm and the northwest
winds are cold.
A veering wind, fair weather;
A backing wind, foul weather.
If the wind back against the sun,
Trust it not, for back it will run.
Whether the wind backs or veers depends upon the position of the
observer with reference to the approaching or passing storm. If a
storm center approaching from a westerly direction passes south of
the observer, the wind will back from easterly to westerly by way of
north; if the storm center passes north of the observer, the wind will
veer from easterly to westerly directions by way of south. When
the wind is from a southerly direction and veers to westerly, fair
weather will follow; when, on the contrary, it backs from southerly
to easterly points, foul weather is likely to follow. The sayings
regarding veering and backing winds hold good, therefore, only when
the winds veer or back from southerly directions.
In Texas and the Southwest when the wind shifts, with strength, during a drought,
expect rain.
In the West and Southwest when brisk winds from the south continue for a day
or more, expect a ' ' norther. ' '
Over a great part of the United States a steady and strong south-to-east wind will
bring rain within thirty-six hours.
Easterly winds are proverbially bringers of rain, and when they blow from the
northeast quadrant in winter heavy snow is likely to be followed by severe cold.
When, during a storm, the wind shifts from the east to the west quadrants, clearing
weather will soon follow.
When the wind is from points between west and north and the temperature falls
to 40° or below, frost will probably occur.
The strength of the wind and the severity of storms depends upon barometric
conditions.
Westerly winds (southwest to northwest) are fair-weather winds.
9
WEST INDIAN HURRICANES.
During the late summer and early fall months hurricanes occasion-
ally develop in the tropical regions of the Atlantic, near the southern
edge of the northeast trade winds, and move westward over or near
the West Indies into the Gulf of Mexico or to the southern coasts of
the United States. Some of these storms recurve northwestward and
then northeastward near the Atlantic coast of the United States, and
others recurve northward over the Gulf of Mexico. West Indian
hurricanes are the most violent and destructive storms that visit the
eastern part of the United States. Happily, their visits to our coasts
are not frequent; and their visitations to any individual island of the
Windward West Indian group, which lies in the most frequented path
of hurricanes, are on an average limited to about one in fifteen to
twenty years.
As the tropical storms of the Atlantic move from east to west, the
winds that indicate their approach necessarily differ from those that
are noted in advance of continental storms of the middle latitudes that
move from west to east. In the tropical and subtropical regions of
the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico the approach of a hurri-
cane from the eastward is indicated by north to northwest winds, which
increase in force as the vortex of the storm approaches. The shift of
the winds depends upon whether the center of the storm passes south
or north of the observer. If it passes to the southward, the wind goes
from northerly to easterly and southerly; if it passes to the northward,
the wind goes from northerly to southerly by way of west.
West Indian hurricanes are preceded one to two days by barometer
rising slowly above the normal and an unusually clear, cool atmos-
phere. These conditions are followed by a fall in the barometer and,
generally, by a greas}T-looking halo around the sun or moon, and by
high cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds that are projected in advance of the
vortex of the storm. Tufted or rolled clouds with lurid streaks of
light and unusual atmospheric colors are in turn followed by rapidly
falling barometer and a heavy bank of clouds in the horizon in and
from which lightning flashes appear. This is the cloud mass that sur-
rounds the center of the hurricane, which advances westward, in the
tropical and subtropical regions, with a velocity of 15 to 20 miles an
hour. Closely following the appearance of the cloud mass that sur-
rounds the vortex of the storm, the barometer falls with great rapidity
and the wind increases to hurricane force from the north quadrants,
the direction within the range of these quadrants being governed by
the position of the observer with reference to the path of the storm.
The vortex of a hurricane is comparatively small, averaging probably
8 to 10 miles in diameter. In the central area of the vortex the sky
overhead is often clear, and light confused winds are experienced. As
10
a rule, places in the direct path of the vortex will experience this period
of calm for a period of about one-half hour, when the hurricane winds
will again set in from a quarter opposite to that from which they were
previously blowing. The barometer then rises rapidly, the winds
diminish, and the weather gradually clears. The great whirlwind has
passed on its westward course. At the point where, from natural
causes, that differ in different cases, the hurricane makes its recurve
to the northward its speed lessens to 8 or 10 miles an hour, and its
strength often increases. After the recurve to the northeastward has
been made and the storm enters the middle latitudes of the ocean or
of the United States, its area increases and its intensity genemlty
diminishes.
The West Indian hurricane season is confined practically to the
months of August, September, and October. Storms of this class
sometimes occur, however, as early as June and as late as November.
The following lines regarding the tropical hurricanes of the Atlan-
tic cover, in the opinion of mariners, the season of their probable
occurrence:
June, too soon;
July, stand by;
August, look out you must;
September, remember;
October, all over.
— Captain Nares.
The tropical storms of the Pacific Ocean that originate near or to
the eastward of the Philippine Islands and move thence westward over
the China Sea, or northward near the China and Japan coasts, are
called typhoons. These storms present the characteristics noted in
connection with West Indian hurricanes. Their season is, however,
longer, extending from July to November, with August and Septem-
ber as the months of greatest typhoon frequency. The Indian Ocean
and the Bay of Bengal also have storms that conform in character to
West Indian hurricanes. Cyclones is the very proper name that is
applied to these storms. Their season appears to be somewhat longer
than that of the typhoons, and 'the season of the Bay of Bengal
cyclones is assumed as extending from May to November, with occa-
sional storms in April and December.
In addition to the gyrating wind storms enumerated, the greater
continental areas, and more especially their coast districts, are subject
to strong seasonal winds that result from marked atmospheric pres-
sure and temperature gradients that exist between their coastal and
interior regions. The most pronounced winds of this type are the
monsoons of southern and southeastern Asia and adjacent waters.
The monsoons of southern Asia are due, during the wanner months,
to the summer area of low barometric pressure that covers the warm
interior of eastern Asia, whereby strong wind currents — the summer
11
monsoons — are drawn from the southern coasts and oceans; nnd during
the colder months, when the interior of Asia is occupied by an area of
high barometric pressure of great magnitude, the direction of the
monsoon winds is reversed and they blow from the interior over the
coasts. The change in the winds or, as it is termed, "the bursting of
the monsoon," occurs in May and October, and the winds of these
months are often very severe.
During the summer months the greater desert areas are the breed-
ing places of violent whirling storms that are generated by the intense
heat of those regions; and the deserts, and the regions that border
them, are also swept by strong straight winds that are promoted by
sharp gradients in temperature that exist between the desert surfaces
and the cooler districts that surround them.
Thus it appears that in various parts of the world, winds, by what-
ever name they may be known, and in the various forms in which they
are experienced, owe their origin primarily to differences in tempera-
ture in the atmosphere that overlies the land and water surfaces.
As wind directions and velocities are immediately associated with
the distribution of atmospheric pressure, as indicated on weather maps
by areas of high and low barometer, the value of systematic observa-
tions of the winds in foreseeing weather changes will be discussed
under the head " Barometer."
CLOUDS.
Clouds are the storm signals of the sky.
Cloud formation is the beginning of the rain or snow producing
process. When the process by which the aqueous vapor of the atmos-
phere is precipitated or condensed is feeble, clouds only are produced;
when the process is stronger, or becomes more active, at the cloud
levels, rain or snow results.
Charts VI to IX show the direction of movement of cirrus and cirro-
stratus clouds in the United States in the several seasons of the year,
and the average time, in hours, of their appearance before precipita-
tion begins, or the average time that elapses between the appear-
ance of these clouds and the development of wind and barometric con-
ditions that in a greater or less degree favor precipitation in the form
of rain or snow.
In the United States, and more especially in the middle and northern
districts, true cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are almost invariably
observed moving from points between southwest and northwest. The
appearance of clouds of this type indicates the presence, or at least
the partial development, of a barometric depression to the westward.
They are formed by the condensation, in high altitudes and at low
temperatures, of the moisture in the air that overflows and is pro-
jected eastward from areas of low barometric pressure. When the
depressions possess sufficient strength, rain or snow follows the appear-
ance of the clouds within eighteen to thirty-six hours. In such cases
the cirrus clouds appear to thicken and merge into cirro-stratus, then
into alto-stratus, and finally into stratus and nimbus, when precipita-
tion begins. The lower clouds possess but little value as rain indica-
tors for the reason that they usually come with the rain or precede by
very short periods the beginning of precipitation.
Mackerel scales and mare's tails
Make lofty ships carry low sails.
Mackerel clouds in sky,
Expect more wet than dry.
A mackerel sky,
Not twenty-four hours dry.
When cirrus merge into cirro-stratus, and when cumulus increase towrard evening
and become lower, expect wet weather.
After fine, clear weather the first signs in the sky of a coming change are usually
light streaks, curls, wisps, or mottled patches of white distant clouds, which increase
and are followed by an overcasting of murky vapor that grows into cloudliness.
Usually the higher and more distant such clouds seem to be, the more gradual but
general the coming change of weather will prove. — Fitzroy.
When cirro-cumulus clouds appear in winter, expect warm and wet weather.
When threads -of cirrus clouds are brushed back from a westerly direction, expect
rain and wind.
If cirrus clouds dissolve and appear to vanish, it is an indication of fine weather.
The mackerel clouds always indicate storm if they first appear about 15° north of
west. ( Kansas. )
The longer the dry weather has lasted, the less is rain likely to follow the cloudi-
ness of cirrus.
If cirrus clouds form in fine weather with a falling barometer, it is almost sure to
rai n . — Howard.
Cirrus clouds announce the east wind. If their streaks point upward, they indicate
rain; if downward, wind and dry weather. — Howard.
When cloud streamers point upward, the clouds are falling, or descending, and rain
is indicated; when cloud streamers point downward, the clouds are ascending, and
dry weather is indicated.
Enough blue sky in the northwest to make a Scotchman a jacket is a sign of
approaching clear weather. t
When on clear days isolated clouds drive over the zenith from the rain-wind side,
rain or snow will follow within twenty-four hours — more likely within a few hours.
Clouds flying against the wind indicate rain.
It will not rain much as long as the sky is clear before the wind; but when clouds
fall in against the wind, rain will soon follow.
Evening red and morning gray
Will set the traveler on his way;
But evening gray and morning red
Will bring down rain upon his head.
When it is evening1, ye say it will be fair weather, for the sky is red; and in the
morning it will be foul weather to-day, for the sky is red and lowering. — Matthew,
xvi, 2, 3.
13
e C
When a heavy cloud comes up in the southwest, ami seems t<» settle back again,
look out for a storm.
When ye see a cloud rise out of the west, straightway ye say: There comet h a
shower: and so it is. — Lnk<. ./•//, 54.
If clouds at the same height drive up with the wind, and gradually become thin-
ner and descend, expect fine weather.
If the upper current of clouds come from the northwest in the morning, a fine day
will ensue.
A sky covered with clouds need not cause apprehension, if the latter are high, and
of no great density, and the air is still, the barometer at the same time being high.
Rain falling under such circumstances is generally light, or of not long continuance. —
/enynt,
It never clouds up in a June night for a rain.
If two strata of clouds appear in hot weather to move in different directions, they
indicate thunder.
If clouds float at different heights and rates, but generally in opposite directions,
expect heavy rains.
A horizontal streak or band of clouds immediately in front of the mountains on
the east side of Salt Lake Valley is an indication of rain within one or two days.
When black clouds cover the western horizon, rain will follow soon, and extend to
the eastward over the valley. — Observer at Salt Lake.
General squalls are preceded, accompanied, or followed, by clouds; but the
dangerous white squall of the West Indies is indicated only by a rushing sound and
by white wave crests to windward. — Fitzrou.
A small, fast-growing black cloud in violent motion, seen in the Tropics, is called
the "bull's eye," and precedes the most terrible hurricanes.
When you observe greenish-tinted masses of composite cloud collect in the south-
east and remain there for several hours, expect a succession of heavy rains and
gales.
When the clouds rise in terraces of white, soon will the country of the corn
priests be pierced with the arrows of rain. (Zuni Indians.)
When the cumulus clouds are smaller at sunset than they were at noon, expect
fair weather.
When cumulrs clouds become heaped up to leeward during a strong wind at sun-
set, thunder may be expected during the night.
Well-defined cumulus clouds forming a few hours after sunrise, increasing toward
the middle of the day, and decreasing toward evening are indicative of settled
weather; if instead of subsiding in the evening and leaving the sky clear they keep
increasing, they are indicative of wet. — Jenyns.
Clouds upon hills, if rising, do not bring rain; if falling, rain follows.
When Lookout Mountain (Tennessee) has its cap on, it will rain in six hours.
BAROMETER.
At the level of the sea the weight of the atmosphere is about 14
pounds to every square inch, or about 1 ton to every square foot of
the earth's surface. The barometer is used to gauge the weight or
pressure of the atmosphere. This pressure is constantly varying, and
the variations are instantly and accurately indicated by standard mer-
curial barometers. The indications thus furnished bv the barometer
14
are the best guide we now have for determining future weather con-
ditions. As low barometer readings generally attend stormy weather,
and high barometer readings are usually associated with clearing or
fair weather, it follows that, as a rule, falling barometer indicates pre-
cipitation and wind, and rising barometer fair weather or the approach
of fair weather. Upon the rapidity of the barometric changes depends
the character of the weather that follows. As atmospheric waves and
depressions are, by natural laws, caused to assume circular or oval
forms, the wind directions with reference to barometric depressions,
or areas of low barometer, are spirally inward toward the region of
lowest atmospheric pressure, as indicated by readings of the barom-
eter. The areas of low barometric pressure are, in fact, whirlwinds of
greater or less magnitude and intensity, depending upon the steepness
of the barometric gradient. The crests of the atmospheric waves, on
the contrary, show winds flowing spirally outward from the region of
highest barometric pressure.
The wind directions thus produced give rise to, and are responsible
for, all local weather signs. The south winds bring warmth, the north
winds cold, the east winds, in the middle latitudes, indicate the
approach from the westward of a low barometer, or storm area, and
the west winds show that the storm area has passed to the eastward.
The indications of the barometer generally forerun the shifts of the
wind. This much is shown by local observations.
In modern meteorological work, as conducted by the United States
Weather Bureau, observations, simultaneously taken, are collected by
telegraph from great areas, and it is possible by this means to calcu-
late for periods of one to three days in advance the local signs that
will be produced by the general conditions that are presented. In
other words, modern meteorological appliances, methods, and skill
make possible forecasts of the conditions that produce the local signs
upon which all weather proverbs are based. Furthermore, it is now
practicable not only to forecast general weather changes, but also
to calculate with great accuracy the intensit}^ and duration of storms-
The barometer and wind indications for the United States are gen-
erally summarized in the following table:
Barometer reduced to sea level.
Wind direc-
tion.
Character of weather indicated.
30 10 to 30 20 and steady
SW to NW
Fair with slight temperature changes for 1 to 2
30.10 to 30.20 and rising rapidly . .
30.10 to 30.20 and falling slowly. .
30.10 to 30.20 and falling rapidly .
30.20 and above and stationary ..
30.20 and above and falling slowl r
30.10 to 30.20 and falling slowly. .
30. 10 to 30.20 and falling rapidly
30.10 to 30.20 and falling slowl v. .
30.10 to 30.20 and falling rapidly.
30.10 and above and falling slowly
SW. to NW
SW. to NW
SW. to NW
SW. to NW
SW. to NW
S. toSE..
S. to SE..
SE. to NE .
SE.toNE .
E. to NE. .
days.
Fair followed within 2 days by warmer and rain.
Warmer with rain in 24 to 36 hours.
Warmer with rain in 18 to 24 hours.
Continued fair with no decided temperature
change.
Slowly rising temperature and fair for 2 days.
Rain within 24 hours.
Wind increasing in force with rain within 12 to 24
hours.
Rain in 12 to 18 hours.
Increasing wind with rain within 12 hours.
In summer, with light winds, rain may not fall
for several days. In winter rain within 24
hours.
15
Barometer reduced to sea level.
Wind direc-
tion.
Character of weather indicated.
30.10 and above and falling rapidly..
E. toNE....
In summer rain probable within 12 to 24 hours.
In winter rain or snow, with increasing winds,
will of ten set in, when the barometer begins to
fall and the wind sets in from the XE.
30 or below and falling slowly .
30 or below and falling rapidly
SE.toNE...
SE.toNE...
Rain will continue 1 to 2 days.
Rain with high wind, followed within 24 hours
30 or below and rising slowly
S.toSW....
by clearing and cooler.
Clearing within a few hours, and continued fair
for several days.
29.80 or below and falling rapidly . . .
S. toE
Severe storm of wind and rain or snow imminent,
followed within 24 hours by clearing and
colder.
29.80 or below and falling rapidly ...
E.toN
Severe northeast gales and heavy rain or snow,
followed in winter by a cold wave.
29.80 or below and rising rapidly
Going to W .
Clearing and colder.
Northerly and southerly winds may be classed with either fair or
storm winds. When they blow from points west of north and south
they are fair-weather winds; when from points east of north and
south they are foul-weather winds.
During the colder months, when the land temperatures are below
the water temperatures of the oceans and the Gulf of Mexico, pre-
cipitation will begin when the wind shifts and blows steadily from the
water over the land without regard to the height of the barometer.
In such cases the moisture in the warm ocean winds is condensed by
the cold of the continental area. During the summer months, on the
contrary, the on-shore winds are not necessarily rain winds, for the
reason that they are cooler than the land surfaces and their capacity
for moisture is increased by the warmth that is communicated to them
by the land surface. In such cases thunderstorms commonly occur
when the ocean winds are intercepted by mountain ranges or peaks.
If, however, the easterhr winds increase in force, with falling barom-
eter, the approach of an area of low barometric pressure from the
westward is indicated and rain will follow within a day or two.
Rapid changes in the barometer indicate early and marked changes in the weather.
A sudden rise in the barometer is very nearly as dangerous as a sudden fall,
because it shows that the level is unsteady. In an ordinary gale the wind often
blows hardest when the barometer is just beginning to rise, directly after having
been very low.
Should the barometer continue low when the sky becomes clear, expect more rain
within twenty-four hours. — C. L. Prince.
If the barometer fall gradually for several days during the continuance of fine
weather, much wet will probably ensue in the end. In like manner, if it keep
rising while the wet continues, the weather, after a day or two, is likely to set in
fair for some time. — Jenyns.
\ very low barometer is usually attendant upon stormy weather, with wind and
rain at Intervals, but the latter not necessarily in any great quantity. If the weather,
notwithstanding a very low barometer, is fine and calm, it is not to be depended
upon; a change may come on very suddenly. — Jenyns.
If the barometer and thermometer both rise together,
It is a very sure sign of corning fine weather.
If the barometer falls two or three tenths of an inch in four hours, expect a gale
of wind. — C. L. Prince.
16
If you observe that the surface of the mercury in the barometer vibrates upon the
approach of a storm, you may expect the gale to be severe. — C. L. Prince.
In summer, when the barometer falls suddenly, expect a thunderstorm; and if it
does not rise again when the storm ceases, there will be several days of unsettled
weather. — C. L. Prince.
A summer thunderstorm which does not much depress the barometer will be
very local and of slight consequence. — C. L. Prince.
When the barometer falls considerably without any particular change of weather,
you may be certain that a violent storm is raging at a distance. — C. L. Prince.
In winter heavy rain is indicated by a decrease of pressure and an increase in
temperature. — C. L. Prince.
The barometer falls lower for high winds than for heavy rain.
When the glass falls low,
Prepare for a blow;
When it rises high,
Let all your kites fly.
— Nautical.
First rise after low,
Foretells stronger blow;
Long foretold (falling), long last;
Short notice, soon past.
— F'dzroy.
Charts X to XIII show, for various sections of the United States,
the point to which the barometer falls, in the several seasons, before
precipitation begins. These readings apply more particularly to
storms that advance from the west and northwest, and records show,
in connection with storms that advance from the directions named,
that precipitation seldom begins before the barometer falls to or below
the figures given. In the case of storms that advance from the south-
west or south, which are indicated by winds blowing from points
between east and north, precipitation will, as before stated, often
begin when the barometer begins to fall.
From the Mississippi and Missouri valleys to the Atlantic coast, and
on the Pacific coast, rain generally begins on a falling barometer, while
in the Rocky Mountain and plateau districts, and on the eastern Rocky
Mountain slope, precipitation seldom begins until the barometer
begins to rise, after a fall. This is true as regards the eastern half of
the countr}T, however, only during the colder months, and in the
presence of general storms that may occur at other seasons. In the
warmer months summer showers and thunderstorms usually come
about the time the barometer turns from falling to rising. The fact
that during practically the entire year precipitation on the great
western plains and in the mountain regions that lie between the plains
and the Pacific coast districts does not begin until the center of the
low barometer area has passed to the eastward or southward and the
wind has shifted to the northern quadrants, with rising barometer, is
an important one to the forecaster.
17
UNSEASONABLE WEATHER DUE TO ABNORMAL, BAROMETRIC
CONDITIONS.
As local weather conditions are associated with the areas of high
and low barometric pressure that appear on our daily weather maps,
so are these areas of high and low pressure apparently controlled, both
as regards intensity and movement by the great so-called permanent
continental and oceanic areas of high and low barometer. The appar-
ent relations referred to are discussed by the writer as follows in the
Monthly Weather Review for June, 1902:
The cause of unseasonable weather is not demonstrable. Neither is it possible in
all cases to determine which of the general atmospheric conditions that are associated
with unseasonable weather partake of the nature of cause and which of effect.
It has been observed that summer periods of low temperature are associated with
barometric pressure below the normal and abundant rainfall, and that summer
periods of excessive heat are associated with barometric pressure about or above the
normal and a marked deficiency in rainfall. It has also been observed that winter
periods of excessive cold are associated with barometric pressure above the normal
and little or no precipitation, and that periods of high temperature in winter are
associated with barometric pressure below the normal and rain or snow. It has been
observed further that the general atmospheric conditions referred to are associated
with areas of high and low barometric pressure that traverse the United States. In
summer the atmosphere over regions subjected to unusual cold and abnormally
heavy rainfall is dominated by areas of low barometric pressure, or general storms
that follow unusual tracks for the season, and the atmosphere over regions sub-
jected to unusual heat is undisturbed by the passage of general storms, and is domi-
nated by an extensive and almost stationary area of high barometric pressure. In
winter periods of excessive cold are experienced in connection with areas of high
barometric pressure of great magnitude that advance from the British Northwest
Territory, and also in connection with general storms that follow abnormal southerly
pathe, and periods of unusually warm weather occur in connection with a succession
of general storms that pursue abnormal northerly paths.
A study of the daily meteorological charts of the Northern Hemisphere shows that
the general atmospheric conditions over the United States that are associated with
unseasonable weather in any part of the country are, in turn, associated with atmos-
pheric conditions that obtain over at least a great part of the Northern Hemisphere.
The international charts show that when a period of abnormal weather prevails over
a considerable area of the United States, there is a disarrangement of the normal dis-
tribution of atmospheric pressure over a great part of the Northern Hemisphere.
They show that in the presence of unseasonable weather in any part of the Northern
Hemisphere the so-called permanent continental and oceanic areas of high and low
barometric pressure present abnormal aspects, and there is an interruption in the
normal succession and progression of the areas of high and low barometric pressure
of the middle latitudes.
Admitting the possibility of a primary cause of unseasonable weather that first
affects the earth's atmosphere as a1 whole, by disarranging the normal distribution
of atmospheric pressure and finally interrupts the usual succession over the continents
and oceans of areas of high barometer and general storms, there is presented a
fascinating field for speculation and study. Speculation regarding the nature of the
cause would naturally be directed toward supposed evidence of solar disturbances as
indicated by sun spots, to manifestations of the electro-magnetic influence of the
sun's radiant energy, or perhaps to planetary or other equally obscure and possibly
1455— No. 33—03 2
18
imaginary influences. Study should begin with facts presented at the surface of the
earth. In the outline of these facts 'the association of periods of unseasonable
weather with local, continental, and hemispherical barometric pressure has been
shown.
A study of international meteorological reports, conducted with a due regard for
the facts referred to, would be calculated to lead to a determination of the relation
between changes and movements in the smaller and the greater barometric areas
with some cause that is external to the earth's atmosphere. It is possible, also, that
study carried along these -lines would lead to the discovery that periods of unseason-
able weather in any part of the Northern Hemisphere are preceded days, and per-
haps weeks, by certain changes in the hemispherical system of barometric pressure,
and that all the changes and conditions that are observed in our atmosphere and
all kinds and types of weather that we experience are subject to definable laws of
causation.
THE PHYSICAL EFFECT ON ANIMAL LIFE OF CHANGES IN
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE.
As the normal pressure, or weight, of the atmosphere is about 1
ton to every square foot of surface at the level of the sea, and a
change of 1 inch in the mercurial column of the barometer means a
change in pressure of about 70 pounds to every square foot of .surface,
decided changes in atmospheric pressure must exert a marked influ-
ence upon the body and its functions. A change in the barometer of
1 inch in twenty -four hours is not uncommon in many parts of the
United States, and this change in the barometer causes a change of
about one-half ton in the weight of the atmosphere that is sustained
by the average human body. It is not difficult, therefore, to imagine
that the physical organism of animals may be sensitive to these
changes, and that it has become an inherited instinct to associate the
sensations experienced under different atmospheric pressures with the
kinds of weather they indicate. The organization of diseased and
delicate human bodies, and of many kinds of animals is extremely
sensitive to atmospheric changes, and aches, pains, and nervousness
in humans, and restless behavior on the part of animals, birds, and
insects may, in a measure, be attributed to low, rapidly decreasing
atmospheric pressure that precedes and attends storm periods.
Birds fly high when the barometer is high and fly low when the
barometer is low. The explanation of this fact is that when the
barometer is high the air is heavier and denser and has more sustain-
ing capacity, and birds are therefore able to fly or soar high with less
effort than would be required at times when the barometer is low and
the air less dense.
Everything is lovely and the goose honks high.
Wild geese fly high in pleasant weather and low in bad weather.
The low flight of rooks indicates rain.
When the cuckoo is heard in low lands, it indicates rain; when on high lands, fair
weather.
19
When swallows in evenings fly high and chirp, fair weather follows; when low,
rain follows.
\Vhen swallows fleet soar high and sport in air,
He told us that the welkin would be clear.
-Gay. .
Cranes soaring aloft and quietly in the air foreshows fair weather, but if they make
much noise, as if consulting which way to go, it foreshadows a storm that's near at
hand. — Thomas Wilfsford.
Martins fly low before and during rainy weather. — Colonel Dunwoody.
When men-of-war hawks fly high, it is a sign of a clear sky; when they fly low,
prepare for a blow.
Bees will not swarm before a near storm.
When bees remain in their hives or fly but a short distance, expect rain.
Smoke falls to the ground preceding rain.
Men work better, eat more, and sleep sounder when the barometer is high.
Do business with men when the wind is from the westerly; for then the barometer
is high.
TEMPERATURE.
During the warmer months the temperature generally rises, with
falling barometer, before rain, and falls, with rising barometer, after
rain begins. During the colder months the temperature usually rises
and continues above the normal, before and during rain or snow, and
begins to fall, with rising barometer, about the time the rain or snow-
ends. The rainy periods of summer are cool and the rain or snow
periods of winter are warm for the season.
Charts XIV to XXI show for the several seasons the wind direc-
tions that attend periods of abnormally high and low temperature in
the United States. In the interior of the country periods of high
temperature are naturally associated with southerly and southwesterly
winds, and periods of lowr temperature with westerly and northwest-
erly winds. The charts of wind directions referred to show that on
the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, and on the Great Lakes, the
water temperature modifies the heat of summer and the cold of winter
when on-shore winds prevail.
The changes in temperature before, during, and after storms also
have an effect on animal and plant life, and many proverbs are based
upon observations of these effects. As, however, changes, in tem-
perature are direct results of wind directions, sayings regarding
temperature are almost invariably associated with those relating to
the wind.
The warmth of the south wind is enervating.
The cold of the north wind is bracing.
The chill of the east wind is conducive to aches and pa. .
The prevailing west winds and moderate temperatures impart the dominating
qualities that are possessed by the peoples of the temperate zone.
20
In the summer, when the sun burns more than usual, expect thunderstorms.
If the temperature increases between 9 p. m. and midnight, when the sky is
cloudless, expect rain; and if, during a long and severe period of low temperature,
the temperature increases between midnight and morning, expect a thaw. —
C. L. Prince.
HUMIDITY.
The temperature of the air increases before rain, the capacity of
the air for moisture increases with increasing temperature, and the
rain winds of the United States are from the oceans and the Gulf. It
follows, therefore, that there is an increase in the humidity of the
air before rain. It does not follow, however, that every increase in
humidity at the earth's surface indicates rain, for in the coast districts
an increase in humidity may result from a shift of the wind that causes
it to blow temporarily from over the water, and a temporary increase
is sometimes due to fog, and neither of these conditions necessarily
indicates rain. Ignoring purely local and temporary causes and con-
ditions, however, it ma3T be assumed that, as a rule, general rains are
preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by an increase in atmospheric
moisture.
The presence in the air of varying amounts of moisture is indicated
by the quality that various substances possess to absorb moisture, and
by the effect of increasing and decreasing amounts of air moisture
on animal and plant life and on many inanimate objects. It is also
probable that the moisture of the air shares with atmospheric pressure
and temperature in producing good and ill effects on animal and plant
life. Warm, moist air attends falling and low barometer, and under
these conditions there is feeling of physical and mental lassitude that is
in striking contrast to the feeling of exhilaration that accompanies the
cool, dry winds that attend rising and high barometer.
Observations to determine the amount and relative amount of atmos-
pheric moisture are usually made with wet and dry bulb thermom-
eters. The wet-bulb thermometer is moistened and the evaporation
of the moisture from the bulb cools its surface. When the air is
saturated with moisture no evaporation takes place, the air about the
instrument will contain no more moisture, and the relative humidity
is 100 per cent. The drier the air the more rapid will be the process
of evaporation and the greater will be the difference between the
readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometers. Hygrometers are
constructed which depend for a record upon the effect of moisture on
hair that has been specially prepared for this purpose; these devices do
not, however, possess a sufficient degree of accuracy to meet the needs
of scientific work. Neither do twice-daily readings of the dry and wet
bulb thermometers afford sufficient data for a satisfactory study of the
relation between atmospheric moisture and rainfall, and until some
21
means can be devised and utilized for securing continuous records
of atmospheric moisture for comparison with similar records of
atmospheric pressure and temperature this important factor in the
production of precipitation and frost can not be properly utilized
in the work of weather forecasting.
The following proverbs are based upon the effects of atmospheric
moisture that have been observed preceding rain:
Rain comes from a mass of vapor which is cooled. — Aristotle.
Mountains cool the uplifted vapor, converting it again into water. — Aristotle.
A red sun has water in his eye.
The greater the difference between the readings of the wet and dry bulb ther-
mometers the greater will be the probability of fine weather, and vice versa. — C. L.
Prince.
When walls are unusually damp rain is expected.
Horses sweating in the stable is a sign of rain.
Doors and windows are hard to shut in damp weather.
Flies sting and are more troublesome than usual when the humidity increases
before rain.
Sailors note the tightening of the cordage on ships as a sign of coming rain.
Sensitive plants contract their leaves and blossoms when the humidity increases.
A piece of seaweed hung up will become damp previous to rain.
A lump of hemp acts as a good hygrometer and prognosticates rain when it isdair p.
Tobacco becomes moist preceding rain.
When rheumatic people complain of more than ordinary pains it will probably
rain.
AVhen the locks turn damp in the scalp house surely it will rain. — American Indians.
If corns, wounds, and sores itch or ache more than usual rain is likely to fall shortly.
When matting on the floor is shrinking, dry weather may be expected. When
matting expands, expect wet weather.
Ropes shorten with an increase of humidity.
Ropes being difficult to untwist indicate rain.
Quarries of stone and slate indicate rain by a moist exudation from the stones
Salt increases in weight before rain.
A farmer's wife says when her cheese salt is soft it will rain; when getting dry
fair weather may be expected.
If metal plates and dishes sweat it is a sign of bad weather. — Pliny.
Three foggy or misty mornings indicate rain. (Oregon.)
A rising fog indicates fair weather; if the fog settles down expect rain.
Fog from seaward, fair weather; fog from landward, rain. (New England.)
Hoar frost indicates rain.
Heavy frosts bring heavy rain; no frosts, no rain. (California.)
The larger the halo about the moon the nearer the rain clouds and the sooner the
rain may be expected.
When the perfume of flowers is unusually perceptible rain may be expected.
When the mountain moss is soft and limpid expect rain. When mountain moss
is dry and brittle expect clear weather.
22
Sunflower raising its head indicates rain.
Rainbow in morning, shepherds take warning;
Rainbow at night, shepherds' delight.
Rainbow at night, sailors' delight;
Rainbow in morning, sailors' warning.
Rainbow in morning shows that shower is west of us and that we will probably
get it. Rainbow in the evening shows that shower is east of us and is passing off.
Snakes expose themselves on the approach of rain.
In dry weather, when creeks and springs that have gone dry become moist, or, as
we may say, begin to sweat, it indicates approaching rain. Many springs that have
gone dry will give a good flow of water just before rain. — J. E. Walter, Kansas.
Drains, ditches, and dunghills are more offensive before rain.
Floors saturated with oil become very damp just before rain.
Guitar strings shorten before rain.
Human hair (red) curls and kinks at the approach of a storm, and restraightens
after the storm.
Lamp wicks crackle, candles burn dim, soot falls down, smoke descends, walls and
pavements are damp, and disagreeable odors arise from ditches and gutters before
rain.
Pipes for smoking tobacco become indicative of the state of the air. When the
scent is longer retained than usual and seems denser and more powerful it often
forebodes a storm.
Soap covered with moisture indicates bad weather.
Refractions of light of any remarkable kind frequently forebode rain, sometimes
storms; at sea the knowledge of this is very useful. Circles around the sun and
moon, mock suns, and other phenomena of this kind, together with the unusual ele-
vation of distant coasts, masts of ships, etc., particularly when the refracted images
are inverted, are known to be frequent foreboders of stormy weather.
ANIMALS.
The observations of naturalists, shepherds, herdsmen, and others who have been
brought much into contact with animals, have proved most clearly that these crea-
tures are cognizant of approaching changes in the state of the air long before we
know of their coming by other signs. To many kinds of animals, birds, and insects,
the weather is of so much more importance than to us, that it would be wonderful if
nature had not provided them with a more keenly prophetic instinct in this respect.
The occurrence of a storm would, doubtless, be the means of depriving some of the
Carnivora of a meal, and it is known that utter destruction would occur to the nests
of some birds if the tenents were absent during a gale of wind or a pelting shower;
while to vast numbers of insects the state of the weather for the fraction of a week
may determine the whole time during which they may enjoy their little lives. To
enable all these creatures to prepare for coming trouble, they seem to have been fitted
with what is to us an unknown sense informing them of minute changes in the
atmosphere, and it has long been observed that they eat with more avidity, return
to their homes, or become unusually restless before the coming of the danger of
which they are forwarned. — Weather Lore.
Cats have the reputation of being weather wise, an old notion which has given rise
to a most extensive folklore. It is almost universally believed that good weather
may be expected when the cat washes herself, but bad when she licks her coat against
the grain, or washes her face over her ears, or sits with her tail to the fire.
When cattle go out to pasture and lie down early in the day it indicates early rain.
23
Dogs making holes in the ground, eating grass in the morning, or refusing meat
are said to indicate coming rain. — ( 'olom'l Dinm-nodi/.
All shepherds agree in saying that before a storm comes sheep become frisky, leap,
and butt or "box" each other. — Folklore Journal.
When horses and cattle stretch out their necks and sniff the air it will rain.
Horses, as well as other domestic animals, foretell the coming of rain by starting
more than ordinary and appearing in other respects restless and uneasy.
Hogs crying and running unquietly up and down with hay or litter in their mouths
foreshadow a storm to be near at hand. — Thomas Willsford.
Kine, when they assemble at one end of a field with their tails to windward, often
indicate rain or wind.
When oxen or sheep collect together as if they were seeking shelter a storm may
be expected. — Apache Indian*.
BIRDS.
When birds of long flight hang about home expect a storm.
Migratory birds fly south from cold and north from warm weather. When a
severe cyclone is near, they become puzzled and fly in circles, dart in the air, and
can be easily decoyed. (North Carolina.)
When birds cease to sing, rain and thunder will probably occur.
Birds and fowls oiling feathers indicate rain.
If fowls roll in the dust and sand, rain is at hand.
Bats flying late in the evening indicate fair weather. Bats who speak flying tell
of rain to-morrow.
If cocks crow late and early, clapping their wings occasionally, rain is expected.
If the cock goes crowing to bed,
He'll certainly rise with a watery head.
Chickens, when they pick up email stones and pebbles, and are more noisy than
usual, afford, according to Aratus, a sign of rain. Other authors prognosticate
the coming of rain from the habit fowls have of rubbing in the dust and clapping
their wings.
When chimney swallows circle and call, they speak of rain. (Zuni Indians.)
When cranes make a great noise or scream, expect rain.
One crow flying alone is a sign of foul weather, but if crows fly in pairs expect
fine weather.
If the wild geese gang -out to sea,
Good weather there will surely be.
If crows make much noise and fly round and round, expect rain.
WTild geese flying past large bodies of water indicate change of weather. Going
south, cold; going north, warm.
Guinea fowls squall more than usual before rain.
Clamorous as a parrot against rain. —Shakespeare.
Parrots whistling indicate rain.
Gulls will soar aloft, and, circling around, utter shrill cries before a storm.
When grouse drum at night, Indians predict a deep fall of snow.
When the peacock loudly bawls,
Soon we'll have both rain and squalls.
When herons fly up and down as in doubt where to rest, expect rain.
Martins fly low before and during rain.
24
When the voices of blackbirds are unusually shrill, or when blackbirds sing much
in the morning, rain will follow.
Pigeons return home unusually early before rain.
If sea fowls retire to the shore or marshes, a storm is approaching.
Loud and long singing of robins denotes rain.
Robins will perch on the topmost branches of trees and whistle when a storm is
approaching.
The stormy petrel is found 'to be a sure token of stormy weather. When these
birds gather in numbers in the wake of a ship, the sailors feel sure of an impending
tempest.
FISH.
When fish bite readily and swim near the surface, rain may be expected.
Fishes in general, both in salt and fresh waters, are observed to sport most and
bite more eagerly before rain than at any other time.
Black-fish in schools indicate an approaching gale.
Air bubbles over clam beds indicate rain.
When pike lie on the bed of a stream quietly, expect rain or wind.
Porpoises, when they sport about ships and chase one another as if in play, and
indeed their being numerous on the surface of the sea at any time, is rather a
stormy sign. The same may be said of dolphins and grampus. That the cause of
these motions is some electrical change in the air seems probable. Wilsford, in*
his Secrets of Nature, tells us, " Porpoises or sea-hogs, when observed to sport and
chase one another about ships, expect then some stormy weather."
Trout jump and herring schools more rapidly before rain.
The appearance of a great number of fish on the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico
indicates bad weather and easterly winds.
INSECTS.
A bee was never caught in a shower.
When bees to distance wing their flight,
Days are warm and skies are bright;
But when their flight ends near at home,
Stormy weather is sure to come.
When ants are situated on low ground, their migration may be taken as an indica-
tion of approaching heavy rains.
Expect stormy weather when ants travel in lines, and fair weather when they
scatter.
Ants are very busy, gnats bite, crickets are lively, spiders come out of their nests,
and flies gather in houses just before rain.
If spiders are indolent, rain generally soon follows. Their activity during rain is
proof of its short duration.
When flies congregate in swarms, rain follows soon.
When flies bite greedily, expect rain.
Spiders strengthening their webs indicates rain.
If garden spiders forsake their cobwebs, rain is at hand.
When you see the ground covered with spider webs which are wet with dew, and
there is no dew on the ground, it is a sign of rain before night, for the spiders are
putting up umbrellas; but others say when the spiders put out their sunshades it will
be a hot day.
25
PLANTS.
The odor of flowers is more apparent just before a shower (when the air is moist)
than at any other time.
Cottonwood and quaking asp trees turn up their leaves before rain.
When the leaves of the sugar maple tree are turned upside down, expect rain.
The convolvulus folds up its petals at the approach of rain.
Before rain the leaves of the lime, sycamore, plane, and poplar trees show a great
deal more of their under surface when trembling in the wind.
Clover leaves turned up so as to show light under side indicate approaching rain.
Corn fodder dry. and crisp indicates fair weather; but damp and limp, rain. It is
very sensitive to hygrometric changes.
When the pink-eyed pimpernel closes in the daytime, it is a sign of rain.
Milkweed closing at night indicates rain.
Mushrooms and toadstools are numerous before rain.
The pitcher plant opens its mouth before rain.
Trees grow dark before a storm.
When the leaves of trees curl, with the wind from the south, it indicates rain.
SUN.
The sun, moon, and stars indicate impending weather changes only
so far as their appearance is affected by existing atmospheric condi-
tions.
The sun reveals the secrets of the sky,
And who dares give the source of light the lie.
Virgil.
The sun sets weeping in the lowly west,
AVitnessing storms to come, woe, and unrest.
Shakespeare.
When the sun sets unhappily (with a hazy veiled face), then will the morning be
angry with wind, storm, and sand. (Zuni Indians.)
Above the rest, the sun who never lies,
Foretells the change of weather in the skies;
For if he rise unwilling to his race,
Clouds on his brow and spots upon his face,
Or if through mists he shoot his sullen beams,
Frugal of light in loose and straggling streams,
Suspect a drizzling day and southern rain,
Fatal to fruits, and flocks, and promised grain.
Virgil.
Since the colors and duration of twilight, especially at evening, depend upon the
amount of condensed vapor which the atmosphere contains, these appearances should
afford some indications of the weather which may be expected to succeed. The follow-
ing are some of the rales which are relied upon by seamen: When after sunset the
western sky is of a whitish yellow, and this tint extends a great height, it is probable
that it will rain during the night or next day. Gaudy or unusual hues, with hard,
definitely outlined clouds, foretell rain and probable wind. If the sun before setting
appears diffuse and of a brilliant white, it foretells storm. If it sets in a sky slightly
purple, the atmosphere near the zenith being of a bright blue, we may rely upon
fine weather. — Weatlier Procerl>*.
26
If the sun sets in dark, heavy clouds, expect rain next day.
A red morn, that ever yet betokened
Wreck to the seamen, tempest to the field,
Sorrow to shepherds, woe unto the birds,
Gust and foul flaws to herdmen and herds.
Shakespeare.
When the sun sets bright and clear,
An easterly wind you need not fear.
When the sun draws water, rain follows soon.
Sun drawing water indicates rain.
If the sun draws water in the morning it will rain before night.
The sun setting after a fine day behind a heavy bank of clouds, with a falling
barometer, is generally indicative of rain or snow, according to the season, either in
the night or next morning. — Jenyns.
When it is evening ye say it will be fair weather: for the sky is red. And in the
morning, it will be foul weather today: for the sky is red and lowring. — Matthew
xvi, 2, 3.
An evening grey and a morning red
Will send the shepherd wet to bed.
Evening red and morning gray,
Two sure signs of one fine day.
Red skies in the evening precede fine to-morrows.
When the sun in the morning is breaking through the clouds and scorching, a
thunderstorm follows in the afternoon.
A blur or haziness about the sun indicates a storm.
A solar halo indicates bad weather.
Next mark the features of the God of Day;
Most certain signs to mortals they convey,
When fresh he breaks the portals of the east,
And when his wearied coursers sink to rest.
If bright he rise, from speck and tarnish clear,
Throughout the day no rain or tempest fear.
If cloudless his full orb descend at night,
To-morrow's sun will rise and shine as bright.
But if returning to the eastern sky,
A hollow blackness on his center lie;
Or north and south his lengthened beams extend,
These signs a stormy wind or rain portend.
Observe if shorn of circling rays his head,
And o'er his face a veil of redness spread;
Far o'er the plains the God of Winds will sweep,
Lashing the troubled bosom of the deep.
If in a shroud of blackness he appear,
Forewarned, take heed — a drenching rain is near
If black and red their tints together blend,
And to his face a murky purple lend,
Soon will the wolfish wind tempestuous howl,
And the big clouds along the welkin roll.
And foul weather expect, when thou canst trace
A baleful halo circling Phoebus' face
Of murky darkness, and approaching near:
If of two circles, fouler weather fear.
27
*r
Mark when from eastern wave his rays emerge,
And ere he quench them in the western surge,
If near th' horizon ruddy clouds arise,
Mocking the solar orb in form and size:
If two such satellites the sun attend,
Soon will tempestuous rain from heaven descend:
If one, and north, the northern wind prevails;
If one, and south, expect the southern gales.
/. Lamb's "Aralus."
MOON.
The moon and the weather
May change together;
But change of the moon
Does not change the weather.
If we'd no moon at all,
And that may seem strange,
We still should have weather
That's subject to change.
' ' Notes and Queries. ' '
The circle of the moon never filled a pond; the circle of the sun wets a shepherd.
If the full moon rises clear, expect fine weather.
A lunar halo indicates rain, and the larger the halo the sooner the rain may be
expected.
Last night the moon had a golden ring,
But to-night no moon I see.
If the moon show a silver shield,
Be not afraid to reap your field;
But if she rises halved round,
Soon will tread on deluged ground.
A large ring around the moon and low clouds indicate rain in twenty-four hours;
a small ring and high clouds, rain in several days.
The moon with a circle brings water in her beak.
The moon, if in house be, cloud it will, rain soon will come. (Zuni Indians.)
If the full moon rise pale, expect rain.
When the moon rises red and appears large, with clouds, expect rain in twelve
hours.
Therefore the moon, the governor of the floods,
Pale in her anger, washes all the air
That rheumatic diseases do abound.
Shakespeare.
The moon, her face if red be,
Of water speaks she. (Zuiii Indians.)
When the moon is darkest near the horizon, expect rain.
Each sign observe — more sure when two agree;
Nor doubt the event foretold by omens three.
Note well the events of the preceding year,
And with the rising and setting stars compare.
But chiefly look to Cynthia's varying face;
There surest signs of coming weather trace.
Observe when twice four days she veils her light,
Nor cheers with silvery ray the dreary night.
Mark these prognostics through the circling year,
And wisely for the rain, the wind, the storm prepare:
28
A halo oft fair Cynthia's face surrounds,
With single, double, or with triple bounds;
If with one ring and broken it appear,
Sailors, beware! the driving gale is near.
Unbroken if it vanisheth away —
Serene the air, and smooth the tranquil sea.
The double halo boisterous weather brings,
Arid furious tempests follow triple rings.
These signs from Cynthia's varying orb arise —
Forewarn the prudent, and direct the wise.
J. Lamb's "Aratus.'
STABS.
When the stars flicker in a dark background, rain or snow follows soon.
When the stars begin to huddle,
The earth will soon become a puddle.
Before the rising of a wind the lesser stars are not visible, even on a clear night. —
Pliny, XVIII, 80.
When the sky seems very full of stars, expect rain, or, in winter, frost.
Excessive twinkling of stars indicates heavy dews, rain, or snow, or stormy weather
in the near future.
When the stars above 45° in altitude, or the North Star, flickers strangely, or ap-
pears closer than usual, expect rain.
When the stars appear to be numerous, very large, and dull, and do not twinkle,
expect rain.
Now mark where high upon the zodiac line
The stars of lustre-lacking Cancer shine.
Near to the constellation's southern bound
Phatne, a nebulous bright spot, is found.
On either side this cloud, nor distant far,
Glitters to north and south a little star.
Though not conspicuous, yet these two are famed —
The Onoi by ancient sages named.
If when the sky around be bright and clear,
Sudden from sight the Phatne disappear,
And the two Onoi north and south are seen
Ready to meet — no obstacle between —
The welkin soon will blacken with rain,
And torrents rush along the thirsty plain.
If black the Phatne, and the Onoi clear,
Sure sign again that drenching showers are near.
And if the northern star be lost to sight,
While still the southern glitters fair and bright,
Notus will blow. But if the southern fail,
And clear the northern, Boreas will prevail.
And as the skies above, the waves below
Signs of the rising wind and tempest show.
/. Lamb's "Aratus."
When the bright gems that night's black vault adorn
But faintly shine — of half their radiance shorn —
And not by cloud obscured or dimmed to sight
By the fine silvery veil of Cynthia's light,
But of themselves appear to faint away,
They warning give of a tempestuous day.
.7. Lamb'ff "Amhis.
29
L.ONG-RANGE WEATHER FORECASTS.
In the early ages when the classes and the masses of the leading
nations of the earth were deficient in educational qualifications even to
the extent of ordinary clerical accomplishments, the human mind was
particularly receptive to assumptions on the part of so-called sages
and wise men of a knowledge of coming events. In later days semi-
civilized and barbarous peoples have given credence to the prophesies
of their priests and medicine men, and to-day fakirs and clarlatans in
the various professional and scientific fields, astrologers, fortune-
tellers, and long-range weather forecasters command, in civilized com-
munities, a lucrative following.
Long-range weather forecasts have ever been impossible of achieve-
ment. The period for which weather changes and conditions can be
forecast varies from two to three days, depending necessarily, in each
instance, on the season of the year and existing atmospheric condi-
tions.
Several methods are employed in the compilation of so-called long-
range weather forecasts. The first method, and the only one that
possesses merit, being a statement based upon average weather condi-
tions that have prevailed at certain times and seasons in given locali-
ties or sections. The main, and fatal, weakness in this system is
that average weather conditions are seldom experienced. Average
weather conditions are made up largely of extremes, and the proba-
bility of experiencing average weather lessens as the length of the
period lessens. The average weather for a year differs but slightly
from the normal of many years. The seasons possess each year the
same general characteristics as regards temperature, precipitation,
and winds. The months exhibit, year after year, the same general
type of weather. For periods of less than a month, however, aver-
ages possess but little value in weather forecasting, and attempts to
specify in detail the weather conditions for weeks, months, or seasons
in advance are, for all practical purpose, valueless.
Long-range weather forecasts based upon astronomical events, or
upon the appearance of the heavenly bodies, can not stand the test of
verification, and careful examinations and comparisons have failed to
establish any connection between the movements, positions, and
changes of the sun, moon, and stars with changes in the weather that
are experienced from day to day. Neither can it be shown that the
actions of animals, birds, and fish, or the condition of plant life, give
evidence of other than presenter past weather conditions; and long-
range weather forecasts' based upon the condition of the weather on
certain days have for a basis superstition and ignorance.
It will be interesting, however, to quote and discuss, under the sev-
eral heads, proverbs, or sayings, that embody long-range forecasts
that have been handed down, in many instances, through centuries of
30
time. As all weather saying's relating to the sun apply more particu-
larly to the character of the weather as regards sunshine, on specified
calendar and church days, a reference will be made to sayings of this
class under the heading, "Days, months, seasons, and years."
SUN SPOTS.
A favorite theory among meteorologists is that sun spots have a
definite influence upon meteorological as well as upon magnetic and
electrical conditions, and that the more or less well-defined eleven-
year period of sun-spot maximum can be directly associated with rain-
fall and the distribution of temperature and barometric pressure.
Prof. F. H. Bigelow, of the United States Weather Bureau, has
recently written as follows regarding the relation between sun spots
and terrestrial phenomena:
The variation in the solar output, as registered in the relative frequency of solar
spots, has long been known to have a marked synchronism with the horizontal com-
ponent of terrestrial magnetism. The sun spots constitute but a sluggish register of
the solar activity, and the curve of terrestrial magnetic force presents a series of char-
acteristic miner fluctuations superimposed on the general eleven-year curve. These
special variations reappear with marked distinctness in the frequency of the solar
prominences; and they are coordinate with the variations of themean annual baro-
metric pressures all over the earth. The pressures in the earth's atmosphere are
undergoing changes in short cycles of about three years in duration, which corre-
spond with changes in the external work of the sun, and the cycles are produced by
the modifications in the general circulation of the atmosphere. There is, besides, a
sort of surging of the atmosphere with more or less stationary configurations, and
these involve the seasonal climatic changes of weather by which one year differs
from another. Thus the regions about the Indian Ocean and South America vary
synchronously, but inversely; the continental and ocean areas do the same. There
seems to be a tendency toward a greater cyclic change with a period of about eight
years, within which the pressure excesses begin, for example, in India, pass through
Asia, Europe, North America, and South America back to India. This synchronism
between solar and terrestrial variations holds, in the United States, for the pressures,
temperatures, storm-track movements in longitude and latitude, cold- wave tracks, etc.
Commenting upon this summary, the New York Sun of April 26,
1903, remarks:
Meteorology has a deep interest in elucidating these fundamental relations of solar
and terrestrial physics, since upon this depends our hope of making seasonal forecasts
upon a scientific basis.
In a recent article Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer remarks regarding
this subject, as follows:
Everybody agrees that all the energy utilized on this planet of ours, with the single
exception of that supplied by the tides, comes from the sun. We are all familiar
with the changes due to the earth's daily rotation bringing us now on the side of our
planet illumined by the sun, then plunging us into darkness; that changes of season
must necessarily follow from the earth's yearly journey around the sun is universally
recognized.
31
On the other hand, it is a modern idea that these solar phenomena which prove to
us considerable changes of temperature in the sun itself, may, and indeed should, be
echoed by the changes on our planet, giving us thereby an eleven-year period to be
considered, as well as a year and a day.
This response of the earth to solar changes was first observed in the continuous
record of those instruments which register for us the earth's magnetism at any one
place. The magnetic effects were strongest when there were more spots, taking them
as indicators of solar changes. Lamont first (without knowing it) made this out at
the beginning of the latter half of the century (1851) from the Gottingen observa-
tions of the daily range of the declination needle. Sabine the next year not only
announced the same cycle in the violence of the "magnetic storms" observed at
Toronto, but at once attributed them to solar influence, the two cycles running con-
currently. It is now universally recognized that terrestrial magnetic effects, includ-
ing auroree, minutely echo the solar changes.
The eleven-year period is not one to be neglected. Next comes the inquiry in
relation to meteorology. . Sir William Herschel, in the first year of the nineteenth
century, when there were practically neither sun-spot nor rainfall observations avail-
able, did not hesitate to attack the question whether the price of wheat was affected
by the many or few spot solar condition. He found the price to be high when the
sun was spotless, and vice versa.
By 1872, however, we had both rainfall and sun-spot observations, and the cycle
of the latter had been made out. Meldrum, the most distinguished meteorologist
living at the time, and others, pronounced that the rainfall was greatest at sun-spot
maximum, and, further, that the greatest number of cyclones occurred in the East
and West Indies at the same time.
This result wTith regard to rainfall was not generally accepted, but Chambers
showed shortly afterwards an undoubted connection between the cycles of solar spots
and barometric pressure in the Indian area. An attempt has been recently made to
study the temperature history of the sun since 1877, and the years of mean tempera-
ture, and when the heat was in excess and defect.
In the year 1900 Camille Flammarion, the French scientist, observed
the great sun spots, including the one discovered by Abbe Mareux,
and predicted that the earth was about to enter upon a period of five
37ears, the summers of which would be the hottest in its history. Con-
tinuing a discussion of the relation between sun spots and weather, the
Chicago Chronicle of July 28, 1901, states as follows:
Camille Flammarion bids fair to make good his prophecy. Yet even now meteor-
ologists and astronomers refuse to believe that he has established any direct connec-
tion between terrestrial weather and spots on the sun. Such a connection has for
a long time been suspected, but nothing definite in the way of a law has been
discovered.
That we shall soon be in a position to forecast the seasons by means of a study of
the chemical or physical condition of the sun seems likely. The sun, far from being
a great star of unvarying physical characteristics, varies very materially and is very
much hotter and brighter at certain periods than it is at others. Its probable tem-
perature at its normal state is about 12,632° F., or 7,000° C., but its radiation of heat
year by year is not even, so that in certain years the earth receives much more heat
than it does in others, and in consequence important meteorologic changes are set
up, the precise nature of which science seems to be just on the edge of unraveling.
For instance, the British astronomer Sir Norman Lockyer has just announced his
conclusion that the seasonal rainfall and great heats in India follow certain changes
32
in the sun, and that the famines of India, which bring such unspeakable misery and
woe to the teeming millions of this unfortunate country, can be forecast from known
solar changes. But as the weather of India is not an isolated phenomenon, but is
interlocked with that of Africa and this in turn with that of the Western Hemi-
sphere, a weather cycle in one country is unquestionably duplicated in others.
At present, however, no one has worked out the data for the north temperate
zone sufficiently to discover what this cyclical change in our weather is that follows
the variation of the physical state of the sun. Sir Norman, however, believes we
shall get at the law of change before long and will be able to' forecast weather over
long periods by a study of the sun's surface. For instance, a huge sun spot was
observed in the sun recently which was of such magnitude as to cause much surprise
among astronomers, since the sun is now at a period when the sun spots are the least
frequent. Conditions are, however, shaping themselves for a period of numerous
sun spots in 1904, of which the huge spot observed this spring is the forerunner.
Those who are inclined to jump at conclusions connect the abnormal summer of
1900 with the big spot seen during that summer, while the recent hot wave is
blamed on the big spot of June, 1901. And they recall the successful forecast of
Abbe Mareux, who, basing his views on the sun-spot activities of the spring of 1900,
predicted a hot summer. But the scientific world is not convinced that the data
show that the hotter sun is followed by hotter terrestrial weather, though it is con-
vinced that there is a law connecting solar changes with weather changes in the
earth, even though it is marked in its operation.
Sir Norman in the case of India has found that the famine years precede the period
when the sun is normal, while the seasonable rainfall that relieves the drought fol-
lows this" normal period invariably. If anything retards the return to the normal
period, which has been the case from the year 1897 on, the drought and famine
periods are prolonged.
Following up this discovery, which is connected with the eleven-year period in
sun-spot variation, W. J. S. Lockyer has made another and exceedingly important
discovery, that underlying the ordinary sun-spot period of eleven years there is another
cycle of greater length, namely, about thirty-five years, and that this cycle not only
alters the time of the occurrence of the period of least frequency, but also causes
changes in the total spotted area of the sun from one eleven-year period to another.
As it is known that the presence of sun spots does affect the frequency of the aurora
borealis and the magnetic phenomena on the earth, great sun spots being followed
by magnetic storms that disturb telegraph and telephone systems the world over,
Mr. Lockyer has found there is a thirty-five year period in magnetic phenomena, as
he puts it:
''There seems little doubt that during the interval of time covered by the present
sun-spot discussion the meteorological phenomena, number of aurora, and magnetic
storms show secular variations of a period of about thirty-five years, the epochs of
which harmonize with those of the secular variations of sun spots. As we are begin-
ning to approach another maximum of sun spots which should correspond both in
intensity and in time of occurrence after the epoch of the present minimum with
that of 1870-1878, it will be interesting to observe whether all the solar, meteoro-
logical, and magnetical phenomena of that period will be repeated.
"If there is a more or less exact repetition of meteorological phenomena with the
return of the thirty-five year period, then the summer of 1901 should be somewhat
like the summer of 1867 and the summers of 1902, 1903, 1904 like those of 1868, 1869,
and 1870. If this be so, we are not in for a hot summer (in 1901 ), as absurd as this
may seem in view of the record-breaking character of July, but for a series of cool
summers. For, according to the Pennsylvania Hospital records, there were only six
days during June, July, August, and September, 1867, when the thermometer ran
above 90°, while 1868 .for the same months only recorded twelve days above 90°;
33
1869, fourteen, and 1870, thirty-three days, with the highest temperature only 98°.
Moreover, June, 1867, had a rainfall of 11.03 inches, while last June, 1901, had o. ly
1.15 inches to its credit."
From this it would appear that however the thirty-five year cycle may apply for
great areas of the earth's surface in the matter of climate variation, Philadelphia
hardly reveals it in its recent brand of weather. And yet weather ought to follow
general changes, for those who believe the variation in the sun's physical stresses
affect the weather are agreed generally that it does it by changes in what are known
as the areas of high barometer that belt the globe in the Tropics over the oceans in
the summer time.
If this theory be correct, our summer weather ought to be determined by the effect
of the sun spots on the oceanic high-pressure areas. And the way in which varia-
tions in these high-pressure areas affect our weather can be seen by glancing at the
United States hydrographic chart, which shows the normal barometric pressure in
inches, as well as the normal temperature lines and the resulting circulation of winds.
If the Atlantic high-pressure area is shifted toward the Atlantic coast of the United
States, it gives us a circulation that is tropical, and if the pressure continues high over
the coast, the whole eastward-moving drift of weather over the continent is held up
and a hot wave results, which can not be broken up until the Atlantic pressure is
reduced.
The question whether a summer in the United States will be abnormally hot is
therefore merely a question as to whether the high pressure over the Atlantic will
be shifted toward Bermuda and the Atlantic coast. Of course, such a shift means a
shift in the high pressures of the Pacific and Indian oceans, for what affects one great
system affects the other, and so the weather all the world around is affected.
That a sun spot should be able to affect terrestrial weather can not be considered
remarkable when it is remembered that the spots are evidence of tremendous activi-
ties in the sun, being nothing more than huge cyclonic disturbances deep down in
the photosphere, often 2,000,000 square miles in area, from whose vortices, in which
many earths might float, prominences are whirled miles above the sun's surface.
Moreover, the photosphere is more brilliant and hot about the spots than anywhere
else on the sun's surface. It has been argued that, inasmuch as the sun spots occupy
only an infinitesimal space on the surface of the sun, they are too minute to affect
the meteorological results with which they are associated. But Sir Norman Lockyer
points out that the greater disturbance of certain zones of solar latitude is more influ-
ential than the amount of spotted area determined from spots in various latitudes.
Sim spots may be only inillionths of the area, but these prominences form one-
sixth of the sun's visible hemisphere, and with these in a state of disturbance the
effects upon the earth are very important. The sun spots themselves are only a
very feeble indication of the fierce activity of the sun. We are observing those
prominences more carefully than \ve have been able to do in the past. We are tak-
ing advantage of new methods of observation, and in a few years we shall be in a
much better position than we are now to study the connection of solar and terres-
trial meteorology.
As the situation shapes up to-day the scientific wrorld is on the lookout for laws of
causation that connect solar changes with the great droughts, great floods, and exces-
sive heat waves that mark our weather at different periods. And it looks as if some
clever observer would soon wrest the secret from the sun spots and the vagaries of
American summer weather even if none of the suggested periods seem to be revealed
in the actual recorded weather data.
It appears, in fact, that while a consensus of opinion of those who
have contributed to sun-spot literature is, that solar disturbances, as
indicated by sun spots, affect the earth's magnetic and electrical
1455— No. 33—03 3
34
conditions, a definite relation between sun spots and meteorological
conditions has not been established. It is, however, possible and even
probable, that longer periods of observation will permit comparisons
that may define concurrent cycles in sun spots and weather. The idea
that the sun controls not only the character of the weather experienced
in the several seasons, but also the ordinary and extraordinary weather
changes to which we are subjected from day to day, is a popular one,
and discoveries in this direction will be welcomed by the meteorologist
and the layman.
THE MOON AND THE WEATHER.
That the moon has a controlling influence in matters meteorological
is a fixed belief in the minds of the masses, and evidence to the con-
trary, in the form of weather records that fail utterly to show any
connection between moon changes and the weather, has been, and is
likely to be, insufficient to change this belief.
The following remarks, pertinent to this subject, appear in the
Baltimore Sun of December 6, 1900:
The eminent astronomer, Sir John Herschel, at one time, from very insufficient
data, investigated the subject, and, thinking he had discovered a connection between
the moon's changes and the weather, constructed tables based upon the time at
which the moon's changes occur before and after noon and midnight. It is, however,
greatly to Sir John's credit, that he afterwards thoroughly investigated the subject
with a much more complete and extensive series of weather records, and proved
conclusively that there is no connection wrhatever between the moon's changes and
the weather, unless it were a slight tendency to clearer skies at night at the time of
full moon. The most exhaustive investigations made since then have shown con-
clusively the correctness of Herschel's later conclusions, except that they discredit
any tendency of the full moon to produce clear skies.
There are only three possible ways in which the moon could have any physical
connection with the weather or influence it in any way whatever. The first is by
reason of the heating effect of the lunar rays upon the earth and its atmosphere.
The heating effect of the moon's rays has been measured and found to be less than
one hundred-thousandth as much as those of the sun. Such a small amount of heat
added to the sun's heat would be absolutely insensible. Another possible way in
which it has been thought the moon might influence the weather is by producing
atmospheric tides, and, as the ocean tides caused by the moon are greater than those
caused by the sun, it was at one time thought that this might be the connection. It
has, however, required the most careful investigation to show any atmospheric tides
caused by the moon's attraction. A minute effect has been found, but it is too small
to be of any importance.
The reason why the moon produces greater oceanic tides than the sun is not that
its attraction is greater than that of the sun, for as a matter of fact the sun's attrac-
tion on the earth is nearly two hundred times as great as that of the moon, whereas
the moon's tide-rising power is about two and one-half times as great as the sun's.
This is because the sun is four hundred times as far off, and the difference in the
attraction for the body upon the nearest and the farthest side of the earth and for
the center of the earth is greater in the case of the moon than the sun, so that on the
nearest side, the water being mobile and the body of the earth rigid, the water is
35
pulled away from the earth, and on the farther side the earth is pulled away from
the water to a greater extent by the moon than by the sun.
The only other way in which the moon could possibly influence the weather is by
magnetic effects. It does have a measurable effect upon the earth's magnetism, but
it lias never been shown that variations in the earth's magnetism materially influence
the weather, although the variations of the atmospheric electricity is greatly
influenced by weather conditions.
The so-called wet or dry moons (and, by the way, there is much difference of opin-
ion as to which is the wet and which is the dry moon) , or the inclination of the cres-
cent moon to the horizon, are popularly supposed to indicate the weather for the
following month. But this inclination of the crescent to the horizon depends mostly
upon the inclination of the ecliptic, an hour or two east of the sun to the horizon,
and, to a small extent only, to the latitude of the moon north or south of the ecliptic.
The inclination of the ecliptic to the horizon depends upon the time of year, and
similar wet or dry moons will always occur about the same time of the year.
According to M. Demtchinski, a Eussian engineer and scientist, the attraction of
the moon is the chief factor in determining the weather. M. Demtchinski read a
paper in September, 1900, before the Meteorological Congress in Paris, "On the
possibility of making exact forecasts of the weather for any period in advance." It
is said that the data communicated to the congress, supplemented by subsequent
results, afford ground for the conviction that the weather may be predicted several
years beforehand.
M. Demtchinski has such faith in his theory that he has undertaken the publica-
tion at St. Petersburg of a semimonthly journal, Climate, which is printed in four
languages, English, French, Kussian, and German, and which undertakes to predict
the weather over almost the whole northern hemisphere. The first number of
Climate appeared March 1, and each number is to be issued sufficiently early to reach
the most distant points for which predictions are made before the commencement of
the fortnight to which they refer. Thus the Kussian forecasts for the first fortnight
of May will come out in the beginning of April.
We are assured that the theory has already stood the test of experience. Last
year, for example, the day of the morning frosts in May was duly predicted for the
Moscow region. In like manner, the eight days' dry period in June was forecast,
with the practical suggestion to farmers in central Russia to save their hay. The
Russian press for the month of March contained an article by M. Demtchinski giving .
a forecast of the harvest (spring and winter corn) to be expected in Russia, which
was fully borne out by the result. The September frosts and the beginning of the
Russian winter were predicted with equal accuracy. Finally, to an inquiry addressed
by the Volga shipowners to M. Demtchinski when to expect the closing of navigation,
the latter wired in reply, a month beforehand, ' ' Navigation wTill close the 20th
October," which was exactly fulfilled.
The theoretical questions which Climate is to encourage are to be concentrated on
the question of the influence of the moon on the weather, and M. Poincare, a French
mathematician and meteorologist, has an article on the subject in the first number.
In the estimation of unscientific observers the moon has a great deal to do with the
weather, and it is possible that European scientists have discovered the principle
upon which it exerts the mysterious influence which every weatherwise rustic has
observed from the time when the memory of man runneth not to the contrary.
36
The following1 are among oft-quoted sayings regarding the moon
that refer to its influence upon weather conditions for considerable
periods in advance:
If three days old her face be bright and clear,
No rain or stormy gale the sailors fear;
But if she rise with bright and blushing cheek,
The blustering winds the bending mast will shake.
If dull her face and blunt her horns appear,
On the fourth day a breeze or rain is near.
If on the third she move with horns direct,
Not pointing downward or to heaven erect,
The western wind expect; and drenching rain,
If on the fourth her horns direct remain.
If to -the earth her uppor horn she bend,
Cold Boreas from the north his blast will send;
If upward she extend it to the sky,
Loud Notus with his blustering gale is nigh.
When the fourth day around her orb is spread
A circling ring of deep and murky red,
Soon from his cave the God of Storms will rise,
Dashing with foamy waves the lowering skies.
And when fair Cynthia her full orb displays,
Or when unveiled to sight are half her rays-,
Then mark the various hues that paint her face,
And thus the fickle weather's changes trace.
If smile her pearly face benign and fair,
Calm and serene will breathe the balmy air;
If with deep blush her maiden cheek be red,
Then boisterous wind the cautious sailors dread;
If sullen blackness hang upon her brow,
From clouds as black will rainy torrents flow.
Not through the month their power these signs extend,
But all their influence with the quarter end.
— /. Lamb's "Aratu*."
If the new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter, occur between —
Summer: 12 and 2 a. m., fair; 2 and 4 a. m., cold and showers; 4 and 6 a. m., rain;
6 and 8 a. m., wind and rain; 8 to 10 a. m., changeable; 10 a. m. to 12 m., frequent
showers; 12 to 2 p. m., very rainy; 2 and 4 p. m., changeable; 4 and 6 p. m., fair; 6
and 8 p. m., fair, if wind northwest; 8 and 10 p. m., rainy, if wind south or south-
west; 10 to 12 p. m., fair.
Winter: 12 and 2 a. m., frost, unless wind southwest; 2 and 4 a. m., snow and
stormy; 4 and 6 a. m., rain; 6 and 8 a. m., stormy; 8 and 10 a. m., cold rain if
wind west; 10 and 12 m., cold and high wind; 12 and 2 p. m., snow and rain; 2 and
4 p. m., fair and mild; 4 and 6 p. m., fair; 6 and 8 p. m., fair and frosty if wind
northeast or north; 8 and 10 p. m., rain or snow if wind south or southwest; 10 to
12 p. m., fair and frosty.
The above is the table credited to Sir John Herschel. It is claimed,
also, that he was not responsible for the table. In any case it is within
the power of anyone to test its accuracy as applied to the United
States.
If the new moon appear writh the points of the crescent turned up the month will
be dry. If the points are turned down it will be wet. [Note. — Many sailors believe
37
in the direct opposite of the above. The belief is explained as follows: First — If the
crescent will hold water the month will be dry; if not, it will be wet. Second — If
the Indian hunter could hang his powderhorn on the crescent he did so, and stayed
at home, because he knew that the woods would be too dry to still hunt. If he
could not hang his powderhorn upon the crescent he put it on his shoulder and went
hunting, because he knew that the woods would be wet and that he could stalk game
noiselessly.]
When the moon lies on her back,
Then the sou' -west wind will crack;
When she rises up and nods,
Than north-easters dry the sod.
Rev 'ewer in Symons' Meteorological Magazine, September, 1867.
When the moon lies on her back,
She sucks the wet into her lap.
Ellesmere.
It is sure to be a dry moon if it lies on its back, so you can hang your hat on its
horns. — Welsh Border.
It appears from the foregoing that popular interpretations of
weather indications furnished by the crescent moon differ, and are, in
fact, of an opposite character among different classes of people. It is
the privilege, therefore, of any and all interested to fit the forecasts
to the position of the moon, and, in instances where the results are not
satisfactory, to assume that a reverse position of the crescent would
satisfy the requirements of the theory.
Go plant the bean when the moon is light,
And you will find that this is right;
Plant the potatoes when the moon is dark,
And to this line you always hark;
But if you vary from this rule,
You will find you are a fool ;
If you always follow this rule to the end,
You will always have money to spend.
There is a belief in the minds of many persons that certain vegeta-
bles and plants should be seeded or planted during certain phases of
the moon. The fact that moon phases are not considered where the
processes of seeding and planting are conducted on a large scale and
with the strictest regard to business and economic methods appears to
refute this belief.
That moonbeams or rays produce certain chemical results seems
certain. It is known that fish and some kinds of meat are injured or
spoiled when exposed to the light of the moon. To this fact the saying
that hogs should be slaughtered in the dark of the moon undoubtedly
owes its origin. In the larger hog and cattle slaughtering plants the
carcasses and meat are not exposed to the moon's rays; the saying
applies, therefore, to primitive out-of-door methods of slaughtering
and hog killing.
There is a negro saying that " Chickens should be picked in the dark
of the moon." It is perhaps unnecessary to remark that while this
38
saying, in common with other misapplied sayings, can not he properly
classed as a weather proverb, a conjunction of a dark-of-the-moon
period and a dark, cloudy, and rainy night is most favorable to a
practical application of the saying.
THE STABS AND THE WEATHER.
There is a kind of weather-lore that has been greatly misinterpreted, in many
cases, from a failure to recognize its origin. Before the establishment of the cal-
endar and the setting in order of the period months and seasons of the solar year, it
was very necessary to determine the approach of each season in order to facilitate
farming operations. At the first this could be done only by watching the rising and
setting of the constellations. Thus Hesiod says that when the Pleiades rise the
harvest begins. Such sayings have been interpreted as indicating the actual benefit
of malevolent influence from stars, but seem, in the first instance, to have depended
simply on the necessities of the observer. So the piece of weather lore contained in
Job, referring to the sweet influences of the Pleiades, depends on nothing more than
the indication of the coming season, as shown by the appearance of these stars. —
St. Louis Star, February 24, 1901.
The Egyptians and Greeks conducted systematic observations in special buildings
which might with justice be termed observatories, albeit not supplied, like ours,
with means and methods of a high and complicated order. The great pyramid of
Cheops has been claimed for such ah observatory, and some writers assume that
from an opening in its side the learned priests watched the transits of the stars and
the rising of the constellations to determine the march of the various seasons
suitable for agriculture or for the irrigation of the people's lands.
ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC.
There is a mistaken belief that some animals possess a faculty that
permits them to anticipate the character of the weather for the com-
ing season. The faculty possessed by animals to interpret the signs
of coming weather changes is limited to an instinctive appreciation of
present atmospheric conditions, which are indicative of certain weather
changes for periods of probably one to twelve hours in advance.
it is evident upon consideration that the physical condition of ani-
mals, and the thickness of the fur of fur-bearing animals, depends
upon the weather of the past and the extent to which it has affected
their food supply and general health, rather than upon the weather of
the future. And the line of reasoning also applies to plants which are
made the subject of future-weather sayings.
Dr. C. C. Abbott showed that the autumnal habits of certain animals that are pop-
ularly supposed to be indicative of the character of the coming winter could not be
depended upon, although by the majority of people living in the country they were
considered as sure indications of what the coming winter would prove to be. Dr.
Abbott had kept a careful record, extending over twenty years, regarding the build-
ing of winter houses by muskrats, the storing of nuts by squirrels, and other habits
of these mammals, and had found that the habits referred to, or their omission, in
•certain autumns bore no relation to the character of the coming winter. — Trenton
Natural Historian/ -Vor/V/// meeting, February 13, 1883.
39
The following- are well-known long-range weather sayings based
upon the observed or supposed habits of animals and birds and the
appearance and condition of certain plants. It is proper in this con-
nection to again remark that careful investigation has failed to attach
a value to sayings of this class:
In early and long winters the beaver cuts his winter supply of wood and prepares
his house one month earlier than in mild, late winters.
The beaver begins his preparations for winter when the cold weather
sets in; in early winters the cold naturally sets in earlier than in late
winters.
Previous to the setting in of winter the mole prepares a sort of basin, forming it in
a bed of clay, which will hold about a quart. In this basin a quantity of worms is
deposited; and, in order to prevent their escape, they are partly mutilated, but not
so much as to kill them. On these worms the moles feed in the winter months.
When these basins are few in number the following winter will be mild. — Garden-
er's Chronicle.
The mole, like the beaver, doubtless begins his preparations for the
winter when the cold weather sets in; when the cold comes on sud-
denly and the ground freezes the work of storing worms is inter-
rupted, and the sign is therefore potent only in cases where early
spells of cold are followed by comparatively mild winter weather.
Observe which way the hedgehog builds her nest,
To front the north or south, or east or west;
For if 'tis true what common people say,
The wind will blow the quite contrary way.
If by some secret art the hedgehog knows,
So long before, the way in which the winds will blow,
She has an art which many a person lacks
That thinks himself fit to make our almanacks.
— Poor Robin's Almanack, 1733.
The hedgehog commonly hath two holes or vents in his den or cave, the one
toward the south and the other toward the north ; and look which of them he stops,
thence will great storms and winds follow. — Husbandman's Practice.
The hedgehog undoubtedly stops the windward vent after the wind
begins to blow.
If the cat is basking in the sun in February it must go again to the stove in
March. (German.)
The average winter shows warm periods in February and cold peri-
ods in March.
When bears lay up food in the fall it indicates a cold winter.
If the tracks of bear are seen after the first fall of snow an open mild winter may
be expected.
The bear comes out on the 2d of February (Candlemas day), and if he sees his
shadow he returns for six weeks.
If on Candlemas day (February 2) it is bright and clear, the ground-hog will stay
.in his den, thus indicating that more snow and cold are to come; but if it snows or
rains he will creep out, as the winter is ended. (German.)
40
In cold and early winters the chipmunk is very abundant on the south shore of
Lake Superior, and are always housed for the winter in October. In short and mild
winters they are seen until the 1st of December.
When the flying squirrels sing in midwinter it indicates an early spring.
When the ground squirrel is seen in winter it is a sign that snow is about over.
When squirrels and small animals lay away a larger supply of food than usual it
indicates that a long and severe winter will follow.
When squirrrels are scarce in autumn it indicates a cold winter.
The actions of animals, referred to in the sayings quoted, are gov-
erned by conditions that exist at the time, and not by a knowledge of
future weather conditions.
When birds of passage arrive early in their southern passage severe weather may
be looked for soon.
When summer birds take their flight summer goes with them.
Wild geese moving south indicates approaching cold weather; moving north indi-
cates that most of the winter is over.
When wild geese fly to the southeast in the fall, in Kansas, expect a blizzard.
Wild geese flying .directly south and very high indicates a very cold winter.
When flying low and remaining along the river, in Idaho, they indicate a warm
winter. For spring, just the reverse when flying north.
WTild geese flying past large bodies of water indicates change of weather. Going
south, cold; going north, warm.
Wild ducks scattered around the lakes near Lake Superior form in large flocks
and go south one month earlier in cold or early winters than in mild or pleasant
winters.
If cranes appear early in the autumn expect a severe winter.
When the cranes early (in October) fly southward it indicates a cold winter.
The swan builds its nest high before high waters, but low when there will not be
unusual rains.
An early appearance of the woodcock indicates the approach of a severe winter.
If crows fly south a severe winter may be expected; if they fly north, the reverse.
When the woodpecker leaves expect a hard winter. When woodpeckers peck
low on the trees expect warm weather.
The ivory-billed woodpecker commencing at the bottom end of a tree and going
to the top, removing all the outer bark, indicates a hard winter, with deep snow.
Field larks congregating in flocks indicates severe cold.
When wrens are seen in winter expect snow.
When martins appear winter is broken.
No killing frost after martins.
First robins indicate the approach of spring.
If the November goose bone be thick,
So wrill the winter weather be;
If the November goose bone be thin,
So will the winter weather be.
If the breastbone of a goose is red, or has many red spots, expect a cold and
stormy winter; but if only a few spots are visible the winter will be mild.
The whiteness of a goose's breastbone is superstitiously thought to indicate or fore-
show the amount of snow during winter.
41
Birds, like animals, respond to present, rather than to future, weather
conditions. Birds of passage begin their southern migration with the
first chilling temperatures of autumn, and outtravel the southward
advance of the colder weather; and they begin their northern journey
when spring temperatures set in at their winter quarters. That their
flights are sometimes premature is apparent to close observers.
As regards goose bones, the fact can readily be demonstrated that
breastbones of geese, selected with a due regard to time and condition,
are contradictory, both as regards their character and the manner of
their interpretation.
DAYS, MONTHS, SEASONS, AND YEARS.
Among the first attempts at weather guesses, those concerning the seasons and their
probable fitness for agriculture, the breeding of animals, or the navigation of the seas
would probably take a prominent place. The weather, during the winter and spring,
seems to have been narrowly watched, and the chances of a good harvest, a fat
pasture, or a loaded orchard inferred from the experience of previous years, combined
with a fair reliance upon fortune. Some of these predictions, though not strengthened
by modern observation, are not to be altogether despised or thrown aside. They at
teast show us what kind of weather our forefathers wished to take place and thought
most useful at the times to which they refer. The sayings of French, Scotch, and
English agree in many particulars — such, for instance, as those referring to Candlemas
day and the early part of February generally. It seems that, according to the notion
of our ancestors, this part of the year could not be too cold, and no statistical evidence
will ever make our farmers believe that a warm Christmas bodes well for an English
harvest, or that a dry year ever did harm to England. Some of these old sayings are
also interesting as perhaps indicating the slowly changing climate of England, and it
is not unlikely that at some distant date most of the predictions will be found inappli-
cable. Particular saints' days have been selected as exerting special influence over
the weather, and here we are constantly treading on the fringes of the veil of super-
stition, spread by ignorance over all matters about which but little certain knowledge
exists. There are, however, still believers in St. Swithin and St. Valentine as
weather prophets; and if their favorites do sometimes fail to bring the expected
changes, they have at least no worse guides than those furnished by the Old Moore's
and Zadkiel's of modern times.
In considering the weather proverbs regarding certain days, it must be remem-
bered that the new style was first adopted September 2, 1752, eleven days being
retrenched from the calendar, i. e., August 22 to September 1, 1752, had no existence
in England. — Weather Lore.
DAYS.
As the days lengthen,
So the cold strengthens.
As the days begin to shorten,
The heat begins to scorch them.
Fine and unusually warm days during the colder months are called "weather
breeders."
If St. Vincent's (January 22) has sunshine,
One hopes much rye and wine.
If St. Paul's (January 25) is bright and clear,
One does hope a good year.
Candlemas Day! Candlemas Day! (February 2)
Half our fire and half our hay.
(That is, we are midway through winter and ought to have half our fuel and hay
in stock. )
42
At Candlemas Day another winter is on its way.
If Candlemas Day be fine and clear,
Corn and fruits will then be dear.
The shepard would rather see the wolf enter his fold on Candlemas Day than the
sun.
If Candlemas Day be fair and bright,
Winter will have another flight.
But if Candlemas Day bring clouds and rain,
Winter is gone and won't come again.
On Candlemas Day the bear, badger, or woodchuck comes out to see his shadow
at noon; if he does not see it, he remains out; but if he does see it he goes back to
his hole for six weeks, and cold weather continues for six weeks longer.
If the ground hog is sunning himseli on the 2d of February, he will return i'or four
weeks to his winter quarters.
If a storm on February 2, spring is near; but if that day be bright and clear, the
spring will be late.
To St. Valentine the spring is a neighbor. — French.
The crocus was dedicated to St. Valentine, and ought to blossom about this time. —
Circle of the Seasons.
March many weathers rained and blowed,
But March grass never did good.
Fuller.
Dust in March brings grass and foliage.
Snow in March is bad for fruit and grapevine.
March comes in like a lamb and goes out like a lion.
March in January, January in March, I fear.
When March has April weather, April will have March weather. — French.
March winds and April showers,
Bring forth May flowers.
St. Patrick's Day (March 17) the warm side of a stone turns up, and the broad-
back goose begins to lay.
Is't on St. Joseph's Day (March 19) clear,
So follows a fertile year.
Is't on St. Mary's (March 25) bright and clear,
Fertile is said to be the year.
The flower cardamine, or lady's-smock, with its milk-white flowers, is dedicated
to the Virgin Mary, and appears about Lady Day (March 25).
If it thunders on All Fools' Day,
It brings good crops of corn and hay.
Hoar-frost on May 1 indicates a good harvest.
If on the 8th of May it rain,
It fortells a wet harvest, men sain. — T. Fuller.
Rain on St. Barnabas's Day (June 11) good for irrupcs.
Before St. John's Day (June 24) we pray for rain, after that we get it anyhow.
Rain on St. John's Day, damage to nuts.
As ^he dog days (July 3 to August 11) commence, so they end.
Dog days bright and clear
Indicate a good year;
But when accompanied by rain,
43
In this month is St. S within' s Day (July 15)
On which, if that it rain, they say
Full forty days after it will
Or more or less some rain distill. — Poor Room's Ah/unmck, K>97.
All the tears that St. Swithin can cry,
St. Barthelemy's dusty mantle wipes dry. — French.
Alluding to the wet usually prevalent about the middle of July, the saying is:
"St. Mary Magdalene is washing her handkerchief to go to her cousin St. James's
fair. — Folk- Lore Journal.
St. Margeret's flood is proverbial, and it is considered to be well for the harvest in
England. (August 1, old style; August 13, new style.)
St. Barthelemy's (August 24) mantle wipes dry
All the tears that St. Swithin can cry.
If the 24th of August be fair and clear,
Then hope for a prosperous autumn that year.
September 15 is said to be a fine day six years out of seven.
St. Matthew's Day (September 21) makes the days and nights equal.
If St. Michael (September 29) brings many acorns, Christmas will cover the fields
with snow.
There is often, about October 18, a spell of fine, dry weather, 'and this has received
the name of St. Luke's little summer.
On the 1st of November (All Saints' Day), if the weather hold clear,
An end of wheat sowing do make for the year.
If All Saints' Day will bring out the winter, St. Martin's Day will bring out Indian
summer. ( United States. )
If on All Saints' Day the beechnut is dry we shall have a hard winter; but if the
nut be wet and not light, we may expect a wet winter.
If it is at Martinmas (November 11) fair, dry, and cold, the cold in winter will
not last long.
If the leaves of the trees and grape vines do not fall before Martin's Day, a cold
winter may be expected.
Expect St. Martin's summer, halcyon days. — Shakespeare.
The fourteen halcyon days then began (December 11) — days in which in the
Mediterrean a calm weather was expected, so that the halcyon or hawk could (it
was supposed) make its nest on the surface of the sea. — Virgil.
A green Christmas makes a fat churchyard.
A green Christmas brings a heavy harvest.
If Christmas finds a bridge, he'll break it; if he finds none, he'll make one.
Wednesday clearing, clear till Sunday.
If on Friday it rain,
'Twill on Sunday again;
If Friday be clear,
Have for Sunday no fear.
When it storms on the first Sunday in the month, it will storm every Sunday
during that month.
The character of the weather on holidays and church or saints' days,
when the masses of the people have forsaken their usual occupations
in favor of out-of-door recreation, or the donning of the best wearing
apparel, has naturally been a subject of unusual interest and special
44
note. And it has followed from this fact that these days have been,
to a greater extent than the ordinary working days, a basis for weather
speculation. It will be noted that all sayings relating to these days
are of value only so far as it may be assumed that normal weather
conditions on those days are favorable and abnormal conditions are
unfavorable for seasonable weather in the near future. They may be
considered as indicating which w&y the balance of temperature and
precipitation tips at that particular season of the year, and the fore-
casting feature is found in the statement of weather conditions that
will be required to adjust the balance.
MONTHS.
The month that comes in good will go out bad.
A favorable January brings us a good year.
January warm, the Lord have mercy!
If grass grows in January, it grows the worse for it all the year.
Always expect a thaw in January.
If there is no snow before January, there will be the more in March and April.
A warm January, a cold May.
There is always one fine week in February.
If February gives much snow,
A fine summer it doth foreshow.
February rain is only good to fill ditches.
Thunder in February or March, poor sugar (rnaple) year.
Winds in March and rains in April promise great blessings in May.
As it rains in March, so it rains in June.
A dry and cold March never begs its bread.
March flowers make no summer bowers.
March comes in like a lamb and goes out like a lion.
March comes in like a lion, goes out like a lamb.
March in January, January in March, I fear.
March damp and warm will do the farmer much harm.
When March has April weather, April will have March weather.
March winds and April showers bring forth May flowers.
A cold April the barn will fill.
Moist April, clear June.
Till April's dead, change not a thread (of clothing).
Dry May brings nothing.
May damp and cool fills the barns and wine vats.
A hot May makes a fat churchyard.
To be hoped for, like rain in May.
A dry May is followed by a wet June.
Wet May, dry July.
Calm weather in June sets corn in tune.
45
June damp and warm does not make the farmer poor.
A cold and wet June spoils the rest of the year.
It never clouds up in a June night for rain.
July, God send thee calm and fayre,
That happy harvest we may see.
As July, so the next January.
Ne'er trust a July sky.
Whatever July and August do boil, September can not fry.
As August, so the next February.
When it rains in August it rains honey and wine.
Dry August and warm
Doth harvest no harm.
As September, so the coming March.
A wet September, drought for next summer. (California.)
Heavy September rains bring drought. (United States. )
Much rain in October, much wind in December.
Warm October, cold February.
If October bring heavy frosts and winds, then will January and February be mild.
As the weather in October, so will it be in the next March.
As November, so the following March.
December cold with snow, good for rye.
SEASONS.
A late spring, a great blessing.
Better late spring and bear, than early blossom and blast.
A late spring never deceives.
If the spring is cold and wet, then the autumn will be cold and dry.
A dry spring, rainy summer.
Early thunder, early spring.
Generally a moist and cool summer portends a hard winter. — Bacon.
A pleasant autumn and a mild winter will cause the leaves to fall next September.
A hot and dry summer and autumn, especially if the heat and drought extend far
into September, portend an open beginning of winter, and cold to succeed toward
the latter part of the winter and beginning of spring. — Bacon.
Who doffs his coat on a winter's day
Will gladly put it on in May.
There can never be too much rain before midsummer.
If we do not get our Indian summer in October or November, we shall get it in
the winter. (United States.)
A late spring is good for corn, but bad for cattle.
A moist autumn, with a mild winter, is followed by a cold and dry spring, retard-
ing vegetation.
After a rainy winter follows a fruitful spring.
A green winter makes a fat churchyard.
An abundant wheat crop does not follow a mild winter. — Farmer, quoted in "Notes
and Queries."
46
A severe autumn denotes a windy summer,
A windy winter a rainy spring,
A rainy spring a severe .summer,
A severe summer a windy autumn;
So that the air in balance is
Seldom debtor unto itself.
Bacon.
If the spring is wet and cold, the autumn will be hot and dry.
A warm and open winter portends a hot and dry summer. — Bacon.
Midsummer rain spoils winje, stock, and grain.
A warm winter and cold summer never brought a good harvest. — French.
Winter will not come till the swamps are full. ( United States. )
Winter's back breaks about the middle of February.
Winter under water, dearth; under snow, bread.
YEARS.
A bad year comes in swimming. — French.
After a wet year a cold one.
Wet and dry years come in triads.
Rainy year, fruit dear.
Frost year, good year. Snow year, good year.
In the year that plums flourish all else fails. (Devonshire.)
Year of radishes, year of health.
A cow year, a sad year; a bull year, a glad year. — Dutch.
A year of grass, good for nothing else. (Switzerland. )
Leap year was ne'er a good sheep year. (Scotland. )
A dry summer through the central part of the United States signifies a deficiency
in the corn crop, which means that our ham and bacon will cost us more during the
following winter. A wet spring in the wheat belt means a higher price for flour.
Unseasonable weather in the South signifies that a few months later we shall be
obliged to pay more for cotton goods. A frost in Florida means a higher price for
oranges.
AN INNOVATION IN BAROMETRIC OBSERVATION.
In the Monthly Weather Review for January, 1903, the Chief of the United States
Weather Bureau introduces a new feature. Among the charts hitherto appearing in
that publication has been one showing the mean barometric pressure over the whole
country for a month, the readings having been reduced to sea level. It is now pro-
posed to supplement this with two more, giving the computed pressures at elevations
of 3,500 and 10,000 feet. Prof. Frank H. Bigelow, upon whose recommendation this
innovation is made, and who has, by an elaborate research, made possible the prepa-
ration of such charts, hopes that they may in time be of assistance in "seasonal," or
long-range, forecasting. Additional data will be required, he says. It will be neces-
sary to know something about temperatures and humidity at the same altitudes.
Until these are all available study of the problem can not bear much fruit. Still, a
beginning is to be made; and the first step is to note how far the actual pressure for
a month at various levels differs from the average of corresponding periods for many
years.
Up to the present time no systematic and public predictions of the character here
contemplated have been made under governmental auspices anywhere in the world
47
except in India. Those are based on local principles, and are not applicable else-
where. One factor, for instance, is the weight of the snowfall in the Himalayas
during the previous winter. The outcome, too, has not been especially encouraging.
Whatever be the success of Professor Bigelow's plan, it is already obvious that its
basis is far more rational and !iis method less empirical than any other which has
yet been proposed. He does not, it is safe to assume, expect to be able to indicate
the exact details for any particular date and spot, as countless "cranks" attempt to
do. The utmost which it will ever be feasible to accomplish in the long-range work,
it may be confidently asserted, is to outline the general situation over comparatively
wide areas for two or three weeks, or perhaps a month or more, in advance. Yet, if
nothing more is accomplished than this — a correct hint of a tendency toward even a
trifling excess of heat or cold and a disposition toward an abundance or scarcity of
rain — the benefit to the country will be enormous.
It is not incredible that a second advantage may be secured from a more careful
examination of conditions existing at two or three standard planes in the upper air.
When actual temperatures at various elevations above the earth are ascertained by
means of kites, it is found that the rate of decrease with height is not uniform. Some-
times it is more rapid than the established average, and sometimes it is slower. A
knowledge of the existence of these abnormal temperatures might help the forecaster
in the short-range work now officially sanctioned. At present the Government
meteorologists are bothered by several eccentricities in the behavior of those baro-
metric depressions which constitute the chief feature of all daily maps. One is a
departure from the ordinary routes which low areas follow in crossing the country;
a second is a remarkable variation in their speed; and the third is uncertainty about
the amount of rain which will attend them. The last is the most serious in its effects,
but they are all highly embarrassing. If, by minimizing such uncertainties, a study
of the upper air will improve the daily forecasts, it should be pushed as far as is
practicable. At times, the Government service, while all that the present state of
meteorological science will permit, perhaps, is far from realizing the ideal of its
founders or the demands of the public. If anything better is possible, the country
wants it. — New York Daily Tribune, April 30, 1903.
LOCAL WEATHER SIGNS.
The following summaries of local weather signs are based on special
reports of observers to the Chief of the United States Weather
Bureau:
ABILENE, TEX.
During late spring, summer, and early autumn precipitation is
usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by south to southeast
winds and falling barometer, and the barometer generally falls to
29.80 or below before precipitation begins. During the colder months
precipitation often begins when the barometer has fallen to 30 and
is on the turn from falling to rising, and at the time the wind shifts
to colder northwest.
Precipitation is preceded by relative humidity that increases to 75
or 80 per cent.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west, but the rela-
tion of these clouds to rain has not been noted by the observer, who
associates stratus and cumulo-nimbus clouds with rain.
The highest winds of winter come from the northwest with rising
barometer, and of summer from the southeast with falling barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature south to southeast
winds prevail, except in summer, when they come from the southwest.
During periods of abnormally low temperature the winds are from
westerly in spring and winter, and from northwesterly in summer and
autumn.
Frost is most likely to damage crops in April and November.
The conditions most favorable for frost are: Rising, or high and
stationary, barometer, temperature falling to 40° or below, increasing
relative humidity, clear weather or cirrus clouds, and light west to
north winds.
ALBANY, N. Y.
Precipitation is usually preceded in all seasons by south and south-
east winds, which set in twenty-four to forty-eight hours before pre-
cipitation begins, arid barometric pressure which usually falls to or
below 29.90 to 29.95 in spring and summer, and to 30 inches or below
in autumn and winter.
1455— No. 33—03 4 49-
50
Except in the presence of fog, which indicates clearing weather,
the relative humidity generally increases during twenty-four hours
preceding precipitation.
Usually, but not necessarily, cirrus clouds moving from the west
precede precipitation about twenty-four hours in all seasons. Alto-
stratus clouds from the west or southwest usually precede rain from
twelve to forty -eight hjours. In spring and summer detached cumulus
clouds, moving rapidly from the southwest under a veil of alto-stratus,
sometimes appear about twelve hours before rain.
In spring, summer, and winter, high north to west winds usually
occur with a rising barometer, and in autumn with a falling barometer
and wind from the southeast. In all seasons wind is from the south
during periods of abnormally high temperature. In spring and win-
ter the cold winds are from the west and north, in summer from west,
and in autumn from west to northwest.
Frosts in May and June are most likely to damage fruit, and frosts
in September are most likely to damage other crops.
The conditions which precede frost are barometer above 30.12, tem-
perature about 40°, humidity high. In winter there are two kinds of
frost, one a shotted-formed frost, the other of a spongy character; the
former is observed in advance of "dry" low barometer areas, the
latter in advance of storms from the southwest.
ALPENA, MICH.
In spring and summer southeast winds and falling barometer pre-
cede precipitation for periods that vary from a few hours to several
days, and the barometer usually falls to 29.90 or below before precipi-
tation begins. During the colder months there is frequentl}7 light
precipitation in the rear of areas of low barometer. In such cases,
however, precipitation has occurred in front of the low areas.
Atmospheric moisture is unreliable as an indicator of precipitation,
and while in a majority of cases the relative humidity has increased
during twenty-four hours preceding precipitation there are many
instances of precipitation that have been preceded by a decrease in
relative humidity.
The only upper clouds that are at all reliable as indicators of pre-
cipitation are the cirro-stratus "veil." These clouds may occur in
any season, but are seldom observed. In spring and autumn clouds
become stratus several hours before precipitation begins. In summer
small, heavy-looking cumulus clouds usually precede rain; in winter
stratus and strato-cumulus prevail, and there are but few clear days.
High winds may come from any quarter in any season, but they are
more frequent from the northwest with rising barometer. In all sea-
sons abnormally warm winds are usually from the southwest, and cold
winds from the west and northwest.
51
Frost is likely to damage fruit or crops from May 15 to Octo-
ber 1. The conditions favorable for frost are: Clear weather, light
winds, decreasing humidity, rising and high barometer, and falling
temperature.
AMABILLO, TEX.
South to southeast winds usually set in twenty-four to forty-eight
hours before precipitation, with falling barometer, which reaches 29.85
to 29.90 or below in spring and summer and 30.05 or below in autumn
and winter. Precipitation begins, however, after the barometer begins
to rise, and in the colder months after the wind has shifted to north-
erly, the most marked exception to this rule being noted in June,
when rain commonly begins with falling barometer.
In all seasons there is a rapid decrease in relative humidity until
thirty-six to forty-eight hours before precipitation begins in spring
and winter, and twenty-four to thirty-six hours before precipitation
begins in summer and autumn, and after the minimum per cent has
been reached the humidity rapidly increases until rain begins. A
sudden and decided increase in humidity indicates precipitation, unless
it follows a heavy rain.
In spring cirro-stratus followed b}T alto-stratus clouds indicate rain.
In summer rain follows cirro-stratus, passing through alto-stratus and
alto-cumulus to cumulus; in, autumn very limited cirro-stratus, soon
followed by alto-stratus, and frequently alto-stratus alone precede
rain. In winter cirro-stratus are not strongly indicative of precipita-
tion, but usually indicate changes in temperature and wind direction;
and precipitation is usually preceded by alto-stratus or stratus clouds.
In spring and autumn cirrus or cirro-stratus from west to southwest
and in summer and winter from west to northwest are sometimes
observed two or three days in advance of precipitation.
Frost is preceded by moderate pressure, low temperature, high
relative humidity, light winds, and very few, if any, clouds.
Vegetation of all kinds withstands low temperature remarkably well,
but frost from September 1 to October 15 would damage forage crops
and range grass when there is sufficient moisture to keep them green.
ATLANTA, GA.
In spring and summer the winds which precede rain come most
frequently from east, southeast, and south, and the average length of
the period which elapses between the time the wind sets in from these
directions and rain begins varies from thirty-four hours in spring to
seventeen hours in summer. In autumn northeast to southeast winds
usually precede rain for an average period of thirty-three hours. In
winter rain is generally preceded by an average period of twenty-two
hours by wind from the northeast, east, southeast, or southwest, and
52
snow usually follows after the wind shifts to northwest. In all sea-
sons the barometer generally falls to or below 80 before rain begins
and the temperature has been high for the season.
Rain may, as a rule, be expected when the relative humidity exceeds
the normal for the season, and the greater the excess the shorter will
be the time before the beginning of precipitation.
In spring, autumn, and winter cirrus clouds early in the day, fol-
lowed by cirro-stratus from the west, usually precede precipitation by
ten to fifteen hours. In summer cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds have
not been observed, except in thunder-storm formations.
In all seasons the highest winds come from west to northwest, with
rising barometer.
In periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are usually
from the southwest in spring, from west to northwest in summer, and
from southeast to southwest in autumn and winter. During periods
of abnormally low temperature, the 'wind is from the northwest in
spring, autumn, and winter, and from east to northeast in summer.
Northwest winds are usually dry winds in all seasons.
The general conditions which precede frost are high or rising barom-
eter, temperature 55° and below, low humidity, light to fresh winds,
usually from west to north, and clear or clearing weather.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops during March
and April, and cotton during September and October.
ATLANTIC CITY, N. J.
As a rule precipitation is preceded six to twelve hours by easterly
winds and falling barometer, except in summer when the wind that
precedes showers is usually from south to southwest. In all seasons
the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation
begins, and in summer showers occur with the barometer on the turn
from falling to rising.
Owing to proximity to the sea and frequent fogs increasing atmos-
pheric moisture is not an indication of rain, except in summer, when
an increase in relative humidity is sometimes noticed eight to twelve
hours before general rains, and immediate^ before local rains.
In spring, autumn, and winter the wind increases steadily in velocity
until the beginning of precipitation; in summer, however, the wind
is usually light before and during local rains, while local rains and
thunderstorms are attended by violent squalls.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west are often
observed twelve to twenty-four hours before precipitation in spring,
autumn, and winter, and cirro-stratus clouds one to twelve hours in
advance of summer rains.
The highest winds generally come from the northeast with falling
barometer. During periods of abnormal heat the wind is westerly in
53
summer and autumn, and southwest in spring. In all seasons the cold
winds are from west to northwest.
Garden truck is likely to be damaged by frost in April, May, and
September.
Heavy frost is usually preceded b}^ rising barometer, falling tem-
perature, light variable winds, and few if any clouds.
AUGUSTA, GA.
In spring, summer, and autumn precipitation is usually preceded
twelve to twenty-four hours by south to east winds and falling
barometer, and in all seasons the barometer generally falls to 30 or
below before rain begins. In summer showers occur under varying
barometric conditions.
In all seasons, except summer, there is a decrease in relative
humidity about twelve hours before precipitation begins; in summer
the relative humidity increases about four hours before rain begins.
During spring strato-cumulus, and in autumn and winter alto-
stratus, clouds usually indicate precipitation. Cirrus clouds, moving
from the west, are often observed twenty-four hours before rain in
spring, and ten to twelve hours before rain in autumn and winter.
In summer cirrus clouds from west to southwest often appear two to
four hours before rain. In spring, stratus clouds moving rapidly
from north to northeast; in summer, strato-cumulus moving rapidly
from east to southeast, and in winter, alto-stratus moving slowly from
west, presage precipitation.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the south in spring, from the northeast in summer, and from the
southeast in autumn and winter. During periods of abnormally low
temperature the wind is from north in spring, from west in summer,
from northeast in autumn, and from northwest in winter.
Heavy frost after rain in the last decade of October will seriously
injure the cotton crop; a heav}T frost in the middle and latter part of
April will damage the peach crop.
The general conditions favorable for frost in spring are rising
barometer, temperature 40°, relative humidity 60 per cent, north
wind, and cirrus clouds. In autumn and winter rising, followed by
falling and low barometer, temperature 50°, relative humidit}T 50 per
cent, west to northwest winds, and cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds.
BAKER CITY, OREG.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded twenty-four
to forty-eight hours by southeast winds and falling barometer; rain
that falls in summer storms generally comes with rising barometer.
In all seasons, except winter, the barometer falls to 29.85 or 29.95, or
54
below, before precipitation begins; in winter the usual height of the
barometer observed at the beginning of rain is about 30.10 inches.
The relative humidity decreases until within twenty-four hours of
the beginning of rain. The moisture of the air is unreliable as an
indicator of rain, except that the relative humidity is generally low
preceding the beginning of precipitation.
In all seasons cirrus, or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the south-
west are observed six to seven days before rain. In spring, autumn,
and winter rain is generally preceded in the order named by cirrus,
cirro-stratus, and stratus clouds, and in summer by cumulo clouds and
thunderheads.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the southeast in spring, summer, and autumn, and from the southwest
in winter. In all seasons during periods of abnormally low tempera-
ture the wind is from the'south.
Fruit and other crops are most likely to be damaged by frost in
April, May, June, September, and October.
The general conditions favorable to frost in summer and autumn are
barometer oscillating, temperature changes sudden, wind variable,
relative humidity high, cirrus clouds, and clear weather.
BALTIMORE, MD.
In spring the wind sets in from the southeast, and in summer,
autumn, and winter from southeast to southwest, with falling barome-
ter before precipitation, and the barometer usually falls to about 30
before rain begins. A wind from northeast to southeast is generally
followed by increasing cloudiness, and in the colder months a shift of
wind to these directions is closely followed by precipitation.
In about 50 per cent of the instances noted the relative humidity
increases for about two days preceding rain.
Cirrus-cloud formations, moving from points between southwest and
northwest, are observed twenty-four to forty-eight hours before rain.
The highest winds of spring are from the northwest, of summer
from north to northwest, and of autumn and winter from west.
In all seasons during the periods of abnormally high temperature
the wind is usually from southeast to southwest, while north to north-
west winds generally prevail during periods of abnormally low tem-
perature.
Injury by frost is most likely to occur from the latter part of
March to the middle of April. In average seasons crops are safe after
that, although damage has been done in the early part of May. In
autumn nearly all staple crops of this locality have been gathered
before heavy frost occurs. Corn is seldom hurt.
The general conditions favorable to frost are barometer above the
normal and rising, falling temperature, decreasing humidity, fair to
clear skies, and light north to northwest winds.
55
BINGHAMTON, N. Y.
East to south winds and falling barometer precede rain twelve to
twenty-four hours in spring, autumn, and winter. In summer east to
south winds precede rain about twenty-four hoars, and the barometer
falls until just before the beginning of rain. In all seasons the
barometer falls to about 29.90 or 29.95 before rain begins.
Data regarding relative humidity are very incomplete, but in all sea-
sons an increase in relative humidity occurs at least twelve hours in
advance of rain.
In about 70 per cent of the instances noted, rain is preceded in all
seasons by stratus or strato-cumulus clouds. Cirrus or cirro-stratus
clouds, moving from the west, are observed twenty-four to thirty-six
hours before precipitation.
The high winds of spring, summer, and autumn are from the west,
with rising barometer, and in winter from the south, with falling
barometer.
During periods of abnomally high temperature the prevailing winds
are from the southwest in spring and summer, from southwest to
west in autumn, and from south in winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit and other crops in May and
September.
The general conditions which precede frost in spring are rising
barometer, high temperature followed by rapidly falling temperature
early in the afternoon, low humidity, light westerly winds, and clear
or rapidly clearing weather in spring and autumn. In autumn the
relative humidity increases preceding frost, with the result that dense
fogs frequently occur before radiating surfaces reach the freezing
point, and radiation is stopped and the frost does not form. Occasion-
ally dense fog occurs after the frost has formed. Frost forecasts for
autumn are therefore very difficult to verify.
BISMARCK, N. DAK.
In spring precipitation is preceded by east winds and falling barom-
eter, in summer by southwest winds and barometer "on the turn"
from falling to rising, and in autumn and winter with northwest
winds and rising barometer. In spring the barometer falls to about
29.80, in summer to about 29.90 before precipitation begins; in autumn
the barometer usually stands at about 30, and in winter at about 30 to
30.10, when precipitation begins.
No relation has been observed between the moisture of the air and
precipitation.
No observations have been made which connect cirrus or cirro-
stratus clouds with approaching precipitation. Neither have any
observations been made regarding any special characteristics of cloud
formation that presage rain.
56
The high winds of spring, autumn, and winter are usually from the
northwest, with rising barometer, and of summer from southerly,
with falling barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
southeast to south in spring, from south in summer, and from south-
west in autumn and winter. During periods of abnormally low tem-
perature the wind is from east to northeast in spring, from east in
summer, and from northwest in autumn and winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in June, August,
and September. The general conditions which precede heavy frosts
are high barometer, temperature between 30° and 40°, clear weather,
and light winds.
BLOCK ISLAND, B. I.
In the spring precipitation is preceded about nine hours by north-
east winds and falling barometer, in summer by southwest winds and
falling barometer for periods which vary from one to three days, in
autumn by northeast winds and falling barometer for ten to twenty-
four hours, and in winter by northeast winds and falling barometer
for an average period of about ten hours. In all seasons the barom-
eter falls to about 29.90 before precipitation begins, except during the
colder months, when precipitation will begin with northeast winds
immediately after the barometer begins to fall.
There appears to be a slight increase in relative humidity from one
to three days in advance of rain in all seasons; but an increase does
not always indicate • rain. In many instances the humidity decreases
just preceding rain.
In spring, autumn, and winter cirro-stratus clouds moving from
the west generally indicate precipitation, and are observed eighteen to
twenty -four hours before precipitation begins.
The highest winds of spring are from southeast to southwest, with
falling, and from north to northwest with rising barometer; of sum-
mer from the southwest with falling barometer; of the autumn from
northeast with falling barometer; and of the winter from east to
northeast with falling, and from northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the southeast to southwest in spring, from the west in summer, from
west to south in autumn, and from southeast to south in winter. Dur-
ing periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is from north
to northeast in spring, northeast in summer, and north to west in
autumn and winter.
On account of the ocean's influence and high average wind velocity
frost is infrequent. Freezing temperature after April 15 is, however,
liable to do some damage.
57
BOISE, IDAHO.
Iii all seasons rain almost invariably begins during the barometric
stationary period, or "on the turn" from falling to rising. A steady
and regular fall of the barometer may be expected preceding rain, but
sharp rises and falls, frequently amounting to 0.10 inch, sometimes
occur about the time clearing weather is expected. There are fre-
quently twelve hours of such unsteady barometer after a sufficient
rise to warrant fair weather has occurred. The "critical point" of
the barometer, as regards precipitation, is not well established. It
seems to vary greatly in all seasons and sometimes occurs with the
pressure considerably above normal. As a rule, southeast winds set
in ten to twelve hours before rain begins in spring, autumn, and win-
ter. In summer the rainfalls are entirely local, and are not necessarily
indicated by either wind or barometer conditions.
The moisture of the air can not be depended upon to indicate the
approach of rain, and the relative humidity immediately preceding
rain, and many times after rain has begun to fall, is surprisingly low.
The clouds preceding rain are usually high cirro-stratus and alto-
stratus through which the sun is visible to within a short time preced-
ing the beginning of rain. Lower clouds, coming up quickly, attend
the beginning of rain. In spring, autumn, and winter, especially in
winter, when cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds are observed in easterly
quadrants, unsettled weather usually follows. The halos that result
from cirrus clouds are so frequently followed by rain in less than
twelve hours that the direction of the clouds during halos has been
closely noted. Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds observed in the west are
not forerunners of rain. The best cloud indication of approaching rain
is the cirro-stratus observed in the east, whether in spring, autumn,
or winter; but in summer the appearance of strato-cumulus, princi-
pally in the southwest, is regarded as a good sign of an approaching
thunderstorm.
Fruit growers fear the late frosts that occur from about the 10th of
May to June 5. It appears that the frosts that occur in spring prior
to May 10 are likely to be followed by cloudiness, and the damage
which would otherwise result is mitigated thereby. The late frosts
are likely to be followed by cloudiness, and the temperature change to
much warmer generally does more damage than the frost itself. Fruit
is seldom damaged by frost during the fall. Preceding frost the
barometer rises with west to northwest winds for twelve hours or
more. Under these conditions the temperature falls, the humidity
remains high, and heavy lower cumulus clouds appear. Frequently a
state of semicloudiness exists after the wind has decreased to a point
favorable for frost to form and frost fails to form, except in streaks.
Many apparently ideal conditions for frost are turned aside by
increasing cloudiness about sunrise.
58
BOSTON, MASS.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is usually preceded
twelve to twenty-four hours by southeast to southwest winds and fall-
ing barometer; and in spring, summer, and autumn the barometer gen-
erally falls to about 29.90 inches before precipitation begins. In the
case of storms that advance from the southern Atlantic coast precipita-
tion closely follows a shift of wind to the northeast and the turn in
the barometer from rising to falling. In the spring and winter rapidly
rising temperature precedes rain.
There is generally an increase in the humidity of the air preceding
well-defined storms or general rains; but, owing to the proximity to
the ocean, an increase in humidity is frequently produced b}^ sea
breezes and fog when fair weather is assured.
In spring and summer cirrus clouds have not been observed to any
marked extent; in autumn and winter cirrus clouds, moving from the
west, often precede rain twelve to twent}^-f our hours. In summer, cir-
rus and cirrus haze often precede high wind; in autumn, fine t}^pes of
cirrus and cirro-stratus presage high wind and rain, and these charac-
teristics also obtain for winter.
In spring and autumn high winds usually occur from east to south,
with falling barometer. The highest winds of summer generally occur
with thunderstorms; in winter high winds occur from east to south,
with falling, and from west to northwest with rising, barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature southwest winds
prevail in spring, summer, arid autumn, and south to southwest winds
in winter. During periods of abnormally low temperature the direc-
tion of the wind is northwest to west in spring and autumn, northeast
to north in summer, and northwest in winter.
Frost is moet likely to damage fruit or other crops during the last
week of May and the first two weeks of June.
The general conditions which precede heavy frost in spring are high
and stationary barometer, temperature below the normal, light wind,
and clear weather. In autumn the same conditions obtain as in spring,
with low humidity.
BUFFALO, N. Y.
In spring and summer precipitation is preceded twelve to eighteen
hours by south to southeast winds and falling barometer, and in
autumn and winter from eight to fifteen hours by south to southwest
winds and falling barometer. The rains of summer usually begin
with barometer about 29.80 inches and near the "turn" from falling
to rising. In autumn rain also generally begins with barometer near
the "turn" from falling to rising, arid at a height of about 29.95. In
spring precipitation usually begins when the barometer has reached
59
29.90, and in winter when it has fallen to about 3Q. In the case of
storms that advance from the south or southwest precipitation often
begins closely following the shift of wind to the northeast and the
turn in the barometer from rising to falling.
As the winds which precede rain are land winds, the relative humid-
ity generally decreases ten to fifteen hours before rain begins.
Cirro-stratus clouds are usually observed twelve hours in advance
of rain in spring and summer. In summer cirrus clouds are often
seen that are not followed by rain. In autumn and winter cirro-
stratus clouds are noted eight to ten hours in advance of rain, but
sometimes only a few hours in advance of rain or snow. In all seasons
cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west or southwest are
sometimes observed five to fifteen hours before precipitation begins,
the period being longer in spring and summer.
In all seasons maximum wind velocities are usually reached with
rising barometer and west to southwest winds.
Precipitation is usually preceded by rising temperature, and begins
"on the turn" from rising to falling.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
the southeast in spring, from south to southeast in summer, from
south to southwest in autumn, and from south in winter. During
periods of abnormally low temperature the winds are from northwest
to northeast in spring and summer, and from north to northeast in
autumn and winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from May 10 to
June 1, and from September 10 to October 1.
The general conditions which precede heavy frost are clearing
weather, high pressure, temperature which will fall to a point between
40° and 35°, diminishing westerty winds, and clear weather in the
morning.
CAIRO, ILL.
The observer has often noticed that when the barometric pressure
is near the normal, but falling at the time of the evening observation,
rain usually follows within twenty-four hours; on the contrary, with
a rising barometer at the evening observation, although cloud condi-
tions portend rain, the weather usually turns out fair. In spring and
winter southeast winds usually set in twenty-four to thirty-six hours
before precipitation, and precipitation begins with the barometer about
stationary or "on the turn" from falling to rising. In summer rain
is preceded for an indefinite period by southwest winds, and begins
with the barometer rising or "on the turn" from falling to rising.
In autumn south to southeast winds precede rain, and rain usually
begins with falling or stationary barometer, and often when the
barometer is rising or "on the turn" from falling to rising. In
60
spring and summer the barometer usually falls to 29.95 or 29.90
before rain begins; in autumn and winter 30.10 or below before
precipitation begins.
In all seasons precipitation is usually preceded by relative humidity
about or above normal, or rapidly increasing. However, these condi-
tions are frequently followed by a continuance of fair weather. Pre-
cipitation seldom follows within twelve hours an observation at which
the moisture of the air" is considerably below the normal, except in
the winter months, when such conditions are sometimes followed by
light snow.
A record of all clouds observed during the day and into the night
shows that cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are as often followed by fair
weather as by precipitation. In autumn and winter alto-stratus clouds
are usually followed by rain within twenty-four hours; in spring and
summer low banks of stratus clouds in the west in the early morning
are usually followed by thunderstorms in the afternoon.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the southeast and southwest in spring, from southwest to northwest
in summer, and from southeast to southwest in autumn and winter.
During periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is north to
northwest in spring and winter and from northeast to northwest in
summer and autumn.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops any time after
April 10 or before November 15.
The conditions which usually precede heavy frost are, barometer
normal or above, temperature 36° or below, humidity about normal,
gentle winds and cloudless sky.
CAPE MAY, N. J.
In spring and winter precipitation is usually preceded by easterly
winds ten to twelve hours, and occasionally by northeast winds
which shift to that quarter almost simultaneously with the beginning
of rain. In summer winds are usually from south, and in autumn
from southwest to southeast, preceding rain. In all seasons the
barometer falls to 30 inches or below before rain begins, except
when winds shift to the northeast.
The moisture of the air usually increases one to two days preceding
rain, and the relative humidity is generally about 90 per cent when
precipitation begins.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west are often
observed one to two days before precipitation in spring, summer, and
winter. In autumn alto-stratus clouds usually precede rain.
The high winds of this locality are from the east with falling and
from the west with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
61
west to northwest in spring, from south to southwest in summer and
autumn, and from east to south in winter. During periods of abnor-
mally low temperature the prevailing winds are from west in spring,
from northeast in summer, and from northwest in autumn and winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in April and
September. The conditions favorable for frost are high barometer,
temperature 40° or below, low humidity, light north to west winds.
CARSON CITY, NEV.
In spring, autumn, and winter the wind usually sets in from west
to southwest one to three days before rain begins. In summer pre-
cipitation occurs with thunderstorms, and the wind which precedes
rain may come from any direction, but generally from west to south-
west. In all seasons precipitation is usually preceded by falling
barometer, and begins with the barometer "on the turn" from falling
to rising. The barometer usually falls to 29.85 or 29.90 inches before
rain begins.
Very little relation has been observed between the moisture of the
air and rain. It is not believed that the relative humidity increases
or decreases to any great extent preceding precipitation.
Cirrus or cirro-status clouds presage rain in all seasons, and are
usually observed moving from the west twelve to twenty-four hours
before rain begins. Heavy banks of stratus or strato-cumulus clouds
over the mountains west of the station, moving rapidly from the west
and southwest, presage precipitation at any time during the year.
High winds usually occur from the southwest with falling barom-
eter.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the south and southwest in spring, autumn, and winter, and from west
in summer. During periods of abnormally low temperature the wind
is from west to northwest in spring, autumn, and winter, and from the
west in summer. In spring two or three successive days of high
temperature are generally followed by thunderstorms and rain,
mostly on the surrounding mountains. Moderate barometric depres-
sions are usually followed by decided falls in temperature in all seasons.
Frost is most likety to do damage during the last half of May.
Moderately low pressure, increasing temperature and humidity, over-
cast sky, and precipitation usually precede heavy frost during spring,
autumn, and winter.
CHARLESTON, S. C.
In spring rain is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by falling
barometer and southwest winds, and the barometer usually falls to
about 30 before rain begins; in summer rain is usually preceded
twenty-four to thirty-six hours by southwest winds. The heaviest
62
rains of early .summer usually occur with abnormally high barometer
and when the barometer is uon the turn" from rising to falling. The
period of heavy summer rains sets in about June 10 of each year. In
autumn rain is preceded twelve to thirty-six hours by west to south-
west winds, and usually with falling barometer, although occasionally
with small rise in barometer.
In spring there is a decided increase in relative humidity when winds
are from the southwest eight to twenty-four hours before rain. When
the wind is from the southeast, east, and northeast there is veiy slow
and slight increase in humidit\^ six to twenty -four hours preceding
rain, owing to the fact that the winds from these directions are from
the ocean. In summer there is a decided increase in relative humidity
eight to twenty-four hours preceding rain when the wind is from the
southwest. High humidity, increasing slowly eight to sixteen hours
preceding rain, is observed when winds are from the south, southeast,
east, and northeast. In autumn there is a rapid increase in humidity
six to sixteen hours before rain when winds are from southwest during
September; high humidity increasing slowly six to sixteen hours before
rain when winds are from south, east, or northeast during October and
November; in winter the humidity increases slowly six to sixteen
hours before rain with winds from southeast, east, or northeast, and
increases rapidly six to sixteen hours before rain with winds from
southwest.
In spring cirrus clouds appear immediately after the passage of a
crest of high pressure, and assume the cirro-stratus form; alto-stratus
next appear, followed by strato-cumulus, when rain begins. Cirro-
stratus and alto-stratus are both indicators of rain. In summer the
upper clouds play an unimportant part in the prediction of rain. The
lower clouds, cumulus and strato-cumulus, more often precede rain
than any other clouds. Late in August, however, after a period of
frequent thunderstorms, cirro-stratus and alto-stratus appear in advance
of approaching tropical storms and can usually be relied upon as fore-
runners of rain. In autumn cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are more
numerous than in summer, and late in October and November cirrus
and cirro-stratus are usually forerunners of rain. In winter cirrus and
cirro-stratus clouds, particularly cirro-stratus, are forerunners of rain.
The interval between the appearance of cirro-stratus before that of
alto-stratus is short, and rain closely follows the formation of alto-
stratus clouds. The elevation of the cirrus and cirro-stratus is much
lower in winter than in summer, frequently reaching the cumulus and
strato-cumulus levels, and their velocity is about twice as great as that
of the lower clouds.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or crops from March 1 to April
25, and from October 25 to December 15. In spring frost is usually
preceded by increasing barometer, day temperature — ranging between
63
50° and 60° — low dew-point, normal humidity, and light winds between
southwest and north points. Frost occurs in this section with air
temperature as high as 49°, and, in the vicinity of the station, frost
has been known to form in ravines and low lands with air temperature
about 52°. With other conditions favorable to frost, it rarely occurs
with northeast winds. In autumn frost does not form in September
and seldom in October. In November when the barometer is rising
and winds are from southwest to northwest and decreasing, with cloud-
less sky, and low dew-point, and an evening temperature of 50°, heavy
frost may be expected during the night. Heavy frost can form with
observed air temperature as high as 40°. In winter heavy frost occurs
with daily night temperature about 45°, relative humidity 70 to 80
per cent, winds light and from southwest to north, clear sky, and high
and increasing pressure.
CHARLOTTE, N. C.
In summer and autumn southeast winds and falling barometer pre-
cede rain six to twenty-four hours, and rain generally begins with
barometer falling or 4Gon the turn" from falling to rising. In all
seasons the barometer usually falls to 30 or below before rain begins,
except when storms come from the southwest.
The relative humidity increases in advance of thunderstorms in sum-
mer, and to a lesser degree in advance of general rains; the period
is not definite and may be days or only hours. The amount of mois-
ture in the air is no indication of coming rain as a rule, excepting
immediately before a rain. The few observations taken, usually twice
a day, are not sufficient to treat questions very favorably.
No definite rule can be made with regard to the relation between
cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds and precipitation. Occasionally several
veils of cirrus clouds come and go within twenty-four hours of the
beginning, especially in autumn. In probably more than one-half of
the instances clouds of this type do not precede rain.
In summer the highest wind velocities usually occur with a falling
barometer; in autumn and winter the maximum velocities occur more
frequently with a rising barometer than in summer. In many cases
there are decided rises or falls in the barometer without corresponding
wind velocities.
During periods of abnormal^ high temperature the wind is from
the southwest in summer and from south to. southwest in autumn.
During periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is from the
northwest in summer and from northeast to northwest in autumn.
(Data regarding the barometer and the wind as indicators of rain
has not been furnished from this station for the spring and winter
seasons.)
64
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops after April 1
and before November 1.
Frost is usually preceded by slowly rising barometer, temperature
falling or stationary, humidity depending on temperature and clear-
ness of the sky, light winds from northeast to northwest quadrants,
and clearly denned cumulus clouds, diminishing at sunset.
CHATTANOOGA, TENN.
In spring south winds and falling barometer precede precipitation
twelve to twenty-four hours; in summer northeast winds set in twenty-
four hours before rain, and are attended by falling barometer. During
a thunderstorm, however, the relation between "rain winds" and the
movement of the barometer is variable and uncertain. In autumn the
wind and barometer conditions preceding rain are similar to those in
spring; in winter northeast winds set in with falling barometer twelve
to twenty-four hours before precipitation begins. In all seasons the
barometer falls to about 30 on an average before precipitation begins.
The percentage of relative humidity is usually low twenty-four
hours in advance of rain; occasionally, however, a gradual increase is
noticed for forty-eight hours. In summer there is a gradual increase
in atmospheric moisture twenty-four to forty-eight hours preceding
general rains; in autumn and winter the relative humidity increases
before rain for periods which vary from twenty-four to seventy-two
hours.
In general the interval in cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds is only a
few hours when rain is approaching, and the change from cirro-stratus
to alto-stratus takes place rapidly. All gradations, from cirrus to
strato-cumulus in the southwest, are visible. Rain usually follows a
quantity of cirro-stratus and alto-stratus clouds within thirty-six
hours if their direction is from southwest. In all seasons the pre-
vailing direction of cirro-stratus clouds is from the west. As a rule,
when the sky is partly clouded with cirro-stratus clouds from the
southwest rain can be expected in thirty-six hours during the spring
season; in summer, as a rule, four-tenths, or more, of alto-stratus
clouds from westerly directions indicate rain in thirty-six hours; in
autumn, when the sky is partly overcast with alto-stratus clouds, mov-
ing from the south, southwest, or west, rain may be expected in
twenty-four hours; in winter four-tenths, or more, of cirro-stratus
or alto-stratus clouds from the southwest or west indicate rain in
thirty-six hours; in summer also types of cumulus clouds seen over
the northwest, or west, or southwest horizons in the morning indicate
thunderstorms in the afternoon.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the prevailing
winds are southerly in spring, autumn, and winter, and southwest in
summer. During periods of abnormally low temperature the pre-
65
vailing winds are from the northwest in spring, autumn, and winter,
and from the north in summer.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from March 1
to May 15, and from September 15 to October 30.
The general conditions which precede frost are rising pressure, falling
temperature, decrease in humidity, brisk winds, and clearing weather.
Frosts usually occur in the midst of an area of high barometer.
CHEYENNE, WYO.
In spring, autumn, and winter rain or snow usually begins with
rising barometer, yet some of the heaviest snowstorms of the winter
and spring occur when the barometer is nearly stationary after falling.
In all seasons, except winter, the barometer falls to 29.90 or below
before precipitation begins, except in winter, when precipitation often
begins with the barometer ranging from 30 to 30.15.
A close observation leads to the belief that the humidity observa-
tions are of no value at any season in forecasting precipitation at this
station. Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds are sometimes observed moving
from the northwest, but the observer states that he has never observed
any connection between these clouds and precipitation, and that he
can not say that any kind of clouds can be regarded as forerunners of
rain.
There are no crops or fruits of any kind grown in this locality
which would be damaged by frost, except a very few small garden
patches in the city.
CHICAGO, ILL.
In general the barometer begins to fall, with southerly winds, ten
to twelve hours before precipitation begins. In the case of summer
thunderstorms the barometer usually falls quite rapidly two to six
hours before the storm; during the storm the barometer rises sud-
denly and then again falls gradually. Clearing weather is nearly
always preceded by rising barometer; the rise, however, may not be
more than an hour or so in advance of the clearing weather.
In spring an increase in humidity frequently becomes apparent
twenty-four hours before rain (especially in March) when winds set in
from the east quadrants, this increase becoming pronounced twelve
hours in advance. Snow is most frequent with relative humidity 60
to 80 per cent. In summer and autumn decreasing humidit}^ usually
precedes rain twelve to twenty-four hours, the decrease being marked
ten to twelve hours before rain begins. In winter precipitation
is preceded more frequently by increasing humidity, although it
often follows decreasing humidity. It can hardly be said that the
moisture in the air, with its surface local variations, as expressed in
relative humidity, is a reliable index of rain in this locality. Low,
1155— No. 33—03- 5
66
high, increasing, and decreasing humidity are all followed by rain,
and nearly as frequently by no rain. Months and years differ
decidedly in this respect; the only marked fact is that a considerable
decrease in humidity usually precedes summer storms.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are not so frequent in March, but in
April and May they usually precede rain, appearing one to two days
in advance. However, cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds occur with equal
frequency that are not followed by rain. In summer cirrus and more
frequently cirro-stratus clouds appear in advance of rain, but these
clouds appear with even greater frequency before fair weather. In
autumn strato-cumulus clouds are forerunners of rain, but upper clouds
appear very frequently without being followed by rain. In winter
cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds appear frequently before rain, and much
more frequently they are not followed by rain or snow. The cirrus
and cirro-stratus clouds observed usually move from the west in
spring, summer, and winter, and from southwest to west in autumn.
A lowering or transforming of cirro-stratus to strato-cumulus most
frequently precedes rain from six to twelve hours; also cumulo-stratus
from southwest finally taking the surface wind direction. This applies
to both spring and summer. In autumn a lowering of alto-stratus and
strato-cumulus into stratus occurs two to twelve hours in advance of
precipitation, and in winter a lowering of cirro-stratus to stratus and
then to nimbus occurs two to twelve hours in advance of rain or snow.
In spring high winds are usually southerly with falling and south-
west with rising barometer; .in summer south to southwest with fall-
ing barometer; in autumn south with falling barometer; and in winter
south with falling, and west, northwest, and northeast with rising
barometer.
Frost is most likely to damage fruits or other crops from April 10
to May 10, and from September 25 to October 10.
Heavy frost in spring and autumn is usually preceded by moderately
high pressure, temperature 40° or below, high humidity if light and
low humidity if heavy frost, light winds, and cloudless sky.
CINCINNATI, OHIO.
in spring, summer, and autumn precipitation is most frequently
preceded twelve to forty -eight hours by southeast winds and falling
barometer, and the barometer usually falls to 30 or below before
precipitation begins; in winter precipitation is preceded by south to
southwest winds, and the barometer falls to about -29. 90 before rain
begins. In nearly every case during rain periods the rain continues
when the barometer is "on the turn" and rising. When the rain
is light the barometer remains nearly stationary previous to beginning
and during its continuance.
67
Humidity observations appear to be of little value in forecasting.
In general there is an increase in humidity before rain, but for what
period in advance can not be determined. The fact is recognized that
when we say, '; It feels like rain or snow," the feeling is produced by
increasing atmospheric dampness.
No observations have been made with regard to the extent that
cirrus, cirro-stratus, or other clouds are forerunners of rain.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit from the middle of April to
the end of May and during the month of October.
The general conditions which precede frost are increasing barometer,
falling temperature, low humidity, light west to northwest winds, and
clearing or clear weather.
CLEVELAND, OHIO.
Precipitation is usually preceded thirty-six to forty-eight hours by
southeast to southwest winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
generall}T falls to 29.80 or below in spring and summer, and to 29.90
or below in autumn and winter before precipitation begins. In all
seasons, when the barometer falls rapidly, with wind backing from
south to brisk northeast, the precipitation is likely to be copious.
There is usually an increase in relative humidity following a dry
period, which continues irregular up to a few minutes before the
beginning of rain; the increase is then rapid during a period of per-
haps ten or fifteen minutes. The moisture of the air is not considered
in itself an aid in forecasting.
Very little reliance can be placed in any season on the appearance
or formation of cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds as indicators of precipi-
tation. The cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds which appear are generally
observed moving from southwest or west-southwest.
High winds of spring are from southwest to northwest with rising
barometer; of summer from west to north with rising barometer, and
frequently from southeast to south with falling barometer; of autumn
and winter from southwest to northwest with rising barometer.
In all seasons abnormally high temperature is attended by south-
east to southwest winds, while a change from abnormally low tempera-
ture, or from warm to cold, sets in with a shift of wind from the
south to the northwest or north. The lowest temperatures during the
colder half of the year are not registered until the wind is again from
the south quadrant.
Spring frosts as early as April 5 in advanced seasons, but usually
not until May 1, are likely to damage fruits or other crops. In
autumn frosts as early as September 20 will damage crops. From
September 20 to November 20 is the period when warnings of frost or
freezing weather are most desired by vegetable and fruit growers.
68
The warnings of severe freezes in November are greatly valued by
truck gardeners.
At 8 a. m. of the day immediately preceding frost the conditions in
the majority of cases are as follows: Pressure above normal and
increasing, temperature decidedly below normal as a rule, relative
humidity variable but generally above the normal, wind direction
irregular, but southerly winds are most frequent; force of wind vary-
ing from gentle to fresh; clear weather is found in about 50 per cent
of the cases examined, and cumulo-stratus clouds are more frequent
than any other type.
COLUMBIA, MO.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
south to southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
generally falls to 29.90 or below before rain begins. In summer and
autumn, however, rain usually begins with the barometer "on the
turn " from falling to rising.
There is usually a decrease in relative humidity one to two days
preceding precipitation, although an increase is sometimes observed.
Cirro-stratus clouds general, thickening, and followed by alto-
stratus and alto-cumulus, often precede rain or snow in autum and
winter. In about 33 per cent of the instances noted, precipitation is
preceded one to two days by cirro-stratus clouds moving from the
west in spring, summer, and autumn, and from the northwest in
winter.
High winds are usually from the northwest with rising barometer
in spring and autumn, from the west in summer, and from southwest
to northwest in winter.
In all seasons the highest temperatures accompany southerly winds,
and periods of abnormally low temperature are attended by northwest
winds.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from March 20
to April 30 and from September 15 to October 15.
Frost is usually preceded by high barometer, falling temperature,
normal or low humidity, west to north winds, and clear or clearing
weather.
COLUMBIA, S. C.
In spring precipitation is preceded ten to twenty hours by northeast
to southeast winds and falling barometer; in summer, six to twelve
hours by southeast winds and moderately low barometer, and in
autumn and winter, twelve to forty-eight hours by northeast winds
and falling barometer. In all seasons the barometer usually falls to
30 inches or below before precipitation begins.
In spring and winter relative humidity increases twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation, while in summer and autumn there
69
is a decrease in relative humidity twelve to twenty-four hours before
rain, followed by an increase.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds are almost invariably observed before
general storms, but not before local storms in spring and autumn, and
they appear ten to twenty -four hours before rain begins, moving from
the west or northwest; in summer clouds of this class are seldom
observed; in winter cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds, moving from the
northwest, are often observed eight to twenty hours before rain. In
summer and autumn low, small cumulus clouds hanging over the river
early in the morning are a sure sign of rain before night; in autumn
low, moderately or fast moving stratus, dark colored, and of dense
texture, forerun rain.
Late in February and early in March, after an abnormally warm
winter, or late in March and early in April after a normal or moder-
ately cool winter, or late in April or early in May after an abnormally
cold winter, frost will damage fruit. Truck is subject to damage by
frost from February to Ma}r; strawberries in March and April; corn
and cotton late in April or early in May, and cotton in October.
The general conditions which precede frost are rising pressure, low
humidity, and light winds.
COLUMBUS, OHIO.
In spring and autumn precipitation is most frequently preceded by
southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer generally
falls to about 30 inches before rain begins; in summer southerly winds
and falling barometer precede rain, and rain usually begins just after
or "on the turn" from falling to rising barometer; in winter south-
west winds and falling barometer usually precede precipitation, and
the barometer falls on an average to about 29.85 inches before rain
begins.
The relative humidity seems to change very little until nearly the
time of the beginning of rain; sometimes it is lower than usual,
and, in some instances, a slight increase is shown several hours before
rain begins. Increases in relative humidity that have been noted are
invariably at the beginning or early in the rain period. There seems
to be a decidedly high humidity at the beginning of rain, which
becomes less as rain continues. If the humidity is high and the tem-
perature fall promises to be decided, the rainfall is usually heavy.
While cirrus clouds are nearly always observed before rain, and
cirro-stratus clouds have been marked before a heavy rainfall, the
cirrus clouds are so frequently noted when no rain follows that they
are not considered of much value in forecasting. Strato-cumulus
clouds are usually followed by rain in ten to eighteen hours; cirrus
and cirro-stratus clouds have been observed forty-eight hours before
rain, and again rain has occurred within twelve hours after their
appearance. The average interval is estimated at thirty -six hours.
70
Cirro-stratus clouds are observed moving from the west in spring and
autumn, from west to southwest in summer, and from west to north-
west in winter. The following special characteristics of cloud forma-
tions often presage rain: Upper clouds of the cirrus type are followed
by haze and very delicately fibered cirro-cumulus. All classes of
cirrus clouds are noted, and their movements are usually rapid; alto-
stratus follow, and their direction is most favorable for rain when they
are from south to southwest. The varied movements and marked
character of each type of clouds in the order observed presage rain.
In summer high winds usually occur with falling barometer or
barometer uori the turn" from falling to rising, and are easterly when
the barometer is falling and westerly when it is rising. The high
winds of summer, autumn, and winter are southwest to northwest
with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the southeast to south in spring, from southwest in summer, from
south in autumn, and from south to southeast in winter. During
periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is from north to
northwest in spring and autumn, from northeast to northwest in
summer, and from southwest to northwest in winter.
Frost is likely to damage fruit after April 15, and after about May
15 it will injure garden crops and field corn. In the fall late garden
crops and field corn are injured as late as September 25 to October 1,
and injury is sometimes caused to late potatoes as late as October 15.
The conditions favorable to frost are high and nearly stationary
barometer, low temperature, no clouds, very light winds, and low
humidity. In several instances, however, heavy frost, with tempera-
ture at freezing or below, did very little damage to fruit in blossom,
and this fact was attributed by local farmers to the dryness of the air.
CONCORDIA, KANS.
In spring rain is preceded twenty-four to thirty-six hours by south-
east winds and falling barometer; in summer and autumn rain is pre-
ceded thirty-six to forty-eight hours by south to southeast winds and
falling barometer, and precipitation begins when the barometer is " on
the turn "from falling to rising; in winter precipitation is preceded
twelve to twenty-four hours by falling barometer. In summer and
autumn the barometer is nearly stationary for about forty-eight hours,
then falls rapidly during the twelve hours immediately preceding
rain, and rises rapidly during rain and for several hours after rain
begins.
In spring and autumn the relative humidity increases as rain
approaches; in summer very little moisture precedes rain; in winter,
if winds are northeast, increasing relative humidity indicates snow.
71
In spring cirrus clouds, moving from the southwest, appear forty-
eight hours in advance of rain, and before rain begins are followed by
alto-cumulus and alto-stratus clouds in summer. Cumulus clouds
sometimes precede rain, but rain is always preceded by strato-cumulus
clouds in this season. In autumn cirrus clouds moving from the
feouthwest appear thirty-six hours in advance of rain and are followed
by alto-stratus clouds. In winter a few cirrus clouds, moving from
the southwest, sometimes appear twenty-four to thirty-six hours in
advance of precipitation and are followed by alto-stratus clouds.
In spring high winds occur from the south and southeast, with fall
ing barometer; in summer from south to southwest with falling, and
from northwest with rising barometer; in autumn from south with
falling, and from northwest with rising barometer; in winter from
north and northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
south to southeast in spring and winter, from south to southwest in
summer, and south in autumn. During periods of abnormally low
temperature the winds are from north to northwest in spring and
winter, from north to west in summer, and from northwest in autumn.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in April and the
early part of May.
In spring and autumn the conditions favorable for frost are
barometer normal or above, temperature below normal, humidity
normal or below, light winds, clear weather, or rapidly decreasing
cloudiness.
CORPUS CHBISTI, TEX.
In spring rain is usually preceded about twenty-four hours by back-
ing east and northeast winds and barometer " on the turn " from fall-
ing to rising, and rising. In this season a steady fall in barometer
with wind from the southeast means clearing weather. In summer
easterly winds backing from southerly precede rain twenty-four to
thirty-six hours, and rain usually begins after the barometer has fallen
to i!9.90 or 30 inches and begins to rise. After periods of low barome-
ter in summer, showers follow on the rise if the winds are backing;
if the barometer is 29.80 and falling no rain occurs until the rise begins;
when the barometer is above 30 and fluctuating thunderstorms and
heavy rains are likely to occur. In autumn rain is generally preceded
about twenty-four hours by east to northeast winds and rising barome-
ter, except in November, when rain follows falling barometer and
winds north and veering. In winter northeast winds usually precede
rain twelve to twenty-four hours with barometer falling; rain also
occurs with rising barometer and backing southerly winds. In all sea-
sons the barometer falls to a height of 29.90 to 30 inches before rain
begins.
72
In spring and summer there is a notable decrease in relative humid
ity thirty -six to forty-eight hours before precipitation begins, but
nearly all rainfall occurs with relative humidity between 80 and 90 per
cent. In autumn and winter the humidity increases twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation to about 90 per cent in autumn and
to 80 per cent or above in winter.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds do not to any extent indicate pre-
cipitation when moving from the northwest, west, or southwest,
but rain follows in thirty-six hours when these clouds are observed
moving from the north. In summer cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds
from the south and southeast are sometimes followed within thirty-six
to forty-eight hours by rain. In autumn and winter cirrus or cirro-
stratus clouds from the south are almost invariably followed by rain
within thirty-six hours. In summer lower cumulus, changing shape
and color, with rising barometer, presage rain.
In spring the highest winds usually occur from the southeast, with
falling barometer; in summer from the northeast with falling, and
from north to west with rising barometer; in autumn from north and
northwest with rising barometer, except in September, when they
come from east to northeast with falling barometer; in winter from
the north and northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormall}r high temperature the winds are usu-
ally from the southeast in spring, except sometimes from the west in
May; in summer the winds are westerly; in autumn the warm winds
are westerly in September and October and southeasterly in Novem-
ber; the warm winds of winter are from the southeast. During periods
of abnormally low temperature the winds are from north to northeast
in spring and autumn, from easterly in summer, and from northeast
to northwest in winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from November
15 to March 20. Vegetables are raised during all the winter months
when there is sufficent rainfall; after the 15th of January is the most
critical time, however. Shipping to northern markets begins in Feb-
ruary and continues to about the last of April.
The general conditions most favorable to frost in spring and autumn
are high barometer, temperature 38° and below, humidity 70 per cent
and under, clear weather, brisk north to westerly winds, subsiding at
subset; in winter high barometer, temperature 45° and below, relative
humidity 70 per cent and under, and clear weather. Frost is not a
frequent occurrence at any season; it generally follows after the low
barometer area has crossed the meridian twenty -four to thirty-six
hours, and the center of the high barometer area is west and south of
the Missouri River. A gathering of cirro-stratus or alto-stratus
clouds in the west is an indication of a rapidly diminishing high barome-
ter area, and frost is not likely to occur at such times.
73
DAVENPORT, IOWA.
Precipitation is usually preceded about twenty hours by northeast
to southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer generally
falls to 29.90 in spring, 29.95 in summer and autumn, and 30 in winter
before precipitation begins. In summer, however, showers are often
preceded by southeast to southwest winds and come "on the turn" of
the barometer from falling to rising. With a falling barometer rain
usually begins with a pressure of about 29.95 inches, though during
the passage of very energetic storms the beginning of rain is often
dela^yed until the barometer has nearly reached its lowest point, and
sometimes until about the time it begins to rise. With a rapidly
rising barometer after the passage of a storm of decided energy rain
usually ceases before the barometer has risen to 29.90 inches. Before
summer thunderstorms the barograph trace is, in most cases, very
jagged and irregular.
There is usually a decrease in relative humidity about eighteen hours
before precipitation begins. At times, however, there is an increase
in humidity two to six hours before rain falls.
During the warm season of the 3rear, from late spring to early
autumn, cirro-stratus clouds are generally observed along the western
and southwestern horizon twelve to eighteen hours before the begin-
ning of rain. No particular cloud formation that can be relied upon
as a guide has been observed during the cold season. During the
warm season before a thunderstorm which occurs in the following
late afternoon, evening, or night banks of cirro-stratus clouds gener-
ally extending upward only a few degrees are almost invariably noticed
along the south Test and western horizons in the morning. A peculiar
hazy condition of that portion of the sky is also noticed at such times.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the prevailing
winds are from the east, southeast, and west in spring; from south to
southwest in summer and autumn, and generally from the southwest
in winter. During periods of abnormally low temperature the winds
are from northeast to northwest in spring and summer and from north-
east to northwest in autumn and winter.
Frost is likely to prove injurious to fruit or other crops after May
1 and before October 1. Late frosts which occur after May 1 are
likel}T to damage fruit trees or early garden truck; and early frosts
occurring before October 1 would be likely to prove injurious to gar-
den truck. Cereals are generally out of danger by the middle of
September.
The heavy frosts of spring are usually preceded by a rising or high
pressure, relatively low and falling temperature, low humidity, light
west and north winds, and clear skies. In early autumn frosts are
preceded by nearly the same conditions as those noted for spring.
74
DENVER, COLO.
in all seasons precipitation is generally preceded several hours by
northeast winds, and begins with rising barometer. The usual height
of the barometer observed at the beginning of precipitation is 2iUH)
in spring, 29.95 in summer and autumn, and about 30.15 inches in
winter.
The moisture of the air is not an indicator of approaching precipita-
tion, and an increase or decrease in relative humidity is observed
occasionally only an hour or two in advance of precipitation.
During the colder half of the year cirrus clouds from the west are
generally a reliable indication of a low barometer area in the north-
west and rising temperature. A long and narrow bank of stratus
clouds above the mountains in the west at about 30° altitude is indica-
tive of chinook conditions within twenty-four hours. In summer
cumulus clouds on the mountains early in the morning rapidly develop
thunder-storm conditions if pressure distribution is favorable to
northeast winds.
The highest winds of spring and autumn are from northwest, with
rising and from southwest with falling barometer; and of winter from
northwest with rising barometer.
Westerly winds prevail during periods of abnormally high tempera-
ture. During periods of abnormally low temperature the winds are
northeasterly during the day and southerly at night.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops between April
10 and September 30.
The conditions which usually precede frost are high barometer, tem-
perature below 44°, humidity above normal, light precipitation, light
winds, and clearing weather, with no clouds when frost occurs.
DES MOINES, IOWA.
Precipitation is generally preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
southeast winds and falling barometer, and in spring, summer, and
autumn the barometer usually falls to 30 or below before precipitation
begins. In winter precipitation often begins when the barometer has
fallen to 30.10. During fair weather, which has prevailed for several
days, a sudden rise, followed by falling barometer, usually indicates
the near approach of rain, and when the barometer begins to rise dur-
ing a general rain or snowstorm clearing weather will soon follow.
Summer showers often occur without an apparent regard to barometric
movements.
It has been found that, as a rule, the relative humidity increases
slightly before the beginning of rain; at other times there is a decided
increase in humidity at least twelve hours before rain; while at times
no increase in the moisture of the air has been noted until after
precipitation has begun.
75
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the northwest are some-
times observed twelve to twenty-four hours before precipitation. The
most characteristic cloud formation that presages precipitation is a
peculiar and distinctive type of cirro-stratus, frequently called sheet
cirro-stratus. These clouds present a haz}T appearance, cover a small
area, and usually are of short duration. The type of cirro-stratus
known as "mackerel sky" also presages rain, but this type is not so
frequent nor so well defined as in the Atlantic coast States. Cumulus
clouds frequently precede showers in summer, and in winter snow
is often preceded by cirro-cumulus clouds.
South to southwest winds prevail during periods of abnormal heat
and northwest to north winds during periods of abnormal cold.
Frost is likely to injure fruit or other crops from April 20 to May
25. and from August 20 to September 15. In all seasons frost is gen-
erally preceded by rising, or high stationary barometer, temperature
41° to 54° at the morning and 50° to 58° at the evening observation of
the preceding day; relative humidity high at the preceding morning
and low at the preceding evening observation; wind northwest to
northeast; and generally clear weather at the observation of the
preceding evening.
DETROIT, MICH.
Precipitation is usually preceded ten to twelve hours by southeast to
southwest winds. In summer the barometer generally falls to 29.80
before rain begins, in spring and autumn to 29.85, and in winter to 29.90.
In spring rain begins with falling barometer, just after the turn from
rising to falling; in summer with stationary or falling barometer; and
in autumn and winter with falling barometer. Snow flurries or light
showers sometimes occur twelve to twenty-four hours after the barom-
eter begins to rise during clearing weather. A rapid fall in the
barometer with east to south winds immediately precedes precipitation.
When the barometer rises slowly precipitation usually continues until
the barometer reaches 29.95; in winter, however, the weather will clear
shortly after the barometer begins to rise, especially if the pressure has
been quite low.
During the summer months the relative humidity has been observed
to be abnormally low ten to fourteen hours before thunderstorms,
especially in the afternoon when thunderstorms occur the following
morning. In all other seasons no connection has been noted between
atmospheric moisture and approaching precipitation.
The only special rain indication noted in connection with clouds is a
peculiar formation of cirro-cumulus clouds during spring, autumn, and
winter, when clouds of this class that present a creamy appearance
indicate rain or snow within about twelve hours. In spring, autumn,
and winter cirro-cumulus clouds at night in long lines, frequently with
76
halos, indicate rain or snow. The movement of these clouds is usually
moderately rapid. Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the
west, but the interval between their appearance and the beginning of
precipitation has not been observed.
The high winds of spring are from northeast with falling barometer,
and from southwest to west with low and rapidly rising barometer;
of summer from southwest with rising barometer; of autumn from
southwest to west with rapidly rising barometer; and of winter from
northeast to east with rapidly falling barometer, and from southwest
to west with rapidly rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are usually
from south to southwest. In spring the cold winds are from northwest
to northeast, in summer from northeast to east, in autumn from west to
northwest, and in winter from southwest to west, and on rare occasions,
from the northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 15 toMay
15, and from September 1 to 20. Frost is usually preceded by barom-
eter above 30 and rising, an indicated temperature fall to between 80°
and 35°, relative humidity TO to 75 per cent; in spring northwest to
northeast winds, cumulo-stratus moving rapidly in the afternoon, and
evening clear; in autumn light westerly winds and no clouds.
DODGE CITY, KANS.
In all seasons precipitation is generally preceded ten to eighteen
hours by southeast to northeast winds and falling barometer, and pre-
cipitation begins on or after the turn of the barometer from falling to
rising. As a rule the barometer falls to about 29.85 in spring and
summer to 29.90 in autumn, and to about 30.05 in winter before
precipitation begins.
The observer has not noted the relation, if any, that exists between
atmospheric moisture and approaching precipitation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west, but the observer
has not noted the extent to which they forerun precipitation. Clouds
moving rapidly from the southwest when the barometer is on the turn
from rising to falling have been observed to precede rain.
The warm winds of spring and summer are from southeast to south-
west, and of autumn and winter from southeast to south. In spring
the cold winds come from the north and northwest, and during the
balance of the year from northeast to northwest.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in April and
May. Heavy frost is usually preceded by rising barometer, low
humidity, few clouds, and light west to northwest winds.
77
DTJBTJQTJE, IOWA.
Southeast winds and falling barometer precede precipitation twelve
to twenty-four hours in spring and autumn, and often for a period
of forty-eight hours in winter. In summer southerly winds usually
precede rain about twelve hours, and rain begins on the turn of the
buroineter from falling to rising. In all seasons the barometer gener-
ally falls to 29.90, or below, before precipitation begins.
An increase or decrease in relative humidity has not been observed
to precede precipitation, except in winter, when an increase in atmos-
pheric moisture, with rising temperature, is a sure indication of
precipitation.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west forerun precip-
itation about twelve hours in spring and autumn, and twenty-four to
forty-eight hours in winter. In summer cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds
seldom appear. The most common forms of clouds that presage rain
in spring and autumn are hazy cirro-stratus in spring and autumn,
cumulus and cumulo-stratus in summer, and thickening stratus in
winter.
The warm winds of this locality are from south to southeast in
spring, autumn, and winter, and from south to southwest in summer.
The cold winds of all seasons are from west to northwest.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in the latter part
of April, in May and September and early in October. Heavy frost
is generally preceded by low and rising barometer, falling tempera-
ture, high and decreasing relative humidity, and clearing weather.
DTJLUTH, MINN.
Precipitation is usually preceded fourteen to eighteen hours by
northeast winds in spring, summer, and autumn, and by southerly
winds in winter. The barometer generally falls to 29.90 in summer
and autumn, to 30 in spring, and to 30.05 in winter before precipita-
tion begins. In summer with northeast surface winds, clouds before
and during rain are frequently from the southwest.
The relative humidity generally increases ten to fifteen hours before
precipitation begins to 80 per cent, or above, in spring and winter,
and to 85 per cent, or above, in summer and autumn.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west in spring, sum-
mer, and winter, and from west to northwest in autumn generally
precede precipitation about thirty-six hours and, occasionally, three to
five days. Cirrus, cirro-stratus, cirro-cumulus, and alto-stratus from
westerly and northerly directions in all seasons usually indicate pre-
cipitation within six to forty-eight hours (low and high average).
Sometimes only a narrow band of cirro-cumulus is an excellent index of
rain, especially in summer. In spring and autumn lower clouds from
78
southerly to northeasterly presage rain; in summer heavy cumulus,
strato-cumulus, or stratus in the west or southwest, or moving from
southwest or northeast, indicate rain; in winter dull, lead-colored
stratus or strato-cumulus clouds from a southerly direction, or from-
northeast, when the lake is open, forerun precipitation. Lunar halos
are generally followed by precipitation in eighteen hours, and solar
halos in about twenty-four hours on an average.
In all seasons the warm winds are from southwest, except in Decem-
ber, when abnormally high temperature sometimes has surface winds
from the northeast. During periods of abnormally low temperature
the winds are northeast to southeast in spring and autumn, northeast
in summer, and west to northwest in winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from May 15 to
September 25. Heavy frost is usually preceded by increasing and low
barometer, relative humidity, low, and increasing from about 50 to 95
per cent, decreasing southwest and north winds, temperature falling
to 38° or below, and clearing or clear weather.
EASTPOR.T, ME.
South to east winds usually precede precipitation about twelve hours,
and precipitation generally begins when the barometer has fallen to
29.85 or .below.
An increase in relative humidity occurs several hours before precipi-
tation, and 80 to 90 per cent t)f relative humidity indicates an early
beginning of precipitation.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west often precede
precipitation ten to fourteen hours in spring, summer, and autumn,
and six to eight hours in winter. The clouds thus observed move
rapidly and merge into stratus.
The high winds of spring and winter are from easterly with falling,
and from westerly with rising, barometer; in summer and autumn high
east to south winds occur with falling, and high westerly winds with
rising, barometer.
The warm winds of spring are from the southwest, of summer from
westerly, and of winter from south to east. The cold winds of spring
are from northwesterly, of summer and autumn from south to east,
and of winter from northerly.
Frost is most likely to damage crops during the latter half of April
and in September. Heavy frost is usually preceded by high barom-
eter, falling temperature, low relative humidity, and light northerly
winds.
ELKINS, W. VA.
In spring, autumn, and winter southwest winds and falling barom-
eter precede precipitation twelve to twenty-four hours, and the barom-
eter generally falls to 30 inches or below before precipitation begins.
79
Summer showers lire often preceded by light and variable winds, and
begin on the turn of the barometer from falling to rising.
While an increase in humidity was observed to precede precipitation
during the autumn and winter of 1900-1901, it can not be said that high
humidity indicates rain, as frequently the humidity is high during dry^
periods, especially in autumn, which is the season of minimum rain fre-
quency.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are gener-
ally from a southerly quarter. The cold winds of all seasons are from
west to north.
While cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west in spring,
summer, and autumn, and from the southwest in winter, have been
observed generally to precede storms and give place to lower clouds,
these clouds are frequently followed by dry weather during autumn.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 1 to June
10, and during September and October. Heavy frost is usually pre-
ceded by high pressure. At the preceding 8 p. m. observation the
temperature may be as high as 60°, and the dew point considerably
above 32°. North to west winds decrease in velocity to calm. Absence
of clouds appears to be a most important factor, as at this altitude loss
of heat by radiation takes place rapidly.
EL PASO, TEX.
No special features regarding wind directions and movements of the
barometer preceding rain have* been noted by the observer. Franklin
Mountain, which is about 1£ miles north of station, diverts north and
south winds, especially south winds, to other directions, and the wind-
direction records of the station are, therefore, reported as largely the
product of local causes. High velocities, as shown by the local vane,
are extremely rare, although high north winds prevail at times in the
vicinity.
The extent to which the moisture of the air indicates precipitation
has not been observed.
During periods of abnormal heat the prevailing winds are from the
northwest in spring and winter, and from east or northwest in summer
and autumn. The cold winds of spring and winter are also reported
as coming from the northwest, while in summer and autumn they are
from east to northeast. Wind directions are, however, untrue on
account of causes above referred to.
Cirro-stratus clouds are sometimes observed moving from the south-
west in summer and autumn, and from west to southwest in spring
and winter. No relation has been locally observed, however, between
these clouds and approaching precipitation.
Frost is likely to damage vegetation in the spring, after March 15.
Actual frost is so extremely rare at this station that the conditions
favorable to its occurrence can not be stated. The frost records are,
in fact, those of freezing temperatures.
80
ERIE, PA.
In the colder months precipitation is preceded by winds from either
the east or south quadrants. When winds set in steadily from the
east quadrants with falling barometer precipitation quickly follows.
When winds set in from south to southwest, during the colder months,
with falling barometer precipitation usually follows in twelve to
twent}r-four hours. During the warmer months rain is usually pre-
ceded twelve to twenty-four hours by south to southwest winds and
falling barometer, and the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below
before rain begins. Summer showers occur with the shift of the
wind to southwest and on the turn of the barometer from falling to
rising.
In spring and summer the relative humidity generally decreases
twelve hours before rain begins, while in autumn and winter an
increase in relative humidity is observed about twelve hours in
advance of precipitation. The moisture of the air is not, however, a
particularly good indication of precipitation at any season of the year.
The special characteristics of cloud formation, either of kind, direc-
tion, or of speed that presage rain at this station have not been noted
by the observer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
south to west. During periods of abnormally low temperature the
winds are from west to northwest. The high winds at this station
usually occur with falling barometer and come from a westerly
direction.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 15 to
May 15.
ESCANABA, MICH.
In the spring precipitation is most frequently preceded by northeast
to southeast winds and falling barometer. With freezing temperature
snow will begin when the wind shifts to easterly, and about the time
the barometer begins to fall. With temperature above freezing the
barometer falls to 30 or below before rain begins. In summer showers
are preceded by southerly winds and falling barometer, and raim
begins when the wind shifts to westerly and the barometer is on the
turn from falling to rising. The precipitation of autumn also occurs
generally under the wind and barometer conditions noted for summer.
In this season, however, precipitation is preceded by southeast winds
and falling barometer, and the barometer usually falls to 29.90 or
below before precipitation begins. In winter precipitation is pre-
ceded either by easterly or southerly winds and falling barometer.
When by easterly winds and low temperature snow boo-ins when the
winds go into easterly and the barometer begins to fall. When by
southerly winds precipitation usually begins when the barometer has
81
fallen to 29.95, or below, and is on the turn to rising, with wind shift
ing to westerly.
In spring, autumn, and winter there is generally an increase in
relative humidity in advance of precipitation; in summer, afternoon
showers usually follow high morning humidity.
In spring cirro-stratus clouds moving rapidly from the west indicate
rain; the interval between the appearance of these clouds and rain is
not, however, well defined. In summer cirro-stratus clouds moving
from the west indicate rain within a few hours. In winter the move-
ments of these clouds are seldom discernible. In spring when cirro-
stratus are followed by alto-stratus rain soon begins; in summer cirrus
soon change to alto-stratus and then to cumulo-nimbus when rain
begins; in autumn cirro-stratus changes to alto-stratus and then to
stratus.
Warm winds are from the southeast in spring, from southwest to
south in summer, from southeast to south in autumn, and from south
in winter. The cold winds of spring are from the north, of summer
from north to north-northwest, of autumn from north to northwest,
and of winter from northwest, decreasing and shifting to west.
Frost is liable to do damage late in the spring and early in the fall,
but no fruit and very little farming produce is subject to injury, the
principal industries of this section being lumbering and mining. In
spring and autumn frost usually occurs with rising and high barome-
ter, clearing weather, and low humidity.
EUREKA, CAL.
In spring, autumn, and winter southeast winds general!}^ set in four
to eight hours before rain begins. In June rain is preceded by north-
west winds. As a rule no rain falls in July and August. In spring
rain usually begins with the barometer about 29.90, and near the turn
from falling to rising. In autumn and winter rain begins with the
barometer about 29.95 and falling, or near the turn from falling to
rising.
In the spring there is usually a decrease in relative humidity four to
six hours before rain, and a rapid decrease four to ten hours before
heavy rain. When, in this season conditions are normal, a sudden
decrease in relative humidity to about 50 per cent generally indicates
heavy rain, and 90 per cent of relative humidity, with clouds and
high fog, is frequently followed by light rain. In autumn the relative
humidity decreases two to six hours before heavy rain, but may either
decrease or increase before light rain. When the humidity is very
low, with cloudy weather, rain usually follows, and late in autumn
steady, light rain usually falls with relative humidit^y, ranging from
75 to 90 per cent. In winter the relative humidity decreases four to
1455— No. 33—03 6
82
twelve hours preceding rain, although sometimes light rain is pre-
ceded two to six hours by an increase in humidity. In this season rain
usually begins with relative humidity 80 to 90 per cent, although very
low relative humidity and a marked depression of the dew-point
indicates rain, or wind and rain.
• Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds are seldom observed, and when they
do appear move from the northwest, and sometimes, in the summer,
from the west. In spring alto-stratus clouds are observed a day or
more before rain, and cumulo-stratus or stratus immediately precede
rain; sometimes cirro-stratus change to alto-stratus before rain, and
the latter move from a westerly direction. Similar cloud forms and
movements are observed in autumn and winter, and also before the
infrequent rains of summer.
The high winds of this locality are usually from the northwest, with
rising or high barometer; in spring arid winter the high winds may
come from northwest to north. Warm winds come from southerly or
southeast, and cold winds from the northeast.
Peaches and cherries are likely to be damaged by frost in March
and April. In the spring heavy frost is usually preceded by barome-
ter about normal and rising, temperature about normal and falling,
relative humidity increasing during the night, calm or light winds, and
few, if any, clouds; in winter by high or rising barometer, temperature
falling below the normal, relative humidity about 80 per cent and
increasing, and light northerly winds.
EVANSVILLE, IND.
Precipitation is generally preceded by southeast to northeast winds
and falling barometer, and the barometer usually falls to 29.95 or
below in spring, summer, and winter, and to 30 or below in autumn,
before rain begins. In spring and winter rain begins on a falling
barometer, and in summer and autumn on or after the turn in the
barometer from falling to rising. In spring, autumn and winter rain
winds set in thirty-six to fort}r-eight hours and in summer eighteen
to twenty-four hours before rain begins.
In spring and summer the relative himridit}^ increases and in autumn
and winter it decreases before precipitation. In all seasons the aver-
age relative humidity preceding rain is 80 to 86 per cent.
The prevailing direction of cirro-stratus clouds is from west to
northwest in spring, and from west in summer, autumn, and winter.
In spring cirro-stratus clouds are forerunners of rain, and strato-
cumulus clouds immediately precede rain. In summer cirro-stratus
are followed by alto-cumulus and strato-cumulus clouds preceding rain.
In autumn, cirrus, cirro-stratus, and strato-cumulus precede rain.
In winter the upper clouds merge into alto-stratus and stratus pre-
ceding rain.
83
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are
from south in spring and autumn, from south to southwest in summer,
and from south to southeast in winter. The cold winds of spring and
winter are from the north, of summer from the northeast, and of
autumn from north to northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in the spring after
April 1, and in the fall before October 1.
In spring frost is likely to follow rapidly rising barometer, falling
temperature, increasing humidity, northwest to north winds, and a
few alto-cumulus and cirro-stratus clouds. In autumn heavy frost is
preceded by rising barometer, falling temperature, increasing fol-
lowed by decreasing humidity, northerly winds, and clear or clearing
weather.
FLAGSTAFF, ARIZ.
Iii all seasons precipitation is preceded by falling barometer, and the
barometer generally falls to 30, or below, before precipitation begins.
In spring precipitation is preceded about twenty -four hours by south-
west to west winds, in summer about twelve hours by northwest to
north winds, in autumn about twenty-four hours by northwest to north
winds, and in winter about twenty-four hours by south to southwest
winds.
There is an increase in relative humidit}1- before precipitation, and
in summer the increase is observed forty-eight hours before rain
begins.
In spring, summer, and autumn strato-curnulus clouds forerun pre-
cipitation, and in winter a similar formation appears before cumulo-
nimbus.
During periods of abnormally warm weather the wind is from north
to cast in spring, from west to northwest in summer, from northwest
to northeast in autumn, and from east to southeast in winter. During
periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is from the southwest
in spring, from southwest to west in summer, from the southwest in
autumn, and from southwest to west in winter. Preceding precipita-
tion the temperature falls in summer and rises in winter.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in May and
September.
FORT SMITH, ARK.
Iii the spring precipitation is preceded about twelve hours by south
to southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer falls to
29.90, or below, before precipitation begins. In summer south to
southwest winds and falling barometer precede rain about twelve hours,
and the barometer falls to 29.85, or below, before rain begins. In
autumn southeast to northeast winds and falling barometer precede
rain eight to ten hours, and the barometer falls to 29.95, or below,
84
before rain begins. In winter precipitation is usually preceded six to
eight hours by south to southwest winds and falling barometer, and
precipitation begins when the barometer has fallen to 30, or below, and
is on the turn from falling to rising.
In spring and summer the humidity is not a reliable indication of
rain; an increase is, however, often noted in these seasons several
hours before rain. Preceding rain in autumn the relative humidity
increases with a warm southerty wind to about 85 per cent before rain
begins. In winter the increase in relative humidity is very noticeable
twelve hours in advance of precipitation.
In spring the more dense formation of cirro-stratus clouds are fore-
runners of rain, and they are observed moving from the west about
six hours before rain begins. In summer rain is always preceded a
few hours by cirro-stratus clouds moving from the southwest. In
autumn, as in spring, rain is preceded by the denser formation of cirro-
stratus clouds moving from the west. This is also true of the winter
months, when the clouds appear about eight hours before precipitation
begins.
During periods of abnormal heat the wind is from the south or
southeast in spring and autumn, from the south in summer, and from
the southwest in winter. The colder winds are from the northwest in
spring, autumn, and winter, and from the west in summer. Daring
the summer season the temperature preceding thundershowers, which
is the form in which rains occur, becomes abnormally high about
forty-eight hours in advance of rain. In spring, autumn, and winter
precipitation is preceded about twelve hours b}^ a gradual rise in
temperature.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from about the middle
of March through April and May. The general conditions that pre-
cede frost are as follows: In spring, high pressure, temperature about
45°, relative humidity about 30 per cent, and light northwest winds;
in autumn the same as in spring, except that the relative humidity is
about 40 per cent. Cirrus clouds of a fine texture are frequently noted
before heavy frost.
FORT WORTH, TEX.
In spring and summer precipitation is preceded eight to fourteen
hours by falling barometer and southerly winds, and the barometer
generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins. In autumn
southerly winds and falling barometer precede rain about eight hours,
and the barometer usually falls to 29.85 or below and is on the turn
from falling to rising before rain begins. In winter south to south-
east winds usually precede precipitation, and precipitation generally
begins after the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In the
case of storms that advance from northern Mexico or the Rio Grande
Valley, however, precipitation is preceded by east to northeast winds,
85
and begins with falling barometer. Except in summer a steady
decrease in the barometer indicates rain. In summer a fluctuating
barometer also indicates rain.
An increase in relative humidity with easterly winds indicates rain
in all seasons. When the winds are from directions other than east-
erly a decrease in humidity sometimes precedes precipitation. Changes
in the moisture of the air do not necessarily indicate rain unless the
wind is from an easterly quarter.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west are often
observed ten to sixteen hours before precipitation. Lower clouds
moving from north to northeast precede precipitation in spring and
summer, from east to southeast in autumn, and from southeast in
winter.
The warm winds of spring and summer are southerly, and of autumn
and winter southwesterly. The cold winds of spring are from the
northwest, of summer from the southeast, and of autumn and winter
from the north.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from March 15
to April 30, and from October 1 to November 30. In spring and
autumn frost is preceded by high pressure, low temperature, low
humidity, and clear weather; in winter by decreasing pressure, falling
temperature, increasing humidity, light north to northeast winds, and
clear weather.
FRESNO, CAL.
Southerly winds and, generally, falling barometer set in six to ten
hours before rain begins, and the barometer falls to 29.90 or below
before the beginning of precipitation.
There is usually a decrease in relative humidity four to six hours
before rain, except during the prevalence of fog. The degree of mois-
ture near the earth can rarely be used as an indication of approaching
rain.
Cirrus clouds, moving from the west, with lunar halos occasionally
precede rain two to three days in spring, autumn, and winter. Choppy,
honeycombed alto-stratus clouds almost invariably precede normal
rains in all seasons. These clouds have a rapid movement from a
southerly direction. Local showers are usually preceded by cumulus
and alto-cumulus clouds on the mountain ranges.
In all seasons the warmer winds are from east to northeast, and
cold winds come from a northerly direction. The prevailing winds in
all seasons are from the northwest.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from December
10 to April 15. In winter and spring heavy frost is usually preceded
by high barometric pressure, falling temperature, northerly winds,
high humidity, and scattered cirrus clouds. No frost occurs in sum-
mer and autumn.
86
GRAND HAVEN, MICH.
In spring and winter precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four
hours by south to southeast winds and falling barometer when storms
are advancing from the west or northwest; when they come from the
southwest precipitation is preceded by east to northeast winds and
often begins shortly after the wind sets in from these directions.
Heavy snow often occurs after the wind has shifted to west and north-
west following the passage of a storm and with rising barometer.
Summer rains are usually preceded by southerly winds and falling
barometer and begin about the time the lowest barometer is reached,
or on the turn of the barometer from falling to rising. Southwest
storms are, however, occasionally the cause of rain in late summer and
autumn and are preceded by the same general conditions that have
been noted for spring and winter storms. Except in the case of south-
west storms the barometer generally falls to 80, or below, before
precipitation begins.
There is usually a decrease in relative humidity twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation begins, and an increase just before it
begins, especially during the warmer months. Continued high rela-
tive humidity, unless due to fog, continued unsettled weather with rain,
and clearing weather rapidly follow a decrease in relative humidity.
In spring precipitation is often preceded by cirro-stratus clouds
moving from the northwest, which merge into stratus. During sum-
mer and early autumn rain is generally preceded by cirro-stratus or
alto-stratus clouds twelve to twenty-four hours, which change to cumu-
lus and cumulo-nimbus, nearly all precipitation during these seasons
being in the form of thunder storms. In late autumn and winter
stratus clouds prevail.
In the warmer months high winds occur with falling barometer from
a southerly quarter, and with a rising barometer later when the wind
shifts tp west and northwest. During the colder months high south-
erly and southeast to northeast winds occur with a falling barometer,
and high southwest to north winds with a rising barometer.
The warm winds of spring and autumn are from southeast to south-
west, and of summer and winter from the southwest. The cold winds
of spring come from the north, of winter from the northeast, and of
summer and autumn from the northwest.
Frost is liable to damage fruit or other crops in spring after May 1,
and in autumn from September 15 to October 15. Heavy frost is
generally preceded by a rapid clearing of the sky toward evening,
increasing or high pressure, increasing or high relative humidity,
temperature falling to at least 36°, and wind diminishing to light and
generally from the northeast.
87
GRAND JUNCTION, COLO.
The prevailing winds at this station are from the northwest in
spring, summer, and autumn, and from southeast in winter. Precipi-
tation is generally preceded by steadily falling barometer, and begins
on the turn of the barometer from falling to rising. It appears that
precipitation begins after an area of low barometer has passed and
with the approach of the succeeding area of high barometer. As
many low areas pass over this locality without precipitation no invari-
able rule can, however, be laid down. The barometer usually falls to
29.90 or below in spring and autumn, to 29.85 in summer, and to 30
or below in winter before precipitation begins. Owing to the topog-
raphy of the section, and to the small amount of precipitation, it has
not been possible to determine the ruling direction of "rain" and
"dry" winds.
Beyond the fact that there is a slight increase in relative humidity
before precipitation, the extent to which the moisture of the air indi-
cates rain has not been observed; neither has there been any special
attention paid to clouds, their formations and characteristics, in con-
nection with precipitation, beyond the fact that cirrus clouds move
from a westerly direction.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is usually
from the southeast; the direction of cold winds in autumn and winter
is also given as southeast, while those of spring and summer are from
the northwest.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 1 to
May 15. Heavy frost is preceded by rising barometer, wind shifting
to northwest, temperature about normal, and relative humidity about
or slightly above normal.
GREEN BAY, WIS.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded by falling barometer, and
the barometer falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins,
except in winter, when precipitation often begins with the barometer
about 29.95 to 30. In spring and autumn precipitation is generally
preceded by southeast winds, in summer by southeast to southwest
winds, and in winter by southeast to northeast winds, the winds setting
in from these directions twelve to twenty-four hours before precipita-
tion begins.
In spring and winter there is a slight decrease and in summer and
autumn a slight increase in relative humidity before precipitation, the
changes being noted for a short period only before the beginning of
precipitation.
Beyond the fact that cirrus clouds move from the southwest and
88
west, no note has been made of characteristic cloud forms that precede
precipitation at this station.
The warm winds of all seasons are from the south. The cold winds
of winter and spring are from the southwest, of summer from the
north, and of autumn from the west.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops after May 15 and
before September 20. Heavy frost is usually preceded by high barom-
eter, moderately low humidity, northerly winds, and clear weather.
HANNIBAL, MO.
In spring and winter precipitation is generally preceded one to two
days by east to south winds and falling barometer. In summer the
same general conditions of wind and barometer precede rain, except
in the case of showers and thunderstorms, when rain begins about or
after the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. Autumn rains
are usually preceded one to two days by easterly winds and falling
barometer. In spring, summer, and autumn the barometer falls to
29. 90, or below, and in winter to 30 or below, before precipitation
begins. Rapidly falling barometer during the night or forenoon, and
often in the afternoon, indicates rain, and the earlier the fall begins
during the day the more certain rain will occur in twelve to twenty-
four hours. A decided rise after such a fall indicates clearing weather.
The relative humidity usually increases, but sometimes decreases,
six to twelve hours in advance of rain.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds usually precede precipitation during
late fall, winter, and early spring, and cumulus clouds usually precede
rain during late spring, summer, and early fall. In spring and winter
the prevailing direction of cirrus clouds is from west to southwest, and
in autumn from the west. Cumulus clouds just above the western
horizon precede thunderstorms, and the earlier they appear in the
morning the more certain it is that local showers or thunderstorms
will occur in the afternoon or evening of the same day; while if they
do not appear until the middle of the forenoon or toward noon thun-
derstorms may not occur for a day or two, especially if the altitude of
the clouds is great.
South to southwest winds prevail during periods of abnormal heat.
The cold winds of spring are from northwest to northeast, of summer
from northeast, and of autumn and winter from northwest to north.
During the colder months a rapid rise in temperature after a cold
period is usually followed by precipitation.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 15 to
May 31 and from September 1 to October 10. Heavy frost occurs
with high barometric pressure, temperature near the freezing point,
humidit}^ above the normal, and light north to west winds. Heavy
frost may occur with humidity below the normal.
89
HARRISBURG, PA.
In all seasons precipitation is usually preceded about twenty-four
hours by east to south winds and falling- barometer, and the barome-
ter generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins. Sum-
mer showers, as a rule, begin on or after the turn in the barometer
from falling to rising.
An increase in relative humidity is observed six to twenty-four
hours before precipitation; on the approach of thunderstorms the rel-
ative humidity increases until the storm begins, then decreases rap-
idly, and increases again after the storm. Heavy frost is often
followed by rain within eight to thirty -six hours.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds generally indicate precipitation, and
are observed moving from the west eighteen to twenty-four hours
before precipitation begins. After a period of fine weather cirrus
clouds are usually the first indication of an approaching storm. Cirro-
stratus clouds, or clouds of a halo-forming character, indicate rain
about two times in five. A low bank of dark clouds along the western
horizon at sunset is nearly always followed by rain before sunrise the
next morning, and generally before midnight.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 1 to May
10. In spring and autumn heavy frost is preceded by stationary and
high barometer, falling temperature, low relative humidity, and clear
or partly cloudy weather. In winter the same conditions obtain
except that the relative humidity is usually high.
HAVRE, MONT.
Precipitation is preceded by falling barometer and northeast winds,
and begins about the time the barometer is on the turn from falling
to rising. A falling barometer, with marked oscillations, is followed
by precipitation, and a sudden and marked fall in the barometer below
and continuing below the normal indicates rain or snow. The period
that elapses between the time the wind sets in from the northeast and
rain or snow begins varies from about twelve hours to several days,
the period being longer, as a rule, in the warmer months.
The expression " It feels like rain" is especially applicable to the
climate of this section, and many rains are preceded by a " softness"
of the atmosphere which may be due to increased humidity.
Cirro-stratus clouds are, to an extent, forerunners of rain. In
autumn and winter cirro-stratus clouds that produce well-defined halos
are often observed moving from the west twelve to twenty-four hours
in advance of precipitation. The cirro-stratus, are the only clouds
that appear to presage precipitation before the rain-bearing clouds
actually appear.
In the colder months precipitation begins with rising temperature,
90
and in the warmer months rain begins with falling temperature or
with temperature on the turn from rising to falling.
During periods of excessive or unseasonable heat the prevailing
winds are from the southwest. The cold winds of spring are from
the northeast, of summer from the north, and of autumn and winter
from the north.
Frost is likely to damage crops from June 1 to August 15. The
conditions favorable t6 the occurrence of heavy frost are barometer
above the normal, temperature about 36°, humidity low, clouds, if
any, dissipating, and wind light.
HELENA, MONT.
The heavy rains of May and June are usually preceded twelve to
twenty-four hours by northeast, to east winds and falling barometer;
they sometimes begin on a falling barometer, but generally after the
turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In summer southwest
winds precede rain twelve to thirty-six hours, and in autumn and win-
ter precipitation is preceded about twelve hours b%y southwest to north-
west'winds; in these seasons also the barometer falls before precipita-
tion, but precipitation seldom begins until after the turn from falling
to rising barometer. In winter the barometer generally falls to 29.W)
or below before precipitation begins; in the other seasons the depres-
sion of the barometer preceding precipitation is greater.
Generally no rain accompanies a "chinook" condition, except pos-
sibly a very light shower at the beginning. "Chinooks" generally
occur on a rapidly rising barometer, or on a rapidly fluctuating barom-
eter; these conditions indicate cloud}r weather without rain. An area
of low barometer over Idaho or Utah on the western slope with an
area of high barometer moving southward along the eastern slope
indicates a decided fall in temperature and heavy snow, especially
during the autumn.
Very little relation has been observed between atmospheric moisture
and rain, and in summer the atmosphere is often very dry during the
twenty-four hours preceding precipitation.
No relation has been observed between cirrus and cirro-stratus
clouds and rain. Cirrus clouds are generally observed moving from a
westerly direction, with an inclination to move from the south of west
in summer and from north of west in winter. Cirrus and alto-stratus
clouds, when in a well-defined bank, indicate the approach of an area
of low barometer, or storm. In winter cold wraves are indicated by
the lower clouds. Streams of fog will often be seen pouring down the
ravines and canyons 25 miles to the northward twelve to twenty-four
hours before snow at Helena. In spring, autumn, and winter alto-
stratus, cumulus, and stratus clouds all indicate precipitation when
other conditions are favorable. In summer cumulus clouds are fore-
runners of showers.
91
The warm winds of all seasons come from the southwest, and the
cold winds of winter from north to northwest. Chinook conditions
during the summer are of short duration, and when they occur are
accompanied by lower temperature instead of higher, as in winter.
Frost is likely to damage vegetation from April 1 to May 30, and
from August 15 to September 30. Heavy frost is preceded by high
barometric pressure, temperature below 36° at 8 p. m., dew-point near
32°, clear weather, with very light wind or a calm.
HURON, S. DAK.
Precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by southeast
to east winds and falling barometer, and in spring, summer, and au-
tumn begins when the barometer has fallen to 29.90 or below, and
about the time of the change from falling to rising barometer. In
winter precipitation sometimes begins some hours before the barome-
ter reaches its lowest reading, and at other times it begins on or after
the turn from falling to rising; in this season precipitation seldom
begins before the barometer has fallen to 30 or below. Rain or snow
that occurs with rapidly rising barometer is usually of short duration.
Slowly falling barometer, with wind backing from southeast to east
and northeast (storm center in the west or southwest and high pres-
sure in the northeast), almost invariably indicates precipitation,
especially in spring and autumn, and some of the heaviest rain and
snow storms are preceded by these pressure conditions. A steady
southwest wind indicates clearing or continued fair weather.
In spring there is usually an increase in relative humidity six to
twelve hours before precipitation, especially in cases where the pre-
cipitation continues long. Before summer showers, when the temper-
ature is high and increasing, the relative humidity decreases; at other
times the relative humidity increases before summer rains. Autumn
rains are generally preceded six to twelv-e hours by increasing relative
humidity, especially in the cases of rains that occur late in the day or
at night. With abnormally high temperature winter precipitation is
preceded six to twelve hours by increasing relative humidity.
In the spring the prevailing movement of cirro-stratus clouds is
from northwest to southwest, northwest predominating; in summer
and autumn from southwest to west, southwest being most frequent;
and in winter from northwest to west, northwest being the direction
most frequently noted. In instances where these clouds are followed
by precipitation, rain or snow occurs six to twelve hours after their
appearance. In spring, autumn, and winter cirro-stratus and alto-
stratus nearly always precede rain or snow, but are often present when
no rain or snow occurs. In summer cirro-stratus and strato-cumulus
nearly always precede rain, but often appear when no rain follows.
92
Warm winds are from south to southeast; the "hot winds" of sum-
mer are, however, usually most intense with wind veering from south
to southwest. The cold winds of winter come from northwest, veering
to north.
Fruit and vegetables are likely to be damaged by frost from April
20 to September 20; ; wheat, oats, barley, and rye from May 1 to
August 1; corn and flax from May 1 to September 20. Heavy frost
is preceded by high barometer, low evening humidity, with tempera-
ture about 50° and falling, northerly winds becoming light, and clear
or clearing weather.
INDEPENDENCE, CAL.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded ten to
twenty hours by south winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
falls to about 29.80 inches in spring and autumn, and becomes station-
ary before precipitation begins. In winter precipitation begins with
the barometer about 29.80 and falling. In summer rain is preceded
by southeast winds and begins when the barometer has fallen to about
29.80 and is stationary.
There is almost invariably a decrease in relative humidity two to
twelve hours preceding rain, a few exceptions being noted in July,
August, and September. On account of the peculiar configuration
and topography of the country 100 miles to the north and south,
together with the desert-like character of the entire valley, broken
here and there only by very limited oases, the air is extremely dry up
to the beginning of precipitation, and the rains are paradoxically
called by the inhabitants " dry rains." The housewives do not take
in their wash clothes from the lines on account of a rain storm, know-
ing by experience the rapidity of evaporation even during the time
precipitation is falling. This is true of all storms, except the Sonoras,
when the whole valley is filled with moisture-laden clouds. The
Sonoras occur too seldom to furnish material for investigation.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the northwest are some-
times observed two to three days before precipitation. Strato-
cumulus clouds moving from the west and south in spring, from the
south in summer and autumn, and from the southwest in winter pre-
cede precipitation.
The warm winds of all seasons blow from the northwest, and also the
cold winds, except in summer, when the cool winds are from the south-
east. In fact northwest winds prevail, except preceding precipitation.
Fruit or other crops are likely to be damaged by frost from Sep-
tember 21 to October 30, and from March 18 to May 28. In the
spring almonds, apricots, and early blossoming fruit, particularly
almonds, apricots,, and very early vegetables, are frequently damaged,
none totally, however, and peaches are occasionally injured. In the
fall late-maturing vegetables, such as tomatoes, peppers, potatoes,
93
late corn, and water melons, are subject to slight damage. In spring
and autumn heav%y frost is preceded by high and stationary barometer,
low variable temperature, low humidity, cirro-stratus clouds, and
north to northwest winds, and generally occurs after rain.
ITHACA, N. Y.
In spring, summer, and autumn precipitation is preceded twelve to
forty-eight hours by southeast winds and falling barometer, and the
barometer generally falls to 29.90, or below, in spring and summer,
and to 29.95, or below, in autumn before precipitation begins. In
winter southerly winds precede precipitation, but the winds shift more
quickly and the signs of precipitation are not so well denned as in
other seasons; precipitation begins in this season with a falling barome-
ter and when the barometer has fallen to 30 or below. On account
of the position of this station on the hillside and above the lake,
diurnal winds are noticeable, especially during the warmer months."
When not influenced by passing storms these winds come as a gentle
east to southeast breeze by night and by day a northwest wind having
a velocity two or three times greater than the d&y breeze. When,
instead of shifting to the northwest in the early morning, the wind
continues from the southeast and begins to increase in force, the
approach of a storm is indicated. While rain begins most frequently
with falling barometer, the heaviest rainfall often comes, especially
in the warmer months, after the turn in the barometer from falling
to rising.
Richard's registering h}rgrometer shows that in spring and summer
the humidity sometimes decreases before rain but increases rapidly
after rain begins; in spring rain begins with relative humidity from
50 to 98 per cent, and in summer it may be as low as 50 per cent one
hour before rain begins. In autumn the effect of day and night seems
greater than the influence of passing storms, and rain will begin with
relative humidity as low as 50 per cent one hour before rain. In
winter there is usually an increase in humidity from one-half to four
hours before rain, and dry snow will begin with relative humidity as
low as 40 per cent.
Cirrus clouds are a reliable indication of precipitation in all seasons,
but are liable to be obscured by lower clouds of local formation in the
colder portion of the year. These clouds appear moving from the
west in spring and winter, from the northwest in summer, and from
the southwest in autumn, twenty-four to thh^-six hours before
precipitation begins. Special characteristics of clouds have not been
noted except in connection with cirrus clouds.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in May and Septem-
ber. Heavy frost is generally preceded by high barometer, low
temperature and humidity, very light wind and clear weather.
94
JACKSONVILLE, FLA.
In spring rain is generally preceded twenty-four to thirty-six hours
by southwest winds and falling barometer, and rain begins with rising
barometer or when the barometer is on the turn from falling to rising.
Summer rains are most frequently preceded by southerly winds and
begin after the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In
autumn and winter rain is usually preceded twenty-four to thirty-six
hours by northeast winds and begins while the barometer is falling or
is on the turn from falling to rising. In all seasons the barometer
generally falls to 30, or below, before rain begins. In summer condi-
tions are rather sluggish and are sometimes negative in character,
except two to six hours before thunderstorms when the barometer
falls rapidly. During the late summer and in autumn the barometer
fluctuates, rising and falling, several days in advance of the arrival
of tropical storms.
There is usually an increase in atmospheric moisture twenty-four to
thirty-six hours in advance of rain, the period being greater in winter
than during the other seasons.
Cirro-stratus clouds usually move from southwest to west, and in
summer are sometimes observed moving from the northwest. Rain
follows the appearance of upper clouds in 48 per cent of the cases
noted in spring, in 77 per cent of the cases in summer, in 61 per cent
of the cases in autumn, and in 64 per cent of the cases in winter.
Aside from the upper clouds no special characteristics of cloud for-
mation, either of kind, direction, or speed that presage rain have been
made a subject of observation at this station.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
south to southwest, except in autumn, when it is from northeast to
southeast. During periods of abnormal cold the wind is from north
to northwest in spring, from northeast in summer and autumn, and
from west to northwest in winter. During winter abnormally high
temperature is quite certain to be followed by rain within thirty-six
hours. In summer high midday temperatures are followed by thun-
derstorms in the afternoon, and thunderstorms ma}^ be expected also
when a twentyrfour-hour temperature change of 4° to 6° is indicated.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit from November 1 to April 10.
In spring the general conditions that precede heavy frost are, barom-
eter usual!}7 below 30, slowly rising temperature, low humidity, and
light west to north wind. In autumn the heaviest frosts occur with
stationary or slowly rising barometer, with wind veering during the
day to northeast and backing early in the evening to north and north-
west. Sometimes the wind veers to east and south, returning to west
early in the evening. The easterly winds bear moisture and hence
result in heavy frost. Frost is rarely heav}7 with the coldest weather;
95
the air is too dry. (It is difficult to reconcile the observer's statements
of "low humidity" and "of moisture bearing easterly winds preced-
ing heavy frost.")
JUPITER, FLA.
• In spring rain is generally preceded about twelve hours by southerly
winds and falling barometer, in summer about twenty-four hours by
northeast to southeast winds, in autumn about twelve hours by north-
east winds, and in winter about six hours b}^ easterly winds. In sum-
mer rain begins when the barometer is near the highest or lowest
point, except when tropical storms are approaching, when the barome-
ter falls. In autumn the barometer falls slowly before and rises
rapidly after rain. In winter rain begins shortly after the barometer
begins to fall, with easterly winds.
In all seasons the relative humidity decreases twenty-four to thirty-
six hours before rain, and increases during the twelve hours preceding
the beginning of rain. Unusually high or low relative humidity indi-
cates approaching rain in about 50 per cent of the cases noted.
Cirro-stratus clouds move from the west in spring and winter and
from the southwest in summer and autumn. In spring the upper
clouds appear to bear very little relation to rain. In summer and
autumn cirrus clouds indicate, to a small extent, conditions favorable to
thunderstorms. In winter cirrus clouds, and stratus clouds moving
from southeast to south, indicate rain.
The high winds of spring come from the northeast with rising and
from the southeast with falling barometer; of summer from west to
north with rising and from southeast to southwest with falling barome-
ter; of autumn from southwest to northwest with falling barometer;
and of winter from southwest to northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormal \y high temperature the wind is from the
southeast to south in spring, from southwest in summer, from east to
southeast in autumn, and from south in winter. During periods of
abnormally low temperature the wind is from northwest in spring and
autumn, from north to northeast in summer, and from northwest in
autumn.
Frost is destructive to the fruit and vegetable interests of this sec-
tion, but the greatest damage results from frosts that occur in the
spring. The general conditions that precede heavy frost are rapidly
rising barometer, after an area of low barometer has passed, falling
temperature for thirty-six to forty-eight hours, dew-point below 40°,
diminishing west to north wind, and clear weather.
KALISPELL, MONT.
In spring and summer precipitation is preceded six to eight hours
by southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer falls to
29.85 or below and begins to rise before precipitation begins. In
96
autumn and winter precipitation begins some hours after the wind has
shifted to west or northwest and after the turn in the barometer from
falling to rising. After precipitation begins the barometer again falls.
The relative humidity increases, on an average, nineteen hours in
spring, twenty-one hours in summer, nine hours in autumn, and
twelve hours in winter, respectively, before precipitation begins. In
spring and summer there is usually a heavy deposit of dew before
precipitation, and in autumn and winter hoar frost precedes precipi-
tation.
Cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west are observed sixteen
to twenty -four hours before precipitation. In spring and summer
large cumulus or cumulo-nimbus about 20 miles southeast of station
usually result in rain in this valley within twenty-four hours; clouds
of this description begin to form between 9 and 11 a. m.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the northwest in spring, summer, and autumn, and from south to
southwest in winter. The cold winds of spring are from the west, of
summer from the southeast, and of autumn and winter from the north-
west. The high winds of all seasons come from the southwest, with
rising barometer.
Frost is likely to damage fruit from May 15 to July 10, and grain
from June 25 to August 1. Heavy frost is usually preceded by
increasing barometer or barometer stationary and above 30, falling
temperature, increasing humidity, southerly veering to light west and
northwest winds, and decreasing cloudiness.
KANSAS CITY, MO.
With storms moving from southwest to northeast precipitation
begins with falling barometer. Circular areas of low barometer the
centers of which do not pass below central Nebraska and Iowa are
seldom accompanied by rain at this station. Trough-shaped low areas
usually produce precipitation on the turn of the barometer from fall-
ing to rising. In winter when a well-marked area of high barometer
with low temperature crosses this section snow occurs soon after the
barometer begins to fall, then ceases for a time, to begin again, pos-
sibly, on the succeeding rise in the barometer. In spring and autumn
precipitation is preceded one to two days by southeast and in winter
for about one day by east to southeast winds. In summer an oscillat-
ing barometer indicates a probability of thunderstorms. In all seasons
a rapid fall in the barometer indicates earty precipitation. Generally
speaking the barometer falls to 29.90 or below in spring and autumn,
to 29.85 or below in summer, and to 30 or below in winter before
precipitation begins.
In spring and winter there is a decrease to a low percentage of
relative humidity one to two days before precipitation; in summer
97
and autumn the decrease is sudden twelve to thirty hours before pre-
cipitation. As an indicator of precipitation the moisture of the air is
uncertain and unreliable.
Cloud aspects are misleading. Occupying, as this station does, a
midcontinental position, the clouds belonging to the various cyclonic
areas appear, but whether or not precipitation will follow depends on
the course and intensity of the storms and the character of the season.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are so frequent that the times they are
followed by rain form a small percentage of the times they are
observed. These clouds advance from the west in spring, from south-
west to west in summer and autumn, and from west to northwest in
winter. In late spring, summer, and early autumn cumulus clouds in
the early morning and large cirro-cumulus during the day presage
rain. In winter small cirro-cumulus clouds moving from the south-
west presage, to a greater extent than any other kind of clouds, rain
or snow.
During periods of abnormal heat the wind comes from southeast to
southwest; the cold winds of spring and winter are from the north-
west to north, and of summer and autumn from northwest to northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit and vegetables late in the spring, and
corn and late vegetables during autumn. Heavy frost is preceded by
rising barometer, temperature falling to 38° or below, light north to
west winds, and a clear sky.
KEOKTJK, IOWA.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded twenty -four
to forty -eight hours by east to south winds and falling barometer. In
summer the winds that precede showers come from south to southwest.
The barometer usually falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation
begins, except in winter, when rain or snow often begins when the
barometer has fallen to about 30. A slow fall of the barometer for
forty-eight to seventy -two hours indicates precipitation; a slow rise
in the barometer indicates clearing and settled weather. Rapid changes
in the barometer indicate early changes in the weather.
The relative humidity generally decreases about twelve hours before
rain, except in winter, when it increases, and a marked decrease in rel-
ative humidity in the evening is an indication of rain in spring, sum-
mer, and autumn.
In spring cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west appear twenty-
four hours before rain. In summer cirro-stratus clouds move from
the southwest, and rain is preceded by increasing cumulus changing
to cumulo-nimbus clouds. In autumn cirro-stratus clouds moving from
the west appear twenty-four hours before rain and change to alto-
stratus and then to stratus before ran begins. In winter cirro-stratus
1466— No. 33—03—7
98
move from the northwest, and cirro-cumulus clouds appear twenty-
four hours before snow. Cirro-stratus or alto-stratus moving from
southwest or west and banking in the southwest or west presage pre-
cipitation. Cirrus clouds are observed during clearing weather fol-
lowing storms.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
south to southwest, except in winter, when it is from southeast to
south. The cold winds of all seasons are from the northwest.
In September heavy frost is damaging to fruit and, if early in the
month, to corn. Heavy frost is preceded by pressure above the nor-
mal, temperature falling during the evening, relative humidity between
45 and 50 per cent, light west to northwest winds, and few clouds or
clear weather.
KITTY HAWK, N. C.
In spring rain is preceded one to two da}rs by southwest winds and
falling barometer, in summer one to three da}7s by southerly winds, in
autumn by northeast winds, and in winter by southeast winds. In
spring rain usually begins when the barometer has reached its lowest
reading, in summer on the turn in the barometer from falling to ris-
ing, in autumn, with northeast winds, soon after the turn in the
barometer from rising to falling, and in- winter on a falling barome-
ter. Except with northeast winds in the autumn rain usually begins
when the barometer has fallen to 30 or below in spring, summer, and
autumn, and to 29.90 or below in winter.
There is an increase in relative humidity before rain, the increase
being most marked in summer and winter. Much moisture at night,
especially, indicates rain in from one to three days.
Cirro-stratus or cirrus clouds are sometimes observed moving from
the southwest about twelve hours before rain in spring, from the south
twenty-four hours before rain in autumn, and from the southwest five
to eight hours before rain in winter. In summer upper clouds moving
from the southeast are sometimes observed before rain.
The high winds of spring generally come from the southwest with a
falling barometer, of summer from the northeast with a rising barome-
ter, of autumn from the southeast with a falling barometer, and of
winter from the northwest with a rising barometer. During periods
of abnormally high temperature the wind comes from the southwest in
spring, from west to southwest in summer, from south in autumn, and
from south to southeast in winter. The cold winds of spring and win-
ter come from the northwest, of summer from the north, and of
autumn from the northeast.
Frost is likely to cause damage from April 10 to 30 and from Octo-
ber 10 to 31. Heavy frost is preceded by high barometer, tempera-
ture nearly to freezing, diminishing and light north to northwest
winds, with clear weather, or a few fleecy clouds.
99
KNOXVILLE, TENN.
The winds at this station are prevailingly from the southwest during
the spring, summer, and winter, regardless of rainfall or temperature
changes. Numerous exceptions to this rule can be found, but there
is no harmony among the exceptions, and no rules can be formulated.
In all seasons precipitation is generally preceded by falling barometer,
and the barometer falls to 30 or below in spring, summer, and
autumn, and to 30.05 or below in winter before precipitation begins.
In nearly all cases where precipitation begins with rising barometer
it occurs in the form of light snow or light rain preceding a cold
wave in winter, or a thunderstorm in summer. Immediately before
clearing weather the barometer usually rises.
No particular relation between the moisture of the air and precipi-
tation has been noted. The records of humidity at this station are
too deficient to furnish satisfactory information concerning this
subject.
Cirrus clouds, followed by cirro-stratus, are frequently followed by
rain within twenty -four to thirty-six hours in the fall, winter, and
spring, and within a few hours in summer. These clouds usually
come from the southwest or west.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from March 15 to
April 30 and from September 15 to November 30. Heavy frost is
usually preceded by high barometric pressure, low temperature, low
humidity, quiet winds, and an absence of clouds.
LA CBOSSE, WIS.
In spring, summer, and autumn precipitation is preceded twelve to
twenty-four hours by south to southeast winds and falling barometer,
and in winter by northeast to southeast winds and falling barometer.
In all seasons the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below before
precipitation begins.
There is usually an increase in relative humidity twenty-four to
forty-eight hours before precipitation; at times, however, a decrease
in relative humidity has been noted before rain. As the humidity is
observed but once in each twenty-four hours, little weight can be
given to the results obtained.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the northwest are some-
times observed thirty-two to forty-eight hours before precipitation.
In the opinion of the observer, clouds of any kind in any season of
the year, taken alone, are of little value in weather forecasting. In
spring, autumn, and winter rather low clouds with under surface
broken, moving rapidly from easterly or southerly directions, and
also a thin light sheet above a stratum of broken, dark fragments,
indicate rain. In summer cumulus clouds of various forms preceded
by arch of false cirrus precede rain.
100
During periods of abnormally high temperature the prevailing
winds are from south to southeast. Cold winds come from the north
to northwest.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from the middle of
April to October 31. The general conditions that precede frost are,
rising barometer, temperature 48° or below, with indications of fall-
ing to 36° or below, light north to northwest winds, and often light '
rain on the day preceding the occurrence of frost.
LANDER, WYO.
In spring and summer precipitation is usually preceded twelve to
twenty-four hours by southwest winds, in autumn twenty-four to thirty-
six hours by southwest winds, and in winter twenty-four to thirty-
six hours by northeast winds. Preceding precipitation the barometer
generally falls to 29.90 inches in spring, to 29.85 in summer and
autumn, and to 30 or below in winter before precipitation begins. In
all seasons the barometer begins to rise before precipitation begins.
The relative humidity usualty increases twenty-four to thirty-six
hours before precipitation. High humidity does not always indicate
rain, however, and in summer and autumn rains occur with the rela-
tive humidity 50 per cent or below, and at times no rain occurs with
the relative humidity near 90 per cent.
The extent to which upper clouds indicate precipitation is limited
and uncertain. At times cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from
the west or northwest are observed twelve to twenty-four hours before
precipitation. A rapid movement of stratus or strato-cumulus clouds
from west or northeast generally presages rain or snow. The cloud
movements at this station are generally slow.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the southwest in spring, summer, and autumn, and the directions are
about equally divided between northeast, southeast, southwest, and west
in winter. The cold winds of spring are from the southeast, of sum-
mer and winter from southwest, and of autumn from northwest.
In spring frost is preceded by stationary barometer, low tempera-
ture, average humidity, northeast, southeast, west, or northwest winds,
and is generally preceded by rain. In autumn and winter the same
conditions obtain, except that the humidity is low preceding frost, and
the wind is from southwest to northwest.
Frost is likely to damage vegetation from May 1 to June 20, and
from August 20 to September 30.
LEWISTON, IDAHO.
Precipitation is usually preceded by southerly winds and falling
barometer, but does not begin until the wind shifts to westerly and the
barometer begins to rise. In spring and autumn the barometer gen-
101
erally falls to 29.90 or below, in summer to 29.80 or below, and in
winter to 30 or below before precipitation begins.
During1 protracted periods of cloudy weather an increase in atmos-
pheric moisture may be taken as an indication of rain. It has been
observed that abnormally low humidity at 5 a. m. (the time of the
morning observation) is frequently followed by rain before noon, local
time.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west to northwest in
spring, from southwest in summer and autumn, and from west to south-
west in winter, are sometimes observed from forty-eight to seventy-
two hours before precipitation, but frequently no precipitation occurs
after the appearance of these clouds.
Frost is liable to damage fruit during the first half of May and early
in November.
The period of observation at this station is too short to admit of
accurate deductions; the above statements cover, however, the usual
conditions that precede precipitation.
LEXINGTON, KY.
Precipitation is generally preceded eighteen to twenty-four hours
by southeast to northeast winds and falling barometer. The severe
storms of winter are preceded by east to northeast winds, and pre-
ceding summer precipitation the wind is usually from south to east.
In spring and summer the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below,
and in autumn and winter to 30 or below before precipitation begins.
In spring and summer, during the season of thunderstorms, the
barometer is unsteady preceding rain, a condition that is not observed
during the colder months.
There is generally a decrease in relative humidity in advance of
precipitation. Except as an indication of more rain, during an inter-
mission in a rainstorm, high humidity is not usually a precursor of
n: in, unless the rain is about to begin. As a rule the humidity can
not be depended upon as an indicator of rain.
Cirrus, cirro-stratus, and alto-stratus clouds are almost invariably
forerunners of rain in all seasons. These clouds appear about twenty-
four hours in advance of precipitation and come from the southwest,
except in winter, when they are more often seen coming from the west.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the south in spring and winter and from the southwest in summer and
autumn. The cold winds of all seasons are from the northwest.
Spring frosts are likely to damage fruit, vegetables, and other crops.
In autumn crops are generally matured before the frost season. The
general conditions that precede heavy frost are: rising barometer,
falling temperature, low humidity, west to northwest winds dimin-
ishing in force, and clear or clearing weather.
102
LITTLE BOCK, ARK.
During the colder months precipitation is preceded twelve to
twenty-four hours by south to southeast winds and falling1 barometer,
and precipitation begins when the barometer is near the turn from
falling to rising. Jn connection with storms that come from the
southwest, precipitation is preceded by northeast Avinds and precipi-
tation begins soon after the barometer begins to fall. During the
warmer months thunderstorms are preceded six to twelve hours by
southerly winds and falling barometer, and the wind shifts to westerly
with rising barometer attending the beginning of rain. In all seasons
the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation
begins.
It has been observed that the moisture of the atmosphere increases
twenty-four to forty-eight hours before precipitation in spring and
winter and twelve to twenty-four hours before precipitation in summer
and autumn, and that the more rapid the increase in moisture the
greater the probability of precipitation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from southwest in spring
and summer and from southwest to west in autumn and winter are
often observed twenty-four to thirty-six hours before precipitation.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the southeast to southwest. During periods of unusually cool or cold
weather the wind is from north to northwest, except in summer, when
it comes from the east quadrant.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in March, April, May,
September, and October. In spring and autumn frost is preceded by
rising barometer, temperature falling to 40° or below at station, light
or decreasing northwest winds, low or decreasing humidity, and clear
or clearing weather.
LOS ANGELES, GAL.
In spring and winter, including October and November, easterty
winds set in twelve and twenty-four hours before precipitation.
Normal, followed by falling barometer, generally precedes rain winds.
Rain is more likely to begin with the barometer about 29.90 or below
in spring and about 29.80 or below in winter.
No increase or decrease in relative humidity is noted preceding rain.
Excessive humidity occurs with fog which is rarely an accompaniment
of rain, and more than the average humidity follows west to south west
winds from the ocean which are not rain-bearing winds.
Cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west generally forerun storms
by periods that vary in length from one to three days, depending
upon the movement of the storm-center; when these clouds are not
followed by rain the weather usually becomes threatening. Detached
103
masses of clouds, more nearly resembling stratus, are generally
observed about midway up the slopes of the Sierra Madre Mountains
to the northeast of the station preceding general storms. These
clouds are considered a good local sign of rain.
During periods of abnormally tigh temperature the prevailing
winds are from the northeast to northwest in spring, from north to
northwest in summer, from east to northwest in autumn, and from
northeast to north in winter. The cold winds of all seasons are
northerly winds.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from December
to March. The conditions that generally precede frost are: baromet-
ric pressure above the normal but relatively low as compared with
pressures to the northward, temperatures at or below normal, low
relative humidity, light winds, and a cloudless sky.
LOUISVILLE, KY.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded twelve to thirty-six hours by
southeast to northeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
generally falls to 29.90 or below in spring, summer, and winter, and
to 30 or below in autumn before precipitation begins.
There is generally an increase in relative humidity preceding rain.
This is most marked in spring and summer, but the period is not well
defined. Rapidly increasing moisture after a period of low humidity
is a strong indication of approaching rain, but is by no means a sure one.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds indicate rain in this locality at all
times of the year, but are far from being a sure sign of approaching
rain. The interval between their first appearance and the beginning
of precipitation is irregular; they frequently appear for several hours,
then disappear, and reappear the next day. The prevailing direction
of cirro-stratus clouds is from the west. No special cloud formation
is known on which it would be safe to predict rain for this locality
twenty-four hours or more in advance, but some cloud formations are
of decided assistance when used in connection with a knowledge of the
location of approaching storm areas.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the prevailing winds
are from southeast to east in spring, from southwest to northwest in
summer, and from south to southeast in autumn and winter. During
periods of abnormally low temperature the prevailing winds are from
west, northwest, or north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from March 20 to
April 30 and from September 15 to October 15. The general conditions
that precede heavy frost are high barometric pressure following an
area of low barometer, rapidly falling temperature, decreasing humid-
ity, brisk west to north winds becoming light and nearly calm, and
clouds disappearing and leaving a clear sky.
104
L.YNCHBTTRG, VA.
Precipitation is usually preceded ten to twenty-four hours by easterty
winds and falling barometer, and the barometer falls to 30 or below
before precipitation begins, except in the case of storms that advance
from the southwest, when precipitation begins shortly after the turn in
the barometer from rising to falling.
Increasing atmospheric moisture indicates rain at all seasons, espe-
cially when accompanied by other favorable conditions, and its value
in this respect is greatest during the summer months. The increase
is usually noted twelve to eighteen hours before rain begins.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are usually forerunners of precipi-
tation by twelve to eighteen hours in the warmer and twenty-four to
forty-eight hours in the colder months. These clouds generally move
from the west.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the prevailing
winds are from the south in spring and autumn, from south to south-
west in summer, and from southwest in winter. The cold winds of
all seasons are from the northwest. High easterly winds come with
falling and high westerly winds with rising barometer.
Frost is likely to damage apples from April 8 to 20, and peaches
and plums from March 17 to 30. Fruit is most frequently damaged
when a temperature of 15° or lower follows a warm spell in January
or February. Tobacco is most likely to be damaged from September
15 to October 20. Heavy frost is generally preceded by barometric
pressure rising above the normal, falling temperature, humidity about
or a little below the normal, light north to northwest winds, and few
if any clouds.
MACON, GA.
In spring and summer precipitation is usually preceded about twelve
hours by southerly winds and falling barometer, and rain begins near
the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In autumn and win-
ter northeast winds usually precede rain, and rain begins about the
time the minimum barometer is reached. Rain begins most fre-
quently, in all seasons, with the barometer between 29.90 and 30.
During the colder months rain will sometimes begin with rising
barometer and after the wind has shifted to northwest.
The relative humidity' is alwa}rs higher shortly before and after
rains, and in some cases there seems to be an increase in relative
humidity thirty-six hours before rain begins, but the available data
are too limited to be conclusive. While dry air indicates no rain,
moist air does not necessarily indicate rain.
Cirrus clouds moving from the southwest merging into cirro-stratus
and alto-stratus on the southwest horizon are usually followed by
rain in from twelve to thirty -six hours. Detached cirrus, cumulus,
105
and stratus clouds have little significance. In winter high alto-cumu-
lus clouds from the west are some indication of snow if they come in
the evening and show a tendency" to thicken.
The cold winds of spring and winter are from the northwest, of
summer from northwest, northeast, and southeast, and of autumn
from northwest to northeast.
Heavy frost is likely to damage cotton during the first two weeks
in November. Fruit will be damaged by a spring freeze after the
buds have formed, and by a severe freeze in the latter part of February
and the beginning of March. Frost is preceded by rising or high
barometer, falling or stationary temperature, north to west winds
diminishing to almost a calm, moderate humidity, and few if any clouds.
MEMPHIS, TENN.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded by south to
southeast winds, and in summer by southwest winds. Preceding
storms that advance from the southwest the winds come from the east
or northeast. In all seasons, except in winter, precipitation that is
preceded by south to southeast winds begins about the time the barom-
eter is on the turn from falling to rising. When the wind is from the
east and northeast rain begins with the barometer falling. In winter
rain comes with falling, and snow with rising, barometer. Precipita-
tion begins in spring with the barometer about 29.90, or below; in
summer and autumn, with the barometer 30, or below; and in winter,
with the barometer about 30.10, or below.
An increase in relative humidity is observed twenty -four hours or
more before precipitation begins, except that a decrease in humidity
is frequently noted at the morning observation on the day preceding
rain.
In the spring cirrus clouds moving from the west or southwest and
cirro-stratus from the southwest precede rain six to twelve hours. In
summer cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the southwest are
followed by rain in from twelve to twenty hours. In autumn and winter
cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds from the west or southwest (especially
from the southwest) are followed by rain within twenty-four hours,
and this cloud movement is a sure sign of rain when the surface wind
is from south or southeast.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the prevailing winds
are from the southeast in spring, from the southwest in summer, and
from south to southwest in autumn and winter. In all seasons the
cold winds come from the northwest and incline more toward north-
erly in the autumn. During winter, early spring, and late autumn
periods of unusual cold are usually followed by rain within thirty-six
to fort3r-eight hours. The high winds of all seasons come from west
106
to northwest with rising barometer, except in the case of summer
thunderstorms, when they are from southwest to west.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in March, April,
May, September, and October. The greatest damage to fruit can
occur during the latter part of March and the early part of April.
Frosts late in October injure the " top crop" in cotton. The general
conditions that favor -heavy frost are rising barometer for twenty-
four hours, wind shifting to fresh northwest, and decreasing, low rela-
tive humidity, and clearing or clear sky.
MARQTJETTE, MICH.
Storms from the southwest are preceded by east to northeast winds
and falling barometer, and in winter precipitation begins shortly after
thase conditions are developed. Storms from the west and northwest
are preceded by southeast shifting to southwest winds and falling
barometer, and precipitation begins about the time the barometer is
near the turn from falling to rising. During the colder months pre-
cipitation comes in the form of snow, with northeast winds and falling
barometer, and snow continues after the wind shifts to north and
northwest with rising barometer, The upper peninsula of Michigan
is probably the most difficult section in the United States for which
to forecast precipitation. The usual premonitory signs of weather
changes, more particularly as regards rain and snow, fail utterly at
times, and precipitation appears to depend upon the relative amount
of moisture in the air, and the difference in temperature at points
along the south shore of Lake Superior and the temperature of the
air that is brought thither from the land in summer and from the lake
in winter. In short, the cold necessary for condensation of moisture
is a subject for close calculations of wind directions, which in this sec-
tion are extremely difficult to make.
An increase in relative humidity is generally observed several hours
before precipitation, but, at times, when the wind shifts suddenly to
points from over the lake the increase is rapid and the chance of
subsequent precipitation is again dependent upon temperature con
ditions.
In spring, summer, and autumn cirrus clouds moving from the west
are often observed eight to thirty hours before precipitation. In
winter the upper clouds are seldom seen, owing to the prevalence of
stratus or nimbus clouds. Alto-stratus and stratus clouds moving
from the west or northwest in spring arid autumn, from the south-
west, west, or northwest in summer, and from the west, northwest,
north, and northeast in winter are observed preceding precipitation.
The high winds of spring, summer, and autumn come from the
southeast to southwest with falling barometer, and in winter they
usually come from the northwest with rising barometer. The warm
107
winds of spring- and autumn are from the south, of summer from
south to southwest, and in winter abnormally high temperature pre-
vails with calm air or light south to southwest winds. The cold winds
of spring- come from the southwest and west, of summer from north
and northeast, of autumn from the west, and of winter from the
southwest, west, and northwest.
Frost is likely to damage crops from June 1 until the early part
of September. The conditions under which frost occurs are high
barometric pressure, temperature below 40°, low humidity, calm air,
and no clouds.
MERIDIAN, MISS.
Easterly winds and falling barometer precede rain six to twenty -
four hours in spring. In summer southeast winds and falling barom-
eter precede general rains five to ten hours, and local rains come on
the turn of the barometer from falling to rising. In autumn rain is
preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by northeast winds and falling
barometer. In winter the barometer usually falls five to fifteen hours,
with northeast to southeast winds, before precipitation begins, and
sometimes light precipitation occurs after the barometer begins to
rise. In spring and summer the barometer generally falls to 30 or
below, and in autumn and winter to 30.05 or below, before precipita-
tion begins.
Precipitation is usually preceded by an increase in relative humidity
in spring and summer, and a decrease followed by an increase in rela-
tive humidity in autumn and winter. In summer an increase in the
amount of moisture in the air is a good indication of rain; in spring
and aufemm it is an indication of rain only during cloudy conditions;
in winter it is an occasional but not a good indication of rain.
The upper clouds, especially the cirro-cumulus, are forerunners of
rain in all seasons. In spring and autumn cirrus or cirro-stratus
clouds moving from the southwest appear about twenty hours before
rain, and in summer and winter these clouds appear, moving from the
west, six to twenty-four hours before precipitation begins. Rain
seldom fails to follow well-defined cirro-cumulus clouds at any season
of the year.
The warm winds of spring are southerly, of summer westerly and
northwesterly and occasionally southwesterly, of autumn southwest-
erly, and of winter southerly and southwesterly. The cold winds of
all seasons are northwesterly, inclining in winter toward northerly.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from February 15 to
May 1 5 and from September 15 to November 10. Heavy frost occurs
more readily in the spring than in the autumn, owing possibly to the
temperature of the soil and plants; conditions that wilt produce a
heavy frost in spring will not result in as heavy a frost in autumn.
108
Frost generally occurs on the second or third night of a cold spell,
with light wind, clear weather, humidity low on the preceding day,
and moderately high and nearly stationary barometer.
MILWAUKEE, WIS.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
winds that set in from -the east quadrants with falling barometer, and
the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation
begins. When storms advance from the west or northwest, the wind
sets in from the southeast quadrant, and during the warmer months
rain generally begins about the turn of the barometer from falling to
rising. When storms advance from the south or southwest, the wind
sets in from the northeast quadrant and precipitation usually begins
while the barometer is falling. During the colder months snow often
begins closely following the shift of wind to the northeast quadrant
and with high but falling barometer. The strength of a storm depends
on the rate and amount of the fall in the barometer.
The relative humidity usually increases before precipitation, but
owing to the fact that the "rain winds" blow from over the lake,
it is not possible to distinguish between local and general humidity
conditions as indicators of precipitation. The humidity must, in
each instance, be considered in connection with other indications.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the southwest in spring
and winter and from the west in summer and autumn. The appear-
ance of these clouds is often followed within twelve to twentjr-four
hours by precipitation.
The highest wind velocities of summer usually come with* wind
shifting from southerly to westerly and on the turn in the barometer
from falling to rising. Occasionally, however, high velocities occur
in summer with easterly winds and falling barometer. The highest
velocities of the colder months generally come with southeast to
northeast winds and falling barometer, which attend the approach
of storms from the lower Missouri Valley or the Southwest. High
velocities also occur during the colder months from the west and
northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind comes
from south to southwest in spring and autumn, from points between
south and west in summer, and from northeast to southeast in winter.
The cold winds of earl}7 spring are from west to north points, of late
spring and summer from points between southeast and northeast, and
of late autumn and winter from west, northwest, and north.
Fruit is likely to be damaged by frost during the blooming
period, which extends from April 15 to June 1. The cranberry crop
is subject to damage by frost in the autumn.
109
The general conditions that usually precede the occurrence of heavy
frost are: Barometer rising above the normal, temperature falling to
400 or below, light westerly winds, and a clear sky.
MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.
Iii spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded by south-
east to northeast winds and falling barometer, and precipitation usually
begins when the barometer has fallen to 29.90 or below. In summer
rain generally begins with the shift of wind to westerly and near the
turn of the barometer from falling to rising. During the colder
months light precipitation frequently continues after the barometer
begins to rise and the wind has shifted to points between west and
northwest.
No note has been made at this station of either the humidity of
the air or clouds, nor of their observed relation to precipitation. (See
St. Paul report.)
Very little injury is caused by frost before May 15. Frost as late
as June 5 affects ^barley, oats, corn, vegetables, and fruit to some
extent. Frost usually occurs under the crest of a high-pressure area,
with low temperature, low humidity, clear weather, and nearly calm
air, following a northwest wind.
MOBILE, ALA.
In spring and winter rain is preceded twenty-four to forty-eight
hours by southerly winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
falls to 30 or below before rain begins. In summer and autumn rain
is preceded twenty-four to thirty-six hours by south to southeast
winds, and rain usually begins after the turn in the barometer from
falling to rising.
In spring and winter high winds generally come from the northwest
with rising barometer; in summer the high winds are usually easterly
and occur in connection with thunderstorms; the high winds of autumn
are more often from the southeast with falling barometer.
An increase in relative humidity is noted two to three days before
rain, except in the case of summer thunderstorms, when the increase
is shown about eight hours before rain begins.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds, moving from the west in spring and
winter, from the southwest in autumn, and with no apparent direction
of movement in summer, often precede precipitation twenty-four to
forty -eight hours.
The warm winds of spring and winter are from southerly directions,
and in summer and early autumn periods of unusually high tempera-
ture are attended by northerly winds. The cold winds of winter come
from north to northwest.
110
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from September to
April, inclusive. As the climate of this district permits the produc-
tion of crops of some description, in all seasons, the occurrence of frost
will, at any time, cause damage. The conditions favorable for frost
are high barometric pressure, temperature as observed at station 40°
or below, light wind, and clear weather.
. MONTGOMERY, ALA.
In spring and summer precipitation is usually preceded by southeast
winds about thirty hours, and in autumn and winter by easterly winds
from eighteen to twenty-four hours. In all seasons the barometer
generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins, although in
summer and autumn precipitation nia}7 begin with rises in the barom-
eter which come from high barometer areas backing in or spreading
from the east. This is most noticeable in winter. A barometric
depression over southern Texas or Louisiana is an almost positive
indication of rain in this section within twelve to eighteen hours. If
the low area moves eastward along the Gulf coast the rains are light
to moderate, but continue longer; if the low area moves northeastward
the rainfall is heavy, but is quickly followed by clearing weather.
The relative humidity usually increases about twenty-four hours
preceding rain, particularly in spring and winter, and the more marked
the increase the greater is the likelihood of rain.
Cirrus clouds usually appear in patches in the western sky ten to
twenty four hours before rain, and settle to cirro-stratus as rain
approaches. In autumn, winter, and spring a bank of cirro-stratus
clouds in the southwestern sky is almost sure to be followed by rain
within twelve hours. In summer low cumulus clouds moving from
the south in the morning are quite often followed by showers in the
afternoon.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
the south in spring, from northwest to north in summer, and from
southeast to southwest in autumn and winter. During periods of
unusually cold weather the winds are from the northeast to north in
spring, from northeast to east in summer, from northwest to northeast
in autumn, and from west to north in winter.
During March, April, and May fruit and early vegetables are sub-
ject to damage by frost. Cotton is likely to be damaged by frost
during the latter part of April and in May and also in September and
October. Sugar cane is in a condition to be damaged by frost in
September and October. The general conditions that precede heavy
frost are increasing barometric pressure, rather low humidity, light
winds, mostly from west to north, and an absence of lower clouds.
Ill
MOORHEAD, MINN.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded about twelve hours b}' falling
barometer and southeast winds, and the barometer falls to 30 or below
in spring and winter, and to 29.90 or below in summer and autumn,
before precipitation begins.
There is usually an increase in relative humidity several hours
before precipitation begins.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds are usually observed moving from
the west six to twelve hours before precipitation begins.
The warm winds of all seasons are from the southeast and the cold
winds from the northwest.
From August 15 to September 30 frost will damage wheat, flax, and
other grain that is not ripe.
Damaging frost is likely to occur when pressure above 30, temper-
ature about freezing, relative humidit}7 70 to 90 per cent, southeast
winds, and partly cloudy or clear weather are indicated.
NANTTTCKET, MASS.
Precipitation is generally preceded b}^ falling barometer and south-
erlv winds, and begins twelve to twenty-four hours after the barome-
ter begins to fall, and after it reaches 29.90 or below in spring, summer,
and autumn, and 30 or below in winter. In the case of storms that
advance from the southern quadrants, however, precipitation begins
soon after the wind shifts to east or northeast, and closely following
the turn in the barometer from rising to falling.
There is usually an increase in relative humidity twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation. The prevalence of fog in spring,
summer, and autumn also has the effect of causing high humidity.
In the spring cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the north
and northwest often precede precipitation twelve to twenty-four
hours; in summer and autumn alto-stratus clouds moving from south-
west, west, or northwest precede precipitation twelve to twenty-
four hours; in winter upper clouds moving from the northwest quickly
change to stratus preceding precipitation.
High winds generally come from the southerly with falling barom-
eter, from the northwest with rising barometer, and from the north-
east with either rising or falling barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons are from the southwest, and the cold
winds from northeast in spring, summer and autumn, and from north-
west in winter.
Damage may be caused by frost from May 1 to July 1, and during
September. Frost will occur with high barometer, temperature about
40°, relative humidity 54 to 83 per cent, fresh northeast winds during
the early evening that flatten out during the night with a cloudless sky.
112
NASHVILLE, TENN.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
southerly winds and falling barometer; in cases where storms advance
from the Gulf of Mexico or the Rio Grande valley precipitation is
preceded by easterly winds. During the colder months the barome-
ter falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins; in summer
showers come about the time of the turn in the barometer from falling
to rising.
There is generally an increase in relative humidity twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation, except in connection with summer
showers when the increase in air moisture is at times not appreciable
until after rain begins.
Beyond the fact that cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the
west no notes have been made at this station regarding the relation
between clouds and precipitation.
Periods of abnormally high temperature are associated with south
to southeast winds, and periods of abnormally low temperature with
north to northwest winds, except in summer, when the cooler winds
are from east to northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 1 to May
1, and from about the middle to the last of December. Heavy frost
is usually preceded by high barometric pressure, unseasonably low
temperature, moderate humidity, light winds, and clear weather.
NEAH BAY, WASH.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded for a short period by south-
erly winds. During the colder months steady rain sets in with falling
barometer, and showers occur with rising barometer. In summer
and until late in the autumn precipitation occurs just after the turn
in the barometer from falling to rising. Rain begins with the barom-
eter at various heights, but more often after it has fallen to 29.90
inches or below.
Owing to the moisture of the climate in this section no definite
increase or decrease of atmospheric moisture can be determined for
any considerable period preceding precipitation.
Cirro-cumulus clouds are good indicators of rain, and they appear
moving from the west a few hours before precipitation in winter and
about twelve hours before in summer.
High winds occur from the southwest to west with rising barometer.
The warm winds of spring and winter are from the south, of spring
from the east, and of autumn from the east and south. The cold
winds of spring are from west and northwest, of summer from west
and southwest, of autumn and winter from northwest and northeast.
No fruit or other crops are raised in the vicinity of Neah Bay.
113
NEW HAVEN, CONN.
Precipitation is usually preceded about twelve hours by east to south-
east winds and falling- barometer, except in summer, when showers
occur with the shift of wind from southerly to southwest, and on the
turn of the barometer from falling to rising. In the case of storms
that advance from the south or southwest east to northeast winds pre-
cede precipitation and rain or snow begins shortly after the wind
shifts to easterly quarters and the barometer begins to fall. Except
in the case of storms that come from the south or southwest precipita-
tion generally begins when the barometer has fallen to 29.90 or below
in spring, summer, and autumn, and to 30 or below in winter.
On account of the humid condition of the atmosphere at this station,
and the prevalence of light fogs, no relation has been detected between
the relative humidity and the approach of rain. The winds which
precede precipitation, coming from southerly and easterly, are, how-
ever, the moist winds, and although an increase of humidity precedes
rain, it may not in itself indicate approaching rain.
In spring, summer, and autumn cirro-stratus clouds coming from the
west or southwest often precede rain about thirty-six hours. In win-
ter the relation is not so definite and the interval between the appear-
ance of clouds of this type is shorter. During the colder months cirro-
stratus clouds more often come from the southwest, and during the
warmer months from the west.
The high winds of spring, summer, and autumn are from southeast
and northeast with falling barometer, and of winter from southeast or
northeast with falling and from northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the south in spring, and from southwest in summer, autumn, and win-
ter. The cold winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from north-
west to north, and of summer from the southeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 15 to June
1, and from September 1 to October 15. Heavy frost is generally
preceded by rising barometer, falling temperature, high relative
humidity, light northwesterly winds, and few if any clouds.
NEW ORLEANS, LA.
In spring, autumn, and winter southeast or northeast winds set in
about twelve hours before precipitation, and in summer southeast
winds precede rain about four hours. As a rule the barometer falls
when winds from these directions prevail, but, at times, it rises when
northeast winds that precede rain occur in the winter. In all seasons
the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation
begins.
1455— No. 33—03 8
114
In all seasons of the year a steady increase in relative humidity for
twenty-four hours is, as a rule, followed by rain.
In spring- there are no clouds that specially indicate rain. In sum-
mer cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the southwest are
nearly always followed by rain in about thirty-six hours. In autumn
cirrus or cirro-stratus 'clouds moving from points between southwest
and north are nearly always followed by rain within thirty-six hours.
In winter cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west precede
precipitation for the period named.
High winds occur with falling barometer and south to east winds,
and with rising barometer and northeast to northwest winds.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
south and southeast in spring, from southeast, south, and southwest
in summer, from south, southeast, or east in autumn and winter.
During periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is from
northwest, north, or northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from October 15 to
April 15. Sugar cane is most likely to suffer damage from frost and
cold from November 1 to January 15. The general conditions which
precede frost are rising barometer, temperature 36° to 40°, humidity
low, wind light from northwest to northeast, and few clouds or clear
weather
NEW YORK, N. Y.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded twelve to
twenty-four hours by south to southeast winds, and in summer twenty-
four to forty -eight hours by southerly winds. In spring and autumn
the barometer usually falls to 29.90 or below and in winter to 30 or
below before precipitation begins. In summer showers generally
begin about the turn of the barometer from falling to rising. In the
case of storms that come from the south or southwest, however, pre-
cipitation is preceded by east to northeast winds, and rain or snow
begins closely following the shift of wind to these quarters and the
turn in the barometer from rising to falling.
As a rule there is an increase in relative humidity twelve to twenty -
four hours before precipitation, and in spring, autumn, and winter
rain or snow may be expected when the atmosphere is becoming highty
charged with moisture.
Generally speaking, the formation of cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds
indicates the coming of rain or snow. No definite interval has been
observed between the appearance of these clouds and the beginning of
precipitation, but it probably varies from eighteen to thirty-six hours.
In the spring and winter cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds come from
the west, in summer from the southwest, and in autumn from the west
and southwest. Precipitation is indicated in spring by the formation
of low clouds, without a very pronounced movement, but usually from
115
easterly quadrants, in summer by the rapid formation of thunder
clouds, with shifting and increasing winds, in autumn by low cloud
formations moving from easterly quadrants, and in winter by high
cloud formation, followed by heavy low clouds and easterly winds.
In all seasons the highest winds generally come from the northwest,
with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the south in spring and winter, and from the southwest in summer and
autumn. During periods of abnormally low temperature the wind is
from the northwest in spring, autumn, and winter, and from north-
west, north, or northeast in summer.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in this section from
April 1 to May 20. Heavy frost is preceded by high and nearly sta-
tionary barometer, temperature below 44°, relative humidity about
normal, gentle, or light winds, and an absence of clouds, or, when
existing, cirrus clouds.
NORFOLK, VA.
Precipitation is preceded by southerly and easterly winds. South-
erly winds precede precipitation, with falling barometer, twelve to
twenty -four hours. Precipitation closely follows the shift of wind to
east and northeast during the colder months, and precipitation begins
during those months, and with east to northeast winds, about the time
of the turn of the barometer from rising to falling. During the sum-
mer months rain does not necessarily attend a shift of wind to easterly
quadrants except in cases where storms are advancing from the south
or southwest. In all seasons the barometer usually falls to 30 or below
before precipitation begins, except in the case of storms from the
south or southwest, when, as before stated, precipitation closely fol-
lows the shift of wind to east or northeast, irrespective of the height
of the barometer.
During the colder months an increase in relative humidity is a good
indication of precipitation, and the increase precedes the beginning of
precipitation but a few hours.
Upper clouds moving from the west often precede precipitation
twelve to thirty-six hours. In spring cirrus clouds are more often
observed; in summer cumulus appear five to ten hours before rain,
while in autumn and winter cirro-stratus clouds precede rain twenty-
four to thirty-six hours.
The high winds of this station come from southerly and easterly
with falling, and from southwest, west, and northwest, with rising
barometer.
The warm winds of spring and autumn are from south and south-
west; of summer from southwest, west, and northwest, and of winter
from the south. The cold winds of spring are from northwest, north,
northeast, and east; of summer from north, northeast, and east; of
116
autumn from northwest and north, and of winter from west, north-
west, and north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops after April 1 and
before October 15. Heavy frost is preceded by normal or high baro-
metric pressure, temperature below 4:0°, relative humidity 70 to 85
per cent, wind light from northwest or north, and clearing or clear
weather.
NORTH PL.ATTE, NEBB.
In spring and winter precipitation is preceded about twelve hours
by northeast winds and falling barometer and begins about the time
the barometer is on the turn from falling to rising. In autumn east-
erly winds precede precipitation about twelve hours, and in summer
rain usually begins with northwest winds and on the turn of the
barometer from falling to rising. A rapid fall in the barometer is
more often followed by rain or snow than a slow fall. In spring and
summer the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below and in
autumn and winter to 30 or below before precipitation begins.
While an increase in relative humidity frequently indicates precipi-
tation, especially during the colder months, it can not be relied upon
to any great extent. This increase is shown in spring, autumn, and
winter seven to twelve hours before, and in summer about one hour
before, precipitation.
In spring, autumn, and winter cirro-stratus clouds moving from the
west sometimes appear twenty-four hours in advance of precipitation,
and in summer strato-cumulus at times appear about twelve hours
before rain begins. The cloud indications of precipitation are, how-
ever, slight for any considerable period before the beginning of rain
or snow.
High winds come from south to southeast with falling and from
northwest with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
the south in summer and autumn and from the southwest in spring
and winter. During periods of abnormally low temperature the wind
is from the north in spring and summer, from the west in autumn,
and from the northwest in winter.
Frost is likely to damage vegetation during the spring and autumn
months. Heavy frost is usually preceded by high barometeric pres-
sure, temperature near the freezing point, high relative humidity, light
westerly winds, and either clear weather or a few cumulus clouds.
OKLAHOMA, OKLA.
Precipitation is preceded twelve to forty-eight hours by south to
southeast winds and falling barometer, and begins about the time the
barometer falls to 29.90 or below and is near the turn from falling to
117
rising. In winter precipitation often begins when the barometer has
fallen to about 30 and after it has begun to rise and the wind has
shifted from southerly to northerly.
No definite relation has been observed between atmospheric moisture
and precipitation. At times the relative humidity decreases for several
days in advance of rain and then increases immediately before precipi-
tation begins.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are rarely observed, but at times
these clouds are noted moving from the northwest one to two days in
advance of precipitation.
High southerly winds occur with falling, and high northerly winds
with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
the south. The cold winds of spring, autumn, and winter are from
the north, and of summer from the southeast.
Frost is likely to damage crops in March, April, May, September,
and the first half of October.
Frost generally occurs with rising or high and stationary barometer,
temperature falling to 40° or below, average relative humidity, clear
weather, or but few clouds, and light northerly winds.
OMAHA, NEBB.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to thirty-six hours by south-
east winds and falling barometer, and the barometer falls to 29.90 or
below in the warmer months and to 30 or below in the colder months
before precipitation begins. In summer and during the month of
September rain generally begins after the turn in the barometer from
.falling to rising.
While some definite relation between precipitation and relative
humidit^v may exist, this relation is not shown by the tabulation of 8
a. m. and 8 p. m. observations. It appears, however, that there is an
increase in humidity before precipitation during the colder months and
a decrease during the warmer months.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds, moving from the west in spring and
winter and from the southwest in summer and autumn, often appear
thirty to forty hours before precipitation.
The warm winds of spring, summer, and autumn are from southeast
to southwest, and of winter from south to southwest. The cold winds
of all seasons are from northwest to north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 1 to May
15, and from August 20 to October 1.
Damaging frost occurs about the time of the maximum of waves of
high barometric pressure, with temperature a little below 40°, decreas-
ing relative humidity, few if any clouds, and light winds from westerly
or northerly.
118
OSWEGO, N. Y.
South to southeast winds generally precede precipitation about
twenty-four hours, and the barometer falls to 29.90 or below in spring
and summer, and to 30 or below in autumn and winter before preci-
pitation begins. In the case of storms that advance from the south-
west, however, the wind shifts to northeast and precipitation begins,
closely following this shift of wind and shortly after the barometer
begins to fall.
During all seasons of the year there is a decrease of relative humidity
twelve to twenty-four hours before precipitation, followed by an increase
just preceding the beginning of precipitation. Unusual dryness of the
atmosphere has been considered a good indication of rain within the
next twenty-four hours.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds, moving from the west, are generally
followed by precipitation within twenty-four to forty-eight hours,
more especially during the colder months.
High winds occur from the south and southeast with falling, and
from the west and northwest with rising barometer.
South winds attend periods of abnormally high temperature. The
cold winds of spring and winter come from the northwest, and of sum-
mer and early autumn from the southeast.
The critical period of damage by frost in the spring for strawberries
and other fruits is from May 15 to about June 10. In the autumn frost
will cause damage to tomatoes, grapes, corn, and late potatoes from
September 15 to about October 1. In a belt about 4 miles wide, extending
along the lake, no damage has been caused by frost in several years;
and cold northwest to northeast winds occurring in blossom time are
much more feared than frost.
In spring and autumn frost is likely to occur with rising barometer,
temperature falling to or below 40°, increasing relative humidity,
light southwest to west winds, and few if any clouds.
PALESTINE, TEX.
In spring and summer rain is preceded twelve to forty-eight hours
by southerly winds and falling barometer, and in autumn and winter
precipitation is preceded to twelve twenty-four hours b}r southeast to
northeast winds and falling barometer. In spring, summer, and early
autumn rain usually begins when the barometer has fallen to 29.90, or
below, and is on the turn from falling to rising. In late autumn and
winter precipitation generally begins when the barometer has fallen to
30 or below and after the turn in the barometer from falling to rising.
A sudden rise of a tenth of an inch in the barometer is more likely
to precede a shower than is a sudden fall in the barometer. The
barometer is often stationary after falling, just preceding, and during
119
heavy rain. A falling barometer at night, and a rising barometer
from a low, precedes rain. Clearing weather occurs when the barome-
ter is well on the turn from a low reading, especially if the wind shifts
to northwest.
There is generally an increase in the relative humidity of the air
during all seasons twelve to twenty-four hours in advance of precipi-
tation. The increase is, however, most marked immediately before
rain begins. It often happens that low humidity is followed by rain
within twelve to twenty-four hours. The moisture of the air, in the
absence of decreasing temperature, does not operate to any great extent
as a sign of approaching rain.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west. The records
show that it is rather the exception for cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds
to have any prognostic value as to the time rain is likely to follow.
It has been noted, however, that when rain follows the first appearance
of cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds it occurs within twenty-four to thirty-
six hours. This applies to all seasons of the year. Alto-stratus clouds
moving from the west are an infallible sign of rain; stratus on the
eastern horizon in the early morning presage rain; lower clouds mov-
ing from south or southeast, with northerly winds, bring rain. In
summer dense cumulus in the northwest usually presage rain.
High south to southeast winds occur with falling and high west to
northwest winds with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
the south. In spring and winter cold winds come from the northwest
and in summer and autumn from the northeast.
Serious damage would result from heavy frost occurring between
March 15 and December 1. April and October frosts are much
dreaded.
In all seasons the barometer and temperature are above the normal
twenty-four to thirty-six hours preceding frost, and frost usually
occurs on the second day of falling temperature, with high humidity
forty-eight hours preceding and a slight decrease in humidity twenty-
four hours preceding its occurrence. Fresh north to northwest winds
in spring, fresh north in autumn, and fresh northeast in spring and
winter usually precede frost, with as a rule clear skies.
PABKEBSBUBG, W. VA.
South to east winds and falling barometer usually precede precipi-
tation twelve to twenty-four hours, and the barometer generally falls
to 29.90, or below in spring and winter, and to 30 or below in summer
and autumn before precipitation begins.
A decrease, followed by an increase, in relative humidity usually
precedes precipitation.
120
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds from the west presage rain or snow
within twelve to twenty-four hours.
The warm winds of all seasons are from the south, and the cold
winds from west, northwest, and north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 15 to May
30, and from September 30 to October 5.
The conditions that are favorable to the occurrence of frost are an
area of high pressure overspreading the Ohio Valley, decreasing tem-
perature and humidity, westerly winds, and clear weather or alto-
cumulus clouds.
PENSACOLA, FLA.
Precipitation is preceded by southeast to northeast winds and falling
barometer, and the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before
precipitation begins. For rainstorms the barometer falls slowly for
two or three days and then more rapidly, and rain begins several
hours before the lowest point is reached and ends after the barometer
has begun to rise. In summer there are showers with slowty falling
barometer until shortly before the lowest barometer is reached, when
there is a heavier fall of rain. In fall and winter rain often begins
shortly after the barometer begins to fall.
Except in summer there is an increase in relative humidity noted at
the morning observation of days on which rain falls. The humidity
at that hour does not in itself indicate rain, but. when coupled with
temperature above the normal and rain winds it does. A warm, moist
atmosphere is often present before fog.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds have been generally observed moving
from the northwest, and at times have preceded rainstorms about
twenty-four hours. Cirro-stratus merging into alto-stratus, strato-
cumulus, and stratus presage rain. Cirrus and cirro-stratus have been
observed without rain, but when these clouds merge into clouds of
lower formation rain usually follows.
The highest winds of this station generally come from the southwest
with falling barometer and near the turn from falling to rising barom-
eter.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds are from
southeast to southwest in spring and winter, from northwest to north-
east in summer, and from north to east in autumn. The cold winds
of spring and winter are from the northwest to northeast, of summer
from northeast to southeast, and of autumn from north to northeast.
No fruit is raised in this vicinity, and the few vegetables that are
grown are subject to damage by frost during all seasons of the year.
The general conditions that precede heavy frost are rising or high
barometer, falling or low and stationary temperature, low relative
humidity, few if any clouds, and light northwest wind.
121
PHILADELPHIA, PA.
Precipitation is generally preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
south to east winds and falling barometer, and the barometer usually
falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins. In the case of storms
that advance from the south and southwest, however, precipitation
begins closely following the shift of the wind to east or northeast, and
often when the barometer is on the turn from rising to falling; this is
more particularly true with regard to south and southwest storms of
the colder months.
In spring, autumn, and winter there is an increase in relative humid-
ity to 80 per cent or over six to twelve hours before precipitation
begins, and in summer there is an increase to 70 per cent or over one
to six hours before rain.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west are f requently
observed twelve to twenty -four hours before precipitation. First
comes the cirrus then cirro-stratus, followed by haze or stratus, and
sometimes cirro-cumulus.
High northwest winds occur with rising barometer in spring, autumn,
and winter, and high northeast winds with falling barometer. In sum-
mer high winds usually come from the south and southwest about the
time of the turn in the barometer from falling to rising.
The warmer winds of all seasons come from the southwest. During
the warmer months the cool winds come from the northeast, and
during the colder months the cold winds come from the northwest.
Frost is likely to damage fruit and other crops from April 10 to
May 10, and before October 15.
The conditions that favor the occurrence of heavy frost are high and
increasing barometric pressure, temperature 40° and falling, relative
humidity normal or below, cumulus clouds followed by clearing, and
light northerly or westerly winds.
PHOENIX, ARIZ.
In spring and winter southeast to southwest winds and falling
barometer precede precipitation for periods that average about twenty -
four hours, and the barometer falls to about 29.90 or below before
precipitation begins. From late in the spring until the beginning of
winter the prevailing winds are from the easterly, and preceding rain
the wind shifts to northerly or northwesterly, with falling barometer.
While there is usually an increase in relative humidity preceding
rain, rain sometimes occurs when the surface air shows a decreasing
amount of moisture.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west and are fore-
runners of rain only to a limited extent.
122
High winds occur with a falling barometer from the southwest in
spring, from east and southeast in summer, from southeast in autumn,
and from the west in winter.
The cold winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from the west
and northwest.
Frost is likely to do damage in December, when citrus fruits are
still on the trees, and in February and March, when citrus trees and
almond trees are budding and blooming.
The conditions favorable for frost are low followed by rising
barometer, temperature falling to or below 40°, few if any clouds, and
southwest or west veering to light northwest or north winds.
PIERRE, S. DAK.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours
by east to south winds and falling barometer, and precipitation begins
after the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In spring,
summer, and autumn the barometer falls to 29.90 or below and in
winter to 30 or below before precipitation begins.
At times, and more especially during the colder months, there is an
increase in relative humidity twelve to twenty -four hours before pre-
cipitation; as a rule, however, the increase is not marked at the hours
of regular observation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west and northwest
in spring and winter, from west and southwest in summer, and from
west in the autumn, and the period of their appearance before precipi-
tation varies from six to seventy-two hours. In spring if these
clouds merge into alto-stratus rain falls within twelve hours. In sum-
mer if they increase in density during the heat of the da}' they are at
times followed by thunderstorms. In autumn the conditions are not
well marked. In winter increasing alto-stratus clouds are followed by
snow, often in four to six hours, but more frequently in six to twelve
hours. Cirro-stratus to alto-stratus moving with moderate speed from
a westerly direction, strato-cumulus from the same direction as the
surface wind that is blowing brisk from southeast or east and con-
tinuing twenty-four to seventy-two hours presage rain. This type is
most prominent in spring, summer, and fall. Alto-cumulus that fol-
low alto-stratus are often followed by rain in six to twelve hours, and
constitutes the best type for the year round. Alto-stratus in winter
moving from the southwest at moderate speed usually presage rain or
snow.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind blows
from southeast and south in spring and summer, and from southeast to
southwest in autumn and winter. The cold winds of all seasons are
northerly winds.
123
Frost is likely to cause damage from the middle of April to the first
week in June, and from the last of August to the first week in Octo-
ber. In spring heavy frost will occur with high barometric pressure,
temperature 42° to 54° and falling, low humidity, northerly winds
becoming light and variable, and alto-stratus or strato-cumulus clouds
clearing away about sunset. In the late fall and winter months the
humidity is generally higher before frost, and frost often fails to
occur when other conditions are favorable for its occurrence, owing
to low humidity, especially in late fall, winter, and early spring.
PITTSBTTRG, PA.
Precipitation is usually preceded by southeast to northeast winds
and falling barometer for periods of ten to twenty-four hours, and
the barometer generally falls to 29.95 or below in spring and autumn
and to 29.90 or below in summer and winter before precipitation
begins. In the case of storms that advance from the south and
southwest, however, precipitation often begins closely following the
shift of wind to the northeast and the turn in the barometer from
rising to falling.
A low percentage of relative humidity generally indicates fair
weather for the next twent}r-four hours. In spring and summer
rapidly increasing relative humidity indicates approaching thunder-
storms. In autumn and winter the relative humidity is abnormally
low twenty-four hours before precipitation and then begins to increase.
Whem abnormally low at 8 a. m. a shower generally occurs before
night.
Nothing satisfactory can be given regarding cloud observations on
account of the smoky conditions that prevail.
The high winds of all seasons usually come from the southwest with
falling and from the west with rising barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind comes
from the south in spring and winter, from the south and southwest in
summer, and from the southeast in autumn. The cold winds of all
seasons come from northwest to north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in May and September.
The conditions that favor the occurrence of frost are rising and
high barometer, temperature falling to 40° or below, a decrease of
about 10 per cent in relative humidity eight to twelve hours preceding
frost, light winds and clear weather.
POCATELLO, IDAHO.
In spring and autumn precipitation is preceded about twelve hours
by south to west wind and falling barometer, in summer about six
hours by south winds, and in winter snow is preceded twelve to
124
twenty-four hours b}T southwest winds. In all seasons the barometer
falls to about 29.80 or below and begins to rise before precipitation
begins.
In spring and autumn there is a slight increase in relative humidity
six to twelve hours before precipitation, and in winter an increase
occurs twelve to twenty-four hours before precipitation. In summer
there is an apparent decrease in relative humidity about twelve hours
before rain.
Precipitation is generally preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
the appearance of upper clouds. Alto-stratus appears, however, to
have been the kind of clouds most frequently noted at this station in
connection with precipitation.
The high winds of this station come with rising barometer and when
they, shift from southerly to westerly.
The warm winds of spring and winter come from the south, of
summer from south to southeast, and of autumn from the southeast.
The cold winds of spring and winter come from the northwest, of
summer from the west, and of autumn from the north.
Frost is most likely to cause damage to vegetation during the first
ten days of April.
The conditions that favor the occurrence of frost are, high or rising
barometer, clear weather, light winds, with low humidity in spring
and high humidity in autumn.
PORT CRESCENT, WASH.
Precipitation is preceded three to six hours by falling barometer
and southeast winds, and the barometer usually falls to about 29.90
or below before precipitation begins. In summer rain begins about
the time of the turn in the barometer from falling to rising.
There is generally an increase in relative humidity to about 96 per
cent, a few hours before precipitation begins except in summer, when
no decided humidity changes have been noted in connection with
approaching rain.
Cirro-stratus and cirrus clouds move from the west, but no relation
between these or other clouds and rain has been noted at this station.
The high winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from the
southerly with falling barometer, and the high winds of summer from
westerly with rising barometer.
The warm winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from the
southeast, and of summer from the east. The cold winds of summer
come from the west, and of other seasons from the northeast.
No damage results from frost at this station.
125
PORTLAND, ME.
Precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by southeast
to northeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer usually
falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins. In the case of
storms that advance northeastward from the south Atlantic coast pre-
cipitation begins closely following the shift of wind to northeast and
the turn in the barometer from rising to falling.
There is generally an increase in relative humidity two to six hours
before precipitation begins.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west frequently
precede precipitation twelve to eighteen hours.
The highest winds of all seasons usually come from southeast to
northeast with falling barometer.
The warm winds of spring and autumn come from the southwest
and west, of summer from the west, and of winter from the south.
The cold winds of spring and winter come from the northwest, of
summer from east and south, and of autumn from west and northwest.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in April and October.
The conditions that favor frost are, rising and high barometer, tem-
perature falling below 40°, low relative humidity, light west to north-
west winds, and few if any clouds.
PORTLAND, OREG.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded by southeast winds and fall-
ing barometer. In spring the rain winds set in about fourteen hours,
in summer about twelve hours, and in autumn and winter about
twenty hours before precipitation begins. In spring, summer, and
autumn the barometer usually falls to 29.95 or below and in winter
to 30 or below before precipitation begins. Wind shifting from
northwest to northeast and then to southeast is a good indication of
rain at any season of the year. Wind shifting to northwest is a sign
of clearing weather.
The relative humidity usually increases fifteen to twenty-four hours
before precipitation begins. An increase of 25 to 50 per cent in rel-
ative humidity is a fair indication of rain in spring, summer, and fall.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are generally followed by rain in
spring, autumn, and winter, but are not a good indication of rain in
summer. Cirro-cumulus clouds are an almost sure sign of rain in
autumn, spring, and winter, but are only a fair indication in summer.
Cirro-stratus and cirrus clouds move from the west in spring, sum-
mer, and winter, and from the northwest in autumn, and appear
thirty to thirty-six hours before rain begins.
126
The highest wind velocities occur with southerly winds and falling
barometer.
The warm winds of spring, summer, and autumn come from the
northwest, and of winter from the south. The cold winds of spring and
summer come from southeast, south, and southwest, and of autumn
and winter from southeast to northeast.
Frost is most likely, to damage fruit during the month of April,
when prunes, peaches, cherries, and pears are in bloom.
Frost is generally preceded by a rather high or rising barometer,
temperature slightly higher than usual, relative humidity 60 to 70 per
cent, light to brisk northwest to northeast winds, or light winds if
from east or southeast and clear weather.
PORT HURON, MICH.
Precipitation is generally preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
winds that shift to points between south and northeast and increase in
force with falling barometer, and the barometer usually falls to 29.80
or below before precipitation begins. During the colder months pre-
cipitation often begins soon after the wind goes to northeast and the
barometer begins to fall, and snow often continues some hours after
the wind shifts to west and northwest and the barometer begins to rise.
In all seasons the relative humidity begins to increase about twelve
hours before precipitation; at times, however, the relation between
relative humidity and rainfall is not marked.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds observed moving from a westerly
direction usually precede precipitation twelve to twenty-four hours,
and stratus clouds become more dense on the approach of rain, and in
the case of severe storms the movement of stratus clouds is rapid.
High south to northeast winds occur with falling, and high south-
west to north winds with rising barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons are from south to southwest, and the
cold winds from west to north.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops after May 1 and
before November 1.
The conditions that precede heavy frost are rising barometer, tem-
perature falling in the forties or lower on the day previous, relative
humidity normal or below, light winds, and clear or clearing skies.
PUEBLO, COLO.
Precipitation is preceded by northeast winds and falling barometer
six to thirty-six hours, and begins after the barometer has fallen to
about 29.90 or below in spring, 29.85 or below in summer, 29.95 or
below in autumn, and to 30.05 or below in winter, and after the turn
in the barometer from falling to rising. In summer, however, rain
sometimes begins before the turn in the barometer from falling to
rising. In summer, preceding rain which practically always occurs
127
with thunderstorms, the barometer falls under the influence of the
diurnal change; eliminating* this change the barometer has a slight
upward tendency before rain. During late autumn, winter, and early
spring cloudy and threatening weather begins only after the barom-
eter has fallen considerable, and precipitation occasionally begins
before the barometer has reached the lowest point, but usually not
until after a few hours after the rise begins. Precipitation of any
considerable duration occurs only when the barometer rises slowly,
or remains low and nearly stationary.
In spring, autumn, and winter there is sometimes an increase in
relative humidity six to twenty hours before precipitation. In sum-
mer neither an increase nor a decrease has been noted.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west are observed
almost daily. In the spring cumulus, strato -cumulus, and stratus
moving from northeast, east, or southeast are usually followed by
rain in a few hours. In winter alto-stratus clouds moving slowly from
a westerly direction precede precipitation more frequently than any
other cloud formation.
The high winds of this place come from northerly with rising
barometer.
The warm winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from south to
west points, and of summer from southerly. The cold winds of spring,
summer, and autumn come from northeast to east, and of winter from
north to east.
In the spring fruit buds are likely to be injured by frost after April
20, garden truck after May 1, tomatoes and melons after May 5, and
corn after May 10. In the fall, before October 1, crops are either
harvested or advanced beyond the stage- where injury from frost will
result. Melons and tomatoes continue to ripen until killed by frost,
and some years their season continues until October 15.
The conditions that are favorable for heavy frost are: Rising barom-
eter, temperature falling to below 40°, relative humidity increasing to
from 00 to 90 per cent, light winds, and clear or clearing weather.
Light precipitation during the day, followed by rising barometer and
clearing weather at night presents a most favorable condition for frost
formation both in spring and autumn.
RALEIGH, N. C.
Precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by winds
blowing from points between south and northeast, and at times in the
spring from southwest, and falling barometer, and the barometer
usually falls to 30, or below, before precipitation begins, except when
winds are from the northeast during the colder months, when it often
begins with higher barometer. In summer rain generally begins
about the turn in the barometer from falling to rising, and in other
seasons while the barometer is falling.
128
There is usually an increase in relative humidity twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation. In spring the change in relative
humidity has, however, a rather remote relation to rain; in summer
there is often a decided decrease about six hours before thunderstorms;
in autumn the increase is generally preceded by a marked decrease in
relative humidity; in winter the increase indicates rain, except when
due to fog.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds from the west are distinctly forerun-
ners of rain in the winter months, and appear twelve to twenty-four
hours before rain begins. During summer, however, cirrus clouds
often appear that are not followed by rain. If, during the warmer
months, cumulus clouds appear early in the day they are more likely
to be followed by thunderstorms than cumulus that appear in the
afternoon, but in the latter case, if thunderstorms appear, they will
be more violent.
The warmer winds of all seasons come from the southwest, and the
colder winds from northwest and north, and, in winter, also from the
northeast.
The high winds of all seasons come from the northwest with rising
barometer; in the spring and summer, however, the high wrinds set in
or begin from the southwest with falling barometer, and quickly shift
to northwest with rising barometer.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from March 15 to May
10, and during October.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by high or rising barometer, tem-
perature about 40° at 8 p. m. on the evening preceding frost, light
winds, and a clear sky.
RAPID CITY, S. DAK.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
southeast to northeast winds and falling barometer, and begins after
the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In spring and sum-
mer the barometer generally falls to 29.80 or below, in autumn to
29.90 or below, and in winter to 30 or below before precipitation
begins. As a rule, the barometer has fallen below the points indicated
and has been rising several hours before precipitation begins.
The; relative humidity decreases about twenty-four hours before rain
in all seasons of the year, and low relative humidity is a good indica-
tion of precipitation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west usually precede
rain or snow. There are no other special cloud characteristics of rain
that appear sufficiently in advance of precipitation to be jof value in
forecasting.
The warm winds of spring and summer come from the southwest, of
autumn from the south, and of winter from the south and southwest.
129
The cold winds of spring, summer, and autumn come from the north-
wot. and of winter from the north and northwest.
Frost is likely to cause damage from May 10 to September 20.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by rising barometer, temperature
falling to 40° or below, high relative humidity, light winds, and few
if any clouds.
BED BLUFF, CAL.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is usually preceded
twenty-four to thirty-six hours by southeast winds and falling barom-
eter, and the barometer generally falls to 29.80 or below before pre-
cipitation begins. In summer no rain falls. As the movement of the
barometer at this station depends upon the progress of areas of high
and low barometric pressure eastward from the Pacific Ocean, and as
all general rains in California are associated with storms that advance
from i he ocean the barometer falls preceding rain and rises preceding
clearing weather. If the rain is to be of long duration the barometer
falls slowly, if severe and of short duration the barometer falls
rapidly.
The relative humidity increases twenty-four to thirty-six hours
before precipitation to over 50 per cent in spring, to over 40 per cent
in autumn, and to over 80 per cen-t in winter.
In spring and autumn cirrus clouds moving rapidly from the westerly
precede rain twenty-f our to thirty-six hours. In winter the interval
between the appearance of upper clouds moving from a westerly direc-
tion and the beginning of rain is shorter, but the indication is not so
often fulfilled.
The high winds usually come from the southeast with falling barom-
eter, and also from the north with rising barometer.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops from, the middle
of February to the middle of April.
Heavy frost occurs in the spring following the passage of a storm,
with rising barometer, falling temperature, falling dew-point, and
winds changing from southerly to westerly. These conditions are
preceded by hail or sleet along the foothills. In autumn frost occurs
rarely, and is usually preceded by a thunderstorm. In winter frost is
preceded by rising barometer, low humidity, and clearing weather.
Severe winter frosts are due to an outflow of air from a cold wave over
the plateau region.
RICHMOND, VA.
Winds generally set in from the east quadrants, with falling barom-
eter, twenty-f our to thirty-five hours preceding precipitation, and the
barometer usually falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins,
except in the case of storms that advance from the south or southwest
1455— No. 33—03 9
130
during the colder months, when precipitation begins closely following
the turn in the barometer from rising to falling. In summer showers
occur on the turn of the barometer from falling to rising.
There is usually an increase in relative humidity for a period of
twelve to twenty-four hours before precipitation in all seasons of the
37ear, the period of increase being longer during the colder months.
Cirrus or cirro-stratus clouds moving from a westerly direction
often appear twenty-four hours before precipitation. A fine veil of
cirrus, nearly approaching the cirro-stratus, drawn out in parallel
threads or wisps like the teeth of a comb, presage precipitation. This
formation is rare and has been observed only in spring, late autumn,
and winter months.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is gener-
ally from the southwest, and the cold winds of all seasons usually
come from the north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops after April 1 and
before October 31.
Heavy frost occurs with barometer rising or above normal, temper-
ature 40° or below, relative humiduVv above 75 per cent, few if any
clouds, and light westerly or northerly winds.
ROCHESTER, N. Y.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
southeast to southwest winds and falling barometer, and the barome-
ter generally falls to about 29.90 or below in spring, 29.85 or below in
summer, 29.95 or below in autumn, and 30 or below in winter, before
precipitation begins. In the case of storms that come from the south
or southwest, however, precipitation often sets in closely following
the shift of wind to the northeast and the turn in the barometer from
rising to falling.
The relative humidity generally decreases before precipitation in
March for a period of about thirty-six hours, and in April and May
for an average period of about three days. In summer and autumn
the decrease is noted for about two days preceding rain, and in winter
the period is about thirty-six hours. In the spring the humidity will
often decrease and remain low for several days without rain, and again
rain will continue several days with low humidky. Rain begins with
relative humidity 50 per cent and above, and dry weather often
accompanies high humidity. Decreasing relative humidity generally
attends decreasing pressure and increasing relative humidity increasing
atmospheric pressure.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west. In winter and
early spring the sky is almost constantly overcast and cirrus and
cirro-stratus clouds can seldom be seen. During periods of clear
weather, however, their appearance precedes rain for an average
131
period of about thirty hours. In summer and autumn cirrus and
cirro-stratus clouds appearing during a period of clear weather presage
rain within twenty-four to thirt}^ hours.
The high winds of this station usually come from southwest to
northwest, with rising barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons come from the southwest, and the
cold winds from southwest, west, and northwest.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in late spring and
early autumn.
Frost is generally preceded by rising barometer, temperature fall-
ing to 40° or below, relative humidity moderately low, light winds,
generally from westerly directions, and few if any clouds.
ROSEBTJRG, OREG.
In spring and summer precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-
four hours by southwest winds and falling barometer, and in winter
about twelve hours by southerly winds and falling barometer. In
spring and summer precipitation usually begins after the turn in the
barometer from falling to rising, and in autumn and winter while the
barometer is falling. In spring, summer, and winter the barometer
generally falls to 29.90 or below, and in autumn to 29.80 or below
before precipitation begins.
In summer there is an increase in relative humidity twenty-four to
thirty-six hours before rain; in other seasons the relation between
changes in relative humidity and precipitation has not been defined.
In spring and summer cirro-stratus clouds moving from the south-
west often precede precipitation twenty-four to forty-eight hours.
In autumn and winter cirro-cumulus clouds from the southwest or
south precede precipitation twelve to twenty-four hours.
In spring, autumn, and winter high winds come from southerly, with
falling barometer. In summer high winds seldom occur, but when
they do they ^orne from southeast, east, or northeast.
The warm winds of spring and summer are northerly, and of autumn
and winter southerly. The cold winds of spring, summer, and winter
come from the northwest and of autumn from the northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops during the late spring.
The conditions favorable for heavy frost are: Barometer high or
rising, temperature falling to -iO° or below, increasing relative humid-
ity, clearing or clear weather, and light winds.
SACRAMENTO, CAL.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is preceded by northerly
shifting to southeasterly winds and falling barometer, and begins near
the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In spring and win-
ter the barometer usually falls to 29.80 or below, and in autumn to
132
29.90 or below before precipitation begins. Rain sometimes con-
tinues several days after the barometer begins to rise. Practically no
rain falls in summer.
The relation between atmospheric moisture and preciDitation has
not been determined at this station.
Cirro-stratus clouds .move from the southwest in spring and autumn,
and from the north west in winter; but the relation between cloud forms
and precipitation has not been noted by the observer.
High winds come from the northwest with rising, and from south
west to southeast with falling barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons come from northwest to north, and
the cold winds from southerly directions.
Frost will injure vegetables and garden truck in April and some-
times in May, deciduous fruits in March and April, and citrus fruits
in November and December.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by high barometer, north to east
winds becoming very light, a low percentage of relative humidity, and
a clear sky, though sometimes accompanied by fog.
ST. LOUIS; MO.
During the colder months precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-
four hours by winds from points between south and northeast, and
falling barometer, and the barometer usually falls to 29.90 or below
in early spring and to 30 or below in winter before precipitation begins.
During the warmer months rain is preceded for somewhat longer
periods than in winter by winds from southwest to southeast and
falling barometer, and the barometer falls to about 29.90 or below
before rain begins. In the case of summer showers rain begins about
the time of the turn in the barometer from falling to rising, and when
the wind shifts from southerty to westerly.
As a rule, the relative humidity increases twenty-four to forty-eight
hours before precipitation begins, the period being somewhat shorter
in the colder than in the warmer months.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the southwest are of ten
observed preceding precipitation, and they afford a more reliable indi-
cation of precipitation in the colder than in the warmer months. In
the spring these clouds change rapidly to alto-stratus and alto-cumulus
before rain, and in winter alto-cumulus appear in advance of the
precipitation-bearing stratus clouds.
High winds usually come from the western quadrants with rising
barometer. In spring, however, high winds often come from the
northeast.
The warm winds of all seasons come from the south, and the cold
winds from west to northwest.
133
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in April, and from
September 1 to the latter part of October.
In spring- and autumn heavy frost is generally preceded by rising
barometer, temperature falling to 40° or below, relative humidity 75
per cent or less, light northerly winds, and clear weather.
ST. PAUL, MINN.
Precipitation is preceded eight to twenty-four hours by southerly
or easterly winds and falling barometer, and the barometer usually
falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins.
The relative humidity generally increases two to twelve hours before
precipitation, relative humidity 00 per cent in summer, TO per cent
in spring and autumn, and 80 per cent in winter is usually folkmed by
precipitation.
Cirro-stratus clouds from the west in spring, summer, and winter,
and from the northwest in autumn are usually followed by precipita-
tion in twelve to twenty-four hours. Precipitation is often preceded
by clouds that resemble white sheets with dark, irregular edges, which
float slowly from directions between southwest and west. They appear
to be a development of the alto-stratus toward the strato-cumulus, and
are more common to the summer than to the winter months.
The high winds of spring, autumn, and winter come with rising
barometer and from southwest shifting to northwest, and of summer
from southeast to southwest with falling barometer.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind is from
points between southeast and south in spring and autumn, from south-
east to southwest in summer, and from southerly in winter. The cold
winds of all seasons come from northwest to north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in May and September.
Heavy frost is preceded b}- high barometric pressure, temperature
400, or slightly below, relative humidit}^ 45 to 60 per cent, light west
to northwest winds, and few if any clouds.
SAN ANTONIO, TEX.
'Precipitation is usually preceded six to twenty -four hours by south-
east winds and falling barometer and, as a rule, begins about the time
of the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. In summer the
period is somewhat longer. In the case of storms whose centers pass
to the south of station the winds go to northerly by way of easterly.
In spring the barometer usually falls to 29.90 or below, in summer to
29.95. or below, and in autumn and winter to 30 or below before pre-
cipitation begins. Irregular and oscillating barometer, and barometer
below the normal with northerly winds, indicates rain.
There is invariably an increase in relative humidity before rain, the
period of increase varying from six to forty-eight hours in spring
134
and summer, six to thirty-six hours in autumn, and six to twenty-four
hours in winter. Excessive moisture is always an indication of rain.
Cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west or southwest precede
rain by periods that vary from three to forty-eight hours, the periods
being greater in autumn and winter. These clouds merge into clouds
of lower formation. Ln spring columnar cumulus, with cirrus haze
at low levels, moving from the southeast, indicate strong wind and
heavy rain. In summer and autumn cumulo-nimbus banking in the
northeast or northwest indicate showers fora day or two; mammillate
cumulus from the southeast indicate thunderstorms; and cloud banks
in the west or northwest indicate rain. In winter ribbed cirrus, with
watery-looking patches at lower level, and hair-rooted cirro-stratus
moving from west or southwest presage rain; so also alto-cumulus
from southeast with northerly winds.
The warm winds of spring and winter come from south and south-
east, of summer from southeast, southwest, and northwest, and of
autumn from northeast. The cold winds of spring and winter come
from points between west and north, of summer from the northeast,
and of autumn from the north.
Fruit is subject to damage by frost in March and April, and garden
truck from October to April, inclusive.
Heavy frost is generally preceded by high barometric pressure, a
high percentage of relative humidify, temperature 40° or slightly
below, light winds, and few if any clouds.
SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH.
In spring precipitation is generally preceded about two days by south
to southwest winds and falling barometer, and the barometer falls to
about 29.70 and is on ths rise before precipitation begins. In autumn
and winter southerly winds and falling barometer precede precipita-
tion about two days, and the barometer falls to a minimum of about
29.80 in autumn and to a minimum somewhat above 30 in winter and
is on the rise before precipitation begins. In summer northwest
winds and falling, barometer precede rain about twenty-four hours,
and the barometer falls to about 29.85 and is on the rise before rain
begins. In spring, autumn, and winter " rain winds " are produced
by an area of low pressure passing in over the Washington coast, or
the formation of a low area over the northern or middle plateau region.
During summer the}r result from a low area over the northern Rocky
Mountain slope and a high area over the north Pacific districts.
The relative humidity has not been associated with weather changes.
Cirro-stratus clouds move from the northwest in spring, autumn,
and winter, and from the southwest in summer. From April to Sep-
tember they precede rain two to three days, and from October to March
135
one to two days. Precipitation is also preceded by cirro-cumulus
clouds.
High winds come, with rising barometer, from the north in spring
and winter, and from the northwest in summer and autumn.
The warm winds of all seasons come from the southeast, and the
cold winds from the northwest.
Frost will damage fruit or other crops from March 20 to June 10.
The conditions that precede heavy frost are a low barometer area
moving off toward the southeast or east; a wrell-marked high area
coming in from the northwest; morning temperature between 40° and
50°; relative humidity about 50 per cent; brisk wind, becoming light,
and sky clearing of stratus clouds. This applies to all seasons.
SAN DIEGO, CAL.
In spring precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
wind blowing from points between southeast and west and falling
barometer, and the barometer falls to about 29.90 or below and is on
the turn from falling to rising before rain begins. In autumn south-
east to southwest winds and falling barometer precede rain twelve to
twenty-four hours, and the barometer generally falls to about 29.80
and is on the turn from falling to rising when rain begins. In winter
rain is preceded twelve to forty-eight and sometimes seventy -two
hours by southeast to southwest winds and falling barometer, and the
barometer falls to about 29.80 or below before rain begins. In sum-
mer no rain falls. Preceding rain the barometer is subject to rapid
fluctuations, rising and falling a few hundredths in the general fall.
The height of the barometer is not at all times material. As a rule
the heaviest rain begins after the barometer begins to rise. Clearing
weather is preceded a few hours by rapidly rising barometer. Often
clearing weather and rising barometer are simultaneous. In the
spring southeast to south winds with falling barometer or high west
winds with 'stationary barometer indicate rain. " Sonoras" come with
falling barometer and a shifting west to northwest wind.
There is usually a decrease in relative humidity for a few hours
preceding rain. A drop of 10 to 20 per cent in relative humidity
below a normal of 70 per cent generally precedes rain six to twelve
hours. Conditions may be ever so threatening — barometer, clouds,
wind direction and velocity, etc. — but if the relative humidity is
above TO per cent, precipitation in a form other than mist is
improbable.
In spring cirro-stratus clouds from the south precede rain six to
twelve hours, in autumn from the west twelve to thirty-six hours, and
in winter from points between southeast and southwest twenty-four to
forty-eight and sometimes seventy-two hours. Cirro-cumulus clouds
136
nearly alwa^ys precede rain. These clouds should be well defined, with
darkened convexities. A thick sheet of cirro-stratus clouds will some-
times herald a general rain. During the rainy season a very small
streamer-like cloud of a dark shade is generally entwined about a
threatening cumulus cloud and always precedes rain. The observer
has called these clouds " rope stratus," from their appearance, and
they apparently indicate a state bordering on complete saturation.
These clouds have no independent direction, but depend on the move-
ment of the accompairving cumulus cloud. Other conditions may be
very threatening, but if the clouds have a wave-like appearance, with
their crests inclined to the south, no rain will fall. These clouds are
frequently seen on the western horizon, and clearly indicate the direc-
tion of the upper air currents. The direction of these upper projec-
tions, whether they point south or north, indicates respectively fair-
weather or rain.
In spring and winter high winds come from southeast to southwest
points with falling barometer, and from east to north points with
rising barometer. No high winds occur in the summer and autumn.
The warm winds of the colder months come from points between
east and north. No high temperature occurs in summer. The cold
winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from east to northeast
points. There are no low temperatures in summer.
Citrus fruit may be damaged by frost at any time of the year, but
the critical time for oranges is just before picking, which is generally
from December 1 to February 1.
The general conditions which precede heavy frost are: Rising barom-
eter, low temperature and humidity, northerly winds, no clouds, or a
streamer-like appearance of filmy cirrus.
SANDTJSKY, OHIO.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
south to southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
falls to 29.85 or below in spring and winter, and to 29.80 or below in
summer and autumn before precipitation begins. In the case of
storms that advance from the south or southwest the wind sets in
from points between east and northeast, and precipitation often begins
closely following the beginning of the fall in the barometer.
In spring and winter there is an increase in relative humidity twelve
to twenty-four hours before precipitation, and in summer there is a
slight increase, twelve to thirty-six and sometimes forty-eight hours
before rain begins.
Cirrus clouds moving from the west or southwest have often been
observed one to two days preceding precipitation.
The high winds of this station generally come from west to north-
west with rising barometer.
137
The warm winds of all seasons are from southerly, and the cold
winds from westerly and northerly in spring and winter, and from
northeast, north, or northwest in summer and autumn.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in the spring after
April 1 and in the fall during October.
Frost is preceded by rising barometer, temperature falling to -iOc
or below, increasing relative humidity, light westerly winds, and clear
or clearing weather.
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.
In spring and autumn rain is preceded twenty-four to forty-eight
hours by southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
usually falls to 29.80 or below in spring, and to 29.90 or below in
autumn before rain begins. In summer little or no rain falls. In
winter southeast to southwest winds and falling barometer precede
rain twelve to forty-eight hours, and the barometer usually falls to
29.80 or below before rain begins. With " Sonora" storms rain some-
times begins with the local barometer 30.10 or above. A marked low
barometer area moving southward along the coast in winter presages
rain: a marked high area, fair weather.
An increase in relative humidity is noted six to twelve hours before
rain in spring, a slight increase about six hours before in autumn, and
an increase twelve to twenty-four hours before in winter. The
moisture of the air indicates rain to a slight extent only.
In spring and autumn cirrus clouds moving from the northwest
often precede rain twenty-four to forty-eight hours. In winter cirrus
clouds from the northwest^ and sometimes from the south, precede
rain about twenty-four hours. Cirro-cumulus changing rapidly to
alto-stratus clouds indicate rain in winter.
In spring and summer high west to north winds come with rising
barometer, and in autumn high west winds attend rising and high
barometric pressure. In winter high southeast winds occur with
falling barometer.
Abnormally high temperature is of rare occurrence and usuall}7
comes with northerly winds. No low temperatures are experienced.
Late spring frosts in March and April damage the buds of deciduous
fruits. Frosts of December, Januar}T, and February damage ripe
citrus fruit.
Heav}r frost is likely to occur with barometer above 30 and station-
ary or rising, temperature falling to 40° or below, northerly winds,
and clear weather.
The general distribution of barometric pressure that is favorable for
frost in California is low barometric pressure over southern California
and southern Arizona and high barometric pressure over the middle
and northern Rock}7 Mountain and plateau districts.
138
SAN LUIS OBISPO, CAL.
In spring, autumn, and winter precipitation is usually preceded
twenty-four to forty-eight hours by southerly winds and falling
barometer, and rain generally begins about the time of the turn in the
barometer from falling to rising. As a rule the barometer falls to
29.95 or below in spring and winter and to 30 or below in autumn
before rain begins. After falling, the barometer rises during rain
until clearing weather occurs.
Owing to the proximity of this station to the sea the humidity of
the air affords but a slight indication of approaching rains. A
decrease in relative humidity is, however, sometimes noted twenty-
four to thirty-six hours before rain.
Cirro-stratus clouds moving from points between south and west
often precede rain about forty-eight hours. A thin blanket of lead-
colored cirro-stratus clouds slowly spreading and finally covering the
sky may be obscured in a few hours.
High winds come with rising barometer and from westerly points in
spring, and from north or west in summer, autumn, and winter.
The warmer winds of all seasons come from the north, and also the
cooler winds, except in summer, when the cool winds are from
westerly.
Frost is likely to damage fruit in the spring.
Heavy frost usually attends high barometric pressure, temperature
falling to 40° or below, high relative humidity, northerly winds, and
a few cirrus clouds.
Frost is generally followed by rain within forty-eight hours.
SANTA FE, N. MEX.
Generally throughout the year steadily falling barometer with
southerly winds for one to two days indicate precipitation, but pre-
cipitation seldom begins until after the turn in the barometer from
falling to rising, and the wind has shifted from southerly to colder
north and northeast. In summer the conditions that precede rain are
not so well marked as during the winter months.
In winter and spring the relative humidity often increases during
the twenty-four hours before precipitation, while in summer and
autumn an increase in relative humidity is noted only immediately
preceding the beginning of rain.
In spring and winter precipitation is usually preceded thirty-six to
forty -eight hours by cirrus clouds moving from the west or southwest.
The presence of cirrus clouds does not, however, necessarily indicate
precipitation.
The highest winds of winter and spring are from northerly and
westerly, and of summer and autumn from southerly and westerly.
139
In all seasons south to southwest winds prevail during periods of
abnormally- high temperature, and north to northeast winds during
periods of abnormal!}" low temperature.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from April 1 to May
15, and from October 1 to November 15.
The general conditions which precede heavy- frost are low barome-
ter, high temperature and humidity, and southerly winds, followed by
rising barometer, falling temperature, and winds shifting to north and
northeast, bringing snow on adjacent mountains.
SAVANNAH, GA.
In spring and winter south to southwest winds and falling barometer
precede precipitation twenty-four to thirty hours. In summer rain is
preceded about twenty-four hours by southwest winds and falling
barometer, and in autumn about twenty-four hours by southerly or
easterly winds and falling barometer. In all seasons the barometer
generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins.
While, as a rule, increasing moisture is shown twelve to twenty-four
hours in advance of rain in the warmer, and twenty-four to thirty-six
hours in advance during the colder months, it is not believed that the
humidity of the air at this, a seacoast station, possesses special value
as an indicator of rain.
In well-defined rain periods, due to more or less pronounced storin
areas moving across the country, cirro-stratus clouds, moving from
the west in spring, summer, and winter, and from the southwest in
autumn, precede precipitation for an average period of about twenty-
four hours. At times the cirro-stratus clouds are followed by alto-
stratus, and more frequently by alto-cumulus, clouds.
High winds generally come from south and east quadrants with
falling, and from west and north quadrants with rising, barometer.
The warmer winds of spring and winter come from south and south-
west, of summer from southwest, and of autumn from northeast. The
cold winds of spring are from northwest to north, of summer and
autumn from the northeast, and of winter from west, northwest, north,
and northeast.
The critical period for damage by frost is during the months of
March and April.
As a rule, the barometer is high and rising slowly twelve to twenty-
four hours in advance of the occurrence of heavy frost, showing the
near approach of a crest of high barometric pressure. On the day
preceding frost the maximum temperature seldom exceeds 55°, with
cloudless sky, light to fresh northwest wind, and relative humidity
rather lower than usual. These general conditions appear both in
spring and autumn.
140
SAULT STE. MARIE, MICH.
In all seasons precipitation is preceded twelve to eighteen hours by
south to southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
usually falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins. In the
case of storms from the south or southwest, however, precipitation
often begins with higher barometer and shortly after the wind sets in
from the northeast. *'
No note has been made by the observer of the relation between
atmospheric moisture and precipitation. Neither has the relation
between cloud formation and movements been noted.
The high winds of this station usually come from the northwest with
rising barometer.
The warm winds come from the south and east in spring, autumn,
and winter, and from southeast to southwest in summer. The cold
winds of spring, summer, and autumn come from the northwest, and
of winter from northwest to northeast.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or vegetables after May 20 and before
September 20.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by barometer normal or above,
temperature falling to 34° or 36°, average humidity, light west to
north winds, and clear sky.
SCBANTON, PA.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
winds from points between south and northeast and falling barometer,
and the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation
begins. In connection with storms that advance from the south or
southwest, precipitation often closely follows the shift of the wind to
northeast and the turn in the barometer from rising to falling.
There is usually an increase in relative humidity eight to twelve
hours before precipitation begins.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from a westerly direction
generally indicate precipitation within twelve to eighteen hours.
The warm winds of all seasons come from south or southwest, and
the cold winds from northwest and north.
Frost is likely to damage vegetation early in May and late in Sep-
tember and early in October.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by slowly rising and high barome-
ter, temperature falling to 40° or below, low relative humidity, light
west to north winds, and clear sky.
SEATTLE, WASH.
Southeast to southwest winds usually precede precipitation six to
eighteen hours in spring, twelve to thirty-six hours in summer,
twelve to eighteen hours in autumn, and six to twelve hours in winter.
141
A steady full in the barometer to quite a distance below the normal is-
considered an indication of rain, and, as a rule, the greater the fall in
the barometer the heavier the rain. In spring- rain generally begins
after the barometer begins to rise after a marked fall, in summer
about the time the barometer has reached the lowest point, and in
autumn and winter usually while the barometer is falling. The height
of the barometer when rain begins varies with the position and dis-
tance of the storm center and the amount of the central depression.
A gradual rise above the normal barometer is an indication of fair
weather. A rapid rise in the barometer does not indicate settled
weather.
As the air is always moist the relative humidity does not afford an
indication of weather changes, except that a decrease is sometimes
noted twenty-four to forty-eight hours before rain in summer and
twelve to eighteen hours before rain in autumn. In autumn also an
excess of moisture in the air causes dense fog.
In spring and autumn cirro-stratus clouds moving from west or
northwest precede rain twelve to twenty-four hours. In winter cirro-
stratus clouds are quickly followed by a veil or bank of stratus or
strato-cumulus and then rain follows usually in six to twelve hours.
In summer the indications of cirro-stratus are not so reliable. A
leaden-colored veil of stratus clouds first appearing in the south and
gradually spreading toward the zenith presages rain at all seasons.
Mount Rainier, 65 miles SSE., is early obscured. Clear visibility of
Rainier in the afternoon is a sure sign of fair weather for about
twenty-four hours.
High winds come from the south and southeast with falling, and
from southwest to northwest — and sometimes in winter from north
and northeast — with rising, barometer.
The warm winds of spring are from the north, of summer and
autumn from northwest and north, and of winter from south and
southwest. The cold winds of spring and autumn are from northeast,
of summer from south, and of winter from northeast to north.
Frost will cause damage in the latter part of March and the first ten
days in April, when fruit trees are generally in bloom; apples some-
times bloom as late as the third decade of April, but usually by the
10th. Tender vines are damaged by frost in May, and late vegetables
in September and early October.
Heavy frost is usually indicated by barometer rising rapidly and
high for the season, falling temperature, low relative humidity, west
to northwest winds, high cumulus or cirro-cumulus clouds from the
northwest rapidly dissolving or clearing away, and a crisp feeling in
the atmosphere.
142
SHREVEPOBT, LA.
Precipitation is preceded one to three days by south or southeast
winds and falling barometer, and the barometer usually falls to about
29.90 or below in spring, and to 30 or below in summer, autumn, and
winter, before precipitation begins. In all seasons except winter pre-
cipitation does not generally begin until after the turn in the barom-
eter from falling to rising. In the colder months northeast winds
often precede rain.
As near as could be ascertained from the records, there is an increase
in relative humidity twenty-four to forty-eight hours in advance of
precipitation; at times, however, there has been a decrease in relative
humidity preceding precipitation.
Cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west seem to precede the
beginning of precipitation for an average period of about thirty-six
hours, and alto-cumulus clouds moving from the south often precede
rain about twelve hours.
High winds come from south and southeast with falling, and from
northwest with rising, barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons come from the southeast, and the
cold winds from the northwest.
Frost is likely to cause damage in April, May, September, and
October.
Heavy frost is usualry preceded by rising barometer, falling tem-
perature, decreasing relative humidity in spring and autumn, and
increasing in winter, light northwest to north winds, and lower clouds
clearing away. In 75 per cent of the cases examined rain had fallen
within forty-eight hours preceding the occurrence of frost.
SIOUX CITY, IOWA.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
southeast to northeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer
generally falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins. In
spring and summer rain begins while the barometer is falling, and in
autumn and winter after the turn in the barometer from falling to
rising.
An increase in relative humidity usualry occurs twelve to twenty-
four hours before precipitation, but the cases are common when a
decrease occurs during the same period.
Cirro-stratus clouds advance from the west during the warmer, and
from the northwest during the colder, months. No relation between
the appearance of these or other cloud forms and precipitation has,
however, been established.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the winds come from
south in spring and autumn, and from south and southwest in summer
143
and winter. The cold winds of all seasons come from northwest and
north.
Frost is likely to damage tender vegetation after May 1, and before
September 30.
The conditions that precede frost are, rising barometer, temperature
falling to 40° or below, low relative huniidity, and clearing sky.
SPRINGFIELD, ILL.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
winds that set in from points between south and east — and sometimes
from northeast during the colder months — and falling barometer, and
the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation begins.
Precipitation usually begins while the barometer is falling, except
during the warm months, when showers often begin about the time of
the turn in the barometer from falling to rising.
There is generally an increase in relative humidity about twenty-
four hours before precipitation, but the increase appears to be less
marked in summer than during the colder months. In general a high
dew-point indicates rain, but rain often quickly follows a low dew-
point.
Cirro-stratus and cirrus clouds are generally considered forerunners
of precipitation, when other conditions are favorable. When these
clouds appear during the day, precipitation is likely to begin during
the night; and when they are observed in the morning, rain begins in
the afternoon.
The warm winds come most frequently from south and southwest,
and the cold winds from northwest, except in summer, when they
come from the northeast.
Frost is most likely to damage fruit or other crops in April, Ma}T,
September, and October.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by rising and high barometer, fall-
ing temperature, low relative humidity, light winds, and clear or
clearing weather.
SPRINGFIELD, MO.
Precipitation is preceded twelve to thirty-six hours by southeast to
east winds and falling barometer, and the barometer usually falls to
29.00 or 'below in spring, to 29.95 or below in summer and autumn,
and to 30 or below in winter before precipitation begins. In all sea-
-sons precipitation generally begins with falling barometer, except
during the warmer months, when showers begin with the turn in the
barometer from falling to rising.
During the colder months there is generally an increase in atmos-
pheric moisture twenty-four hours before precipitation. In summer
excessive moisture, as indicated by a muggy and oppressive condition
of the air, is a good indication of thunderstorms.
144
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from the west in spring and
autumn, from southwest or west in summer, and from west or north-
west in winter often precede precipitation twenty-four to thirty-six
hours. Cirrus followed by alto-stratus clouds, increasing in density,
indicate rain; also rapidly moving scud stratus in the morning.
Cumulus banking in the west'or northwest in the evening are a good
indication of rain; and also alto-stratus changing to stratus and becom-
ing denser.
The warmer winds of spring and winter come from south and south-
east, of summer from south, and of autumn from south to southwest.
The colder winds of all seasons come from points between west and
north.
Frost is likely to cause damage about the middle of April and early
in October.
Heavy frost is usually preceded by high or rising barometer, tem-
perature about 40° at the evening observation, low relative humidity,
light northwest to north winds, and clear weather.
SPOKANE, WASH.
Precipitation is generally preceded twelve to forty-eight hours by
southeast to southwest winds and falling barometer, and the barome-
ter usually falls to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins. In all
seasons, except summer, precipitation generally begins with falling
barometer.
An increase of relative humidity has been observed twenty-four to
forty-eight hours before precipitation; at other times the relative
humidity has seemingly decreased, but as observations of the humidity
are made in general only at twelve-hour intervals it is believed that
an increase in humidity preceding precipitation is often unobserved.
Cirro-stratus clouds advance from the southwest, and the average
interval between their first appearance and the beginning of precipi-
tation, when precipitation follows, is about twenty-four hours; the
cirro-stratus cloud formation is, however, seldom observed at this
station. When conditions are becoming favorable for rain, stratus or
strato-cumulus are generally the clouds that immediately precede or
indicate rain. Cirrus clouds may be observed for days at a time in
summer and autumn before rain, and more often no rain will follow.
At times, and particularly in winter and spring, a sheet of stratus
assumes a baggy, greasy appearance, resembling the festoons that pre-
cede thunderstorms, but on a larger scale; this formation is considered
a good indication of precipitation. If stratus clouds move from a
southerly direction precipitation is expected within twenty-four hours.
In winter there sometimes appears a thin stratus formation, resembling-
cirro-stratus, through which the sun may be seen, but without halo;
this formation is considered an indication of snow, when moving from
a southerly direction.
145
High winds usually occur a few hours before the barometer reaches
its lowest point, and continue after the barometer begins to rise, shift-
ing from southwest to west.
The warm--winds of spring and winter come from south and south-
west, and of summer and autumn from east to northeast. The cold
winds come from east and northeast in spring and winter, and from
southwest to west in summer and early autumn.
From April 1 to May 15 is the most critical time for damage to fruit
by frost; and also the period between October 15 and November 15,
when the winter apple, which is the staple fruit of this section, is sub
ject to damage.
Barometer above the normal and a clear sky precede heavy frosts.
The evening before frost occurs the temperature may be as high as
60°, and the relative humidity about 50 per cent, and with pressure
and weather conditions favorable frost will occur. At such times the
temperature will fall during the night to near 32°, and the relative
humidity becomes high, often 100 per cent. Although the heavier
frosts seem to come with the wind from points between north and
northeast, light winds from other directions occur when other condi-
tions favor their occurrence.
TACOMA, WASH.
South to southwest winds and falling barometer usually precede
precipitation six to eighteen hours, and the barometer generally falls
to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins. Rapidly falling barom-
eter with a storm central off the coast of Vancouver Island furnish con-
ditions favorable for heavy rain. Rising barometer with wind shift-
ing to westerly indicate clearing weather. High and steady- barom-
eter indicates continued fair weather.
Humidity is usually very high in the Puget Sound region, and the
observations taken do not afford sufficient data for a deduction of facts
regarding the relation of atmospheric moisture and rain. The rela-
tive humidity is frequently low during rain, and again 100 per cent
of relative humidity is sometimes unaccompanied by rain.
Owing to the regularity of the "wet" and "dry" seasons but little
dependence can be placed on cloud observations. During the "dry"
season the observation is always "smoke" or "stratus," and in the
winter it is nearly always "stratus" or "nimbus." Cirro-stratus
clouds, when observed, advance from points between southwest and
northwest.
The high winds of this station usually come from the southwest
with rising barometer, except when storm centers pass to the south,
when north to east gales are experienced.
U55— No. 33—03 10
146
The warm winds of spring and winter come from south and south-
west, and of summer and autumn from the north. The cold winds of
all seasons come from the north.
Frost is likely to cause damage in March and April, when fruit
trees are in bloom. All crops and fruits are harvested long before
the first killing frost in the autumn or winter. The observer's expe-
rience here leads him to believe that much of the damage to fruit that
is attributed to frost is really caused by cool, rainy weather, which
prevents the flight of bees and other insects, upon which the fruit
blossoms have to rely for the act of fertilization.
Conditions for the occurrence of frost are, high barometer, falling
temperature, average humidity, light winds, and clear weather.
TAMPA, FLA.
In spring rain is usually preceded three to twelve hours by south-
west winds and falling barometer and begins on the turn of the
barometer from falling to rising. Summer is the wet season, and rain
is generally preceded for a variable period by southeast winds and
begins about the time of the turn in the barometer from falling to
rising. In autumn northeast winds and falling barometer usually
precede rain three to twelve hours, and rain begins when the barome-
ter has reached the lowest point and is on the upward turn; rain often
occurs without visible premonitory indications, and again in anti-
cyclonic areas on the turn in the barometer from rising to falling.
In winter southerly winds and falling barometer usually precede rain
three to twelve hours, and rain begins while the barometer is falling
and sometimes continues with west to northwest winds and rising
barometer. While the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below in
spring and summer, and to 30 or below in autumn and winter before
rain begins, rain will occur with any abnormal change or height of
the barometer.
The relative humidity increases one to three hours before rain, but
a high percentage of relative humidity is not necessarily an indication
of rain.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are occasionally observed moving
from a westerly direction in spring, summer, and winter, but, except
at times in summer, afford no indication of rain.
High winds come from south to east points with falling, and from
west and northwest with rising, barometer.
The warm winds of spring come from the southeast, of summer from
south to southeast, of autumn from the northeast, and of winter from
east to south points. The cold winds of spring, summer, and autumn
come from the north, and of winter from northwest and north.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from November 15 to
April 15.
147
In autumn and winter heavy frost is preceded by barometric pres-
sure rising* to 30.20 or above, temperature 50° or below, relative
humidity between 70 and 80 per cent in autumn and between 60 and
80 per cent in winter, light northwest winds, and clear weather or a
few upper clouds.
TOLEDO, OHIO.
Precipitation is preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by southerly
to easterly winds and falling barometer, and the barometer usually
falls to about 29.85 or below before precipitation begins. When
storms advance from the south or southwest precipitation often begins
closely following a shift of wind to the northeast and the turn in the
barometer from rising to falling.
While there is an increase of relative humidity preceding precipita-
tion when winds are from the easterly, a decrease occurs with winds
from southerly quarters. When the wind shifts from southerly to
cooler easterly preceding rain the relative humidity increases. In
itself the relative humidity can not be considered an indicator of
precipitation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds are always observed moving from
a westerly direction, and often appear eight to thirty-six hours in
advance of precipitation. Clouds of this formation thicken rapidly
and merge into lower clouds preceding precipitation.
High winds come from south and southwest with falling, and from
west and northwest with rising, barometer.
The warm winds of spring come from south and west, of summer
from southwest, and of autumn and winter from south and southwest.
The cold winds of spring come from northwest to northeast, of sum-
mer from north to northeast, of autumn from west to northwest, and
of winter from southwest to northwest.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops from about April 15
to May 20 and during September.
The conditions that precede heavy frost are high barometer, low
temperature for the season, low relative humidity at preceding
observation, light winds, and clear weather.
VALENTINE, NEBR.
Southeast to east winds ,and falling barometer generally precede
precipitation twelve to forty-eight hours, and the barometer usually
falls to 29.80 or below in spring, to 29.90 or below in summer, and to
30 or below in autumn and winter before precipitation begins. In
spring and winter, precipitation begins after the turn in the barometer
from falling to rising, and in summer and autumn about the time the
barometer begins to rise after a fall. In a majority of cases precipita-
tion does not follow either a rapid fall or rise in the barometer. A
148
slow and steady fall in the barometer, with an unsettled appearance of
weather conditions, more often precedes precipitation.
In all seasons an increase in relative humidity begins twenty-four to
thirty-six hours before precipitation, and a decrease occurs just before
precipitation begins. A high percentage of relative humidity does
not necessarily indicate- precipitation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west and northwest,
but can not be depended upon as indicators of precipitation. In
summer large masses of ominous looking strato-cumulus clouds moving
swiftly from the southwest, west, or northwest precede rain; and in
autumn heavy masses of cumulus, if they last until afternoon, will
sometimes cause heavy showers. In winter, precipitation is often
preceded by cirro-cumulus clouds followed by a gradually thickening
veil of low stratus, which moves very slowly.
High winds generally start in from southerly and shift to west and
northwest with rising barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons blow from points between south and
west, and the cold winds from northwest and north, and in winter
from points between northwest and northeast.
Frost is likely to cause damage after May 1.
In spring frost is generally preceded by rising barometer, tempera-
ture below normal, and relative humidity increasing to 80 or 90 per
cent. In autumn, frost generally occurs after a long cloudy spell,
with or without precipitation, with rising barometer, temperature
falling to 38° or below, high relative humidity, west to northwest
winds, and clear or clearing weather.
VICKSBURG, MISS.
Precipitation is usually preceded six to thirty-six hours by south to
southeast winds and falling barometer, and the barometer generally
falls to about 29.95 or below in spring and autumn, to 29.90 or below
in summer, and to 30 or below in winter before precipitation begins.
During the colder months there is generally a slight increase in
relative humidity during a period of about six hours before precipita-
tion begins, and during the warmer months there is a slight decrease
during a corresponding period.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from the west, and when
precipitation can be associated with their appearance it occurs two
to three days after they appear. No other characteristics of cloud
formation that presage rain have been noted by the observer.
The warm winds of all seasons come from south and southeast. The
cold winds of spring, autumn, and winter are northeasterly, and of
summer easterly.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other crops in March, April, and
October.
149
Twenty-four hours preceding frost the barometer generally ranges
near or above 30.30 over northern Texas and higher to the westward
or northward, with the 40° isotherm dipping well into Texas. Fre-
quently heavy rainfall occurs within forty-eight hours preceding heavy
frost. Light northerly winds attended by clear or clearing weather
and decreasing humidity usually prevail during twenty-four hours
preceding heavy frost.
WALLA WALLA, WASH.
Precipitation is generally preceded four to six hours by southerly
winds and falling barometer, and the barometer generally falls to
29.90 or below before precipitation begins. In spring, autumn, and
winter precipitation begins on a falling barometer, and in summer on
the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. The barometer
generally falls rapidly preceding rain.
There is, as a rule, a slight increase in relative humidity three to
four hours preceding precipitation.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds moving from a westerly direction
usually presage precipitation within twenty-four to thirty -six hours,
and precipitation is immediately preceded by stratus clouds moving
rapidly from the south or southwest.
The high winds of all seasons come from the southwest with fairing
barometer.
The warm winds of spring come from the southwest, of summer
from south and southwest, and of autumn and winter from the south.
The cold winds of spring come from the south, of summer from the
northeast, of autumn from the north, and of winter from the south-
east.
Frost is likely to cause damage from about the middle of April to
the early part of June.
Heavy frost is preceded by barometer above the normal, tempera-
ture falling to 40° or below, high relative humidity, light easterly
winds, and few, if any, clouds.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
In connection with areas of low barometric pressure that advance to
the Atlantic coast from the west or west-northwest the wind sets in
from the southeast quadrant with falling barometer twelve to thirty-
six hours before precipitation begins, and the barometer usually falls
to 30 or below before the beginning of precipitation. In connection
with areas of low barometer that advance from the south or southwest
precipitation frequently begins closely following the shift of wind to
the northeast, and often with high but falling barometer; this is par-
ticularly the case during the colder months, when moisture contained
150
in the comparatively warm easterly winds from the ocean is condensed
by the lower temperatures of the interior.
The easterly winds that precede precipitation are of a necessity
moist winds, and the humidity of the air increases when the wind
sets in from these quarters. During the colder months increasing
humidity is therefore an indication of precipitation when the increase
is attended by falling barometer. During the summer months, also,
an increase in humidity to indicate rain must be attended by baro-
metric conditions that attend an approaching area of low barometer.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from westerly directions and
are, as a rule, forerunners for periods of twelve to eighteen hours of
precipitation. The appearance of these clouds indicates a barometric
disturbance to the westward; they do not, however, invariably indi-
cate precipitation; at times the barometric disturbance will not possess
sufficient strength to cause precipitation. Cirrus and cirro-stratus
clouds that precede precipitation gradually thicken and merge into
alto-stratus and finally into stratus clouds that assume the direction
of the surface wind. Other cloud formations, such as summer
cumulus, that precede precipitation are rain-carrying clouds when
barometric and wind conditions favor rain, and do not appear suffi-
ciently in advance of precipitation to be of value in forecasting.
The high winds of all seasons are generally from southerly shifting
to westerly with rising barometer. In connection with southern
storms, however, gales of exceptional violence sometimes come from
the east quadrants.
During periods of abnormally high temperature the wind generally
comes from points between south and west. The cold winds of late
spring come from the northeast quadrant; in other seasons the cold
winds come from the northwest.
Frost is likely to damage fruit or other tender crops during April
and the early part of May, and from late in September through
October.
Heavy frost in spring and autumn is preceded by barometer above
the normal or rising rapidly, temperature falling to 40° or below,
decreasing relative humidity, clear or clearing weather, and light
winds from westerly quarters.
WICHITA, KANS.
Precipitation is usually preceded twelve to twenty-four hours by
winds from points between south and east and falling barometer, and
the barometer generally falls to 29.90 or below in spring to 29.80 or
below in summer and autumn and to 30 or below in winter before
precipitation begins. In all seasons precipitation begins, as a rule, on
falling barometer, but during the late autumn, early spring, and win-
ter months the beginning of precipitation is sometimes delayed until
151
after the turn in the barometer from falling to rising. At such times
the wind goes to north quadrants before the beginning of precipita-
tion attending the passage of a storm center south of the station.
In summer and autumn there is a marked decrease in relative
humidity twelve to twenty -four hours before rain. During the colder
months the change in the moisture of the air preceding precipitation
is not marked.
Precipitation does not always follow the appearance of cirrus or
cirro-stratus clouds, but when it does the interval between the appear-
ance of these clouds and the beginning of precipitation varies in
length from eighteen to twenty-four hours. The cirro-stratus clouds
gradually cover the whole sky, becoming denser, and merge into clouds
of alto-stratus and stratus formation.
The highest winds of all seasons come from northerly quadrants
with rising barometer.
The warm winds come from the south and from a little west of
south, but not from the southwest. The cold winds of all seasons
come from the north.
Frost is likely to cause damage as early as March 25, but generally
from April 1 to May 15. Damage is rarely caused by fall frosts.
The conditions that favor the occurrence of frost are, barometer
above 30, temperature falling to 36° or below, relative humidity 80
per cent or more, clear weather, and little or no wind.
WILMINGTON, N. C.
. Precipitation is preceded twelve to thirty-six hours by winds from
points between southeast and northeast and falling barometer, and
the barometer generally falls to 30 or below before precipitation
begins. At times, however, when the wind sets in from the north-
east during the colder months, the interval is not so great and the
barometer does not fall as low as stated.
Beyond the fact that "rain winds" are easterly winds and are
necessarily moist winds, no definite relation between relative humid-
ity and approaching rain has been discovered.
Cirrus and cirro-stratus clouds move from westerly and are con-
sidered forerunners of rain for an average period of about thirty-six
hours.
High winds come from southwest and northeast with falling
barometer.
The warm winds of all seasons come from the southwest, and the
cold winds from the north.
Heavy frost in spring and autumn is preceded by barometer rising
and above the normal, temperature falling to 40° or below, low rela-
tive humidity, clearing or clear weather, and light winds from the
northwest quadrant.
152
WXLLJSTON, N. DAK.
Precipitation is usually preceded about twelve hours by southerly
winds and falling" barometer, and the barometer generally falls to
about 29.80 or below in spring- and summer to 29.90 or below in
autumn and to 30 or below in winter before precipitation begins. In
spring and autumn, precipitation usually begins on a falling barometer,
in summer about the time of the turn in the barometer from falling
to rising, and in winter on a rising barometer.
There is usually a slight decrease in relative humidity preceding
precipitation, but the relation between changes in atmospheric moist-
ure and precipitation have not been noted.
Cirro-stratus clouds from westerly quarters are considered indicators
of precipitation, but the period of interval between their first appear-
ance and the beginning of precipitation has not been observed.
The high winds of all seasons come from west, northwest, and north
with rising barometer.
The warm winds of spring come from south and southwest, of sum-
mer and winter from points between south and west, and of autumn
from south and southeast. The cold winds of all seasons come from
northwest and north.
The soil products of this section are not subject to damage by frost,
the only fruit grown being a few strawberries, and the principal crop,
hay.
Frost will occur in the spring and fall when the temperature falls
below 40°, with high barometer, high relative humidity, light north-
west to north winds, and clear or clearing weather.
WINNEMTJCCA, NEV.
In spring and summer, rain usually falls in the form of thunder-
storms with westerly winds and is preceded about twenty-four hours
by winds blowing from points between southeast and south. In
autumn and winter, winds from south to southeast precede precipi-
tation nine to twelve hours. In spring the barometer generally falls
to 29.80 or below in summer to 29.75 or below and in late autumn
and winter to 29.90 or below before precipitation begins.
Observations of the relative humidity of the air are not considered
of value in forecasting, for, although decreasing atmospheric moist-
ure in spring and summer indicates rain, and increasing humidity in
autumn and winter indicates rain or snow, these changes occur so
frequently without precipitation that they are of value in foreseeing
storms only when considered in connection with other atmospheric
conditions.
The sky in this dry climate is seldom free from upper clouds, but
weeks will sometimes pass without rain. In the spring upper clouds
153
from the south are often followed by rain in eighteen to twent}T-four
hours. In summer cumulus clouds from the southward that are met
by clouds coming from another direction are frequently followed by
showers and thunderstorms in twelve to fourteen hours. In autumn
and winter, upper clouds from the north or northeast are generally
followed by precipitation in twelve to eighteen hours. Cirrus and
cirro-stratus clouds move from points between southwest and west.
The high winds of this station come from the southwest quadrant
with falling barometer.
, The warm winds of all seasons come from south to southwest points,
and the cold winds from north and northeast.
Fruit is likely to be damaged by frost from April 15 to May 15, and
garden produce from August 15 to September 15.
Frost is usually preceded by low but rapidly rising barometer, high
and rapidl}7 falling temperature, high relative humidity, and southerly
winds with light rain followed by wind going to northerly.
YUM A, ARIZ.
While the barometer generally falls and the wind comes from south
and east quadrants before precipitation the winds that immediately
precede rain are squalls, entirely local, and of varying directions and
intensity.
In summer and winter there is usually an increase in relative humid-
ity three to six hours before rain. Increasing moisture in summer
indicates showery conditions and precipitation in adjacent localities.
In winter high humidity occurs, in the absence of wind, by reason of
excessive evaporation from river and irrigated areas.
In summer cirrus clouds from the southwest sometimes precede
showers two to six hours. In other seasons cirrus clouds appear mov-
ing from west or southwest, but the definite relation that may exist
between the appearance of these clouds and conditions favorable for
precipitation have not been determined.
The high winds of spring, autumn, and winter come from the north
with rising barometer, and of summer from southeast shifting to
southwest \vinds and rising barometer.
In this section frost will cause damage from the middle of Decem-
ber to the middle of February.
Heavy frost is preceded by rising barometer, temperature falling
to 40° or below, low but increasing relative humidity, decreasing wind
becoming very light, and clear weather.
1455— No. 33—03-
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
^UFOV^
I
Correction. — The following note should not appear on Charts X to
XIII : " Figures indicate average number of hours clouds were ob-
served before precipitation begins."
UNIVERSITY
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