LIBRARY -
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
' ' ' - <
Class
1 JS :
' ' ' '''" --:.
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WELL-BORING
FOR WATER, BRINE AND OIL
EFFECT OF A SHOT FIRED IN HARD ROCKS AT THE DEPTH OF 363 FEET FROM THE SURFACE IN A
7*-|NCH INTERNAL DIAMETER ARTESIAN BORED TUBE WELL, FIXED FOR MESSRS. ARNOLD,
PERRETT & CO., THE BREWERY, WICKWAR, GLOUCESTER.
WELL-BORING
FOR
WATER, BRINE AND OIL
A MANUAL
OF CURRENT PRACTICE
BY
C. I S L E R
HYDKAULIC ENGINBKK.
Bonbon
E. & F. N. SPON, LTD., 125 STRAND
flcfo Sovfe
SPON AND CHAMBERLAIN, 12 CORTLANDT STREET
1902.
GENERAL
PREFACE.
WITH the dissemination of knowledge bearing upon sani-
tation, and a general recognition of the terrible risks of
pollution in wells supplied by surface drainage, it is to be
hoped that the days of the shallow dug well are closed for
ever.
No price would be too high to pay for absolute security
against contamination of the most essential and most
largely consumed article of our daily food ; and no matter
how costly the deep bored well might be in comparison
with the shallow dug well, its advantages would outweigh
the initial expense.
But to such a high state of efficiency has well-boring
now been brought by the most advanced firms who make
a speciality of this branch of engineering, that the outlay
based on even a five or seven years' supply only is much
less in a deep tube well than in a shallow dug well.
Moreover, while the one is never-failing\*ot\\ in quantity
and in quality, the shortcomings of the other are sure to be
emphasised during periods of extreme drought when our
needs are most urgent.
In districts where superficial streams are few or entirely
wanting, such as in the more tropical portions of our great
Australian and South African Colonies, the deep well is
absolutely essential to occupation of the land for any pur-
viii WELL-BORING.
pose, and the sinking of water bores commands the atten-
tion of a Government department. But a vast field yet
remains neglected, and there are countless opportunities
for private enterprise which would in a few years return
immense fortunes. The average annual value of horses,
cattle and sheep lost by thirst in the countries named
must amount to millions sterling, and a deal of human sick-
ness arises from pollution of air and water by their putre-
fying carcasses, all which is remediable by deep wells.
Here in England, with generally more than an abundance
of surface water, domestic drainage and factory effluents
combine to taint all such supplies. To the brewer, the
mineral-water manufacturer, the dyer, the paper-maker,
and in many other industries, a constant and pure water-
supply is of the first moment ; hence the deep well with
its reliable and unsullied flow is fast becoming a recog-
nised indispensable at all factories and works of any
pretensions, and many hundreds of such wells, ranging in
depth from 150 to 500 feet and in capacity from 2000 to
35,000 gallons per hour, have been bored all over the
country in the last few years.
Finally the large domestic consumer has commenced
to realise the folly and cost of dependence on the shallow
well or the water company, and not only have many country
mansions recently been equipped with a deep tube-well and
pumping or other water-lifting mechanism, furnishing an
abundant supply independent of the weather, and affording
increased protection against fire, but the same thing has
been done in a great many of the big hotels and other
establishments in London and the provinces. Besides the
inestimable advantages of such an unrestricted regular and
PREFACE. ix
pure supply, the financial gain is not inconsiderable, the
cost of pumping being only about \\d. per 1000 gallons,
and the initial outlay on the boring and equipment being
recouped in the first year by the saving on water-rates.
It has been computed by reliable authorities that the
water in the chalk strata of the London basin is much more
than sufficient to meet all the demands of the same super-
ficial area. Here surely is a " London water scheme "
better than any piping from lakes, with its contingent risks
of polluted sources, and of a complete famine in case of
accident to the conduit.
While water is the fluid most often sought by boring,
precisely similar methods are applied to other liquid
minerals, such as brine and petroleum, and most of the
matter contained in these pages may be regarded as re-
ferring indiscriminately to all of them. Chapter VIII.
deals more particularly with American oil wells.
C. ISLER.
ARTESIAN WORKS, BEAR LANE,
SOUTHWARK, LONDON, S.E.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
I. GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS . . i
II. DUG WELLS ... 23
III. DRIVEN TUBE WELLS . .28
IV. BORED TUBE WELLS 41
V. KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM . . 73
VI. DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM ... . . 92
VII. MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM . . .106
VIII. AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM 131
IX. DEEP 'BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS . . .157
X. RAISING WATER 174
INDEX 193
OF THE
f UNIVERSITY
WELL-BORING-
CHAPTER I.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
Soakage. Porous soils, such as sand and gravel, absorb
water with rapidity, and consequently their surface soon
dries up after showers. A well sunk in these soils may
penetrate ta considerable depths before meeting with water ;
but water, nevertheless, is usually found on approaching
some lower part of the porous formation where it rests on
an impervious bed, for here the water, unable to make its
way downwards in a direct line, accumulates as in a reser-
voir, and is ready to ooze out into any opening which may
be made, in the same manner as sea-water will filter into
and fill any hollow dug in the sands of the shore at low
tide. A spring, then, is the lowest overflow-point or lip of
f an underground reservoir of water in the stratification. A
well sunk in such strata will most probably furnish, besides
the volume flowing from the spring, an additional supply of
water, inasmuch as it may give access to the main contents
of the reservoir.
Transmission of water through a porous medium being
so rapid, it may easily be understood why springs are
thrown out on the side of a hill, where the**ipper set of
B
2 WELL-BORING.
strata consist of chalk, sand and other absorptive sub-
stances, whilst those lying beneath are composed of clay or
other non-absorptive soils. The principal reasons why the
water does not ooze out everywhere along the line of junc-
tion of the two formations, so as to form one continuous
land-soak instead of creating a few springs only, and these
oftentimes far distant from each other, are, firstly, the con-
centration of the water at a few points due to existence of
inequalities in the upper surface of the impermeable stratum,
which lead the water, as valleys do on the external surface,
into certain low levels and channels, and secondly, the
frequency of rents and fissures acting as natural drains.
That the generality of springs owe their supply to
atmospheric sources is evident from this, that they vary
in the different seasons of the year, becoming languid or
entirely ceasing to flow after long droughts, and being again
replenished after a continuance of rain. Many of them are
probably indebted for the constancy and uniformity of their
volume to the great extent of subterranean reservoirs with
which they communicate, and the time required for these to
empty themselves by percolation. Such a gradual and
regulated discharge is exhibited, though in a less perfect
degree, in all great lakes, for these are not sensibly affected
in their levels by a sudden shower, but are only slightly
raised, and their channels of efflux, instead of being swollen
suddenly like the bed of a torrent, carry off the surplus
water gradually.
An " artesian " well so called from the province of
Artois, in France is a shaft sunk or bored through non-
absorptive strata until a water-bearing stratum is tapped,
when the water is forced upwards by the hydrostatic
pressure due to the superior level at which the rain-water
was received. The term artesian was originally only
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3
applied to wells which overflowed, but nearly all deep wells
are so called, without reference to their water-level, if they
have bore-holes.
Among the causes of failure of artesian wells, may be
mentioned the numerous rents and faults which occur in
some rocks, and the deep ravines and valleys by which
many countries are traversed ; for when these natural lines
of drainage exist, there remains only a small quantity of
water to escape by artificial issues. The well-borer is also
liable to be baffled by the great thickness either of absorp-
FIG. i. LIMITED OUTCROP OF ABSORPTIVE STRATUM.
tive or non-absorptive strata ; or by the dip of the beds,
which may carry off the waters from adjoining high lands
to some trough in an opposite direction as when the
borings are made at the foot of an escarpment where the
strata incline inwards, i.e. in a direction opposite to the face
of the cliffs.
As instances of the way in which the character of the
strata may influence the water-bearing capacity of any
given locality, the following examples are cited from
Latham.
Fig. i illustrates the causes which sometimes conduce to
B 2
4 WELL-BORING.
a limited supply of water in artesian wells. Rain descend-
ing on the outcrop E F of the absorptive stratum A, which
lies between the non-absorptive strata B B, will make its ap-
pearance in the form of a spring at S ; but such spring
will not yield any great quantity of water, as the area E F,
which receives the rainfall, is limited in its extent ; and the
well bored at W into the absorptive stratum A would not
be likely to furnish a large supply of water if, indeed, it
afforded any.
The effect of a fault is shown in Fig. 2. A spring will
in all probability make its appearance at the point S, and
FIG. 2. EFFECT OF FAULTING.
will give large quantities of water, the whole body of
water flowing through the absorptive stratum A being
intercepted by being thrown against the non-absorptive
stratum B.
Absorptive rock intersected by a dyke, and overlying
a non-absorptive stratum, is seen in Fig. 3. The water
flowing through A, if interrupted by a dyke D, will appear
at S in the form of a spring ; and if the area of A is very
great, then the spring S will be very copious.
As to the depth necessary to bore certain wells in cases
similar to that shown in Fig. 4. Owing to the fault, a well
at A would require to be bored deeper than the well B,
although both wells derive their supply from the same
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
5
description of strata. If there were any inclination in the
water-bearing strata, or if there were a current of water
FIG. 3. EFFECT OF DYKE.
only in one direction then one of the wells would prove a
failure, owing to the proximity of the fault, while the other
would furnish an abundant supply of water.
FIG. 4. DEPTHS.
Volume. It should be borne in mind that there are two
primary geological conditions upon which the quantity of
water that may be supplied to the water-bearing strata
depends : these are the extent of superficial area pre-
sented, by which the quantity of rain-water received on
their surface in any given time is determined ; and the
character and thickness of the strata, as by this the pro-
portion of water that can be absorbed, and the volume
which the whole mass of the absorptive strata can transmit,
are regulated. The operation of these general principles
will constantly vary in accordance with local phenomena,
6 WELL-BORING.
all of which must, in each separate case, be taken into con-
sideration.
Mere remoteness from hills or mountains need not dis-
courage the making of trials, for the waters which fall on
these higher lands readily penetrate to great depths through
highly-inclined and vertical strata, or through the fissures
of shattered rocks ; and, after flowing for a great distance,
they often reascend by way of other fissures, so as to ap-
proach the surface in the lower country. Here they may
be concealed beneath a covering of undisturbed horizontal
beds, which it may be necessary to pierce in order to reach
them. The course of water flowing underground is not
strictly analogous to that of rivers on the surface, there
being, in the one case, a constant descent from a higher to
a lower level, from the source of the stream to the sea ;
whereas, in the other, the water may at one time sink far
below the level of the ocean, and afterwards rise again high
above it.
It is evident that a series of permeable strata, encased
between two impermeable formations, can receive a supply
of water at those points only where they crop out and are
exposed on the surface of the land. The primary condition
affecting their usefulness depends upon the fall of rain in
the district where the outcrop takes place, the quantity of
rain-water which any absorptive strata can gather being in
the same ratio as their respective areas. Each inch of mean
annual fall in any district represents a daily average of practi-
cally 40,000 gallons of rain-water per square mile. It is there-
fore a matter of essential importance to ascertain, with as
much accuracy as possible, the area of exposed surface of
any water-bearing deposit, so as to determine the maximum
quantity of rain-water it is capable of receiving.
Whatever may be the absorbent power of the strata, the
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. ^
yield of water will be more or less diminished whenever the
channels of communication have suffered break or fracture.
If the strata remained continuous and unbroken, it would
only be necessary to ascertain their dimensions and litho-
logical character in order to determine their actual water
value. But where the strata are broken, the interference
with subterranean transmission of water will be propor-
tionate to the extent of the disturbance.
Every permeable stratum may afford water, and its
ability to do this and the quantity it can yield depend
upon its position and extent. When underlaid by an im-
pervious stratum, it constitutes a reservoir of water from
which a supply may be drawn by means of a sinking or a
bore-hole. If the permeable stratum be also overlaid by
an impervious stratum, the water will be under pressure,
and will ascend in the bore-hole to a height depending on
the height of the points of infiltration above the bottom of
the bore-hole. The quantity to be obtained in such a case,
as already pointed out, will depend upon the extent of sur-
face possessed by the outcrop of the permeable stratum.
In searching for water under such conditions, a careful
examination of the geological features of the district must
be made. Frequently an extended view of the surface of
the district, such as may be obtained from an eminence,
and a consideration of the particular configuration of that
surface, will be sufficient to enable the practical eye to dis-
cover the various routes which are followed by the sub-
terranean water, and to predicate with some degree of
certainty that at a given point water will be found in
abundance, or that no water at all exists at that point.
To do this, it is sufficient to note the dip and the surfaces
of the strata which are exposed to the rains. When these
strata are nearly horizontal, water can penetrate them only
8 WELL-BORING.
through their fissures or pores ; when, on the contrary, they
lie at right angles, they absorb the larger portion of the
water that falls upon their outcrop. When such strata are
intercepted by valleys, numerous springs will exist. But
if, instead of being intercepted, the strata rise around a
common point, they form a kind of irregular basin, in the
centre of which the water will accumulate. In this case
the surface springs will be less numerous that when the
strata are broken. But it is possible to obtain water
under pressure in the lower portions of the basin, if the
point at which the trial is made is situate below the out-
crop.
If the strata consist of sand, water will pass through
them with facility, and they will also hold a considerable
quantity in the interstices between their component grains ;
whereas a bed of pure clay will not allow of the passage
of water. These are the two extremes of the case. The
intermixture of these materials in the same bed will, of
course, modify the transmission of water according to the
relative proportions. Sand of ordinary character will hold
on an average rather more than one-third of its bulk of
water, or 2 to 2j gallons per cubic foot. In strata so
composed the water may be termed free, as it passes
easily in all directions ; and under the pressure of a column
of water, it is comparatively but little impeded by capillary
attraction. These are the conditions of a true permeable
stratum. Where the strata are more compact and solid,
as in sandstone, limestone and oolite, although all such
rocks imbibe more or less water, yet the water so absorbed
does not pass freely through the mass, but is held in the
pores of the rock by capillary attraction, and parted with
very slowly ; so that in such deposits water can be freely
transmitted only in the planes of bedding and in fissures.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 9
If the water-bearing deposit is of uniform lithological cha-
racter over a large area, then the proposition is reduced to
its simplest form ; but when the strata consist of variable
mineral ingredients, it becomes essential to estimate the
extent of these variations.
Rainfall. Rain is most capricious, both as regards its
frequency and the amount which falls in a given time. In
some places it rarely or never falls, whilst in others it rains
almost every day ; and there does not yet exist any theory
from which a probable estimate of the rainfall in a given
district can be deduced, independently of direct observa-
tion. But a workable average of the quantity of rain to
be expected in any particular place may be judged from
careful and continued observations with a rain-gauge. The
mouth of the gauge must be set quite level, and so fixed
that it will remain so ; it should never be less than 6 inches
nor more than 12 inches above the ground, except when a
greater elevation is absolutely necessary to obtain a proper
exposure. It must be placed on level ground, unshaded
and unsheltered, and away from all structures and growths
of every kind, at least as many feet from their base as they
are in height.
For snow, three methods may be adopted : (a) melt
what is caught in the funnel, and measure that as rain ;
(b) select a place where the snow has not drifted, invert
the funnel, and turning it round, lift and melt what is en-
closed ; (c) measure with a rule the average depth of snow,
and take one-twelfth as the equivalent of water. Some
observers use a cylinder of the same diameter as the rain-
gauge, and of considerable depth ; if the wind is at all
rough, all the snow is blown out of a flat-funnelled rain-
gauge.
A "drainage area " is almost always a district of country
io WELL-BORING.
enclosed by a ridge or watershed line, continuous except
at the place where the waters of the basin find an outlet.
It may be, and generally is, divided by branch ridge-lines
into a number of lesser basins, each drained by its own
stream into the main one.
When a catchment basin is very extensive, it is ad-
visable to measure the smaller basins of which it consists,
as the depths of rainfall in them may be different ; some-
times, also, for the same reason, those basins may be
divided into portions at different distances from the moun-
tain chains, where rain-clouds are chiefly formed.
The exceptional cases, in which the boundary of a
drainage area is not a ridge-line on the surface of the
country, are those in which the rain-water sinks into a
porous stratum until its descent is stopped by an imper-
vious stratum, and in which, consequently, one boundary at
least of the drainage area depends on the figure of the im-
pervious stratum, being, in fact, a ridge-line on the upper
surface of that stratum, instead of on the ground, and
very often marking the upper edge of the outcrop of that
stratum. If the porous stratum is partly covered by a
second impervious stratum, the nearest ridge-line on the
latter stratum to the point where the porous stratum crops
out will be another boundary of the drainage area. In
order to determine a drainage area under these circum-
stances, it is necessary to have a geological map and sec-
tions of the district.
The most important data respecting depth of rainfall,
for practical purposes, are : least annual rainfall ; mean
annual rainfall ; greatest annual rainfall ; distribution of
rainfall at different seasons, especially the longest con-
tinuous drought ; and greatest flood rainfall, or continuous
fall of rain in a short period.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. n
The available rainfall is that part of the total which
remains to be stored in reservoirs, or carried away by
streams, after deducting loss through evaporation, through
permanent absorption by plants and by the ground, and
other causes.
The proportion borne by available to total rainfall
varies very much : it is affected by the rapidity of the rain-
fall, the compactness or porosity of the soil, the steepness
or flatness of the ground, the nature and quality of the
vegetation upon it, the temperature and moisture of the
air (regulating the rate of evaporation), the existence of
artificial drains, and other circumstances. The following
are examples :
Available Rainfall
Ground. *
Total Rainfall.
Steep surfaces of granite, gneiss, and slate . . nearly I
Moorland and hilly pasture *8 to '6
Flat cultivated country "5 to '6
Chalk o
Deep-seated springs and wells give '3 to '4 of the total
rainfall. In chalk districts it has been found that evapora-
tion is about 34%, and the quantity carried off by streams
23%, leaving 43% which sinks below the surface to form
springs.
In formations less absorbent than the chalk, it is calcu-
lated by some authorities that streams carry off one-third,
that another third evaporates, and that the remaining
third of the total rainfall sinks into the earth. But if they
are correct in allowing one-third for evaporation in the
cool and humid climate of England, 100% would not be too
much in such arid districts as the interiors of Australia
and Africa.
The following table gives the mean annual rainfall in
various parts of the world :
12
WELL-BORING.
TABLE OF RAINFALL. Collected by G. J. Symons.
Country and Station.
Period of
Observa-
tions.
Latitude.
Mean
Annual
Fall.
EUROPE.
AUSTRIA Cracow
years.
o /
CO A "N"
in.
4.7
y 4 0.x.
CO C
66 A
IO
5 5
48 12
*5 l
IQ " 6
BELGIUM Brussels
2O
CQ Cl
28-6
Ghent
13
Cl 4.
7O*6
12
CO 71
28*6
DENMARK Copenhagen
FRANCE Bayonne
12
IO
J u OJ
55 41
4.7 2Q
22-3
C6'2
Bordeaux
72
jU X
Brest
o- 6
2O
*H- D u
d.8 27
3 Z 4
78-8
2O
d.7 I/l
71*1
4.^ d.6
O 1 l
77 "O
60
d.3 17
o/ w
IQ "O
Montpelier ... . .
er
*K> - 1 /
/17 76
Nice
J x
2O
H-J O u
47 /17
3 3
CC'2
Paris ...
A fl.
M-O *frO
48 Co
jj *
22 *O
Pau
12
4.7 IQ
** y
77' I
IO
XQ 27
77* 7
4.7 4.
OJ 1
IQ" 7
12
4.7 76
2/1 'Q
GREAT BRITAIN
4.O
Co AA
77"O
,, Lincoln
4.O
C7 1C
2O "O
London . .
4.O
jj 1 D
CI 71
2A"O
,, Manchester
AQ
D 1 O 1
C7 2Q
76"O
Wales, Cardiff
dO
51 28
4.7 "O
Llandudno . .
AO
C7 IQ
7O*O
Scotland, Aberdeen ......
4.O
C7 8
71 *O
Edinburgh
4.O
CC C7
24*O
Glasgow*
AO
CC C2
7Q"O
JJ D- 6
oy u
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
TABLE OF RAINFALL continued.
Country and Station.
Period of
Observa-
tions.
Latitude.
Mean
Annual
Fall.
GREAT BRITAIN continued.
years.
4.O
1
Cj C4. N
in.
4.O*O
, Dublin
4
c-2 2T,
3O'O
4O
t-t ic
CQ'O
CT cc
22*O
c
64 8
28*0
22
7Q -JJ
8
A.1 4.6
3C'o
Milan . . ...
68
4C 2Q
jj y
^8'o
Naples
8
d.O 12
7O" 7
4.0
41 C,"?
jy o
7O'Q
Af e
78*6
iq
*O j
4.5 2?
?e C4
ir -n
IO
jj DH-
60 24
*j w
84*8
en CA
26*7
PORTUGAL Coimbra (in Vale of Mondego)
2
2O
40 13
-?8 4.2
u /
224'0?
21'O
6
"?2 ^O
*J u
2^-6
IO
Cn CC
24. *O
i
D w 3D
"\2 24.
^ w
22 '4.
Potsdam . . . ...
IO
C2 24
2O* "?
RUSSIA Archangel
14.
D^ *^
64 "^2
* w J
I
4.6 24
6-1
6? O
St. Petersburg
en c6
16-2
24.
?8 8
22* 8
SPAIN Madrid
4O 24.
9*O
j
4.7 22
1 1 1 * I
SWEDEN Stockholm
8
*ro *"
en 2O
IO*7
72
46 12
71-8
Great St. Bernard
A-i
4.1 tQ
o*
^8' 5
8
4.6 IO
78'?
WELL-BORING.
TABLE OF RAINFALL continued.
Country and Station.
Period of
Observa-
tions.
Latitude.
Mean
Annual
Fall.
ASIA.
years.
o
6 SON.
in.
lOO'O
Colombo ....
6 t;6
Qi'7
7 18
84*0
14
2T. 6
60 "1
Mcicno ....
22 2A.
68-3
Pekin
7
70 C4
26'9
72.
18 56
84-7
Calcutta . . .....
2O
22 2C
66-Q
2< 16
610"? ?
Darieeling
21 "\
127' ?
Madras . . .
22
J-5 A
4/1 " 6
\f
*O T-
17 ^6
2"?4*O
Malabar Tellicherry
1 1 A.A
116*0
e
8 30
21 ' I
Patna
2<t 4.O
36-7
4"
18 70
27*4
MALAYSIA Pulo Penang
e 2 1 ?
IOO' ">
I 17
IQO'O
PERSIA Lencoran
3
58 44
42*8
I
37 28
21 ' H
RUSSIA Barnaoul
TC
C7 ^O
n-8
12
ci 18
I7'C
Okhotsk
2
CQ T7
^C'2
Tiflis .
6
^T y12
IQ*^
Tobolsk ', .
2
<?8 12
2"?'O
TURKEY Palestine, Jerusalem ....
B
31 47
3i 47
38 26
65'0?
16-3
27-6
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
TABLE OF RAINFALL continued.
Country and Station.
Period of
Observa-
tions.
Latitude.
Mean
Annual
Fall.
AFRICA.
years
/
12 36 N.
in.
37* 3
ALGERIA Algiers
IO
l6 47
"?7'O
Constantina
"?6 24
30'8
I
7C CO
22'O
2
^C CQ
22' I
ASCENSION .
2
8 8S
II c
CAPE COLONY Cape Town ....
GUINEA Christiansborg
20
33 52
c. 30 N
24-3
IQ*2
MADEIRA
n 70
^O'Q
MAURITIUS Port Louis
20 38
je 2
2Q *6
27-6
ST. HELENA
I
1C, cc
l8'8
SIERRA LEONE
8 30 N.
86-0
TENERIFFE
2
28 28
22* 3
NORTH AMERICA.
BRITISH COLUMBIA New Westminster .
CANADA Montreal, St. Martin's . . .
Toronto
3
2
16
49 12 N.
45 31
4.-I JQ
54'i
47*3
11 'A
HONDURAS Belize
i
17 2Q
ic-j'o
MEXICO Vera Cruz .
IQ 12
66-1
RUSSIAN AMERICA Sitka
7
c.7 -j
8q*Q
UNITED STATES Arkansas, Fort Smith .
California, San Francisco ....
Nebraska, Fort Kearney ....
'5
9
6
2
35 23
37 48
4038
34 IO
42-1
23*4
28-8
7'Q
New York, West Point
12
41 2T,
46' 5
Ohio Cincinnati . . .
2O
3Q 6
46*0
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia ....
South Carolina, Charlestown .
19
'5
6
39 57
32 46
2"> 54
43'6
48-3
7C'2
i6
WELL-BORING.
TABLE OF RAINFALL continued.
Country and Station.
Period of
Observa-
tions.
Latitude.
Mean
Annual
Fall.
NORTH AMERICA continued.
WEST INDIES Antigua .
years
O 1
17 1 N
in.
1Q' f
Barbadoes
IO
13 12
oy i
7C *n
,, St. Philip
2O
I? J3.
c6* i
Cuba, Havana
2
23 Q
J u l
CO* 2
I
23 2
^U -4
C C 7
12 8
J.) O
126*0
Guadeloupe, Basseterre
16 <;
126*0
,, Matonba
16 <;
28C-8
Jamaica, Caraib .
18 7
O7 "O
17 eg
y/ **
83*0
St. Domingo, Cape Haitien . . .
Tivoli
19 43
IQ O
127*9
106' 7
Trinidad
IO 4.O
62* o
Virgin Isles, St. Thomas ....
,, Tortola
18 17
l8 27
60*6
6si
SOUTH AMERICA.
BRAZIL Rio Janeiro
22 tjAS.
w j *
*8*7
3O
276*0
COLOMBIA La Baja
6
7 22 N.
C>1 f
Mnrniato
1C
c 2Q
JH-
QO'O
Santa Fe de Bogota ,
6
4 ^6
d.3'8
GUIANA Cayenne
6
4 56
138*3
Demerara, George Town . .
Paramaribo . . . . .
5
6 50
6 o
87*9
VENEZUELA Cumana
IO 27
7 r
12 I?
.)
26*6
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
TABLE OF RAINFALL continued.
Country and Station.
Period of
Observa-
tions.
Latitude.
Mean
Annual
Fall.
AUSTRALASIA.
NEW SOUTH WALES Bathurst . . .
years.
3
1
33 24 S.
in.
22'7
Deniliquin
Newcastle .... . .
2
35 32
72 S7
13-8
CC'7
Port Macquarie
12
~\1 29
7O*8
Sydney
6
77 C2
46*2
NEW ZEALAND Auckland
Christchurch
2
7
36 50
47 4.C
31-2
"U'7
Nelson
2
41 l8
l8'4
Taranaki
2
70 7
"?2'7
^Vellington .
2
41 17
77-8
SOUTH AUSTRALIA Adelaide ....
TASMANIA Hobart
6
12
34 55
42 <?4
19-2
2O'7
VICTORIA Melbourne
6
77 40
7O'9
Port Philip . ....
II
^8 7.0
29 '2
WEST AUSTRALIA Albany ....
York
i
35 o
71 CC
32-1
2S'4
POLYNESIA.
SOCIETY ISLANDS Tahiti Papiete . . .
5
17 32S.
45'7
Water-bearing Strata. Among absorptive beds, men-
tion may first be made of the " Drift." This superficial
formation consists mainly of beds of sand and gravel.
Having been formed by the action of flowing water, it is
very irregular in thickness, and exists frequently in de-
tached masses ; this irregularity is due to inequalities of
the surface at the period when the drift was brought down.
C
i8 WELL-BORING.
Hollows then existing would be filled up, while on level
surfaces no detritus would be deposited, or, if deposited,
would be subsequently removed by denudation. Hence it
is not safe to infer, when boring through deposits of this
character, that the same, or nearly the same, thickness will
be found at even a few yards' distance. In basins and in
broad valleys, this deposit may exist to great depth. The
absorptiveness of the beds will depend, of course, wholly
upon the nature of the deposit. Some rocks produce de-
posits through the whole of which water percolates readily,
while others allow a passage only through such fissures as
may exist. Sand and gravel constitute an extremely ab-
sorbent medium, while an argillaceous (clay) bed may be
wholly impervious. In mountainous districts, springs may
often be found in the drift, but their existence will then
depend upon the position and character of the rock strata.
Thus, if the drift cover an elevated and extensive slope of
a nature similar to that of the rocks by which it is formed,
springs due to infiltration through this covering will certainly
exist near the foot of the slope. Upon the opposite slope,
the small spaces existing between the different beds of rock
receive these infiltrations directly, and serve to completely
drain the deposit. If, however, the foliations or the joints
of the rocks afford no issue to the water, whether such
circumstance be due to the character of their formation, or
to the stopping up of the issues by the drift itself, these
results will not be produced.
Another superficial formation, termed " Alluvium " or
" alluvion," and often (ungrammatically) " alluvial," is simi-
larly composed of fragments of various strata carried away
and re-deposited by flowing water ; it differs, in fact, from
drift only in being more extensive and regular, and, gene-
rally, in being composed of elements brought from a greater
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 19
distance and having no analogy to the strata with which
it is now found in contact. It embraces sand, gravel, rolled
pebbles, marls and clays. The older deposits often occupy
very elevated districts, which they overlie throughout a
large extent of surface. The permeability of alluvial beds
allows the water to flow away subterraneously to great
distances from the points at which it enters. Springs are
common. As the surface covered by the deposit is exten-
sive, the water circulates from a distance through permeable
strata often overlaid by others that are non-absorptive. If
at a considerable distance from the points of infiltration,
and a lower level, a boring be put down, the water will
ascend in the bore-hole in virtue of its tendency to place
itself in equilibrium.
The sedimentary beds of Secondary and Tertiary geo-
logical ages, lying beneath the more recent formations just
described, are far more extensive than they and yield much
larger quantities of water.
The Chalk is the great water-bearing stratum for the
larger portion of the South of England, and here water
circulates through fissures. A rule sometimes given for the
level at which water may be found in this stratum is, " Take
the level of the highest source of supply, and that of the
lowest to be found. The mean level will be the depth at
which water will be found at any intermediate point, after
allowing an inclination of at least 10 feet per mile." This
rule will also apply to the Greensand formation, which
contains large quantities of water, and more evenly dis-
tributed than in the Chalk. The Gault Clay is interposed
between the Upper and the Lower Greensand, the latter of
which also furnishes good supplies. In boring into the
Upper Greensand, caution should be observed so as not
to pierce the Gault Clay, because water which permeates
C 2
20 WELL-BORING.
through that layer becomes contaminated with various
saline, ferruginous and other impurities.
Water is found in the Upper and Lower Oolites, between
which are certain clays, separated by the " coral rag." In-
stances occur in England where the so-called Oxford Clay
is met with immediately below another bed named the
Kimmeridge, rendering useless any attempt at boring, be-
cause the water in the Oxford Clay is generally so impure
as to be unfit for use. With regard to finding water in the
Oolitic Limestone, it is impossible to determine with any
amount of precision the depth at which it may be reached,
owing to the numerous faults which occur in the formation.
The Oolitic rocks are very porous, absorbing and holding
enormous volumes of water. In this respect they are equal
if not superior to the Chalk itself; and selected analyses
indicate that they are not inferior to the New Red Sand-
stone in the energy with which they oxidise and destroy
organic matter present in waters percolating through them.
Though their waters are generally hard, the hardness is
chiefly of a temporary character, capable of being softened
by Clark's process, so as to average 6 8 instead of 20 6 ;
the supply is bright, sparkling, and palatable, excellent for
drinking and all domestic purposes except washing, for
which the addition of lime renders it fit.
Lower in the sequence of formations are the Lias beds
(Upper Lias, Marlstone, and Lower Lias). In the Marlstone,
between the upper and lower beds of the Lias, may be found
a large supply of water ; but the level of this is as a rule so
low that it will not rise to the surface through a boring.
In the New Red Sandstone, also, to find water, borings
must be made to considerable depth ; but where this for-
mation exists, a copious supply can be confidently antici-
pated. It may be looked upon as almost equally permeable
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 21
in all directions, and the whole mass may be regarded as a
reservoir up to a certain level. Its water is clear, whole-
some, and pleasant to drink, also well adapted for the
purposes of bleaching, dyeing, and brewing ; at the same
time it must be admitted that its hardness, in other words
the proportions of carbonates of lime and magnesia it con-
tains, is subject to considerable variation. As a general
rule, it may be considered as occupying a position inter-
mediate between the hard water of the Chalk and the soft
water derived from superficial sources. Having but a small
proportion of saline ingredients, and being absolutely free
from artificial contaminations (such as sewage and manu-
facturing effluents), it possesses incalculable advantages
over water from rivers and surface drainage. Many large
towns are now partially or entirely supplied with water
pumped from deep bores in this Sandstone ; and many
millions of acres in central Australia have only ceased to
be waterless since numbers of bores have been sunk to
reach similar beds.
The primary rocks afford but little water. Having
been subjected to violent convulsions, they are thrown into
every possible position, and broken by numerous fissures ;
and no permeable stratum being interposed, as in the more
recent formations, no reservoir of water exists. In the un-
stratified rocks, the water circulates in all directions through
the fissures that traverse them, and thus occupies no fixed
level. It is also impossible to discover by surface exami-
nation where the fissures may be struck by boring. For
purposes of water supply, therefore, these rocks are of little
importance. It must be remarked here, however, that large
quantities of water are frequently met with in the Magnesian
Limestone and the Lower Red Sandstone, which form the
upper portion of the primary series.
22 WELL-BORING.
It is hardly necessary to say that rocks of igneous origin
are devoid of water-bearing strata, and though the extra-
ordinary anomaly may be seen in Australia of borings for
water put down in solid granite, this is due to pernicious
political influences and in spite of the protests of professional
advisers.
CHAPTER II.
DUG WELLS.
SLOWLY but surely the " sunk " well, with its huge exca-
vation and brick curbing, is going out of existence, and no
regret need follow it. From its very nature, it is absurdly
expensive and adapted only to shallow sinking ; but much
worse than this is the fact that its sources of water supply
are almost invariably tainted. Very few pages will suffice
for this chapter.
Marking-off. Sinking is commenced by marking off
upon the ground a circle 1 2 or 1 8 in. greater than the in-
tended internal diameter of the well. Its centre must be
carefully preserved, and everything must be true to it, the
plumb-line being frequently used to test the vertical position
of the sides.
Under-pinning. To sink by under-pinning, an excava-
tion is first made to such depth as the strata will allow
without falling in. At the bottom is laid a " curb " or flat
ring ; its internal diameter equals the intended clear dia-
meter of the well, and its breadth the thickness of the
brickwork. It is made of oak or elm planks 3 to 4 in.
thick, either in one layer fished at the joints with iron, or
in two layers breaking joint and spiked or screwed together.
On this, to line the first division of the well, a cylinder of
brickwork, technically called " steining," is built in mortar
or cement. In the centre of the floor is dug a pit, at the
bottom of which is laid a small platform of boards ; then,
24 WELL-BORING.
by cutting notches in the side of the pit, several raking
props are inserted, their lower ends abutting against a foot-
block, and their upper ends against the lowest setting, so
as to give temporary support to the curb with its load of
brickwork. The pit is enlarged to the diameter of the well ;
on the bottom of the excavation is laid a new curb, on
which is built a new division of the brickwork, giving per-
manent support to the upper curb ; the raking props and
their foot-blocks are removed ; a new pit is dug ; and so on
as before. The earth must be firmly packed behind the
steining.
In a common modification of this method, a wooden curb
is laid at the bottom of the excavation ; the brick steining
is built upon it and carried to the surface ; the earth is
excavated flush with the interior sides of the well, so that
the earth beneath the curb supports the brickwork above ;
when the excavation has been carried as far as convenient,
recesses are made in the earth under the previous steining,
and in these recesses the steining is carried up to the
previous work ; when thus supported, the intermediate
portions of earth between the sections of brickwork carried
up are cut away, and the steining is completed.
Drum-curbing. A "drum-curb," which may be either
of wood or iron, consists of a flat ring for supporting the
steining, and of a vertical hollow cylinder or drum of the
same outside diameter as the steining, supporting the ring
within it and bevelled to a sharp edge below. The rings or
ribs of a wooden curb are formed of two thicknesses of elm
plank 9 by \\ in., giving a total thickness of 3 in. The
outside cylinder or lagging is made from I J-in. yellow pine
planks. It may be strengthened by additional rings and
by brackets. In large curbs, the rings are placed about
3 ft. 6 in. apart. When the well has been sunk as far as the
(DUG WELLS. 25
earth will stand vertical, the drum curb is lowered into it,
and the building of the brick cylinder is commenced, each
course of bricks being completed before laying another, in
order that the curb may be loaded equally all round. The
earth is dug away from the interior of the drum, and this,
together with the gradually increasing load, causes the
sharp lower edge of the drum to sink into the earth : thus
the digging of the well bottom, the sinking of the drum-
curb and its brick lining, and the building of the steining
at the top, go on together. Care must be taken to so
regulate the digging that the well shall sink vertically.
Should the friction of the earth against the outside of the
drum become so great as to stop its descent before the
requisite depth is attained, a smaller well may be sunk in
the interior of the first : a well so stopped is said to be
" earth-fast." This plan is successful only in sandy soils
and to moderate depths.
The curbs are often supported by iron rods (with screws
and nuts) from cross-timbers over the mouth of the well ;
as the excavation proceeds, brickwork is piled on above,
and the weight of the steining carries down the curb until
it becomes earth-bound.
Materials for Steining. The materials that have been
successfully used in lining or steining are brick, stone,
timber, and iron.
Brickwork is universally used in England, but not un-
frequently it fails, through admitting impure water (when
under great pressure), or through becoming disjointed (from
settlement due to draining a running sand-bed), or the col-
lapse of the well.
Brick steining is either laid dry or in cement, 9~in. work
being used for large wells and 4j-in. for small wells. Figs. 5
and 6 show the method of laying for Q-in. work, and Fig. 7
WELL-BORING.
for 4j-in. The bricks are laid flat, breaking joint. To
keep out moderate land-springs, clay-puddle or concrete is
introduced at the back of the steining ; for most purposes,
FIG. 5. BRICK STEINING.
FIG. 6. BRICK STEINING.
FIG. 7. BRICK STEINING.
concrete is the better, as, in addition to its impervious
character, it adds greatly to the strength of the steining.
A ring or two of brickwork in cement is often introduced
DUG WELLS. 27
at intervals varying from 5 to 12 ft., to strengthen the shaft
and facilitate construction.
Stone of fair quality, capable of withstanding compres-
sive strains, is good in its way ; but inasmuch as it requires
a great deal of labour to fit it for its place, it cannot often
successfully compete with brickwork. In selecting a stone,
attention must be paid not only to its durability but also
to freedom from soluble ingredients which might impair
the purity of the water.
Timber is objectionable on account of its liability to
decay, when it not only endangers the structure, but also
to some extent fouls the water. It is very largely used in
the preliminary operations of sinking most wells ; and in
lining the shafts of the salt wells of Cheshire it endures
for a great number of years, the brine acting as a pre-
servative.
Iron is of modern application, and is extensively em-
ployed, it being capable of bearing great compressive
strains and of effectually excluding the influx of such
waters as it may be desirable to keep out, and not liable
to decay under ordinary circumstances. Baldwin Latham
mentions instances in his practice of successful recourse to
iron cylinders where 4 or 5 rings of brickwork set in the
best cement failed to keep out brackish waters.
28 WELL-BORING.
CHAPTER III.
DRIVEN TUBE WELLS.
Scope. For limited depths and supplies, and in strata
which, though, perhaps, hard and compact, are not com-
posed of actual rock, the driven tube forms a most useful
well, capable of being sunk at great speed, and drawing
its water from a horizon below most risks of contamination
by surface drainage, Since the driven tube well has been
in use the Author has introduced many improvements.
Before locating one of these wells, it is advisable to
ascertain the depth at which water is found in the district,
when possible, either by reference to a geological map or
by sounding existing dug wells. Thus may be gained an
approximate idea of the depth to which the tube well
must be driven ; but variations of the strata occur in very
short distances, and no guide is infallible.
If beds of stiff clay or true rock are encountered, it is
best to abandon the spot and try elsewhere.
Titles. The well consists of a hollow wrought-iron tube
about I J to 6 in. diam., composed of any number of lengths,
each of 3 to 10 ft., according to the depth required. The
water is admitted into the tube through a series of holes,
which extend up the lowermost length to a height of 2 J ft.
from the bottom. Specially tough lap-welded tubes are
necessary, to withstand the hammering and vibration to
which they are subjected ; gas-pipe and other common
brands are quite useless for this purpose.
DRIVEN TUBE WELLS.
29
The essential part of the tube is the " point " a (Fig. 8),
measuring about 3 ft. long, and perforated as already de-
scribed. This is furnished at top with a socket b which
receives the driving-cap c. Rigidly attached to this cap is
;
FIG. 8. DRIVING TUBES.
30 WELL-BORING.
a spindle or guide d, enveloped by the runner or sleeve e
of the monkey or driver/. This method of applying the
driving force to the tube is vastly superior to the old-
fashioned system of a clamp fixed to the tube ; the latter
nearly always resulted in more or less indentation of the
tube, sometimes causing much difficulty in adding new
lengths. The monkey may be raised by hand, as in A,
or by ropes and pulleys as in B C ; B is the pattern used
very extensively by the War Office.
Driving. The spot for sinking having been chosen, a
truly vertical hole is first made in the ground with a crow-
bar, and in this the properly rigged tube is inserted, all
joints having been first made quite tight. When in posi-
tion, 2 men raise the monkey either by hand (A) or by
ropes (B C). In the latter case, they should stand exactly
opposite each other and equidistant from the tube, pulling
the ropes at identical angles, and moving in time together,
so that the tube may maintain a vertical position and follow
a straight course. Should it deviate at all, gentle pressure
must be used to bring it gradually back, the pressure being
applied to the tube itself, and not on any account to the
spindle or guide-bar.
The driving-cap must be tightened after every few blows.
Though 2 men suffice for driving a i|-in. tube, an extra
hand will make a great difference to the speed, as he can
give undivided attention to the perpendicularity of the
tube and add some impulse to the fall of the monkey.
It is most essential to see that the first length is driven
quite vertically ; the driving should therefore be conducted
with the greatest care for the first 2 or 3 ft. The driving-
cap is withdrawn when a few inches off the ground, and a
fresh length of pipe is added. The pulley-bar and monkey
must be removed to allow the driving-cap to be unscrewed.
DRIVEN TUBE WELLS. 3*
As each joint on the tubes has to be water- and air-
tight, it must be oiled and white-leaded before fixing the
pipe on the length previously driven.
The socket is removed from one end of the pipe whilst
on the ground, by gripping the pipe with barrel-tongs, the
foot being lightly placed on the handles, and the socket
unscrewed by means of socket-tongs. The driving-cap is
screwed to this length of pipe, the monkey and pulley-bar
are slipped through it in the same manner as with the first
length, and the whole is bodily raised and screwed to the
tube driven. It is most particularly to be noted that the
smaller or barrel-tongs are to be used on the tube in all
instances, whether to screw or unscrew joints, otherwise
joints that have been made may get disturbed, and ruin
the work. The socket-tongs are placed on the socket, and
the pipe is then screwed up tightly so that the joints butt
against one another ; length after length is in this manner
added until the required depth is attained.
Clearing. The tube well should be sounded by means
of the plumb-bob from time to time during the driving, to
detect the presence either of water or of soil inside the
tube. A certain amount of soil is sure to find its way in,
and should be cleared at intervals ; otherwise, if the accu-
mulation be allowed to increase, springs may be passed,
and remain undiscovered.
The " clearing-out tubes " are to be used for this pur-
pose. Length after length is screwed together by means
of J-in. barrel- and socket-tongs, and suspended by J-in.
clips 2 or 3 in. above the debris, so that they will not choke.
Previous to lowering the J-in. tubes, the funnel (Fig. 9)
should be screwed to the well-tube, and by this means
water is poured into the well whilst it is being cleared. A
pump and reducing socket are attached to the J-in. tubes,
32 WELL-BORING.
and these are gradually lowered until the whole of the
debris has been removed from the pipe, when the clearing-
out tubes are withdrawn.
FIG. 9. FUNNEL.
When it is found impracticable to clear the well with
the ordinary point, recourse is had to a " sand-
tube " (Fig. 10), made according to the fineness
of the sand to be dealt with. Its action is in
every way similar to that of the ordinary well
point ; but it is protected by a perforated brass
sheath fixed over the drilled part of the tube,
and the holes in the pointed pipe are drilled very
much larger than in the ordinary well-tube, to
allow for the fine perforated brass. The tube
well is driven and cleared in the usual manner
by means of the J-in. tubes, etc.
It will be found that, even in gravelly soils,
tube wells will be made in much less time, both
as regards clearing and pumping, if protected
with a strainer.
Tilting. As soon as the presence of water
has shown itself to the extent of a few feet in
the tube, the pump should be attached directly
to the well-tube, care being taken to white-lead
all the threads. The pump is started by pouring
water into the top, to force the air from the
SA^D-TUBE. pip e \ ^ a supply exists, the water will soon
DRIVEN TUBE WELLS. 33
follow. It will be more or less muddy, according to the
nature of the soil through which it is obtained.
The handle of the pump should be raised as high as
practicable, to allow the valves to open. This will suddenly
release the column of water held in the well-tube, which
will instantly drop to its level, forcing its way through the
perforations in the bottom length, and so disturbing the
surroundings of the well. This action should be repeated
over and over again, causing the water to be played in and
out of the perforations, and thus allowing the finer particles
to be pumped out and the larger to be gradually drawn
around the well-tube, forming a natural filter ; the operation
is called " tilting," and should be discontinued when the
water is practically free from grit. Disconnection is effected
by loosening the studs which hold the ring to the pump-
barrel, and giving the handle a quarter-turn ; steady
pumping should then take place for a short time, when it
will be found that the water will become quite clear and
free from sandy particles.
The whole secret of making successful tube wells lies in
the proper use of the pump. It is therefore necessary that
the above instructions should be accurately followed if
neglected, the tube well may become choked, resulting in
a total stoppage of the supply.
In close and compact soils, such as sand, gravel, chalk,
etc., much patience and perseverence are required in de-
veloping supplies of water. The yield is at first scanty,
but rapidly increases by the tilting of the pump, which
helps to disintegrate the surrounding soil, and forms a free
passage for the water.
Drawing. It often occurs in driving that impervious
or solid strata, such as thick beds of clay, rock, etc.,
are met with. In these cases, it is necessary to withdraw
D
34 WELL-BORING.
the tube, which is accomplished in the following manner.
The monkey is slipped over the well-pipe, the driving-cap
is screwed above it to the well-tube, and the pulley-bar is
again slipped into position, allowing the men to strike the
monkey upwards against the driving-cap ; thus the tubes
are forced out of the ground. Other means are also adopted,
such as bottle-jacks, or a hollow jack specially designed for
this purpose. The tubes, previous to being re-driven, should
be carefully examined, and, if found bent, must be discarded,
unless they can be straightened at a forge or by striking
them with the side of the monkey.
Depth. The depth to which tube wells may be driven
is entirely governed by the nature of the soil ; they com-
monly reach 60 to 70 ft., and sometimes even 100 ft. or
more. Yet in many cases an ordinary lift-pump may be
employed on them, the water rising to within 28 ft. of the
surface, and often higher.
When it happens that an objectionable spring is tapped
the tube is driven deeper in search of other springs. It is
to be noted that the upper springs will not affect the lower
ones when the latter are tapped.
Deeper Wells. When the water is below lifting reach
of the ordinary lift-pump, viz. 28 ft. from the surface, it is
advisable to drive a larger tube well, as illustrated and
described below.
Knowing the exact depth at which the water comes in,
the proper length of tube is driven, and the working barrel
(either made of steel or phosphor-bronze) is screwed to it,
taking care to slip the valve-seat (a, Fig. n) into position,
so as to rest next to the well-pipe. The working barrel is
so placed as to be within lifting reach of the water. All the
joints must butt as in the case of the smaller well.
The ring b (Fig. li) is placed on the top of the working
DRIVEN TUBE WELLS. 35
barrel when the next length of well-tube is butted to it ;
the driving is then continued to the depth required.
To remove the soil which has found its way into the
tube well, a small shell with a valve is provided : this is
attached to the J-in. tubes, and is lowered until it has
reached the debris, when the whole is lifted up and down
to allow all the soil to pass into the -in. pipes, and to
effectually clear the tube. The -in. tubes are then with-
FIG. ii. DEEP WELL FITTINGS.
drawn in 12-ft. lengths. This mode of clearing also applies
to the ordinary tube well, and will be found far more
expeditious than clearing it with the funnel (see page 13),
which latter cannot be used for deep wells.
The taper end of the valve c (Fig. n), is wound with
tow, a little tallow and white-lead mixed being added to
make it adhere. This will make a water-tight joint when
fixed in the seating. The valve is lowered into its position
by means of a hook or screw attached to the pump-rods, and,
to ensure a water-tight joint, a few gentle blows are given
on the top of the valve by means of the rods and hook.
The rods are then withdrawn, the hook is disconnected, and
the bucket ^(Fig. n) is screwed in place. The rods are
lowered until the bucket has fairly entered the working
barrel, when it is connected to the pump-rod, the whole
being then ready to commence pumping. The pump-rods
D 2
WELL-BORING.
are united by means of triangular couplings, secured by
split pins.
Previous to working, the pump will need to be " primed "
as usual by pouring water through the top, when a yield
will soon follow. It is advisable to work the- pump rather
sharply at first to enable the finer particles to be drawn up.
The arrangement of this deep-well
pump is extremely simple ; and should
the pump require seeing to, through
either the bucket or the valve getting
out of order, the whole is withdrawn for
examination in the same manner as it
was fixed, without the necessity for dis-
turbing the rising main or tube well.
Fig. 12 illustrates the working barrel
completely fitted with all its parts ; and
Fig. 13, the tube well with its deep-well
pump in position.
It is to be observed that the instructions
given for smaller wells are applicable also
to deeper wells.
Another method of dealing with deep
wells when it is found that the water-level
is below lifting reach, is to sink a hole so
as to meet the water-level, and thus allow
^ ordinary pump tQ be fixed Qn the top
of the tube well at the bottom of the sunken pit, and to
be cleared by means of the J-in. tubes, and " tilted " in the
ordinary way to develop a supply, previous to fixing the
deep-well pump. In this case (Fig. 14)- the tube well is
smaller than the rising main of the pump, which may be of
wrought- or cast-iron flanged pipe. For example, suppose
the tube well to be 70 ft. from the surface with 30 ft. of
FIG. 12.
WORKING BARREL.
V
FIG. 14. TUBE WELL
FROM DUG WELL.
FIG. 13. TUIJE
WELL AND PUMP.
3 8 WELL-BORING.
water in the well, the pit is sunk 1 5 ft., bringing the water-
level from the bottom of the pit to 25 ft. When the per-
manent pump is fixed, the hole may be re-filled, but it is
more advisable to " stein " it.
By this means, dug wells can easily be deepened at a
trifling outlay, and polluted sources be at the same time
avoided.
Connecting Wells. It frequently occurs that large sup-
plies are required for towns, manufactories, irrigation, etc.
PLAN
FIG. 15. CONNECTED WELLS.
To accomplish this, as many wells as necessary are con-
nected, as illustrated in Fig. 1 5. In such cases it will be
found far more economical to test each spot with the
smallest well previous to fixing the permanent one, as the
probable yield will thus be approximately ascertained, and
DRIVEN TUBE WELLS.
39
this will govern the number and size of wells required to
furnish the supply wanted. Results obtained by this means
will be found far more satisfactory and economical than by
drawing from one point as with dug wells. Yields vary
greatly with the nature of the strata, and it often occurs
that a larger tube well will not increase the yield in pro-
portion to a smaller one.
The average quantities obtained from tube wells are as
follows : i^-in., 500 ; 2-in., 1000 ; 3-in., 2000 gall, per hour.
For transport purposes, the smallest well will be found
in every way the least expensive. Tube wells can be
coupled either by cast-iron flanged pipes with rubber joints
or by wrought-iron socketted pipes, fitted with T-pieces and
bends in the same manner as cast-iron. The whole of the
rising main is laid in a trench 18 in. to 2ft. under ground.
The distance which the wells should be placed apart gene-
rally varies from 15 to 1 8 ft, being to a great extent
governed by the water-bearing stratum ; there are cases
where they may be nearer to one another without affecting
the draught, but the figures given are a reliable average.
Costs. The following details of prices for materials and
work in sinking driven tube wells are taken from C. Isler
& Co.'s estimates :
MATERIALS ONLY.
i|-in. well-tubing, is. per ft.
,, 3-ft. points, ioj. each.
,, 3-ft. sand-tubes, 2os. each.
,, tube-well apparatus (Fig. 8),
S/. 5J.
,, ditto, with tools complete, ill.
,, tube-well apparatus (tripod
pattern), 6/.
ditto, with tools complete, I2/.
2-in. well-tubing, 2s. per ft.
,, 3-ft. points, 2os. each.
,, 3-ft. sand-tubes, 28j. each.
2-in. tube- well apparatus (Fig. 8)
6/. 6s.
,, ditto, with tools complete, i6/.
, , tube- well apparatus (tripod pat-
tern), 7/. 7-r.
,, ditto, with tools complete, 177.
3-in. well-tubing, 3^. 6d. per ft.
3-ft. points, 38^. each.
,, 3-ft. sand-tubes, 58^. each.
,, tube- well apparatus, complete
with all tools and sheer-legs,
WELL-BORING.
HAND-PUMPS FOR TUBE WELLS.
Common
Pitcher Spout.
3-in. barrel, 185.
4 ,* >, 22.T.
6 68*.
Strong
Pitcher Spout.
3-in. barrel, 28*.
4 33-f-
Standard,
with Valve Door.
3-in. barrel, 55^.
4 7S J -
MATERIALS AND WELL-DRIVER'S TIME.
ij-in.
12 ft. deep
15
18
21
24
K> s -
2 3
2 12
"3 ^
3 9
3 17
ij-in.
27 ft. deep 4 6
30 , 4 14
33 53
36 5 ii
39
d.
o
6
o
6
600
Beyond this depth, 2s. lod. per ft. ; 3-ft. galvanised points (i8.r.), sand-
strainer (I5J.)> and pumps extra.
2-m.
12 ft. deep
15
18
21
24
*
4 o
4 15
5 i
6 5
7 o
2-m.
27 ft. deep.
30 .
33 ,,
36 .
39 ,, -
*.
7 IS
8 10
9 5
10 o
10 15
Beyond this depth, 5*. per ft. ; 3-ft. galvanised points (35^.), sand-strainer
(25.?.), and pumps extra.
3-in.
12 ft. deep
15
18
21
24
*
7 10
9 o
10 10
12 O
13 10
3-in.
27 ft. deep
30 ,
33
36
39
*.
15 o
16 10
18 o
19 10
21 O
Beyond this depth, los. per ft. ; 3-ft. galvanised points (3/.), sand-strainer
(35j.), and pumps extra.
Testing localities, 2os. per diem.
CHAPTER IV.
BORED TUBE WELLS.
Scope. When hard ground or solid rock is encountered,
through which the cutting point or edge of tube cannot
be forced with reasonable facility and speed, a way must
be made for the tube by boring a hole and removing the
debris in advance of the tube, either by percussion (which
churns up the rock to powder or mud) or by diamond or
calyx drilling (which cuts out a solid core).
Early Methods. The first method of well-boring known
in Europe was that called the Chinese, in which a chisel,
suspended by a rope and surrounded by a tube a few feet
long, is worked up and down by means of a spring-pole or
lever at the surface. The twisting and untwisting of the
rope prevents the chisel from always striking in the same
place ; and by its continued blows the rock is pounded and
broken. The chisel is withdrawn occasionally, and in its
place is lowered a bucket or shell-pump, having a hinged
valve at the bottom opening upwards, so that a quantity of
the debris becomes enclosed in the bucket, and is drawn
up by it to the surface. The lowering of the bucket is
repeated until the hole is cleared, and the chisel is then
put to work again.
In Fig. 1 6 is shown an apparatus on the Chinese sys-
tem ; it may be used for either hemp-rope or wire-rope,
and was originally made for hoop-iron. At A is a log of
oak, set perpendicularly so deep in the ground as to pene-
42 WELL-BORING.
trate the loose gravel and pass a little into the rock, stand-
ing firmly in its placed; it is well rammed with gravel, and
the ground is levelled so that the butt of the log is flush
with the surface of the ground or a little below it. Through
this log, which, according to the depth of loose ground,
may be 5 to 30 ft. long, a vertical hole is bored by an
FIG. 16. CHINESE BORING.
auger of a diameter equal to that of the intended boring
in the rock. On top of the ground, at one side of the
hole, is a windlass whose drum is 5 ft. diam. ; the cog-
wheel which drives it is 6 ft, and the pinion on the crank-
axle is 6 in. This windlass serves for hoisting the spindle
or drill, and is of large diameter to prevent short bends in
the iron (which would soon become brittle) and to prevent
permanent bends.
BORED TUBE WELLS. 43
On the opposite side of the windlass is a lever of un-
equal leverage, about one-third at the side of the hole, and
two-thirds at the opposite side, where it ends in a cross or
broad end when men do the work. The workmen, with
one foot on a bench or platform, rest their hands on a
railing, and work with the other foot the long end of the
lever. In this way the whole weight of the men is made
use of. The lift of the bore-bit is 10 to 12 in., which causes
the men to work the treadle 20 to 24 in. high. Below the
treadle T is a spring-pole S, fastened under the platform
on which the men stand ; the end of this spring-pole is
connected by a link to the working end of the lever, or to
the rope directly, and pulls the treadle down. When the
bore-spindle is raised by means of the treadle, the spring-
pole imparts to it a sudden return, and increases by these
means the velocity of the bit, and consequently that of the
downward stroke.
Modern Methods. This rudimentary system, adapted
to out-of-the-way localities, and where human labour is
cheaper than machinery, is now seldom seen, having given
place to much improved percussive mechanism, and to a
most ingeniously-contrived variety of tools for coping with
the constant changes of strata.
Tools. In Figs. 17, 1 8 and 19 are exhibited a selection
of up-to-date well-boring tools ; a is an auger for clays and
stiff soils ; b, a worm-auger for loosening gravelly and sandy
soils ; c, flat-bladed chisel ; d y flat V chisel ; e, flat T chisel ;
/, T V chisel ; g, X chisel, all these chisels being for cutting
through solid strata ; h, circular chisel for trimming bore-
hole true and vertical ; i, spring chisel for enlarging bore-
hole below pipes ; j, " shell " for removing debris cut by
the chisels ; k, worm-nose shell for loose soils ; /, water
shell for testing supply preparatory to doing so by means
44
a b
WELL-BORING.
c d
f
FIG. 17. WELL-BORING TOOLS.
k
FIG. 18. WELL-BORING TOOLS.
'""'""
FIG. 19. WELL-BORING TOOLS.
BORED TUBE WELLS. 47
of a pump, when the water-level is below 30 ft. from, sur-
face ; m, boring-rod ; n, swivel-rod ; o, tillers for turning
rods ; /, hand-dog for screwing rods, with taper end for
tightening tiller-screws ; q, tillers for screwing and turning
pipes ; r, dog for lowering and withdrawing rods ; s, auger-
board for holding lifting-dogs while screwing and unscrew-
ing rods; /, spring rimer for enlarging bore-hole below
pipes ; u, crow's-foot for recovering broken rods ; v, bell-
box for recovering broken rods when the top joint is left
on ; w, cleaner for augers and shells ; x, steel socketted
tube ; y, clamps for screwing tubes together and suspend-
ing them from pipe stage ; s, worm for recovering broken
tools.
Chisels are made from wrought iron or mild steel, and
when small are usually 18 in. long by 2j in. extreme breadth,
and weigh some 24^ Ib. ; the cutting edge is faced with best
steel. Whilst in operation they need careful watching, that
they may be removed and fresh tools substituted when
their edges are sufficiently worn to diminish their breadth.
If this is not attended to, the size of the hole decreases, so
that, when a new chisel of the proper size is introduced, it
will not pass down to the bottom of the hole, and much
delay is occasioned in enlarging it. In working with the
chisel, the borer keeps the tiller or handles in both hands,
one upon each, and moves slowly round the bore, in order
to prevent the chisel from falling twice successively in the
same place ; this helps to preserve the bore circular. Every
time a fresh chisel is lowered to the bottom, it should be
worked round in the hole, to test whether the proper size
and shape have been maintained ; if this is not the case,
the chisel must be raised at once, and be worked gradually
and carefully until the hole is as it should be. The de-
scription of strata being cut by the chisel can be detected
4 8
WELL-BORING.
with considerable accuracy by a skilful workman from the
character of the shock transmitted to the rods. Should
the stratum be very hard, the chisel may be worn and
FIG. ipA. EXPANDING TOOL FOR
TRIMMING BORE-HOLE BELOW
TUBES.
FIG. IQB. EXPANDING TOOL WITH
CENTRAL ROD FOR ADJUSTING
CUTTERS.
blunted before cutting | in., hence it must be frequently
raised and examined ; but 7 or 8 in. may be bored without
examination when the nature of the stratum allows.
BORED TUBE WELLS. 49
Augers are often 10 ft. long, 3 to 3j ft. of which is
shell.
Boring-rods are in 3-, 6-, 10, 15-, or 2O-ft lengths of
wrought iron or mild steel, preferably Low Moor or mild
steel, and generally I in. to 3 in. square in section ; at one
end is a male and at the other end a female screw for the
purpose of connecting them together. The screw should
not have fewer than 6 threads, as the female screw fre-
quently splits, and the screw may have its thread so worn
as to become liable to slip. Rods should be carefully
examined every time they are drawn out of the bore-hole,
as an unobserved failure may occasion much inconvenience,
and even the loss of the hole. In addition to the ordinary
lengths of rod, short pieces varying from 6 in. to 2 ft. are
required for adjusting the rods at a convenient height.
When a projection in the bore-hole obstructs the down-
ward course of the lining tubes, the hole is enlarged below
the pipes by means of the spring rimer t. It consists of an
iron shank, to which two thin strips are bolted, bowed out
in the form of a drawing-pen. The rimer is screwed on tc
the boring-rods, and forced down through the pipes ; when
below the last length of pipe, the rimer expands, and can
then be turned round, which has the effect of scraping the
sides and enlarging that portion of the hole subject to its
operation.
Rigs. Some means of suspending the tackle from
which the rods are hung, as also of obtaining a lift for them,
must be provided. Triangle gyns are sufficient for light
work, whilst for that of a heavier character sheers, derricks,
or massive sheer-frames are requisite.
In England, for small works, the entire boring apparatus
is frequently arranged as in Fig. 20, the tool being fixed at
the end of wrought-iron rods instead of at the end of a rope,
E
50 WELL-BORING.
as in the Chinese method. A is the boring tool ; B, rod
to which the tool is attached ; D, levers whereby men E
give a rotary motion to the tool ; F, chain for attaching
FIG. 20. A BORING Ric.
BORED TUBE WELLS. 51
boring apparatus to pole G, which is fixed at H, and by
means whereof the man on surface transmits a vertical
motion to the tool when necessary.
The sheer-legs, made of sound Norway spars not less
than 8 in. diam. at the bottom, are placed over the bore-
hole for the purpose of supporting the tackle for drawing
the rods out of and lowering them into the hole. It is
obvious that the more frequently it is necessary to break
the joints in drawing and lowering the rods, the more time
will be occupied in changing the tools, or in each cleaning
of the hole ; and as the depth of the hole increases, the more
tedious will the operation be. It therefore becomes a matter
of much importance that the rods shall be drawn and
lowered as quickly as possible, and to attain this end as
long lengths as practicable must be drawn at each lift. The
length of the lift or ofT-take, as it is termed, depending al-
together upon the height of the lifting tackle above the top
of the bore-hole, the length of the sheer-legs for a hole of
any considerable depth should not be less than 30 to 40 ft. ;
and they usually stand over a small pit or dug well, which
may be sunk, when the ground is dry, to a depth of 20 or
30 ft. From the bottom of this pit the bore-hole may be
commenced, and here will be stationed the man who has
charge of the bore-hole while working the rods.
Fig. 21 shows another plan of commencing a boring.
Here a are foot-blocks for the legs of the gyn ; b t ropS
shackle ; c d y staging ; *?, guide-block. A pit lined with
timber or masonry is sunk 10 or 1 2 ft. in the clear, and
below this is a smaller pit 6 ft. square by 5 ft. deep, also
lined. Above these the sheer-legs are erected so that the
rope when passed round the wheel at top may hang over
the centre of the pits. The top of the lower part is covered,
all except a gap of 9 in. in the centre, with loose planks to
E 2
WELL-BORING.
form a stage ; the two middle planks are 3 to 4 in. thick,
as they may have to carry an auger-board, and sustain the
whole weight of the rods.
yv>>v'ovv
y$:WM
m,
FIG. 21. COMMENCING A BORE.
The arrangement in Fig. 22 is intended for deep or diffi-
cult boring with rods. A regular scaffolding is erected,
upon which a platform is built. The boring-chisel A is, as
in the last instance, joined by means of screw couplings to
the boring-rods B. At each stroke, 2 men stationed at E
turn the rod slightly by means of the tiller D. A rope F,
which is attached to the boring-tool, is passed a few times
round the drum of a windlass G, the end of the rope being
held by a man at I. When the handles are turned by the
men at L, the man at I pulls at the rope ; the friction be-
tween the rope and the drum of the windlass is then suf-
ficient to raise the rods and boring-tool. As soon as the
BORED TUBE WELLS.
53
FIG. 22. A BORING RIG.
54 WELL-BORING.
tool has been raised to its intended height, the man at I
slackens his hold upon the rope, and as there is insufficient
friction on the drum to sustain the weight of the boring-tools,
they fall. In due course, the tiller is unscrewed, and a
lifting-dog, attached to the rope from the windlass, draws
up the rods as far as the height of the scaffolding or sheer-
legs will allow, when a man at E, by passing a hand-dog or
key upon. the top of the rod under the lowest joint drawn
above the top of the hole, takes the weight of the rods at
this joint, the men at L having lowered the rods for this
purpose ; and with another key, the rods are unscrewed at
this joint, the rope is lowered again, the lifting-dog is put
over the rod, another rod is screwed on, the rods are lifted,
and the process is continued to completion.
Sometimes, if the hole is very dry, a little water poured
down assists the work, but, if the hole is still unpiped, care
is necessary not to wash away the sides.
When a deep boring is undertaken, direct from the sur-
face, the operation had best be conducted with the aid of a
boring sheer-frame such as is shown in Fig. 23. This con-
sists of a framework of timber balks, upon which are erected
4 standards, 27 ft. high, 12 x 9 in. thick, 3 ft. 8 in. apart at
the bottom and I ft. 2 in. at top. The standards are tied
by cross-pieces, upon which are cut shoulders that fit into
mortice-holes ; they are fastened by wooden keys, the
standards being surmounted by 2 head-pieces 5 ft. long,
mortised and fitted. Upon the head-pieces 2 independent
cast-iron guide-pulleys are arranged in bearings ; over these
pulleys are led the ends of 2 ropes coiling in opposite
directions upon the barrel of a windlass ; this is moved by
spur gearing, and has a ratchet-stop attached to a pair of
diagonal timbers, connected with the left-hand legs or
standards of the sheers, near the ground. These ropes are
used for raising and lowering the lengths of boring-rod.
BORED TUBE WELLS.
55
56 WELL-BORING.
At 8 ft. below the bearings of the top pulleys, a pair of
horizontal traverses are fixed across the frame, supporting
smaller pulleys, mounted on a cast-iron frame which is
capable of motion between horizontal wooden slides. Over
these pulleys is led a rope from a plain windlass fixed to
the right-hand legs of the frame, to be used for raising and
lowering the shell to extract the rubbish from the hole.
The lever, 15 ft. long and 9x6 in. in section, is sup-
ported by an independent timber frame. It has a cast-iron
cap, fastened by means of two iron straps, with lugs through
which bolts are passed, these being tightened with nuts in
the ordinary manner. The bearing pins at a are ij in.
diam., and also form part of the lower strap. Upon the cap
is an iron hook ; to this is attached a chain carrying a
spring-hook which bears the top shackle of the rods. The
top of the bore-hole is surrounded by a wooden tube I ft.
diam., provided with a hinged valve, whose action is similar
to that of a clack-valve ; this has a hole in the centre for
the rods to pass up and down freely. The valve permits
of the introduction and withdrawal of the tools, while pre-
venting anything from falling into the bore-hole. The lever
is applied by pressure upon its outer end ; and as the re-
lation of the long to the short arm is as 4 to I, a depression
of 2 ft. in the one case produces an elevation of 6 in. in the
other : this is the minimum range of action, the maximum
being 26 in.
The modern tendency is towards rigs which, while re-
taining all necessary strength, are much lighter and there-
fore more portable, as well as being more cheaply, easily,
and speedily mounted and dismounted. Some examples
of standard patterns used by C. Isler & Co. are shown in
Figs. 24 to 27. It will be seen that reliance is placed on
wrought-iron tubular structure throughout. Fig. 24 is
BORED TUBE WELLS.
57
FIG. 24. SHEER-LEGS AND WINDLASS.
5
WELL-BORING.
FIG. 25. SHEER-LEGS AND WINDLASS..
BORED TUBE WELLS.
59
double-geared, with handles for manual operation and fast
and loose pulleys for power. Fig. 25 is a lighter gear for
hand-power only. In Fig. 26, a double-purchase crab-winch
' *.;
FIG. 26. SHEER-LEGS AND CRAB-WINCH.
6o
WELL-BORING.
is mounted independently of the sheer-legs. Fig. 27 illus-
trates a more pretentious plant actuated by a small steam-
driven winding-engine.
FIG. 27. SHEER-LEGS AND STEAM-WINCH.
BORED TUBE WELLS.
61
Operations. When, in the progress of operations, it is
found that the tool refuses to drop to
the same depth from which it has just
been withdrawn, the employment of
tubing becomes necessary. This entails
enlarging the hole already bored, by
application of a rimer ; and when this is
accomplished down to the required
depth, the first length of tube is inserted,
following with successive lengths, each
properly screwed to its predecessor,
until the bottom of the hole is reached.
The boring tool is again rigged and
operated inside the tubing ; after boring
a few feet deeper, another pipe may be
screwed on, and the whole be driven
farther down.
If the thickness of soft stratum is
very great, friction of the pipes, caused
by pressure of the strata, may be such
that perhaps not more than 80 or 100 ft.
can be driven without the pipes being
injured. It will then be necessary to
put down the first part of the hole with
a large tool, and to drive in pipes of
larger diameter ; the hole is continued
of smaller diameter, and lined with
smaller tubes projecting telescope-
fashion beyond the large tubes, as in
Fig. 28, until the necessity for their use
ceases.
It will be evident that to ensure
success the tubing must be truly FIG. 28.
62 WELL-BORING.
cylindrical and straight, and have a flush surface both
outside and in. It will also appear that the thickness
ought to bear a due proportion to the work required, and to
the force likely to be used in screwing or driving it down.
The first or bottom pipe is furnished with a steel shoe
having a chisel-edge, and serves to trim the hole and cut a
passage. The first length of pipe is raised by means of a
pipe hanger, and lowered into the bore-hole until its top
reaches about I ft. above the surface ; here a pair of pipe-
clamps are securely fastened round it a few inches above
the thread, and then the pipe is lowered until the clamps
rest upon the board surrounding the top of the hole. The
hanger is removed and screwed to a fresh length of tubing ;
this in its turn is lowered, and screwed quite home until
the two pipes butt together. The tillers being taken off,
the whole length of tubing is raised a few inches, and sus-
pended whilst the clamps are removed from the lower part.
There are now two lengths of pipe, which are allowed to
descend as before ; when they are sufficiently deep, the
clamps are re-applied, and the operation is repeated with
each length screwed on.
Each joint should be oiled and screwed together with
white or red lead ; spun yarn is not needed.
While being lowered, the pipes are turned, particularly
when they begin to hang up, in order that the steel shoe
may remove any projections in the bore-hole.
When the pipes have been lowered to the necessary
distance, and the pipe-clamps have been screwed on to
secure them from slipping, boring can be resumed with the
smaller-sized tools, after lowering the shell to bring up any
debris caused through lowering the tubing.
When the -tubing will not go down freely, the rimer
may be employed if the stratum is not too hard. It is
BORED TUBE WELLS.
screwed on to the bottom rod. As the springs measure
the outside diameter of the tubing, they require to be
pressed so as to force them through, but when once well
in the pipes, the weight of the rods should be sufficient to
carry them down. As soon as the springs are below the
lowest length of pipe, they expand to their full size ; and
by turning the rods until the springs work quite freely, and
lowering the rimer a little as they are freed, the hole below
the tubing is cut out. Using the rimer is an operation re-
quiring great care and attention.
When the rimer has been withdrawn, the pipes are
attached and lowered as before.
The tubing should be turned as long as it will move
FIG. 28A. MONKEY.
FIG. 28s. DRIVING-FLANGE.
before resorting to driving. It is advisable to use the
longer lengths of pipe first, reserving the shorter lengths
to the last, when the tubing will be going down more
slowly. A long length standing up at a time when it be-
comes necessary to lower tools for clearing or enlarging
below the tubing may seriously obstruct the work. Some-
times a short length of pipe may be used temporarily with
advantage, a few feet of the descent being proceeded with,
and then a longer length can be substituted as soon as the
WELL-BORING.
boring has progressed sufficiently for a further lowering of
pipes.
When it is found necessary to drive tubes, fix the
driving-flange (Fig. 28B) by screwing it shoulder to shoulder
to the top of the tube. The monkey (Fig. 28A) with guide-
FIG 280 ^ ar ' is lifted into position and the driving is
STEEL SOCKETTED proceeded with. This is done in the same
way as " punching " with the tools as de-
scribed below, with the exception that the
spring hook is slipped through the rope
sling on the monkey.
The success of the well-work depends
on practical experience and soundness of
lining tubes. The lining tubes should
really be the first consideration, as em-
ploying an inferior tube means total
collapse of the well if not immediately,
soon after completion.
The lining tube commonly and gene-
rally used, viz. a flush-jointed pipe, cannot
stand any substantial strain such as these
pipes have to bear during driving ; and
what occurs too often is the stripping or
bursting of the joints, thereby causing
utter failure, through creating a communi-
cation between the upper and lower part of
the boring.
The lining tube recommended (Fig. 28C)
is only of recent introduction, and super-
sedes all other kinds for the same pur-
pose. It is of steel, as also is the socket
which connects the pipes, allowing greater strength to be
obtained in less substance ; this, combined with the slight
FIG. 280.
STEEL SHOE.
\. \\^y
BORED TUBE WELLS. 65
setting in at the joints, practically renders the pipes flush
outside as well as inside. When connected, they butt,
leaving no space whatever between ; by this means they
form a solid joint, and it is therefore impossible for any of
the joints to be otherwise than air and water-tight, and is
a secure preventive against any percolation from surface
or objectionable springs.
PRICES OF WROUGHT-IRON LAP-WELDED STEEL-SOCKETTED TUBES.
3 in. internal diameter, \ in. thick 4J-. per foot.
4
5
6
11
8*
10
7 s -
5>
I3J.
I7J.
20J-.
To withdraw broken or defective tubing quickly, two
hooks attached to ropes are lowered down from opposite
sides of the bore-hole, and caught on the rim of the lower-
most tube ; power is applied to haul the tubing up bodily.
Another most effective method for withdrawing broken
or defective tubes is by a special expanding wedge tool,
which enables pipes to be withdrawn by means of either
the hydraulic or screw jack, as illustrated. It may, how-
ever, be said that during our thirty years' experience we
have met with practically no mishaps with broken or de-
fective tubes. Accidents happen mostly with flush-jointed
or rivetted tubes.
An effective method of cutting out lining-tubes practised
in the United States consists in lowering into the bore-
hole an expanding cutter-head, in which the circular cutters
are first tightened, and then put into action by turning the
boring-rods at surface.
F *
66
WELL-BORING.
To reduce stoppages for withdrawal of debris the
Fauvelle system was introduced, whereby the injection of
a current of water through a central tube washes out the
debris created by the cutting tool at the bottom. It has
FIG. 28*:. HOLLOW JACK FOR WITHDRAWING TUBES.
answered tolerably well when applied to shallow borings ;
but the quantity of water required to keep the boring-tool
clear is a great objection, especially as in the majority of
cases wells are bored in places lacking a large supply.
BORED TUBE WELLS.
67
FIG. 28r. C. ISLER & Co.'s IMPROVED HOLLOW HYDRAULIC
JACK FOR WITHDRAWING LARGE TUBES.
Following are approximate prices for borings from the
surface from 3 to 12 in. diam., exclusive of lining tubes and
including all labour and necessary plant.
BORING IN GRAVEL, CLAY, SAND, CHALK OR OTHER
SOFT STRATA.
Not exceeding 100 ft. ..
200 ,, ..
3o ..
II 400 ,, ..
500 I,
8j. to 2os. per ft.
3*. SOT. ,,
8j. ,, 40J. ,,
BORING IN ROCK OR STONE, ACCORDING TO SIZE AND
NATURE OF STRATA.
Not exceeding 100 ft. . .
And not less than 200 ft.
300 ,,
400
5
2oj. to 4OJ. per ft.
25 s. SQJ.
30J. 6os. ,,
35J. 7oj.
40j. ,, 8oj.
F 2
68 WELL-BORING.
This does not include the cost of tubing, conveyance of
plant and tools, professional superintendence, or working in
rock of unusual hardness. A clause is usually inserted in
the contract, to the effect that, if any unforeseen difficulty is
met with in the course of the work, it is then paid for by
the day, at a rate previously determined upon, until the
difficulty has been overcome.
The following estimates for sets of boring tools are
supplied by C. Isler & Co.
(a) To bore 30 ft. Two 2j-in. T-chisels, one 2j-in. flat
chisel, one 2-in. shell, one 2-in. auger, one auger-
board, one pair rod-tillers, two f-in. lifting-dogs,
two f-in. hand-dogs, one spring-hook and rope, five
5 -ft. by f-in. boring-rods, one 5-ft. by f-in. swivel-
rod . . . '. . . .121. los.
(b) To bore 50 ft. One each 3 J-in. and 2^-in. clay augers,
one each 3-in. and 2-in. shoe-nose shells, one 33 -in.
and two 2f -in. T-chisels, one each 3f -in. and 2f -in.
flat chisels, one pair rod-tillers', one auger-board,
two i -in. lifting-dogs, two I -in. hand-dogs, one bell-
screw, one spring-hook, 40 ft. of 3-in. rope, one
auger-cleaner, four lo-ft. and one 5-ft. by i-in.
boring-rods, one 5-ft. by i-in. swivel-rod . 27 1.
One set light tubular iron sheer-legs . I2/.
(c) To bore 100 ft. One 2^-in. clay auger, one each
3-in. and 2-in. shoe-nose shells, two each 3f-in.
and 2f -in. T-chisels, one each 3f -in. and 2f-in. flat
chisels, one pair rod-tillers, one auger-board, two
i-in. lifting-dogs, two I -in. hand-dogs, one crow's-
foot, one bell-screw, one spring-hook, 40 ft. 3^-in.
rope, one auger-cleaner, nine lO-ft. and one 5~ft.
by i-in. boring- rods, one 5-ft. by i-in. swivel-
rod * ..' ' . , . 38/.
One set light tubular iron sheer-legs . I2/.
e-
ojiiiSsii
FIG. 280. SECTION OF AN ARTESIAN BORED TUBE WELL AT
CANNING TOWN. 400 ft. deep; ii in. internal diameter;
minimum supply, 11,500 gals, per hour. Fixed by C. Isler & Co.
70 WELL-BORING.
(d) To bore 150 ft One each 4j-in. and 3j-in. clay
augers, one each 4-in. and 3-in. shoe-nose shells
fitted with latches for recovering broken tools,
two each 4|-in. and 3j-in. T-chisels, one each
4|-in. and 3j-in. flat chisels, one pair rod-tillers
and spare screws, one auger-board, two i-in. lift-
ing-dogs, two I -in. hand-dogs, one crow's-foot, one
spring-hook, 40 ft. of 4j-in. rope with rope slings
and punching-rope, one auger-cleaner, fourteen
lO-ft. and one 5 -ft. by i-in. boring-rods, one 5-ft.
by i-in. swivel-rod 45 /.
One set sheer-legs and gearing . . i8/.
Fitted with fast and loose pulleys. . 5/.
(e) To bore 200 ft. One each sJ-in., 4j-in. and 3j-in.
clay augers, one each 5-in., 4-in. and 3-in. shoe-
nose shells fitted with latches for recovering
broken tools, two each 5|-in., 4! -in. and 3f-in.
T-chisels, one each 5|-in., 4J-in. and 3f-in. flat
chisels, one pair rod-tillers and spare screws, one
auger-board, two ij-in. lifting-dogs, two ij-in.
hand-dogs, one crow's-foot, one spring-hook, 40
ft. of 4j-in. rope with rope-slings and punching-
rope, one auger-cleaner, nineteen ic-ft. and one
5-ft. by ij-in. boring-rods, one 5-ft. by i^-in.
swivel-rod 68/.
One set sheer-legs and gearing . . . 2$l.
Fitted with fast and loose pulleys. . //.
(/) To bore 300 ft. One each 6|-in., 5i-in. and 4j-in.
clay augers, one each 6-in., 5-in. and 4-in. shoe-
nose shells fitted with latches for recovering
broken tools, two each 6|-in., 5f-in. and 4|-in.
T-chisels, one each 6|-in., 5f-in. and 4j-in. flat
chisels, one pair rod-tillers with spare screws, one
BORED TUBE WELLS. 71
auger-board, two ij-in. lifting-dogs, two ij-in.
hand-dogs, one crow's-foot, one spring-hook, 40 ft.
of 5j-in. rope with rope-slings and punching-rope,
one auger-cleaner, twenty-nine lo-ft. and one 5-ft.
by i}-in. boring-rods, one 5-ft by ij-in. swivel-
rod QO/.
One set sheer-legs and gearing . . . 23/.
Fitted with fast and loose pulleys. . 7/.
(g) To bore 400 ft. One each 7^-in., 6^-in., 5i-in. and
4^-in. clay augers, one each 6-in., 5-in. and 4-in.
shoe-nose shells fitted with latches for recovering
broken tools, two each 8-in., 6J-in., 5f-in. and
4^-in. T-chisels, one each 8J-in., 6f-in., 5f-in. and
4|-in. flat chisels, one pair rod-tillers with spare
screws, one auger-board, two each I J-in. and I J-in.
lifting-dogs, two each ij-in. and i^-in. hand-dogs,
one crow's-foot, one spring-hook, 40 ft. of 6J-in.
rope with rope-slings and punching-rope, one
auger-cleaner, ten lo-ft. by ij-in. boring-rods,
twenty-nine lo-ft. and one 5-ft. by i}-in. boring-
rods, one 5-ft. by i-in. swivel-rod . . ii//.
One set sheer-legs and gearing . . . 3O/.
Fitted with fast and loose pulleys. //. los.
(h) To bore 500 ft. One each 9^-in., 7^-in., 6^-in. and
5^-in. clay augers, one each 7-in., 6-in. and 5-in.
shoe-nose shells fitted with latches for recovering
broken tools, two each 9^-in., 8J-in., 6J-in. and
5|-in. T-chisels, one each 9^-in., 8^-in., 6|-in. and
5 j-in. flat chisels, one pair rod-tillers with spare
screws, one auger-board, two each I J-in. and i^-in.
lifting-dogs, two each ij-in. and i^-in. hand-dogs,
one spring-hook, 40 ft. of 6J-in. rope with rope
slings and punching-rope, one auger-cleaner,
WELL-BORING.
twenty lo-ft. by ij-in. boring-rods, twenty-nine
lo-ft. and one 5-ft. by i^-in. boring-rods, one 5-ft.
by ij-in. swivel-rod I5O/.
One set sheer-legs and gearing . . 35^-
Fitted with fast and loose pulleys. . io/.
TUBES, AND APPLIANCES FOR FIXING THEM.
Internal diameter .
Thickness ....
3 in.
1
4 in.
i
5 in.
\
6 in.
5
Ta" >
7! in.
Ta
8|in.
T 5
Price of-
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
S . d.
s. d.
Tubes
O 4 O
O ^ O
060
o o o
Oil O
O I ? O
Steel shoes . . .
v tj. ^-f
10
w ^ w
o 13 o
I
v -y v-
i 6 o
2 5 o
v * J v-r
2 10
Pipe-clamps .
i 5 o
i 7 6
I IO O
200
2 IO O
3 io o
Pipe-tillers . . .
i 5 o
i 7 6
I 10
200
2 10
3 io o
Driving-flanges .
i 3 o
220
2 7 6
3 2 6
3 17 6
4 17 6
Pipe-hangers .
10
o 13 o
o 18 o
I
i 5 o
i 17 6
Cast-iron flanges
030
060
10
12
o 18 o
i 4 o
Water-shells . . .
I 2
I IO O
I IO O
2 O O
200
2 15 o
Spring rimers
300
3 12 6
426
4 io o
4 13 o
4 17 6
Spare blades for do. .
I IO O
I 12 O
200
226
2 5 o
3 io o
Circular chisels .
3 io o
4 12 6
5 io o
676
7 14 o
10
Caps
050
070
090
II
o 17 o
I O O
Price of chain pipe-wrench from i/. "js.
Price of driving-monkeys : 3OO-lb., 3/. 5j. ; 5oo-lb., 61. ; 8oo-lb., 8/. IO.T.
i6oo-lb., 177.
73
CHAPTER V.
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
THE first really deep well was bored by Mulct, at Crenelle,
for the City of Paris ; it was commenced in 1832, and after
more than 8 years' incessant labour, water finally rose from
the total depth of 1798 ft. Subsequently many wells have
been sunk on the Continent, even deeper than the well of
Crenelle, reaching in some cases to 2800 ft, but all of small
diameter. German engineers introduced important modi-
fications of the tools employed. Thus, Euyenhausen im-
parted a sliding movement to the striking part of the tool
used for comminuting the rock, so that it always fell through
a certain distance, producing a uniform action upon the
rock at the bottom, and avoiding jar of the tools.
Kind, who had begun to apply his system to the sinking
of large shafts for winning coal, was entrusted by the Muni-
cipal Council of Paris to bore a new well at Passy.
In sinking the Passy well, the weight of the trepan for
comminuting the rock was about 36 cwt, the height through
which it fell was nearly 2 ft., and its diameter was 39 in.
The rods were of oak, about 8 in. on the side, and the
dimensions of the cutting tool were limited to 39 in. because
it worked the whole time in water ; but generally the class
of borings Kind undertook justified resorting to tools of
great dimensions. When sinking shafts for winning coal,
his operations required to be carried on with the full
diameters of 10 to 14 ft. ; and he then drove a boring
74 WELL-BORING.
40 in. diam. in the first instance, and subsequently enlarged
this. There can be no objection to executing borings of
this diameter ; but opposition to Kind's plan of sinking the
Passy well was founded upon the assumption that he would
not get a larger supply of water from the sub-Cretaceous
formations than had been met with at Crenelle, where the
diameter of the boring at bottom was not more than 8 in.
It has been proved that there is a direct gain in adopting
the larger borings, not only as regards the quantity of water
to be derived from them, but also in their execution, arising
from the fact that the tools can be made more secure against
the effects of torsion or of concussion against the sides of
the excavation, which is the cause of the most serious
accidents met with in well-boring.
Kind's trepan embraces some peculiar details, which are
shown in Fig. 30. It is composed of two principal pieces
frame and arms, both of wrought iron, with the exception
of the teeth of the cutting part, which are of cast steel.
The frame has at the bottom a series of slightly-conical
holes, into which the teeth are inserted and tightly wedged.
The teeth are placed with their cutting edges on the longi-
tudinal axis of the frame ; and at the extremity of the
frame are formed two heads, forged out of the same piece
with the body of the tool, which also carries two teeth,
placed in the same direction as the others, but of double
their width, in order to render this part of the tool more
powerful. By increasing the dimensions of these end teeth,
the diameter of the boring can be augmented, so as to
compensate for the diminution of the clear space caused by
the tube lining.
Above the lower part of the frame of the trepan, is a
second piece, composed of two parts bolted together, and
made to support the lower portion of the frame. This also
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 75
carries at its extremities two teeth, which serve to guide
the tool in its descent, and to work off the projections left
by the lower portion of the trepan. Above this, again, are
the guides of the machinery, properly speaking, consisting
of two pieces of wrought iron, arranged in the form of
a cross, with the ends turned up, so as to preserve the
machinery perfectly vertical in its movements, by pressing
JUULJULA
FIG. 30. KIND TREPAN.
against the sides of the boring already executed. These
pieces are independent of the blades of the trepan, and may
be moved closer to or farther from it, as desired. The stem
and the arms are terminated by a single piece of wrought
iron, which is joined to the frame with a kind of saddle-joint,
and is kept in place by keys and wedges. The whole of the
trepan is finally jointed to the great rods that communicate
the motion from the surface, by means of a screw-coupling,
formed below the part of the tool which bears the joint ;
76 WELL-BORING.
this arrangement permits the free fall of the cutting part,
and unites the top of the arms and frame with the rod
(Fig. 31). It has been proposed to substitute for this screw-
coupling a keyed joint, in order to avoid the
inconvenience frequently found to attend the
rusting of the screw when it becomes necessary
to withdraw the trepan.
The sliding joint was adopted by Kind
from Euyenhausen's invention, and is one of the
peculiarities of his system. So long as his
operations were confined to the small dimensions
usually adopted for well borings, he contented
himself with making a description of joint with
a " free-fall " a simple movement of disengage-
ment regulating the height fixed by the ma-
K/ND 3 Roix cnmer y itself, like the fall of the monkey in a
pile-driving machine ; but this did not answer
when applied to large borings, and it presented certain
dangers. Kind, then, for the larger class of borings, availed
himself of sliding guides, so contrived as to be equally
thrown out of gear when the machinery had come to the
end of the stroke, and maintained in their respective posi-
tions by being made in two pieces, of which the inner worked
upon slides, moving freely in the piece that communicated
the motion to the striking part of the machinery. The two
parts of the tool were connected by pins, and with a sliding
joint, which, in the Passy well, was thrown out of gear by
the reaction of the column of water above the tool unloosing
the click that upheld the lower part of the trepan, Fig. 32.
These departures from the usual way of releasing the tool
and guiding it in its fall are condemned by some autho-
rities, who object to the system of making the column of
water act upon a disc to set the click in motion, as requiring
KIND- CHA UDR ON DEEP-B OR ING S YSTEM. 7 7
the presence of a column of water not always to be com-
manded, especially when boring in the Carboniferous strata.
The rods used for suspension of the trepan, and for
transmission of the blows to it, were of oak ; this in itself
constitutes a characteristic difference between the style of
tools introduced by Kind and those made by the majority
of well-borers. The resistance which wood offers by its
elasticity to the effects of any sudden jar is also a point
FIG. 32. SLIDING JOINTS.
of superiority to iron, for the latter is liable to change its
form under the influence of this cause. The resistance to
torsion need not, however, be much dwelt on, for the turn
given to the trepan is always made when the tool is lifted
up from its bed. Kind recommended that straight-grown
trees of the requisite diameter should be selected, rather
than that rods should be made of cut timber, as there is less
danger of the wood warping, and the character of the wood
is more homogeneous. He generally used these trees in
WELL-BORING.
FIG. '. SHELL.
lengths of about 50 ft, and connected them at the ends with
wrought-iron joints, fitting one into the other. The iron-
work of these joints is made with a
shoulder underneath the screw-coupling,
to allow the rods to be suspended by
the ordinary crow's-foot during the opera-
tion of raising or lowering. In the works
executed at Passy, a frame was erected
over the centre of the boring, of a height
to allow of the rods being withdrawn in
two lengths at a time, thus securing con-
siderable economy of time and labour.
As in other methods, Kind's system of
removing the pounded rock involved with-
drawal of the comminuting tool, in order
that the " shell " might be inserted. Kind's
shell, Fig. 33, consisted of a cylinder of wrought iron, sus-
pended from the rods by a frame, and fastened to it at a
little below the centre of gravity, so that the operation
of upsetting it, when loaded, could be easily
performed. This cylinder was lowered to the
level of the last workings of the trepan, and
the material already detached by that instru-
ment was forced into the shell by the gradual
movement of the latter in a vertical direction,
the bottom being made to open upwards, with
hinged flaps. The ball-clack, Fig. 34, a most
useful appliance for clearing holes, was not
used by him.
FIG. 34. At Passy great strength was given to the
B ALL-CLACK.
head of the striking tool, and to the part of
the machinery applied to turn the trepan, because the great
weight of the latter superinduced the danger of its break-
KTND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 79
ing off under the influence of the shock, and because the
solidity of this part of the machinery necessarily regulated
the whole working of the tool. The head of the boring
arrangement was connected with the balance-beam of the
steam-engine by a straight link- chain,
with a screw-coupling, admitting of
being lengthened as the trepan de-
scended, Fig. 35. The balance-beam,
in order to increase its elastic force
in the upward stroke, is made of
wood, in two pieces, the upper being
of fir and the lower of beech. The
whole of the machinery is put in
motion by steam, which is admitted
to the upper part of the cylinder, and
presses it down, and thus raises the
tool at the other end of the beam
to that part in connection with the
cylinder. The counterpoise to the
weight of the tools is also placed
upon the cylinder-end of the beam.
The cylinder receives the steam through ports that are
opened and closed by hand, like those of a steam-hammer ;
so that the number and length of the strokes of the piston
may be increased or diminished as occasion requires.
The balance-beam is continued beyond the point where
the piston is connected with it, and goes to meet the blocks
placed to check the force of the blow given by the descent
of the tool. The guides of the piston-head are attached
to the part of the machinery that acts in this manner ; but
at Passy, Kind made the balance-beam work upon two
plummer-blocks having no permanent cover, that they
might be more easily moved whenever it was necessary
FIG. 35. COUPLING OF
ROD TO ENGINE.
8o WELL-BORING.
to displace the beam, for the purpose of taking up or letting
down the rods, or for changing the tools. The balance-
beam was always immediately over the centre of the tools,
and had to be displaced every time the latter required to
be changed. This was effected by allowing the beam to
slide horizontally, so as to leave the mouth of the pit open.
The counter-check, above mentioned, likewise prevented
the piston from striking the cylinder-cover with too great
force, when it was brought back by the weight of the tools
to its original position. The operation of raising and
lowering the rods, or of changing the tools, was performed
at Passy by a separate steam-engine, and the shell was
discharged into a special truck, moving upon a railway
expressly laid for this purpose in the great tower erected
over the excavation.
The cutting or comminution of the rock was usually
effected at Passy at the rate of 15 to 20 strokes a minute.
The rate of descent, of course, differed according to the
nature of the rock operated upon ; but, generally speaking
the trepan was worked for the space of about 8 hours at a
time, after which it was withdrawn, and the shell was let
down in order to remove the debris. The average number
of men employed in the gang, besides the foreman or
superintendent, was about 14 : they comprised a smith and
a hammerman, to keep the tools in order ; and two shifts
of men entrusted with the excavation, namely, an engine-
driver and a stoker, a chief workman or sub-foreman, and
3 assistants. The total time employed in sinking shafts
upon this system in the north of France, where it was
applied without meeting with the accidents encountered
in the historical Passy well, could be divided in the following
manner : 25 to 56% in manoeuvring the trepan, II to I/J.J %
in raising and lowering tools, 19 to 21 % in removing material
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 81
detached from the rock and cleaning out the bottom of the
excavation, and 8 to ioj % in stoppage of engines, broken
tools, etc. In the Passy well the long delays caused by the
slips which took place in the clays, both in the basement
beds of the Paris basin and in the sub-Cretaceous strata,
FIG. 36. KIND-CHAUDRON PLANT.
would render any comparison derived from it of little
value.
Later, Chaudron made some modifications in Kind's
practice, and the system became known by the dual name.
The arrangement of the surface plant is shown in -Figs.
36 to 38. The small capstan engine O has a cylinder 20 in.
diam. and a stroke of 32 in., working on the third motion.
Attached to this engine, and working in the small pit C, is
G
82
WELL-BORING.
a counterbalance weight. The engine is used for raising
and lowering boring-tools, and for lifting the debris resulting
from the boring. As far as the platform, which is about
10 ft. from the surface, the pit is 19 ft. diam. or 4 ft. wider
than below. At a level of about 38 ft. above this platform
is a tramway on which run small trucks, carrying the " shell "
F IG . 37. KIND-CHAUDRON PLANT.
on one side and the boring-tools on the other. At a level
of 48 ft. above the platform are placed supports for the
wooden spears to which the boring-tools are attached. The
machinery for boring is worked by a cylinder, which has a
diameter of 39^ in. and a full stroke of 39^ in., the usual
stroke varying from 2 to 3 ft. A massive beam of wood
transmits motion from this cylinder to the boring apparatus,
the connection between the beam and the piston-rod and
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 83
the beam and the boring-tools being made by a chain. The
engine-man sits close to the engine, and applies the steam
above the piston only. The down stroke of the boring-
tools is caused by the sudden opening of the exhaust, and
a frame then prevents the shock of the boring-rods from
FIG. 38. KIND-CHAUDRON PLANT.
being too severe. The engines work at speeds varying
from 12 to 1 8 strokes a minute, according to the character
of the strata passed through.
After the working platform is fixed, the first boring-tool
applied is the small trepan, Fig. 39. This tool is attached
to the wooden beam by the arrangement already shown
in Fig. 35. The boring-tools can be lowered at pleasure by
means of an adjusting screw. The handle for boring is
worked by 4 men on the platform, and is turned by the aid
of a swivel. Attached to the handle-piece are rods made
G 2
8 4
WELL-BORING.
o OQ
FIG. 39. SMALL TREPAN.
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 85
from Riga pitch-pine, 59 ft. long and 7| in. square. A
swivel -ring, Fig. 40, is attached to the rope when raising
and lowering the boring-rods. The small trepan cuts a hole
4 ft. 8| in. diam., and has 14 teeth fitted in cylindrical holes
FIG. 40. SWIVEL-RING.
and secured by pins entering through circular slots. The
teeth are steeled. At a distance of 4 ft. 4 in. above the main
teeth of the trepan is an arm B, with a tooth at each end.
This piece answers the purpose of a guide, and at the same
time removes irregularities from the sides of the hole. At
a distance of 13 ft. 6 in. above the main teeth are the actual
guides, consisting of two strong arms of iron fixed on the
tool, and placed at right angles to each other. The hole
made by the small trepan is not kept at any fixed distance
in advance of the full-sized pit, but the distance generally
varies from 30 to 100 ft. With the small trepan, which
weighs 8 tons, progress varies from 6 to 10 ft. a day.
The large trepan, Fig. 41, weighs i6J tons, is forged in
one solid piece, and has 28 teeth. An iron projection forms
the centre of this trepan, and fits loosely into the hole made
by the small trepan, acting as a guide for the tool. At a
FIG. 41. LARGE TREPAN.
KIND-CHA UDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 87
distance of 7 ft. 6 in. above the teeth, a guide is sometimes
fixed on the frame, but is not furnished with teeth. At a
distance of 13 ft. 3 in. from the teeth are two other guides
at right angles to each other. These guides are let down
the pit with the boring-tool, the hinged part of the guides
being raised whilst passing through the beams at the top
of the pit, which are only 6 ft. 7 in. apart. When the tool
is ready to work, the two arms are let down against the
side of the pit, and are hung in the shaft by ropes, thus
FIG. 42. TREPAN TEETH.
acting as a guide for the trepan, which moves through them.
To provide against a shock to the spears when the trepan
strikes the rock on the down-stroke, at the upper part of
the frame a slot motion is arranged, the play of which
amounts to about in. The teeth of the large trepan are
not horizontal, but are deeper towards the inside of the
pit, the face of the inside tooth being 3f in. lower than the
outside. The object of this is to cause the debris to drop
at once into the small hole, by the face of the rock at the
bottom of the pit being somewhat inclined. The teeth
used, Fig. 42, are the same both for large and small trepan,
and weigh about 72 Ib. each. As a rule, only one set of
teeth is kept in use, this working for 12 hours, the alternate
88 WELL-BORING.
12 hours being employed in raising the debris. This time
is divided in about the following proportions : Boring,
12 hours ; drawing rods, I to 5 hours, according to depth;
raising debris, 2 hours ; lowering rods, I to 5 hours. The
maximum speed of the larger trepan maybe taken at about
3 ft. a day. The ordinary distance sunk is not more than
2 ft. a day, and in flint and other hard rocks the boring has
proceeded as slowly as 3 in. a day.
The debris in the small bore-hole contains pieces of a
maximum size of about 8 cub. in. In the large boring,
pieces of rock measuring 32 cub. in. have been found. As
a rule, however, the material is beaten very fine, having
much the appearance of mud or sand. In both the large
and the small borings the debris is raised by a shell, similar
to Fig. 33, and consisting of a wrought-iron cylinder 39 in.
diam. by 6 ft. 9 in. long, containing two flap-valves at the
bottom, through which the excavated material enters. This
apparatus is passed down the shaft by the bore-rods, and is
moved up and down through a distance varying from 6 to
8 in. for about J hour ; it is then drawn up and emptied.
In some cases where the rock is hard, three sizes of
trepan are used consecutively, the sizes being 5 ft., 8 ft. and
13 ft.
Perpendicularity is ensured by the natural effect of the
treble guide, which the chisels and the two sets of arms
attached to the boring tools afford, and by the fact that if
the least divergence is made from a vertical line the friction
upon one side of the shaft is so great that the borers are
unable to turn the instrument.
In tubbing, it is essential to secure a water-tight joint at
the base ; hence the bed on which the moss-box has to rest
should be quite level and smooth. This is attained by the
use of a "scraper" attached to the bore-rods.
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 89
The tubbing is cast in complete cylinders. At MaUrage
each ring has an internal diameter of 12 ft. and is 4 ft. 9 in.
high. Each ring has an inside flange at top and bottom,
and a rib in the middle, the top and bottom of the ring
being turned and faced. The rings of tubbing are attached
to each other by 28 bolts I i in. diam., passed through
holes bored in the flanges. The tubbing is suspended in
the pit by means of 6 rods, let down by capstans placed
30 ft. above the top of the pit and working upon long screws.
When a new ring of tubbing is added, the rods are detached
at a lower level, and are hung upon chains, thus leaving an
open space for passing it forward. Before each ring is put
into the pit, it is tested to 50% more pressure than it is
expected to be subjected to. The joints between the rings
of tubbing are made with sheet lead \ in. thick coated with
red-lead. The lead is allowed to obtrude from the joint
J in., and is wedged up by a tool which has a face -^ in.
thick.
The mode of suspending the tubbing from the rods will
be understood by reference to Fig. 43. The rods are
attached to a ring by the bolts connecting one ring of
tubbing with another. The bottom ring of tubbing and
the ring carrying the moss-box have their top flange turned
inwards, but their bottom flange outwards. A strong iron
web, forming the base of a tube i6J in. diam., is attached
to the tubbing. The object of this tube is to cause the water
in the shaft to ease the suspension rods, by bearing part of
the weight of the tubbing. Cocks to admit water are placed
at intervals up the tube, by which means the weight upon
the rods can be easily regulated, so that not more than 5 to
10% of the weight of the tubbing is suspended by the rods
at one time. The ring holding the moss-box is hung from
the bottom joint in the tubbing by sliding rods.
90 WELL-BORING.
The arrangement of the moss-box which forms the base
of the tubbing is one of the most important points in this
system of sinking. Ordinary peat moss is enclosed in a
net, which, with the aid of springs, keeps it in place during
the descent of the tubbing. When the moss box, which
FIG. 43. TUBBING SUSPENDED FROM RODS.
hangs on short rods fixed to the tubbing, reaches the face
of rock, it is dropped gently upon it, and the whole weight
of the tubbing is allowed to rest upon the bed : this com-
presses the moss, the capacity of the chamber holding it is
KIND-CHAUDRON DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 91
diminished, and the moss is forced against the sides of the
hole, forming a water-tight joint.
Up to this point, the following important differences
between this and the ordinary system of tubbing are to be
observed. The tubbing, on reaching its bed, bears the
aggregate pressure of all the feeders of water which have
been met with ; no wedging or other mode of consolidating
it in the shaft is used ; and connection between the rings
is so carefully made that the wedging of joints is rendered
unnecessary.
Finally, the annular space between the tubbing and the
sides of the bore is filled with hydraulic cement, to render
the tubbing impermeable.
92 WELL-BORING.
CHAPTER VI.
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
THE system applied by Dru is worthy of attention, not so
much on account of its novelty or of any new principle in-
volved, as on account of the contrivances it contains for the
application of the free-falling tool to wells of large diameter.
It has been already explained that under Kind's arrange-
ments the trepan was thrown out of gear by the reaction of
the water which was allowed to find its way into the column
of the excavation, but that it is not always possible to com-
mand the necessary supply, and that, even when possible,
the clutch Kind adopted was so shaped as to be subject to
much and rapid wear.
Dru, with a view to obviate both these inconveniences,
made his first trepan so that the tool was gradually raised
until it came in contact with the fixed part of the upper
machinery, when it was thrown out of gear. The bearings
of the clutch were parallel to the horizontal line, and were
found hi practice to be more evenly worn, so that this
instrument could be worked sometimes for 8 to 14 days
without intermission, whereas, in Kind's system, the trepan
was frequently withdrawn after 2 or 3 days' service.
It will be seen from Figs. 44, 45, that the boring-rod A
is suspended from the outer end of the working beam B,
which is made of timber hooped with iron, working upon
a middle bearing, and is connected at the inner end to the
vertical steam-cylinder C, 10 in. diam. and 39 in. stroke.
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
93
The stroke of the boring-rod is reduced to 22 in., by the
inner end of the beam being made^ longer than the outer
FIG. 44. DRU BORING PLANT.
end, serving as a partial counterbalance for the weight of
the boring-rod. The steam cylinder is single-acting, being
94
WELL-BORING.
used only to lift the boring-rod at each stroke, and the rod
is lowered again by releasing the steam from the top side
of the piston ; the stroke is limited by timber stops both
below and above the end of the working beam B.
FIG. 46. DRU CHISEL.
FIG. 45. DRU BORING PLANT.
The boring-tool is the most important part of the appa-
ratus, and has involved most difficulty in construction. The
points to be aimed at in this are, simplicity of construction
and repairs ; greatest force of blow possible for each unit
of striking surface ; and freedom from liability to get turned
aside and choked.
The tool used in small borings is a single chisel, as
shown in Fig. 46 ; but for the large borings it is found best
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
95
to divide the tool-face into separate chisels, each of con-
venient size and weight for forging. All the chisels, how-
ever, are kept in a straight line, whereby the extent of
striking surface is reduced, and the tool is rendered less
liable to be turned aside by meeting a hard portion of flint
on a single point of the striking edge, which would diminish
the effect of the blow.
The trepan, Fig. 47, is composed of a wrought-iron body
D, connected by a screwed end E to the boring- rod, and
E
FIG. 47. DRU TREPAN.
carrying the chisels F, fixed in separate sockets and secured
by nuts above ; 2 to 4 chisels are used, or sometimes even
a greater number, according to the size of the hole to be
bored. This construction allows of any broken chisel being
96 WELL-BORING.
easily replaced ; also, by changing the breadth of the two
outer chisels, the diameter of the hole bored can be regu-
lated exactly. When 4 chisels are used, the 2 centre ones
are made a little longer than the others, to form a leading
hole as a guide to the boring-rod. A cross-bar G, of the
same width as the tool, guides it in the hole in a direction
at right-angles to the tool ; and in the case of the larger
and longer tools, a second cross-bar higher up, at right-
angles to the first and parallel to the striking edge of the
tool, is also added.
If the whole length of the boring-rod were allowed to
fall suddenly to the bottom of a large bore-hole at each
stroke, frequent breakages would occur ; it is therefore
found requisite to arrange for the tool to be detached from
the boring-rod at a fixed point in each stroke, and this has
led to the general adoption of free-falling tools. Dru's plan
of self-acting free-falling tool, liberated by reaction, is shown
in side and front view in Fig. 48. The hook H, attached
to the head of the boring-tool D, slides vertically in the
box K, which is screwed to the lower extremity of the
boring-rod ; and the hook engages with the catch J, centred
in the sides of the box K, whereby the tool is lifted as the
boring-rod rises. The tail of the catch J bears against an
inclined plane L, at the top of the box K ; and the two
holes carrying the centre-pin I of the catch are made oval
in vertical direction, so as to allow a slight vertical move-
ment of the catch. When the boring-rod reaches the top
of the stroke, it is stopped suddenly by the tail end of the
beam B striking upon the wood buffer-block E (Fig. 44) ;
the shock thus occasioned causes a slight jump of the catch
J in the box K, the tail of the catch is thereby thrown out-
wards by the incline L, liberating the hook H, and the tool
then falls freely to the bottom of the bore-hole. When the
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
97
boring-rod descends again after the tool, the catch J again
engages with the hook H, enabling the tool to be raised for
the next blow.
FIG. 48. DRU FREE-FALLING DEVICE.
Another construction of the self-acting free-falling tool,
liberated by a separate disengaging-rod, is shown in side
and front view in Fig. 49. It consists of 4 principal pieces
H
9 8
WELL-BORING.
the hook H, the catch J, the pawl I, and the disengaging-
rod M. The hook H, carrying the boring-tool D, slides
FIG. 49. FREE-FALLING DEVICE.
between the vertical sides "of the box K, screwed to the
bottom of the boring-rod ; and the catch J works in the
same space upon a centre-pin fixed in the box, so that
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 99
the tool is carried by the rod, when hooked on the catch.
At the same time, the pawl I, at the back of the catch J,
secures it from getting unhooked from the tool ; but this
pawl is centred in a separate sliding hoop N, forming the
top of the disengaging-rod M, which slides freely up and
down within a fixed distance upon the box K ; and in its
lowest position the hoop N rests upon the upper of the two
guides P, through which the disengaging-rod M slides out-
side the box K. In lowering the boring-rod, the disen-
gaging-rod M reaches the bottom of the bore-hole first, and
being then stopped, it prevents the pawl I from descending
any lower ; and the inclined back of the catch J sliding
down past the pawl, the latter forces the catch out of the
hook H, thus allowing the tool D to fall freely and strike
its blow. The height of fall of the tool is always the
same, being determined only by the length of the disen-
gaging-rod M.
The blow having been struck, and the boring-rod con-
tinuing to be lowered to the bottom of the hole, the catch J
falls back into its original position, and engages again with
the hook H, ready for lifting the tool in the next stroke.
As the boring-rod rises, the tail of the catch J trips up the
pawl I in passing, allowing the catch to pass freely ; and
the pawl, before it begins to be lifted, returns to the original
position, where it locks the catch J, and prevents any risk
of its becoming unhooked either in raising or lowering the
tool in the well.
The tool employed for boring a well 19 in. diam. weighs
f ton, and is liberated by the reaction arrangement shown
in Fig. 48. The same mode of liberation was applied in
the first instance to the larger tool employed in sinking a
well 47 in. diam. : the great weight of the latter tool, how-
ever, amounting to as much as 3J tons, necessitated so
H 2
ioo WELL-BORING.
violent a shock for the purpose of liberating the tool by
reaction, that the boring-rods and the rest of the apparatus
would have been damaged, and the arrangement shown
in Fig. 49 was substituted. In this case, the cross-guide
G fixed upon the tool is made with an eye for the dis-
engaging-rod M to work through freely. For borings
of small diameter, however, the disengaging-rod cannot
supersede the reaction system of liberation, as the latter
alone is able to work in t borings as small as 3 J- in. diam. ;
and a bore-hole no larger than this has been successfully
completed with the reaction tool to a depth of 750 ft.
The boring-rods employed are of wrought iron and of
wood. Wooden rods are used for borings of large diameter,
as they possess the advantage of having a larger section
for stiffness without increasing the weight ; also, when
immersed in water, the greater portion of their weight is
floated. The wood requires to be carefully selected, and
from the thick part of the tree. In France, Lorraine or
Vosges deals are preferred.
The boring-rods, whether of wood or iron, are screwed
together either by solid sockets or with separate -collars.
The latter are preferred, being easy to forge ; also because,
as only one half of the collar works in coupling and un-
coupling the rods, while the other half is fixed, the screw
thread becomes worn only at one end, and, by changing the
collar end for end, a new thread is obtained when one is
worn out, the worn end being then jammed fast as the fixed
end of the collar.
In raising or letting down the boring-rod, two sections
of about 30 ft. each are detached or added at once, and a
few shorter rods of different lengths are used to make up
the exact requirement. The coupling-screw (S', Fig. 44),
by which the boring-rod is connected to the working
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
101
beam B, serves to complete the adjustment of length ; this
is turned by a cross-bar, and then secured by a cross-pin
through the screw.
In ordinary work, breakages of the boring-rod generally
take place in the iron, and more particularly at the part
screwed, that being the weakest. In case of breakages, the
tools usually employed for picking up the broken ends are a
conical screwed socket (Fig. 50) and a crow's-foot (Fig. 51) ;
the socket is made with an ordinary V-thread for cases
where the breakage occurs in iron, but with a sharper thread
like a wood screw when the breakage is in wood rods. To
FIG. 50.
FIG. 51.
EMERGENCY TOOLS.
FIG. 52.
ascertain the shape of the fractured end left in the bore-
hole, and its position relatively to the centre line of the
hole, a similar conical socket is first lowered, having its
under surface filled up level with wax, so as to take an
impression of the broken end, and show what size of screwed
socket should be employed for getting it up. Tools with
nippers are sometimes used in large borings, as it is not
advisable to subject the rods to a twist.
When the boring-tool has detached a sufficient quantity
of material, the boring-rod and tool are drawn up by means
of the rope O (Fig. 44) winding up the drum Q, which is
103 WELL-BORING.
driven by straps and gearing from the steam-engine T. A
shell is then lowered into the bore-hole by the wire-rope U,
from the other drum V, and is afterwards drawn up again
with the excavated material. A friction brake is applied to
the drum Q, for regulating the rate of lowering the boring-
rod. The shell shown in Fig. 52 consists of a riveted iron
cylinder, with a handle at the top, which can either be
screwed to the boring-rod or attached to the wire-rope ; and
the bottom is closed by a large valve opening inwards.
Two forms are used, either a pair of flap-valves, or a single-
cone valve ; and the bottom ring of the cylinder, forming
the seating of the valve, is forged solid, and steeled on the
lower edge. In lowering this cylinder to the bottom of the
bore-hole, the valve opens, and the loose material enters
the cylinder, where it is retained by the closing of the
valve, whilst the shell is drawn up again to the surface.
In boring through chalk, as in the case of the deep wells in
the Paris basin, the hole is first made of about half the final
diameter for 60 to 90 ft., and is then enlarged to the full
diameter by using a larger tool. This is done for con-
venience of working : if the whole area were acted upon at
once, it would involve crushing all the flints in the chalk ;
but, by putting a shell in the advanced hole, the flints that
are detached during the working of the second larger tool are
received in the shell and removed by it, without getting
broken by the tool.
The resistance experienced in boring through different
strata is various ; and some rocks passed through are so
hard that with 12,000 blows a day of a boring-tool weighing
nearly 10 cwt, with 19 in. height of fall, the bore-hole was
advanced only 3 to 4 in. a day. As an opposite case, strata
of running sand have been met with so wet that a slight
movement of the rod at the bottom of the hole was sufficient
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 103
to make the sand rise 30 to 40 ft. in the bore-hole. In
these cases, Dru adopted the Chinese method of effecting
a speedy clearance, by means of a shell closed by a large
ball-clack at the bottom (Fig. 52), suspended by a rope, to
which a vertical movement is given ; each time the shell
falls upon the sand, a portion of this is forced up into the
cylinder, and retained there by the ball-valve.
Dru states that the reaction tool has been successfully
employed for borings up to about 4 ft. diam., witness the
case of the well at Butte-aux-Cailles of 47 in. diam. ; but
beyond that size he considers the shock requisite to liberate
the larger and heavier tool would probably be so excessive
as to injure the boring-rods and the rest of the attachments,
and he designed the arrangement of the disengaging-rod
for liberating the tool in borings of large diameter, whereby
all shock upon the boring-rods is avoided, and the tool is
liberated with complete certainty.
In practice it is necessary, as with the common chisel,
to turn the boring-tool partly round after each stroke, so as
to prevent it from falling every time into the same position
at the bottom of the well ; this was effected in the well at
Butte-aux-Cailles by manual power at the top of the well,
a long hand-lever fixed to the boring-rod by a clip bolted
on being turned round by a couple of men through part of
a revolution during the time that the tool was being lifted.
The turning was ordinarily done in the right-hand direc-
tion only, so as to avoid the risk of unscrewing any of the
screwed couplings of the boring-rods ; and care was taken
to give the boring-rod half a turn when the tool was at the
bottom, so as to tighten the screw-couplings, which other-
wise might shake loose. In the event of a fracture, how-
ever, leaving a considerable length of boring-rod in the hole,
it was sometimes necessary to have the means of unscrew-
104 WELL-BORING.
ing the couplings of the portion left in the hole, so as to
raise it in parts instead of all at once. In that case, a
locking-clip was added at each screwed joint above, and
secured by bolts, at the time of putting the rods together
for lowering them down the well to recover the broken
portion ; and by this means the ends of the rods were pre-
vented from becoming unscrewed in the coupling-sockets,
when the rods were turned round backwards for unscrew-
ing the joints in the broken length at the bottom of the
bore-hole.
When running sands are met with, the plan adopted is
to use the Chinese ball-scoop or shell, Fig. 52 ; where there
is too much sand for it to be got rid of in this way, a tube
has to be sent down from the surface to shut off the sand.
This, of course, necessitates diminishing the diameter of the
hole in passing through the sand ; but on reaching the solid
rock below the running sand, an expanding tool is used for
continuing the bore-hole below the tubing with the same
diameter as above it, so as to allow the tubing to go down
with the hole.
In case of meeting with a surface of very hard rock at
a considerable inclination to the bore-hole, Dru employs a
tool with cutters fixed in a circle all round the edge, instead
of in a single diameter line ; the length of the tool is also
considerably increased, so that it is guided for a length of
20 ft. He uses this tool in all cases where from any cause
the hole is found to be going crooked, and has even suc-
ceeded thereby in straightening a hole that had previously
been bored crooked. The cutting action of this tool is all
round its edge ; therefore on meeting with an inclined hard
surface, as there is nothing to cut on the lower side, the
force of the blow is brought to bear on the upper side alone,
until an entrance is effected into the hard rock in a true
straight line with the upper part of the hole.
DRU DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 105
Although as regards diameter, depth, and flow of water
in favourable localities, extraordinary results have been
obtained with this system of boring by rods worked by
steam power, yet, as Dru himself observes, in some in-
stances, " owing to the difficulties attending the operation,
the occurrence of delays from accidents is the rule, while
the regular working of the machinery is the exception." A
further disadvantage to be noticed is that, owing to the time
and labour involved in raising and lowering heavy rods in
borings of IO in. diam. and upwards, there is a strong
inducement to keep the boring tool at work for a much
longer period than is actually necessary for breaking-up
fresh material at each stroke. The fact is that after 100
to 200 blows have been given, the boring-tool merely falls
into the accumulated debris and pounds this into dust,
without touching the surface of the solid rock. It may
therefore be easily understood how much time is totally
lost out of the periods of 5 to 8 hours during which, with
the rod system, the tool is allowed to continue working.
io6 WELL-BORING.
CHAPTER VII.
MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM.
IN Mather & Platt's method of boring adopted in England,
rope has been reverted to in place of the iron or wooden
rods used on the Continent. A flexible rope admits of
being handled with greater facility than iron rods, but lacks
the advantage of their rigidity ; in the Chinese method
(p. 41) it admitted of withdrawing the chisel or bucket
very rapidly, but gave no certainty to the operation of the
chisel at the bottom of the hole. Rods, on the other hand,
enable a very effective blow to be given, with a definite
turning or screwing motion between the blows, according
to the requirements of the strata ; but the time and trouble
of raising heavy rods from great depths on each occasion
of changing from boring to clearing out the hole form a
serious drawback, which makes the stoppages occupy really
a longer time than the actual working of the machinery.
The method introduced by Mather & Platt, of Oldham,
has been largely employed for deep boring, and seems to
combine many of the advantages of other systems without
their disadvantages. Its distinctive features, as illustrated
in Figs. 53 to 57, are the mode of giving the percussive
action to the boring-tool, and the construction of the tool
itself and of the shell-pump for clearing out the hole.
Instead of these implements being attached to rods, they
are suspended by a flat hemp rope, about \ in. thick and
4j in. broad, such as is commonly used at collieries ; and
MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 107
the boring-tool and shell-pump are raised and lowered as
quickly in the bore-hole as the bucket and cages in a colliery
shaft.
4 s
FIG. 53. MATHER & PLATT BORING PLANT.
io8
WELL-BORING.
The flat rope A, Fig. 53, from which the boring-head B
is suspended, is wound upon a large drum C driven by a
FIG. 54. MATHER & PLATT SMALL BORING MACHINE.
steam-engine D with a reversing motion, so that one man
can regulate the operation with the greatest ease. All the
MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 109
working parts are fitted into a wooden or iron framing E,
rendering the whole a compact and complete machine. On
leaving the drum C, the rope passes under a guide-pulley F,
and then over a large pulley G carried in a fork at the top
of the piston-rod of a vertical single-acting steam-cylinder.
This cylinder, by which the percussive action of the
boring-head is produced, is shown to a larger scale in the
vertical sections, Figs. 55, 56; and in this larger machine
the cylinder is fitted with a piston 15 in. diam. having a
heavy cast-iron rod 7 in. square, which is made with a fork
at the top, carrying the flanged pulley G of about 3 ft. diam.
and sufficient breadth for the flat rope A to pass over it.
The boring-head having been lowered by the winding-drum
to the bottom of the bore-hole, the rope is fixed secure at
that length by the clamp J ; steam is then admitted under-
neath the piston in the cylinder H by the steam-valve K,
and the boring-tool is lifted by the ascent of the piston-rod
and pulley G ; on arriving at the top of the stroke, the
exhaust-valve L is opened for the steam to escape, allowing
the piston-rod and carrying-pulley to fall freely with the
boring-tool, which descends with its full weight to the
bottom of the bore-hole. The exhaust-port is 6 in. above
the bottom of the cylinder, while the steam-port is situated
at the bottom ; there is thus always an elastic cushion of
steam of that thickness retained in the cylinder for the
piston to fall upon, preventing the piston from striking the
bottom of the cylinder. The steam- and exhaust-valves are
worked with a self-acting motion by the tappets M, which
are actuated by the movement of the piston-rod ; and a
rapid succession of blows is thus given by the boring-tool
on the bottom of the bore-hole. As it is necessary that
motion should be given to the piston before the valves can
be acted upon, a small jet of steam N is allowed to be con-
no
WELL-BORING.
1f> - to 20 so -40
FIG. 55. MATHER & PLATT LARGE BORING MACHINE.
MATHER 6- PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM, in
ffl
FIG. 56. MATHER & PLATT LARGE BORING MACHINE.
ii2 WELL-BORING.
stantly blowing into the bottom of the cylinder ; this causes
the piston to move slowly at first, so as to take up the slack
of the rope, and allow it to receive the weight of the boring-
head gradually and without a jerk. An arm attached to
the piston-rod then comes in contact with a tappet which
opens the steam-valve K, and the piston rises quickly to
the top of the stroke ; another tappet worked by the same
arm then shuts off the steam, and the exhaust-valve L is
opened by a corresponding arrangement on the opposite
side of the piston-rod, as shown in Fig. 56. By shifting
these tappets, the length of stroke of the piston can be
varied from I ft. to 8 ft. in the large machine, according to
the material to be bored through ; and the height of fall of
the boring-head at the bottom of the bore-hole is double
the length of stroke of the piston. The fall of the boring-
head and piston can also be regulated by a weighted valve
on the exhaust-pipe, checking the escape of steam, so as to
cause the descent to take place slowly or quickly, as may be
desired.
The boring head B, Fig. 53, is shown to a larger scale
in Fig. 57. It consists of a wrought-iron bar about 4 in.
diam. and 8 ft. long, to the bottom of which is secured a
cast-iron cylindrical block C. This block has numerous
square holes through it, into which are inserted the chisels
or cutters D, with taper shanks, so as to be very firm when
working, but to be readily taken out for repairing and
sharpening. Two different arrangements of the cutters are
shown in the elevation and the plan. A little above the
block C, another cylindrical casting E is fixed upon the
bar B, and acts simply as a guide to keep the bar perpen-
dicular. Higher still is fixed a second guide F, but on the
circumference of this are secured cast-iron plates made with
ribs of a saw-tooth or ratchet shape, catching only in one
MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 113
direction ; these ribs are placed at an inclination like seg-
ments of a screw-thread of very long pitch, so that, as the
guide bears against the rough sides of the bore-hole when
the bar is raised or lowered, they assist in turning it, and
thus cause the cutters to strike in a fresh place at each
stroke. Alternate plates have the projecting ribs inclined
in opposite directions, so that one half of the ribs are acting
to turn the bar round in rising, and the other half to turn
it in the same direction in falling. These projecting spiral
ribs simply assist in turning the bar, and immediately
above the upper guide F is the arrangement by which the
definite rotation is secured. To effect this object two cast-
iron collars G H are cottered fast to the top of the bar B,
and placed about 12 in. apart ; the upper face of the lower
collar G is formed with deep ratchet-teeth of about 2 in.
pitch, and the under face of the top collar H is formed with
similar ratchet-teeth, set exactly in line with those on the
lower collar. Between these collars, and sliding freely on
the neck of the boring-bar B, is a deep bush J, which is
also formed with corresponding ratchet-teeth on both its
upper and lower faces ; but the teeth on the upper face are
set half a tooth in advance of those on the lower face, so
that the perpendicular side of each tooth on the upper face
of the bush is directly above the centre of the inclined side
of a tooth on the lower face. To this bush is attached the
wrought-iron bow K, by which the whole boring-bar is sus-
pended from a hook and shackle O, Fig. 55, at the end of
the flat rope A.
The rotary motion of the bar is obtained as follows :
When the boring-tool falls and strikes the blow, the lifting-
bush J, which during the lifting has been engaged with the
ratchet-teeth of the top collar H, falls upon those of the
bottom collar G, and thereby receives a twist backwards
I
WELL-BORING.
Section td, Elevations
FIG. 57. MATHER & PLATT BORING-HEAD.
MATHER & PL ATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 115
through the space of half a tooth ; and on commencing to
lift again, the bush rising up against the ratchet-teeth of
the top collar H, receives a further twist backwards through
half a tooth. The flat rope is thus twisted backwards to
the extent of one tooth of the ratchet ; and during the
lifting of the tool it untwists itself again, thereby rotating
the boring tool forwards through that extent of twist at
each successive blow of the tool. The amount of the rota-
tion may be varied by making the ratchet-teeth of coarser
or finer pitch. The motion is entirely self-acting, and the
rotary movement of the boring-tool is ensured with me-
chanical accuracy. This simple and most effective action,
taking place at every blow of the tool, produces a constant
change in the position of the cutters, thus increasing their
effect in breaking the rock.
The shell-pump, for raising the material broken by the
boring-head, is shown in Fig. 58, and consists of a cylin-
drical cast-iron shell or barrel P, about 8 ft. long and a
little smaller in diameter than the size of the bore-hole. At
the bottom is a clack A opening upwards, somewhat similar
to that in ordinary pumps, but its seating, instead of being
fastened to the cylinder P, is in an annular frame C, which
is held up against the bottom of the cylinder by a rod D
passing up to a wrought-iron guide E at the top, where it
is secured by a cotter F. Inside the cylinder works a
bucket B, similar to that of a common lift-pump, having
a rubber disc-valve on the top side ; and the rod D of the
bottom clack passes freely through the bucket. The rod
G of the bucket itself is formed like a long link in a chain,
and by this link the pump is suspended from the shackle O
at the end of the flat rope, the guide E, Fig. 58, preventing
the bucket from being drawn out of the cylinder. The
bottom clack A is made with a rubber disc, which opens
I 2
n6
WELL-BORING.
sufficiently to allow the water and smaller particles of stone
to enter the cylinder ; and in order that pieces of broken
FIG. 58. MATHER & PLATT SHELL-PUMP.
MATHER 6- PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 117
rock may be brought up as large as possible, the entire
clack is free to rise bodily about 6 in. from the annular
frame C, Fig. 58, thereby affording ample space for large
pieces of rock to enter the cylinder, when drawn in by the
up stroke of the bucket.
The general working of the boring-machine is as follows.
The winding drum C, Fig. 53, is 10 ft. diam. in the large
machine, and is capable of holding 3000 ft. of rope 4^ in.
broad and i J in. thick. When the boring-head B is hooked
on the shackle at the end of the rope A, its weight pulls
round the drum and winding-engine, and, by means of a
brake, it is lowered steadily to the bottom of the bore-hole ;
the rope is then secured at that length by screwing-up
tight the clamp J. The small steam-jet N, Figs. 55, 56, is
next turned on, for starting the working of the percussion-
cylinder H ; and the boring-head is then kept continually
at work, until it has broken up a sufficient quantity of
material at the bottom of the bore-hole. The clamp J
which grips the rope is made with a slide and screw I,
Fig. 55, whereby more rope can be gradually given out as
the boring-head penetrates deeper. In order to increase
the lift of the boring-head and to compensate for the elastic
stretching of the rope, which is found to amount to I in.
per 100 ft., it is simply necessary to raise the top pair of
tappets on the tappet-rods whilst the percussive-motion is
in operation. When the boring-head has been kept at
work long enough, steam is shut off from the percussion-
cylinder, the rope is undamped, the winding-engine is put
in motion, and the boring-head is wound up to the surface,
where it is then slung from an overhead suspension-bar Q,
Fig. 53, by means of a hook mounted on a roller for running
the boring-head away to one side, clear of the bore-hole.
The shell-pump is next lowered into the bore-hole by
u8 WELL-BORING.
the rope, and the debris is pumped into it by lowering and
raising the bucket about 3 times at the bottom of the hole ;
this is readily effected by means of the reversing-motion of
the winding-engine. The pump is then brought to the
surface and emptied by the following very simple arrange-
ment : it is slung by a traversing-hook from the overhead
suspension-bar Q, Fig. 53, and is brought perpendicularly
over a small table R in the waste-tank T, the table being
raised by the screw S until it receives the weight of the
pump. The cotter F, Fig. 58, which holds up the clack-
seating C at the bottom of the pump, is then knocked out,
and the table being lowered by the screw, the whole clack-
seating C descends with it, and the contents of the pump are
washed out by the rush of water contained in the pump-
cylinder. The table is then raised again by the screw, re-
placing the clack-seating in its proper position, where it is
secured by driving the cotter F into the slot at the top ;
the pump is then ready to be lowered into the bore-hole as
before. It is sometimes necessary for the pump to be
emptied and lowered 3 or 4 times in order to remove all
the material that has been broken up by the boring-head
at one operation.
The rapidity with which these operations may be carried
on is found by experience to be as follows. The boring-
head is lowered at the rate of 500 ft. a minute. The per-
cussive-motion gives 24 blows a minute ; this rate of work-
ing continued for about 10 minutes in red sandstone and
similar strata is sufficient for enabling the cutters to pene-
trate about 6 in., when the boring-head is wound up again
at the rate of 300 ft. a minute. The shell-pump is lowered
and raised at the same speeds, but only remains down about
2 minutes ; and the emptying of the pump when drawn up
occupies about 2 or 3 minutes.
MATHER 6- PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 119
In the construction of the machine it will be seen that
the great desideratum of all earth boring has been well
kept in view ; namely, to bore holes of large diameter to
great depths with rapidity and safety. The main objects
are to keep either the boring-head or the shell-pump con-
stantly at work at the bottom of the bore-hole, where the
actual work has to be done ; to lose as little time as pos-
sible in raising, lowering, and changing the tools ; to ex-
pedite all the operations at the surface ; and to economise
manual labour in every particular. With this machine, one
man standing on a platform at the side of the percussion-
cylinder performs all the operations of raising and lowering
by the winding-engine, changing the boring-head and shell-
pump, regulating the percussive action, and clamping or
unclamping the rope ; all the handles for the various
steam-valves are close to his hand, and the brake for
lowering is worked by his foot. Two labourers attend to
changing the cutters and clearing the pump. Duplicate
boring-heads and pumps are slung to the overhead sus-
pension-bar Q, Fig. 53, ready for use, thus avoiding all
delay when any change is requisite.
In all well-boring innumerable accidents and stoppages
are certain to occur from causes which cannot be prevented,
with however much vigilance and skill the operations may
be conducted. Hard and soft strata intermingled, highly
inclined rocks, running sands, fissures and dislocations are
fruitful sources of annoyance and delay, and sometimes of
complete failure ; and it will therefore be interesting to
notice a few of the ordinary difficulties arising out of these
conditions. The various special instruments used under
such circumstances are shown in Figs. 59, 60.
The boring-head while at work may suddenly be
jammed fast, either by breaking into a fissure, or in con-
120
WELL-BORING.
QawJ3rafln&
J
j i I >
flarvatf bottom;
FIG. 59. MATHER & PLATT EMERGENCY TOOL
MATHER 6- PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 121
GP A PN a L
FOR
STIFF C LAY.
Tlaavat Bottom*
Section/
of Bottom*
^an/at* "top
n
iBl
Station, of bottom/
FIG. 6o.~MATHER & PLATT EMERGENCY TOOLS.
122 WELL-BORING.
sequence of broken rock falling upon it from loose strata
above. All the. strain possible is then put upon the rope,
either by the percussion-cylinder or by the winding-engine :
if the rope is old or rotten, it breaks, leaving perhaps a long
length in the hole. The claw grapnel is then attached to
the rope remaining on the winding-drum, and is lowered
until it rests upon the slack broken rope in the bore-hole.
The grapnel is made with three claws A centred in a cylin-
drical block B, which slides vertically within the casing C,
the tail ends of the claws fitting into inclined slots D in the
casing. During the lowering of the grapnel, the claws are
kept open, in consequence of the trigger E being held up
by the long link F, which suspends the grapnel from the
top rope. But as soon as the grapnel rests upon the broken
rope below, the suspending-link F continuing to descend
allows the trigger E to fall out of it, and then, in hauling
up again, the grapnel is lifted only by the bow G of the
internal block B, and the entire weight of the external
casing C bears upon the inclined tail ends of the claws A,
causing them to close in tight upon the broken rope and
lay hold of it securely. The claws are made either hooked
at the extremity or serrated. The grapnel is then hauled
up sufficiently to pull the broken rope tight, and wrought-
iron rods I in. square, with hooks attached at the bottom,
are let down to catch the bow of the boring-head, which is
readily accomplished. Powerful screw-jacks are applied to
the rods at the surface, by means of the step-ladder shown
in Fig. 59, in which the cross-pin H is inserted at any pair
of the holes, so as to suit the height of the screw-jacks.
If the boring-head does not yield quickly to these
efforts, the attempt to recover it is abandoned, and it is
got out of the way by being broken into pieces. For this
purpose, the broken rope in the bore-hole has first to be
MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 123
removed ; it is therefore caught hold of with a sharp hook
and pulled tight in the hole, while the cutting-grapnel is
slipped over it and lowered by the rods to the bottom.
This tool is made with a pair of sharp cutting jaws or
knives I opening upwards, which, in lowering, pass down
freely over the rope ; but when the rods are pulled up with
considerable force, the jaws nipping the rope between them
cut it through, and it is thus re-
moved altogether from the bore-hole.
The solid wrought-iron breaking-up
bar, which weighs about a ton, is then
lowered, and by means of the per-
cussion-cylinder it is made to pound
away at the boring-head until the
latter is either driven out of the way
into one side of the bore-hole, or
broken up into such fragments as
enable, partly by the shell-pump and
partly by the grapnels, the whole
obstacle to be removed. The boring
is then proceeded with, as before the
accident.
The same mishap may arise from
the shell-pump getting jammed fast
in the bore-hole, as illustrated in
Fig. 6 1 ; the same means of removing
the obstacle are then adopted. Experience has shown the
danger of putting any greater strain upon the rope than
the percussion-cylinder can exert; it is therefore usual to
lower the grapnel-rods at once, if the boring-head or pump
gets fast, thus avoiding risk of breaking the rope.
The breaking of a cutter in the boring-head is not an
uncommon occurrence. If, however, the bucket-grapnel K
FIG. 61. SHELL-PUMP
FAST.
124 WELL-BORING.
or the small screw-grapnel be employed for its recovery,
the hole is usually cleared without any important delay.
The screw-grapnel is applied by means of the iron grap-
pling-rods, so that by turning the rods the screw works
itself round the cutter or other article in the bore-hole, and
securely holds it while the rods are drawn to the surface.
The bucket-grapnel, Fig. 60, is also employed for raising
clay, as well as for the purpose of bringing up cores out of
the bore-hole, where these are not raised by the boring-
head itself in the manner already described. The action
of this grapnel is similar to that of the claw-grapnel, Fig. 59.
Where clay or similar material is at the bottom of the
bore-hole, the weight of the heavy block B in the grapnel
causes the sharp edges of the pointed jaws to penetrate to
some depth into the material, a quantity of which is thus
enclosed within them and brought up.
Another grapnel also used where a bore-hole passes
through a bed of very stiff clay is shown in Fig. 60, and
consists of a long cast-iron cylinder H fitted with a sheet-
iron mouthpiece K at the bottom, in which are hinged 3
conical steel jaws J opening upwards. The weight of the
tool forces it down into the clay with the jaws open ; on
raising it, the jaws, having a tendency to fall, cut into the
clay and enclose a quantity of it inside the mouthpiece,
which, on being brought to the surface, is detached from
the cylinder H and cleaned out. A second mouthpiece is
put on, and sent down for working in the bore-hole while
the first is being emptied, the attachment of the mouthpiece
to the cylinder being made by a common bayonet-joint D
so as to admit of ready connection and disconnection.
Running sand in soft clay is the most serious difficulty
met with in well-boring. Under such circumstances, the
bore-hole has to be tubed from top to bottom, which greatly
MATHER & PLATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 125
increases the expense of the undertaking, not only by the
cost of the tubes, but also by the time and labour expended
on inserting them. When a permanent water supply is the
main object of the boring, the additional expense of tubing
the bore-hole is not of much consequence : it is, in fact, of
distinct advantage, and should in all cases be provided for,
as the tubed hole is more durable, and the surface water is
thereby excluded ; but in exploring for mineral, it is a
serious matter, as the final result of the bore-hole is then
by no means certain. The mode of inserting tubes has
become a question of great importance in connection with
this system of boring, and much time and thought having
been spent in perfecting the method now adopted, its value
has been proved by the repeated success with which it has
been carried out.
The tubes used by Mather & Platt are of cast iron
varying in thickness from f to I in., according to their
diameter, and 9 ft. in length. Successive lengths are con-
nected by means of wrought-iron covering-hoops 9 in. long,
made of the same outside diameter as the tube, so as to be
flush with it. These hoops are J to f in. thick, and the
ends of each tube are reduced in diameter by turning down
for 4J in. from the end, to fit inside the hoops. A hoop is
shrunk fast on one end of each tube, leaving 41 in. of socket
projecting to receive the end of the next tube to be con-
nected ; 4 or 6 rows of screws with countersunk heads,
placed at equal distances round the hoop, are screwed
through into the tubes to couple the two lengths securely
together. Thus a flush joint is obtained both inside and
outside. The lowest tube is provided at bottom with a
steel shoe having a sharp edge for penetrating the ground
more readily. The whole arrangement is, however, most
cumbersome and unreliable, and compares very unfavour-
ably with Isler's system described on a subsequent page.
126
WELL-BORING.
In small borings 6 to 12 in. diam., the tubes are inserted
by means of screw-jacks, as shown in Fig. 62. The boring-
machine foundation A, which is of timber, is weighted at
FIG. 62. TUBE-FORCING BY SCREW-JACKS.
MATHER 6- PL ATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 127
B by stones, pig-iron, or any available material, and 2 screw-
jacks C, each of about 10 tons power, are secured with the
screws downwards, underneath the beams D crossing the
shallow well E excavated at the top of the bore-hole. A
tube F having been lowered into the mouth of the bore-
hole by the winding-engine, a pair of deep clamps G are
screwed tightly round it, and the screw-jacks acting upon
these clamps force the tube down into the ground. The
boring is then resumed, and as it proceeds the jacks are
occasionally worked, so as to force the tube if possible even
ahead of the boring-tool. The clamps are slackened and
shifted up the tubes, to suit the length of the screws of the
jacks ; 2 men work the jacks, and couple the lengths of
tubes as they are successively added. The actual boring
is carried on simultaneously within the tubes, and is not in
the least impeded by their insertion.
A more powerful apparatus is adopted where tubes of
1 8 to 24 in. diam. have to be inserted to a great depth, an
example of which is afforded by the boring at Horse Fort,
Gosport To supply the garrison with fresh water, a bore-
hole is sunk into the chalk. A cast-iron well, consisting of
cylinders 6 ft. diam. and 5 ft. long, has been sunk 90 ft., and
from the bottom of this well is an i8-in. bore-hole lined
with cast-iron tubes i in. thick, coupled as before described.
The method of inserting these tubes is shown in Fig. 63 :
2 wrought-iron columns C, 6 in. diam., are firmly secured
in the position shown, by castings bolted to the flanges of
the cylinders A forming the well, so that the columns are
perfectly rigid and parallel to each other. A casting D,
carrying on its under-side two 5 -in. hydraulic rams I, 4 ft.
long, is formed so as to slide freely between the columns,
which act as guides ; the hole in the centre of this casting
is large enough to admit freely a bore-tube, and by means
128
WELL-BORING.
Vertical*
FIG. 63. TUBE-FORCING BY HYDRAULIC PRESS.
MATHER & PL ATT DEEP-BORING SYSTEM. 129
of cotters passed through the slots in the columns the
casting is securely fixed at any height. A second casting
E, exactly the same shape as the top one, is placed upon
the top of the tubes B to be forced down, a loose wrought-
iron hoop being first put upon the shoulder at the top of
the tube, large enough to prevent the casting E from sliding
down the outside of the tubes ; this casting or crosshead
rests unsecured on the top of the tube and is free to move
with it. The hydraulic cylinders I, with their rams pushed
home, are lowered upon the crosshead E, and the top casting
D to which they are attached is then secured firmly to the
columns C by cottering through the slots. A small pipe F,
having a long telescope-joint, connects the cylinders I with
the pumps at surface which supply the hydraulic pressure.
By this arrangement, a force of 3 tons per sq. in., or
about 1 20 tons total upon the two rams, has frequently been
exerted to force down the tubes at the Horse Fort. After
the rams have made their full stroke of about 3 ft. 6 in., the
pressure is let off, and the hydraulic cylinders I with the
top casting D slide down the rams, resting on the cross-
head E until the rams are again pushed home. The top
casting D is then fixed in its new position upon the
columns C, by cottering fast as before, and the hydraulic
pressure is again applied ; and this is repeated until the
length of 2 tubes, making 18 ft., has been forced down.
The whole hydraulic apparatus is then drawn up again to
the top, another 18 ft. of tubing is added, and the operation
of forcing down is resumed. The tubes are steadied by
guides at G and H.
The boring operations are carried on uninterruptedly
during the process of tubing, excepting only for a few
minutes when fresh tubes are being added. It will be seen
that the cast-iron well is in this case the ultimate abutment
K
i3o WELL-BORING.
against which the pressure is exerted in forcing the tubes
down, instead of the weight of the boring-machine with
stones and pig-iron added, as in the case where screw-jacks
are used.
In the event of any accident occurring to the tubes
while they are being forced down the bore-hole, such as
requires them to be drawn up again, the core- or prong-
grapnel, Fig. 60, is employed for the purpose ; having 3
expanding hooked prongs, which slide readily down inside
the tube, and spring open on reaching the bottom, the
hooks project underneath the edge of the tube, which is
thus raised on hauling up the grapnel. In case the tubes
become crooked or indented, the long straightening-plug,
Fig. 60, consisting of a stout piece of timber faced with
wrought-iron strips, is lowered inside them ; above this is
a heavy cast-iron block, the weight of which forces the
plug past the irregularity and thereby straightens them
again.
13*
CHAPTER VIII.
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM.
THE method of boring with a rope has received great
development in the petroleum industry of the United
States.
The derrick or sheer-frame employed is a tall frame-
work of timber, 10 to 16 ft. square at bottom and 30 to
80 ft. high. On the top is a strong framework for the
reception of a pulley over which the drill-rope passes.
The floor of the derrick is made firm by cross sleepers or
" mud-sills " covered with planks. A roof for the protec-
tion of the workmen is arranged at 10 to 12 ft. above the
floor, and in cold weather the sides are boarded up. On
one side of the derrick is arranged a windlass of peculiar
construction called the " bull-wheel," and on the other is a
steam-engine giving motion both to a connecting-rod which
rocks the lever or working-beam, and (by means of a belt)
to the bull-wheel. The arrangement very much resembles
that of the boring sheer-frame shown in Fig. 23 (p. 55),
if the windlass were detached, and the lever were arranged
to be worked by power.
A form of rig which is readily put up and taken down,
and is adapted for transportation from place to place, is
shown in Figs. 64 to 69, the illustrations being respectively
a side elevation, a front elevation and a ground plan of the
rig as a whole, a plan of the friction-wheels and brake-
K 2
132
WELL-BORING.
**
FIG. 64. PORTABLE ROPE-BORING PLANT.
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 133
levers, a view of the rig arranged for pipe-driving, and a
view of it arranged for pumping. This arrangement, by
the Oil Well Supply Co. of Bradford and Oil City, Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A., is highly recommended for wells of a less
depth than 600 ft, and can be operated by either steam or
horse power. It will swing a set of boring tools 31 ft. long
and weighing 950 Ib. ; occupies a space of only 12 by
20 ft. ; weighs complete but 2 tons (4000 Ib.) ; and, when
the mast is folded, is 25 ft. high.
The 2 mud-sills A, one 10 in. square and II ft. 5 in.
long and the other 10 by 8 in. and 10 ft. long, rest upon
the ground and sustain 2 beams B, 8 by 6 in. in section
and 8 ft. 7 in. long, which support on proper posts the
framework C. The double samson-post D is fastened to
the principal mud-sill A, and the mast E is hinged therein
at F by a piece of tube passed through both posts and
mast. A bolt with large washers is put through the pipe,
and a nut and large washer are added. At the point G
another bolt traverses both samson-posts and mast after
the latter is raised into position.
On the top of the mast is a pulley- frame H carrying
the crown-pulleys I and the guide-hooks J which keep the
drilling-cable O in place. At K is a cross-bar which ties
the tops of the samson-posts D together. Braces L are
put where needed, and all parts are secured by bolts and
nuts, no nails being used.
The sand-pump or shell-pump block M is hung on the
crown-beam H ; and a guide-pulley N for the sand-pump
line P is attached to the cross-bar K.
The working-line Q passes over the drilling-wheel R
and is firmly fastened to the pitman-block S by being
doubled through an aperture therein ; the two ends of the
rope are made fast together by the clamps T. The other
134
WELL-BORING.
FIG. 65,
PORTABLE ROPE-BORING PLANT.
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 135
end of the working-cable is terminated by a drilling-hook
D H, on which is hung the temper-screw T S.
The pitman-block S fits in the wrist-pin w p of the
crank U, and rotation of the crank causes a reciprocating
vertical motion of the tools.
Power is communicated from engine or horse-gear to
the band-wheel V, on the shaft of which is keyed the
friction-wheel W. Either the bull-wheel X or the sand-
reel pulley Y is brought against the friction-wheel W as
required.
The sand-reel is hung at a on the swinging-beam b,
which is pivoted at c to the frame C, and is joined at d by
the draw-bar e } united at /to the lever g. A pull upon the
lever-handle h will throw the pulley Y of the sand-reel
against the friction-pulley, and this will cause it to rotate
and wind-up the sand-line P ; while a push upon the lever
will cause the wheel of the sand-reel to press against the
brake i t which is an iron band fitted to encircle a fourth of
that wheel. Provision is made for tightening that band
by nuts at/, so as to take up any slack.
One end of the bull-wheel X is pivoted at k on the
swinging-bar /, which again is pivoted at m to the frame C.
A T-bolt unites the swing-bar / to the iron lever o. This
lever has one long arm and two equal short arms with two
bearings, the short arms being nearly opposite each other,
one projecting above the beam B and the other extending
an equal distance below its surface. The swinging-bar / is
joined to one short arm and the brake-band p to the other.
A draw-bar r connects the long arm of the lever o with the
hand-lever. The brake-band / encircles nearly j of the
bull-wheel, and is firmly fastened to the rod q, which is
bolted to the frame C. A pull upon the hand-lever loosens
the brake-band p, and forces the bull-wheel X against the
136
WELL-BORING.
FIG. 68. ROPE PLANT DRIVING PIPE.
'HE J
R8*TY
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 137
friction-wheel W. A push upon the handle s forces the
bull-wheel away from the friction-wheel W, and clasps the
brake-band p firmly around the wheel.
The action of the hand-levers h and s in controlling the
motions of the sand-reel and bull-wheel respectively is
quick and effective. The bearing surfaces are wide, and
the wheels are truly made, so that motion is immediately
communicated without the least slip, and the brakes can
be applied so as to stop the wheels instantly while at their
swiftest speed. When the levers stand straight, both bull-
wheels and sand-pump reel revolve freely.
The drilling-wheel R rests in grooves in the supports t,
of which there are two sets, one in front of and the other
behind the samson-posts D. When the drilling-wheel R is
in use, it rests in the front grooves as shown in Fig. 64 ;
when not in use, it is put in the back grooves.
When driving pipes or using a cutting tool, a small
grooved wheel Z is fixed in the centre line of the samson-
posts, below the bull-wheel. The cable O is carried down-
ward around the wheel Z and upward over the crown-
pulleys I, and is united to the maul u which plays in the
guides v supported by bars w hinged to the samson-posts
D, the front ends of the hinged bars being kept in position
by cross-ties x.
A short bar y with a grooved wheel at one end, inside
of which plays the cable O, is fastened to the wrist-pin w p,
so as to allow the wrist-pin to turn freely. Rotation of the
crank causes alternate tension and loosening of the cable O,
and thus the maul u is elevated and dropped, much in the
same manner as piles are driven.
When the well is pumped, the polished rod has clamped
upon it at two points a wire rope which encircles the work-
ing-wheel R, and a projecting arm is fastened to that wheel
138 WELL-BORING.
and connected with a pitman which is attached to the wrist-
pin. The mast may be left erect, or folded down as in
Fig. 69. The pumping motion is very even and steady,
J2r
FIG. 69. ROPE PLANT PUMPING.
as the polished rod moves in a perpendicular line, and
saves the tubing from any jar or vibration.
Strong bolts inserted in each side of a brace to one of
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 139
the samson-posts D and the mast E form a ladder giving
easy access to the top.
The replacing of any wooden part of the rig that may
become injured can be effected by an ordinary carpenter.
With fair usage, the rig is reckoned capable of boring
hundreds of wells.
The first step in the operations is to sink the iron
driving-pipe to a depth ranging from 6 to 75 ft. and gene-
rally between 20 and 50 ft. This pipe acts as a guide, and
prevents earth or stones from falling into the hole while
the drilling is going on. The driving-pipe in general use
is of cast-iron, 6 to 8 in. diam. and I in. thick, in lengths of
9 or 10 ft. The driving of this pipe is a work of difficulty,
requiring the utmost skill, since the pipe must be forced
down through all obstructions to a great depth, while it is
kept perfectly vertical. The slightest deflection from a
straight line ruins the well, as the pipe exerts control over
the drilling-tools.
The process of driving is simple but effective. Two
slideways made of plank are erected in the centre of the
derrick to a height of 2O ft. or more, 12 to 14 in. apart, with
edges in toward each other ; the whole is made secure and
plumb. Two wooden clamps or followers are made to fit
round the pipe, and slide up and down on the edges of the
ways. The pipe is erected on end between the ways, and
is held perpendicular by these clamps ; a driving-cap of
iron is fitted to the top. A ram is then suspended between
the ways, .so arranged as to drop perpendicularly upon the
end of the pipe. The ram is of timber, 6 to 8 ft. long and
12 to 14 in. square, banded with iron at the lower or
battering end, and furnished with a hook in the upper end
to receive a rope. When the whole is in position, a rope is
attached to the hook in the upper end, passed over the pulley
140 WELL-BORING.
of the derrick, down to and round the shaft of the bull-wheel.
Everything is then in readiness to drive the pipe. The belt
connecting the engine and band-wheel being adjusted, and
the same having been done to the rope connecting the
band-wheel and bull-wheel, called the bull-wheel rope, the
machinery is put in motion ; a man, standing behind the
bull-wheel shaft, grasps the rope which is attached to
the ram and coiled round the bull-wheel shaft, holds it fast,
and takes up the slack in his hands, thus raising the ram to
its required elevation ; it is let fall repeatedly upon the pipe,
which is thereby driven to the requisite depth. When one
joint of pipe is driven, another is placed upon it, the two
ends are secured by a strong iron band, and the process is
continued as before. The pipe has to be cleared out fre-
quently, both by drilling and by sand-pumping or working
the shell-pump. Where obstacles such as boulders are met
with, the centre-bit is put into requisition, and a hole, two-
thirds the diameter of the pipe, is drilled. The pipe is then
driven down, the edges of the obstacle being broken by the
force applied, and the fragments falling into the hollow
created by the passage of the bit. When this cannot be
done, the whole machinery and derrick is moved sufficiently
to admit of driving a new set of pipes, or the hole is
abandoned. It sometimes happens that the pipe is broken,
or diverted from its vertical course by some obstacle. The
whole string of pipe driven has then to be drawn up again
or cut out in the manner already described, and the work
is commenced anew. If this is not possible, a new location
is sought.
After the pipe is driven, the work of drilling is com-
menced. The drilling-rope, which is generally i^-in.
hawser-laid cable of the required length (500 to 1000 ft),
is coiled round the shaft of the bull-wheel, the outer end
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 141
m
passing over the pulley on the top of the derrick, down to
the tools, and is attached to them
by a rope socket, of which various
forms are in use. The tools con-
sist of the centre-bit or chisel,
auger-stem or drill-bar, jars, sinker-
bars and rope-socket, which are
shown arranged for work in the
order detailed, Fig. 70. When con-
nected, these are 30 to 40 ft. long
and sometimes more, weighing 800
to 1600 lb., according to depth re-
quired. The process of drilling,
until the whole length of the tools is
on and is suspended by the cable,
is slow. When the depth required
for hanging the tools is attained, the
attachment between the working-
beam (or " walking "-beam, as it is
often called) and the drilling cable
is made by means of a temper-screw
depending from the end of the work-
ing-beam and secured to the rope by
a clamp and set-screw.
The temper-screw a t Fig. 71, is
5 to 6 ft. long and I J in. diam., with
a square thread 2 to the inch. The
wrought-iron rims are ij X fin.
and 54 ft. long. The nut of the
lower end of the rims is cut in two ;
a band with a set-screw encircles this
divided nut, and is riveted to one
half, the set-screw pressing against
YWl
}$M\\ffii
'M\\m
pt&Mmty
im^
--'. :* - / %
^.: -'./'-
FIG. 70. SECTION SHOW-
ING AMERICAN ROPE-
BORING TOOLS.
142
WELL-BORING.
/
FIG. 71. AMERICAN ROPE-BORING TOOLS.
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 143
the other half. The rims are constructed so as to spring
apart and free the nut. When the driller wishes to pay-
out the temper-screw, he loosens the set-screw and revolves
the temper-screw, again tightening the set-screw to main-
tain it in position. When the screw is all run out and
disconnected from the cable, the set-screw is loosened so
that the nut flies open and leaves the long screw free ;
it can then be pushed up, and the nut can be tightened.
This adjustment is aided by a counterpoise equal in
weight to the screw and clamps, hung on two cords passing
over pulleys on the working-beam and attached to the
bows of the swivel at the upper end of the screw. One
of the pulleys is above the samson-post and the other two
are on each side of the drilling-hook. The counterpoise
moves along the samson-post, and the cords have separate
pulleys above the temper-screw, but both go over the same
pulley as the samson-post.
The " jars " b are made in two parts and are like long
links of a chain. Both parts are slotted, and the cross-
head of one passes through the slot of the other. When
extended, the jars are 6 ft. long ; when closed, 5 ft. 3 in. :
the difference, 9 in., is the play of the jars, the function of
which is to give an upward blow having the effect of
loosening the auger and preventing it from " sticking " in
the rock.
The rope-spear c and the two-wing rope-grab d are for
taking hold of the end of the rope when it has parted in
the bore-hole. At a, Fig. 72, is seen a rope-knife in operation,
severing the rope in the well.
The combination bit and mud-socket or shell-pump
shown in b is a most useful tool for clearing out old wells,
the bit loosening the dirt so that it can be drawn into the
tube for removal. Another form of shell-pump or sand-
144
WELL-BORING.
pump is represented at e, and is known as Moody's ; the
bailer is driven into the mud by jarring, and the mud is forced
into the tube by hydrostatic pressure.
m
\ I -s
$&
M
FIG. 72. AMERICAN ROPE-BORING TOOLS.
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 145
The working of Clary's enlarging-bit or rimer (reamer)
is shown at d. This bit cuts ahead of the drive-pipe, and
prepares a hole for it in passing through hard ground. A
hole about 4 in. less than the outside diameter of the drill-
pipe is drilled in advance for reception of the guide-stem
of the enlarging-bit. It is a highly effective arrangement.
In drilling, the tools are alternately lifted and dropped
by the action of the working-beam on its rocking-motion.
One man is required constantly in the derrick, to turn the
tools as they rise and fall, to prevent them from becoming
wedged fast, and to let out the temper-screw as required.
This is one of the most important duties of the work, re-
quiring constant attention to keep the hole round and
smooth. The centre-bit or chisel is run down the full
length of the temper-screw ; it is about 3^ ft. long, with
a shaft 2j in. diam., a steel cutting edge 3^ to 4 in. wide,
and a thread on the upper end by which it is screwed on
the end of the auger-stem. The reamer is about 2j ft.
long, and has a blunt instead of a cutting edge, with a
shank 2\ in. diam. terminating in a blunt extremity 3^ to
4i in. wide by 2 in. thick, faced with steel. The weight of
heavy centre-bits and reamers averages 50 to 75 Ib.
The centre-bit is followed by the reamer, to enlarge
the hole and make it smooth and round. The debris or
pounded rock is taken out after each centre-bit, and again
after every reamer, by means of a sand-pump or shell-
pump. The sand-pump is a cylinder of wrought iron, 6 to
8 ft. long, with a valve at bottom and a strap at top ; to it
is attached a J-in. rope, passing over a pulley suspended in
the derrick some 20 ft. above the floor, back to the sand-
pump reel attached to the jack-frame, and coiled upon the
reel-shaft.
This shaft is propelled by means of a friction-pulley,
L
146 WEAL-BORING.
controlled by the driller in the derrick, by a rope attached.
The sand-pump is usually about 3 in. diam. Some drillers
use two one after the centre-bit, and a larger one after the
reamer : this is preferable. When the sand-pump is lowered
to the requisite depth, it is filled by a churning process of
the rope in the hands of the driller, and is then drawn up
and emptied. This operation is repeated each time the
tools are withdrawn from the well, the pump being let
down a sufficient number of times to remove the drillings.
The fall of the tools is 2 to 3 ft. This alternation goes on,
first tools and then sand-pump, until the well is drilled to
the required depth. As a rule, abundance of water is found
in the wells, both for rope and tools, from the commence-
ment.
In practical operations, the driller takes his seat on a
high stool above the chosen spot, adjusts the drill with
great care through the conductor-pipe, and starts striking
30 to 40 blows a minute.
Between the strokes, the tools require to be moved
round. With this also a slight downward motion is given
at every few strokes, by a turn of the temper-screw.
The drill is kept moving up and down, cutting i to 6
and even 12 in. of rock and shale per hour, according to
hardness. At intervals the centre-bit is drawn up, badly
worn and battered, and a reamer is let down to enlarge the
hole and make it smooth and round ; these are followed by
the sand-pump.
The first few hundred feet are generally gone through
without difficulty, provided all the arrangements have been
made with care at the beginning, and the drillers are skilful.
Difficulties occur farther down that test the most persistent
energy.
Sometimes they are attributable to want of caution on
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 147
the part of the driller, to imperfection in the material or
improper dressing or tempering of the drill, but more often
to circumstances unforeseen and unavoidable. In its pass-
age, the drill not unfrequently dislodges gravel or frag-
ments of hard rock, that have a tendency to wedge it fast
in the hole, from which it is released only by most per-
sistent "jarring."
The reamer is also subject to the same mishap, or a
sand-pump may break loose from its rope, and have to be
fished up. When the bit or reamer becomes so firmly im-
bedded as to render its removal impossible by jarring or
by breaking it in pieces, the well is abandoned.
Sometimes a bit or reamer breaks, leaving a piece of
hard steel securely in the rock several hundred feet below
the surface. Where the fragment is small, it is pounded
into the sides of the well, and causes no further annoyance.
When it is larger, the difficulty is greater, and not unfre-
quently insurmountable. The bit or reamer sometimes
becomes detached from the auger-stem, by the loosening
of the screw from its socket. This difficulty is often greatly
heightened by the fact that the workman may not be
aware of its displacement, and for an hour or two be
pounding on the top of it with the heavy auger-stem.
Various plans are resorted to for extracting the fastened
tool, and a large number of implements have been devised
for fishing it up. The first is an iron with a thin cutting
edge, straight, circular or semicircular, acting as a spear,
or to cut loose the accumulations round the top arid along
the sides of the refractory bit or reamer, so as to admit a
spring-socket, that is lowered by means of the auger-stem
over the top of it, and lays hold upon the protuberance
just below the thread.
If the socket can be made fast, the power of the bull-
L 2
148 WELL-BORING.
wheel and engine is requisitioned, and in a great number of
cases the tool is brought to the surface. In the jarring and
other operations rendered necessary in cases of this kind,
the entire set of tools, 40 to 60 ft. in length, may become
fastened, and cases are of frequent occurrence where two
and even three sets of tools have become fastened in a
well, as they were successively let down to extricate the
first ones. This is liable to occur at any stage of the work,
and its frequency increases with the depth.
In addition to the difficulties mentioned, there is yet
another, far more dreaded by the driller. This is what is
called a " mud-vein." It is a stratum of mud or clay, up
to several inches in thickness, generally met with at a
depth of 400 to 900 ft. Mud-veins abound in most of the
oil-producing localities, and not a few operators regard
them as invariably indicating an abundant supply. The
mud or clay is of a most tenacious character, and while
not deemed of much importance as an obstacle in the be-
ginning of the development, may exhibit new features in
different localities. The mud suddenly flows into the well
while the process of drilling is going on, settling round the
drill, bedding it almost as firmly as the rock itself. Its
presence is often indicated to the driller by the sudden
downward pressure on his rope. If drilling on or below
it, the workman, when about to withdraw his drill, will get
assistance from the bull-wheel, and the instant the working-
beam ceases its motion, a few turns will be taken on the
wheel, so as to raise the bit above the mud, as it sets almost
as quickly as plaster of Paris. Sometimes this mud will
flow into the hole for a depth of 20 ft. or more, burying
the entire drilling-tools and attachments. This renders
the jars useless. By attaching a cutting instrument to
rods, the rope above the sinker-bar is cut, and then is sub-
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 149
stituted a spear-pointed instrument, with which, by means
of a light set of tools, the substance round the tools is
forced from them ; an extra pair of jars is lowered, and
efforts are made to jar the tools loose.
The spear is sometimes shaped like a common wedge,
faced with steel at the cutting edge, made thin. A half-
circular instrument, made in like fashion, is also used. The
mud-socket, circular shaped with thin edge, terminating on
the inside with an abrupt shoulder, corresponds with the
ordinary clay-auger, and is similarly used.
A large number of appliances have been invented for
the dislodgment of fastened tools, many of them very
complicated. The main thing sought is an instrument that
in the first place will remove the material round the top of
the fastened implements, to be followed by others acting
on the principle of a clamp, sufficiently powerful to retain
its hold and allow the jarring of the tools loose or the draw-
ing of them up.
One most effective instrument for the dislodgment of
tools consists of a number of heavy iron rods or bars, similar
to an auger-stem, and weighing 10 to n tons. It can be
made of any desired length or weight. It is lowered over
the head of the tools, and these are screwed fast into a
suitable socket arranged at the ends of the rods, and worked
from the top. When a set of tools are fast, each separate
piece is unscrewed, the apparatus acting as a left-handed
screw. Each piece, as loosened, is brought to the surface.
By applying the full force of the engine, these 2j-in. iron
rods are frequently twisted like an auger. They are lowered
and raised from the top by jack-screws.
It will be seen that the system has many features in
common with European practice. The centre-bit and
reamers are but other names for variously shaped chisels
150 WELL-BORING.
whilst the jars serve a similar purpose to that of sliding
joints. As a cheap method of putting down deep bore-
holes through shales, limestones and soft rocks, it is very
useful ; but it must certainly be supplemented by others
when hard or troublesome beds are met with.
ELASTIC SUSPENSION FOR DRILLING-RODS.
M. Petit writes to ' Naphtha ' that in the course of
drilling a hole with a Canadian rig, he recommended the
employment of a spring temper-screw attached to the
walking beam, as shown in Fig. /2A. The screw 1,
80 in. long, was passed through the tapped hub 2, of a
horizontal wheel resting on the bearing 3, which was fitted
with trunnions 4, 5, engaging in slots cut in the bearing
blocks 6, 7, bolted on to the walking beam 8. By means
of the wheel the screw could be adjusted vertically to any
desired length, the wheel being kept in position by strong
pegs ; and this simple arrangement gave very satisfactory
results.
The owner of the mine where this boring was carried on
(M. Laporte) conceived the idea of interposing flat springs
between the bearing 3 and the walking beam, in order to
diminish the shock to which the string of tools is exposed
at each stroke ; an arrangement at once enabling the rate
of speed and efficiency of the rig to be considerably in-
creased, and at the same time reducing the resistance to be
overcome by the engine.
This trial boring, conducted on the water-flush principle,
although effected with a Canadian crane, which is little
suited to this class of work, nevertheless shows decisively
that drilling with rigid hollow rods, through which a strong
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 151
FIG. 72A. SPRING DRILL-HEAD.
52 WELL-BORING.
current of water is injected to the bottom of the bore hole,
is far superior to the ordinary method of drilling with solid
rods and jars without a water flush.
It might have been anticipated that in the oligocene
formation at Kobylanka, consisting mainly of compact
sandstone, often extremely hard, and rarely interspersed
with thin layers of hard shale, the method of drilling with
short (3-in.) strokes at high speed (140 strokes per minute)
would be surpassed by the method of drilling with long
(2O-in.) strokes at a maximum speed of 60 per minute.
Nevertheless, the contrary was found to be the case. In
the sandstone strata, where a rate of progression of not
more than 64 in. could be attained in 12 hours by the
Canadian method, fitted with the best tools, the rate with
the water-flush system was 0*4 in. per minute, 24 in. per
hour, or 224 in. in 7 hours, nearly three times as great. In
compact formations as well as in those of the oligocene
epoch, the use of the temper screw with spring, as shown in
Fig. 72A, enables one to drill as fast with the Canadian
crane as by the water-flush method. A trial boring with
this arrangement and jars showed that by using a i6-ft.
sinking bar, 5j in. in diameter, with jars of 8oin. stroke,
l-in. rods attached to the temper screw by a swivel con-
nection, and by working at the rate of 50 strokes per
minute, a regular free-fall method of boring can be pro-
duced.
At each stroke of the bit the shock of the jars com-
pressed the spring by several centimetres. At the moment
when the walking-beam has completed its upward move-
ment a sudden stop occurs. The whole string of tools
tends to jump upward, being assisted in that tendency by
the springs, which suddenly expand ; as, however, the rods
are closely attached to the screw, and this in turn to the
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM. 153
walking-beam, the bit and sinker bar alone continue this
movement, the rods beginning to descend. In the instant
that the walking-beam has completed its down stroke the
bit falls freely on to the bottom of the bore hole.
At the speed of 50 strokes per minute the bit works
with a 4O-in. stroke, half of which is due to the movement
of the walking-beam and the remainder to the rebound
produced by the sudden relaxation of the spring. Not-
withstanding that the jars have a stroke of over 40 in., it
often happened that the lower link came in contact with
the upper one.
The force of the blow delivered by the bit on the bottom
of the hole was surprising, and a rapid rate of progression
was maintained, 20 to 23 ft. being drilled in 12 hours
through strata where the rate under the ordinary method
did not exceed 80 in. Owing to the use of a light sinker
bar and the reduction of vibration by the springs, no
breakage of rods occurred ; the strain on the engine was
reduced by one-half, while the rate of drilling was increased
two and even threefold, the new method thus affording
solid advantages.
The Hydraulic Washing System is very efficient and
expeditious, it enables drilling through sand, gravel, clay,
soft rock, etc., to be carried out very rapidly. It is one of
the most efficacious methods as yet introduced.
The boring rods are hollow, so is the borer or chisel ;
water is forced through the above by means of a steam
pump or any other kind available. The rods and chisel are
lifted and dropped in a similar way as the ordinary per-
cussion system ; as the water is forced through them,
the result will be that all* the debris are washed to the
surface. The great advantage of this system is, that the
tools need not be removed from the hole from time to
154
WELL-BORING.
time consequently the ease and rapidity with which they
work.
The deeper the boring the greater the weight and the
FIG. 728.
AMERICAN ROPE-BORING SYSTEM.
155
better the work, as the heavier they are the quicker they
drop and the faster is the slurry forced up.
It is advisable to sink three or four settling tanks 6 ft.
by 6 ft. a n d 4 ft. deep, to allow the water and slurry pumped
FIG. 720.
to flow first in one and then the other, the mud will settle
and the water can be pumped over again.
The machines illustrated in Figs. 726 and 720 are
improved ones ; Fig. 720 is an arrangement patented by
the author.
156 WELL-BORING.
With this arrangement the suspension rope supporting
the boring rods is attached, through the medium of a screw
adjustment, to a lever, which is maintained, by the weight
of the rods, in contact with a cam rotated at a constant
speed from any convenient source of power, such as a
steam-winch. The cam is of such form that the lever is
alternately vibrated, with a relatively slow movement, in a
direction to raise the boring rods by hauling on the sus-
pension rope, and allowed to return with a quick movement
in the opposite direction, so as to permit the boring rods to
fall ; the depth of the descent being determined by the
length of the rope, which is adjusted by varying the
position of a nut to which the rope is made fast, the nut
working upon a leading screw mounted in bearings on the
lever, and rotated by a hand-wheel, ratchet gear, or other
convenient means, so as to pay out the rope when a fresh
cut requires to be taken. In ordinary hand-punching
arrangements, especially in deep borings where the weight
of the rods is considerable, great skill and constant watch-
fulness is required, to prevent the tool from striking the
bottom of the bore with the full force due to the acquired
momentum of the entire boring rods, and so causing them
to become bent.
With this machine the length of the suspension rope
can be accurately adjusted, so that the tool falls to exactly
the same distance on each stroke, so preventing the rods
getting the whole of their own weight and bending ; and,
at the same time, the cut can be put on with the feed-screw
at exactly the required rate, according to the nature of the
ground. This can easily be determined by simply watching
the punching rope, and taking care not to feed it forward
fast enough to ever allow it to become slack.
CHAPTER IX.
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS.
/
ALL the methods of executing a bore-hole to any consider-
able depth, which have so far been discussed in these pages,
involve the complete grinding-up of the removed rock, that
it may be discharged from the hole in a condition of sand or
mud. While this may be a commendable practice so long
as the ground passed through is not of extreme hardness,
and neither the depth nor the diameter of the hole is of
great magnitude, the converse is the case when those con-
ditions are not present.
It is becoming a matter of serious consideration by
advanced mining engineers whether even in the case of
holes only 5 or 6 ft. deep and i J in. diam. or even less, when
the rock is exceptionally hard and resisting to the boring-
tool the principle of pounding to dust the entire contents
of the hole can be regarded as comparable in economy with
that of merely cutting a thin ring of rock from the circum-
ference of the hole, and extracting the remainder in the form
of a solid core.
From a purely scientific standpoint, the general smashing
principle is obviously inferior to the ring-cutting principle,
for it involves an enormously increased amount of work.
But whereas in the former case the work is done by per-
cussion, with a very simple tool, the latter method depends
on abrasion, and the mechanism employed is somewhat
complicated and decidedly costly. Even so, with improve-
158 WELL-BORING.
ments in steel alloys for the necessary tools, rotary core-
drills are destined in time to largely replace the ordinary
miners' percussive drill of to-day. How much more appli-
cable the rotary drill must become in the case of the deep
and large bore-holes required in seeking water-supplies
from strata lying hundreds of feet beneath the surface, need
hardly be emphasised.
In another branch of mining, where the desideratum is
not so much a hole as the extraction of a solid specimen
of the ground traversed, for prospecting purposes, the core-
drill is already an indispensable and recognised implement,
and in this direction it has gained a wide-spread application.
In deep-well boring through hard strata it has been exten-
sively used, and is quite unequalled in efficiency. The
deeper the bore and the greater its diameter in other
words, the larger the volume of rock to be removed the
more marked becomes the superiority of the core-drill,
but the rock to be penetrated must be hard. Herein lies
one of the difficulties encountered in core-drilling. A bore
of any considerable depth will necessarily pass through
various alternations of strata : some, hard, dense and
homogeneous ; others, of mixed character, such as gravels,
conglomerates, and flinty chalk-beds ; and again others,
uniformly soft, as sandstones and clays. The ordinary
core-drill is useless in two out of the three categories, and
must then be replaced by the percussive drill. The great
losses of time and increased expense thus involved have
militated against the adoption of the core-drill in well-
boring in many cases where sections of the strata absolutely
demanded its application. But this drawback has now been
entirely overcome by a most ingenious combination machine
capable of operating either drill as required, and incurring
merely nominal delay in changing from the one to the
other ; it will be fully described on a subsequent page.
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 159
In its usual form, the core-drilling machine is known as
the " diamond drill," because the abrasion is performed by
an amorphous variety of that gem. They are of two kinds,
termed " borts " and " carbonados," which are alike in this
that they possess no merit as precious stones and are valu-
able simply for their hardness. The former occur mostly
in the S. African deposits ; the latter, of Brazilian origin
and black in colour (hence their name), are preferred as
being more massive and less disposed to splinter. In the
trade they are called " carbons." A series of these stones
are set in a tubular steel " crown " or " bit " attached to
hollow rods for rotation at great speed, their number varying
with the diameter of the hole to be bored. Water forced
down from the surface removes the material ground away
by the stones, and at the same time keeps them cool. The
cylindrical core of solid rock is broken off by a special
contrivance, and hoisted with the " bit " from time to time.
The smallest diamond drills on the market are operated
by hand-power, and will take cores of small diameter (about
I in.) from holes up to 400 ft. deep. The largest stock size
produces a 4-in. core, and is capable of successful and satis-
factory manipulation at a depth of a mile.
The setting of carbons in the bit (Fig. 73) is a matter
demanding no little skill and care.
After screwing the blank bit into the setting block, -the
first step is to divide the bit into as many equal parts as
the number of diamonds to be used (varying from about a
dozen to fifty, according to size of hole), and mark with
centre punch, as at a, where they are to be placed. Breast-
drill and twist-bits are then used to bore a horizontal hole b
in the side of the bit ; each diamond should be studied sepa-
rately, and a hole be bored in proportion to its size. As
the outside diamonds can be more conveniently set than
those on the inside rim, the largest should be selected for
i6o
WELL-BORING.
this purpose, and set first. Horizontal holes are used for
the outside diamonds, and vertical holes for those on the
inside of the bit. After boring, the hole is chipped out by
small chisels until the diamond fits very snugly in the metal
as at cd, and projects ^ in. above the face, and the same
distance from the outside and inside rim of the bit.
When the diamond is fitted in place, and the proper
F IG . 73. SETTING DIAMONDS IN BIT.
measurement is obtained, the metal is drawn up or closed
round it as at e ; this is done by first making a cut, with a
blunt-edged chisel, across the face of the bit, about \ in.
from each side of the diamond, and all around it on the
outer surface ; then, by using a dull-pointed chisel or
caulking-tool, the metal is gradually driven towards the
diamond.
In order to get the diamond placed to the best advan-
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 161
tage, it is often necessary to cut away more metal than it
is possible to replace by driving up the original metal on
the bit ; in such cases, thin wedges made of horse-shoe
nails or copper wire, hammered flat or wedge-shape, should
be used to fill up the space around the diamond before the
caulking takes place ; many operators prefer to make a bed
of copper-foil for seating the carbon in aay case. The
setter should endeavour to place the diamond in such a
position that it will have a sharp cutting edge on the face
of the bit, and at the same time leave a broad strong side
or surface for the clearance on the outside of the bit, as
at d, which will obviate much reduction in size of the bit.
The diamond should be held in place by the third finger
of the left hand, and the chisel or caulking-tool be held be-
tween the thumb and the first and second fingers. First
drive up the metal on the face of the bit until it holds the
diamond in its proper position ; then the caulking on the
sides can be done. Care should be taken that the diamond
does not move from its proper position, thereby destroying
the gauge or measurement. When the metal begins to bear
on the diamond, a finer-pointed tool should be used ; light
blows are struck, and the metal is closed in carefully. It is
possible to break the diamond by caulking the metal too
tightly, and also by driving the metal to fill an opening
near the corner of the diamond while the metal may be
pressing hard on it at another point ; it is, therefore, neces-
sary to drive the metal so that it will be brought to press
uniformly all around.
When the rock is extremely hard, extra diamonds are
set on the outside of the bit, as at f\ these assist those on
the outer edge of the face in maintaining the true diameter
or size. All bits should be set so as to be of the same
outside and inside diameter as the first one used.
M
1 62 WELL-BORING.
The diamonds are set alternately, inside and outside, as
at gh : those on the outside cover the outer half of the
face, and cut the outside clearance ; while those on the in-
side cover the inner half of the face, and cut the inside
clearance for the core to pass up freely.
Some makers fancy a bit with channels cut as at k,
which are intended to give greater freedom of exit for the
mud produced by the machine in operation.
In some important borings executed by Gulland in
1883, the largest crown used was 23 in. diam. (external), and
contained 50 carbons having an aggregate weight of over
300 carats. The crown was screwed to the core-tube (see
Fig. 74), and the first tube was 22j in. ext. diam., 30 ft.
long, and of wrought iron ; above it, with a plate between,
was a 5-ft. length of tube intended for receiving the coarser
particles brought up with the clearing-water. The boring-
rods were drawn-steel tubes 3^ in. outside diam., f in. thick,
and in 5-ft. lengths, united by steel collars. The consump-
tion of water in this case was 3500 gal. per hour, but it
was mostly clarified by settling and used over and over
again. The power required was 20 to 40 h.p.
Whenever the drill is withdrawn from the hole, the bit
should be carefully examined ; if any of the diamonds is
found to be loose, or the die is worn away so as to leave
some of them unprotected, the metal should be recaulked
around them. When the bit is so badly worn that the
diamonds are greatly exposed, they should be cut out and
reset in a new blank.
If, while drilling, some of the outside diamonds are
chipped, so that the size of the hole becomes reduced, when
the next bit is introduced that portion of the hole bored
after the diamonds were broken should be re-bored, so as
to be the full size of the standard bit, as any attempt to
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 163
force the new bit down into the
reduced hole, by trying to turn
the rods with tongs or other-
wise, will surely destroy the out-
side diamonds.
To remove diamonds from
an old bit, file a cut across the
face of the bit, about |- in. from
each side of the diamond ; then
chisel the metal back and chip
it away until the diamond can
be forced out by light taps of the
hammer on a small copper rod.
Sometimes carbons are dis-
lodged from their setting, gene-
rally through applying too much
pressure when passing through
hard broken rock. This should
be detected by an experienced
drill-hand from the sound pro-
duced. The dislodged carbon
must be recovered as soon as
possible, because not only does
it impede the work of the drill,
and in itself constitute a serious
loss, but it may easily cause
unseating of the remaining dia-
monds. To recover lost carbons,
a wad of wax or tenacious clay
is placed on the end of the drill-
rod ; this is gently forced into
the hole to its extreme limit,
and as gently withdrawn.
FIG. 74. GULLAND'S BIT
AND TUBE.
M 2
1 64 WELL-BORING.
The best diamonds are the black amorphous "car-
bonados " of Brazil, especially those of compact form with
well-rnarked corners. Next to them rank the borts or
imperfect gem stones of South Africa. Size may vary
between I and 3j carats, according to the bit in use ;
perhaps the most common is 2 to 2j carats. Sometimes
pieces of corundum, and sapphires which are valueless as
gems owing to opacity and bad colour, are coated with
graphite and sold as carbons ; they accomplish a double
fraud, being both heavier (sp. gr. 4 against 3*5) and less
hard.
Occasionally delays are caused by breakage of rods,
either a fracture of the collar or a stripping of the thread.
The remedy is to 5 affix to the upper length a "tap," either
in bell form for putting on an external thread, or in plug
form for cutting an internal thread, and thus to draw the
broken part to surface and replace it.
In deep drilling, it is of great importance to have the
core-barrel of sufficient length to avoid frequent lifting as
it fills. Height of derrick also influences rate of progress,
and should not be less than 50 ft., in order that 4O-ft. rods
may be unscrewed at a time, this being a maximum con-
venient length with rods of 2 in. diam. Area of brake
surface must be ample, or much delay will be caused by
heating.
Electric motors present special advantages for working
diamond drills, and have been largely used for that purpose
both at surface and underground. A drill working a 2-in.
hole, and bringing up a if -in. core, capable of drilling easily
to a depth of 600 ft., can be driven by a 2|-hp. motor, the
whole arrangement being compact in the extreme, and
suitable for underground or awkward situations where
steam could hardly be used. The rapid rotation of the
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 165
diamond drill adapts it particularly to electric driving.
But the great majority operating in well-boring are run by
steam.
Owing to the increasing cost of carbons for boring, the
" calyx " drill (which has revolving steel cutters) is coming
much into favour. A contrivance for adjusting the driving
mechanism of the diamond drill to suit the calyx cutter,
so as to make the one machine interchangeable and
save enormously in first cost of plant, has been invented
by Mr. E. Williams, superintendent of diamond drills in
Victoria, and adopted by the Victorian Government. It
consists of a simple intermediate gear for reducing the
speed in a ratio of 19 to I, and can be thrown in or out
as required.
The combination machine for both percussive and core-
drilling is shown in Fig. 75. It is the invention of Mr. C.
Isler, and its use is monopolised by his firm. Mounted on
wheels and made to take apart, it is exceedingly portable
and can be applied in almost any situation. Its consump-
tion of water is ordinarily about 700 gal. per hour for
clearing-out purposes ; but in traversing non-absorptive
strata this is much reduced. Moreover, by settling, the
water is rendered fit for repeated use. The machine once
placed, it remains a fixture until the hole is finished or
abandoned, no matter how many alternations of hard and
soft ground may call for change of tools. These changes
are made in the space of a minute or so without any de-
rangement of the gear.
The special tubing described on p. 64 is always to be
recommended for lining the bore-hole.
Various conditions govern the supply furnished by a
well. It may be delivered under such hydrostatic pressure
that it will flow readily from the top of the bore, and even
i66
WELL-BORING.
in some instances will be forcibly ejected considerably above
it ; and it may require to be pumped, notwithstanding that
the volume suffers no diminution by that operation. But
cases sometimes occur where no supply appears to be
available, despite the fact that the bore is known (from
FIG. 75. COMBINATION MACHINE FOR PERCUSSIVE
AND CORE DRILLING.
examination of the core or debris) to have entered a water-
bearing^ stratum. In this event, it would be premature to
regard the hole as dry. When boring for petroleum, it is
indeed a somewhat common experience, and is due to lack
of such fissures and joints in the rock as will afford a sum"-
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 167
ciently free passage of the fluid from surrounding territory
towards the bore-hole.
This failing is remedied by the explosion of a " torpedo "
at the bottom of the hole. It consists of a tin canister of
suitable dimensions sometimes the longer the better
filled with a nitro-glycerine compound, such as Nobel's
blasting gelatine, primed with a detonator, lowered to the
point at which it is to be fired, and discharged by a con-
ductor leading from a small electro-magnet machine. The
effect of the very forcible explosion is to thoroughly disturb
the adjacent rock and to very much extend any existing
line of fissure. Some remarkable results have followed from
torpedoing. At a well near Rochester, 15 in. diam. and
300 ft. deep, in compact rocks of the Lower Greensand
formation, which refused to yield any water at all when
finished, after explosion of an i8-lb. torpedo a flow of
20,160 gal. per hour was started, and this has been con-
stantly maintained ever since. Another example may be
quoted of a 7^-in. well, 363 ft. deep, at Gloucester ; the effect
of firing a single shot may be seen in the frontispiece.
Of the hundreds of wells bored in England, perhaps
the most remarkable is that at Bourn, Lincolnshire, which
supplies the town of Spalding. It was sunk by C. Isler &
Co., in the Oolitic beds, and at 100 ft. it furnished a flow
of 1800 gal. per minute at a pressure of 10 Ib. to the sq. in.,
reaching the surface with a rush as depicted in Fig. 76 ; on
continuing the bpre for an additional 34 ft, the flow was
increased to 3480 gal. per minute, and has permanently
remained at this figure. The well is 13 in. diam. At
about 66 ft. from surface, springs of chalybeate water were
encountered, but these were successfully and completely
excluded by the lining-tubes. These last are in three
series : first, 10 ft. of 22-in. pipe passing through clay and
i68
WELL-BORING.
entering the limestone ; inside them, commencing a little
higher above the surface, 32 ft. of i8-in. tubes, reaching to
FIG. 76. THE BOURN WELL.
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 169
the hard blue rock of the Oolite ; and finally, again inside
and standing somewhat more out of ground, 73 ft. of 13-111.,
just penetrating into the absorbent stratum, below which
point the bore is not lined. The annular spaces between
the respective series of pipes are closely filled with a
specially-prepared cement, to effectively resist the pressure
of (and thereby exclude) the springs of undesirable water
from the upper strata.
Another remarkable well bored by the same firm is at
Keighley, Yorkshire. It is 250 ft. deep, in the upper beds
of the millstone grit, and at 243 ft. it tapped a supply of
15,000 gal. per hour, rising to 40 ft. above the surface. It
is lined with 60 ft. of 6-in. tube starting from I ft. above
ground, and 40 ft. of 5~in. perforated tube commencing at
60 ft. below the surface ; beyond that it is not lined.
In Tables I. and II. are given some details of earlier
wells, at Northampton.
TABLE I.
BORING AT KETTERING ROAD, NORTHAMPTON.
Number
Diam. of
Crown.
Depth
Drilled.
of Days
Drilling
and Ex-
Average
Depth
per Day.
Nature of Strata.
Diam.
of Core.
Ratio ot
Core Ex-
tracted.
tracting.
in.
ft.
ft. in.
in.
%
23 77
17
4 6*
Lias clay
19*
..
20*
97
15
6 5*
ii
I6|
. ,
18
106
16
6 7*
ii
14*
, t
i5f
55
II
5 o
ii
12}
. .
ii
68
10
6 9
I" Sandstones and \
\ marls j
it
95
>
25
15
i 8
Quartzite
100
ii
20
5
4 o
/ Limestone and \
\ shale /
>
98
WELL-BORING.
TABLE IL
BORING AT GAYTON, SOUTH-WEST OF NORTHAMPTON.
Diam.
of
Crown.
Depth
Drilled.
Number
of Days
Drilling
and Ex-
tracting.
Number
of
Hours
Drilling.
Average Depth.
Nature of Strata.
Diam.
of
Core.
Ratio
of Core
Ex-
tracted.
Per
Day.
Per
Hour.
in.
ft.
ft. in.
ft. in.
in.
*
18
125
II
104
II 4
I 3
Lias clay
Mi
88
i5f
I 4 8
13
127
II 4*
I 2
j>
I2j
90
131
182
i7
183
10 8
I
> >
lof
92
"1
II 7
10
100
ii 8
I 2
,,
?J
88
) >
63
8
60
8 o
I Oj
( Red marl and "1
\ sandstone /
> 5
64
Lower Carbo- \
It
215
25
2I 3
8 7
I O
niferous
Limestones and (
7f
84
shale J
Sandstones
?
68
Of wells recently bored in the London basin by the
author, 12 have a depth of less than 300 ft., 22 range
from 300 to 350 ft., 1 8 from 350 to 400 ft., 9 from 400 to
450 ft, and 2 exceed 450 ft. The flow is not less than
1000 gal. per hour in any instance, whilst in 2 cases it
amounts to 2000 gal., in II to 3000, in 14 to 4000, in 7 to
5000, in 2 to 6000, in 5 to 7000, in 5 to 8000, in 7 to 10,000,
in 4 to 12,000, in I to 14,000, in I to 20,000, and in I to
35,000 gal. per hour.
The working costs of diamond-drill bores are subject to
very wide variation, dependent upon hardness of rock,
delays through accidents, rates of wages, prices of carbons^
and so on. The following exemplifications are quoted from
Warnford Lock's Miners' Pocket Book* and though they
* Published by E. and F. N. Spon, Limited.
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 171
refer in all cases but that of New South Wales to pro-
specting bores for mineral deposits, and in no instance
embrace the item of lining-tubes, they are most instructive
as referring to our Australian and South African colonies
where the need of water is severely felt and where deep
wells must be largely resorted to in the near future.
" Official reports on diamond drilling in New South
Wales state the cost at 30^. ^d. per ft. in 1895, an ^ only
us. t)d. in 1896, the difference being due to shallower work
and easier ground. The cost of carbons per ft. bored has
varied remarkably, thus : 1883, $s. 8d. ; 1884, 2s. id. ;
1885, is. 5i^. ; 1886, 8|^. ; 1887, is. -jd. ; 1888, is. ; 1889,
is. ^d ; 1890, 7f^/. ; 1891, is. lod. ; 1892, 2s. 2d.\ 1893,
3J. i\d. ; 1894, gd. ; 1895, 3*. g^d. ; 1896, 2s. \\d. The
actual working cost per ft. in 1895 for a 4-in. bore 299 ft.
deep in porphyry was 15^. 2d. ; the rate of progress was
9*34 in. per hour ; and the core obtained was 87*6 %.
" South African figures are quoted by several authors.
Denny states the average at iSs. per ft., on an assumption
of zoo ft. a week, and paying drill hands 2os. a day,
labourers 2s. 6d., fuel at 2Os. a. ton, and carbons at 150^. a
carat. He says contractors charge 25^. per ft. for first
100 ft., rising 5^. per ft. for each 50 ft.
" Truscott put down 8 holes, of an aggregate depth of
2686 ft., at a cost of $6s. 6d. per ft. One of these holes,
having a depth of 597 ft, averaged 19*9 ft. a day, i| in.
core, and used 8 h.p. motive force and 1440 gal. water
daily ; the contractor was paid 30^. a ft. for 500 ft., and 35^.
for 97 ft., and the cost of water supply (74/. i8s. 6d.) y core
watcher (4O/. I2s. 6d.) y hire of drill (SO/.), and sundries
(29/. 5^.), was equal to 6s. 6d. a ft.
" The Bezindenville bore, sunk by Chalmers, occupied
i 7 2 WELL-BORING.
212 days, with an average of 17*58 ft. per diem, external
delays accounting for 12 days. For the first 2000 ft. the
crown was 2| in. and core if in. diam., and for final 1728 ft.,
2 in. and if in. Delays incidental to drilling, repairs, loose
carbons, etc., totalled 55 days, or 27 % on 200 days. On
145 days' straightforward drilling, the rate was 25 '7 ft. per
diem. The time lost in raising and lowering rods was
over J of the whole. There were used 360 carats of carbons,
or between 8 and 9 carats per IOO ft., which at 8ctf. per
carat = Js. per ft. ; wages, including overseer, came to
Js. *jd. per ft. ; coal, 260 t, at 2Os. = is. id. ; and sundries
came to <)d. ; or a total of i6s. ^d. per ft., plus interest on
3OOO/. worth of plant.
"According to Wybergh, contract prices vary from
22s. 6d. to 40.$-. a foot, being usually constant for first
IOO ft., and rising 53. per ft. for each 500 ft. Carbons
range from 7/. to I3/. per carat. On 14 bore-holes put
down by contractors, aggregating 7962 ft., the mean cost
was 31.?. per ft., the range being from 25 s. 6d. to 40^. ; in
addition, water cost nil to 1 5 s., average 5 s. ; superintend-
ence, 6d. to ?s. 6d., average 2s. 6d. ; and sundries, ^d. to
is. id., average g%d. ; making the total 28^. $d. to $is. ioj<^.,
average 39^. $%d. per ft. The water consumption fluctuated
between 1300 and 3200 gal. per diem. The rate of boring
was 6-38 to 55*27 ft. per diem, and averaged 16-25 ft- P er
diem, or o * 89 ft. per hour. With contractors the wear of
carbons cannot be ascertained ; but in another bore of
1328 ft. in quartzite, somewhat more difficult than the
average ground, the consumption was 6*92 carats per
100 ft. In this instance the detailed cost was : carbons,
$s. g^d. ; hire of drill, 3^. i\d.\ labour, lu. ^\d. ; coal,
is. %\d. ; stores, 11^. ; superintendence, is. $d. ; sundries,
6d. ; total, 28j. 6\d. per ft. In 3 holes put down by a
DEEP BORING WITH DIAMOND DRILLS. 173
hand drill, aggregating 3i8J ft, through quartzite and dia-
base, the average rate was 2*03 ft. per diem, or -309 ft.
per hour, and the cost was : Hire of drill and wages of
superintendent, I is. $d. ; wear of carbons, \Q\d. ; labour,
4^-. lod. ; sundries, \\d. ; total, i?s. \\d. per ft."
174 WELL-BORING.
CHAPTER X.
RAISING WATER.
THOUGH cases have been cited where deep bores have
resulted in a constant stream of water being ejected to
and even above the surface of the ground, in the great
majority of instances this does not occur, and after the
water-bearing strata have been pierced, the level to which
the water will rise is at some depth below the surface. For
example, the general rule in the London basin is that in
tube-wells 400 ft. deep, the water level is 100 to 200 ft. from
the top. Some form of pump or lift must therefore be em-
ployed to raise a supply. But inasmuch as the water level
is dependent upon the horizon at which the intake of rain-
water occurs, it remains constant, notwithstanding the rate
at which supplies are withdrawn from the well. In fact,
it much more commonly happens that the water level is
raised than lowered by pumping, as the operation tends to
reduce the pressure upon the underground reservoir and to
render the conduits more free.
While it would be inconvenient and out of place in this
volume to attempt a description of, or even to catalogue,
the multifarious forms of pump, from the common domestic
article costing a few shillings to the highly complex pump-
ing-engine installed at an outlay of several hundred pounds,
a few paragraphs may properly be devoted to that branch
of the subject which embraces more particularly the most
RAISING WATER. 175
modern and approved appliances connected with deep tube-
wells.
In country districts, whether the supply be needed for
irrigation of crops or for watering stock, too much at-
tention cannot be given to the utilisation of the wind as
a motive power for actuating the pump^ There are prac-
tically no places where a certain amount of wind cannot
be counted on at all seasons of the year, and no source
of power is so cheaply applied ; and the fact that an ele-
vated site for the well is often desirable, so as to secure
distribution of the water by gravitation, makes the appli-
cation of the windmill all the more convenient and satis-
factory.
In towns, the employment of the " air-lift " system has
much to commend it. Though comparatively unknown
in England, it is most extensively used in the United
States, where it was invented, and its merits are being
rapidly recognised in Continental Europe. Its advantages
lie in its simplicity and in the entire absence of working-
rods in the bore-hole, thus avoiding all possibility of de-
rangement and hindrance to supply, as well as the jar and
noise incidental to pumps. The water is made to flow in
a gentle stream, free from pulsation, by the force of a
column of air under great compression
A recent example of the installation of the author's
system, at Hyde Park Court Mansions, Knightsbridge
is worthy of illustrated description. The well is 10 in.
internal diameter, and is bored to a depth of 450 ft.
through the London clay and various sand-beds into the
chalk and flints, which are reached at a depth of 284 ft.
from surface. The depth which the well descends into the
chalk is therefore 166 ft. All the upper part of the boring
is lined with a lo-in. internal diameter steel tube, which is
Clay A Sand 60
Sharp Sand 30
Ballast 9' 0'
Water Level
105 from Surface
Blue Clay 134 o:
Sandy Clay 39'0
Mottled Clay 6' 0"
Grey Sand 60'
Mottled Ciay&.
Pebbles 50.0
Dead Sand A Pebbles 4.0
Green Sand &
Flints 16 0'
Chalk & Flints I66:o
17' 0'
20.0'
29' 0'
Bore pipe
Air Casing
Rising Main
163.0"
208VO'
214.0"
264' 0"
268'
284" 0"
450 0'
FIG. 77 INSTALLATION OF THE AIR-LIFT SYSTEM.
RAISING WATER. 177
driven tightly n ft. into the chalk. When the well was
first sunk, the water-level was found to be 1 10 ft. from the
ground ; but as soon as pumping commenced, it rose 5 ft,
and, stood at 105 ft, at which level it has since remained.
Even when pumping at the rate of 8000 gal. per hour is
being carried on, the water-level is unaffected.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 77. By means of a
compressor actuated by steam in this instance, but just
as easily driven by gas or oil engine or an electric motor
air is forced into a receiver, and then conveyed to an
annular space between an inner 3 -in. pipe which forms the
rising main for the water, and an outer 5-111. pipe which is
still within the lining-tube of the well. The effect of this
pressure is to make the water rise in the central pipe, and
this continues till the water-level in the outer pipe has de-
scended to the level of the bottom of this tube. The air
then escapes up this tube, taking the water with it and
lifting it to the desired height The size of the central
pipe, and the depth to which it must be taken down, are
points which have to be carefully arranged to suit each
particular case. It must be, for instance, of the right dia-
meter, having regard to the quantity of water to be raised ;
and the amount of submergence found necessary deter-
mines the air pressure required. If this pipe is too small,
the quantity of water lifted will fall off ; if too large, air
will be lost. It must also be put down to a certain depth
below the level to which the water falls when pumping is
going on.
The machinery used consists of a horizontal air-
compressor, having a diameter of 10 in. and a stroke of
12 in. With a steam pressure of 60 lb., and when running
at 90 revolutions, this compressor is capable of delivering
air into the 5 -in. tube at a pressure of 70 lb. per square
N
i 7 8
WELL-BORING.
inch, and of raising 7600 gal. an hour to a height of some
120 ft. At Hyde Park Court the water is first delivered
into a receiving tank, whence it flows by gravitation into
a further tank situated in another part of the building.
When pumping first begins, the water is ejected with some
force from the rising main, which is hence surrounded by
FIG. 78. AIR-COMPRESSOR FIXED IN ENGINE-ROOM.
a baffle. Very shortly, however, the violence of the dis-
charge abates, and though slight pulsations are noticed,
the delivery is practically continuous and regular.
A view of the compressor as fixed in the engine-room
is given in Fig. 78, and another of the flow from the outlet
of the " lift " in Fig. 79.
RAISING WATER.
179
Whenever the conditions are suitable the air-lift pump is
a very valuable arrangement for pumping from a bore-hole
and is not limited to this but is equally useful for a dug
FIG. 79. FLOW FROM "LIFT.'
well or a sump or other situation, the only essential condi-
tion being sufficient depth of water to submerge the air and
delivery pipe for about half their total length or rather
N 2
i8o WELL-BORING.
more according to the lift. Thus, in the case of a bore-
hole in which the pumping level stood at 100 feet from the
surface the pipes should be submerged about 1 20 feet below
the level, making a total length of 220 feet of pipe, and if
the water is required to be delivered above surface a corre-
sponding length of pipe must be submerged. This depth
of water required to work in is the only limitation of the
system, although it is not recommended for more than about
250 feet total lift ; this, however, is an ample lift for most
borings for water-supply, and in the greatest number of
cases the depth of water is sufficient. On low lifts of only
about 40 feet or so a less proportion of submergence is
sufficient, but on a greater lift than this, although the pump
will work with much less submergence than mentioned, it
is only at the cost of pumping an excessive quantity of air
and so spoiling the economy. On the other hand, if the
submergence employed is greatly in excess, although a less
volume of air is necessary, the increased pressure at which
it has to be delivered to overcome the head of water above
the end of the , pipe, causes a greater loss of power than
is compensated for by the less volume of air delivered,
and the result is again a loss of economy.
The system claims several advantages over all others,
and perhaps the chief of these is that there are no
valves or any moving parts below surface, the whole
arrangement consisting of straight open-ended pipes which
cannot by any possibility go wrong or require taking out,
the only machinery being the air- compressor which is on
the surface and readily accessible. Another point is, that
even if a considerable quantity of sand comes in with the
water it will not clog the pump, which will easily throw
iar^e quantities of sand or mud with the water without
RAISING WATER. 181
being injured in the least. Also, it is the only system
whereby duplicate pumping machinery can be applied to
a single bore-hole, a second air-compressor being all that
is necessary, thus saving the expense of a duplicate bore-
hole.
Another very useful application of this system is for
temporary test-pumping plants where it is valuable on
account of the ease with which it can be fixed, the self-
contained compressor being very simple to put down com-
pared to the heavy gear and engine required for an ordinary
deep-well pump.
Another important point is, that it enables larger
volumes of water to be lifted from smaller bore-holes than
can possibly be lifted by any other kind of pump. What-
ever the bore-hole yields it can be obtained by the air-lift
pump. For oil wells it should prove indispensable and of
the greatest economy and reliance, also for mining purposes.
The cost of pumping at Hyde Park Court is about \\d.
per 1000 gallons, as against 4^. to 6d. per 1000 gallons
charged by water companies, in addition to which the
supply is certain at all seasons and absolutely pure and cool.
It will be readily seen that no difficulties are expe-
rienced in raising small or large supplies from any depth.
It should be borne in mind that one of the most important
points to study is the proper submergence of the pump-
barrel. It should never be less than 50 ft., and if 100 ft.
are available, by all means fix it at the deeper level.
Taking this step ensures obtaining a continuous supply,
and one not likely to be affected by drought or neighbour-
ing wells. In most instances, the head of water is also
likely to be lowered a few feet beyond original level by
FIG. 80. DEEP-WELL PUMP PARTLY FIXED IN AN EXISTING
DTIO WF.T.T.
RAISING WATER. 183
pumping. Taking the above precaution prevents the
pump being in any way affected. See following illustra-
tions.
Fig. 80 illustrates an improved deep well pump fixed
in an existing dug well, 400 ft. deep, at Barclay, Perkins
& Co.'s Brewery, Southwark, London. The pump reaches
300 ft. from the surface.
Fig. 81 shows a similar pump, at 233^ ft. from surface,
in the Idris Co.'s well.
A representation of the author's improved deep well
pumps connected to an electric motor is given in Figs. 82
and 83, which represent an artesian bored tube-well, fixed
at Showell's Brewery, Langley, near Birmingham. The
depth of the bore hole is 600 ft. The pump reaches the
depth of 330 ft. from the surface.
In Fig. 84 is an improved deep-well pump for heavy
lifts, which can be driven by any power. It represents
a bore hole 400 ft. deep, 20 in. diam., with a i6-in. deep-
well pump, raising 25,000 gal. per hour, at the pumping
station of the East Worcestershire Water-works, Burcot,
near Bromsgrove.
A section of the author's improved deep-well pump
barrel, with bucket, valve, etc., is seen in Fig. 85. The
pump barrels are made of a tough yellow metal, solid
drawn, which ensures a sound article and not liable to
have blowholes, as is often the case with a cast pump
barrel. It will be observed that no loose parts exist in the
bucket and valve.
184
WELL-BORING.
Yellow clo
FIG. 81. IMPROVED DEEP-WELL PUMP FIXED IN BORE-HOLE.
RAISING WATER.
'85
FIG. 82.
FIG. 83.
FIG. 84.
i
FIG. 85
-1)
FIG. 86.
Fig.. 86 shows a section of an
improved deep-well pump and
gearing fitted with fast and loose
pulleys, and counterbalance ar-
rangement. The plunger, fitted
in the stuffing box at the out-
let, enables an unfluctuating
yield to be obtained.
i88
WELL-BORING.
FIG. 87.
RAISING WATER.
189
Fig. 87 illustrates an improved arrangement showing
how large supplies of water can be obtained by coupling
two or more wells together, although the water level may
be much below 30 ft. from the surface. The deep-well
pumps are placed in position and connected ; when coupled,
there is no occasion to utilise the counterbalance weight,
FIG. 88.
as one pump works against the other, equalising the load.
The counterbalance arrangement is employed when only
one pump is required to work.
Fig. 88 represents the engine-room, deep-well pump
gear, etc., fixed to supply the town of Hatfield. It is an
1887 Jubilee gift of the Marquis of Salisbury. The con-
1 9 o
WELL-BORING.
sumption having since considerably increased, another
installation of treble the capacity has been put down. Each
bore hole is 300 ft. deep, with a deep-well pump fixed in
each. The yield of two is at present over 10,000 gal. per
hour.
FIG. 89.
Fig. 89 illustrates a type of steam cylinder most adapt-
able where the space available is limited. It dispenses with
gearing and is expeditiously fixed, and can be bolted to
timbers.
RAISING WATER. 191
STANDARD SIZES OF TUBES AND PUMPS IN INCHES.
1
Bore pipes
3
4
5
6
7i
8*
10
ii*
13*
15*
18
20
Pump mains .
2
3
4
5
6
7i
8*
10
uj
13*
15*
18
Pump barrels .
n
2|
3?
4f
51
6f
8
9*
II
13
15
16
TABLES OF YIELD OF DEEP-WELL PUMPS.
Size of barrel . . .
\\
21
Length of stroke .
9
It
i'
3"
9
i
i
3"
Number of revolutions'!
per minute . . . /
Gallons per hour .
18
80
22
9 6
18
131
22
1 60
18
194
22
240
18
328
22
4OO
Size of barrel .
3\
I"
4i
r
Length of stroke .
9
"
i'
3"
i'
6"
2'
0"
Number of revolutions)
per minute . . . /
Gallons per hour .
18
366
22
447
18
595
22
741
16
1044
20
1305
16
1368
20
1710
Size of barrel .
51
r
61
r
'
Length of stroke .
2'
o"
2'
6"
2'
6"
3'
o"
Number of revolutions'!
per minute . . . /
Gallons per hour .
16
2043
20
2554
16
2554
20
32U
14
2993
18
3848
14
3691
18
4617
Size of barrel .
8
H
9
r
Length of stroke .
2'
6"
3'
o"
3'
o"
3'
6"
Number of revolutions \
per minute . . . J
Gallons per hour . .
14
4323
18
5558
14
5U5
18
6679
H
7326
18
9419
H
8547
18
10,988
192
WELL-BORING.
TABLES OF YIELD OF DEEP-WELL PUMPS-
c on tinned.
Size of barrel .
Length of stroke .
Number of revolutions)
per minute . . . f
Gallons per hour .
II"
13"
3' o"
3' 6"
3'
o"
3' 6"
14
9816
18
12,624
H
11,452
18
14,724
13
12,738
17
16,657
13
14,820
17
19,380
Size of barrel .
Length of stroke .
Number of revolutions"!
per minute . . . /
Gallons per hour .
15"
1 6"
3' o"
3' 6"
3'
6"
4' o"
13
16,964
17
22,180
13
19,783
17
25,873
12 16
20,72627,634
1
12
23,735
16
31,647
INDEX.
ACCIDENT tools, 101
Advantage of steel tubes, 64, 65
Air-lift installation, 176
pump, description, 177, 179, 181
electrically driven, 177
for mines, 181
for oil wells, 181
illustrated, 178, 179
worked by gas or any other
engine, 177
steam pump, 177
system for pumping, 175
American boring instructions, 139
- plant, 132
rope-boring tools, 142-144
driving plant, 136-150
plant pumping, 138
system, 131
section rope-boring tools, 141
Artesian well section, 69
BORED well, 61
Boring, bucket grapnel, 124
cost of, 67, 68
coupling of rod to engine, 79
emergency tools, 120, 121
enlarging, 49
Kind-Chaudron system, 73-83
head, Mather and Tlatt, 114
machine, working instructions, 1 1 7,
118
plant, Mather and Platt, 106-111
progress, 80, 118, 152
rods, making of, 49
Boring shell ball-clack, 78
- (Kind), 78
sliding joints, 77
rod (Kind), 76
-rigs, 49, 5, 51, 53
showing plan of commencing, 51, 52
tools, 43-49
cost of, 68-72
Bored tube wells, 41
Bourn bored well, 168
CALY cutter, 165
Chinese system of boring, 41-43
Chisels, making of, 47
Clary's enlarging rimer, 145
Clearing pipes of tube- well, 31, 32, 35
Connecting tube-wells, 38, 39
DEEPER wells, 34
Deep well pump fittings, 34-36
for heavy lifts, 183
illustrated, 186
improved system, 187
in bore-hole, 182
in well, 181
tables of yield, 191, 192
tubes, 191
with steam cylinder, 190
worked by electric motor, 185
working barrel, 186
Depth of tube well, 34
Description of enlarging hole, 145
Diamonds, 164
O
194
WELL-BORING.
Diamond boring by Gulland, 162
combined machine, 158, 165, 166
-cost, 170-173
instructions, 162
Gulland's bit and tube, 163
removal of diamonds, 163
setting carbons, 159-162
system, 157
use of " borts," 159
use of " carbonados," 159
use of electric motors, 164
core drilling, 158
Drawing tube-well in case of failure,
33.34
Drilling with working beam, 145
Driven tube- wells, 28'
well and pump, 37
in dug well, 37
prices, 40
Driving flange for pipes, 63
Dru boring plant, 93
deep boring system, 92
free falling device, 97, 98
trepan, 95
Drum curbing, 24, 25
Dug wells, 23
ELASTIC suspension for drilling, 150
Expanding tools, 48
Explosives, 167
GAYTON boring, 170
Geological considerations, I, 2
faults, 4, 5
HOLLOW hydraulic jack, 67
screw jack, 66
Hyde Park Court well, 175
Hydraulic washing system, 153-155
INSERTING bore tubes, 61
sler's rope percussion arrangement,
155, 156
KEIGHLEY bored well, 169
Kettering boring, 169
LONDON bored wells, 170
water level, 174
MARKING off dug wells, 23
Marquis of Salisbury's installation, 189
Materials for driven tube-wells, 39
for steining, 25, 26
Method of boring, 41, 47, 48
Monkey for driving pipes, 63
PARIS well, 73
Percolations through sand-beds, 8, 9
Petroleum boring, 166, 167
Pumping (deep well pumps), cost of, 180
Pumps, prices of wells, 40
RAINFALL, 9-11
Tables, 12-17
Raising water from any depth, 181
means of, 174
Riming under tubes, 62, 63
SAND, running, 124, 125
tube for sandy soils, 32
Sheer frame for deep boring, 54-56
legs and steam winch, 60
and windlasses, 57-59
Shell pump-fast, 123
pump, Mather and Platt, 115-117
Mordy's, 144
Spring drill head, 151
speed, 153
Steel shoe, 64
tubes and appliances, cost of, 72
cutting, 65
means of withdrawing, 65-67
prices, 65
socketed tube, 64
Submergence of deep well pump, 181-
183
Swivel ring, 85
INDEX.
'95
TILTING pump, 32, 33
Trepan at Passy, 75
- (Kind's), 84, 86
teeth (Kind's), 87
Tubbing suspended from rods, 90, 91
Tubes, cast iron, 125
forcing by screw jacks, 126-130
Tube-well driving apparatus, 29
instructions, 30-31
Tubes for driven tube-wells, 28, 29
UNDERPINNING dug wells, 23
VOLUME of water, 5-7
WATER, quantity obtained from tube
wells, 39
bearing strata, 17-22
Well, artesian, causes of failure, 3-4
definition, 2, 3
LONDON: I-KINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWBS AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET
AND GREAT WINDMILL STKEET.
JUNE, 19O1
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edition, crown 8vo ... ... 36
Practical Electric Bell Fitting. Ninth
edition. Crown 8vo ... ... 36
Telephones : their Construction and
Fitting. Sixth edition, crown 8vo ... 36
Andrews, T. Thermo-electric Reactions and
Currents between Metals in Fused Salts. 8vo,
sewed ... ... ... ... i o
Crocker, F. B. Electric lyighting: A Practical
Exposition of the Art. ...
Vol.1. The Generating Plant. Royal 8vo 12 6
Vol. II. Distributing Systems & Lamps.
Royal 8vo ... ... ... 12 6
Gushing, Jr., H. C. .Standard Wiring for
Electric Light and Power. New edition,
crown 8vo, limp leather ... net 4 6
Fahie, J . J . A History of Electric Telegraphy to
the year 1837. Crown 8vo ... ... 9 o
Fleming, J. A, Magnets and Electric Currents.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 76
Halliday, Geo. Notes on design of Small
Dynamo. Second edition, 8vo ... ... 26
Haskins, C. D. Transformers: their Theory,
Construction, and Application simplified.
Crown 8 vo ... ... ... ... 46
Heaphy, M. The Phoenix Fire Office Rules for
Electric Light Installation and Electrical
Power Installation. Twenty-sixth edition,
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Hedges, K. American Electric Street Railways :
their Construction and Equipment. Post 4to 12 6
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.
Hoskicer, Cpl, V, Testing Telegraph Cables.
Third edition, crown 8vo ... ... 46
Hughes, N. The Magneto-Hand Telephone.
Square i6mo ... ... ... 3 6
Inst, of Electrical Engrs. General Rules
recommended for Wiring for the Supply of
Electrical Energy. 8vo, sewed ... ... 6
Kempe, H. R. A Handbook of Electrical Test-
ing. Sixth edition, demy 8vo ... ... 18 o
Langdon, W. E. The Application of Electricity
to Railway Working. 8vo ... ... 10 6
Lintern, W. The Motor Engineer's & Electrical
Worker's Handy-book. i2mo ... net 20
Maycock, W, P. Practical Electrical Notes and
Definitions. Second edition, royal 321110 ... 20
Ditto ditto French morocco, gilt edges 3 o
Nichols, E, L. The Galvanometer. Royal 8 vo,
sewed ... ... ... 46
Norrie, H.T. Induction Coils. Second edition,
crown 8vo ... net 4 6
Parker, H. C. A Systematic Treatise on Elec-
trical Measurements. 8vo ... 46
Practical Electrics. A Universal Handybookon
Every Day Electrical Matters. Sixth edition,
8vo ... ... ... 3 6
Reagan, H. C. Electrical Engineers' & Students'
Chart and Handbook of the Brush Arc L,ight
System. 8vo ... ... ... 46
Reed's Electric Lighting for Steamers and its
Management. Crown 8vo, ... net 26
Sprague, J. T. Electricity: its Theory, Sources
and Applications. Third edition, crown 8vo 15 o
Thorn, C., & Jones, W. H. Telegraphic
Connections. Oblong 8vo 7 6
Thompson, E. P,, & Anthony, W, A.
Rontgen Rays and Phenomena ot the Anode
and Cathode. Svo ... ... ... 7 6
10 E. & F. N. SPON, LTD.
Thompson, S. P. Dynamo Electric Machinery.
Seventh Edition in preparation
lyatest Dynamo Electric Machines.
Demy 8vo ... ... ... 46
The Electro-Magnet and Electro Mag-
netic Mechanism. Third Edition in the
Press ...
PHIUPP REIS, Inventor of the Tele-
phone : a Biographical Sketch. 8vo,
cloth ... ... ... ... 7 6
Polyphase Electric Currents and Alter-
nate Current Motors. Second edition,
demy 8vo ... ... ...110
Thompson, S. P., & Thomas, E, Electrical
Tables and Memoranda. 641110, roan, gilt
edges ... ... ... ... i o
Ditto ditto, in celluloid case ... ... i 6
HOROLOGY
Britten, F. J. The Watch and Clock Maker's
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Edition. Crown 8vo ... ... net 5 o
Former Watch and Clock Makers and
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Old Clocks Watches & their Makers.
Demy 8vo ... ... net 10 o
The Springing & Adjusting of Watches.
Crown 8vo ... ... net 3 o
I m m i SCh , M . Prize Essay on the Balance Spring
and its Isochronal Adjustments. Crown 8vo 2 6
Nelthropp, H. L. Treatise on Watch work, Past
and Present. Crown 8vo ... ... 66
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PUMPS, WATER WHEELS.
P. R. Pumps: Historically, Theor-
etically and Practically Considered. Second
edition, crown 8vo ... ... ... 76
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 11
Bjorling, P. R. Pump Details. Crown 8vo ... 76
Practical Handbook on Direct-Acting
Pumping Engine and Steam Pump
Construction. Crown 8vo... 5
Pumps and Pump Motors : A Manual
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Two vols. royal 4to . . . 3 3
Practical Handbook on Pump Construc-
tion. Second edition, crown 8vo 5 o
Water or Hydraulic Motors. Crown 8vo 9 o
Blaine, R. G, Hydraulic Machinery, with an
Introduction to Hydraulics. Demy 8vo 14 o
Box, T. Practical Hydraulics. Twelfth edition,
crown 8vo ... 5
Co Iyer, F. Hydraulic, Steam, and Hand Power
Lifting and Pressing Machinery. Second
edition, imperial 8vo ... ... ...180
Pumps and Pumping Machinery
Vol I. Second edition, 8vo ... ... i 80
Vol II. Second edition, 8vo ... i 5 o
Cullen, W. Practical Treatise on the Construc-
tion of Horizontal and Vertical Waterwheels.
Second edition, small 4to 5 o
Davey, H. Description of the Differential
Expansive Pumping Engine. 8vo 2 o
De Sails, R. Tables giving Hydraulic Mean
Depth & Area of Circular Sewers. 8vo, sewed i o
Donaldson, W. Donaldson's Poncelet Turbine
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Principles of Construction and Effici-
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Hennell, T. Hydraulic and other Tables for
purposes of Sewage & Water Supply. Crown
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Hick, J. Experiments on the Friction of the
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sewed. ... ... ... ... i o
Higham, T. Hydraulic Tables for Finding the
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Si I k, A, E. Tables for Calculating the Discharge
of Water in Pipes for Water & Power Supplies.
Indexed at side for ready reference. Crown
8vo ... ... ... ... 50
Stone, T, W. Simple Hydraulic Formulae.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 40
INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY AND
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Tabulation. 641110, roan, gilt edges ... i 6
Bay ley, T. A Pocket Book for Chemists,
Chemical Manufacturers, Metallurgists, Dyers,
Distillers, etc. Seventh edition, Royal 32mo,
roan, gilt edges ... ... ... 50
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Practitioners, Students, etc., Royal
32mo, roan, gilt edges ... ... 50
Brooks, C, P. Cotton Manufacturing. Crown
8vo, cloth ... ... ... net 26
Brooks, C. P. Weaving Calculations. Crown
8vo, cloth . . ... ... ... 26
Burns, W. Illuminating and Heating Gas. A
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etc., etc. Crown 8vo ... ... ... 50
Carpenter, W. L,, & Leask, H. A Treatise
on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles,
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crown 8vo.... ... ... ... 126
Cross, C. F,, & Bevan, E, J. A Text Book of
Paper Making. Second edition, crown 8vo 12 6
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Foster, J, Treatise on the Evaporation of
Saccharine, Chemical & other Liquids by the
Multiple System in Vacuum and Open Air.
Second edition, 8vo ... ... ... i i o
Graham, D. A, A Treatise on the Comparative
Commercial Values of Gas Coals and Cannels.
8vo ... ... ... ... 46
Graham, M, Practical Hints on the Working
and Construction of Regenerator Furnaces.
fcap. 8vo., leather ... ... ... 30
Han sen, E. C, Practical Studies in Fermen-
tation, translated from the German by A. K.
Ph. D. 8vo ... ... ... 126
Hanssen, C, J, T. Reform in Chemical and
Physical Calculations. Demy 4to net 6 6
Hodgetts, E. A. B. Liquid Fuel for Mechanical
and Industrial Purposes. 8vo ... ... 50
Hornby, J. The Gas Engineer's Laboratory
Handbook. Crown 8vo ... ... 60
Ingle, H, & H. The Chemistry of Fire and Fire
Prevention. Crown 8vo ... ... 90
Lee, D. Manual for Gas Engineering Students.
181110 ... ... ... ... 10
Lovibond, T, W. Brewing with Raw Grain.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 50
Procter, H. R. Leather Industries: Laboratory
Book on Analytical & Experimental Methods.
Demy 8vo ... ... ... ... 90
Redwood, I. I. Theoretical and Practical
Ammonia Refrigeration. Third edition, square
i6mo ... ,,, 4 6
E. & F. N. SPON, LTD.
Richards, W. Practical Treatise on the Manu-
facture and Distribution of Coal Gas. Demy
4 to ... ... ... i 8 o
Scammell, G., & Collyer, F. Breweries and
Makings. Second edition, 8vo ... 12 6
Speyers, C. L. Text Book of Organic Chemistry.
Demy 8vo ... .'.. ... ... 90
S pens' Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts,
Manufactures and Commercial Products.
Super-royal 8vo
In 2 Vols., cloth ... ... ... 3 10 o
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,, 2 Vols. half Morocco, top edge gilt ... 4 10 o
Standage, H. C. The Practical Polish and
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Streatfield, F. W. Practical Work in Organic
Chemistry. Crown 8vo ... ... 30
Terry, G. Pigments, Paints and Painting.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 76
Van Eijndhoven, A. J. A Comparison of the
Knglish and French Methods of Ascertaining
the Illuminating Power of Coal Gas. Crown
8vo ... ... ... ... 40
Wein, E,, & Frew, W, Tables for the Quan-
titative Estimation of the Sugars. Crown 8vo 6 o
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Crown 8vo, 5 Vols ... ... each 5 o
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MARINE ENGINEERING AND NAVAL
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Barnaby, S. W. Marine Propellers. Fourth
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Bartley, B, C. The Marine Engineer's Record
Book : Engines. 8vo, roan ... .net 5 o
The Engineer's and Draughtsman's Data Book
for Workshop and Office use. Third edition,
crown 8vo, roan ... ... ... 30
Franklin, A. C, Yachting Hints, Tables and
Memoranda. Waistcoat pocket size, 64mo,
roan, gilt edges ... ... ... i o
Ditto ditto in celluloid case i 6
Haldane, J, W, C. Steamships and their
Machinery from first to last. 8vo ... 15 o
Hogg, A, Tables for Constructing Ships' Lines.
Second edition, 8vo ... ... ... 7 o
Hovgaard, G, W. Submarine Boats. Crown
8vo ... ... ... ... 50
Jordan, C,H, Tabulated Weights of Angle, Tee,
Bulb, Round, Square, and Flat Iron and Steel
for the use of Naval Architects, Ship-builders,
&c. Fifth edition, French morocco, gilt edges 7 6
Jordan, C. H. Particulars of Dry Docks on the
river Thames. On a sheet folded in cloth.
181110 ... ... 26
Little, H. The Marine Transport of Petroleum.
Crown 8vo ... 10 6
Main, J. The Progress of Marine Engineering
from the time of Watt to the present day.
Crown 8vo ... 76
Reed's Engineers' Handbook to the Board of
Trade Examinations for certificates of Com-
petency as First and Second Class Engineers.
Seventeenth edition, 8vo ... net 14 o
16 E. & F. N. SPON, LTD.
Reed. The key to the Seventeenth edition of
REED'S Engineers' Handbook, 8vo net 7 6
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Polyglot Guide to the Marine Engine
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Oblong 8vo ... ... net 10 o
Marine Boilers. Second edition, crown
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Useful Hints to sea-going Engineers.
Third edition, crown 8vo ... net 36
Drawing of the Triple Expansion
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On 2 sheets in case ... net 36
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Britton, T, A. Treatise on the Origin, Progress,
Prevention and Cure of Dry Rot in Timber.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 76
Butler, D. B. Portland Cement: its Manufacture,
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Calcare. Cement Users' and Buyers' Guide.
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Delano, W. H. Twenty years' practical ex-
perience of Natural Asphalt and Mineral
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Grant, J. Experiments on the Strength of
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Heath, A, H. A Manual of Lime and Cement.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 60
Luard, C. E. Stone : how to get it and how to
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Newman, J. Notes on Concrete and Works in
Concrete, Second edition, crown 8vo ... 60
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 17
Patersop, M, M. The Testing of Pipes and
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Redwood, I. I. Lubricants. Oils and Greases.
8vo ... ... ... ... 4 6
A Practical Treatise on Mineral Oils and
their By-Products. Demy 8vo ... 15 o
Stoffler, E. Silico-Calcareous Sandstones. Svo,
sewed ... ... ... net 40
MATHEMATICS.
Blaine, R. G. Quick and Easy Methods of
Calculating. i6mo, leather ... ... 26
Byrne, O. General Method of Solving Equations
of all Degrees. Svo, sewed ... ... i o
Graham, J. Elementary Treatise on the
Calculus for Engineering Students. Second
edition, crown Svo ... ... ... 76
HiggS, P. Algebra, Self-Taught. Third edition,
crown Svo ... ... ... ... 26
Ormsby, M. T. Elementary Practical Mathe-
matics. Demy Svo ... ... net 76
Sloane, T. O'c. The Arithmetic of Electricity.
Crown Svo ... ... ... ... 46
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
STEAM ENGINES, STEAM BOILERS, GAS ENGINES, ETC.
Adams, Hy. Handbook for Mechanical Engi-
neers. Fourth edition, crown Svo ... 76
Applebys' Handbooks of Machinery. In six
sections, Svo, each ... ... ... 36
Section 1. Prime Movers, Steam, Gas and Air Engines, Boilers, Tur-
bines, &c.
Section 2. Hoisting Machinery, Winding Engines and Lifting
Appliances.
Section 3. Pumping Machinery, Pumping Engines, Centrifugal, Steam,
Electrical and Hand Pumps.
Section 4. Machine Tools and Accessories.
Section 5. Contractors' Plant and Railway Materials. (In the Press.}
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Barber, T, W. Engineers' Sketch Book of
Mechanical Movements. Third edition, 8vo 10 6
The Repair & Maintenance of Machinery:
8vo ... ... ... ... 10 6
Box, T. Practical Treatise on Mill Gearing.
Fifth edition, crown 8vo ... ... 7 6
Byrne, O. The Essential Elements of Practical
Mechanics. Fourth edition, post 8vo ... 76
Cam pin, F, The Practice of Hand Turning.
Third edition, crown 8vo ... ... 36
Colyer, F. The Working and Management of
Steam Boilers and Engines. Second edition,
crown 8vo ... ... ... ... 36
Treatise on Modern Steam Engines and
Boilers. 4to ... ... ... 12 6
Cooper, J. H. Treatise on the use of Belting
for the Transmission of Power. Fourth
edition, demy 8vo ... ... ... 15 o
Cotterill, J. H. The Steam Engine considered
as a Therm odynamic Machine. Third edition
8vo ... ... ... ... 15 o
Dahlstrom, K. P. The Fireman's Guide, a
Handbook on the Care of Boilers. Eighth
edition, fcap. 8vo ... 20
Diesel, R. Theory & Construction of a Rational
Heat Motor. 8vo ... ... 60
Donaldson, W. Transmission of Power by
Fluid Pressure, Air and Water. 8vo ... 60
Fletcher, W. History and Development of
Steam Locomotion on Common Roads. 8vo 5 o
Foden, J. The Boiler Makers' and Iron Ship-
builders' Companion. Fourth edition, fcap. 8vo 5 o
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 10
Fuller, J, Art of Copper Smithing. Royal 8vo 12 6
Goldingham, A. H. The Design & Construc-
tion of Oil Engines. Crown 8 vo... net 6 o
Graham, J. C. Elementary Treatise on Steam
and the Use of the Indicator. 8vo ... 90
Halliday, G. Belt Driving. 8vo ... ... 3 6
Hanssen, A. The Commercial Efficiency of
Steam Boilers. Large 8vo, sewed ... 6
Henthprn, J. T. The Corliss Engine. Third
edition, square i6mo ... ... ... 36
Hett, C, L. Table of the Power of Leather
Belting and Shafts. On folding card ... i o
Hiscox, J. D, Gas, Gasoline and Oil Vapour
Engines. Fourth edition, 8vo ... net 10 6
Kinealy, J, H, Elementary Text-book on Steam
Engines and Boilers. Third edition, 8vo ... 10 6
Knight, C. The Mechanician : a Treatise on the
Construction and Manipulation of Tools.
Fifth edition, 4to ... 18 o
Lieckfeld, G. Practical Handbook on the Care
and Management of Gas Engines. Square
161110 ... ... ... ... 36
Low, P. A. Valve Setting Record Book. 8vo
boards ... ... ... ... i 6
M i 1 1 is, C. T. Metal Plate Work, its Patterns and
their Geometry. Third edition, crown 8vo 9 o
Peattie, J. Steam Boilers, their Management
and Working. Fourth edition, crown 8vo ... 50
Porter, C. T. Treatise on the Richards Steam
Engine Indicator. Fifth edition, 8vo ... 90
Richards, J. The Arrangement, Care and
Operation of Wood Working Factories and
Machinery. Second edition, crown 8vo ... 50
20 E. & F. N. SPON, LTD.
Rigg, A. Practical Treatise on the Steam Engine.
Second edition, demy 4to ... ... i 5 o
Sexton, M. J. Pocket Book for Boiler Makers
and Steam Users. Fourth edition, royal 321110,
roan, gilt edges ... ... ... 50
Spencer, A, Roll Turning for Sections in
Steel and Iron. Second edition, 41.0 ... i 10 o
Uhland, W, H. Slide and Piston-Valve Geared
Steam Engines. Two Vols., half Morocco ... i 16 o
Watson, E. P. How to run Engines and
Boilers. Fourth edition ... ... 36
Welch, E, J. Practical method of Designing
Slide Valve Gearing. Crown 8vo ... 60
Wright, T. W. Elements of Mechanics. Svo 10 6
Zeuner, G, Treatise on Valve Gears, translated
from the fourth German edition by J. F. KLEIN,
Svo ... , ... ... 12 6
METALLURGY.
Andrews, T. The Life of Railway Axles. Svo,
sewed i o
Microscopic Internal Flaws in Steel
Rails and Propeller Shafts. Svo, sewed i o
Microscopic Internal Flaws, Inducing
Fracture in Steel. Svo, sewed ... 20
Davies, J. Galvanized Iron: its Manufacture
and Uses. Svo ... ... net 50
Ede, G. Guns and Gun Making Material. Crown
Svo ... ... ... ... 60
The Management of Steel. Seventh
edition, crown Svo ... ... 50
Kirk, E. The Cupola Furnace. Demy Svo ... 14 o
Macfarlane, J. W, Practical Notes on Pipe
Founding. Svo ... ... ... 12 6
Sharp, J. Modern Foundry Practice. Svo net i i o
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West, T. D. The Metallurgy of Cast Iron.
Second edition. 8vo ... ... ... 126
Wyllie, C. Treatise on Iron & Steel Founding.
Second edition, crown 8vo ... ... 50
MINERALOGY AND MINING.
Andre, G. G, Rock Blasting, 8vo ... 5 o
Practical Treatise on Coal Mining. Two
Vols., royal 4to ... ... ...3120
Brown, W. L, Manual of Assaying Gold, Silver,
Copper and Lead Ores. Ninth edition, crown
8vo ... ... ... ... 126
Charleton, A. G, Tin: Describing the Chief
Methods of Mining, Dressing, etc. Crown 8vo 12 6
Daw, A. W,, & Z. W. The Blasting of Rock in
Mines, Quarries and Tunnels, etc. Demy 8vo 15 o
Hoptpn, W. Conversations on Mines. Ninth
edition, crown 8vo ... ... ... 46
Hull, E. Our Coal Resources at the End of the
Nineteenth Century. Demy 8vo ... 60
Kirkpatrick, T. S. G. Simple Rules for the
Discrimination of Gems ... ... 2 o
- The Hydraulic Gold Miners' Manual.
Second edition, crown 8vo ... ... 40
Lock, C, G, W. Economic Mining. 8vo ... i i o
Gold Milling : Principles, and Practice.
Demy 8vo ... ... net i 10 o
Mining and Ore-Dressing Machinery.
Super-royal 4to ... ... ...150
Miner's Pocket Book. Fourth edition,
fcap. 8vo, roan ... ... net 12 6
Longridge, C. C. The Holloway Longridge
Process for Extracting Gold. 8 vo, sewed ... i 6
Miller, J. A. The Practical Handbook for the
Working Miner and Prospector, and the
Mining Investor. Crown Svo ... ... 76
22 E, & F. N. srON, LTD.
IVI U rgu e, D , The Theory and Practice of Centri-
fugal Ventilation Machines. 8vo ... 50
Povey- Harper, J. Examples of Coal Mining
Plant. Second edition, in portfolio ... 4 4 o
Suttie, T. R. The Miner's and Prospector's
Pocket Guide. Square i6mo ... net 2 o
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
Brown, N. The Organization of Gold Mining
Business. Fcap. folio... ... net i $ Q
Foster, H. A. Central Station Management and
Finance. 8vo ... ... ... 7 6
Central Station Book Keeping. 8vo ... 12
Lewis, J. S. The Commercial Organization of
Factories. Royal 8vo. New Edition in the Press.
Matheson, E. Depreciation of Factories. 2nd
edition, 8vo ... ... 7 6
Aid Book to Engineering Enterprise.
Third edition, 8vo ... i 4
Parry, W. Kaye. Office Management. A hand-
book for Architects and Civil Engineers, net 10 o
Williams, R. R. The American Hardware Store.
Royal 8vo ... ... ... ... 12 6
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Allen, C. F. Railroad Curves and Earthwork.
1 2ino, leather, gilt edges ... net 86
Allen, G. T. Tables of Parabolic Curves for the
use of Railway Engineers and others. Fcap.
i6mo ... ... ... ... 4
Blackall, R, H, Up to date Air Brake Catechism.
Crown 8vo ... ... ... net 6 o
BriggS, C, Simple and Automatic Vacuum
Brakes. 8vo ... ... ... 4
Cole, W. H, Notes on Permanent-way Material,
Plate-laying, and Points and Crossings.
Third edition, crown 8vo ... ... 7 6
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 23
Derr, W. L, Block Signal Operation. Oblong
crown 8vo ...
Glover, J, Formulae for Railway Crossings and
Switches. Royal 32mo
Grimshaw, R, Locomotive Catechism. Crown
8vo
Grover, J. W. Estimates and Diagrams of
Railway Bridges. Second edition, folio
7
2
7
i ii
2 2
6
6
6
6
o
tures and General Works. Folio
Examples of Station Buildings and their
Cost. Folio ... ... ... 10 6
Haldane, J, W, C. Railway Engineering, Me-
chanical and Electrical. Demy 8vo ... 15 o
Hogg, C. P. Tables for setting-out Railway
Curves. A series of cards in neat cloth case 4 6
Hughes, G. The Construction of the Modern
Locomotive. 8vo ... ... ... 90
Johnson, J. R. Practical Hints for Light
Railways at Home and Abroad. Crown 8vo... 2 6
Jones, T. W. Permanent Way Pocket Book.
Oblong 8vo ... ... ... 46
Kennedy, A,, & Hackwood, R. W. Tables
for setting out Curves for Railways, Roads,
Canals, etc. 32mo ... ... ... 26
Macgregor, W. Tables for Computing the
Contents of Earthwork in the Cuttings and
Embankments of Railways. Royal 8vo ... 6 o
Paterson, J. Tables and Diagrams of Switches
and Crossings. 8vo ... ... ... 36
Rapier, R. C. Remunerative Railways for New
Countries. Crown 4to ... ... 15 o
Spooner, C. E. Narrow Gauge Railways.
Second edition, 8vo ... ... ... 15 o
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Watson, A, G, Practical Hints on setting out
Curves. i8mo ... ... ... 60
SANITATION.
Bailey-Denton, E. Sewage Purification. 8vo 5 o
Birch, R. W. P. Sewage Irrigation by Farmers.
8vo, sewed ... ... ... ... 26
Boulnois, H. P. Dirty Dustbins and Sloppy
Streets. Crown 8vo, sewed ... ... i o
The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's
Handbook. Third edition, demy 8vo... 15 o
Co I em an, T. E. Sanitary House Drainage, its
Principles and Practice. Crown 8vo ... 60
Stable Sanitation & Construction. Crown
Svo ... ... ... ... 60
Co Iyer, F. Public Institutions, their Engineering,
Sanitary, and other Appliances. Svo ... 50
Treatise on the Modern Sanitary Appli-
ances for Healthy Residences. Crown
Svo ... ... ... ... 50
Davies, J. P. Standard Practical Plumbing.
Vol i. Fourth edition, royal Svo ... 76
Vol ii. Royal Svo ... net jo 6
Davis, G, B., & Dye, F. A Complete and
Practical Treatise on Plumbing & Sanitation.
2 vols., 4to cloth ... ... net 2 15 o
Parsons, Hon. R, C. I^as Obras de Salubridad
de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Svo net 5 o
Robinson, H. Sewerage and Sewage Disposal.
Second edition, demy Svo ... ... 50
Smeaton, J. Plumbing, Drainage, Water Supply
and Hot Water Fitting. Svo ... ... 76
WARMING AND VENTILATION.
Box, T. Practical Treatise on Heat. Ninth
edition, crown Svo ... ... ... 12 6
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. 25
Drysdale, J., & Hayward, J. W, Health and
Comfort in House Building, or Ventilation
with warm air by self-acting suction power.
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