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WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 

REVIEW 


Volume  V 


May,  1972 


Number  1 


RECEIVED 

P  iblished  By 

SEP  121972 

PERIODICALS  uthHi\i,*i£NT 
WEST  GqQEGnMC]HQMjEJ£EGE  LIBRARY 
CARROLLTON,  GEORGIA 


A  Division  of  the  University  System  of  Georgia 


CARROLLTON,  GEORGIA 


Published  by 

WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 

Ward  B.  Pafford,  President 
John  M.  Martin,  Academic  Dean 

Faculty  Research  Committee 

Thomas  A.  Bryson  Doyle  L.  Mathis 

Jesse  Burbage  Roald  Y.  Mykkeltvedt 

Alex  Corriere  Carole  E.  Scott 

Donald  Gibbons  James  A.  Wash 
Benjamin  W.  Griffith 

Eugene  R.  Huck,  Chairman  and  Editor 
Gerald  M.  Garmon  and  William  L.  Lockhart,  Assistant  Editors 


The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  provide  encouragement  for 
faculty  research  and  to  make  available  results  of  such  activity.  The 
Review,  published  annually,  accepts  original  scholarly  work  and  crea- 
tive writing.  West  Georgia  College  assumes  no  responsibility  for  con- 
tributors' views.  The  style  guide  is  Kate  L.  Turabian,  A  Manual  for 
Writers.  Although  the  Review  is  primarily  a  medium  for  the  faculty  of 
West  Georgia  College,  other  sources  are  invited. 

An  annual  bibHography  includes  doctoral  dissertations,  major 
recitals  and  major  art  exhibits.  Theses  and  articles  in  progress  or  ac- 
cepted are  not  listed.  A  faculty  member's  initial  listing  is  comprehensive 
and  this  inventory  appears  as  the  first  issue  in  any  year.  The  abstracts 
of  all  master's  theses  and  educational  specialist's  projects  written  at 
West  Georgia  College  are  included  as  they  are  awarded. 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 
REVIEW 


Vol.  V,  No.  1 


May,  1972 


TABLE 

of 

CONTENTS 


Page 
A  Country  Called  Black:  Some  Observations 

on  the  Resilience  of  Coketown David  Weaver         3 

Cholesterol-  Methods  of  Control Jack  L.  Grogan         8 

and  W.Glenn  Esslinger 

"Operation  Magic  Fire":  Germany's  Involvement 

in  the  Spanish  Civil  War Melvin  Steely        12 

What  Are  Those  Clouds?  Barium  Gas! B.E.  Powell       26 

The  Sea  in  Four  Romantic  Poems C.H.  Edwards,  Jr.        29 

A  Study  of  Value  Judgements  in  a  Sample  of  Adults 

From  Two  West  Georgia  Counties Pearl  Nix       35 

Abstracts  of  Master's  Theses  and  Specialist  in 

Education  Projects 49 

Annual  Bibliography  of  West  Georgia  College  Faculty 

as  of  January  1,  1972 64 


Copyright   ©    1972,  West  Georgia  College 
Printed  in  U.S.A. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcinive 

in  2011  witin  funding  from 

LYRASIS  IVIembers  and  Sloan  Foundation 


http://www.archive.org/details/westgeorgiacolle510unse 


A  COUNTRY  CALLED  BLACK: 

SOME  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 

RESILIENCE  OF  COKETOWN 

By  DAVID  WEAVER* 


The  recent  spate  of  environmental  crusades  in  the  United  States  has 
made  it  tempting  to  assume  that  objectionable  living  conditions  and  at- 
tempted remedies  are  something  new  m  the  world,  a  space-time  problem 
of  only  late  twentieth-century  and  uniquely  American  dimensions. 
Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth. 

Geographers  and  other  scientists  with  environmental  concerns  who 
are  anxious  to  change  social  attitudes  and  to  build  a  new  order  ought 
to  be  aware  of  the  historical  record.  In  the  United  States  where  the  full 
impact  of  the  Industrial  Revolution  on  the  habitat  is  only  just  being 
realized,  this  record  is  relatively  short,  but  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
industrial  urban  transformations  have  been  affecting  the  older  rural 
order  for  several  centuries.  It  is  here  perhaps  more  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  world  that  industrialization  has  taken  toll  of  the  environment, 
and  it  has  done  so  in  limited  areas  where  its  effects  appear  all  the  more 
striking.  Among-  these  concentrated  urban  areas  the  English  Black 
Country  has  vied  with  the  German  Ruhr  to  become  the  most  infamous. 
It  is  the  classic  ground  of  industrialism,  the  original  Coketown. 

The  Black  Country  region  and  Birmingham  its  major  city  were  built 
essentially  on  profits  from  iron  and  steel  production.  No  other  location 
in  the  world  was  blessed  at  any  time  with  a  more  favorable  combination 
of  raw  material  sources.  As  an  American  consul  in  Birmingham 
reporting  to  the  State  Department  observed,  "Nature  did  for  the  Black 
Country  all  she  could;  indeed  everything  except  literally  building  the 
furnaces  themselves.  She  brought  together  all  that  was  needed  to  set 
and  keep  them  in  blast.  The  iron  ore,  coal  and  lime— the  very  lining 
of  the  furnaces— were  all  deposited  close  at  hand  for  the  operation."^ 
On  this  physical  base  between  1800  and  1900  the  Black  Country  and  its 
metal-working  society  mushroomed  to  occupy  an  area  of  approximately 
200  square  miles.  It  is  true  that  coal  and  iron  had  been  mined  there  for 
centuries,  but  it  was  steam  power  that  gave  the  district  its  distinctive 
character,  made  it  a  phenomenon,  and  caused  the  populations  of  towns 
like  Wolverhampton,  Walsall,  Tipton.  West  Bromwich  and  Smethwick 
to  increase  seven  or  eight  times  in  three  generations.  By  the  late  nine- 

*Assistant  Professor  of  Geography,  West  Georgia  College. 

^  E.  Burritt,  Walks  in  the  Black  Country  and  its  Green  Borderland.  (London: 
Sampson  Low,  Son,  and  Marston,  1868),  p.  160. 


teenth  century  the  area  was  the  major  seat  of  pig-iron  production  and 
the  hardware  center  of  the  country  producing  about  one-quarter  of  the 
total  British  pig-iron  output  and  one-third  of  the  finished  wrought  iron. 
Since  that  time  for  a  variety  of  reasons  the  primary  metal  industry  has 
declined  into  insignificance,  but  the  closing  down  of  the  multitude  of 
blast  furnaces  and  refineries  left  as  its  legacy  a  host  of  small  metal-using 
factories  which  have  provided  the  nucleus  for  continued  industrial  ex- 
pansion down  to  the  late  twentieth  century. 

The  rapid  development  of  the  Black  Country  converted  an 
agricultural  and  handicraft  society  within  a  lifetime.  There  was  a  popu- 
lation explosion  as  job  opportunities  beckoned  the  dense  rural  popula- 
tion of  surrounding  areas.  The  in-migration  was  much  greater  than  the 
ability  of  the  construction  industry  to  cope  with  it,  resulting  in  the  classic 
process  of  squatting  and  slumdwelling.  The  environment  quickly  de- 
terioted.  The  landscape  became,  according  to  Burritt  "marred,  scarred, 
and  fretted  and  smoked  to  death,  day  and  night,  year  and  year,  even  on 
Sundays. "2  Pit  head  gear  multiplied  as  did  factory  chimneys,  while 
waste  heaps,  quarries,  canal  cuttings  and  rail  viaducts  one  by  one  ob- 
scured the  natural  contours  of  the  land  and  confused  and  dirtied  its 
drainage.  Exploitation  by  industry  of  resources  and  manpower  outpaced 
the  ability  of  the  law  to  police  it.  The  demands  of  the  burgeoning  pop- 
ulation for  public  services  far  outran  the  ability  of  government  to  provide 
them.  Political  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  few  rather  than  the  many. 

By  the  mid-nineteenth  century  the  Black  Country  was  a  melting  pot 
of  social  deprivation  and  in  terms  of  its  physical  environment  the  exact 
opposite  of  Wordsworth's  "natural  piety."  It  was  to  all  observers  some- 
thing very  new  to  the  world.  For  some  it  was  a  phenomenon  to  be 
marvelled  at,  the  ultimate  in  industrial  progress.  As  such  it  was  the 
mecca  of  the  European  and  American  business  communities.  It  was  a 
culture  hearth  exporting  its  valued  technology  around  the  globe  and 
spawning  in  far  away  places  like  Alabama  descendants  in  its  own  image. 
For  more  socially  conscious  observers,  however,  it  raised  different 
feelings.  By  the  mid-nineteenth  century  expressions  of  distaste  and 
disapproval  were  beginning  to  find  their  way  into  print,  and  thereby 
into  the  Black  Country  conscience.  Throughout  the  nineteenth  century, 
writers  of  greater  and  lesser  prominence  castigated  the  Black  Country 
and  those  responsible  for  developing  it. 

For  Charles  Dickens,  as  for  many  others,  the  Black  Country  was  in- 
deed a  new  England,  but  it  was  new  and  different  because  it  was 
frightening,  an  affront,  and  a  threat.  In  conducting  Little  Nell  and  her 
grandfather  through  the  Black  Country,  he  wrote: 

Advancing  more  and  more  into  the  shadow  of  this  mournful 

place,  its  dark  depressing  influence  stole  upon  their  spirits  and 

2  Ibid.,  p.  164. 


filled  them  with  a  dismal  gloom.  On  every  side  and  as  far  as  the 
eye  could  see  into  the  heavy  distance,  tall  chimneys  crowding 
on  each  other  and  presenting  endless  repetition  of  the  same  dull 
ugly  form,  which  is  the  horror  of  oppressive  dreams,  poured  out 
their  plague  of  smoke,  obscured  the  light,  and  made  foul  the 
melancholy  air.^ 

Some  twenty  years  after  Dickens  wrote  the  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  a 

more  reflective  and  critical  writer  saw  the  Black  Country  for  the  first 

time.  Henry  Adams,  on  his  way  to  join  his  father,  the  American  minister 

at  the  Court  of  St.  James,  wrote  of  it  years  later  in  his  autobiography: 

Then  came  the  journey  up  to  London  through  Birmingham  and 

the  Black  District,  another  lesson  which  needed  much  more  to 

be  rightly  felt.  The  plunge  into  darkness  lurid  with  flames;  the 

sense  of  unknown  horror  in  this  weird  gloom  which  never  existed 

before,  except  in  volcanic  craters:  the  violent  contrast  between 

the  dense  smoky  impenetrable  darkness,  and  the  soft  green 

charm  that  one  glided  mto  as  one  emerged  — the  revelation  of 

the  unknown  society  of  the  pit  — made  a  boy  uncomfortable. . . 

the  boy  ran  away  from  it,  as  he  ran  away  from  everything  he 

disliked.  4 

Another  American,  J.G.  Kohl,  wrote  of  Birmingham  in  1844  that: 
The  town  covers  a  space  of  about  nine  English  square  miles, 
the  greater  part  of  this  space  occupied  by  a  mass  of  small,  uni- 
form and  mean  looking  houses  inhabited  by  the  work  people.  A 
large  portion  of  Birmingham  might  be  described  as  a  wilderness 
of  houses;  all  equally  ugly,  an  ungainly  mass,  unbroken  by  a 
single  building  of  pleasing  exterior.^ 

The  criticisms  of  these  outside  observers,  as  well  as  the  disaffection 
of  some  Black  Country  inhabitants,  were  responsible  after  about  1880 
for  attempts  by  industrialists  to  alleviate  basic  proble  tis.  The  Black 
Country,  and  particularly  Birmingham  pioneered  the  concept  of  sub- 
sidized public  housing  for  the  poor  and  universal  free  education.  It 
was  from  the  beginning  involved  in  the  town  and  recreational  planning 
movement  of  the  early  twentieth  century,  and  accepted  a  number  of 
changes  in  its  political  structure  which  were  socially  more  equitable 
and  economically  more  efficient.  More  attention  was  given  to  building 
design,  to  land  reclamation,  and  to  air  and  water  pollution  problems. 
In  many  ways  the  pressures  of  radical  thinking  helped  to  change 


^  Charles  Dickens,  The  Old  Curiositv  Shop.  (London:  McMillan  and  Co..  1892), 

p.  314. 

'^  Henry  Adams,  The  Education  of  Henrv  Adams.  An  Autobiography.  (Boston 

and  New  York:  Mifflin  Co.,  1918)',  pp.  72-73. 

^  J.  G.  Kohl,  England  and  Wales.  (Reprint  of  1844  edition;  London:  Frank  Cass 

&  Co.,  1968),  p.  8. 


the  geography  of  the  Black  Country.  In  the  late  twentieth  century, 
many  aspects  of  the  area  seem  a  far  cry  from  the  nineteenth  century 
image.  Even  so,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  desires  of  many  of  those  who  strived 
for  change  over  the  years  have  been  nearly  satisfied.  The  prevailing 
impression  of  a  visitor  to  the  Black  Country  is  still  of  a  derelict  land,  slag 
heaps  and  pit  mounds,  stagnant  pools  of  brown  water  in  hollows,  aban- 
doned railways,  murky  canals  that  carry  little  traffic  but  are  apparently 
without  end,  piles  of  scrap,  squalid  housing,  black  factory  buildings 
that  are  sometimes  half  ruins,  smoking  chimney  stacks  set  in  seemingly 
waste  spaces.  In  many  locations,  the  Black  Country  still  looks  and  smells 
like  an  enormous  battlefield,  the  gashed  and  wounded  earth  of  which 
has  not  healed.  Socially,  although  there  appears  to  have  been  material 
progress  in  living  conditions,  there  is  widespread  poverty.  Racial  con- 
flict and  discrimination  are  worsening  problems.  Since  modern  concepts 
of  social  welfare  began  to  appear  a  century  ago,  some  progress  toward 
human  well-being  has  been  made  in  the  Black  Country,  but  it  is  a  sober- 
ing thought  that  despite  these  concepts  and  their  continual  expression, 
there  has  been  so  little  real  change  in  many  aspects  of  life. 

What  are  the  reasons  for  this?  The  outstanding  one  seems  to  be  that 
a  social  and  economic  landscape,  once  generated,  has  an  inbred  con- 
servatism, a  veriety  of  geographical  inertia.  The  better  developed  and 
more  complex  in  function  an  area  becomes,  the  less  is  its  ability  to 
accept  extensive  change.  Decision  makers  proliferate  as  do  the  numbers 
of  people  who  must  accept  decisions.  Investments  once  made  in  land 
and  physical  structures  can  only  be  re-allocated  at  great  costs  to  the 
general  society.  In  the  Black  Country  today,  a  number  of  industrial 
establishments  date  back  in  the  same  site  to  the  eighteenth  century  and 
a  multitude  to  the  nineteenth.  Houses  which  were  built  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  are  gradually  being  replaced,  but  much  land  has  been 
proscripted  to  residential  development  by  previous  industrial  activity 
and  the  high  costs  of  land  reclaimation.  The  communications  network 
which  binds  the  society  together  reflects  the  traffic  requirements  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  despite  great  efforts  to  make  it  otherwise.  All 
of  these  varied  elements  have  been  reshaped  in  varying  degrees  in  re- 
sponse to  social  pressures,  but  none  of  them  approximate  a  plan  which 
might  be  generated  from  modern  principles  of  social  welfare. 

A  lesser,  but  nonetheless  significant,  reason  lies  in  the  innate  con- 
servatism of  the  region's  occupants.  For  most  of  these  people  the  cam- 
paigns which  raised  them  above  the  economic  and  intellectual  bread- 
line in  the  nineteenth  century  are  forgotten.  They  have  little  time  for 
anything  outside  their  family  lives,  particularly  intellectual  debate  on 
the  improvement  of  their  lot.  The  approximately  three  million  people 
who  live  there  do  not  expect  anyone  to  come  to  the  Black  Country  to 
admire  the  scenery,  but  it  is  the  first  place  they  think  of  when  they  think 
of  England,  and  they  are  not  unduly  worried  that  it  is  black.  The  quality 
of  environmental  perception,  as  geographers  have  been  keen  to  show, 


depends  not  only  on  what  is  to  be  seen  but  also  on  how  well  eyes  have 
been  taught  to  see.  In  the  Black  Country,  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of 
teaching,  but  it  appears  not  quite  so  much  learning.  The  majority  of 
the  factory  workers  seem,  from  election  evidence,  to  appreciate  personal 
costs  much  better  than  they  do  projected  public  benefits. 

Added  to  this  widespread  lack  of  concern  for  radical  change,  there 
is  a  much  smaller,  but  nonetheless  significant,  emotional  preservationist 
attitude  alive  in  the  Black  Country.  This  views  the  conventionally  ugly 
industrial  landscape  as  one  of  remarkable  aesthetic  beauty,  a  sentiment 
perhaps  best  expressed  by  the  respected  poet  W.H.  Auden.  His  view  of 
the  Black  Country  as  expressed  in  his  "Letter  to  Lord  Byron"  was  that: 

On  economic,  health,  or  moral  grounds 

It  hasn"t  got  the  least  excuse  to  show 

No  more  than  chamber  pots  or  otter  hounds 

But  let  me  say  before  it  has  to  go. 

It's  the  most  lo.ely  country  that  I  know; 

Clearer  than  Scafell  Pike,  my  heart  has  stamped  on 

The  view  from  Birmingham  to  Wolverhampton.  ^ 
Like  most  preservationist  attitudes,  this  one  is  a  force  to  be  reckoned 
with. 

What  message  does  all  of  this  hold  for  radical  scientists  and  their  in- 
tention to  promote  social  welfare?  First,  it  suggests  that  they  need  to 
recognize  the  innate  resilience  of  the  situations  they  are  trying  to  re- 
form, an  acceptance  which  may  be  alien  to  their  natures.  The  existing 
industrial  urban  landscape  is  a  panorama  of  fixed  assets,  costly  to  the 
public  purse  to  manipulate,  and  often  presenting  considerable  problems 
of  reconstruction.  The  prevailing  socio-cultural  attitudes  of  an  urban 
region  reflect  environmental  perceptions  which  may  be  far  removed 
from  those  generated  by  the  logic  of  the  social  scientist.  As  such,  they 
provide  a  sizeable  communications  problem  between  the  salesman  and 
his  market.  For  these  two  reasons  alone,  the  land  use  and  environmental 
adjustments  necessary  for  increased  social  comfort  are  extremely  un- 
likely to  be  implemented  overnight,  and  as  cities  continue  to  grow  in 
size,  the  rate  of  internal  change  will  probably  become  less.  The  present 
will  likely  be  as  stubborn  as  the  past  and  unless  they  take  regard  for  this 
fact,  radical  social  scientists  of  all  persuasions  may  experience  more 
personal  and  professional  frustrations  than  they  bargain  for. 


^  W.  H.  Auden.  Collected  Longer  Poems.  (New  York:  Random  House,  1969), 
p.  46. 

7 


CHOLESTEROL: 
METHODS  OF  CONTROL 

By  JACK  L.  GROGAN* 
W.  GLENN  ESSLINGER** 

Atherosclerosis,  a  lesion  in  medium  and  large  sized  arteries,  is  char- 
acterized by  deposits  of  yellowish  plaques  containing  cholesterol  and 
fatty  material.  It  is  a  pathological  condition  that  gives  rise  to  many 
coronary,  cerebrovascular,  and  other  vascular  diseases.  It  is  the  leading 
cause  of  death  in  many  countries,  and  in  North  America  and  Europe 
causes  more  death  in  middle-aged  and  elderly  persons  than  all  other 
diseases  together.^ 

Atherosclerosis  can  cause  vascular  diseases  in  several  ways:  (1)  it 
can  corrode  the  arterial  wall  to  the  point  of  eruption  from  the  pressure 
of  the  blood  inside,  leading  to  severe  hemorrhage;  (2)  it  can,  when  vas- 
cular wall  damage  has  been  done,  stop  blood  circulation  by  a  tremen- 
dous growth  of  repair  tissue;  or  (3)  it  can,  as  a  result  of  radical  changes 
in  the  arterial  walls,  cause  a  sudden  blood  clot  within  a  diseased  artery, 
stopping  blood  flow  through  it.^ 

Hypercholesterolemia  (a  high  cholesterol  level  in  the  blood)  plays 
a  significant  role  in  atherosclerosis,  as  demonstrated  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  cholesterol  in  atherosclerotic  aortas.  Atherosclerosis  has  also 
been  experimentally  induced  in  animals  on  high  cholesterol  diets. ^  Con- 
sequently, this  cause-and-effect  relationship  of  high  cholesterol  levels 
to  atherosclerosis  has  resulted  in  research  attempting  to  influence  tissue 
and  blood  levels  of  cholesterol. 

There  are  basically  two  methods  for  influencing  cholesterol  levels. 
The  amount  of  cholesterol  obtained  in  the  diet  can  be  decreased  or 
the  synthesis  of  cholesterol  in  the  body  can  be  inhibited  to  some  degree. 
Cholesterol-lowering  diets  are  currently  the  most  popular  means  of 
decreasing  cholesterol  and  presumably  retarding  atherosclerosis  in 
man.  The  efficacy  of  this  diet  has  not  been  universally  accepted,  because 
cholesterol  is  involved  in  the  production  of  various  hormones  in  man, 
and  such  a  diet  could  conceivably  affect  the  production  of  these  hor- 

*Assistant  Professor  of  Chemistry,  West  Georgia  College. 
**Associate  Professor  of  Chemistry,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  Lewis  S.  Goodman  and  Alfred  Gilman,  The  Pharmacological  Basis  of  Thera- 
peutics (New  York:  The  MacMillan  Co.,  1965),  p.  754. 

2  Paris  Constantinides,  Experimental  Atherosclerosis  (New  York:  Elsevier 
Publishers,  1965),  p.  1. 

3  David  Kritchevsky,  "Effects  of  High  Cholesterol  Diet  on  Animals,"  Lipid 
Pharmacology,  edited  by  R.  Paoletti  (New  York:  Academic  Press,  1964),  pp. 
62-66. 


mones.  However,  no  ill  effects  have  ever  been  observed  with  cholesterol 
lowering  diets.  Dietary  control  of  cholesterol  is  only  moderately  suc- 
cessful, for  cholesterol  is  continuously  produced  in  the  body.  If  certain 
amounts  are  not  present  in  the  diet,  the  bodv  increases  its  production. 

The  low  cholesterol  diet^  currently  prescribed  involves:  decreasing 
the  total  amount  of  fat,  decreasing  the  amount  of  solid  fat  (ordinary  fat 
in  meat,  butterfat,  hydrogenated  vegetable  oils  and  hydrogenated  mar- 
garines), and  decreasing  the  amount  of  cholesterol-rich  food  (eggs  and 
egg  products,  whole  milk  and  liver).  The  diet  also  involves  a  slight  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  liquid  fats  [liquid  (nonhydrogenated)  vegetable 
oils,  such  as  corn  oil,  cottonseed  oil  or  safflower  oil]. 

A  typical  low  cholesterol  diet  should  include  skim  milk  (liquid  or 
powdered),  chicken,  turkey,  veal,  lean  cuts  of  beef,  lamb,  or  pork  (four 
times  per  week  or  less),  fish  and  other  seafood  (ideally,  five  times  per 
week),  and  liver  no  more  than  once  per  week.  Fried  foods  should  be 
avoided,  along  with  butter,  whole  milk,  ice  cream,  margarine,  cheese, 
shortening  rich  foods,  i.e.,  oily  salad  dressing,  nuts,  peanut  butter  (not  the 
creamvor  hvdroaenated  type)  and  corn  oil  or  cottonseed  oil  margarine. 
Vegetables,  fruits,  cereals,  and  starches  are  acceptable  on  a  low-choles- 
terol diet.  Even  egg  whites  are  allowed  in  angel  food  cake  and  whole 
milk  in  coffee  in  moderate  amounts. 

Since  dietary  control  of  cholesterol  is  only  moderately  successful, 
other  methods  of  control  are  being  investigated.  A  number  of  com- 
pounds have  been  synthesized  which  have  cholesterol-lowering  effects 
in  animals.  Some  of  these  compounds  are  of  great  interest  in  the  medical 
profession  and  can  be  classified  as  follows:^  drugs  favoring  degrada- 
tion of  cholesterol;  drugs  increasing  the  bile  excretion  of  cholesterol; 
drugs  increasing  the  intestinal  absorption  of  cholesterol;  and  drugs  that 
inhibit  the  synthesis  of  cholesterol  in  the  body. 

Drugs  favoring  the  degradation  of  cholesterol.  The  main  pathways 
for  the  elimination  of  cholesterol  are  degradation  to  bile  acids  and  ex- 
cretion of  cholesterol  in  feces.  If,  through  research,  a  compound  could 
be  found  that  would  increase  this  rate  of  conversion  of  cholesterol  into 
bile  acids,  an  excellent  way  to  treat  hypercholesterolemia  would  be 
available.  Unsaturated  fats  have  been  shown  to  increase  the  rate  of  con- 
version of  cholesterol  into  bile  acids  resulting  in  a  reduction  of  serum 
cholesterol.  This  lowering  effect  offsets  the  fact  that  unsaturated  fats 
sometimes  favor  the  intestinal  absorption  of  cholesterol.  Various  thy- 


^  F.E.  Abbo  and  P.  Meyer,  "Effect  of  Cholesterol  Lowering  Diet  on  Production 
of  Adrenal  Cortical  Hormones  in  Man,"  American  Journal  of  Clinical  Nutrition, 
XIX  (1966),  232. 

^  P.  Preziosi,  "Drugs  Affecting  Lipid  Metabolism,"  Lipid  Pharmacology,  edited 
by  R.  Paoletd  (New  York:  Academic  Press,  1964),  p.  415. 


I 


roid  hormones^  and  their  analogs  have  also  shown  cholesterol-lowering 
effects  due  to  increased  stimulation  of  cholesterol  degradation. 

Additions  to  the  diet  of  metal  ions  such  as  iron  (III),  cobalt  (II),  and 
nickel  (II)  have  also  been  reported  to  increase  the  rate  of  conversion 
of  cholesterol  to  bile  acids. '^ 

Drugs  increasing  the  bile  excretion  of  cholesterol.  Cholesterol  can 
be  lowered  if  the  bile  flow  is  increased  without  dilution  of  bile  constitu- 
ents, i.e.  bile  salts.  Artichoke  extracts  [Cynara  Scolymus)  have  been 
reported  to  lower  serum  cholesterol  by  increasing  the  bile  excretion. 
Cynarin,  the  active  constituent  of  artichoke  extracts,  has  been  shown  to 
lower  cholesterol  without  dilution  of  bile.  Unlike  all  other  known  cho- 
lesterol lowering  agents,  pharmacological  tests  with  Cynarin  have  shown 
no  undesirable  side  effects.  In  every  case  the  administration  of  Cynarin 
was  followed  by  a  decrease  in  total  cholesterol  levels.  The  action  of 
Cynarin  in  atherosclerotic  patients  is  a  radical  change  toward  the  nor- 
mal serum  cholesterol  pattern. ^ 

Cynarin  shows  useful  cholesterol  lowering  properties  due  to  the  in- 
creased excretion  of  cholesterol  by  way  of  bile.  Unfortunately,  Cynarin 
must  be  administered  in  high  doses  for  long  periods  of  time  in  the  treat- 
ment of  deranged  cholesterol  metabolism  and  atherosclerosis.^  This 
factor  constitutes  a  distinct  disadvantage.  However,  Cynarin  could  be 
useful  as  a  model  for  analogous  compounds  which  are  both  non-toxic 
and  highly  potent,  and  have  few  or  no  side  effects. 

Drugs  decreasing  intestinal  absorption  of  cholesterol.  Some  drugs 
lower  plasma  cholesterol  by  antagonizing  the  absorption  of  cholesterol 
from  the  intestinal  lumen.  The  most  important  types  of  these  drugs 
bind  bile  acids  in  the  intestine  and  favor  fecal  excretion  of  cholesterol. 
MK-325,  a  resin,  has  been  reported  to  bind  bile  acids  in  the  intestinal 
tract  and  thus  favor  their  fecal  excretion,  i''  A  marked  reduction  of 
cholesterol  levels  has  been  observed.  The  required  dosage  is  extremely 
high,  about  25  grams  per  day,  which  constitutes  a  serious  disadvantage. 

Drugs  that  inhibit  the  synthesis  of  cholesterol  in  the  body.  A  large 
number  of  compounds  have  been  reported  that  inhibit  the  synthesis  of 


^  B.  Blank,  F.  Pfeiffer,  and  C.  Greenberg,  'Thyromimetics:  The  Synthesis  and 
Hypocholesterolemic    Activity    of    B-Diethylaminoethyl    Esters   of    lodinated 
Tfiyroalkanoic  Acids"  Journal  of  Medicinal  Chemistry,  VI  (1963),  560. 
■^  M.  Whitehouse  and  D.  Kritchevsky,  "Effect  on  Cholesterol  of  Metal  Ions  in 
the  Diet  "  Journal  of  Atherosclerotic  Research,  II  (1962),  47. 
^  L.  Preziosi,  E.  Marmo,  and  E.  Miele,  "Effects  of  Single  or  Repeated  Treat- 
ment with  Several  Anti-Cholesterolemic  Compounds  on  Biliary  Excretion  of 
Cholesterol,"  Biochemical  Pharmacoloi>y,  V  (1960),  251-62. 
^  M.  Mancine,  P.  Oriente  and  L.  D'Andrea,  Lipid  Pharmacology,  edited  by  R. 
Paoletti  (Amsterdam:  Elsevier  Pubhshers,  1961),  pp.  533-37. 
10  D.  Tennent,  H.  Siegal,  M.  Zanetd,  G.  Guron,  W.  Ott,  and  P.  Wolf,  "Plasma 
Cholesterol  Lowering  Action  of  Bile  Acid  Binding  Polymers  in  Experimental 
Animals"  Journal  of  Lipid  Research,  I  (1959-60),  469-73. 

10 


cholesterol  in  the  body.  Some  of  the  most  potent  compounds  such  as 
SKF-525A11  gj^fj  Atromid-S^2  have  been  shown  to  produce  a  lowering 
of  plasma  cholesterol.  Serious  side  effects,  however,  have  been  ob- 
served with  these  compounds.  Inhibition  of  cholesterol  in  the  body  can 
cause  serious  consequences  in  overall  steroid  metabolism  and  subse- 
quent hormonal  balance. 

In  summary,  control  of  blood  cholesterol  or  lipid  le\els  is  now  one 
of  the  main  goals  of  therapeutic  research.  Dietary  control  of  cholesterol 
is  only  moderately  successful.  Previous  attempts  ai  chemotherapy 
(chemical  therapy)  have  been  empirical  and  confined  lamely  to  the  con- 
trol of  cholesterol.  There  are  few  effective  agents  anil  most  of  these 
produce  marked  side  effects.  Thyroid  hormone  analogs,  agents  capable 
of  enhancing  cholesterol  breakdown,  have  to  be  discarded  for  that 
reason.  Some  agents  are  effective  in  animals  but  not  in  man.  Ingestion 
of  unsaturated  fatty  acids  may  actually  increase  fat  absorption.  Altera- 
tion of  cholesterol  levels  by  agents  that  bind  bile  acids  is  not  of  signifi- 
cant therapeutic  value  due  to  the  large  dosages  necessary.  Thus,  a 
therapeutically  valuable  cholesterol  lowering  agent  remains  to  be  found. 
Increased  excretion  of  cholesterol  by  way  of  bile  acids  would  be  of 
greater  value  in  lowering  cholesterol  levels  than  inhibition  of  its  syn- 
thesis since  inhibition  of  cholesterol  can  cause  serious  effects  on  hor- 
monal balance.  For  this  reason,  analogs  of  Cynarin  might  prove  useful 
as  cholesterol  lowering  agents. 


^^  W.L.  Homes,  Lipid  Pharmacology,  edited  by  R.  Paoletti  (New  York:  Aca- 
demic Press,  1964).  pp.  153-54. 

^2  J.M.  Thorp  and  W.  Waring,  "Modification  and  Distribution  of  Lipids  by 
Chlorophenoxyisobutyrate,"  Nature  (London),  CXCIV  (1962),  948. 

11 


"OPERATION  MAGIC  FIRE": 

GERMANY'S  INVOLVEMENT  IN  THE 

SPANISH  CIVIL  WAR 

By  MELVIN  STEELY* 

On  July  24,  1936,  the  Foreign  Ministry  in  Berlin  received  a  telegram 
sent  six  days  earlier  from  the  German  charge  D'affaires  in  Spain,  Hans 
Voelckers.  The  report  described  a  series  of  revolts  that  had  sprung  up 
throughout  Spain  the  previous  day.  The  opening  sentence  of  the  brief 
description  stated,  "beginning  yesterday,  the  expected  mihtary  revolts 
have  broken  out  all  over  Spain." ^  The  word  "expected"  leaves  the  door 
open  to  speculation  concerning  the  extent  of  German  involvement  in 
the  planning  of  these  revolts. 

Were  the  Germans  involved  in  the  revolts  themselves,  or  were  they 
privy  to  information  concerning  the  dates  of  the  revolts  and  thus  pre- 
pared to  supply  and  aid  the  rebels  upon  the  commencement  of  hos- 
tilities? Present  available  information  would  indicate  that  neither  of 
these  possibilities  was  the  case.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  study  to  deter- 
mine why  and  how  the  Germans  became  involved  in  the  Spanish  conflict 
and  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  their  involvement. 

One  assumption,  formed  around  the  word  "expected"  in  Voelckers" 
telegram,  is  that  General  Francisco  Franco  had  reached  an  understand- 
ing with  both  Germany  and  Italy  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  on 
July  18,  1936.  This  understanding,  seemingly  reinforced  by  the  activi- 
ties of  rebel  leaders  and  the  German  and  Italian  governments  shortly 
after  that  date,  would  guarantee  Nazi  and  Italian  transport  aircraft  to 
Franco  to  enable  him  to  ferry  his  troops  across  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
in  support  of  General  Emilio  Mola  who  would  lead  the  revolt  in  North- 
west Spain.  2 

Certainly  the  aircraft,  requested  by  Franco  as  early  as  July  22,  were 
being  supplied  by  the  end  of  that  month.  ^  The  problem,  however,  is 
whether  the  decision  to  supply  the  Spanish  rebels  was  made  by  the  Nazis 
before  or  after  the  revolts  began.  Furthermore,  we  need  to  ask  what 
factors  influenced  such  a  decision. 

Germany  had  strategic  and  economic  interest  in  Spain  and  had  been 
active  in  stirring  up  various  groups  in  that  country  for  a  number  of 

*Assistant  Professor  of  History,  West  Georgia  College. 

^  Documents  on   German  Foreign  Policy,   1913-1945  (11   vols.;  Washington: 

U.S.  Government  Printing  Office,  1950),  Series  D,  III,  3. 

^  Arthur  H.  Furnia,  The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement:  Anglo-French  Relations 

and  the  Prelude  to  World  War  II.  1931-1938  (Washington:  University  Press  oi 

Washington  D.C.,  1960),  p.  208. 

3  Ibid. 


n 


years.  ^  German  capital  was  widespread  in  the  Spanish  economy  and 
a  rearming  Germany  needed  the  mineral  resources,  especially  mercury, 
zinc,  copper,  iron  ore,  and  tungsten,  that  Spain  could  provide.  The 
Spanish  conservative  press  was  used  by  the  Germans  in  Spain  to  spread 
their  ideas— ideas  which,  aided  by  numerous  Nazi  agents  in  the  country, 
found  a  substantial  following  among  the  Spanish  aristocracy,  the  large 
landholders,  the  Church  leaders,  the  Carlists.  and  the  Army  officers.^ 

The  Nazis  presented  more  than  ideas  to  these  Spaniards.  Five 
months  prior  to  the  July  revolts  General  Jose'  Sanjurjo  visited  Berlin 
and  was  escorted  by  Admiral  Wilhelm  Canaris.  Chief  of  Military  In- 
telligence, on  a  tour  of  German  arms  factories.  When  this  future  rebel 
general  left  Germany  he  had  a  promise  of  Nazi  support  for  the  future 
insurrection  against  the  Republic,  although  no  mention  of  dates  is  re- 
corded. It  was  on  this  visit  that  the  rebels  received  the  promise  of  trans- 
port aircraft  in  the  event  that  the  Spanish  fleet  remained  loyal  to  the 
Republic.  Had  the  fleet  joined  the  rebels,  it  would  seem  that  neither  the 
Spaniards  nor  the  Germans  desired  Nazi  support,  since  the  assumption 
was  that  the  revolt  would  be  a  "quick  and  easy  success."  The  Spanish 
conspirators  hoped  and,  seemingly,  fully  expected  to  be  able  to  carry 
out  the  revolt  by  themselves  because  of  the  political  apathy  or  incapaci- 
ty of  the  people.^ 

From  the  available  evidence  it  would  seem  that  the  German  govern- 
ment had  a  general  awareness  of  a  proposed  military  revolt  in  Spain  in 
the  near  future,  but  was  not  informed  of  the  specific  details.  Thus  the 
telegram  from  Voelckers  to  the  Foreign  Ministry  in  Berlin  probablv 
referred  only  to  expectations  held  by  the  Nazis  of  such  a  revolt.  It  does 
not  necessarily  indicate  that  Berlin  was  involved  in  the  planning  and 
execution  of  the  insurrection  itself. 

The  uprising  was  a  purely  Spanish  affair  that  was  basically  an  army 
revolt  against  the  Spanish  Popular  Front.  No  foreign  power  was  behind 
the  insurrection,  but  when  the  government  did  not  collapse  as  expected, 
each  side  sought  supplies  and  aid  from  outside  sources.'^ 

Once  the  revolts  had  begun,  a  decision  had  to  be  made  concerning 


^  Dante  A.  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers.  1936-1941  (New  York:  Colum- 
bia University  Press,  1962),  pp.  44-47. 

^  Ibid.,  p.  4.  See  also  Emile  Burns,  trans.  The  Nazi  Conspiracy  in  Spain  (London: 
Victor  Gollancz  Ltd.,  1937),  pp.  24-57,  and  Patricia  A.M.  van  der  Esch,  Prelude 
to  War:  The  International  Repercussions  of  the  Spanish  Civil  War.  1936-1939 
(The  Hague:  MarUnus  Nijhoff,  1951),  pp.  25-26. 

^  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  pp.  45-47.  See  also  J.  Alvarez  del  Vayo, 
Freedom's  Battle.  B.B.  Brooke,  trans,  (New  York:  Knopf,  1940),  pp.  10,  50-51. 
'^  C.H.  Black  and  E.G.  Helmreich,  Twentieth  Century  Europe:  A  History  (2nd. 
ed.,  re;  New  York:  Knopf,  1961),  pp.  501-2.  See  also  David  C.  Cattell,  Com- 
munism and  the  Spanish  Civil  War  (Berkeley:  University  of  Calitornia  Press, 
1955),  p.  44. 

13 


I 


the  promise  made  to  the  rebels  in  February.  Dr.  Karl  Schwendemann, 
Counselor  in  the  German  Embassy  in  Madrid,  reported  to  the  Foreign 
Ministry  on  the  conditions  in  Spain  as  of  July  23,  giving  a  fairly  balanced 
picture  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  both  sides.  The  report 
indicated  that  the  civil  war  would  probably  be  of  long  duration  and 
warned  against  the  possibility  of  a  Marxist  take-over  of  the  Spanish 
government  which  would  strengthen  the  Franco-Russian  bloc.^ 

Under  these  conditions  it  would  seem  that  German  aid  to  the  rebels 
would  be  desirable.  Hans  Dieckhoff,  acting  head  of  the  Foreign  Minis- 
try, and  Constantin  Neurath.  the  Foreign  Minister,  advised  against  such 
aid,  indicating  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  hide  it.  It  would  surely 
become  known  and  then  result  in  serious  consequences  for  the  German 
colony  in  Spain  as  well  as  for  German  merchant  and  naval  vessels  in 
the  area  since  the  Republicans  controlled  the  Navv.  Tt  should  be  noted 
that  the  Foreign  Office's  influence  on  German  policy  was  continually 
diminishinc  during  this  period.  Ribbentrop.  the  Fuehrer's  Special  Am- 
bassador, and  Ernst  W.  Bohle,  Nazi  Gauleiter  and  head  of  the 
N.S.D.A.P.'s  Auslandsorganisation  (Foreign  Organization),  both  enjoy- 
ed positions  in  reality  superior  to  that  of  von  Neurath.  The  Wilhelm- 
strasse  had  been  declining  in  importance  since  the  appointment  of  Franz 
von  Papen  as  Minister  to  Vienna  in  1934  following  the  murder  of  Aus- 
trian Chancellor  Engelbert  Dollfuss.  The  Auslandsorganisation,  or  AO. 
grew  in  importance  since  it  served  to  bypass  official  diplomatic  channels 
and  was  a  clearing  house  for  propaganda  and  information  gained  by 
Nazi  agents  stationed  abroad.  In  fact.  "It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  policv  adopted  by  Germany  in  Spain  was  an  /lO  policv."^ 

The  Nazi  party  in  Spain  and  Admiral  Canaris.  head  of  the  Military 
Intelligence  Bureau  agreed  with  the  AO  position.  Canaris  described 
Franco  as  a  tested  officer  deserving  full  trust  and  support.!^  Canaris 
received  support  from  Hermann  Goering,  chief  of  the  Luftwaffe,  who 
desired  the  Spanish  conflict  to  be  used  as  a  testing  ground  for  his  air 
force.  German  aid  was  also  necessary,  he  indicated  to  Hitler,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  Communism.  ^^ 

Another  motive  behind  the  decision  to  aid  Franco  was  that  of  stop- 
ping the  spread  of  Communism  in  the  West  before  it  started.  A  Bol- 
shevik takeover  in  Spain  would  flank  Germany  and  Europe  with  Com- 
munist countries  and  would  result  in  a  "shifting  of  the  European 


^  Documents  on  German  Foreign  Policy.  Ill,  5-7. 

^  Gordon  A.  Craig  and  Felix  Gilbert,  eds.,  Fhe  Diplomats,  1919-1939  (Princeton: 

Princeton  University  Press,  1953).  pp.  427-29. 

1°  Hugh  Thomas,  Fhe  Spanish  Civil  War  (New  York:  Harper  Colophon,  1963), 

p.  228. 

^^  International  Military  Tribunal,  Secretariat.  Frial  of  the  Major  War  Crimi- 
nals Before  the  International  Militarv  Fribunal,  Nuremberg.  14  November 
1945- i  October  1946  (42  vols.;  Nuremberg:  m.p.,  1948),  X,  260-81. 

14 


equilibrium."  12  Por  the  first  time  the  struggle  between  Fascism  and 
Communism  was  brought  into  the  open  on  the  battlefield.  The  Spanish 
Civil  War  became  a  battleground  of  rival  political  ideologies.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  the  ideological  forces  were  more  meaningful  to  the 
foreign  volunteers  and  auxiliaries  than  to  the  Spaniards,  or  tor  that  mat- 
ter to  the  Nazis.  Hitler  again  raised  the  "red  scare"  banner,  a  helpful 
device  in  times  past,  and  presented  himself  as  the  bulwark  against 
Bolshevism.  13  It  would  not  be  going  too  far  to  say  that  the  Fuehrer 
considered  ideology  only  a  facade,  albeit  one  he  used  very  well.i'*  His 
actions  in  August  1939  seem  to  support  this  contention. 

On  July  24  two  rebel  officers  arrived  in  Berlin  accompanied  by  two 
German  members  of  the  AO  with  letters  for  the  Fuehrer  from  General 
Franco.  Franco  requested  ten  Junker  transports  to  move  ^his  African 
troops  over  to  Spain.  He  was,  of  course,  willing  to  pay  for  such  aid.  At 
this  point  Hitler  did  not  seem  to  have  made  up  his  mind  concerning  aid 
to  Franco.  He  sent  for  the  two  AO  members,  Johannes  Bernhardt  and 
Adolf  Langenheim,  to  join  him  in  Bayreuth.  The  two  met  with  him  on 
July  26.  and  after  conferring  with  Goering  and  General  Werner  von 
Blomberg,  War  Minister  and  Commander  in  Chief  of  the  Wehrmacht, 
the  Fuehrer  decided  to  back  the  rebels,  and  support  was  agreed  on  in 
principle.!^  It  is  significant  that  Neurath  was  absent  from  this  meeting 
and  that  the  decision  to  aid  Spain  took  him  completely  by  surprise.  The 
Foreign  Office  did  not  object  to  activity  in  Spain  but  it  did  against  a  full 
commitment  there.  Exploitation  of  the  Spanish  situation  was  desirable 
but  not  if  it  sharpened  the  resistance  of  the  Western  Powers  and  led  to  a 
war.  Neurath  and  his  officers  were  backed  up  in  this  position  by  senior 
General  Staff  officers.!^ 

Despite  this  opposition  Germany  was  committed  to  the  support  of 
the  rebels.  Goering  listed  two  major  factors  influencing  Hitler  to  make 
the  decision  for  support:  the  isolation  of  France,  and  the  establishment 

12  Van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War.  p.  12.  The  danger  of  a  "red  take-over"  is  highly 
questionable  since  there  were  only  sixteen  Communists  in  a  Cortes  of  473  and 
there  were  no  Communists  in  the  government.  Communist  strength  grew  as  the 
war  progressed  but  there  was  no  strong  threat  of  a  take-over  at  its  outbreak.  See 
Herbert  L.  Matthews,  The  Yoke  and  the  Arrows  (New  York:  George  Braziller, 
1957),  pp.  11-12,  and  Cattell,  Communism  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  pp.  208-10. 

13  Mary  Ann  Deren,  Non-intervention  in  the  Spanish  Civil  War.  1936-1939 
(unpublished  M.A.  thesis,  Dept.  of  History,  Vanderbilt  University,  1949),  pp. 
89-90. 

1*  Frederick  L.  Schuman,  Durope  on  the  Eve:  The  Crises  of  Diplomacv.  1933- 
1939  (New  York:  Knopf,  1939),  p.  267. 

15  Documents  on  German  Foreign  Policy,  pp.  10-11.  See  also  Thomas,  The 
Spanish  Civil  War.  p.  228;  Alan  Bullock,  Hitler,  A  Study  in  Tyranny.  (New  York: 
Bantam  Books,  1961),  p.  302:  and  Puzzo.  S^^ain  and  the  Great  Powers,  pp.  60-61. 
1^  Craig  and  Gilbert,  The  Diplomats,  pp.  429.  See  also  Walter  Goerlitz,  The 
German  General  Staff,  1657-1945,  Brian  Battershaw,  trans.  (New  York:  Praeger, 
1959),  p.  306. 

15 


of  bases  on  the  Iberian  Peninsula  to  further  control  the  Mediterranean.  ^^ 
The  first  would  not  be  challenged,  but  there  is  some  reasonable  doubt 
regarding  a  Nazi  desire  to  set  up  bases  on  Spanish  soil.  Such  bases  would 
have  the  effect  of  bringing  Spain  into  a  conflict  on  the  side  of  the  Axis 
and  thereby  open  them  up  to  invasion  by  Allied  Forces.  These  bases 
would  also  require  troops  and  materials  for  occupation,  and  further 
expense  certainly  was  not  to  be  sought.  In  the  event  of  an  Allied  in- 
vasion and  take-over  of  Fascist  Spain,  a  moral  blow  would  be  suffered 
by  the  Axis  Powers. 

It  would  have  been  much  better  for  Germany  if  Spain,  under  Fas- 
cist control  had  maintained  a  position  of  benevolent  neutrality,  thus 
securing  one  front  from  invasion  and  at  the  same  time  being  able  to 
provide  the  Reich  with  needed  iron  and  zinc  ore.  A  neutral  Fascist 
Spain  on  France's  southern  flank  would  have  been  valuable  as  a  threat 
to  that  country  if  not  as  a  militant  ally  of  the  Nazis. 

Some  historians,  however,  feel  that  Hitler  was  depending  on  future 
naval  and  air  bases  in  Spain  and  on  the  Canary  Islands  in  case  of  war. 
Patricia  van  der  Esch  notes  that  Hitler  had  counted  on  the  destruction 
brought  on  by  the  war  which  forced  Franco  into  a  neutral  position  and 
thus  was  enraged  in  1941  when  the  Spanish  dictator  refused  i  >  cooperate 
in  a  plan  to  take  Gibraltar  from  behind.  ^^ 

It  is  clear  that  the  Nazis  used  the  Spanish  conflict  a^  a  proving 
ground  to  test  their  new  weapons  and  to  sharpen  the  team  cooperation 
of  the  Luftwaffe  and  the  artillery  and  Panzer  units.  This  wis  advocated 
by  Goering  on  July  24  and  put  to  good  use  in  the  training  ol  officers  and 
non-commissioned  officers  of  the  various  units.  ^^  In  his  testimony  be- 
fore Nuremberg  Tribunal  Goering  describes  the  Luftwaffe's  participa- 
tion thus: 

With  the  permission  of  the  Fuehrer,  I  sent  a  large  part  of  my 
transport  fleet  and  a  number  of  experimental  fighter  units, 
bombers,  and  anti-aircraft  guns;  and  in  that  way  I  had  an  op- 
portunity to  ascertain,  under  combat  conditions,  whether  the 
material  was  equal  to  the  task.  In  order  that  the  personnel,  too, 
might  gather  a  certain  amount  of  experience,  I  saw  to  it  that 
new  people  were  constantlv  heinc  sent  and  others  recalled. ^o 
Two  other  reasons,  closely  connected,  might  be  listed.  The  Civil 
War  presented  Germany  with  the  chance  to  step  into  international  af- 


"  B.N.  Dzelepy,  The  Spanish  Plot  (London:  f.S.  King  and  Son,  1937),  pp.  6, 

10-11. 

18  Van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War,  pp.  11-12.  See  also  Furnia,  The  Diplomacy  of 

Appeasement,  p.  207,  and  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War.,  p.  229. 

1^  Furnia,   The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement,  p.  207.  See  also  Thomas. 

The  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  228,  and  van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War,  p.  12. 

20  Trial  of  the  Major  War  Criminals.  IX.  y.   281.  See  also  Robert  G.  Colodny, 

The  Struggle  for  Madrid.  (New  York-  Paine-Whitman,  1958),  and  The  Spanish 

Civil  War,  pp.  229-31. 

16 


fairs  as  a  world  power  for  the  first  time  since  the  end  of  World  War  I. 
Also,  in  future  bargainings  over  colonial  empires,  control  over  Spain 
would  be  a  valuable  tool  to  be  used  to  obtain  for  Germany  a  share  of 
any  colonial  territory  that  might  be  divided  or  otherwise  disposed  of.^i 

Hitler,  himself,  gave  a  number  of  reasons  for  his  decision.  One  of 
the  first  reasons  in  addition  to  the  desire  to  stop  the  spread  of  Com- 
munism, was  that  conflict  in  Spain  would  serve  to  distract  the  demo- 
cracies" attention  from  the  "center  of  peril"  — the  Danube  Basin  and 
Czechoslovakia.  22  If  this  be  true,  then  it  would  certainly  lend  weight 
to  the  claim  that  the  Fuehrer  planned  action  in  that  area  and  that  his 
policy  was  not  guided  simply  by  impulse. 

Another  explanation  Hitler  gave,  this  time  to  his  generals,  was  that 
intervention  was  a  diversionary  tactic  to  distract  the  attention  of  the 
Western  Powers  to  Spain  and  thus  enable  Germany  to  continue  her 
rearmament  unobserved  and  unrestricted. ^^  This  statement,  however, 
seems  odd  since  in  the  summer  of  1935  the  Anglo-German  Naval  Agree- 
ment had  been  signed,  doing  away  with  the  Versailles  restrictions  and 
allowing  the  Germans  a  navy  with  tonnage  set  at  35%  that  of  the  British 
Navy. 24  In  addition.  Hitler  had  announced,  via  radio,  on  March  16,  1935, 
that  the  Third  Reich  was  burying  the  Versailles  restrictions  on  her 
military  with  a  decree  providing  for  universal  military  service,  amount- 
ing to  roughly  half  a  million  men.  France  and  Britain  had  acknowledged 
this  announcement  with  a  protest  and  nothing  more.25  Even  Hitler 
could  not  have  doubted  that  the  Western  Powers  were  aware  of  Ger- 
many's rampant  rearmament  program  by  1936. 

It  now  seems  clear  that  Hitler,  did  have  his  eye  on  the  enemy  across 
the  Rhine  when  he  made  the  decision  to  aid  Spain.  He  hoped  that  such 
action  would  have  the  effect  of  isolating  France.  It  would  do  harm  to 
the  Franco-Russian  agreements;  France  would  be  faced  with  another 
Fascist  power  on  her  borders;  the  Anglo-French  agreements  might  be 
upset,  and  the  conflict  in  Spain  was  certain  to  accelerate  the  civil  strife 
in  an  already  unsteady  France.  2^ 

It  does  not  stretch  the  imagination  to  assume  that  the  Fuehrer  was 
considering  the  effect  the  Spanish  war  would  have  on  his  counter- 
weight to  the  south,  Mussolini.  At  dawn  on  March  7,  1936,  a  small 


21  van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War.  p.  12. 

22  Arnold  Toynbee,  Survey  of  International  Affairs.  1937  (London:  Oxford 
University  Press,  1938),  II,' p.  186-89. 

23  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War.  p.  228. 

24  William  L.  Shirer,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Third  Reich  (New  York:  Simon 
and  Schuster,  1960),  p.  287-89.  See  also  Furnia.  The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement. 
pp.  154-55. 

25  Shirer,  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Thud  Reich,  pp.  282-85. 

26  Ibid.,  p.  297.  See  also  Furnia,  The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement,  p.  207  and 
Cattell,  Communism  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  76. 

17 


force  of  Nazi  troops  (30.000)27  marched  across  the  border  into  the 
demilitarized  Rhineland  and  reoccupied  it  for  the  Third  Reich.  This 
move  had  "emasculated  at  one  stroke  the  Franco-Czech  and  the  Franco- 
Russian  alliances. "2^  Although  the  Abyssinian  invasion  had  set  up  a 
breach  between  Italy  and  the  Western  Powers,  the  gap  was  not  so  wide 
as  to  prevent  them  from  drawing  closer  when  faced  with  this  new  threat 
on  the  Rhine.  German-Italian  relations  in  the  Spring  of  1936  were  less 
than  encouraging  to  Berlin.  The  Fascist  troops  guarding  the  Brenner 
Pass  seemed  as  strong  as  ever,  and  it  appears  after  the  Rhineland  coup, 
Mussolini  had  reinforced  them  in  anticipation  of  another  Nazi  attempt 
to  take  over  Austria.  In  fact,  on  May  18,  the  United  States  Ambassador, 
William  C.  Bullitt,  was  told  by  Neurath  that  "demonstrations  of  friend- 
ship between  Germany  and  Italy  were  mere  demonstrations  without 
basis  in  reality."  He  also  indicated  the  possibility  of  future  conflict  with 
Italy  over  Austria  when  he  stated  that 

...  at  the  present  time  he  could  see  no  way  to  reconcile  the 
conflicting  interest  of  Germany  and  Italy  over  Austria.  For  the 
moment  Germany  would  not  encourage  the  Austrian  Nazis 
because  'until  the  German  fortifications  have  been  constructed 
on  the  French  border,  an  involvement  of  Germany  in  war  with 
Italy  might  lead  to  a  French  attack  on  Germany'.  ^9 

It  was  in  Hitler's  interest  to  seek  some  sort  of  alliance  with  Musso- 
lini and  further  to  do  everything  possible  to  keep  Italian  troops  occupied 
in  areas  other  than  the  Brenner  Pass.  By  keeping  //  Duces  forces  away 
from  the  Austro-Italian  border  and  tied  down  in  an  expensive  and  con- 
suming campaign  in  Spain,  Hitler  would  be  in  a  much  stronger  position 
vis-a-vis  the  watchdog  to  the  south,  ^o  The  Abyssinian  venture  had  turn- 
ed Mussolini's  interests  to  the  Mediterranean  rather  than  to  Central 
and  Eastern  Europe;  now  Italy  might  be  turned,  or  at  least  distracted 
from  the  danger  to  the  north. 

Hitler,  fearful  of  a  rapprochement  of  England  and  France  with 
Italy,  was  able  to  persuade  Mussolini  that  Italy's  future  lay  with  her 
ideological  brother  to  the  north.  Indeed,  Mussolini  had  taken  the  first 
steps  toward  seeking  joint  German-Italian  assistance  to  the  rebels,  even 
before  the  revolt  broke  out  in  July.  In  May  he  had  telegraphed  his  Am- 
bassador in  Berlin,  Bernardo  Attolico,  to  inform  the  Wilhelmstrasse 
that  Rome  was  ". .  .gravely  concerned  to  observe  that  Spain  was  inclin- 

27  Lecture  by  Dr.  Charles  F.  Delzell  at  Vanderbilt  University,  February  23,  1962. 
Walter  Gorlitz.  History  of  the  German  General  Staff.  1657-1945.  Praeger:  New 
York.  1959),  pp.  304-5. 

28  Elizabeth  Wiskemann,  The  Rome-Berlin  Axis  (New  York:  Oxford  Univer- 
sity Press,  1949),  p.  56. 

29  Ibid.,  See  also  Bullock,  Hitler,  p.  303,  and  van  der  Esch.  Prelude  to  War 
pp.  14-15. 

30  Furnia,  The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement,  p.  207.  See  also  Wiskemann,  Rome- 
Berlin  Axis,  p.  57,  and  Shirer,  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Third  Reich,  p.  297. 

18 


ing  more  and  more  to  the  Left."  The  Nazis  took  Httle  interest  at  the 
time,  but  their  interest  increased  in  July  when  it  appeared  certain  that 
Mussolini  had  committed  himself  to  Franco  and  would  indeed  furnish 
the  Spanish  rebels  with  Italian  troops  and  supplies,  including  airplanes, 
artillery  and  other  weapons.  ^^ 

Hitler  now  stated  that  German-Italian  aid  to  Spain  demonstrated 
the  Third  Reich's  ideological  solidarity  with  Italy.  It  was  a  demonstra- 
tion to  aid  "an  unhappy  land  and  support  a  heroic  man  who,  as  a  living 
patriot,  wanted  to  save  his  people  from  destruction  and  did  gloriously 
rescue  them."32  Thus  through  this  "ideological  solidarity"  Hitler  moved 
closer  to  the  Rome-Berlin  Axis. 

The  last,  and  possibly  the  most  vital,  motive  for  German  aid  being 
given  to  Franco  was  an  economic  one.  Hitler  was  certain  that  a  left- 
ist government  in  Madrid  would  not  be  likely  to  supply  Germany  with 
the  mineral  exports  she  needed,  or  at  least  she  would  not  supply  them 
on  reasonable  terms.  ^^ 

The  Fuehrer  was  in  no  position  to  risk  the  loss  of  Spanish  mineral 
exports  since,  in  addition  to  a  lack  of  sufficiently  strong  fortifications 
in  the  west  and  adequately  trained  reserves,  his  rearmament  program 
had  not  produced  enough  material  to  equip  and  sustain  the  Wehrmacht 
in  case  a  general  war  broke  out  in  the  near  future.  ^4 

For  a  variety  of  reasons,  then.  Hitler  decided  to  aid  the  Spanish 
rebels  under  General  Franco.  The  question  now  arises,  how  much  aid 
was  given  and  how  much  did  it  help  the  insurgents"  cause?  The  first 
German  aid  came  in  the  form  of  a  Lufthansa  transport  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  Franco  and  in  which  he  made  his  historic  flight  from  the 
Canary  Islands  to  Tetuan,  thus  signaling  the  start  of  the  revolt. ^^  As 
mentioned  above,  Franco  had  appealed  to  Hitler  via  two  representa- 
tives of  the  AO  io  send  transports  to  enable  him  to  move  his  Spanish 
Legion  troops  from  Morocco  to  the  Spanish  mainland.  Hitler  responded 
on  July  26,  and  the  following  day  thirty  Junker  52"s  arrived  in  Africa 
via  France  and  Pyrenees  to  begin  ferrying  thousands  of  Legionaires 
and  Moorish  troops  across  the  straits  to  Seville.  ^^  This  German  effort 
was  the  first  great  airlift  in  history. 


^^  Wiskemann,  Rome-Berlin  Axis,  p.  57. 

^  Deren,  Non-intervention  in  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  118.  See  also  Norman 

M.  Baynes,  ed..  The  Speeches  of  Adolf  Hitler  April  1922— August  1939,  two 

vols.  (New  York:  Oxford  University  Press,  1942),  I,  702-5. 

^  Van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War.  p.  13.  See  also  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil 

War,  p.  229. 

**  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  p.  98. 

^  United  Nations  Security  Council:  Official  Records.  First  Year:  Second  Series; 

Special  Supplement;  "Report  on  the  Sub-committee  on  the  Spanish  Question," 

(New  York:  Hunter  College.  June  1946).  p.  7.  Hereafter  UNSC  Records. 

^  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War  p.  229.  See  also  UNSC  Records,  p.  7,  and  van 

der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War,  p.  29. 

19 


About  the  same  time  a  small  squadron  of  German  ships  (the  pocket 
battleship  Deutschland  and  the  torpedo  boat  Luchs)  were  dispatched 
to  Morocco  and  arrived  at  Ceuta  the  morning  of  August  3.  1936. ^'^  That 
afternoon  Rear  Admiral  Carls  maneuvered  the  Deutschland  between 
the  city  and  a  Republic  battleship.  Jaime  I,  which  had  arrived  to  bom- 
bard the  city.  The  Jaime  J  left  without  firing  a  shot.^  German  and 
Italian  airplanes  provided  the  margin  needed  by  the  rebels  to  gain  con- 
trol of  the  strait  and  prevent  the  Republican  forces,  which  still  con- 
trolled the  greater  part  of  the  navy,  from  interfering  with  the  traffic 
between  the  African  and  Spanish  coasts.  At  one  point  the  Deutschland 
maneuvered  itself  between  Franco's  convoys  and  the  Spanish  fleet. 
By  August  Italy  had  her  planes  bombing  and  strafing  Republican  ships 
and  submarines  and  forcing  them  to  take  shelter  at  Malaga  and 
Gibraltar.  3^ 

On  July  31  the  first  of  the  German  ""volunteers"  (85).  commanded 
by  General  Hugo  von  Scheele.  sailed  from  Hamburg  in  the  guise  of  a 
tourist  group.  The  same  ship  carried  the  first  six  Heinkel  fighters  as 
well  as  bombs  and  anti-aircraft  guns  for  use  by  the  rebels.  They  arrived 
in  Ca'diz  on  August  5.**^  Four  days  later  eighteen  German  Junker  tri- 
motor  bombers,  mostly  new.  arrived  in  Seville  accompanied  by  six  pur- 
suit planes  and  an  equal  number  of  anti-aircraft  guns  of  the  latest  model. 
These  planes  were  accompanied  by  about  thirty  German  pilots.  "^^ 

About  the  last  of  July  two  holding  companies  were  set  up  to  channel 
war  material  to  Spain  and  in  exchange  to  despatch  payment  or  raw  ma- 
terials back  to  Germany.  In  the  event  a  German  businessman  had  goods 
to  sell  to  Spanish  buyers  he  had  first  to  sell  them  to  the  German  holding 
company,  which  in  turn  would  pass  them  on  to  the  Spanish  holding  com- 
pany that  would  market  the  products  in  Spain.  Along  with  the  holding 
companies  a  department  in  the  German  War  Ministry.  COS  "W.  was 
detailed  to  supervise  the  recruitment  of  '"volunteers"  and  the  despat- 
ching of  war  material.  *2 

In  August  the  German  Navy  started  assigning  mine  and  radio  special- 
ists to  serve  with  the  Spanish  artillery.  These  men  were  later  transferred 
into  the  Condor  Legion  under  the  title  "North  Sea  Group. '"^  These 
transfers  were  followed  by  engineers,  military  and  civilian,  technicians, 

^  Documents  on  German  Foreign  Policy,  p.  26. 

^  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  p.  64. 

^  Van  der  Esch.  Prelude  to  War.  p.  20-30. 

'^  Thomas.  The  Spanish  Civil  War,  pp.  229-30.  See  also  Deren,  Non-intervention 

and  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  127. 

*^  Puzzo.  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  pp.  64-65. 

^  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  229.  Thomas  states  that  the  Foreign 

Ministry  was  taken  by  surprise  by  this  action  but  acquiesced  without  protest. 

p.  230. 

^  Deren,  Non-intervention  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  128. 

20 


more  fighter  planes,  two  tank  companies,  a  battery  of  heavy  anti-aircraft 
guns  and  some  observation  planes.  The  heavy  equipment  was  under  the 
exclusive  control  of  the  Nazis  and  their  crews. "^^ 

Hitler,  pushed  by  Goering  and  Canaris  to  aid  Franco  as  much  as 
possible  and  at  the  same  time  faced  with  cautious  generals  who  doubted 
the  value  of  "Operation  Magic  Fire"  (the  code  name  for  the  Spanish 
enterprise),  outlined  his  program  to  Field  Marshal  Werner  von  Blomberg 
as  follows:  "Although  German  air  support  would  be  substantial,  Ger- 
man aid  on  the  ground  would  consist  only  of  armament  and  sufficient 
personnel  to  train  Spanish  troops  in  its  use."^^ 

Around  the  first  of  September,  1936,  Lieutenant  General  Karl 
Warlimont  and  Italian  General  Mario  Roatta  met  with  Franco  at 
Caceres  where  each  promised  him  three  companies  of  fully  equipped 
troops.  In  October  the  German  companies  arrived. ^^  In  keeping  with 
the  promise  of  substantial  air  support  four  transport  aircraft  were  dis- 
patched to  Spain  every  week  from  the  first  of  August,  in  addition  to 
cargo  boats  leaving  Germany,  mainly  from  Hamburg,  every  five  days.^'^ 

On  November  18,  1936,  Hitler  and  Mussolini  simultaneously  pro- 
claimed their  recognition  of  the  Franco  regime  as  the  de  jure  Spanish 
government.  By  this  act  they  showed  their  intention  to  act  together  to 
see  to  it  that  a  Fascist  government  recognized  by  them  would  succeed, 
since  its  failure  would  in  turn  reflect  on  them. 

On  November  30  Admiral  Canaris  arrived  in  Salamanca,  Franco's 
headquarters,  to  inform  the  rebel  leader  that  the  Nazis  were  sending 
the  Condor  Legion  under  the  command  of  Field  Marshal  General  Hugo 
Sperrle  to  aid  in  the  conflict. '^^  General  Sperrle  was  already  in  Spain 
commanding  an  air  force  corps  that  had  arrived  around  November  7.*^ 
The  completed  corps  consisted  of  6,500  men  and  was  to  see  action  on 
every  front  in  the  war.^° 

The  "Drone  Group",  two  German  tank  companies,  and  one  trans- 
port company  and  staff  formed  the  nucleus  of  Franco's  tank  forces.  ^^ 
The  Germans  served  as  instructors  and  fighters.  They  designed  and  built 


^  Ibid.  See  also  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  230,  and  David  Cattell, 
Soviet  Diplomacy  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War  (Berkeley:  University  of  California 
Press,  1957),  p.  'l51. 

45  UNSC  Records,  p.  7. 

46  Ibid. 

4'^  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  230. 
48  UNSC  Records,  p.  7. 
4^  Van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War.  p.  38. 

^  Deren,  Non-intervention  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War,  p.  128.  The  cost  to  Ger- 
many for  the  Condor  Legion  alone,  between  November  7,  1936,  and  October  31, 
1938,  was  well  over  190  million  reichsmarks.  See  Documents  on  German  Foreign 
Policy,  p.  786. 
51  Ibid.,  p.  129. 

21 


the  rebel  field  fortifications,  excellent  by  any  standards.  They  also  or- 
ganized and  conducted  the  officer  and  noncommissioned  officer  train- 
ing schools  for  the  Spanish  Fascists  and  supervised  the  rebel  naval 
operations,  such  as  mine-laying,  and  the  cartographic  headquarters  at 
Vitoria.  The  Germans,  through  the  Condor  Legion,  supplied  the  rebels 
with  almost  all  their  heavy  artillery  and  trained  artillerists.  The  Ger- 
mans guarded  their  artillery  and  anti-aircraft  batteries  so  well  that  even 
the  Spanish  and  Italian  officers  were  not  able  to  examine  them  at  close 
range.  They  also  supplied  the  heavy  bombers  and  pilots,  navigators, 
and  bombardiers. ^2  In  addition  to  training  some  50,000  Spanish  of- 
ficers, the  Germans  instructed  numerous  tank,  anti-tank,  flame  thrower, 
and  communications  troops.  ^^ 

In  one  way,  however,  German  aid  never  approached  that  of  Italy. 
Though  the  two  dictators  made  their  intervention  something  of  a  joint 
effort,  the  quantitative  aid  rendered  by  the  Italians  was  much  greater 
than  that  supplied  by  the  Nazis.  Mussolini  provided  about  four  divisions 
of  infantry,  field  artillery,  light  tanks  and  fighters,  as  well  as  some 
bombers  and  naval  craft.  Hitler  provided  similar  items  in  smaller  quanti- 
ties. The  Nazis'  greatest  contribution  to  Franco  came  in  large  amounts 
of  heavy  equipment  and  in  organizing,  supplying,  and  manning  those 
highly  technical  services  "without  which  modern  war  cannot  be 
waged. "^^  The  German  contribution,  then,  was  qualitatively  superior 
to  that  of  the  Italians. 

In  assessing  the  aid  given  Franco  by  Germany  and  Italy,  Dante  A. 
Puzzo  states  that  it  was  the  high  quality  of  Germany's  aid  to  the  rebels 
and  the  swift  efficiency  with  which  it  was  delivered  that  saved  the  day 
for  Franco's  forces.  Italy,  he  feels,  could  never  have  accomplished  this 
alone.  ^^ 

German  aid  to  Franco  amounted  to  over  500,000,000  reichsmarks 
of  war  material  (over  $199,000,000  U.S.).  Salaries  and  expenses,  a  gift 
from  Hitler  to  Franco,  amounted  to  88,000,000  RM,  while  124,000,000 
RM  were  used  on  direct  deliveries  to  the  rebels,  and  354,000,000  RM 
were  spent  on  the  Condor  Legion.  Germany  reached  peak  troop  strength 
in  Spain  in  the  autumn  of  1936  with  about  10,000  civilian  technicians 
and  military  men  stationed  there.  Because  of  the  rotating  system  that 
Goering  explained  in  his  trial  at  Nuremberg,  the  total  number  of  Ger- 
mans who  aided  Franco  probably  reached  16,000.  Of  these,  approxi- 
mately 300  were  killed.  Sperrle's  Condor  Legion  always  numbered  about 
6,000  men,  who  were  supported  by  thirty  anti-tank  companies  and  two 
tank  companies  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Ritter  von  Thoma,  who 


^2  del  Vayo,  Freedom 's  Battle,  pp.  54-55. 

^  Deren,  Non-intervention  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War.  p.  129. 

^  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  p.  65. 

55  Ibid.,  pp.  65-66. 


22 


was  later  to  replace  Rommel  as  commander  of  the  Afrika  Korps.^*^ 

German  aid  to  Franco  from  July  1936  to  May  22,  1939,  was  ex- 
pensive; naturally  Hitler  expected  dividends  on  this  investment.  His 
troops  had  served  well  and  had  provided  the  margin  needed  for  a  Nation- 
alist victory.  Now  was  the  time  for  the  payoff.  ^'^ 

The  Nazi  investment  brought  immediate  and  handsome  dividends 
in  the  form  of  iron  ore  deliveries  from  rebel-held  territory.  ^^  The  Ger- 
mans made  sure  they  would  gain  these  dividends  by  using  the  threat  of 
withdrawing  the  Condor  Legion  or  withholding  supplies  from  Franco. 
With  this  bargaining  point  they  were  able  to  obtain  economic  con- 
cessions from  the  Nationalist  government.  This  was  especially  true  after 
April  1938,  when  Franco's  army  had  already  reached  the  east  coast  of 
Spain  and  the  Nazi  High  Command  was  becoming  less  enthusiastic 
about  involvement  in  Spain  while  international  tension  was  mounting 
in  eastern  Europe.  ^^ 

As  early  as  December  31,  1936,  a  protocol  was  signed  between  Ger- 
many and  the  Nationalists  stating  that  "preference  in  supplying  such 
goods  as  are  of  special  interest  to  the  two  parties  shall  be  mutually 
guaranteed."  A  further  trade  agreement  was  signed  at  Burgos  in  July 
1937.  By  applying  pressure,  as  noted  above,  the  Nazis  were  able  to  gain 
more  mining  concessions  in  Spain  and  thus  supplant  French  and  British 
interest  there.  Between  1937  and  1938  the  value  of  Spanish  exports  to 
Germany  increased  from  57,000,000  RM  to  65,000,000  RM.^o 

The  real  winner  in  the  German-Italian-Spanish  alliance  was  Gen- 
eralissimo Franco.  He  received  invaluable  Axis  aid  in  overthrowing  the 
Republican  government  and  in  gaining  power  for  himself.  In  addition, 
in  the  protocol  signed  July  16,  1937,  he  received  a  promise  that  Ger- 
many would  assist  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  Spanish  economy  after 
the  Civil  War  ended. ^^  Franco  was  also  able  to  obtain  aid  and  con- 
cessions from  the  Western  democracies  by  playing  them  against  the 
Axis.  ^2 


^  Thomas,  The  Spanish  Civil  War.  p.  634. 

^^  The  Nazis  faced  in  Spain  many  of  their  fellow  countrymen  serving  in  the 

International  Brigades  (Edgar  Andre  and  Thaelmann  Battalions).  Thomas,  The 

Spanish  Civil  War.  pp.  638-39;  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  pp.  140-41; 

and  Colodny,  The  Struggle  for  Madrid,  pp.  59-60. 

^  Documents  on  German  Foreign  Policy,  p.  566. 

^  van  der  Esch,  Prelude  to  War,  p.  39.  The  General  Staff  was  not  by  itself  in 

being  dissatisfied.  The  Spanish  enterprise  was  generally  unpopular  with  the 

German  people  and  cloaked  in  secretiveness  most  of  the  time.  Deren,  A''o77- 

Intervention  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War.  p.  118. 

60  Ibid.,  p.  13. 

6^  Puzzo,  Spain  and  the  Great  Powers,  p.  205. 

^  Charles  Foltz,  Jr.,  The  Masquerade  in  Spain  (Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

1948),  pp.  141-46. 

23 


Germany  benefited  greatly  from  the  economic  dividends  paid  to 
her  by  the  Spaniards,  but  just  as  valuable,  if  not  more  so,  were  the 
strategic  and  political  advantages  she  received.  She  now  had  a  nucleus 
of  trained  and  battle-experienced  officers  and  non-commissioned  of- 
ficers to  lead  her  columns  into  Austria,  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  and 
France.  Hitler's  hope  that  conflict  in  Spain  would  cause  internal  turmoil 
in  France  became  a  reality.  The  French,  threatened  more  than  any 
other  state  by  a  Fascist  take-over  in  Spain,  instead  of  becoming  united 
in  a  common  defense  against  the  threat,  became  more  disunited  and 
continued  their  class  and  political  conflicts  to  the  point  that 
some  Frenchmen  were  willing  to  support  Franco  as  a  means  of  striking 
out  against  their  own  government.  Foreign  affairs  were  subordinated 
to  internal  factional  bickering  and  Hitler  was  the  winner.  ^^ 

In  addition,  collective  security  was  dealt  a  body  blow.  The  Soviets 
began  to  sense  the  appeasement  attitude  of  England  and  France  and  de- 
cided that  if  the  Western  Powers  would  not  act  in  Spain  to  counter  the 
Fascists,  then  Russia  would.  Russia  did  not  abandon  the  idea  of  col- 
lective security  at  this  time,  but  remained  suspicious  of  the  Western 
Powers.^'* 

Any  hopes  the  British  and  French  held  for  a  rapprochement  with 
Italy  were  killed  by  the  Spanish  conflict.  England  and  France  again 
faced  Italy  as  they  had  during  the  Abyssinian  War.  The  sanctions 
against  Italy  were  dropped,  but  the  League  of  Nations'  non-intervention 
committee  replaced  them.  The  conflict  generated  between  Italian  inter- 
vention and  British  and  French  attempts  to  prevent  this  kept  Mussolini 
separated  from  the  West.^^ 

Due  to  the  struggle  in  Spain,  Hitler  gained  a  new  ally.  //  Duce  had 
approached  the  Nazis  in  May  1936  with  his  concern  about  the  leftist 
elements  in  Spain.  It  would  seem  from  this  time  on  that  he  felt  more 
could  be  gained  from  cooperation  with  the  Nazis  than  by  a  revival  of 
the  anti-German  Strese  Front  with  England  and  France.  Although  he 
did  not  trust  the  Germans,  especially  in  Eastern  Europe,  Mussolini 
thought  this  cooperation  would  be  a  marriage  of  convenience  more 
beneficial  to  Italy  than  Germany. 

The  Rome-Berlin  Axis,  informally  established  by  cooperation  in 
aiding  Franco,  was  formally  acknowledged  in  Berlin  on  October  25, 
1936.  This  alliance,  in  reality,  permitted  Hitler  whether  Italy  liked  it 
or  not,  to  carry  out  his  Austrian  Anschluss  and  to  eliminate  Czech  in- 
fluence in  Central  Europe,  the  latter  being  of  as  much  interest  to  Mus- 
solini as  to  Hitler.  66 


63  Bullock,  Hitler,  p.  303. 

64  Cattell,  Soviet  Diplomacy  and  the  Spanish  Civil  War.  pp.  32-34.  See  also 
Furnia,  The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement,  pp.  214-15. 

65  Documents  on  German  Foreign  Policy,  p.  157. 

66  Furnia,  The  Diplomacy  of  Appeasement,  pp.  216-18. 

24 


Though  Franco  was  the  winner  in  the  long  run.  Hitler  reaped  im- 
portant and  substantial  benefits  from  his  intervention  on  the  Nationalist 
side.  For  500,000,000  RM  worth  of  aid  he  obtained  another  hostile 
power  on  the  French  border,  sowed  dissension  within  France,  estranged 
Italy  from  the  West  and  pulled  her  closer  to  Germany,  received  valu- 
able exports  from  Spain  needed  for  a  continued  rearmament  program, 
tested  his  armed  forces  and  trained  his  troops,  paved  the  way  for  the 
seizure  of  Austria  and  Czechoslovakia,  and  created  tension  between  the 
West  and  the  Soviet  Union.  All  of  this,  of  course,  was  invaluable  to 
him  in  his  planning  and  preparations  for  the  coming  war.  Thus  the 
Spanish  Civil  War,  in  addition  to  being  a  proving  ground  for  the  Second 
World  War,  was  indeed  one  of  the  primary  milestones  on  the  road  to 
that  war. 


25 


WHAT  ARE  THOSE  CLOUDS'? 
BARIUM  GAS! 


By  B.E.  POWELL* 


My  telephone  rang  about  7:00  p.m.  on  January  20,  197L  The  caller 
asked,    Have  you  seen  how  strange  the  moon  looks  tonight?"  This  was 
the  first  of  a  series  of  calls  concerning  several  luminous  objects  which 
were  located  in  the  southern  sky.  When  I  went  outside  to  see  the  lights  I 
recognized  the  clouds  as  being  gaseous  discharges  from  rockets    This 
Identification  was  based  on  my  having  seen  motion  pictures  of  the  move- 
ment of  such  clouds  and  having  read  articles  in  several  periodicals  i 
I  saw  the  clouds  three  times  in  1971.  On  January  20,  1971    three 
clouds  were  visible  at  7:00  p.m.  The  largest  was  violet,  another  was 
green,  and  the  smallest  was  whitish.   Other  observers  in  Carrollton 
Georgia,  reported  additional  smaller  clouds  and  described  the  color 
of  the  largest  cloud  as  ranging  from  pink  to  red.  On  Jaunuary  26,  one 
green  cloud  and  one  violet  cloud  were  visible.  On  February  1    at  6-45 
p.m.,  observers  saw  a  bright  green  cloud  from  which  a  violet  cloud 
emerged.  The  clouds  were  20°above  the  horizon.  A  simple  trignometric 
calculation  indicated  the  clouds  were  350  miles  away  if  the  gases  were 
released  at  an  altitude  of  125  miles  as  reported  in  newspapers  Although 
the  colors  of  these  clouds  changed  rapidly,  remnants  were  visible  30 
minutes  after  the  mitial  siehtine.  AM  of  these  clouds  were  formed  from 
gases  released  from  rockets  launched  from  Santa  Rosa  Island  near 
Eghn  Air  Force  Base.  Florida. 2 

Two  green  clouds  were  formed  on  November  16,  1971,  at  approxi- 
mately 6:08  and  6.15  p.m.  These  clouds  were  different  from  thos'e'seen 
n  January  and  February,  since  they  did  not  separate  into  clouds  of  dif- 
fering colors  and  appeared  to  drift  under  atmospheric  winds. 

These  gaseous  discharges  are  used  to  study  the  earth's  atmosphere 
as  part  of  a  program  which  began  in  the  1950's.  In  the  early  experin^ents 
gases  were  released  close  to  the  earth's  surface.3  Scientists  who  tracked 
*Associate  Professor  of  Physics,  West  Georgia  College. 

1  "Preliminary  Results  of  Electric  Field^^easurements  in  the  Auroral  Zone  " 
H.  Foppel.  G.  Haerendel.  L.  Haser.  R.  Liist,  F.  Melznei    !'.    Meyer.  H    Neuss 

LXXin'No"',^,Q^Jfr;;  ?f  .>^.  'r'^''''  •'■   '""^  °^  Geophysical  Research, 

Haerende^^nH  R         \    ^  ^c  -^'^'^^^^^^  ^'"™^  ^'°"^^  '"  ^pace,"  Gerhard 
Haerendel  and  Reimer  Lust,  Scientific  American.  CCXIX,  No.  S  (1968)   80-92 

Expenmental  Investigation  of  Electric  Fields  Parallel  to  the  Magnetic  Fields 

Lxk^^^^3^l%^59^97.'•'•  "^^"'^^  ^^--^^^  ^^  ^^-^'^--^  ^--^- 

2  ;-Flying  Saucers?  Weird!  What  are  those  Lights?",  Atlanta  Journal  and  Con- 
stitution, January  31,  1971,  p.  ISA. 

^  ihe  Upper  Atmosphere.  H.S.W.  Massey  and  R.L.F.  Boyd,  (Lor ion-  Hutchin- 
son, 1960),  pp.  172-74. 


26 


the  clouds  through  telescopes  obtained  information  about  the  atmo- 
sphere by  observing  the  movement  of  the  clouds  and  the  distortion  of 
the  clouds  from  their  spherical  shape.  The  experiments  have  become 
more  sophisticated  and  are  yielding  information  about  higher  regions 
of  the  atmosphere,  such  as  the  ionsphere. 

The  ionosphere  is  the  part  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  which  extends 
from  about  50  miles  to  several  hundred  miles  above  the  earth's  surface. 
Constituent  gases  are  ionized  by  ultra-violet  radiation.  These  ions  (free 
electrons  and  positively  charged  atoms)  give  the  zone  its  name  and  some 
of  its  properties,  such  as  the  reflection  of  radio  waves  back  to  the  earth's 
surface.  The  ionosphere  is  not  a  static  medium;  its  height,  thickness, 
density,  and  degree  of  ionization  fluctuate.  The  tidal  actions  of  both 
the  sun  and  the  moon  induce  movement  of  the  gases  in  the  region. 
Solar  activity  (such  as  flares  and  sunspots)  affect  ionization. 

Electric  and  magnetic  fields  are  present  in  the  ionosphere.  In  order 
to  understand  the  ionosphere,  information  about  these  electromagnetic 
fields  is  needed.  By  measuring  variations  of  these  fields  (especially  at 
particular  times  such  as  periods  of  intense  sunspots),  the  effects  of 
extra-terrestial  influences  on  the  ionosphere  can  be  determined. 

Electromagnetic  fields  may  be  studied  by  observing  the  influences 
of  these  fields  on  charged  particles.  An  electric  field  will  exert  a  force 
parallel  to  the  field  on  a  positive  charge.  A  magnetic  field  acts  on  charges 
which  are  moving.  If  a  charge  initially  travels  perpendicular  to  the  mag- 
netic field,  its  subsequent  trajectory  wil  be  a  circle.  If  a  charge  moves 
in  a  magnetic  field  and  electric  field,  its  motion  will  be  determined  by 
the  vector  sum  of  the  forces  exerted  by  each  field  acting  individually. 
In  particular,  for  a  positive  charge  initially  moving  perpendicular  to  an 
electric  field  and  a  magnetic  field,  its  motion  will  be  spiral.  Hence,  the 
electric  field  acting  on  the  particles  can  be  determined  by  studying  the 
drift  of  charged  particles  in  a  known  magnetic  field.  The  magnitude  and 
direction  of  the  magnetic  field  in  the  atmosphere  has  been  measured  by 
instruments  carried  in  balloons  and  rockets. 

The  artificial  cloud  method  is  the  only  reliable  technique  for  mea- 
surement of  the  electric  field.  In  a  typical  experiment,  several  kilograms 
of  barium  are  vaporized  and  released  at  altitudes  of  90-150  miles,  which 
is  the  range  of  relatively  inexpensive  rockets.  Barium  gas  is  used  because 
it  is  easily  ionized  by  ultra-violet  radiation  and  because  the  spectral 
emissions  of  the  neutral  gas  and  barium  ions  have  wavelengths  in  the 
visible  spectrum.  Since  the  intensity  of  the  emitted  light  is  low.  the  ex- 
periments must  be  performed  at  twilight  to  make  the  cloud  distinguish- 
able from  the  scattering  of  light  by  the  dense  portions  of  the  atmosphere. 
At  twilight,  the  clouds  will  be  illuminated,  but  the  observers  on  the 
ground  will  be  in  darkness.  The  experiment  is  observed  from  two  or 
more  tracking  stations  in  order  that  the  position  of  the  clouds  may  be 
determined  by  triangulation.^ 


^  "Artificial  Plasma  Clouds  in  Space,"  pp.  80-92. 

27 


The  color,  shape,  and  motion  of  the  neutral  and  ionized  particles 
are  different.  When  barium  gas  is  released,  the  cloud  is  green,  because 
the  radiations  from  neutral  barium  are  strongest  in  the  green  region  of 
the  spectrum.  Barium  ionized  by  ultra-violet  light  radiates  violet,  blue, 
and  red  spectral  lines;  the  resultant  color  is  violet.  The  charged  parti- 
cles can  be  distinguished  from  neutral  atoms  because  of  the  difference 
in  color.  The  neutral,  green  cloud  is  spherical  and  moves  under  the 
influence  of  atmospheric  winds.  The  barium  ions  interact  with  the 
electromagnetic  fields  and  produce  an  elongated,  violet  cloud  which 
moves  under  the  combined  forces  of  the  wind,  magnetic  field,  and  elec- 
tric field.  Since  the  magnetic  field  is  known  from  earlier  experiments 
and  the  effects  of  the  wind  are  measured  from  the  neutral  cloud,  the 
characteristics  of  the  electric  field  may  be  inferred  from  these  experi- 
ments. Bluish  clouds  are  sometimes  seen  during  these  experiments. 
These  clouds  are  strontium  gas,  which  is  an  impurity  in  barium.^ 

Since  the  gases  are  released  at  a  high  altitude,  the  clouds  are  visible 
over  a  large  part  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  clouds  emitted  by  rockets 
launched  from  Eglin  Air  Force  Base,  Florida,  have  been  seen  as  far  away 
as  Kentucky.^  Many  people  have  formulated  their  own  explanation 
about  the  origin  of  these  clouds,  such  as  reflections  of  moonlight  from 
clouds,  omens  from  God,  and  unidentified  flying  objects.  Perhaps  the 
green  cloud  might  have  caused  some  people  to  speculate  that  the 
Martians  had  arrived. 


5  Ibid. 

^  "Flying  Saucers?",  p.  18A. 


28 


THE  SEA  IN 
FOUR  ROMANTIC  POEMS 

By  C.  H.  EDWARDS,  JR.* 

One  can  hardly  think  of  Romantic  poetry  without  thinking  of  poems 
that  deal  memorably  with  the  sea.  These  range  in  method  and  mood 
from  Coleridge's  "Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner"  with  its  highly  imagi- 
native Gothic  experiences  to  the  horrifying  or  satiric  realism  of  sections 
of  Byron's  "Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage"  and  "Don  Juan."  The  four  that 
I  have  chosen  for  discussion  below  have  in  common  a  certain  symbolic 
use  of  the  sea  that  became  an  archetypal  pattern  for  Romantic  poets. 
The  four  poets— Wordsworth,  Poe,  Whitman,  and  Lanier— insofar  as, 
they  knew  each  other  did  not  care  for  each  other's  poetry.  Poe's  judg- 
ment of  Wordsworth  is  integral  to  the  interpretation  of  Poe's  poem  be- 
low and  will  be  discussed  later.  It  will  do  to  mention  here  that 
both  Whitman  and  Lanier  were  quite  aware  of  each  other's  presence 
and  that  each  had  serious  reservations  about  the  poetry  of  the  other. 
Whitman  characterized  Lanier  as  "florid"  and  "gushing."  and  a  critic 
who  knew  both  poets  said  that  "Whitman  evidently  did  not  put  a  high 
value  on  him."^  Lanier  on  his  part  admired  Whitman's  large  rhythms, 
his  strength,  and  his  manliness:  yet  he  excoriated  Whitman  for  much  of 
his  content,  especially  his  literary  exposure  of  the  human  body.  He 
called  Whitman  "poetry's  butcher.  Huge  raw  coUops  slashed  from  the 
rump  of  poetry,  and  never  mind  gristle,  is  what  Whitman  feeds  our  souls 
with. "2  Lanier  had  a  high  regard  for  Poe  but  felt  that  "The  trouble  with 
Poe  wash,  he  did  not  know  enough.  He  needed  to  know  a  good  many 
more  things  in  order  to  be  a  great  poet."^  Whitman's  attitude  toward  Poe 
was  similar.  He  had  read  Poe's  poems,  "of  which  I  was  not  an  admirer," 
and  felt  that  they  had  a  "limited  range  of  melody."  He  felt  womewhat 
better  about  Poe's  criticism,  but  only  because  Poe  denied  the  existence 
of  long  poems.*  That  four  such  widely  differing  personalities  with  such 
*Assistant  Professor  of  English,  West  Georgia  College. 

^  Charles  Downer  Hazen,  ed..  The  Letters  of  William  Roscoe  Thayer  (New 
York:  Houghton-Mifflin,  1926),  p.  34. 

^  Poem  Outline  Number  104.  See  Charles  R.  Anderson  et  al,  eds..  The  Cen- 
tennial Edition  of  the  Works  of  Sidney  Lanier.  Vol.  I  of  10  vols.  (Baltimore: 
The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  1945),  p.  240.  Lanier  also  made  random  comments 
about  Whitman  throughout  parts  of  The  English  Novel  (Centennial  Edition. 
Vol.  IV). 

3  Quoted  by  William  Hayes  Ward  in  Poems  of  Sidney  Lanier  (New  York:  Scrib- 
ner's,  1884,  1916),  pp.  xxxv-xxxvi.  Facsimile  reprint  of  the  1916  edition  by  the 
University  of  Georgia  Press,  1967. 

*  Quotations  are  from  "A  Backward  Glance  O'er  Travel'd  Roads":  see  Harold 
W.  Blodgett  and  ScuUey  Bradley,  ed?,..  Leaves  of  Grass:  Comprehensive  Reader's 
Edition  (New  York:  W.W.  Norton,  1965),  p.  569.  It  is  quite  ironic  that  the  author 
of  "Song  of  Myself"  could  find  value  in  Poe's  dicta  about  long  poems. 

2^) 


differing  personalities  with  such  disparate  theories  of  poetry  could  ar- 
rive at  the  same  symbols  for  the  same  things  indicates  that  they  shared 
a  quality  common  to  the  romantic  imagination. 

In  Section  IX  of  his  "Ode:  Intimations  of  Immortality  from  Recol- 
lections of  Early  Childhood"  Wordsworth  argues  that  the  memory  of 
the  spiritual  or  idealistic  basis  of  our  life  in  early  childhood  serves  as 
a  compensation  for  our  loss  of  childhood  happiness.  In  earlier  sections 
of  the  poem  he  shows  at  length  how  we  come  into  the  world  "trailing 
clouds  of  glory"  (1.  64),  how  we  gradually  lose  our  vision  of  the  spiritual 
pre-existence  of  our  souls,  and  finally,  a"^  v.  c  arc  overcome  by  the  mun- 
dane affairs  of  the  world  and  lose  ihis  vision  completely,  how  worldly 
custom  lies  upon  us  "Heavy  as  frost,  and  deep  almost  as  life."^  Only 
our  brief  periods  of  recollection  of  our  childhood  can  assure  us  of  the 
immortality  of  our  souls.  He  concludes  Section  IX  with  the  following 
lines: 

Hence  in  a  season  of  calm  weather 

Though  inland  far  we  be. 
Our  Souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 
Which  brought  us  hither, 
Can  in  a  moment  travel  thither. 
And  see  the  Children  sport  upon  the  shore. 
And  hear  the  mighty  waters  rolling  evermore. 
It  requires  no  great  imagination  to  realize  that  in  these  lines  the  sea 
symbolizes  the  mysterious  eternity  from  which  our  souls  came;  that 
the  shore  symbolizes  childhood,  which  has  not  moved  so  far  from  its 
spiritual  origin  that  it  cannot  see  directly  and  intuitively  the  spiritual 
world;  and  that  locations  "inland"  symbolize  adulthood  that  can  gain 
only  brief  glimpses  of  the  sea  and  the  children  and  of  the  relationship 
between  them.  Wordsworth  is  chronologically  the  first  of  the 
four  poets  to  use  these  symbols  and  also  the  most  explicit  in  their  use. 
For  this  reason  their  easily  decipherable  meaning  can  be  used  as  a  key 
to  the  meaning  of  the  poems  which  follow. 

One  cannot  read  far  into  the  criticism  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  without 
realizing  that  Poe  had  little  admiration  for  the  poetry  of  Wordsworth. 
In  his  "Letter  to  B  — "  Poe  held  Wordsworth  ". .  .to  blame  for  wearing 
away  his  youth  in  contemplation  with  the  end  of  poetizing  in  his  man- 
hood."^ A  brief  recapitulation  of  Poe's  view  of  the  mind  and  its  func- 
tions, especially  in  the  writing  of  poetry,  will  help  to  explain  his  position 
on  Wordsworth.  According  to  the  phrenological  fashion  of  his  time, 
Poe  divided  the  mind  into  three  faculties  — Intellect,  Taste,  and  the 


^  Quotations  from  Wordsworth's  poem  in  this  paragraph,  come  from  Russell 
Noyes,  ed.,  English  Romantic  Poetry  and  Prose  (New  York:  Oxford  University 
Press,  1956),  pp.  327-29. 

^  Quotations  from  Poe  are  taken  from  Eric  W.  Carlson,  ed.,  Introduction  to 
Poe  (Glenview,  III.:  Scott,  Foresman,  Co.,  1967).  p.  427. 

30 


Moral  Sense.  ^  The  function  of  the  Intellect  is  to  apprise  us  of  factual 
truth:  it  is  the  province  of  the  scientist.  The  function  of  the  Moral  Sense 
is  to  apprise  us  of  our  duty;  it  is  the  province  of  the  preacher  and  the 
teacher.  The  faculty  of  Taste  gives  us  "a  sense  of  the  beautiful":  it  is 
"an  immortal  instinct,  deep  within  the  spirit  of  man."  And  this  is  the 
fair  field  of  the  poet:  he  must  be  concerned  directly  only  with  "Super" 
nal  Beauty,"  never  with  truth  or  duty.  Insofar  as  these  enter  an  imagi- 
native work,  story  or  poem,  at  all,  Poe  felt  that  they  should  be  "a  very 
profound  under-current  so  as  never  to  interfere  with  the  upper  one  with- 
out our  own  volition,  so  as  never  to  show  itself  unless  called  to 
the  surface  . . .  ."^  What  Poe  disliked  about  Wordsworth  was  his  at- 
tempt to  be  philosophical,  to  preach  a  doctrine  or  argue  a  case  in  his 
poems.  The  doctrine  should  have  been  deeply  hidden  within  the  poem 
and  only  vaguely  hinted  at  through  poetic  symbols. 

In  his  own  works  Poe  used  symbols  in  this  vague,  nebulous  way.  One 
of  his  favorites  was  the  dead  beautiful  woman,  which  he  called  "the  most 
poetical  topic  in  the  world. "^  Richard  Wilbur  has  pointed  out  that  in 
almost  every  case  Poe's  beautiful  woman  is  his  svmbol  for  supernal  beau- 
ty, dead  because  her  proper  abode  is  in  the  spiritual  world,  not  in  the 
physical.^''  All  the  symbols  under  discussion  work  together  in  Poe's 
"Annabel  Lee."  The  narrator  and  Annabel  were  companions  only  in 
childhood  V'She  was  a  child  and  /  was  a  child").  Annabel  was  "the  beau- 
tiful Annabel  Lee"  (italics  mine).  They  lived  "In  this  kingdom  bv  the 
sea"  — that  is,  on  the  shore,  the  symbolic  point  of  disembarkation  from 
the  spiritual  world  into  the  physical.  But  their  relationship  here  did  not 
last  long  before  Annabel  died,  retreating  from  the  physical  world.  In 
this  poem,  as  in  Wordsworth's,  we  have  the  sea  symbolizing  the  eternal 
and  the  shore  symbolizing  early  life.  Poe  adds  to  these  the  dead  beauti- 
ful woman  to  symbolize  the  vision  of  the  ideal  beauty  which  exists  onlv 
in  the  spiritual  realm.  In  both  poems  the  soul  of  the  poet  loses  its  vision 
of  the  ideal  by  being  born  into  this  world.  In  other  words,  Poe's  poem 
means  exactly  the  same  thing  that  the  lines  quoted  from  Wordsworth's 
poem  mean.  The  difference  is  that  the  meaning  of  Wordswbi-th's  svm- 


^  Poe's  clearest  exposition  of  this  matter  occurs  in  his  lecture  "The  Poetic 
Principle."  See  Carlson,  pp.  456-57.  Further  quotations  in  this  paragraph  come 
from  this  source  unless  otherwise  noted. 

^  From  "Tale-Writing:  Nathaniel  Hawthorne."  See  Carlson,  p.  495. 
^  From  "The  Philosophy  of  Composition.'"  See  Carlson,  p.  446. 
^^  Wilbur's  explications  of  Poe's  symbols  are  in  his  "Introduction"  to  Poe  in 
Perry  Miller  et  al.  eds..  Major  Writers  of  America  (one-volume  edition),  (New 
York:  Harcourt.  Brace  and  World,  1966).'  pp.  177-89  and  in  "The  House  of  Poe," 
Robert  Regan,  ed.,  Poe:  A  Collection  of  Critical  Essays  (Englewood  Cliffs,  N.J.: 
Prentice-Hall,  1967),  pp.  98-120.  Wilbur  also  wrote  the  "Introduction"  for  the 
Laurel  Poetry  Series  edition  of  Poe's  poems,  but  the  two  previous  articles  are 
more  fruitful  for  a  study  of  Poe's  symbols.  Carlson  also  discusses  Poe's  use  of 
symbols  in  his  "Introduction"  to  the  work  mentioned  above. 

31 


bols  lies  on  the  surface:  the  meaning  of  Poe's  symbols  can  be  arrived 
at  only  after  concentrated  intellection:  it  does  not  "show  itself  unless 
called  to  the  surface."  "Annabel  Lee"  may  be  facetiously  regarded  as 
Poe's  attempt  to  show  Wordsworth  how  it  should  have  been  done. 

The  third  poem  to  be  considered  is  Whitman's  "Out  of  the  Cradle 
Endlessly  Rocking."  The  complex  time  structure  of  this  poem  adds  a 
new  dimension  to  the  old  symbols.  Wordsworth's  lines  contrasted  the 
view  of  the  adult  with  the  view  of  the  child;  Whitman's  poem  does  es- 
sentially the  same,  but  the  greater  length  allows  a  more  complex  involve- 
ment at  both  time  levels.  The  poem  develops  in  this  fashion:  the  poet 
as  a  child  has  an  experience  with  two  birds  which  he  is  unable  to  under- 
stand at  the  time.  One  of  the  birds  dies,  and  its  mate  sings  a  dirge  which 
is  incomprehensible  to  the  child.  The  experience  occurs  on  the  shore: 

Yes  my  brother  I  know. 

The  rest  might  not,  but  I  have  treasur'd  every  note. 

For  more  than  once  dimly  down  to  the  beach  gliding. 

Silent,    avoiding    the   moonbeams,    blending   myself  with   the 
shadows. 

Recalling   now   the  obscure   shapes,   the  echoes,    the   sounds 
and  sights  after  their  sorts. 

The  white  arms  out  in  the  breakers  tirelessly  tossing, 

I,  with  bare  feet,  a  child,  the  wind  wafting  my  hair, 

Listen'd  long  and  long.^^ 
The  song  the  bird  sings  adds  force  to  the  symbolic  relationship  of  the 
sea  and  the  shore.  In  his  grief  he  recognizes  the  polar  contrast  between 
the  two: 

O  madly  the  sea  pushes  upon  the  land, 

With  love,  with  love. 
He  seems  to  see  his  beloved  against  the  background  of  the  sea:  "O  night! 
do  I  not  see  my  love  fluttering  out  among  the  breakers?"  Clearly  the  sea 
here,  as  in  the  two  previous  poems,  symbolizes  eternity,  the  abode  of 
the  soul  after  death  and  before  life  (in  other  poems— "Crossing  Brook- 
lyn Ferry,"  for  instance  — Whitman  makes  clear  his  belief  in  the  pre- 
existence  of  the  soul).  After  the  poet  matures,  he  is  able  to  interpret 
the  bird's  song,  which  becomes  an  inspiration  for  his  own  song.  He 
finds  in  it  a  hint  of  the  meaning  of  life  and  eternity,  coming  to  a  full 
understanding  of  the  meaning  only  after  he  returns  to  the  sea  as  a  man 
and  hears  the  lesson  it  teaches: 

Are  you  whispering  it,  and  have  been  all  the  time,  you  sea- 
waves? 

Is  that  it  from  your  liquid  rims  and  wet  sands? 

Whereto  answering,  the  sea. 

Delaying  not,  hurrying  not, 

Whisper'd  me  through  the  night,  and  very  plainly  before  day- 


1^  Quotations  from  Whitman's  poems  come  from  Blodgett  and  Bradley,  pp. 
246-53. 

32 


break, 

Lisp'd  to  me  the  low  and  delicious  word  death. 

And  again  death,  death,  death,  death. 

Hissing  melodious,  neither  like  the  bird  nor  like  my  arous'd 
child's  heart. 

But  edging  near  as  privately  for  me  rustling  at  my  feet. 

Creeping  thence  steadily  up  to  my  ears  and  laving  me  softly 
all  over. 

Death,  death,  death,  death,  death. 
Thus  life,  represented  by  the  child,  the  man,  and  the  symbolic  shore, 
becomes  meaningful  onlv  when  it  sees  through  death  to  eternity  and 
mystically  merges  with  it  for  the  moment.  Whitman's  handling  of  this 
theme  and  these  symbols  parallels  both  Wordsworth's  and  Poe's. 

In  "The  Marshes  of  Glynn"  Sidney  Lanier  used  four  major  symbols 
to  record  the  progress  of  the  soul  toward  its  perfection.  The  poem  opens 
with  a  scene  in  the  woods,  which  symbolizes  the  healing  effect  of  Na- 
ture. ^^  This  scene  occurs  "While  the  riotous  noon-day  sun  of  the  June- 
day  long  did  shine,"  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day.  i3  After  the  woods 
have  completed  their  ministrations,  the  poet  moves  to  a  sandy  beach 
separating  the  woods  from  the  marsh,  a  vantage  point  from  which  he  can 
observe  the  marsh  and  the  sea.  The  "firm-packed  sand"  of  the  beach 
SNinbolizes  the  spiritual  foundation  that  the  poet  gained  from  the  mini- 
si  lations  of  the  woods,  and  the  marsh  symbolizes  the  concomitant 
leedom  of  his  soul  from  spiritual  disease,  "From  the  weighing  of  fate 
ind  the  sad  discussion  of  sin."  During  the  time  that  it  takes-  the  poet 
lo  achieve  this  state,  the  sun  sets.  Thus  by  the  time  that  he  is  ready  to 
consider  the  sea  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  poem,  another  common  poetic 
symbol,  the  use  of  the  day  for  the  progress  of  life,  has  run  its  course. 
The  metaphorical  point  of  death,  then,  is  the  point  where  Lanier  comes 
to  use  the  main  symbol  that  we  are  concerned  with.  The  poet  stands 
on  the  shore,  contemplates  the  meaning  of  the  sea,  and  bids  farewdl 
to  the  sun.  The  coming  of  the  tide  that  floods  the  marsh  represents  the 
merging  of  the  poet's  soul  with  eternity.  That  the  experience  is  only 
metaphorical  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  knowledge  obtained  is  not 
absolute  or  complete.  Some  questions  that  are  left  unanswered  will 
remain  unanswerable  until  the  final  actual  merging  of  the  soul  with 
eternity  that  occurs  in  death.  But  in  the  mystical  experience  that  occurs 
in  the  poem  the  poet  does  become  convinced  that  there  is  an  eternity 
that  lies  beyond  death,  and  like  the  other  three  poets  above,  he  uses 
the  sea  to  svmbolize  it. 


^2  The  best  critical  discussion  of  "The  Marshes  of  Glynn"  is  Robert  H.  Ross's 
"The  Marshes  of  Glynn':  A  Study  in  Symbolic  Obscurity."  American  Literature, 
XXXII  (Jan.  1961).  403-16.  However,  Ross's  article  has  a  major  flaw  in  that  it 
overlooks  one  of  the  primary  symbols  in  the  poem,  the  strip  of  sand  that  lies 
between  the  woods  and  the  marsh. 

1^  My  text  for  "The  Marshes  of  Glynn"  is  in  Vol.  I  of  the  Centennial  Edition. 
pp.  119  22. 


A  major  philosophical  tradition  that  became  a  significant  part  of 
the  intellectual  content  of  Romanticism  among  the  better  Romantics 
was  the  Platonic  and  neo-Platonic  view  of  the  soul  and  its  relation- 
ship to  the  world  of  ideals.  Many  are  aware  of  the  acknowledgment 
that  Wordsworth  made  of  his  use  of  it  in  the  "Intimations  Ode."  Briefly, 
according  to  Plato  the  soul  before  its  birth  into  a  human  body  had  its 
own  pure  existence  in  an  intellectual  realm,  knowing  intuitively  and 
directly  the  perfect  forms  of  things.  In  order  to  live  well,  the  human 
being,  consisting  of  an  awkward  combination  of  soul  and  body,  must 
spend  its  life  trying  to  regain  through  recollection  the  perfect  know- 
ledge that  the  soul  had  before  its  traumatic  entrance  into  this  world.  The 
only  way  it  can  do  so  is  by  denying  the  comforts  of  the  body  in  order  to 
increase  the  comforts  of  the  soul.  The  soul  must  continuously  strive  to 
escape  its  earthly  prison.  Life  in  this  world  is  simply  a  testing  ground 
for  the  soul;  and  if  it  proves  its  strength  here,  it  is  freed  at  death  to  live 
forever  in  the  intellectual  realm,  happy  in  its  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
ideals.  Three  of  the  poets  discussed  above  — Wordsworth,  Poe,  and 
Whitman— posit  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  in  a  world  of  ideals  as 
Plato  does,  and  they  all  use  the  sea  to  represent  this  world  symbolically. 
Lanier,  who  was  not  as  deep  a  thinker  as  the  other  three  and  who  was 
probably  not  so  well  aware  of  his  place  in  intellectual  tradition  as  they, 
never  granted  the  soul  any  form  of  pre-existence.  But  when  he  con- 
sidered its  post-existence,  he  used  the  same  symbol  as  the  other  three 
for  the  ideal  world  to  which  it  journies.  The  foregoing  brief  discussions 
of  four  poems  shows  that  the  use  of  this  symbol  did  become  an 
archetypal  pattern  in  romantic  poetry.  The  discussion  is  in  no  sense 
complete.  Further  search  and  study  would  undoubtedly  uncover  other 
interesting  aspects  of  the  archetype.  For  instance,  Poe's  "The  City  in 
the  Sea"  would  produce  very  interesting,  if  not  insurmountable,  arche- 
typal problems;  and  close  scrutiny  of  all  the  poems  in  Whitman's  Sea- 
Drift  (to  which  "Out  of  the  Cradle  Endlessly  Rocking"  belongs)  would 
certainlv  produce  qualifications  of  the  archetype  as  it  applies  to  Whit- 
man. My  purpose  here  has  been  only  to  establish  the  pattern.  There  is 
wide  room  for  further  study. 


34 


A  STUDY  OF  VALUE  JUDGMENTS 
IN  A  SAMPLE  OF  ADULTS  FROM 
TWO  WEST  GEORGIA  COUNTIES 

By  PEARL  NIX* 

Understanding  the  motivation  underlying  behavior  involves  more 
than  dipping  into  the  past;  one  must  dip  below  the  surface  into  the 
spring  from  which  actions  flow— to  the  core  of  being  called  one's  value 
system.  With  reference  to  this  study,  a  value  system  is  a  hypothetical 
construct  or  function  of  one's  mind  enabling  the  person  to  weigh  the 
relative  merits  of  a  successive  stream  of  thoughts  coursing  through  his 
consciousness.  Although  each  person's  system  of  values  is  unique,  it 
reflects  ^he  collective  consciousness  of  his  culture.  Through  the  pro- 
cesses of  learning,  the  individual  acquires  a  value  system,  having  some 
of  the  character'stics  of  his  parent  culture  but  stamped  by  his  own  in- 
dividuality. Thi:i  system  includes  the  criteria  by  which  the  individual 
evalui  tes  forrrially  or  informally  the  alternatives  which  appear  to  him 
at  an)  choice  point.  In  a  specific  instance,  a  value  can  be  construed  as 
the  1  iie  an  individual  uses  to  choose  which  of  the  mutually  exclusive 
courses  of  action  he  will  undertake.  These  values  monitor  the  person's 
actions.  The  more  harmonious,  compatible  and  internally  consistent 
the  individual's  value  system,  the  less  mental  conflict  and  frustration 
he  is  likely  to  experience. 

Since  value  systems  may  be  considered  hypothetical  constructs, 
they  cannot  be  measured  directly  any  more  than  can  intelligence;  they 
can  only  be  inferred  from  the  behavior  of  the  individual  as  he  faces  a 
choice  point.  In  this  case  his  decision  may  be  referred  to  as  a  value 
judgment;  in  other  words,  he  has  chosen  one  alternative  over  otie  or 
more  possible  choices.  From  his  judgment  one  may  infer  which  of  the 
alternatives  he  values  most  at  the  moment. 

The  more  stable  one's  value  system  is  the  more  likely  he  is  to  be 
consistent  in  his  value  judgments.  Thus  it  is  assumed  that  older  people 
are  more  consistent;  however,  it  is  entirely  possible  for  the  person  who 
continues  to  learn  to  have  a  fluid  value  system.  He  will  likely  maintain 
a  basic  framework  which  lends  predictability  and  a  degree  of  consist- 
ency to  his  behavior;  yet  he  may  make  progressively  finer  discrimina- 
tions and  weigh  alternatives  with  a  more  sensitive  scale;  in  other  words, 
he  may  move  from  the  use  of  the  more  common  "'grocery  scales"  to  the 
greater  precision  of  the  "gold  scales." 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  focus  upon  the  value  judgments  of 
individuals  of  different  ages  and  professional  orientation  to  discover  some 
of  the  things  that  really  matter  to  them  and  to  determine  whether  there 

*Professor  of  Psychology,  West  Georgia  College.  Assisted  by  Virginia  Cham- 
bers, Stella  Jones,  Sue  Jordan,  Carrie  Mae  McElroy.  Nelle  Smith,  members  of 
the  Research  Committee  of  Delta  Kappa  Gamma  Society. 

35 


are  differences  between  the  sexes  and  between  groups  of  different  ages 
and  professional  orientation. 

The  sample  was  obtained  from  two  West  Georgia  counties  and  con- 
sists of  the  following  groups: 


173 


Class 

Sex 

Average  Age 

Numt 

High  School  Seniors 

Male 

17 

78 

Female 

17 

95 

Parents 

Male 

47.3 

16 

Female 

43.5 

66 

Teachers 

Male 

36.8 

28 

Female 

35.2 

51 

Teachers  (members  of 
Delta  Kappa  Gamma 
Society) 

Female 

56.3 

32 

82 


79 


32 
366 


The  members  of  the  Research  Committee  of  the  local  chapter  of 
the  Delta  Kappa  Gamma  Society  (an  honorary  society  for  women  teach- 
ers) developed  a  questionnaire,  "Study  of  Value  Judgments",  composed 
of  ten  multiple-choice  items,  twenty  agree-disagree  items  and  six  open- 
ended  questions  which  presented  the  respondent  with  opportunities 
to  make  decisions,  calling  into  action  his  value  system.  These  question- 
naires were  distributed  to  the  sample.  Both  rural  and  urban  school 
communities  were  included  from  which  whole  classes  of  seniors  were 
chosen.  In  most  instances  classes  in  the  core  curriculum  such  as  English 
and  social  studies  were  used.  Both  high  school  and  elementary  teachers 
were  included  and  the  parents  were  drawn  from  the  school  communi- 
ties. A  total  of  366  people  completed  the  questionnaire. 

The  Research  Committee  tabulated  the  responses  to  each  alter- 
native of  each  item.  Then  the  numbers  of  responses  were  converted  to 
per  cents  of  the  total  subgroup.  All  groups  were  divided  by  sex:  hence 
the  total  sample  was  treated  as  seven  subgroups.  In  each  subgroup  the 
per  cent  of  members  responding  to  the  alternatives  for  each  item  did 
not  always  equal  100  per  cent;  for,  in  a  few  cases  persons  chose  more 
than  one  answer  even  though  they  were  instructed  to  choose  only  one; 
in  other  instances  some  people  omitted  one  or  more  items.  In  each 
table  the  per  cent  cited  is  of  the  total  subgroup  in  question;  for  example, 
for  the  28  male  teachers,  each  per  cent  represents  a  proportion  of  28 
even  though  in  some  cases  only  25  of  the  28  responded  to  a  given  item. 
The  tables  do  not  indicate  the  per  cents  who  responded  in  some  way. 

36 


Contingency  tables  were  used  to  compute  chi-square"s  to  determine 
whether  the  differences  in  responses  between  groups  were  significant. 
The  .05  level  of  significance  was  accepted. 

The  responses  of  the  entire  sample  to  the  questionnaire,  "Study  of 
Value  Judgments,"  are  reported  in  Tables  I,  II,  and  III  which  show  the 
per  cent  of  each  group  responding  to  each  alternative. 


TABLE  I. 

RESPONSES  TO  THE  ALTERNATIVES  TO 
TEN  MULTIPLE-CHOICE  ITEMS 

(In  Percentages) 


DKG 

Test  Items 

Students 

Parents 

Teachers 

Members 

Sex 

M 

F 

M 

F 

IVI 

F 

F 

Number 

78 

95 

16 

66 

28 

51 

32 

1.  My  ideal  job  gives  me  op- 

portunity to: 

a.  Associate  with  popular 

people. 

4 

0 

2 

4 

2 

b.  Make  a  high  salary. 

36 

22 

25 

15 

4 

c.  Find  expression  for  abilities 

interests 

46 

45 

50 

32 

36 

34 

13 

d.  Contribute  to  the  welfare 

of  others 

14 

31 

25 

51 

61 

60 

87 

2.  Thing  most  essential  to  per- 
sonal happiness 

a.  Personal  and  economic 
security. 

b.  Lx)ve  of  family  and  friends. 

c.  Challenging  work 

d.  Peace  of  mind 

3.  I  prefer  to  spend  my  leisure 
time 

a.  Being  entertained  by  others 

b.  Pursuing  my  own  hobbies 

c.  Expanding  interests  and 
abilities— study  travel 

d.  Engaging  in  group  activ- 
ities—sports 

4.  Primary  reason  for  not  cheating 

a.  Danger  of  being  caught 
and  punished 

b.  The  Bible  says  it  is  wrong 

c.  Violates  property  rights  of 
others 


17  9  13  4  4  4  6 

39  58  50  54  32  52  37 

9  7  25  4  32  12  28 

23  25  19  41  43  36  28 


10  16  13  4  7  4  3 

31  21  50  45  43  42  22 

17  22  25  43  40  56  71 

50  45  19  21  25  18  3 


27   14 

14   14    31   46    4   14 


8   10 


43    11 


37 


Test  Items 


Students 
Sex  M       F 

Number     78      95 


DKG 
Parents        Teachers      Members 
M       F         M       F  F 

16      66        28      51  32 


d.  Violates  own  sense  of  hu- 
man dignity 

5.  To  me  freedom  is 

a.  Privilege  of  choosing 
within  democracy 

b.  The  right  to  do  just  as  I 
choose 

c.  Opportunity  for  rule  by  ma- 
jority with  dissent  by  minority 

6.  Current  tendencies  most 
disturbing 

a.  materialism 

b.  Self-indulgence 

c.  Flabby-minded  apathy 

d.  Lack  of  self-control 

e.  Tendency  to  herd  together 
f.  Inconsistency  between 

saying  and  doing 

7.  Religion  is 

a.  Total  life  orientation  re- 
lating one  to  highest  value 

b.  Response  to  God's  revelation 

c.  Being  concerned  about  one's 
being. 

d.  System  of  beliefs  relating 
one  to  world 

8.  Major  aim  of  church  should  be 
a.  Help  members  live  Christ- 


9.  Major  responsibility  of  public 
education 

a.  Prepare  young  tor  vocational 
success 

b.  Prepare  young  for  respons- 
ible citizenship 

c.  Prepare  young  for  full,  pro- 
ductive life  in  changing 
society 

d.  Prepare  young  for  parent- 
hood and  family  life 


46      58        69      21 


53  45 
13  12 
32      30 


56      63        68      74 
13       3  2 

31      33        32     36 


36      19        19      25 


14      20 


like  life 

49 

33 

50 

51 

32 

34 

b. 

Solve  social  problems: 

poverty,  etc. 

4 

9 

7 

6 

c. 

Foster  spiritual  development, 

communion  with  God 

42 

62 

57 

52 

50 

60 

90 


75 


22 


9 

26 

19 

15 

14 

16 

12 

12 

16 

6 

12 

7 

10 

22 

25 

26 

25 

19 

43 

34 

16 

14 

16 

25 

21 

14 

18 

19 

5 

8 

6 

7 

4 

8 

24 


12 

2 

13 

12 

32 

30 

22 

56 

71 

81 

75 

40 

44 

65 

10 

1 

6 

3 

7 

6 

22 

25 

10 

21 

20 

9 

22 


78 


16 

9 

6 

11 

4 

22 

20 

19 

21 

11 

14 

28 

60 

66 

61 

64 

75 

88 

71 

4 

6 

13 

4 

4 

38 


Test  Itons 


Students 
Sex  M       F 

Number     78      95 


DKG 

Parents        Teachers      Members 
M       F         M       F  F 

16      66        28      51  32 


10.  Most  likely  way  to  decrease 
poverty 

a.  More  social-minded  cor- 
porations 

b.  More  governmental  control 
of  social  welfare 

c.  More  general  education 

d.  A  better  way  to  distribute 
wealth 


18      13 


13 


AGREEMENT  AND  DISAGREEMENT 
WITH  TWENTY  STATEMENTS 

(In  Percentages) 


12 


13      26 

6 

6 

4 

6 

58      40 

61 

79 

68 

72 

78 

9      21 

13 

4 

18 

6 

6 

TABLE  II. 

Statements 


DKG 

Students 

Parents 

Teachers 

Members 

Sex            M       F 

M       F 

M       F 

F 

Number     78      95 

16      66 

28      51 

32 

1.  American  security  and  well- 
being  demand  individual  support 
of  local  police  and  other  law- 
enforcement  officials 

2.  It  is  wrong  and  unfair  not  to 
pay  one's  full  share  of  income 
tax  on  actual  income. 

3.  Living  by  moral  principles  of 
honesty,  truthfulness  and  respect 
for  the  life  and  property  of  others 
is  essential  to  my  own  personal 
welfare. 

4.  All  members  of  the  community 
have  the  right  to  the  protection  of 
life  against  physical  violence  even 
if  they  cannot  pay  for  protection. 

5.  Provisions  for  decent  housing 
and  the  elimination  of  slums  is 
not  a  problem  for  individuals  and 
communities  but  should  be  dele- 
gated to  federal  government. 


Yes 

82 

82 

81 

93 

96 

94 

97 

No 

18 

16 

19 

3 

4 

6 

3 

Yes 

77 

82 

88 

95 

92 

92 

97 

No 

22 

18 

12 

5 

8 

3 

Yes 

87 

91 

94 

97 

100 

No 

13 

7 

6 

2 

4 

Yes 

No 


97 
3 


91 

7 


94 
6 


97 

2 


96 
4 


96 
4 


97 


100 


Yes 

26 

26 

31 

9 

4 

14 

9 

No 

73 

74 

69 

80 

96 

86 

91 

39 


Statements 


Students 
Sex  M       F 

Number     78      95 


DKG 

Parents        Teachers      Members 
M       F         M       F  F 

16     66        28      51  32 


6.  Management  and  labor  should 
share  the  power  in  determining 
conditions,  tenure  and  salaries  or 
other  rewards  of  employment. 

7.  Beautifying  the  natural  and 
social  environment  is  both  a  per- 
sonal and  social  responsibility. 

8.  Some  form  of  meaningful  work 
is  essential  to  every  person  if  he 

is  to  live  a  significant  life  of 
abiding  satisfactions. 

9.  Adequate  medical  protection 
and  care  should  be  contingent  up- 
on a  person's  ability  to  pay  for 
them. 

10.  God  has  shown  Himself  to 
mankind  in  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

11.  God  continues  to  move 
through  His  creation  and  reveal 
Himself  to  honest  seekers. 

12.  The  Bible  as  a  whole  is  a 
spiritual  revelation  of  God. 

13.  A  beautiful  church  or  cathe- 
dral inspires  within  me  reverence 
and  a  desire  to  worship. 

14.  One  can  be  a  Christian  with- 
out embracing  a  religion. 

15.  Parents  should  see  that  their 
children  consistently  experience 
the  natural  consequences  of  their 
conduct. 

16.  Permitting  the  child  to  suffer 
the  natural  consequences  of  his 
action  is  a  system  of  pure  justice 
which  will  be  considered  by  the 
child  as  fair. 


Yes 

83 

76 

88 

81 

79 

88 

81 

No 

16 

17 

12 

16 

14 

12 

16 

Yes 

96 

99 

100 

95 

100 

100 

97 

No 

3 

1 

2 

3 

Yes 
No 


86      92 
14       5 


100      95        92      96  100 

4        4 


Yes 

26 

31 

31 

39 

29 

32 

37 

No 

74 

64 

69 

53 

69 

70 

63 

Yes 

93 

89 

94 

97 

90 

98 

100 

No 

7 

6 

6 

3 

2 

Yes 

86 

44 

88 

95 

83 

92 

100 

No 

12 

10 

12 

2 

4 

4 

Yes 

83 

87 

88 

93 

79 

84 

100 

No 

12 

7 

6 

2 

18 

14 

Yes 

36 

59 

44 

60 

47 

64 

81 

No 

61 

41 

56 

36 

47 

32 

16 

Yes 

68 

70 

31 

56 

79 

56 

62 

No 

30 

25 

69 

41 

21 

36 

34 

Yes         79      71        88      78        86      78  93 

No  19      27  6      12        11      22  7 


Yes         45      43        63      55        68      46  65 

No  52      51         25      36        21      40  31 


40 


DKG 

Statements 

Students 

Parents 

Teachers 

Members 

Sex 

M 

F 

M 

F 

M 

F 

F 

Number 

78 

95 

16 

66 

28 

51 

32 

17.  Sex  education  is  a  family 

responsibility  which  should  not 

be  assumed  by  school. 

Yes 

21 

32 

69 

55 

18 

40 

56 

No 

76 

68 

31 

38 

72 

60 

39 

18.  Moral  values  should  be  a 

responsibility  of  the  school  as 

well  as  of  the  family. 

Yes 

78 

76 

88 

84 

86 

88 

100 

No 

20 

24 

12 

11 

11 

12 

19.  Censorship  of  motion  picture 

s 

is  an  unnecessary  abridgment  of 

personal  freedom. 

Yes 

58 

31 

25 

14 

25 

26 

3 

No 

40 

57 

75 

80 

68 

70 

97 

20.  One  should  obey  only  those 

civil  laws  which  he  considers 

good  or  right. 

Yes 

16 

17 

19 

3 

7 

2 

No 

84 

82 

81 

92 

90 

98 

100 

TABLE  III. 

RESPONSES  TO  SIX  OPEN-ENDED  ITEMS 

(In  Percentages) 


DKG 

Items  and  Responses 

Students 

Parents 

Teachers 

Members 

Sex 

M 

F 

M 

F 

M 

F 

F 

Number 

78 

95 

16 

66 

28 

51 

32 

1.  What  is  the  one  thing  most 

essential  to  your  happiness  and 

well-being? 

a. 

Loving  and  being  loved  by 

family  and  friends. 

21 

39 

31 

33 

11 

38 

19 

b. 

Money  and  social  security. 

13 

7 

31 

8 

7 

10 

c. 

Freedom 

11 

3 

d. 

Making  something  of  self 

9 

3 

,e. 

Living  own  life  and  doing 
thing 

9 

6 

f. 

Peace  of  mind  and  har- 

monious relationships 

6 

5 

24 

29 

18 

16 

g- 

Happiness 

6 

5 

h. 

Living  a  Christian  life- 

faith  in  and  approval  of  God 

8 

13 

31 

15 

7 

6 

19 

i. 

Getting  along  with  people 

6 

9 

J- 

Helping  others— service 

9 

6 

22 

12 

9 

k. 

Meaningful  work,  reaching 

goals 

6 

19 

14 

12 

31 

1. 

Graduation 

5 

m. 

Health 

12 

4 

6 

41 


Items  and  Responses 


DKG 

Students 

Parents 

Teachers 

Members 

Sex 

M   F 

M   F 

M   F 

F 

Numb 

er  78   95 

16   66 

28   51 

32 

2.  From  your  observation  what 
appears  to  be  the  major  reason 
causing  most  teachers  to  enter  the 
field  of  education. 

a.  Social  service  — helping 
youth  develop 

b.  Characteristics  of  job  — 
salary,  convenient  hours, 
summer  vacations 

c.  Personal  fulfillment 

d.  Way  to  make  living- 
comfortable 

e.  Lack  of  better  vocation 

f.  To  avoid  draft  — men 

g.  Interest  in  subjects— en- 
joyment 

3.  As  you  view  the  current  scene 
what  do  you  believe  the  average 
American's  primary  goal  in  life 
to  be? 

a.  Economic  security 

b.  Success  in  something  useful 

c.  Social  acceptance,  prestige, 
popularity 

d.  Happiness  and  personal 
fulfillment 

e.  Pleasure 

f.  Freedom  and  independence 

g.  Peace  in  the  world 

h.  Comfortable  home  and 

good  family  life 
i.  Making  country  a  better 

place  to  live 
j.  Power 

4.  What  do  you  consider  Ameri- 
ca's number  one  problem? 

a.  Poverty  and  pollution 

b.  War  in  Viet  Nam 

c.  Lack  of  concern  for  others 

d.  Breakdown  in  law  and  order 

e.  Distorted  values  and  moral 
decay 

f.  Inability  to  get  along  with 
others 

g.  Racial  tension 
h.  Selfishness 

i.  Drugs 

j.  Lack  of  peace  —  violence 

'k.  Pollution 

1.  More  and  better  leadership 


49      45        44      51        65      40 


14        8        44      18        22      40 
4  9 


5        6 
6 

13 


12 


71 


15 


39 

29 

82 

57 

58 

52 

37 

10 

26 

9 

20 

12 

3 

9 

18 

22 

8 

6 

8 

14 

7 

12 

16 

14 


33 

14 

13 

9 

16 

8 

6 

10 

6 

6 

24 

14 

18 

6 

6 

18 

5 

38 

26 

25 

38 

12 

20 

10 

40 

13 

10 

7 

19 

5 
5 

9 

2 

4 

13 

12 

2 

42 


DKG 

Statements 

Students 

Parents 

Teachers 

Members 

Sex 

M 

F 

M 

F 

M 

F 

F 

Number 

78 

95 

16 

66 

28 

51 

32 

m. 

Lack  of   respect  for  authority 

22 

n. 

Lack  of  desire  to  follow 

God's  laws 

3 

2 

10 

9 

o. 

Crime 

3 

9 

P- 

Breakdown  of  communica- 
tion in  family 

6 

9 

q- 

Lack  of  education 

4 

r. 

Communists  in  American 
government 

13 

5.  What  is  the  greatest  unmet 

need 

n  your  community? 

a. 

Lack  of  recreational  facilities 

20 

19 

6 

21 

11 

16 

b. 

Better  and  more  education 

9 

5 

6 

6 

25 

10 

22 

c. 

Poverty  and  care  for 

underprivileged 

4 

8 

13 

3 

11 

d. 

Concern  for  others  and 

better  relationships 

10 

13 

6 

24 

14 

18 

6 

e. 

Pollution  of  the  environment 

3 

2 

14 

6 

6 

f. 

Oneness  of  purpose 

6 

7 

g- 

Poor  housing 

4 

3 

3 

9 

h. 

Respect  for  God  and  par- 
ticipation in  church 
More  capable  men  on  po- 
lice force 
Better  race  relations 

5 

3 

3 
3 

6 

5 

k. 
1 

Strengthening  family  re- 
lationships 
Higher  standards  of  morality 

3 

13 

8 

m 

Leadership 

3 

n 

Better  roads 

7 

6.  Name  three  best  ways  to  im- 
prove life  in  your  community 

a.  Better  communication  and 
understanding 

b.  Higher  quality  education 
for  all 

c.  Election  of  leaders  who  are 
concerned 

d.  More  faith  in  God  and  par- 
ticipation in  church  — draw- 
ing people  closer  to  God. 

e.  More  people  involved  in 
solving  problems 

f.  More  recreational  facilities 

g.  More  love  and  concern 
shown  for  all 

h.  More  civic  pride  and  will- 
ingness to  serve 
i.  More  emphasis  upon  val- 
ues—character 


29      23 

23      14 

4        6 


33        50      46 


4       9        25      15  22      12 

8 

29      23        19      27  22      22 

10  31      45  36      48 

9      21  18 

10  11 


31 
39 
16 

34 

12 
12 

22 

19 

6 


43 


DKG 

Statements  Students       Parents       Teachers      Members 

Sex  M       F         M       F         M       F  F 

Number     78      95        16      66        28      51  32 


j.  Better  trained  police  and 

law  enforcement  9        9        31  46      12 

k.  Eliminate  pollution  8  6      18 

1.  Less  racial  discrimination  8 

m.  Decrease  poverty  — more 

employment  8      11  11      14 

n.  Improved  housing  and  roads  14  25      12 

o.  Stronger  homes  11        8  12 

p. Clean-up  slums  8 

Chi  square  tests  revealed  that  the  following  groups  differed  signifi- 
candy  from  each  other  on  the  multiple-choice  items: 

Item  Groups  Differing  Significantly 

1.  Ideal  job Students  — Teachers 

Male  — Female  Students 

parents—  Teachers 

Teachers  — Delta  Kappa  Gamma  Members 

2.  Thing  most  essential  for  happiness Male  — Female  Parents 

Students— Teachers 

3.  Preference  for  spending  leisure  time Students— Parents  and  Teachers 

4.  Reason  for  not  cheating Students— Parents 

Male  — Female  Parents 

Male  Parents  — Male  Teachers 

5.  Concept  of  Freedom Students— Teachers 

7.  What  religion  is Male  — Female  Students 

Students— Parents 
Parents— Teachers 
Students—  Teachers 

8.  Major  aim  of  Church Male  — Female  Students 

Students—  Parents 
Parents  —  Teachers 
Female  Teachers  — Delta  Kappa  Gamma 

9.  Major  responsibility  of  public  education.  .  .  Students— Teachers 

10.  Most  likely  way  to  decrease  poverty.  .  .  .  Male  — Female  Students 

Students  — Parents  and  Teachers 

The  following  significant  differences  were  noted  on  the  agree-disagree  items: 
Item  Groups  Differing  Significantly 

1.  Support  of  law  enforcement  officials.  .  .  .  Male  — Female  Parents 

2.  Paying  income  tax Male  — Female  Parents 

5.  Provisions  for  decent  housing Female  Students  — Female  Parents 

8.  Meaningful  work Male  — Female  Students 

9.  Adequate  medical  protection Male  Students— Female  Parents 

12.  The  Bible  as  revelation  of  God Female  Teachers— Delta  Kappa  Gamma 

13.  Worship  and  a  beautiful  church Male  — Female  Students 

14.  Being  a  Christian  without  embracing  a 

religion Students— Parents 


44 


16.  Permitting  child  to  suffer  natural  con- 
sequences of  actions Students— Parents 

17.  Sex  education  in  school Students  — Parents 

Parents— Teachers 

18.  Moral  values  in  school Female  Teachers— Delta  Kappa  Gamma 

19.  Censorship  of  motion  pictures Male  — Female  Students 

Female  Teachers— Delta  Kappa  Gamma 
Students— Teachers 

20.  Obedience  to  Civil  Laws Male  — Female  Parents 

From  the  data  presented,  the  following  trends  were  observed  in  the 
sample  studied: 

1.  Making  a  high  salary  and  expressing  one's  abilities  through  his 
work  seem  to  be  more  important  to  the  youth,  whereas  the 
adults  seem  more  concerned  with  contributing  to  the  welfare 
of  others. 

2.  Both  the  youth  and  adults  consider  love  and  peace  of  mind 
essential  to  their  happiness  with  youth  leaning  more  strongly 
toward  love. 

3.  For  leisure  time  youth  prefers  group  activities  and  sports  where- 
as adults  choose  hobbies,  study  and  travel. 

4.  Both  youth  and  adults  indicate  that  cheating  violates  their  sense 
of  human  dignity,  but  youth  also  considers  the  danger  of  being 
caught  and  punished. 

5.  Youth  and  adults  alike  tend  to  define  freedom  as  the  privilege 
of  choosing  within  a  democracy  or  rule  by  the  majority  with 
dissent  by  a  minority. 

6.  Youth  and  adults  tend  to  agree  that  religion  is  a  response  to 
God's  revelation,  that  the  church  should  be  primarily  concerned 
with  the  spiritual  development  of  members,  and  that  the  Bible 
is  a  spiritual  revelation  of  God. 

7.  Both  youth  and  adults  tend  to  consider  the  preparation  of  the 
young  for  a  full  life  as  the  major  function  of  education. 

8.  Although  youth  sees  education  as  a  solution  to  poverty,  they 
lean  more  strongly  toward  governmental  responsibility  than 
do  the  adults  who  strongly  favor  education. 

9.  Youth  appears  slightly  less  supportive  of  laws  and  taxes  than 
do  adults. 

10.  Youth  and  adults  seem  equally  concerned  about  living  by  moral 
principles,  respecting  the  rights  of  others  and  protecting  the 
environment. 

11.  Both  youth  and  adults  appear  to  share  a  need  for  meaningful 
work,  a  desire  to  extend  medical  protection  to  everyone  regard- 
less of  his  ability  to  pay,  and  the  belief  that  management  and 
labor  should  share  the  power  exercised. 

12.  The  males  from  both  the  youth  and  adult  groups  appear  to  be 

45 


less  influenced  by  the  beauty  of  a  church  than  the  females. 

13.  Youth  and  teachers  favor  the  schools  assuming  responsibility 
for  sex  education,  whereas  parents  tend  to  think  the  responsi- 
bility lies  in  the  home. 

14.  Adults  are  more  inclined  to  favor  censorship  of  motion  pic- 
tures than  are  the  youth. 

To  what  extent  does  the  sample  reflect  prevailing  attitudes  and 
values  characteristic  of  American  citizens  in  general?  The  most  com- 
prehensive summary  may  be  one  by  Thomas  Griffith  in  his  article,  "Put- 
ting It  Back  Together"  {Life,  Jan.,  8,  1971)  from  which  the  following 
contrast  between  youth  and  adults  was  presented: 

As  Mr.  Griffith  observed,  these  are  the  qualities  of  youth  which- 
might  be  expected  to  survive  in  a  synthesis: 

1.  Honesty  and  outrage  over  violations  of  morality  in  business, 
advertising,  and  personal  conduct. 

2.  Belief  that  materialistic  values  hold  too  much  sway  and  that 
corporations  should  be  answerable  to  social  responsibilities  as 
well  as  profit. 

3.  Better  understanding  and  relationships  especially  between 
blacks  and  whites. 

4.  Desire  to  be  in  tune  with  nature  rather  than  to  conquer  it. 

5.  Desire  to  live  life  in  such  a  way  that  its  humanity  is  evident 
every  day. 

6.  Less  competitive  interest  in  living  in  a  good  neighborhood. 
And  these  are  the  values  he  identified  in  the  older  society: 

1.  A  stubborn  belief  in  accommodation  as  an  essential  element 
of  democracy,  recognizing  that  previous  social  changes  were 
hammered  out  by  earlier  generations. 

2.  A  conviction  that  rank,  hierarchy  and  structure  are  function- 
ally necessary  in  society  even  when  overdone.  Coupled  with 
this  conviction  is  the  belief  that  gradations  of  experience,  com- 
petence, and  effort  should  be  accorded  differing  rewards. 

3.  A  deeper  awareness  of  the  contrariness  of  human  nature  re- 
flected in  skepticism  toward  exhortation,  impatience  with 
sweeping  moral  solutions,  and  shrewd  appraisal  of  malarky  and 
inflated  reputations. 

4.  A  pride  in  a  hard-won  past  against  the  onslaughts  of  those  who 
have  not  had  to  fight  for  what  they  have  and  thus  too  easily 
reject  it. 

5.  A  conviction  that  order  is  a  surer  guarantor  of  justice  in  the 
long  run  than  disorder. 

The  responses  of  the  students  suggesting  that  they  have  several  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  youth  described  by  Mr.  Griffith  include  the 
following: 

46 


For  the  thing  most  essential  to  their  happiness  the  majority  Usted 
love,  freedom,  making  something  of  self,  service,  living  a  Chris- 
tain  life  rather  than  money  and  social  security.  Only  about  one- 
third  of  the  group  indicated  that  the  average  American's  primary 
goal  in  life  is  economic  security,  whereas  about  two-thirds  listed 
other  goals.  Thus  it  appears  they  are  deemphasizing  materialistic 
values. 
The  students'  views  of  America's  number  one  problem  are  also  re- 
vealing in  that  about  46%  of  the  males  and  26%  of  females  considered 
poverty  and  pollution  the  major  problem  and  33%  of  the  males  and 
20%  of  the  females  listed  inability  to  get  along  with  others  and  racial 
tensions.  These  responses  convey  a  concern  for  improved  living  and 
environmental  conditions  as  well  as  better  human  relationships. 

Their  concern  about  honesty  and  consistency  in  behavior  is  reflect- 
ed in  these  responses:  36%  of  the  males  and  19%  of  the  females  listed 
"inconsistency  between  saying  and  doing"  as  the  most  disturbing  cur- 
rent tendency;  about  one-fourth  of  the  students  listed  flabby-minded 
apathy  as  most  disturbing. 

When  considering  ways  to  improve  community  life,  about  one-third 
of  the  student  group  suggested  understanding,  better  communication 
and  relationships  with  others.  A  desire  to  decrease  poverty  and  improve 
housing  was  reflected  in  a  number  of  their  responses;  they  also  seemed 
to  favor  more  governmental  intervention  in  solving  these  problems. 

Although  the  sample  of  students  was  not  evaluated  explicitly  by 
Mr.  Griffith's  list  of  characteristics  of  youth,  it  can  be  observed  from 
their  responses  that  a  significant  number  possess  several  of  the  quali- 
ties he  identified,  including:  desire  for  honesty  and  consistency  in  be- 
havior, decreased  acceptance  of  materialistic  values,  desire  for  better 
human  relationships,  concern  for  environmental  quality  and  a  willing- 
ness to  share  the  better  things  with  all  people. 

The  responses  of  the  adult  groups  studied  also  suggest  they  possess 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  Mr.  Griffith's  older  society.  For  example 
the  things  they  listed  as  most  essential  for  their  happiness  include: 
meaningful  work,  love  of  family  and  friends,  social  service  and  peace 
of  mind,  suggesting  a  deep  appreciation  of  basic  human  needs.  More 
than  half  the  sample  considered  economic  security  and  a  comfortable 
home  as  the  primary  goal  of  Americans.  As  America's  number  one 
problem  the  thing  mentioned  by  the  greatest  number  was  distorted 
values  and  moral  decay.  Others  mentioned  the  break-down  in  law  and 
order,  lack  of  respect  for  authority  and  lack  of  concern  for  others.  To 
improve  community  life  they  strongly  favored  higher  quality  education, 
better  communication  and  civic  pride,  more  faith  in  God  and  love  and 
concern  for  others,  and  better  law  enforcement. 

Thus  it  appears  that  at  least  many  of  the  adults  in  the  sample  possess 
qualities  characteristic  of  Mr.  Griffith's  older  society.  They  tend  to  be 
hopeful  about  finding  solutions  to  present  problems  and  to  have  faith 

47 


in  thre  democratic  way  of  life.  Their  responses  reflect  pride  in  their 
economic  achievements  and  a  belief  in  law  and  order. 

From  a  synthesis  of  their  responses  these  are  the  qualities  which  the 
students  responding  to  the  West  Georgia  questionnaire  appear  to  share 
with  American  youth  in  general:  a  desire  for  honesty  and  consistency 
in  behavior,  decreased  acceptance  of  materialistic  values,  desire  for 
better  human  relationships,  concern  for  environmental  quality  and  a 
willingness  to  share  the  better  things  with  all  people. 

Although  the  adult  groups  shared  many  of  views  of  the  students, 
they  tended  to  reflect  other  attitudes  and  values  which  have  been  as- 
sociated more  with  the  older  society.  They  tend  to  be  hopeful  about 
finding  solutions  to  present  problems,  to  have  faith  in  the  democratic 
way  of  life,  to  reflect  pride  in  their  economic  achievements  and  to  have 
a  rather  strong  belief  in  law  and  order. 


48 


ABSTRACTS 

of 
MASTER'S  THESES 

and 
SPECIALIST  IN  EDUCA  TION  PROIECTS 

Allen,  John  A.,  Jr.  (Biology.  March,  1971)* 

PATTERNS  OF  CORTICOLOUS  MOSSES  ON  THE 
TRUNKS  OF  SELECTED  SPECIES  OF  TREES 

This  study  attempts  to  demonstrate  the  growth  pattern  and  fre- 
quency distribution  of  some  corticolous  mosses  found  on  the  trunks  of 
several  species  of  trees.  The  growth  patter  is  mapped  and  described. 
The  frequency  distribution  of  mosses  on  three  species  of  trees  selected 
for  varying  bark  pattern  and  surface  texture  is  determined,  and  their 
distribution  in  relation  to  bark  pattern  and  surface  texture  is  discussed. 

Browne.  Richard  A.  (Psychology,  March,  1971) 

AN  EXPLORATORY  SURVEY  OF  THE  PSYCHO-SOCIAL 
ASPECTS  OF  100  MALE  AND  30  FEMALE  TRANSSEXUALS 

This  survey  is  designed  to  reveal  the  social,  cultural,  and  family 
backgrounds  of  a  sample  of  100  male  and  30  female  transsexuals.  The 
male  sample  contains  55  post-operative  and  45  pre-operative  cases,  the 
female  sample  is  inclusive  of  12  post-operative  and  18  pre-operative 
cases.  Both  samples  were  obtained  from  Benjamin's  population  of 
transsexual  patients. 

The  purpose  of  the  study  is  to  add  factual  knowledge  where  now 
there  exists  much  speculation,  and  to  provide  some  data  which  may 
lead  to  a  further  understanding  of  the  transsexual  as  an  individual  and 
the  problem  of  transsexuality.  The  analysis  of  the  case  histories  of  the 
130  transsexuals  yielded  the  following  major  findings:  transsexualism 
exists  in  all  ethnic  groups,  social  classes  and  educational  levels;  con- 
ditions indicative  of  transsexual  conditioning  is  evident  in  some  of  the 
family  histories;  religious  affiliation  may  be  an  influential  factor  and  is  a 
subject  for  further  inquiry. 


*"Biology"  is  the  awarding  department  and  "March,  1971"  is  the  time  of  com- 
pletion of  all  requirements  for  the  degree.  Specialist  in  Education  research 
projects  are  listed  as  "Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1971." 

49 


Cotton,  James  John  (Psychology,  March,  1971) 

HUMAN  GROWTH  AS  A  FUNCTION  OF  THE  BASIC 
ENCOUNTER  GROUP  MARATHON 

This  thesis  reports  the  phenomenological  description  of  the  author's 
involvement  as  a  facilitator-participant  in  a  twenty-four-hour  basic 
encounter  group  marathon.  The  dimensions  of  participating  in  and 
facilitating  such  a  marathon  are  intimate  relationships  as  experienced 
by  the  author  and  the  eleven  other  participants.  The  matrix  for  the 
phenomenological  investigation  is  identified  as  the  basic  encounter 
process,  a  synergic  model  of  human  growth,  and  the  interactions. 

To  begin  with  an  overview  of  the  encounter  group  phenomenon  is 
presented.  The  levels  of  consideration  are  psychological,  sociological, 
and  methodological.  The  subjective  dimension  of  experiential  data  is 
of  primary  consideration  in  a  review  of  some  of  the  literature.  Then  the 
basic  encounter  group  marathon  process,  the  special  demands  of  a  pro- 
fessional facilitator  of  such  a  schedule,  and  a  model  of  human  growth  are 
considered.  The  marathon  group  is  described  as  a  social  interaction 
laboratory  uniquely  concerned  with  facilitation  of  human  growth  po- 
tential. 

Later  the  author  reports  his  personal  involvements  gleaned  from 
tape  recorded  for  research  purposes.  Some  of  the  interaction  is  re- 
ported verbatim. 

Finally  the  phenomenological  content  within  the  context  of  pro- 
cess, faciliatat^on  and  human  growth  needs  is  summarized.  The  human 
potentials  aspects  of  the  humanistic  psychology  movement  is  viewed  as 
movement  toward  fulfillment  of  personal  growth. 

Bucknei;  Betty  R.  (Biology,  June,  1971) 

A  STUDY  OF  VARIOUS  PHYSIOLOGICAL  FUNCTIONS  IN 

RELATION  TO  BODY  POSITION  AND  IMMERSION 

OF  THE  FACE  IN  WATER 

Slowing  of  the  heart  rate,  is  a  response  to  apneic  diving  which  man 
has  in  common  with  many  other  vertebrate  species.  In  the  present 
study,  bradycardia  was  observed  in  ten  subjects  during  simple  breath 
hold  tests  and  in  eight  subjects  during  immersion  of  the  face  in  water. 
There  were  no  observable  differences  in  mean  blood  pressure.  While 
pulse  patterns  were  irregular,  the  amplitude  of  the  pulse  wave  was  re- 
duced to  one-half  its  original  size  during  breath  holding  and  one-third 
its  original  size  during  face  immersion.  Skin  resistance  response  stopped 
immediately  upon  immersion  of  the  face  in  water.  Position  of  the  body 
did  not  have  a  detectable  effect  on  bradycardia. 


50 


Burkhalter.  Albert  Floyd  (Psychology,  June,  1971) 

ATTITUDE  CHANGE  AS  A  FUNCTION  OF  COMPARATIVE 
METHODS  OF  INDUCING  COGNITIVE  DISSONANCE 

This  study  investigates  the  problem  of  the  concomitant  existence 
of  conflicting  attitudes  within  the  individual  due  to  the  temporal  ex- 
periencing of  these  conflicting  attitudes.  It  was  hypothesized  that  a 
communication  which  would  force  the  individual  to  experience  an 
attitude  toward  pollution,  concomitantly  with  other  conflicting  attitudes, 
would  result  in  a  shift  in  attitude  toward  pollution. 

Forty-three  subjects  in  the  experimental  group  were  shown  a  set 
of  sixty  slides  of  pollution  accompanied  by  a  narrative  contrived  to 
conflict  with  the  visually  presented  stimuli.  Forty-seven  subjects  in  the 
control  group  were  shown  the  same  set  of  sixty  slides  accompanied  by 
a  narrative  contrived  to  agree  with  the  visually  presented  stimuli. 

Attitudes  toward  pollution  were  measured  by  means  of  an  assess- 
ment instrument  adapted  after  the  Likert  scale  (1932).  Attitudes  of 
both  groups  toward  pollution  were  measured  six  weeks  before  presen- 
tation of  the  stimuli  and  again  one  day  after  presentation  of  the  stimuli. 
The  data  were  analysed  using  an  analysis  of  variance  design.  Results 
showed  no  significant  differences  (F=.028,  P^.05)  between  the  two 
groups.  These  results  failed  to  reject  the  null  hypothesis  at  the  0.05 
level  of  significance. 

The  Student's  "t"  test  computed  using  the  before-and-after  design 
was  computed  for  the  experimental  and  control  groups.  The  results 
showed  significant  differences  to  exist  for  both  groups. 

Dejamette,  James  Edward  (Psychology,  June,  1971) 

HYPNOTIC  SUSCEPTIBILITY  AND  RELIGIOUS  EXPERIENCE 

The  Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hypnotic  SusceptibiUty  was  adminis- 
tered to  185  volunteers  for  hypnosis  research  at  West  Georgia  College. 
Twenty  three  students  scoring  between  0-4  and  26  scoring  between  10- 
12  were  given  a  questionnaire  designed  to  elicit  information  regarding 
their  religious  background  and  experiences,  and  follow-up  interviews 
were  conducted  with  students  who  professed  to  have  undergone  a  sal- 
vation or  conversion  experience.  Low  hypnotic  susceptibility 
was  associated  with  perceiving  one's  mother  as  slightly  religious  or 
not  religious  (p.<.05),  and  with  being  either  a  Roman  Catholic  or  a 
"saved"  Protestant  (p.<.01).  When  interviewed,  all  of  the  high-suscepti- 
ble group  who  professed  having  been  "saved"  reported  that  the  exper- 
ience had  been  characterized  by  profound  experiential  phenomena, 
while  changes  of  a  similar  magnitude  were  reported  by  none  of  the  low- 
susceptible  group. 

51 


Grant.  Daniel  Hicky  (Psychology,  June,  1971) 

AN  EVALUATING  SURVEY  OF  THE  CENTER, 

A  TAX-SUPPORTED  DRUG  REHABILITATION  FACILITY 

IN  SAVANNAH,  GEORGIA 

The  purpose  of  this  research  was  to  evaluate  The  Center,  the  only 
tax-supported  drug  rehabilitation  facility  in  Georgia.  A  history  of  The 
Center  is  given  describing  incidents  which  affected  change  as  well  as 
programs  and  how  they  have  transformed  into  the  present  approach 
to  drug  abuse.  A  questionnaire  survey  provided  a  history  of  the  clients 
as  well  as  obtain  a  client  evaluation  of  The  Center.  The  survey  also  gave 
a  descriptive  breakdown  of  the  family  situation  including  socio-eco- 
nomic level,  parents  use  of  drugs,  family  cohesiveness  and  other  impor- 
tant factors.  Weaknesses  of  the  Center  were  pointed  out  and 
recommendations  were  made  to  strengthen  the  program. 

Odom.  James  Childs.  Jr.  (Biology,  June,  1971) 

THE  EFFECT  OF  BLUE  WAVELENGTHS  OF  LIGHT 
ON  ALTERING  THE  SEX  RATIO  OF  HAMSTERS 

The  purpose  of  the  investication  was  to  determine  whether  or  not 
blue  wavelengths  of  light  are  effective  in  altering  the  sex  ratio  of  ham- 
sters from  normal.  To  this  end  two  environmental  chambers,  or  en- 
vironators,  were  used.  In  one,  the  experimental  chamber,  a  blue  filter 
was  used  which  transmitted  light  in  the  range  of  420-555  nanometers 
(nm)  with  64%  transmission.  The  other,  the  control  chamber,  was  fitted 
with  a  plastic  nondeteriorating  filter,  which  transmitted  76%  of  the 
light  without  peaks  from  300  nm  past  far  red.  The  photoperiod  was 
set  in  both  chambers  at  10  hours  of  darkness  and  14  hours  of  light. 
Into  each  environator  was  placed  four  brother-sister  pairs  of  virgin 
hamsters  which  were  chosen  in  a  random  fashion  from  litters  having 
at  least  two  males  and  two  females.  Each  pair  of  hamsters  in  the  ex- 
perimental chamber  were  litter-mates  with  a  pair  in  the  control 
chamber.  The  experiment  ran  from  late  summer  until  December  31, 
1970.  Statistical  analysis  of  the  results  was  carried  out  using  the  G-ad- 
justed  test  for  goodness  of  fit  and  a  two  by  two  test  of  independence 
using  the  adjusted  G-statistic.  The  results  of  the  test  for  goodness  of 
fit  indicated  that  the  sex  ratio  of  the  experimental  chamber  hamsters 
deviated  significantly  from  that  of  the  control  chamber  hamsters.  The 
test  of  independence,  however,  revealed  no  relationship  between  treat- 
ment and  sex.  On  the  basis  of  this  last  test  the  null  hypothesis  that 
light  has  no  effect  on  sex  ratio  in  hamsters  was  accepted. 


52 


Smith,  Gerald  Judson  (English,  June,  1971) 

THE  AGRARIAN  THOUGHT  OF  JOHN  DONALD  WADE 

John  Donald  Wade,  a  member  of  the  Nashville  Agrarians,  a  contrib- 
utor to  the  1930  symposium  I'll  Take  My  Stand:  The  South  and  The 
Agrarian  Tradition,  author  of  the  definitive  biography  of  Augustus 
Baldwin  Longstreet  and  a  number  of  other  items,  had  distinctive  ideas 
about  the  relation  of  the  South  to  the  modern  world.  This  thesis  delin- 
eates Wade's  ideas  about  the  South  and  the  modern  world:  He  felt  that 
modern  industrialism  had  become  a  quasi-religion,  lauding  two  demi- 
gods. Speed  and  Mass.  He  thought  that  these  gods  were  rushing  the 
nation  into  complete  mechanization  and  ruin.  Wade  believed  that  the 
agrarian,  while  unable  to  proscribe  industry  totally,  must  keep  alive 
the  amenities  of  life  in  the  face  of  these  dehumanizing  demi-gods;  a 
perpetuation  of  the  Southern  or  Agrarian  tradition  would  serve  as  a 
barrier  to  such  an  eventuality. 

Cooper,  Sidney  Ross  (Psychology,  August,  1971) 

LOWERING  THE  AUDITORY  THRESHOLD  WITH  HYPNOSIS 

Forty-eight  subjects  scoring  six  or  above  on  the  Harvard  Group 
Scale  of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility  were  administered  a  Beltone  Audio- 
gram as  an  initial  base-line  measure  of  hearing  acuity.  They  were  then 
randomly  divided  into  four  groups  of  twelve.  Group  I  was  given  no 
experimental  treatment  before  being  re-tested.  Group  II  was  given  only 
a  standard  hypnotic  induction.  Group  III  was  hypnotized  and  requested 
to  "try  to  hear  better"  before  being  re-tested  under  hypnosis.  The  sub- 
jects in  Group  IV  were  hypnotized  and  given  suggestions  to  the  effect 
that  their  hearing  acuity  on  the  post-test  measure  would  be  greatly  en- 
hanced under  hypnosis. 

All  groups  manifested  a  significant  decrease  in  post-test  auditory 
thresholds  as  an  effect  of  practice.  Groups  III  and  IV  manifested  a 
greater  decline  in  threshold  than  did  Groups  I  and  II:  and  this  decline 
was  greater  for  Group  IV  than  for  Group  III.  Group  II,  however,  mani- 
fested a  significantly  greater  post-test  auditory  threshold  than 
did  Group  I. 

The  results  support  the  conclusion  that  the  auditory  threshold  may 
be  lowered  by  means  of  hypnotic  suggestion.  Implications  of  the  present 
findings  for  hypnotic  theory  are  discussed,  and  suggestions  for  future 
research  are  indicated. 


53 


DePhillippo.  Samuel  M.  (Psychology.  August.  1971) 

THE  PROCESS  OF  A  GROUP  MAKING  ITS  OWN  UNCONSCIOUS 

The  creating  of  a  group  unconscious  is  a  phenomenon  which  occurs 
whenever  a  group  fails  to  observe  and  notice  its  own  patterns  of  par- 
ticipation which,  nevertheless,  shape  and  affect  the  future  movement 
of  the  group  process.  The  process  of  a  group  which  creates  its  own 
unconscious  is  neither  a  theory  nor  a  belief,  but  rather,  is  a  pro- 
cess which  is  directly  observable  in  a  group's  patterns  of  participation. 
As  the  group  creates  its  own  unconscious,  everything  in  the  group  con- 
text feeds  into  the  unconscious,  imprisoning  the  group  in  its  very 
patterns  which  it  is  not  noticing.  The  group  unconscious  as  an  on-going 
process  is  a  new  dimension  for  exploration  of  an  area  that  is  in  great 
need  of  simplification  and  refinement. 

A  number  of  examples  will  be  presented  which  will  signify  the  pro- 
cess of  the  group  unconscious.  An  elaborate  description  of  gossip  in 
relation  to  the  process  of  the  unconscious  will  illustrate  a  more  univer- 
sal process  operating  in  groups.  The  effects  of  the  group  unconscious 
upon  our  individual  lives  outside  the  group  are  far-reaching  and  influ- 
ential when  the  individual  fails  to  observe  his  group  participation.  The 
personal  unconscious  may  be  the  results  of  the  group  unconscious  which 
has  affected  us  without  our  awareness. 

Downing.  Theodore  Douglas  (Psychology.  August,  1971) 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MUSIC  AS  ENTERTAINMENT 

This  thesis  examines  81  popular  songs  chosen  by  the  listeners  of 
an  AM  radio  station  in  Atlanta  as  the  most  popular  songs  of  1970.  As 
a  means  of  examining  the  communication  of  the  songs,  special  attention 
is  given  to  the  values  expressed  in  them.  The  relationship  of  values  to 
pleasure  and  pain  is  explored,  and  the  nature  of  suffering  reflected  in 
the  songs  is  examined.  Two  processes  of  listening  — listening  for  pleasure 
and  listening  to  learn  — are  examined,  and  the  nature  of  entertainment 
is  questioned.  Attention  is  paid  to  the  concept  of  morbid  and  healthy 
suffering  in  relation  to  music,  and  it  is  questioned  whether  the  songs 
have  potential  to  promote  good  health  in  the  listener.  Finally,  an  exam- 
ination of  the  healthy  and  the  unhealthy  songs  is  enlarged  to  include 
the  entire  realm  of  music. 
Forsyth,  Charles  Frederick  (Psychology,  August,  1971) 

COGNITIVE  HETRODYNING 

Twelve  female  subjects  who  were  highly  hypnotizable  and  capable 


.S4 


of  attaining  an  age  regression  with  revivilication  of  previous  experi- 
ences under  hypnosis  were  utilized  in  this  experiment.  The  purpose 
was  to  determine  whether  by  the  use  of  a  special  hypnotic  technique 
called  cognitive  hetrodyning,  the  subjects  would  be  able  to  improve 
their  scholastic  achievement. 

Under  deep  hypnosis,  the  subjects  were  given  suggestions  aimed 
at  producing  a  state  of  extremely  pleasant  affect.  This  was  then  related 
to  the  attainment  of  a  specific,  previously  agreed  upon  scholastic  goal, 
such  as  attaining  the  dean's  list  or  graduation  with  honors,  by  telling 
the  subjects  that  they  would  feel  just  this  good  again  when  the  goal 
was  achieved. 

Pre-test  and  post-test  measures  were  obtained  on  the  French  Test 
of  Insight,  a  projective  test  designed  to  measure  achievement  motiva- 
tion, and  the  16  P.F.  Test,  a  comprehensive  factor-analytic  personality 
profile.  The  results  of  the  experiment  indicated  no  significant  increase 
between  pre-test  and  post-test  scores  on  the  French  Test  of  Insight. 
However,  there  was  a  significant  increase  in  the  ego  strength  factor  of 
16  P.F.  Test  (p.:=.005),  and  a  significant  decrease  in  the  ergic  tension 
factor  on  this  icst  (p.  =.005).  A  follow-up  investigation  of  the  subjects' 
scholastic  performance  is  planned. 

Fountain.  Howard  W.  (History.  August.  1971) 

PRINCE  ALBERT  AND  THE  GREAT  EXHIBITION  OF  1851 

The  British  people  turned  their  attention  to  Hyde  Park  on  May  1, 
1851.  Great  Britain  had  invited  the  nations  of  the  world  to  a  festival 
of  peaceful  competition  called  the  Great  Exhibition.  Prince  Albert, 
a  man  of  pre-eminent  wisdom,  of  philosophic  mind,  and  with  the  power 
of  leadership,  had  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  enterprise  and  led 
it  to  a  triumphant  success. 

The  Great  Exhibition  was  a  success  because  its  purpose  meant  many 
things  to  many  people.  It  reflected  the  main  influences  upon  mid-Vic- 
torian Britain  in  1851:  prosperity,  progress,  national  pride,  and  trust 
in  British  institutions.  The  Exhibition  unified  such  divergent  under- 
currents as  the  Free  Trade  Movement,  concern  for  the  working  classes, 
educational  reform  and  the  world  peace  movement  into  a  solid  base 
of  support.  Many  of  the  Victorian  ideas  seem  guileless  by  today's  stan- 
dards, but  in  1851  anything  seemed  possible.  A  decade  of  monumental 
progress  gave  a  prince  and  his  subjects  the  confidence  that  they  could 
do  the  impossible. 

Joseph  Paxton  was  entrusted  with  the  design  and  construction  of 
the  Exhibition  building.  He  and  his  contractors  created  a  miracle  in 
Hyde  Park.  The  Crystal  Palace,  as  it  came  to  be  called,  was  an  archi- 
tectural wonder.  It  was  the  first  large  structure  ever  built  from  pre- 
fabricated parts  of  iron  and  glass. 

55 


The  fascinating  exhibits  drew  such  numbers  of  visitors  that  the 
Great  Exhibition  became  a  success  beyond  the  wildest  dreams  of  its 
promoters.  It  proved  the  predictions  of  critics  to  be  totally  wrong.  Over 
6,000,000  visitors  came  to  the  Crystal  Palace  during  its  140  admittance 
days.  Every  exhibit  seemed  to  please,  astonish,  and  bewilder  the  visitor 
by  its  range  and  magnificence.  Few  visitors  went  away  disappointed. 

The  Great  Exhibition  was  more  than  a  public  and  financial  success. 
It  made  genuine  contributions  to  industrial  technology,  architectural 
and  artistic  design,  technical  education,  and  the  welfare  of  the  laboring 
classes.  The  Great  Exhibition  was  more  than  a  show.  It  was  a  unique 
event,  the  first  of  the  world's  fairs.  Its  imitators  are  little  remembered 
because  they  left  little  that  was  lasting  whereas  the  Great  Exhibition 
continued  to  benefit  Great  Britain.  All  things  considered.  Prince  Albert 
had  done  well  by  his  adoptive  country. 

Hobgood.  Larry  Gene  (Biology,  August,  1971) 

A  STUDY  OF  HETERCHROMIA  IN  THE  SYRIAN  HAMSTER 

Heterochromia  was  studied  in  the  amber-gold  belted  Syrian  ham- 
ster (Mesocricetus  auratus  auratus).  Specific  phenotypic  crosses  were 
made  and  the  inheritance  of  heterochromia  was  investigated.  These 
crosses  yielded  267  progeny  of  which  72  were  heterochromic.  A  genetic 
model  was  proposed  for  the  inheritance  of  heterochromia  based  on  both 
recessive  and  dominant  epistatic  relationships  among  four  gene  pairs. 
In  addition,  structural  observations  revealed  a  severe  reduction  of 
choroidal  pigmentation  in  the  affected  eye  of  the  animal  showing 
heterochromia. 

Kennedy,  William  D.  (Biology,  August,  1971) 

NUTRIENT  AND  SUBSTRATE  CONDITIONS 
FOR  THE  GROWTH  OF  ANABAENA  IN  VITRO 

Since  Anabaena  is  frequently  a  problem  in  water  supplies  and  ground 
waters,  a  study  of  its  growth  requirements  was  considered  desirable. 
Anabaena  wisconsinense  Prescott  was  cultured  in  Bold's  Basal  Me- 
dium. Subsequent  modifications  of  the  nutrient  medium  and  the  pro- 
vision of  a  solid  substrate  on  which  it  could  grow  supported  more 
vigorous  growth  of  the  alga.  Variations  in  nitrate  and  phosphate  con- 
centration did  not  influence  growth. 


56 


Maddox,  Jerry  M.  (Biology,  August,  1971) 

ULTRASTRUCTURAL  VARIATION  IN  LIVER  MITOCHONDRIA 
OF  THE  HOMOZYGOUS  GREY-LETHAL  (gl/gl)  MOUSE 

An  electron  microscopic  study  was  carried  out  on  liver  tissue  from 
six  normal  and  four  homozygous  grey-lethal  (gl/gl)  mice  to  determine 
if  ultrastructural  differences  existed  in  mitochondria  and  other  cell 
features.  The  mean  sizes  of  mitochondria  from  mutant  mice  were  larger 
than  those  of  normal  mice  of  the  corresponding  age.  Glycogen  content 
appeared  less  in  grey-lethal  mouse  liver  than  in  normal  mouse  liver. 
Significance  of  these  findings  is  discussed  in  relation  to  parathyroid 
hormone,  calcium  and  the  pleiotropic  activity  of  the  gl  gene. 

Norris,  Trudy  Peterson  (English,  August,  1971) 

A  STUDY  OF  REGIONALISM  AND  FLANNERY  O'CONNOR: 
TWO  SOUTHERN  CHARACTER  TYPES 

Regionalism,  a  literary  movement  long  in  maturing,  began  early  in 
the  history  of  America  and  evolved  through  several  literary  stages,  con- 
tinually broadening  its  scope  to  encompass  America's  hopes  for  a  com- 
prehensive national  literature.  The  ascendancy  of  regionalism 
has  passed  from  one  section  to  another  to  have  now  established  its 
center  in  the  South,  the  home  of  some  of  the  most  penetrating  twentieth- 
century  writers  in  America,  almost  all  of  whom  have  aligned  themselves 
with  this  movement  in  their  use  of  the  concrete  particulars  of  the  life 
around  them  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  mankind.  One  of  these  is 
the  Georgia  author.  Flannery  O'Connor. 

In  her  two  volumes  of  short  stories,  A  Good  Man  Is  Hard  to  Find 
and  Everything  That  Rises  Must  Converge,  and  her  two  novels.  Wise 
Blood  and  The  Violent  Bear  It  Away.  Miss  O'Connor  has  succeeded  in 
transmitting  her  theological  vision  of  reality  through  using  the  actuali- 
ties of  her  region,  particularly  through  the  use  of  two  Southern  char- 
acter types:  the  backwoods  prophet  and  the  Southern  matron.  The 
backwoods  prophet  in  his  religious  obsession  and  the  Southern  matron 
in  her  gentility  are  Southern  character  types.  Their  basic  regional 
quality  is  their  dialect  through  which  their  social  class,  prejudices,  and 
indeed  the  condensed  history  of  the  South  is  presented.  However, 
through  these  two  character  types  Miss  O'Connor  presents  more  than 
the  South:  she  presents  mankind  — mankind  in  relation  to  God. 

Reese,  Anna  Eller  (Biology,  August,  1971) 

THE  FLORAL  MORPHOLOGY  AND  EMBRYO  SAC 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  N AND  IN  A  DOMESTIC  A 

An  examination  of  the  gross  morphology  of  floral  parts  together 
with  a  microscopic  study  of  the  pistil  and  ovule  of  Nandina  domestica 

57 


Thunb.  revealed  that  the  flowers  are  complete,  actinomorphic  and 
hypogynous.  The  perianth  is  composed  of  thirty  to  thirty-six  caducous 
sepals  and  six  petals.  The  anthers  are  basifixed  and  four-celled,  form 
tetrahedral  microspore  tetrads,  and  dehisce  longitudinally.  The  pistil 
has  a  two-  or  three-lipped  stigma,  a  style  with  canal  containing  trans- 
mission tissue,  and  an  ovary  with  a  single  parietal  placenta  containing 
two  to  three  anatropous  ovules.  The  ovules  are  bitegmic  and  crassi- 
nucellar  and  contain  a  Polygonum  embryo  sac.  The  presence  of  a 
hypostase  and  endothelium  in  the  ovule  was  noted.  The  paraffin  em- 
bedding technique  was  utilized  for  microscopic  study  and  sections  were 
microtomed  at  12  microns. 

Shapiro,  Harvey  Lee  (Psychology,  August,  1971) 

AN  EXPERIMENTAL  MATHEMATICS 
PSYCHOLOGY  PROGRAM 

This  paper  is  a  study  of  an  experimental  mathematics  psychology 
program  taught  by  two  professors  during  the  Fall  1970  at  West  Georgia 
College.  The  purpose  of  this  curriculum  was  to  help  students  adapt 
and  live  in  our  rapidly  changing  world.  The  professors  used  several 
techniques.  First,  they  proposed  to  break  down  the  compartmentaliz- 
ing of  subjects  by  jointly  teaching  mathematics  and  psychology.  Second, 
they  expected  to  apply  psychology  practically  to  mathematics;  to  be 
able  to  discuss  and  gain  understanding  as  to  why  people  are  afraid  of 
mathematics.  Finally,  they  planned  to  use  psychological  techniques 
to  help  students  learn  mathematics.  They  then  discussed  the  psycho- 
logical techniques  and  why  they  did  or  did  not  work.  Both  professors 
remained  in  the  classroom  for  a  two  hour  period  each  day.  A  mathe- 
matics graduate  student  and  a  psychology  graduate  student  assisted 
in  the  teaching  and  grading.  The  students  were  expected  to  master  the 
materials  to  a  point  of  confidence  where  if  it  were  taught  in  the  tra- 
ditional way  they  would  have  received  an  "A"  in  the  course. 

The  results  of  the  mathematics  psychology  experiment  are  mixed. 
Since  this  was  an  experimental  program,  much  time  and  energy  was 
spent  in  preparation  of  the  material  and  in  discussions  as  to  how  it 
should  be  presented.  The  professors  involved  felt  that  the  teaching  of 
an  experimental  mathematics  psychology,  or  any  science  area  with 
psychology,  is  an  extremely  good  idea  but  that  only  one  professor  need 
teach  the  two  classes  and  that  the  students  should  have  the  goals  and 
aims  of  such  a  program  clearly  explained.  This  type  of  program  could 
be  advantageous  to  both  the  faculty  member  and  to  the  students.  Un- 
fortunately there  is  no  known  way  to  measure  accurately  the  advan- 
tages gained  by  both. 


58 


Siilh  Jimoon  (English,  August,  1971) 

STATUES  AGAINST  THE  SKY: 

VIRGINIA  WOOLF'S  CONCEPT  OF  LIFE  AND  INDIVIDUALITY 

AS  SHOWN  IN  THE  WA  VES 

Virginia  Woolfs  The  Waves  is  not  an  incoherent  and  illogical  ex- 
periment in  a  new  form,  as  has  been  supposed  by  some.  Instead,  it  is 
a  sincere  attempt  to  understand  human  life  from  its  very  source.  The 
descriptive  passages  in  italics  provide  parallelism  between  human  life 
and  the  universal  cycle  of  cessation  and  continuation,  thus  enlarging 
the  horizon  from  a  man-centered  world  on  to  the  cosmos.  The  mono- 
logues by  six  characters,  which  make  up  the  body  of  the  book,  reveal 
the  characters"  personalities  and  their  relationship  to  each  other  and 
the  world.  The  form,  though  rigid,  is  a  fitting  vehicle  for  the  content. 
Through  the  highly  regulated  monologues  of  her  fictional  characters, 
Mrs.  Woolf  explores  the  cause  of  individual  isolation  from  the  core  of 
the  problem. 

The  six  characters,  Neville,  Louis,  Bernard,  Susan,  Jinny  and  Rhoda, 
each  have  different  sensitivities,  different  ideas  about  and  reactions 
to  the  world  and  different  modes  of  personal  fulfillment.  Since  the  char- 
acters thus  differ,  isolation  is  inevitable  for  them.  However,  when  people 
are  willing  to  sacrifice  a  portion  of  their  insistent  ego,  they  can  have 
a  moment  of  complete  union.  The  significance  of  the  silent  seventh 
character,  Percival,  is  that  he  is  a  unifying  force  because,  being  a  "nat- 
urally truthful"  person,  he  has  no  ego  to  indulge  in  or  insist  upon.  His 
influence,  therefore,  is  creative.  The  six  characters  represent  the  variety 
of  human  personalities,  and  their  isolation  and  union  are  symbolic  of 
those  of  all  men.  The  Waves,  however,  is  not  a  lamentation  for  the  sepa- 
ration of  human  beings  but  a  penetrating  study  of  the  cause  and  result 
of  men's  isolation,  which  is  the  condition  of  all  human  existence. 

Wash.  Lee  W.  (Biology,  August,  1971) 

BIOCHEMICAL  AND  ULTRASTRUCTURAL  STUDIES  OF  A  PIG- 
MENT-DEFICIENT MUTANT  OF  SOYBEAN,  GLYCINE  MAX  (L.) 

MERRILL 

Comparison  was  made  of  ultrastructural  and  pigment  differences 
among  the  three  phenotypes  of  the  Yn  locus  in  soybean.  Glycine  max 
(L.'  Merrill. 

The  heterozygote,  Ynyn.  had  about  35%  of  the  normal  chlorophyll 
content:  the  homo/vaous  mutant,  VnVn.  had  about  4%  of  the  normal. 
Etiolated  plant  cells  showed  normal  prolamellar  body  structure  in  all 
phenotypes,  while  the  light-grown  plants  showed  sharply  decreasing 
grana  formation  or  stacking  in  the  lamellae.  The  Yn  locus  is  apparent- 
ly involved  in  the  conversion  of  protochlorphyll  (ide)  to  chlorophyll  a. 

S9 


McMichael,  Herbert  Walter  (Psychology,  December,  1971) 
TOWARD  A  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  LISTENING 

This  paper  is  concerned  with  the  phenomenon  of  the  inner  voice 
of  wisdom  and  the  way  in  which  we  listen  to  it.  The  paper  explores  the 
psychology  of  listening  through  a  poem  and  an  artistic  expression  and 
shows  that  within  the  clear  statement  of  a  problem  lies  the  solution.  It 
also  shows  that  the  inner  voice  makes  this  statement  in  order  to  provide 
oneself  with  the  necessary  avenues  to  understand  the  problem  and  facili- 
tate psychological  balance.  Lastly,  the  paper  claims  that  the  way  we 
listen  to  ourselves  is  the  way  we  listen  to  others.  This  state  of  conscious- 
ness, therefore,  shapes  the  world  within  and  outside  of  us. 

Nielsen,  Roger  Knight  (Psychology,  December,  1971) 

CREATIVITY  AND  INNOCENCE 

This  thesis  was  an  experiential  one,  which  means  that  the  author 
relied  primarily  upon  his  insights  and  observations  in  his  examination 
of  creativity  and  innocence.  Innocence  is  fundamental  to  creativity; 
to  be  innocent  means  to  die  to  the  past  and  to  the  future.  When  one 
understands  the  obstacles  to  his  innocence,  he  can  get  in  touch  with 
it.  In  this  way  we  can  understand  and  break  free  from  conditioning. 

Insights  are  also  fundamental  to  creativity.  The  cultivation  of  one's 
insights  leads  one  to  a  state  of  freshness  and  innocence.  Each  of  us  is 
born  with  innocence,  therefore  each  of  us  has  the  ability  to  be  creative 
simply  by  getting  in  touch  with  our  innocence. 

Payne,  John  Lewis,  Jr.  (Psychology,  December,  1971) 

TEACHER-COUNSELOR  CARING:  ITS  EFFECT 

ON  THE  ACHIEVEMENT  AND  GROWTH  OF 

HIGH-RISK  JUNIOR  COLLEGE  STUDENTS 

The  influence  of  personal  interest  and  attention  on  the  academic 
performance  of  49  first  semester  low-achievinc  iunior  coUeize  freshmen 
was  measured  bv  comparinc  GPA's,  before  and  after  the  test  period, 
with  a  control  group  of  49  students  who  had  a  comparable  initial  aca- 
demic standing.  Students  in  the  test  group  were  given  individual  coun- 
seling, tutorial  and  remedial  study  help,  encounter  group  experience, 
and  participation  in  cultural  exposure  opportunities.  The  investigation 
hypothesized  that  all  of  these  forms  of  attention  would  be  experienced 
by  the  student  as  care  and  concern  both  for  his  life  and  for  his  success 
in  college,  and  that  he  would  improve  in  his  academic  standing  and  show 
signs  of  personality  growth.  Results  show  a  positive  relationship. 


60 


Barker.  Nancy  L.  (Guidance  and  Counseling.  August.  1971) 

GROUP  GUIDANCE  WITH  EIGHT  DEAF  STUDENTS 

Eight  deaf  teenage  girls  from  the  Georgia  School  for  the  Deaf 
participated  in  six  weeks  of  group  guidance.  The  objectives  of  the  group 
were: 

1.  To  keep  students  from  being  suspended  because  of  behavior 
problems. 

2.  To  keep  students"  names  on  the  honor  roll  so  that  privileges 
would  not  be  lost. 

3.  To  help  students  realistically  evaluate  themselves. 

4.  To  help  students  become  more  co-operative  in  the  classroom/ 
dormitory. 

5.  To  help  students  have  a  better  relationship  with  their  parents. 

6.  To  help  students  develop  more  socially  acceptable  behavior. 

7.  To  aid  students  in  money  management. 

8.  To  help  students  increase  understanding  on  subjects  of  their 
interest. 

The  results  were  that  all  eight  students  were  in  school,  were  not 
suspended  at  the  end  of  the  six  weeks,  and  were  on  the  honor  list.  It 
was  concluded  that  the  students  did  not  realistically  evaluate  themselves 
and  there  was  little  improvement  in  the  area  of  co-operativeness.  It 
was  difficult  to  evaluate  whether  students  had  improved  their  relation- 
ship with  their  parents  since  all  of  the  parents  lived  a  great  distance 
from  the  school.  There  was  improvement  in  the  area  of  socially  ac- 
ceptable behavior  and  monev  mana-jement. 

In  case  studies  done  on  each  of  the  group  members  it  was  evident 
that  behavior  problems  can  easily  be  detected  in  the  primary  grades. 
These  problems  should  be  dealt  with  by  a  qualified  counselor  in  these 
formative  years.  Group  work  with  deaf  teenagers  should  be  limited  to 
not  more  than  five  members. 

Chapman.  Thomas  J..  Jr.  (Guidance  and  Counseling.  August.  1971) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  USING  ROLE  PLAY  IN  A  GROUP  TO  IMPROVE 
INTERPERSONAL  RELATIONSHIPS  AND  SELF-ESTEEM 

This  study  examines  the  relationship  of  one"s  self  perception  (actual- 
ideal)  before  and  after  participation  in  group  sessions  using  role-play. 
Eight  junior  high  school  students  reported  their  perceived  self  and  ideal 
self  concepts  using  the  Self-Ideal  Ordinary  0  Sort.  The  students  per- 
ceived themselves  with  increased  self  esteem  after  the  sessions,  and 
there  was  significantly  less  incongruence  between  the  self  and  ideal- 
self  concepts. 


Hodges.  Coy  L.  (Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1971) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF  THE  STATE  BOARD 

EXAMINATION  SCORES  FOR  PRACTICAL  NURSES  AND 

LEARNING  ABILITY  SCORES  ON  THE  GENERAL  APTITUDE 

TEST  BATTERY 

This  study  established  a  correlation  coefficent  between  State  Board 
Examination  Scores  and  Learning  Ability  Scores  (G)  on  the  General 
Aptitude  Test. Battery  (GATE)  among  practical  nursing  graduates  of 
an  area  vocational-technical  school.  A  significant  correlation  of  .56  was 
found.  A  regression  table  was  formulated  to  predict  State  Board  Scores 
from  the  (G)  Scores  on  the  GATB. 

McClure,  Barbara  K.  (Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1971) 

HELPING  TEACHERS  BECOME  AWARE  OF 
THE  DEVELOPMENTAL  NEEDS  OF  CHILDREN 

This  study  sought  to  sensitize  teachers  (subjects)  to  the  relationship 
between  a  child's  development  and  his  readiness  for  learning  by  pre- 
senting and  discussing  the  developmental  stages  of  children  and  how 
these  stages  can  enhance  or  impede  a  child's  readiness  for  learning. 
To  reinforce  these  concepts  each  subject  was  taught,  through  demon- 
stration, how  to  administer  and  evaluate  a  developmental  readiness 
test.  The  subjects  administered  and  evaluated  three  hundred  tests  and, 
in  follow-up  discussions,  vocally  expressed  increased  awareness  and 
understanding  of  child  development. 

Webb,  Martha  G.  (Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1971) 

THE  SHORT-TERM  EFFECT  OF  READING,  DEVELOPMENTAL 

ENGLISH,  AND  GROUP  AND  INDIVIDUAL  GUIDANCE  ON  THE 

SELF-CONCEPT  OF  NINTH-GRADE  COMMUNICATION-SKILL 

DEFICIENT  STUDENTS  IN  A  RECENTLY  INTEGRATED 

HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  short-term  effect  of  group  and  individual  guidance  on  four 
classes  of  71  ninth-grade  communication-skill  deficient  students  in  a 
recently  integrated  school  was  explored,  with  the  Piers-Harris  Self 
Concept  Scale  as  a  pre-  and  posttest  to  determine,  with  t  tests,  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  means  of  the  control  and  experimental  groups, 
at  the  critical  value  of  .05.  Although  no  significant  differences  existed 
in  original  permutations,  there  were  indications  (confirmed  by  subse- 
quent t  tests  with  increase,  no  increase  or  decrease  scores)  that  reading 
affected  change  in  some  students,  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  a  fail- 
ure to  affect  a  student  positively  had  a  negative  effect  on  self-concept. 

62 


ANNUAL  FACULTY  BffiLIOGRAPHY 
AS  OF  JANUARY  1,  1972 


Arons.  Myron  M. 

"Psycho-Ecology  from  Dr.  Stockman  to  Present."  Paper  read  at 
Notre  Dame  — St.  Mary's  Universities.  South  Bend.  Indiana,  Mar., 
1971. 

"Creativity  and  the  Non-Radical  Revolution."  Paper  read  at  Univer- 
sity of  Prince  Edward  Island,  Charlottetown.  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land, Canada,  Apr..  1971. 

"Culture  and  the  Humanistic  Explosion."  Paper  read  at  the  Second 
International  Invitational  Conference  of  Humanistic  Psychology, 
Wurzburg,  Germany,  Jul.,  1971. 

"Philosophical  Basis  for  Educational  Changes  in  Psychology."  Paper 
read  at  the  Meeting  of  Icelandic  Psychologists  and  Educators 
Panel  on  Humanistic  Psychology  and  Education,  Revkjavik.  Ice- 
land, Jul.,  1971. 

I, 

"Humanistic  Psychology:  Applied  Education."  Paper  read  at  the 
International  Conference  of  Applied  Psychology,  Liege,  Belgium, 
Till      1Q71 

The  followint?  four  papers  were  read  at  the  Ninth  Annual  Confer- 
ence of  Humanistic  Psvcholoev.  Washington.  D.C..  Sep.,  1971. 
"Virtue,  Necessity  and  Fortune."  '"Questioning  Our  Assumptions." 
"Comments  on  the  University  Without  Walls."  "Humanistic  Pro- 
gram in  Process:  West  Georgia  College." 

Auble,  Joel  M. 

"Two  Concepfiof '^blieation."  Unpublished  Ph.D.  dissertation  (phi- 
losophy ,  Northwestern  University,  1971. 

Axelberd.  Frederick  J. 

"Attitudes  of  Elementary  School  Teachers  toward  Counselinc  am' 
Guidance  in  the  Elementary  Schools."  Journal  of  Experimental 
Education.  XXXVII.  No    3  (I9h9'.   1-4. 

"One  Man's  Viewpoint."  Athens  Magazine.  III.  No.  2  (197U.  17-18. 

"Effects  of  Growth  Groups  on  Self  Concept  as  Measured  by  the 
Tennessee  Self  Concept  Scale."  Paper  read  at  the  American  Per- 
sonnel and  Guidance  Association.  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  Sprine, 
1969. 

"Prologue  to  Micro-Lab  Experiences  in  Positive  Health."  Paper  read 
at  the  American  Personnel  and  Guidance  Association,  Adantic 

63 


City,  New  Jersey,  Mar.,  1971. 
"Fantastic  Group  Experiences:  Fostering  Personal  Growth  Through 

Fantasies."  Paper  read  at  the  American  Psychological  Association, 

Washington,  D.C.,  Sep.,  1971. 
"Risking  My  Craziness:  Letting  Go."  Paper  read  at  the  Association 

for  Humanistic  Psychology,  Washington,  D.C.,  Sep..  1971. 

Belt.  Bobby  D. 

"Radiative  Capture  of  Deuterons  by  Protons:  Evidence  for  a  T='/2 
Resonance  in  ^He."  With  M.L.  Halbert,  A.  van  der  Woude,  and 
C.R.  Bingham.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Physical  Society,  II,  No.  4 
(1971),  138. 

"Evidence  for  a  T='/2  Resonance  in  the  ^He  System,"  With  A.  van 
der  Woude,  M.L.  Halbert,  and  C.R.  Bingham.  Physical  Review 
Letters,  XV,  No.  15  (1971),  909-12. 

"Observation  of  a  T='/2  Resonance  in  3  He  by  H  (d,  ^He)  8."  With 
A.  van  der  Woude,  M.L.  Ha.bert,  and  C.R.  Bingham.  Paper  read 
at  the  Symposium  on  the  Nuclear  Three  Body  Problem  and  Re- 
lated Topics,  Budapest,  Hungary,  Jul.,  1971. 

Blue,  Edwin  M. 

Desegregation  and  Superintendent  Turnover.  With  J.C.  Walden, 
Auburn,  Alabama:  Auburn  University,  1970.  (Pamphlet) 

Byron.  Dora 

"Brash  and  Bumptious  College  at  Carrollton."  The  Atlanta  Journal- 
Constitution  Magazine,  Nov.  14,  1971,  pp.  12,  14,  16,  62. 

Blumenthal,  Warner 

"Placement  Testing  in  Foreign  Languages  at  West  Georgia  College." 
Paper  read  at  the  Sixth  District  Georgia  Association  of  Educators, 
Griffin,  Georgia,  Oct.,  1971. 

Bowdre,  Paul  H. 

"Eye  Dialect  as  a  Literary  Device."  A  Various  Language:  Perspec- 
tives on  American  Dialects,  ed.  by  Williamson  and  Burke.  New 
York:  Holt,  Rinehart  and  Winston,  Inc.,  1971,  pp.  178-86. 

"The  Iliad  and  Veblen's  Quasi-Peaceable  Barbarian  Culture."  Paper 
read  at  the  Georgia-South  Carolina  College  English  Association, 
Statesboro,  Georgia,  Mar.,  1971. 

Brisbin.  Charles  D. 

"An  Experimental  Application  of  the  Galvanic  Skin  Response  to 
the  Measurement  of  Attitudes  Towards  Blacks."  Unpublished 
EdD  dissertation  (education),  Wayne  State  University,  1971. 

64 


Bryson.   Thomas  A. 

"A  Note  on  Jefferson  Davis's  Lawsuit."  Journal  of  Mississippi  His- 
tory. XXXIII  (May.  1971*.  149-65. 
Editor,  Journal  of  a  Journey  to  the  Near  East  by  Walter  George 
Smith.  Armenian  Review.  XXIV.  Part  I  (Spring.'  1971).  3-34. 

"The  Armenia-America  Society:  A  Factor  in  American-Turkish 
Relations.  1919-1924."  Records  of  the  American  Catholic  His- 
torical Society.  LXXXII  (Jun..  19711.  83-105. 

"A  Note  on  Near  East  Relief:  Walter  George  Smith  and  Cardinal 
Gibbons  and  the  Question  of  Catholic  Discrimination."  Muslim 
World.  I.XI  (Jul.,  1971*.  202-9. 

"A  Lawsuit  Concerning  the  Publication  of  Jefferson  Davis's  The 
Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate  Government.  "  Georgia  Historical 
Quarterly.  LIV  (Winter,  1971),  540-52. 

Review  of  The  Higher  Realism  of  Woodrow  Wilson  by  Arthur  Link, 
Journal  of  Southern  History.  XXXVII  (Nov.  1971),  681-82. 

"William  Brown  Hodgson's  Mission  to  Egypt.  1834."  Paper  read 
at  the  Georgia  Historical  Society,  Carrollton,  Georgia.  Oct.,  1971. 

C  ha  I  fan  t.  Fran  C 

"Ben  Jonson's  London:  The  Plays,  the  Masques,  and  the  Poems." 
Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (English).  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina. 1971. 

"Mirror  of  Vanities  and  Virtues:  A  Reappraisal  of  Gone  With  the 
Wind."  West  Georgia  College  Review.  IV.  No.  1  (1971),   15-26. 

Chard.  George  E.H. 

"Oral  Interpretation:  A  Basis  for  Performance  and  Criticism." 
Georgia  Speech  Journal.  II  (Spring,  1971),  17-21. 

Coe.  Robert  M. 

Invitational  Recital:  Pro-Mozart  Society,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Mar., 
1971. 

Public  Recital:  Violin  and  Piano,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  Apr..  1971. 

Chamber  Music  Recital:  Inaugural  Concert  for  President  and  Mrs. 
Ward  Pafford,  West  Georgia  College,  Carrollton,  Georgia.  Oct., 
1971. 

Crawford.  Thomas  J. 

"The  Georgia  Piedmont  West  of  Atlanta."  With  Jack  H.  Medlin. 
Geological  Societv  of  America.  Southeastern  Section  Program, 
'1971),  306.  (Abstract) 

63 


"Petrology  of  the  Brevard  Fault  Zone  Rocks  in  Western  Georgia 
and  Eastern  Alabama."  With  Jack  H.  Medlin.  Geological  Society 
of  America,  Southeastern  Section  Program.  (1971),  331.  (Abstract). 

"Geologic  Map,  Carroll-Heard  Counties,  Georgia."  Geochemical 
Study  of  Alluvium  in  the  Chattahoochee-Flint  Area.  Georgia. 
V.J.  Hurst  and  C.S.  Long.  Athens,  Georgia:  University  of  Georgia, 
Institute  of  Community  and  Area  Development.  1971.  (In  book 
pocket). 

Crowell,  James  B. 

"The  Optimization  of  Response  Surface  Designs."  Unpublished  PhD 
dissertation  (statistics),  Texas  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Uni- 
versity. 1971. 

Da  hi,  James  C. 

"Kurtz,  Marlow,  Conrad  and  the  Human  Heart  of  Darkness."  Studies 
in  the  Literary  Imagination,  I,  No.  2  (1968),  33-40. 

Davidson.  Thomas  J. 

"The  Effects  of  Training  in  the  Concepts  of  the  Sequential  Analysis 
of  Verbal  Interaction  Communication  Theory  on  the  Teaching 
Behavior  of  Prospective  Elementary  School  Teachers."  Unpub- 
lished EdD  dissertation  (Curriculum-Development).  Wayne  State 
Universitv.  1971. 

"The  Video-Tape  Recorder  in  the  Supervision  of  Student  Teachers." 
Paper  read  at  the  Central  Kentucky  Association  for  Student 
Teaching,  Lexington.  Kentucky.  Feb..  1969. 

"The  Way  It  Really  Is."  With  Margaret  Shev-  Student  Impact.   1 
(Jun.,  1970). 
Davis.  Mollie  C. 

"American  Religious  and  Religioses  Reaction  to  Mexico's  Church- 
State  Conflict,  1926-1927:  Background  to  the  Morrow  Mission." 
Journal  of  Church  and  State.  XIII  (Winter.  1971 »,  79-96. 

"George  Whitefield's  Attempt  to  Establish  a  College  in  Georgia." 
Georgia  Historical  Quarterly.  LV  (Winter,   1971),^  459-70. 

"Youth  and  Protest  in  the  1920's."  Paper  read  at  the  Conference  of 
Childhood  and  Youth  in  History,  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  Apr.. 

1970. 

"Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Caucus  of  Women  in  History." 
Paper  read  at  the  American  Historical  Association,  New  York, 
New  York.  1971, 


66 


•'Recent  Views  on  Progressivism."  Paper  read  at  the  Conference  on 
Teaching  of  History.  Carrollton.  Georgia.  Feb.,  1971. 

"Ferment  in  Collegiate  Culture.  1921-1929."  Paper  read  at  the  Pop- 
ular Culture  Association.   East  Lansing,  Michigan,  Apr.,    1971. 

"Embattled  Professionals:  Southern  Women  as  Agents  of  Modern- 
ism." Paper  read  at  the  Southern  Historical  Association.  Houston, 
Texas,  Nov.,  1971. 

Editor,  Newsletter.  Caucus  of  Women  in  History.   1971- 

de  Mayo.  Benjamin 

"A  Mdssbauer  Investigation  of  Atomic  Ordering  Effects  in  the  Iron- 
Cobalt  Alloy  System."  Unpublished  PhU  dissertation  (physicsi, 
Georgia  Institute  of  Technology,  1969. 

"A  Mdssbauer  and  Neutron  and  Diffraction  Study  of  Atomic  Order 
in  Fe  (50-50i  Co."  With  D.W.  Forester  and  S.  Spooner.  Bulletin 
of  the  American  Physical  Society.  XIII  (1968t.   1706.  (Abstract*. 

"Mdssbauer  and  Neutron  Diffraction  Measurements  of  Atomic 
Ordering  Effects  in  Fe  ( 50-50 1  Co."  With  D.W.  Forester  and  S. 
Spooner.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Physical  Society.  XIV  (1969i, 
99.  (Abstract). 

"Effects  of  Atomic  Configurational  Changes  on  Hyperfine  Inter- 
actions in  Concentrated  Iron-Cobalt  Allovs."  With  D.W.  Forester 
and  S.  Spooner.  Journal  of  Applied  Physics.  XLI  (1970>,  1319-20. 

DeVillier.  John  L. 

"Developing  Undergraduate  Programs."  Paper  read  at  the  Southern 
Management  Association  Convention,  Miami,  Florida,  Nov.,  1971. 

Dyck.  Lawrence  A. 

"Morphological,  Chemical  and  Developmental  Studies  of  Chara 
Oosparangial  Walls."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (biology*, 
Washington  University,  1970. 

"Comparison  of  Fossil  and  Extant  Fractifications  of  Chara  I.  Histo- 
chemistry and  Ultrastructure.  II.  Physical  and  Chemical 
Characteristics."  With  B.C.  Parker.  Journal  of  Phvcologv.  Ill 
(1968),  10. 

"Chemical  and  Structural  Characterization  of  the  Cell  Wall  Com- 
plex in  Chara.  "With  J.E.  Ridgway.  Journal  of  Cell  Biologv.  XLVII 
(1970),  54a.  (Abstract* 

"Architecture  of  the  Cell  Wall  of  the  Diatom  Phaeodactylum  tri- 
cornutum  Bohlin  as  revealed  by  Histochemistry  at  the  Ultra- 
structural  Level."  Paper  read  at  the  South  East  Electron  Micro- 
scope Society,  Atlanta.  Georgia,  Dec,  1971. 

67 


Edwards.  Corliss  H..  Jr. 

"A  Hawthorne  Echo  in  Faulkner's  Nobel  Prize  Acceptance  Speech." 
Notes  on  Contemporary  Literature,  I  (Mar..  1971  >,  4-5. 

Edwards.  Edna  Earl 

"Bridging  the  Gap  Between  High  School  English  and  Post-High 
School  Experience."  Paper  read  at  the  Conference  for  High  School 
and  College  English  Teachers  and  Business  Leaders.  Columbia. 
South  Carolina.' Mar..  1971. 

"English  Education  Programs  in  Small  Colleges:  What  Can  They 
Accomplish?"  Paper  read  at  the  Conference  on  English  Education. 
Portland.  Oregon,  Mar.,  1971. 

England.  Robert  B. 

"Trichostrongyliis  dosteri  sp.  n  (Nematoda:  TrichostrongylidaeU 
A  Parasite  of  the  White-Tailed  Deer.  Odocoileus  Viroinianus 
(ZimmermannK"  With  W.P.  Maples.  The  American  Midland 
Naturalist.  LXXXVI.  No.  2  (1971).  506-8. 

Esslin^er.  W.  Glenn 

"The  Georgia  Science  Teacher  Project  at  West  Georgia  College." 
Georgia  Academy  of  Science  Bulletin.  XXIX.  No.  2  (197n,  162. 
(Abstract* 

Dnig  Problems  or  People  Problems.  Bremen.  Georgia:  Gateway 
Printing  Co..  1971.  (Pamphlet* 

Ferguson.  Janice  L 

"A  Critical  Study  of  the  Social  and  Educational  Perspective  of 
Walter  Lippmann."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (education). 
University  of  Oklahoma,  1971. 

Ferling,  John  E. 

"Joseph  Galloway  and  the  Philosophy  of  Loyalism."  Unpublished 
PhD  dissertation  (history).  West  Virginia  University,  1971. 

Finnic.  Gordon  E. 

"Visual  Metaphors  in  the  Historiography  of  the  Jacksonian  Move- 
ment." Paper  read  at  the  third  Annual  Conference  on  the  Teaching 
of  United  States  History.  Carrollton.  Georgia.  Feb..  1971. 

Review  of  The  Amistad  Affair  by  Christopher  Martin.  Journal  of 
Southern  History.  XXXVII  (Aug..  1971).  471-72. 


68 


"The  Implementation  of  the  194U  Statement  on  Academic  Freedom 
and  Tenure  in  the  State  of  Georgia."  Paper  read  at  the  Georgia 
State  Conference  of  the  American  Association  of  University 
Professors,  Atlanta.  Georgia.  Nov.,  1971. 

Gannon,  Gerald  M. 

"Conrad,  Our  Contemporary:  The  MLA  Seminar."  Conradiana, 
III,  No.  1  (1970-1971),  129-32. 

"J.R.R.  Tolkien's  Modern  Fairy  Land."  Paper  read  at  the  South 
Atlantic  Modern  Language  Association.  Atlanta.  Georgia,  Nov., 
1971. 

"Compilation  and  Abstraction  of  Unpublished  Materials."  With  E.A. 
Bojarski.  Paper  read  at  the  Modern  Language  Association,  Chi- 
cago, Illinois,  Dec,  1971. 

Editor,  Georgia-South  Carolina  College  Enolish  Association  News- 
letter. I,   19h9- 

Assistant  Editor,  West  Georoia  College  Review.  11.  1969- 

Garmon.  Lucille  B. 

"Structure  and  Topography  of  Monocrystalline  Nickel  Thin  Films 
Grown  by  Vapor  Deposition."  With  Kenneth  R.  Lawless  and  Helen 
Grenga.  'Journal  of  Applied  Physics.  XLIl  ( 197U,  3629-33. 

"Indexing  of  Kaolinite  Electron  l^iffraction  Patterns."  Paper  read 
at  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Sciences.  Carrollton,  Georgia,  Apr., 
1971. 

Gay.  James  T. 

"American  Fur  Seal  Diplomacy."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation 
(history*.  University  of  Georgia.  1971. 

"A  Study  of  the  Membership  of  the  Lower  House  of  Maryland: 
1751-1789."  Cronica.  (May,  1968*,  43-73. 

Gilbert.  Edward  E- 

"Time  and  Motion  Studies  of  Tribolium.  "  Statistical  Ecology:  Vol- 
ume 2— Sampling  and  Modeling  Biological  Populations  and  Pop- 
ulation Dynamics.  G.P.  Patil.  ed.  University  Park.  Pennsylvania: 
Pennsylvania  State  University  Press,  1971.  pp.  285-311. 

Gingrich.  Newton  L. 

"Belgian  Education  Policies  in  the  Congo:  1945-1960."  Unpublished 
PhD  dissertation  (history).  Tulane  University.  1971. 

"Researching  Women's  History."  Paper  read  to  the  Caucus  on  Wo- 
men's History,  Houston,  Texas,  Nov.,  1971. 


69 


Gott,  Prentice  L. 

The  following  six  Curriculum  Guides  Grades  1-6  edited  for  the 
Carroll  County  (Georgia)  Board  of  Education.  1971:  Science, 
Fine  Arts,  Mathematics,  Social  Studies,  Physical  Education  and 
Language  Arts. 

Gregor,  C.  Bryan 

"Note  on  the  Geochemical  Behavior  of  Acids."  Georgia  Academy 
of  Science  Bulletin,  XXIX  (1971),  126.  (Abstract) 

"Palemomagnetic  Results  From  Lebanon."  With  A.E.M.  Nairn. 
American  Geophysical  Union  Transactions,  LII  (1971),  188. 
(Abstract) 

"Carbon  and  Atmospheric  Oxygen."  Science,  CLXXIV  (1971), 
316-17. 

Griffith,  Benjamin  W..  Jr. 

"A  Note  on  Robinson's  Use  of  Turannos.  "  Concerning  Poetrv,  IV 
(Spring,  1971),  39. 

"Immobile  in  Fortunato's  Hat:  The  'Now  Generation'  Again." 
Georgia  English  Counselor,  XIX  (May,  1971),  8. 

"The  Piedmont  Chatauqua:  Henry  Grady's  Grandiose  Scheme." 
Georgia  Historical  Quarterly,  LV  (Summer,  1971),  254-58. 

"Lydia  and  the  Lady  from  Zurich:  The  Birth  of  a  Shavian  Bon  Mot?" 
Notes  on  Contemporary  Literature,  I  (May,  1971),  14-15. 

"Milton's  Morning  Meditations  and  Sonnet  XIX."  American  Notes 
and  Queries,  X  (Sep.,  1971),  7-8. 

"Faulkner's  Archaic  Titles  and  the  Second  Shephards'  Play."  Notes 
on  Mississippi  Writers,  IV  (Fall,  1971),  62-63. 

"Bloom  and  Molly  'Carried  Westward':  An  Alternate  Reading." 
James  Joyce  Quarterly  IX,  (Fall,  1971),  122. 

"Miracle  at  Salt  Springs."  The  Atlanta  Journal-Constitution  Maga- 
zine, Jan.  31,  1971,  pp.  12,  16,  22,  26. 

"Sequoyah:  Indian  Man  of  Letters."  The  Atlanta  Journal-Constitu- 
tion Magazine,  Apr.  18,  1971,  pp.  58-60. 

"Ups  and  Downs  of  Julv  Fourth."  The  Atlanta  Journal-Constitution 
Magazine,  Jul.  4,  1971,  pp.  10-11,  13. 

Grogan,  Jack  L. 

"Diesters  as  Hypocholesterolemic  Agents."  Unpublished  PhD  dis- 
sertation (chemistry).  University  of  Georgia,  1970. 

70 


"Potential  Hypocholesterolemic  Agents:  Dicinnamoyl  Esters  as 
Analogs  of  Cynarin.""  With  I.L.  Honigberg.  Paper  read  at  the 
Southeast  Medicinal  Chemistry  Society  in  Miniature,  Chapel 
Hill,  North  Carolina,  Mar.,  1968. 

"Hypercholesterolemia."  Paper  read  at  the  Southeast  Medicinal 
Chemistry  Society  in  Miniature,   Athens,   Georgia,  Mar..   1969. 

Guynn.  Richard  D. 

"The  Alabama  Tax  System:  An  Economic  Analysis  of  Alternative 
Revisions."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (economics).  Univer- 
sity of  Alabama,  1971. 

Hecht.  Alan  D. 

"Faunistic  Paleotemperatures  of  Pleistocene  Foraminiferal  As- 
semblages." With  T.J.  Schmidt.  Georgia  Academy  of  Science 
Bulletin.  XXIX  (1971),  124.  (Abstract)' 

"Oxygen-18  Studies  of  Planktonic  Foraminifera:  Reply  to  Technical 
Comments  by  Be'  and  Van  Donk."  With  S.M.  Savin.  Science. 
CLXXIII  (1971),  167-69. 

"Morphological  Variation  in  Recent  Planktonic  Foraminifera." 
With  R.G.  Douglas.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Association  of 
Petroleum  Geologists.  LV  (1971),  342.  (Abstract) 

Holmes.  Y.  Lynn 

"The  Location  of  Alashiya."  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society.  XCI  (1971),  426-30. 

Review  of  Cities  and  Nations  of  Ancient  Syria  by  Giorgio  Buccellati. 
Journal  of  the  American    Oriental  Society   XCI    (1971),   301-2. 

"Mice,  Men  and  Gods."  Paper  read  at  the  Society  of  Biblical  Liter- 
ature, Knoxville,  Tennessee,  Mar.,  1971. 

"The  Foreign  Trade  of  Cyprus  During  the  Late  Bronze  Age."  Paper 
read  at  the  Symposium  on  Cyprus:  Work  in  Progress,  Ontario. 
Canada,  Oct..  1971. 

Huck,  Eugene  R. 

Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences.  VI, 
1967- 

Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review.  I,  1968- 

Editor,  SECOLAS  Annals.  I,  1969-  (Acronym  for  Southeastern 
Conference  on  Latin  American  Studies) 

Keller.  George  E. 

"Band  Mixing  in  ^^^Gd."  Georgia  Academy  of  Science  Bulletin. 
XXIX  (1971),  141.  (Abstract)' 

71 


Kennedy.  W.  Benjamin 

"History  and  Humanism,"  Introductory  Experiential  Psychology, 
H.  Steward  and  J.  Thomas,  co-editors.  Dubuque,  Iowa:  Kendall 
Hunt,  1970. 

Klee.  James  B. 

"Studies  of  Abnormal  Behavior  in  the  Rat:  III.  The  Development  of 
Behavior  Fixations  Through  Frustration."  With  N.R.F.  Maier  and 
H.M.  G\asser.  Journal  of  Experimental  Psychology,  XXVI  (1940), 
521-46. 

"Studies  of  Abnormal  Behavior  in  the  Rat:  VII.  The  Permanent 
Nature  of  Abnormal  Fixations  and  Their  Relation  to  Convulsive 
Seizures."  With  N.R.F.  Maier,  Journal  of  Experimental  Psychology, 
XXIX  (1941),  380-89. 

"Studies  of  Abnormal  Behavior  in  the  Rat:  XII.  The  Pattern  of  Pun- 
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Maier.  Journal  of  Experimental  Psychology,  XXIX  (1943),  377-98. 

"Studies  of  Abnormal  Behavior  in  the  Rat:  XVII.  Guidance  Versus 
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N.R.F.  Maier.  Journal  of  Psychology.  XIX  (1945),  133-63. 

"Studies  of  Motion  Sickness:  XVI.  The  Effects  Upon  Sickness  Rates 
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With  S.J.  Alexander,  M.  Cotzin,  and  G.R.  Wendt.  Journal  of  Ex- 
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"Experience  and  Selection."  Per^ona/zYv  ^vm/jo^/um,  I,  No.  1  (1950), 
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"Learning  as  Selection."  Journal  of  General  Psychology,  XLII  (1950), 

261-77.^ 

"Studies  of  Motion  Sickness:  XIII.  The  Effects  of  Sickness  Upon 
Rifle  Target  Shooting."  With  S.J.  Alexander,  M.  Cotzin,  and  G.R. 
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"Religion  as  Facing  Forward  in  Time."  Existential  Inquiries.  I,  No.  2 
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"Prolegemena  to  a  Psychology  of  Signs:  The  Symbolistic  Revolu- 
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"The  Cinema  as  a  Symbolic  Form."  Film  and  Culture,  II,  No.  2 
(1963),  1-7. 

"Hemingway  and  the  American  Dream."  The  Post-Graduate  Eng- 
lish Association  Journal,  Allahabad  University,  Allahabad,  India 
(1963-64),  7-12. 

"India's  Mysterious  Unity."  The  Light  of  Life,  IV,  No.  1  (1964). 

"The  Absolute  and  the  Relative."  Darshana,  VI,  Nos.  13,  14,  15 
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"Reactions  to  the  Indian  Academic  Social  Scene."  Psvchologia, 
VIII  (1965),  73-80. 

"The  Cultural  Explosion."  Darshana.  VII,  No.  17  (1965),  63-78. 
"The  Colors  of  Zen."  Psvchologia,  VIII  (1965),  197-201. 
"Art  Experience  as  Part  of  the  Developmental  Process:  A  Psycholog- 
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Review  of  Asian  Psychology  by  G.  and  L.B.  Murphy,  eds.  Journal 

of  Transpersonal  Psychology,  I  (1969),  108-9. 
"The  One  — Dual  and  Multiple."  Main  Currents  in  Modern  Thought, 

XXVI  (1970),  116-20. 
"History— Death  and  Life."  Introductory  Experiential  Psychology. 

H.  Stewart  and  J.  Thomas,  co-eds.  Dubuque,  Iowa:  Kendall-Hunt, 

1970,  pp.  31-62. 

Larson.  Lewis  H. 

"An  Unusual  Figurine  from  the  Georgia  Coast."  The  Florida  An- 
thropologist, VIII,  No.  3  (1955),  75-81. 

"The  Norman  Mound,  Mcintosh  County,  Georgia."  The  Florida 
Anthropologist,  X,  Nos.  1-2  (1957),  37-52. 

"An  Unusual  Wooden  Rattle  from  the  Etowah  Site."  The  Missouri 
Archaeologist,  XIX,  No.  4  (1957),  7-11. 

"Explorations  at  Etowah,  Georgia."  With  A.R.  Kelly.  Archaeology, 

X,  No.  1  (1957),  38-48. 
"Cultural  Relationships  Between  the  Northern  St.  Johns  Area  and 

the  Georgia  Coast."  The  Florida  Anthropologist,  XI,  No.  1  (1958), 

11-21. 
"Southern  Cult  Manifestations  on  the  Georgia  Coast."  American 

Antiquity,  XXIII,  No.  4  (1958),  426-30. 

"On  the  Source  of  Copper  at  the  Etowah  Site,  Georgia."  American 
Antiquity,  XXIV,  No.  2  (1958).  177-81. 

"A  Mississippian  Headdress  from  Etowah,  Georgia."  American  An- 
tiquity, XXV,  No.  1  (1959),  109-12. 

"The  Shell  Ring  on  Sapelo  Island."  With  A.J.  Waring,  Jr.  Papers 
of  the  Peabodv  Museum  of  Archaeology  and  Ethnography,  LVIII, 
(1958),  263-78. 

"Settlement  Distribution  During  the  Mississippi  Period."  South- 
eastern Archaeological  Conference  Bulletin,  No.  13  (1971),  19-25. 

"Archaeological  Implications  of  Social  Stratification  at  the  Etowah 
Site,  Georgia."  Memoirs  of  the  Society  for  American  Archaeology, 
No.  25  (1971),  58-67. 

Lockhart,  William  L. 

Assistant  Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review,  II,  1969- 

73 


Long,  C.  Sumner,  Jr. 

Mines  and  Prospects  of  the  Chattahoochee-Flint  Area,    Georgia. 

Athens,  Georgia:  University  of  Georgia,  Institute  of  Community 

and  Area  Development.  1Q71. 
Geochemical  Study  of  Alluvium  in  the  Chattahoochee-Flint  Area, 

Georgia.  With  V.J.  Hurst,  Athens,  Georgia:  University  of  Georgia, 

Institute  of  Community  and  Area  Development,  1971. 

"Mineral  Resources  of  the  Chattahoochee  Flint  Area."  Paper  read 
at  the  Chattahoochee  Flint  Area  Planning  Commission,  Newnan, 
Georgia,  Oct.,  1971. 

McClain,  Dudley 

Regional  Criminal  Justice  Plan.  With  H.A.  Deyo,  J.D.  Gilbert  and 
R.M.  Wells.  Lubbock,  Texas:  Lubbock  Metropolitan  Council  of 
Governments,  1969.  (Printed  report) 

"Reapportionment  Recapitulated:  1960-1970."  Georgia  State  Bar 
Journal,  VII  (Nov.,  1970),  191-214. 

"The  Supreme  Court  Controversies  of  Presidents  Roosevelt  and 
Nixon:  A  Consideration  of  the  Political  Nature  of  the  Presidential 
Power  of  Judicial  Appointment."  Georgia  State  Bar  Journal,  VIII 
(Nov.,  1971),  145-79. 

McNabb,  Dorothy  A. 

"Recreation. . .  An  Antidote  to  Outer  Pressures."  Georgia  Journal 
of  Health,  Physical  Education,  and  Recreation.  Ill,  No.  2  (1971), 
14-15. 

"Reflections."  Georgia  Journal  of  Health,  Physical  Education,  and 
Recreation,  III,  No.  2  (1971),  15. 

"The  Role  of  the  Woman  Athlete  in  Today's  Society."  Paper  read 
at  the  State  Convention  for  the  Georgia  Association  of  Health, 
Physical  Education  and  Recreation,  Jekyll  Island,  Georgia,  Apr., 
1971. 

McTeer,  John  Hugh 

Editor,  Teacher  Education  for  International  Understanding:  A  Re- 
port of  a  Regional  Conference.  Carrollton,  Georgia:  West  Georgia 
College  (off-set  printed),  1971. 

"Simulation  as  a  Means  for  Developing  International  Understand- 
ing." Teacher  Education  for  International  Understanding:  A  Re- 
port of  a  Regional  Conference.  J.H.  McTeer,  ed.  Carrollton, 
Georgia:  West  Georgia  College  (off-set  printed),  1971,  pp.  40-43. 


74 


MacLean,  John  T. 

"Five  Miniatures  for  Four  Household  Instruments:  1.  Prelude, 
2.  March,  3.  Devotional,  4.  Waltz,  5.  Finale."  Performed  at  the 
Fine  Arts  Festival,  Carrollton,  Georgia.  May,  1971. 

Madeley,  Hulon  M. 

"Make  Geology  Relevant!"  Georgia  Academv  of  Science  Bulletin. 
XXVIII,  No.  2  (1970),  s.  47.  (Abstract) 

Masters,  Charles  D. 

"The  Muddy  Mississippi."  American  Association  of  Petroleum  Ge- 
ologists Bulletin,  LV,  No.  2  (1971),  351.  (Abstract) 

Mathews.  James  W. 

"Another  Possible  Origin  of  HowelFs  The  Shadow  of  a  Dream." 
American  Literature.  XLII  (Jan.,  1971),  558-62. 

"The  Creativity  Crisis."  Bulletin  of  the  National  Association  of 
Teachers  of  Singing.  XXVII,  No.  3  (1971),  10-13. 

"The  House  of  Atreus  and  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables.  "  Emer- 
son Society  Quarterly,  LXIII,  (Spring,  1971),  31-36. 

"Hawthorne  Adapts  the  Material  :  From  Popular  Lore  to  Art."  Pa- 
per read  at  the  South  Atlantic  Modern  Language  Association, 
Atlanta,  Georgia,  Nov.,  1971. 

Mixon,  Val  G. 

"A  Government  Survey  in  Fulton  County."  The  Feasibility  of  At- 
lanta-Fulton County  Consolidation:  Selected  Papers  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Public  Administration.  New  York:  Institute  of  Public 
Administration,  1970.  (Originally  published  in  loose-leaf  binder) 

Mykkeltvedt,  Roald  Y. 

"The  Judicial  Development  of  the  14th  Amendment's  Due  Process 
Clause  — Prelude  to  the  Selective  Incorporation  of  the  Bill  of 
Rights."  Mercer  Law  Review,  XXII,  No.  2  (1971),  533-59. 

Owings,  Huey  Allen 

"A  Rationale  for  the  Teaching  of  Classical  Mythology."  Unpublish- 
ed PhD  dissertation  (English),  Auburn  University,  1971. 

Perry,  James  Earl 

"On  Duods  and  Hereditarily  Duodic  Continua."  Unpublished  PhD 
dissertation  (mathematics).  Auburn  University,  1971. 

lb 


Poort,  Jon  M. 

Interpretations  of  Earth  History.  Second  edition.  Carrollton,  Geor- 
gia: Thomasson  Printing  and  Equipment  Co.,  1971.  (manual) 

"Occurrence  of  Ophliomorphia  in  the  Basal  Upper  Cretaceous 
Providence  Formation  in  Stewart  County,  Georgia."  Bulletin  of 
the  Georgia  Academy  of  Sciences.  XXIX,  No.  2  (1971),  124.  (Ab- 
stract) 

"Paleoenvironmental  Interpretations  of  the  Upper  Cretaceous  Rip- 
ley Formation,  Stewart  and  Quitman  Counties,  Georgia."  Paper 
read  at  the  Southeastern  Section,  Geological  Society  of  America, 
Blacksburg,  Virginia,  May,  1971. 

Powell.  Bobby  E. 

"Alkali-Halide  Filamentary  Crystals."  With  B.M.  McKibben.  Jour- 
nal of  Crystal  Growth,  VIII  (1971),  276-78. 

"Measurement  of  Magnetostriction  of  Nickel  and  Magnetite  by 
X-Ray  Diffraction."  With  W.D.  Gosnold,  Jr.  Bulletin  of  the  Geor- 
gia Academy  of  Science.  XXIX  (Apr.,  1971),  140.  (Abstract) 

"Evidence  for  Large  Anisotropy  in  the  Thermal  Expansion  Coef- 
ficients of  InBi."  With  J.H.  Davis  and  R.B.  Lai.  Bulletin  of  the 
Southeastern  Section  of  the  American  Physical  Society,  (Nov., 
1971),  30.  ' 

Scott,  Carole  E. 

"Whatever  Happened  to  Occam's  Razor?"  Arkansas  Business  and 
Economic  Reyiew,  IV,  No.  2  (1971),  35-36. 

Sharp,  Thomas  J. 

"On  D-Groups  and  Y-Subgroups."  UnpubUshed  PhD  dissertation 
(mathematics),  Auburn  University,  1971. 

"On  D-Groups  and  Y-Subgroups."  Paper  read  at  the  American 
Mathematical  Society,  Auburn,  Alabama,  Nov.,  1971. 

Sheldon,  Craig  I.,  Jr. 

"A  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Burial  Practices  at  the  'Sand  Island' 
Sites,  Alabama."  Journal  of  the  Alabama  Academy  of  Sciences, 
XXXVII,  No.  4  (1966),  367.  (Abstract) 

"The  Urn  Burial  Caves  of  the  Southern  Cotobato  Highlands,  Min- 
danao, Philippines."  With  E.B.  Kurjack  and  Maria  E.  Keller.  Paper 
read  at  the  American  Anthropological  Association,  Seattle,  Wash- 
ington, Fall,  1968. 

"The  Archaeology  of  Seminoho  Cave  in  Lebak,  Cotobato."  With 
E.B.  Kurjack.  Silliman  Journal,  XVII  (1970),  3-17. 

76 


Preliminary  Archaeological  Investigations.  Third  Field  Season  at 
X-Kukican  Zone.  Yucatan.  Mexico.  With  Jerry  J.  Neilsen.  Report 
to  the  Instituto  Nacional  de  Antropologia  e  Historia.  Mexico,  1971. 
Filed  in  the  Alabama  Museum  of  Natural  History.  University.  Ala- 
bama. (Report* 

Sieo.  Ann  P. 

"Why  Adolescence  Occurs."  Adolescence.  VI.  No.  23  (1971>.  337-48. 

Steely.  Melvin  T. 

"Kurt  von  Schleicher  and  the  Political  Activities  of  the  Reichswehr, 
1919-1926."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (history).  Vanderbilt 
University,  1971. 

Upchurch.  John  C. 

"Middle  Florida:  An  Historical  Geography  of  the  Area  Between 
the  Apalachicola  and  Suwannee  Rivers."  Unpublished  PhD  dis- 
sertation (geography).  University  of  Tennessee.  1971. 

Physical  Geography  Laboratory  Manual.  Tampa.  Florida:  Hillsboro 
Press,  1966. 

"French  Kaskaskia:  A  Geographical  Sketch."  Faculty  Publications 
(Appalachian  State  Teachers  College),  (1966»,  22-29. 

"Aspects  of  the  Development  and  Exploration  of  the  Forbes  Pur- 
chase." Florida  Historical  Quarterly.  XLVIII  (Sep..  1969),  117-39. 

"Aspects  of  Latin  American  Economic  Integration  With  Emphasis 
on  LAFTA."  Faculty  Publications  (Appalachian  State  University*, 
(1970'.  97-109. 

Wearer.  David  C. 

"A  Survey  of  Short-Term  Chances  in  the  Land  Use  Mix  of  Three 
American  Central  Business  Districts."  Southeastern  Geographer, 
XL  No.   1  (1971'.  52-61. 

"A  Country  Called  Black:  Observations  on  the  Resilience  of  Coke- 
town."  Paper  read  at  the  South-East  Division  of  the  American 
Association  of  Geoeraphers.  Lexington.  Kentucky.  Nov..    1971. 

Welch.  Robert  M. 

"DNA  and  Protein  Svn thesis  in  the  Liver  of  the  Heterozygous  Grey- 
Lethal  Mouse."  American  Societv  of  Biology  Bulletin.  XVIII 
(197U.  61. 

Whittemore.  Kenneth  R. 

"An  Analysis  of  the  Relation  Between  Suicide  Rates  and  Community 
Characteristics:  The  Results  of  an  Empirical  Studv."  With  .I.E. 

77      , 


and  Helen  G.  Newman.  Paper  read  ai  the  Stmthern  Sociological 
Society.  Miami,  Florida.  May.  1971. 

"A  Report  of  Selected  Aspects  of  Suicide  Program  Case  Activity 
for  Ten  Centers  in  the  United  States."  Paper  read  at  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Suicide  Prevention,  Mexico  City,  Mexico, 
Dec,  1971. 

"Community  Characteristics  as  Predictors  of  Suicide  Rates  in  Two 
Metropolitan  Areas."  With  J.F.  and  Helen  G.  Newman.  Paper 
read  at  the  International  Association  of  Suicide  Prevention,  Mex- 
ico City,  Mexico,  Dec,  1971. 

Woods,  Walter  A. 

"Mental  Mechanisms  and  Morale  Factors  of  Naval  Recruits  in  Train- 
ing." With  C.N.  Baganz  and  R.H.  Mearin.  U.S.  Naval  Medical 
Bulletin.  XLIV  (1943),  1138-40. 

"Employee  Attitudes  and  Their  Relation  to  Morale."  Journal  of  Ap- 
plied Psychology,  XXVIII  (1944),  285-300. 

"Moreale  Factors  of  Naval  Noncombatant."  Journal  of  Social  Psv- 
chology,  XXIV  (1946),  217-26. 

"Design  Complexity  as  a  Determinant  of  Visual  Attention  Among 

Artists  and  Non-Artists."  With  J.C.  Boudreau.  Journal  of  Applied 

Psychology,  XXXIV  (1950),  355-62. 
"The  Influence  of  Brightness  and  Position  in  Determining  Attention 

to  Graphic  Design."  American  Psychologist,  VII  (1958),  387  (Ab- 
stract). 
"The  Role  of  Language  Handicap  in  the  Development  of  Artistic 

Interest."  Journal  of  Consulting  Psychology,  XII  (1948),  240-45. 
"The  Influence  of  Ink  Color  on  the  Handwriting  of  Normal  and 

Psychiatric  Groups."  Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,   XXXVII 

(1953),  126-28. 
"Stability  of  Color  Preference."   Virginia  Journal  of  Science.   IV, 

No.  4  (1952-53),  211  (Abstract). 
"An  Investigation  of  Revised  Beta  Scores  Among  Negro  Ado- 
lescents." With  J.  Boger,  and   G.   Holman.    Virginia  Journal  of 

Science,  V,  No.  4  (1954),  321  (Abstract). 
"Proficiency  in  Drawing  and  Placement  of  the  Hands  in  Drawings 

of  the  Human  Figure."  With  W.L.  Cook.  Journal  of  Consulting 

Psychology,  XVIII  (1954),  119-21. 
"Perceptual,  Cognitive  and  Motor  Aspects  in  the  Development  of 

Representational  Drawing."  Paper  read  at  the  Virginia  Academy 

of  Science  Annual  Meeting,  1954. 
"Developmental  Aspects  in  Drawings  of  the  House  (HTP)."  With 

L.C.  Repucci.  Virginia  Journal  of  Science,  V,  No.  4  (1954),  322 

(Abstract). 

78 


"Personality  Through  Color."  Mental  Health  in  Virginia  (Summer, 
1954),  51-54. 

"Intelligence  Differences  in  Delinquents  as  Appraised  by  Four  Psy- 
chological Tests."  With  J.  Farley.  Virginia  Journal  of  Science,  VI, 
No.  4  (1954-55)  (Abstract). 

"Some  Determinants  of  Attitudes  Toward  Colors  in  Combination." 
Perceptual  and  Motor  Skills.  VI  (1956),  187-93. 

"A  Polychrome  Index  of  Social  Maturity."  American  Psychologist, 
XI,  No.  8  (1956),  434  (Abstract). 

"Blue  Preference  as  a  Correlate  of  Preference  for  Hues  of  Low  Sat- 
uration." New  Jersey  Psychologist.  VII  (1956),  36. 

"Disproportionate  Contributions  of  Revised  Beta  Scores  in  Adoles- 
cent Groups."  With  R.  Toal.  Journal  of  Consulting  Psychology. 
XXI  (1957),  136-38. 

"Color  Symbolism  in  Product  Packaging."  American  Psychologist. 
II,  No.  7  (1957),  443  (Abstract). 

"Fact  and  Theory  in  Predicting  Color  Preferences."  Paper  read  at 
a  meeting  of  The  Westchester  Group,  American  Marketing  As- 
sociation, Portchester,  New  York.  Mar..  1957. 

"Visual  Space  Form  Manipulation  and  its  Relation  to  Art  Partici- 
pation." Uniyersity  Microfilm  Publication  No.  4602:  Dissertation 
Abstracts.  XIII  (1953),  129. 

"Psychological  Parameters  in  New  Product  Acceptance."  Paper  read 
at  the  Association  for  Corporate  Growth  and  Development,  New 
York,  New  York,  Dec,  1959. 

"Psychological  Dimensions  of  Consumer  Decision."  Journal  of  Mar- 
keting. XXIV,  No.  3  (1960),  15-19. 

"Perception  Theory  in  Product  Positioning  and  Characterization." 
Nowland  Symposium  on  Perception  Theory  in  Consumer  Re- 
search Proceedings.  1959,  pp.  22-49.  (Editor  and  contributor). 

"The  Experimental  Study  of  Style."  Proceedings  of  the  Business  and 
Economics  Statistics  Section.  American  Statistical  Association. 
1960,  pp.  240-43. 

"The  Uses  of  Depth  Interviews  and  Motivation  Research  in  New 
Product  Planning."  Paper  read  at  American  Management  As- 
sociation Seminar,  New  York,  New  York,  1958. 

"Where  Should  Research  Start:  New  Products  Marketing."  Printers 
Ink.  CCXXXVII,  No.  9  (1964),  98-99. 

"Product  Concept  Research:  Why  and  How."  Scientific  Business, 
Aug.,  1965. 

"The  Uses  of  Product  Concepts  for  Marketing."  Paper  read  at  the 
New  York  Chapter,  American  Marketing  Association.  New  York, 
New  York,  Dec,  1965. 

79 


"Developing  and  Measuring  New  Product  Concepts."  The  Profes- 
sionals Look  at  New  Products:  Michigan  Business  Paper  No.  50, 
University  of  Michigan,  1967,  pp.  15-32. 

"Don't  Call  it  an  Oven."  Paper  read  at  the  Microwave  Cooking 
Seminar.  Tarrytown.  New  York,  Jan.,  1968. 

"A  Psychologist  Looks  at  Creativity:  Creativity  in  New  Products 
Research."  Paper  read  at  Advertising  Age  Creative  Workshop, 
Chicago,  Illinois,  Jul.,  1968  and  at  New  York  City  Sales  Executives 
Club  8th  Annual  Marketing  Strategy  Meeting,  Oct.,  1968. 

"Distinguishing    and    Identifying    Consumer    Packaging    Needs." 

Paper  read  at  the  Packaging  Institute  30th  Annual  Packaging 

Forum,  New  York,  Oct.,  1968. 
"Multiple  Alternatives  to  New  Product  Development."  Paper  read 

at  the  International  New  Products  Center  Seminar,  New  York, 

Nov.,  1968. 
"Implications  for  Packaging  for  the  'Antiseptic'  Society."  Paper 

read  at  the  Packaging  Association  of  Canada,  Toronto,  Apr.,  1969. 

"The  Role  and  Responsibility  of  New  Product  Research."  Australian 
Journal  of  Marketing  Research,  Mar.,  1969. 

"The  Next  Disaster:  Too  Much  Man  for  Too  Little  Earth."  Paper 
and  Discussion;  Symposium  on  Population  and  The  Environment, 
New  Jersey  Psychological  Association,  Atlantic  City,  Spring,  1970. 

"Identifying  and  Screening  New  Product  Opportunities."  Marketing 
Management  Conference,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison, 
Wisconsin.  Jan..  1971. 

Youngblood,  Betty  Jane 

"American  Foreign  Policy  Toward  India."  Paper  read  at  the  Scholar- 
Diplomat  Seminar,  U.S.  Department  of  State,  Washington,  D.C., 
Nov.,  1971. 

Zander,  Vernon  E. 

"Products  of  Finitely  Additive  Set  Functions  from  Orlicz  Spaces." 
Pacific  Journal  of  Mathematics,  XXXV,  No.  3  (1970),  799-804. 


'^i. 


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11/3 


^ 


US  ISSN  0043-3136 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


REVIEW 


CO 


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Isl 


»      CO" 

a:  e> 


Vol.  VI 


May,  1973 


Published  By 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


A  Division  of  the  University  System  of  Georgia 


CARROLLTON,  GEORGIA 


Published  by 
WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


Ward  B.  Pafford,  President 
John  M.  Martin,  Academic  Dean 


Faculty  Research  Committee 


Thomas  A.  Bryson  Doyle  L.  Mathis 

Jesse  Burbage  Roald  Y.  Mykkeltvedt 

Alex  Corriere  Carole  E.  Scott 

Donald  Gibbons  James  A.  Wash 

Benjamin  W.  Griffith  Vernon  Zander 


Eugene  R.  Huck,  Chairman  and  Editor 
Gerald  M.  Garmon  and  William  L.  Lockhart,  Assistant  Editors 


The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  provide  encouragement  for 
faculty  research  and  to  make  available  results  of  such  activity.  The 
Review,  published  annually,  accepts  original  scholarly  work  and  crea- 
tive writing.  West  Georgia  College  assumes  no  responsibility  for  con- 
tributors' views.  The  style  guide  is  Kate  L.  Turabian,  A  Manual  for 
Writers.  Although  the  Review  is  primarily  a  medium  for  the  faculty  of 
West  Georgia  College,  other  sources  are  invited. 

An  annual  bibliography  includes  doctoral  dissertations,  major  re- 
citals and  major  art  exhibits.  Theses  and  arricles  in  progress  or  accepted 
are  not  listed.  A  faculty  member's  initial  listing  is  comprehensive  and 
appears  in  the  issue  of  the  year  of  his  employment.  The  abstracts  of  all 
master's  theses  and  educational  specialist's  projects  written  at  West 
Georgia  College  are  included  as  they  are  awarded. 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 

REVIEW 


Volume  VI May,  1973 

TABLE 

of 

CONTENTS 

William  Faulkner  on  Individualism James  Dahl        3 

J.R.R.  Tolkien's  Modern  Fairyland Gerald  M.  Gannon      10 

Principles  of  Taxation  and  Characteristics 

of  Major  State  Taxes Richard  D.  Guynn       16 

Dreams,  Visions,  and  Myths  in  John  Hersey's 

White  Lotus Michael  Haltresht     24 

The  Foreign  Policy  Statesmanship  of  Senator 

Walter  F.  George,  1955-1956 Val  G.  Mixon      29 

Abstracts  of  Master's  Theses  and  Specialist  in 

Education  Projects 41 

Annual  Bibliography  of  West  Georgia  College 

Faculty  as  of  January  1,  1973 61 


Copyright  ©   1973,  West  Georgia  College 
Printed  in  U.S.A. 

Thomasson  Printing  Co.,  Carrollton,  Georgia  30117 
1 


WILLIAM  FAULKNER  ON  INDIVIDUALISM 

By  JAMES  DAHL* 

William  Faulkner  has  been  dead  now  for  nearly  eleven  years;  he 
died  at  the  age  of  65  on  July  6,  1962,  of  a  heart  attack.  His  novels  and 
stories  continue  to  be  very  popular  with  teachers  and  students  alike.  His 
thoughts  on  the  plight  of  the  modern  individual  are  less  well  known 
than  his  fiction. 

One  must  understand  from  the  outset  that  William  Faulkner  was  in 
no  sense  an  academic  philosopher.  He  quit  high  school  at  sixteen  and 
never  returned  for  a  certificate.  He  did  study  Spanish  and  French  at 
Ole  Miss  in  1921  and  1922,  but  took  no  more  than  a  course  or  two  for 
three  semesters.  Thus,  it  is  not  surorising  that  Faulkner  in  his  speeches 
and  essays  should  have  a  rather  marked  distaste  for  intellectual  systems 
and  academe  in  general.  At  the  University  of  Virginia,  where  he  was 
Writer  in  Residence  in  1957  and  1958,  Faulkner  told  one  audience. "I 
don't  have  much  confidence  in  the  mind.  I  think  that  it  is  here  [in  the 
heart]  where  the  shoe  fits,  that  the  mind  lets  you  down  sooner  or  later, 
but  this  doesn't."^ 

For  Faulkner  the  human  heart  is  the  seat  of  the  most  basic  of  human 

confUcts.  This  idea  is  central  to  Faulkner's  often  quoted  Nobel  Prize 

speech,  in  which  Faulkner  urged  young  writers  to  concentrate  on 

". . .  the  problems  of  the  human  heart  in  conflict  with  itself  which  alone 

can  make  good  writing  because  only  that  is  worth  writing  about,  worth 

the  agony  and  the  sweat."^  In  1955,  at  Nagano,  Japan,  in  a  cultural 

interchange  arranged  by  the  U.S.  Department  of  State,  Faulkner  was 

more  specific  about  the  conflict  between  instinct  and  conscience: 

Yes,  man,  his  instinct,  wants  to  hold  on  to  what  he  has  at  any 

price.  It  takes  his  conscience  to  tell  him.  "You  must  relinquish 

some  of  this,"  but  his  instinct,  his  nature  says,  "Hold  it,  you  got 

it,  it's  yours,  it's  mine,  I  want  it,  I've  got  it,  so  I  can  keep  it." 

That's  not  anything  to  be  at  all  proud  of,  but  since  it  is  his  nature, 

I  would  not  apply  the  word  base  to  that,  but  when  he  pretends 

that  his  reason  for  that  is  some  high  moral  one,  then  that  is 

baseness. 3 

In  this  regard  one  is  reminded  of  Faulkner's  contention  that  the  race 

problem  in  the  American  South  is  basically  an  economic  one  — the 

*Assistant  Professor  of  English,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  William  Faulkner,  Faulkner  in  the  University,  edited  by  Frederick  L.  Gwynn 

and  Joseph  L.  Blotner  (Charlottesville:  The  Universtiy  of  Virginia  Press,  1959), 

p.  6. 

^  William  Faulkner,  The  Faulkner  Reader  (New  York:  Random  House,  1954), 

p.  3. 

^  William  ^Pdmlkncx,  Faulkner  at  Nagano  (Toyko:  The  Kenkyusha  Press,  1956), 

pp.  100-1. 

3 


majority  of  Southerners  simply  do  not  wish  to  give  lip  their  profits  from 
cheap  Negro  labor. 

At  the  University  of  Virginia,  Faulkner  was  asked  how  he  defined 
man's  basic  ideaUsm  and  what  proof  of  its  existence  he  could  find  in 
human  behavior.  His  answer  is  the  most  succinct  of  his  many  statements 
about  the  nature  of  man:  "I  think  that  man  tries  to  be  better  than  he 
thinks  he  will  be.  I  think  that  that  is  his  immortality,  that  he  wants  to 
be  better,  he  wants  to  be  braver,  he  wants  to  be  more  honest  than  he 
thinks  he  will  be  and  sometimes  he's  not.  but  then  suddenly  to  his  own 
astonishment  he  is.""^  Faulkner  went  on  to  state  that  man  often  has 
great  difficulty  in  making  progress  against  his  own  selfish  nature,  but 
that  ". .  .  the  desire  to  be  better  than  he  is  afraid  he  might  be  is  inside 
him,  inside  his  conscience."^  At  Nagano,  Faulkner  pointed  out  several 
instances  of  moral  progress  in  recent  times: 

"Now  [man]  changes  his  condition  gradually.  Nowadays,  a  little 
child  doesn't  have  to  work;  nowadays,  a  merchant  can't  sell  you 
poisoned  soup.  That's  something,  that's  not  much  of  an  advance- 
ment, but  it's  something.  For  I  do  believe  in  man  and  his  capa- 
city for  advancement.  I  still  believe  in  man.  That  he  still  wishes, 
desires,  wants  to  do  better  than  he  knows  he  can  and  occasion- 
ally he  does  a  little  better  than  anybody  expects  of  him.^ 
At  Nagano,  Faulkner  was  asked  point-blank  whether  he  believed  in 
Christianity.  His  answer  was. 

Well,  I  believe  in  God.  Sometimes  Christianity  gets  pretty 
debased,  but  I  do  believe  in  God,  yes,  I  believe  that  man  has  a 
soul  that  aspires  towards  what  we  call  God,  what  we  mean  by 
God  ...  I  think  that  the  trouble  with  Christianitv  is  that  we've 
never  really  tried  it  yet,  but  we  must  use  it— it's  a  nice  glib 
tongue  but  we  have  never  really  tried  Christianity.'"^ 
At  the  University  of  Virginia,  Faulkner  was  asked  about  his  personal 
stance  toward  Christianity: 

Why,  the  Christian  religion  has  never  harmed  me.  I  hope  I  have 
never  harmed  it.  I  have  the  sort  of  provincial  Christian  back- 
ground which  one  takes  for  granted  without  thinking  too  much 
about  it,  probably.  That  I'm  probably— within  my  rights— with- 
in my  own  rights  I  feel  that  I'm  a  good  Christian  — whether  it 
would  please  anybody  else's  standards  or  not  I  don't  know.^ 
In  Japan  and  at  Virginia,  Faulkner  was  very  outspoken  in  his  denun- 
ciation of  the  dehumanizing  elements  in  contemporary  society.  The 
greatest  ideological  evil  of  present  times,  Faulkner  told  a  group  of 


'^  Faulkner,  Faulkner  in  the  University,  p.  85. 
5  Ibid.,  p.  86. 

^  Faulkner,  Faulkner  at  Nagano,  pp.  5-6. 
7  Ibid.,  p.  242. 

^  Faulkner,  Faulkner  in  the  University,  p.  203. 

4 


young  writers  at  Virginia,  is  the  marked  decline  of  man's  faith  in  him- 
self as  an  individual: 

This  is  the  mystical  belief,  almost  a  religion,  that  individual  man 
as  individual  man  can  no  longer  exist.  A  belief  that  there  is  no 
place  anymore  where  individual  man  can  speak  quietly  to  indi- 
vidual man  of  such  simple  things  as  honesty  with  oneself  and  re- 
sponsibility toward  others  and  protection  for  the  weak  and  com- 
passion and  pity  for  all.  because  such  individual  things  as  hones- 
ty and  pity  and  responsibility  and  compassion  no  longer  exist  and 
man  himself  can  hope  to  continue  only  by  relinguishing  and 
denying  his  individuality  into  a  regimented  group  of  his  arbitrary 
factional  regimented  group,  both  filling  the  same  air  at  the  same 
time  with  the  same  double-barreled  abstractions  of  "people's  de- 
mocracy" and  "minority  rights"  and  "equal  justice"  and  "social 
welfare"— all  the  synonyms  wl.lch  take  all  the  shame  out  of  re- 
sponsibility by  not  merely  inviting  but  even  compelling  everyone 
to  participate  in  it.^ 
In  the  seminar  with  Japanese  writers  and   intellectuals  at   Nagano, 
Faulkner  emphasized  again  and  again  the  importance  of  individual  ac- 
tion and  individual  thought:  "It's  that  single  voice  that's  the  important 
thing.  When  you  get  two  people,  you  still  got  two  human  beings;  when 
you  get  three  you  got  the  beginning  of  a  mob.  And  if  you  get  a  hundred 
all  focused  on  one  single  idea,  that  idea  is  never  too  good."^^ 

This  challenge  to  human  beings  to  act  individually  and  not  collec- 
tively was  the  keynote  of  two  speeches  Faulkner  made,  the  first  at  his 
daughter  Jill's  graduation  from  University  High  School  in  Oxford,  in 
1951,  and  the  second  two  years  later  at  her  graduation  from  Pine  Manor 
Junior  College  in  Massachusetts,  in  1953.  At  Oxford,  Faulkner  gave  a 
six-minute  speech,  which,  though  little  known,  is  of  the  same  quality 
and  stamp  as  his  Nobel  Prize  acceptance  speech.  To  his  daughter  and 
her  classmates,  Faulkner  said. 

What  threatens  us  today  is  fear.  Not  the  atom  bomb,  nor  even 
fear  of  it,  the  being  afraid  of  it.  Our  danger  is  not  that.  Our  dan- 
ger is  the  forces  m  the  world  today  which  are  trying  to  use  man's 
fear  to  rob  him  of  his  individuality,  his  soul,  trying  to  reduce  him 
to  an  unthinking  mass  by  fear  and  bribery— giving  him  free  food 
which  he  has  not  worked  for— the  economics  and  ideologies  or 
political  systems,  communist  or  socialist  or  democratic,  what- 
ever they  wish  to  call  themselves,  the  tyrants  and  the  politicians, 
American  or  European  or  Asiatic,  whatever  they  call  them- 
selves, who  would  reduce  man  to  one  obedient  mass  for  their 
own  aggrandizement  and  power,  or  because  they  themselves  are 
baffled  and  afraid,  afraid  of,  or  incapable  of,  beUeving  in  man's 


9  Ibid.,  p.  242. 

^°  Faulkner,  Faulkner  at  Nagano,  p.  29. 

5 


capacity  for  courage  and  endurance  and  sacrifice,  ^i 
The  threat  of  totalitarian  systems  of  thought,  Faulkner  told  the  grad- 
uates, will  not  be  effectively  combated  by  group  action:  it  can  be  met 
only  by  individuals  ". . .  who  will  believe  always  not  only  in  the  right  of 
man  to  be  free  of  injustice  and  rapacity  and  deception,  but  the  duty 
and  responsibility  of  num  to  see  that  justice  and  truth  and  pitv  and  com- 
passion done.  12  And  haulkners  final  challenge  to  the  high  school  grad- 
uates was  to  show  courage  in  the  face  of  societal  pressures: 

So  never  be  afraid.  Never  be  afraid  to  raise  your  voice  for  hon- 
esty and  truth  and  compassion,  against  injustice  and  lying  and 
greed.  If  you,  not  just  you  in  this  room  tonight,  but  all  the  thou- 
sands of  other  rooms  like  this  one  about  the  world  today  and  to- 
morrow and  next  week,  will  do  this,  not  as  a  class  or  classes,  but 
as  individuals,  men  and  women,  you  will  change  the  earth.  ^^ 
The  Pine  Manor  address  was  printed  in  the  Atlantic  several  months 
after  Faulkner  delivered  it  in  Massachusetts  in  June  of  1955.  The  speech 
is  entitled  "Faith  or  Fear."  and  as  in  the  Oxford  address,  the  emphasis 
is  on  the  individual's  choice  between  spiritual  freedom  or  slavery.  At 
the  outset,  Faulkner  emphasized  his  idea  that  what  is  wrong  with  the 
world  is  that  it  is  not  yet  finisned,  that  God  gave  man  ". . .  the  choice 
between  ending  the  world,  effacing  it  from  the  long  annal  of  time  and 
space,  and  completing  it."i''  At  present,  Faulkner  continued,  the  forces 
of  slavery  and  conformity  are  stronger  than  ever  before  in  our  history. 
He  urged  that  his  audience  and  he  begin  at  once  ". . .  to  work,  to  begin 
to  change,  to  begin  to  rid  ourselves  of  the  fears  and  pressures  which 
are  making  simple  existence  more  and  more  uncertain  and  without  dig- 
nity or  peace  or  security,  and  which,  to  those  who  are  incapable  of 
believing  in  man,  will  in  the  end  rid  man  of  his  problems  by  ridding  him 
of  himself. "15  "In  fact.""  he  concluded,  "we  must  break  ourselves  of 
thinking  in  the  terms  foisted  on  us  by  the  splitoffs  of  that  old  dark 
spirit's  ambition  and  ruthlessness:  the  empty  clanging  terms  of  'nation" 
and  'fatherland"  or  'race"  or  'color"  or  'creed."" ^^  Only  when   this  is 
done  will  the  dark  forces  of  slavery  admit  defeat,  admit  that  "Man- 
simple  unfrightened  invincible  men  and  women  — has  beaten  us"'i'' 

In  a  letter  to  the  editor  of  the  New  York  Times  in  1954  and  in  an 
article  in  Harper's  magazine  in  1955,  Faulkner  delivered  two  more 
warnings  of  a  somewhat  different  nature  concerning  present-day  threats 

"  "Fear  Threatens  M^n's  Individuality;  Faulkner  Challenges  UHS  Graduates: 
•Never  Be  Afraid."'  The  Oxford  Eagle.  May  31,  1951,  p.  53. 

12  Ibid. 

13  Ibid 

14  William    Faulkner.   "Faith   or  Fear,"  Atlantic.    CLXXXII    (August,    1953), 
p.  53. 

15  Ibid.,  p.  55. 

16  Ibid 

17  Ibid 

6 


to  individualitv.  The  Times  letter  concerned  the  1954  crash  in  New 
York  City  of  an  Italian  airliner  whose  instruments  failed  to  hold  the 
glidepath  in  landing. ^^  In  his  letter  Faulkner  contended  that  the  pilot 
and  those  aboard  were  not  just  the  victims  of  that  instrument  failure, 
but  also  ■'.  .  .  of  that  mystical,  unquestioning,  almost  religious  awe  and 
veneration  in  which  our  culture  has  trained  us  to  hold  gadgets  — any 
gadget,  if  it  is  only  complex  enough  and  cryptic  enough  and  costs 
enough. "'^^  Faulkner  reasoned  that  the  pilot  had  been  afraid  to  use  his 
own  judgment  in  landing  the  plane,  even  after  two  unsuccessful  passes 
at  the  airfield,  for  fear  of  violating  modern  man's  worship  of  mechan- 
ical devices. 2°  And,  Faulkner  concluded,  "We  had  all  better  grieve  for 
all  people  beneath  a  culture  which  holds  any  mechanical  device  superior 
to  any  man  simply  because  the  one,  being  mechanical,  is  infallible, 
while  the  other,  being  nothing  but  man.  is  not  subject  to  failure  but 
doomed  to  it."^! 

The  Harper's  article,  "On  Privacy  .  .  .  The  American  Dream-  What 
Happened  to  It,"  is  an  account  of  Faulkner's  firsthand  experience  with 
the  modern  individual's  helplessness  in  protecting  his  own  privacy. 
The  article  is  a  stinging  denunciation  of  a  reporter  and  his  editors, 
who,  against  Faulkner's  expressed  wishes,  printed  a  story  about  his 
personal  life  in  a  national  magazine. ^^  Faulkner  undoubtedly  had  in 
mind  two  articles,  with  pictures,  which  Life  magazine  printed  about 
him  in  September  and  October  of  1953.  The  point  of  Faulkner's  anger  is 
that  at  present  the  individual  is  helpless  against  any  large  organization 
or  group  which  would  profit  from  violating  his  privacy,  because  the 
modern  organization  has  no  moral  compunctions,  and,  on  the  prac- 
tical side,  would  rather  pay  damages  in  a  libel  suit  than  give  up  the 
chance  for  prestige  or  profit. ^^  Faulkner  concluded  the  article  with 
this  warning' 

With  odds  at  balance  (plus  a  little  fast  footwork  now  and  then  of 
course)  one  individual  can  defend  himself  from  another  indivi- 
dual's liberty.  But  when  powerful  federations  and  organizations 
and  amalgamations  like  publishing  companies  and  religious  sects 
and  political  parties  and  legislative  committees  can  absolve  even 
one  of  their  working  units  of  the  restrictions  of  moral  responsi- 
bility by  means  of  such  catch  phrases  as  "Freedom"  and  "Salva- 
tion" and  "Security"  and  "Democracy,"  beneath  which  blanket 
absolution  the  individual  salaried  practitioners  are  themselves 

^^  William  Faulkner,  "Letter  to  the  Editor,"  New  York  Times,  December  26, 
1954.  Section  4,  p.  6. 

19  Ibid. 

20  Ibid. 

21  Ibid. 

^  William  Faulkner,  "On  Privacy.  .  .  The  American  Dream:  What  Happened 
to  It,"  Harper's  CCXI  (July  1,  1955),  33. 
23  Ibid.,  p.  36. 

7 


freed  of  individual  responsibility  and  restraint,  then  let  us  be- 
ware.^^ 

At  Virginia  in  1958,  Faulkner  delivered  these  remarks  about  the 
pernicious  influence  of  organizations: 

Yes,  I  have  very  definite  ideas  about  that,  and  if  I  ever  become 
a  preacher,  it  will  be  to  preach  against  man,  individual  man,  re- 
linquishing into  groups,  any  group.  I'm  against  belonging  to  any- 
thing. Of  course,  when  1  was  young  I  belonged  to  young  people's 
fraternities  and  things  like  that,  but  now  1  don't  want  to  belong 
to  anything  except  the  human  race  ...  1  think  that  there's  too 
much  pressure  to  make  people  conform  and  I  think  that  one  man 
may  be  first-rate  but  if  you  put  one  man  and  two  second-rate 
men  together,  then  he's  not  going  to  be  first-rate  any  longer,  be- 
cause the  voice  of  that  majority  will  be  second-rate.  ^^ 
At  this  point  it  is  interesting  to  examine  the  relationship  between 
Faulkner  the  artist  and  Faulkner  the  individualist.  In  a  speech  entitled 
"To  the  Youth  of  Japan"  in  1955,  Faulkner  outlined  the  role  of  art  in 
fostering   individualism:   "...  art  is  the   strongest  and   most  durable 
force  man  has  invented  or  discovered  with  which  to  record  the  his- 
tory of  his  invincible  durability  and  courage  beneath  disaster,  and  to 
postulate  the  validity  of  his  hope." 

At  Virginia,  Faulkner  singled  out  J.D.  Salinger's  The  Catcher  in 
the  Rye  as  the  finest  modern  novel  he  had  read.  As  a  first-rate  work 
of  art,  Faulkner  said,  Salinger's  novel  is  a  potent  means  of  saving  man- 
kind ". . .  from  being  desouled  as  the  stallion  or  boar  or  bull  is  gelded, 
to  save  the  individual  from  anonymity  before  it  is  too  late  and  humanity 
has  vanished  from  the  animal  called  man."^^  It  is  the  artist  who  is  the 
est  advocate  of  individualism  ". . .  since  who  should  fear  the  loss  of 
[individuality]  more,  since  the  humanity  of  man  is  the  artist's  life 
blood. "28 

However,  Faulkner  is  no  facile  optimist  who  sees  the  artist's  task 
in  modern  times  as  an  easy  one.  In  Japan  he  told  several  audiences  of 
writers  that  these  are  indeed  dark  times  for  the  artist.  ^9  Over  the  long 
haul,  however,  Faulkner  is  optimistic  about  man's  capacity  for  endur- 
ance and  progress. 

...  I  am  still  convinced  that  man  is  tougher  than  any  darkness. 
That  man's  hope  is  the  capacity  to  believe  in  man,  his  hope,  his 
aspiration  toward  a  better  human  condition.  The  fact  that  man 
always  hopes  toward  a  better  human  condition.  I  think  that  the 


24  Ibid.,  p.  37. 

2^  William  Faulkner,  Faulkner  in  the  University,  p.  269. 
2^  William  Faulkner,  Faulkner  at  Nagano,  pp.  186-7. 
2'^  William  Faulkner,  Faulkner  in  the  University,  p.  245. 

28  Ibid. 

29  William  Faulkner,  Faulkner  at  Nagano,  p.  157. 

8 


purpose  of  writing,  of  art,  is  a  record.  The  reason  that  the  books 
last  longer  than  the  bridges  and  the  skyscrapers  is  that  that  is  the 
best  thing  man  has  discovered  yet  to  record  the  fact  that  he  does 
endure,  that  he  is  capable  of  hope,  even  in  darkness,  that  he  does 
move,  he  doesn't  give  up,  and  this  is  not  only  a  record  of  his  past, 
where  he  has  shown  that  he  endures  and  hopes  in  spite  of  dark- 
ness, but  is  a  promise  of  the  validity  of  that  hope.  That  that  is  one 
thing  in  which  he  can  show  tomorrow  that  yesterday  he  endured. 
He  knows  that  since  his  own  yesterday  showed  him  today  that 
he  endured,  was  capable  of  hope,  was  capable  of  believing  that 
man's  condition  can  be  bettered,  is  his  assurance  that  after  he  is 
gone  someone  will  read  what  he  has  done  and  can  see  what  man 
yesterday  was  capable  of  believing  and  of  hope  that  man's  condi- 
tion does  change.  There  are  evils  of  yesterday  that  don't  exist 
any  more,  the  evils  of  today  will  be  gone  tomorrow  by  the  ad- 
vancement, women  will  have  more  freedom  in  this  country  than 
they  had  once.  There  will  be  a  time  when  the  older  people  that 
got  the  world  into  wars  won't  be  able  to  get  the  world  into  wars 
any  more  for  the  young  people  to  get  killed  in.  That  will  come, 
it  will  take  time,  it  will  take  patience,  and  it  will  take  a  capacity 
of  people  to  believe  that  man's  condition  can  be  improved,  not 
as  a  gift  to  him,  but  by  his  own  efforts.  That  he  can  do  it.^'' 
In  his  last  address  at  Virginia  as  Writer  in  Residence,  in  1958,  Faulk- 
ner summed  up  the  fate  of  individual  man  and  the  role  of  the  arts  in 
this  manner.  The  quotation  serves  as  a  fitting  conclusion  to  this  brief 
look  at  Faulkner  the  artist  and  Faulkner  the  individualist- 
Well,  the  individual  is  not  too  much,  he's  only  a  pinch  of  dust,  he 
won't  be  here  very  long  anyway,  but  species,  his  dreams,  they  go 
on.  There's  always  somebody  that  will  keep  on  creating  the  Bach 
and  the  Shakespeare  as  long  as  man  keeps  on  producing.  ^^ 


30  Ibid.,  pp.  157-9. 

31  William  Faulkner,  Faulkner  in  the  University,  p.  286. 

9 


J.R.R.  TOLKIEN'S 
MODERN  FAIRYLAND 

By  GERALD  M.  GARMON* 

I  would  like  to  argue  that  in  the  twentieth  century  the  epic  tradi- 
tion is  still  very  much  alive,  and  that  there  are  good  examples  to  be 
found  if  we  look  within  the  boundaries  of  popular  literature.  Let  me 
begin  by  mentioning  the  characteristics  of  the  epic  suggested  by  E.M. 
W.  Tillyard.i  "The  first  epic  requirement  is  the  simple  one  of  high 
quality  and  of  high  seriousness."  Secondly,  it  should  have  amplitude, 
breadth,  inclusiveness,  and  the  like.  Thirdlv,  it  should  have  organiza- 
tion and  unity.  The  fourth  requirement  is  called  the  Choric:  '"The  epic 
writer  must  express  the  feeling  of  a  larger  group  of  people  living  in  or 
near  his  own  time."  And  lastly  the  epic  "must  have  faith  in  the  system 
of  beliefs  or  way  of  life  it  bears  witness  to  ... .  Only  when  people  have 
faith  in  their  own  age  can  they  include  the  maximum  of  life  in  their 
vision  and  exert  their  will-power  to  its  utmost  capacity."  Lascelles 
Abercrombie^  describes  these  last  two  in  other  terms;  he  thinks  that 
the  epic  is  often  vulgar  and  provincial,  shamelessly  singing  the  praises 
of  a  conservative  faith  in  morality  and  in  a  limited  idea  of  heroic  be- 
havior. And  let  me  add  another  quality  found  in  most  epics,  and  that 
is  the  reverence  for  and  dependence  upon  nature. 

It  is  necessary  to  stress  the  part  that  nature  plays  in  epics,  because 
it  is  seldom  mentioned  when  epic  characteristics  are  listed.  Yet  nature 
in  some  form  or  another  serves  as  the  controlling  force  in  most  of  the 
epics  of  antiquity.  In  the  Greco-Roman  and  Norse  legends  the  gods 
and  goddesses  were  qualities  of  nature  personified.  Inevitably  the 
epic  hero  fought  for  the  natural  good  and  was  supported  in  his  struggle 
by  the  forces  of  nature;  yet  sometimes,  too,  the  gods  of  nature  worked 
against  man. 

Now,  probably  we  cannot  expect  that  within  our  times  a  poetic  epic 
will  be  written  which  will  fulfill  the  reasonable  requirements  of  a  long 
narrative  poem  which  has  a  figure  of  heroic  stature,  a  setting  vast  in 
scope,  which  covers  great  nations,  has  supernatural  forces,  a  style  of 
sustained  elevation,  and  is  at  once  glorifying  traditional  values  and  yet 
objective.  But  only  the  requirement  that  it  be  a  poem  diminishes  that 

*Associate  Professor  of  English,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  E.M.W.  Tillyard,   The  Epic  Strain  in  the  English  Novel  (London:  Chatto 
and  Windus,  1958),  pp.  15-17. 

2  Lascelles  Abercrombie,  The  Epic  (Freeport,  N.Y.:  Books  for  Libraries  Press, 
1939),  p.  11  and  ff. 

10 


tradition  in  our  time.  And  that  is  the  only  requirement  that  J.R.R.  Tol- 
kien's The  Lord  of  the  Rings  lacks,  yet  it  has  much  fine  poetry  within 
it.  And  this  combination  of  prose  and  poetry  is  perhaps  the  best  com- 
promise with  the  poetic  tradition  that  the  twentieth-century  reader  will 
accept,  but  the  lack  of  poetic  structure  should  not  be  crucial  to  defini- 
tion of  the  epic.  The  epic  has  been  invented  many  times  and  indepen- 
dently; but  as  the  needs  which  prompted  the  invention  have  been  broad- 
ly, similar,  so  the  invention  itself  has  been. 

Certainly,  J.R.R.  Tolkine  intended  to  create  his  three-volume, 
six-book  work  as  an  epic.  He  borrowed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  Ice- 
landic and  German  traditions,  from  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  Morte  d' 
Arthur,  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  perhaps  from  Michael  Drayton's 
Nymphidia,  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost.  And  yet  it  is  not  essentially 
a  derivative  work,  certainly  not  as  much  as  The  Aeneid,  for  example. 
And  from  the  many  sources  and  influences  only  two  or  three  can  be 
said  to  have  major  shaping  force  on  its  creation.  They  are  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  epic  works,  the  Arthurian  tradition  and  the  English  soldier  of 
the  twentieth  century.  The  others  provide  incidental  images  and  stock 
characters  or  occasional  motifs,  but  little  more.  And  though  there 
are  echoes  of  the  Greek,  Roman,  Italian,  Norse  and  Portuguese  epcis. 
it  is  primarily  the  English  works,  Beowulf  and  The  Faerie  Queene, 
that  are  its  defining  ancestors.  This  should  remind  us  of  another  tra- 
ditional characteristic  of  the  epic,  that  the  hero  should  be  a  nation- 
al hero. 

The  hero  of  The  Lord  of  the  Rings  is  Frodo  Baggins,  a  hobbit,  who 
lives  at  Bag  End,  the  Shire,  Middle-earth,  in  a  time  incalculably  dis- 
tant, before  the  age  of  man.  The  hobbits  are  a  likely  choice  for  the 
heroes  of  a  natural  world  because  they  live  in  the  ground,  are  agrarian 
in  their  life  style  and  generally  close  to  nature.  They  are  little  people, 
standing  about  three  feet  tall,  but  with  few  of  man's  destructive  habits. 
They  have  soft  hair  growing  on  the  tops  of  their  feet,  thus  they  seldom 
wear  shoes.  They  are  shy,  enjoy  eating  — up  to  six  meals  a  day— they 
are  naive,  innocent,  and  provincial.  They  lack  an  interest  in  history 
but  love  to  gossip  and  talk  about  family  traditions.  They  are  stay-at- 
homes,  and  they  like  to  smoke  pipes  — a  habit  which  they  invented. 
They  dislike  change.  In  short  they  are  in  every  way  creatures  of  habit, 
which  may  explain  their  name.  Their  other  salient  qualities  are  endur- 
ance, toughness,  loyalty  and  compassion.  They  stand  as  impressive 
answers  to  the  charge  of  Joseph  Wood  Krutch  and  others  who  claim 
that  modern  man  has  lost  faith  in  his  own  magnificence.  But  their 
greatness  does  not  rest  in  preeminent  skill  in  arms  and  grand  appear- 
ance; it  is  in  true  courage.  The  courage  to  fight  without  faith  but  none- 
theless for  an  ideal,  to  go  on  even  to  sure  destruction.  It  is  a  courage 
that  is  not  vested  in  being  willing  to  give  up  a  life  that  is  superior  to 
others,  but  in  the  willingness  to  make  a  mediocre  life  heroic  by  giving 
it  up  well  and  for  a  superior  cause.  The  hobbit  is  a  naturally  sympathe- 
tic character,  a  half-sized  Hector,  a  loveable  type.  Almost  surely  he 
represents  the  middle-class  Englishman,  the  British  Tommy  of  two 

11 


in 


world  wars  who  put  down  his  work-a-day  tools  and  fought  against  great 
odds  to  save  the  world  from  totalitarian  forces.  And  he  represents  the 
English  Tommy  without  being  identified  with  the  less  heroic,  mundane, 
and  personal  elements  of  our  times.  His  small  size  magnifies  the  size 
of  the  enemy;  and,  perhaps  most  important,  it  urges  us  to  believe  that 
it  is  not  by  strength  of  arms  that  the  world  will  be  saved.  Elrond,  the 
elven  king,  says  of  Frodo, 

This  quest  may  be  attempted  by  the  weak  with  as  much  hope  as 

the  strong.  Yet  such  is  oft  the  course  of  deeds  that  move  the 

wheels  of  the  world:  small  hands  do  them  because  they  must 

while  the  eyes  of  the  great  are  elsewhere.  (I,  353)^ 

Despite  its  amazing  creativity,  its  riot  of  deep  traditional  learning.  The 

Lord  of  the  Rings  could  not  succeed  without  the  hobbit,  its  finest  and 

most  endearing  creation,  an  Everyman  of  heroic  proportions. 

In  plot,  as  well  as  in  its  representative  hero,  The  Lord  of  the  Rings 
is  epic  in  scope,  variety  and  organization;  at  the  same  time  it  makes 
its  appeal  uniquely  to  the  modern  concern  with  pollution,  war,  and 
personal  relationships. 

Frodo  Baggins  is  the  nephew  of  Bilbo  Baggins,  who  many  years 
earlier  had  found  a  mysterious  ring  which  had  the  power  to  make  its 
wearer  invisible.  Under  the  guidance  of  Gandalf  the  Grey,  a  wizard, 
Bilbo  — now  a  hundred  and  eleven  years  old  — gives  a  farewell  party, 
passes  the  ring  on  to  Frodo  and  departs  from  the  Shire.  It  is  now  that 
Frodo  learns  that  his  ring  is  the  one  made  over  a  thousand  years  earlier 
by  the  evil  wizard  Sauron,  who  had  lost  his  body  when  he  lost  the  ring, 
but  whose  evil  spirit  has  now  gathered  great  strength  and  is  about  to 
launch  a  war  of  conquest  on  Middle-earth.  He  first  wants  to  recapture 
his  One  Ring  which  will  make  him  invincible.  It  is  up  to  Frodo  to  carry 
the  Ring  back  to  the  mountain  in  whose  volcanic  heat  it  was  forged  and 
destroy  it  there  by  the  only  force  which  can  destroy  it,  before  it  turns 
all  of  the  world  into  evil.  But  the  Ring,  which  always  gravitates  back 
to  its  maker,  has  a  will  of  its  own  and  develops  the  evil  in  anyone  who 
wears  it  until  it  destroys  him. 

Frodo  is  helped  on  his  quest  by  his  personal  servant  Sam,  his  two 
best  friends.  Merry  and  Pippin,  an  elf  named  Legolas.  two  men,  Strider 
and  Boromir,  Gimli,  a  dwarf  and  the  wizard  Gandalf.  They  comprise 
the  fellowship  of  the  Ring.  Gandalf  falls  into  a  bottomless  pit  while 
doing  battle  with  an  indefinable  evil  cloud  called  the  Balrog.  Boromir 
is  killed  by  Ores— a  kind  of  robot  created  by  Sauron;  and  Frodo,  de- 
ciding that  the  Ring  can  be  best  returned  by  one  person,  leaves  the  rest 
to  go  on  by  himself.  He  does  not  count,  however,  on  the  indefatigable 
loyalty  of  Sam,  who  follows  his  master.  Later  Merry  and  Pippin  are 


3  J.R.R.  Tolkien,  The  Lord  of  the  Rings  (New  York:  Ballantine  Books,  1967). 
All  references  to  Tolkien  are  to  this  text. 

12 


separated.  And  as  Sauron  begins  his  war,  even  without  the  Ring,  the 
fellowship  is  widely  scattered. 

The  breaking  of  the  fellowship  closes  Book  Two,  or  volume  one. 
The  remaining  four  books  of  the  trilogy  divide  precisely  in  two  parts. 
Books  Three  and  Five  belong  to  the  Heroic  Age,  to  great  battles  and 
individual  heroics;  Books  Four  and  Six  belong  to  the  theme  of  the 
Quest,  with  the  middle  pages  of  Six  bringing  the  two  parts  together 
again  when  the  eagles,  sent  by  Gandalf,  rescue  Frodo  and  Sam  from  the 
exploding  Mount  Doom.  The  last  three  chapters  relate  the  cleansing 
of  the  Shire  of  the  evil  forces  which  had  gathered  there  in  Frodo's 
absence. 

Now  all  of  this  suggests  a  rather  traditional  plot  as  epics  go.  There 
are  the  fantastic  heroes  of  super-human  abilities:  Gandalf,  Strider, 
Legolas.  Gimili,  and  Boromir:  the  mysterious  and  inhuman  enemy: 
the  Ores,  Trolls,  Ringwraiths,  the  giant  spider  Shelob.  and  Sauron 
himself,  to  mention  a  few:  there  is  the  quest  to  return  the  Ring,  and  thus 
to  gain  the  great  treasure  of  peace  for  Middle-earth.  There  are  the  un- 
natural escapes  from  death;  for  example,  Gandalf  the  Grey  returns 
from  the  dead  as  Gandalf  the  White.  There  are  several  descents  into 
the  underworld,  and  there  is  the  dependence  on  nature  and  the  powers 
of  nature:  things  do  not  grow  in  Mordor  the  land  of  Sauron,  they  flour- 
ish in  the  land  of  the  elves.  The  Ents,  huge  tree-like  creatures  who  can 
command  the  trees,  help  the  fellowship.  Tom  Bombadil  is  a  pure  spirit 
of  nature,  unaffected  by  evil,  by  temporal  concerns,  by  even  time. 
Birds  talk  to  the  elves;  the  eagles  are  servants  of  Gandalf.  Certainly 
there  is  little  possibility  of  the  pathetic  fallacy  here:  there  are  sentient 
wills  in  plants  and  rocks,  and  animals  have  nearly  human  intelligence. 

In  The  Lord  of  the  Rings  nature  is  a  controlling  force,  and  if  proper- 
ly understood,  it  serves  as  a  useful  device  for  interpretation.  It  does 
not,  however,  present  a  simplistic  dichotomy  of  good  versus  evil.  At 
times  the  forces  of  nature  seem  to  work  against  the  success  of  the 
fellowship.  Sauron  seems  to  have  power  over  nature,  and  at  times 
so  does  Gandalf.  But  both  evil  wizards,  Sauron  and  Suraman,  pervert 
nature  and  destroy  it.  A  key  to  the  interpretation  of  Nature  is  found 
in  the  account  of  the  dwarves  in  Moria.  The  dwarves  are  essentially 
good  and  in  accord  with  Nature.  But  in  bygone  years  they  had  mined 
for  silver  into  the  very  heart  of  the  mountain  and  in  their  greed  they 
had  unleashed  the  terrible  Balrog.  As  a  result  they  lost  their  wealth, 
their  mountain  home,  and  much  of  their  skill  as  craftsmen.  The  Balrog 
has  become  an  instrument  of  evil  by  the  time  the  fellowship  reaches  the 
mountain,  but  originally  he  was  a  spirit  of  offended  Nature.  And  offended 
Nature  seems  to  be  the  pattern  throughout  the  three  volumes.  The 
forests  that  hinder  the  heroes,  the  mountain  that  heaps  snow  in  their 
path,  the  snakes  that  attack  them  are  all  responding  to  previous  vio- 
lations. Nature  is  essentially  passive  and  good,  but  at  times  resentful 
and  defensive  because  of  past  hurts.  With  this  understanding  of  nature, 
we  can  try  to  understand  several  of  the  problems  that  readers  have 
discovered. 

13 


One  critical  question  which  has  bothered  some  critics,  I  have  al- 
ready attempted  to  explain  within  the  idea  of  Nature  as  the  definition 
of  good,  and  that  is,  "why  did  Tolkien  use  the  hobbit  for  his  modern 
tale?"  Two  other  problems  which  readers  have  been  puzzled  by  are  Tol- 
kien's lack  of  treatment  of  religion  and  the  disturbing  sense  of  loss 
that  pervades  the  whole  work. 

Too  often  critics  have  looked  beyond  the  tale  to  the  Catholic  author 
and  assumed  a  Christian  foundation.  I  do  not  find  it,  and  that  may  leave 
a  few  words  such  as  heathen  without  much  meaning,  but  they  do  not 
occur  often.  What  I  do  find  is  a  rather  implicit  belief  on  the  part  of 
the  characters  in  a  shaping  force  behind  the  affairs  of  Middle-earth  but 
nothing  so  immediate  as  the  gods  of  the  Greeks  nor  the  personal  God 
of  the  Christians.  It  seems  that  Tolkien  has  gone  back  to  the  Nordic 
myths,  to  the  early  pre-Christian  beliefs  of  the  Teutonic  peoples  and 
their  belief  in  Fate,  a  vaguely-comprehended  notion  of  a  power  that 
not  even  the  gods  of  the  old  polytheism  could  resist.  All  references  to 
religion  are  so  vague  as  to  envoke  those  shadowy  days  before  religion. 
One  of  these  rare  and  typical  references  appears  in  a  comment  made 
to  Frodo  about  Bilbo's  finding  of  the  Ring.  Gandalf  says. 

Behind  that  there  was  something  else  at  work,  beyond  any  design 
of  the  Ring-maker.  I  can  put  it  no  plainer,  than  by  saying  that 
Bilbo  was  meant  to  find  the  Ring,  and  not  by  its  maker.  In  which 
case  you  also  were  meant  to  have  it.  (I,  88) 
It  is  a  foggy  kind  of  teleology  and  is  perhaps  best  described  by  the  word 
"Nature." 

To  many  readers  another  disturbing  quality  of  the  work  is  the  sense 
of  loss  which  pervades  the  later  part  of  the  work  in  particular;  it  is  a 
sense  of  the  dying  out  and  fading  away  of  the  old  ways  and  forms  of 
life.  It  gives  the  epic  the  tone  of  a  kind  of  modern  Virgilian  sorrow. 
Almost  everything  that  is  rational  but  non-human  is  fated  to  pass  from 
Middle-earth  with  the  ending  of  the  Third  Age.  Already  the  Tree-like 
Ents  are  dying  out  because  the  Entwives  have  been  lost  for  many  years. 
With  the  destruction  of  the  One  Ring,  the  Three  Elven  rings  lose  their 
power  and  the  Elves  must  pass  on  to  the  West.  The  Fourth  Age  of 
Middle-earth  will  be  the  age  of  Men,  and  from  them  the  hobbits  will 
hide  and  be  reduced  in  number,  so  too  will  the  dwarves.  And  since 
there  is  no  Middle-earth  within  our  history  or  geography,  we  must  as- 
sume that  it  and  its  history  vanished  also,  long  ago,  beyond  man's  mem- 
ory. This  sense  of  loss  is  dramatized  further  in  the  conclusion.  Bilbo 
has  now  grown  too  old,  Elrond  and  the  elves  can  no  longer  remain  in 
Middle-earth,  Gandalf  has  fought  too  long  and  hard  and  so  too  has 
Frodo.  In  the  final  chapter  they  meet  at  the  Grey  Havens  to  set  sail 
for  the  West  — a  kind  of  Avalon  — and  Frodo  in  parting  with  his  beloved 
Sam  says, 

I  have  been  too  deeply  hurt,  Sam.  I  tried  to  save  the  Shire,  and  it 
has  been  saved,  but  not  for  me.  It  must  often  be  so,  Sam,  when 
things  are  in  danger:  some  one  has  to  give  them  up,  lose  them, 
so  that  others  may  keep  them.  (Ill,  382) 

14 


And  Sam  is  left  alone  with  his  new  family  to  carry  on  the  hobbit  life 
and  to  feel  the  sense  of  loss  more  than  any  other.  He  is  now  the  most 
important  personage  in  the  Shire  and  "the  most  famous  gardener  in 
history." 

All  of  this,  the  hobbits  and  the  other  characters,  the  lack  of  Christian 
moral,  the  sense  of  loss,  is  drawn  together  by  the  central  controlling 
concept  of  the  epic,  that  of  Nature.  In  a  way  it  is  a  surprising  divinity 
to  be  worshiped  in  the  twentieth  century,  and  in  a  way  it  is  quite  relevant. 
It  is  in  keeping  with  the  natural  cycle  of  life  that  the  elves  must  leave 
Middle-earth,  and  the  hobbits  and  dwarves  decline  in  power.  For  all 
things  in  nature  grow  and  fade  in  their  season.  It  is  natural,  too,  that 
man  should  come  to  power  in  the  Fourth  Age,  for  his  powers  are  like 
those  of  the  hobbit,  but  he  is  more  aggressive;  but  given  time  he  may 
acquire  the  virtues  of  the  hobbits,  these  three  qualities  most  praised 
and  exemplified  in  The  Lord  of  the  Rings,  love,  pity,  and  regeneration, 
and  no  other  terms  describe  so  well  a  uniquely  twentieth-century  faith 
and  hope. 


15 


PRINCIPLES  OF  TAXATION  AND 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MAJOR  STATE 

TAXES 

By  RICHARD  D.  GUYNN* 

The  limitations  of  various  theories  of  taxation  often  reduce  the  task 
of  tax  legislation  to  political  expediency.  The  struggles  of  groups  and 
classes  over  the  distribution  of  the  tax  burden  indicate  little  agreement 
over  the  concept  of  "tax  justice."  Much  taxation  has  been  based  on  com- 
promises presented  by  interested  parties.  This  method,  common  to  weak 
governing  bodies,  rationalizes  many  tax  laws.  Thus,  a  state  finds  that 
its  revenue  system  discriminates  against  segments  of  society  incapable 
of  making  known  their  views. 

The  progressive  tax  falls  on  people  most  capable  of  paying.  Despite 
a  basic  belief  in  progressive  taxation,  the  tax  burden  has  recently  shifted 
to  low  income  groups.  A  notable  example  is  the  increasing  dependence 
of  state  and  local  governments  on  sales  and  use  taxes  which  are  inor- 
dinately regressive  for  some  income  groups.  In  the  early  years  of  state 
taxation  over  half  of  the  total  revenue  was  derived  from  general  and 
selective  property  taxes.  However,  in  recent  years  the  emphasis  has 
shifted  to  income  and  consumption  taxes. ^  These  latter  taxes  fall 
heavily  on  the  wage  earner  while  in  earlier  years  most  of  the  tax  burden 
was  borne  by  property  owners  and  businesses. 

Expediency  appears  to.  be  the  most  commonly  used  method  of  leg- 
islating taxes  in  many  states.  Few  comprehensive  studies  have  been 
made  by  states  to  suggest  policies  for  legislators  to  follow  as  a  guide 
for  legislating  taxes.  A  solution  to  expediency  is  a  well-planned  tax 
system  which  takes  into  consideration  social,  ethical,  and  economic 
factors. 

This  paper  examines  the  fundamental  principles  of  taxation  and  the 
characteristics  of  major  state  taxes.  This  examination  can  (1)  aid  in 
determining  the  structure  of  a  tax  system  consistant  with  society's  goals, 
(2)  suggest  criteria  by  which  the  faults  and  attributes  of  major  types 
of  taxes  can  be  judged,  and  (3)  provide  measures  by  which  proposed 
tax  revisions  can  be  appraised. 

In  a  democratic  society  one  commonly  accepted  principle  of  taxa- 
tion is  equality,  which  implies  equal  treatment  of  those  people  equally 
circumstanced.  2  An  inherent  weakness  in  the  application  of  this  princi- 

*Assistant  Professor  of  Economics,  West  Georgia  College. 


1  William  J.  Shultz  and  C.  Lowell  Harriss,  American  Public  Finance  (Engle- 
wood  Cliffs.  New  Jersey:  Prentice-Hall,  Inc.,  1965),  p.  226. 

2  James  M.  Buchanan.  The  Public  Finances  (Homewood,  Illinois:  Richard  D. 
Irwin,  Inc.,  1960),  p.  166. 

16 


pie  is  the  nonexistence  of  characteristics  of  equahty  used  to  determine 
an  individual's  tax  burden.  Equality  is  a  matter  of  degree  and  some 
discrimination  is  possible  since  the  socio-income  groups  are  not  clearly 

defined. 

State  and  local  taxes  in  the  United  States  are  structured  in  an  in- 
equitable manner  because  taxes  are  regressive  and  discriminate  against 
families  with  low  incomes.  A  study  by  the  Tax  Foundation  found  that 
the  total  state  and  local  tax  burden  regressed  from  14.4  per  cent  of 
personal  income  for  families  in  the  under  $2,000  income  class  to  8.4 
per  cent  of  personal  income  for  those  in  the  515,000  and  over  income 
class. 3  The  types  of  taxes  that  proved  to  be  the  most  regressive  were 
selective  sales  and  excise,  general  sales,  property,  social  insurance, 
and  employer  contributions. 

If  the  idea  of  equality  or  inequality  is  to  be  meaningful,  the  princi- 
ple of  equality  needs  to  be  an  integrated  part  of  a  specific  tax  system. 
However,  there  is  considerable  disagreement  as  to  how  equality  should 
be  defined.  Some  theorists  propose  that  consumption  should  be  the 
guide  for  the  determination  of  equity  while  others  maintain  that  income 
should  be  the  index  for  equity  determination.'*  In  spite  of  this  con- 
troversy, the  doctrine  does  have  positive  value.  It  concentrates  our 
attention  on  tax-burden  discriminations  so  we  can  reflect  whether  there 
is  an  equitable  basis  for  them.  In  most  democracies,  fiscal  equality  is 
interpreted  as  taxation  according  to  benefits-received  or  ability-to-pay. 

Numerous  tax  theorists  place  considerable  emphasis  on  the  benefits- 
received  principle  for  the  distribution  of  the  tax  burden.  This  princi- 
ple rests  on  the  idea  that  those  who  receive  benefits  from  governments 
should  absorb  the  major  portion  of  the  costs  for  these  services.  Although 
directly  assessing  the  recipient  is  not  always  possible,  frequently  this 
principle  has  been  applied  to  justify  such  taxes  as  the  gasoline  tax. 
Gasoline,  in  terms  of  amounts  used,  is  considered  a  measure  of  bene- 
fits received  from  highway  construction  and  maintenance.  This  theory 
is  valid  only  when  the  decision  to  collect  can  be  tied  to  the  decision 
to  spend.  Other  public  services,  such  as  the  satisfaction  of  social  wants, 
do  not  lend  themselves  to  marketing,  and  their  value  cannot  be  approx- 
imated by  an  objective  measure. 

A  number  of  ambiguities  surround  the  benefits-received  principle. 
It  implies  that  total  benefits  are  equated  to  the  total  amount  of  taxes 
paid.  Economists  maintain  that  each  taxpayer  receives  a  surplus,  be- 
cause most  people  receive  more  in  the  form  of  benefits  than  they  would 
be  able  to  pay  for  if  everyone  had  the  responsibility  of  providing  these 
services  on  an  individual  basis.  ^  A  second  ambiguity  is  the  interpre- 


^  Tax  Foundation,  Inc.,  Tax  Burden  and  Benefits  of  Government  Expenditures 
by  Income  Class,  1961  and  1965  (New  York:  Tax  Foundation,  Inc.,  1967),  p.  18. 
*  Richard  A.  Musgrave,  The  Theory  of  Public  Finance.  (New  York:  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Company,  Inc.,  1959),  p.  161. 
^  Buchanan,  The  Public  Finances,  p.  170. 

17 


tation  of  marginal  benefit  rather  than  total  benefit  as  a  basis  for  tax 
collection.  According  to  this  definition,  taxpayers  receiving  public 
services  would  pay  taxes  for  value  received  based  upon  the  cost  of 
providing  the  service  at  that  time.  The  benefit  received  would  be  valued 
in  the  same  manner  as  a  commoditv  sold  in  a  competitive  market,  thus 
changing  the  concept  of  taxation  from  one  of  total  benefits  received 
to  payment  according  to  the  incremental  benefit  received.^  Although 
marginal  benefit  provides  a  more  equitable  measure,  it  is  as  difficult 
to  determine  as  total  benefits  received.  In  addition,  there  is  no  measure 
for  personal  sacrifice  involved  in  the  corresponding  tax  payment. 
Still,  the  principle  does  have  value  in  forcing  the  student,  voter,  and 
public  official  to  compare  alternatives  and  to  look  at  marginal  govern- 
ment spending  rather  than  the  total  or  the  average. 

The  ability-to-pay  principle  implies  that  individuals  with  unequal 
ability  be  taxed  in  an  unequal  manner.^  The  major  problem  associated 
with  this  idea  is  the  determination  of  the  ability  to  pay  for  unequal 
groups.  Someone  other  than  the  individual  being  taxed  must  be  given 
the  authority  to  decide  the  ability  of  an  individual  to  forego  income 
to  the  public  sector.  Income,  consumption,  and  property  ownership 
have  been  the  traditional  guides  for  establishing  a  person's  ability  to 
pay  taxes.  For  many  advocates  of  this  principle,  the  personal  income 
tax  is  considered  the  most  equitable  tax  as  it  assumes  that  individuals 
with  greater  incomes,  wealth,  or  claims  to  wealth  have  greater  ability 
to  sacrifice  tax  payment.^ 

With  regard  to  the  ability-to-pay  approach,  the  contribution  to  public 
services  is  treated  as  an  independent  problem  which  differs  from  the 
benefits-received  idea.  The  former  is  seen  as  compulsory  payments  and 
the  revenue-expenditure  process  is  viewed  as  a  planning  problem  not 
subject  to  solution  by  the  operation  of  the  market  mechanism. 

Other  theories  related  to  the  ability-to-pay  principle  have  been 
developed  to  justify  progressive  forms  of  taxation.  One  is  the  principle 
of  minimum-aggregate-sacrifice  theory  which  is  based  on  the  theory 
of  diminishing  marginal  utility.  It  is  assumed  that  individual  satisfaction 
(utility)  cannot  be  measured,  but  is  comparable  between  individuals. 
This  implies  that  the  absolute  sacrifice  of  paying  taxes  can  also  be 
compared.^  Based  on  these  assumptions  it  is  possible  to  devise  a  tax 
structure  where  the  degree  of  sacrifice  will  be  uniform  for  all  taxpayers 
regardless  of  income  level.  Although  total  utility  and  interpersonal 
utility  cannot  be  measured  cardinally,  many  people  are  willing  to  accept 
the  theory  that  marginal  utility  of  income  does  decline  for  most  individ- 
uals receiving  a  substantial  increase  in  income. 

When  levying  a  tax,  the  taxing  authority  generally  desires  that  it 


6  Ibid.,  p.  171. 
■^  Ibid.,  p.  168 


'  wia..  p.  ibs. 
^  Musgrave,  The  Theory  of  Public  Finance,  p.  94. 
^  Buchanan,  The  Public  Finances,  p.  169. 

18 


be  productive  in  securing  the  desired  amount  of  revenue  regardless 
of  economic  conditions,  which  can  vary  widely  within  a  short  period 
of  time.  State  expenditures  must  be  met  during  periods  of  high  and  low 
economic  activity.  The  productiveness  of  any  tax  depends  on  factors 
such  as  rates,  exemptions,  deductions,  the  number  of  taxpayers,  and 
economic  developments. 

Closely  associated  with  the  principle  of  productivity  is  elasticity. 
Rate  variation  can  make  the  yield  of  most  nonregulatory  taxes  elastic. 
A  tax  is  elastic  when  an  increase  in  rates  results  in  a  higher  yield  and 
a  reduction  in  rates  results  in  a  lower  yield.  However,  in  neither  case 
is  the  effect  on  revenue  proportional.  As  any  tax  rate  is  raised  beyond 
a  point  of  optimum  productivity,  elasticity  diminishes  and  results  in 
a  reduced  tax  yield.  i°  There  is  little  evidence  to  indicate  the  optimum 
rate  of  taxation.  Therefore,  a  revenue  system  must  be  structured  in  a 
manner  that  will  not  cause  financial  hardship  as  economic  conditions 
change.  An  elastic  tax  should  be  capable  of  expanding  rapidly  to  pro- 
duce larger  revenues  and  contracted  rapidly  to  reduce  receipts.  States 
which  employ  the  sales  and  income  taxes  are  fairly  well  equipped  to 
respond  to  changes  in  economic  conditions. 

A  final  factor  which  must  be  considered  is  the  administration  of 
tax  collecting.  It  is  important  to  minimize  the  cost  of  collection.  Effec- 
tive administration  is  also  essential  for  the  maintenance  of  tax  equity. 
Regardless  of  how  equitable  a  tax  appears  in  theory,  equity  is  not  main- 
tained if  large  numbers  of  people  are  able  to  avoid  the  tax. 

The  effectiveness  of  administering  a  tax  is  enhanced  if  the  base  is 
clearly  defined  by  the  collecting  agency  and  understood  by  the  tax- 
payer. Administration  of  a  tax  can  be  simplified  if  ambiguities  are  a- 
voided  through  proper  definitions  of  the  tax  base  and  if  exemptions 
which  are  closely  related  and  difficult  to  interpret  are  avoided.  Gen- 
erally, those  taxes  having  the  largest  bases  and  consisting  of  large  num- 
ber of  transactions  offer  the  greatest  difficulty  in  administration.  These 
problems  are  encountered  with  the  property  and  income  taxes.  How- 
ever, effective  methods  of  dealing  with  these  taxes  can  be  developed 
by  agencies  that  are  flexible  enough  to  adopt  procedures  designed  to 
eliminate  or  reduce  problem  areas. 

Effective  tax  collection  requires  officials  who  are  experienced, 
efficient,  and  qualified  to  administer  taxes.  The  purpose  of  minimizing 
costs  is  not  to  minimize  the  staff,  but  to  extend  the  staff  to  the  point 
where  any  additional  costs  in  administration  are  equated  to  the  incre- 
mental increase  received  from  the  added  effort.  ^^ 

Consumption  taxes  are  defined  as  any  tax  which  rests  on  the  con- 
sumer. They  may  be  levied  directly  on  the  consumer  or  may  be  shifted 


^°  Shultz  and  Harriss,  American  Public  Finance,  p.  187. 

^^  John  F.  Due,  Government  Finance  and  Economic  Analysis,  3rd  ed.  (Home- 
wood,  Illinois:  Richard  D.  Irwin..  1963),  p.  120. 

19 


to  the  consumer  in  the  form  of  higher  prices.  They  are  classified  as 
general  or  selective  sales  taxes. 

The  general  sales  tax  is  described  as  an  addition  to  the  price  which 
is  paid  by  a  person  buying  at  retail.  It  is  usually  a  tax  levied  on  the  seller 
for  the  privilege  of  doing  business  in  the  state,  although  the  intent  is 
for  the  incidence  to  be  passed  on  to  the  buyer.  Initially,  the  fundamental 
objective  of  the  movement  for  a  general  sales  tax  was  to  lessen  the  tax 
burden  of  the  wealthy.  The  sales  tax  has  continued  to  be  an  easy  way  of 
shifting  a  significant  portion  of  the  tax  burden  to  millions  of 
consumers.  ^^ 

An  ideal  sales  tax  structure  should  fall  uniformly  on  consumption 
expenditures;  it  should  consist  of  a  uniform  percentage  of  the  final  price 
to  the  purchaser.  The  tax  should  be  neutral  in  its  effects  on  production 
and  distribution  to  prevent  producers  from  being  penalized  in  their 
competition  with  other  manufacturers  in  different  areas. 

Several  arguments  have  been  offered  to  justify  the  extensive  use  of 
the  sales  tax.  They  are:  (1)  In  recent  years,  administration  of  the  sales 
tax  has  improved,  making  it  one  of  the  easiest  to  administer  and  the  most 
economical  to  collect.  (2)  The  sales  tax  aids  in  the  distribution  of  the 
tax  burden,  as  it  forces  each  individual  to  bear  part  of  the  cost  of  govern- 
ment. (3)  Other  types  of  taxes  often  discourage  business  activity  because 
they  discourage  investment  and  encourage  investors  to  employ  their 
financial  resources  in  tax-exempt  securities.  (4)  Sales  taxes  are  an  effi- 
cient means  of  taxing  individuals  who  are  in  a  position  to  avoid  the  in- 
come tax.  (5)  It  is  a  broad-based  tax.  (6)  The  sales  tax  is  an  excellent 
tax  for  use  if  the  income  tax  has  an  adverse  effect  on  the  economy. 

The  primary  objection  to  taxes  on  sales  is  their  regressive  nature  in 
terms  of  income  groups.  Since  low  income  groups  tend  to  spend  a  larger 
percentage  of  their  incomes  for  consumption,  a  higher  portion  of  that 
income  may  be  claimed  by  taxes  than  is  the  case  with  wealthier  families. 

The  selected  excises  include  taxes  on  alcoholic  beverages  and 
tobacco  products  and  road-user  excises.  While  these  taxes  have  the  same 
general  advantages  and  disadvantages  as  the  general  sales  tax,  they  tend 
to  be  more  popular  with  the  taxpayer  because  of  their  general  nature. 
Alcohol  and  tobacco  are  considered  harmful  nonessentials  whose  use 
should  be  curtailed  by  taxation.  Road-user  excises,  including  gasoline 
taxes  and  vehicle  registration  fees,  are  justified  on  the  basis  that  those 
individuals  who  utilized  vehicles  and  roads  should  pay  for  the  costs 
incurred  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  highways.  Rate  in- 
creases in  selected  excises  encounter  less  political  resistance,  making 
them  lucrative  sources  of  revenue  for  many  states. 

Many  states  have  long  established  income  tax  laws  and  rely  on  this 
tax  as  a  lucrative  source  of  revenue.  These  states  generally  follow  the 


12  Alfred  G.  Buehler,  Public  Finance,  3rd  ed.  (New  York:  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  Inc.,  1948),  p.  14. 

20 


guideline  of  the  federal  government  with  respect  to  the  concept  and 
definition  of  incomes.  Many  of  the  differences  in  income  tax  collections 
between  the  two  levels  of  government  arise  from  limitations  in  the  state's 
authoritv  to  tax  incomes  and  the  state's  lagging  behind  the  federal 
government  in  changes  in  the  definitions  of  terms. 

In  accordance  with  the  ability-to-pay  principle,  the  individual  in- 
come tax  is  considered  the  fairest  tax  because  it  is  a  tax  on  produced 
wealth.  It  is  a  broad-based  tax  with  good  revenue  potential.  Income 
taxes  have  an  advantage  over  consumption  taxes  as  they  have  no  impact 
on  the  costs  of  production  and  do  not  constitute  a  part  of  business  costs. 
Consumption  patterns  can  be  altered  with  the  income  tax  conjunction 
with  social  objectives.  Rates  can  be  made  progressive  to  redistribute 
income  away  from  the  rich  in  favor  of  the  poor,  and.  alternatively,  rates 
can  also  be  manipulated  to  redistribute  income  in  the  reverse  manner. 
Low  income  groups  tend  to  spend  larger  proportions  of  their  incomes 
on  consumption  than  do  the  higher  income  groups.  Studies  have  indi- 
cated that  higher  incomes  lead  to  a  lower  propensity  to  consume.  Redis- 
tributing income  to  the  lower  income  groups  results  in  these  groups 
having  more  to  spend  and  this  increases  aggregate  consumption. 

One  of  the  inherent  weaknesses  of  the  income  tax  arises  out  of  the 
very  nature  of  the  tax.  Individuals  who  hold  titles  to  wealth  are  often 
people  of  great  influence  and  are  in  a  position  to  use  their  wealth  and 
influence  politically  to  escape  their  share  of  the  tax  load.  By  bringing 
pressure  on  state  officials,  they  are  frequently  able  to  force  legislators 
to  rely  on  other  types  of  taxes  that  are  more  regressive.  Substitute  taxes 
frequently  take  the  form  of  consumption  takes,  thus  placing  a  larger 
burden  on  the  poor.  A  second  undesirable  feature  of  the  income  tax  is 
that  revenue  varies  with  economic  fluctuations.  States  imposing  the 
tax  must  be  cautious  in  forecasting  changes  in  the  level  of  economic 
activity:  otherwise,  a  failure  to  adjust  expenditures  to  receipts  can  lead 
to  financial  embarrassment.  States  which  have  relied  on  the  income  tax 
for  a  number  of  years  have  refined  their  -^vstems  of  collection  to  the 
extent  that  most  of  them  have  achieved  substantial  efficiency 
of  administration. 

A  final  point  to  be  considered  is  that  relationships  between  leisure 
time  and  time  worked  may  be  altered  by  the  income  tax.  Economic 
theory  assumes  that  individuals  subconsciously  think  in  terms  of  mar- 
ginal utility  in  making  expenditure  decisions.  Income  earned  for  labor 
expended  constitutes  pleasure  while  the  energy  expended  and  all  the 
discomforts  of  work  constitute  pain.  Workers  attempt  to  equate  the 
marginal  pain  and  pleasure  of  work.  Consequently,  if  an  individual's 
income  from  work  is  overcome  by  higher  taxes,  he  may  demand  more 
leisure  time  which  leads  to  a  reduction  of  constructive  work  time.  Some 
economists  contradict  this  idea  with  the  argument  that  higher  taxes 
serve  as  an  incentive  for  people  to  work  harder  to  offset  the  losses  to 
taxes. 

Smaller  units  of  government  have  traditionally  relied  on  the  prop- 
erty tax  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  level  of  government.  How- 

21 


ever,  the  authority  of  local  governments  to  levy  property  taxes  is  often 
limited  by  the  state  constitution  or  state  legislation.  The  property  tax 
or  ad  valorem  tax  is  usually  a  tax  on  tangible  personal  property.  Some 
states,  however,  have  a  tax  on  intangible  personal  property.  The  property 
tax  is  a  broad-based  tax.  If  properly  administered,  it  can  be  a  lucrative 
source  of  revenue.  Local  governments  can  rely  on  the  property  tax  re- 
gardless of  economic  conditions;  thus,  revenues  provided  in  predict- 
able amounts  can  give  the  governments  stability  and  simplify  their 
budgetary  process. 

One  of  the  major  inadequacies  of  the  property  tax  is  the  assessment 
process.  There  is  a  need  in  most  areas  to  revamp  the  entire  procedure 
of  assessing  property.  In  many  areas  the  same  assessment  method  has 
been  used  for  decades  and  due  to  the  standardization  of  customs,  admin- 
istrative procedures,  and  socio-political  structures,  local  officials  are 
reluctant  to  modify  present  forms  of  assessment.  The  local  assessor  is 
typically  an  elected  official,  who  is  not  a  full-time  employee,  is  poorly 
paid,  and  often  poorly  trained.  Because  the  office  requires  public  elec- 
tion and  is  short  term,  the  job  is  often  politically  oriented  and  subject 
to  unnecessary  pressure. 

A  second  disadvantage  of  the  property  tax  is  its  regressive  nature. 
In  the  event  that  two  individuals  with  differing  incomes  own  property 
of  identical  value,  the  land  owner  with  the  lower  income  will  pay  out 
a  higher  percent  of  his  income  in  property  taxes.  Also,  assessors  tend 
to  assess  property  of  low  market  value  near  its  true  value  and  property 
of  high  market  value  is  usually  assessed  at  an  amount  lower  than  its 
true  value.  13  Therefore,  the  individual  with  low  market  valued  property 
pays  more  than  his  share  of  the  tax  burden. 

One  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  of  the  property  tax  is  the  willingness 
of  the  state  and  local  governments  to  grant  excessive  exemptions.  These 
commonly  include  all  public  property  (federal,  state,  and  local),  prop- 
erty belonging  to  philanthropic  organizations  and  nonprofit  institutions, 
and  new  industrial  property.  Some  states  also  allow  a  homestead  exemp- 
tion. It  has  been  estimated  that  one-eighth  of  all  property  in  the  United 
States  is  exempt  from  a  property  tax.^^  This  is  a  serious  erosion  of  the 
tax  base.  Many  local  governments  are  forced  to  borrow  money  or  raise 
other  taxes  to  compensate  for  revenue  lost  by  exemptions. 

When  levying  a  new  tax  or  revising  an  existing  tax,  legislators  have 
the  responsibility  to  keep  several  factors  in  mind.  The  fairness  and 
equity  of  the  tax  to  the  taxpayer,  the  productiveness  of  each  tax,  and 
the  cost  and  ease  of  administration  must  be  assigned  high  priority.  Since 
all  taxes  currently  utilized  by  state  governments  have  both  inherent 
advantages  and  disadvantages,  tax  revision  must  also  be  based  on  num- 


13  Committee  on  Public  Finance,  Public  Finance  (New  York:  Pitman  Publish- 
ing Corporation,  1959),  p.  425. 

14  Ibid. 

22 


erous  other  variables.  These  include  the  nature  of  the  present  revenue 
system,  the  relationship  of  the  revenue  system  to  those  of  other  states 
in  the  same  geographical  region  of  the  nation,  and  the  state's  spending 
needs.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  type  of  tax  provide 
important  criteria  for  selecting  taxes  for  modification  when  considered 
in  relation  to  the  productiveness  of  a  selected  tax. 


23 


DREAMS,  VISIONS,  AND  MYTHS  IN 
JOHN  HERSEY'S  WHITE  LOTUS 

By  MICHAEL  HALTRESHT* 

The  survival  of  a  persecuted  minority  may  well  depend  on  psycho- 
logical rather  than  physical  resistance  to  the  will  of  its  oppressors.  This 
is  the  theme  that  permeates  John  Hersey's  The  Wall  (1950).  Central 
European  Jewry  was  destroyed  partly  because  its  sense  of  identity  and 
worth  had  been  undermined  by  centuries  of  living  amidst  a  hostile  en- 
vironment. Beneath  their  haughty  ethnocentrism  and  exaggerated  ambi- 
tiousness,  the  ghetto  dwellers  (Hersey  suggests)  had  come  unconsciously 
to  despise  and  hate  themselves.  Their  collective  ego  weakened,  the 
victims  offered  little  resistance  to  the  Nazis.  Indeed,  having  become 
anti-Semites  themselves,  the  victims  often  unconsciously  collaborated 
with  their  exterminators. 

In  White  Lotus  (New  York:  Knopf,  1965),  inspired  by  the  civil  rights 
movement  in  the  United  States,  Hersey  returns  to  the  question  of  ethnic 
identity  and  morale.  His  subject  is  again  an  oppressed  and  endangered 
group— this  time,  an  imaginary  white  minority  in  China.  Again  survival 
depends  on  ego  strength,  or  the  ability  of  the  group  to  maintain  its  self- 
esteem  and  sense  of  purpose.  White  Lotus  differs  in  emphasis,  however, 
from  The  Wall.  In  the  earlier  work,  Hersey's  intent  is  to  compel  us  vi- 
cariously to  experience  the  sufferings  of  the  social  victims  in  our  own 
flesh  and  blood.  His  medium  is,  appropriately,  the  diary  form.  In  White 
Lotus,  on  the  other  hand,  the  novelist's  appeal  is  to  the  intellect.  His 
question  is  not.  What  does  it  feel  like  to  be  arbitrarily  persecuted?  It  is, 
rather:  Why  do  members  of  persecuted  groups  react  the  way  they  do? 
Or:  Why  does  a  particular  individual  (or  group)  give  up  the  struggle  and 
break  down,  while  another  persists?  These  questions  Hersey  answers 
in  White  Lotus  at  the  level  of  the  unconscious,  and  his  work  represents 
one  of  the  very  few  attempts  in  American  fiction  to  apply  psychoanalytic 
insights  to  the  psychology  of  minority  groups.  In  this  paper  I  should  like 
to  explore  the  deeper  meanings  of  some  of  the  dreams,  visions,  myths, 
fantasies,  and  superstitions  with  which  the  novel  abounds. 

Consider  the  dream  that  White  Lotus,  a  slave,  has  on  the  eve  of  a 
contemplated  rebellion  (pp.  284-85).  In  her  dream,  the  young  woman 
raises  her  arm  to  stab  her  hated  mistress.  The  latter  does  not  offer  any 
physical  resistance.  Instead,  she  just  looks  sternly  at  her  slave  — and 
White  Lotus  finds  herself  paralyzed.  Her  knife  falls  to  the  ground,  and 
she  is  mysteriously  compelled,  in  the  dream,  to  prostrate  herself  at 
her  mistress's  feet  and  beg  "for  forgiveness,  forgiveness."  The  ego  and 
counter-ego,  the  determination  to  be  free  and  the  extraneous  notion 
that  it  is  wrong  to  defy  one's  master,  are  in  equilibrium.  Over  and  over 
the  nightmare  repeats  itself  until  the  slaves  self-loathing  is  so  profound 
that  she  has  to  "sit  up  in  bed  to  stop  her  nausea  and  dizziness  "  The 

*Assistant  Professor  of  English,  West  Georgia  College 

24 


slave  rebellion,  it  may  be  added,  is  easily  crushed  by  the  masters. 

This  cycle  of  guilt,  self-loathing,  and  paralysis  is  illustrated  also  by 
the  nightmare  that  another  slave  named  Grin  has  on  the  eve  of  his  con- 
templated escape  to  freedom  (pp.  408-409).  At  one  level,  the  dream  is 
a  preview  of  the  flight.  The  slave  sees  himself,  in  his  dream,  running 
out  from  his  "work  space"  (the  plantation)  to  "the  gate"  (free  territory). 
A  roaring  army  of  hounds  soon  sets  upon  him.  Grin  tries  to  hide  "under 
a  pile  of  stalks"  but  the  huge  dogs  close  in  on  him  from  all  sides. 

The  dream  clearly  bespeaks  the  slave's  low  morale.  During  the  day, 
the  man  busily  prepares  for  his  break,  but  at  night  his  unconscious 
expectation  of  failure  expresses  itself.  In  his  dream,  the  slave  indeed 
hears  the  pursuing  hounds  even  before  he  starts  his  run.  The  nightmare 
can  be  read,  however,  also  at  a  second,  deeper  level  (the  so-called  sub- 
jective, or  functional,  level).  In  this  perspective,  the  "I"  and  the  hounds 
stand  not  for  Grin  himself  and  for  his  masters  but  rather  for  forces 
inside  the  man's  mind.  The  "I"  symbolizes  Grin's  desire  for  freedom  and 
individuality;  the  hounds  represent  the  value  system  of  his  masters. 
At  this  level,  the  dream  tells  of  the  absorption  of  the  slave's  identity 
into  that  of  the  larger  society.  Initially  the  "I"  is  man-sized,  but  it  be- 
comes progressively  "smaller  and  smaller"  until  it  is  tiny  enough  to  hide 
under  a  pile  of  stalks.  Simultaneously,  the  hounds  are  progressively 
magnified.  They  are  frightfully  large  to  begin  with,  and  they  soon  ex- 
pand into  an  "army"  and  a  "river"  of  bristling  fur.  At  the  climax  of  the 
nightmare,  these  creatures  are  about  to  suck  in  the  "I"  by  their  "gigan- 
tic" sniffing:  what  this  means  is  that  Grin's  authentic  self  is  about  to  be 
overwhelmed  by  the  foreign  ego  he  has  taken  over  from  his  oppressors. 
The  latter  value  system  makes  it  wrong  for  the  slave  to  assert  his  will 
against  the  masters,  and  this  is  why  Grin  does  not  wholeheartedly  carry 
out  the  preparations  for  his  flight.  The  escape  to  freedom  indeed  is 
never  carried  out  because  the  slave  uses  his  nightmare  as  a  pretext 
for  giving  up  his  scheme.  "I  can't  go,"  he  whines.  "I  want  to  go  but 
I . . .  "  Grin's  friend  Dolphin  sets  out,  alone,  for  free  territory,  but  he 
is  careless  and  the  slave  hunters'  hounds  soon  overtake  and  kill  him. 
Dolphin,  too,  even  while  going  through  the  motions  of  escape,  no  longer 
truly  desires  it.  What  he  wants  is  simply  to  die. 

On  the  one  hand  then,  is  the  natural  desire  to  assert  one's  individual- 
ity; on  the  other  is  the  internalized  will  of  the  dominant  majority.  The 
result  is  a  compromise:  a  guilt-ridden  submissiveness  that  is,  in  effect, 
fatal.  We  find  this  pattern  also  in  a  certain  nightmare  that  plagues  White 
Lotus.  In  her  dream,  the  girl  sees  a  column,  "wide  as  I  was  tall,"  of  black 
ants  advancing  to  engulf  her,  "as  irresistible  as  the  sun's  climb"  (p.  139). 
She  tries  to  run  away,  but  her  feet  are  rooted  to  the  ground.  At  the  same 
time,  she  feels  no  fear:  she  has  lost  her  sense  of  identity  — her  will  has 
become  absorbed  into  that  of  the  masters  (whom  the  ants  symbolize). 
The  ugly,  waspish,  engulfing  hornworms  (p.  276),  the  "hairy  spiders 
and  rustling  scorpions"  (p.  47),  the  terrible  giant  "with  the  horned  head- 
piece" (p.  55),  and  the  fire  of  which  Gull  (p.  133)  dreams  nightly,  all 

25 


represent  the  oppressors.  So  also  do  the  spirits,  witches,  dragons,  and 
vampires  around  which  the  slaves'  superstitions  evolve. 

The  same  unconscious  materials  that  show  the  erosion  of  the  slaves' 
collective  ego  also  reveal  its  continuing  resistance  to  disintegration 
and  even  its  drive  toward  health  and  growth.  In  their  unconscious  minds, 
for  one  thing,  many  of  the  slaves  have  preserved  a  strong  sense  of  pur- 
pose. Individually  and  collectively,  they  feel  that  they  must  accomplish 
some  important  mission.  The  ghetto  dwellers  in  The  Wall  can  conceive 
of  nothing  worth  living  for.  "The  new  year  will  be  the  end.  I  feel  it," 
one  of  them  says.  The  image  that  Rachel,  supposedly  a  Zionist,  has  of 
Palestine  is  one  of  folly,  barrenness,  and  futility.  Lacking  (in  Hersey's 
conception)  any  whole-hearted  commitment  to  the  future,  the  people 
of  the  ghetto  give  it  up  without  very  much  struggle.  The  slaves  in  White 
Lotus,  on  the  other  hand,  survive  as  a  group  because  their  dreams  and 
fantasies,  their  prayers,  religious  practices  and  mystic  visions,  their 
songs,  riddles,  and  even  superstitions  (pp.  374,  375),  keep  their  minds 
focussed  on  worthwhile  goals.  They  cannot  afford  to  die. 

One  of  the  slaves,  for  instance,  expresses  his  ceaseless  longings  for 
freedom  by  nightly  playing  his  "away  songs"  (p.  375)  about  the  finch 
(the  slave)  sighing  in  the  pine  tree,  about  the  difficult  path  to  the  moun- 
tain (freedom),  or  about  how,  "discarding  his  ankle  bands"  (his  slavery), 
he  "wears  shoes  with  magpie  wings  (escapes).  Or  he  sings  of  "the  sunset 
streaks  beyond  the  heights,"  which  he  will  reach  even  if  he  has  to  walk 
"ten  thousand  lis"  to  get  there  (p.  416).  Another  slave  sings  of  "the 
fields  of  glory"  and  "the  jasper  sea"  (p.  224),  while  a  third,  named 
Peace,  elaborates  a  tall  tale  (p.  125)  that  does  become  meaningful  as 
a  wish-fulfilling  fantasy  when  we  realize  that  the  huge  Mexican  jaguar 
must  mean  the  masters"  army,  that  the  fleeing  pocket  gophers  stand  for 
individual  Chinese  troops  in  flight,  and  that  the  white  hunters  that  re- 
duce the  jaguar  to  a  "thin,  mangy  goat"  must  be  rebellious  slaves. 
Indeed  all  of  the  bizarre  visions  of  Peace,  that  rabidly  nationalistic 
priest-slave,  make  sense  in  terms  of  his  desire  to  see  the  downtrodden 
prevail  over  their  masters  and  establish  an  autonomous,  free  society  of 
their  own.  Peace  happens  to  be  a  madman,  but  fellow  slaves  are  im- 
pelled to  join  him  when  he  acts  out  his  fantasies  of  freedom  and  power. 
The  man's  private  hallucinations  are  soon  incorporated  into  the  com- 
munitv  ritual. 

There  is  more  to  the  slaves'  mythology  than  the  longing  for  brute 
power,  however.  What  the  oppressed  people  crave  at  least  as  intensely 
is,  perhaps  surprisingly,  a  sense  of  psychological  and  spiritual  liberation. 
The  slaves'  ceremonies  and  folklore  contain  many  symbols  of  revenge 
and  destruction  but  imagery  of  height  (birds,  kites,  the  mountain, 
ladders,  the  stars,  and  the  like)  outnumber  all  other  images,  while  arch- 
etypes of  purification,  light,  and  fertility  (fire,  stars,  femininity,  spring) 
are  next  in  frequency.  These  anagogic  strivings  may  be  unconscious.  But 
they  are  quite  real. 

Consider,  for  instance,  the  seemingly  meaningless  nursery  song 
about  the  bride  and  the  groom  (pp.  526-27).  At  the  so-called  objective 

26 


level,  the  song  tells  of  the  marriage,  under  a  lowering  sky,  of  two  slaves, 
and  what  the  jingle  emphasizes  is  the  futile  cycle  of  sexuality,  birth, 
life,  and  death  among  the  downtrodden.  The  nubile  "pomegranate  girl" 
and  "the  vegetable  snake"  "enter  the  bedroom"  (sexual  union).  A 
"blossom"  is  deposited  "in  the  stream"  (pregnancy),  is  born,  and  then 
"falls  in  the  stream"  (death).  The  slave's  existence  has  no  meaning  be- 
yond this  mechanical  cycle.  At  the  subjective  or  functional  level,  how- 
ever, the  song  carries  a  deeply  affirmative  meaning.  At  this  second  level, 
the  union  of  the  bride  and  the  groom  symbolizes  the  longed-for  re- 
integration of  the  male  and  female  aspects  of  the  slaves"  collective 
personality.  It  is  a  union  of  the  potentials  of  the  oppressed  minority 
for  strength  and  for  artistic  and  spiritual  creativity.  The  two  "gaudy" 
gifts  that  the  groom  receives— the  "fine  horse"  and  the  fur  hat— sym- 
bolize, respectively,  a  new  body  and  a  new  spirit,  as  often  they  do  in 
C.G.  Jung's  dream  theory.  The  wedding  presents  associated  with  the 
bride  (oil  and  laurel)  are  strongly  "fragrant,"  and  they  are  offered  in  a 
bowl  and  a  jug.  These  are  the  blessings  of  the  feminine  part  of  the  per- 
sonality (what  Jung  called  the  anima).  They  are  the  gifts  of  holiness 
(the  oil),  life  (the  evergreen  laurel),  and  perfection  (the  mandala  im- 
agery). The  sexual  female  symbolism  of  the  bride's  "gifts"  of  fragrant, 
oil-filled  "containers"  is  certainly  there,  but  we  should  not  ignore  the 
spiritual  signification. 

Liberation  for  the  slaves  (the  song  says  in  effect)  lies  in  neither  sub- 
mission nor  violent  revenge  but  rather  in  the  fullest  development  of 
their  spiritual  and  psychological  resources.  The  same  meaning  is  con- 
veyed by  White  Lotus's  vision  on  p.  144.  The  cooperative,  ceremonial 
construction  of  the  house  is  symbolic  of  the  slaves'  desire  to  have  their 
own  home  — to  have  autonomv  and  independent  institutions.  The 
branch  that  Gabe  attaches  to  the  new,  living  house  is  a  symbol,  like 
the  Biblical  olive  branch,  of  hope,  and  its  "leafiness"  suggests  also 
ideas  of  spiritual  fertility.  This  archetypal  meaning  of  the  vision  ex- 
plains the  cheering  of  the  crowd  and  the  song,  "We  are  watching,  we 
are  waiting.  For  the  bright  prophetic  day." 

In  Hersey's  view,  then,  a  threatened  group  is  challenged,  first,  to 
preserve  its  identity  from  being  overwhelmed  by  the  ego  of  the  larger 
society.  Secondly,  it  must  develop  positive  goals  and  deeply  commit 
itself  to  the  realization  of  these  objectives.  When  this  dual  challenge 
has  been  met,  the  minority  group  is  no  longer  on  the  defensive.  It  is, 
indeed,  to  make  its  own  contributions  to  the  larger  society.  Here  again  a 
contrast  suggests  itself  between  The  VKa//and  White  Lotus.  In  the  former 
novel,  the  characters  are  progressively  driven  backwards  on  themselves. 
The  Germans  begin  by  surrounding  the  ghetto  with  a  wall,  then  add 
a  new  wall  within  the  old  one,  then  further  decrease  the  ghetto  area 
by  a  series  of  barbed-wire  fences.  Eventually,  they  drive  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  ghetto  into  cellars  and  sewers.  The  victims,  in  Hersey's 
novel,  accept  their  confinement  and  isolation,  and  even  feel  most  se- 
cure within  the  ghetto.  White  Lotus,  too,  contains  many  actual  and 
symbolical  walls,  but  the  oppressed  people  here  have  the  strength  never 

27 


quite  to  accept  their  imprisonment.  They  persist  in  their  efforts  to 
break  the  walls  down  and,  inevitably,  they  are  victorious.  At  the  end 
of  the  novel,  a  sit-in  by  former  slaves  is  successful,  and  the  title  character 
has  a  moment  of  mystic  illumination  (p.  670).  The  white  lotuses  and  "the 
perfect  crystalline  pool"  she  envisions  symbolize  her  newly  liberated 
self.  It  is  a  prize  that  she  has  very  richly  earned. 


28 


THE  FOREIGN  POLICY  STATESMANSHIP 
OF  SENATOR  WALTER  F.  GEORGE:  1955-1956 

By  VALG.  MIXON* 

In  1922  forty-four  year  old  Walter  Franklin  George  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Senate  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of  Senator 
Tom  Watson.  The  junior  Senator  from  Georgia  joined  a  national  gov- 
ernment headed  by  the  Harding  Administration  and  a  Senate  dominated 
by  the  giant  figures  of  William  Borah,  Henry  Cabot  Lodge,  Robert 
Norris,  and  Robert  LaFoUette.  Thus  began  a  career  which  was  to  span 
thirty-four  years,  a  period  in  which  America  would  experience  great 
economic  and  social  upheavals,  conventional  wars  of  limited  scope  and 
the  threat  of  a  nuclear  war  with  total  annihilation  — events  which  would 
force  the  country  from  its  contented  isolationalism  into  an  unwanted 
and  unsure  leadership  of  the  western  world. 

George  entered  the  Senate  as  a  representative  of  the  mood  of  the 
people  of  Georgia  of  the  1920*s;  he  opposed  America's  entry  into  the 
League  of  Nations,  all  foreign  aid,  and  was  an  unvarying  conservative 
on  domestic  economic  matters.^  The  revolutionary  events  of  the  1930"s 
and  1940's  altered  most  of  these  views.  And  when  George  left  the 
Senate  in  1956  he  was  recognized  as  one  of  that  body's  most  influential 
members.  Even  The  Nation  praised  him  as  "the  indispensable  man" 
in  Washington  on  international  affairs.  ^ 

Senator  George  rose  to  this  pinnacle  of  influence  almost  as  if  by 
osmosis.  Gradually,  he  became  recognized  and  accepted  by  his  col- 
leagues as  a  member  of  that  inner  group  who  exemplify  the  qualities 
expected  of  Senators. 

This  approval  by  his  colleagues  accounts  for  a  degree  of  his  power 
but,  of  course,  even  more  significant  than  this  intangible  source  are 
the  positions  he  controlled  in  the  Senate.  At  different  periods  in  his 
career,  George  served  on  twelve  committees  and  headed  five  of  them.^ 
Two  of  the  most  powerful  chairmanships  he  held  were  in  the  Finance 
and  Foreign  Relations  committees.  Most  of  his  career  he  concentrated 
on  financial  legislation.  But  in  January  of  1955,  as  the  Democrats  re- 
gained control  of  Congress,  George  moved,  at  the  urgent  request  of 
the  President  and  Secretary  of  State  Dulles,  from  head  of  Finance 
to  Chairman  of  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee.'* 
*Assistant  Professor  of  Political  Science,  West  Georgia  College 


1  Atlanta  Constitution,  May  10,  1956,  p.  1;  Time.  April  25,  1955,  p.  23. 

2  "Washington's  Indispensable  Man,"   The  Nation.    August  6,    1955,   p.    105. 

3  Time,  April  25,  1955,  p.  23. 

^  Editorial,  Atlanta  Constitution,  May  11,  1956,  p.  4. 

29 


The  Eisenhower  administration  was  in  almost  desperate  need  of 
congressional  support  for  its  foreign  policy  in  the  beginning  of  1955. 
The  Republican  Party  had  controlled  the  eighty-third  Congress  of  1953-54, 
but  the  Knowland,  Bricker,  Bridges  and  McCarthy  wing  of  the  party 
had  not  cooperated  with  Dulles.^  Rather  they  had  effectively  tied  ad- 
ministration policy  to  inflexible  and  unimaginative  slogans  such  as, 
"No  surrender,"  "Negotiations  equal  appeasement,"  "Unleash  Chiang 
Kai-Shek  and  free  the  mainland."  Responsible  leadership  in  the  Senate 
was  needed  to  free  the  executive  to  explore  various  avenues  in  search 
of  solutions  to  developing  problem  areas, 

George's  first  major  test  came  only  two  weeks  after  he  moved  up 
to  head  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee.  American  policy  in  the 
Far  East,  which  was  rigidly  tied  to  Chiang  Kai-Shek,  and  his  hopes  of 
eventual  "return  to  the  mainland,"  clashed  with  what  appeared  to  be 
Chinese  Communist  movements  to  carry  out  their  long  promised  "War 
of  liberation"  against  Formosa.  On  January  18,  1955,  after  several  days 
of  intensive  artillery  attacks  against  the  off-shore  islands  in  the  Tachen 
Island  group,  Communist  forces  landed  on  Yikiang  and  easily  destroyed 
the  small  group  of  Nationalist  defenders.^ 

Secretary  of  State  Dulles  immediately  pointed  out  that  Yikiang 
was  "without  any  particular  importance"  to  the  military  security  of  the 
United  States  or  any  of  its  allies.'^  This  mild  public  reaction  by  the 
administration  did  not  at  all  indicate  the  seriousness  with  which  the 
stepped  up  Communist  military  activity  in  the  Formosa  Strait  was 
viewed.  The  private  expressions  of  concern  and  the  hurried  conferences 
at  the  highest  governmental  level  which  marked  the  next  few  days  were 
more  indicative  of  the  government's  reaction.  Eisenhower  and  his  ad- 
visors faced  the  central  questions  of  how  far  the  Communists  intended 
to  carry  their  campaign;  that  is,  would  they  be  content  with  grabbing 
a  few  of  the  tiny  off-shore  islands  or  did  they  plan  to  overrun  Formosa 
itself,  and  what  action  by  the  United  States  would  be  necessary  to 
stabilize  the  area.^ 

The  dominant  opinion  within  the  government  held  that  the  Com- 


^  President  Eisenhower  referred  to  these  senators  when  he  wrote  of  the  1954 
Congress,  "the  present  situation  is,  1  think,  without  recent  precedent  in  that 
the  particular  legislators  who  are  most  often  opposing  administration  views 
are  of  the  majority  party."  See  Dwight  D.  Eisehhower,  The  White  House  Years: 
Mandate  for  Change,  1953-1956  {Nevj  York,  1963),  p.  193. 
^  Douglas  B.  Cornell,  "Ike  Asks  U.N.  to  Seek  Cease-Fire,  Discounts  Tachens" 
Importance," /l/Zanto  Constitution,  January  20,  1955,  p.  1. 
■^  New  York  Times.  January  19,  1955,  p.  1. 

8  Louis  L.  Gerson,  John  Foster  Dulles  (Vol.  XVII,  in  Samuel  F.  Bemis,  ed.. 
The  American  Secretaries  of  State,  18  Vols.,  New  York,  1958-1970),  pp.  198- 
206.  Eisenhower  wrote  of  these  days,  "Lately  there  has  been  a  very  definite 
feeling  among  the  members  of  the  Cabinet,  often  openly  expressed,  that  within 
a  month  we  will  actually  be  fighdng  in  the  Formosa  Straits."  See  Eisenhower, 
The  White  House   Years,  p.  478. 

30 


munists  would  not  be  thwarted  from  their  often-stated  goal  of  '"liber- 
ating" Formosa  unless  the  government  acted  quickly  and  unequivocally 
to  demonstrate  that  America  stood  firmly  behind  Chiang's  Formosa 
and  would  defend  it  with  whatever  military  force  was  required.^  The 
President,  as  commander-in-chief,  could  have  simply  announced  that 
United  States  military  forces  would  be  deployed  against  any  aggressor 
of  Formosa.  For  reasons  both  political  and  strategic,  Dulles  chose 
to  present  the  problem  to  Congress  and  to  request  a  joint  resolution 
authorizing  Eisenhower  to  use  the  armed  forces  to  protect  Formosa 
and  the  Pescadores.^'' 

After  the  initial  decision  toward  a  definite  course  of  action  was 
made,  events  moved  rapidly.  On  the  second  day  following  the  Yikiang 
attack,  January  20,  Dulles  held  a  private  meeting  with  George  and  other 
congressional  leaders  to  explain  the  administration's  plans.  ^^  When 
the  Secretary  brought  up  the  congressional  resolution  proposal,  some 
Democratic  leaders  expressed  the  view  that  the  President  already 
possessed  the  power  to  command  the  military  forces  to  defend  areas 
considered  vital  to  the  United  States.  Dulles  did  not  push  for  com- 
mitments on  the  proposed  but  said  that  the  Communists  must  be  con- 
vinced of  American  solidarity  on  the  issue.  ^^ 

George  made  no  public  comment  on  the  position  he  would  take 
on  the  administration  request.  On  Saturday,  January  22,  Dulles'  Assis- 
tant Secretary  for  congressional  relations,  Thruston  Morton,  and 
Francis  Q.  Wilcox,  Chief  Clerk  of  the  Senate  Foreign  Relations  Commit- 
tee, visited  George  at  his  apartment  to  go  over  a  copy  of  the  resolution. 
The  following  day  George  met  with  Dulles  for  breakfast  and  then  called 
a  meeting  of  his  Democratic  colleagues  on  the  Foreign  Relations  Com- 
mittee. In  the  meeting  some  of  the  Democrats  voiced  a  generally  felt 
skepticism  of  the  Republican  administration's  motives  in  asking  a 
Democratic  controlled  Congress  for  powers  which  many  believed  the 
President  already  had  as  commander-in-chief.  George  attempted  to 
placate  these  doubts  by  voicing  his  confidence  in  Dulles'  objectives;  and 
although  a  few  of  the  members  were  convinced  that  Dulles  simplv  want- 
ed to  shift  to  Congress  some  of  the  responsibility  which  they  felt  belong- 
ed to  the  President  alone,  the  majority  of  the  group  reached  the  con- 
clusion that  they  would  have  to  go  along  with  Eisenhower's  public  re- 
quest for  support.  12 


9  Eisenhower,  The  White  House  Years,  pp.  463-68. 

10  Ibid.  p.  468. 

11  U.S.,  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  2,  p.  2408; 
William  S.  White,  "President  Plans  Formosa  Defense  if  Reds  Advance,"  New 
York  Times,  January  21,  1955,  pp.  1,  3. 

12  Atlanta  Constitution.  April  7,  1955,  p.  4. 

13  The  Nation.  August  6,  1955,  p.  106;  Elie  Abel,  "President  to  Set  U.S.  Defense 
Area  in  Formosa  Policy,"  A^ew  York  Times,  January  23,  1955,  pp.  1,  3. 

31 


On  January  24,  what  came  to  be  known  as  the  Formosa  Resolution 
was  introduced  simultaneously  in  both  houses  of  Congress.^'*  George 
introduced  the  measure  in  the  Senate  and  thus  announced  his  inten- 
tion to  act  as  guide  and  protector  of  the  resolution.  Committee  con- 
sideration of  the  resolution  was  immediately  arranged  as  a  joint  session 
of  the  Senate  Armed  Services  and  Foreign  Relations  Committees, 
with  George  presiding,  was  called  to  hear  Dulles  and  the  Joint  Chiefs 
of  Staff  explain  the  rapidly  deteriorating  Far  Eastern  situation.  George 
limited  the  committee  hearings  to  administration  spokesmen  and  ad- 
amantly refused  to  consider  amendments  or  substitutes  to  the  measure.  ^^ 

When  the  joint  committee  sent  the  resolution  to  the  Senate  floor 
by  a  vote  of  seventeen  to  two,  opposition,  which  had  previously  been 
expressed  only  privately,  broke  into  the  open.  Testimony  by  the  mili- 
tary experts  had  left  doubts  in  the  minds  of  some  Senators  as  to  where 
the  ultimate  decision  to  "pull  the  trigger"  would  be  made.  Senator 
Wayne  Morse  of  Oregon  launched  a  vehement  attack  against  the  re- 
solution and  accused  Dulles  of  developing  a  "preventative  war"  policy 
in  Asia.^^  Senator  Mike  Mansfield  of  Montana,  in  a  more  measured 
tone,  brought  out  reservations  held  by  many  leading  Democrats  about 
the  lack  of  clarity  of  the  resolution  on  the  scope  of  power  being  granted. 
Too,  Mansfield  again  pointed  out  that  many  Senators  felt  that  Eisen- 
hower was  trying  to  shift  responsibility  onto  Congress  for  a  decision 
which  as  commander-in-chief  he  alone  should  make.^'^ 

As  the  rumblings  of  potential  opposition  grew  louder,  George  ad- 
vised Dulles  that  the  principal  misgivings  in  the  Senate  appeared  to 
center  on  concern  over  the  possibility  of  the  United  States  being  drag- 
ged into  a  Chinese  war  by  actions  initiated  by  Chiang's  forces.  ^^  He 


14  U.S.,  Congressional  Record,  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  pp.  605, 

625.  The  resolution  authorized  the  President  "to  employ  the  armed  forces  of 

the  United  States  as  he  deems  necessary  for  the  specific  purpose  of  securing 

and  protecting  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores  against  armed  attack,  this  authority 

to  include  the  securing  and  protecting  of  such  related  positions  and  territories 

of  that  area  now  in  friendly  hands  and  the  taking  of  such  other  measures  as  he 

judges  to  be  required  or  appropriate  in  assuring  the  defense  of  Formosa  and  the 

Pescadores."  See  Eisenhower,  The  White  House  Years,  p.  608. 

1^  Douglas  Cater,  "Foreign  Policy;  Default  of  the  Democrats,"  The  Reporter. 

March  10,  1955,  p.  22.  President  Eisenhower  later  praised  George's  efforts  a- 

gainst  "crippling"  amendments  to  the  Formosa  resolution.  Eisenhower,    The 

White  House  Years,  p.  469. 

16  U.S..  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  p.  736; 

William  S.  White,  "Two  Senate  Committees  Back  Formosa  Policy;  Bitter  Floor 

Debate  Begun,"  New  York  Times,  January  27,  1955,  pp.  1,  2. 

1'^  U.S.  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  p.  621; 

William  S.  White,  "Quick  Approval  Seen  of  The  Request  for  Power  to  Use 

Force  on  Formosa  and  Pescadores  Islands,"  Atlanta  Constitution,  January  25, 

1955,  p.  1. 

18  Atlanta  Constitution.  January  27,  1955,  p.  1. 

32 


recommended  that  the  president  issue  a  statement  definitely  clarifying 
where  the  uUimate  decision  as  to  the  use  of  mihtarv  force  would  be 
made.  Eisenhower  responded  on  January  27,  when  he  assured  the 
country  that  he  alone  would  decide  when  and  where  to  order  American 
forces  into  action,  i^ 

Immediately  after  the  Presidenfs  statement  was  made  public. 
George  took  the  Senate  floor  to  deliver  what  David  Lawrence  of  the 
New  York  Herald  Tribune  called  an  address  of  statesmanship  seldom 
equaled  m  the  history  of  the  United  States.  20  George  quickly  dis- 
pensed with  the  "who  will  pull  the  trigger"  argument  by^inting  to  the 
assurances  given  by  Eisenhower.  Then  he  turned  on  those  who  would 
either  kill  or  amend  the  resolution  with  the  demand  that  "every  mem- 
ber answer  on  his  conscience  the  question  of  what  is  his  alternative."^! 
The  debate  about  constitutional  powers,  said  George,  was  nothing 
but  "legislative  quibbling,"  and  "certainly  he  [the  President]  has  both 
asked  for  authority  from  Congress  and  has  invoked  the  powers  of  the 
executive  branch  of  the  government  and  in  these  two  departments 
all  these  powers  must  reside."22  After  warning  against  the  adverse  effect 
amendments  to  the  administration  measure  would  have  on  nations  a- 
broad,  George  boldly  and  unequivocally  removed  the  issue  from  par- 
tisan politics.  "I  hope  no  Democrat,"  he  said,  "will  be  heard  to  say  that 
because  the  President  of  the  United  States  came  to  Congress  he  is  there- 
by subject  to  criticism. "23 

Several  attempts  were  made  to  amend  the  measure  but  were  de- 
feated by  one-sided  votes,  and  on  the  final  vote  only  Senators  Estes 
Kefauver,  Herbert  Lehman,  and  William  Langer  elected  to  go  on  record 
opposing  the  Presidential  request. 24  Commentators  unanimously  agreed 
that  the  administration  had  George  to  thank  for  holding  an  almost 
unanimous  Senate  in  support  of  its  Far  Eastern  Policy. 25 


19  W.H.  Lawrence.  "President  Says  He  Alone  Will  Make  Decision  on  Formosa 
Strait  Action,"  TVevv  York  Times.  January  28,  1955,  pp.  L  2. 

20  U.S.,  Congressional  Record,  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101.  Part  1.  p.  922. 

21  Ibid.,  p.  819. 

22  Ibid.,  p.  820. 

23  Ibid.,  p.  821.  The  Nation  commented,  "George  crushed,  with  the  power  of 
his  oratory,  the  threatened  Democradc  revolt  against  the  President's  Formosa 
resolution."  The  Nation,  August  6,  1955,  p.  106. 

24  U.S.  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  pp.  921- 
Senator  George  conceded  in  his  major  speech  on  the  resolution  that  what 
the  Senate  was  about  to  authorize  the  President  to  do  might  lead  to  "an  evil 
to  our  country  and  a  horrible  experience."  "But,"  he  continued,  "it  is  one  of 
those  things  as  to  which,  when  we  assume  high  public  office,  we  simply  assume 
the  responsibility  of  passing  upon."  U.S.,  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cone 
1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  p.  821. 

^  Arthur  Krock,  "The  'Old  Man"  Lays  It  on  the  Line,"  New  York  Times.  Jan- 
uary 28,  1955,  p.  18. 


33 


To  further  clarify  and  legalize  United  States'  relation  with  Chiang 
Kai-Shek,  the  Senate  ratified,  shortly  after  passing  the  Formosa  Re- 
solution, a  mutual  defense  treaty  with  Nationalist  China. ^^  The  ad- 
ministration had  negotiated  and  signed  the  treaty  during  the  last  months 
of  1954,  and  had  taken  the  precaution  to  inform  George  of  the  de- 
tails of  the  pact  shortly  after  both  Eisenhower  and  Chiang  had  agreed 
to  them.  Assistant  Secretary  of  State  Walter  S.  Robertson  was  dispatch- 
ed by  Dulles  to  George's  home  in  Vienna,  Georgia,  to  go  over  the  agree- 
ment with  the  Senator  and  if  possible  to  win  his  support.  ^'^ 

George  apparently  accepted  the  substance  of  the  pact  and  agreed 
to  guide  it  through  the  Senate.  George's  party  was  not  all  united  behind 
him  in  support  of  the  treaty.  One  source  of  opposition  was  the  Demo- 
cratic National  Committee,  which  had  circulated  a  memorandum  ques- 
tioning the  wisdom  of  signing  a  mutual  defense  treaty  with  Nationalist 
China  and  stating, "It  would  therefore  seem  to  be  in  the  interest  of 
the  United  States  to  separate  Formosa  and  China,  ^s  Congressional 
Democrats  refused  to  go  along  with  this  reasoning.  Too,  they  were 
jealous  of  their  prerogatives  and  felt  that  they  and  not  the  national 
committee  should  define  Democratic  policy  on  foreign  affairs. 

Democratic  Senators  had  other  specific  objections  to  the  pact, 
but  George  was  successful  in  keeping  their  criticisms  out  of  the  rati- 
fication resolution.  Instead,  the  Senators  simply  accepted  Dulles'  as- 
surances on  the  matters  which  concerned  them:  (1)  the  treaty  did  not 
grant  Chiang  title  to  the  island  of  Formosa;  (2)  no  offshore  islands 
could  be  added  to  the  treaty  without  Senate  consent;  (3)  Chiang  would 
agree  not  to  attack  the  mainland  without  first  obtaining  United  States 
consent.  After  these  assurances  were  made  by  the  Secretary,  only  five 
Democrats  and  one  Republican  voted  against  ratification. ^^ 

Neither  the  Formosa  Resolution  nor  the  Mutual  Defense  Treaty 
served  definitely  to  stabilize  the  military  situation  in  the  Far  East. 
But  in  April,  1955,  Chou  En-Lai  announced  that  he  was  willing  to  discuss 


26  U.S.,  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  p.  1416. 
The  United  States  and  Nationalist  China  agreed  that  an  attack  on  either  would 
endanger  the  safety  of  the  other.  But  the  United  States  committed  itself  in  the 
treaty  to  defend  only  Taiwan  and  the  Pescadores.  Gerson,  John  Foster  Dulles. 
p.203. 

2'^  Cater,  "Foreign  Policy,"  p.  23;  Gerson,  John  Foster  Dulles,  p.  202. 
"^  James  Reston,  "Democrats  Unhappy  Over  Far  East  Role,"  Atlanta  Consti- 
tution. April  7,  1955,  p.  4.  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  the  titular  head  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  who  was  not  even  consulted  about  Formosa  policy  by  Congression- 
al Democrats,  did  not  respond  to  the  administration's  Far  East  policy  for  several 
weeks.  In  a  speech  carried  by  national  radio  and  television  on  April  12,  Steven- 
son opposed  the  use  of  force  in  the  Formosa  Strait,  especially  to  defend  Quemoy 
and  Matsu.  New  York  Times.  April  12,  1955,  pp.  1,  4. 

29  U.S.,  Congressional  Record,  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  1,  pp.  1380- 
81,  1416;  William  S.  White  "Senate  Approves  Formosa  Treaty,"  New  York 
Times,  February  10,  1955,  pp.  1,  14. 

34 


the  Formosan  problem  with  the  United  States. ^o  The  first  statement 
from  the  administration  concerning  the  proposal  was  drafted  by  Under- 
secretary of  State  Herbert  Hoover,  Jr.  in  Dulles"  absence  and  cleared 
by  Eisenhower. 31  This  statement  simply  reiterated  the  United  States' 
demand  that  free  China  participate  as  an  equal  in  any  discussion  con- 
cerning the  area.  This  position  would  have  ended  further  maneuvering 
toward  discussions,  because  the  Nationalists  and  Chinese  Communist 
governments  did  not  recognize  the  legitimacy  of  the  other. 

George,  however,  spoke  up  to  urge  the  administration  to  accept 
the  Chinese  offer  to  discuss  the  Formosan  problem,  with  or  without 
the  participation  of  Nationalist  China. ^^  \^  anticipation  of  those  who 
would  cry  appeasement,  George  said.  "For  one  strong  power  to  say  it 
is  willing  to  sit  down  and  talk  is  not  appeasement,"  and  he  hoped  the 
United  States  would  be  "big  enough  and  great  enough  to  accept  Chou's 
offer."33  xhe  ^ext  move  was  up  to  Dulles,  and  he  made  it  in  a  follow- 
up  announcement  which  held  that  Chiang  would  not  necessarily  have 
to  be  present  in  talks  limited  to  a  cease  fire  in  the  Formosa  Strait. 
He  explained  the  discrepancy  in  the  two  State  Department  positions 
by  saying  that  he  had  been  out  of  town  and  had  not  seen  the  Hoover 
statement  before  its  release.  ^^ 

The  Knowland-Bridges  wing  of  the  Republican  Party  reacted  bitter- 
ly against  Dulles'  change  of  position.  Senator  Knowland  implied  in  a 
strongly  worded  criticism  of  the  administration's  stand  that  he  might 
withdraw  as  party  leader  in  the  Senate  if  negotiations  were  actually 
held  with  the  Chinese  Communists  without  participation  of  Chiang. ^^ 
Despite  the  fact  that  most  of  the  top  Senate  Republican  leaders  were 
opposed  to  negotiations,  Dulles  maintained  his  position. 

In  the  spring  of  1955,  George  pushed  for  negotiations  not  only  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Chou  En-lai  but  also  was  the  first  leading 
public  figure  in  the  United  States  to  advocate  an  East-West  summit 
meeting. 3^  On  the  "Meet  The  Press"  program  of  March  20,  1955,  George 
expressed  his  opinion  that  "the  real  hope  of  avoiding  war  is  through  high 


^  Tillman  Durdin,  "Chou  Asks  for  U.S.  Talks  on  Easing  Formosa  Crisis," 
New  York  Times.  April  24,  1955,  p.  1. 

31  U.S.,  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955,  101,  Part  5,  p.  6094; 
New  York  Times.  April  24,  1955,  p.  IE. 

32  Charles  E.  Egen,  "U.S.  Stresses  Chiang  Role;  George  Would  Accept  Bid," 
New  York  Times.  April  24,  1955,  pp.  1,  3. 

33  Ibid. 

3*  James  Reston,  "Dulles  Is  Willing  to  Talk  to  Peiping  on  Cease-Fire  without 

Nationalists,"  New  York  Times.  April  27,  1955,  p.  1. 

35  "Knowland  Strongly  Attacks  Administration  China  Policy,"  A^e'vv  York  Times, 

April  28,  1955,  p.  L 

3^  Dana  Adams  Schmidt,  "George  Proposes  Big  Four  Parley  to  Prevent  War," 

New  York  Times.  March  21,  1955,  pp.  1,  10.  Also  see  Eisenhower,  The  White 

House  Years,  p.  505. 

35 


level  conferences  among  the  leading  powers."^''  In  urging  a  summit 
meeting  without  insisting  that  the  Russians  first  meet  certain  conditions, 
George  broke  with  the  position  held  by  the  Eisenhower  administration.  ^^ 

According  to  James  Reston  of  the  New  York  Times,  George  be- 
lieved that  the  international  situation  was  such  that  a  meeting  of  the 
great  powers  was  essential  to  relieve  the  growing  war  fears  produced 
by  the  tense  Far  Eastern  situation.  George  interpreted  available  infor- 
mation on  Sino-Soviet  relations  as  indicating  the  Russian's  increasing 
dissatisfaction  with  the  aggressive  policies  being  followed  by  the  Chinese 
in  the  Formosa  strait.  He,  according  to  Reston,  felt  that  the  Soviets 
could  be  persuaded  to  exercise  a  restraining  influence  on  the  Chinese. 
Also,  the  Senator  felt  that  such  a  meeting  would  provide  Eisenhow.er 
with  an  opportunity  to  assure  the  Russians  that  they  had  nothing  to  fear 
from  a  rearmed  Germany  allied  to  the  North  Atlantic  Treaty  (Organiza- 
tion.^9 

The  immediate  effect  of  George's  public  statement  was  to  point 
up  certain  internal  difficulties  the  Republican  administration  was  having 
over  the  question  of  negotiations.  Senator  Knowland  was  opposed  to 
all  high  level  negotiations,  and  after  a  meeting  with  the  President  an- 
nounced that  the  George  proposal  did  not  reflect  the  viewpoint  of  the 
government.  Eisenhower  indicated  in  a  message  to  George  that  he  was 
in  general  agreement  with  the  Senator's  views,  but  in  a  subsequent 
press  conference  the  President  again  reiterated  his  determination  that 
the  Russians  give  "some  evidence"  of  intentions  to  bargain  in  good  faith, 
rather  than  for  propaganda  purposes,  before  he  would  agree  to  a  summit 
meetincr.^'' 

During  the  following  months  discussions  over  the  need  for  a  peace 
conference  continued,  and  public  opinion  gradually  forced  governments 
on  both  sides  of  the  Iron  Curtain  to  agree  to  a  late  summer  conference. 
Thus  the  prospects  of  fruitful  negotiations  checked  the  war  talk  over 
Formosa  and  turned  the  attention  of  world  leaders  toward  ways  to  main- 
tain peace.  George  was  given  much  of  the  credit  by  news  commentators 
and  members  of  Congress  for  helping  to  create  the  kind  of  political 
climate  which  enabled  the  administration  to  enter  into  negotiations 
with  the  Communists  without  fear  of  partisan  political  attack. ^^ 


3^^  Schmidt,  "George  Proposes  Big  Four  Parley,"  p.  1. 

^  Eisenhower,  The  White  House  Years,  p.  504. 

39  James  Reston,  "State  Department  Favoring  George  Plan  for  Big  4  Talk," 

New  Yoric  Times,  March  22,  1955,  pp.  1,  10. 

'^  Elie  Abel,  "G.O.P.  is  Divided  on  Big  Four  Parley;  Knowland  Wary,"  New 

Yorii  Times,  March  23,  1955,  pp.  1,4.^ 

41  U.S.,  Congressional  Record,  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  1955, 101,  Part  10,  pp.  12572- 

76.  Eisenhower  referred  to  George's  role,  "To  my  delight  I  received  a  call  from 

the  statesman  who  had  put  so  much  of  himself  behind  the  idea  of  this  Summit 

meeting.  Senator  Walter  George  of  Georgia."  Eisenhower,  Tlie  White  House 

Years,  p.  510. 

36 


George  also  helped  the  administration  defend  its  foreign  aid  policy 
during  the  two  years  he  headed  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee.  Once 
in  a  debate  over  foreign  aid  programs  George  conceded  that  much  of 
the  public  seemed  disenchanted  with  the  policy  but  went  on  to  add 
his  conviction  that  "To  slacken  assistance  to  allies  would  be  to  invite 
disaster."  ^^Georse  saw  the  program  as  a  bulwark  and  necessary  part 
of  the  United  States'  position  as  world  leader,  and  he  felt  that  the  result 
of  ending  the  program  would  be  to  leave  America  as  an  isolated  "gar- 
rison state. "'^^ 

George  pointed  out  in  his  arguments  for  continued  economic  and 
military  aid  to  America's  allies  that  the  United  States  had  three  courses 
which  she  could  follow  in  meeting  the  challenge  of  world  problems. 
Isolationism  and  domination,  said  George,  had  been  ruled  out  by  the 
American  people,  and  that  the  course  which  had  been  chosen  of  build- 
ing "an  alliance  of  equal  partners  jointly  dedicated  to  the  task  of  keep- 
ing the  free  world  free"  required  a  substantial  foreign  aid  program. '^'^ 

George's  efforts  on  behalf  of  the  administration's  aid  programs 
were  not  confined  to  defending  the  total  amount  of  funds  requested 
but  involved  challenges  from  leading  Senate  Republicans  to  executive 
control  of  the  programs.  In  1955  the  chief  struggle  over  the  program 
was  brought  about  by  Senator  Knowland  and  other  Republicans  when 
they  attempted  to  amend  the  bill  to  provide  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  economic  aid  funds  be  dispensed  as  loans.  George  told  the  Senate, 
"We  might  as  well  abandon  the  whole  [economic  aid]  program"  if 
such  restrictions  are  placed  on  administering  the  aid  because  the  coun- 
tries in  most  need  of  assistance  would  be  unable  to  repay  loans. "^^  In 
the  debate  George  assured  the  Senate  that  the  loan  method  would  be 
used  whenever  feasible  for  "it  shakes  the  dignity  of  the  Asian  people 
[who  receive  most  of  available  aid  funds]  to  regard  themselves  as  the 
recipients  of  alms.''^^  The  amendment  was  defeated  when  twenty-nine 
Democrats  and  twenty-two  Republicans  voted  with  George  while 
twenty-two  Republicans  and  eleven  Democrats  supported  Knowland.'*'^ 


42  U.S..  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess..  101,  Part  9,  p.  11090. 
^  Senator  George,  who  had  consistently  opposed  foreign  aid  programs,  an- 
nounced in  a  speech  before  the  annual  dinner  of  the  American  Society  of  News- 
paper Editors  on  April  24,  1955,  that  he  had  changed  his  mind  about  the  de- 
sirability of  continuing  economic  aid.  After  stating,  "I  change  my  mind  as  I 
go  along,  frequently.  . ."  he  explained  that  he  now  saw  "Point  Four"  type  of 
assistance  as  "of  greater  value  and  promises  more  than  military  aid  to  people 
who  love  peace  and  who  don't  want  war."  See  "Text  of  George's  address  to  Edi- 
tors on  Foreign  Policy  of  the  U.S.,"  New  York  Times,  April  25,  1955,  p.  9. 
^  U.S.,  Congressional  Record.  84th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  101,  Part  9,  p.  11090. 

45  Ibid.,  Part  6,  p.  7468. 

46  Ibid.,  p.  7264. 

47  Ibid.,  p.  7479.  Also  see  John  D.  Morris.  "Senate  Approves  3.5  Billion  in  Aid 
President  Asked,"  Afiv  'i  urk  Times,  June  3,  1955,  p.  1. 

37 


The  1956  aid  program  also  met  determined  opposition  from  leading 
Republican  Senators  who  introduced  amendments  aimed  at  eliminating 
aid  to  Yugosalvia  and  substantially  reducing  funds  marked  for  India. 
In  spite  of  appeals  from  Eisenhower  and  Secretary  of  State  Dulles,  Sen- 
ators Knowland  and  Styles  Bridges  made  an  all-out  effort  to  circum- 
scribe the  administration  program  with  legislative  directives.  The  right- 
wing  Republican  attacks  on  aid  to  Yugoslavia  were  inspired  b_y  certain 
indications,  such  as  Marshall  Tito's  visit  to  Moscow,  that  Soviet-Yugo- 
slav relations  were  rapidly  improving.  The  Knowland-Bridges  group 
maintained  that  in  helping  Tito  the  United  States  was  simply  strength- 
ening the  Communist  world. "^^  In  a  letter  to  George,  Dulles  countered 
this  argument  by  pointing  out  the  need  for  a  flexible  policy  toward  Tito 
in  the  hope  of  thwarting  Soviet  efforts  to  retrieve  its  mistakes  in  Yugo- 
slavia. The  President  also  wrote  George  urging  the  Congress  to  leave 
the  executive  with  a  free  hand  in  his  relations  with  Tito.^^ 

George  responded  to  the  administration's  appeal  in  a  speech  before 
the  Senate  in  which  he  warned  his  colleagues  of  the  probable  results 
of  ending  aid  to  Tito.  Yugoslavia,  said  George,  would  have  no  other 
recourse  than  to  make  a  complete  turn  into  the  Kremlin  fold.  George 
went  on  to  point  out  the  implications  of  such  a  policy.  "It  would  be 
said  everywhere,  that  unless  the  United  States  can  be  a  great  imperial- 
istic nation  and  decide  with  whom  any  nation  to  which  she  offers  assis- 
tance shall  associate  on  friendly  terms,  the  United  States  will  have 
nothing  to  do  with  such  a  nation. "^o  Congress  would  be  proving  the 
charge  often  made  by  critics  of  the  United  States  that  foreign  aid  was 
primarily  an  instrument  of  control. 

George's  support  of  the  administration  was  successful  in  defeating 
all  of  the  attempts  to  limit  executive  discretion  over  aid  funds,  except 
for  one  Knowland  amendment  which  directed  the  President  to  end  all 
new  military  aid  programs  for  Tito  and  supply  him  with  only  spare  parts 
and  replacements. ^1  Economic  aid  for  Yugoslavia  was  not  affected, 
and  even  the  victory  over  the  military  program  was  a  relatively  insig- 
nificant one  for  the  anti-administration  Republicans. 

One  of  George's  last  major  addresses  to  the  Senate  was  an  eloquent 
appeal  for  the  preservation  of  a  strong  foreign  aid  program.  The  Ameri- 
can people,  prophesied  George,  would  have  the  courage  to  accept  the 
burdens  of  world  leadership,  "I  know  that  the  American  people  are 


48  William  S.  White,  "Senate  Opens  Aid  Debate,  George  Pleads  Against  Cut," 
New  York  Times.  June  28,  1956,  pp.  1,  11. 

49  U.S..  Congressional  Record,  84th  Cong.,  2nd  Session,  102,  Part  10,  pp.  14175, 
14185. 

50  Ibid.,  p.  14185. 

51  Ibid.,  p.  14189. 

38 


not  going  to  step  backward  (toward  isolation).  And  I  know  that  if  the 
free  people  of  this  globe  lose  confidence  in  us,  we  shall  disappoint 
the  best  of  hopes  of  mankind,  and  we  shall  utterly  fail  to  justify  the  sac- 
rifices of  our  heroic  dead,  who  have  died  in  nearlv  all  lands  and  have 
been  swallowed  up  by  the  blue  waters  of  nearly  all  oceans. "^2 

On  May  9,  1956,  when  Senator  George  st'^od  in  the  Senate  to  an- 
nounce that  for  "good  and  sufficient  reasons"  he  had  decided  not  to 
seek  reelection  to  the  seat  he  had  held  for  thirty-four  years,  practically 
all  of  his  colleagues  stood  to  voice  their  recognition  of  his  merits.  The 
son  of  a  Georgia  tenant  farmer  had  reached  the  heights  of  national  and 
even  international  fame  and  power  only  to  find  that  political  realities  in 
his  home  state  dictated  a  reluctant  withdrawal  from  public  office.  When 
the  prospect  of  a  George-Talmadge  struggle  loomed  for  the  1956  Demo- 
cratic primary,  many  of  the  Senator's  former  supporters  notified  him 
of  their  desire  to  be  free  to  support  the  young  and  extremely  popular 
former  governor.  ^^ 

In  his  statement  of  retirement  George  expressed  what  may  have 
been  his  chief  hope  for  holding  the  support  of  Georgia  voters  while 
concentrating  on  international  problems.  He  said.  "1  had  hoped  the 
united  front  presented  by  congressmen  would  find  unanimous  approval 
and  undivided  support  by  all  responsible  citizens. "^^  He  hoped  a  bi- 
partisan approach  to  foreign  policy,  which  he  had  made  possible,  would 
win  for  him  the  loyalty  of  his  constituents. 

The  position  that  George  found  himself  in  was  not  at  all  a  new  phe- 
nomenon in  American  politics.  The  reasons  George  gave  for  his  de- 
cision not  to  run  again  were  health  and  the  "political  action  of  my  friends," 
but  doubtless  the  principal  determinant  in  his  action  was  his  acknow- 
ledgement of  the  extent  of  Herman  Talmadge"s  political  power.  George 
accepted  Congressional  leadership  over  foreign  policies  which  were 
of  vital  concern  to  the  nation  and  in  so  doing  gained  a  national  standing 
which  was  in  no  way  indicative  of  his  political  support  at  home.  In  fact, 
Talmadge  used  George's  liberal  stand  on  foreign  aid  and  his  preoccu- 
pation with  complex  international  issues  to  undermine  the  Senator's 
political  base  in  Georgia.  ^^ 

Senator  George's  brief  tenure  as  head  of  the  Foreign  Relations  Com- 
mittee is  important  for  several  reasons.  His  leadership  in  the  moves 
toward  negotiations  with  the  U.S.S.R.  doubtless  had  much  to  do  with 


52  Ibid.,  p.  1 1091.  The  youngest  of  George's  two  sons  was  lost  over  the  Atlantic 
in  World  War  II.  After  the  war,  the  Senator  became  more  and  more  interested 
in  foreign  affairs. 

^  Atlanta  Constitution,  May  10,  1956,  p.  1. 
^  Iliid.,  May  12.  1956,  p.  3. 

55  Long-time  Georgia  political  leader  Roy  V.  Harris  commented,  "If  he  [Sena- 
tor Georgejhad  just  made  one  speech  giving  the  Supreme  Court  hell,  nobody 
could  have  beat  him,"  Time.  May  21,  1956,  p.  23. 

39 


creating  a  favorable  public  and  political  environment  which  enabled 
Eisenhower  to  go  boldly  to  Geneva.  He  helped  to  negate  the  opposition 
of  the  right-wing  in  both  political  parties. 

The  Senator's  actions  while  chairman  also  had  consequences  for 
subsequent  exective-congressional  relations.  The  Formosa  Resolution 
of  1955.  guided  through  the  Senate  by  George  with  only  cursory  hear- 
ings and  limited  debate,  was  the  forerunner  of  other  congressional 
resolutions  delegating  war  powers  to  the  President.  The  1955  Resolution 
was  followed,  within  ten  years,  by  the  Middle  East  Resolution  and  the 
crucial  Tonkin  Bay  Resolution.  In  both  of  the  latter  cases  the  legisla- 
tive branch  followed  the  precedent  set  by  the  George-led  Congress 
in  granting  the  President  the  option  of  making  war  dependent  upon 
future  circumstances.^^ 

Obviously,  as  have  many  Senators,  George  looked  to  the  executive 
branch  of  government  to  formulate  and  initiate  policies  in  the  inter- 
national sphere.  The  role  of  Congress  was  chiefly  to  support  and  assist 
the  foreign  policy  of  the  President.  And  judging  from  George's  accep- 
tance and  public  support  of  administration  bills,  it  appears  Dulles  was 
given  a  practically  free  hand  by  George  to  conduct  relations  with 
other  nations.  When  the  Senator  from  Georgia  undertook  the  defense 
of  administration  policy,  other  leading  Democrats  found  it  impossible 
to  oppose  or  publicly  to  criticize  Dulles'  policies. ^'^  The  important 
point  is  that  although  some  Democrats  complained  in  private,  the  great 
majority  followed  George  and  allowed  the  administration  a  freedom 
in  foreign  affairs  it  most  certainly  would  not  have  had  but  for  George. 

In  recent  years  leading  members  of  the  Senate  Foreign  Relations 
Committee  have  been  sharply  critical  of  this  veiw  of  the  Senate's  le- 
gitimate role  in  foreign  policy.  In  fact,  members  of  the  Committee, 
led  by  Senator  William  Fulbright,  assign  much  of  the  responsibility  for 
the  United  States'  international  difficulties,  especially  in  the  Far  East, 
to  the  fact  that  the  George  view  of  the  Senate's  constitutional  obliga- 
tion of  "advice  and  consent"  dominated  executive-congressional  rela- 
tions in  the  immediate  pre-Vietnam  years.  These  senators  contend  that 


^  The  Formosa  Resolution  marks  the  first  time  in  United  States  history  that 
precedent  was  established  for  executive  war-making.  All  three  of  the  resolu- 
tions are  clearly  uncontrolled  delegation  of  the  war  power.  Both  the  language 
of  the  resolutions  and  the  congressional  debates  indicate  fhat  Congress  intended 
to  transfer  the  power  of  decision  to  the  President. 

^'^  James  Reston  wrote  of  Adlai  Stevenson's  dilemma,  "He  [Stevenson]  cannot 
aim  his  criticism  at  President  Eisenhower,  for  Senator  George  has  been  standing 
right  in  front  of  the  White  House  door."  New  York  Times.  April  13,  1955,  p.  1. 
William  S.  White  wrote  of  George's  influence,  "No  Senator  whatever  in  recent 
history  has  been  so  near  to  being  the  final  voice  on  world  affaris  for  a  whole 
party.  Mr.  George,  by  his  great  eminence  as  the  senior  member  of  the  Senate, 
its  President  pro  tern.  Chairman  of  Foreign  Relations,  and  senior  member  of 
Finance,  literally  and  personally  makes  Democratic  foreign  policy."  New  York 
Times,  April  10,  1955,  p.  1. 

40 


if  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee  had  critically,  and  publicly,  ex- 
amined executive  foreign  policy  during  those  years  the  United  States 
might  have  avoided  the  Vietnam  disaster. 

Senator  George,  however,  by  following  Arthur  Vanderberg's  dic- 
tum, "Politics  stops  at  the  water's  edge,"  got  the  Republican  admin- 
istration to  consult  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee  on  every  major 
foreign  policy  question.  The  amount  of  constructive  give-and-take  that 
occurred  between  George's  committee  and  state  department  officials 
was  not  great  on  every  issue,  especially  during  consideration  of  the 
Formosa  Resolution,  but  George's  cooperative  attitude  clearly  enabled 
him  to  influence  Eisenhower's  position  on  talks  with  Communist  China 
and  the  Russians. 

For  good  or  ill  for  the  future  of  the  Republic  this  kind  of  exchange 
between  the  executive  and  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee  has  ended. 
The  committee  is  now  little  more  than  a  discussion  circle  where  senators 
meet  to  pass  ineffective  resolutions  while  the  real  business  of  the  world 
is  transacted  by  the  White  House.  The  bickering  between  the  committee 
and  two  successive  Presidents  over  Vietnam  has  resulted  in  the  com- 
mittee losing  its  role  in  establishing  and  maintaining  United  States 
foreign  policy.  Treaties  are  increasingly  designated  "executive  agree- 
ments" and  signed  by  the  President  without  congressional  approval. 
The  committee's  advice  now  is  seldom  sought  and  rarely  accepted.  Its 
consent  is  asked  only  when  it  is  convenient. 

The  argument  could  thus  be  made  that  George's  concern  for  a  uni- 
fied American  foreign  policy  resulted  in  Congress  having  a  greater 
voice  in  international  affairs  than  if  he  had  taken  a  more  partisan,  or 
more  obstructive  position.  Nevertheless,  it  seems  clear  that  Senator 
George  sincerely  felt  that  the  bipartisan  course  he  set  was  one  most 
likely  to  keep  this  nation  out  of  war,  and  that  his  major  concern  was 
not  personal  power  or  political  support  but  was  the  welfare  of  the  United 
States. 


41 


ABSTRACTS 

of 
MASTERS  THESES 

and 

SPECIALIST  IN  EDUCA  TION  PROIECTS 

Cutting,  Gerald  Roger  (MA,  Psychology,  March,  1972)* 

SENSITIVITY  TRAINING  AND  HYPNOSIS: 
EXPLORATIONS  IN  SELF-ACTUALIZATION 


Self-actualization  is  a  process  of  psychological  and  biological  devel- 
opment that  was  originally  formulated  to  express  what  the  Taoist  of 
the  East  have  always  known  to  be  enlightenment.  Researchers  in  the 
areas  of  sensitivity  training  and  hypnosis  have  recently  begun  to  ex- 
plore different  avenues  for  bringing  about  increased  potential  towards 
self-actualization.  The  following  hypotheses  were  formulated  and  in- 
vestigated. One,  sensitivity  training  will  increase  students'  potential 
towards  self-actualization  as  measured  on  the  Personal  Orientation 
Inventory  (POI).  Two,  sensitivity  training  will  increase  students'  hyp- 
notic susceptibility  as  measured  on  the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hyp- 
notic Susceptibility  (HGSHS).  Three,  students  who  are  highly  suscep- 
tible will  be  able,  through  hypnotic  suggestion,  to  increase  their  self- 
actualization  potential. 

Using  students  in  psychology  classes,  two  experimental  and  three 
control  grtiups  were  formed.  Experimental  Group  I  underwent  sensi- 
tivity training  and  Experimental  Group  II,  volunteers,  were  given 
post-hypnotic  suggestions  based  on  the  values  and  attitudes  of  self- 
actualizing  persons.  Control  Groups  I,  II,  and  III  were  all  taken  from 
classes  that  used  a  cognitive  approach  of  instruction.  After  a  four  week 
period,  using  pretest  and  posttest  administrations  of  the  POI  and  HGSHS, 
it  was  found  that  none  of  the  hypotheses  were  supported.  However,  it 
was  found  that  Group  CI  reported  significant  positive  changes  on  two 
scales  of  the  POI  and  CII  also  increased  significantly  on  three  of  the 
scales,  (p<C.05  using  a  two  tailed  test).  Group  CIII,  a  statistics  class, 
reported  a  significant  increase  in  susceptibility  as  measured  on  the 
HGSHS,  (P<.05  two  tailed  test). 


*MA  indicates  the  degree,  "Psychology"  is  the  awarding  department  and  March, 
1972  is  the  Ume  of  compledon  of  all  requirements.  This  pattern  is  followed 
throughout. 

42 


It  was  therefore  concluded  that  the  more  goal-directed  the  setting 
the  more  likely  are  Ss  to  report  an  increase  in  susceptibility.  This  pos- 
sibility brings  Tart's  findings  (1970)  into  question.  He  was  able  to  report 
significant  increases  after  nine  months  of  fellowship  training  at  Eslen 
after  hypothesizing  that  personal  growth  groups  would  increase  sus- 
ceptibility. The  study  undertaken  here  at  West  Georgia  College  indicates 
that  in  any  group  which  encouraged  self-expression,  susceptibility 
tended  to  decrease.  A  critique  of  previous  findings  using  the  POI  suggests 
that  often  personal  growth  groups  are  goal-directed  phenomena  where 
the  experimenter  or  group  leader  rewards  and  discourages  behavior 
and  values  which  he  does  not  feel  are  appropriate.  These  growth  groups 
would  seem  to  promote  values  and  goal  orientations  that  are  incompat- 
ible with  the  original  formulation  of  self-actualization.  Directions  for 
further  research  are  discussed. 

Waller.  John  Lebiis  (MA,  Psychology,  March,  1972) 

THE  LAUGHTER  IN  THE  DARK: 

A  PHILOSOPHICAL  INQUIRY  INTO 

THE  FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HUMAN  DILEMMA 

Being  human  is  a  constant  state  of  change  in  accordance  with  funda- 
mental, ontological  characteristics  involving  all  things  and  in  particular 
nature  and  civilization.  The  incessant  ordering  and  structuring  of  con- 
cepts within  the  human  framework  has  all  but  eliminated  the  conditions 
for  being  human  and  its  fulfillment.  Underlying  the  structuring  and  stan- 
dardization of  "should"  and  "ought  to"  goals,  the  human  existence  has 
basic  wants  and  needs  which  are  being  by-passed  in  order  to  coordinate, 
regulate  and  stabilize  the  interests  of  an  existing  environment.  When 
first  entering  an  institution  of  learning  a  person  is  a  flowering,  fluent 
mass  of  energy.  But  by  the  time  that  person  gets  to  the  graduate  level, 
he  has  become  a  drop  of  oil  to  lubricate  the  machinery  of  society. 

This  thesis  has  tried  to  point  to  some  of  the  outstanding  factors  and 
consequences  arising  from  being  human.  It  is  very  difficult  to  summarize 
or  in  some  way  isolate  the  process  of  this  work.  But  one  point  that 
emerges  rather  clearly  from  this  eight  chaptered,  chaotic  background 
is  fairly  evident.  And  that  point  reveals  that  chaos,  like  science,  is  a 
way  of  being  human.  One  is  not  any  better  or  worse  than  the  other.  But 
it  would  seem  that  society  would  have  us  believe  that  a  real  difference 
does  exist.  It's  like  borrowing  money  to  pay  off  a  loan.  To  choose  is 
self-defeating. 

I  am  not  advocating  chaos  nor  am  I  advocating  science.  But.  I  am 
ready  to  deal  with  science  and/or  chaos,  not  as  good  or  bad,  right  or 
wrong,  but  as  choosing  neither  and  yet  accepting  both.  I  could  not 
choose  science  as  opposed  to  chaos  or  visa  versa.  To  live  life's  many 
forms  in  choiceless  awareness,  responding  to  each  and  yet  all  of  its 
forms,  is  a  way  of  living. 

43 


Heaton,  Dennis  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1972) 

PSYCHOLOGY  AND  THE 
SCIENCE  OF  CREATIVE  INTELLIGENCE 

Maharishi  Mahesh  Yogi  has  proposed  that  the  normal  state  of  man 
is  a  higher  state  of  consciousness  in  which  the  full  value  of  the  qualities 
of  the  relative  field  of  existence  can  be  enjoyed  together  with  the  in- 
finite value  of  the  Absolute  field,  and  that  transcendental  meditation 
can  enable  any  individual  to  grow  to  this  state  by  bringing  his  mind  to 
the  transcendental  field  of  pure  Being.  This  paper  presents  a  theoretical 
model  of  the  structure  of  creative  intelligence  according  to  Maharishi, 
and  discusses  the  unfoldment  of  creative  intelligence  in  human  life. 
This  model  is  related  to  current  psychological  theories,  to  Eastern 
religions.  Transcendental  meditation,  as  a  practical  tool  to  facilitate 
psychological  growth,  is  compared  to  other  programs  of  growth  or 
therapy.  This  thesis  implies  that  transcendental  meditation  expands 
the  conscious  mind  and  liberates  the  individual  from  the  effects  of 
stress. 

Hoomes.  Charles  Wendell  [EdS,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  June,  1972) 

A  STUDY  TO  DETERMINE  IF  THERE  IS  A  SIGNIFICANT 
DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  STUDENTS  WHO  DROP-OUT  OF  THE 
ELECTRICAL  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE  COURSE 

AT  CARROLL  COUNTY  AREA  VOCATIONAL-TECHNICAL 
SCHOOL  AND  THOSE  WHO  COMPLETE  THE  COURSE  AS  MEA- 
SURED BY  THE  CALIFORNIA  TEST  OF  ADULT  BASIC 
EDUCATION 

A  t  test  of  independent  means  was  conducted  to  determine  if  a  sig- 
nificant difference  existed  between  the  means  of  the  two  groups  after 
a  F  ratio  revealed  that  the  samples  were  drawn  from  a  population  with 
the  same  variances.  The  t  test  revealed  that  a  significant  difference  did 
exist,  not  caused  by  chance  alone,  and  that  the  group  completing  the 
program  scored  higher  than  the  group  dropping  out  of  the  program 
before  completion.  The  results  of  this  study  indicate  that  poor  skills 
in  mathematics  decreases  the  probability  of  student  success. 

Rowell  Judy  Copeland  (EdS,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  June,  1973) 
DEVELOPING  A  PRE-SCHOOL  ASSESSMENT  PROGRAM 

The  purpose  of  this  project  was  to  develop  a  comprehensive  in- 
formation-gathering program  that  would  also  serve  as  an  orientation 
for  students,  parents,  and  first  grade  teachers  at  Bowdon  Primary 
School,  Bowdon,  Georgia.  A  planning  committee  was  provided  with 
a  review  of  related  literature.  A  battery  of  tests  was  administered  to 
three  groups  of  kindergarten-age  students  and  results  were  made  avail- 
able to  parents.  Developmental  grouping  for  first  grade  work  was  based 

44 


on  these  results.  Students,  parents,  and  first  grade  teachers  participated 
in  orientation  activities.  Participants  in  the  program  evaluated  it  as 
successful,  worthwhile,  and  worthy  of  continuation. 

Bellafiore,  Stephen  Louis  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1972) 

ON  SILENCE 

Silence  is  a  basic  phenomenon,  the  first  born  of  all  the  basic  phe- 
nomenon. She  is  an  ever  present  reality  surrounding  the  other  basic  phe- 
nomena with  her  presence.  By  her  very  nature  she  is  profoundly  speak- 
ing to  man.  The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  paint  a  picture,  through  the 
symbolic  imagery  of  language,  built  on  the  foundation  of  dialogue, 
academic  pursuit,  and  personal  imagination,  in  the  hope  of  widening 
the  horizon  of  man  through  the  phenomenological  significance  of 
silence. 

I  attempt  to  explain  the  dimensions  of  silence  in  relationship  to  its 
world  and  to  the  inner  depths  of  man's  heart,  the  still  point.  Man's  re- 
lationship to  the  silence  is  explained  through  an  exploration  of  pri- 
meval man,  nature  and  silence,  the  mystic,  and  finally  modern  man. 
Five  conversations  born  out  of  lives  dedicated  to  an  existential  confron- 
tation with  the  silence  will  terminate  this  paper  presenting  living  testi- 
mony of  the  challenge  of  silence. 

The  thesis  is  that  through  a  man's  encounter  with  the  silence,  an 
existential  silence,  in  dialogue  with  the  inner  life  of  the  world  and  him- 
self, that  spiritual  realm,  that  last  frontier,  will  the  hope  of  spirit-charged- 
meaning-made-flesh  emerge  for  man. 

Clark,  Stephen  Kay  (MA,  English,  August,  1972) 

A  THEMATIC  ANALYSIS  OF  ROBERT  LOWELL'S 
FOR  THE  UNION  DEAD 

The  purpose  of  this  thesis  is  to  submit  that  Robert  Lowell's  1964 
volume  For  the  Union  Dead  is  pervaded  with  frustration  and  sympto- 
matic of  a  distressed  poet,  a  point  overlooked  or  at  least  minimized  by 
various  critics.  For  the  critics,  the  most  important  aspect  of  the  volume 
is  that  Mr.  Lowell  ventures  into  areas  of  public  concern  and  away  from 
the  confessional  poetry,  a  type  poetry  he  began  in  his  Life  Studies 
(1959)  and  which  is  characterized  by  painful  recall  of  personal  problems. 
Several  critics  contend,  then,  that  the  inclusion  of  poems  with  public 
themes— specifically,  socio-cultural  and  religious— indicates  that  Mr. 
Lowell  is  not  as  obsessed  with  baring  intimate  details  of  his  life  and 
is  thus  relieved  of  the  frustration  accompanying  such  disclosure.  I 
submit,  however,  that  the  nature  of  the  impersonal  poems  pose  as 
great  a  source  of  frustration  for  the  poet  and  actually  increases  it,  since 
they  are  concerned  generally  with  the  dehumanization  of  man  in  a 
mechanized,  militaristic  world  or  with  the  absence  of  a  benevolent 
God.  All  the  major  thematic  areas  of  the  volume  interrelate,  therefore, 

45 


to  characterize  For  the  Union  Dead  as  a  manifestation  of  Mr.  Lxjwell's 
overall  distress. 

In  Chapter  One,  Confessional  Themes,  we  discover  the  basic  frustra- 
tion of  Mr.  Lowell  through  an  analysis  of  various  confessional  poems. 
The  poet  is  painfully  concerned  with  the  recollection  of  an  unhappy 
marriage,  of  guilt-provoking  adolescent  incidents,  and  of  his  poor 
relationship  with  his  parents.  In  Chapter  Two,  Socio-Cultural  Themes, 
we  find  that  one  of  Mr.  Lowell's  major  areas  of  non-confessional  concen- 
tration, concern  with  society,  offers  him  no  relief.  When  the  disturbed 
private  figure  looks  outside  himself  into  the  world  with  its  wars,  relent- 
less mechanization,  and  dehumanization  generally,  his  frustration  is 
increased.  In  Chapter  Three,  Religious  Themes,  through  a  review  of 
Mr.  Lowell's  religious  evolution,  which  runs  from  New  England  Protes- 
tantism to  Roman  Catholicism  to  a  general  disenchantment  with  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  we  find  in  appropriate  poems  that  God  is  impetuous  and 
not  concerned  with  man,  or  in  the  idea  that  God  ^oes  not  exist  at  all.  The 
poet's  allusions  to  a  fear  of  the  finality  of  death  seem  to  indicate  the 
latter  alternative  is  his  belief.  At  any  rate,  we  see  through  an  extended 
thematic  analysis  of  the  volume  that  Mr.  Lowell's  basic  distress  is  com- 
pounded, and  any  balancing  or  relieving  aspect  of  the  public  themes 
is  offset  by  the  frustrating  implications  they  carry. 

Cockerham.  Raymond  (EdS,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1972) 

READING  ABILITY  AND  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL  DROP-OUT 

This  study  examined  the  relationship  between  the  effect  of  reading 
ability  on  I.Q.,  achievement,  self  concept,  attitude  and  interest  in 
school.  It  also  gave  some  specific  suggestions  on  what  can  be  done  to 
improve  reading  disabilities.  Pertinent  literature  on  the  subject  was 
reviewed  and  many  students'  permanent  records  were  studied.  This 
study  revealed  a  very  high  correlation  between  reading  ability,  I.Q. 
and  school  achievement.  The  evidence  indicated  that  disabled  readers 
are  usually  frustrated  in  most  classes.  They  likely  have  repeated  one  or 
more  grades  in  school.  As  a  result  of  their  repeated  failure  in  school, 
they  are  likely  to  join  the  drop  outs,  a  group  that  now  constitutes  almost 
one-half  of  the  students  who  enter  Georgia  schools.  This  study  had 
implications  for  the  counselor's  role  in  assessment,  placement,  and 
counseling  of  students. 

Cornish.  Joseph  Jenkins,  III  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1972) 

AN  EXAMPLE  AND  AN  ANALYSIS  OF 
THE  EUREKA  PHENOMENON 

The  creative  process  known  as  the  'Eureka  Phenomenon'  is  inves- 
tigated by  examining  a  series  of  the  author's  experiences.  The  series 
of  experiences  and  events  led  to  a  geometrically  significant  compar- 
ison between  the  shape  of  the  megalithic  monument  at  Stonehenge  and 
the  shape  of  the  qabalistic  Tree  of  Life. 

46 


The  events  are  described  and  their  significance  to  the  author  during 
the  process  of  developing  the  geometric  comparison  is  defined.  The 
events  are  also  pictured  in  a  graphic  network  in  order  to  show  their 
interrelationship  to  each  other. 

A  conclusion  is  presented  which  proposes  that  six  steps  can  be 
defined  as  parts  of  the  process  producing  the  'Eureka  Phenomenon'. 
These  steps  are  compared  to  descriptions  of  the  creative  process  de- 
scribed by  other  writers. 

Cowart,  Luther  Carl  (EdS,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1972) 

STUDENT  REVISION:  A  METHOD 
OF  FACILITATING  MATURITY  IN  WRITING 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  whether  students  would 
improve  more  in  their  writing  maturity  through  a  program  of  student 
revision  than  through  the  traditional  method  of  teacher  correction. 
The  sample  was  comprised  of  a  control  section  and  an  experimental 
section  of  the  ninth  grade  at  Villa  Rica  (Georgia)  High  School. 

Each  group  received  the  same  instructions  about  writing  prior  to 
the  assignment  of  eight  descriptive  paragraphs  based  upon  literary 
models  chosen  by  the  teacher.  The  teacher  corrected  the  papers  of  the 
control  group  and  returned  the  papers  to  the  students  so  they  could 
make  indicated  changes  and  further  improvements  as  the  students 
saw  fit.  The  papers  of  the  experimental  group  were  returned  unmarked, 
with  instructions  to  revise  the  papers  by  using  stronger  verbs,  by  elim- 
inating vague  or  ambiguous  nouns  and  be  using  more  explicit  modifiers. 

An  important  assumption  of  this  study  is  that  the  T-unit,  or  inde- 
pendent clause,  and  certain  grammatical  constructions  related  thereto, 
as  brought  out  in  Kellogg  W.  Hunt's  1965  study,  represent  a  valid  mea- 
sure of  maturity  in  writing.  This  study  is  based  upon  that  assumption. 

Prior  to  the  experiment,  the  teacher  assigned  two  themes  to  each 
student,  with  each  theme  of  sufficient  length  to  provide  at  least  25 
T-units  from  each  student  on  each  theme.  The  better  of  each  pair  of 
themes  was  chosen  on  the  basis  of  the  highest  frequency  count  of 
Hunt's  listed  grammatical  constructions  being  considered  in  the  data. 
The  same  procedure  was  followed  at  the  end  of  the  experiment. 

After  counting  the  constructions  used,  this  researcher  converted 
the  raw  frequency  count  scores  to  weighted  scores  so  that  the  less 
frequently  used  constructions  would  count  more  and  the  most  frequent- 
ly used  constructions  would  count  less.  Then,  the  t  test  of  statistical 
significance  was  applied  to  determine  that  the  improvement  noted 
was  due  to  the  treatment,  and  not  to  chance. 

This  researcher  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  students  who  were 
subjected  to  the  revision  treatment  improved  a  statistically  greater 
amount  than  did  the  students  in  the  control  group,  but  the  students 
in  the  letter  group  also  improved  from  the  teacher-correction  pro- 
gram. 

47 


Cruce,  Michael  M.  (MS,  Biology,  August,  1972) 

COMPARATIVE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  AND  ULTRASTRUCTURAL 

STUDIES  OF  CALCIUM  METABOLISM  IN  LIVER  AND  KIDNEY 

OF  NORMAL  AND  GREY-LETHAL  MUTANT  MICE 

Comparative  electron  microscopic  analysis  of  mitochondrial  volume 
in  kidney  tissues  of  grey-lethal  mutant  mice  and  normal  mice  is  corre- 
lated with  45Ca  uptake  experiments  in  liver  and  kidney  tissues  of  the 
mutant  and  normal  mice.  Results  reveal  greater  mitochondrial  volume 
in  mutant  than  in  normal  tissues,  and  45Ca  uptake  also  appears  greater 
in  mutant  tissues.  The  significance  of  these  findings  is  discussed  in 
relation  to  parathyroid  function,  mitochondrial  metabolism,  and  the 
pleiotropic  effects  of  the  mutation. 

Deloach,  Jimmie  Carlton  (MA,  Mathematics,  August,  1972) 
CONVERGENCE  SPACES 

The  goal  of  the  author  was  to  investigate  the  basic  properties  of 
convergence  spaces.  This  was  done  by  researching  the  literature  and 
by  solving  problems  which  occurred. 

Two  theories  of  convergence  spaces  are  included  in  his  thesis. 
One  theory  uses  a  filter  approach  and  the  other  uses  a  net  approach. 
The  filter  approach  (Chapter  III)  is  based  chiefly  on  papers  by  Fischer 
and  Poppe.  The  author  also  defines  the  Lindelof  property  for  con- 
vergency  spaces  (Definition  3.39).  One  of  the  main  theorems  discovered 
by  the  author  states  that  every  compact  convergence  space  is  Lindelof 
(Theorem  3.40). 

Chapter  IV  contains  the  material  on  the  net  approach.  Here  the 
conditions  for  various  types  of  net  convergence  are  given  and  contin- 
uous functions  are  investigated. 

Dossey,  Steven  Monroe  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1972) 

THE  RIVER:  A  SYMBOL  FOR  A  WAY  OF  LIVING 

The  meaning  of  the  river  as  a  metaphysical  symbol,  provides  an 
intuitive  insight  into  man's  relation  to  and  understanding  of  the  nature 
of  consciousness  and  the  cosmology  of  the  universe.  The  river,  when 
understood  in  its  manifold  meaning,  provides  a  philosophy  of  harmonic 
living  which  enables  one  to  live  a  psychologically  healthful  existence. 
The  intuitive  meaning  of  the  river  symbol  is  related  to  Eastern  philo- 
sophies such  as  Hinduism,  Buddhism,  and  Taoism.  Finally,  a  process 
whereby  a  person  may  attain  a  greater  awareness  of  himself  and  his  world 
by  understanding  the  nature  of  the  symbolizing  mind  is  presented  as 
it  generates  from  the  meaning  found  in  the  river  as  a  symbol. 

48 


Howren.  Sara  Orr  (EdS,  Elementary  Education,  August,  1972) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  MATHEMATICAL  ACHIEVEMENT  USING 
TUTORIAL  VERSUS  REGULAR  CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION 


In  an  effort  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  average  and  above  average 
learners  as  well  as  the  under-achievers,  an  experiment  was  conducted 
at  the  Elizabeth  Elementary  School,  Cobb  County,  Georgia.  Two 
sections  with  fifty  students  assigned  by  the  principal  at  random,  were 
involved  in  the  five  weeks  project  during  a  study  of  decimals.  These 
children  were  administered  the  Iowa  Tests  of  Basic  Skills  along  with 
all  sixth  grades  countywide.  The  experimental  group  used  a  tutorial 
system  while  the  control  group  received  regular  classroom  instruction. 

A  research  of  the  literature  indicated  tutoring  resulted  in  higher 
academic  achievement.  Self-concepts  improved  and  attitudes  changed 
favorable  due  to  the  personal  attention  and  individually  prescribed 
instruction  which  led  to  a  more  conducive  learning  situation. 

The  experimental  group  was  composed  of  twenty  three  students 
with  eleven  scoring  6.2  and  above  and  being  classed  as  average  and 
above  average.  These  were  selected  to  tutor  the  twelve  underachievers. 
The  criteria  for  selection  was  the  mathematical  scores  of  the  Iowa 
Tests  of  Basic  Skills.  The  tutors  received  fifteen  minutes  of  instruction 
through  examples  and  with  discussion  of  suitable  tutoring  activities 
before  the  class  period.  The  class  as  a  whole  then  received  fifteen  min- 
utes of  basic  instruction  which  was  followed  by  tutoring  as  a  reinforce- 
ment of  the  teacher's  instructions  to  the  group. 

The  control  group  was  composed  of  thirteen  underachievers  and 
fourteen  average  and  above  average  achievers  according  to  the  same 
criteria  as  the  experimental  group.  They  received  only  regular  tra- 
ditional classroom  instruction  during  the  entire  class  period. 

Both  groups  were  administered  the  same  criterion  reference  test 
as  both  pretest  and  posttest.  Progress  tests  were  given  as  a  phase  was 
completed.  A  t  test  on  the  pretest  showed  no  significant  difference 
in  the  two  groups  and  the  t  test  on  the  posttest  showed  no  significant 
difference  in  the  two  groups.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  project  a  t  test 
showed  no  significant  difference  in  gains  in  achievement  of  the  two 
groups  due  to  the  tutorial  system  as  the  .58  score  was  not  significant. 

Although  the  data  did  not  show  a  significant  difference  between 
the  classes  academically,  individual  gains  were  evident  which  in  some 
cases  were  beyond  the  teacher's  expectations.  Self-confidence  and 
attitudes  improved. 

A  larger  group  study  over  a  longer  period  of  time  would  possibly 
give  more  positive  results.  Better  training  of  tutors  and  more  structured 
materials  for  their  use  should  aid  such  a  project.  Further  study  along 
these  lines  should  be  of  value. 

49 


Hunt.  Betty  R.  (EdS,  Secondary  Education,  August,  1972) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIPS  OF 

CERTAIN  BEHAVIORS  TO  THE  TEACHING  OF  THINKING  IN 

SOCIAL  STUDIES  WITH  SELECTED  SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH 

GRADE  STUDENTS  IN  THE  GORDON  COUNTY  SCHOOLS 

An  Experimental  Group  and  a  Control  Group,  each  consisting  of 
six  students  with  superior  ability,  comprised  this  nine-weeks  research 
study  that  provided  for  critical  thinking  would  result  in  student  increase 
in  critical  thinking,  positive  attitudes  toward  social  studies,  and  positive 
behavioral  patterns.  The  following  three  tests  were  administered  to 
the  students:  (1)  Remmers'  Attitudes  Toward  Any  School  Subject,  (2) 
the  Wassermann  Student  Self-Rating  Instrument,  and  (3)  the  Watson- 
Glaser  Critical  Thinking  Appraisal. 

The  following  null  hypotheses  were  tested:  (1)  There  will  be  no 
significant  difference  between  the  Experimental  Group  and  the  Con- 
trol Group  with  respect  to  changes  in  attitudes  toward  social  studies 
as  a  result  of  work  done  in  a  nine-weeks  period;  (2)  As  a  result  of  the 
differential  treatment  of  the  two  groups,  there  will  be  no  significant 
differences  in  the  rate  of  change  from  negative  to  positive  behavior 
as  judged  by  (a)  teachers  and  (b)  students;  and  (3)  There  will  be  no 
significant  difference  between  the  Experimental  Group  and  the  Con- 
trol Group  with  respect  to  an  increase  of  critical  thinking  skills  as  a 
result  of  the  differential  treatment  of  the  two  groups. 

From  analysis  of  data,  computed  by  the  t  test,  the  first  hypothesis 
that  there  will  be  no  significant  difference  between  the  Experimental 
Group  with  respect  to  changes  in  attitudes  toward  social  studies  as 
a  result  of  work  done  in  a  nine-weeks  period  was  accepted.  The  second 
null  hypothesis  that  as  a  result  of  the  differential  treatment  of  the  two 
groups,  there  will  be  no  significant  difference  in  the  rate  of  change  from 
negative  to  positive  behavior  as  judged  by  (a)  teachers  was  rejected 
as  the  t-ratio  of  3.5  was  significant  at  the  .01  level;  however,  as  judged  by 
(b)  students  was  accepted.  The  third  null  hypothesis  that  there  will 
be  no  significant  difference  between  the  Experimental  Group  and  the 
Control  Group  with  respect  to  an  increase  in  critical  thinking  skills 
as  a  result  of  the  differential  treatment  of  the  two  groups  was  rejected 
as  the  t-ratio  of  2.65  was  significant  at  the  .05  level.  In  the  comparison 
of  the  within  group  means,  the  Experimental  Group  had  significant 
differences  on  all  variables,  whereas  the  Control  Group  had  no  signi- 
ficant differences. 

Miller,  Melvin  E.  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1972) 

MYTHS  OF  THE  AQUARIAN  AGE 

Man  has  been  constructing  myths  for  ages  and  this  alleged  "Aquar- 
ian Age"  is  no  exception.  This  thesis  intends  that  myths  and  symbols 
have  so  thoroughly  permeated  man's  thinking  that  he  often  takes  these 
conventions  to  be  a  description  or  direct  manifestation  of  an  ultimate 

50 


reality.  This  paper  is  therefore  a  critical  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  myths 
and  symbols,  as  well  as  an  elucidation  of  the  manner  in  which  myths 
determine  what  we  take  to  be  reality.  A  number  of  contemporary  myths 
are  discussed  as  they  have  evolved  from  their  origin  to  the  present, 
while  simultaneously  revealing  how  they  are  merely  recent  rarefactions 
of  ancient  mythological  themes.  An  integrated  vision  of  the  myriad 
of  possibilities  for  a  'new'  myth  is  presented  with  the  implicit  hope  that 
the  invitation  for  future  attention,  inquiry,  and  analysis  into  the  mythic 
process  will  be  accepted  with  a  fully  human  sense  of  responsibility  by 
all  the  disciplines  that  create  myths  for  man. 

North.  Ralph  S.  (Ed.S,  Secondary  Education,  August,  1972) 

THE  EFFECT  OF  SIMULATION  ON  ACHIEVEMENT  AND 
ATTITUDE  WHEN  USED  TO  SUPPLEMENT  THE  LECTURE- 
DISCUSSION  METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  A  TENTH- 
GRADE  CLASS  OF  MODERN  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Using  two  classes  of  twenty-eight  students  each  this  study  attempted 
to  discover  if  simulation  resulted  in  significant  gain  in  attitude  and 
achievement  when  used  to  supplement  the  lecture-discussion  method 
of  instruction.  The  null  hypothesis  was  used.  The  two  intact  classes 
were  determined  to  contain  no  significant  difference  through  the  t 
test  for  the  difference  between  means  computed  on  pretest  scores  from 
form  A  of  the  Modern  European  Test  of  the  Cooperative  Social  Studies 
Series.  The  Any  School  Subject  Attitude  Survey  of  the  Purdue  Attitude 
Survey  Series  was  administered.  A  nine  week  treatment  followed  with 
one  class  taught  by  lecture-discussion  using  twenty  days  of  supple- 
mentary simulation.  At  the  end  of  the  treatment  forms  B  of  the  Modern 
European  History  Test  and  the  Any  School  Subject  Attitude  Survey 
were  administered  as  posttests.  Appropriate  statistical  treatment  found 
no  significant  difference  in  attitude  but  a  significant  difference  in 
achievement  at  the  .05  level.  The  null  hypothesis  was  rejected. 

Pritchard.  James  Warren  (MA,  Psychology.  August,  1972) 

SELF-REFERENT  EXPRESSION  IN  SMALL  GROUPS 
A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY 

A  movement  from  non-self-reference  to  self-reference  in  verbal 
utterances,  taken  by  Rogerian  theorists  as  evidence  of  successful  client- 
centered  therapy,  was  found  in  this  study  to  have  occurred  among  mem- 
bers of  an  encounter  group.  The  findings  suggested  that  people  who 
see  themselves  as  disturbed  and  people  who  see  themselves  as  psycho- 
logically healthy  both  have  movement  to  make  on  this  scale,  whether 
toward  health  or  toward  personal  growth.  The  findings  also  suggested 
that  group  encounter,  as  client-centered  therapy,  can  be  effective  in 
helping  people  move,  in  Rogers'  terms,  "from  fixity  to  changingness, 
from  rigid  structure  to  flow,  from  stasis  to  process." 

51 


From  a  different  perspective  — that  of  Bugental  and  other  existen- 
tial psychotherapists  and  philosophers— the  findings  suggested  that  as 
a  person  makes  increasing  reference  to  himself  rather  than  to  things 
that  are  not  himself  in  an  intensive,  affective  situation,  the  change  re- 
flects his  becoming  a  more  responsive  and  responding  subject  rather 
than  a  buffeted  object  in  his  way  of  being  in  the  world. 

The  findings  indicated  that  group  encounter  members  moved  from 
non-self-reference  to  self-reference  in  greater  degree  than  members 
of  a  discussion  group  devoting  themselves  to  an  intellectually  structured 
examination  of  ways  to  personal  growth  or  than  members  of  a  class- 
room group  measured  for  comparison.  Caution  was  exercised,  however, 
in  conclusively  attributing  any  single  cause  to  this  movement.  Spec- 
ulation as  to  cause  ranged  from  reinforcement  and  conditioning  respon- 
ses, to  group  members  having  practiced  collective  Rogerian  therapy 
on  each  other,  to  an  existential  learning  theory  which  saw  in  the  process 
of  group  encounter  experiential  similarities  with  the  more  cognitive 
ventures  of  existential  philosophy.  The  latter  was  given  the  most  atten- 
tion in  suggesting  factors  as  work. 


Rhodes,  Carolyn  Bates  (EdS,  Secondary  Education,  August,  1972) 

A  HISTORIOGRAPHICAL  STUDY  OF  SELECTED  AMERICAN 

HISTORY  TEXTBOOKS  IN  REGARD  TO  INTERPRETATIONS 

OF  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTION.  THE 

JACKSONIAN  ERA,  AND  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR 


The  purpose  of  this  research  project  was  to  determine  whether 
or  not  American  History  textbooks  have  an  inner  consistency  of  inter- 
pretations in  regard  to  the  causes  of  the  American  Revolution,  the 
Jacksonian  Era,  and  the  causes  of  the  Civil  War.  A  secondary  purpose 
was  to  determine  whether  the  interpretations  presented  are  up-to-date 
histodographically. 

Materials  written  by  various  authorities  as  Greene,  Pessen,  Pressly, 
etc.  in  each  historical  area  were  closely  examined  to  establish  criteria 
by  which  the  interpretations  presented  in  the  eighteen  textbooks  selec- 
ted from  the  1971  Georgia  textbook  list  could  be  identified.  After 
having  established  the  criteria  and  having  examined  the  textbooks  to 
determine  their  particular  interpretations,  the  conclusions  of  this 
project  were  made. 

It  was  concluded  that  textbooks  generally  present  consistent  inter- 
pretations of  these  three  historical  periods,  although,  the  interpreta- 
tions presented  were  out-dated  historiographically. 


52 


Rogers,  William  Wendell  {EdS,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1972) 

AN  EVALUATION  OF  THE 

COORDINATED  VOCATIONAL  ACADEMIC  EDUCATION 

PROGRAM  AT  DOUGLAS  COUNTY  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  study  is  an  investigation  to  see  if  an  innovative  program  was 
effective  with  potential  school  dropouts.  The  areas  involved  in  the 
evaluation  of  the  Coordinated  Vocational  Academic  Education  pro- 
gram were  school  attendance,  grade  point  average,  and  change  in  at- 
titude towards  dropping  out  of  school.  Results  indicate  that  the  pro- 
gram was  successful. 

Short.  Andrew  Earl  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1972) 

COMING  TO  GRIP!:  WITH  MY  WORLD: 

MEANING  FORMATION  AS  AN 
INTERSUBJECTIVE  PHENOMENON 


This  project  hypothesized  that  meanings  which  are  prereflective 
to  'vertical,  verbal  man'  are  available  to  reflection  through  non-verbal, 
physical  contact  relationships  based  upon  a  non-vertical  posture.  I 
examined  Cartesian  dualism's  implications  for  psychology's  develop- 
ment as  a  human  science  and  Maurice  Merleau-Ponty's  concept  of 
"flesh"  as  an  alternative  which  posits  man's  unity  prior  to  dualization. 
Intersubjectivity  emerged  as  crucial  for  meaning-formation,  although 
verbalization  was  viewed  as  a  less  reliable  vehicle  for  such  formation 
than  bodily  movement.  Four  female  and  eight  male  college  underclass- 
men participated  in  physical  and  verbal  dyads  and  in  small  group  dis- 
cussion of  their  behavior.  Their  observations  during  the  experiment, 
their  descriptions  of  their  experiences  on  questionaires,  and  my  own 
observations  appear  to  support  my  hypothesis. 


Shurling.    Svlvia   Bowen   (EdS,   Elementary   Education,    August, 

1972) 

A  THREE  YEAR  LONGITUDINAL  EVALUATION  OF  THE 

RESULTS  OF  AN  INTENSIVE  READINESS  PROGRAM, 

FOLLOWED  BY  A  MODIFIED  LINGUISTIC  READING 

PROGRAM,  WITH  DISADVANTAGED  CHILDREN  WHO 

WERE  DIAGNOSED  AS  POOR  RISKS  FOR  FORMAL 

ACADEMIC  WORK 


To  determine  the  effectiveness  of  grouping  children  considered 
not  ready  for  formal  academic  instruction,  a  longitudinal  study  was 
begun  in  Cobb  County,  Georgia,  in  1969,  as  part  of  a  federally  spon- 

53 


sored  program,  Project  Success.  The  investigator  followed  the  progress 
of  an  experimental  group  for  three  years.  Data  was  collected  through 
questionnaires,  testing  instruments,  and  personal  interivews  with 
parents,  students,  teachers,  project  personnel,  and  school  personnel. 

Subjects  for  the  experimental  group  were  selected  on  the  basis  of 
IQ  tests,  readiness  tests,  and  teacher  observation.  These  subjects  were 
then  placed  in  a  special  learning  situation,  referred  to  in  the  project 
as  Developmental  First  and  Developmental  Second.  Both  Develop- 
mental classes  were  designed  around  a  flexible  schedule,  a  relaxed 
classroom  atmosphere,  an  intensive  readiness  program,  a  modified 
linguistic  approach  to  reading,  and  learning  materials  selected  espe- 
cially for  each  child's  individual  needs.  No  child  was  pressured  into  a 
situation  where  he  would  meet  failure  and  become  frustrated.  The 
classroom  teacher  was  aided  by  the  project's  Learning  Specialist,  Psy- 
chologist, psychometrist,  and  Child  Development  Counselor  in  diag- 
nosing the  child's  needs  and  providing  a  prescriptive  program  for  him. 

There  were  19  subjects  in  the  experimental  group  in  1969-1970. 
Because  of  the  phasing  out  of  the  original  Project  Succuss  school,  the 
investigator  was  unable  to  follow  the  original  19  subjects  for  three  years. 
The  second  year  13  subjects  remained  in  the  project  school  and  11 
subjects  remained  the  third  year.  Project  Success  ended  in  June,  1971. 
During  the  third  year  of  the  experiment  the  sugjects  were  placed  in  regu- 
lar classroom  situations  and  given  no  special  help. 

The  investigator  attempted  to  answer  three  questions: 

1.  Will  the  results  of  the  Metropolitan  Achievement  Test  indicate 
the  subjects  who  completed  Developmental  First  were  on  grade 
level  at  the  time  of  first  year  post-testing? 

2.  Will  the  results  of  the  Metropolitan  Achievement  Test  indicate 
the  subjects  who  completed  Developmental  First  were  on  grade 
level  at  the  time  of  the  second  year  post-testing? 

3.  Will  the  results  of  the  Metropolitan  Achievement  Test  indicate 
the  subjects  who  completed  Developmental  First  were  on  grade 
level  at  the  time  of  the  third  year  post-testing? 

Two  basic  assumptions  were  made.  The  first  was  that  these  sub- 
jects were  not  ready  for  formal  academic  work  and  the  second  was  that 
they  were  representative  of  the  larger  national  groups  of  education- 
ally disadvantaged. 

The  final  results  from  the  study  indicated  that  the  subjects  were  not 
on  grade  level  at  the  end  of  the  third  year.  At  the  time  of  post-testing 
the  first  year,  they  were  above  grade  level,  the  second  year  they  were 
less  than  a  month  below  grade  level,  but  the  third  year  they  dropped 
down  to  six  months  below  grade  level.  While  in  a  special  classroom 
situation,  the  experimental  subjects  made  progress.  The  study  indicated 
the  subjects  were  unable  to  make  the  transition  to  a  regular  classroom 
situation  and  continue  to  progress. 

54 


Smith.   William  Lee  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1972) 

A  GROUP  SCALE  OF  HYPEREMPIRIC  SUSCEPTIBILITY 
A  PRELIMINARY  INVESTIGATION 

The  study  was  conducted  to  develop  a  group  scale  of  hyperempiric 
susceptibility.  Fifty-five  male  and  female  subjects  enrolled  in  Psycho- 
logy 103  at  West  Georgia  College,  Spring  Quarter,  1972,  were  admin- 
istered the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility  and  the 
Group  Scale  of  Hyperempiric  Susceptibility  utilizing  a  counter-balanced 
group  design.  The  hyperempiric  scale  was  composed  of  seven  orig- 
inal items  and  five  items  from  the  hypnotic  scale.  Kuder-Richardson 
Formula  20  reliability  coefficients.  Student's  t  ratios  for  related  mea- 
sures, and  Pearson  Product-Moment  correlation  coefficients  for  the 
relationship  of  the  two  scales  were  employed  for  analysis  of  the  data. 

The  reliability  for  the  Group  Scale  of  Hyperempiric  Susceptibility 
was  found  to  be  0.72  for  all  items  and  0.87  for  the  scale  with  the  items 
from  the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility  deleted. 
The  reliability  for  the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility 
was  found  to  be  0.81  which  was  comparable  with  the  reliability  reported 
in  the  manual  (/■=    0.82)  (Shor  and  Orne,  1962). 

The  Pearson  Product-Moment  correlation  coefficient  for  the  com- 
parison of  the  Group  Scale  of  Hyperempiric  Susceptibility  with  the 
Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility  was  found  to  be  0.27 
(z^2.03)  which  demonstrated  that  the  two  scales  were  significantly 
related. 

There  were  no  significant  differences  found  between  the  Group 
Scale  of  Hyperempiric  Susceptibility  and  the  Harvard  Group  Scale 
of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility  utilizing  the  Student's  "f  ratio  for  related 
measures.  There  was  no  data  present  to  support  any  statement  for 
the  validity  of  the  Group  Scale  of  Hyperempiric  Susceptibility. 


Spears,  Ann  Saywell,  (EdS,  Secondary  Education,  August,  1972) 


AN  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  FOUR  REQUIRED  COURSES  IN  ENGLISH 

FOR  THE 
ROME  CITY  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

This  project  develops  a  sequential  English  program  of  language, 
literature,  and  composition  within  four  quarter  courses  that  will  be 
required  of  all  ninth  and  tenth  grade  Rome  City  High  School  students 
reading  on  or  above  their  grade  level.  The  four  courses  teach  the  basic 
concepts,  skills,  and  terminology  necessary  for  more  advanced  high 
school  work.  The  guide  also  includes  a  logical  sequence  of  experiences 
and  activites  to  develop  these  concepts  and  to  increase  proficiency  in 
the  language  skills. 

55 


The  first  course,  Course  A,  reviews  grammar  and  usage  skills,  and 
develops  descriptive,  narrative,  and  expository  writing  and  speaking 
skills.  In  addition,  there  are  suggested  procedures  for  dictionary  usage, 
vocabulary  development,  library  study,  and  effective  notetaking.  Works 
of  literature  are  suggested  to  correlate  with  such  writing  assignments 
as  a  persuasive  paper,  a  comparison  theme,  and  an  autobiographical 
sketch. 

Course  B  introduces  the  student  to  the  various  elements  of  litera- 
ture—plot, conflict,  characterization,  setting,  theme,  tone,  and 
symboUsm.  The  emphasis  is  on  perceiving  how  an  author  combines 
these  elements  to  create  a  unified  work.  The  poetry  unit  deals  with 
the  vocabulary  of  poetry.  Selected  works  are  suggested. 

Course  C  continues  with  the  language  and  composition  skills  of  the 
first  course.  This  course,  however,  proceeds  from  the  typical  faults  of 
sentence  construction  to  the  more  complex  and  subtle  matters  of  struc- 
ture, style,  and  euphony.  Emphasis  is  on  the  connotation  of  words,  along 
with  a  series  of  suggestions  for  study  of  the  history  of  the  English  lan- 
guage and  dialect  study. 

Course  D  is  based  upon  Northrop  Frye's  critical  theory  of  narrative 
patterns  in  Hterature.  This  guide  organizes  the  "Internal  Forms"  material 
of  the  Georgia  Design  for  an  English  Curriculum  into  chart  form  and 
gives  illustrations  for  the  patterns  of  Romance,  Irony,  Comedy,  and 
Tragedy.  Composition  evolves  out  of  the  application  of  this  theory  to 
selected  works  of  literature. 

Each  course  begins  with  a  statement  of  the  overall  purpose  and  a 
list  of  the  behavioral  objectives.  A  general  introduction  precedes  the 
content  section  of  the  guides.  Each  guide  concludes  with  some  sugges- 
tions for  evaluation  and  a  bibliography  for  the  teacher. 

Stanley,  Gloria  Meadow  (EdS,  Secondary  Education,  August  31,  1972) 

THE  EVALUATION  OF  UNITED  STATES  HIGH  SCHOOL 

HISTOKY  TEXTBOOKS  IN  REFERENCE  TO  CONFLICTING 

INTERPRETATIONS  OF  TWENTIETH 

CENTURY  FOREIGN  POLICY 

This  study  had  a  two-fold  purpose.  First,  to  examine  conflicting 
interpretations  of  five  aspects  of  twentieth  century  United  States  foreign 
policy.  A  second  purpose  was  to  examine  high  school  history  textbooks 
and  to  determine  whether  they  devoted  ample  space  to  twentieth  cen- 
tury foreign  policy,  as  well  as  whether  the  textbook  interpretations  were 
based  on  historical  data. 

After  the  study  was  completed,  the  following  conclusions 
were  drawn: 

1.  Textbooks  devoted  adequate  treatment  to  American  foreign 
policy  in  the  twentieth  century. 

2  Textbook   writers   consistently    presented    American    foreign 
policy  from  the  traditional  interpretation,  while  the  New  Left  and 

56 


the  revisionist  interpretations  were  not  as  evident  in  most  textbooks. 

3.  There  was  some  incongruity  in  the  texts  in  regard  to  the  amount 
of  detail,  visual  aids  and  interpretation  given  to  twentieth  century 
foreign  policy. 

4.  Textbooks  varied  between,  as  well  as  within,  the  different  levels 
of  reading  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  sophistication  with  which  they 
presented  American  foreign  policy. 

5.  Textbooks  exhibited  both  strengths  and  weaknesses  in  the  pre- 
sentation of  twentieth  century  foreign  policy. 

6.  Textbooks  tended  to  be  patriotic  or  chauvinistic  rather  than 
critical  or  America's  foreign  policy. 

Willingham,  Mary  Lynn  (EdS,  Secondary  Education,  August,  1972) 

A  STUDY  OF  BACKGROUND  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PUPILS 

WITH  NEGATIVE  ATTITUDES  TOWARD  READING  VERSUS 

THOSE  WITH  POSITIVE  ATTITUDES  TOWARD  READING 

An  attitudes  toward  reading  scale,  developed  by  Thomas  H.  Estes, 
was  administered  by  the  reading  teacher  to  the  seventh  grade  English 
classes  of  Cedartown  Junior  High  School,  Cedartown,  Georgia.  The 
scales  were  scored  according  to  the  method  prescribed  by  Estes.  The 
highest  ten  per  cent  of  the  scores  were  chosen  for  study  as  the  group 
having  positive  attitudes  toward  reading;  the  lowest  ten  per  cent  of 
the  scores  were  chosen  for  study  as  the  group  having  negative  atti- 
tudes toward  reading.  Study  was  made  of  school  permanent  records 
and  telephone  interviews  with  parents  to  determine  differences  in 
background  characteristics  between  the  two  groups. 

The  information  was  statistically  analyzed  by  use  of  the  /  test  and 
the  Chi-square  test.  Results  showed  statistically  significant  differences 
between  the  two  groups  as  follows: 

1.  The  negative  group  had  a  greater  mean  days  absent  in  the 
seventh  grade. 

2.  The  negative  group  had  a  lower  mean  reading  level  in  the 
seventh  grade. 

3.  The  negative  group  had  parents  with  a  lower  mean  of  education. 

4.  The  negative  group  had  a  greater  mean  of  boys. 

5.  The  negative  group  had  a  lower  mean  of  use  of  the  public 
library. 

6.  The  negative  group  had  a  greater  mean  of  help  with  homework. 

Creaghan,  Madeleine  C.  (MA,  Psychology,  December,  1972) 

A  COMPREHENSIVE  PSYCHOLOGICAL  STUDY 
OF  A  PREOPERATIVE  MALE  TRANSSEXUAL 

This  study  presents  and  discusses  material  gathered  during  seven 
interviews  with  a  35  year  old  preoperative  male  transsexual.  A  biography 

57 


from  childhood  to  the  present  was  obtained  and  related  to  a  review  of 
the  literature.  The  subject  was  administered  projective  and  non-pro- 
jective  tests  and  a  psychological  evaluation  based  on  these  results  is 
given.  Finally,  it  is  shown  that  there  is  reason  to  doubt  the  authenticity 
of  some  of  the  subject's  verbal  accounts  and  further,  that  it  is  question- 
able whether  surgery  ever  should  or  will  be  performed  on  this  individual. 

Miller,  Marlene  Walker  (MA,  Psychology,  December,  1972) 

INDIVIDUALS"  RESPONSE  TO  AFFECTIVE  MASSAGE 

According  to  this  thesis,  massage  is  a  somatic  "technique"  promoting 
integration  and  personal  growth  by  working  directly  with,  through,  or 
upon  the  physical  body.  From  experiencing  their  body  as  a  source  of 
pleasure  during  massage,  individuals  feel  more  positive  about  their 
bodily  being  and  experience  a  positive  shift  in  body/self  image.  This 
positive  identification  with  one"s  body  helps  a  person  regain  contact 
with  bodily  (sensual)  energy.  Therapy,  or  any  process  that  helps  indi- 
viduals know  themselves,  must  recognize  the  significance  of  touching 
and  the  importance  of  awakening  the  senses  for  full  human  development. 
Massage  is  such  a  growth  experience,  encouraging  people  to  be  more 
accepting  and  more  aware  of  themselves. 

The  intention  of  this  thesis  is  to  explore  how  individuals  respond 
to  full  body  massage,  and  includes  an  analysis  of  personal  descriptions 
of  massage  as  well  as  a  description  of  the  masseuse's  experience.  This 
study  describes  different  responses  based  on  these  operational  defini- 
tions: 

Receptive  individuals  are  considered  to  be  those  who  surren- 
dered to  the  massage  process  and  felt  their  consciousness  work- 
ing in  a  different  way.  Receptive  people  would  experience  a 
positive  shift  in  self  image,  pleasant  and/or  unusual  body  sensa- 
tions, freer  energy  flow,  and  greater  integration.  They  would 
feel  more  whole  and  more  connected  with  their  bodies. 

Individuals  who  responded  to  particular  body  sensations  and 
who  focused  attention  on  body  parts  and  specific  strokes  are 
considered  to  be  those  who  would  notice  changes  in  breathing 
and  especially  tense  or  sensitive  areas.  They  would  be  aware  of 
some  release  of  tension  that  would  free  energy,  and  they  would 
feel  more  relaxed.  These  people  would  also  mention  some  posi- 
tive shift  in  body  image. 

Individuals  who  resisted  full  involvement  with  the  massage 
experience  are  considered  to  be  those  who  remained  in  control 
and  observed  the  procedure.  They  would  only  be  aware  of  ten- 
sion and  areas  of  pain  and  would  possibly  feel  more  relaxed  and 
comfortable  following  the  massage. 

To  explore  these  assumptions,  twenty  people  were  given  a  full  body 

58 


massage  and  asked  to  write  "as  fully  detailed  a  description  as  possible" 
of  their  experience.  Five  judges  analyzed  the  content  of  these  descrip- 
tions in  accord  with  the  categories  as  defined  in  the  instructions  to  the 
judges.  The  original  trends  predicted  were  confirmed  by  the  judges' 
analysis  of  the  descriptions. 

Administering  the  Body  Cathexis  Questionnaire  and  the  Draw  a 
Person  Test  to  individuals  in  a  pilot  study  provided  additional  evidence 
that  people  express  a  positive  shift  in  body  image  (defined  as  the  inner 
experience  of  'self)  following  a  massage. 

The  masseuse's  experience  of  giving  a  massage  is  briefly  discussed 
as  moving  meditation.  Massage  can  be  understood  as  a  practice  in  aware- 
ness, in  attunement  with  human  nature,  and  in  being  available  to  per- 
ceptions. Massage  opens  new  possibilities  for  heightened  awareness— 
physically,  emotionally,  and  spiritually. 

Starnes,  Oren  Brown  (MA,  Psychology,  December,  1972) 

THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF  A  MEASURE  OF  SECURITY 
AND  A  MEASURE  OF  SELF- ACTUALIZATION 


The  study  investigated  the  relationship  between  the  Security-Inse- 
curity Inventory  (S-I)  and  the  Personal  Orientation  Inventory  (POD. 
The  hypothesis  tested  was  that  there  is  a  positive  relationship  between 
the  scores  attained  on  the  S-I  and  the  scores  attained  on  the  POL  Fifty- 
five  \olunteer  subjects  took  the  S-I  and  the  POI  inventories.  Pearson 
product-moment  coefficients  were  calculated  to  establish  the  relation- 
ship between  the  scores  attained  on  the  S-I  and  POI.  There  were  no 
statistically  significant  correlation  coefficients  established  between 
the  S-I  and  the  scales  of  the  POL  Accordinglv  the  hypothesis  tested  in 
the  study  was  rejected.  Reason  was  found  to  suspect  the  validity  of  the 
POI  score  data  and,  consequently,  also,  to  suspect  the  validity  of  the 
results  of  the  study.  The  conclusion  rejected  the  hypothesis  tested  and 
pointed  to  the  necessity  of  additional  studies  on  the  hypothesis  tested 
and  on  the  "fake  ability"  of  the  POI. 


Ragsdale.  Edward  Stanton  (MA,  Psychology,  December,  1972) 
MAN  IN  TIME- TIME  IN  MAN 

With  every  step  man  takes,  every  word  he  utters,  every  thought  he 
thinks,  every  pronouncement  he  makes,  every  position  he  holds,  he 
moves  within  the  matrix  of  time  and  eternity.  To  the  extent  that  he  is 
alive,  he  is  vulnerable.  To  the  extent  that  he  is  vulnerable,  he  is  open 
to  change  and  able  to  ride  with  time.  To  the  extent  that  he  can  move 
with  time  and  change,  even  for  a  moment,  he  can  ghmpse  at  the  timeless. 

59 


He  sees  himself  outside  of  all  that  which  he  is  conscious  of.  Born 
into,  and  baring  himself  to,  a  world  of  apparent  diversity  and  multi- 
plicity, he  seeks  to  unify  it.  He  observes,  and  perhaps  creates,  continui- 
ties and  patterns  in  trying  to  order  his  world  across  space  and  time.  Yet 
the  greatest  discontinuity,  the  greatest  point  of  dissonance  he  experi- 
ences is  his  own  existence.  For  he  now  sees  himself  alone  and  apart.  He 
sees  a  friend  scrape  his  elbow  yet  it  doesn't  hurt  him.  He  knows  his 
thoughts  and  feelings  are  not  essentially  accessable  to  others,  without 
at  least  his  invitation.  He  experiences  this  same  inaccessability  in  others. 
His  life  is  comprised  of  a  partial  glimpse.  While  perhaps  cherishing  and 
fostering  his  separateness  he  is  hurt  by  it. 

But  now  conscious  of  it,  outside  of  it,  it  is  his  lot,  his  desire,  to  think 
about  it.  For  while  actions  are  soon  forgotten,  reasons  for  actions,  may- 
be because  they  are  unreal,  yet  remain.  Reasons,  he  hopes,  might  last 
forever.  So  to  overcome  the  dissonance  of  ephemerality,  diversity, 
multiplicity,  his  sense  of  alientation,  and  his  awareness  of  his  own 
mortality  in  the  world  of  action,  he  seeks  reasons.  These  are  his  patterns, 
his  continuities,  his  justifications,  his  excuses.  He  gets  so  enthralled 
that  he  begins  to  assume  that  the  reasons,  and  reason,  are  somehow 
constitutive  of  actions. 

It  is  as  if  one  wave  of  being  in  the  Parade  that  is  without  beginning 
or  end,  stepped  over  to  the  curb  to  get  a  better  view  of  more  of  Itself. 
It,  hereafter  to  be  called  "he,"  could  thus  see  Itself  pass  by.  He  could 
see  It  begin  as  It  came  into  sight  and  end  as  It  disappeared  from  sight, 
and  made  up  names  for  the  parts  of  It  that  he  saw  pass.  And  thus  he 
came  to  see  time.  And  as  parts  of  it  moved  closer  to  him  and  then  far- 
ther away  from  him,  he  came  to  posit  space  and  distance.  And  he  won- 
dered where  It  came  from  and  where  It  was  going,  beyond  his  all  too 
near  horizons.  Soon  he  began  to  see  similarities  and  maybe  even  repe- 
titions in  the  parts  of  It.  Some  parts  he  liked  more  than  other  parts, 
and  he  hoped  that  those  parts  or  other  parts  like  them  would  come 
back  soon.  Sometimes  he  worried  that  they  wouldn't  come  again.  And 
as  he  continued  to  watch  the  Parade  progress,  he  came  to  forget  that 
he  was  still  part  of  It.  Having  forgotten  this,  he  was  upset,  and  he  sought 
to  join  in,  and  he  began  to  run  along  beside  the  Parade,  trying  at  least 
to  keep  abreast  of  It.  But  when  he  rushed  to  keep  up.  It  slowed  down; 
when  he  slowed  to  Its  pace.  It  speeded  up.  He  eventually  grew  tired  and 
rested,  and  soon  he  forgot.  And  as  he  forgot  he  remembered.  And  as  he 
remembered  he  came  to  join  back  in. 


60 


ANNUAL  FACULTY  BffiLIOGRAPHY 
AS  OF  JANUARY  1,  1973 


Arons.  Myron  M. 

"Humanistic  Psychology:  Where  Are  We."  Paper  read  at  the  First 
Southeastern  Conference  for  Humanistic  Psychology,  Eatonton, 
Georgia,  Apr.,  1972. 

"Philosophical  Marks  in  a  Recent  Development  of  American  Psy- 
chology." Paper  read  at  the  Informal  Invitational  Conference  on 
Parapsychology  and  Humanistic  Psychology,  Moscow,  U.S.S.R., 
Jul.,  1972. 

"New  Modes  of  Higher  Education  Through  a  Humanistic  Model." 
Paper  read  at  the  Seminar  on  Humanistic  Psychology,  New  Dehh, 
India,  Jul.,  1972. 

"Current  Trends  of  Humanistic  Psychology  in  Higher  Education." 
Paper  read  at  the  Seminar  on  Humanistic  Psychology,  Bangkok, 
Thailand,  Aug.,  1972. 

"The  Changing  Notion  of  Creativity."  Paper  read  at  the  Third  Inter- 
national Invitational  Conference  on  Humanistic  Psychology,  Tokyo, 
Japan,  Aug.,  1972 

"Creativity:  Changing  Concepts  of  the  New  Consciousness."  Paper 
read  at  the  Tenth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Association  for  Humanistic 
Psychology,  Oahu,  Hawaii,  Aug.,  1972. 
"Humanistic  Psychology  in  Higher  Education:  Four  Years  Develop- 
ment Study  of  the  West  Georgia  College  Program."  Paper  read  at 
the  Tenth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Association  for  Humanistic 
Psychology,  ,  Oahu,  Hawaii,  Aug.,  1972. 

"Humanistic  Psychology  in  a  Master's  Degree  Program."  Paper 
read  at  the  Symposium  on  Humanistic  Psychology  and  Graduate 
Education,  Convention  of  the  American  Psychological  Association, 
Honolulu,  Hawaii,  Sep.,  1972. 

"Potentially  Yours."  Narrator  for  thirty  minute  documentary  film. 
Hartley  Production,  Inc.,  Cos  Cob,  Connecticut,  1972. 

"Creativity  and  Education."  One  hour  tape  for  educational  television. 
Honolulu,  Hawaii,  Sep.,  1972. 

"What's  It  All  About."  With  C.  Harari  and  C.  O'Donovan.  News- 
letter Association  Humanistic  Psychology,    (Summer,    1972),    1-2. 

Austin,  Roger  S. 

"The  Origin  of  the  Kaolin  and  Bauxite  Deposits  of  Twiggs,  Wilkin- 
son, and  Washington  Counties,  Georgia."  Unpublished  PhD  dis- 

61 


sertation  (geology),  University  of  Georgia,  1972. 

"The  Origin  of  Kaolin  and  Bauxite  in  Central  Georgia."  Conference 
Program  of  the  Clay  Minerals  Society,  (1972),  16.  (Abstract) 

Barrett,  Richard  F. 

"Police  Professionalism  and  Public  Evaluation:  A  Research  Note," 
Paper  read  at  the  Southern  Political  Science  Association  Meeting, 
Gatlinburg,  Tennessee,  Nov.,  1971. 

"Police  Professionalism  and  Citizen  Evaluation,"  Governmental 
Research  Bulletin,  The  Florida  State  University,  IX,  No.  1  (1971), 
1-2. 

Be  all.  John  A. 

A  Strategy  for  the  Reduction  of  Private  Motor  Vehicles  in  a  Mili- 
tarv  Unit.  Ft.  McPherson,  Georgia:  Third  U.S.  Army  Printing  Press, 
1972. 

The  Private  Motor  Vehicle  Accident  Problem  in  the  Military  Ser- 
vice. Washington:  The  Department  of  the  Army,  1972. 

"An  Analysis  of  Characteristics  of  Private  Motor  Vehicle  Accidents 
in  a  Military  Setting."  With  W.S.  Blumenfeld.  Paper  read  at  the 
Georgia  Psychological  Association  Meeting,  Macon,  Georgia,  May, 
1972. 

"The  Problem  of  Private  Motor  Vehicle  Accidents  in  the  Military 
Service."  Keynote  address  made  at  the  U.S.,  Army  World-Wide 
Safety  Conference,  Washington,  D.C.,  May,  1972. 

"The  Problem  of  Private  Motor  Vehicle  Accidents  in  a  Major  Unit 
of  the  U.S.  Army."  Keynote  address  made  at  the  Safety  Conference 
of  the  U.S.  Army,  Europe,  Numbered  Armies  and  Major  Commands, 
Heidelberg,  West  Germany,  Jul.,  1972. 

"Development  of  a  Psychometric  Procedure  to  Forecast  Private 
Motor  Vehicle  Accidents  Within  a  Military  Sample."  With  W.S. 
Blumenfeld.  Paper  read  at  the  Annual  Convention  of  the  American 
Psychological  Association,  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  Jul.,  1972. 

Belt,  Bobby.  D. 

"Isomerism  in  HI  Sn."  With  R.E.  Holland  and  F.J.  Lynch.  Bulletin  of 
the  Southeastern  Section  of  the  American  Physical  Society  of  the 
American  Physical  Society,  XXXIX  (1972),  17.  (Abstract). 

Blanton,  Floyd  L. 

"Games  in  the  Mathematics  Classroom."  Paper  read  at  Georgia 
Council  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics,  Gainsville,  Georgia,  Oct., 
1972. 

62 


"Operation  SNAP  and  Other  Mathematical  Models."  Paper  read 
at  the  Andalusia  Meeting  of  the  Alabama  Mathematics  Teachers, 
Andalusia,  Alabama,  Nov.,  1972. 

Bowdre,  Paul  H. 

"Method  and  Reality:  The  Significance  of  Recent  Investigations 
in  the  Area  of  Meaning."  Paper  read  at  the  Second  Annual  Sym- 
posium on  Method  and  Reality,  Salisbury,  North  Carolina,  Feb., 
1972. 

Boyd,  Herman  W. 

"  A  General  Physics  Course  for  Secondary  School  Teachers."  With 
B.E.  Powell.     Bulletin  of  the  American  Physical  Society,  XVIII, 

No.  2  (1972),  255. 

Bryson,  Thomas  A. 

"Journal  of  a  Journey  to  the  Near  East,  Walter  George  Smith." 
Armenian     Review,      XXV,      Part      I      (Spring,      1972),      61-70. 

"The  National  Archives  and  the  Biographer."  Prologue:  The  Journal 
of  the  National  Archives,  IV  (Fall,  1972),  157-60. 

"Diary  of  a  Journey  of  Walter  George  Smith  to  the  International 
Philamenian  League,  Nov.  2,  1920  — Jan.  31,  1921.  Armenian  Re- 
view, XXVI  (Summer,  1972),  55-75. 

Byron,  Dora  L. 

"Sacred  Harp  Singing."  The  Atlanta  Journal-Constitution  Maga- 
zine, Dec.  3,  1972,  60-69. 

Claxton.  Robert  H. 

Review  of  Don  Helder  Camara:  The  Violence  of  a  Peacemaker 
by  Jose'  de  Broucker.  Records  of  the  American  Catholic  Historical 
Society,  LXXXIII,  No.  2  (1972),  112-114. 

Cox,  James  W. 

"A  Critical  Examination  of  Paul  Ricoeur's  Philosophy  of  Decision 
and  Action."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (philosophy),  Vander- 
bilt  University,  1972. 

Crawford,  Thomas,  J. 

"Western  Georgia  Piedmont  Between  the  Cartersville  and  Brevard 
Fault  Zones."  With  J.H.  Medlin.  Southeastern  Section  Program  of 
Geological  Society  of  America,  IV,  No.  2  (1972),  68.  (Abstract). 

63 


"Structure  and  Stratigraphy  Along  the  Brevard  Fault  Zone  in  West- 
ern Georgia  and  Eastern  Alabama."  With  J.H.  Medlin,  H.W.  Dailey, 
and  J.  Baldwin.  Southeastern  Section  Program  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  America,  IV,  No.  2  (1972).  (Abstract) 

de  Mayo,  Benjamin 

"Magnetism  in  Gold-Iron  Alloys  Below  14  at  %  Fe."  Magnetism 
and  Magnetic  Materials.  1971  AIP  Conference  Proceedings  No.  5 

CD.  Graham,  Jr.  and  J.J.  Rhyme,  co-editors.  New  York-  American 

Institute  of  Physics,  1972,  pp.  492-496. 

"A  Mossbauer  Study  of  Iron-Aluminum."  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Physical  Society,  XVII  (1972),  195.  (Abstract) 

DeVillier,  John  L. 

"Communication  Effects  of  Variations  in  Organization  and  Format." 

The  ABCA  Journal  of  Business  Communication,  IX,  No.  3  (1972), 

5-18. 
"Citation  Indexing-  A  Research  Tool  for  Business."  Paper  read  at 

the  Southern  Management  Association  Convention,  Washington, 

D.C.,  Nov.,  1972. 

Edwards,  Corliss  H. 

"The  Sea  in  Four  Romantic  Poems."  West  Georgia  College  Review, 
V,  No.  1(1971),  29-34. 

"A  Foggy  Scene  in  Deliverance."  Notes  on  Contemporary  Litera- 
ture, II  (Nov.,  1972),  7-9. 

"Lanier's  'The  Symphony'."  Explicator,  XXXI,  No.  4  (1972),  item  27. 

Edwards,  Don  A. 

Descriptive  Statistics.  With  A.S.  Jackson.  Houston,  Texas:  Houston 
Teacher  Center,  1972.  (Instructional  materials) 

Measure  Theory.  With  A.S.  Jackson.  Houston,  Texas:  Houston 
Teacher  Center,  1972.  (Instructional  materials) 

Classroom  Evaluation.  With  A.S.  Jackson.  Houston,  Texas:  Houston 
Teacher  Center,  1972.  (Instructional  materials) 

Topics  in  Instructional  Design.  Carrollton,  Georgia:  West  Georgia 
College,  1972.  (Instructional  materials) 

Eslinger,  Eric  V. 

"Mineralogy  and  Oxygen  Isotope  Ratios  of  Lx)w-Grade  Metamor- 
phic    and    Argillaceous    Rocks."    Unpublished    PhD    dissertation 

64 


(geology),  Case  Western  Reserve  University,  1971. 

"A  Carbonate  Sand  Bar  Near  Bahia  Honda  Key,  Florida."  With  S.F. 
Huffman,  G.G.  Anderson,  and  C.A.  Orosco.  Paper  read  at  the  Geo- 
logical Society  of  America,  Lexington,  Kentucky,  1970. 

"Oxygen  Isotope  Studies  of  the  Hydrothermally  Altered  Tuffs  of 
Broadlands,  New  Zealand."  With  S.M.  Savin.  Paper  read  at  the 
API  Symposium  on  Diagenesis  of  Sandstones  and  Shales,  Denver, 
Colorado,  Dec,  1970. 

"Oxygen  Isotope  Studies  of  Hydrothermal  Alteration  and  Burial 
Diagenesis."  With  S.M.  Savin.  Paper  read  at  the  Clay  Minerals 
Conference,  Rapid  City,  North  Dakota,  Aug.,  1971. 

"Oxygen  Isotope  Studies  of  Burial  Metamorphism  of  the  Belt  Super- 
group, Glacier  National  Park,  Montana."  With  S.M.  Savin.  Paper 
read  at  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  Washington,  D.C., 
Nov.,  1971. 

"An  X-Ray  Technique  for  Distinguishing  Between  Detrital  and 
Secondary  Quartz  in  the  Fine-Grained  Fraction  of  Sedimentary 
Rocks."  With  L.M.  Mayer,  T.L.  Durst,  J.  Hower,  and  S.M.  Savin. 
Paper  read  at  the  Twenty-First  Clay  Minerals  Conference,  Woods 
Hole,  Massachusetts,  1972. 

Esslinger,   W.  Glenn 

"Cholesterol:  Methods  of  Control."  With  J.L.  Grogan.  West  Georgia 
College  Review.  V,  No.  1  (1972),  8-11. 

Drugs:  The  Fallen  Angels?  With  J.L.  Grogan.  Bremen,  Georgia: 
Gateway  Printing  Co.,  1972.  (Pamphlet) 

"Recruiting  Science  Teachers  and  Upgrading  the  Quality  of  Existing 
Program."  With  J.M.  Maddox.  Paper  read  at  the  Georgia  Academy 
of  Science,  Athens,  Georgia,  Apr.,  1972. 

"A  Model  for  Pre-Service  Science  Teacher  Preparation:  Recruit- 
ing Prospective  Science  Teachers."  Invited  paper  read  at  the  Area 
NSTA  Meeting,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  Oct.,  1972 
GSTP:  Upgrading  Pre-Service  Science  Teachers."  Invited  paper 
read  at  the  Area  NSTA  Meeting,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana,  Nov., 
1972. 

Ferling.  John  E. 

"Joseph  Galloway:  A  Reassessment  of  the  of  the  Motivations  of  a 
Pennsylvania  Loyalist."  Pennsylvania  Historw  XXXIX  (Apr.,  1972), 
163-86. 

Finnie,   Gordon  E. 

"Employment  Trends  and  Manpower  Needs  in  Georgia,  1970-1985." 

65 


Paper  read  at  the  Chattahoochee-Flint  Area  Manpower  Planning 
Board,  CarroUton,  Georgia,  Dec,  1972. 

Folk.  Richard  A. 

"Black  Man's  Burden  in  Ohio,  1849-1863."  Unpublished  PhD  dis- 
sertation (history),  Universtiy  of  Toledo,  1972. 

"Black  Politics  in  Ante-Bellum  Ohio:  Steps  Toward  Maturity,  1835- 
1865."  Paper  read  at  the  Association  for  the  Study  of  Negro  Life 
and  History,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Oct.,  1972. 

"Ohio's  Ante-Bellum  Black  History."  The  Alumnus  of  The  Univer- 
sity of  Toledo.  XIX,  No.  5  (1972),  14-15. 

Gannon.  Gerald  M. 

"Doctoral  Dissertations  on  D.H.  Lawrence:  Bibliographical  Adden- 
da." D.H.  Lawrence  Review,  V,  No.  2  (1972),  170-73. 

"The  Summer  Course  on  'Lawrence  and  England'."  D.H.  Lawrence 
Review,  V,  No.  2  (1972),  177-78. 

"Conrad  and  His  Art:  His  Future."  Invited  paper  read  at  the  Second 
International  Conference  of  Conrad  Scholars,  London,  England, 
Sep.,  1972. 

"Roderick  Usher:  Portrait  of  the  Madman  as  an  Artist."  Poe  Studies. 
V,  No.  1  (1972),  11-14. 

Editor,  Georgia-South  Carolina  College  English  Association  News- 
letter. I,  1969-III,  1972. 

Assistant  Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review.  II  1969  — 

Gannon,  Lucille  B. 

"Presenting  the  Atom-Simplification  or  Accuracy?"  Letter  in  the 
Physics  Teacher.  X  (Mar.,  1972),  114. 

"A  Mathematical  Model  for  Combining  Inherent  Astigmatism  with 
Externally-Adjustable  Astigmatism  in  the  Electron  Microscope." 
With  Marian  Sanders.  Paper  read  by  Miss  Sanders  at  the  Georgia 
Academy  of  Science,  Athens,  Georgia,  Apr.,  1972. 

"Experimental  Physical  Science  for  Elementary  School  Teachers." 
With  W.L.  Lockhart  and  H.M.  Madeley.  Paper  read  at  the  Georgia 
Academy  of  Science,  Athens,  Georgia,  Apr.,  1972. 

Gibbons,  Don  E. 

"Hyperempiria:  Beyond  Hypnosis."  Paper  read  at  the  First  South- 
eastern Conference  for  Humanistic  Psychology,  Eatonton,  Georgia, 
Apr.,  1972. 

"Hypnotic   Susceptibility  and   Rehgious  Experience."  With  J.   De 

66 


Jarnette.  Paper  read  at  the  Convention  of  the  American  Psychologi- 
cal Association,  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  Sep.,  1972. 

"Lowering  the  Auditory  Threshold  with  Hypnosis."  With  R.  Cooper. 
Paper  read  at  the  Society  for  Clinical  and  Experimental  Hypnosis, 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  Oct.,  1972. 

"Beyond  Hypnosis."  Paper  read  at  the  Asso-^iation  to  Advance  Ethi- 
cal Hypnosis,  Orlando,  Florida,  Oct.,  1972. 

"Hypnosis  and  Hyperempiria."  Paper  read  at  Kansas  State  College, 
Pittsburg,  Kansas,  Nov.,  1972. 

Griffith,  Benjamin  W. 

"Midnight  Cowboys  and  Edwardian  Narrators:  James  Leo  Herlihy's 
Contrasting  Voices."  Notes  on  Contemporary  Literature,  II  (Jan., 

1972),  6-7. 

"Csardas  at  Salt  Springs:  Southern  Culture  in  1888."  The  Georiga 

Review,  XXVI  (Spring,  1972),  52-59. 
"They  Traveled  with  Mark  Twain."  Atlanta  Journal-Constitution 

Magazine,  Mar.  19,  1972,  pp.  16-19. 
"In  1437  What  Made  Katie  Bar  the  Door?"  Sports  and  Travel,  VII 

(Nov.-Dec,  1972),  21. 

Grogan,  Jack  L. 

"Cholesterol:  Methods  of  Control."  With  W.  Glenn  Esslinger.  West 
Georgia  College  Review,  V,  No.  1  (1972),  8-11. 

Hahn,  H.S. 

"A  Counting  Function  of  Integral  n-Triples."  Fibonacci  Quarterly, 
X,  No.  6  (1972),  609-13. 

Haltresht,  Michael 

"Disease  Imagery  in  Conrad's  The  Secret  Agent."  Psychology  and 
Literature,  XXI,  No.  2  (1971),  101-106. 

""The  Wall:  John  Hersey's  Interpretation  of  the  Ghetto  Experience." 
Notes  on  Contemporary  Literature^  II,  No.  1  (1972),  10-11. 

"The  Gods  of  Conrad's  A^o^fromo.  "Renascence,  XXIV,  No.  4  (1972), 
207-13. 

Harendza,  Michael  J. 

Public  Recital:  Solo  and  Chamber  Music,  Georgia  State  Univer- 
sity, Atlanta,  Georgia,  Jan.,  1972. 
Public  Recital:  Solo,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  Jun.,  1972. 

67 


Invited  Recital:  Solo,  Georgia  Music  Teachers  Association,  Colum- 
bus, Georgia,  Nov.,  1972. 

Invited  Recital:  Accompanied  solo  voice,  Georgia  Music  Teachers 
Association,  Columbus,  Georgia,  Nov.,  1972. 

Public  Recital:  Accompanied  voice,  Clayton  Junior  College,  Mor- 
row, Georgia,  Nov.,  1972. 

Hecht,  Alan  D. 

"Phenotypic  Variation  and  Oxygen  Isotope  Ratios  in  Recent  Plank- 
tonic  Foraminifera."  With  S.M.  Savin.  Journal  of  Foraminiferal 
Research,  II,  No,  2  (1972),  55-67. 

"The  Application  of  Computer  Analysis  to  Geologic  Problems." 
With  J.  Medlin,  H.  Madeley,  J. A.  Howell,  and  A.  Irby.  Geological 
Society  of  America,  IV,  (1972),  79.  (Abstract) 

"A  New  Model  for  Estimating  Pleistocene  Ocean  Temperatures 
from  Planktonic  Foraminiferal  Assemblages."  Bulletin  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  of  Petroleum  Geologists,  LVI  (1972),  624.  (Ab- 
stract) 

"Diversity  and  Age  Relationships  in  Recent  and  Miocene  Bivalves." 
With  B.  Agan  Systematic  Zoology,  XXI,  No.  3  (1972),  308-12. 
"A  Model   for   Determining   Pleistocene   Paleotemperatures   from 
Planktonic  Foraminiferal  Assemblages:  Application  to  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean."  American  Quaternary  Association,  (Dec,  1972),  24-33. 

Herbert.  Paul  C. 

"A  Concept  of  the  Educational  Needs  of  Youth  in  Contemporary 
Society  and  the  'New  Curricula'."  Unpublished  EdD  dissertation 
(education),  Florida  State  University,  1972. 

Holmes,    Y.  Lynn 

"Compass  Points  for  Old  Testament  Study  — A  Review."  The  Out- 
look, XXI  (Jul.-Aug.,  1972),  40-41. 

"The  Messengers  of  the  Amarna  Letters."  Paper  read  at  the  Ameri- 
can Oriental   Society,   Chapel   Hill,   North   Carolina,   Apr.,    1972. 

Huck.  Eugene,  R. 

"Economic  Experimentation  in  a  Newly  Independent  Nation:  Colom- 
bia under  Francisco  de  Paula  Santander,  1821-1840."  The  Americas, 
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Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences,  VI, 
1967- 

Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review,  I,  1968  — 

68 


Editor,   SECOLAS  Annals,   I,    1969  — (Acronym  for   Southeastern 
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"Revolutionary  Expansionism  and  the  Directory's  Irish  PoHcy." 
Paper  read  at  the  Inter-University  Consortium  on  Revolutionary 
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Klee,  James  B. 

Excerpts  from  a  memorial  address.  Abraham  H.  Maslow:  A  Memo- 
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"Mythological  Elements  in  Humanities  or  the  Arts  as  Communal 
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"Contradictions  of  the  Cross."  Paper  read  at  the  International  So- 
ciety for  the  Study  of  Symbols.  Waikiki,  Hawaii,  Sep.,  1972. 

"A  Conversation  Hour  with  James  B.  Klee."  Invited  paper  read  at 
the  American  Psychological  Association,  Wakiki,  Hawaii,  Sep., 
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Larson,  Lewis  H. 

"Functional  Considerations  of  Warfare  in  the  Southeast  During  the 
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Lockhart.   William  L. 

"Recruiting  Science  Teachers  and  Upgrading  the  Quality  of  Existing 
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"Experimental  Physical  Science  for  Elementary  School  Teachers." 
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Assistant  Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review,  II,  1969  — 

McClain,  John 

"How  the  New  College-Age  Voter  in  Texas  Views  the  Rights  of 
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69 


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"Music  in  the  Teaching  of  Social  Studies."  Paper  read  at  the  Georgia 
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1972. 

MacLean,  John   T. 

"Sanctus  and  Benedictus."  Composition  performed  at  the  Fine  Arts 
Festival,  West  Georgia  College,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  May,  1972. 

"Portrait  for  Flute,  Bassoon  and  Strings."  Composition  performed 
by  the  Oklahoma  City  Symphony  Orchestra,  Mar.,  1972. 

Mathews.  James  W. 

"The  House  of  Atreus  and  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables.  "Ameri- 
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Meehan,  Virginia  M. 

"Teaching  Sophomore  Literature  Survey  Courses."  Paper  read  at 
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Mixon,    Val  G. 

"Another  Look  at  Annexation"  and  "Where  is  the  Loyalty  for  Atlan- 
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Mykkeltvedt.  Roald  Y. 

"Fourteenth  Amendment  Procedural  Due  Process:  From  the  Fair 
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IX,  No.  2  (1972),  157-185. 

Nix,  Pearl 

"A  Study  of  Value  Judgements  in  a  Sample  of  Adults  From  Two  West 
Georgia  Counties."  West  Georgia  College  Review,  V,  No.  1  (1972), 
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70 


Perry,  James  Earl 

"On  Duods  and  Hereditarily  Duodic  Continua."  Notices  of  the  Ameri- 
can Mathematical  Society,  XXIX,  No.  4  (1972),  A-546  (Abstract) 

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"A  Second  Note  on  Unions  of  Duods."  Notices  of  the  American 
Mathematical  Society,  XXIX,  No.  6  (1972),  A-724  (Abstract) 

"A  Note  on  Hereditarily  Duodic  Continua."  Notices  of  the  Ameri- 
can Mathematical  Society,  XXIX,  No.  7  (1972),  A-770.  (Abstract) 

Powell  Bobby  E. 

"What  Are  Those  Clouds?  Barium  Gas!"  West  Georgia  College  Re- 
view, V,  No.  1  (1972),  26-28. 

"Growth  of  L- Alanine  Filamentary  Crystal."  With  B.  Madden.  Bulle- 
tin of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science,  XXX  (Apr.,  1972),  90. 
(Abstract) 

"Combinations  of  Third-Order  Elastic  Constants  of  Tin."  With 
M.J.  Skove.  Physica  Status  Solidi,  IX  (1972),  K11-K14. 

"The  Effect  of  Thermal  Cycling  on  the  Resistance  and  Morphology 

of  InBi  Single  Crystals  and  Polycrystals."  With  R.B.  Lai  and  J.H. 

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370. 
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H.W.  Boyd.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Physical  Society,  XVIII,  No.  2 

(1972),  255. 

Quertermus,  Carl  J.,  Jr. 

"Experience  as  a  Factor  in  Habitat  Selection  in  the  Cichlid  Fish, 
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Michigan  State  University,  1972. 

"A  Key  to  the  North  American  Species  of  Lepisosteus  (Class  Pisces) 
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of  Science,  LX,  No.  1  (1967),  45-48. 

"Development  and  Significance  of  Two  Motor  Patterns  Used  in 
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Rao,  Jaganmohan  L. 

"Communication  Channels  in  the  Innovative-Decision  Process: 
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71 


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Meeting,  Atlanta.  Georgia,  Apr.,  1972. 

Status  Inconsistency  and  Modernization  in  Three  Indian  Villages: 
Technical  Report  13-Project  on  the  Diffusion  of  Innovations  in 
Rural  Societies.  East  Lansing.  Michigan:  Michigan  State  Univer- 
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"Channels  of  Communication  in  the  Innovative-Decision  Process: 
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World  Congress  of  Rural  Sociology,  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana,  Aug., 

1972. 

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read  at  the  Third  World  Congress  of  Rural  Sociology,  Baton  Rouge, 
Louisiana,  Aug.,  1972. 

Renshaw.  J.  Parke 

"Up-dating  on  Spiritism  in  Brazil."  Latin  American  Studies  Asso- 
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"O  Humor  em  laid  Garcia  e  Brds  Cubas."  Luso-Brazilian  Review,  IX, 
No.  1  (1972),  13-20. 

"Foreign-Language  and  Intercultural  Studies  in  Present-Day  College 
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Sharp,   Thomas  J. 

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American  Mathematical  Society.  XIX,  No.  6  (1972),  A-688.  (Ab- 
stract). 

Short,   Verl  M. 

"A  Study  of  the  Conceptual  Systems  and  Role  Expectations  in 
Teacher  Collective  Negotiation  in  Selected  School  Districts 
in  Northern  Illinois."  Unpublished  EdD  dissertation  (education). 
Northern  Illinois  University,  1967. 

Current   Salary   Practices    in    Northern    Illinois.    With    Philip    C. 

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Explorations  In  Selected  Problems  of  Adult  Education.  DeKalb, 
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Speaking  About  Adults  and  the  Continuing  Education  Process. 
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United  States  Teacher  Certification  Map  (A  Guide  to  Elementary 
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and  1971.  (Map) 

"Social    Studies    Reading    Material    Problems."    Florida    Reading 
Quarterly.  IV,  No.  3  (1968),  29-31. 

"The  First  'R'  in  the   Kindergarten."  Florida   Reading   Quarterly, 

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"Greatest    Problem    Facing    Education    in    Nova    Scotia    Today." 

Nova   Scotia    Teachers    Union   Newsletter.    VIII,    No.    11    (1970), 

1-3. 

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Nova  Scotia  Journal  of  Education.  XIX,  No.  5  (1970),  33-35. 
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P.R.  Carter.  Nova  Scotia  Journal  of  Education,  XIX.  No.  2  (1970), 

40-44. 
"Education   Numbers  Racket,   Let's   Take   the   Number   Mystique 
Out    of    Education."    School   Progress,    XXXIX,    No.    5.    (1970), 
52-54. 

Early  Childhood  Education  for  Today  and  Tomorrow.  New 
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Union  Newsletter.    X,  No.  6  (1970),  1-2. 

A  Selected  Collection  of  Fingerplays  and  Poems  for  Use  in  Early 
Childhood  Education.  With  Sharon  Jenks.  Halifax.  Nova  Scotia: 
Nova  Scotia  Preschool  Education  Association,  1971. 
A  Big  Problem  for  Little  People.  With  G.  Eade,  Janet  McCracken. 
G.  Hillis,  and  Jane  Norman.  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia:  Nova  Scotia 
Preschool  Education  Association,  1971. 

"Don't  Sit  Still.  Jimmy."  With  Jane  Norman.  Nova  Scotia  Teachers 
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"What  is  the  Oper  Classroom?"  Nova  Scotia  Teachers  Union  News- 
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Guiding  Your  Young  Child  Through  School  With  R.  Robbins 
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Slaughter,  Richard  A. 

Compiled  and  edited,  American  Policy  Toward  Southern  Africa, 
for  the  Colorado  Education  Association,  1971. 

Steely,  Melvin 

"Operation  'Magic  Fire':  Germany's  Involvement  in  the  Spanish 
Civil  War."  West  Georgia  College  Review,  V,  No.  1  (1972),  12-25. 

Van  Cott,  Theodore  N. 

"Wealth,  Income  and  the  Transfer  Problem."  Unpubl'shed  PhD 
dissertation  (economics).  University  of  Washington,  1969. 

"An  Abstract  of  Michael  Polanyi,  A  Keynesian  Monetarist:  Money 
in  the  Keynesian  Revolution."  With  P.C.  Roberts.  Paper  read  at 
the  Western  Economics  Association,  Vancouver,  British  Columbia, 
1971. 

"A  Note  on  the  Theory  of  Efficient  Transfers."  With  G.  Santoni. 
Kyklos,  XXV  (Dec,  1972),  829-34. 

Weaver,  David  C. 

"The  Transport  Expansion  Sequence  in  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas 
1670-1900:  A  Search  for  Spatial  Regularities."  Unpublished  PhD 
dissertation  (geography).  University  of  Florida,  1972. 

"Industrial  Location  in  the  Seventeenth  Century:  An  English  Ex- 
ample." Virginia  Geographer,  VI,  No.  2  (1971),  3-7. 

"A  Country  Called  Black:  Some  Observations  on  the  Resilience 
of  Coketown."  West  Georgia  College  Review,  V,  No.  1  (1972),  3-7. 

Welch,  Robert  M. 

"Mitochondrial  Swelling  and  Abnormal  Calcium  Uptake  in  Liver 
and  Kidney  of  the  Homozygous  Grey-Lethal  Mouse."  With  M.M. 
Cruce  and  J.M.  Maddox.  Genetics,  LXXI  (1972),  s  13.  (Abstract) 


74 


Published  by 
WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


Ward  B.  Pafford,  President 
John  M.  Martin,  Academic  Dean 


Learning  Resources  Committee 
Chairman,  Chester  Gibson 

Mary  Baxter  Lynn  Holmes 

Thomas  A.  Bryson  Al  Irby 

Tom  Carrere  Kathy  Martin 

Lafaye  Cobb  Roald  Y.  Mykkeltvedt 

Don  L.  Crawford  T.D.  Seiber 

Mary  Creamer  Vernon  Zander 

Gerald  M.  Garmon,  Editor 
William  L.  Lockhart,  Associate  Editor 


The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  provide  encouragement  for 
faculty  research  and  to  make  available  results  of  such  activity.  The 
Review,  published  annually,  accepts  original  scholarly  work  and  crea- 
tive writing.  West  Georgia  College  assumes  no  responsibility  for  con- 
tributors' views.  The  style  guide  is  Kate  L.  Turabian.  A  Manual  for 
Writers.  Although  the  Review  is  primarily  a  medium  for  the  facutly  of 
West  Georgia  College,  other  sources  are  invited. 

An  annual  bibliography  includes  doctoral  dissertations,  major  re- 
citals and  major  art  exhibits.  Theses  and  articles  in  progress  or  accepted 
are  not  listed.  A  faculty  member's  initial  listing  is  comprehensive  and 
appears  in  the  issue  of  the  year  of  his  employment.  The  abstracts  of  all 
master's  theses  and  educational  specialist's  projects  written  at  West 
Georgia  College  are  included  as  they  are  awarded. 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


REVIEW 


Volume  VII  May,  1974 

TABLE 

of 

CONTENTS 

Mice,  Men  and  Gods Lynn  Holmes        3 

The  Proletarian  Revolution  and  the  International  Energy 

Crisis:  A  Third  World  View Daniel  A.  Offiong      11 

On  The  Problem  of  Human  Problems James  B.  Klee      20 

» 

Black  Poverty:  A  Difference  in  Degree 

in  the  South James  R  O'Malley      25 

Solar  Eclipses B.E.  Powell     37 

Management  and  the  Nature  of  Man /.  Lincoln  DeVillier 

and  Mary  Anne  G.  DeVillier      43 

Abstracts  of  Master's  Theses  and  Specialist  in 

Education  Projects 51 

Annual  Bibliography  of  West  Georgia  College 

Faculty  as  of  January  1,  1973 76 


Copyright  ©     1974,  West  Georgia  College 

Printed  in  U.S.A. 

Thomasson  Printing  Co.,  Carrollton,  Georgia  30117 

1 


MICE,  MEN  AND  GODS 

by  Y.  LYNN  HOLMES* 


When  one  now  thinks  of  our  modern  pest  control  programs,  the 
frightened  housewife  and  the  experimental  laboratory,  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  of  a  time  when  the  small  furry  rodent,  which  we  call 
a  mouse,  could  ever  have  been  in  a  place  of  importance.  However,  if 
one  reads  carefully  through  the  literature  of  ancient  Israel,  Anatolia, 
Mesopotamia,  Egypt  and  Greece,  it  becomes  quite  evident  that  the 
little  mouse  was  a  rather  important  and  frequent  participant  in  the 
religious  lore  of  the  ancient  world. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  these  "mice"  tales  appears  in  I  Samuel  6 
where  there  is  the  occurrence  of  the  five  golden  mice.  You  will  of  course 
remember  that  the  Israelites  carried  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  into  battle 
against  the  Philistines  with  the  full  hope  that  this  holy  object  would  bring 
them  better  military  fortune  than  they  had  had  before.  Such  hope  was 
in  vain,  because  the  Philistines  not  only  defeated  the  Hebrews,  but  also 
captured  the  sacred  Ark  and  carried  it  to  the  temple  of  their  god  Dagon. 
Soon,  however,  they  began  to  have  trouble  with  Dagon  falling,  and  their 
bodies  became  afflicted  with  a  plague  of  hemorrhoids.  With  this  prob- 
lem occurring,  the  Ark  was  passed  from  one  Philistine  city  to  another 
with  the  plague  following  it  to  every  place.  The  decision  was  then  made 
to  send  the  Ark  back  to  the  Hebrews,  and  the  text  states  that  five  golden 
hemorrhoids  and  five  golden  mice  were  made  to  accompany  the  ox- 
drawn  cart  carrying  the  sacred  Hebrew  shrine. 

There  are  numerous  questions  which  should  be  asked  in  connec- 
tion with  this  story,  and  not  the  least  of  these  is  why  five  golden  mice 
should  appear.  In  the  story  the  explanation  is  made  that  the  golden 
mice  and  hemorrhoids  are  to  be  a  guilt  or  trespass  offering  to  the  God 
of  Israel.  1  It  is  not  so  difficult  to  understand  why  the  golden  hemor- 
rhoids appear,  because  the  ancient  concept  of  sympathetic  magic  would 
be  interpreted  as  having  the  golden  hemorrhoids  to  portray  the  real 
hemorrhoids  which  would  be  leaving  from  the  afflicted  people  as  the 
Ark  and  the  golden  hemorrhoids  leave  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  This 
still  does  not  answer  the  question  about  the  mice,  because  no  relation- 
ship has  been  seen  between  them  and  the  hemorrhoids  and  the  troubles 
of  the  Philistines. 

To  answer  this  question,  numerous  suggestions  have  been  made. 
H.P.  Smith  regards  the  references  to  the  mice  as  a  reaction  and  con- 
sequently removes  them  whenever  they  appear.  A  more  frequent 
answer,  which  has  been  supported  by  Biblical  scholars,  such  as  Julius 
Wellhausen,  and  medical  doctors  alike,  is  that  the  pestilence  on  the 
Philistines  was  the  bubonic  plague  and  that  the  hemorrhoids  were 

•Associate  Professor  of  History,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  I  Samuel  6:4  (trespass  offering) 


plague  buboes.  2  This  theory  received  particular  attention  from  W.J. 
Simpson  in  his  A  Treatise  on  Plague  and  from  Topley  and  Wilson's 
Principles  of  Bacteriology  and  Immunity.  A  more  recent  and  different 
picture  has  been  offered  by  J.F.D.  Shrewsbury  of  the  Department  of 
Bacteriology  at  the  University  of  Birmingham.  In  his  article  called  "The 
Plauge  of  the  Philistines,"  he  points  out  that  the  balck  mouse  which 
carried  the  plagues  of  the  Middle  Ages  used  human  dwellings  for  its 
breeding  and  living  and  thus  came  into  close  enough  contact  to  pass 
the  bubonic  plague  on  to  humans.  The  mouse  of  the  ancient  world, 
however,  was  a  brown  mouse  which  inhabited  the  fields  and  conse- 
quently could  not  have  come  into  close  enough  contact  to  give  the 
plague  to  humans.  He  therefore  concluded  that  there  was  no  connec- 
tion between  the  hemorrhoids  and  the  mice.^ 

Agreeing  with  Shrewsbury,  the  Septuagint  gives  what  is  probably 
the  best  explanation  to  this  perplexing  problem.  In  the  story  which  is 
told  there,  mice  appear  more  frequently  than  in  the  Hebrew  text.  This 
same  thing  is  also  true  of  the  Vulgate.  For  example,  in  I  Samuel  5:6  the 
Greek  text  has  an  addition  to  the  Hebrew  text  and  reads  as  follows: 
"And  in  the  villages  and  fields  in  the  midst  of  that  country,  there  came 
forth  a  multitude  of  mice."  Another  addition  occurs  in  I  Samuel  6:1  and 
states  "their  land  swarmed  with  mice."  An  addition  also  appears  in  I 
states  "their  land  swarmed  with  mice."  An  addition  also  appears  in 
I  Samuel  6:5  where  it  relates  that  the  objects  were  made  in  the  "likeness 
of  the  mice  that  have  destroyed  the  land."  It  should  also  be  noted  that 
the  Hebrew  text  in  this  particular  verse  also  includes  the  destruction  of 
the  land  as  a  part  of  the  Philistine  plague.  Thus  according  to  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate,  there  were  two  plagues,  one 
which  afflicted  the  body  with  hemorrhoids  and  the  other  which  brought 
mice  to  ravage  the  land. 

This  same  type  of  explanation  is  given  by  Josepheus.  In  commenting 
on  this  passage,  he  states  that  "as  to  the  fruits  of  their  country,  a  great 
multitude  of  mice  arose  out  of  the  earth  and  hurt  them  and  spared 
neither  the  plants  nor  the  fruits."'*  Later  he  states  that  they  made  five 
golden  mice  "like  to  those  that  devoured  and  destroyed  their  country."^ 

It  must  also  be  mentioned  that  this  is  not  the  only  time  that  mice 
appear  in  Hebraic  literature.  One  passage  occurs  in  Leviticus  11:29 
the  mouse  is  mentioned  along  with  other  burrowing  animals  as  being 


2  Interpreter's  Bible,  II,  905. 

3  J.F.D.  Shrewsbury,  "The  Plague  of  the  Philistines",  Journal  of  Hygiene, 
XLVII  (1949),  p.  245. 

^  Josepheus  VI,  i,  171.  Such  a  plague  as  this  was  not  uncommon  in  the  ancient 
world.  Aelian  records  that  an  invasion  of  fieldmice  drive  certain  people  in  Italy 
from  their  native  country  and  made  them  exiles,  as  a  drought  or  frost  or  some 
other  unseasonable  event  might  have  done  by  shearing  away  ears  of  com  and 
cutting  through  the  roots  (See  Aelian,  On  Animals,  XVII,  41). 
5  Josepheus  VI,  2,  172. 

4 


unclean.  A  more  interesting  passage  appears  in  Isaiah  66:17,  but  unfor- 
tunately the  reference  is  brief  and  unclear.  Here  the  mouse  is  eaten  by 
a  group  in  the  garden  who  are  also  eating  swine's  flesh  and  detestable 
things.  This  seems  to  be  telling  about  the  ritualistic  practices  of  an 
apostate  group,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  mouse  was  regarded  as 
sacred  by  them  and  that  it  was  eaten  sacramentally.  It  is  also  interesting 
that  there  is  a  proper  name  which  comes  from  the  Hebrew  word  for 
mouse.  This  name  appears  in  Genesis  36:  38  and  39  and  I  Chronicles 
1:49  as  a  name  of  an  Edomite  king  and  in  II  Kings  22:12  and  14; 
Jeremiah  26:22  and  36:12  as  a  Hebrew  name. 

From  Hebrew  literature  it  thus  appears  that  the  mouse  was  a  vehicle 
used  by  the  God  of  Israel  to  punish  the  Philistines  and  that  it  became 
a  symbol  of  relief  for  the  Philistines  who  made  a  golden  image  of  this 
little  creature.  Additionally,  the  mouse  was  considered  most  unsacred 
by  some  elements  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  but  seemingly  sacred  by 
others.  This  small  furry  rodent  was  also  important  enough  that  personal 
names  became  based  on  its  name.  Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  even  though 
the  mouse  played  a  small  part  in  Hebrew  religious  literature,  it  was  an 
important  part. 

Because  of  the  close  connections  between  ancient  Israel  and  an- 
cient Egypt,  one  should  expect  to  find  some  similar  "mice"  tales  in  the 
religious  literature  of  Egypt  and  such  is  indeed  the  case.  One  interest- 
ing story  of  Egyptian  mice  appears  in  the  second  book  of  the  Histories 
of  Herodotus.  Here  Herodotus  relates  the  account  of  Senacharib,  the 
king  of  Assyria,  brought  a  great  army  to  fight  against  the  Egyptians. 
Against  such  a  strong  army  the  Egyptian  soldiers  refused  to  fight,  so 
the  Egyptian  king,  Sethos,  went  into  the  temple  of  the  god  Ptah,  and 
cried  to  the  god  about  the  peril  which  threatened  them.  During  the 
prayer  the  king  went  to  sleep  and  the  god  spoke  to  him  in  a  dream  tell- 
ing him  that  he  should  not  worry  because  the  god  "will  send  you  cham- 
pions." The  king  trusted  the  vision  and  with  his  few  remaining  troops 
he  encamped  on  the  borders  of  Egypt  at  Pelusium.  As  the  Assyrians 
camped  opposite  them  that  night,  a  multitude  of  fieldmice  swarmed 
over  the  Assyrian  camp  and  devoured  their  quivers,  their  bows  and 
the  handles  of  their  shields  to  such  an  extent  that  they  fled  the  next 
day  unarmed.  After  this  miraculous  event,  there  was  placed  in  the 
temple  of  Ptah  a  stone  statue  of  the  Egyptian  king  with  a  mouse  in  his 
hand,  and  an  inscription  stating:  "Look  on  me,  and  fear  the  gods."^ 

Another  interesting  "mouse"  story  coming  from  Egypt  is  connected 
with  the  saga  of  Set  and  Osiris.  In  this  story  Set  managed  to  kill  Osiris 
and  then  scattered  his  body  all  over  the  world.  Osiris  had  a  son  named 
Horus,  and  Set  wished  to  kill  Horus  also,  lest  he  should  become  his 
enemy  and  the  claimant  of  the  throne  of  Osiris.  As  he  attempted  to  do 
so,  wise  Thoth  came  out  of  heaven  and  gave  warning  unto  Isis,  the 
mother  of  Horus,  and  she  fled  with  her  child  into  the  night.  She  took 
refuge  in  Buto,  where  she  gave  Horus  into  the  keeping  of  Uazit,  the 


8  Herodotus  II,  141. 


virgin  goddess  of  the  city.  Whenever  Set  came  near,  Uazit  took  the  form 
of  a  mouse  to  escape  him,  and  thus  according  to  Egyptian  tradition, 
the  mouse  became  sacred  to  the  goddess  Uazit.'' 

The  importance  of  the  mouse  in  Egypt  is  further  shown  by  the  fact 
that  Strabo  includes  it  in  a  Hst  of  the  animals  which  were  worshipped 
in  Egypt.  According  to  this  list,  the  mouse  was  worshipped  by  the  Ath- 
ribitae  or  dwellers  in  Crocodilipolis.^ 

From  this  discussion  it  can  be  seen  that  Egyptian  religious  tradi- 
tions frequently  deal  with  mice.  One  story  shows  how  mice  were  used 
by  a  god  to  punish  an  enemy  by  destroying  his  weapons,  just  as  the 
Hebrew  god  sent  the  mice  to  punish  the  Philistines  by  ravaging  their 
land.  Because  of  this  the  lowly  mouse  became  exalted  and  was  thought 
of  as  a  holy  object. 

Neither  is  the  mouse  missing  in  Akkadian  religious  literature.  It 
appears  in  the  literature  as  the  Sumerian  ideogram  PESv  which  is 
the  equivalent  of  Akkadian  hu-um-si-ru.  Although  this  little  creature 
is  not  included  in  any  important  mythological  stories  of  ancient  Meso- 
potamia, it  does  appear  numerous  times  in  the  literature  as  a  figure  of 
speech  in  the  form  of  a  simile  or  metaphor.  It  also  appears  as  a  divine 
name  8  Hu-mu-si-ru  in  reference  to  the  god  8  MAR.TU.  There  are 
likewise  many  masculine  and  feminine  personal  names  which  are  form- 
ed from  this  word,  just  as  is  true  in  Hebrew  literature.^  These  things 


'  Donald  A.  Mackenzie,  Egyptian  Myth  and  Legend,  London:  The  Gresham 
Publishing  Co.,  p.  16. 
^  Strabo  XVII,  40.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  artist  forms  of  the  mouse  also 
appear  in  numerous  tombs  in  Egypt.  Andrew  Lang  in  his  book  Custom  and  Myth 
points  out  on  page  113  that  there  is  a  green  mouse  containing  the  throne-name 
of  Thotmes  III  on  its  base,  and  thus  it  would  appear  that  the  mouse  was  used 
as  a  substitute  for  the  sacred  scarab.  The  writer  observed  while  going  through 
the  Egyptian  section  of  the  British  Museum  a  painted  steatite  mouse  with 
wooden  movable  lower  jaw  and  tail,  a  glazed  composition  figure  of  a  mouse, 
a  bronze  mouse  sacred  to  Horus,  and  a  bronze  mouse  with  two  winged  disk 
and  a  flying  vulture  on  its  back.  There  are  probably  numerous  other  examples 
in  the  British  Museum  and  other  museums  of  this  important  little  creature. 
Also  there  is  a  picture  from  Egypt  in  a  book  by  Andre  Lhate,  La  Peinture 
Egyptienne  pi.  167,  which  depicts  a  mouse  standing  behind  a  lady  who  is  in 
front  of  the  god  Osiris. 
^  I.J.  Gelb,  et  al  (eds.)  CAD:  The  Assyrian  Dictionary  of  the  Oriental  Institute 
of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago:  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1956ff, 
vol.  VI,  p.  236.  See  also  Wolfram  von  Soden,  Akkadisches  Handworterbuch. 
Weisbaden:  Otto  Harrassowitz,  1962,  Lieferung  4,  p.  355.  It  should  also  be  men- 
tioned that  artistic  representations  of  the  mouse  came  from  the  excavations 
of  ancient  Mesopotamian  cultures.  E.D.  Van  Buren  points  out  in  his  The  Fauna 
of  Ancient  Mesopotamia  as  Represented  in  Art  that  among  amulets  or  pendants 
from  Kish  there  was  a  little  mouse  of  white  stone  pierced  with  a  hole  for  suspen- 
sion. Also  on  the  floor  of  the  temple  at  Nozi  were  scattered  pendants  and  beads 
and  some  of  these  were  in  the  shape  of  mice.  See  page  26.  The  personal  names 
include  Hu-un-si-ri,  Ha-am-zi-ru-um,  Ha-ba-zi-ri,  Ha-ba-si-ru,  Hu-ma-zi-rum, 
Hu-mu-si-ru-um,  Ha-ma-zi-ru-um,  Ha-ba-si-ru,  and  Ha-ba-sir-tum. 

6 


indicate  that  the  mouse  was  certainly  no  stranger  to  the  Hterature  and 
religion  of  ancient  Mesopotamia. 

In  the  Hittite  literature  of  Anatolia,  the  writer  has  been  able  to  find 
only  one  passage  in  which  the  mouse  appears.  However,  in  this  text, 
which  Albrecht  Goetze  calls  the  "Purification  Ritual  Engaging  the 
Help  of  Protective  Demons,"  the  furry  rodent  plays  a  most  important 
part.^°  This  ritual  consists  of  four  parts  with  the  first  three  running 
mainly  parallel  with  one  another  except  that  they  are  addressed  to  dif- 
ferent demons.  The  second  part  is  relevant  here,  because  a  mouse 
appears  in  the  ritual  which  is  addressed  to  the  demon  Alauwaimis.  The 
text  reads  as  follows:  "She  wraps  up  a  small  piece  of  tin  in  the  bow- 
string and  attaches  it  to  the  sacrificers'  right  hands  (and)  feet.  She 
takes  it  off  them  (again)  and  attaches  it  to  a  mouse  (with  the  words): 
'I  have  taken  the  evil  off  you  and  attached  it  to  a  mouse.  Let  this  mouse 
carry  it  on  a  long  journey  to  the  high  mountains,  hills  and  valleys.'  I 
shall  give  you  a  goat  to  eat!"^^  Later  in  this  same  text  it  states,  "An- 
other pure  mouse  they  bring  and  he  sends  it  before  Tarpattassis."^^ 

Just  as  the  five  golden  mice  were  to  carry  off  the  evil  plague  which 
had  befallen  the  Philistines,  so  here  the  Hittite  writer  conceives  of  the 
mouse  as  carrying  off  the  evil  of  the  ones  participating  in  the  ritual. 
Thus  the  mouse  serves  somewhat  in  the  capacity  as  a  scapegoat,  as  well 
as  appearing  to  be  a  potential  sacrifice  to  the  god  Tarpattassis. 

Although  thoughts  of  any  connection  between  Greek  mythology 
and  Hebrew  literature  are  generally  considered  anathanma,  one  finds 
the  closest  parallels  to  the  biblical  "mice"  tales  in  Greek  myths.  One 
of  these  myths  is  told  by  Aelian  as  he  tries  to  explain  the  origin  of  Apollo 
Smintheus.  He  points  out  that  those  who  lived  in  Hamaxitus  in  the  Troad 
worshipped  Apollo  and  gave  him  the  name  Smintheus,  the  ancient 
Cretan  word  for  mouse,  because  the  mouse  was  sacred  to  them.^^ 
The  reason  behind  this  connection  goes  back  to  a  tale  which  reports 


^°  James  B.  Pritchard,  Ancient  Near  Eastern  Texts  Relating  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Princeton:  Princeton  University  Press,  1955,  p.  348.  Here  Goetze  gives  a 
translation  of  the  second  and  fourth  parts  of  this  ritual. 

^^  Keilschifturkunden  avs  Boghazko,  Berlin:  1921ff,  XXVII  67  obv.  ii  34-42. 
^  Ibid.,  XXVII  67  rev.  iii  44-45. 

^^  Strabo  says  that  the  word  means  mouse  and  thus  Apollo  Smintheus  would  be 
the  "mouse  god".  (Strabo  XIII,  64)  Additional  study  by  Mary  H.  Swindler  in 
Cretan  Elements  in  the  Cults  and  Ritual  of  Apollo  has  shown  that  this  is  indeed 
the  ancient  Cretan  word  for  mouse.  See  page  29.  This  of  course  agrees  with  the 
words  of  Strabo  that  the  Teucrians,  about  which  the  story  is  told,  were  originally 
from  Crete.  Since  the  cult  of  Apollo  Smintheus  was  supposed  to  have  come  out 
of  Crete,  it  is  interesting  that  Apollodoros  (Bibliotheca  III,  3f)  tells  the  story  that 
the  son  of  Minos,  the  ancient  king  of  Crete,  and  Posiphae,  Glaucus,  while  still 
a  child,  was  drowned  by  falling  into  a  jar  of  honey  as  he  was  chasing  a  mouse. 
Willetts  thinks  that  Glaucus  may  have  laid  Apollo  Smintheus  under  a  special 
obligation  by  dying  while  pursuing  a  mouse.  (See  R.F.  Willetts,  Cretan  Cults 
and  Festivals,  p.  66.) 

7 


that  mice  came  in  tens  of  thousands  and  cut  off  before  they  ripened  the 
crops  of  the  Aeolians  and  Trojans,  rendering  the  harvest  barren  for  the 
sowers.  Accordingly  the  god  at  Delphi  said  when  they  enquired  of  him, 
that  they  must  sacrifice  to  Apollo  Smintheus;  they  obeyed  and  freed 
themselves  from  the  conspiracy  of  mice,  and  their  wheat  attained  the 
normal  harvest. ^^  This  story  is  of  course  very  similar  to  the  story  of  the 
Philistine  mice  who  ravaged  their  land,  but  it  is  also  the  acts  of  devotion 
to  the  deity  who  sent  the  mice  and  the  exalting  of  the  mouse  itself  that 
brings  relief  from  the  trouble. 

Aelian  and  Strabo  both  give  another  version  about  the  origin  of 
Apollo  Smintheus,  and  they  connect  it  with  the  Teucrian  movement 
from  the  island  of  Crete  to  Asia  Minor.  ^^  According  to  this  story,  when 
the  Teucrians  arrived  in  Asia  Minor  they  asked  Apollo  to  tell  them  of 
some  place  where  it  would  be  advantageous  to  found  a  city.  The  oracle 
then  instructed  them  to  "stay  on  the  spot  where  the  earth-born  should 
attack  them."^^  So  they  came  to  a  place  called  Hamaxitus  and  pitched 
their  camp,  but  a  countless  swarm  of  field  mice  came  into  their  camp 
and  gnawed  through  their  shield-straps  and  ate  through  their  bow- 
strings. They  guessed  that  these  were  the  earth-born  referred  to  and 
besides,  having  no  means  of  getting  weapons  of  defense  they  settled 
in  this  spot  and  built  a  temple  to  Apollo  Smintheus.  Of  course  this 
story  bears  very  close  similarity  to  the  earlier  story  told  about  the 
mice  attacking  the  army  of  Senacharib. 

Concerning  the  temple  of  Apollo  Smintheus  at  Hamaxitus,  several 
very  interesting  things  have  been  recorded  by  the  ancient  Greek  writers. 
Strabo  states  that  mice  swarmed  around  this  temple  and  that  they  were 
regarded  as  sacred.  He  also  noted  that  the  image  of  Apollo  is  depicted 
with  its  foot  upon  a  mouse.  ^^  Aelian  adds  that  in  the  temple  of  Smin- 
theus tame  mice  were  kept  and  fed  at  public  expense.  Furthermore  he 


14  Aelian,  On  Animals,  XII,  5. 

'5  Strabo  XIII,  48  and  Aelian,  On  Animals,  XII,  5.  From  what  archaeologists 
can  discover,  it  appears  that  the  mythological  story  of  the  movement  of  the 
Teucrians  is  connected  with  a  very  large  movement  of  peoples  about  1200 
B.C.  which  brought  on  the  destruction  of  the  Hittite  Empire,  the  city  of  Ugarit, 
numerous  other  cities  on  the  coast  of  Cyprus,  Syria  and  Palestine  and  even  came 
to  the  very  borders  of  Egypt  to  fight  a  very  big  battle  with  Ramses  III.  This 
invasion  of  the  "Sea  Peoples"  was  repulsed  by  Egypt,  and  the  invaders  began  to 
settle  to  the  north  of  Egypt.  Some  settled  in  the  Troad  as  the  Teucrian  myths 
portray  while  others  settled  in  Palestine  and  later  were  called  Philistines.  It  is 
also  interesting  that  the  Biblican  tradition  says  that  these  Philistines  came  from 
Caphtor,  usually  associated  with  the  island  of  Crete.  Thus  the  Teucrians  and 
Philistines  were  a  part  of  the  same  movement  of  peoples  and  originated  from 
the  same  land,  and  therefore  thus  one  would  expect  that  there  should  be  some 
similarities  between  their  traditions. 
16  Strabo  XIII,  48. 
I''  Strabo  XIII,  48. 

8 


records  that  the  mice  had  a  nest  beneath  the  altar  and  that  by  the  tripod 
of  Apollo  there  stood  a  mouse.  ^^ 

Neither  should  one  think  that  Apollo  Smintheus  was  an  unimportant 
god,  because  there  is  available  evidence  concerning  numerous  cult 
centers  for  this  mouse  deity.  The  earliest  testimony  is  found  in  the  Iliad 
where  Apollo  Smintheus  is  invoked  by  a  priest  at  the  cult  centers  of 
Chryse,  Killa  and  Tendos.^^  Of  course  the  chief  center  of  worship  was 
at  Chryse  near  Hamaxitos.  Apollo  Smintheus  was  also  honored  in  com- 
munities which  had  colonies  in  the  Troad,  as  for  example,  in  Lesbian 
Arisba,  and  Methymna,  and  at  Magnesia.  Likewise  on  the  island  of  Ceos 
there  seems  to  have  been  an  important  cult  center  of  Apollo  Smintheus. 
No  record  of  his  cult  is  preserved  on  the  mainland  except  at  Athens 
and  Thespice.20 

It  is  also  interesting  that  the  name  of  Smintheus  is  used  as  a  geo- 
graphical place  name.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Hamaxitus  itself,  there 
are  two  places  called  Sminthia;  and  there  are  others  in  the  neighboring 
territory  of  Larisa.  According  to  Strabo,  there  is  a  place  called  Sminthis 
in  the  territory  of  Parium,  as  also  in  Rhodes  and  in  Lindus  and  in  many 
other  places.  21 

From  this  material  on  "Apollo  the  Mouse-God"  it  can  clearly  be 
seen  that  this  was  a  very  important  god  among  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor 
and  the  islands  of  the  Aegean  Sea.  Because  of  his  importance,  the  mouse 
likewise  enjoyed  a  place  of  fame  among  these  people  and  occupied  a 
a  position  of  sacredness  in  the  temple.  The  literature  points  out  that  the 
mouse  was  used  as  a  tool  of  the  deity  and  consequently  became  a  symbol 
of  destruction  and  at  the  same  time  a  symbol  of  salvation  or  relief.  The 
mouse  was  also  important  enough  in  Greece  that  towns  were  named 
after  it. 

As  one  looks  back  over  all  of  these  literary  traditions,  several  in- 
teresting facts  emerge.  For  one  thing,  the  mouse  becomes  associated 
with  religion  among  all  the  main  cultures  of  the  ancient  world,  and  in 
most  cases  the  function  of  the  mouse  was  very  similar.  Except  among 
the  people  of  Mesopotamia,  the  mouse  was  a  symbol  of  punishment 
and  relief  or  salvation.  Another  point  is  that  the  mouse  took  a  position 
of  honor  in  the  religious  literature,  except  in  one  occasion  in  the  Old 


18  Aelian,  On  Animals.  XII,  5.  In  Paoli's  Delia  Religione  de'  Gentili  there  is 
a  bas-relief  with  a  mouse  on  the  tripod  of  Apollo  (page  9).  Coins  also  used  the 
design  of  the  mouse  on  them.  The  Argives,  according  to  Pollux,  stamped  the 
mouse  on  their  coins  {Onomastica,  IX,  6,  segm.  84).  As  there  was  a  temple  of 
Apollo  Smintheus  in  Tenedos,  one  naturally  hears  of  a  mouse  on  the  coins  of 
the  island.  The  people  of  Metapontum  stamped  their  money  with  a  mouse  gnaw- 
ing an  ear  of  corn,  while  the  people  of  Cumae  employed  the  form  of  the  mouse 
dormant.  See  Andrew  Lang,  Custom  and  Myth,  p.  HI. 

19  Iliad  I,  39. 

20  Mary  Hamilton  Swindler,  Cretan  Elements  in  the  Cults  and  Ritual  of  Apollo. 
Bryn  Mawr:  Bryn  Mawr  College,  1913,  p.  32. 

21  Strabo  XIII,  48. 

9 


Testament,  and  is  usually  connected  with  one  specific  god  and  his 
temple.  Also  in  the  Hebrew,  Egyptian  and  Greek  traditions,  the  mouse 
is  a  tool  which  is  used  by  a  deity  to  convey  some  message  to  a  group  of 
people.  Another  fact  is  that  the  bodily  form  of  the  mouse  is  usually 
associated  with  an  important  religious  shrine.  Finally,  the  mouse  was 
important  enough  that  gods,  men  and  towns  were  frequently  named 
after  it. 

Having  seen  the  vast  similarity  between  the  "mice"  tales  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrews,  Egyptians,  Akkadians,  Hittites  and  Greeks,  the  writer 
has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  this  similarity  is  no  accident,  but  rather 
it  shows  that  these  tales  were  a  part  of  the  common  literary  tradition  of 
the  ancient  Mediterranean  world  which  were  used  in  similar  manner 
by  all  the  participants  in  that  world. 


10 


THE  PROLETARIAN  REVOLUTION  AND 

THE  INTERNATIONAL  ENERGY  CRISIS: 

A  THIRD  WORLD  VIEW 

by  DANIEL  A.  OFFIONG* 

Briefly,  this  essay  aims  to  show  how  Lenin  and  Kwame  Nkrumah 
have  explained  why  the  Marxian  proletarian  revolution  has  not  ma- 
terialized, and  to  examine  the  feasibility  of  such  a  revolution  in  the 
light  of  the  current  international  energy  crisis,  the  pinch  of  which  has 
already  been  greatly  felt  by  the  capitalist  nations.  According  to  Marx, 
the  workers'  own  labor  power  was  to  decline  in  value  as  the  workers' 
skills  became  replaced  by  machines.  Workers  were  to  become  "increas- 
ingly interchangeable  and  expendable"  as  "capitalists  continued  to 
revolutionize  productive  forces." ^  The  result  was  to  be  a  rising  un- 
employment forcing  wages  below  subsistence  levels  until  the  point  of 
revolutionary  explosion  was  reached.  But  it  became  increasingly  clear 
that  instead  of  the  workers  of  Western  Europe  becoming  poorer,  they 
were  becoming  richer.  This  prompted  Lenin  to  try  to  find  out  why  this 
was  so. 

The  answer  lay  in  imperialism.  Lenin  argued  that  the  founding  of 
the  British  Empire,  which  enabled  it  to  exploit  the  natural  resources  of 
the  colonized  peoples,  kept  the  British  workers  away  from  abject  penury 
and  thus  prevented  a  proletarian  revolution.  As  Mazrui  has  pointed  out, 
Benjamin  Disraeli's  concept  of  the  "two  nations"  of  Britain  was,  in  a 
sense,  Marxian. ^  The  British  people  have  polarized  into  two  potentially 
antagonistic  "nations  within  the  nation,"  that  is,  the  poor  against  the 
rich.  Lenin  then  wanted  to  know  what  prevented  an  open  conflict.  His 
answer  was  found  in  British  imperial  expansion.  In  support  of  his  thesis, 
Lenin  quoted  Cecil  Rhodes  who  in  1895  had  said: 

...  In  order  to  save  the  40,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  United 
Kingdom  from  a  bloody  civil  war,  we  colonial  statesmen  must 
acquire  new  lands  to  settle  the  surplus  population,  to  provide 
new  markets  for  the  goods  produced  in  the  factories  and  mines. 
The  Empire,  as  I  have  always  said,  is  a  bread  and  butter  ques- 

*Assistant  Professor  of  Sociology,  West  Georgia  College. 

I  am  thankful  to  Henry  DuFour  for  reading  an  eadier  draft  of  this  essay  and 

for  his  useful  comments. 


^  C.H.  Anderson,  Toward  a  New  Sociology:  A  Critical  View  (Homewood: 
The  Dorsey  Press,  1971),  p.  70. 

2  Ali  A.  Mazrui,  "Borrowed  Theory  and  Original  Practice  in  African  Polidcs," 
in  Herbert  J.  Spiro  (ed.).  Patterns  of  African  Development:  Five  Comparisons 
(Englewood  Cliff,  N.J.:  Prentice-Hall,  1966),  p.  111. 

11 


1 


tion.  If  you  want  to  avoid  war,  you  must  become  imperialists. ^ 
The  implication  of  this  was  that  the  proletarian  revolution  would 
come  once  the  British  empire  disintegrated.  The  question  in  the  1960's 
was  whether  or  not  the  revolution  was  imminent  since  the  British  Em- 
pire was  disintegrating— in  the  sense  that  the  exploited  colonies  were 
becoming  independent.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Nkrumah  suggested 
an  explanation  as  to  why  the  capitalist  nations  would  not  collapse 
through  a  proletarian  revolution.  Nkrumah  found  his  explanation  in 
neo-colonialism— the  exploitation  of  one  country  by  another  country 
without  actually  ruling  it,  or  in  the  words  of  Green  and  Seidman,  a 
situation  stemming  from  "false  decolonization,"  that  is,  "the  preserva- 
tion of  the  basic  relationship  of  Western  dominance"  and  the  former 
colonies'  "dependence  by  other  means,  after  the  transfer  of  formal 
political  power."'*  It  is  neo-colonialism  that  stands  in  the  way  of  the 
proletarian  revolution  because  it  still  enables  the  metropolitan  countries 
to  exploit  these  so-called  independent  countries  just  as  formal  colonial 
imperialism  did.  In  the  words  of  Nkrumah: 

Marx  had  argued  that  the  development  of  capitalism  would 
produce  a  crisis  within  each  individual  capitalist  State.  The  gap 
between  the  'haves'  and  the  'have  nots'  would  widen  to  a  point 
where  a  conflict  was  inevitable  and  that  it  would  be  the  capi- 
talists who  would  be  defeated.  The  basis  of  his  argument  is  not 
invalidated  by  the  fact  that  the  conflict,  which  he  had  predicted 
as  a  national  one,  did  not  take  place  on  a  national  scale  but  has 
been  transferred  instead  to  the  world  stage.  World  capitalism  has 
postponed  its  crisis  but  only  at  the  cost  of  transforming  it  into 
an  international  crisis.  The  danger  is  now  not  civil  war  within 
individual  States  provoked  by  intolerable  conditions  within  those 
States,  but  international  war  provoked  ultimately  by  the  misery 
of  the  majority  of  mankind  who  daily  grow  poorer  and  poorer. 
When  Africa  becomes  economically  free  and  politically  united, 
the  metropolis  will  come  face  to  face  with  their  own  working 
class  in  their  own  countries,  and  a  new  struggle  will  arise  with- 
in which  the  liquidation  and  collapse  of  imperialism  will 
be  complete.^ 

According  to  Nkrumah,  therefore,  capitalism  has  divided  the  world 
into  two  opposing  camps— the  haves  and  the  have  nots— and  as  the 
wealthy  nations  become  wealthier  the  poor  nations  become  poorer. 
Hence  the  proletarian  revolution  if  and  when  it  comes  is  going  to  be 
international  in  scope  with  the  wealthy  and  poor  nations  taking  opposite 


3  V.I.  Lenin,  Selected  Works  in  One  Volume  (New  York:  International  Pub- 
lishers, 1971),  p.  225. 

^  Reginald  H.  Green  and  Ann  Seidman,  Unity  or  Poverty:  The  Economics  of 
Pan  Africanism  (Baltimore:  Penguin  Books,  1968),  p.  14. 
5  Kwame  Nkrumah,  Neo-Colonialism:   The  Last  Stage  of  Imperialism  (New 
York:  International  Publishers,  1966),  pp.  255-256. 

12 


sides. 

Interestingly  enough,  what  we  have  seen  in  the  last  few  years  is 
the  "beginning  of  solidarity  among  the  largest  oil  producing  countries 
to  demand  better  prices  for  their  crude  oil.  Not  only  have  they  demanded 
better  prices,  but  they  have  also  become  partners  in  the  oil  enterprise 
and,  in  some  extreme  cases,  have  nationalized  foreign  oil  companies. 
However,  until  the  Arabs  decided  to  use  their  oil  as  a  political  weapon 
against  their  "enemies,"  it  could  not  be  conceived  that  a  few  poor 
nations,  as  an  NBC  news  commentator  recently  commented,  could  hold 
the  economies  of  the  wealthy  and  powerful  nations  for  ransom.  It  was 
very  surprising  that  the  Arab  nations  so  balkanized  by  domestic  paro- 
chialisms and  foreign  interests  could  demonstrate  such  a  show  of  unity 
and  solidarity,  even  though  the  U.S.  has  said  that  it  received  Arab  oil 
despite  the  embargo.  However,  the  amount  was  not  what  the  U.S.  nor- 
mally received.  The  Arab  nations  have  suddenly  emerged  as  an  impor- 
tant power  bloc,  forcing  the  economically,  politically,  and  militarily 
powerful  nations  to  panic.  So  aroused  by  the  new  solidarity  and  power 
bloc  of  the  Arab  oil  producing  nations  has  been  the  United  States  that 
she  spearheaded  the  moves  to  bring  about  a  disengagement  of  the  Arab 
and  Israeli  forces  in  order  to  encourage  the  Arabs  to  resume  oil  ship- 
ment to  the  U.S.  Oil  as  a  political  weapon  has  forced  the  U.S.  to  modify 
its  policies  towards  the  Arabs;  at  least  this  is  what  the  Arabs  themselves 
have  openly  stated.  The  U.S.  has  been  so  frightened  by  the  new  solidar- 
ity that  it  brought  the  oil  consuming  nations  together  to  form  a  united 
front  aginst  the  oil  producing  nations.  Although  the  thirteen  nations 
that  met  in  Washington  this  February  issued  a  disclaimer  that  theirs 
was  not  a  confrontation,  the  oil  producing  nations  have  not  believed 
them.  Some  Latin  American  oil  producing  countries  have  been  reported 
to  say  that  they  might  employ  their  oil  as  a  political  weapon  if  it  ever 
became  necessary.  Now  that  the  Arabs  have  proved  the  effectiveness 
of  oil  as  a  political  weapon,  other  nations  might  like  to  try  it  whenever 
they  consider  it  expedient.  The  question  is  then  can  it  be  said  that  the 
international  revolution  that  Nkrumah  predicted  several  years  ago  is 
about  to  materialize? 

Over  the  last  several  months  we  have  seen  a  growing  discord  among 
the  NATO  powers.  Suddenly,  the  pro-Israel  European  powers  have  been 
forced  to  leave  the  U.S.  alone;  apparently,  the  only  ally  that  the  U.S. 
has  as  far  as  the  Middle  East  issue  goes,  is  Portugal  that  depends  very 
heavily  on  the  U.S.  for  its  moral,  political  and  material  support  in  her 
colonial  wars  in  Africa.  We  have  seen  Japan's  Prime  Minister  rushed 
from  a  sick  bed  in  a  hospital  to  attend  an  urgent  Cabinet  meeting  in 
which  they  frantically  changed  their  foreign  policy  in  favor  of  the 
Arabs.  The  U.S.  while  working  diplomatically  both  openly  and  behind 
the  screen  to  get  the  oil  embargo  lifted,  has  stigmatized  it  as  "blackmail." 
It  is  difficult  to  define  what  constitutes  blackmail,  and  perhaps  the 
use  of  the  World  Bank,  foreign  aid  programs  and  political  influence  to 
reward  friendly  countries  could  be  interpreted  as  blackmail  by  those 
nations  adversely  affected.  While  the  impact  of  the  oil  embargo  in  the 

13 


U.S.  is  not  as  biting  as  it  has  been  in  Europe  and  Japan— largely  because 
the  U.S.  derives  most  of  its  oil  from  domestic  sources,  and  also  because 
its  main  suppliers  like  Canada,  Nigeria,  and  South  American  countries 
are  still  shipping  their  oil  as  usual— the  effect  nevertheless  has  been 
felt  enough.  But  is  the  revolution  predicted  by  Nkrumah  finally  here? 

There  is  little  question  that  the  poor  nations  would  be  the  losers  if 
such  were  the  case  and  particularly  if  open  conflict  were  to  break  out, 
and  assuming  that  Russia  and  China  would  not  side  with  the  poor  na- 
tions. But  destroying  an  enemy's  economic  power  could  also  be  seen 
as  part  of  the  strategy.  Looking  at  it  from  this  perspective,  one  could 
now  say  that  the  international  revolution  is  gathering  momentum.  But 
this  would  be  tantamount  to  reading  too  much  into  what  apparently 
is  not  of  such  a  scope.  One  has  to  be  very  careful  in  assessing  the  inter- 
national impact  of  the  energy  crisis  in  light  of  the  charges  that  the  oil 
companies  contrived  it  in  order  to  make  windfall  profits.  It  becomes 
extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  say  what  fraction  of  the  crisis 
is  due  to  the  oil  embargo  and  which  is  due  to  the  manipulations  of  the 
oil  companies  (if  the  accusations  are  true).  Another  difficulty  is  that  the 
U.S.  has  been  accused  of  blowing  the  crisis  out  of  proportions  in  order 
to  use  it  as  a  means  for  reasserting  its  leadership  role  of  Western  Europe. 
But  this  accusation  would  be  hardest  to  prove. 

However,  if  all  the  oil  producing  nations  were  to  stop  selling  their 
resources  to  the  capitalist  nations,  it  is  conceivable  that  both  Japan 
and  France  would  be  the  first  to  collapse  economically  because  of  their 
dependency  on  Arab  oil.  But  since  the  governments  could  point  to  the 
oil  producing  nations  as  the  villain,  it  seems  most  unlikely  that  one 
could  expect  a  proletarian  revolution  such  as  Marx  had  predicted.  Since 
it  is  unlikely  that  the  capitalist  nations  would  be  willing  to  wage  war 
against  the  poor  nations  for  fear  that  it  might  culminate  in  the  annihil- 
ation of  mankind,  should  Russia  join  in  on  the  side  of  the  poor  nations, 
the  kind  of  international  revolution  predicted  by  Nkrumah  could  not 
be  expected.  There  is  no  question  but  that  the  U.S.  would  feel  the 
energy  pinch  even  worse  than  now  and  thermostats  would  be  lowered 
even  more  than  they  are.  Thousands  more  would  be  out  of  work.  As 
President  Nixon  has  stated  a  number  of  times,  the  crisis  could  turn  out 
to  be  a  blessing  in  disguise;  a  substitute  source  of  energy  may  be  dis- 
covered. But  it  is  the  opinion  of  this  writer  that  worse  conditions 
might  be  experienced  before  such  a  discovery  could  be  made. 

Assuming  that  the  poor  nations  should  decide  to  make  it  an  all  out 
war  against  the  industrial  powers  by  cutting  off  all  of  their  natural  re- 
sources of  critical  importance,  there  could  result  a  critical  economic 
crisis,  which  could  seriously  affect  the  military  capacity  of  the  capi- 
talist nations.  But  such  a  war  could  boomerang  since  the  poor  countries 
that  produce  the  raw  materials  still  depend  quite  largely  on  western 
technology  for  their  industrialization.  Russia,  which  is  as  imperialistic 
and  capitalistic  as  any  western  country,  has  been  claiming  to  be  on  the 
side  of  the  oppressed  peoples.  Presumably  the  poor  nations  would  turn 
to  her  for  their  needs.  But  Russia  probably  would  not  have  enough  mar- 

14 


ket  for  these  raw  materials,  nor  could  it  provide  all  of  the  technology 
so  direly  needed  for  their  industrialization  process.  Many  poor  countries 
in  the  world  receive  large  volumes  of  food  from  the  western  world  but 
particularly  from  the  U.S.  Such  an  all  out  war  could  lead  to  the  starva- 
tion of  many  people.  In  the  final  analysis  it  could  turn  out  to  be  a  war 
in  which  no  one  could  expect  to  be  the  victor.  This  would  mean  an  al- 
most insurmountable  international  economic  anarchy  as  the  current 
international  monetary  system  could  collapse.  However,  since  most 
people  in  the  poor  nations  have  never  been  exposed  to  the  many  com- 
forts that  peoples  in  the  industrialized  nations  have  been  enjoying  for 
years  now,  the  former  would  not  be  denied  much  and  would  presumably 
absorb  the  resultant  sufferings  with  equanimity. 

But  the  confrontation  such  as  we  have  depicted  above  seems  remote. 
Let  us  examine  why  such  a  conclusion  would  be  made.  Joseph  Chamber- 
lain in  1898,  while  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  (1895-1903),  made  an 
impassioned  plea  for  imperialism.  He  said: 

...  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  a  necessity  as  well  as  a  duty  for  us  to 
uphold  the  dominion  and  empire  which  we  now  possess ...  I 
would  never  lose  the  hold  which  we  now  have  over  our  great 
Indian  dependence ...  by  far  the  greatest  and  most  valuable 
of  all  the  customers  we  have  or  ever  shall  have  in  this  country. 
For  the  same  reasons  I  approve  of  the  continued  occupation  of 
Egypt,  and  for  the  same  reasons  I  have  urged  upon  this  govern- 
ment, and  upon  previous  governments,  the  necessity  for  using 
every  legitimate  opportunity  to  extend  our  influence  and  con- 
trol in  that  great  African  continent  which  is  now  being  opened 
up  to  civilization  and  to  commerce;  and  lastly,  it  is  for  the 
same  reasons  that  I  hold  our  navy  should  be  strengthened  . . .  Un- 
til its  supremacy  is  so  assured  that  we  cannot  be  shaken  in  any  of 
the  possessions  which  we  hold  or  may  hold  herafter. 

Believe  me,  if  any  one  of  the  places  to  which  I  have  referred 
any  change  took  place  which  deprived  us  that  control  and  in- 
fluence of  which  I  have  been  speaking,  the  first  to  suffer  would 
be  the  working  men  of  this  country.  Then,  indeed,  we  should 
see  a  distress  which  would  not  be  temporary,  but  which  would  be 
chronic,  and  we  should  find  England  was  entirely  unable  to  sup- 
port the  enormous  population  which  is  now  maintained  by  the 
aid  of  her  foreign  trade.  If  the  working  men  of  this  country 
understand  their  own  interests,  they  will  never  lend  any  counte- 
nance to  the  doctrines  of  those  politicians  who  never  lose  an 
opportunity  of  pouring  contempt  and  abuse  upon  the  brave  Eng- 
lishmen, who  even  at  this  moment,  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
are  carving  out  new  dominions  for  Britain,  and  are  opening  up 
fresh  markets  for  British  commerce  and  laying  out  fresh  fields 
for  British  labor  . .  .^ 


^  Reprinted  in  "European  Civilization:  Students  Manual,"  prepared  by  SSCSC, 
University  High  School,  Urbana,  Illinois,  1967. 

15 


There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  what  Chamberlain  predicted 
some  86  years  ago  is  true  today.  Britain  and  France  have  devalued 
their  currencies  several  times  since  the  collapse  of  their  empires  in 
Africa.  Britain  knows  that  if  Rhodesia  and  South  Africa  were  to  have 
majority  rule  the  white  supremacists  would  flee  those  places  for  fear 
that  the  natives  whom  they  have  maltreated  for  centuries  now  might 
want  to  pay  them  back  in  their  own  coin.  It  is  certain  that  most  of 
them  would  flee  to  Britain  as  did  Asians  in  Uganda.  The  economic 
impact  of  such  an  exodus  would  be  catastrophic.  The  capitalist  nations 
are  aware  of  their  dependency  on  the  poor  nations  for  cheap  supplies 
of  crucial  natural  resources;  they  also  know  that  these  poor  nations 
remain  good  markets  for  their  finished  products,  particularly  for  their 
obsolete  military  hardware  — most  of  the  so-called  foreign  aid  consists 
of  this.  The  industrial  nations  know  the  devastating  blow  that  would  be 
dealt  their  economies  and  military  capacities  if  those  vital  resources 
stopped  flowing  in,  although  they  will  not  openly  acknowledge  this 
for  fear  that  the  nations  producing  such  vital  raw  materials  might  ex- 
ploit it  to  their  advantage.  Where  the  exploited  nations  are  aware  of 
the  vitality  of  their  resources  and  demand  more  money,  the  threat  from 
the  industrial  powers  is  always  that  such  a  material  will  be  synthesized 
in  the  laboratory.  But  we  know  that  every  raw  material  can  be  syn- 
thesized, at  least  for  now.  Because  the  capitalist  are  aware  of  the  dis- 
aster that  could  accompany  the  loss  of  their  resources,  they  have  not 
hesitated  to  employ  everything  possible  to  preserve  the  status  quo. 
This  is  demonstrated  by  the  kind  of  arrangements  that  the  former 
colonial  powers  made  with  their  African  colonies  just  before  inde- 
pendence was  granted.  Let  us  briefly  elaborate  on  this  point. 

As  Dr.  Nkrumah  once  observed:  "The  greatest  danger  at  present 
facing  Africa  is  neo-colonialism  and  its  major  instrument,  balkani- 
zation."'' The  political  frontiers  of  most  of  the  modern  African  States 
were  drawn  by  the  imperial  powers  in  the  nineteenth  century  during 
the  first  scramble  for  Africa, 

without  reference  to  geographical,  ethnic,  economic  or  socio- 
logical realities.  They  reflect  little  more  than  the  extent  to 
which  the  colonizing  powers  succeeded  in  carving  empires  out 
of  coastal  areas  and  extending  them  into  the  interior  of  the 
continent.  Africa  today,  split  up  into  over  forty  political  units, 
is  balkanized  indeed.^ 

This  situation  is  quite  evident  in  West  Africa  where  France  and 
Britain  pursued  a  policy  of  breaking  up  the  region  into  many  "pocket 
hankerchief"  states  as  the  nationalist  movements  gathered  momentum. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  Nigeria,  none  of  the  West  African  States 
is  large  enough  to  be  economically  viable.  This  makes  their  dependence 


'  Kwame  Nkrumah,  Africa  Must  Unite  (New  York:  International  Publishers, 

1970),  p.  173. 

^  Green  and  Seidman,  p.  34. 

16 


on  their  former  colonial  masters  even  greater  and  also  makes  them  vul- 
nerable to  the  exploitation  of  the  big  and  powerful  capitalist  companies. 
As  colonial  territories,  France  administered  their  sub-Saharan 
colonies  as  two  large  entities.  But  on  the  eve  of  independence  it  broke 
them  up  into  tiny  states  in  spite  of  opposition  by  some  African  leaders. 
As  Green  and  Seidman  have  noted: 

In  transferring  authority  to  African  political  groupings,  they 
consistently  built  up  the  territorial  bodies  and  reduced  the  in- 
fluence of  the  federal  grands  conseils.  At  the  same  time  poli- 
ticians favouring  single  territorial  states  were  backed  in  dis- 
putes against  those  such  as  Bartolemy  Boganda  of  the  Central 
African  Republic  and  Leopold  Senghor  of  Senegal  who  sought 
to  preserve  the  federations  in  order  to  give  the  independent 
states  greater  bargaining  power  with  France.  ^ 
The  British  had  regionalism  as  a  policy.  Hence  they  broke  up  Ni- 
geria into  three  regions  with  one  region  being  more  than  two-thirds 
the  size  of  the  other  two  put  together.  This  was  to  ensure  that  the  North, 
least  developed  of  all  the  other  regions  and  fearful  of  being  dominated 
by  the  better  developed  ones,  would  take  over  power  at  independence. 
It  did  succeed  because  of  the  so-called  parliamentary  democracy  in 
which  the  size  of  population  determines  the  number  of  elected  officials. 
The  imperialists  did  not  hestiate  to  do  any  thing  that  would  insure  their 
continued  dominance  in  these  colonies  long  after  they  had  left.  In  the 
words  of  Basil  Davidson: 

For  what  the  colonial  Powers  thought  wise  and  necessary  was 
the  formation  and  promotion  to  power  of  'leading  elites'  or 
'middle  class'  (those  whom  the  French  have  so  revealingly  called 
interlocuteurs  la/o^/es— 'negotiators  worth  talking  to'):  groups 
of  men  who  would  ensure  that  post-colonial  government  should 
be  'moderate  and  responsible'  — should  be  that  is,  a  reflection 
of  colonial  government.  And  it  is,  here,  in  no  small  part,  that 
the  seat  of  the  trouble  has  lain.^o 

Through  these  internal  collaborators  the  former  colonial  powers 
and  their  allies,  like  the  U.S.  and  West  Germany,  are  able  to  continue 
their  exploitation  of  these  so-called  independent  states.  Such  leaders 
as  Nkrumah  who  refused  to  cooperate  with  the  imperialists  were  styled 
sub-Saharan  Hitlers  by  the  western  press,  the  so-called  objective  writers, 
and  their  leaders.  On  the  other  hand  people  like  Houphouet-Boigny  of 
Ivory  Coast,  one  of  the  greatest  political  opportunists  of  all  times,  have 
been  hailed  by  the  capitalists  as  outstanding  African  leaders  because 
of  their  submission  to  western  tutlage. 

The  NATO  powers  have  carved  out  a  large  section,  and  the  richest 
portion,  of  sub-Saharan  Africa  and  placed  it  under  the  tutlage  of  white 


9  Ibid.,  pp.  34-35. 

^°  Basil  Davidson,  Which  Way  Africa  (Baltimore:  Penguin  Books,  1967),  p.  131. 

17 


supremacists  who  are  a  minority.  To  make  sure  that  the  majority  who 
happen  to  be  blacks  will  never  break  away  from  their  external  servitude, 
South  Africa,  Rhodesia,  and  Portugal  are  armed  to  the  teeth.  But  most 
of  the  support  comes  from  the  U.S.  The  recent  Azores  agreement,  and 
the  training  of  Portuguese  military  men  are  designed  to  enable  Portugal 
to  continue  its  colonial  wars  in  Africa;  the  decision  by  the  U.S.  in  1971 
to  ignore  the  U.N.  sanctions  against  Rhodesia  and  to  import  chrome, 
which  reportedly  was  not  in  short  supply,  ^^  was  an  attempt  to  make 
sure  that  that  illegal  regime  did  not  collapse  economically;  the  agree- 
ment between  the  U.S.  and  the  white  supremacist  regime  of  South 
Africa  in  which  the  latter  was  to  resume  supplying  gold  to  the  Inter- 
national Monetary  Fund,  was  an  attempt  to  help  South  Africa  out  of 
a  critical  exchange  reserve  crisis.  All  these  are  designed  to  maintain 
the  status  quo  in  order  to  insure  the  continuous  flow  of  raw  materials 
from  these  places.  With  the  help  of  the  NATO  powers  (according  to 
leaders  of  the  South  African  regime),  ammunition  factories  have  been 
constructed,  napalm  is  produced,  and  planes  are  manufactured,  thereby 
making  South  Africa  a  military  power. 

The  powerful  nations  know  that  they  must  unite  in  order  to  suc- 
ceed in  their  control  of  world  resources.  Apart  from  military  cooper- 
ation they  also  cooperate  monetarily.  In  the  words  of  Nkrumah: 
The  principle  of  mutual  inter-imperialist  assistance   whereby 
American,  British,  French  and  West  Germany  monopoly  capital 
extends  joint  control  over  the  wealth  of  the  non-liberated  zones 
of  Africa,  Latin  America  and  Asia,  finds  concrete  expression 
in  the  formation  of  interlocked  international  financial  institu- 
tions and  bodies  of  credit. ^^ 
Among  these  financial  institutions  are  the  International  Monetary  Fund 
(IMF),  International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development  (IBRD), 
and  International  Development  Association  (IDA). 

In  the  Middle  East  the  industrial  nations  have  very  strong  economic, 
political  and  military  powers.  Outside  of  Israel  which  depends  enor- 
mously (militarily,  economically,  and  otherwise)  on  the  U.S.,  several 
other  countries  in  this  area  depend  very  much  on  arm  shipments  from 
the  U.S.  to  stem  the  revolutionary  forces  within  their  own  states.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  U.S.  needs  the  oil  so  vital  to  her  economy.  Hence 
a  sort  of  mutual  dependence  is  established.  Despite  the  ostensible  unity 
by  the  Arabs,  the  oil  continues  to  slip  through  the  embargo,  which 
demonstrates  the  influence  that  the  U.S.  has  in  this  area  of  the  world. 
On  the  other  hand,  cooperation  is  not  total;  still,  the  kind  of  confron- 
tation we  have  discussed  above  is  most  unlikely. 

In  Latin  America,  the  U.S.  has  tremendous  economic,  military, 
and  political  powers.  And  the  Monroe  Doctrine  is  still  operative.  Just 


"  See  New  York  Times,  May  31,  1972. 

^2  Kwame  Nkrumah,  Handbook  of  Revolutionary  Warfare  (New  York:  Inter- 
national Publishers,  1968),  p.  7. 

18 


as  it  is  practiced  by  other  European  powers  (including  Russia),  the  U.S. 
uses  its  political  and  economic  powers  to  reward  those  friendly  countries 
while  antagonistic  or  non-cooperative  nations  are  most  likely  to  face 
an  invisible  economic  blockade  that  inevitably  culminates  in  their 
collapse— except  in  the  case  of  Cuba,  which  is  sustained  by  Russia  at 
an  unbelievable  cost. 

In  the  final  analysis,  while  the  oil  crisis  (if  it  is  real)  may  cause 
some  hardships  in  the  industrial  nations,  it  is  not  enough  to  indicate 
the  collapse  of  these  nations.  But  it  nevertheless  shows  that  the  poor 
nations  when  united  can  effect  changes  in  the  international  alliances. 
The  powerful  nations  know  that  they  need  crucial  natural  resources 
from  the  poor  nations  and  are  willing  to  do  anything  to  keep  things 
the  way  they  are;  and  they  appear  well  entrenched.  Consequently, 
Nkrumah's  world  revolution  must  be  postponed  indefinitely. 


19 


ON  THE  PROBLEM 
OF  HUMAN  PROBLEMS 

by  JAMES  B.  KLEE* 

One  of  the  major  achievements  of  Western  Man  has  been  science, 
his  carefully  won  understanding  of  the  world  especially  in  its  material 
aspects.  On  hindsight  the  knowledge  so  arduously  won  seems  now 
with  relative  ease  to  have  been  convertible  into  the  practical  advantages 
of  modern  technology  at  least  where  technology  was  not  itself  an  in- 
dependent growth.  This  has  not  only  made  living  more  comfortable, 
less  dangerous,  but  has  given  each  individual  a  longer  life  expectancy 
and  the  opportunity  of  richer  life  itself.  Few  now  fail  to  read,  to  hear 
music,  to  see  a  world  visually  enriched  by  the  arts  if  only  that  of  movie, 
pin-up,  or  calendar.  The  gains  have  been  fairly  general.  Statistics  even 
show  relatively  more  people  attending  church  and  temple  than  ever 
before.  Perhaps  any  criticism  comes  more  from  the  new  ability  to  con- 
sciously afford  complaint  than  from  a  dire  necessity.  And  yet  there  is 
a  touch  of  depression,  of  anxiety,  of  ill  feeling  about  it  all.  The  very 
success  of  science  and  technology  seems  to  have  touched  off  a  concern 
for  human  values  once  again  as  if  the  human  being  was  somehow  threat- 
ened with  inundation  by  his  own  knowledge  and  skills. 

Part  of  the  troubled  feeling  seems  to  come  from  the  ease  with  which 
the  insights  and  techniques  of  modern  man  are  changed  into  immediate 
use  and  resultant  pay-offs.  To  those  not  directly  concerned,  and  who 
know  better,  the  models  created  by  the  scientists  seem  to  need  only 
the  addition  of  "wheels"  to  produce  the  car,  the  plane,  the  dynamo, 
the  entire  structure  of  industry.  Much  more  is  needed  of  course,  but 
it  still  seems  easy  from  outside  the  process  as  we  look  back. 

One  does  not  notice  the  failures.  "I  can  have  the  music  /  want 
when  /  want  it,"  the  book,  the  painting,  the  food.  My  expectations 
change,  become  more  demanding,  more  immediate.  What  then  is  more 
tempting  than  to  look  forward  towards  resolving  human  problems  using 
the  same  tools  or  at  least  methods,  well  in  principle  anyway. 

But  if  you  understand  your  mother,  have  a  model  of  her,  and  add 
wheels,  does  "she  become  a  bus"?  Is  there  an  emergent  aspect  in  deal- 
ing with  human  problems  not  ordinarily  emphasized  in  the  popular 
picture  of  science?  Is  this  emergent  problem  in  basic  science  or  in  the 
technological  application  to  human  affairs?  Or  in  both?  I  cannot  pre- 
tend to  answer  these  questions.  I  will  feel  lucky  if  they  can  be  shown 
to  make  some  sense  as  problems. 

I  have  a  feeling  that  in  some  fundamental  and  primitive  sense  science 
and  technology  are  not  in  their  origins  in  the  human  mind  too  different. 
If  I  may  steal  from  Leo  Bronstein's  excellent  lecture  on  Art  and  Re- 
ligion the  important  thing  is  the  and.  The  one  without  the  other  is  really 

*Professor  of  Psychology,  West  Georgia  College. 

20 


unthinkable.  Science  is  absolutely  necessary  for  formulation  of  the 
hypothesis  to  test  or  apply,  but  we  would  not  be  beyond  the  most  blatant 
magic  if  we  did  not  have  the  skilled  means  to  test  our  observations.  In 
a  way,  there  is  a  relationship  between  science  and  technique  not  unlike 
that  between  experience  and  response  with  a  feedback  from  the  results 
of  the  skilled  response  which  influences  the  next  experience  which  in 
turn  modifies  the  next  act;  and  this  sequence  started  when  life  began. 
If  the  originating  experience  is  noxious,  an  adequate  understanding  of 
its  source  and  nature  should  help  in  its  removal  or  alleviation.  One  drops 
the  too  close  burning  match  to  use  a  very  primitive  example.  Or,  if  the 
present  experience  is  pleasant,  one  seeks  to  amplify  to  satiation  or  if 
possible  to  prepare  for  a  repetition.  In  an  evolutionary  sense  the  most 
primitive  forms  of  approach  and  avoidance  contain  the  and  of  science 
and  technology.  And  yet,  this  is  not  entirely  an  analogy  because  the 
child,  the  adolescent,  the  naive,  the  ignorant,  the  colonial,  the  anxious 
and  alarmed  do  not  make  much  of  the  distinction  but  live  the  and  very 
strongly.  The  public  outcry  in  1958  even  by  the  "enlightened"  to  Sput- 
nik I  was  an  excellent  demonstration  of  the  wholeness  of  experience 
and  act,  knowledge  and  skill,  science  and  technology. 

In  view  of  this  lack  of  distinction  in  the  "public  mind"  (to  abbreviate 
the  above  list)  one  even  wonders  if  science  could  be  reinvented  today. 
And  one  wonders  if  this  relative  primitivation,  a  regression  in  the  values 
that  led  to  the  discovery  of  science  itself,  has  especially  obscured  those 
values  which  we  formerly  held  towards  other  human  beings  including 
those  through  which  we  regarded  ourselves.  One  wonders  if  even  though 
the  social  organism  of  science  is  now  separate  from  the  social  organism 
of  technology  the  individual  scientist  and  technologist  might  be  less 
different  "psychologically,"  that  is  each  might  be  more  "primitive"  in 
himself.  The  Arab  and  Jew,  the  frontiersman  and  savage,  the  white  and 
the  black,  the  Colon  and  Algerian  are  in  the  face  to  face  encounter  very 
similar  psychologically.  They  are  usually  reduced  to  the  lowest  common 
denominator.  They  lose  their  greatest  differential  value.  They  are  now 
forced  to  be  a  smaller  whole  by  their  very  separateness  instead  of  draw- 
ing upon  the  richness  of  their  former  union. 

One  senses  a  growing  childishness  in  the  world— a  loss  of  perspec- 
tive and  patience.  And  not  just  among  the  youth,  who  seem  somehow  to 
be  staying  young  longer,  but  also  among  adults.  Or  maybe  our  relative 
sense  of  success  merely  enables  us  to  face  more  squarely  the  deficiencies 
we've  always  had  so  that  the  immaturity  is  more  apparent.  Possibly  it's 
a  little  of  both.  One  hopes  it  is  more  the  latter.  Experiments  on  animals 
have  shown  that  successful  animals  adjust  to  change  more  effectively 
despite  the  frustration  contained  in  the  transition  between  the  failure 
of  old  habits  and  the  development  of  new  ones  than  do  animals  that 
have  failed  all  along  and  who  when  offered  the  opporunities  of  success 
may  not  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  it.  Yet  failure  may  contribute  to 
knowledge  also  in  a  positive  sense  and  as  we  all  ultimately  fail  as  in- 
dividuals, we  die,  this  aspect  may  have  to  be  valued  too.  One  might  call 
the  sum  wisdom.  Here  I  feel  with  Gabriel  Marcel  there  may  have  been 

21 


a  decline  in  wisdom  as  we  seem  less  to  fail. 

Some  say  that  the  present  man  is  becoming  a  conformist.  Maybe  so. 
But  perhaps  this  is  not  his  intention.  Perhaps  conformity  is  a  result  of 
what  might  be  more  correctly  identified  as  a  narrowed  image  of  man, 
shrunken  by  his  own  success  with  the  material  world.  The  ideals  of 
purity,  respectability,  and  power  of  domination  he  gained  so  deservedly 
in  his  mastery  of  the  physical,  he  is  now  tempted  to  apply  to  himself  or 
at  least  to  others  as  he  continues.  I  frequently  get  a  weird  feeling  of 
petulant  spoiled  bratness  from  the  successful  scientist.  Watching  from 
afar  some  of  our  major  "geniuses,"  on  television  especially,  one  senses 
an  inordinately  successful  child  prodigy  who  never  quite  got  beyond 
twelve  as  he  delighted  in  his  collecting  of  stamps,  coins,  facts,  microbes, 
electrons,  numbers,  words,  etc.  He  seems  never  to  have  stopped  or  have 
been  stopped  and  if  he  were,  one  might  expect  the  initial  reaction  to 
be  a  pout.  Of  course  Western  Man  shows  this  even  more.  But  the  shock 
comes  when  we  find  the  scientist  doing  it,  too.  We  excuse  so  much  in 
the  name  of  science.  It  is  as  if  the  frame  of  reference  of  the  recipients 
of  the  benefits  of  science  has  reverted  to  the  level  of  magic,  white  or 
black.  The  and  has  shrunk  to  the  stimulus  response  level  of  action  and 
reaction.  The  idea  of  the  challenge  with  its  implications  of  possible 
failure  has  been  replaced  by  the  sign  of  hygienic  goodness.  In  brief, 
man  falls  again.  Instead  of  sticking  to  the  tree  of  knowledge,  he  has 
tasted  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil. 

What  Tm  trying  to  say  is  that  despite  the  patience  which  scientific 
method  requires  and  attempts  to  teach,  the  success  of  science  may 
achieve  a  negative  sum  when  applied  to  the  human  as  the  object  of 
science  or  of  technology. 

In  a  historical  sense  some  of  the  roots  of  the  hopes  and  ideals  of  the 
scientists  as  men  came  from  the  religion  based  civilization  which  gave 
science  house  room  as  a  difficult  and  often  unwelcome  guest.  And  yet 
science  was  "tolerated"  where  it  was  thought  of  as  potentially  useful, 
where  its  earliest  fruits  were  found  good  and  were  exploited  where 
possible.  Farrington's  list  of  inventions  and  discoveries  during  the  so- 
called  Dark  Ages  is  most  impressive  and  did  much  to  lay  the  ground- 
work for  the  flowering  of  science  in  Italy,  France,  and  England  centuries 
later.  But  as  the  individual  scientist  took  the  adventurous  step  with  one 
leg,  the  other  foot  was  still  firmly  grounded  in  the  ideals  and  hopes  of 
the  Judaeo-Christian-Greek  tradition.  His  was  not  a  problem  basically 
of  what  to  do  but  of  how  best  to  accomplish  his  hopes.  The  Church  was 
criticized  not  for  its  ideals  so  much  as  for  its  failure  to  live  up  to  them. 
These  the  enlightened  man  hoped  to  achieve  if  only  he  knew  enough 
or  had  the  proper  skills.  The  cosmologies  were  replaced  in  this  enter- 
prise more  than  were  the  hopes  that  guided  the  attack.  A  tremendous 
hope  of  here  and  now  or  at  least  of  the  soon,  began  to  grow.  But  this 
did  not  change  the  basic  ends  towards  which  the  attack  was  directed. 
Yet  today  one  feels  that  the  science  foot  is  firmly  planted  and  the  foot 
formerly  rooted  in  religion-generated  hopes  is  beginning  to  stir.  Early 
forms  of  the  next  step,  the  pseudo  science  of  the  pure  race  of  German 

00 


Nazism,  Jewish  Zionism,  the  Japanese  Shintoism  of  the  "double  pa- 
triots," the  Utopianism  of  Russian  Communism,  the  irrelevant  auton- 
omous, psychological,  individualism  of  France  and  of  the  United  States 
(pseudo-democracy),  are  all  signs  of  the  ideological  adventurisms  to 
which  science  as  science  can  say  nothing  and  for  which  the  scientist 
has  little  or  no  preparation  in  his  role  as  a  human  being.  Science  has 
won  the  house,  the  flies  captured  the  fly  paper.  Now  what?  What  are 
the  new  goals?  Could  we  by  some  neoromantic  miracle  restore  the 
deep-rooted  hopes  of  the  Judaic-Christian  era?  One  sees  their  real  rem- 
nants, stoning  buses  on  the  Sabbath,  holy  rolling  in  Yankee  Stadium, 
giving  the  true  faith  to  the  heathen  Hindu.  One  realizes  immediately 
these  examples  are  too  small,  too  conceited,  too  restrictive  to  serve  as 
our  image  for  all  men.  What  then? 

Well,  one  solution  has  been  to  re-double  the  scientific-technological 
effort  only  now  with  the  human  as  object  of  study  and  the  subject  of 
the  manufacturing  response.  Psychology  here  has  been  a  very  willing 
tool.  When  a  Jewish  girl  in  Israel  declared  to  her  parents  her  love  of  an 
Arab  neighbor,  the  first  thing  the  parents  did  was  send  her  to  a  psychia- 
trist. That  is  the  normal  or  typical  function  of  psychology  for  us  even 
though  a  few  old  type  idealists  might  object  to  this  as  a  misuse.  But  if 
they  in  turn  would  have  preferred  to  send  the  parents  to  the  psychiatrist, 
would  the  situation  be  any  different?  In  either  case,  hasn't  the  major 
effort  been  to  treat  the  "other"  as  raw  material  for  reprocessing  towards 
some  Utopian  ideal?  This  is  what  was  meant  by  the  possibility  that  a 
new  dimension  emerges  in  our  shift  of  scientific  method  and  technology 
from  the  inanimate  to  the  animate  world.  Why  not  treat  the  human  as 
raw  material  or  reprocessing  towards  an  end  product  such  as  an  ideal- 
Utopia  especially  if  it  can  be  designed  by  recognized  experts?  And  as 
B.F.  Skinner  points  out  inasmuch  as  we  already  have  an  inefficient 
design  for  living  (our  culture)  why  not  put  the  psychological  and  socio- 
logical architects  to  work  on  it  to  make  a  really  good  one?  Why  leave 
it  to  happenstance?  But  is  that  what  we  were  doing?  Or  was  there  also 
a  reconigition  of  something  else  called  variously,  personality,  being, 
freedom,  or  history  which  gave  to  each  individual  a  partial  responsibility 
for  his  own  destiny,  his  own  life,  his  own  death?  Does  this  not  make  each 
person  more  than  raw  material  for  the  experts'  Utopia?  The  wheels 
added  to  the  model  of  the  mother  might  make  a  bus,  but  one  puts  the 
wheels  on  the  model,  not  on  ma.  On  ma  — she  skates  funny.  The  models 
one  does  meet,  exteriors  by  Mr.  John  and  Miss  Arden,  interiors  by  Rex- 
all  and  Dr.  Freud,  leave  a  great  deal  to  be  desired.  They  lack  "humanity" 
in  some  awful  way.  They  show  that  peculiar  hollowness  of  so  many 
suburban  children  to  whom  all  the  "right  things"  were  done. 

This  is  not  to  deny  that  the  human  is  not  also  a  physical  object. 
That  shot  from  a  cannon  he  is  not  too  different  from  a  wheatie  or  a 
bullet— softer,  larger  than  some,  smaller  than  others.  Disintegrated  in 
an  explosion  one  might  expect  some  similar  range  of  distribution  of 
particles  to  that  of  a  small  motor  bike  or  a  calf.  The  problem  here  is 
not  different.  It  is  the  different  problem  of  the  unique,  historical  being 

23 


which  usually  was  of  no  concern  to  the  older  sciences  that  bothers  me. 
In  fact,*in  order  to  achieve  "objectivity"  science  did  its  best  to  get  rid 
of  the  old  "subjectivities"  which  seemed  merely  "superstitions."  It  is  the 
intentionally  unrepetitive  aspect  that  is  once  again  the  newer  concern. 
And  this  is  so  despite  the  great  similarities  from  person  to  person,  and 
from  hour  to  hour  in  the  same  person,  similarities  that  so  often  seem 
merely  the  repetition  of  identities.  Yet  despite  the  endlessly  disappoint- 
ing similarity  of  children,  each  is  a  new  world  afresh.  Each  is  a  new  hope 
not  only  in  himself  but  to  others  as  well.  It  is  this  existential  problem  of 
each  person  at  each  hour  that  emerges.  And  for  this  our  preparations 
are  unpreparing  because  they  rob  us  of  the  moment's  uniqueness,  of 
its  creative  possibilities.  This  is  the  emergent  issue  the  life  sciences 
must  face  in  addition  to  all  the  others.  And  here  the  old  virtues  may 
have  to  be  re-discovered  or  at  least  re-invented.  Because  here  at  least 
a  temporal  separation  between  science  and  technology  becomes  essen- 
tial. But  now  not  because  as  it  used  to  be  difficult  to  connect  wish  and 
act,  but  because  it  has  become  once  again  too  easy.  Because  here  one's 
action  upon  one's  experience  becomes  very  complicated,  and  often  not 
possible  at  all.  Who  can  be  made  to  love  another? 

At  best  one  comes  into  a  relationship  with  the  person  as  the  object 
of  study  as  does  a  parent  to  child,  teacher  to  pupil,  a  gardener  to  plant, 
or  a  farmer  to  crop  or  livestock.  One  may  nourish,  fertilize,  aid,  shelter, 
give  to  the  other  but  one  cannot  replace  in  any  way  this  other.  Instead 
one  may  love  or  hate,  cherish  or  maim,  fear  of  kill  the  other,  but  the 
relation  is  always  to  an  "other".  One  must  not,  at  least  not  wisely,  relate 
as  to  so  many  pounds  of  raw  material  with  no  essential  being  not  ulti- 
mately subject  to  alchemical  changes.  One  need  only  think  of  the  Nazi 
soap  factories  here.  One  may  express  limited  opinions  vigorously,  in 
fact  must  do  so,  but  as  opinions  they  are  a  few  among  the  many  and  you 
know  they  fall  on  deafened  ears  of  others.  No  longer  are  cause  and 
effect  very  strongly  manifest  in  the  parent-child,  farmer-crop,  doctor- 
patient  relationship.  Triggers,  signs,  and  decisions  are  the  rule,  not 
action  and  reaction.  The  relationship  has  become  a  cybernetic  one. 
And  the  fabulous  complexity  and  varieties  of  being  one  encounters! 
No  wonder  Miss  Peaches'  "model"  pupils  detest  and  are  frightened  by 
Arthur's  collection  of  variegated  weeds.  It  would  be  so  nice  if  it  were 
all  to  be  pure,  rational,  simple,  organized,  and  inter-convertible  like 
a  periodic  chart.  The  inter-changeable  Jew,  Christian,  Vitamin,  Ford, 
Scientist,  American,  Sophomore,  Professor,  are  ideals  we,  as  admin- 
istrators, wish  for  the  other  and  even  ourselves  on  occasions.  But  these 
interchangeabilities  may  merely  reflect  the  desperations  of  other  eras. 
And  the  desperations  are  not  to  be  taken  lightly.  So  the  surgeon  is  work- 
ing steadily  towards  banks  or  depots  of  interchangeable  hearts,  arteries, 
bones,  kidneys  and  eyes  and  we  are  grateful  and  should  be.  It  isn't  that 
these  are  not  "real"  problems,  they  are  and  often  a  matter  of  life  and 
death.  It's  that  this  other  problem  of  the  now,  the  unique,  the  being, 
the  historically  present,  is  here,  too.  And  this  we  must  face  also  if  not 
instead.  The  and  has  an  additional  dimension,  that  of  human  freedom. 

24 


BLACK  POVERTY:  A  DIFFERENCE 
IN  DEGREE  IN  THE  SOUTH 

by  JAMES  R.  O'MALLEY* 

Poverty  in  the  southeastern  United  States,  when  analyzed  from  the 
viewpoint  of  percentage  famihes  poor  in  1970,  depicts  three  areas  with 
extreme  economic  conditions  (Figure  1).  Several  other  areas  exist,  but 
are  confined  to  much  smaller  areal  extents.  The  three  extensive  con- 
centrations are  located  in:  (1)  the  Mississippi  River  flood  plain  occupy- 
ing parts  of  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  and  Lx)uisiana;  (2)  the 
south  central  sections  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi;  and  (3)  portions  of 
the  eastern  third  of  Kentucky  and  northeastern  Tennessee.  The  latter 
two  of  the  three  areas  are  similar  in  their  degree  of  poverty,  but  here 
the  similarity  ends.  Economic  and  social  characteristics  of  the  popu- 
lation are  quite  diverse.  The  area  of  extreme  poverty  located  in  south 
central  Alabama  and  east  central  Mississippi  is  formulated  around  an 
economic  base  of  agriculture.  The  area  encompasses  much  of  the  "Black 
Belt"  area  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  However,  the  eastern  third  of 
the  area  lies  outside  this  belt  which  in  previous  decades  has  been  known 
for  its  cotton  complex.  In  recent  years  cotton  production  has  declined 
sharply  and  agriculture  has  shifted  to  soybeans  and  beef.  While  the 
crops  and  activities  have  changed,  the  area  is  still  predominately  agri- 
culturally oriented.  Accompanying  agricultural  orientation  has  been 
a  large  percentage  of  Blacks  with  all  of  the  counties  having  30  percent 
or  more  black  population.  This  black  population  first  served  as  slaves, 
then  as  "hired  hands"  and  sharecroppers  and  today  remain  as  vestiges 
of  a  changing  agricultural  scene.  The  area  in  eastern  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee  has  approximately  the  same  severity  of  poverty  as  the  area 
in  central  Alabama  and  eastern  Mississippi.  The  Kentucky-Tennessee 
area,  however,  is  not  primarily  agricultural,  but  has  mining  as  its  major 
economic  activity.  The  racial  composition  of  the  area  is  very  different 
with  Black  population  in  the  Kentucky  counties  ranges  from  .6  to  6  per- 
cent of  the  total.  1  Therefore,  the  similarity  of  poverty  coupled  with 
the  diversity  of  racial  and  economic  activity  produces  a  unique  situation 
in  which  to  test  the  following  hypothesis:  Blacks  are  significantly  higher 
in  the  economic  structure  in  an  area  with  relatively  low  percentage 
Black  population. 

Study  Area 

Two  of  the  three  large  areas  of  extensive  poverty  were  selected  in 

*Instructor  of  Geography,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census,  General  Social  and 
Economic  Characteristics,  1970.  Kentucky,  No.  19,  Table  128,  p.  418. 

25 


which  to  test  the  hypothesis.  (Figure  2).  The  "Black  Belt"  area  of  Ala- 
bama and  Mississippi  and  the  coal  mining  area  of  eastern  Kentucky  were 
chosen  due  to  contrasting  racial  and  economic  make-up.  Within  the 
two  large  areas  twenty-two  counties  were  selected  to  serve  as  areas  of 
more  detailed  analysis.  The  counties  were  chosen  using  two  criteria: 
(1)  Both  areas  (seven  counties  in  Kentucky  and  fifteen  in  Alabama  and 
Mississippi)  have  poverty  levels  falling  in  the  upper  quartile  of  per- 
centage poor  families:  and  (2)  Each  of  the  areas  had  a  large  enough 
Black  population  to  be  reported  by  the  U.S.  Census  of  Population.  The 
Kentucky  area  had  a  significantly  lower  percentage  of  Black  population 
than  did  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area  (3  percent  and  53  percent  respec- 
tively). The  minimum  number  of  400  Blacks  in  a  county  before  census 
tabulation  caused  a  contraction  of  the  Kentucky  study  area  and  selec- 
tion of  only  those  seven  counties  which  had  at  least  4()0  Blacks. 

Figure  2 


STUDY  AREA 
26 


Methods 

Three  indicators  of  poverty  were  chosen  for  analysis  of  relative 
poverty  of  Blacks  in  each  of  the  two  areas:  (1)  Percentage  of  Black 
families  poor;  (2)  Percentage  of  Black  persons  poor  and  (3)  Median 
income  of  Black  families.  Selection  of  these  variables  was  based  upon 
research  concerning  poverty  by  individuals  such  as  Morrill  and  Woh- 
lenberg2  and  by  the  inclusion  of  these  variables  in  the  U.S.  Population 
Census  sections  dealing  with  poverty  in  the  United  States.  ^ 

Each  of  the  variables  was  mapped  by  county  and  a  visual  compari- 
son was  made.  Area  comparisons  utilizing  averages  of  the  selected 
variables  were  calculated  to  give  general  levels  of  poverty  for  Blacks 
in  each  of  the  study  areas.  Tabular  and  cartographic  comparisons  of 
percentage  Black  families  poor  to  all  families  poor  were  made  for  each 
study  area.  Similar  comparisons  of  percentage  Black  persons  poor  to 
percentage  of  all  people  poor  were  also  made  for  the  two  areas.  By 
comparing  mapped  and  tabular  data,  the  poverty  of  Blacks  in  both 
areas  was  ascertained  and  inferences  made  concerning  the  relative 
economic  state  of  Blacks  in  the  two  areas. 

Analysis 

Black  poverty  in  the  two  study  areas  depicts  various  relationships 
dependent  upon  the  variables  under  analysis.  Table  1  shows  area  aver- 
ages for  the  selected  variables  of  percent  Black  families  poor  and 
percent  black  persons  poor  compared  to  averages  for  all  families  poor 
and  all  persons  poor.  Approximately  54  percent  of  all  black  families 
in  the  Kentucky  area  are  poor,  while  more  than  66  percent  of  the  Black 
families  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area  are  under  the  poverty  level. 
A  differential  of  12  percent  exists  between  the  two  areas.  However, 
only  a  5  percent  differential  exists  between  all  families  poor  for  the 
study  areas.  Figure  3  adds  additional  insight  as  to  why  the  difference 
between  percent  Black  families  poor  in  Alabama-Mississippi  and  per- 
cent Black  families  poor  in  Kentucky  is  not  larger.  Adair  County  in 
the  western  portion  of  the  Kentucky  area  is  abnormally  higher  than 
any  of  the  counties  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area.  Removal  of  this 
anomaly  increases  the  average  percentage  of  Black  families  poor  in 
the  Kentucky  area  significantly.  Figure  4  portrays  the  relationship  be- 
tween all  families  poor  in  both  study  areas.  A  comparison  of  Figures 
3  and  4  illustrates  that  the  difference  between  percent  Black  families 
poor  and  percent  all  families  poor  in  Kentucky  is  not  as  large  as  the  dif- 
ference between  percent  Black  families  poor  and  percent  all  families 
poor  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area.  Such  a  relationship  is  supported 
by  Table  2  which  illustrates  that  18  percentage  points  separate  poor 


^  Richard  L.  Morrill  and  Ernest  H.  Wohlenberg,  The  Geography  of  Poverty 
in  the  United  States.  (McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  New  York,  1971)',  pp.  99-100. 
^  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census,  General  Social  and 
Economic  Characteristics,  1970,  Nos.  26,  and  1,  Tables  128,  124,  and  125. 

27 


Black  families  and  all  families  poor  in  Kentucky,  while  28.8  percentage 
points  separate  the  two  groups  in  Alabama-Mississippi. 


Table  1 


KENTUCKY  AREA 


ALABAMA-MISSISSIPPI  AREA 


Counties 


Percent 

AU  Families 

Poor 


Percent  Black 
Families  Poor 


Comities 


Percent 

All  Families 

Poor 


Percent  Blit 
Families  P  r 


Adair 

34.4 

53.9 

Butler 

40.8 

70.1 

Bell 

39.2 

41.7 

Crenshaw 

45.4 

73 

Cumberland 

37.9 

85.6 

Hale 

54.9 

72.9 

Harlon 

36.2 

48.3 

Lamar 

38.8 

73.8 

Letcher 

40 

40.4 

Greene 

65.5 

82.1 

Perry 

39.1 

55.3 

Lowndes 

61.8 

76.3 

Pike 

31.8 

42.9 

Perry 

47.5 

67.1 

Pickens 

40.5 

70.6 

Sumter 

53.1 

69.8 

Wilcox 

56.8 

76.3 

Dallas 

40.2 

66.3 

Marengo 

46.4 

72.3 

Kemper 

56.1 

74.3 

Noxubee 

59 

79.8 

Winston 

39.3 

68.7 

Average 


36 


54 


Average 


41.1 


66.9 


Source:  U.S.  Census  of  Population,  1970. 


Table  2 


Percent  Black 
Families  Poor 


Percent  All  Families 
Poor 


Difference 


Kentucky 

54 

Alabama- 

Mississippi 

66.9 

36 


41.1 


18 

25.8 


Source:  Calculations  based  on  U.S.  Census  of  Population,  1970,  data. 

28 


PERCENT  BLACK  FAMILIES  POOR 
1970 


FIGURE  3 
29 


KJ 


PERCENT  ALL  FAMILIES  POOP 
1970 


KY, 


TENN. 


mi  1  es 


ITTTTI  30-39.9 

40-49.9 

r^  50-59.9 


PERCENT 


GA. 


FIGURE  4 
30 


Table  3 


Counties 

Percent 

Percent  Black 

Counties 

Percent 

Percent  Black 

All  Persons 

Persons  Poor 

All  Persons 

Persons  Poor 

Poor 

Poor 

Adair 

43.2 

77.3 

Butler 

6L8 

76.3 

Bell 

35.7 

39.5 

Crenshaw 

40.8 

70.1 

Cumberland 

46.3 

89.3 

Hale 

56.8 

76.3 

rlarlon 

45.3 

52.9 

Lamar 

47.5 

67.1 

Letcher 

42.2 

49.6 

Greene 

46.4 

72.3 

^erry 

44.6 

69.2 

Lowndes 

53.1 

69.8 

Pike 

44.2 

38.2 

Perry 

54.9 

72.9 

Pickens 

65.5 

82.1 

Sumter 

45.4 

73.0 

Wilcox 

40.5 

70.6 

' 

Dallas 

38.8 

73.8 

Marengo 

40.2 

40.2 

Kemper 

56.1 

74.3 

Noxubee 

59 

79.8 

Winston 

39.3 

68.7 

Average 

42 

62 

Average 

49.7 

72.8 

Source:  U.S.  Census  of  Population,  1970. 


Table  3  illustrates  the  relationship  of  percent  Black  persons  poor 
in  the  Kentucky  area  to  percent  Black  persons  poor  in  Alabama.  Ap- 
proximately 10  percentage  points  separate  the  two  groups.  However, 
when  viewed  in  the  context  of  all  families  poor  the  percentage  of  Black 
persons  poor  does  not  diverge  significantly.  Approximately  23  per- 
centage points  separate  Black  persons  poor  in  the  Kentucky  area  and 
Black  persons  poor  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area,  while  20  per- 
centage points  separate  all  persons  poor  in  the  two  areas.  Figure  5  de- 
picts graphically  percentage  Black  persons  poor  for  the  two  study  areas. 
Again  with  this  variable,  the  county  patterns  show  that  Cumberland 
County  in  the  western  section  of  the  study  areas  distorts  the  average 
for  percent  Black  persons  poor.  When  a  comparison  of  Figure  5  is  made 
to  Figure  6  (percent  all  persons  poor),  it  is  illustrated  that  counties 
in  the  Kentucky  area  show  less  discrepancy  between  percent  Black 
persons  poor  and  all  persons  poor  than  does  the  Alabama-Mississippi 
counties.  Thus  it  can  be  inferred  that  as  with  percentage  Black  families 
poor.  Black  persons  poor  are  similarily  better  off  in  the  Kentucky  area 
where  fewer  Blacks  live. 

31  \ 


PERCENT  BLACK  PERSONS  POOR 
1970 


FIGURE  5 
32 


KJ 


PERCENT  ALL  PERSONS  POOR 
1970 


KY. 


TENN. 


miles 


lii  55-64.9 
p^;^  65-74.9 


PERCENT  \   GA. 
I:  :  :  ;  I  35-44.9 
45-54.9 


FIGURE  6 
33 


MEDIAN  BLACK  FAMILY   INCOME,   1970 


KJ 


KY, 


TENN. 


■ 


mi  1  es 


ITTTl  $2,500-$2999 
|y//|  $3,000-$3999 

$4,000-$4999 

$5,000+ 


$2,000-$2499  \  GA. 


FIGURE  7 
34 


Figure  7  depicts  median  Black  income  for  the  respective  study 
areas.  Two  counties  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area  have  $5000  plus 
median  incomes  which  raises  the  average  of  the  area  considerably.  Con- 
versely the  Kentucky  area  has  no  county  with  a  high  median  income. 
However,  the  Kentucky  area  has  over  42  percent  of  its  counties  with 
an  income  between  $3000  and  $4000.  Conversely,  the  Alabama-Mis- 
sissippi area  has  only  33  percent  of  its  counties  in  this  range.  Similarily, 
the  Kentucky  area  has  only  14  percent  of  its  counties  with  a  median 
income  in  the  $2000  to  $2499  class  while  20  percent  of  the  Alabama- 
Mississippi  area  falls  into  this  class. 

Table  4  illustrates  that  when  averages  for  the  two  variables  of  per- 
cent Black  families  and  percent  Black  persons  poor  are  compared  to 

Table  4 


Percent 

Percent 

Difference 

Percent 

Percent 

Difference 

Black 

All 

Black 

All 

Families 

Families 

Families 

Families 

Poor 

Poor 

Poor 

Poor 

Kentucky 

54 

36 

18 

62 

42 

20 

Alabama- 

Mississippi 

66.9 

41.1 

25.8 

72.8 

49.7 

23.1 

Differential 

7.8 

3.1 

Source:  Calculations  from  U.S.  Census  of  Population,  1970. 

percent  all  families  and  persons  poor  that  a  variation  in  poverty  exists 
between  the  two  areas. 

A  differential  of  7.8  percent  exists  between  poverty  of  Black  fam- 
ilies/all families  in  the  Kentucky  areas  and  poverty  of  Black  families/ 
all  families  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area.  Such  difference  leads  one 
to  infer  that  in  relative  terms.  Blacks  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area 
are  poorer  than  those  in  the  Kentucky  area.  A  differential  of  3.1  percent 
also  exists  between  poverty  in  Black  persons/all  persons  in  the  Ala- 
bama-Mississippi area.  Although  the  difference  is  not  as  large,  the  same 
conclusion  can  be  drawn. 

Summary 

It  has  been  shown  that  Blacks  in  general  live  in  higher  economic 

brackets  in  the  seven  counties  of  the  eastern  portion  of  Kentucky  than 

Blacks  in  south  central  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Therefore,  there  is 

•  cause  for  the  tentative  acceptance  of  the  hypothesis  that  Blacks  are 

35 


significantly  higher  in  the  economic  structure  when  located  in  an  area 
with  a  low  percentage  Black  population  than  when  located  in  an  area 
with  a  high  percentage  Black  population. 

Due  to  superficial  analysis,  only  guarded  inferences  can  be  made 
concerning  the  effects  of  social  and  economic  conditions  on  the  relative 
economic  state  of  blacks  in  the  two  areas.  Two  aspects  of  economic 
and  social  conditions  seem  to  play  an  important  role.  Of  primary  impor- 
tance is  the  economic  situation  which  exists  in  the  coal  mines  of  the 
Kentucky  area.  Blacks  are  employed  in  the  mines'*  and  due  to  small 
total  number  of  Blacks,  the  mining  jobs  have  a  significant  effect  on  the 
standard  of  living.  Conversely,  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area,  the 
agricultural  nature  of  the  area  provides  little  choice  of  economic  activity 
for  the  large  numbers  of  Blacks.^  Secondly,  the  existence  of  large 
numbers  of  Blacks  in  the  Alabama-Mississippi  area  poses  a  greater  eco- 
nomic threat  than  do  the  small  number  in  the  Kentucky  area.  Therefore, 
logically  there  is  more  competition  between  Blacks  and  other  racial 
groups  for  the  better  jobs.  Such  a  relationship  is  intuitively  implied 
and  only  by  more  depthful  analysis  can  this  relationship  be  verified. 

It  is  obvious  from  the  data  presented  that  a  difference  in  economic 
status  among  Blacks  exists  between  the  two  areas  with  similar  overall 
poverty.  However,  only  by  a  more  wide  range  analysis  of  interrelated 
variables  can  the  condition  be  fully  explained. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Morrill,  Richard  L.,  and  Wohlenberg,  Ernest  H.  The  Geography  of 
Poverty  In  the  United  States.  New  York:  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co., 
1971.  ■ 

Ross,  Tom.  Past  resident  of  coal  mining  area.  Knoxville,  Tennessee. 
1973. 

Tower,  J.  Allen.  "Cotton  Change  In  Alabama  1879-1946."  Economic 
Geography,  Vol.  26  (January,  1950),  pp.  6-27. 

U.S.  Department  of  Commerce.  Bureau  of  the  Census.  General  Social 
and  Economic  Characteristics,  1970.  Nos.  26,  19,  and  1.  Tables  128, 
124,  and  125. 

U.S.  Department  of  Commerce.  Bureau  of  the  Census.  General  Social 
and  Economic  Characteristics,  1970.  Kentucky.  No.  19.  Table  128. 


*  Interview  with  Tom  Ross  past  resident  of  Wyoming  County,  West  Virginia, 
Knoxville,  Tennessee,  May,  1973. 

^  C.L.  White,  E.J.  Foscue,  and  T.L.  McKnight,  Regional  Geography  of  Anglo- 
America.  (Englewood  Cliffs,  New  Jersey,  1964),  pp.  165-6. 

36 


SOLAR  ECLIPSES 

by  B.  E.  POWELL* 


In  ancient  times,  eclipses  of  the  sun  were  mysterious,  dreaded,  and, 
in  many  cases,  terrifying  events.  Some  of  the  ancient  people,  such  as 
the  Chinese  and  Babylonians,  developed  procedures  to  predict  the 
occurrence  of  eclipses,  even  though  they  did  not  understand  the  cause 
of  an  eclipse.^  Some  people  believe  that  Stonehenge  was  used  to  fore- 
tell eclipses. 2 

The  cause  of  a  solar  eclipse  is  now  understood.  As  is  shown  in  Figure 
1,  an  eclipse  occurs  when  the  moon  passes  between  the  earth  and  the 
sun  and  blocks  out  light  which  would  otherwise  illuminate  the  earth. 
Because  the  sun  has  a  finite  size  (instead  of  being  a  point  source),  the 
moon's  shadow  has  two  parts:  the  penumbra  (in  which  part  of  the  light 
from  the  sun  reaches  the  earth)  and  umbra  (in  which  all  the  sunlight  is 
blocked).  The  situation  depicted  in  Figure  1  occurs  during  the  phase  of 
the  moon  known  as  the  new  moon.  However,  a  solar  eclipse  does  not 


Figure  1 


occur  each  time  the  moon  is  in  this  phase  because  the  orbit  of  the  moon 
about  the  earth  is  inclined  5°  with  respect  to  the  orbital  plane  of  the 
earth  about  the  sun,  as  shown  in  Figure  2.  The  only  place  the  earth, 
sun,  and  moon  line  up  properly  for  an  eclipse  is  along  the  intersection 
of  the  two  orbital  planes,  which  is  known  as  the  lines  of  nodes  (line 
AA'  Figure  2).  Hence,  a  solar  eclipse  occurs  only  when  the  moon  is 
new  moon  phase  near  the  line  of  nodes.  An  eclipse  may  occur  nineteen 
days  before  or  after  the  crossing  of  the  line  of  nodes.  During  this  period 
of  thirty-eight  days,  (an  eclipse  season),  there  may  be  two  eclipses  since 
a  new  moon  occurs  every  29  1/2  days.  Since  the  moon  crosses  the  line 
of  nodes  every  173.3  days  (which  is  slightly  less  than  every  six  months), 
the  number  of  solar  eclipses  varies  from  two  to  five  per  year.  The  maxi- 

*Associate  Professor  of  Physics,  West  Georgia  College 


1  S.A.  Mitchell,  Eclipses  of  the  Sun,  Fourth  Edition  (New  York:  Columbia 
University  Press,  1935),  pp.  1-52. 

2  Gerald  S.  Hawkins,  Stonehenge  Decoded,  (Garden  City:  Doubleday,  1965), 
pp.  132-159. 

37 


mum  number  occurs  in  years  in  which  there  is  one  crossing  of  the  Hne 
of  nodes  in  early  January,  another  in  the  summer,  and  a  third  in  late 
December;  there  would  have  to  be  two  eclipses  in  two  of  the  eclipse 


seasons. 


PLANE   OF    THE    MOON'S 
ORBIT  AROUND  THE  EARTH 


PLANE   OF   THE  EARTH'S 
ORBIT   AROUND    THE   SUN 


Figure  2 


Three  types  of  solar  eclipses— partial,  annular,  and  total— are 
observed. 

When  the  new  moon  is  not  exactly  on  the  line  of  nodes,  only  the 
penumbra  of  the  moon's  shadow  strikes  the  earth  and  a  partial  eclipse 
is  seen.  A  partial  eclipse  also  accompanies  the  other  two  types  of 
eclipses.  Observers  outside  the  central  path  would  be  in  the  penumbra. 
Before  and  after  the  annular  phase  or  total  phase  of  an  eclipse,  obser- 
vers in  the  central  path  would  experience  a  partial  eclipse.  The  area 
in  which  a  partial  eclipse  may  be  seen  extends  3000  kilometers  (about 
2000  miles)  on  either  side  of  the  central  path.^ 

When  the  new  moon  is  sufficiently  close  to  the  line  of  nodes  and 
when  the  apparent  size  of  the  sun  is  greater  than  that  of  the  moon,  an 
annular  eclipse  is  seen.  Although  the  angular  sizes  of  the  sun  and  moon 
are  approximately  equal  (about  30  seconds  of  an  arc),  the  angular  sizes 
of  these  object  vary.  The  earth  revolves  the  sun  in  an  elliptical  orbit 
(with  the  sun  at  a  focus  of  the  eclipse);  the  distance  between  the  earth 
and  the  sun  varies  from  about  91,000,000  miles  to  about  95,000,000 
miles.  The  apparent  angular  sizes  of  the  sun  is  larger  in  January  when 
the  earth  is  close  to  the  sun  than  in  July  when  the  earth  is  further  from 
the  sun.  Likewise,  as  the  moon  revolves  about  the  earth,  its  distance 


3  See,  for  example:  Chades  H.  Huffer,  Frederick  E.  Trinklein,  and  Mark  Bunge, 
An  Introduction  to  Astronomy,  Second  Edition  (New  York:  Holt,  Rinehart 
and  Winston,  Inc.,  1973),  pp.  246-253.  Donald  H.  Menzel,  Fred  L.  Whipple, 
Gerald  de  Vancouleurs,  Survey  of  the  Universe,  (Englewood  Cliffs:  Prentice 
Hall,  Inc.,  1970),  pp.  218-227.  Cecilia  Payne-Gaposchkin  and  Katherine  Hara- 
mundanis.  Introduction  to  Astronomy,  Second  Edition  (Englewood  Cliffs: 
Prentice  Hall,  Inc.  1970)  pp.  174-183.  J.  Allen  Hynck  and  Necia  H.  Apfel,  As- 
tronomy One,  (Menlo  Park:  W.A.  Benjamin,  Inc.,  1972),  pp.  267-277.  Lloyd 
Motz  and  Anneta  Duveen,  Essentials  of  Astronomy  (Belmont:  Wadsworth  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Inc.,  1968),  pp.  124-129. 

38 


varies  accordingly.  When  the  moon  is  relatively  far  from  the  earth,  the 
umbra  of  the  moon's  shadow  does  not  reach  the  earth.  The  outer  por- 
tion of  the  sun  is  visible  around  the  moon  at  a  mid-eclipse.  The  presence 
of  this  annulus  is  the  origin  of  the  name  of  this  second  type  of  eclipse. 
At  the  equator,  an  annular  eclipse  can  last  as  long  as  twelve  minutes.  ^ 
On  May  30,  1984,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  will  be  close  to  the  center  of  an 
annular  eclipse.^ 

When  the  angular  size  of  the  moon  is  larger  than  the  angular  size 
of  the  sun  and  the  earth,  moon  and  sun  line  up  properly  at  the  new  moon 
phase,  the  third  type  of  an  eclipse  — a  total  eclipse— is  seen.  As  the 
eclipse  begins  (first  contact),  the  moon  comes  between  the  observer 
and  the  sun.  More  and  more  of  the  solar  surface  is  obscured  as  time 
elapses.  Near  totality  (second  contact),  the  phenomena  known  as  shadow 
bands  may  be  seen;  the  origin  of  these  moving  patterns  of  variations  in 
brightness  is  not  understood  but  is  probably  some  type  of  atmospheric 
disturbance.  Bailey's  beads  (caused  by  light  shining  through  irregularities 
on  the  moon's  surface)  may  be  seen  just  before  totality.  If  light  coming 
through  a  single  depression  is  unusually  bright,  the  occurence  is  called 
the  diamond  ring  effect,  since  it  resembles  light  reflected  from  a  soli- 
tary diamond  ring.  During  totality,  the  chromasphere  (reddish,  inner 
part  of  the  sun's  atmosphere)  and  the  corona  (outer  portion  of  the  solar 
atmosphere,  which  extends  millions  of  miles  from  the  surface  of  the 
sun)  are  seen  since  the  light  from  the  brighter  photosphere  (surface  of 
the  sun)  is  hidden  by  the  moon.  Bright  stars  and  planets  (such  as  Mercury 
and  Venus)  may  also  be  seen.  Totality  may  last  up  to  about  7.5  minutes 
and  may  be  experienced  in  a  strip  of  land  (known  as  the  path  of  totality) 
having  a  width  of  less  than  200  miles.  At  third  contact,  totality  ends  as 
the  sun  re-appears  from  behind  the  moon.  Bailey's  beads,  the  diamond 
ring  effect,  and  shadow  bands  may  be  seen.  With  the  passage  of  time, 
more  of  the  photosphere  becomes  visible.  The  partial  phase  of  the 
eclipse  ends  with  the  fourth  contact,  when  none  of  the  solar  surface 
is  covered  by  the  moon.  The  elapsed  time  from  first  contact  to  fourth 
contact  is  about  two  hours. ^ 

The  longest  total  solar  eclipses  (7  minutes  40  seconds)  are  seen 
on  the  equator  when  the  earth  is  at  aphelion  (greatest  distance  from 
the  sun),  the  moon  is  at  perigee  (closest  to  the  earth),  and  the  new 
moon  occurs  at  the  crossing  of  the  line  of  nodes.  At  a  latitude  of 
45°,  the  maximum  duration  of  an  eclipse  is  6  1/2  minutes.  The  speed 
of  the  moon's  shadow  across  the  earth  near  the  equator  is  about 
1600  kilometers  per  hour  (or  1000  miles  per  hour).^ 

It  is  possible  to  calculate  the  occurrences  of  eclipses  for  thousands 
of  years  in  the  past  as  well  as  for  hundreds  of  years  in  the  future.*'^ 


4  Jean  Meeus,  Carl  C.  Grosjean,  and  Willy  Vanderleen,  Canon  of  Solar  Eclip- 
ses, (New  York:  Pergamon  Press,  1966),  pp.  46-74. 
^  Theodor  von  Oppolzer,  Canon  der  Finsternisse  (New  York:  Dover,  1963). 

39 


There  are  several  interesting  applications  of  knowing  the  time  and 
area  experiencing  a  total  eclipse.  Archaelogists  are  able  to  date  ancient 
manuscripts  on  drawings  which  describe  eclipses.  For  example,  the 
Hebrew  prophet  Amos  had  probably  seen  the  solar  eclipse  of  763  B.C. 
when  he  wrote  (in  Amos  8:9)  "I  will  cause  the  sun  to  go  down  at  noon, 
and  I  will  darken  the  earth  on  a  clear  day."  Scientists  have  determined 
that  the  length  of  the  day  is  increasing,  because  the  calculated  path 
of  totality  lies  east  of  the  actual  paths  of  totality  observed  during  well 
documented  ancient  eclipses.  The  length  of  the  day  changes  by  0.0016 
seconds  per  century.  The  cause  of  this  increase  is  the  slowing  down 
of  the  rotation  of  the  earth  about  its  axis  because  of  friction  associated 
with  tides  in  shallow  seas.^ 

Some  of  the  ancient  people  realized  eclipses  are  repeated  in  cycles. 
Edmund  Halley  named  this  repetition  the  Saros.  The  cycle  results 
from  the  fact  that  18  years  11  1/3  days  is  nearly  equal  to  19  eclipse 
years  (the  period  of  time,  346.62  days,  between  the  aligning  of  the 
earth,  sun  and  moon  on  the  same  node),  and  to  223  synodic  months 
(measured  relative  to  the  sun  and  earth).  After  this  time,  the  earth, 
moon,  and  sun  will  be  in  the  same  position  as  occured  for  the  earlier 
eclipse  since  the  moon  will  be  in  the  proper  place  each  eclipse  year 
and  in  the  proper  phase  each  synodic  month.  However,  the  eclipse  will 
occur  about  120°  west  of  the  earlier  eclipse  because  of  the  1/3  day 
in  the  repetition  period.  An  eclipse  will  occur  in  essentially  the  same 
place  after  three  such  periods.  About  half  of  the  eclipses  in  a  Saros 
cycle  will  be  total  or  annular.^ 

Total  solar  eclipses  present  an  opportunity  to  study  a  variety  of 
physical  phenomena,  such  as  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun  (corona  and 
chromosphere),  effect  of  gravitational  forces  on  light  coming  from  dis- 
tant stars,  and  effect  of  solar  radiation  on  the  earth's  surface  and  at- 
mosphere. Biological  effects  have  also  been  observed.  The  effects  of 
a  total  eclipse  on  the  feeding  and  sleeping  habits  of  animals  have  not 
been  well  documented,  even  though  some  references  indicate  cows  will 
go  toward  a  barn  at  the  beginning  of  the  total  phase  and  that  roosters 
will  crow  when  totality  ends.^ 

The  path  of  totality  of  the  March  7,  1970,  eclipse  crossed  the 
southern  and  coastal  part  of  Georgia;  the  author  was  near  the  Savannah 
River  near  Tillman,  South  Carolina,  during  the  eclipse.  The  path  of 
totality  of  July  10,  1972,  eclipse  crossed  Alaska  and  Canada;  the  author 
was  one  mile  from  the  center  line  near  Cap  Chat,  Quebec,  during  the 
eclipse.^  In  both  cases,  however,  totality  was  obscured  by  cloudy  skies. 
During  both  eclipses  the  brightness  of  the  sky  did  not  change  appre- 
ciably to  the  human  eye  until  just  before  totality.  Some  observers  have 


^  Charles  H.  Smiley,  "An  Eclipse  of  the  Sun  for  North  America,"  Sky  and 
Telescope,  35,  no.  3  (March,  1968),  147-150.  Charles  H.  Smiley,  "The  Alcan 
Total  Eclipse  of  July  10,  1972,"  Sky  and  Telescope,  41,  no.  1  (January,  1971), 
10-13. 

40 


equated  the  darkness  of  totality  with  the  brightness  of  a  night  when  there 
is  a  full  moon.  The  author  did  not  find  either  eclipse  to  be  that  dark 
since  it  was  not  difficult  to  see  nearby  objects  (such  as  settings  on  a 
camera).  The  decrease  in  light  was  also  accompanied  by  a  drop  in 
temperature.  The  decrease  in  temperature  was  particularly  apparent 
during  the  March  7,  1970  eclipse.  As  totality  ended,  the  intensity  of 
light  increased  dramatically,  and  the  temperature  slowly  increased. 
During  the  July  10,  1972  eclipse,  the  temperature  was  measured 
during  the  eclipse.  The  results  are  shown  in  Figure  3.  The  decrease  was 
not  as  large  as  reported  by  investigators  during  earlier  eclipses.'^  The 


0 

22  1 

U 

' 

q: 

3 

21    . 

H 

< 

q: 

20- 

UJ 

5 

19  - 

• 

UJ 

h- 

18  . 

' 

18:3  0  19:00  19:30  20:00  2i:30  21:00 

UNIVERSAL      TIME 
Figure  3 

temperature  decrease  was  probably  moderated  by  the  presence  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  since  the  measurements  were  performed  near  the 
south  bank  of  this  river.  The  clouds,  which  became  progressively 
thicker,  probably  prevented  the  return  to  the  pre-eclipse  temperature 
after  totality  ended. 

The  variations  in  brightness  during  the  July  10,  1972  eclipse  were 
measured  with  a  photo-cell  and  ammeter.  Figure  4  shows  the  variations 
at  Cap  Chat,  Quebec,  and  the  variations  at  Carrollton,  Georgia,  where 
approximately  50%  of  the  sun's  surface  was  eclipsed.  The  zenith  light 
intensity  was  measured  at  Cap  Chat  because  the  clouds  prevented  a 
study  of  light  coming  directly  from  the  sun.  The  light  during  totality 
decreased  to  less  than  5%  of  the  value  at  4:00  p.m.  when  only  about 
half  the  sun  was  eclipsed.  The  readings  at  Carrollton  were  made  by 
Robert  Mason,  a  physics  major.  In  this  case,  the  mid-eclipse  valve 
was  about  55%  of  the  initial  reading. 

The  last  total  eclipse  visible  in  the  United  States  during  the  re- 
mainder of  this  century  will  occur  on  February  26,  1979.  The  path  of 


^  "Total  Eclipse  Along  the  Eastern  Seaboard",  Sky  and  Telescope,  39,  no.  5 
(May,  1970),  285-289. 

41 


totality  will  cross  the  state  of  Washington. ^  Perhaps  the  skies  will  be 
clear  on  that  date. 


>- 

(/) 

z 

UJ 


111 
> 

< 
-J 
UJ 

q: 


1.0     - 

0 

. 

0.8    - 

• 

o    ' 

0.6    - 

O 

0.4    - 

o 

0.2    - 

o        o 

o 
oo 

1             1 

1 

1              1 

20'.00  20'.30        2 1 '.0  0        21:30  22:00 

UNIVERSAL  TIME 

Figure  4 

Light  variations  at  Cap  Chat,  Quebec  and  at  CarroUton,  Georgia.  The 
open  circles  give  the  zenith  light  variation  at  Cap  Chat  (total  eclipse). 
The  dots  give  the  variation  of  light  coming  directly  from  the  sun  as 
measured  at  CarroUton  (50%). 


42 


MANAGEMENT  AND  THE  NATURE  OF  MAN 

by  J.  Lincoln  DeVillier*  and 
Mary  Anne  G.  DeVillier** 

A  fundamental  principle  of  management  is  that  responsibility  should 
be  commensurate  with  authority.  In  a  free  economic  society,  persons 
holding  positions  of  authority  — in  business,  in  labor  organizations,  and 
in  other  areas— are  ultimately  accountable  to  society  for  their  actions. 
They  have  social  responsibility,  that  is,  the  obligation  to  act  in  accord 
with  socially  accepted  values  and  also  to  place  the  values  of  society 
above  their  own  should  there  be  conflict  of  interest.  "Public  responsi- 
bility," "public  morality,"  and  "social  obligation"  are  terms  used  synony- 
mously; and  the  responsibility  is  generally  assigned  to  management 
in  all  areas. 

The  continually  expanding  interest  in  the  social  responsibility  of 
various  types  of  executives  would  lead  a  casual  observer  to  conclude 
that  enlightened  man  in  his  innate  goodness  has  evolved  a  new  philo- 
sophic concept  of  relations  between  labor  and  management,  governed 
and  government,  buyer  and  seller.  Unfortunately,  as  history  reveals, 
social  responsibility  has  not  evolved  out  of  the  innate  goodness  of  man. 
Rather,  society  has  forced  social  responsibility  on  management  because 
of  social  abuses  either  fostered  or  tolerated  by  persons  in  responsible 
positions.  Business  management  is  being  forced  to  accept  responsibility 
for  training  and  employment,  for  truth  in  advertising,  for  honesty  in 
trading,  for  alleviation  of  sub-standard  living  conditions  among  workers. 
Labor  management  is  being  forced  to  account  for  manipulation  of 
unions  funds,  for  exploitation  of  members  for  prolongation  of  strikes 
which  endanger  the  stability  or  the  safety  of  the  nation.  Political  man- 
agement is  being  held  accountable  for  the  solicitation  and  use  of  cam- 
paign funds,  for  conflicts  between  public  and  personal  interest,  for 
kickbacks  on  contracts.  Professionals— accountants  and  attorneys 
not  necessarily  in  management  positions— are  being  held  accountable 
to  the  public  for  the  trust  placed  in  their  professions. 

Some  of  the  pressure  by  the  public  for  correction  of  social  abuses 
is  applied  through  the  Federal  Government,  but  awareness  is  growing 
that  governmental  programs  may  alleviate  but  do  not  correct.  Involve- 
ment of  non-management  individuals— especially  of  the  young  and  the 
poor—  is  often  suggested  as  the  missing  ingredient  of  the  recipe  by  which 
twentieth  century  America  is  to  become  the  fulfillment  of  the  eighteenth 
century  dream  of  a  new  Garden  of  Eden,  a  perfect  society  in  which  no 
one  is  poor,  no  one  is  miserable.  Unfortunately,  the  root  of  the  prob- 
lems besetting  twentieth  century  society  is  embedded  not  in  political, 
social,  and  economic  conditions  but  in  the  human  condition.  Obviously, 
people  are  hungry.  People  live  in  housing  unfit  for  habitation.  People 


*Professor  of  Business  Administration.  **Assistant  Professor  of  English,  West 
Georgia  College. 

43 


are  ignorant,  unskilled,  unemployed.  Basic  logic  dictates,  however, 
that  before  solutions  can  be  found,  the  problem  itself  must  be  recog- 
nized. The  problem  is  not  distribution  of  wealth.  It  is  not  equal  oppor- 
tunity. It  is  not  social  equality.  The  problem  is  this:  the  nature  of  man. 

Assessment  of  the  Nature  of  Man 

Management  cannot  perform  its  functions  effectively  unless  it  can 
properly  assess  the  nature  of  the  men  involved.  Is  man  an  intellectual 
being  motivated  by  reason?  Or  a  physiological  being  motivated  by  grati- 
fication of  the  senses?  Or  perhaps  a  creature  of  both  reason  and  emotion 
who  may,  by  virtue  of  his  immortal  soul,  strive  with  hope  toward  per- 
fectibility? In  short,  those  who  desire  to  formulate  the  social  responsi- 
bilities of  executives  must  first  examine  closely  their  ideas  about  the 
nature  of  man  and  the  relationship  of  that  nature  to  the  social  structures 
men  devise  to  attain  their  goals.  Then  perhaps  men  can  apply  the  tech- 
niques and  technology  of  the  twentieth  century  to  the  solution  of  the 
social  problems  which  plague  mankind. 

A  prevalent  view  in  the  United  States  is  that  Americans,  whether  or 
not  they  profess  the  faith,  live  in  a  Christian  society  and  strive  for 
Christian  goals.  Certainly,  the  founding  fathers  of  the  confederation 
which  evolved  into  the  United  States  of  America  couched  their  ideas 
in  the  socially  efficacious  phrases  of  Christianity.  As  a  result,  many 
Americans  believe  theirs  to  be  a  free  society  based  on  the  God-fearing 
Protestantism  of  the  Puritans.  Actually,  social  ethics  of  the  United  States 
of  America— if  one  can  assume  any  conscious  body  of  thought— are 
far  from  Christian,  and  always  have  been.  The  founding  fathers  who 
have  probably  exerted  the  strongest  influence  on  the  basic  concepts  of 
this  society  are  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  neither  of 
whom  was  a  practicing  Christian,  although  both,  as  was  the  custom, 
gave  lip-service  to  traditional  Christian  practice.  Their  conceptions 
of  the  nature  of  man  are  like  those  held  by  other  philosophers  of  the 
Age  of  Reason;  but  the  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth  century  were 
the  product  of  the  seventeenth,  for  it  was  in  the  seventeenth  century 
that  the  real  fragmentation  of  Christian  thought  occurred.  As  S.L. 
Bethell  puts  it,  "the  purification  of  science  from  contaminating  theo- 
logical influence  was  a  permanent  achievement"  of  that  century.^ 
The  laws  of  nature  became  mathematical  equations,  and  reliance  on 
faith  became  reliance  on  reason.  Out  of  that  revolutionary  century  came 
three  basic  concepts  of  the  ideal  society,  each  based  on  a  definite  con- 
cept of  the  nature  of  man,  for  man's  social  structures  reflect  his  ideas 
of  God,  of  self,  and  of  other  men.  Seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century 
philosophers  in  general  and  John  Milton  and  Thomas  Hobbes  in  par- 
ticular expressed  fully  and  often  eloquently  their  ideas  about  man  and 


1  S.L.  Bethell,  The  Cultural  Revolution  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  (London: 
Dennis  Dobson  Ltd.,  1951),  p.  62. 

44 


society,  ideas  which  are  equally  relevant  today. 

The  seventeenth  century  secularization  of  religious  thought,  in  ef- 
fect, separated  man  from  God  and  denied  him  the  fulfillment  of  his 
deep  spiritual  need  for  identification  with  the  Deity.  In  a  very  real 
sense,  the  emancipation  of  the  Enlightenment  set  man  adrift  in  the 
universe:  the  faith  that  bound  man  securely  to  God  was  destroyed  by 
the  goddess  Reason.  Locke  says  of  reason  and  faith:  "Nothing  that  is 
contrary  to,  and  inconsistent  with  the  clear  and  self-evident  Dictates 
of  Reason,  has  a  Right  to  be  urged,  or  assented  to,  as  a  Matter  of  Faith, 
wherein  Reason  hath  nothing  to  do."^  To  Locke  has  been  given  credit 
for  making  acceptable  the  concept  that  men.  by  their  own  efforts  and 
intelligence,  could  bring  their  ideas,  their  conduct,  and  their  institu- 
tions into  harmony  with  the  natural  order  of  the  universe.  The  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  attributed  largely  to  Thomas  Jefferson,  echoes 
the  thoughts  and  words  of  Locke  and  the  French  philosophes:  "to  as- 
sume, among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station, 
to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  nature's  God  entitle  them."  Their 
substitute  for  faith  was  human  experience.  In  their  new  society,  man 
would  live  in  a  state  of  felicity.  To  achieve  this  goal,  however,  the 
philosophers  must  first  isolate  and  enumerate  the  qualities  common  to 
all  men  in  all  times.  Then  they  could  determine  which  customs,  ideas, 
and  institutions  in  their  own  time  were  disharmonious  and  consequently 
evil.  The  articles  of  faith  which  evolved  in  the  Enlightenment  are  these: 
(1)  man  is  not  naturally  depraved;  (2)  the  end  of  life  is  a  good  life  on 
earth;  (3)  man  can,  if  he  follow  the  light  of  reason  and  experience,  per- 
fect that  good  life;  and  (4)  the  essential  condition  of  living  the  good 
life  is  freedom  of  the  mind  from  the  bonds  of  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion and  of  the  body  from  the  oppression  of  civil  authority. ^  The  im- 
plications are  clear:  all  men  are  naturally  good;  only  "disharmonious" 
institutions  are  bad.  Given  freedom  from  ignorance  and  civil  oppression, 
man  can  devise  social  structures  which  provide  the  good  life.  And  the 
seventeenth  century  philosophers'  faith  in  reason  lives  on. 

John  Milton's  concept  of  man  is  quite  different  from  that  of  Locke 
and  the  other  seventeenth  century  philosophers.  Miltonic  man  is  part 
of  the  One  God  and  is,  therefore,  free.  Motivated  by  love  of  God,  he 
lives  by  "right  reason,"  his  God-given  passions  governed  by  his  God- 
given  reason.  "For,  indeed,"  he  says,  "none  can  love  freedom  heartily 
but  good  men;  the  rest  love  not  freedom  but  license."'*  Discipline  is 


2  Quoted  by  Bethell,  p.  15. 

^  Carl  L.  Becker,  The  Heavenly  City  of  the  Eighteenth-Century  Philosophers 
(New  Haven:  Yale  University  Press,  1932),  pp.  102-102.  The  discussion  of  eigh- 
teenth century  humanism,  particularly  that  pertaining  to  the  tenets  of  the  philo- 
sophes. is  based  largely  on  Professor  Becker's  book. 

"*  John  Milton,  "Tenure  of  Kings  and  Magistrates"  in  John  Milton:  Complete 
Poems  and  Major  Prose,  Merritt  Y.  Hughes,  ed.  (New  York:  Odyssey  Press, 
1957),  p.  750. 

45 


the  key  to  the  Mihonic  man,  self-discipline.  By  exercise  of  free  will— 
the  power  to  choose— a  man  may  discipline  his  pride  into  Christian  tem- 
perance, his  vices  into  Christian  virtues.  His  intellect  is  disciplined  by 
study;  his  body,  by  exercise.  He  fulfills  his  moral,  religious,  and  civil 
obligations,  not  grudgingly  as  a  duty  but  cheerfully  as  a  privilege.  Friend- 
ly, courteous,  thoughtful,  he  loves  his  neighbor  as  himself.  He  is  kind. 
He  goes  the  second  mile;  but  he  is  stern  in  righteous  anger  when  prin- 
ciples are  violated.  Rendering  unto  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's, 
he  guards  jealously  the  religious  liberty  upon  which  his  whole  way  of 
life  is  based.  Those  who  hold  wealth  and  power  do  so  by  God's  grace. 
They  act  as  God's  stewards.  Those  who  are  chosen  to  control  others 
will  first  have  demonstrated  their  ability  to  control  themselves. 

On  the  surface,  Milton  would  appear  to  agree  with  the  scientifically 
oriented  philosophers  that  man  is  a  reasoning  creature  who,  if  given 
freedom  to  do  so.  will  build  a  social  structure  which  provides  peace  and 
tranquility  for  all.  The  reason  of  the  philosophers,  however,  is  the  logi- 
cal faculty  of  a  Locke,  a  Descartes,  or  a  Hobbes.  Milton's  reason  is  "right 
reason,"  the  recta  ratio  which  includes  virtue  as  well  as  knowledge, 
faith  and  intuition,  and  feeling  as  well  as  rational  processes.  Swift's 
Houyhnhnms,  those  highly  intellectual  creatures  guided  solely  by 
reason,  are  no  farther  from  Milton's  conception  of  man  than  the  logi- 
cal man  of  the  philosophers. 

The  Hobbesian  concept  of  man,  on  the  other  hand,  scarcely  seems 
to  qualify  man  as  a  rational  creature.  He  is  a  materialistic  creature 
driven  by  his  passions,  not  governed  by  reason.  In  fact,  says  Thomas 
Hobbes  in  Leviathan,  reason  is  "nothing  but  reckoning,"  the  sum  of 
experience.^  "For  there  is  no  conception  in  a  man's  mind,  which  hath 
not  first,  totally,  or  by  parts,  been  begotten  upon  the  organs  of  Sense" 
(L,  p.  1);  he  can  merely  add,  subtract,  multiply,  or  divide  experience. 
Since  he  believes  the  future  to  be  a  mere  "fiction  of  the  mind,"  he  can 
scarcely  believe  in  God.  Consequently,  he  has  no  religious  or  ethical 
basis  for  his  life.  There  are,  for  him,  no  absolutes.  Good  and  evil  exist 
only  as  relative  values:  what  is  desirable  is  good;  what  is  undersirable, 
evil.^  Hope  is  merely  appetite;  courage,  merely  anger.  The  one  con- 
stant in  the  life  of  Hobbesian  man  is  fear;  upon  this  rock  he  built  his 


^  Thomas  Hobbes,  Leviathan,  A.D.  Lindsay,  ed.  (New  York:  E.P.  Dutton, 
1950),  p.  142.  Subsequent  citations  will  be  indicated  by  L  and  page  numbers 
in  parentheses. 

®  In  The  Hunting  of  Leviathan  (Cambridge:  The  University  Press,  1962),  p.  27, 
n.  1.  Samuel  L  Mintz  points  out  that  he  and  Michael  Oakeshott  agree  that 
Hobbes  does  not  ground  natural  law  in  absolute  morality  and  that  Leo  Strauss 
and  Howard  Warrender  argue  that  Hobbes  does.  In  an  appendix  "Other  Inter- 
pretations" to  The  Political  Philosophy  of  Hobbes  (Oxford:  The  Clarendon 
Press,  1957),  Howard  Warrender  compares  his  own  interpretation  to  that  ex- 
pressed by  Michael  Oakeshott  in  the  introduction  to  the  latter's  edition  of 
Hobbe's  Leviathan  (Oxford:  Basil  Blackwell,  1946). 

46 


house.  The  first  law  of  nature,  for  Hobbes,  is  self-preservation.  A  man 
is  justified  in  doing  anything  which  preserves  his  life  and  averts  injury 
or  harm  to  his  person  or  well-being.  For  him,  free  will  is  his  "natural 
right"  to  take  what  he  wants,  to  do  what  he  desires  within  the  limits  of 
his  physical  and  mental  capacity  to  defeat  his  competitors.  Selfish  and 
brutish,  he  seeks  only  ease  and  sensuous  pleasures.  His  general  inclina- 
tion is  "a  perpetual  and  restless  desire  of  Power  after  power,  that 
ceaseth  only  in  Death"  (L,  p.  79).  He  is  consequently,  constantly  at  war 
in  one  way  or  another,  seeking  self-gratification  at  the  expense  of  others. 
His  "liberty"  is  that  of  the  jungle.  The  only  feasible  social  structure  for 
such  a  creature  is  a  power  structure  which  can  exercise  firm  control 
over  all  phases  of  his  life. 

The  contrast  between  Milton  and  Hobbes  is  obvious.  Milton's  em- 
phasis is  on  freedom:  Self-disciplined  men  of  integrity  serve  as  guides 
so  that  all  may  exercise  wisely  their  God-given  freedom  of  choice. 
Hobbe's  emphasis  is  on  power:  Fearful  men  subject  themselves  to  the 
holder  of  power,  purchasing  security  by  the  surrender  of  will  and 
judgment. 


A  Historical  Perspective 

On  the  surface,  it  would  appear  that  the  United  States  enjoys  a 
largely  Miltonic  society.  The  citizens  freely  elect  representatives  to 
guide  them  in  the  exercise  of  their  free  will,  whether  by  voting  at  the 
polls  or  by  investing  in  a  business  or  by  retaining  a  professional  to  repre- 
sent them.  Apparently,  however,  these  leaders  are  not  all  Miltonic 
men  governed  by  "right  reason."  Especially  around  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  was  much  evil  con- 
doned in  the  name  of  progress.  In  spite  of  the  professed  humanistic 
philosophy  of  the  nation,  human  life  and  suffering  counted  for  little. 
In  the  name  of  progress,  the  weak  were  exploited  by  the  strong.  In  de- 
scribing business  practices  at  the  turn  of  the  century,  the  editors  of 
Fortune  commented  that  at  that  time  "American  capitalism  seemed  to 
be  what  Marx  predicted  it  would  be  and  what  all  the  muckrakers  said 
it  was— the  inhuman  offspring  of  greed  and  irresponsibility."^  Harold 
Underwood  Faulkner,  the  historian,  remarked  in  The  Quest  for  Social 
Justice  that  "to  many  thoughtful  men  in  opening  years  of  the  twentieth 
century  it  seemed  that  America  in  making  her  fortune  was  in  peril  of 
losing  her  soul."^ 

Today,  however,  the  concept  of  social  responsibility  on  the  part  of 


''  Morrell  Heald,  "Management's  Responsibility  to  Society:  The  Growth  of  an 
Idea,"  Business  History  Review,  XXXI  (Autumn,  1947),  376. 
8  Harold  Underwood  Faulkner,  The  Quest  for  Social  Justice,  1898-1914,  Vol. 
XI  in  A  History  of  American  Life,  series  edited  by  Arthur  M.  Schlesinger  and 
Dixon  Ryan  Fix  (New  York:  The  MacMillan  Company,  1931),  p.  xv. 

47 


executives  is  firmly  established.  But  this  concept  has  not  been  volun- 
tarily accepted.  History  is  replete  with  examples  that  support  the  earlier 
statement  that  "society  has  forced  social  responsibility  on  management 
because  of  social  abuses  either  fostered  or  tolerated  by  persons  in  re- 
sponsible positions."  Keith  Davis  has  observed  that  "the  avoidance  of 
social  responsibility  leads  to  gradual  erosion  of  social  power. "^  Davis 
points  out  that  because  business  long  denied  any  major  responsibility 
for  unemployment,  it  subsequently  lost  to  government  some  of  its 
power.  Now  business  finds  itself  paying  unemployment  costs  for  which 
it  originally  denied  responsibility  and  at  the  same  time  exercising  less 
authority  than  before.  That  is,  business  has  lost  some  of  its  social  power. 
Also,  continual  management  abuses  brought  on  a  succession  of  legis- 
lation favorable  to  labor,  notably  the  Norris-LaGuardia  Anti- Injunction 
Act  of  1932  and  the  Wagner  Act  of  1935.  Subsequent  abuses  of  newly 
won  power  by  labor  and  its  representatives  resulted  in  legislation  to 
curb  the  newly  gained  power  of  labor:  the  Lea  Act  of  1946  (sometimes 
known  as  the  Anti-Petrillo  Act),  the  Taft-Hartley  Act  of  1947,  and  the 
Landrum-Griffin  Act  of  1959.  Passage  of  the  Wagner  Act  was  the  result 
of  long  public  displeasure  over  lack  of  public  morality  evidenced  by 
the  activities  of  employers  and  managers.  Passage  of  the  Taft-Hartley 
Act  and  the  Landrum-Griffin  Act  resulted  from  public  displeasure 
over  the  socially  irresponsible  activities  of  labor.  Each  of  these  facets 
of  the  economy  — management  and  labor— had  chosen  to  exercise  au- 
thority while  neglecting  social  obligations;  and  the  public  responded 
by  forcing  executives  of  both  management  and  labor  into  more  socially 
acceptable  behavior.  This  pressure  for  social  responsibility  has  now 
spread  to  professional  fields  formerly  concerned  with  use  of  their 
skills  solely  for  the  benefit  of  their  clients  without  regard  for  society 
as  a  whole.  Now  accounting  and  legal  firms  are  held  responsible  for 
considering  the  interest  of  public  investors  when  representing  their 
clients.  Action  against  such  firms  by  the  Securities  and  Exchange  Com- 
mission was  reported  in  a  February  15,  1972,  issue  of  the  Wall  Street 
Journal.  The  success  of  Ralph  Nader  in  the  matter  of  automobile  safety, 
the  passage  of  conservation  laws  restricting  industrial  practices,  the 
passage  of  consumer  protection  laws  and  the  creation  of  consumer 
protection  agencies  all  attest  the  power  of  public  pressure  to  force 
more  and  more  segments  of  the  economy  to  accept  social  responsibility. 


The  Nature  of  the  Problem 

The  concept  of  social  responsibility  on  the  part  of  executives  has 
been  firmly  established.   When  executives  of  labor  or  management 


^  Keith  Davis.  "The  Changing  Climate  of  Business  Social  Responsibilities," 
Current  Issues  and  Emerging  Concepts  in  Management,  Paul  M.  Dauten,  ed. 
(Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1962),  p.  72. 

48 


disregard  such  responsibilities,  the  public  places  restriction  on  their 
operations  and  also  forces  them  to  assume  responsibility  in  some  in- 
direct way.  The  problem  begins  to  reveal  itself,  then,  as  not  economic 
or  even  political  but  philosophical.  The  philosophical  assumptions  of 
the  seventeenth  century  about  the  nature  of  man  which  form  the  bases 
for  current  thinking  offer  several  solutions  to  the  problems  of  man  in 
society.  If  one  accepts  the  premise  of  the  seventeenth  century  philo- 
sophes  that  men  are  both  innately  good  and  guided  by  reason,  that  in- 
stitutions corrupt,  then  one  may  logically  conclude  that  elimination  of 
institutions  will  solve  man's  problems.  But  not  even  the  most  optimistic 
of  American  Transcendentalists  advocated  elimination  of  institutions 
as  a  solution  to  even  the  social  problems  of  man. 

If  one  accepts  the  premise  of  Hobbes  that  men  are  motivated  by 
appetite  and  fear,  then  one  may  logically  conclude  that  some  power 
structure  must  exercise  strict  control  over  all  phases  of  life.  But  an  Or- 
wellian  world  can  evolve  just  as  easily  from  a  socialist  left  as  from  a 
facist  right.  Neither  Lenin  nor  Hitler  disproved  the  lesson  of  history 
that  absolute  power  corrupts.  Hobbesian  controls  are  applicable  only 
to  Hobbesian  men,  and  the  Hobbesian  ruler  has  no  interest  but  his  own. 

If  one  accepts  the  premise  of  Milton  that  men  are  essentially  good 
and  can  discipline  themselves,  by  God's  guidance,  to  proper  exercise 
of  their  free  will  in  the  public  interest,  one  may  conclude  that  men  are 
able  to  structure  a  free  and  open  society  in  which  no  one  will  be  op- 
pressed or  exploited.  Yet  history  reveals  no  such  society  before  or  since 
the  seventeenth  century. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  twentieth  century  has  not  rejected  the  seven- 
teenth century  myth  that  research  and  analysis  can  supply  a  solution  to 
the  problem  of  the  human  condition.  People  cry,  "If  we  can  go  to  the 
moon,  we  can  eliminate  poverty."  So  the  population,  wittingly  or  not, 
spends  millions  yearly  on  studies  such  as  analysis  of  "personality  traits 
fostered  in  school  and  on  the  job."i°  Nor  has  the  twentieth  century 
rejected  Hobbes's  concept  of  human  nature.  The  increasing  arrogation 
by  central  authority  of  the  exercise  of  both  will  and  judgment  is  clear 
evidence  that  both  political  right  and  left  believe  in  the  necessity  for 
^'irm  control.  Men  must  be  forced  to  share  the  cost  of  regulated  relief 
of  financial  distress,  forced  to  restructure  their  cultural  patterns,  forced 
to  assume  whatever  sociological  obligations  the  current  power  group 
dictates.  Neither  has  the  twentieth  century  rejected  Miltonic  optimism 
that  man  can  structure  a  perfect  society  in  which,  as  Walt  Whitman 
phrased  it,  ". . .  all . . .  men  ever  born  are  also  my  brothers,  and  the 
women  my  sisters  and  lovers. "i^  The  ideological  lines  are  not,  however, 


10  A.  Kent  MacDougall,  "A  Different  View:  The  Unorthodox  Ideas  of  Radical 
Economists  Win  a  Wider  Hearing,"  Wall  Street  Journah  February  11,  1972, 
p.  1. 

11  Walt  Whitman,  "Song  of  Myself,"  Leaves  of  Grass,  in  The  Collected  Writ- 
ings of  Walt  Whitman,  Gay  Wilson  Allen  and  Sculley  Bradley,  eds.  (New  York: 
New  York  University  Press,  1965),  p.  33. 

49 


clearly  drawn.  Many  Miltonic  humanists  who  advocate  brotherly  con- 
cern wish  to  assure  it  by  strict,  Hobbesian  controls.  In  their  concern 
for  public  welfare,  they  would,  by  seizing  undelegated  authority,  exer- 
cise their  own  will  and  judgment  and  force  others  to  follow  at  what- 
ever cost  to  individual  conviction.  Many  carefully  constructed  welfare 
schemes  have  proved  to  do  more  harm  than  good  because  the  nature 
of  man  was  ignored  in  the  planning. 

Conclusion 

The  problems  persist,  the  nature  of  man  remains  a  mystery,  and 
humanity  continues  to  suffer.  If  management  hopes  to  manage,  if  it 
expects  to  exercise  the  authority  it  holds— and  even,  it  seems  to  hold 
on  to  that  authority— then  some  intelligent  and  realistic  assumptions 
must  be  made  about  the  nature  of  man.  The  lessons  from  history  are 
clear:  society  forces  responsibility  on  management.  At  the  same  time, 
society  lessens  the  authority  of  management  whenever  it  forces  man- 
agement to  assume  responsibility.  Since  responsibility  without  authority 
is  an  untenable  situation,  management  in  all  areas— industry,  labor, 
government,  education,  and  so  forth— must  assume  social  obligations 
and  proceed  to  find  ways  of  meeting  them.  The  place  to  begin  is  the 
acknowledgement  that  the  problem  of  the  human  condition  is  insepar- 
able from  that  of  the  nature  of  man.  In  setting  up  institutions  and  in 
dealing  with  people,  we  should  consider  the  complex  nature  of  man 
and  arrange  for  checks  and  balances  accordingly. 


50 


ABSTRACTS 

of 
MASTERS  THESES 

and 

SPECIALIST  IN  EDUCA  TION  PROJECTS 

Baraff,  James  A.  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1973) 

UNCONVENTIONAL  HEALING  OF  GROUP  C  STREPTOCOCCUS 

INFECTION  IN  WHITE  MICE: 

A  COMPARISON  OF  PR  A  YER  EFFECTIVENESS 

UNDER  TWO  CONDITIONS 

This  study  was  designed  to  research  some  paranormal  aspects  of 
unconventional  healing.  Previous  research  has  concerned  itself  only 
with  present  (laying  on  of  hands)  paranormal  healing.  This  study  uti- 
lized both  present  healing  by  an  individual  and  distant  healing  (healer 
does  not  see  patient)  by  a  group. 

White  mice  were  used  as  "patients."  Three  groups  of  mice  were 
infected  equally  with  an  LD50 —  concentration  of  the  pathogen 
Streptococcus  C.  All  groups  were  kept  together  in  an  identical  environ- 
ment. One  group  (Group  S)  received  present  healing  treatments.  One 
group  (Group  I)  received  distance  healing  treatments.  A  control  group 
(Group  O)  received  no  treatment.  A  research  assistant,  blind  to  the 
coding  of  the  groups,  counted  the  number  of  dead  animals  daily  during 
the  course  of  the  infection  (8  days).  A  chi  square  was  computed  to 
determine  any  significant  differences  between  the  three  treatment 
levels. 

No  significant  differences  were  found  between  the  three  treatment 
levels.  It  was  concluded  that  in  this  study  no  evidence  of  paranormal 
healing  was  evident.  However,  interviews  with  members  of  the  distant 
prayer  healing  group,  and  the  present  healer,  revealed  negative  emotion- 
al reactions  which  may  have  affected  the  results  of  the  study.  These 
reactions  were  not  revealed  until  the  completion  of  the  study  when  final 
interviews  were  conducted.  Specifically,  the  reactions  were:  1.)  the 
question  of  the  morality  of  infecting  laboratory  animals  for  use  as  sub- 
jects; 2.)  personal  antipathy  by  some  group  members  toward  the  sub- 
jects (mice);  3.)  severe  personal  stress  felt  by  the  present  healer  due  to 
family  difficulties  throughout  the  duration  of  the  study. 

It  would  be  desirable  for  future  investigators  to  control  for  personal 
variables  affecting  the  healers,  and  to  consult  with  the  healer  or  healers 
regarding  research  design. 

51 


Baxley,  Jr.,  Brett  L.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1973) 

TREATMENT  TECHNIQUES  FOR  HEROIN  ADDICTION 

Problem:  Patients  who  are  addicted  to  heroin  are  currently  being 
treated  for  their  addiction  by  hospitals,  clinics,  inpatient  treatment 
facilities,  and  persons  in  private  practice.  Inpatient  and  outpatient 
treatment  is  given.  Many  different  methods  of  treatment  are  being 
used  to  treat  these  patients  including  drug  therapy,  various  kinds  of 
psychoterapy  and  religious  appeals.  These  are  traditional  kinds  of  treat- 
ment. Newspapers  and  magazines,  from  time  to  time,  report  on  new 
methods  of  treatment  such  as  medication  and  acupuncture.  Varied 
reports  of  success  are  given  for  these  new  methods  with  little  or  no 
real  evidence  being  offered  for  verification  of  the  claims. 

Many  addicts  receive  treatment  for  their  addiction  and  still  continue 
to  use  heroin.  Their  case  records  show  that  they  received  certain  treat- 
ments and  were  discharged  from  the  treatment  program,  but  they  sel- 
dom contain  a  statement  of  what  happened  to  the  patients  after  treat- 
ment. The  prescribed  methods  of  treatment  are  determined  as  proper 
by  the  person  prescribing  them  and  the  patient  is  seldom  asked  to 
give  his  opinion  of  the  treatment  methods.  Value  of  treatment  is  usually 
determined  by  persons  other  than  the  patient. 

The  study  reported  here  was  made  to  find  out  how  heroin  addicts, 
who  had  given  up  the  use  of  heroin,  felt  about  the  treatment  methods 
they  had  experienced  in  their  prescribed  program  of  treatment,  and 
which  methods  of  treatment  they  felt  were  the  most  valuable  for  treat- 
ing heroin  addiction. 

Method:  Five  patients  who  had  not  used  heroin  for  periods  of  up 
to  20  months,  and  who  were  currently  enrolled  in  a  resident  treatment 
program,  were  used  in  the  study.  They  evaluated  methods  of  treatment 
used  in  previous  unsuccessful  programs  of  treatment  they  had  under- 
gone. They  also  evaluated  18,  non-medical,  therapeutic  techniques  and 
experiences  used  in  their  current  program  of  treatment.  The  subjects 
evaluated  these  items  in  terms  of  how  the  techniques  had  helped  them  as 
well  as  how  valuable  they  felt  the  items  were  for  use  in  other  heroin 
treatment  programs. 

Conclusion:  The  study  found  that  medical  methods  of  treatment 
for  heroin  addiction  were  not  effective.  Methadone  maintenance  pro- 
grams and  other  chemical  therapies  were  particularly  ineffective. 
Volunteer  drug  abuse  programs  were  found  to  be  ineffective  and  it 
was  shown  that  compulsory  treatment  is  required  for  successful  pro- 
grams. The  particular  kinds  of  psychoterapies  used  in  treatment  pro- 
grams for  heroin  addiction  were  found  to  be  not  critical,  as  most  seem 
to  be  equally  effective.  The  techniques  and  experiences  found  to  be 
most  valuable  in  treatment  of  heroin  addiction  were  those  which  helped 
the  patient  improve  his  self  esteem  and  physical  body  awareness. 

52 


Bell,  Mae  C.  (MA,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  December,  1973) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  RESPONSES  ON  GUIDANCE  SERVICES 
IN  GEORGIA,  CLAYTON  COUNTY,  AND  BABB  JUNIOR  HIGH 

SCHOOL 

This  descriptive  study  investigated  the  perceptions  held  of  guidance 
services  by  four  populations:  students,  teachers,  administrators,  and 
counselors.  The  Georgia  Guidance  Services  Inventory  was  the  instru- 
ment used  to  determine  noticeable  differences  in  state,  system,  and 
local  school  responses.  The  populations  responded  to  sections  on  what 
is  occurring  and  what  should  be  occurring.  Mean  factor  scores  were 
examined.  Findings  indicated  a  need  for  more  interpretation  to 
teachers  and  students  on  state,  system,  and  local  level.  These  two 
populations  responded  in  a  similar  manner  as  did  administrators  and 
counselors.  Local  school  administrators  exhibited  noticeable  differences 
in  most  factors. 

Bledsoe,  Mildred  Rowe  (MA,  Elementary  Education,  August,  1973) 

A  COMPARISON  STUDY  OF  GLOBE  AND  MAP  SKILLS 

AS  LEARNED  FROM  A  UNIT  ON  SKILLS  COMPARED 

WITH  A  GROUP  USING  MAP  SKILLS  ONLY  AS 

NEEDED  IN  OTHER  UNITS  OF  WORK 

This  research  study  was  designed  to  report  and  compare  findings 
of  a  research  study  which  was  to  investigate  scientifically  the  value 
of  teaching  globe  and  map  skills  in  a  unit  compared  to  teaching  the 
skills  as  needed  in  context  from  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  until 
the  delayed  posttest  was  given. 

Subjects  used  in  the  study  were  students  of  two  seventh  grade  classes 
with  an  IQ  range  of  80  to  121.  Both  the  experimental  and  control  groups 
contained  twenty-six  students.  The  subjects  involved  in  the  study  were 
from  two  separate  schools,  which  are  located  in  a  rural  area.  The  sub- 
jects of  the  experimental  group  and  the  comparison  group  were  similar 
in  age,  sex,  and  economic  status. 

A  teacher-made  test  was  used  in  the  study.  A  total  test  score  of  fifty 
was  possible  with  each  correct  response  receiving  one  point.  The  same 
test  was  administered  for  each  testing  period. 

The  pretest  over  globe  and  map  skills  was  given  to  all  students 
involved  in  this  study  on  November  27,  1972.  A  posttest  was  given  to 
all  the  students  on  February  2,  1973  when  the  experimental  group  com- 
pleted the  unit  of  globe  and  map  skills.  After  a  two  months  period,  the 
delayed  posttest  was  administered  to  subjects  in  the  experimental  and 
comparison  groups. 

Three  null  hypotheses  were  tested  by  Analyses  of  Covariance 
(ANOCOVA)  and  the  fourth  by  the  paired  t  test.  The  four  null  hy- 

53 


potheses  were  rejected  at  the  .05  level  of  confidence.  The  experimental 
group  scored  significantly  higher  on  the  posttest  and  the  delayed  post- 
test.  The  fourth  hypothesis  was  rejected  because  the  experimental  group 
lost  retention  significantly  at  the  .05  level,  evidently  because  the  use 
of  skills  had  not  been  reinforced. 

The  conclusion  was  that  a  unit  of  globe  and  map  skills  should  be 
taught  seventh  grade  students  early  in  the  school  year  and  the  skills 
should  be  reinforced  throughout  the  school  year.  The  students  would 
be  better  prepared  to  use  these  skills  in  high  school,  college,  and  the 
remainder  of  their  adult  lives. 


Bottoms,  Jr.,  David  H.  (MA,  English,  August,  1973) 

ROMANTIC  INFLUENCES  ON  THE  POETRY 
AND  CRITICAL  THEORY  OF  HENRY  TIMROD 

Henry  Timrod  was,  perhaps,  the  first  American  who  attempted  to 
resolve  the  theoretical  differences  between  the  poetic  schools  of  Edgar 
Allan  Poe  and  William  Wordsworth.  Timrod's  early  influences  were 
solely  toward  the  musical  aspects  of  poetry.  As  Timrod  matured  and 
became  acquainted  with  the  poems  of  William  Wordsworth,  he  dras- 
tically altered  his  concept  of  poetry  and  sought  to  make  truth,  not  music, 
the  goal  of  his  poems.  He  was  quick  to  recognize  the  shortcomings  of 
both  theories  of  poetry  and  became  concerned  with  creating  an  all- 
encompassing  theory  of  verse.  He  believed,  however,  that  for  any  theory 
of  poetry  to  be  workable,  it  must  not  exclude  even  one  great  poem.  The 
major  fault  of  Poe  and  Wordsworth  was  the  narrowness  of  their  theories. 
Timrod  believed  that  a  real  theory  of  poetry  must  include  both  the 
musical  and  the  philosophical  aspects  of  poetry.  In  developing  his  all- 
encompassing  theory,  he  pointed  to  Alfred  Tennyson  as  a  living  example 
of  a  poet  with  vision  broad  enough  to  employ  the  best  of  both  poetic 
theories  successfully. 

Though  critics  have  found  small  traces  of  Keats,  Shelley,  Arnold, 
and  Browning  in  the  poetry  of  Timrod,  the  influence  of  these  poets 
was  minimal  and  failed  to  effect  the  development  of  Timrod's  poetic 
theory.  This  thesis  will  trace  the  development  of  Timrod's  critical  theory 
through  his  initial  influences  toward  the  musical  aspect  of  poetry,  the 
change  of  concept  Timrod  experienced  from  an  acquaintance  with  the 
poetry  of  William  Wordsworth,  and  the  critical  solution  he  found  in 
the  poetry  of  Alfred  Tennyson. 


54 


Carmichael,  Leon  ClydeiMA,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  August,  1973) 

NINTH  AND  TENTH  GRADE  PUPILS'  OPINIONS  OF 
COUNSELING  SERVICES  AT  SYLVAN  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  counseling  services  at  Sylvan  High  School  have  been  evaluated 
twice  during  the  last  six  years.  In  1967-68  the  evaluation  was  part  of  a 
school-wide  evaluation  required  by  the  accrediting  association.  In  1973 
a  follow-up  evaluation  to  the  1967-68  study  was  made,  in  which  it  was 
recommended  that  the  counselors  be  aware  of  the  changing  needs  of 
the  students— both  academic,  vocational,  and  personal.  This  recom- 
mendation indicated  the  need  for  a  survey  of  pupils'  opinions  of  the 
counseling  services. 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  obtain  and  analyze  ninth  and  tenth 
grade  pupils'  opinions  of  the  counseling  services  offered.  The  cate- 
gories used  in  this  pupil  evaluation  were  the  following:  orientation  and 
general  information,  occupational  information  and  counseling,  educa- 
tional information  and  counseling,  and  personal  problems  and  coun- 
seling. The  study  was  limited  to  ninth  and  tenth  grade  pupils,  since  the 
investigator  was  assigned  to  these  grades. 

It  is  hypothesized  that  counseling  services  at  Sylvan  High  School 
are  not  reaching  the  majority  of  ninth  and  tenth  grade  pupils. 

A  stratified  sample  of  78  pupils— 43  ninth  and  35  tenth— comprising 
about  20%  of  these  two  grades— was  selected  and  administered  a  32- 
item  questionnaire  (Appendix).  Items  1-20  covered  the  four  categories 
above.  Items  21-31  dealt  with  possible  counselor  services.  Subjects  were 
asked  to  check  "yes,"  "no,"  or  "not  sure."  Item  32  was  open-ended  and 
asked  the  pupil  to  list  additional  ways  the  counselor  could  be  of  assis- 
tance. The  questionnaire  was  administered  in  a  group  setting  in  order 
to  gain  a  higher  degree  of  cooperation. 

The  responses  to  the  questionnaire  were  tabulated  and  converted 
to  percentages.  The  data  were  presented  under  the  following  headings: 

(a)  Distribution  of  respondents  according  to  grade  and  sex 

{b)  Orientation  and  general  information 

(c)  Occupational  information  and  counseling 

{d)  Educational  information  and  counseling 

{e)  Personal  problems  and  counseling 

(f )  Possible  counselor  services 

{g)  Ways  in  which  counselors  could  be  of  more  assistance  to 
students 

{h)  Mean  percentages  of  the  four  categories  of  counseling  services 

The  results  of  the  study  led  to  the  following  conclusions: 

(a)  A  majority  of  the  students  seemed  to  know  the  counselor  and 
about  the  counseling  program,  and  had  had  at  least  one  conference 
with  him  a  year. 

{b)  The  students  felt  rather  definitely  that  occupational  information 

55 


and  counseling  was  lacking. 

(c)  Most  of  the  pupils  reported  that  they  had  taken  an  intelligence 
or  achievement  test  but  that  they  had  not  received  an  explanation  of 
the  results. 

(d)  A  majority  of  the  pupils  indicated  that  the  counselor  had  helped 
them  plan  their  high  school  program,  but  they  did  not  feel  that  they  had 
received  adequate  information  about  post-high  school  education. 

ie)  Pupils'  concern  about  personal  problems  (44%)  was  about 
equivalent  to  the  percentage  of  pupils  saying  they  had  received  help 
from  the  counselor  (40%). 

(f)  Most  of  the  students  reported  satisfaction  with  the  help  re- 
ceived from  the  counselor,  although  only  38%  felt  that  some  change  in 
their  thinking  had  resulted. 

ig)  In  connection  with  possible  counselor  services,  a  clear-cut 
majority  favored  help  with  course  selection,  occupational  information, 
and  school-related  problems;  a  little  over  half  (56%)  felt  that  counse- 
lors should  help  with  moral  and  religious  problems. 

(h)  Of  the  41  suggestions  given  in  answer  to  the  open-ended  item, 
18  related  to  educational  planning  and  eight  suggested  help  with  various 
school  problems. 


Douglas,  Judy  C.  (MA,  Secondary  Education,  August,  1973) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  ACHIEVEMENT  IN  AND 

ATTITUDE  TOWARD  AMERICAN  HISTORY  USING  THE 

TRADITIONAL  LECTURE  DISCUSSION  AND 

INQUIRY  METHODS 

Using  two  classes  of  twenty-seven  each  this  study  attempted  to  dis- 
cover if  the  use  of  the  inquiry  approach  of  instruction  would  result  in 
a  significant  gain  in  achievement  and  attitude  as  compared  with  the  use 
of  the  traditional  lecture-discussion  method.  Null  hypotheses  were 
used. 

The  two  classes  were  determined  to  contain  no  significant  dif- 
ferences in  either  achievement  nor  attitude  through  the  t-test  for  the 
difference  between  means  computed  on  pretest  scores  from  form  A 
of  Reemer's  Any  School  Subject  Survey  and  test  four  of  the  Coopera- 
tive Topical  Tests  in  American  History  Series.  A  nine  week  treatment 
followed  with  the  control  class  taught  by  the  traditional  lecture-dis- 
cussion method  and  the  experimental  class  taught  by  the  inquiry 
method.  At  the  end  of  the  treatment  form  B  of  Reemer's  Any  School 
Subject  Survey  and  test  four  of  the  Cooperative  Topical  Tests  in  Ameri- 
can History  Series  were  administered  as  post  tests.  Appropriate  statis- 
tical treatment  found  no  significant  difference  in  attitude  but  a  signifi- 
cant difference  in  achievement  at  the  .05  level  of  significance.  Hypothe- 
sis one  was  rejected.  Hypothesis  two  was  accepted. 

56 


Fidler,  II,  Leland  Willis  (MA,  History,  August,  1973) 

A  RE-EXAMINATION  OF  OPPOSITION  TO 
IMMEDIATE  SECESSION  IN  GEORGIA,  1860-1861 

From  the  moment  Georgia  seceded  historians  have  argued  over 
the  nature  of  the  secession  movement.  Was  secession  a  popular  move- 
ment, or  was  secession  the  resuk  of  a  conspiracy  of  Southern  leaders? 
The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  determine  the  strength  of  the  group  op- 
posed to  secession. 

To  understand  Georgia's  relations  with  the  Union  in  1860  and  1861, 
it  is  helpful  to  look  at  Georgia's  stand  in  1850.  In  this  year  of  crisis, 
Georgia  was  a  leader  among  Southern  states  in  accepting  the  Com- 
promise of  1850.  During  the  1850's  some  Georgia  political  leaders  began 
changing  their  positions  regarding  secession.  The  presidential  campaign 
of  1860  influenced  Georgians  as  they  thought  of  secession.  Moreover, 
the  campaign  waged  in  electing  delegates  to  the  secession  convention 
in   1861   was  significant  for  understanding  the  state's  final  decision. 

I  have  tried  to  use  both  primary  and  secondary  sources  in  this 
project.  Although  I  have  used  no  manuscripts,  I  have  used  many  news- 
papers, diaries,  and  collected  works  of  individuals  from  antebellum 
and  Civil  War  Georgia.  County  histories  were  used  to  try  to  determine 
the  opinion  of  the  "little  men"  in  each  county  regarding  secession. 
"Unionism  in  Georgia,  1860-1861,"  an  unpublished  thesis  by  Ellen 
Louise  Sumner,  was  a  valuable  aid  because  of  its  thorough  bibliography. 

After  investigating  the  evidence  it  appears  that  a  substantial  minor- 
ity of  Georgians  opposed  secession  in  1861.  Numbers  and  percentages 
are  virtually  impossible  to  determine,  since  in  many  cases  differences 
between  "Unionists,"  "Cooperationists,"  and  "Secessionists"  are  seman- 
tic. Although  I  do  not  subscribe  to  a  "conspiracy  thesis,"  it  seems  that 
the  success  of  the  secessionists  was  due  to  the  fact  that  their  "party" 
included  more  of  the  state's  political  leaders.  Moreover,  their  cam- 
paign was  more  vigorously  waged  and  more  easily  argued. 

Gibson,  Elizabeth  Josephine  (MA,  Secondary  Education,  August, 
1973) 

A  STUDY  OF  SELECTED  FACTORS  WHICH  AFFECT  THE 

REGISTRATION  OF  STUDENTS  FOR  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

CLASSES  AT  OSBORNE  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  IN  COBB 

COUNTY,  GEORGIA 

This  study  examined  the  attitudes  of  students  toward  social  studies 
as  compared  to  English,  science,  and  math,  and  also  examined  selected 
factors  which  affected  registration  for  social  studies  courses.  There  were 
814  students  from  Osborne  Senior  High  School  in  the  group  study. 
Slightly  more  than  half  the  boys  and  girls  showed  favorable  attitudes 

57 


toward  social  studies.  Social  studies  ranked  third  in  the  order  of  pref- 
erence of  boys  and  last  among  girls.  Teacher  recommendations,  liking 
the  teacher,  and  graduation  requirements  were  significant  factors  af- 
fecting registration  but  counselor  recommendations  had  virtually  no 
effect. 


Glover,  Inez  Taylor  (MA,  Elementary  Education,  June,  1973) 

A  METHOD  TO  PROVIDE  INDIVIDUAL 
HELP  FOR  A  READING  CLASS 

This  study  was  designed  to  provide  experimental  data  on  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  students  helping  younger  students  in  reading  on  an  in- 
dividual basis.  The  research  design  of  this  study  was  the  pretest  posttest 
control  group  design.  Half  of  a  second  grade  underachieving  reading 
class  was  randomly  chosen  for  the  experimental  group.  These  16  ex- 
perimental subjects  were  paired  with  16  fourth  grade  achieving  readers 
for  a  15-minute  daily  help  session  for  a  period  of  6  weeks.  These  help 
sessions  were  held  in  the  fourth  grade  reading  class  during  the  reading 
period  for  both  groups  involved.  The  help  sessions  involved  assistance 
with  assigned  seatwork  and  other  individual  help  with  reading. 

The  control  group  consisted  of  the  16  second  grade  underachievers 
that  remained  in  the  reading  class  from  which  the  experimental  group 
was  selected.  They  received  no  student  help  with  seatwork  but  were 
paired  with  the  remaining  fourth  graders  for  certain  play  activities. 

Alternate  forms  of  the  California  Reading  Test  were  administered 
as  pretests  and  posttests.  A  t  test  was  computed  to  ascertain  any  signi- 
ficant statistical  differences  between  the  mean  gain  of  the  2  groups. 
These  gains  were  measured  in  3  areas:  (1)  Total  reading,  (2)  Vocabulary, 
and  (3)  Comprehension.  The  3  null  hypotheses  that  there  would  be  no 
difference  between  gains  of  the  2  groups  were  not  rejected. 

While  there  was  no  measurable  statistical  mean  gains  which  could 
be  evidenced  on  the  t  test,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  experimental 
group  made  raw  score  gains  in  each  area  tested  over  the  gains  of  the 
control  group.  The  raw  score  gain  in  comprehension  was  nearly  twice 
as  great  as  the  gain  of  the  control  group  in  this  area. 


Hardy,  Jr.,  James  Eldred  (MA,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  August, 
1973) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  GROUP  COUNSELING  WITH  SOCIALLY 
WITHDRAWN  SEVENTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

A  counseling  group  composed  of  quiet,  shy,  and  withdrawn  seventh 
grade  students  was  set  up  at  Lindley  Junior  High  School  for  the  purpose 
of  helping  these  students  learn  the  skills  needed  for  meeting  new  people 

58 


and  for  expressing  ideas  and  thoughts  openly  without  fear  of  rejection. 
Through  the  use  of  group  discussions,  games,  puzzles,  and  filmstrips, 
the  students  were  able  to  look  at  themselves  and  the  others  around  them 
and  openly  discuss  their  ideas  and  thoughts.  Although  there  was  not  a 
significant  change  in  the  self  concept  of  the  group,  there  was  a  signifi- 
cant change  noticed  by  the  classroom  teachers  in  the  interaction  of  the 
group  members  in  classroom  activities  and  in  the  making  of  new  friends. 


Heard,  Philip  Spurgeon  (MA,  Secondary  Education,  June,  1973) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  DECLARED  SOCIAL  SCIENCE  MAJORS 

AND  DECLARED  BEHAVIORAL  SCIENCE  MAJORS  WITH 

RESPECT  TO  PERSONALITY  FACTORS 

This  study  has  considered  whether  there  is  a  difference  between 
the  personalities  of  social  science  students  and  behavioral  science  stu- 
dents. Samples  were  selected  from  history,  political  science,  psychology 
and  sociology  students  who  took  the  Sixteen  Personality  Factor  Ques- 
tionnaire in  Education  201  classes  at  West  Georgia  College.  Statistical 
treatment  found  that  there  was  a  significant  difference  at  the  .05  level 
on  Factors  B  (low  mental  capacity  — high  general  mental  capacity), 
C  (affected  by  feelings— emotionally  stable),  G  (expedient— conscien- 
tious), H  (shy— venturesome),  M  (practical  — imaginative),  O  (self- 
assured— apprehensive)  and  Ql  (conservative  — experimenting). 


Hoomes,  E/eanor  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
December,  1973) 

THE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN  GRADES  GIVEN  BY  ENGLISH 

TEACHERS  AND  LANGUAGE  AND  NON-LANGUAGE  ABILITY 

AS  MEASURED  ON  THE  CALIFORNIA  SHORT  FORM  TEST  OF 

MENTAL  MATURITY  AND  THE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN 

GRADES  GIVEN  BY  ENGLISH  TEACHERS  AND 

AGE,  SEX,  AND  RACE 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  relationship  be- 
tween teacher-given  English  grades  and  language  ability  as  measured  on 
the  California  Short  Form  Test  of  Mental  Maturity  and  between 
teacher-given  English  grades  and  non-language  ability  as  measured  on 
the  California  Short  Form  Test  of  Mental  Maturity.  A  correlation  tech- 
nique, using  the  0.05  level  of  confidence,  was  used  to  determine  the 
relationship  between  the  treatment  variable  (English  grades)  and  the 
control  variables  (language  and  non-language  ability  scores).  In  addi- 
tion, the  relationship  between  English  grades  and  age,  sex,  and  race 
was  observed. 

59 


A  group  of  seventy-five  Junior  English  students  at  Bowdon  High 
School  in  Carroll  County,  Georgia,  was  used  as  the  population.  The 
findings  showed  a  positive  relationship  between  English  grades  and 
language  ability  as  measured  on  the  California  Short  Form  Test  of 
Mental  Maturity  and  between  English  grades  and  non-language  ability 
as  measured  on  the  California  Short  Form  Test  of  Mental  Maturity. 
In  addition,  there  were  positive  relationships  between  English  grades 
and  age  and  between  English  grades  and  sex.  The  relationship  was 
negative  between  English  grades  and  race. 


Jackson,  Ruth  Aldridge  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, June,  1973) 


A  STUDY  TO  COMPARE  THE  USE  OF  GAMES  AND 

ACTIVITIES  VERSUS  NO  GAMES  AND  ACTIVITIES  IN  THE 

INSTRUCTION  OF  GEOMETRY 

The  study  was  an  attempt  to  determine  any  differences  in  achieve- 
ment and  attitude  between  two  groups  of  students,  who  were  taught 
the  same  unit  of  geometry  by  two  different  methods. 

During  the  six-weeks  period  from  February  5,  1973  through  March 
16,  1973  two  fifth  grade  arithmetic  classes  at  Alabama  Street  School, 
CarroUton,  Georgia  were  taught  the  same  unit  of  geometry  by  the  same 
teacher.  One  group  of  thirty-one  students  became  the  control  group, 
which  was  taught  by  the  traditional  approach  of  teacher  demonstra- 
tions, student  demonstrations,  and  practice  through  drill.  The  other 
group  of  thirty-one  students  became  the  experimental  group,  which 
was  taught  as  the  control  group,  but  with  the  addition  of  games  and 
activities.  Both  groups  used  as  the  basic  text.  Modern  Mathematics 
Through  Discovery  5,   published   by   the   Silver   Burdette   Company. 

The  grade  level  in  mathematics  of  the  two  groups  was  compared 
by  an  examination  of  the  scores  attained  on  the  mathematics  section 
of  the  Iowa  Tests  of  Basic  Skills.  The  mean  comparison  for  the  two 
groups  was  third  grade  seventh  month.  Hence  the  two  groups  were  ob- 
viously equivalent  with  respect  to  grade  level  in  mathematics. 

A  pretest  over  concepts  of  geometry  and  a  preattitude  scale  over 
arithmetic  in  general  and  geometry  in  particular  were  given  to  all  stu- 
dents involved  in  this  study.  At  the  end  of  the  six-weeks  period,  they 
were  given  the  same  tests  as  posttests.  Fisher's  "t"  technique  was  used 
to  test  the  significance  of  differences  between  the  two  groups. 

There  was  no  significant  difference  in  the  mean  gain  between  the 
control  group  and  the  experimental  group.  The  obtained  /  value  in  con- 
cepts of  geometry  was  .065,  in  attitude  toward  arithmetic  was  0.100, 
and  in  attitude  toward  geometry  was  —  1.174.  The  t  values  required 
for  significance  were  1.714  at  the  .05  level  and  2.500  at  the  .01  level 
of  significance. 

60 


The  conclusion  was  that  there  was  no  significance  in  the  mean  gain 
for  the  subjects  being  compared  by  this  study.  There  was  no  signifi- 
cance in  the  mean  gain  pertaining  to  attitude.  Students  achieved  as 
much  concerning  concepts  of  geometry  by  the  traditional  method  of 
teaching  without  the  use  of  games  and  activities  as  those  students,  from 
the  same  population  sample,  achieved  with  the  addition  of  games  and 
activities. 


Jenkins,  Jane  Luck  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
August,  1973) 

DETERMINING  THE  EFFECTS  OF  AN  INDIVIDUAL  TUTORING 
PROGRAM  ON  DISABLED  FIFTH  GRADE  READERS 

This  study  was  designed  to  determine  the  effectiveness  in  reading 
vocabulary,  reading  comprehension,  total  reading  achievement  and  in 
attitude  toward  reading  as  a  result  of  a  structured  tutorial  reading 
program. 

A  purposive  method  of  sampling  was  employed  to  select  35  subjects 
from  the  two  fifth  grade  teams.  The  experimental  and  control  groups 
consisted  of  subjects  who  were  reading  approximately  two  years  below 
grade  level  as  determined  from  the  pupils'  Cumulative  Reading  Records, 
The  McMillan  Basal  Reading  Program.  Eighteen  subjects  in  the  experi- 
mental group  received  assistance  beyond  their  regular  reading  instruc- 
tion. Seventeen  subjects  in  the  control  group  did  not  receive  additional 
help. 

A  structured  tutoring  program  was  conducted  for  nine  weeks  with 
college  students  enrolled  in  Education  351,  West  Georgia  College,  How 
to  Teach  Reading,  working  with  their  subject  on  an  individual  basis 
twice  a  week  for  one  hour. 

For  evaluation  purposes,  alternate  forms  of  the  California  Reading 
Test  and  the  same  form  of  the  Intermediate  Reading  Index  were  admin- 
istered as  pretests  and  posttests.  A  t  test  was  computed  to  ascertain 
any  significant  statistical  differences  between  the  mean  gain  of  the 
two  groups  in  reading  vocabulary,  reading  comprehension,  total  reading 
achievement  and  in  attitude  toward  reading.  The  four  null  hypotheses 
stated  that  there  would  be  no  significant  differences  between  the  two 
groups. 

From  the  statistical  computation  which  was  used  to  test  the  four 
hypotheses,  there  was  no  significant  differences  shown  in  reading  vo- 
cabulary, reading  comprehension  and  in  total  reading  achievement 
at  the  .05  level  of  confidence  therefore  these  three  hypotheses  were  not 
rejected.  The  fourth  hypothesis,  attitude  toward  reading,  showed  a 
significant  difference  at  the  .05  level  of  confidence  according  to  the 
t  value,  therefore  the  fourth  hypothesis  was  rejected. 

61 


Kaufman,  Jr.,  Gus  B.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1973) 

CULTURAL  MEANINGS  OF  THE  TRICKSTER  FIGURE 

The  objective  of  this  study  is  to  begin  to  define  a  cultural  and  psy- 
chic force  in  man  to  be  called  the  trickster  figure  or  archetype,  to  give 
some  idea  of  its  variety  and  universality,  and  to  show  its  importance 
for  individual  and  cultural  well-being. 

The  thesis  is  developed  that  the  trickster  is  closely  related  to  the 
animal,  the  primitive,  and  the  unconscious,  that  man  has  usually  felt 
conflicting  needs  to  suppress  or  to  recognize  and  express  these  parts  of 
himself,  and  that  the  conscious  expression  of  these  needs  is  closely 
related  to  change  and  growth  processes. 

Awareness  is  proposed  as  a  key  variable  in  determining  whether 
trickster  behaviors  are  constructive  or  destructive  for  an  individual 
or  a  society.  In  the  explication  of  the  psychological  nature  of  the  trick- 
ster figure,  cultural  ambivalences  regarding  change,  wandering,  aggres- 
sion, sexuality  and  the  body  are  considered  as  they  are  embodied  in 
taboos,  customs,  and  myths. 

Current  American  examples  of  expression  or  liberation  of  these 
forces,  and  the  possible  benefits  and  dangers  of  this  are  also  considered. 

Finally,  the  author  considers  the  significance  of  the  trickster  theme 
in  his  own  life;  he  creates  and  explicates  a  personal  trickster  myth. 

Legge,  Thomas  J.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
August,  1973) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP 

BETWEEN  SELECTED  VARIABLES  AND  INTEREST 

IN  SOCIAL  STUDIES  AMONG  HIGH  SCHOOL  STUDENTS 

The  problem  of  this  study  was  to  determine  if  there  is  any  relation- 
ship between  intellectual  variables  of  intelligence  quotient,  grade  point 
average,  and  reading  ability  and  the  non-intellectual  variables  of  parents' 
educational  level,  and  the  students'  sex  and  a  student's  interest  in  social 
studies. 

The  subjects  used  in  the  study  were  sixty  high  school  students. 
Thirty  of  these  students  were  classified  as  those  with  low  interest  in 
social  studies  and  thirty  of  these  students  were  classified  as  those  with 
high  interest  in  social  studies.  Analysis  of  variance  and  correlations 
were  run  to  determine  if  there  was  a  significant  difference  between  the 
two  groups. 

The  following  conclusions  were  drawn: 

A.  With  reference  to  the  variables  of  sex  and  interest  in  social 
studies,  there  was  indication  that  male  students  had  slightly  more 
interest  in  social  studies  than  female  students. 

B.  Intellectual  variables  had  no  significant  relation  to  interest  in 

62 


social  studies. 
C.  Non-intellectual  variables  had  no  significant  relation  to  interest 
in  social  studies. 


Lemmon,  Elizabeth  Bullard,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and 
Counseling,  August  1973) 

EFFECTS  OF  GROUP  COUNSELING  UPON 

ATTITUDES  AND  SELF-CONCEPTS  OF  MINORITY  STUDENTS 

IN  A  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 

The  purpose  of  this  research  was  to  determine  if  the  self-concepts 
and  attitudes  of  nine  black  boys  and  seven  black  girls  in  a  middle  school 
could  be  changed  in  twelve  group  sessions.  The  attempt  was  made  to 
develop  the  ego  strength  of  the  students.  This  was  done  by  stressing  and 
reinforcing  the  positive  aspects  of  each  student's  personality  until  he 
saw  himself  as  worthwhile.  It  is  suggested  that  group  counseling,  for 
more  than  the  twelve  sessions  given  these  students,  may  be  a  means 
by  which  the  minority  student  can  receive  aid  in  developing  better 
self-concepts  and  attitudes. 


Lobovits,  Francine  Segal  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1973) 

A  CLINICAL  INVESTIGATION  INTO 

MUTUAL  HYPNOSIS  AS  A  MEANS  OF  EXPANDING 

CONSCIOUSNESS  IN  AN  INTIMATE  MALE-FEMALE 

RELATIONSHIP 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  investigate  the  potential  of  mutual 
hypnosis  as  a  technique  for  facilitating  unity  in  a  married  couple.  By 
"unity"  I  am  also  referring  to  the  expansion  of  consciousness:  for  the 
male,  by  integrating  feminine  principles  into  his  psyche,  and  for  the 
female,  the  integration  of  masculine  principles. 

There  were  three  different  mutual  hypnosis  sessions,  at  each  of 
which  a  different  symbolic  text  was  read  to  the  subjects.  The  texts  em- 
phasized archetypes  and  symbols  of  the  union  of  male  and  female 
energies. 

The  sessions  were  successful  though  not  dramatic.  The  subjects 
could  not  single  out  any  direct  effects  of  the  sessions  in  their  daily 
lives,  but,  they  were  able  to  relate  easily  to  the  symbols  used,  and  felt 
'he  experiences  to  be  highly  meaningful. 


63 


McLendon,  Larry  Leonidas  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1973) 

ADDITIONAL  NORMS  ON  THE  HARVARD  GROUP 
SCALE  OF  HYPNOTIC  SUSCEPTIBILITY,  FORM  A 

Normative  data  were  collected  on  the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of 
Hypnotic  Susceptibility,  Form  A  (HGSHS)  from  a  sample  of  students 
at  West  Georgia  College,  Carrollton,  Georgia.  The  results  are  compared 
with  the  findings  of  the  normative  studies  done  at  Harvard  and  the 
University  of  California  in  order  to  determine  if  the  normative  data 
reported  in  these  studies  are  broadly  representative  of  American  college 
students. 

The  HGHS  was  administered  by  means  of  a  tape-recorded  stan- 
dardized induction  procedure  to  226  undergraduate  and  graduate 
students  in  volunteer  and  non-volunteer  groups.  An  analysis  of  vari- 
ance was  conducted  on  the  raw  data  collected  from  the  sample.  The 
Kuder-Richardson  reliability  co-efficient  and  item-pass  percentages 
were  calculated. 

The  findings  lend  support  to  the  previous  normative  studies.  There 
are  discrepancies  between  the  means  of  the  samples  studied,  but  these 
may  be  explained  by  the  nature  of  the  sample  compositions  rather  than 
by  weaknesses  in  the  scale  itself. 

A  minor  rearrangement  of  the  order  of  two  items  in  the  scale  is 
suggested,  as  well  as  deletion  of  an  ambiguous  suggestion  in  the  induc- 
tion procedure. 


Moyers,  Ruth  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
August,  1973) 

THE  ROLE  OF  A  READINESS  CLASS  IN  THE 

DEVELOPMENTAL  PLACEMENT  PROGRAM  OF 

NORTON  PARK  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

A  description  is  given  of  the  role  of  a  readiness  class  in  the  develop- 
mental placement  program  at  Norton  Park  Elementary  School,  Smyrna, 
Georgia.  It  presents  an  educational  plan  which  allows  for  more  individ- 
ualized instruction  based  on  the  philosophy  that  all  children  do  not 
develop  at  the  same  rate.  Materials  are  presented  which  help  in  de- 
veloping certain  skills  which  are  prerequisites  for  reading  success. 
The  children  in  the  readiness  class  are  those  who  are  not  develop- 
mentally  ready  for  formal  instruction.  By  grouping  these  children, 
provision  is  made  for  the  kinds  of  experiences  and  activities  suited  to 
their  present  level  of  development. 


64 


Peterson,  W.  Martin  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1974) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  INSTITUTIONALIZATION  ON  THE 

CONCEPTS  OF  TRUST  AND  INTERPERSONAL  RELATIONSHIPS 

OF  THE  MILDLY  RETARDED  ADOLESCENT  MALE 

The  mildly  retarded  institutionalized  male  has  entered  a  state  of 
basic  mistrust,  both  of  himself  and  his  environment.  Institutional  life 
has  removed  many  of  the  choices  they,  as  humans,  have  by  supplying 
objective  treatment  and  rehabilitation  in  its  place. 

Both  the  retardate  and  worker  have  entered  an  "it-it"  relation. 
Thus,  each  has  objectified  the  other.  Objectification  has  occurred  to 
the  extent  that  the  mentally  retarded  adolescent  male  does  not  have  a 
concept  of  trust,  nor  does  he  enter  interpersonal  relationships. 

The  information  presented  in  this  thesis  represents  my  attempt, 
within  an  institutional  setting,  to  reintroduce  and  foster  self-evaluation 
and  interpersonal  trust  relationships. 


Prickett,  Jr.,  Harvard  Pittman  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary 
Education,  August,  1973) 

A  STUDY  OF  FACTORS  THAT  INFLUENCE  STUDENT 

CHOICES  OF  SOCIAL  STUDIES  COURSES  AT  DOUGLAS 

COUNTY  COMPREHENSIVE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  study  has  considered  factors  that  influence  student  choices 
of  social  studies  courses.  Samples  were  selected  from  English  classes 
at  Douglas  County  Comprehensive  High  School  during  Spring  Quarter 
of  1973.  Three  hundred  students  were  given  H.H.  Remmer's  scale, 
"A  Scale  to  Measure  Attitude  Twoard  Any  School  Subject,"  Form  A. 
Of  these  three  hundred  students,  sixty  were  selected  for  the  sample 
consisting  of  the  thirty  students  who  scored  highest  in  interest  in  social 
studies  and  the  thirty  who  scored  lowest  in  interest  in  social  studies. 
These  students  were  compared  on  the  following  variables:  intelligence 
quotient,  grade  point  average,  family  economic  background,  home 
reading  materials,  educational  level  of  the  mother,  educational  level 
of  the  father,  reading  ability,  and  sex.  Means,  standard  deviations,  and 
t-scores  were  derived  for  each  factor.  Statistical  treatment  found  that 
students  with  high  interest  in  social  studies  appear  to  have  higher  in- 
telligence quotient  scores,  higher  grade  point  averages,  higher  family 
incomes,  more  reading  materials  in  the  home,  higher  educational  levels 
of  parents,  and  higher  reading  scores  than  do  students  who  have  low 
interest  in  social  studies. 


65 


Raulston,  M.  Greer  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
August,  1973) 

A  LATIN  AMERICAN  HISTORY  OUTLINE 
FOR  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  course  is  designed  to  meet  the  needs  of  accelerated  students 
on  the  senior  high  school  level  who  plan  to  attend  college.  It  is  struc- 
tured for  presentation  under  the  quarter  system. 

The  first  quarter  surveys  the  geography,  the  pre-CoIombian  era, 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  conquests,  and  the  colonial  period. 

The  second  quarter  deals  with  the  various  independence  movements 
and  each  country's  struggle  for  stability. 

The  third  quarter  considers  the  strong-arm  rule  of  dictators  and  the 
development  of  contemporary  nationalism. 


Rowe,  Helen  Hutson  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
August,  1973) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THREE  METHODS  OF 

INSTRUCTION  IN  TEACHING  DIVISION  TO  FIFTH 

GRADE  STUDENTS 

A  study  was  conducted  to  compare  the  gain,  if  any,  in  arithmetic 
achievement  in  division  of  one  group  taught  individually  or  in  small 
groups  (Group  A),  another  group  taught  by  the  class-as-a-whole  ap- 
proach (Group  B),  and  one  group  taught  by  a  combination  of  these 
approaches  (Group  C).  There  were  thirty-three  students  in  Group  A, 
thirty-one  in  Group  B,  and  thirty  in  Group  C.  All  classes  were  hetero- 
geneously  grouped  and  taught  by  the  investigator. 

Three  null  hypotheses  were  tested  to  determine  if  significant  dif- 
ferences existed  between  the  groups.  The  t  test  was  used  to  test  the 
hypotheses.  The  findings  indicated  that  no  significant  difference  was 
found  between  the  groups,  but  the  class-as-a-whole  approach  was  much 
more  effective  than  the  individualized  approach,  but  it  was  not  signifi- 
cantly more  effective  than  the  method  which  used  a  combination  of 
approaches.  Recommendations  for  further  study  were  included. 


Sanders,  Marian  Elizabeth  (MS,  Physics,  August,  1973) 

A  MOSSBAUER  STUDY  OF  Fe-Ni-Al  ALLOYS 

For  samples  of  atomically  disordered  fee  Fe-Ni-Al,  a  study  of  their 
magnetic  properties  was  done  using  room  temperature  Mossbauer  spec- 

66 


troscopy.  The  samples  used  consisted  of  (FexNij.j^)yAlj.y,  where  x 

equaled  0.167  with  y  equaling  1.00,  0.90,  0.85,  and  0.95  for  one  series 
of  alloys  and  x  equaled  0.450,  0.333,  0.167,  and  0.050  with  y  equaling 
0.10  for  the  second  series  used. 

The  main  results  indicated  that  the  addition  of  paramagnetic  Al 
and  ferromagnetic  Ni  decreased  the  hyperfine  field,  H,  of  ferromagnetic 
Fe.  Ni  and  Al  were  found  to  have  different  effects  on  the  spectral  lines 
of  the  alloy.  The  greater  the  Al  concentration  in  a  Fe-Ni-Al  alloy  the 
larger  the  energy  spread  (or  atomic  disorder)  in  the  Mdssbauer  spectral 
lines,  while  the  dependence  on  Ni  showed  a  constant  amount  of  dis- 
order. The  third  result  was  an  anomaly  at  (Fe  j57Ni  §33)  9qA1  jq,  which 

could  have  been  due  to  atomic  ordering.  However,  this  sample  and  all 
others  were  fast  quenched  from  1200°C  (thermally  disordered)  and 
cold  worked  (mechanically  disordered). 

For  alloys  with  x  =0.167,  the  quadrupole  splitting  of  the  spectral 
lines  was  found  to  be  directly  related  to  the  Al  concentration  in  the 
same  manner  as  H.  On  the  other  hand,  the  quadrupole  splitting  and 
isomer  shift  for  y=0.10  were  inversely  related  to  H. 


Savage,  Vince  (MA,  Psychology,  December,  1973) 

CAMERAS  BETWEEN  PERSONS 

The  phenomena  of  experiencing  one's  self  and  one  another  visually 
typically  engenders  considerable  feeling  or  affective  processes  which 
normally  are  not  understood  and  often  are  unnoticed.  This  thesis  ex- 
plores the  intrapersonal  and  interpersonal  feeling  processes  present 
in  situations  of  two  persons  and  a  camera.  This  discourse  is  not  primarily 
concerned  with  photographic  process  or  physiology  of  vision,  but  rather 
is  a  critical  inquiry  into  the  ordinary  approaches  to  photographing  per- 
sons and  deals  with  the  emotional  aspects  of  experiencing  one's  self 
visually.  As  an  alternative  way  of  being  and  as  a  possible  solution  to 
problems  of  cameras  between  persons,  some  theoretical  postulation  and 
demonstration  is  suggested  as  to  how  accelerating  personal  growth  can 
affect  such  phenomena  to  happen  differently.  Moreover,  it  is  an  entreaty 
for  authentic  involvement  with  one's  self  and  other  persons  and  for  an 
artist's  integrity  in  visually  experiencing  one  another. 

Shaye,  Seymour  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1973) 

TOWARD  A  THEORY  OF  POSTURAL  IDENTIFICATION: 
A  COMPARISON  OF  EAST  AND  WEST,  WOMAN  AND  MAN 
THROUGH  THE  POSTURES  OF  SITTING  AND  STANDING 

The  manner  in  which  man  identifies  with  various  postures  has  pro- 
found implications  for  the  life  that  he  lives.  If  he  chooses  to  live  an 

67 


upright  life  to  the  exclusion  of  other  postures,  as  he  has  done  in  the 
West,  then  he  will  manipulate  nature  and  others  to  meet  his  own  per- 
sonal needs.  If  he  chooses  to  identify  with  horizontal  postures,  as  he 
has  done  in  the  East,  then  he  will  hesitate  to  alter  his  relationship  with 
nature. 

The  meaning  of  an  upright  postural  world  is  distance  and  manipu- 
lation of  that  world.  The  meaning  of  a  horizontal  postural  world  is 
closeness  and  acceptance  of  the  world  as  it  is.  If  we  are  to  grow  into 
full  human  beings,  then  we  will  have  to  inhabit  all  postures.  The  inte- 
gration of  these  two  postural  worlds  is  necessary  for  growth.  Without 
living  in  both  worlds  we  neither  understand  nor  accept  what  is  not 
found  in  our  world.  If  our  communication  is  aimed  at  bringing  us  closer 
together,  then  for  it  to  be  effective,  we  must  be  able  to  live  in  many 
different  worlds.  In  order  for  man  to  meet  man,  he  must  inhabit  both 
horizontal  and  vertical  postural  spaces. 


Smith,  Deborah  Sherre  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1973) 

INSTITUTIONALIZATION:  A  SOURCE  OF 
FRUSTRATION  AND  ALIENATION 

The  question  which  is  dealt  with  in  this  paper  is  that  of  the  mental 
institution  and  more  specifically,  its  functions,  goals,  and  effectiveness 
in  the  treatment  of  mental  illness.  The  material  presented  has  been 
gathered  from  two  main  sources:  (1)  my  own  empirical  observations 
based  upon  five  years'  work  in  a  mental  hospital  and  (2)  the  research 
and  findings  of  others.  The  main  objective  of  this  paper  is  twofold.  The 
first  is  to  show  that  a  mental  institution  is  an  unnatural  environment 
and  is  a  source  of  frustration  and  alienation  which  does  little  to  aid  a 
person  in  learning  how  to  function  adequately  in  a  community.  The 
second  is  to  explore  possibilities  for  more  effective  treatment  of  psy- 
chological disorders. 


Smith,    Jimmy   L    (Specialist    in    Education,    Secondary    Education, 
August,  1973) 

INTRODUCTION  AND  IMPLEMENTATION 
CAREER  EDUCATION  (K-6) 

The  elementary  school  teacher  and  administrator  must  make  the 
concept  of  Career  Education  into  an  effective  program  for  all  children. 
Realistic  planning  during  the  formative  years  will  cause  the  formation 
of  attitudes  and  habits  which  will  carry  over  to  the  adult  life  of  the  child. 
Provisions  should  be  made  to  give  every  elementary  child  the  oppor- 

68 


tunity  to  explore  the  world  of  work  and  to  relate  his  own  interests  to 
potential  careers. 

The  grades  K-6  are  an  excellent  time  for  introducing  the  Career 
Education  concepts  and  providing  for  exploration  of  the  work  world. 
The  school  itself  must  be  so  organized  that  full  support  is  given  to  the 
career  program.  Bottoms  and  Matheny  suggest  that  the  following  ob- 
jectives be  utilized  in  the  establishment  of  such  a  program. 

1.  Students  learn  to  know  themselves  in  their  immediate  environ- 
ment and  begin  to  relate  to  the  broader  environment  beyond 
family  and  school. 

2.  Students  develop  identifications  with  workers,  fathers,  mothers, 
and  other  significant  persons. 

3.  Students  learn  and  relate  manual  and  mental  skills  in  the  per- 
formance of  a  number  of  work  tasks. 

4.  Students  acquire  satisfaction  in  the  task  of  learning  itself. 

5.  Students  learn  to  get  along  and  work  with  peers.  These  objectives 
should  be  a  viable  portion  of  every  school's  central  purpose. 
(Bottoms,  1969) 


Starnes,  Eddie  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
August,  1973) 

A  STUDY  TO  MEASURE  MATHEMATICS  COMPETENCE 

UTILIZING  THE  OBJECTIVES  IN  MATHEMATICS 

FOR  GEORGIA  SCHOOLS 

A  multiple-choice  test  was  constructed  utilizing  the  objectives  in 
the  state  mathematics  guide  for  elementary  schools.  The  test  was  ad- 
ministered to  all  sixth  grade  students  in  the  Polk  School  District.  The 
two  major  questions  in  the  study  were:  (1)  Can  a  reliable  test  be  con- 
structed utilizing  the  objectives  in  Mathematics  for  Georgia  Schools'^ 
(2)  To  what  extent  are  sixth  grade  students  accomplishing  these 
objectives? 

The  split-half  method  was  used  to  determine  the  reliability  coef- 
ficient, .88,  which  was  significant  at  the  .01  confidence  level.  A  histo- 
gram showed  that  of  the  540  students  in  the  study,  only  thirty  scored 
above  seventy  per  cent.  There  were  276  students  who  scored  less  than 
fifty  per  cent  on  the  test.  On  this  test,  the  students  demonstrated  the 
highest  level  of  competency  in  those  mathematical  concepts  related  to 
relations  and  functions.  They  scored  lowest  in  those  concepts  related  to 
probability  and  statistics.  Recommendations  for  further  study  were 
included. 


69 


Whitt,  Michael  Emmett  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1973) 

INTROSPECTION:  A  PRECURSOR  OF 
EXPANDED  CONSCIOUSNESS 

Each  individual  finds  himself  submerged  within  his  own  subjective 
relationship  with  existence.  This  unique  position  places  man  at  the 
center  of  a  variety  of  tensions  which  assist  and  diminish  him  as  he  at- 
tempts to  fulfill  his  life.  There  is  an  enormous  variety  of  these  tensions 
which  each  individual  must  face,  and  these  tensions  are  usually  per- 
ceived in  the  form  of  dichotomies.  A  few  of  these  dichotomies  are: 
subject-object,  intellectual-emotional,  rational-irrational,  and  scienti- 
fic-humanistic. All  of  these  dichotomies  are  contained  within  the  human 
situation.  The  human  situation,  then,  is  somewhat  of  a  predicament. 
This  human  predicament  (i.e.,  being-in-the-world)  can  perhaps  be 
better  understood  if  one  considers  man  as  he  relates  to  himself,  to 
others,  and  to  the  world.  Being  human  means  that  life  calls  into  play 
all  the  resources  of  an  individual.  The  manifestations  of  the  tensions 
of  our  human  predicament  are  sometimes  direct,  other  times  indirect; 
yet,  to  some  extent,  they  continually  are  interacting  with  us.  A  basic 
underlying  assumption  is  being  made  concerning  man,  i.e.,  that  if  an 
individual  can  partially  realize  the  complex  nature  of  himself,  especially 
in  terms  of  self-concept,  identity,  and  attitudes,  then  the  responsibility 
(no  more  nor  less  can  be  assumed)  of  one's  attaining  his  own  fulfillment, 
reaches  the  domain  of  possible  outcome. 

To  be  aware  of  the  diversity,  complexity,  and  multiple  dimensions 
of  oneself  seemingly  is  a  prerequisite  for  the  aggrandizement  of  the 
individual.  The  primary  goal  of  this  thesis  is  to  stress  a  more  radical 
shift  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  one's  own  perspectives,  with  an  em- 
phasis on  subjective  attitudes  concerning  these  views.  The  three  major 
chapter  divisions  direct  attention  toward  the  perception  of  specific 
manifestations  of  being  seen  essentially  as  a  complex,  diversified,  and 
multidimensional  personality. 


Wilkinson,  Doris  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
August,  1973) 

A  STUDY  TO  IMPROVE  THE  SUPERVISORY  TECHNIQUES  OF 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  PRINCIPALS  IN  THE  AREA  OF 

READING/LANGUAGE  ARTS  THROUGH  INVOLVEMENT 

IN  AN  IN-SERVICE  PROGRAM 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  improve  the  supervisory  tech- 
niques of  elementary  school  principals  in  the  area  of  reading/language 
arts  through  involvement  in  an  in-service  program. 

This  study  involved  five  elementary  school  principals  of  the  Harris 

70 


County  School  System  during  the  1971-1972  and  1972-1973  school 
terms. 

The  Gates  MacGinitie  Reading  Test  (pretest)  was  administered  to 
students  in  grades  two  through  seven  in  October,  1971.  These  reading 
scores  were  compared  with  data  obtained  from  the  Gates  MacGinitie 
Reading  Test  (post  test)  administered  to  students  in  grades  two  through 
seven  in  April,  1973. 

An  instrument  was  devised  and  utilized  for  measuring  any  change 
in  the  attitudes  of  a  principal  toward  his  supervisory  role  in  the  reading/ 
language  arts  program. 

The  effectiveness  of  the  principal  is  determined  in  part  by  his  abil- 
ity to  improve  instruction  and  his  ability  to  furnish  competent  super- 
vision. The  most  important  work  of  the  principal  is  the  improvement 
of  teaching  in  the  school;  therefore,  his  dominant  function  is  super- 
vision. The  principals  became  involved  in  an  in-service  program  that 
dealt  specifically  with  supervisory  techniques  in  the  area  of  reading/ 
language  arts.  Major  topics  of  concern  were:  exploration  of  needs  in 
a  reading  program,  materials  used  in  the  reading/language  arts  program, 
study  of  reading  test  scores,  needs  of  individual  children,  classroom 
visitation,  and  effective  supervisory  techniques. 

In  providing  themselves  with  appropriate  background  information 
for  the  in-service  program,  the  principals  of  Harris  County  (1)  made 
a  general  survey  of  their  reading  program,  (2)  examined  the  present 
status  in  Harris  County  regarding  reading/language  arts  and  methods 
of  teaching,  (3)  evaluated  the  existing  reading/language  arts  program 
and  methods  of  teaching  in  light  of  the  philosophy  and  objectives, 
(4)  identified  areas  in  reading/language  arts  which  needed  special  study 
and  further  development,  and  (5)  appraised  from  time  to  time  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  the  improvement  program. 

Because  of  the  many  variables,  the  writer  was  not  able  to  make  any 
significant  statistical  comparison  between  pre  and  post  data  obtained 
from  the  administration  of  the  Gates  MacGinitie  Reading  Test. 

The  following  conclusions  were  drawn  from  the  study: 

1.  There  did  appear  to  be  a  positive  change  in  the  attitude  of  prin- 
cipals toward  their  supervisory  role  in  the  reading/language 
arts  program. 

2.  The  principals  had  a  positive  change  in  attitude  about  their  be- 
liefs concerning  the  teaching  of  basal  reading  as  a  result  of  the 
in-service  program. 

3.  Participants  in  the  study  now  have  a  better  understanding  of  a 
developmental  reading  program  in  the  primary  and  elementary 
grades. 

4.  The  effects  of  the  study  had  begun  to  reach  some  of  the  class- 
rooms in  schools  of  the  participants  before  the  study  had  been 
completed;  an  increasing  number  of  principals  had  employed 
successfully  some  of  the  supervisory  techniques  learned  during 
class  participation. 

71 


Addison,  Ann  Dendy  (Specialist  of  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, Spring,  1974) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  EFFECTS  OF  GROUP  COUNSELING 

AND  PEER  TUTORING  ON  THE  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  EIGHTH 

GRADE  UNDERACHIEVERS  AT  LAKESIDE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Twenty-four  eighth  grade  students  at  Lakeside  High  School  were 
identified  as  underachievers.  These  were  students  who  scored  100  or 
above  on  the  Otis  Lennon  Ability  Test  and  who  made  two  or  more  D's 
or  F's  on  their  first  quarter  grade  reports.  These  students  were  divided 
into  three  groups  of  eight.  The  counselor  did  not  work  with  the  control 
group.  Another  group  was  assigned  peer  tutors.  A  third  group  had  group 
counseling  once  a  week  for  the  purpose  of  improving  study  skills  and 
habits.  At  the  end  of  the  second  quarter  the  change  in  grade  averages 
from  first  quarter  to  second  quarter  of  the  three  groups  was  compared. 
There  was  no  significant  difference  in  the  change  in  grades  of  the  three 
groups. 

Addison,  John  Robert  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, Spring,  1974) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  GROUP  COUNSELING  ON  THE  GRADES, 

ATTENDANCE  AND  PARTICIPATION  IN  SCHOOL  ACTIVITIES 

OF  NINTH  GRADE  MALE  POTENTIAL  DROPOUTS  AT 

PEACHTREE  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Sixteen  male  ninth  grade  students  at  Peachtree  High  School  were 
identified  as  potential  dropouts  by  their  teachers  and/or  counselor. 
These  students  were  randomly  divided  into  two  groups.  The  counselor 
did  not  work  with  the  control  group  at  all.  The  experimental  group  had 
group  counseling  fifty  minutes  once  a  week  for  ten  weeks.  At  the  end 
of  ten  weeks  the  change  in  grades,  participation  in  school  activities  and 
attendance  of  the  two  groups  was  compared.  The  counseling  group 
differed  significantly  from  the  control  group  in  change  in  grades  for 
second  quarter.  There  was  no  significant  difference  in  change  in  atten- 
dance or  participation  in  school  activities  for  either  group,  although  two 
members  of  the  experimental  group  joined  a  school  activity  second 
quarter  while  none  of  the  control  group  did. 

Burgess,  Donnie  E.  (MS,  Biology,  Spring,  1974) 

THE  FINE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  METACERCARIAL 
CYST  OF  Posthodiplostomum  minimum 

The  cyst  wall  of  Posthodiplostomum  minimum  (Trematoda:  Diplo- 

72 


stomidae)  consists  of  two  main  parts:  1)  an  outermost,  cellular  layer, 
about  3.0  u  in  thickness,  composed  of  attenuated,  endothelial-like  cells 
containing  granules,  and  interconnected  by  desmosomes;  2)  an  inner 
area  with  a  membrane  peripheral  to  a  compact,  hyalin-like  layer  aver- 
aging 1.46  u  in  thickness.  The  cyst  is  filled  with  a  flocculant  material. 
The  tegument  of  the  worm  inside  the  cyst  is  spinous  with  vesicles  near 
the  surface.  Beneath  the  limiting  membrane  of  the  tegument  are  cir- 
cular and  longitudinal  muscle  bundles  and  cells  with  numerous  granules, 
cytoplasmic  processes,  inclusions,  and  baccilli-form  bodies.  Evidence 
suggests  that  the  tegument  and  underlying  cells  are  involved  in  active 
transport  and  synthesis  of  substances  constituting  the  inner  cyst  wall. 


Chapman,  George  W.  (MA,  Psychology,  Spring,  1974) 

SELF-DISCLOSURE  AND  PHYSICAL  TOUCHING:  AN 
INQUIRY  INTO  RELATIONSHIPS 
BETWEEN  BLACKS  AND  WHITES 

One  hundred  and  twenty-four  undergraduate  students,  black  and 
white,  male  and  female,  between  18  and  23  years  old,  volunteered  to 
answer  Jourard's  and  Rubin's  (1968)  Bodily  Touching  Inventory,  and 
Jourard's  (1964)  Self-Disclosure  Questionnarie,  to  determine  which 
racial  group  disclosed  more  and  touched  more,  and  any  relationship 
between  these  modes  of  communication.  Results  indicate  whites  touch 
and  disclose  more  than  blacks,  but  the  modes  of  communication  in 
either  racial  group  show  little  relatedness. 


Givens,  William  Wyatt  (MA,  History,  Spring,  1974) 

THE  CENTENNIAL  HISTORY 

OF  THE 

CARROLLTON  (GEORGIA)  BAPTIST  ASSOCIATION 

This  thesis  is  a  project  dealing  with  local  history  in  which  the  organ- 
ization and  the  activities  of  the  Carrollton  Baptist  Association  will  be 
examined.  The  Association  is  a  voluntary  group  of  missionary  Baptist 
churches  which  are  located  primarily  in  Carroll  County,  Georgia.  The 
Association  was  formed  on  October  24,  1874,  and  for  one  hundred 
years  it  has  supported  various  mission  activities  both  locally  and  in 
cooperation  with  the  Southern  Baptist  and  the  Georgia  Baptist  Conven- 
tions. The  local  activity  and  the  cooperation  in  wider  activities  is  the 
scope  of  this  thesis. 

The  primary  sources  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  thesis 
were:  Minutes  of  the  Carrollton  Association  for  the  one  hundred  years 
of  its  existence;  Minutes  of  the  Tallapoosa  and  Arbacoochee  Baptist 

73 


Associations;  Minutes  of  the  Alabama  and  Georgia  Conventions  of 
Baptists;  The  Christian  Index;  the  Carroll  Free  Press;  and  private 
letters. 

The  major  secondary  sources  that  were  used  were:  histories  of  the 
Baptist  denomination  in  Georgia  by  Samuel  Boykin,  B.D.  Ragsdale, 
and  James  Adams  Lester;  articles  on  Georgia  Baptist  history  by  Robert 
G.  Gardner  and  Emerson  C.  Proctor  which  were  published  in  View- 
points by  the  Georgia  Baptist  Historical  Society;  histories  and  an  article 
dealing  with  basic  Baptist  principles;  and  two  histories  which  deal 
with  issues  in  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention. 

The  plan  of  work  which  was  followed  in  preparing  this  history  of 
the  Carrollton  Association  was  chronological  and  was  based  on  five 
distinct  periods  in  the  affairs  of  the  Baptists  of  the  area.  The  background 
and  organization  of  the  Association  are  covered  in  chapter  one;  chapter 
two  examines  the  formative  years  from  1874-1897;  in  chapter  three  the 
relation  of  the  Association  to  wider  Baptist  interests  is  the  theme  of 
the  period  from  1898  to  1910;  the  fourth  chapter  considers  the  struggle 
to  promote  mission  work  between  1911  and  1944;  and  chapter  five  sur- 
veys the  progressive  post-war  years  from  1945  until  the  present.  In  each 
period  there  is  a  consideration  of  the  major  issues  which  arose  and  an 
examination  of  relations  with  wider  Baptist  interests. 

The  basic  conclusion  of  this  thesis  is  that  the  Carrollton  Association, 
operating  on  fundamental  Baptist  principles  which  are  deeply  rooted 
in  the  history  of  the  denomination,  has  accomplished  its  work  because 
it  has  had  the  general  support  of  the  majority  of  the  individual  Baptist 
church  members.  The  Association  has  maintained  a  forward  look  and 
has  been  able  to  do  those  things  which  had  the  approval  of  the  man  in 
the  pew  whose  voluntary  support  was  always  necessary  for  the  success 
of  any  effort.  The  Association  has  been  active,  progressive,  and  co- 
operative with  the  wider  efforts  of  Southern  Baptists  and  Georgia 
Baptists. 


Hollander,  Steven  Alan  (MS,  Biology,  Spring,  1974) 

A  NUMERICAL  TAXONOMIC  STUDY  OF  SPECIMENS 
OF  THE  PELECYPOD  FAMILY  VENERIDAE 


A  numerical  taxonomic  study  of  specimens  of  the  molluscan  family 
Veneridae  was  performed,  based  on  the  cluster  analysis  methods  of 
Sokal  and  Sneath.  Only  the  calcified  shells  of  organisms  collected  in 
Florida  were  examined.  Biometric  analysis  was  not  fruitful.  However, 
numerical  analysis  produced  results  consistent  with  current  ideas  of 
the  family  Veneridae. 


74 


Week,  Edna-Earle  (MA,  Psychology,  Spring,  1974) 

THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF  SEXUAL  FUNCTIONING 

TO 
INNER/OTHER  DIRECTEDNESS 

The  objective  of  this  study  is  to  explore  the  relationship  between 
sexual  functioning  and  other-directedness.  An  experimental  group  of 
12  subjects  who  were  being  treated  for  sexual  dysfunction  were  com- 
pared, on  the  O-I  scale  of  the  POI,  to  12  control  subjects  who  were  being 
counseled  for  non-sexual  related  problems.  Statistical  analysis  indicated 
that  the  experimental  group  scored  consistently  more  other-directed 
than  the  control  group.  The  conclusion  drawn  was  that  psychosocial 
orientation,  as  measured  by  the  O-I  scale  of  the  POI,  is  related  to  the 
incidence  of  sexual  dysfunction. 


75 


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AS  OF  JANUARY  1,  1974 


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at  the  State  University  of  New  York  Latin  Americanists'  Conference, 
Brockport,  New  York,  Apr.  7,  1973. 

"University  Reform  in  Central  America."  Paper  read  at  the  Annual 
Southern  Historical  Association,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Nov.  8,  1973. 

Cooper,  Donald  B. 

Exhibitions:  Visual  Arts  Gallery,  Athens,  Georgia;  Frankenburg/ 
Guthrie  Gallery,  Athens,  Georgia;  Swann  Coach  House  Gallery, 
Atlanta,  Georgia,  1973. 

Simon,  Dutchess  Looking  On.  Painting  purchased  by  the  Atlanta 
High  Museum  of  Art  for  the  Permanent  Collection.  Atlanta,  Geor- 
gia, Sep.,  1973. 

Invitational  Exhibition:  Simon-Formal  Portrait,  Georgia  Artist's 
II  (Purchase  Award),  Atlanta  High  Museum  of  Art,  Atlanta,  Geor- 
gia, Nov.,  1972. 

Cowrie  re   Alex 

"La  Bruyere  and  Humor."  Revue  de  Louisiane,  II,  No.   1   (1973), 

92-97. 

deMayo,  Benjamin 

"A  Mossbauer  Study  of  Disordered  Iron-Cobalt-Aluminum  Alloys." 

With  L.J.  Brown.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Phvsical  Societv,  XVIII 

(1973),  257.  (Abstract) 
"The  3d  Band  in  Iron-Cobalt-Aluminum."  Bulletin  of  the  American 

Physical  Society,  XVIII  (1973),  781.  (Abstract) 
"A  Street  Light  Photometric  Project."  With  J.E.  Hogan.  Bulletin  of 

the  Georgia  Academy  of  Sciences,  XXXI  (1973),  87.   (Abstract) 

78 


DeVillier,  J.  Lincoln 

"Organization  and  Format:  Aids  to  Comprehension  or  Aesthetic 
Preference?"  Paper  read  at  the  Southwestern  Social  Science  As- 
sociation, Dallas,  Texas,  Mar.  23,  1973. 

"Business  Communications—  Ideas  for  Solution."  Group  discussion 
leader  at  the  American  Business  Communication  Association,  Phila- 
delphia, Pennsylvania,  Dec.  28-29,  1973. 

Edwards,  C.H.,  Jr. 

"Dickey's  Deliverance:  The  Owl  and  the  Eye."  Critique,  XV,  No.  2 
(1973),  95-101. 

Eslinger,  Eric  V. 

"The  Mechanism  of  Burial  Diagenetic  Reactions  in  Argillaceous 
Sediments.  1.  Mineralogical  and  Chemical  Evidence."  With  John 
Hower.  Transactions,  American  Geophysical  Union,  LIV  (Apr., 
1973),  (Abstract) 

"Oxygen  Isotope  Exchange  During  Burial  Metamorphism  of  Sedi- 
ments and  O^^  /  O^^  Evolution  of  the  Ocean."  Bulletin  of  the 
Georgia  Academy  of  Science,  XXXI,  No.  2  (1973),  85.  (Abstract) 

"Mineralogy  and  Oxygen  Isotope  Geochemistry  of  the  Hydrother- 
mally  Altered  Rocks  of  the  Ohaki-Broadlands,  New  Zealand  Geo- 
thermal  Area."  With  S.M.  Savin.  American  Journal  of  Science, 
CCLXXIII  (1973),  240-267. 

"An  X-Ray  Technique  for  Distinguishing  Between  Detrital  and 
Secondary  Quartz  in  the  Fine-Grained  Fraction  of  Sedimentary 
Rocks."  With  L.M.  Mayer,  T.L.  Durst,  John  Hower,  and  S.M.  Savin. 
Journal  of  Sedimentary  Petrology,  XLIII  (1973),  540-543. 

"Oxygen  Isotope  Geothermometry  of  the  Burial  Metamorphic  Rocks 
of  the  Precambrian  Belt  Supergroup,  Glacier  National  Park,  Mon- 
tana." With  S.M.  Savin  Geological  Society  of  America  Bulletin, 
LXXXIV  (1973),  2549-2560. 

Ferling,  John  E. 

Review  of  From  Resistance  to  Revolution:  Colonial  Radicals  and 
the  Development  of  an  American  Opposition  to  Britain,  1765- 
1776  by  Pauline  Maier.   Pennsylvania  History,   LX   (Apr.,   1973), 

277-79. 

Ford,  James  T. 

"The  Development  of  an  Instrument  for  Evaluating  Administrative 
Process  on  the  Department  Level  in  Higher  Education."  Unpub- 
lished   EdD    dissertation    (education).    Auburn    University,    1973. 

79 


Garmon,  Gerald  M. 

"J.R.R.  Tolkien's  Modern  Fairyland."  West  Georgia  College  Review, 
VI  (May,  1973),  10-15. 

"Lawrence  at  Sotheby's."  With  E.A.  Bojarski.  D.H.  Lawrence  Re- 
view, VI,  No.  1(1973),  113-114. 

"Theses  on  D.H.  Uwrence:  1931-1972."  With  P.C.  Howard  and  E.A. 
Bojarski.  D.H.  Lawrence  Review,  VI,  No.  2  (1973),  217-231. 

"Emerson's  'Moral  Sentiment'  and  Poe's  'Poetic  Sentiment':  A  Re- 
consideration." Poe  Studies,  VI,  No.  1  (1973),  19-21. 
Assistant  Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review,  II,  1969- 

Gay.  James  T. 

"Harrison,  Blaine  and  Cronyism."   The  Alaska  Journal,  III,  No.  1 

(1973),  12-19. 
"Henry  W.  Elliott:  Crusading  Conservationist."  The  Alaska  Journal, 

III,  No.  4  (1973),  211-216. 

Gibbons,  Don  E. 

Beyond  Hypnosis:  Explorations  in  Hyperempiria.  South  Orange, 
New  Jersey:  Power  Publisher  Inc.,  1973. 

"Hyperempiria."  Paper  read  at  the  pre-convention  symposium  of 
the  Georgia  Psychological  Association,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  Feb., 
1973. 

"Beyond  Hypnosis."  Paper  read  at  the  Southeastern  Regional  Con- 
vention of  the  Association  for  Humanistic  Psychology,  Eatonton, 
Georgia,  Mar.,  1973. 

"Hyperempiria."  Paper  read  at  the  Georgia  Psychological  Associa- 
tion, Atlanta,  Georgia,  Apr.,  1973. 

"Hyperempiria:  Hypnosis  Awakened."  Workshop  presented  at  the 
American    Psychological    Association,    Montreal,    Canada,    Sep., 

1973. 

"Hyperempiria:  A  New  ASC."  Paper  read  at  the  Parapsychological 
Association,  Durham,  North  Carolina,  Sep.,  1973. 

"Hyperempiria:  A  New  Altered  State  of  Consciousness  Induced  by 
Suggestion."  Paper  read  at  the  Society  for  Clinical  and  Experi- 
mental Hypnosis,  Newport  Beach,  California,  Dec,  1973. 

Griffith,  Benjamin  W. 

"Robinson  Jeffers's  'The  Bloody  Sire'  and  Stephen  Crane's  'War  is 
Kind'."  Notes  on  Contemporary  Literature,  III  (Jan.,  1973),  14-15. 

"Keats's  'On  Seeing  the  Elgin  Marbles'."  The  Explicator,  XXXI 
(May,  1973),  76. 

80 


Hall,  Gerald  W. 

"A  Study  of  the  Relationships  Among  High  School  Achievement  and 
Perceptions  Regarding  Maternal  Control  and  Locus  of  Control 
Among  University  of  Alabama  Freshman  Males."  Unpublished  EdD 
dissertation  (education),  University  of  Alabama,  1973. 

Haltresht,  Michael 

"Interpreting  Dreams  and  Visions  in  Literature."  Journal  of  English 

Teaching  Techniques,  VL  No.  2  (1973),  1-8. 
"Dreams,  Visions,  and  Myths  in  John  Mersey's  White  Lotus."  West 

Georgia  College  Review,  VI  (May,  1973),  24-28. 
"Qualitative  Analysis  in  the  Study  of  Imagery:  Dostoevski's  Notes 

from  Underground."  Notes  on   Teaching  English,  I,  No.  1  (1973), 

12-14. 

"The  Interpretation  of  Dreams"  and  "Joseph  Conrad,  Novelist." 

Texts  for  two  sets  of  cassettes  manufactured  and  distributed  by 

Omniquest  Co. 

Hecht,  Alan  D. 

"A   New   Model   for   Determining    Pleistocene    Paleotemperatures 

from  Planktonic  Foramimiferal  Assemblages."  Micropaleontology, 

XIX  (1973),  68-77. 
"Quantification  of  Morphologic  Variation  in  Recent  Planktonic  Fora- 

minifera."  Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  V  (1973), 

662.  (Abstract) 

Hersch,  Robert  C. 

"American  Interest  in  the  War  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  1865-1870." 
Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (history).  New  York  University,  1973. 

Holmes,    Y.  Lynn 

"Egypt  and  Cyprus:  Late  Bronze  Age  Trade  and  Diplomacy."  Orient 
and  Occident:  Essays  Presented  to  Cyrus  H.  Gordon  on  the  Oc- 
casion of  His  Sixty-Fifth  Birthday.  Harry  Hoffner,  editor,  Verlag 
Butzon  &  Bercker  Kevelaer,  1973,  pp.  92-98. 

"The  Origin  and  Provenance  of  the  Hearn  Tablet"  and  "Semitic 
Artifacts  in  the  New  World."  Papers  read  at  the  Seminar  on  Pre- 
Columbian  Trans-Atlantic  Crossings,  Lumpkin,  Georgia,  Oct., 
1973. 


Kennedy,   W.  Benjamin 

Translator  for  La  Rochefoucauld-Liancourt's  "Voyage  en  Georgie 
en  1795."  Ramblers  in  Georgia.  Mills  B.  Lane,  IV,  editor.  Savannah: 

81 


The  Beehive  Press,  1973,  pp.  1-15. 

'"Without  Any  Guarantee  on  Our  Part':  The  French  Directory's 
Irish  PoHcy."  The  Consortium  on  Revolutionary  Europe,  1750- 
1850.  Proceedings,  1972.  Lee  Kennett  and  Claude  C.  Sturgill,  co- 
editors.  Gainesville:  University  of  Florida  Press,  1973,  pp.  50-64. 

Lockhart,   William  L. 

Assistant  editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review,  II,  1969- 

McClain,  J.  Dudley,  Jr. 

"How  College- Age  Voters  View  the  Right  to  Unionize  and  Strike." 
Public  Personnel  Management,  I  (Mar.-Apr.  1973),  125-127. 

"The  New  Texas  Voter  and  Police  Unions."  Texas  Police  Journal, 
XXI  (May,  1973),  7-8. 

"The  Georgia  College  Student  in  1972:  A  Preliminary  Descriptive 
Consideration  of  Party  Identification,  Candidate  Preferences,  and 
Attitudes  Toward  Selected  Political  Figures  and  Groups."  Paper 
read  at  the  Georgia  Political  Science  Association,  Stone  Mountain, 
Georgia,  Feb.,  1973. 

"Impact  of  the  New  Southern  College  Student  Voter  Upon  the  Elec- 
toral Process."  Paper  read  at  the  Southern  Political  Science  As- 
sociation, Atlanta,  Georgia,  Nov.,  1973. 

Mathews,  James  W. 

"Literature,  Not  Criticism:  A  Plea  for  Liberality."  English  Journal, 

LXII  (Apr.,  1973),  568-72;  644. 
"Toward  Naturalism:  Three  Late  Novels  of  W.D.  Howells."  Genre, 

VI  (Dec,  1973),  362-375. 

Meehan,  Virginia  M. 

"A  Black's  Symbols  on  a  White  Page."  Paper  read  at  the  First  Monday 
series,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  Nov.,  1972. 

"Teaching  Composition  to  Black  Students."  Paper  read  at  the  Geor- 
gia-South Carolina  College  English  Association,  Athens,  Georgia, 
Apr.,  1973. 

Offiong,  Daniel  A. 

"The  Role  of  Organized  Labor  in  the  Political  Development  of  Ni- 
geria." Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (sociology),  Purdue  Univer- 
sity, 1973. 

Apathy  and  Optimism  Among  Negroes  of  North  End  Champaign, 
Illinois.  Champaign:  Institute  of  Labor  and  Industrial  Relations  of 
the  University  of  Illinois,  1968.  (Pamphlet) 

82 


O' Ma  I  ley,  James  R. 

"A  Case  for  the  T  House,  Union  County,  Tennessee."  Tennessee 
Folklore  Bulletin,  XXXVIII,  No.  1  (1972),  1-5. 
Regional  Landscape  Change:  A  Case  for  ERTS-l.  NASA-CR- 
129227  nE72-l0265.  With  J.B.  Rehder.  Springfield,  Virginia:  U.S. 
Department  of  Commerce,  National  Technical  Information  Ser- 
vice, 1972.  (Pamphlet) 

Geographic  Applications  of  ERTS-l  Imagery  to  Rural  Landscape 
Change  in  Eastern  Tennessee.  NASA-CR-130319  UE? 3- 10040. 
With  J.B.  Rehder.  Springfield,  Virginia:  U.S.  Department  of  Com- 
merce, National  Technical  Information  Service,  1973.  (Pamphlet) 

Powell,  Bobby  E. 

"L- Alanine  Filamentary  Crystals."  Journal  of  Crystal  Growth,  XVIII 
(1973),  307-308. 

"Combinations  of  Third-Order  Elastic  Constants  of  Zinc  and  Cad- 
mium." With  M.J.  Skove.  Journal  of  Applied  Physics,  XLIV  (Feb., 
1973),  666-667. 

"A  Physics  Workshop  for  General  Science  Teachers."  Bulletin  of 
the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science,  XXXI  (Apr.,  1973),  86.  (Abstract) 

"The  July  10,  1972  Solar  Eclipse."  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy 
of  Science,  XXXI  (Apr.,  1973),  91.  (Abstract) 

Rao,  Jaganmohan  L. 

"The  Subcultures  of  Peasantry  and  Poverty  Toward  the  Recognition 
of  a  Subculture  of  Tradition."  Paper  read  at  the  Thirteenth  World 
Conference  of  the  Society  for  International  Development,  San  Jose, 
Costa  Rica,  Feb.,  1973. 

"Status  Inconsistency  and  Communication  Behavior  of  Indian  Pea- 
sants." Paper  read  at  the  International  Communication  Association 
Meeting,  Montreal,  Canada,  Apr.,  1973. 

"Industrialization  and  the  Family."  Paper  read  at  the  Southern  Socio- 
logical Society  Meeting,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Apr.,  1973. 

Reeves,  Robert  Milton 

"The  Influence  of  a  Modified  Racket  on  the  Learning  of  Certain 
Fundamental  Tennis  Skills  by  Young  Children."  Unpublished  EdD 
dissertation  (education).  University  of  Alabama,  1973. 

Roberts,  Paul  Craig 

"Oskar  Lange's  Theory  of  Socialist  Planning."  Unpublished  PhD 
dissertation  (economics).  University  of  Virginia,  1967. 

83 


Alienation  and  the  Soviet  Economy:  Toward  a  General  Theory  of 
Marxian  Alienation,  Organizational  Principles,  and  the  Soviet 
Economy.  Albuquerque:  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1971. 
Marx's  Theory  of  Exchange,  Alienation  and  Crisis.  With  M.A. 
Stephenson.  Stanford:  Hoover  Institution  Press,  1973. 

"Oskar  Lange,  Hierarchy,  Polycentricity,  and  the  Soviet  Economy." 
Paper  read  at  the  Conference  of  the  Southern  Economic  Associa- 
tion, New  Orleans,  Lxjuisiana,  Nov.,  1967. 

"The  Economic  Theory  of  Socialism:  The  Lange-Lerner  Model 
Reconsidered."  Special  University  Lecture  at  the  University  of 
Oxford,  Oxford,  England,  Jan.,  1969. 

"Michael  Polanyi,  A  Keynesian  Monetarist:  Money  in  the  Keynesian 
Revolution."  With  N.  Van  Cott.  Paper  read  at  the  Conference  at 
the  Western  Economic  Association,  Vancouver,  Canada,  Aug., 
1971. 

"The  Concept  of  Planning  in  the  Soviet  Union."  Paper  read  at  the 
Conference  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Social  Science  Association, 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Apr.,  1972. 


Roland,  Ronald  W. 

"A  Study  of  Organizational  Climate  and  Attitude  of  Selected  Schools 
in  an  Innovative  District."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (educa- 
tion), Miami  University,  1972. 


Ryback,  David 

"M  &  M's  and  Behavior  Modification."  Journal  of  the  Council  for 

Exceptional  Children,  XVI,  No.  1  (1966),  3-7. 
"A  Parent's  Guide  for  Use  of  Operant  Conditioning  with  Disturbed 

ChWdvQn."  Journal  of  the  Council  for  Exceptional  Children,  XVII, 

No.  1  (1967),  16-19. 

"10  and  Responsivity  to  Verbal  Operant  Conditioning."  Psycho- 
logical Reports,  XXI  (1967),  336. 

"Confidence  and  Accuracy  as  a  Function  of  Experience  in  Judgment- 
Making  in  the  Absence  of  Systemitic  Feedback."  Perceptual  & 
Motor  Skills,  XXIV  (1967),  331-334. 

"A  Critical  Incident  Simulation  Technique  for  Nurse  Selection." 
International  Journal  of  Nursing  Studies,  IV  (1967),  81-90. 

"Effect  of  Set  on  the  Fading  of  Luminous  Images."  Perceptual  & 
Motor  Skills,  XXVI  (1968),  781-782. 

"The  California  Psychological  Inventory  and  Scholastic  Achieve- 
ment." Journal  of  Educational  Research,  LXI,  No.  5  (1968),  225. 

"Optimism-Pessimism  as  a  Consequence  of  Success  or  Failure  in 
Children."  Psychological  Reports,  XXVI  (1970),  385. 

84 


"The  Dilemma  of  Initiative."  Journal  of  Human  Relations,  (1970), 
739-751. 

"Stimulus,  Respondent  and  Response  Characteristics  of  Social  Dis- 
tance and  Self-Disclosure."  With  M.  Brein.  Sociology  and  Social 
Research,  LV  (1970),  17-28. 

"Parents  as  Behavior  Therapy- Technicians  in  Treating  Reading 
Dificits  (Dyslexia)."  With  A.W.  Staats.  Journal  of  Behavior  Therapy 
and  Experimental  Psychiatry,  I,  No.  2  (1970),  109-119. 

"Sub-Professional  Behavior  Modification  and  the  Development  of 
Token-Reinforcement  Systems  in  Increasing  Academic  Motivation 
and  Achievement."  With  R.S.  Surwit.  Child  Study  Journal,  I,  No.  2 
(1970/71),  52-68. 

"Verbal  Operant  Conditioning  of  an  Active-Non-Active  Verbal 
Differential  in  Early  School  Children."  Child  Study  Journal,  I, 
No.  3  (1971),  123-125. 

"Cognitive  Behavior  Modification:  Increasing  Achievement  Using 
Filial  Therapy  in  the  Absence  of  Supervision."  Canadian  Journal 
of  Behavioral  Science,  III,  No.  1  (1971),  77-87. 

"Existential  Behaviorism:  A  Transactionalistic  Approach  to  Self- 
Determination."  Canadian  Psychologist,  XII,  No.  2  (1971),  243-247. 

"Existentialism  and  Behaviorism:  Some  Differences  Settled."  Cana- 
dian Psychologist,  XIII,  No.  1  (1972),  53-60. 

"Israel's  Encounter  with  Encounter."  The  Jerusalem  Post  Magazine, 
Jun.  23,  1972,  42(13517),  9. 

"Therapeutic  Approaches  in  Theravad  Buddhism  and  Existen- 
tialism: A  Comparison."  Bodhedrum,  CCXLI  (1972),  48-49. 

"Behaviorial  Method  in  the  Treatment  of  Functional  Dyslexia." 
Journal  of  the  Psychiatric  Association  of  Thailand,  XVII,  No.  2 
(1972),  136-137. 

"A   Vector   Model   for    Existential    Behaviorism."    Psychotherapy: 

Theory,  Research  and  Practice,  X,  No.  1  (1973),  5-9. 
"A    Behaviorist   Views    Linguistics."   English    Teaching    Quarterly, 

IV,  No.  4  (1973),  18-31. 
"Child-Rearing  Practices  in  the  Republic  of  China:  A  Cross-Cultural 

Comparison."  With  C.P.  Chu.  Acta  Psychologica    Taiwanica,  XI 

(1973),  6-9. 

Short.   Verl  M. 

A  Point  In  Time.  .  .  Readings  In  Early  Childhood  Education.  Co- 
editor  with  Paula  W.  Smith.  New  York:  MSS  Information  Corpora- 
tion, 1973. 

Skinner,  James  L 

Seven  monographs  with  computer  tapes.  Population  Projections  for 
Austria;  Columbia;  Costa  Rica;  Finland;  Nicaragua;  South  Africa; 

85 


Switzerland,  respectively.  Washington:  Foreign  Demographic 
Analysis  Division,  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1967. 
Four  monographs  with  computer  tapes.  Population  Projections  for 
Botswana;  Kenya;  Sierra  Leone;  Sudan,  respectively.  Washington: 
Demographic  Analysis  Division,  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1968. 
Two  monographs  with  computer  tapes.  Population  Projections  for 
Japan;  New  Zealand,  respectively.  With  A.  Patera.  Washington: 
Foreign  Demographic  Analysis  Division,  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
1968. 

Projections  of  the  1980  Areas  of  the  50  Largest  U.  S.  Urban  Agglom- 
erations. Washington:  Bureau  of  Economic  Analysis,  Social  and 
Economic  Statistics  Administration,  1972. 
"Time  and  Distance:  The  Journey  for  Medical  Care."  With  G.W. 
Shannon  and  R.L.  Bashshur.  International  Journal  of  Health  Ser- 
vices, III  (1973),  237-244. 

Slaughter,  Richard  A. 

"Toward  Modification  of  European  Integration  Theory."  Paper 
read  at  the  annual  International  Peace  Science  Society-Southern 
Division,  Lake  Cumberland  State  Park,  Kentucky,  Apr.  18,  1973. 

Smith,  Paula  W. 

''A  Point  in  Time .  .  .  Readings  in  Early  Childhood  Education.  Co- 
editor  with  Verl  M.  Short.  New  York:  MSS  Information  Corpora- 
tion, 1973. 

Stein,  Waltraut  Johanna  Hedwig 

"Intersubjectivity  and  Schizophrenia."  Unpublished  PhD  disserta- 
tion (philosophy),  Northwestern  University,  1963. 
Translator  from  German  to  English  for  On  the  Problem  of  Empathy 
by  Edith  Stein.  The  Hague:  Martinus  Nijhoff,  1964.  Second  edition, 
1970. 

Editor  for  the  William  Barton  and  Vera  Deutsch  translation  of 
What  is  a  Thing?  by  Martin  Heidegger.  Chicago:  Henry  Regnery, 
1967. 

"The  White  Citizens's  Councils."  The  Negro  History  Bulletin,  XX 
(Oct.,  1956),  2,  21-23. 

Review  of  Existence  and  Freedom  by  Calvin  O.  Schrag.  Journal  of 
Existential  Psychiatry,  IX  (Summer-Fall,  1962),  139-140. 
Review  of  Two  Story  World  by  James  K.  Feibleman.  Georgia  Re- 
view, XXI  (Winter,  1967),  530-531. 

"The  Sense  of  Becoming  Psychotic."  Psychiatry,  XXX,  (Aug.,  1967), 
262-275. 

"Phenomenology    of    Schizophrenia."    Psychiatric    Spectator,    IV 

86 


(Jun.,  1967),  22-23. 

"Edith  Stein,  Twenty-Five  Years  Later."  Spiritual  Life,  XIII  (Winter, 
1967),  244-251. 

"How  Values   Adhere   to  Facts:    An   Outline   of  a  Theory."    The 

Southern  Journal  of  Philosophy,  VII  (Spring,  1969),  65-74. 

"Exploiting  Existential  Tension  in  the  Classroom."  The  Record, 
LXX  (May,  1969),  747-753. 

"Cosmopathy  and  Interpersonal  Relations."  Phenomenology  in  Per- 
spective. Joseph  F.  Smith,  editor.  The  Hague:  Martinus  Nijhoff, 
1970,  pp.  216-231. 

"Reflections  on  the  Human  Position."  Proceedings  of  the  Fourteenth 
International  Congress  for  Philosophy,  V  (1970),  68-73. 

"The  Adventure  of  Changing  Oneself  Through  Dialogue."  Voices, 
VI  (Dec,  1970),  64-74. 

"Truth  as  Subjectivity:  The  Thought  of  Soren  Kiekegaard."  Reli- 
gious Humanism,  IV  (Spring,  1970),  78-82. 

Review  of  Zur  Wesenslehre  des  Psychischen  Lebens  und  Erlebens 
by  Theodor  Conrad,  Philosophy  and  Phenomenological  Research. 
XXXI  (Dec,  1970),  313. 

"Out  of  the  Night:  Edith  Stein  Today."  With  Rev.  John  H.  Nota, 
S.J.  One  hour  television  program  produced  by  WGTV.  Athens, 
Georgia,  May,  1968. 

Taylor,  Howard  E. 

Contemporary  Trigonometry.  With  T.L.  Wade.  New  York:  Mc- 
Graw-Hill Book  Co.,  1973. 

Thomas,  H  Glyn 

Historic  Sites  in  Tennessee.  With  W.T.  Alderson.  Nashville,  Ten- 
nessee: Tennessee  Historical  Commission,  1963,  1967.  (Booklet) 
"Highlander  Folk  School:  The  Depression  Years."  Paper  read  at 
joint  meeting  of  the  Tennessee  Historical  Society  and  the  Ameri- 
can Studies  Association  (Kentucky- Tennessee  Chapter),  Johnson 
City,  Tennessee,  Apr.,  1964. 

"Highlander  Folk  School:  The  Depression  Years."  Tennessee  His- 
torical Quarterly,  XXIII  (Dec,  1964),  358-371. 
Highlander  Folk  School  Audio  Collection,  Register  P9.  Nashville, 
Tennessee:    Tennessee    State    Library   and    Archives,    1964. 
(Mimeographed) 

Zilphia  Horton  Folk  Music  Collection,  Register  #<5.  Nashville, 
Tennessee:  Tennessee  State  Library  and  Archives,  1964,  1968. 
(Mimeographed) 

"Mountain  Protest  Music"  Paper  read  at  the  American  Studies 
Association    (Kentucky-Tennessee    Chapter),    Berea,    Kentucky, 

87 


Apr.,  1967. 

Reviews  of  The  Forgotten  Farmers:  The  Story  of  Sharecroppers 
in  the  New  Deal  by  David  E.  Conrad  and  Labor  Revolt  in  the  South: 
The  Great  Strike  of  1894  by  Robert  D.  Ward  and  William  W. 
Rogers.  Tennessee  Historical  Quarterly,  XXVI  (Spring,  1967), 
105-107. 
"Hear  the  Music  Ringing."  New  South,  XXXIII  (Summer,  1968), 
37-46. 

Highlander  Folk  School  Manuscript  Collection,  Register  #9.  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee:  Tennessee  State  Library  and  Archives,  1968. 
(Mimeographed) 

Upchurch,  John  C. 

Co-editor  with  D.C.  Weaver,  West  Georgia  College  Studies  in  the 
Social  Sciences,  XII,  1973. 

Weaver,  David  C 

Co-editor  with  J.C.  Upchurch,  West  Georgia  College  Studies  in 
the  Social  Sciences,  XII,  1973. 

Woods,  Walter  A. 

"Comments  on  Attitudinal  and  Perceptual  Correlates  as  Bases  for 

Segmentation."  Applications,  Issues,  Developments  and  Strategies 

in  the  Decision  Sciences,  (Mar.,  1973),  128. 
"A  Motivation,   Information,   Manipulation   Model   for   Consumer 

Behavior."   Paper  read   at   the   Southern   Marketing   Association, 

Houston,  Texas,  Nov.,  1973. 

Youngblood,  Betty  J. 

"The  Teaching  of  Political  Science  in  Secondary  Schools."  American 
Secondary  Education,  III,  No.  2  (1973),  35-37. 


88 


7 


ir/^ 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEG 


REVIE 


Vol.  VIII 


May,  1975 


Published  By 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


A  Division  of  the  University  System  of  Georgia 


CARROLLTON,  GEORGIA 


Published  by 
WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


Ward  B.  Pafford,  President 
John  M.  Martin,  Academic  Dean 


Learning  Resources  Committee 
Chairman,  Chester  Gibson 


Tom  Carrere  Lynn  Holmes 

Mary  Creamer  Al  Irby 

Thomas  Davidson  James  M.  Robertson 

Ben  DeMayo  J.  Phillip  Scott 

Judy  DeMayo  Vernon  Zander 

Gerald  M.  Garmon,  Editor 

William  L.  Lockhart,  Associate  Editor 

Martha  Saundei<  Assistant  Editor 


The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  provide  encouragement  for 
faculty  research  and  to  make  available  results  of  such  activity.  The 
Review,  published  annually,  accepts  original  scholarly  work  and  crea- 
tive writing.  West  Georgia  College  assumes  no  responsibility  for  con- 
tributors' views.  The  style  guide  is  Kate  L.  Turabian.  A  Manual  for 
Writers.  Although  the  Review  is  primarily  a  medium  for  the  facutly  of 
West  Georgia  College,  other  sources  are  invited. 

An  annual  bibliography  includes  doctoral  dissertations,  major  re- 
citals and  major  art  exhibits.  Theses  and  articles  in  progress  or  accepted 
are  not  listed.  A  faculty  member's  initial  listing  is  comprehensive  and 
appears  in  the  issue  of  the  year  of  his  employment.  The  abstracts  of  all 
master's  theses  and  educational  specialist's  projects  written  at  West 
Georgia  College  are  included  as  they  are  awarded. 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


REVIEW 


Volume  VIII May.  1975 

TABLE 

of 

CONTENTS 

The  Iliad  and  Veblen's  "Quasi-Peaceable 

Barbarian  Culture" Paul  H.  Bowdre       3 

Historiography  of  Science  Textbooks Lucille  B.  Garmon     12 

Renaissance  Literary  Theory:  Sidney.  Milton,  and 

The  Angel  Raphael Martha  A.  Saunders     20 

A  Quasi-Statistical  Analysis  of  Performance  in  a 

Self-Paced  General  Chemistry  Course Jimmy  C.  Stokes 

William  L.  Lock  hart  and  Hughlan  W.  Pope      23 

Abstracts  of  Master's  Theses  and  Specialist  in 

Education  Projects 28 

Annual  Bibliography  of  West  Georgia  College 

Faculty  as  of  January  1.  1974 50 


Copyright  ©  1975.  West  Georgia  College 
Printed  in  U.S.A. 
Thomasson  Printing  Co..  Carrollton,  Georgia  30117 


THE  ILIAD  AND  VEBLEN'S 

"QUASI-PEACEABLE 

BARBARIAN  CULTURE" 

by  PAUL  H.  BOWDRE* 


I  suppose  we  have  all  had  the  experience  (perhaps  when  we  were 
trying  to  stimulate  some  discussion  in  class  on  the  part  of  our  students) 
of  having  somebody  speak  up  and  say  "Sir,  why  do  we  have  to  read 
this  stuff  anyway— what's  the  point  in  it?"  Something  similar  to  this 
happened  to  me  recently  when  we  were  about  halfway  through  the 
Iliad.  A  male  student  slouched  comfortably  on  the  back  row  joined 
the  discussion  by  remarking  in  a  rather  loud  voice.  "What's  the  use 
of  learning  about  all  these  gods  and  goddesses  and  keeping  up  with 
one  fight  after  another  and  who  killed  who?  How  are  we  ever  going  to 
use  any  of  this  stuff  about  a  bunch  of  ancient  Greeks?" 

Well,  there  is  a  very  brief,  to-the-point  answer  for  questions  of 
this  sort  which  is  as  follows:  "If  you  don't  learn  it  you  won't  pass  this 
course,  and  if  you  don't  pass  this  course  maybe  you  won't  graduate, 
and  if  you  don't  graduate  maybe  you  won't  get  a  desirable  job  and 
make  a  good  salary."  This  usually  takes  care  of  the  situation  nicely, 
as  it  did  in  this  case.  For  some  reason  though,  the  question  of  "rele- 
vance" having  been  raised  about  the  Iliad,  I  found  myself  wishing  I 
had  taken  time  to  present  something  better  in  justification  of  teaching  it. 

This  matter  of  the  relevance  of  the  Iliad  must  have  embedded  it- 
self in  my  subconscious,  since  a  few  nights  later  I  had  a  rather  discon- 
certing dream— a  dream  in  which  I  found  myself  convicted  of  the  crime 
of  teaching  that  particular  epic  and  standing  before  a  jury  consisting 
of  several  of  my  brighter  students,  while  one  of  them  reviewed  the 
charges  before  sentence  was  passed.  As  well  as  I  can  recall  the  charges 
went  like  this: 

Item  I:  that  in  an  era  recently  marked  by  student  protest  of  the 
Vietnam  War  through  anti-war  demonstrations,  giving  the 
"peace  sign,"  boycotting  Dow  Chemical,  and  setting  up  agencies 
to  give  advice  on  avoiding  the  draft,  you  have  the  nerve  to  teach 
us  a  work  of  literature  which  glorifies  battle  and  individual 
prowess,  which  dwells  on  the  savagery  of  war,  and  which  has  as 
its  heroes  men  with  little  to  recommend  them  other  than  their 
fitness  to  make  war 

Item  2:  that  to  a  generation  which  seeks  honesty  and  "mean- 
ingful relationships,"  which  believes  other  persons  should  be 
treated  (to  quote  Buber)  according  to  an  "I-thou"  relationship 
and  not  an  "I-it"  relationship,  you  have  presented  an  epic  which 

*  Professor  of  English,  West  Georgia  College. 

3 


glorifies  fraud,  particularly  in  the  person  of  Odysseus,  but  in 
many  others  as  well,  including  a  number  of  the  "so-called"  gods 

Item  3:  that  in  the  face  of  a  blossoming  and  promising  "Wo- 
men's Lib  Movement"  you  see  fit  to  dwell  on  a  work  in  which 
women  are.  for  the  most  part,  chattel  slaves  to  be  bargained  with 

Item  4:  that  though  we  have  been  led  to  believe  all  our  lives 
that  there  is  only  one  God.  and  that  he  is  logical,  reasonable, 
and  good,  you  instead  present  us  with  a  multitude  of  deities, 
few  of  whom  seem  little  if  any  better  morally  than  the  warriors 
who  are  so  busily  trying  to  hack  each  other  to  death 

Item  5:  that  despite  the  fact  that  our  generation  has  had  the 
benefits  of  modern  science  from  Galileo  to  Einstein,  we  are 
asked  to  take  seriously  the  most  laughable  superstitions,  such 
as  attributing  almost  any  and  everything  to  the  direct  inter- 
vention of  gods  and  goddesses  in  human  affairs,  not  to  mention 
the  superstitious  nonsense  having  to  do  with  interminable  sacri- 
ficing of  goats  and  sheep  to  the  gods  at  the  slightest  provocation 

Item  6:  based  on  the  five  preceding  charges,  we  find  nothing  to 
support  your  claim  that  the  poem  known  as  the  Iliad  has  any 
actual  relevance  to  students  of  today,  and  we  therefore  sen- 
tence you  ... 

At  this  point  I  fortunately  awakened,  greatly  relieved  not  to  be 
"sentenced."  but  rather  indignant  that  I  hadn't  had  time  to  cry  out 
to  all  concerned  that  there  is  danger  in  judging  a  work  of  art  out  of 
its  own  time  and  context,  and  that  any  examination  of  a  work's  "rele- 
vance" must  of  necessity  begin  by  understanding  what  it  "stood  for" 
in  its  own  era. 

I  would  now  like  to  leave  this  somewhat  apocryphal  dream  (hop- 
ing it  has  served  its  purpose)  to  raise  the  question  "How  are  we  to 
understand  the  time  and  context  of  the  Iliad?"  Works  there  are  in 
abundance  which  attempt  the  explanation  needed,  but  the  ones 
I  have  sampled  always  seem  to  miss  the  crucial  point.  They  speak  of 
"Heroic  ideals"  or  "the  pursuit  of  excellence"  or  "artistocratic  ideals" 
or  "the  foundations  of  western  culture"  or  "the  beginnings  of  human- 
ism." but  these  are  simply  pieces  of  nomenclature.  The  phrases  quoted 
seem  primarily  names  given  to  attributes  of  the  Homeric  period  which 
certain  critics  have  deemed  it  advisable  to  lump  together  and  label. 
What  is  needed  is  FIRST  some  explanation  for  why  the  "heroic  ideals" 
or  "excellence"  or  "aristocracy,"  or  "culture"  or  "humanism"  take  the 
particular  form  they  do  in  the  Iliad—  that  is.  how  and  why  are  they  mani- 
fested in  the  particular  events  of  the  poem.  To  be  even  more  specific, 
how  are  the  heroic  ideals  manifested  in  the  quarrel  over  Briseis.  or 
Hector's  prayer  for  his  son.  or  the  sacrificing  of  animals  to  Apollo? 
SECOND,  and  even  more  basic.  "What  is  the  origin  of  these  ideals- 
how  and  why  did  they  come  about?"  It  is  one  thing  to  talk  of  "heroic 
ideals"  but  another  thing  to  show  historically  why  the  ideals  are  what 

4 


they  are  and  why  they  take  the  form  they  do  in  a  particular  work  of  art. 
What  is  needed  is  a  theory  which  reaches  "explanatory  adequacy" 
rather  than  merely  "descriptive  adequacy." 

I  believe  that  to  attempt  an  explanation  of  the  sort  mentioned  it 
is  necessary  to  recognize  two  things  about  the  Iliad:  First,  it  is  essen- 
tially a  poem  about  an  aristocracy  or  leisure  class  as  opposed  to  being 
a  poem  about  the  common  man;  second,  it  is  a  poem  which  reflects 
not  a  unique  early  Greek  culture  but  rather  barbarian  culture  in  general, 
as  it  manifests  itself  at  a  particular  stage  of  its  development.  The  first 
of  these  points  I  feel  is  fairly  obvious—  the  poem  is  almost  entirely  about 
the  Greek  and  Trojan  leaders,  not  the  rank  and  file.  We  read  a  lot  about 
Achilles,  Agamemnon,  and  Hector,  but  next  to  nothing  about  Thersites, 
for  example.  The  second  point  is  a  refutation  of  (what  I  consider)  a 
somewhat  unfortunate  and  misinformed  view  which  sees  the  early 
Greeks  as  a  people  appearing  mysteriously  and  suddenly  on  the  scene, 
entirely  different  from  other  barbarian  peoples  of  the  time,  whose  mani- 
fest destiny  was  to  found  Western  Culture  and  begin  humanistic  thought. 
What  is  needed  is  a  general  theory  of  barbarian  culture,  and,  in  parti- 
cular, a  theory  concerned  with  that  culture's  ruling  class.  If  the  Greeks 
are  indeed  )iot  unique,  such  a  theory  might  throw  light  on  the  questions 
previously  raised  in  regard  to  the  "heroic  ideals"  found  in  the  Iliad. 

Undoubtedly  there  are  a  number  of  such  theories  which  research 
by  anthropologists,  archaeologists,  and  historians  has  contributed  to. 
But  in  the  remainder  of  this  paper  I  would  like  to  consider  the  theory 
of  barbarian  culture  put  forth  by  Thorstein  Veblen  in  his  Theory  of 
the  Leisure  Class,  a  book  which  carries  the  sub-title  "An  Economic 
Study  of  Institutions."  Veblen's  work  is  something  of  a  classic  in  that 
general  area  which  might  be  described  as  "Economics-Sociology." 
It  has  been  standard  reading  on  a  number  of  "Great  Books"  lists  and 
I  will  not  attempt  to  provide  Veblen's  credentials  here.  What  interests 
me  is  the  apparent  lack  of  any  attempt  to  apply  this  socio-economic 
theory  to  the  Homeric  epics,  and  the  fact  that  it  explains  much  about 
them  which  needs  explaining. 

I  shall  attempt  to  sketch  briefly  the  primary  features  of  his  Theory 
of  the  Leisure  Class  while  freely  admitting  the  impossibility  of  doing 
justice  to  a  work  of  some  four  hundred  pages  in  a  few  remarks.  What  I 
put  forth  must  of  necessity  be  suggestive  rather  than  definitive. 

According  to  Veblen.  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  culture  may 
be  divided  into  three  main  types:  savage,  barbarian  and  industrial. 
The  savage  culture,  which  seems  to  account  for  a  very  small  percentage 
of  the  human  race,  is  typified  by  "small  groups  and  a  simple  structure. "^ 
These  groups  are  "commonly  peaceable  and  sedentary."  "They  are 
poor  and  individual  ownership  is  not  a  dominant  feature  of  their  eco- 
nomic system."   Their  culture  differs  from   the  barbarian  culture  in 


1  All  Veblen  quotations  are  from  Thorstein  Veblen.  The  Theory  of  the  Leisure 
Class  (New  York:  Viking  Press,  1935). 

5 


"the  absence  of  a  leisure  class,  and  the  absence,  in  great  measure,  of 
the  animus  or  spiritual  attitude  on  which  the  institution  of  a  leisure 
class  rests."  "It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  class  seems  to  include  the  most 
peaceable— perhaps  all  the  characteristically  peaceable— primitive 
groups  of  men."  Indeed,  the  most  notable  trait  common  to  members 
of  the  savage  culture  is  "a  certain  amiable  inefficiency  when  confronted 
with  force  or  fraud."  Perhaps  it  would  be  safe  to  guess  that  those  Indians 
who  sold  Manhattan  Island  to  our  forefathers  for  the  equivalent  of 
$24.00  were  part  of  the  savage  culture. 

The  barbarian  culture,  which  is  the  type  of  primary  interest  to  the 
matter  at  hand,  will  be  discussed  in  considerably  greater  detail.  Accord- 
ing to  Veblen,  the  barbarian  culture  may  be  said  to  begin  when  the 
community  passes  from  peaceable  savagery  to  a  predatory  phase  of 
life.  This  predatory  phase  of  life  ordinarily  coincides  with  the  com- 
mencement of  the  hunting  of  wild  beasts  for  food,  and  often  with  the 
beginnings  of  conflicts  of  a  military  nature  with  neighboring  tribes. 
As  Veblen  points  out,  there  arises  in  this  primitive  barbarian  culture  a 
distinction  between  the  kind  of  activity  which  involves  prowess  or  ex- 
ploit (such  as  big-game  hunting  and  warfare)  and  the  type  of  activity 
which  might  be  classified  as  either  service  or  industry  (such  as  cooking, 
making  of  tools  other  than  weapons,  cutting  up  the  kill,  caring  for 
children,  etc.)  which  was  usually  carried  on  by  the  women,  old  people, 
slaves  (if  any),  and  others  considered  unfit  by  physique,  age,  or  status 
for  acts  of  exploit.  The  primitive  barbarian  warrior  begins  to  view  the 
exploitive  or  predatory  activites  as  honorable,  and  the  industrial  or 
service  activities  as  dishonorable  or  "women's  work."  It  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  in  some  tribes  of  today  which  are  still  at  this  level  of  culture, 
the  hunters  will  not  drag  their  kill  home  or  cut  it  up— it  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  women  to  take  care  of  these  non-exploitive  functions. 

Thus,  in  primitive  barbarian  culture,  status  is  largely  based  on 
prowess  in  hunting  and  warfare,  and  although  no  real  leisure  class,  as 
such,  has  developed,  still  an  invidious  comparison,  from  the  standpoint 
of  status,  is  made  between  the  activities  involving  prowess,  which  are 
honorable,  and  those  involving  productive  industry  or  service,  which 
are  base. 

In  the  next  stage  of  barbarian  culture,  referred  to  by  Veblen  as 
the  "quasi-peaceable"  stage,  one  finds  that  the  earlier  reliance  on 
prowess  or  exploit  for  status  has  been  elaborated  on  in  a  number  of 
ways:  First,  the  institution  of  private  (rather  than  community)  owner- 
ship has  developed,  probably  as  a  result  of  the  successful  capture  of 
female  slaves.  Then,  the  initial  phase  of  ownership,  based  on  seizure 
of  captives,  begins  to  pass  into  a  subsequent  stage  which  sees  industry 
beginning  to  be  organized  on  the  basis  of  slave  labor.  Now  status  no 
longer  depends  entirely  on  direct  exhibition  of  prowess  in  hunting  and 
battle,  but  also  depends  on  the  evidence  of  ownership  of  slaves  and 
the  goods  they  produce.  A  leisure  class  of  warrior-slave  owners  develops 
whose  requirements  as  to  status  include  both  evidence  of  wealth  in 
slaves  and  goods  and  the  necessity  of  refraining  from  all  activities  of 

6 


an  industrial  or  service  nature— that  is,  refraining  from  ail  pursuits 
except  those  which  someway  relate  to  exploit.  The  approved  activities 
for  the  warrior-slave  owner  of  this  period  are  government,  warfare, 
religious  observances,  and  sports,  none  of  which,  from  a  strictly  eco- 
nomic point  of  view,  exhibit  any  of  the  undesirable  characteristics 
associated  with  productive  industry  or  service. 

As  long  as  the  barbarian  community  is  small  and  close-knit,  one's 
status  is  well-known  to  one's  neighbors,  but  as  the  community  expands 
it  becomes  more  and  more  necessary  for  the  warrior-slave  owner  to 
make  his  status  generally  known  by  putting  his  goods  and  slaves  on 
public  display.  From  this  necessity  there  develop  what  Veblen  calls 
"conspicuous  consumption"  and  "conspicuous  leisure."  "Conspicuous 
consumption"  takes  the  form  of  a  public  display  of  the  consumption 
of  expensive  goods  such  as  in  dress,  food,  entertainment,  habitation, 
gifts,  etc.  "Conspicuous  leisure"  usually  takes  the  form  of  demonstrating 
one's  status  as  exempt  from  any  form  of  productive  labor  by  the  exhibit- 
ing of  a  collection  of  servants  and  retainers  whose  presence  indicates 
conspicuously  that  their  owner  is  so  exempt.  These  servants  and  re- 
tainers often  wear  some  insignia  designating  the  master  they  serve,  so 
that  there  will  be  no  mistaking  whose  status  is  being  enhanced  by 
their  service. 

To  keep  this  essay  to  a  reasonable  length,  I  must  of  necessity  end 
my  discussion  of  the  theory  itself  here.  Having  given  this  brief,  capsule 
version  of  certain  salient  features  of  Veblen's  theory,  I  wish  to  raise 
the  question  as  to  whether  the  theory  has  any  explanatory  value  in  con- 
nection with  the  Iliad.  I  think  it  does,  if  one  recognizes  that  the  Greeks 
and  Trojans  of  the  time  of  the  Iliad  belong  to  the  early  stages  of  the 
quasi-peaceable  barbarian  culture  described  above.  I  say  "early  stages" 
because,  as  Veblen  points  out,  this  culture  reaches  its  greatest  develop- 
ment during  the  feudal  days  of  the  Middle  Ages  before  eventually  giv- 
ing way  to  modern  industrial  culture. 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  charges  made  against  the  relevance  of 
the  Iliad  and  try  to  re-consider  the  charges  within  the  context  of  a 
quasi-peaceable  barbarian  culture.  It  has  been  charged  that  the  Iliad 
presents  us  with  a  glorification  of  force  and  fraud.  True,  but  these  are 
the  basic  tools  of  exploit  and  prowess,  and  one's  status  in  the  quasi- 
peaceable  barbarian  culture  depends  on  one's  success  with  these  tools. 
It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  a  man's  worth,  at  least  in  the  eyes  of 
the  barbarian  leisure  class,  depends  upon  evidence  of  prowess  through 
success  in  battle,  taking  of  slaves,  and  exhibition  of  trophies  and  goods. 
Consider  the  quarrel  between  Achilles  and  Agamemnon.  The  quarrel 
is  essentially  a  disagreement  over  the  fair  disposition  of  slaves  and 
goods  captured  from  certain  allies  of  the  Trojans.  Achilles  feels  that 
he  is  not  getting  his  fair  share  of  the  booty.  Since  the  captured  goods 
and  slaves  are  status  symbols,  neither  wants  to  lose  face  by  having  less 
than  he  considers  his  rightful  share.  It  is  quite  unbelievable  that  Achilles 
so  loved  Briseis  that  his  anger  is  caused  by  having  to  give  her  up— in 
fact,  he  later  offers  to  let  Agamemnon  keep  her.  But  his  personal  worth 

7 


in  the  eyes  of  others  depends  on  his  being  able  to  exhibit  the  trophies 
of  exploit,  and  Agamemnon's  action  threatens  him  directly  in  this  area. 
Or  consider  the  rather  odd  prayer  (by  our  standards,  at  least!) 
which  Hector  prays  for  his  small  son.  Hector  has  been  seen  in  the 
role  of  father  and  husband  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  scene,  and  strikes 
one  as  being  more  humane  and  less  glory-hungry  than  the  other  main 
characters.  However,  his  prayer  for  his  son  says  in  part: 

Grant  that  my  infant  son  may  live 

To  gather  fame  superlative  .... 

May  the  whole  city  muse  upon 

His  feats,  as  often  as  the  car 

Brings  him  spoil-laden  home  from  war 

(Spoil  reddened  with  the  owner's  gore) 

To  cheer  his  mother's  heart  once  more.^ 

This  prayer  is  not  unnecessarily  blood-thirsty;  it  simply  recognizes 
that  predatory  success  and  the  spoils  that  go  with  it  are  the  greatest 
goal  of  the  barbarian  warrior— his  status  depends  on  them. 

Since  the  greatest  victories  of  a  predatory  sort  are  often  achieved 
through  fraud  rather  than  force,  the  culture  also  holds  an  honored  spot 
for  the  warrior  who  excels  in  this  talent.  Far  from  condemning  Odysseus 
for  his  "Trojan  Horse"  trickery,  the  quasi-peaceable  barbarian  culture 
would  have  granted  him  status  little  if  any  behind  that  coming  from  the 
direct  application  of  force.  That  Dante  puts  Odysseus  deep  in  the  In- 
ferno as  punishment  for  his  fraudulent  acts,  only  shows  Dante  to  be 
operating  under  an  entirely  foreign  set  of  values  to  that  which  permeates 
the  Iliad. 

I  now  turn  to  the  charge  which  deals  with  woman's  position  in  the 
Iliad.  It  is  indeed  true  that  women  are  bartered  in  somewhat  the  same 
manner  that  goods  and  cattle  are  in  the  ///ac?— Achilles,  for  example, 
is  offered  "not  only  a  shipload  of  gold  and  bronze  treasures  but 
the  twenty  loveliest  women  in  Troy— Queen  Helen  alone  excepted" 
if  he  will  return  to  the  fight.  At  the  funeral  games  for  Patroclus,  Achilles 
announces  the  following  prizes  for  a  wrestling  match:  "The  winner 
would  obtain  a  large  three-legged  cauldron,  valued  at  twelve  cows; 
the  loser,  a  highly-skilled  slave-woman  valued  at  four  cows."  In  fact, 
there  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  status  of  Helen  herself— she  is 
fought  over  as  a  prize  by  Paris  and  Menelaus.  and  there  is  no  indication 
that  her  wishes  have  any  bearing  at  all  on  the  question  of  which  man 
she  will  end  up  with.  Andromache  expects  to  do  the  work  of  a  slave  if 
she  is  captured,  even  though  she  is  the  wife  of  Hector.  None  of  these 
examples  is  peculiar,  however,  in  view  of  what  Veblen  says  of  the  status 
of  women  in  the  quasi-peaceable  barbarian  period.  Their  normal  role 
is  that  of  chattel  slave  to  a  master,  and  their  normal  duties  are  those 


2  This  quotation  from  the  Iliad,  and  others  cited  later,  are  from  The  Anger  of 
Achilles— Homer's  Illiad.  translated  by  Robert  Graves  (Garden  City,  N.Y.: 
Doubleday  and  Co.,  Inc.,  1959). 


classified  as  non-exploitive.  such  as  weaving,  farming,  or  personal  ser- 
vice. Only  a  few  of  "gentle  blood"  (defined  by  Veblen  as  "blood  which 
has  been  ennobled  by  protracted  contact  with  accumulated  wealth  or 
unbroken  prerogative")  have  gradually  become  exempt  from  industrial 
employment.  Usually  it  is  the  chief  wife,  where  there  is  more  than  one 
wife,  who  is  exempt,  and  her  new  role  serves  to  enhance  her  husband's 
status  by  demonstrating  his  economic  ability  to  keep  an  ornament 
exempt  from  productive  duties.  However,  even  Helen,  who  seems  to 
fit  this  role  of  ornament,  is  diligent  in  weaving  battle  scenes  into  tapes- 
tries, and  we  suspect  that  there  remains,  even  for  her.  the  necessity 
of  justifying  her  existence  with  some  "woman's  work"— that  is.  some 
non-exploitive  productive  labor. 

I  would  now  like  to  turn  to  the  charges  made  against  the  Iliad 
which  have  to  do  with  the  gods  and  goddesses.  It  is  charged  that  they 
are  moral  delinquents  on  the  one  hand,  and  that  their  role  in  the  Iliad 
bespeaks  the  gross  superstition  of  the  Greeks  themselves.  As  to  their 
moral  fitness,  more  than  one  critic  has  remarked  that  Homer  purposely 
portrays  the  gods  as  worse  than  they  normally  are,  either  for  satiric 
purposes  or  in  order  to  inject  some  humor  into  what  might  otherwise 
be  long,  dull  battle  passages.  I  suspect  this  is  an  entirely  erroneous 
viewpoint.  When  one  examines  the  gods  and  goddesses  from  the  view- 
point of  the  quasi-peaceable  barbarian,  they  appear  to  be  admirable 
personages  indeed.  Almost  all  their  interference  and  intervention  in 
the  affairs  of  humans  may  be  traced  directly  to  their  own  competitive- 
ness and  desire  for  invidious  comparison  with  each  other  in  the  area 
of  status.  They  are  effectively  the  agents  of  force  (as  when  Apollo 
sends  a  pestilence  among  the  Greeks)  and  fraud  (as  when  Zeus  sends 
Agamemnon  a  false  dream,  or  Athena  disguises  herself  as  Deiphobus 
to  lure  Hector  to  his  death).  They  stay  strictly  away  from  any  activity 
which  might  be  associated  with  industry  or  service.  (An  apparent  ex- 
ception to  this  would  appear  to  be  the  forging  of  arms  for  Achilles  by 
Hephaestus.  But,  as  Veblen  points  out,  the  making  of  weapons  and  the 
caring  for  them,  because  of  their  close  relationship  to  the  activities 
of  prowess,  are  exempt  from  the  taint  connected  with  most  productive 
industry.) 

The  gods  and  goddesses  use  not  only  direct  force  and  fraud  to 
establish  their  position  of  honor,  but  also  "conspicuous  consumption" 
and  "conspicuous  leisure."  The  power  of  a  god  is  enhanced  by  the 
public  display  of  regular  and  costly  sacrifices  to  him— the  more  waste 
of  sacrificial  sheep  and  goats  in  his  behalf,  the  greater  he  is  honored. 
Thus  "conspicuous  consumption"  is  found  at  the  divine  level  as  well 
as  the  human.  Furthermore,  just  as  the  "conspicuous  leisure"  of  the 
leisure-class  barbarian  is  conveyed  by  his  putting  in  evidence  a  large 
number  of  servants  and  other  retainers,  so  is  the  "conspicuous  leisure" 
of  the  god  established  through  a  large  number  of  priests  and  other 
religious  followers.  In  fact,  it  is  argued  by  Veblen  that  such  religious 
customs  as  observing  days  of  rest  in  honor  of  a  god,  and  the  wearing 
of  religious  costumes  such  as  vestments,  owe  their  origin  to  the  idea 

9 


of  "conspicuous  leisure."  After  all.  it  must  be  a  great  god  who  can 
afford  for  large  numbers  of  his  retainers  to  refrain  from  any  productive 
work  on  certain  days,  and  who  can  provide  them  with  costumes  which 
help  demonstrate  the  impossibility  of  their  performing  any  economi- 
cally productive  task. 

In  short,  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  the  Iliad  are  not  capricious, 
undependable,  or  malignant  forces.  Rather  they  exhibit  the  quasi- 
peaceable  barbarian  ideals  at  their  best.  In  fact,  there  is  much  truth 
in  the  remark  that  "the  Greeks  created  their  gods  in  their  own  image," 
if  it  is  understood  that  the  gods  represent  the  image  of  that  most  honored 
part  of  the  Greek  culture,  the  leisure-class. 

As  to  whether  the  Greeks'  belief  in  the  frequent  intervention  of 
gods  and  goddesses  in  human  affairs  should  be  deplored  as  primitive 
superstition,  let  me  at  least  argue  that  such  intervention  makes  good 
logical  sense.  Given  divine  beings  with  the  traits  of  the  barbarian  leisure 
class,  would  it  not  be  peculiar  if  they  failed  to  seize  the  glorious  oppor- 
tunities for  assertion  of  individual  prowess  afforded  by  an  event  like 
the  Trojan  War.  Indeed,  how  can  it  be  imagined  that  they  would 
stand  aloof? 

Having  made  these  remarks  about  the  gods  and  goddesses,  I  would 
now  like  to  return  to  the  overall  matter  of  the  Iliad  and  relevance. 
I  have  attempted  to  show  in  the  discussion  above  that  Veblen's  Theory 
of  the  Leisure  Class  does  offer  an  interesting  and  helpful  theory  for 
trying  to  understand  the  Iliad  in  terms  of  its  time  and  context.  But  this 
is  only  the  first  step  toward  establishing  relevance.  If  it  could  be  shown 
that  the  quasi-peaceable  barbarian  culture  and  its  ideals  are  still  of 
importance  in  our  present  day,  the  matter  of  relevance  would  be  much 
more  firmly  established.  Once  again  Veblen's  theory  is  helpful.  I  have 
made  some  mention  of  the  savage  and  barbarian  cultures  as  described 
in  his  theory,  but  have  said  little  about  his  description  of  the  third 
culture,  the  modern  industrial  culture.  I  think  it  is  particularly  inter- 
esting that  Veblen  finds  in  our  modern  industrial  culture  so  many  sur- 
vivals of  the  predatory  barbarian  ideals.  Unfortunately,  because  of 
space  limitations,  I  will  only  be  able  to  allude  to  them  briefly. 

I  think  it  is  fairly  clear,  for  example,  that  there  are  certain  obvious 
ways  in  which  the  ideals  of  barbarian  culture  have  survived.  Exploit 
and  prowess  are  still  admired  under  the  system  we  usually  refer  to  as 
"competition."  It  is  often  pointed  out  today  that  "life  is  competitive" 
and  that  "the  best  man  wins."  In  fact,  when  we  use  the  term  "success" 
as  in  "That  man  is  a  success"  it  may  reasonably  be  taken  to  mean  that 
evidence  has  been  given  of  prowess  in  competition  with  others,  and  that 
this  prowess  is  evidenced  in  the  accumulation  and  conspicuous  con- 
sumption of  goods.  There  is  also  the  survival  of  the  barbarian  culture's 
views  of  the  honorable  status  of  employment  which  involves  prowess 
as  opposed  to  the  lack  of  honor  in  the  productive  and  service  functions. 
Today  one  tries  to  be  an  "executive."  if  possible,  rather  than  a  producing 
worker  on  the  assembly  line.  Veblen  goes  into  considerable  detail  in 
tracing  the  survival  of  predatory  traits  in  our  modern  institutions.   It 

10 


is  almost  as  though  the  same  underlying  principles  which  manifest 
themselves  in  the  events  of  the  Iliad  manifest  themselves  in  many  ways 
in  our  modern  industrial  life,  only  of  course,  in  different  forms.  If 
Veblen  is  right  in  this,  then  his  theory  links  Homeric  times  with  modern 
times  in  a  most  meaningful  way,  which  is  another  way  of  saying  it  estab- 
lishes a  basic  "relevance"  of  one  period  for  the  other. 

Finally  I  would  like  to  suggest,  as  a  postscript  to  this  essay,  that 
the  recent  "hippie  revolution"  may  have  had  as  its  unconscious  guiding 
principle  an  attempt  to  break  away  from  the  barbarian  ideals  as  they 
survive  in  our  modern  society.  The  advocacy  by  many  of  the  hippies 
of  love,  peace  and  the  simple  life,  along  with  their  disdain  of  status  and 
the  conspicuous  consumption  of  goods,  argues  a  basic  disagreement 
with  barbarian  ideals.  It  is,  however,  a  breaking  away  which  itself  echoes 
an  earlier  culture— the  savage  culture  which  was  referred  to  earlier 
in  this  paper,  and  which  is  typified  by  the  peacefulness,  poverty  and 
"amiable  inefficiency"  of  its  members.  This  is  a  suggestion  only,  but 
one  which  bears,  I  think,  further  exploration,  and  which  points  up  once 
again  the  utility  of  Veblen's  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class  as  an  explana- 
tory theory. 


11 


HISTORIOGRAPHY  OF  SCIENCE 
TEXTBOOKS 

by  LUCILLE  B.  GARMON* 

In  1962  Thomas  S.  Kuhn,  then  teaching  history  of  science  at  Berke- 
ley after  having  obtained  a  PhD  in  physics,  published  a  long  essay  called 
"The  Structure  of  Scientific  Revolutions."^  The  impact  of  this  work 
was  so  great  that  interpretation  of  science  history  in  terms  of  Kuhn's 
"paradigm-^normal  science^revolution— >new  paradigm"  concept  is 
now  de  rigueur. 

Briefly,  Kuhn's  thesis  is  that  any  given  branch  of  science  emerges 
from  its  "pre-scientific"  stages  when  someone  enunciates  a  theory  of 
sufficient  reasonableness  and  explanatory  power  to  unify  and  give  a 
foundation  to  what  had  previously  been  disconnected  and  poorly  de- 
veloped work  on  a  subject.  Kuhn  refers  to  this  unifying  theory,  model, 
concept,  or  "universally  recognized  scientific  achievement  that  for  a 
time  provides  model  problems  and  solutions  to  a  community  of  practi- 
tioners"2  as  a  paradigm.  From  this  paradigm,  "normal  science"  pro- 
ceeds by  established  rules  and  methods  until  anomalies  force  a  revolu- 
tion in  which  the  original  paradigm  is  replaced  by  another  and  normal 
science  in  that  disciphne  then  carries  on  from  the  new  paradigm. 

The  paradigm  switch  is  more  than  a  modification  of  theory;  it  is 
a  Gestalt-like  switch  in  a  whole  world-view,  and  woe  betide  the  older 
scientist  who  cannot  blink  his  eyes  and  behold  reality  from  the  new 
perspective. 

Except  for  a  few  areas  such  as  mechanics  and  astronomy,  which 
developed  operational  explanatory  models  in  antiquity,  it  is  easy  to 
find  the  point  in  history  at  which  a  paradigm  is  first  established.  Even 
if  the  preceding  absence  of  a  unifying  theory  and  accepted  approach 
were  not  obvious,  succeeding  writers  in  the  discipline  will  in  general 
agree  on  when  and  by  whom  their  specialty  was  founded,  even  if  they 
agree  on  little  else. 

Once  a  paradigm  has  been  accepted,  what  had  been  an  area  of 
speculation  becomes  a  branch  of  science,  and  once  that  recognition 
comes,  textbooks  in  the  subject  are  not  far  behind.  For  tracing  the 
development  of  a  scientific  line  of  thought  to  its  modern  expression, 
old  textbooks  can  be  a  science  historian's  gold  mine. 

How  much  a  science  has  changed  since  it  became  established  as 
a  science  can  often  be  gauged  by  the  extent  of  the  brief  historical  ac- 

*  Associate  Professor  of  Physics  and  Chemistry,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  Thomas  S.  Kuhn,  The  Structure  of  Scientific  Revolutions  (1st  Edition.  The 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  1962;  2nd  Edition,  The  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
1970).  Quotations  in  this  paper  will  be  taken  from  the  Second  Edition. 
2  Il>id.,  p.  viii. 

12 


counts  found  in  textbooks,  and  especially  in  the  attitudes  displayed 
toward  whoever  is  recognized  as  the  founder  of  the  science  or  specialty. 

Unless  a  textbook  deliberately  sets  out  to  emphasize  the  historical 
approach,  or  is  written  during  a  pedagogical  fad  for  "throwing  in  some 
historical  stuff",  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  amount  of  history  included 
to  decrease  with  time.  Reasons  for  this  may  easily  be  speculated  upon. 
The  more  time  has  elapsed  since  the  founders  original  publications, 
the  more  is  likely  to  have  happened,  and  the  more  of  a  chore  it  would 
be  to  recount  it  all.  Also,  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  a  textbook  to  "confuse" 
the  student  with  issues  long  since  resolved;  as  more  time  passes  it 
becomes  less  and  less  likely  that  the  textbook  writer  himself  has  heard 
of  them.  So  the  text  preface  may  contain  a  few  remarks  attempting  to 
show  the  current  relevance  of  the  subject,  from  which  its  recent  his- 
tory may  be  inferred,  and  let  it  go  at  that. 

The  discipline  of  crystallograph.  "founded"  in  1784,  serves  as  an 
excellent  example  of  how  historical  treatment  in  texts  varies  as  the 
discipline  itself  varies.  Crystallography  is  narrow  enough  in  scope  to 
be  traced  with  some  thoroughness  in  the  textbooks  published  through- 
out the  nineteenth  century. 

Up  until  the  seventeenth  century,  crystallography  was  little  more 
than  a  branch  of  folklore.  It  was  thought,  for  instance,  that  metals  and 
minerals  underwent  an  organic-like  growth  underground. ^  The  mineral 
kingdom  was  not  rigorously  distinguished  from  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms,  "for  minerals  were  thought  of  as  bred  in  the  womb 
of  the  earth,"''  and  animals  were  thought  to  be  sometimes  spontane- 
ously generated  from  inanimate  matter.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  certain  aspects  of  crystal  regularity  were  noted,  some 
generalizations  established,  and  a  few  classification  schemes  proposed. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Rene  Just  Haiiy  (1743-1822) 
made  crystallography   a   science   by   establishing   the   first   paradigm. 

Hauy's  concept  of  the  internal  structure  of  crystals  was  more  so- 
phisticated than  that  of  any  of  his  predecessors,  and  also  could  be 
more  easily  and  firmly  fitted  to  the  known  facts  about  external  crystal 
structure.  The  story  of  his  accidentally  dropping  a  large  specimen  of 
calcite  and  noting  the  shape  of  the  cleavage  fragments  is  well  known, 
as  is  his  deliberately  breaking  other  crystals  of  calcite  to  see  whether 
they  yielded  similar  fragments,  and  when  they  did  crying  out  Eureka- 
like,  "Tout  est  trouve.  " 

As  modern  historians  point  out,  Haiiy  was  not  the  first  to  notice 
regular  shapes  in  crystals.^  Yet  he  did  what  others  had  not:   derive 


3  Stephen  S.  Mason.  A  History  of  the  Sciences,  Revised  Edidon  (New  York: 
Collier  Books,  1962),  p.  77. 

4  C.C.  Gillispie,  The  Edge  of  Objectivity:  An  Essay  in  the  History  of  Scientific 
Ideas  (Princeton  University  Press.  1960),  pp.  58-59. 

5  John  G.  Burke,  Origins  of  the  Science  of  Crystals  (University  of  California 
Press,  1966),  p.  83. 

13 


laws  which  could  serve  as  a  basis  for  explaining  a  wide  variety  of  crystal 
forms.  Briefly.  Haiiy's  theory  was  based  on  the  assumption  of  a  different 
kind  of  solid,  flat-sided  nucleus  for  each  species  of  crystal,  the  external 
form  being  produced  by  building  up  these  nuclei  like  bricks.  He  identi- 
fied the  nucleus  with  a  molecule  constituente  (Later  molecule  inte- 
grante)  of  the  crystal.^  The  theory  of  "decrements",  or  the  building 
up  of  secondary  forms  from  stacking  "molecules"  in  such  a  way  that 
each  layer  was  decreased  a  certain  number  of  units  in  height  and/or 
breadth  from  the  preceding  layer,  was  one  of  the  greatest  successes 
in  Haiiy's  system,  and  lies  at  the  basis  of  what  is  today  called  the  law 
of  rational  indices. 

The  first  English-language  text  on  crystallography  appeared  in  1819, 
written  by  a  Robert  Bakewell  as  part  of  a  more  comprehensive  text 
on  mineralogy.'^  New  textbooks  and  new  editions  of  old  books  have 
been  coming  out  regularly  ever  since.  The  changes  in  amount  and  na- 
ture of  historical  backgrounds  found  in  a  selection  of  nineteenth-century 
textbooks  reflect  this  science's  changing  attitude  toward  its  own  state 
of  development.  BakewelTs  book  contains  no  history  because  there 
was,  to  his  mind,  practically  no  history  of  crystallography  at  that  time. 
He  devotes  two  chapters  (67  pages)  to  explicating,  in  Platonic  dialog 
style,  Haiiy's  system  of  analyzing  crystal  forms. ^ 

A  much  more  widely  read  volume  by  Henry  James  Brooke,  pub- 
lished in  1823,  contains  several  pages  of  historical  background  in  the 
science  of  crystallography,  which  Brooke  considers  to  have  begun  in 
the  last  third  of  the  preceding  century.  He  states,  "The  regularity  and 
symmetry  of  crystallized  bodies  do  not  appear  to  have  attracted  much 
attention  as  an  object  of  scientific  research  until  the  time  of  Linnaeus, 
who  attempted  to  construct  a  theory  concerning  crystals  somewhat 
analogous  to  his  system  of  Botany.^  In  amongst  a  number  of  other 


^  Rene  Just  Haiiy,  Essai  dune  theorie  sur  la  structure  des  cristaux  appUquee  a 
plusieurs  genres  de  substances  crystallisees  (Paris,  1784). 

'^  An  Introduction  to  Mineralogy:  Comprising  the  Natural  History  and  Char- 
acters of  Minerals:  and  a  Description  of  Rocks.  Both  Simple  and  Aggregated: 
with  a  New  Tabular  Arrangement  of  Earthy  Minerals,  on  a  Plan  Designed  to 
Facilitate  the  Knowledge  of  that  Class  of  Substances,  To  which  is  Prefixed: 
a  Series  of  Conversations  explaining  the  Principles  of  the  Science  and  the 
Elements  of  Crystallography.  (London,  1819).  Apparently  Mr.  Bakewell  was 
a  self-employed  mineralogist,  or  one  who  did  consulting  work  on  the  side, 
for  the  title  page  of  his  book  contains  an  N.B.  "The  Author  undertakes  the 
Mineralogical  Survey  and  Examination  of  Estates.  Letters  may  be  addressed 
to  him  at  Mr.  Harding's,  36  St.  James  Street." 
8  Ibid.,  pp.  97-164. 

^  A  Familiar  Introduction  to  Crystallography:  including  an  Explanation  of 
the  use  of  Goniometer,  with  an  Appendix  containing  mathematical  Relations 
of  Crystals:  Rules  for  drawing  the  Figures:  and  an  alphabetic  arrangement  of 
Minerals,  their  Symmetry  and  Primitive  Forms.  (London,  1823),  p.  33.  Linnaeus 
(Carl  Von  Linne,  1707-1778)  was  a  Swedish  botanist  well  known  for  the  delight 
he  took  in  devising  classifications  and  systems  of  nomenclature  for  everything: 
animals,  vegetables,  minerals,  diseases,  etc. 

14 


names,  Haiiy  is  recognized  for  "completing  the  theory  of  decrements"; 
others  worlcing  between  1800  and  1823  are  given  credit  for  simplifying 
Haiiy's  system. ^^ 

Crystallography  had  become  well  enough  established  by  the  1840's 
to  make  even  this  brief  background  seem  superfluous  in  a  text;  at  that 
time  no  system  of  classification  and  nomenclature  had  received  uni- 
versal acceptance;  in  fact,  proposed  systems  were  multiplying.  John 
Joseph  Griffin's  1841  text,  A  System  of  Crystallography,  thus  limits 
its  historical  background  to  a  recounting  of  various  classification 
schemes.  Linnaeus  is  much  too  outdated  for  him  to  bother  with,  so 
is  Haiiy.  The  names  he  is  concerned  with  are  mostly  those  of  his  own 
contemporaries,  all  competing  for  recognition  of  their  own  notational 
schemes.i^  Throughout  the  fifth  through  ninth  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  writers  of  crystallography  textbooks  generally  presented 
only  enough  "historical"  background  so  that  the  student  could  under- 
stand the  current  unresolved  questions.^^  To  show  even  further  the 
decay  of  historical  material  in  later  textbooks,  George  H.  Williams, 
publishing  Elements  of  Crystallography  in  1890,  contents  himself  with 
a  bibliography.  Of  the  thirty-eight  books  listed,  over  half  were  published 
within  the  preceding  dozen  years,  and  only  three  (two  of  which  are 
works  of  Haiiy)  appeared  before  1830.^^ 

Williams'  dutiful  inclusion  of  Haiiy  in  his  bibliography  brings  up 
another  point.  Despite  their  general  paucity  of  historical  material  a 
majority  of  textbook  writers  consider  themselves  under  a  sort  of  obli- 
gation  to  make  at   least  a  passing  reference  to  "the   father  of 

ology",  especially  if  he   is  distant   enough   in   the   past 

so  that  his  reputation,  like  George  Washington's,  has  become  pretty 
well  ossified. 

In  works  written  during  his  own  lifetime  and  shortly  thereafter, 
the  founder  of  a  scientific  specialty  is  treated  as  a  colleague,  to  be 
priased  or  criticized  according  to  the  writer's  convictions  and  tastes. 
Later  he  may  undergo  an  eclipse  during  which  a  "normal  science"  has 
been  established  different  enough  from  the  original  paradigm  so  that 


10  Ibid.,  pp.  33-35. 

11  A  System  of  Crystallography,  with  its  Application  to  Mineralogy  (Glasgow, 
1841),  p.  149.  In  another  context,  that  of  mathematical  intelligibility  (pp.  vii-ix). 
Griffin  does  mention  Haiiy.  This  is  not  so  much  to  give  a  history  of  the  develop- 
ment, however,  as  it  is  to  show  the  superiority  of  his  own  approach.  It  is  interest- 
ing that  Griffin's  main  objection  to  the  mathematics  of  Hauy  is  that  it's  too 
complicated.  To  the  students  of  1841,  as  to  their  descendents  today,  the  superior 
mathematical  approach  is  the  less  mathematical  approach. 

12  For  example,  cf.  James  D.  Dana,  A  System  of  Mineralogy  comprising  the 
Most  Recent  Developments,  including  a  Treatise  on  Mathematical  Crystallog- 
raphy. 4th  edition  (New  York,  1859). 

13  Elements  of  Crystallography  for  Students  of  Chemistry,  Physics  and  Mineral- 
ogy (New  York,  1890),  pp.  vii,  viii. 

15 


writers  are  not  quite  sure  whether  to  talk  about  him  or  not,  and  if  so 
what  to  say,  and  so  say  nothing.  Then,  as  at  the  end  of  the  tunnel,  the 
great  man  assumes  the  distance  required  for  a  casual  "homage  to  the 
god"  approach. 

During  his  lifetime,  Haiiy  was  much  honored,  but  generally  treated 
as  a  fallible  human  being.  Some  accepted  his  ideas  m'ore  wholeheart- 
edly than  others.  Bakewell  is  downright  deferential  and  refers  to  no 
other  authority.  Brooke's  account,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  con- 
sider Haiay  as  one  among  many  contributors,  perhaps  a  forehead  (rather 
than  head  and  shoulders)  above  the  rest.  He  mentions  some  short- 
comings, and  points  to  a  few  instances  of  erroneous  judgment  made 
toward  the  end  of  Haiiy's  career: 

I  am  perfectly  disposed  to  [praise  him]  for  having  elevated  crys- 
tallography to  the  rank  of  a  science,  but  I  cannot  agree  in  that 
unqualified  approbation  of  his  recent  works  which  some  of  his 
surviving  friends  have  so  liberally  bestowed  upon   them.   For 
these  works  will  be  found  to  contain  errors  of  so  remarkable 
a  character  as  to  excite  our  surprise  when  we  recollect  the  gen- 
erally accepted  and  esteemed  judgement  of  their  author. i"* 
Brooke  clucks  over  several   inaccuracies   of  angle   measurement 
"probably  occasioned  by  the  comparatively  imperfect  instrument  with 
which  these  measurements  were  taken.  That  he  continued  to  prefer 
this  to  the  more  perfect  goniometer  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,"  Brooke 
attributes  to  decay  of  eyesight  and  dislike  of  change. ^^  Brooke  then 
closes  his  remarks  by  saying,  "With  all  their  faults.  .  .  those  works  (a 
new  edition  of  Haiiy's  treatise  on  crystallography  and  three  volumes 
of  a  new  edition  of  his  treatise  on  mineralogy)  present  to  the  reader 
truly  philosophic  views  of  the  sciences  which  they  treat,  and  they  cannot 
be  perused  without  frequently  affording  him   both  gratification  and 
improvement. "16 

William  WhewelTs  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences^'^  may  also 
be  discussed  in  this  section,  even  though  it  is  not  a  textbook  of  crys- 
tallography. Whewell  was  Professor  of  Mineralogy  at  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  and  if  he  had  written  a  textbook  on  crystallography  it 
would  have  doubtless  reflected  the  same  attitudes  about  Haiiy  shown 
in  his  History.  When  Whewell  published  the  1847  edition  of  his  History, 
Haiiy  was  still  a  recent  enough  figure  to  have  been  known  by  people 
yet  living.  Whewell  himself  began  his  own  acquaintance  with  crystal 
theory  during  Haiiy's  lifetime,  and  published  his  "General  Method  of 
Calculating  the  Angles  made  by  any  Planes  of  Crystals,  and  the  Laws 


1^  Ibid.,  p.  X.  Brooke  dedicated  his  book  "to  the  inventor  of  the  reflective 

goniometer." 

16  Ibid. 

1^  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences  from  tlie  Earliest  to  thie  Present   Time, 

New,  revised  edition  (London,  1847). 

16 


\v 


According  to  Which  They  Are  Formed'"i8  only  three  years  after  Hauy's 
death.  Whewell's  History  acknowledges  Haiiy  to  be  the  founder  of  the 
"modern  school  of  crystallography,  for  all  those  who  have,  since  him, 
pursued  their  studies  with  success,  having  taken  his  views  for  their 
basis."^^  This  may  be  an  exaggeration  for  1847.  but  Whewell  is  very 
matter-of-fact  in  assessing  Hauy's  system: 

In  Hauy's  views,  as  generally  happens  in  new  systems,  however 
true,  there  was  involved  something  that  was  arbitrary,  some- 
thing that  was  false  or  doubtful,  and  something  that  was  unnec- 
cessarily  limited.  The  principal  points  of  this  kind  were;  —his 
having  made  the  laws  of  crystalline  derivation  depend  so  much 
upon  cleavage;  —his  having  assumed  an  atomic  constitution  of 
bodies  as  an  essentia!  part  of  his  system;  —and  his  having  taken 
a  set  of  primary  forms,  which,  being  selected  by  no  general 
view,  were  partly  superfluous,  and  partly  defective. ^^^ 
Whewell  sums  up  Hauy  by  saying: 

Without  being  a  great  mathematician,  he  was  enough  of  a  geo- 
meter and  more  mathematical  generalization  could  not  have 
been  done  without  making  the  subject  less  accessible  and  attrac- 
tive to  persons  with  little  mathematical  discipline.  Hauy's  reason- 
ing was  acute  and  clear.  While  his  views  are  suggested  more  by 
lively  fancy  than  by  sage  inductive  spirit,  so  he  misses  the  char- 
acter of  style,  and  felicity  and  happiness  of  illustration. ^i 
which  is  as  objective  a  view  as  any  presented  until  the  rise  of  modern 
historical  scholarship. 

Most  texts  written  qua  texts  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century  do  not  enter  into  much  discussion  of  Hauy 
and  his  contributions.  This  is  the  eclipse  period.  In  1860  one  can  find 
evidence  that  Haiiy  is  headed  for  enshrinement.  In  that  year  appeared 
Prof.  Smithson  Tennant  and  Rev.  W.  Mitchell's  chapter  on  crystallog- 
raphy in  Orr's  Circle  of  the  Sciences.  Tennant's  exposition  gives  no 
history  per  5e;  however,  the  introductory  page  of  the  section  bears  the 
likenesses  of  three  men,  assumed  to  be  the  outstanding  giants  of  crys- 
tallography; first,  Haiiy;  second,  Wollaston;  third,  Tennant. ^^ 


18  Ibid.,  p.  241, 

19  Ibid.,  p.  223. 

20  Ibid.,  p.  234. 

21  Ibid.,  p.  229. 

22  Tennant  and  Mitchell,  "Mineralogy  and  Crystallography,"  in  Vol.  IV,  Inor- 
ganic Nature,  of  W.S.  Orr's  Circle  of  the  Sciences  (London  and  Glasgow,  1860), 
p.  289.  Wollaston  was  the  inventor  of  the  reflecting  goniometer,  to  whom  Brooke 
dedicated  his  treatise  in  1823;  Tennant  was  a  well-known  crystallographer  and 
mineralogist  of  the  time,  but  hardly  one  of  the  all-time  greats,  Burke  does  not 
mention  him  in  his  Origins  of  the  Science  of  Crystals,  nor  does  Phillips  in  his 
highly  historically  oriented  crystallography  text,  [F.C.  Phillips,  An  Introduction 
to  Crystallography  2nd  edition  (London:  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1956),] 
There  is  a  mineral,  CU3ASS3,  named  tennantite. 

17 


The  inclusion  of  Haiiy  in  Williams'  1890  bibliography  has  been 
noted.  A  text  by  William  J.  Lewis,  written  in  1899,  devotes  four  pages 
in  the  first  chapter  to  Haiiy's  theory,  beginning  'Tn  the  year  1784  the 
celebrated  'Essai  d'une  theorie  sur  la  structure  des  crystaux"  was  pub- 
lished, which  fully  established  the  correctness  of  the  [constant  inter- 
facial  angles]  law  and  placed  the  science  on  a  firm  basis, "^^  and  cred- 
iting him  with  finding  that  "cleavage-rhombohedra  could  be  obtained 
which  had  identically  the  same  angles,  however  different  might  be  the 
shape  of  the  original  crystals. "^'^ 

In  1918  there  was  a  celebration  organized  in  honor  of  the  175th 
anniversary  of  Haiiy's  birth.  The  issue  of  the  American  Mineralogist 
for  June  of  that  year  carries  a  number  of  articles  written  as  part  of  that 
celebration.  Though  not  part  of  a  textbook,  these  articles  constitute 
too  juicy  an  example  of  hero  worship.  Whig  history, ^^  or  what-have- 
you  not  to  quote  from  at  least  one  of  them.  Perhaps  the  ultimate  in 
fantasized  history  is  the  following: 

The  broken  calcite  crystal,  which  lay  at  his  feet,  revealed  to  a 
very  keen  mind  an  interpretation  of  mineral  forms  that  em- 
bodied, if  not  exactly  the  deepest  truth,  such  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  crystallographic  precision,  as  to  ensure  mineralogy's 
development  upon  mathematical  principles.  A  crystallized  cal- 
cite fragment  slipped  from  the  observer's  hand  and  was  sundered 
into  cleavage  pieces,  which  were  rhombohedrons.  A  moment's 
hestiating  inspection,  and  soon  the  observer,  now  become  an 
experimenter,  was  engaged  in  slicing  the  rhombohedrons  into 
smaller  ones.  The  process  continued,  under  the  excitement  of 
an  illuminating  suspicion,  and  as  in  the  progressive  subdivision, 
the  endless  rhombohedrons  sprang  repetitively  into  view,  the 
suspicion  became  a  conviction,  and  the  formative  theory  of 
molecules  integrantes—  irreducible  nuclei—  was  born.  And  a 
structure  of  geometrical  symmetry,  built  up  by  ultimate  and 
equivalent  particles,  ushered  in  at  once  the  conception  of  the 


23  A  Treatise  on  Crystallography  (Cambridge:  at  the  University  Press,  1899), 
p.  10. 

24  Ibid.,  pp.  10-11. 

2^  "Whig  history"  has  been  neatly  defined  by  Rhoda  Rappaport  in  her  article 
"Problems  and  Sources  in  the  History  of  Geology,  1749-1810."  (History  of 
Science  Vol.  3,  1964,  p.  60),  though  the  term  is  not  original  with  her.  She  des- 
cribed "Whig"  or  "inductivist"  thinking  as  "a  tendency— now  thankfully  on 
the  decline— to  view  the  history  of  science  as  a  succession  of  important  dis- 
coveries which  led  inevitably  to  the  abandonment  of  'wrong'  ideas  and  the  for- 
mulation and  acceptance  of  'correct"  theories,"  and  added  that  this  approach 
"leads  to  the  selection  and  discussion  of  those  figures  and  ideas  deemed  Good, 
while  it  precludes  any  reconstruction  of  the  climate  of  opinion  characteristic 
of  a  historical  era." 

18 


"law  of  equal  numbers. "^6 

As  another  historian  of  crystallography  has  commented,  "The  truth 
is  less  romantic. "■^'^ 

Little  remains  in  today's  crystallography  of  Haiiy's  system,  yet 
the  textbooks  still  honor  his  name  without  going  into  any  detail  on 
just  what  he  contributed.  His  position  as  a  paradigm  founder  is  well- 
deserved,  for  before  him  many  philosophers  could  say,  as  did  Count 
Buffon  writing  in  1785,  "All  the  work  of  the  crystallographers  serves 
only  to  demonstrate  that  there  is  only  variety  everywhere  where  th  y 
supposed  uniformity ....  that  in  nature  there  is  nothing  absolute, 
nothing  perfectly  regular."^^  After  1800,  thanks  to  Rene  Just  Hauy, 
no  one  said  that  anymore. 

What  they  did  say,  in  each  succeeding  generation,  may  be  read  in 
the  texts  they  wrote  to  inform  the  next  generation.  The  revolutions  are 
not  outlined  there.  They  must  be  inferred  from  a  decade-by-decade 
comparison  of  books,  for  textbooks,  as  Kuhn  pointed  out,  are  rewritten 
whenever  the  language  or  standards  of  normal  sciences  change.  And 
"once  rewritten,  they  inevitably  disguise  not  only  the  role  but  the  very 
existence  of  the  revolutions  that  produced  them . . .  the  historical 
sense  of  a  working  scientest.  ..  [generally]  extends  only  to  the  out- 
come of  the  most  recent  revolutions  in  the  field. '"^^ 

So  old  texts  are  valuable  archives  for  scientist  and  historian  alike. 
As  Kuhn  stated  about  the  effect  of  his  own  delving  into  the  history  of 
science,  "exposure  to  out-of-date  scientific  theory  and  practice  radi- 
cally undermined  some  of  my  basic  conceptions  about  the  nature  of 
science  and  the  reasons  for  its  special  success. "^•^ 


26  Louis  Pope  Gratacap,  "Haiiy's  Traite  de  Mineralogie,  Am.   Mineralogist 
3  (1918),  p.  101. 

2'^  R.  Hooykaas,  "Torbern  Bergman's  Crystal  Theory,"  Lychnos  1952,  p.  54. 
2^  Burke,  p.  54.  Quoted  from  Historie  naturelle  des  mineraux,  vol.  Ill,  p.  433. 

29  Kuhn,  p.  137. 

30  Ibid.,  p.  V. 


19 


RENAISSANCE  LITERARY  THEORY: 
SIDNEY,  MILTON,  AND 
THE  ANGEL  RAPHAEL 

by  MARTHA  A.  SAUNDERS* 

In  the  area  of  literary  criticism.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  A  Defense  of 
Poesie  is  considered  the  chief  representative  work  of  the  Elizabethan 
period.  J.E.  Spingarn  writes  "that  no  other  work  ...  can  be  said  to 
give  so  complete  and  so  noble  a  conception  of  the  temper  and  prin- 
ciples of  Renaissance  criticism."^  Being  published  posthumously  only 
thirteen  years  before  Milton's  birth  and  being  the  compendium  of  lit- 
erary thought  that  it  is,  Sidney's  work  contains  ideas  certain  to  have 
influenced  contemporary  literature.  Milton,  naturally,  would  have 
inherited  these  ideas.  It  is  not  surprising  then  to  find  that  in  Book  V 
of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  when  the  angel  Raphael  contemplates  the 
means  by  which  he  will  attempt  to  educate  Adam,  he  outlines  a  theory 
of  literature  containing  many  of  the  major  Elizabethan  ideas  previously 
proclaimed  by  Sidney.  In  lines  564-576  of  Book  V  Raphael  briefly 
touches  on  the  ideas  of  the  nature,  form,  and  function  of  poetry: 
for  how  shall  I  relate 

To  human  sense  th'  invisible  exploits 

Of  warring  Spirits;  how  without  remorse 

The  ruin  of  so  many  glorious  once 

And  perfect  while  they  stood;  how  last  unfold 

The  secrets  of  another  World,  perhaps 

Not  lawful  to  reveal?  yet  for  thy  good 

This  is  dispens't,  and  what  surmounts  the  reach 

Of  human  sense,  I  shall  delineate  so. 

By  lik'ning  spiritual  to  corporal  forms. 

As  may  express  them  best,  though  what  if  Earth 

Be  but  the  shadow  of  Heav'n,  and  things  therein 

Each  to  other  like,  more  than  on  Earth  is  thought?^ 

The  nature  of  poetry,  according  to  Sidney,  is  imitation:  "poesy 
therefore  is  an  art  of  imitation,  for  so  Aristotle  termeth  it  in  the  word 
mimesis,  that  is  to  say,  a  representing,  counterfeiting,  or  figuring  forth— 
to  speak  metaphorically,  a  speaking  picture  . ..."  (p.  414)^  This  "speak- 

*Assistant  Professor  of  English,  West  Georgia  College. 


^  J.E.  Spingarn,  A  History  of  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance  (New  York: 

Columbia  University  Press,  1924;  orig.  pub.  1899),  p.  268. 

2  John  Milton,  Paradise  Lost,  as  found  in  John  Milton:  Complete  Poems  and 

Major  Prose,  ed.  Merritt  Y.  Hughes  (New  York:  The  Odyssey  Press,  1957). 

All  references  to  this  work  will  be  to  this  edition. 

^  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  The  Defense  of  Poesy,  as  found  in  Literary  Criticism:  Plato 

to  Dryden.  ed.  Allan  H.  Gilbert  (Detroit:  Wayne  State  University  Press,  1962; 

orig.  pub.  1940).  All  references  to  this  work  will  be  to  this  edition. 

20 


ing  picture"  is  what  Raphael  wishes  to  present  to  Adam,  but  Raphael 
encounters  a  problem.  What  he  wants  to  depict  is  invisible:  "for  how 
shall  I  relate  /  To  human  sense  th'  invisible  exploits  /  Of  warring 
spirits.  .  .  ?"  (564-566)  The  problem  that  Raphael  faces.  Sidney  would 
say,  is  the  problem  faced  by  all  "right  poets."  for  in  the  subject  of  their 
imitations  they  "borrow  nothing  of  what  is.  hath  been,  or  shall  be;  but 
range,  only  reined  with  learned  discretion,  into  the  divine  considera- 
tion of  what  may  be  and  should  be."  (p.  415)  Thus,  for  Sidney,  the  poet, 
like  Raphael,  must  find  the  solution  of  "how  |to|  last  unfold  /  The 
secrets  of  another  world"  (568-569). 

For  the  men  of  the  Renaissance,  however,  there  was  a  way  to  solve 
this  problem,  which  lay  in  their  concept  of  God's  relation  to  his  created 
universe.  Man  and  poet  as  man  live  in  a  world  of  sense,  of  physical 
objects,  which  are  real  in  themselves  but  are  at  the  same  time  a  mirror 
or  shadow  of  the  ideal  nature  of  the  Creator  himself.  Raphael  makes 
this  point  when  he  speculates  "though  what  if  Earth  /  Be  but  the  shadow 
of  Heav'n.  and  things  therein  /  Each  to  other  like,  more  than  on  Earth 
is  thought?"  (574-576)  Thus,  in  an  identification  of  Platonic  and  Hebrew 
doctrines,  man  reads  the  Book  of  Nature  in  order  to  learn  the  Book 
of  God.  On  this  point  Raphael  is  explicit:  "for  Heav'n  /  Is  as  the  Book 
of  God  before  thee  set.  /  Wherein  to  read  his  wond'rous  Works"  (VIII. 
66-68). 

It  is  the  poet,  however,  who  is  most  able  to  see  the  analogy  between 
God  and  God's  creation.  In  order  for  him  to  explain  "the  divine  con- 
sideration of  what  may  be  and  should  be."  (p.  415)  he  must  use  the  lan- 
guage of  accomodation:  the  presentation  of  "what  surmounts  the 
reach  /  Of  human  sense"  (571-572).  both  Raphael  and  Sidney  are  con- 
vinced, can  be  accomplished  only  by  giving  the  abstract  or  divine 
Idea  a  concrete  and  sensory  form  which  can  be  comprehended  by  the 
reader  from  his  experience  of  the  world.  Sidney's  "speaking  picture" 
will  be  one  which  "coupleth  the  general  notion  with  the  particular 
example"  (p.  420):  and  Raphael's  problem  will  be  solved  "By  lik'ning 
spiritual  to  corporal  forms,  /  As  may  express  them  best"  (573-574). 

The  device  of  using  the  concrete  likeness  to  express  the  abstract, 
the  device  of  analogy,  can  be  extended  beyond  the  particular  word 
choice  to  the  larger  fiction  itself.  Sometimes  analogy  is  the  only  way 
to  present  an  idea,  as  Raphael  realizes  when  he  attempts  to  describe 
to  Adam  the  effects  of  the  War  in  Heaven.  He  finds  that  he  must  use 
other  terms,  that  he  must  "set  forth  /  Great  things  by  small"  (VI. 310- 
311).  Sidney  too  finds  merit  in  the  use  of  extended  analogies,  citing  for 
examples  the  parables  of  Christ  and  the  "pretty  allegories"  of  Aesop 
(pp.  422-423). 

For  Raphael  and  Sidney,  however,  the  mere  fact  of  the  existence 
of  poetry  as  a  concrete  analogy  of  the  spiritual  world  is  not  enough. 
This  "speaking  picture"  must  exist  for  some  reason,  and  the  reason 
for  both  is  pragmatic.  The  function  of  poetry,  as  they  see  it.  is  primarily 
pedagogical,  but  pedagogical  with  a  particular  end  in  view— that  of 
moral  purpose.  The  end  of  poetry,  writes  Sidney,  is  "to  teach  and  to 

21 


delight,"  (p.  414)  but  he  further  adds  that  "the  highest  end  of  the  mis- 
tress knowledge"  is  "of  well  doing  and  not  of  well  knowing  only." 
(p.  418)  That  Raphael  has  "well  doing"  as  his  aim  in  presenting  his  tale 
to  Adam  is  evident:  he  tells  Adam  at  the  beginning  of  his  narration 
that  "yet  for  thy  good  /  This  is  dispens't"  (570-571);  and  later  he  reit- 
erates, "let  it  profit  thee  to  have  heard  /  By  terrible  Example  the  re- 
ward /  Of  disobedience;  firm  they  might  have  stood,  /  Yet  fell;  remem- 
ber, and  fear  to  transgress."  (VI. 909-912) 

If  poetry,  therefore,  is  to  move  a  person  to  "virtuous  action,"  (p.  418) 
according  to  Sidney  that  poet  will  be  most  effective  who  entices  men 
with  promises  of  delight,  thereby  moving  them  unaware  "to  see  the 
form  of  goodness,  which  seen  they  cannot  but  love  ere  themselves 
be  aware,  as  if  they  took  a  medicine  of  cherries."  (p.  429)  One  of  the 
best  ways  for  the  poet  to  entice  a  man  "from  wickedness  to  virtue," 
(p.  427)  Sidney  believes,  is  with  a  tale— "a  tale  which  holdeth  children 
from  play,  and  old  men  from  the  chimney  corner."  (p.  427)  The  tale, 
also,  seems  to  fill  Raphael's  needs  in  order  to  make  Adam  understand 
the  necessity  of  obedience. 

Of  all  tales,  however,  the  one  best  fitted  to  be  the  king  of  poetry, 
according  to  Sidney,  is  the  heroical.  which  "doth  not  only  teach  and 
move  to  a  truth,  but  teacheth  and  moveth  to  the  most  high  and  excel- 
lent truth."  (p.  434)  Although  not  making  use  of  all  the  conventions 
of  the  genre,  Raphael,  in  his  narration  to  Adam  of  the  War  in  Heaven, 
employs  in  a  small  way  the  form  of  the  epic,  realizing  with  Sidney 
that  the  image  of  those  worthy  of  emulation  "most  inflameth  the  mind 
with  desire  to  be  worthy."  (p.  434) 

Poetry,  thus,  for  Sidney  and  Raphael  is  the  imitation  of  spiritual 
or  ideal  concepts,  in  the  form  of  concrete  sensory  likenesses,  disguised 
with  delightful  tales,  to  the  end  that  men  may  learn  virtue  in  order  to 
be  moved  to  emulate  it.  The  pragmatic  consideration,  therefore,  of 
what  will  have  the  most  positive  effect  upon  the  audience  is  of  prime 
importance.  Much  of  Sidney's  Defense  is  concerned  with  the  problems 
of  right  poets  and  right  poetry— what  it  is  that  will  move  men  toward 
virtuous  action.  Raphael,  also,  is  aware  of  the  problem  of  finding  the 
proper  means  of  moving  men  toward  the  divine: 

for  who.  though  with  the  tongue 
Of  Angels,  can  relate,  or  to  what  things 
Liken  on  Earth  conspicuous,  that  may  lift 
Human  imagination  to  such  highth 
Of  Godlike  power ....  ( VI.297-301) 


22 


A  QUASI-STATISTICAL  ANALYSIS 

OF  PERFORMANCE  IN 

A  SELF-PACED  GENERAL 

GENERAL  CHEMISTRY  COURSE 

by  JIMMY  C.  STOKESf  WILLIAM  L.  LOCKHART?* 
and  HUGHLAN  W.  POPE*** 

Programs  involving  the  individualization  of  instruction  have  been 
the  topic  of  a  number  of  symposia  recently,  such  as  the  Symposium 
on  Self-Paced  Instruction  in  Chemistry  held  at  the  165th  Meeting  of 
the  American  Chemical  Society  in  Dallas.  Texas  during  April  of  1973. 
The  development  of  such  academic  programs  are  almost  invariably 
followed  by  quantitative  assessments  of  their  effectiveness. 

The  effectiveness  of  a  self-paced  or  individualized  program  can 
be  approached  from  a  number  of  viewpoints.  The  major  premises  to 
be  tested  are  the  effectiveness  of  a  self-paced  program  on  student 
achievement  and  the  student's  subsequent  response  to  such  a  program 
of  instruction.  Several  recent  reports  measuring  student  attitudes 
toward  self-paced  and  other  forms  of  individualized  instruction  are 
available.  Charles  Howard^  and  J.L.  Hedrick^,  after  rather  extensive 
investigations,  have  shown  overwhelming  student  response  in  favor 
of  self-paced  and  individualized  instruction.  Other  studies^-^  report 
similar  findings.  In  addition  to  improved  student  attitudes  and  respon- 
siveness, many  investigators  agree  with  Hedrick  that  the  instructors 
experience  a  substantial  positive  response  to  self-paced  instruction 
with  respect  to  improved  professional  awareness. ^•^■'^ 

*  Assistant  Professor  of  Chemistry.  **  Associate  Professor  of  Chemistry,  ***Pro- 
fessor  of  Chemistry,  West  Georgia  College. 


1  Charles  Howard,  "A  Quantitative  Appraisal  of  A-V-T  Program."  Journal 
of  College  Science  Teaching,  IV  (1974).  338. 

2  J.L.  Hedrick,  "The  Keller  Plan  and  Student  Evaluation."  Journal  of  Chemi- 
cal Education.  Lll  (1975).  65. 

3  G.E.  Parker  and  T.R.  Mertens.  "Programmed  Instruction,  Test  Performance, 
and  Classroom  Discussion. "/oz/rna/  of  College  Science  Teaching,  IV  ( 1974),  107. 
"^  George  Gilbert,  "Self-Pacing:  Evangelism  and  Effectiveness,"  in  Bassam  Z. 
Shakhashiri  (editor).  Proceedings  of  the  Symposium  on  Self-Paced  Instruction 
in  Chemistry  (Easton,  Pennsylvania:  American  Chemical  Society,  1974),  p.  35. 
5  Robert  F.  Pasternack.  "A  Self-Paced  Instruction  Chemistry  Course  at  Ithaca 
College,"  ibid.,  p.  3. 

^  Daniel  Steffenson,  John  Crump,  and  Dennis  Gaswick,  "Keller  Units  for  Some 
Topics  in  General  Chemistry:  The  Design  for  a  Modular  Chemistry  Course," 
ibid.,  p.  17. 

■^  R.L.  Kuczkowski,  H.  Brintzinger,  D.  Dull,  and  J.  Thomas,  "Experiments 
with  Keller  Type  General  Chemistry  Courses  at  Michigan,"  ibid.,  p.  43. 

23 


Several  investigations  regarding  student  achievement  in  self-paced 
instruction  have  been  made.^'^'^"  Many  of  these  concur  with  Lewis 
and  Wolf  who  found  improved  but  not  statistically  significant  gains  in 
student  achievement.  Even  though  there  are  usually  higher  levels  of 
achievement  in  the  self-paced  programs,  no  statistically  significant 
differences  have  been  demonstrated  between  individualized  instruction 
in  normal  college  courses  and  traditional  academic  instruction. ^^'^^'^^ 
Numerous  reports  show  increases  in  performance  with  remedial  type 
programs.^"* 

This  paper  describes  a  program  of  self-paced  instruction  in  general 
chemistry  which  is  reasonably  different  from  most  of  the  new  programs 
for  individualized  instruction  in  general  chemistry.  The  report  compares 
achievement  of  students  in  traditional  versus  a  lecture-oriented  self- 
paced  general  chemistry  program. 

The  Program.  The  course  under  evaluation  was  the  general  chem- 
istry course  offered  Fall  Quarter,  1974,  at  West  Georgia  College,  Car- 
rollton,  Georgia.  It  was  offered  in  two  sections  and  team  taught  by 
the  authors.  The  same  instructor  lectured  to  both  sections  of  the  course. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  course,  students  in  each  section  were  allowed 
to  select  traditional  or  modular  (self-paced)  instruction.  Students  elect- 
ing traditional  instruction  were  given  four,  fifty  minute  examinations 
and  a  fifty  question  comprehensive  final  examination.  Questions  on  the 
traditional  final  examination  were  taken  from  the  self-paced  examina- 
tions given  during  the  quarter.  For  students  selecting  the  modular  pro- 
gram, the  course  was  divided  into  eighteen  units  or  modules.  Students 
were  allowed  to  take  the  examinations  at  their  discretion  during  the 
quarter.  Examinations  had  to  be  taken  sequentially  and  students  who 
scored  less  than  seventy  percent  had  to  repeat  examinations.  The 
second  examination  in  each  unit  was  designed  to  be  more  difficult, 
thereby  emphasizing  the  importance  of  passing  the  first  examination 
given  on  each  unit. 

Students  in  the  modular  program  followed  a  study  guide,  detailing 
performance  expected,  and  appropriate  references  for  material  covered 
in  lecture.  Lectures  were  videotaped  and  placed  on  reserve  in  the 


^  G.E.  Parker  and  T.R.  Mertens,  "Programmed  Instruction,  Test  Performance, 

and  Classroom  Discussion,"  Journal  of  College  Science  Teaching,  IV  (1974), 

107. 

^  Charles  Howard. 

^^  D.A.  Lewis  and  W.A.  Wolf,  "Student  Performance  Before  and  After  the 

Keller  Plan,''  Journal  of  Chemical  Education.  LI  (1974),  665. 

11  G.E.  Parker  and  T.R.  Mertens. 

12  Charles  Howard. 

13  D.A.  Lewis  and  W.A.  Wolf. 

1^  Education  Professions  Development  Act  (EPDA)  Workshop  on  Recruiting 
and  Instructing  the  Deprived  Student,  Clayton  Junior  College,  Morrow,  Geor- 
gia, August  21-30,  1972. 

24 


college  library.  Both  modular  and  traditional  students  had  access  to 
study  guides  and  the  videotaped  lectures.  Lecture  attendance  was  not 
required  for  either  the  traditional  or  modular  group.  Essentially,  modu- 
lar and  traditional  students  could  approach  the  program  in  exactly 
the  same  method  except  for  the  self-pacing  concept.  From  a  final 
course  enrollment  of  78  students,  53  elected  modular  instruction  and 
25  students  chose  the  traditional  instruction. 

Testing  Statistics 

A  comparison  of  modular  and  traditional  student  performance 
was  achieved  through  examining  scores  on  the  eighteen  modular  exami- 
nations for  self-paced  students  compared  with  a  comprehensive  fifty 
question  examination  for  the  traditional  students.  (This  comprehensive 
examination  was  a  composite  of  questions  from  the  eighteen  modular 
examinations).  No  questions  appeared  on  the  composite  examination 
which  had  not  been  included  in  the  modular  program. 

The  mean  of  the  student  performance  on  the  modular  examinations 
was  78.9%.  the  mean  score  of  the  traditional  students  on  the  composite 
final  examination  was  66.4%.  A  statistical  comparison  was  made  using 
the  chi  square  technique.  The  chi  square  determination  was  selected 
because  of  the  lack  of  an  absolute  testing  model.  ^^  It  should  be  pointed 
out  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  randomize  the  two  groups,  and  they 
were  generated  as  a  result  of  student  enrollment.  This  was  the  first 
quarter  that  such  a  program  was  offered  by  the  Chemistry  Department 
at  West  Georgia  College,  and,  therefore,  no  predetermined  bias  and 
been  established  concerning  the  two  programs.  Every  attempt  was  made 
by  the  instructors  to  maintain  a  neutral  position  concerning  the  pro- 
gram elected  by  the  students. 

Student  interest  in  the  use  of  self-paced  instruction  was  also  exam- 
ined. Many  such  studies  are  evaluated  on  student  surveys.  It  is  more 
realistic  to  analyze  the  response  of  the  same  students  to  a  second  quarter 
sequential  course  taught  in  the  same  fashion.  Sixty-nine  of  the  students 
taking  the  first  course  enrolled  in  the  second.  Of  these,  nearly  ninety 
percent  took  the  modular  option  as  compared  with  nearly  seventy  per- 
cent in  the  first  course.  Therefore,  by  comparing  the  number  of  students 
electing  modular  instruction  in  the  second  course  with  those  in  the 
first  course,  a  true  level  of  student  response  to  such  a  program  can 
be  determined. 

Results 

Table  I  indicates  the  performance  of  traditional  and  self-paced 
students.  (Testing  described  earlier  in  paper). 

Table  II  indicates  the  numbers  of  students  involved  in  modular 
and  traditional  programs  Fall  Quarter  compared  with  Winter  Quarter. 


1^  Phillip  H.  DuBois.  An  Introduction  to  Psychological  Statistics  (New  York: 
Harper  and  Row,  1965),  pp.  52-72  and  486. 

25 


TABLE  I 
STUDENT  PERFORMANCE 

Chemistry  121  Modular  Instruction  Mean,  78.9% 

53  students 

Chemistry  121  Traditional  Instruction  Mean,  66.47o 

17  students  (8  students  did  not  take 

the  composite  examination) 

Chi  Square  Value,  1  degree  of  2.353 

freedom 

Chi  Square  Value  for  significant  2.706 

difference  at  0.10  confidence 
level 

(The  fact  that  the  test  chi  square  value,  2.353,  is  just  less  than  the  value 
established  for  the  0.10  confidence  level  indicates  that  with  greater 
than  50%  confidence  but  just  less  than  90%  confidence  it  can  be  statis- 
tically stated  that  the  above  means  differ  significantly.) 

TABLE  II 

STUDENT  ENROLLMENT  IN  COROLLARY  PROGRAMS 

Chemistry  121        Chemistry  122 

(Fall)  (Winter) 

Traditional  Program  25  8 

Self-Paced  (Modular)  Program  53  61 

Chi  Square  Value,  1  degree  of  13.276 

freedom 

Chi  Square  Value  for  significant  10.827 

difference  at  0.01  confidence 
level 

(The  fact  that  the  test  chi  square  value,  13.276,  is  greater  than  the  es- 
tablished value  for  the  0.01  confidence  level  indicates  that  with  99.9% 
confidence  it  can  be  statistically  stated  that  the  above  distributions 
differ  significantly.) 

Conclusions 

Based  on  the  data  generated  in  this  study  and  realizing  that  the 
study  is  based  on  pragmatic  conditions  and  not  ideal  statistical  param- 

26 


eters,  it  is  felt  that  the  following  conclusions  are  justified. 

I.  Student  achievement  in  self-paced  general  chemistry  at  West 
Georgia  College  is  substantially  higher  than  with  the  traditional  ap- 
proach. Although  the  results  show  a  statistical  significance,  at  approxi- 
mately the  90%  confidence  level,  it  is  possible  to  rationalize  that  the 
difference  may  be  even  more  than  it  appears  in  view  of  the  limited 
range  of  grade  results,  usually  falling  between  60  and  90  percent.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  grade  result  differential  in  this  study 
is  quite  pronounced  compared  with  studies  by  Lewis^^  and  Gilbert^'^. 

II.  Most  students  definitely  prefer  the  self-paced  program  of  in- 
struction to  the  traditional  system.  Still,  some  do  perform  better  with 
traditional  programs.  Therefore,  we  plan  to  continue  offering  both 
programs,  allowing  students  to  select  the  plan  best  suiting  their  needs. 

III.  Concurring  with  other  studies,  it  is  felt  that  the  instructors 
are  making  a  more  significant  contribution  to  the  overall  improvement 
of  the  quality  of  teaching  and  instruction  in  the  department  through 
involvement  in  this  program.  The  program  requires  more  individual 
effort,  especially  in  a  laboratory  science  and  the  need  for  an  open, 
self-paced  laboratory  in  addition  to  the  lecture  program.  The  program 
requires  more  concentration  on  the  part  of  the  instructors,  making 
sure  that  videotape  programs  are  adequate,  maintaining  office  hours 
for  testing  schedules,  and  making  a  more  concerted  effort  toward  in- 
volvement with  the  individual  student.  Self-paced  instruction  is  de- 
manding on  the  instructor,  but  the  rewards  far  outweigh  the  demands. 

Acknowledgemenl 

We  would  like  to  express  our  most  sincere  appreciation  to  Mr.  Jerry 
Mock,  Dr.  David  Seiber,  and  the  Instructional  Media  Staff  for  their 
cooperation,  patience,  and  encouragement  in  the  development  of 
this  program. 


16  D.A.  Lewis  and  W.A.  Wolf. 
1'^  George  Gilbert. 


27 


ABSTRACTS 

of 
MASTERS  THESES 

and 

SPECIALIST  IN  EDUCA  TION  PROIECTS 

Balcerak,  Mary  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1974) 

EMPATHY 


A  survey  of  the  literature  for  studies  indicating  the  therapeutic  conditions 
necessary  for  positive  behavior  change  in  patients.  The  author  provides  a  review 
of  past  studies  with  a  summary  of  the  indications  and  then  presents  more  recent 
studies,  including  methodology  and  results,  as  well  as  implications  for  the  future. 


Bercaw,  George  Henry  B.A.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1974) 

A  MEANING  SYSTEMS  MODEL: 
MATERNAL,  FAMILIAL,  PEER,  AND  INTERNAL 

The  author  proposes  four  meaning  systems:  the  maternal,  familial,  peer, 
and  the  internal,  in  an  attempt  to  account  for  the  research  data  and  postulates 
arising  from  traditional  psychodynamic  psychology  as  being  a  flip-side  of  exis- 
tential concerns.  He  focuses  upon  meaningfulness  as  a  viable  construct  in  ef- 
fecting a  personal  life-style  that  lends  itself  to  personal  growth. 

The  author  suggests  that  psychology  need  not  only  address  itself  to  develop- 
mental stages  of  personality,  but  that  it  can  view  the  same  under  the  aegis 
of  a  process  psychology.  The  Meaning  Systems  Model  addresses  itself  to  process 
dynamics  of  personal  growth  — social,  dyadic,  and  individual. 

It  is  postulated  that  the  development  of  the  internal  meaning  system  may  be 
the  only  viable  construct  for  future  society  and,  that  societal  institutions  will 
reflect  the  base  lines  of  new  meanings  as  they  are  invented  by  a  new  conscious- 
ness that  envisions  life  in  terms  of  its  alternatives. 

The  author  posits  that  new  dimensions  of  intimacy  will  evolve  and  that  a 
shared  mutuality  will  be  its  central  focus.  Thus,  he  proffers  that  the  heterosexual 
intimate  dyad  is  the  most  powerful  agent  for  change  and  growth  as  he  examines 
societal  competitors  to  intimacy. 

The  thesis  is  both  a  theoretical  and  a  personal  statement  of  psychological 
insight  and  experiential  meanings. 

28 


Coker,  Joan  G.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  SELECTED 

WECHSLER  INTELLIGENCE  SCALE  FOR  CHILDREN  SUBTESTS 

AS  A  METHOD  FOR  DIAGNOSING 

LEARNING  DISABLED  CHILDREN 


Three  null  hypotheses  were  stated: 

Children  who  have  been  diagnosed  by  a  child  psychiatrist  as  learning  dis- 
abled will  demonstrate  no  significant  difference  on  the  total  Verbal  Scale  scores 
and  the  total  Performance  Scale  scores  of  the  WISC. 

Children  who  have  been  diagnosed  by  a  child  psychiatrist  as  learning  dis- 
abled will  demonstrate  no  significant  difference  on  the  combined  Compre- 
hension and  Similarities  subtest  scores  than  on  the  combined  Information  and 
Arithmetic  subtest  scores  of  the  Verbal  Scale  of  the  WISC. 

Children  who  have  been  diagnosed  by  a  child  psychiatrist  as  learning 
disabled  will  demonstrate  no  significant  difference  on  the  combined  Picture 
Completion  and  Picture  Arrangement  subtest  scores  than  on  the  combined 
Block  Design  and  Coding  subtest  scores  of  the  Performance  Scale  of  the  WISC. 

The  final  results  of  the  study  indicated  that  there  was  no  significant 
difference  in  total  Verbal  Scale  scores  and  total  Performance  Scale  scores  on 
the  WISC  for  the  sample  population.  However,  this  sample  population  scored 
significantly  higher  (>  .01)  on  the  combined  Comprehension  and  Similarities 
subtest  scores  than  on  the  combined  Information  and  Arithmetic  subtest  scores 
of  the  Verbal  Scale  of  the  WISC.  In  addition,  the  sample  population  scored 
significantly  higher  (>  .05)  on  the  combined  Picture  Completion  and  Picture 
Arrangement  subtest  scores  than  on  the  combined  Block  Design  and  Coding 
subtest  scores  of  the  Performance  Scale  of  the  WISC. 

The  final  results  from  the  study  indicated  that  teachers  could  refer  to  WISC 
subtest  scores  for  quick  diagnosis  of  possible  learning  disabled  cases;  however, 
it  was  emphasized  that  final  evaluation  and  diagnosis  should  be  made  by  quali- 
fied personnel  in  all  suspected  learning  disabled  cases. 


McChesney.  Jr..  Samuel  Jefferson  (MS,  March,  1975) 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FISHES  OF  THE  LITTLE 
TALLAPOOSA  RIVER,  CARROLL  COUNTY,  GEORGIA 


A  survey  was  made  of  the  distribution  of  fishes  of  the  Little  Tallapoosa 
River  in  Carroll  County,  Georgia.  A  total  of  24  collections  and  one  creel  survey 
were  made  at  15  stations  on  the  river.  Thirty-one  species  from  seven  families 
were  recorded  and  plotted  on  distribution  maps.  The  families  include  Cyprini- 
dae,  Catostomidae,  Ictaluridae,  Poecilidae,  Centrarchidae,  Percidae,  and  Cot- 
tidae.  The  survey  revealed  3  species  not  previously  reported  from  the  Little 
Tallapoosa  River  in  Carroll  County.  In  addition,  4  species  not  earlier  reported 
from  the  Little  Tallapoosa  River  drainage,  and  one  species  not  earlier  reported 
from  the  entire  Tallapoosa  River  drainage  were  captured. 

The  effect  of  four  channelized  areas  on  the  diversity  and  distribution  of 
species  is  discussed.  In  addition,  the  effects  of  two  waste  water  treatment  facili- 

29 


ties  and  two  oxidation  ponds  upon  the  fishes  of  the  river  is  analyzed.  The  species 
diversity  was  found  to  be  lower  in  areas  of  more  recent  channelization  and  in 
those  locations  nearer  the  outlet  of  waste  water  facilities. 


McCoUum.  Jerrv  Lawson,  (MS,  March,  1975) 


THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FISHES  IN 
THE  DOG  RIVER  DRAINAGE 


A  Field  study  was  conducted  in  order  to  determine  the  fish  species  present 
and  to  determine  their  distribution  within  the  Dog  River  drainage  system. 
Twenty-seven  species  of  fish  were  found  to  occur  within  the  drainage.  The 
distributions  of  these  species  were  recorded  and  mapped.  The  distributions  are 
based  on  personal  collections  made  from  March,  1974  to  February,  1975  using 
various  collection  techniques.  Six  additional  species  are  suspected  to  occur 
based  on  previous  collection  records. 

The  distribution  of  several  species  was  found  to  be  quite  erratic  when 
judged  strictly  on  basis  of  the  number  of  specimens  collected  and  the  location 
of  the  collections.  Several  possible  explanations  for  erratic  distribution  are 
discussed.  Notropis  zonistius  and  Percina  nigrofasciata  were  found  to  be  widely 
distributed.  Factors  contributing  to  the  wide  distribution  of  these  two  species 
are  discussed. 

The  bottom  of  the  stream  from  site  1  upstream  to  the  motorcross  track 
finish  line  is  apparently  highly  unstable.  The  possible  effects  on  fishes  are 
discussed. 

Sharpe.  Jane  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

AN  ASSESSMENT  TO  DETERMINE  THE  EFFECTIVENESS  OF  THE 

WISCONSIN  DESIGN  FOR  READING  SKILL  DEVELOPMENT 

WORD  ATTACK  SKILLS  ON  THE  READING  OF  THIRD 

GRADE  STUDENTS  AT  ANNETTE  WINN  SCHOOL 


To  determine  the  effectiveness  of  the  Wisconsin  Reading  Design  Program 
for  Word  Attack,  initiated  in  the  Annette  Winn  School  in  Lithia  Springs,  Geor- 
gia a  descriptive  study  was  begun  in  Douglas  County  in  1973.  The  investigator 
followed  the  progress  of  all  third  grade  students  participating  in  the  Design 
for  one  year.  Data  were  collected  through  testing  instruments  and  parent  and 
teacher  questionnaires.  This  study  involved  seventy-four  third  grade  students. 

All  third  grade  students  were  tested  in  September,  1973  to  determine  the 
number  of  word  attack  skills  mastered  at  that  point.  Children  were  then  grouped 
into  a  skill  area  according  to  needs  for  twenty-five  minutes  a  day  for  an  eight 
day  time  period.  The  children  were  then  tested  at  the  end  of  the  teaching  period 
for  an  evaluation  to  see  if  the  needed  skill  being  taught  was  mastered.  The  Iowa 
Test  of  Basic  Skills  was  administered  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  1973-1974 
school  year.  Teacher  and  parent  questionnaires  were  given  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  final  results  from  the  study  indicated  that  the  subjects  showed  signifi- 
cant gains  at  the  .05  level  of  confidence  in  vocabulary  and  total  reading.  There 
was  no  significant  gain  in  word  analysis  between  the  Iowa  Achievement  pre 

30 


and  post-test  scores.  The  study  indicated  that  a  longitudinal  study  is  needed  to 
determine  the  value  of  the  Wisconsin  Reading  Program  for  Word  Attack. 


Sims.  James  Randall  (MA,  June.  1974) 

PERFORMANCE  ON  THE  HARVARD  GROUP  SCALE  OF 

HYPNOTIC  SUGGESTIBILITY  AS  A  FUNCTION 

OF  HYPNOTIC  AND  HYPEREMPIRIC 

INDUCTION  TECHNIQUES 

One  hundred  and  three  undergraduates  from  West  Georgia  College  were 
administered  Form  A  of  the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of  Hypnotic  Susceptibility 
after  receiving  either  a  traditional  hypnotic  induction  or  a  hyperempiric  induc- 
tion based  on  suggestions  of  mind  expansion,  enhanced  awareness,  and  in- 
creased alertness  and  sensitivity.  It  was  predicted  that  subjects  who  had  received 
the  hyperempiric  induction  would  score  higher  on  the  Harvard  Group  Scale  of 
Hypnotic  Susceptibility  than  subjects  who  had  received  the  hypnotic  induction. 

Chi-square  analyses  of  the  percentage  of  subjects  responding  to  each  item 
on  the  scale  were  computed  together  with  a  chi-square  analysis  of  the  overall 
test  scores.  The  hyperempiric  subjects  did  not  perform  significantly  better  in 
terms  of  their  overall  scores;  however,  their  performances  were  significantly 
better  on  two  items:  responding  to  a  hallucinated  fly  (p=  .01,  one-tailed), 
and  post-hypnotic  suggestion  (p=  .05,  one-tailed).  The  results  support  the 
conclusion  that  hyperempiria  is  a  desirable  alternative  to  hypnosis  in  therapeutic 
situations  which  utilize  post-trance  suggestion  or  fantasy  techniques  as  a  means 
of  bringing  about  desired  changes. 

Sparrow.  Gregory  Scott  (MA,  June,  1974) 

LUCID  DREAMING  AS  AN  EVOLUTIONARY  PROCESS 

This  study  represents  a  preliminary  attempt  to  compare  lucid  dreaming, 
or  dreams  in  which  the  dreamer  is  aware  that  he  is  dreaming,  with  the  Jimgian 
theory  of  ego  development.  The  dream  state  is  compared  with  the  primitive 
state  of  the  ego,  and  the  arousal  of  lucidity  is  likened  to  the  first  traces  of  self- 
reflection  in  the  primitive  psyche.  An  attempt  is  made  to  establish  stages  in  lucid 
dreaming  which  have  distinct  parallels  in  ego  formation,  as  described  by  Jung 
and  Neumann. 

The  phenomenon  known  as  out-of-body  experience  is  discussed  as  a  corol- 
lary of  lucid  dreaming.  Instead  of  regarding  the  out-of-body  experience  as  neces- 
sarily a  physical  displacement  of  a  finer  physical  body,  this  paper  discusses  it 
as  a  meaningful  perception  of  the  dreamer  which  arises  from  the  need  to  insulate 
the  growing  sense  of  independence  from  the  dream  environment. 

An  attempt  is  made  to  compare  lucidity  with  the  goals  of  Gestalt  Therapy 
which  emphasize  the  need  for  a  development  of  greater  awareness  in  areas  of 
conflict.  The  lucid  dream  is  regarded  as  a  situation  in  which  awareness  rises 
to  such  a  level  as  to  allow  the  individual  to  confront  a  rejected  aspect  of  him- 
self in  an  open  and  fearless  manner. 

After  an  attempt  is  made  in  the  Introduction  to  support  the  hypothesis  that 

31 


lucid  dreaming  is  an  evolutionary  process  with  stages  comparable  to  stages  of 
ego  development,  the  author  describes  some  techniques  believed  to  stimulate 
lucidity  in  his  own  case. 

In  the  Results,  examples  of  the  culminative  stages  of  lucid  dreaming  are 
presented  which  strongly  support  the  evolutionary  model  as  described  in  the 
Introduction.  The  type  of  experience  available  to  the  lucid  dreamer  appears  to 
be  identical  to  the  mystical  experiences  as  described  by  the  great  contempla- 
tives  and  mystics. 

In  the  Conclusion,  the  author  concludes  that  the  lucid  dream  may  be  one  of 
the  most  effective  confrontations  an  individual  can  have  with  an  inner  conflict, 
that  there  is  a  distinct  parallel  between  lucid  dreaming  and  ego  development, 
and  that  lucid  dreaming  may  offer  keys  to  the  further  understanding  of  ego 
formation.  It  is  further  concluded  that  the  experiences  available  to  the  lucid 
dreamer  are  likely  to  result  in  a  revision  of  traditional  dream  theories  and 
current  models  of  the  nature  of  man. 


Thurston,  Mark  Alan.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1974) 

AN  INTEGRATED  APPROACH  TO  MEDITATION 

There  are  many  meditation  techniques  found  in  literature.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  is  the  focusing  upon  an  affirmation  or  mantra.  The  meaning  or  con- 
sciousness of  the  mantra  is  then  awakened  within  the  mind  of  the  meditator  as 
he  focuses  upon  it  during  the  stillness  of  meditation. 

To  test  the  effects  of  such  an  approach  to  meditation,  218  5s  from  the  mem- 
bership of  the  Association  for  Research  and  Enlightenment  were  selected.  All 
aspects  of  the  experiment  were  carried  out  by  the  5s  in  their  own  homes  and 
various  tests  and  reports  were  mailed  to  the  E.  5s  were  randomly  assigned  to 
a  control  group  and  an  experimental  group  of  equal  numbers.  Based  upon  in- 
formation that  had  been  obtained  earlier,  the  two  groups  were  assigned  an  equal 
number  of  5s  who  had  had  previous  meditation  experience.  All  5s  completed  a 
series  of  tests  before  the  beginning  of  the  experimental  period:  the  I.P.A.T. 
Anxiety  Scale  Questionnaire,  the  Mooney  Problem  Check  List  and  a  telepathy 
test.  5s  in  the  experimental  group  also  received  a  workbook-manual  giving  de- 
tailed descriptions  of  the  philosophy  and  practice  of  medita  >n.  They  were 
instructed  to  follow  the  concepts  in  the  manual  and  to  medii,i<:e  daily  for  at 
least  20  minutes  during  the  28  day  experimental  period.  The  control  group  was 
instructed  to  continue  their  current  meditation  schedule  and  not  to  increase  the 
frequency  of  meditation  (many  were  non-meditators  and  were  not  to  start 
meditation  in  this  28  day  period).  At  the  end  of  the  experimental  period,  each 
5  again  completed  the  three  tests. 

Results  showed  a  significantly  greater  decrease  in  anxiety  (p<!  .00  )  and 
in  problems  (p<i  .005)  for  the  experimental  group  compared  to  the  control 
group.  No  significant  differences  were  obtained  for  the  telepathy  test.  Within 
the  experimental  group,  no  significant  changes  were  found  for  any  measure 
when  the  data  was  divided  into  three  groups  according  to  previous  meditation 
experience.  For  all  5s,  those  who  had  had  no  previous  meditation  experience 
scored  significantly  higher  (/7<C  .025)  on  the  initial  administration  of  the 
Mooney  Problem  Check  List  than  did  the  other  5s.  No  difference  was  found  in 
this  regard  for  the  I.P.A.T.  Anxiety  Scale  Questionnaire  or  the  telepathy  test. 

32 


Wheeler,  Alice  Sherman  (MA,  June,  1974) 

COMMUNITY  RESIDENTIAL  FACILITIES  FOR 
THE  MENTALLY  RETARDED 

This  paper  presents  the  group  home  precedent  for  children  and  aduh  re- 
tardates functioning  in  the  concept  of  small,  dispersed  residences,  select  guide- 
lines for  group  living  and  working  in  the  community,  and  the  rationale  that  group 
homes  are  a  part  of  the  continuum  of  services  for  the  retarded.  Factors  leading 
to  the  unfolding  of  these  local-based  residences  are  also  given. 

Pioneering,  historic  moves  in  the  area  of  mental  retardation*  implemented 
a  major  step  in  service  delivery  to  the  retarded  client.  Whereby,  the  ultimate 
goal  of  bringing  each  person  via  a  personalized  program  of  quality  has  been 
toward  a  realization  of  an  individual  ceiling  level  of  self-sufficiency  and 
self-support. 

The  community  residential  facility  is  the  accomplishing  means  of  this  goal. 
It  permits  a  near  normal  existence  for  the  retarded  allowing  for  a  smaller,  more 
individualized,  home-like  atmosphere.  Appropriate  models  provide  for  emula- 
tion and  peers  furnish  comfort.  In  addition,  adequate  patterns  of  living  and 
association  with  the  broader  community  are  encouraged  through  both  leisure 
and  work  activities.  Here  the  retarded  person  can  live  with  dignity  in  an  atmos- 
phere designed  to  elicit  and  nurture  his  maximum  potential  abilities. 

The  group  home  is  not  only  a  much  more  humane  provision  for  living,  but 
its  implementation  is  more  economically  feasible  than  total  institutionalization. 

Awareness  by  the  general  public  to  the  plight  of  the  mentally  retarded  will 
hasten  this  change— hopefully. 


Whitenton,  Jr..  Joseph  B.  (MA,  June,  1974) 

ANOMIA  AND  RURAL  AFDC  RECIPIENTS 


A  sample  of  fifty-eight  women  receiving  Aid  to  Families  with  Dependent 
Children  (AFDC)  were  interviewed.  Among  the  questions  in  the  interview  sche- 
dule were  those  considered  as  indicators  of  dependency  as  well  as  the  Srole 
Anomia  Scale.  The  indicators  of  dependency:  relying  solely  on  AFDC  income, 
optimism  (future  planning),  health,  having  been  on  welfare  more  than  once, 
and  feelings  of  having  to  follow  the  serviceworker's  advice,  were  associated  with 
anomia  in  order  to  establish  a  relationship  between  the  two  sociological  states. 
Four  of  the  five  hypotheses  relating  anomia  and  the  indicators  of  dependency 
were  confirmed.  Thus,  it  was  concluded  that  a  definite  relationship  exists  be- 
tween the  social  psychological  state  of  anomia  and  welfare  dependency  although 
causal  order  was  not  determined  since  longitudinal  data  was  not  obtained. 


33 


Abner.  Agnes  A.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

AN  EVALUATION  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  KINDERGARTEN 

EXPERIENCES  ON  READING  READINESS  AND  READING 

ACHIEVEMENT  FOR  A  FIRST  GRADE  POPULATION  AT 

SAND  HILL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

1973-1974 

This  study  was  designed  to  determine  whether  or  not  kindergarten  experi- 
ences resulted  in  significant  differences  in  reading  readiness  and  reading 
achievement  in  first  grade  between  children  who  had  had  kindergarten  experi- 
ences and  children  who  had  not  had  kindergarten  experiences. 

Two  groups  of  first  grade  children,  seventeen  who  had  had  kindergarten 
training  and  twelve  who  had  not  had  kindergarten  training,  were  chosen  as 
subjects  for  this  study.  These  groups  were  found  to  be  relatively  equivalent  in 
sex  ratio,  intelligence  test  information,  and  socio-economic  status.  Both  groups 
of  children  were  assigned  to  one  self-contained  classroom  at  the  Sand  Hill  Ele- 
mentary School,  Carrollton,  Georgia. 

To  evaluate  the  groups  in  reading  readiness,  the  Metropolitan  Readiness 
Test,  Form  A,  was  administered  to  both  groups  in  September  of  1973. 

Using  the  Metropolitan  Readiness  Test  scores  and  teacher  judgment  as 
the  main  criteria  for  grouping,  the  teacher  then  placed  the  children  in  six  basic 
reading  groups  for  reading  instruction  for  a  period  of  eight  months.  These 
groups  were  flexible  so  that  a  child  could  move  into  or  out  of  a  group  as  he 
needed.  Individual  and  additional  small  group  instruction  in  reading  were  also 
provided  for  both  the  kindergarten  and  the  non-kindergarten  children.  There 
were  some  children  from  both  groups  in  each  of  the  six  basic  reading  groups. 

At  the  end  of  eight  months  of  reading  instruction,  to  evaluate  reading 
achievement  the  Gates  Primary  Reading  Tests  of  Word  Recognition,  Sentence 
Reading,  and  Paragraph  Reading  were  administered  to  both  groups. 

To  determine  significant  differences  a  comparison  of  the  means  and  the  / 
test  for  the  twelve  independent  means  in  reading  readiness  and  reading  achieve- 
ment were  made.  Eight  of  the  independent  means  pertained  to  reading  readiness 
and  four  of  them  pertained  to  reading  achievement. 

Upon  an  examination  of  the  means  and  the  /  values  for  the  eight  areas  of 
reading  readiness  and  the  four  areas  of  reading  achievement,  it  was  found  that 
there  were  no  significant  differences  at  the  .05  level  of  confidence. 

However,  since  the  kindergarten  group  did  considerably  better  in  all  the 
areas  except  one  of  reading  readiness  and  one  of  reading  achievement,  it  is 
recommended  that  further  studies  be  made  to  determine  exactly  what,  if  any, 
the  factors  are  in  kindergarten  experiences  that  result  in  improvement  in  reading 
readiness  and  reading  achievement  in  first  grade. 


Ambrose,  Barbara  Dickey  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  TWO  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
MATEHMATICS  TO  FIFTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

A  study  of  mathematical  gains  of  two  fifth  grade  classes  was  conducted  in 
order  to  compare  two  methods  of  instruction  used.  Children,  in  the  control 

34 


group  (Group  C),  from  a  self-contained  classroom  were  taught  by  the  class- 
as-a-whole  method.  Children,  in  the  experimental  group  (Group  El,  from  an 
open  classroom  were  free  to  make  choices,  served  as  peer  helpers,  and  partici- 
pated in  self-direction.  Thirty  students  composed  the  study. 

Three  null  hypotheses  were  tested  to  determine  if  significant  differences 
existed  in  mathematical  achievement  and  self  concept  between  the  two  groups. 
The  t  test  was  used  to  test  the  hypotheses.  Findings  indicated  no  significant 
difference  could  be  found,  except  in  one  of  thirteen  diagnostic  testing  areas, 
to  reject  the  hypotheses  that  neither  method  of  instruction  was  significantly 
superior  in  producing  mathematical  gains.  The  rejected  area  concerned  the 
understanding  of  number  bases  and  measurement. 

A  larger  group  study  over  a  longer  period  of  time  possibly  would  have  pro- 
duced different  results. 

Recommendations  for  further  study  were  included. 


Bailey,  Marian  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

CORRELATION  OF  THE  GESELL  INCOMPLETE 

MAN  TEST  AND  FIRST  GRADE 

READING  ACHIEVEMENT 


The  purpose  of  this  paper  was  to  determine  the  relationship  between  the 
developmental  age  as  measured  by  the  Gesell  Incomplete  Man  Test  and  mental 
age  as  measured  by  the  Peabody  Picture  Vocabulary  Test  with  reading  achieve- 
ment measured  by  the  Scott  Foresman  Reading  Systems  Test.  Two  groups  of 
first  grade  children  from  a  small  town  and  rural  area  were  used.  Group  A  con- 
tained 23  children  who  completed  Level  Two  of  the  Scott  Foresman  Reading 
Systems  and  Group  B  with  60  children  who  completed  Level  Four.  Results 
indicated  a  significant  relationship  at  the  .05  level  between  mental  age  and  read- 
ing achievement  of  the  subjects  in  Group  B.  A  stepwise  regression  program  used 
with  Group  B  indicated  that  mental  age  measured  by  the  Peabody  Picture 
Vocabulary  Test  and  sex  accounted  for  the  statistically  significant  amount 
of  variance. 


Bowen.  Sarah  Louise  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

CONSUMER  BEHAVIOR  OF  TEENAGERS 

This  study  has  considered  whether  or  not  teenagers  manage  their  money 
and  the  money  of  their  families  wisely  without  consumer  education.  A  survey 
was  conducted  of  the  seniors  at  Fayette  County  High  School  to  ascertain  what 
their  sources  of  income  were  and  for  what  they  used  their  incomes  chiefly. 
The  results  of  the  survey  indicated  that  teenagers  do  not  manage  money  wisely 
without  consumer  education. 


35 


Catlett.  Louise  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  March,  1975) 

A  LONGITUDINAL  STUDY  OF  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN  READING 

ACHIEVEMENT  AND  CHRONOLOGICAL  AGE  AT  GRADES  ONE, 
TWO,  FOUR,  AND  SIX  OF  STUDENTS  AT  NORTON  PARK  SCHOOL 

This  study  was  designed  to  compare  the  relationship  between  reading 
achievement  and  chronological  age  of  students  at  Norton  Park  School.  The 
age  of  entry  to  school,  the  sex,  the  reading  achievement  scores  at  grades  one, 
two,  four,  and  six  were  recorded  from  the  permanent  records  of  the  students 
who  entered  and  remained  at  this  school  for  a  period  of  five  years. 

The  Pearson  Product  —  Moment  Coefficient  of  Correlation  was  used  to  show 
the  correlation  of  scores  made  by  the  total  group  between  their  reading  achieve- 
ment and  chronological  age,  the  total  boys  between  their  reading  achievement 
and  chronological  age,  and  the  total  girls  between  their  reading  achievement 
and  chronological  age  at  grades  one,  two,  four,  and  six.  No  significant  correla- 
tion for  any  group  at  any  level  was  found  except  one. 

Cobb,  William  Edward  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

THE  EMERGING  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 

For  over  a  half  century  the  American  educational  system  has  included  in 
its  organizational  structure  an  intermediate  school  to  cope  with  the  educational 
needs  of  early  adolescents.  The  question  of  what  grades  should  be  included  in 
this  school  has  never  been  completely  settled. 

In  the  last  fifteen  years  a  movement  to  reorganize  the  educational  ladder  in 
order  to  introduce  the  middle  school  concept  to  replace  the  junior  high  school 
has  gained  momentum.  Because  of  this  trend  toward  the  middle  school,  this 
study  researched  literature  to  determine  the  ramifications  of  the  middle  school 
program.  Conclusions  reached  as  a  result  of  the  study  indicated  that  the  needs 
of  the  "in  between  age"  pupil  are  not  being  met  by  the  existing  6-3-3  plan.  It 
is  recommended  that  the  middle  school  include  those  pupils  who  are  in  grades 
six  through  eight  and  are  between  the  ages  of  eleven  to  fourteen. 

The  physiological,  mental,  emotional,  and  social  make-up  of  children  in 
these  grades  was  considered  more  compatible  than  for  any  other  grouping. 

There  seems  to  be  a  definite  lack  of  teacher  training  by  colleges  and  uni- 
versities in  preparing  teachers  to  teach  the  middle  school  age  child.  College 
officials  should  be  aware  of  this  deficiency  and  exercise  new  approaches  and 
programs  to  prepare  teachers  to  teach  in  the  middle  school  programs. 

The  trend  toward  the  middle  school  concept  is  rapidly  gaining  momentum 
and  very  well  may  replace  the  traditional  junior  high  school  that  has  existed 
in  America  for  more  than  a  half  a  century. 

Cordle,  Gary  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  March,  1975) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  READING  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  SECOND 

GRADE  STUDENTS  USING  THE  GINN  READING  360  PROGRAM  WITH 

THE  READING  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  SECOND  GRADE  STUDENTS 

USING  THE  GINN  READING  100  PROGRAM 

This  project  was  undertaken  in  an  effort  to  provide  some  unbiased  research 

36 


on  two  different  reading  programs.  The  objective  of  this  study  is  to  determine 
if  there  is  a  significant  difference,  at  the  .05  level,  in  the  reading  achievement 
of  second  grade  students  taught  with  the  Ginn  Reading  360  and  students  taught 
with  the  Ginn  Reading  100  program. 

There  were  116  students  in  the  Reading  360  group  and  143  students  in  the 
Reading  100  group.  From  each  of  these  groups  40  students  were  randomly  se- 
lected to  be  statistically  compared.  Reading  achievement  was  measured  by  a 
group  administered  Metropolitian  Achievement  Test,  Primary  Battery  for  grade 
2.  The  ^test  for  a  difference  between  two  independent  means  was  used  to  see 
if  there  was  a  significant  difference  in  the  reading  achievement  of  the  two  groups. 

There  was  no  significant  difference  in  the  reading  achievement  of  the  two 
groups.  Selection  between  reading  programs  where  student  achievement  is 
nearly  equal  should  be  done  on  the  basis  of  teacher  and  school  familiarity.  Cost 
of  a  program  and  student  interest  should  also  be  considered  when  achievement 
is  relatively  equal. 

The  study  should  be  repeated  annually  for  the  next  three  or  four  years  to 
see  if  the  Reading  360  program  does  produce  higher  reading  achievement  when 
used  for  a  longer  period  of  time.  The  study  should  be  expanded  to  evaluate 
students'  interest  in  reading,  also  a  method  to  measure  increase  in  creativity 
should  be  included. 


Craig.  Dorothy  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  DROPOUTS  AND  THE 

COMPARISON  OF  SELECTED  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE 

DROPOUTS  WITH  THE  STAYINS 

This  study  was  an  attempt  to  compare  selected  characteristics  of  dropouts 
with  stayins  of  the  1973-1974  senior  class  of  the  Fairmount  School. 

Data,  from  the  school  cumulative  records,  were  compiled  on  coding  sheets 
for  testing  the  four  hypotheses  of  this  study.  The  BMDX70  program  was  used 
to  test  the  significance  of  differences  between  the  two  groups  in  comparing  the 
following:  attendance  in  grade  five,  attendance  in  grade  seven,  reading  achieve- 
ment in  grade  six,  and  the  number  of  children  in  each  family. 

Furthermore,  data  collected  from  the  cumulative  records  were  used  to  con- 
struct tables  to  answer  three  questions  presented  in  this  study.  These  tables 
were  used  to  compare  the  number  of  male  with  female  dropouts,  the  number 
of  dropouts  in  grade  nine  to  the  number  of  dropouts  in  grade  ten,  and  retentions 
of  dropouts  to  retentions  of  stayins. 

There  was  no  significant  difference  in  the  attendance  of  the  dropout  and 
the  stayin  in  grade  five.  In  grade  seven,  there  was  a  significant  difference  in  the 
means  of  the  groups  with  an  obtained  i  value  of  —3.65.  Reading  achievement 
in  grade  six  showed  a  significant  difference  with  a  mean  difference  of  approxi- 
mately two  grade  levels.  The  obtained  i  value  was  —4.07.  The  number  of  chil- 
dren in  each  family  showed  a  difference  only  at  the  .05  level  with  an  obtained 
/  value  of  2.06. 

Data,  in  this  study,  revealed  more  male  than  female  dropouts  and  grade  nine 
as  having  more  dropouts  than  any  other  grade.  Also,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
dropouts  had  been  retained  one  or  more  grades. 

Included  in  this  study  were  brief  telephone  interviews  with  a  sampling  of 
the  dropouts.  The  major  conclusions  drawn  from  the  interviews  were  that  mar- 

37 


riage  was  a  major  reason  for  the  female  dropouts  and  the  males  had  a  general 
feeling  of  having  lost  interest  in  school. 


Craig,  Gordon  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

ADMINISTRATIVE  POLICY  MANUAL 
GORDON  COUNTY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 


This  study  was  an  effort  to  develop  an  administrative  policy  manual  for  the 
Gordon  County  School  System.  Pertinent  literature  on  the  subject  was  reviewed. 
System  for  classifying  school  board  policies  was  purchased  from  the  National 
School  Boards  Association.  This  system  was  used  as  a  guide  in  coding  board 
policies,  administrative  rules,  and  exhibits  by  letter  and  by  color.  Binders  pur- 
chased from  the  National  School  Boards  Association  were  used  in  dividing  the 
manual  into  thirteen  areas  with  each  area  including  a  code  finder  for  that  particu- 
lar section.  A  code  finder  for  the  entire  manual  is  found  near  the  end  of 
the  manual. 


Clark.  William  R.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  COMPARING  TWO  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
COMPOSITION  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  whether  students  write  better 
compositions  when  writing  is  related  to  literature  which  has  been  studied  and 
discussed  in  class  rather  than  when  writing  is  based  on  extemporaneous  topics 
assigned  by  the  teacher  without  previous  study  or  discussion. 

The  t  test  was  used  to  determine  the  significance  of  differences  between 
scores  on  literary  compositions  and  on  extemporaneous  compositions.  The 
dependent  variables  included  organization,  grammar,  spelling,  punctuation,  and 
diction.  A  correlation  technique  was  employed  to  determine  the  relationship 
between  each  of  the  dependent  variables  (organization,  grammar,  spelling,  punc- 
tuation, and  diction)  and  each  of  the  independent  variables  (sex,  high  school 
average,  English  average,  and  IQ)- 

A  composition  class  composed  of  sixteen  college  preparatory  seniors  at 
Douglas  County  High  School  served  as  the  subjects  for  this  study.  The  results 
of  this  study  reveal  that  there  are  no  statistically  significant  differences  between 
the  student  scores  on  literary  and  extemporaneous  compositions  in  respect  to 
organization,  grammar,  punctuation,  spelling,  and  diction.  The  study  further 
points  out  a  significant  positive  relationship  between  organization  and  10, 
between  the  total  scores  and  IQ,  between  grammar  and  high  school  average, 
between  punctuation  and  high  school  average,  between  diction  and  high  school 
average,  between  the  total  scores  and  high  school  average,  between  organiza- 
tion and  English  average,  between  punctuation  and  English  average,  and  be- 
tween the  total  scores  and  English  average. 


38 


Frew,  Sam  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN 

SELECTED  VARIABLES  AND  INTEREST  IN 

SOCIAL  STUDIES  AMONG  HIGH  SCHOOL  STUDENTS 

This  study  was  an  effort  to  consider  certain  factors  that  might  influence  stu- 
dent choices  of  social  studies  courses.  Students  were  selected  from  English 
classes  at  Cedartown  Comprehensive  High  School  during  Fall  Quarter  of  1973. 
Three  hundred  students  were  given  the  test  "A  Scale  to  Measure  Attitude 
Toward  Any  School  Subject,  Form  A,"  by  H.H.  Remmers. 

From  these  three  hundred  students,  thirty  were  selected  who  showed  the 
highest  interest  in  social  studies,  and  thirty  were  selected  who  showed  the  low- 
est interest  in  social  studies.  These  students  were  compared  on  the  basis  of  the 
following  variables:  intelligence  quotient,  grade  point  average,  reading  scores, 
educational  level  of  the  mother,  and  educational  level  of  the  father.  For  the 
entire  three  hundred  students,  correlations  were  run  between  each  of  the  in- 
dependent variables  of  sex,  race,  grade  level,  rating  of  news  programs,  avail- 
ability of  newspapers,  and  the  dependent  variable  of  interest  in  social  studies. 

The  students  with  high  interest  in  social  studies  appear  to  have  slightly 
higher  intelligence  quotient  scores,  grade  point  averages,  reading  scores  and 
higher  educational  level  of  parents,  than  do  students  with  lower  interest  in 
social  studies.  However,  only  in  the  areas  of  educational  level  of  the  mother 
and  reading  ability  scores  were  there  significant  differences  at  the  .05  level. 


Hart.  Jan  Rowland  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

THE  EFFECT  OF  POSITIVE  REINFORCEMENT 

ON  THE  VERBAL  BEHAVIOR  OF  A  WITHDRAWN 

CHILD  IN  A  COUNSELING  SITUATION 

Two  withdrawn  children  were  identified  in  order  to  observe  the  effect  of 
positive  reinforcement  on  verbal  behavior.  One  child  served  as  the  experimental 
subject  and  the  other  as  the  control  subject.  Observation  of  the  children  in  their 
classroom  for  six  sessions  produced  a  baseline  of  their  rates  of  verbal  behavior 
in  that  setting.  An  ABAB  research  design  was  used  for  the  twenty  half-hour 
experimental  sessions.  Positive  reinforcement  in  the  form  of  the  emission  of 
statements  of  a  positive  nature,  the  establishment  of  eye  contact,  and  the  presen- 
tation of  candy  was  administered  on  a  CRF  schedule  for  the  emission  of  ver- 
balizations. After  the  experimental  phases  the  two  subjects  were  again  observed 
in  the  classroom  to  compare  their  rates  of  verbalizations.  The  number  of  verba- 
lizations increased  during  the  experimental  sessions  when  positive  reinforcement 
was  administered,  and  the  increase  in  verbal  behavior  generalized  to  the  class- 
room setting  for  the  experimental  subject.  The  rate  of  verbal  behavior  for  the 
control  subject  remained  relatively  unchanged. 


39 


Holton,  Barbara  Sanders  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  LISTENING  EXERCISES  ON  THREE 
LEVELS  OF  SIXTH  GRADE  READING 

This  study  was  made  to  determine  whether  listening  exercises  would  im- 
prove listening  and  reading  comprehension.  Three  exercises  a  week  were  given 
for  ten  weeks,  using  reading  comprehension  material. 

The  sixty-five  subjects  were  members  of  three  achievement-grouped  sixth 
grade  clashes. 

Subjects  in  the  group  reading  on  an  early  eighth  grade  level  at  the  end  of 
the  year  made  no  significant  gains  in  either  listening  or  reading  comprehension. 

Subjects  in  the  group  reading  on  an  early  sixth  grade  level  at  the  end  of  the 
year  made  significant  gains  in  both  listening  and  reading  comprehension. 

Subjects  in  the  group  reading  on  an  early  fourth  grade  level  at  the  end  of 
the  year  made  significant  gains  in  reading  comprehension,  but  not  in  listening. 

A  paired  comparison  method  was  used  to  test  the  differences  between  the 
pretests  and  posttests. 

An  analysis  of  covariance  showed  no  significant  difference  in  gains  among 
the  groups. 


Hudson.  Charles  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  AVAILABILITY  OF  COMMUNITY  RESOURCES  IN 

ROME  AND  FLOYD  COUNTY  FOR  USE  IN  CAREER  EDUCATION 

AT  WEST  CENTRAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


To  determine  the  availability  of  community  resources  for  the  students  and 
teachers  of  West  Central  Elementary  School,  the  writer  surveyed  and  evaluated 
the  educational  resources  in  Rome  and  Floyd  County.  The  objectives  of  the 
study  were:  (1)  to  evaluate  and  list  the  various  types  of  resources  available; 
(2)  to  collect  and  organize  the  information  concerning  the  availability  of  com- 
munity resources;  (3)  to  compile  the  results  of  the  study  to  indicate  the  different 
ways  that  the  community  resources  could  be  used. 

After  the  study  of  related  literature,  inquiries  were  sent  to  school  systems 
throughout  the  United  States  for  suggestions  and  materials  that  could  be  used 
in  the  study.  In  the  early  part  of  1974,  the  writer  sent  questionnaires  to  indus- 
tries, agencies,  and  institutions  for  information  as  to  the  availability  of  their 
resources  or  resource  persons  and  their  willingness  to  cooperate  with  the 
schools.  Provisions  were  made  for  the  respondents  to  indicate  the  different 
pertinent  information  that  was  important  for  the  study.  The  writer  concluded 
the  research  study  by  providing  collected  data  for  each  staff  member  of  West 
Central  Elementary  School  showing:  (1)  the  availability  of  the  different  re- 
sources and  the  different  ways  they  can  be  used;  (2)  procedures  for  teacher 
usage  of  community  resources;  (3)  evaluation  forms  to  determine  educational 
value  of  field  trips  and  resource  persons. 

The  results  of  the  study  were  presented  to  the  staff  of  West  Central  Elemen- 
tary School  during  May  of  the  school  year  1973-74.  Although  there  were  indica- 
tions that  these  results  were  going  to  increase  the  usage  of  community  resources, 
the  effectiveness  of  the  study  can  only  be  determined  after  the  school  year 
1974-75. 

40 


Keller,  B.J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AN  EXPEDIENT  METHOD  OF 
SCHEDULING  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 
OPERATING  ON  THE  QUARTER  SYSTEM 

A  problem  that  is  ever  present  with  the  secondary  principal  is  the  challenge 
of  scheduling.  This  ever  present  problem  was  compounded  even  more  with  the 
evolution  of  the  quarter  system  on  the  secondary  level.  A  task  that  was  com- 
pleted only  once  during  the  school  year  must  now  be  completed  three  or  four 
times  under  the  quarter  system.  This  increased  scheduling  dictated  the  need 
for  a  more  expedient  method  of  scheduling.  The  problem  as  identified  by  this 
study  was  to  develop  an  expedient  method  of  scheduling. 

The  conclusion  that  emerged  from  this  study  is  that  most  schools  use  a  col- 
lege type  of  registration  when  scheduling  on  the  quarter  system.  The  college 
type  of  registration  is  the  type  of  registration  in  which  a  student  has  preselected 
a  list  of  courses.  With  this  list  the  student  goes  to  various  departments  to  acquire 
a  class  card  which  will  permit  his  enrollment  in  that  class.  In  the  college  type 
registration  class  size  is  controlled  by  predetermined  number  of  class  cards. 
In  this  type  of  registration  the  student  must  make  his  own  schedule,  alternate 
schedule,  and  select  his  preferred  classes  and  teachers.  The  expenses  of  using 
the  computer  type  of  scheduling  precludes  its  use  in  most  schools.  There  also 
is  an  inherent  problem  with  computer  scheduling,  this  being  the  difficulty  of 
proper  programming.  The  college  type  of  scheduling  was  not  only  the  most 
expedient  but  the  least  expensive.  The  individual  method  involves  many  more 
man  hours  than  does  the  college  type  of  scheduling.  The  cost  of  McBee-Key 
Sort  cards  or  computer  scheduling  is  greater  than  the  college  type  since  the 
only  expense  involved  in  the  college  type  of  scheduling  is  the  reproduction  of 
class  cards.  This  reproduction  can  be  accomplished  with  a  mimeograph  ma- 
chine. The  flexibility  of  choice  provided  the  students  and  the  ease  of  registration 
make  the  college  type  of  scheduling  the  most  desirable. 


Kelley.  Dana  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN 

SELECTED  VARIABLES  AND  INTEREST  IN 

SOCIAL  STUDIES  AMONG  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  STUDENTS 

The  problem  of  this  study  was  to  determine  if  there  is  any  relationship  be- 
tween certain  characteristics  of  students  and  the  students'  interest  in  social 
studies.  The  characteristics  that  were  analyzed  were  the  intellectual  variables 
of  grade  level  achievement,  grade  point  average,  reading  ability  and  social 
studies  competence  and  the  non-intellectual  variables  of  parents'  educational 
level,  family  income,  reading  and  media  materials  in  the  home,  and  the  stu- 
dent's sex. 

The  subjects  used  in  the  study  were  sixty  seventh  grade  students.  Thirty  of 
these  pupils  were  classified  as  those  with  high  interest  in  social  studies  and 
thirty  of  these  students  were  classified  as  those  with  low  interest  in  social  studies. 
Student's  t-test,  chi  squares,  and  proportionates  were  run  to  determine  if  there 
was  a  significant  difference  between  the  two  groups.  The  .05  level  was  used  as 

41 


the  significant  level. 

The  following  conclusion  was  drawn:  Only  in  the  relationship  of  sex  and 
interest  in  social  studies  was  a  significant  statistical  difference  found. 

Kirk.  Joan  H.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

THE  EFFECT  ON  ACHIEVEMENT  AND  ATTITUDE  OF 

A  SELF-SELECTION  READING  PROGRAM 

ON  SIXTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

This  study  was  designed  to  provide  experimental  data  on  the  effectiveness 
of  the  self-selection  approach  to  reading.  The  research  design  was  a  non- 
randomized pretest  posttest  control  group  design  (Van  Dalen,  1973).  The  ex- 
perimental group  was  a  class  of  sixth  grade  students  reading  approximately  on 
grade  level.  This  class  was  taught  using  a  self-selection  approach  to  reading. 

The  control  group  was  a  class  of  sixth  grade  students  reading  approximately 
on  grade  level.  This  class  was  taught  using  the  MacMillan  Basal  Reading  Program. 

Alternate  forms  of  the  Comprehensive  Test  of  Basic  Skills,  reading  battery, 
were  given  to  measure  gain  in  comprehension  and  vocabulary.  Thomas  H. 
Estes"  A  Scale  to  Measure  Attitude  in  Reading  was  administered  to  measure 
any  change  in  attitude.  The  /  test  was  computed  to  determine  any  statistical 
difference  between  the  mean  gains  of  the  two  groups. 

The  null  hypothesis  that  there  would  be  no  gain  in  vocabulary  between  the 
two  groups  was  not  rejected.  The  null  hypothesis  that  there  would  be  no  gain  in 
Comprehension  between  the  two  groups  was  not  rejected  at  the  .05  confidence 
level  but  could  have  been  rejected  at  the  .01  confidence  level.  The  null  hypothe- 
sis that  there  would  be  no  significant  change  in  attitude  between  the  two  groups 
was  rejected.  The  control  group  results  showed  a  mean  decrease  in  reading 
attitude  of  —0.90  while  the  experimental  group  showed  a  mean  gain  in  reading 
attitude  of  5.16.  This  proved  to  be  a  statistically  significant  difference  at  the 
.01  confidence  level. 


Latson.  Viri^inia  Hine  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF  BAROMETRIC  PRESSURE 

AND  HUMIDITY  TO  THE  LUNCHROOM  NOISE 

LEVEL  OF  PRIMARY  CHILDREN 

To  determine  any  significant  relationship  of  lunchroom  noise  level,  as  a 
criterion,  to  barometric  pressure  and  humidity,  as  dependent  variables,  the 
primary  lunchroom  sound  of  Southeast  Elementary  School  in  Rome,  Georgia 
was  tape  recorded  via  the  intercom  system  for  a  thirty  minute  period  over  a 
nineteen  school  day  span.  Barometric  pressure  and  humidity  readings  from  a 
television  weather  channel  were  recorded  at  the  time  of  each  lunch  period. 

At  a  later  time  the  lunch  sound  tape  was  used  in  a  recorder  plugged  into  a 
Western  Electric  3A  Noise  Level  Meter,  and  readings  were  taken  on  a  two 
minute  interval  schedule  to  arrive  at  an  average  sound  level  for  each  testing 
day.  Barometric  pressure  was  related  with  the  average  lunchroom  sound  level 
for  the  nineteen  day  period  in  the  Pearson  product  moment  formula  and  showed 
r^    .076  in  the  simple  relationship.  Humidity,  as  the  dependent  variable,  was 

42 


similarly  treated  with  noise  level  as  the  criterion,  and  the  simple  relationship 
was  .045.  Both  relationships  were  not  significant  at  the  +  1  reading  as  perfect 
positive  correlation.  A  multiple  correlation  of  three  variables  with  noise  level. 
as  the  criterion,  and  barometric  pressure  and  humidity,  as  dependent  variables, 
to  determine  any  joint  significance  in  the  relationship  (read  as  high  correlation 
at  +  1.00)  was  R123  ^  -094.  No  statistically  significant  relationships  were 
found. 


Lee.  Wayne  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF  SELECTED  VARIABLES  AND 

THEIR  INFLUENCE  ON  STUDENT  INTEREST  IN  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

IN  COMPARISON  WITH  OTHER  ACADEMIC  AREAS 

This  study  considered  factors  that  influence  student's  interest  in  social 
studies  courses  in  relationship  with  their  interest  in  the  academic  areas  of 
English,  math,  and  science.  Students  were  selected  from  tenth,  eleventh,  and 
twelfth  grade  English  classes  at  Cedartown  Comprehensive  High  School  during 
the  fall  quarter  of  1973.  Three  hundred  students  were  given  H.H.  Remmer's 
test  "A  Scale  to  Measure  Attitude  Toward  Any  School  Subject",  Form  A. 

The  following  results  were  found  to  be  statistically  significant: 

1.  The  educational  level  of  the  mothers  of  students  with  high  interest  in 
social  studies  but  low  interest  in  math  was  higher  than  the  educational 
level  of  the  mothers  of  the  students  with  low  interest  in  social  studies 
and  a  high  interest  in  math. 

2.  When  choices  were  made  in  relationship  to  high  interest  in  social  studies 
and  high  interest  in  English,  boys  expressed  an  interest  in  social  studies 
and  girls  expressed  an  interest  in  English. 

3.  When  choices  were  made  between  high  interest  in  social  studies  and  high 
interest  in  science,  girls  expressed  interest  in  social  studies  and  boys 
expressed  interest  in  science. 


Lott.  Mildred  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  TEACHER  ATTITUDE  UPON  THIRD  AND  FOURTH 
GRADE  SLOW  LEARNERS  USING  PROGRAMMED  READING 

This  study  was  designed  to  compare  the  gain  of  slow  learners  using  Program- 
med Reading  taught  by  a  teacher  who  was  willing  to  work  wirh  such  pupils  to 
the  gain  of  slow  learners  using  Programmed  Reading  taught  by  a  teacher  who 
preferred  to  work  with  more  capable  pupils.  Subjects  were  di  'ided  into  two 
groups;  a  third  grade  group  who  received  instruction  from  the  teacher  with  the 
negative  attitude  and  a  fourth  grade  group  who  received  instruction  from  the 
teacher  who  volunteered  to  work  with  them. 

Subjects  were  given  the  California  Short  Form  Test  of  Mental  Maturity. 
The  pretest  for  both  groups  was  the  Iowa  Test  of  Basic  Skills— Form  1,  and  the 
posttest  for  both  groups  was  the  Iowa  Test  of  Basic  Skills— Form  3.  The  testing 
was  conducted  by  the  researcher.  The  three  areas  tested  were  total  reading, 
vocabulary,  and  comprehension.  There  were  significant  differences  at  the  .01 

43 


level  of  confidence  in  gain  between  the  two  groups  in  all  three  areas,  therefore, 
it  is  felt  that  only  those  teachers  who  are  willing  to  work  with  slow  learners 
can  do  so  effectively. 


Marsh,  Edwin  Earl  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

PAINLESS  POETRY  FOR  NINTH  GRADE  BOYS: 
A  COURSE  DESIGN 

This  project  is  a  design  for  a  quarter  course  in  poetry  especially  for  ninth 
grade  boys  attending  LaGrange  Boys'  Junior  High  School  in  LaGrange,  Geor- 
gia. The  course  is  based  on  the  fact  that  most  young  people  are  very  fond  of 
modern  music.  This  modern  music,  with  much  stress  placed  upon  the  lyrics,  is 
used  as  an  introduction  to  poetry  in  general.  The  assumption  is  that  the  students 
are  able  to  see  the  similarity  between  the  lyrics  of  songs  and  the  words  of  poems. 

Included  in  the  design  for  this  course  called  "The  Beatles,  Before  and  After: 
Words  and  Music,"  are  the  rationale  and  purpose,  behavioral  objectives,  a  gen- 
eral outline  for  the  course,  detailed  weekly  lesson  plans  for  the  teacher  (includ- 
ing materials,  selections,  activities,  and  evaluation  procedures),  and  some 
conclusions  concerning  the  effectiveness  of  the  course  which  was  actually  taught 
the  winter  quarter  of  1974. 


Martin,  Gerald  Curtis  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  COMMUNITY  EDUCATION 

AND  ATTITUDES  OF  SELECTED  CURRENT  PARTICIPANTS 
TOWARD  COMMUNITY  EDUCATION  IN  COBB  COUNTY,  GEORGIA 

This  study  focused  on  answering  the  following  problem: 
What  were  the  developmental  stages  that  community  education  passed 
through  in  Cobb  County,  Georgia,  and  what  are  the  views  and  attitudes  of  cur- 
rent participants  toward  selected  areas  of  the  program? 

The  following  areas  were  explored  by  a  review  of  the  selected  literature 
since  1955: 

1.  The  philosophical  bases  of  community  education  on  a  national  level. 

2.  Strengths  and  weaknesses  of  community  education. 

3.  The  importance  of  positive  school-community  relationships  in  regard  to 
implementing  community  education. 

The  following  areas  were  explored  by  a  review  of  Cobb  County  Board  of 
Education  Minutes  (1966-1973),  interviews  with  key  individuals,  and  a  study 
of  Cobb  County  reports  and  studies: 

1.  The  conditions  under  which  the  first  community  education  planning 
was  completed  in  Cobb  County,  Georgia. 

2.  The  developmental  stages  that  community  education  in  Cobb  County 
passed  through  from  planning  to  systemwide  implementation. 

A  questionnaire  was  developed  and  administered  to  current  participants 
at  four  community  schools  in  Cobb  County  in  order  to  attempt  to  identify  their 
attitudes  toward  certain  selected  areas  of  the  Cobb  County  Community  School 
Program.  The  four  schools  chosen  represented  four  geographical  locations  in 
the  county.  The  total  participant  populations,  as  far  as  possible,  in  three  schools 

44 


were  surveyed,  while  the  random  selection  process  was  used  to  select  a  sample 
of  100  participants  from  the  large  population  of  the  other  school. 

The  data  results  from  over  550  questionnaires  were  compared  between  the 
four  participating  schools  on  an  item  percentage  basis.  The  data  was  further 
tabulated  between  each  of  the  four  schools  for  comparison  purposes  and  to 
assist  in  testing  the  following  hypothesis: 

1.  There  will  be  more  females  in  the  participating  schools  than  males. 

2.  There  will  be  more  participants  in  the  age  groups  13  to  30  years  of  age. 

3.  Items  one  through  five  on  the  questionnaire,  dealing  with  program  struc- 
ture, will  result  in  higher  percentages  of  "Strongly  Agree"  and  "Agree" 
responses  per  item  than  will  any  of  the  other  questionnaire  items  per 
school. 

4.  Items  eleven  and  twelve  on  the  questionnaire,  dealing  with  program 
evaluation,  will  have  a  higher  percentage  of  "Disagree"  and  "Strongly 
Disagree"  responses  than  any  other  items  on  the  questionnaire  per  school. 

5.  The  combined  "Disagree"  and  "Strongly  Disagree"  responses  for  all 
fourteen  items  on  the  questionnaire  will  result  in  less  than  three  per 
cent  of  the  participants  per  school  when  averaged  per  school. 

6.  Due  to  the  fact  there  will  be  many  first  quarter  participants  and  the 
questionnaire  will  be  given  the  first  week  of  classes,  there  will  be  at 
least  25  per  cent  "No  Opinion"  responses  on  some  questionnaire  items 
for  each  school. 

The  data  results  showed  very  high  positive  responses  on  most  questionnaire 
items.  Those  questionnaire  items  that  did  not  show  extremely  high  positive 
responses  showed  high  "No  Opinion"  responses.  The  negative  responses  were 
under  three  per  cent  on  all  questionnaire  items  when  the  fourteen  questionnaire 
items  were  averaged  on  a  per  item  possible  negative  response  basis. 


Moss,  James  P.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

AN  ANALYSIS  OF  ATTITUDINAL  CHANGES  OF  FIFTY  SENIOR 

ENGLISH  STUDENTS  AFTER  THE  TEACHING  OF  SPECIFIC 

WORKS  OF  WILLIAM  FAULKNER 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine,  by  means  of  scores  made  on  a 
pretest  and  a  posttest,  the  relationship  between  the  teaching  of  specific  works 
by  William  Faulkner  and  students"  attitudes  about  nature,  the  family  as  an  in- 
stitution, marriage  and  elders.  A  correlation  technique,  using  the  0.05  level  of 
confidence,  was  used  to  determine  if  there  was  a  significant  change  in  students' 
attitudes  after  being  taught  specific  works  by  William  Faulkner,  if  there  was  a 
significant  difference  in  scores  made  by  males  and  females,  and  if  there  was  a 
significant  relationship  between  I.Q-  scores  and  posttest  scores. 

A  group  of  fifty  students  at  Coosa  High  School  in  Floyd  County,  Georgia, 
was  used  as  the  population.  The  findings  showed  a  positive  change  in  students' 
attitudes,  after  they  were  taught  specific  works  by  William  Faulkner,  concern- 
ing nature,  the  family  as  an  institution,  marriage,  and  elders.  There  was  not  a 
significant  difference  between  the  scores  made  by  males  and  females  on  the 
posttest.  In  addition,  there  was  not  a  direct  relationship  between  I.Q.  scores 
and  posttest  scores. 

45 


Mustek,  Peggy  Entrekin  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  TO  ESTABLISH  A  LEVELING  PROCEDURE  WHEREBY 

STUDENTS  IN  THE  BOWDON  ELEMENTARY  SIXTH  AND  SEVENTH 

GRADES  MAY  BE  PLACED  ACCORDING  TO  THEIR  MUSICAL 

ABILITY  AS  THEY  ARE  PLACED  BY  SIMILAR  PROCEDURES  IN 

THE  READING  PROGRAM  OF  BOWDON  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  run  a  correlation  between  the  music 
achievement  scores  on  the  Selmer  Music  Guidance  Survey  and  the  reading 
achievement  scores  on  the  Iowa  Tests  of  Basic  Skills  to  determine  the  feasi- 
bility of  doing  a  reading  test  as  a  general  music  placement  test  at  Bowdon 
Elementary  School. 

Using  the  table  of  random  numbers,  ten  students  were  chosen  from  each 
sixth  and  seventh  grade  reading  group,  giving  a  sample  population  of  eighty. 
The  Spearman  r  showed  significant  positive  correlation  in  the  high  sixth  grade 
reading  group.  In  the  other  reading  groups,  the  correlation  was  not  significant. 


Poort,  Hilda  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

DETERMINING  THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  SMALL  GROUP  TUTORING 

PROGRAM  BY  A  READING  SPECIALIST  AND  TEACHING  AIDE  ON 

SELECTED  FOURTH  GRADE  PUPILS 

This  study  involves  a  research  project  in  which  a  reading  specialist  and  a 
teaching  aide  worked  with  pupils  in  small  groups  to  help  increase  listening  skills, 
vocabulary,  word  analysis,  reading  comprehension,  self-concept  and  read- 
ing attitude. 

Ten  children  were  chosen  by  teachers  as  being  two  or  more  years  behind 
in  reading  skills.  This  group  formed  the  experimental  group.  Ten  children  who 
were  two  or  more  years  behind  in  reading  were  chosen  as  a  control  group.  The 
experimental  group  worked  thirty  minutes  a  day  each  school  day  with  a  reading 
specialist  and  teaching  aide.  The  control  group  received  regular  reading  instruc- 
tion from  their  classroom  teacher.  The  experimental  group  received  classroom 
instruction  in  reading  from  their  teachers  and  also  received  supplemental  read- 
ing instruction  from  the  reading  specialist  and  teaching  aide. 

As  an  evaluation.  Level  8  Form  5  and  Form  6  of  the  Iowa  Tests  of  Basic 
Skills  and  the  Self-Concept  Scale  were  administered  as  pretests  and  posttests. 
To  learn  if  there  were  any  significant  statistical  differences  between  the  mean 
changes  of  the  groups  in  listening  skills,  vocabulary,  word  analysis,  reading 
comprehension,  and  self-concept,  t  tests  were  computed.  The  results  of  the  t 
tests  indicated  that  there  were  no  significant  statistical  differences  between  the 
groups  on  the  five  hypotheses  mentioned  above.  The  first  five  hypotheses  were 
rejected.  The  .05  level  of  confidence  was  selected  as  the  level  at  which  results 
would  show  significant  statistical  difference.  The  attitude  of  the  control  group 
toward  reading  was  more  favorable  than  that  of  the  experimental  group  toward 
reading.  The  results  of  the  /  test  concerning  attitude  toward  reading  revealed 
no  significant  statistical  difference  between  the  experimental  and  control  group. 

46 


Rogers.  Jasper  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  ATTENDANCE  HABITS  OF  WHITFIELD  COUNTY, 
GEORGIA  STUDENTS  IN  GRADES  SIX  THROUGH  TWELVE 


The  purpose  of  ths  study  was  to  study  the  attendance  habits  of  students, 
to  determine  differences  in  the  attendance  habits,  if  they  existed  and  to  make 
recommendations  for  possible  improvement  in  student  attendance  in  Whit- 
field County  Schools. 

The  subjects  of  the  study  were  students  selected  at  random  from  the  two 
attendance  areas  of  Whitfield  County.  The  subjects  represented  7.11  percent 
of  the  total  school  population  enrolled  in  grades  six  through  twelve  in  Whit- 
field County  Schools. 

Descriptive  research  was  used  in  the  study.  The  data  were  collected  by 
voluntary  participation  of  the  students  in  completion  of  a  survey.  The  survey 
asked  for  student  response  on  socio-economic  conditions,  attitude  concerning 
school,  reason  for  absence,  school  likes  and  dislikes,  as  they  related  to 
each  participant. 


Selby.  Barbara  Bounds  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  FRESHMEN  AND  SENIOR  RESPONSES 
TO  THE  GEORGIA  GUIDANCE  SERVICES  INVENTORY 

This  study  compared  the  perceptions  held  of  guidance  services  by  high 
school  freshmen  and  seniors.  The  Georgia  Guidance  Services  Inventory  was 
the  instrument  used.  The  populations  responded  to  questions  regarding  what 
is  occurring  and  what  should  be  occurring.  Mean  factor  scores  were  examined. 
Findings  indicated  a  need  for  expanding  guidance  services  by  (1)  making  coun- 
selors and  guidance  services  more  accessible  to  students;  (2)  providing  more 
adequate  orientation  to  guidance  services  for  freshmen;  (3)  identifying  specific 
needs  of  girls;  (4)  broadening  the  scope  of  services  for  seniors. 


Shebiutt,  Carolyn  Carry  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE 

STUDENTS  IN  PROCESS  VERSUS 

TEXTBOOK  CENTERED  CLASSROOMS 


This  research  study  was  designed  to  report  and  compare  findings  of  a  re- 
search study  which  was  to  investigate  scientifically  the  value  of  teaching  science 
in  a  process  oriented  classroom  compared  to  that  of  using  a  more  traditional 
textbook  method. 

Subjects  used  in  the  study  were  students  of  four  third  grade  classes  with  an 
10  range  of  70  to  136.  Two  of  these  four  classes  made  up  the  experimental 
group.  The  other  two  classes  composed  the  control  group.  Both  groups  con- 
tained fifty  students.  The  subjects  of  the  experimental  group  and  the  control 
group  were  similar  in  age,  sex,  and  economic  status. 

47 


A  teacher-made  test  was  used  in  the  study.  A  total  test  score  of  forty  was 
possible  with  each  correct  response  receiving  one  point.  The  same  test  was 
administered  as  a  pretest  and  posttest. 

The  pretest  was  given  to  all  students  involved  in  this  study  on  December  12, 
1973.  A  posttest  was  given  to  all  the  students  on  May  13,  1974  at  the  end  of 
the  sixteen  week  treatment  period. 

The  null  hypothesis  was  tested  by  Analysis  of  Covariance  (ANOCOVA). 

The  null  hypothesis  was  not  rejected  as  the  F  ratio  did  not  attain  .05  level 
of  confidence. 

The  conclusion  was  that  the  textbook  used  increases  process  and  concept 
development  whether  used  by  students  in  small  groups  or  by  teacher  demon- 
stration with  the  control  group. 

Further  study  is  needed  in  order  to  detect  significant  difference  in  process 
development  alone. 


Sirmali.  Edna  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  SELF-CONCEPT  ENHANCEMENT  PROGRAM 
ON  SELF-CONCEPT  TEST  RESULTS  OF  A  THIRD-GRADE  CLASS 


This  study  was  designed  to  provide  experimental  data  on  the  effectiveness 
of  a  classroom  teacher  to  change  pupil's  self-concept  through  teaching  self- 
rewarding  behaviors.  The  change  was  judged  by  self-report  self-concept  tests. 

The  research  design  of  this  study  was  the  nonrandomized  control-group 
pretest-posttest  design  in  which  two  intact  third  grade  classes  were  used. 

In  the  experimental  class  the  teacher  verbally  modeled  praise  for  self  and 
others  in  a  realistic  setting.  She  directly  taught  pupils  to  evaluate,  to  set  reason- 
able goals,  and  to  praise  self  and  others.  The  program  was  within  the  com- 
municative and  computational  skills  class  study  plans  although  certain  times 
were  scheduled  for  self-concept  growth  activities.  The  control  group  maintained 
their  normal  schedule. 

The  Piers-Harris  Self-Concept  Test  and  the  Pictorial  Self-Concept  Test 
were  used  for  comparison.  Both  scales  used  the  categories  by  Jersild  (1952) 
of  self-concept.  These  two  tests  were  given  as  pretests  and  posttests.  The  treat- 
ment period  was  six  months. 

In  general,  results  of  analyses  suggested  that  the  self-concept  enhancement 
program  was  responsible  for  moderate  changes  in  test  scores.  The  Pictorial 
Self-Concept  Scale  Tests"  comparison  was  significant  at  the  .05  level.  The 
Piers-Harris  Self-Concept  Scale  Tests's  comparison  was  not  statistically  sig- 
nigicant  although  there  was  some  raw  score  gain. 


48 


Smith,  Paul  Hamilton  (Specialist  in  Education,  June,  1974) 

A  STUDY  TO  DETERMINE  IF  THERE  IS  A  SIGNIFICANT 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  THE  BASIC  EDUCATIONAL  LEVEL  OF 

THOSE  STUDENTS  WHO  DROP-OUT  OF  THE  BUSINESS  EDUCATION 

PROGRAM  AT  THE  CARROLL  COUNTY  AREA  VOCATIONAL 
TECHNICAL  SCHOOL  AND  THOSE  WHO  COMPLETE  THE  PROGRAM 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  if  a  significant  difference  existed 
between  the  basic  educational  levels  of  students  who  drop-out  and  those  who 
complete  the  accounting,  secretarial  science,  and  clerk  typist  programs  in  the 
Business  Education  Department  at  the  Carroll  County  Area  Vocational  School 
as  measured  by  the  Test  of  Adult  Basic  Education.  A  t  test  of  independent  mean 
was  computed  on  reading,  mathematics  and  language  subtest  scores.  The  / 
test  revealed  that  a  significant  difference  does  not  exist. 


Witherow.  Jimmie  W.  (Specialist  in  Education,  June.  1974) 
THE  ROLE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 

The  development  of  the  middle  school  was  one  of  the  most  significant  edu- 
cational events  of  the  last  decade.  This  study  was  conducted  to  define  the  role 
of  the  middle  school  in  Whitfield  County.  It  was  the  purpose  of  this  study  to 
define  the  role  of  the  middle  school  in  regard  to  (1)  the  purpose  and  develop- 
mental background,  (2)  the  instructional  program,  and  (3)  the  organization  and 
administration. 

The  developmental  background  of  the  junior  high  school  and  the  emergence 
of  the  middle  school  is  presented  from  a  review  of  the  literature.  Consideration 
is  given  to  the  purposes,  growth,  and  characteristics  of  the  junior  high  school. 
The  middle  school  emerged  due  to  failures  and  criticisms  of  the  junior  high, 
changes  in  the  nature  of  the  learner,  and  innovations  in  the  educational  program. 

A  reorganization  of  the  grade  pattern  in  a  school  system  provides  an  oppor- 
tunity to  re-evaluate  the  curriculum  for  the  total  program  for  grades  K-12.  Con- 
sideration is  given  to  (1)  some  of  the  concerns  expressed  in  the  literature  in 
regard  to  the  objectives  and  purposes  of  the  curriculum  for  the  middle  school; 
(2)  the  recommendations  on  instruction  in  the  Comprehensive  Study  Report 
to  the  Whitfield  County  Board  of  Education;  and  (3)  the  reports  from  the  study 
committees  which  were  appointed  by  the  Whitfield  County  Board  of  Education 
to  define  the  educational  program. 

The  most  typical  middle  school  program  is  found  in  a  5-3-4  or  4-4-4  organiza- 
tional pattern.  A  study  is  presented  on  the  grade  organizations  in  the  local 
school  systems  in  Georgia.  The  information  was  obtained  by  a  review  of  two 
educational  directories  which  were  prepared  by  the  State  Department  of 
Education. 

A  framework  for  the  curriculum  for  the  middle  schools  in  Whitfield  County 
is  proposed.  In  conclusion  some  statements  regarding  the  middle  school  are 
also  presented. 

Whitfield  County  may  be  regarded  as  a  system  which  capitalized  on  reor- 
ganization to  provide  adequate  facilities  and  reevaluate  the  curriculum  to  pro- 
vide learning  opportunities  in  the  total  instructional  program  for  grades  K-12. 

49 


ANNUAL  FACULTY  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bailey.   Terrell  G..  Jr. 

"On  the  Measurement  of  Polygonal  Paths  by  Young  Children.'"  Paper  read 
at  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics.  Atlantic  City.  New 
Jersey,  Apr.,  1974. 

"Linear  Measurement  in  the  Elementary  School."  The  Arithmetic  Teacher. 
XXI  (Oct.,  1974),  520-525. 

Bryon,  Dora  L. 

"Top  of  the  Lakes."  The  Christian  Science  Monitor.  Apr.  30,  1974,  15. 

"30  Years  as  the  Library  Lady."  The  Atlanta  Journal-Cottstitution  Magazine, 
Jun.  2.  1974,  59-60. 

"The  Art  of  Moteling."  The  Atlanta  Journal-Constitution  Magazine.  Sep.  15, 
1974,  36-40. 

"Canada's  Swinging  Ferry."  The  National  Observer.  Dec.  7,  1974,  18. 

Claxton.  Robert  H. 

"The  Latins  are  Coming."  With  R.C.  Hersch.  The  Atlanta  Journal.  Apr.  6, 
1974.  2A. 

"Protests  and  the  Press:  The  1888-1889  Santiago  Strikes."  Paper  read  at 
the  Midwestern  Association  for  Latin  American  Studies.  Greencastle.  In- 
diana. Oct.,  1974. 

Cobb.  Buell  E..  Jr 

"The  Sacred  Harp:  Rhythm  and  Ritual  in  the  Southland."  The  Virginia 
Quarterly  Review.  L  (Spring,  1974),  187-197. 

deMayo.  Benjamin 

"Magnetism  in  Gold-Iron  Alloys  Below  14  at  %  Fe."  Journal  of  Phvsics  and 
Chemistry  of  Solids.  XXXV  (1974).  1525-1531. 

"A  Mossbauer  Study  of  Hydrogen  in  Iron."  With  E.W.  Thomas.  Bulletin  of 
the  American  Physical  Society.  XIX  (1974),  675.  (Abstract) 

"The  Physics  of  Music  and  Art."  Bulletin  of  the  American  Phvsical  Societv. 
XIX  (1974),  681.  (Abstract) 

"A  Mossbauer  Study  of  Disordered  Iron-Nickel-Aluminum  Alloys."  With 
M.E.  Sanders.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Physical  Society.  XIX  (1974),  689. 
(Abstract) 

"Magnetization  of  Iron-Cobalt-Aluminum  Alloys."  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Physical  Society.  XIX  (1974),  1120.  (Abstract) 

DeVillier.  J.  Lincoln 

"Management  and  the  Nature  of  Man."  With  Mary  Anne  G.  DeVillier.  West 
Georgia  College  Review.  VII  (May,  1974),  43-50. 

50 


Edwards,  C.H..  Jr. 

"Bibliography  of  Sidney  Lanier:  1940-1972. "  Bulletin  of  Bibliography  and 
Magazine  Notes.  XXXI  {ian.-Mar..  1974).  29-31. 

Review  of  The  Indians  of  Yoknapatawpha  by  Lewis  M.  Dabney.  Notes  on 
Contemporary  Literature.  IV  (May.  1974),  15. 

"Three  Literary  Parallels  to  Faulkner's  'A  Rose  for  Emily'."  Notes  on  Mis- 
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Garmon.  Gerald  M. 

"J.R.R.  Tolkien,  1892-1973."  Chairman  of  Seminar  84  presented  at  the 
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Assistant  Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review.  II-VI,  1969-1973. 

Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Review.  VII,  1974-  . 

Garmon.  Lucille  B. 

"The  Influence  of  Morphology  on  the  Dissolution  of  Planktonic  Foramini- 
feral  Shells."  With  A.D.  Hecht.  Paper  read  at  the  South-East  Electron 
Microscope  Society,  Athens,  Georgia.  May,  1973. 

"Preparing  Elementary  Teachers  in  Broad  Area  Physical  Science."  With 
H.M.  Madeley  and  W.L.  Lockhart.  Journal  of  College  Science  Teaching. 
Ill  (May,  1974),  358-359. 

Gay.  James  T. 

"A  Post-Mortem  of  Theodore  Roosevelt  in  Historical  Writings,  1919-1929." 
With  Robert  Fischer.  Mid-Atnerica.  LVI  (Jul.,  1974),  139-159^. 

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Haltresht,  Michael 

"English  Teachers  and  the  Study  of  Current  Issues."  The  Journal  of  English 

Teaching  Techniques,  VII  (Spring,  1974),  27-31. 
"Symbolism  of  Rats  and  Mice  in  Dostoevki's  Notes  From   Underground." 

South  Atlantic  Bulletin.  XXXIX  (Nov..  1974),  60-62. 

Holmes.  Y.  Lynn 

"Mice,  Men  and  Gods."  West  Georgia  College  Review.  VII  (May,  1974), 
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Kennedy,  W.  Benjamin 

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1974. 

Review  of  1848:  The  Revolutionary  Tide  in  Europe  by  Peter  Stearns.  His- 
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"The  Irish  Jacobins."  Paper  read  at  the  Southern  Historical  Association. 
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"Comments  on  the  Revolutionary  Poor  and  Radical  Ideology  in  the  Paris 
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Key.  John   Wilton 

Seven  productions  of  Contemporary  Developments  in  Georgia  Public  Edu- 
cation for  Georgia  Educational  Television  Network  in  1974.  "Issues,  Trends, 
and  Projections  in  Georgia  Public  Education".  "Certification  — What  It 
Is  and  Why  We  Need  It".  "The  Georgia  Department  of  Education:  An 
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Pays  for  Them  and  How  Does  the  System  Work",  "The  Three  R"s  in  the 
Seventies— What's  Happening  in  Georgia".  "The  Georgia  Department  of 
Education  — What  Services  are  Offered  in  the  Curriculum  Area",  and  "Stan- 
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Lucille  B.  Garmon  and  H.M.  Wli\de\e\.  Journal  of  College  Science  Teaching. 
Ill  (May.  1974).  358-359. 

Assistant  Editor.  West  Georgia  College  Review.  II-Vl,  1969-1973. 

Associate  Editor.  West  Georgia  College  Review.  VH,  1974-  . 

Lorentz.  Jeffrey  L. 

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Bibb   Bridges   to    Learning   Project.    Annual    Evaluation    Report.    Project 

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52 


"Federal  Aid  to  Education"  in  Human  Resource  Development— Programs 
and  Activities  in  Manpower  Development  and  Aid  to  Education.  Knoxville, 
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Muscle  Shoals  Manpower  Training  and  Development  Demonstration  Proj- 
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1970. 

"An  Evaluation  of  the  Tennessee  Valley  Authority  Manpower  Training  and 
Development  Demonstration  Project."  Unpublished  EdD  dissertation  (cur- 
riculum and  instruction),  University  of  Tennessee,  1971. 

Perceptions  of  Educational  Needs  in  Campbell.  Claiborne.  Hancock,  and 
Union  Counties.  With  J.R.  Ray,  E.G.  Morton,  Betty  Sue  Pearman,  Ann 
Whitaker,  W.C.  Collins,  Lucille  Reed,  Patricia  McKelvey,  and  Allena 
Sharpe.  Needs  Assessment  Final  Report  (ED  068-220).  Harrogate,  Ten- 
nessee: Clinch-Powell  Educational  Cooperative,  1972. 

"Four  Counties  'Assess'  Themselves."  With  J.R.  Ray.  Tennessee  Education. 
II  (Fall,  1972),  18-23. 

Guidelines  for  Differentiated  Staffing—  The  Mentor  Experience.  With  R.A. 
Gardiner  and  James  Klucher.  Mentor,  Ohio:  Mentor  Exempted  Village 
School  District,  1974. 

Model  Teacher  Education  — Differentiated  Staff  Assessment  Project  Ter- 
mination Report.  Project  45-71-208-3.  Mentor,  Ohio:  Mentor  Exempted 
Village  School  District,  1974. 

Review  of  Psychological  and  Educational  Testing  by  Lewis  R.  Aiken,  Jr. 
Measurement  and  Evaluation  in  Guidance.  VII  (Oct.,  1974).  195-196. 

Review  of  Readings  in  Psychological  and  Educational  Testing  by  Lewis 
R.  Aiken,  Jr.  Measurement  and  Evaluation  in  Guidance.  VII  (Oct.,  1974), 
196-198. 

da  thews.  James  W. 

"Hawthorne  and  the  Periodical  Tale:  From  Popular  Lore  to  Art."  Papers 
of  the  Bibliographical  Society  of  America.  LVIII  (Spring,  1974),  149-162. 

"Ironic  Symbolism  in  Conrad's  'Youth'."  Studies  in  Short  Fiction.  XI  (Spring, 
1974),  117-123. 

Review  of  Literature:  Uses  of  the  Imagination  (eleven  volumes)  by  W.T. 
Jewkes,  A. A.  Lee,  and  H.A.  Lee.  Curriculum  Advisorv  Service  Quarterly. 
XIII  (Fall.  1974),  287-288. 

VIcClain.  J.  Dudley,  Jr. 

Volume  Editor  (1974-75)  and  Editorial  Board  (1973-74)  of  West  Georgia 
Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences. 

'Efficacy,  Trust  and  Alienation  Among  College  Student  Voters  in  the  Ameri- 
can South:  Before  and  After  Watergate  and  the  1972  Election",  "Political 
Currents  Among  New  College  Student  Voters  in  the  Old  South",  and  "The 
Influence  of  Efficacy,  Trust  and  Alienation  Upon  Political  Participation: 
Georgia  College  Student  Attitudes  During  the  1972  Political  Campaign". 
Three  papers  on  microfilm  in  Current  Conference  Papers,  New  York:  The 

53 


International  Affairs  Library,  Columbia  University,  1974. 

Metiver.  Ernest  D. 

"Socioeconomic  and  Environmental  Quality  of  Residential  Areas  in  Lexing- 
ton. Kentucky."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (geography).  University  of 
Kentucky,  1974. 

"Extraction  of  Urban  Poverty  Data  by  Black  and  White  Aerial  Photography." 
Paper  read  at  the  Southeastern  Division  of  American  Geographers,  Colum- 
bia, South  Carolina,  Nov.,  1970. 

"Mapping  Urban  Poverty  Housing  From  Aerial  Photographs."  Proceedings 
of  the  Seventh  International  Symposium  on  Remote  Sensing  of  the  Environ- 
ment, Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  May,  1971,  pp.  1563-1569. 

"House  Density  vs.  Socioeconomic  Conditions."  Photogrammetric  Engineer- 
ing. XXXIV  (Jan.,  1973),  43-47. 

"Potential  Indicators  of  Urban  Environmental  Quality."  Paper  read  at  the 
Southeastern  Division  of  Association  of  American  Geographers,  Biloxi, 
Mississippi,  Nov.,  1974. 

Murphy,  James  K. 

"Will  N.  Harben:  His  Literary  Life  and  Works."  Unpublished  PhD  disserta- 
tion (English),  George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  1974. 

United  States  Literature  Crossword  Puzzles.    With   Edna   Earl   Edwards. 
Jacksonville,  Florida:  JOPA  Publications,  1974. 

English  Literature  Crossword  Puzzles.  With  F.J.  Smyth  and  Edna  Earl  Ed- 
wards. Jacksonville,  Florida:  JOPA  Publications,  1974. 

Myers.  Robert  R. 

"The  Geography  of  Education:  United  States."  Paper  read  at  the  National 
Council  of  Geographic  Education,  Chicago.  Illinois.  Oct.,  1974. 

"The  West  Georgia  ToUway:  The  Potential  for  Failure."  Paper  read  at  the 
Southeastern  Division  of  the  American  Association  of  Geographers,  Biloxi, 
Mississippi,  Nov.,  1974. 

OMalley.  James  R. 

"Land  Use  in  Georgia:  An  Application  of  Remote  Sensing."  With  J.  Up- 
church.  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science.  XXXII  (Apr.,  1974), 
13-14.  (Abstract) 

"Black  Poverty:  A  Difference  in  Degree  in  the  South."  West  Georgia  College 
Review,  VII  (May,  1974),  22-29. 

"Hamlet  Viability  in  East  Tennessee:  An  Anomaly  or  a  Trend."  Paper  read 
at  the  Southeastern  Division  of  the  Association  of  American  Geographers, 
Biloxi,  Mississippi,  Nov.,  1974. 

Powell,  Bobby  E. 

"The  November  10,  1973  Transit  of  Mercury."  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Acade- 

54 


my  of  Science,  XXXII  (Apr.,  1974),  17. 
"Solar  Eclipses."  West  Georgia  College  Review.   VII  (May,   1974),  37-42. 

Rao,  Jaganmohan  L. 

"A  Cross-National  Perspective  on  Modernization  and  the  Family."  Paper 
read  at  the  Eighth  World  Congress  of  Sociology,  Toronto,  Canada,  Aug., 
1974. 

"Industrialization  and  the  Family:  A  World  View."  International  Journal  of 
the  Sociology  of  the  Family,  III  (Sep.,  1973),  179-189. 

"The  Subcultures  of  Peasantry  and  Poverty."  Political  and  Social  Realities 
of  Development.  Patricia  Blair,  editor.  Proceedings  of  the  Thirteenth  World 
Conference  of  the  Society  for  International  Development,  1973,  pp.  43-44. 

Sanders,  C.  Gerald 

"A  Simple  Technique  for  Estimating  Chilling  Hours."  Paper  read  at  the 
Southeastern  Division  of  the  Association  of  American  Geographers,  Boone, 
North  Carolina,  Nov.,  1973. 

"Imagine  Big  Georgia  Counties..."  Atlanta  Journal  Forum,  Jan.  5,  1974, 

2- A. 

"Lightning"  and  "Tornadoes".  Two  radio  lectures  on  WWGC,  Carrollton, 
Georgia,  Oct.,  1974. 

Seiber.   T.  David 

"Development  of  a  Verbal  Interaction  System  for  Educational  Administra- 
tors: The  Staff  Conference  Category  System."  Unpublished  EdD  disserta- 
tion (higher  educational  administration).  Auburn  University,  1974. 

Slaughter.  Richard  A. 

"Toward  Modification  of  European  Integration  Theory:  Policy  Spillover 
in  the  European  Community,  1958-71."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (in- 
ternational politics).  University  of  Denver,  1974. 

Stokes,  Jimmy  C. 

"A  Study  of  the  Experimental  Use  of  Selected  Visual  Aids  in  General  Chemis- 
try." Unpublished  EdD  dissertation  (chemistry-education).  University  of 
Georgia,  1969. 

"A  Convenient  Synthesis  of  Dimanganese  Decacarbonyl."  Journal  of  Or- 
ganometallic  Chemistry.  XI  (1968),  641-643. 

"A  Study  of  the  Experimental  Use  of  Selected  Visual  Aids  in  General  Chemis- 
try." Paper  read  at  the  157th  National  American  Chemical  Society  Meeting, 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  Apr.,  1969. 

"Advantages  of  the  Use  of  Visual  Aids  in  General  Chemistry."  Bulletin  of 
the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science.  XXVII  (1969),  114.  (Abstract) 

"Student  Reaction  to  the  Use  of  Selected  Visual  Aids  in  Various  Chemistry 
Courses."  Paper  read  at  the  158th  National  American  Chemical  Society 

55 


Meeting,  New  York,  New  York,  Sep.,  1969. 

"Student  Attitudes  Toward  Chemistry."  Paper  read  at  the  American  Chemi- 
cal Society  Southeastern  Regional  Meeting,  Richmond,  Virginia,  Nov.,  1969. 

"A  Chemistry  Course  for  Elementary  School  Teachers."  Paper  read  at  the 
American  Chemical  Society  Southeast-Southwest  Regional  Meeting,  New 
Orleans,  Louisiana,  Dec,  1970. 

"A  Short  Hand  Scored  Item  Analysis  for  Objective  Tests."  Paper  read  at  the 
American  Chemical  Society  Southeastern  Regional  Meeting,  Birmingham, 
Alabama,  Nov.,  1972. 

"Some  Relevant  Laboratory  Exercises  for  Liberal  Arts  Chemistry  Courses." 
Paper  read  at  the  163rd  National  American  Chemical  Society  Meeting, 
Dallas,  Texas,  Apr.,  1973. 

Programmed  Learning  Guide  for  General  Chemistry.  Champaign,  Illinois: 
Stipes  Publishing  Company,  1973. 

Laboratory  Exercises  for  General  Chemistry.  Champaign,  Illinois:  Stipes 
Publishing  Company,  1973. 

"A  Quick  Hand  Scored  Item  Analysis  for  Objective  Tests."  Journal  of  Chemi- 
cal Education.  L  (1973),  354. 

"Practical  2X2  Slides."  Journal  of  Chemical  Education.  L  (1973).  798. 

"Group  A-T  Instruction  in  the  General  Chemistry  Laboratory."  Paper  read 
at  the  American  Chemical  Society  Southeastern  Regional  Meeting,  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  Nov.,  1973. 

"Group  A-T  Instruction  in  the  General  Chemistry  Laboratory,"  Journal  of 
College  Science  Teaching.  Ill,  No.  5  (1974),  303. 

"An  Introduction  to  Ultraviolet-Visible  Spectroscopy."  Journal  of  College 
Science  Teaching.  IV,  No.  2  (1974),  156. 

"Science  Courses  for  Elementary  School  Teachers."  Panelist  at  the  Georgia 
Science  Teachers  Meeting,  Macon,  Georgia,  Feb.,  1974. 

Taylor.  Howard  E. 

Fundamental  Mathematics.  Fourth  Edition.  With  T.L.  Wade.  New  York: 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  1974. 

Tye.  Duncan  R. 

"The  Role  of  Subjectivity  in  the  Determination  of  the  Value  of  Money  in 
British  Economic  Thought  Prior  to  the  Marginal  Revolution."  Unpublished 
PhD  dissertation  (economics),  Tulane  University,  1974. 

Upchurch,  John  C. 

"Land  Use  in  Georgia:  An  Application  of  Remote  Sensing."  With  J.O'Malley. 
Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science.  XXXII  (1974),  13-14. 
(Abstract) 

"The  Status  of  Geography  in  Georgia's  Small  Colleges."  Paper  read  at  the 
Southeastern  Division  of  the  Association  of  American  Geographers,  Biloxi, 
Mississippi.  Nov.,  1974. 

56 


General  Editor,  West  Georgia  College  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences.  XII, 
1974. 

Weaver.  David  C. 

"Locational  Considerations  in  New  Town  Development."  Paper  read  at  the 
Southeastern  Division  of  the  Association  of  American  Geographers,  Biloxi, 
Mississippi,  Nov.,  1974. 

"Factors  in  the  Disjunction  of  the  Southeastern  Rail  Network  Before  1860." 
Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science.  XXXII  (1974),  13.  (Abstract) 

Youngblood.  Betty  J. 

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cal Science."  y4me/7ca/z  Secondary  Education.  (Dec,  1974),  12-19. 


57 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


REVIEW 


Vol.  IX 


May,  1977 


Published  By 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


A  Division  of  the  University  System  ot  Georgia 


C^ARROLLTON,  GEORGIA 


'm^W^Mm^mt 


Published  by 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


Maurice  K.  Townsend,  President 
I  John  M.  Martin,  Vice  President  and  Dean  of  Faculties 


Learning  Resources  Committee 
Chairman,  Roy  B.  Bogue 

Robin  Avant 
Terrell  G.  Bailey 
Jeff  Dean 
Joseph  D.  Doldan 
Cathy  Dyer 
William  R.  Foley 
Robert  B.  Jobson 
Art  Johnston 


W.  Benjamin  Kennedy 
Lucille  H.  Klee 
Hugh  C.  Maxwell 
Jerome  L.  Mock 
Robert  R.  Myers 
Carl  J.  Quertermus 
J.  Phillip  Scott 
T.  D.  Seiber 


William  L.  Lockhart,  Editor 

Martha  A.  Saunders,  Associate  Editor 

Betty  S.  Jobson,  Assistant  Editor 


The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  provide  encouragement  for 
faculty  research  and  to  make  available  results  of  such  activity.  The 
Review,  published  annually,  accepts  original  scholarly  work  and  crea- 
tive writing.  West  Georgia  College  assumes  no  responsibility  for  con- 
tributors' views.  The  style  guide  is  Kate  L.  Turabian.  A  Manual  for 
Writers.  Although  the  Review  is  primarily  a  medium  for  the  faculty 
of  West  Georgia  College,  other  sources  are  invited. 

An  annual  bibliography  includes  doctoral  dissertations,  major 
recitals  and  major  art  exhibits.  Theses  and  articles  in  progress  or 
accepted  are  not  listed.  A  faculty  member's  initial  listing  is  compre- 
hensive and  appears  in  the  issue  of  the  year  of  his  employment.  The 
abstracts  of  all  master's  theses  and  educational  specialist's  projects 
written  at  West  Georgia  College  are  included  as  they  are  awarded. 


The  Review   was  not  published  in  1976. 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 

REVIEW 


Volume  IX  May,  1977 


TABLE 

OF 

CONTENTS 

The  Effects  of  an  Inservice  Creativity  Workshop 

On  Teachers  and  Their  Students    Ellen  Gruber 

and  Jeffrey  L.  Lorentz       3 

Relativity  and  the  Universe  of  Fiction    Frank  Sadler      8 

Are  Some  Bankers  "Crying  Wolf?"    Carole  E.  Scott     34 

Abstracts  of  Master's  Theses  and  Specialist  in 

Education  Projects  38 

Bibliography  of  West  Georgia  College  Faculty 

1975  and  1976    131 


Copyright    ®   1977,  West  Georgia  College 

Printed  in  U.S.A. 

Darby  Printing  Company,  Atlanta,  Georgia  30310 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  AN  INSERVICE  CREATIVITY 

WORKSHOP  ON  TEACHERS  AND  THEIR 

STUDENTS 

by  ELLEN  GRUBER*  and  JEFFREY  L.  LORENTZ** 

In  recent  years  a  number  of  educators  have  moved  from  an  in- 
structional approach  which  considers  only  student  cognition  to  an 
awareness  of  the  need  to  attend  to  the  affective  domain.  There  is  an 
increasing  realization  of  the  need  to  assist  teachers  in  fostering  an 
affective  environment  in  their  classrooms.  One  approach  to  this  end 
is  the  inservice  program. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  study  was  to  examine  the  effects  of 
an  Affective  and  Creative  Education  inservice  program  on  teacher 
attitudes  and  subsequent  changes  in  student  attitudes  and  creativity. 
Specifically,  the  study  was  designed  to  consider  whether  a  workshop 
in  affect/creativity  would  result  in  changes  in  teacher  openness,  stu- 
dent creativity,  and  student  self-concept. 

METHOD 

Subjects.  The  subjects  of  the  present  study  were  eighteen  first 
grade  teachers  from  Carrollton  and  Carroll  County,  Georgia,  who 
volunteered  to  participate.  Ninety  students  were  obtained  by  ran- 
domly selecting  5  from  each  of  the  18  classrooms.  As  a  condition  of 
participation,  each  teacher  agreed  to  the  administration  of  student 
measures  both  one  week  before  the  workshop  began  and  four  weeks 
after  the  workshop  ended.  The  teachers  also  agreed  to  respond  to 
several  measures  before  and  after  the  workshop. 

Instruments.  I  Feel  —  Me  Feel  (IFMF)  (Yeatts  and  Bentley, 
1970)  was  given  to  the  90  students  one  week  before  and  four  weeks 
after  the  workshop.  This  40-item  Likert-type  scale  (using  five  faces 
which  ranged  from  happy  to  sad  rather  than  numbers)  is  a  self- 
concept  measure  appropriate  for  use  with  children  at  this  level. 

Scoring  was  based  on  locally-developed  factor  keys  which  were 
entitled:  Academic,  Self,  Frustration,  Femininity,  Fun,  and  Inde- 
pendence. Coefficient  Alpha  reliabilities  for  these  scales  ranged  from 
.56  to  .92  for  the  pre-test  sample. 

The  Torrance  Tests  of  Creative  Thinking  (TTCT)  (Torrance, 
1966)  were  administered  along  with  the  IFMF.  TTCT  is  a  measure 
of  creativity,  a  test  developed  over  a  number  of  years.  A  number  of 
studies  report  reliabilities  ranging  from  .50  to  .93,  and  Torrance 

*  Assistant  Professor  of  Education. 

**  Assistant  Professor  of  Education,  West  Georgia  College. 

3 


(1972)  reports  nine  studies  in  which  TTCT  scores  were  used  to  predict 
other  student  outcomes. 

The  four  subtest  scores  are  fluency,  flexibility,  originality,  and 
elaboration.  Figural  forms  A  and  B  were  used. 

The  Rokeach  Dogmatism  Scale  (RDS)  (Rokeach,  1960)  was 
administered  to  each  teacher  before  and  after  the  workshop.  Dogma- 
tism as  defined  by  Rokeach  is  a  closed  way  of  thinking  which  can  be 
associated  with  any  ideology.  This  scale  is  designed  to  measure  indi- 
vidual differences  in  openness  or  closedness  of  belief  systems.  The 
reliability  coefficient  (split-half,  Spearman-Brown)  for  the  Dogma- 
tism scale.  Form  E,  is  .81  based  on  a  group  of  80  English  colleges. 
When  intercorrelated  with  Form  F  among  Dogmatism,  Authoritar- 
ianism, and  Ethnocentrism,  the  R  =  .62  based  on  80  English  colleges. 
Total  score  is  obtained  by  summing  the  responses  to  the  40  items. 

A  group  of  specially  trained  testers  administered  both  the  IFMF 
and  TTCT  away  from  the  teachers'  classrooms. 

Treatment.  The  eighteen  first  grade  teachers  participated  in  a 
two-day  intensive  training  program  designed  to  foster  aflFective 
growth  in  themselves  and  subsequently  in  their  students.  The  work- 
shop focused  on  the  following  areas:  affective  exercises  in  trust, 
awareness,  and  communication;  transactional  analysis;  and  creativ- 
ity exercises  centered  on  flexibility.  The  aim  of  the  workshop  was  to 
equip  each  teacher  with  skills  and  a  variety  of  techniques  to  facilitate 
the  development  of  an  aff"ective  curriculum  for  children.  The  teachers 
followed  up  the  workshop  via  implementation  of  an  aff"ective  and 
creative  curriculum  for  their  students. 

During  the  four  weeks  before  the  end  of  the  final  testing,  the 
teachers'  classes  were  monitored  for  one  hour  once  a  week  to  check 
on  the  implementation  of  the  techniques  taught  in  the  workshop. 
Trained  observers  marked  a  check  list  in  order  to  obtain  additional 
data  on  the  implementation. 

Analysis.  The  RDS  were  hand  scored  and  a  total  pre-test,  total 
post-test  and  difference  score  recorded  for  each  teacher.  A  correlated 
t-test  was  used  to  test  the  diff"erence  between  pre-RDS  and  post-RDS. 
Table  1  presents  the  results  of  this  test,  which  show  that  the  differ- 
ence between  pre-test  and  post-test  is  not  significant. 

Table  1 
RDS  Means  and  Standard  Deviations 

Standard 
Test  Mean  Deviation  t 


0.06 


Pre-workshop 

135.39 

29.01 

Post-workshop 

135.05 

4 

35.80 

Student  IFMF  and  TTCT  subscales  were  reduced  to  gains  by 
regressing  pre-test  on  post-test  and  subtracting  the  obtained  post-test 
score  from  the  predicted  ("expected")  post-test  score  and  further 
reducing  these  gains  to  classroom  means.  The  10  scores  were  then 
used  as  a  measure  of  teacher  influence  on  student  self-concept  and 
creativity.  Teachers  were  subsequently  contrasted  on  these  scores 
through  a  series  of  discriminant  analyses  (Veldman,  1967).  In  the  first 
of  these,  the  eighteen  teachers  were  ranked  according  to  their  initial 
(pre-test)  RDS  score  and  the  nine  high  scoring  teachers  were  con- 
trasted against  the  nine  low  scoring  teachers.  Likewise,  the  final 
(post-test)  RDS  and  the  difference  between  pre  and  post  were  used 
in  the  same  manner. 

The  results  of  these  three  analyses  are  shown  in  Tables  2  and  3. 

TABLE  2 

SUMMARY  OF  3  DISCRIMINANT  ANALYSIS 
CONTRASTING  GROUPS  OF  IFMF  &  TTCT 


WILKS 
ANALYSIS  LAMBDA  F  df  X-'  P 

1.  High  vs  Low  0.292  1.700  10.7  —  0.2466 
Pre-RDS 

Root  1    (100%   of  variance)  10  14.787  0.1415 

2.  High  vs  Low  0.345  1.317  10.7  —  0.3669 
Post  RDS 

Root  1   (   lOOVc   of  variance)  10  12.698  0.2421 

3.  High  vs  Low  0.295  1.674  10.7  —  0.2533 
Change  in  RDS 

Root  1  (100%  of  variance)  10  14.653  0.1467 


TABLE  3 

GROUP  MEANS  AND  UNIVARIATE  F-TESTS 
FOR  10  STUDENT  VARIABLES 


High  RDS 

Low  RDS 

Group 

Group 

F — ratio 

Variable 

Mean 

Mean 

df  =  1,16 

Analysis  1.  Pretest  RDS 

IFMF 

1.    Fun 

48.3678 

52.5913 

5.1235 

2.    Academic 

48.9251 

48.9595 

0.0005 

3.    Frustration 

11.5837 

13.4830 

3.9879 

4.    Femininity 

11.8674 

12.4605 

1.0411 

5.    Self 

22.4306 

24.2419 

1.7424 

6.    Independence 

10.7063 

11.0446 

0.2299 

TTCT 

7.    Fluency 

21.8952 

24.1943 

0.9449 

8.    Flexibility 

12.1718 

12.5993 

0.0870 

9.    Originality 

8.7112 

9.1544 

0.0261 

10.    Elaboration 

16.8456 

15.0086 

0.6984 

Analysis  2.  Posttest  RDS 

IFMF 

1.    Fun 

49.9014 

51.0578 

0.2965 

2.    Academic 

48.6697 

49.2150 

0.0586 

3.    Frustration 

11.7583 

13.3084 

2.4520 

4.    Femininity 

12.0920 

12.2359 

0.0578 

5.    Self 

23.2718 

23.4006 

0.0083 

6.    Independence 

10.6760 

11.0749 

0.3213 

TTCT 

7.    Fluency 

23.7375 

22.3520 

0.3311 

8.    Flexibility 

13.1045 

11.6667 

1.0424 

9.    Originality 

10.8235 

7.0421 

2.1533 

10.    Elaboration 

17.9931 

13.8612 

4.2937 

Analysis  3.  Difference  RDS 

IFMF 

1.    Fun 

49.9444 

51.0148 

0.2538 

2.    Academic 

48.9630 

48.9216 

0.0005 

3.    Frustration 

12.2194 

12.8473 

0.3567 

4.    Femininity 

12.1214 

12.2065 

0.0199 

5.    Self 

23.6229 

23.0495 

0.1595 

6.    Independence 

10.6471 

11.1038 

0.4242 

TTCT 

7.    Fluency 

24.0271 

22.0624 

0.6793 

8.    Flexibility 

12.4679 

12.3033 

0.0129 

9.    Originality 

9.8231 

8.0425 

0.4322 

10.    Elaboration 

17.3394 

14.5149 

1.7554 

These  results  indicate  that  the  groups  did  not  differ  significantly 
on  any  of  the  measures. 

6 


CONCLUSION 

The  present  study  was  undertaken  to  determine  the  effects  of  an 
affective  workshop  on  teacher  openness  and  on  student'  creativity. 
The  results  indicate  that  there  has  been  no  significant  impact  of  the 
workshop  on  either  teachers  or  their  students. 

The  Affective  Education  workshop  did  not  lead  to  significant 
differences  between  groups  on  teacher  openness  and  subsequent  crea- 
tivity measures  in  students.  The  workshop  may  well  have  been  effec- 
tive in  changing  openness  and  creativity  of  teachers  and  students,  but 
this  study  did  not  demonstrate  that. 

The  length  of  the  affective  workshop  may  be  a  critical  factor.  The 
length  of  time  spent  by  teachers  implementing  the  affective  curricu- 
lum in  their  classroom  may  be  a  critical  factor.  Research  should  be 
undertaken  in  which  such  factors  as  size  of  the  workshop,  duration 
of  the  workshop,  and  specific  activities  are  varied. 

It  is  possible  that  long  term  effects  of  the  affective  and  creative 
education  inservice  program  on  teacher  attitudes  and  subsequent 
changes  in  student  attitudes  and  creativity  will  be  evident  over  a 
longer  time  period.  For  this  reason  teachers  should  not  expect  in  a 
short  time  too  great  a  change  in  themselves  or  their  students.  Per- 
sonal growth  is  a  slow  process  and  individuals  need  time  to  experi- 
ment with  and  integrate  new  behavior  and  attitudes  into  their  lives. 
Teachers  should  not  become  discouraged  too  quickly  when  their  stu- 
dents do  not  respond  with  immediate  or  dramatic  new  behaviors  and 
attitudes  as  a  result  of  their  focusing  on  the  affective  domain.  For 
both  teachers  and  students,  it  appears,  change  may  occur  but  slowly. 
Patience  seems  to  be  a  vital  virtue  in  affective  education. 


RELATIVITY  AND  THE  UNIVERSE  OF  FICTION 

by  FRANK  SADLER* 

And  when  his  friend  Janos  Plesh  commented  years  later  that  there 
seemed  to  be  some  connection  between  mathematics  and  fiction,  a 
field  in  which  the  writer  made  a  world  out  of  invented  characters 
and  situations  and  then  compared  it  with  the  existing  world  Ein- 
stein replied:  "There  may  be  something  in  what  you  say.  When  I 
examine  myself  and  my  methods  of  thought  I  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  gift  of  fantasy  has  meant  more  to  me  than  my  talent  for 
absorbing  positive  knowledge." 

RONALD  W.  CLARK 
Einstein:  The  Life  and  Times 

In  this  essay  I  will  examine  what  seems  to  be  a  connection  be- 
tween the  invented  worlds  of  mathematical  physics  and  fiction  in 
terms  of  Samuel  R.  Delany's  The  Einstein  Intersection.^  It  is  my 
belief  that  there  exists  a  relationship  between  these  two  worlds  and 
that  The  Einstein  Intersection  is  a  literary  expression  of  that  relation- 
ship. If  it  seems  that  I  am  making  some  special  claim  for  science 
fiction,  I  am  not.  I  am  only  pointing  out  that  science  fiction  is  a  type 
of  literature  and,  as  such,  that  it  must  be  initially  judged  by  the 
standards  of  that  literature.  It  should  be  remembered,  then,  that 
there  is  nothing  inherently  difficult  in  understanding  the  the  relation- 
ship that  exists  between  mathematical  physics  and  fiction  as  long  as 
we  recognize  that  The  Einstein  Intersection,  like  any  literary  work  of 
art,  "is  governed  by  precisely  the  same  literary  and  dramatic  require- 
ments as  any  other  form  of  literature."^  The  problem,  insofar  as  it 
may  be  a  problem,  resides  in  the  form  of  a  novel.  Alain  Robbe-Grillet 
points  out  that  "A  new  form  will  always  seem  more  or  less  an  absence 
of  any  form  at  all,  since  it  is  unconsciously  judged  by  reference  to  the 
consecrated  forms. "^  Essentially,  the  problems  of  The  Einstein 
Intersection  are  related  to  the  problems  of  form.  Since  most  of  what 
will  be  discussed  in  this  essay  relates  directly  or  indirectly  to  form, 
it  would  seem  wise  tentatively  to  define  what  is  meant  by  that  term. 
Yet  definition  itself  seems  somehow  inadequate  to  deal  with  the  prob- 
lems of  form  since,  as  Charles  W.  Misner  points  out  in  Gravitation, 

*  Assistant  Professor  of  English,  Georgia  Southwestern  College. 
'  Samuel  R.  Delany,  The  Einstein  Intersection,  New  York:  Ace  Books,  1967. 
-  Reginald  Bretnor,  "Science  Fiction  in  the  Age  of  Space"  in  Science  Fiction, 
Today  and  Tomorrow,  New  York:  Harper  &  Row,  Publishers,  1974,  p.  151. 
■'  Alain  Robbe-Grillet,  For  A  New  Novel,  New  York:  Grove  Press,  Inc.,  1965, 
p.  17. 

8 


...  in  science,  as  stressed  not  least  by  Henri  Poincare,  that  view  is 
out  of  date  which  used  to  say,  "Define  your  terms  before  you  pro- 
ceed." All  the  laws  and  theories  of  physics  .  .  .  have  this  deep  and 
subtle  character,  that  they  both  define  the  concepts  they  use  .  .  . 
and  make  statements  about  these  concepts.  Contrariwise,  the  ab- 
sence of  some  body  of  theory,  law,  and  principle  deprives  one  of  the 
means  properly  to  define  or  even  use  concepts.  Any  forward  step  in 
human  knowledge  is  truly  creative  in  this  sense:  that  theory,  con- 
cept, law,  and  method  of  measurement — forever  inseparable — are 
born  into  the  world  in  union. ^ 

Misner's  view  of  the  problem  of  definition  in  science  constitutes 
a  functional  or  operational  definition  of  terminology.  What  is  true  for 
science  is,  perhaps,  even  more  appropriate  for  the  study  of  literature. 
Our  critical  vocabulary  is  woefully  inadequate  and  our  definition  of 
the  rather  limited  critical  terms  we  do  have,  such  as  those  found  in 
Wayne  C.  Booth's  The  Rhetoric  of  Fiction  and  other  works  concerned 
with  the  long  narrative,  are  often  wanting  with  respect  to  precision. 
Nevertheless,  for  the  purpose  of  exigency,  I  shall  use  Charles  Olson's 
definition  of  form,  that  is,  "FORM  IS  NEVER  MORE  THAN  AN 
EXTENSION  OF  CONTENT",  as  a  starting  point.^  What  is  being 
suggested  is  that  the  forms  a  novel  may  take  grow  out  of  the  ideas 
and  concepts,  both  implicit  and  explicit,  which  reside  in  it.  Form  and 
content  are  not  antithetical  concepts.  Rather,  form  expresses  an 
"extension"  of  certain  ideas  and  concepts  which,  because  of  their 
particular  expression,  find  themselves  arranged  in  a  particular  pat- 
tern or  relationship.  This  pattern  or  relationship  we  call  a  novel. 

In  brief,  Delany  has  invented  quite  freely  a  new  form  for  the 
science-fiction  novel.  The  traditional  divisions  of  the  novel  into  sepa- 
rate and  clearly  discernable  chapters  are  gone  and  in  their  place  the 
narration  is  briefly  interrupted  by  quotations  from  the  author's  jour- 
nal, quotations  from  various  literary,  religious,  philosophical,  and 
scientific  sources,  and  quotations  from  other  fictional  works  of  art. 
These  quotations  serve  an  important  function  in  the  structure  of  the 
novel  since  they  provide  a  series  of  points  that  force  the  reader  to 
relate  the  story  to  his  own  time.  For  instance,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  section  of  The  Einstein  Intersection,  Delany  provides  us  with 
a  rather  lengthy  description  of  his  impressions  of  a  week's  stay  in 
Venice  and  relates  this  stay  to  his  problems  in  "trying  to  assimilate 
.  .  .  Lobey's  adventure,"  though  he  admits  that  he  doesn't  "quite 
know  how"  these  problems  of  assimilation  will  be  worked  out  yet  (pp. 


*  Charles  W.  Misner,  Kip  S.  Thorne,  and  John  A.  Wheeler,  Gravitation,  San 
Francisco:  W.  H.  Freeman  and  Company,  1973,  p.  71. 
■^  Charles  Olson,  "Projective  Verse",  in  Human  Universe  and  Other  Essays, 
Donald  Allen,  editor,  New  York:  Grove  Press,  Inc.,  1967,  p.  52. 

9 


ii; 


13-14).  In  other  words,  as  Delany  attempts  to  relate  Lobey's  story  to 
his  own  time,  we  too,  analogically,  must  relate  Delany's  experiences 
to  our  own.  Delany  in  this  particular  section  (and  in  others  like  it 
from  his  journal)  attempts  to  establish  a  sense  of  aesthetic  distance 
between  the  story  the  novel  presents  (it  takes  place  in  the  distant 
future  when  man  has  left  his  planet  and  gone  elsewhere  in  the  uni- 
verse) and  the  historical  present.  This  relationship  between  the  story 
the  novel  presents  and  the  historical  present  is  paralleled  within  the 
novel  by  the  presence  of  a  series  of  allusions  and  images  that  establish 
a  continuity  in  time  between  the  distant  historical  past  when  man 
still  inhabited  the  earth,  the  immediate  historical  past  which  pres- 
ents the  narrator's  own  history  and  his  knowledge  of  his  race's  his- 
tory, the  present,  and  the  future.  There  is,  perhaps,  another  and  more 
important  function  these  quotations  serve  and  this  function  is  inti- 
mately related  to  the  form  of  the  novel;  that  is,  the  quotations  allow 
us  to  observe,  in  a  limited  sense,  the  author's  view  of  how  he  under- 
stands the  creative  process  and  its  relation  to  Lobey's  story  and  The 
Einstein  Intersection.  For  example,  in  a  quotation  from  the  author's 
journal  at  the  beginning  of  section  twelve,  Delany  informs  us  that  "In 
a  week  another  birthday,  and  I  can  start  the  meticulous  process  of 
overlaying  another  filigree  across  the  novel's  palimpsest"  (p.  137). 
What  Delany  has  presented  us  with  is  a  description  of  the  way  in 
which  he  understands  the  process  of  his  creation  of  the  novel  to  have 
taken  place.  Further,  the  relationship  that  exists  in  the  novel  between 
mathematical  physics  and  fiction  is  relatively  complex  since  it  in- 
volves an  understanding  of  certain  key  concepts  in  contemporary 
physics.  These  concepts  are  presented  within  the  novel  and  an  under- 
standing of  their  presence  is  crucial  to  any  discussion  of  it.  It  would 
seem  sensible,  therefore,  to  examine  what  Martin  Dyck  in  "Relativity 
in  Physics  and  in  Fiction"  terms  "some  striking  analogies"  that  exist 
"between  physics  and  fiction,"  since  I  am  dealing  with  the  nature  of 
fiction  and,  specifically,  its  relationship  to  physics  and  the  world  view 
implicit  in  The  Einstein  Intersection.^  For  it  is  only  through  coming 
to  terms  with  the  form  of  The  Einstein  Intersection  that  we  may  come 
to  understand  the  relationship  between  the  invented  worlds  of  mathe- 
matics and  fiction  in  the  novel. 

James  B.  Conant  tells  us  that  the  mathematician  or  physicist 
"no  longer  pretends  that  he  is  dealing  with  reality,  but  accepts  in- 
stead that  he  works  with  interlocking  conceptual  schemes — with 

"  Martin  Dyck,  "Relativity  in  Physics  and  in  Fiction",  in  Studies  in  German 
Literature  of  the  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries,  Siegfried  Mews,  edi- 
tor. Chapel  Hill:  University  of  North  Carolina  Press,  1970,  p.  174. 


10 


models — that  are  productive  for  a  time  but  are  constantly  modified."^ 
Further,  it  may  be  argued  that  "Few,  if  any  writers  would  now  insist 
that  their  fictional  worlds  reproduce  reality.  Instead  the  writer  cre- 
ates a  model,  an  imitation,  a  symbolic  construct  through  which  he 
tries  to  capture  the  quality  of  human  experience."'*  Since  neither  the 
physicist  nor  the  writer  pretends  any  longer  that  he  is  dealing  with 
reality,  the  models  he  creates  in  his  attempts  to  render  the  world 
intelligible  may  seem  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  series  of  metaphors. 
These  metaphors,  however,  are  not  taken  from  nature  but  have  their 
source  in  the  abstract  principles  of  science. 

Martin  Dyck  in  his  essay  suggests  that  "In  a  basic  sense,  both 
fiction  and  physics  are  physics"  (p.  174).  Dyck's  formulation  about 
the  analogical  similarities  between  physics  and  fiction  strike  to  the 
center  of  a  particular  twentieth-century  problem  in  epistemology  and 
ontology.  The  problem  is  not  simply  a  matter  of  defining  what  we 
mean  by  fiction  and  physics.  It  involves  what  Thomas  S.  Kuhn  in 
The  Structure  of  Scientific  Revolutions  terms  "incommensurable 
ways  of  seeing  the  world  and  of  practicing  science  in  it.""  Further,  it 
might  be  added,  it  involves  a  switch  or  change  in  the  way  in  which 
the  artist  sees  his  function  or  purpose  in  his  art  and,  therefore,  in  his 
world.  Kuhn  points  out  that  "What  a  man  sees  depends  both  upon 
what  he  looks  at  and  also  upon  what  his  previous  visual-conceptual 
experience  has  taught  him  to  see.  In  the  absence  of  such  training 
there  can  only  be,  in  William  James'  phrase,  'a  bloomin'  buzzin' 
confusion'"  (p.  113).  The  question  which  Dyck  raises  is  "In  what 
sense  is  physics  fiction?"  and  declares  "Well,  what  else  is  it?  Truth? 
A  physicist  would  object  to  such  classification.  Reality?  Past  the  mid- 
twentieth  century  we  are  no  longer  so  naive  as  to  assume  that  there 
is  such  a  thing  as  a  definable  reality"  (p.  11).  The  reasons  for  this  are 
not  simple  and  involve  the  theory  of  relativity.  Lincoln  Barnett 
argues  that  "the  irony  of  man's  quest  for  reality  is  that  as  nature  is 
stripped  of  its  disguises,  as  order  emerges  from  chaos  and  unity  from 
diversity,  as  concepts  merge  and  fundamental  laws  assume  increas- 
ingly simpler  form,  the  evolving  picture  becomes  ever  more  remote 
from  experience — far  stranger  indeed  and  less  recognizable  than  the 
bone  structure  behind  a  familiar  face."'"  Reality  in  modern  physics 


"  Thomas  D.  Clareson,  "The  Other  Side  of  Realism",  in  SF:  The  Other  Side 
of  Realism,  Thomas  Clareson,  editor.  Bowling  Green:  Bowling  Green  Univer- 
sity Popular  Press,  1971,  p.  22. 
«  Ibid. 

"  Thomas  S.  Kuhn,  The  Structure  of  Scientific  Revolutions,  Chicago:  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Press,  1970,  p.  4. 

'"  Lincoln  Barnett,  The  Universe  and  Dr.  Einstein,  New  York:  Bantam 
Books,  Inc.,  1973,  p.  113. 

11 


ceases  to  be  a  meaningful  concept.  Barnett  notes  that 

In  trying  to  distinguish  appearance  from  reahty  and  lay  bare  the 
fundamental  structure  of  the  universe,  science  has  had  to  transcend 
the  "rabble  of  the  senses."  But  its  highest  edifices,  Einstein  has 
pointed  out,  have  been  "purchased  at  the  price  of  emptiness  of 
content"  A  theoretical  concept  is  emptied  of  content  to  the  very 
degree  that  it  is  divorced  from  sensory  experience.  For  the  only  world 
man  can  truly  know  is  the  world  created  for  him  by  the  senses,  (pp. 
113-14) 

Barnett  argues  that  "in  the  abstract  lexicon  of  quantum  physics 
there  is  no  such  word  as  'really'  "  (p.  32).  Further,  he  suggests  that 
"The  certainty  that  science  can  explain  how  things  happen  began  to 
dim  about  twenty  years  ago.  And  right  now  it  is  a  question  whether 
scientific  man  is  in  touch  with  'reality'  at  all — or  can  ever  hope  to  be" 
(p.  16).  According  to  Barnett,  the  theory  of  relativity  does  not 
"contradict  classical  physics.  It  simply  regards  the  old  concepts  as 
limiting  cases  that  apply  solely  to  the  familiar  experiences  of  man" 
(p.  58).  Consequently,  as  he  suggests,  "Einstein  thus  surmounts  the 
barrier  reared  by  man's  impulse  to  define  reality  solely  as  he  per- 
ceives it  through  the  screen  of  his  senses"  (p.  58).  He  further  com- 
ments that 

— the  world  of  light  and  color,  of  blue  skies  and  green  leaves,  of 
sighing  wind  .  .  .  the  world  designed  by  the  physiology  of  human 
sense  organs — is  the  world  in  which  finite  man  is  incarcerated  by  his 
essential  nature.  And  what  the  scientist  and  the  philosopher  call  the 
world  of  reality — the  colorless,  soundless,  impalpable  cosmos  which 
lies  like  an  iceberg  beneath  the  plane  of  man's  perceptions — is  a 
skeleton  structure  of  symbols. 

And  the  symbols  change,  (p.  114) 

In  The  Einstein  Intersection,  for  instance,  Lobey's  perception  of 
his  world  is  essentially  stable  and  coherent.  What  he  perceives  is 
limited  to  the  world  presented  by  his  senses.  His  familiar  experiences 
may  be  unusual  and  odd  for  us,  but  in  his  world  they  are  normal.  In 
other  words,  Lobey  is  unaware  of  what  the  philosopher  would  call  the 
world  of  reality.  What  he  perceives  as  normal — he  describes  himself 
as  "Ugly  and  grinning  most  of  the  time"  and  as  having  "a  figure  like 
a  bowling  pin,  thighs,  calves,  and  feet  of  a  man  (gorilla?)  twice  my 
size  (which  is  about  five-nine)  and  hips  to  match" — is  clearly  unusual 
for  us  (pp.  5-6).  Though  Lobey's  perception  of  his  world  is 
"innocent,"  our  perception  of  his  universe  differs  markedly  from  his. 
By  the  end  of  the  novel,  however,  everything  has  become  different; 
that  is,  Lobey  no  longer  perceives  a  fixed  and  stable  universe.  He  has 
come  to  understand  what  Doric  tells  him  early  in  section  four  that 
"this  is  the  real  world  you're  living  in.  It's  come  from  something;  it's 
going  to  something;  it's  changing"  (p.  53).  He  understands  not  only 

12 


the  nature  of  change  but  the  role  it  plays  in  his  world  and  in  his 
perception  of  that  world,  so  much  so  that  the  only  thing  that  is 
predictable  is  change  itself.  The  novel  grows  out  of  the  narrator's  way 
of  seeing  his  world  come  into  conflict  with  his  actual  experience  of 
it.  The  central  conflict  or  paradox  thus  created  grows  out  of  the  fact 
that  what  a  man  may  "truly  know"  is  limited  by  his  senses  to  his 
familiar  experiences,  while,  at  the  same  time,  his  science  informs  him 
that  his  senses  are  but  imperfect  instruments  that  lack  the  power  and 
refinement  to  perceive  the  immeasurable  small  but  significant  events 
in  the  physical  world  that  exist  outside  the  range  of  his  senses.  While 
science,  as  Barnett  points  out,  tells  us  "nothing  of  the  true  'nature' 
of  things,  it  nevertheless  succeeds  in  defining  their  relationships  and 
depicting  the  events  in  which  they  are  involved.  'The  event,'  Alfred 
North  Whitehead  declared,  'is  the  unit  of  things  real'"  (p.  110). 
Science  may  tell  us  "nothing  of  the  true  'nature'  of  things,"  but  its 
"skeleton  structure  of  symbols,"  does  influence  and  produce  a  change 
in  the  way  in  which  man  sees  the  world. 

Kuhn  notes  in  Chapter  X  ("Revolutions  as  Changes  of  World 
View")  that  "The  assimilation  of  a  previously  anomalous  visual  field 
has  reacted  upon  and  changed  the  field  itself"  (p.  112).  If  we  substi- 
tute the  term  "visual-conceptual"  for  the  purely  "visual"  in  Kuhn's 
sentence,  then  we  come  close  to  describing  the  relation  that  exists 
between  mathematical  physics  and  fiction  in  the  novel  and  its  rela- 
tionship to  that  of  the  narrator's  way  of  seeing  in  his  world.  Because, 
in  a  sense,  the  literary  significance  of  the  theory  of  relativity  is  that 
it  allows  man,  in  the  final  analysis,  to  see  himself,  as  Barnett  states, 
"merely  [as]  an  ephemeral  conformation  of  the  primordial  space- 
time  field.  Man  stands  'midway  between  macrocosm  and  micro- 
cosm' "  and  "finds  barriers  on  every  side  and  can  perhaps  but  mar- 
vel, as  St.  Paul  did  nineteen  hundred  years  ago,  that  'the  world  was 
created  by  the  word  of  God  so  that  what  is  seen  was  made  out  of 
things  which  did  not  appear'  "  (p.  118).  The  theory  of  relativity  points 
toward  another  significant  development  in  modern  physics. 

J.  Bronowski  in  The  Common  Sense  of  Science  points  out  that 
Werner  Heisenberg's  Gedankenexperiments  (the  term  means  literally 
"thought  experiments")  showed  "that  every  description  of  nature 
contains  some  essential  and  irremovable  uncertainty.  For  example, 
the  more  accurately  we  try  to  measure  the  position  of  a  fundamental 
particle,  of  an  electron  say,  the  less  certain  will  we  be  of  its  speed. 
The  more  accurately  we  try  to  estimate  its  speed,  the  more  uncertain 
will  we  be  of  its  precise  position.""  Further,  as  Barnett  notes,  "in  the 


"  J.  Bronowski,  The  Common  Sense  of  Science,  New  York:  Random  House, 
Inc.,  p.  69. 

13 


very  act  of  observing  its  position  [the  electron's],  its  velocity  is 
changed;  and,  conversely,  the  more  accurately  its  velocity  is  deter- 
mined, the  more  indefinite  its  position  becomes"  (p.  34).  The  signifi- 
cance of  Heisenberg's  Principle  of  Uncertainty  was  not  missed  by 
philosophers  or  artists.  Plato  had  argued  that  "The  prison  house  is 
the  world  of  sight,"  and,  as  Barnett  and  other  have  pointed  out, 
"Every  seeming  avenue  of  escape  from  this  prison  house  that  science 
has  surveyed  leads  only  deeper  into  a  misty  realm  of  symbolism  and 
abstraction"  (p.  116).  Barnett  further  argues  that  "It  may  be  that  the 
extreme  and  insurmountable  limit  of  scientific  knowledge  will  be 
reached  in  the  attainment  of  perfect  isomorphic  representation — that 
is,  in  a  final  flawless  concurrence  of  theory  and  natural  process,  so 
complete  that  every  observed  phenomena  is  accounted  for  and  noth- 
ing is  left  out  of  the  picture"  (p.  116).  The  same  speculation  may  be 
made  for  the  limits  of  literary  art  and  theory  where  the  literary  artist 
continually  strives  to  create  a  perfect  and  final  flawless  account  of 
human  nature.  This,  of  course,  he  must  accomplish  within  the  limita- 
tions imposed  upon  him  by  his  senses  while  at  the  same  time  he  takes 
into  account  new  understandings  of  the  universe  revealed  to  him  by 
his  science.  As  Robbe-Grillet  puts  it,  "Obviously  I  am  concerned,  in 
any  case,  only  with  the  world  as  my  point  of  view  orients  it;  I  shall 
never  know  any  other.  The  relative  sense  of  sight  serves  me  precisely 
to  define  my  situation  in  the  world.  I  simply  keep  myself  from  helping 
to  make  this  situation  a  servitude."'^  In  a  sense,  this  is  exactly  the 
narrator's  position  in  The  Einstein  Intersection.  The  point  to  be  made 
here  is  that  reality  conceived  of  as  an  "absolute"  ceases  to  be  a 
meaningful  concept  in  modern  science.  Dyck  declares 

More  accurately;  there  is  no  one  definable  truth  or  reality.  And  since 
there  is  more  than  one  conception  of  truth  and  reality,  to  any  one 
observer  all  but  his  own  conception  of  truth  and  reality  must  be 
fictitious.  And  since  we  cannot  be  so  subjective  as  to  accept  the 
truth  and  reality  of  any  one  individual,  or  one  group,  or  one  society, 
or  one  branch  of  knowledge,  or  one  age  as  truth  and  reality  binding 
on  all  and  always  binding  (though  we  do  not  deny  any  individual, 
or  group,  or  age  the  bliss  of  pursuing  his  or  its  own  fictions)  we  are 
forced  to  conclude  that  all  concepts  of  truth  and  reality  are  ficti- 
tious, (p.  174) 

The  conclusion  Dyck  reaches  seems  valid  enough  and,  in  a  limited 
sense.  The  Einstein  Intersection  represents  the  attempt  of  one  indi- 
vidual (Lo  Lobey)  to  pursue  his  own  fictions  only  to  discover  in  the 
search  (quest)  that  his  concepts  of  truth  and  reality,  of  the  nature  of 
his  world,  are  fictitious.  Delany  quotes  Jean-Paul  Sarte  at  the  begin- 

'2  Robbe-Grillet,  p.  74. 

14 


ning  of  the  fifth  section  of  the  novel  to  the  effect  that  "Experience 
reveals  to  him  in  every  object,  in  every  event,  the  presence  of  some- 
thing else"  (p.  55).  Earlier  in  the  novel  Doric,  the  "kage-keeper,"  tells 
Lobey  "this  is  the  real  world  you're  living  in.  It's  come  from  some- 
thing; it's  going  to  something;  it's  changing.  But  it's  got  right  and 
wrong,  a  way  to  behave  and  a  way  not  to.  You  never  wanted  to  accept 
that,  even  when  you  were  a  kid,  but  until  you  do,  you  won't  be 
happy"  (p.  53).  Lobey's  unwillingness  to  accept  the  nature  of  his 
world  is  in  part  a  failure  of  his  willingness  to  see  his  world.  He  stag- 
gers through  this  "abstracted  novel,"  pursuing,  like  the  author  De- 
lany,  his  own  fictions  (p.  118).  Delany  tells  us  at  the  beginning  of 
section  two  that  "It  turned  windy  as  we  floated  beneath  the  black 
wood  arch  of  the  Ponti  Academia;  I  was  trying  to  assimilate  the 
flowers,  the  vicious  animals,  with  Lobey's  adventure — each  applies, 
but  as  yet  I  don't  quite  know  how"  (p.  13).  The  information  Delany's 
journal  supplies  suggests  that  he  wishes  to  make  a  close  analogy 
between  the  writer's  pursuit  of  his  own  fictions  and  those  fictions 
pursued  by  his  major  character. 

Someone  may  object,  however,  to  what  has  been  suggested  about 
the  nature  of  physics  and  argue  that  "physics  should  be  described  as 
physical  reality,  or  a  set  of  theories  of  physical  reality,  or  of  the 
physical  universe"  and,  therefore,  should  not  be  compared  with  liter- 
ary works  of  art  (Dyck,  p.  174).  The  apparent  reason  for  this  objection 
is  that  literary  art  is  a  product  of  the  mind  and  is  concerned  with 
human  experience  whereas  physics  is  concerned  with  the  physical 
world  only.  The  resulting  argument  holds  that  physics  and  literary 
art  are  incommensurate  since  they  deal  with  radically  divergent  phe- 
nomena. Obviously  nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth,  as  I  have 
already  partly  shown.  As  Dyck  points  out,  if  physics  should  be  consid- 
ered in  terms  of  one  of  these  propositions,  or  all,  then,  each  "of  these 
propositions  holds  true.  And  each  is  circular.  And  each  is  incomplete" 
(p.  174).  In  what  ways  are  these  "propositions"  circular  and 
incomplete?  What  is  missing?  I  have  already  suggested  that  contem- 
porary physics  no  longer  deals  with  reality  but  with  realities  and  that 
an  event  cannot  be  separated  from  a  fact  and  an  observation,  that 
the  two  are  mutually  related  and  tied  together  in  an  observation  and 
that  the  very  act  of  observation  itself  produces  or  causes  to  bring 
about  a  change  in  the  thing  observed.  Dyck  suggests 

Each  leaves  out  myriads  of  qualities  and  iridescences  that  impinge, 
physically,  on  the  human  senses  and  the  imagination.  If  a  physicist 
should  object  by  saying  that  what  his  systems  and  theories  leave  out 
is  due  to  his  science  not  having  caught  up  with  all  phenomena  he 
would  confirm  hitherto  established  physics  as  fictitious  because  new 
insights  will  lead  to  modified  fiction  and  a  clearer  realization  of  the 
fictitiousness  of  current  physics.  If  he  should  object  by  surmising 

15 


that  man  will  never  entirely  grasp  nature's  mysteries  he  would  in  so 
surmising  proclaim  that  man's  physics  must  always  remain  fiction. 
And  his  hunches  about  the  unexplored  might  be  classified  as  unpub- 
lished fiction — unless,  of  course,  he  is  a  cosmologist.  But  to  be  a 
cosmologist  is  to  be  a  poet.  Man  cannot  exist  in  the  void.  He  needs 
a  solid  footing  in  the  universe.  And  what  could  be  more  solid  than 
fiction?  (p.  174) 

If  physics  is  a  type  of  fiction  and  The  Einstein  Intersection  is  an 
imaginative  invention,  a  fiction,  then  at  what  point  or  points  do  the 
fictions  of  mathematical  physics  and  fiction  intersect  in  the  novel? 
In  one  sense  this  seems  to  be  the  central  concern  and  question  of 
Delany's  novel;  isn't  it  implicit  in  the  title  itself?  After  all  The  Ein- 
stein Intersection  suggests  that  something  intersects  with  something 
else  and  that  the  novel  is  a  representation  of  that  intersection.  In 
other  words,  the  title  of  the  novel  "names"  or  delineates  something 
that  takes  place  in  the  novel — an  event,  an  occurrence — between  the 
creative  act  and  the  imagination  and  the  way  in  which  the  narrator 
perceives  his  world.  For  the  world  created  in  the  novel,  and  presented 
by  the  novel,  is  going  to  rest  in  the  final  analysis  on  the  particular 
understanding  the  narrator  holds  of  the  nature  of  his  experience  and 
the  physical  world.  This  in  turn  will  be  dependent  upon  how  the 
narrator  reveals  his  world,  that  is,  the  narrative  strategy  and  tech- 
nique of  the  novel.  The  answer  to  the  question,  "At  what  point  do  the 
fictions  of  mathematical  physics  and  fiction  intersect?"  resides  in  the 
form  of  the  novel.  For  form  in  the  sense  I  am  using  that  term  here, 
becomes  a  synonym  for  model.  Yet  a  model  is  a  system  which  not  only 
defines  itself  but  something  else,  and  that  something  else  is  nothing 
less  than  the  novel. 

So  far  I  have  discussed  the  relationship  that  exists  between 
mathematical  physics  and  fiction  and  suggested  their  similarities. 
However,  it  is  clear  that  fiction,  that  is,  the  novel,  may  in  its  own 
right  present  a  picture  of  its  world  and,  therefore,  present  indirectly 
a  physics.  The  concepts  Lobey  holds  shape  the  way  in  which  he  sees 
his  world  while  his  experience  of  that  world  forces  him  to  reshape  his 
fundamental  ideas  about  its  nature.  In  other  words,  the  novel  consid- 
ered as  a  fictional  system,  or  model,  will  force  us  to  examine  the 
narrator's  own  particular  conceptions  and  realizations  (creative  or 
otherwise)  of  his  world.  Yet  the  way  in  which  the  narrator  sees  his 
world  will  take  shape  and  form  out  of  the  intersection  of  physics  with 
fiction  in  his  own  mind.  This,  after  its  own  fashion,  presents  certain 
problems.  Witold  Gombrowicz  suggests,  "Man  is  made  in  such  a  way 
that  he  continually  has  to  define  himself  and  continually  escape  his 
own  definitions.  Reality  is  not  about  to  let  itself  be  completely  en- 
closed in  form.  Form  for  its  part  does  not  agree  with  the  essence  of 
life.  Yet  all  thought  that  tries  to  define  the  inadequacy  of  form  be- 

16 


comes  form  in  its  own  turn  and  thus  only  confirms  our  tendency 
towards  form."'^ 

Delany  tells  us  that  "The  central  subject  of  the  book  is  myth" 
(p.  78).  But  the  novel  is  not  concerned  with  specific  myths  per  se, 
such  as  Orpheus,  or  as  Stephen  Scobie  speculates,  with  Norse  my- 
thology. Rather,  the  novel  is  concerned  with  "why  we  have  them," 
as  Delany  informs  us,  that  is,  myths,  and  "what  we  use  them  for"  (p. 
126).  The  Einstein  Intersection  is  set  in  the  distant  future,  long  after 
the  holocaust  of  nuclear  war  (post-deluge  or  after  the  flood  is  its 
archetypal  counterpart)  has  destroyed  most  of  the  planet.  Lobey,  the 
narrator  of  the  story,  is  in  love  with  a  girl  named  Friza.  They  are  not 
human.  They  have  inherited  man's  "bodies,  their  souls — both  husks 
abandoned  here  for  any  wanderer's  taking,"  as  Spider  informs  us  (p. 
129).  Friza  is  killed  by  Kid  Death  (symbolized  in  the  novel  by  Billy 
the  Kid).  Lobey  (Orpheus?)  must  set  out  on  a  quest  to  find  Friza  and 
regain  her.  Early  in  the  novel  Lobey  falls  into  the  ruins  of  an  aban- 
doned maze  of  underground  shelters.  He  faces  and  kills  a  futuristic 
minotaur.  He  confronts  a  machine  and  as  he  tells  us  "It  was  a  com- 
puter from  the  old  time  (when  you  owned  this  Earth,  you  wraiths  and 
memories),  a  few  of  which  chuckled  and  chattered  throughout  the 
source-cave.  I'd  had  them  described  to  me,  but  this  was  the  first  I'd 
seen"  (p.  34).  The  computer's  name  is  "PHAEDRA."  In  the  conver- 
sation that  takes  place  between  Lobey  and  Phaedra  we  learn  from 
Phaedra  that  she  was  placed  in  the  underground  complex  "by  people 
who  never  dreamed  that  you  would  come.  Psychic  Harmony  Entan- 
glements and  Deranged  Response  Association,  that  was  my  depart- 
ment. And  you've  come  down  here  hunting  through  my  memories  for 
your  lost  girl"  (p.  38).  Lobey's  quest  for  Friza,  however,  is  difficult. 
He  must  somehow  find  his  way  out  of  the  maze — the  objective  correl- 
ative to  mankind's  "million  year  old  fantasies"  (p.  39).  Phaedra  tells 
Lobey  "You're  basically  not  equipped  for  it.  .  .But  I  suppose  you 
have  to  exhaust  the  old  mazes  before  you  can  move  into  the  new  ones. 
It's  hard"  (p.  39).  Lobey  sometime  later,  after  finding  his  way  out  of 
the  maze,  joins  a  dragon  drive  (cattle  drive?)  on  its  way  to  Branning- 
at-sea  (Dodge  City?).  He  meets  Spider  and  Green-eye.  They  arrive 
at  Branning-at-sea  where,  with  Spider's  help,  Billy  the  Kid  is  killed. 
Green-eye  (Christ?)  is  crucified  and  hung  from  a  tree,  and  Lobey 
meets  the  Dove.  Near  the  end  of  the  novel  Spider  explains  to  Lobey 
"As  we  are  able  to  retain  more  and  more  of  our  past,  it  takes  us  longer 
and  longer  to  become  old;  Lobey,  everything  changes.  The  Labyrinth 


'^  Witold  Gombrowicz,  quoted  in  "Introduction",  by  Jacques  Ehrmann, 
Structuralism,  Jacques  Ehrmann,  New  York:  Doubleday  &  Company,  Inc., 
1970,  p.  vii. 

17 


today  does  not  follow  the  same  path  it  did  at  Knossos  fifty  thousand 
years  ago.  You  may  be  Orpheus;  you  may  be  someone  else,  who  dares 
death  and  succeeds.  Green-eye  may  go  to  the  tree  this  evening,  hang 
there,  rot,  and  never  come  down.  The  world  is  not  the  same.  That's 
what  I've  been  trying  to  tell  you.  It's  different"  (p.  131).  Delany  has 
informed  us  earlier  in  the  novel  that  "Endings  to  be  useful  must  be 
inconclusive"  (p.  137).  Lobey's  search  for  Friza  becomes  a  quest  for 
his  own  identity.  He  must  leave  the  earth  and  go,  like  man,  to  the 
stars.  Lobey  explains  "In  my  village  there  was  a  man  who  grew  dissat- 
isfied. So  he  left  this  world,  worked  for  a  while  on  the  moon,  on  the 
outer  planets,  then  on  worlds  that  were  stars  away.  I  might  go  there" 
(p.  155).  Spider,  in  reply  to  Lobey's  statement,  declares  "I  did  that 
once.  It  was  all  waiting  for  me  when  I  got  back"  (p.  155).  Lobey, 
however,  wishes  to  know  "What's  it  going  to  be  like?"  and  Spider 
suggests  "It's  not  going  to  be  what  you  expect"  (p.  155).  Lobey  hesi- 
tantly questions  "It's  going  to  be  .  .  .  diflFerent?"  (p.  155).  And,  of 
course,  the  answer  to  this  question  is  the  conclusion  of  the  novel — and 
that  conclusion  in  inconclusive.  The  novel  ends  with  Lobey  telling  us 
"As  morning  branded  the  sea,  darkness  fell  away  at  the  far  side  of 
the  beach.  I  turned  to  follow  it"  (p.  155).  In  a  sense  Lobey's  journey 
has  already  been  taken  since  he  has  told  us  his  story,  that  is,  concep- 
tually, the  end  of  the  novel  is  its  beginning  and  vice  versa. 

It  was  suggested  earlier  that  something  intersects  with  some- 
thing else  in  the  novel  and  that  this  intersection  becomes  the  novel, 
that  is,  The  Einstein  Intersection.  The  Einsteinian  world  of  relativity 
intersects  with  the  Goedelian  to  reveal,  at  that  point  of  intersection, 
the  limitations  and  possibilities  of  human  activity.  Intersection,  as 
used  here,  is  used  in  its  mathematical  sense — as  a  conjunction  of  two 
or  more  sets  of  objects  whose  elements  are  mutually  shared  by  both 
in  the  same  area.  In  the  novel  there  exists  a  set  of  ideas  which  are 
given  expression  by  Spider  to  Lobey  about  the  nature  of  his  world. 
These  ideas  are  taken  from  mathmematical  physics.  In  addition  to 
these  ideas  there  exists  a  set  of  ideas  which  are  concerned  with  the 
nature  of  the  creative  act,  the  creative  process,  and  the  life  of  the 
imagination.  These  ideas,  that  is,  the  ideas  concerned  with  the  nature 
of  creativity,  are  often  expressed  by  Delany  in  quotations  from  his 
journal  which  are  prefixed  to  the  beginning  of  various  sections  of  the 
novel.  However,  these  ideas,  like  the  ones  from  mathematical  phys- 
ics,, are  also  expressed  by  various  characters  in  the  novel  and  are 
reflected  in  the  form  and  structure  of  the  novel.  It  is  out  of  the  in- 
tersection of  these  two  sets  of  ideas  that  the  form  of  the  novel  grows. 
Further,  the  intersection  of  these  two  basic  sets  of  ideas  defines  the 
starting  and  stopping  points  of  the  novel. 

Few  readers  will  be  without  some  knowledge  of  Einstein  and  the 
theory  of  relativity,  part  of  which  I  have  already  explored  in  terms  of 

18 


physics,  while  other  readers  will  know  little  about  Kurt  Goedel.  How- 
ard DeLong  in  discussing  the  implications  of  Goedel's  proof  in 
"Unsolved  Problems  in  Arithmetic"  explains  that 

The  central  change  that  the  limitative  theorems  [of  Goedel]  re- 
quired of  all  previous  theories  of  the  nature  of  mathematics  was  the 
recognition  that  there  are  unanswerable  questions  in  the  subject. 
Earlier  it  had  been  thought  that  if  a  question  could  be  made  precise, 
that  question  had  an  answer.  Now  it  was  seen  that  perhaps  some 
precise  questions  do  not  have  precise  answers.  By  way  of  analogy, 
think  of  an  object,  say  a  light  bulb.  If  you  then  ask,  "Is  it  made 
partly  of  cork?"  the  answer  will  probably  be  no.  If,  however,  you  ask, 
"Does  it  weigh  exactly  3.1  ounces?"  the  question  is  probably  unan- 
swerable. The  reality  toward  which  the  question  is  directed  is  inde- 
terminate in  some  ways.  Such  indeterminateness  is  characteristic  of 
products  of  the  imagination,  including  artistic  creations.  ("How 
often  did  Juliet  sneeze  during  the  year  before  she  met  Romeo?") 
In  these  areas  it  is  pointless  to  ask  questions  about  things  that  are 
not  determined  by  evidence. 

Compared  with  imaginative  creations,  physical  reality  is  deter- 
minate, and  yet,  the  results  of  quantum  theory  suggest  that  physical 
reality  is  also  indeterminate  in  certain  ways.'^ 

Here  we  have  a  type  of  indirect  statement  about  the  indeterminate 
nature  of  imaginative  creations.  What  is  clear,  or  should  be  clear,  is 
that  there  are  essentially  a  set  of  unanswerable  questions  about  the 
subject  of  literary  art.  For  instance,  there  exists  a  set  of  precise  ques- 
tions I  may  ask  about  The  Einstein  Intersection  which  are  unanswer- 
able. I  might  ask  "How  old  is  Lobey?"  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
novel  which  will  allow  me  to  answer  this  question  precisely.  Lobey's 
age  is  not  given.  All  I  may  answer  is  that  Lobey  seems,  from  the 
various  descriptions  he  gives  of  himself,  to  be  relatively  young.  What 
the  limitation  theorems  "represent,"  then,  "is  the  discovery  of  an 
abstract  structure  for  which  it  is  impossible  for  any  human  being  to 
make  systematically  complete  and  correct  assumptions  about"  (De- 
Long,  p.  59).  It  may  also  be  pointed  out  that  "Our  powers  of  concep- 
tual discrimination  have  limits  just  as  our  powers  of  perceptual  dis- 
crimination do"  (DeLong,  p.  59). 

Goedel's  incompleteness  theorem  "states  (roughly)  that  for  any 
known  formal  systems  for  arithmetic  there  are  formal  sentences  anal- 
ogous to  P,  that  is,  either  the  system  is  incorrect  (proves  falsehoods) 
or  it  is  incomplete  (contains  truths  not  provable  in  the  system).  'P' 
stands  for  the  sentence  'This  sentence  is  not  provable'  "  (DeLong, 
p.  56).  As  DeLong  explains 


"  Howard    DeLong,    "Unsolved   Problems   in   Arithmetic",    Scientific 
American.  CCXXIV,  (Mar.,  1971),  pp.  58-59. 


19 


The  existence  of  P  does  not  make  the  system  inconsistent,  but  it 
does  produce  something  disconcerting:  P  is  true  if  and  only  if  P  is 
not  provable.  Hence  we  conclude  that  if  we  have  P,  then  the  cozy 
relation  between  truth  and  provability  that  one  attempts  to  achieve 
in  a  formal  system,  namely  that  the  set  of  sentences  true  under  any 
intepretation  that  makes  the  axioms  true  be  identical  with  the  set 
of  provable  sentences,  is  destroyed.  The  liar  has  disappeared  but  his 
grin,  like  the  Cheshire  cat's,  remains  behind,  (p.  (p.  56) 

DeLong  is  referring  to  the  "liar  paradox"  formulated  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks  which  can  be  stated,  as  he  suggests,  as  "the  problem  of 
deciding  whether  or  not  the  following  sentence  is  true:  'This  sentence 
is  not  true'"  (p.  56).  For  obvious  reasons  it  is  all  but  impossible  to 
outline  but  briefly  here  the  general  idea  of  Goedel's  proof,  and,  as 
DeLong  points  out,  all  we  can  hope  to  convey  is  the  "spirit  of  the 
proof"  (p.  56).  Philosophically,  what  is  significant  for  the  student  of 
literature  is  that  Goedel's  proof  suggests  that  there  may  be  (from  a 
mathematician's  point  of  view,  indeed,  are)  limitations  to  man's  abil- 
ities. This  may  be  stated  another  way  by  suggesting  that  any  critical 
reading  of  a  literary  work  of  art  which  presupposes  to  examine  a 
novel,  for  instance,  only  in  terms  of  what  is  contained  in  the  novel, 
will  fail.  In  other  words,  in  theory  the  assumption  that  critical  pre- 
suppositions about  the  nature  of  literary  art  may  be  proved  by  relying 
completely  upon  internal  evidence  is  impossible  without  stepping 
outside  that  system  (the  literary  work  of  art).  Further,  it  may  be 
argued  that  the  novel  must  be  open-ended  and  contain  assertions, 
ideas  and  concepts  which  will  not  be  provable  by  relying  on  that 
which  is  given  in  the  novel  itself.  In  summary,  where  Goedel's  proof 
establishes,  for  the  mathematician,  the  idea  that  there  are  limita- 
tions to  man's  abilities,  so  too,  in  the  novel.  Spider's  explanation  of 
the  nature  of  the  world  to  Lobey  establishes  the  limitations  of  his 
world  and  his  position  in  it. 

Delany  begins  section  eleven  of  The  Einstein  Intersection  with 
three  quotations,  one  from  The  Revelation  of  John,  an  except  from  a 
letter  from  James  Agee  to  Father  Flye,  and  a  short  passage  from 
Plotinus'  Enneads.  Each  of  these  quotations,  in  its  own  way,  points 
toward  the  significance  of  this  section  as  the  center  of  the 
novel — artistically,  philosophically,  and  conceptually. 

But  I  have  this  against  thee,  that  thou  didst  leave  thy  first  love. 

The  Revelation  of  John/Chapfer  2,  verse  4 
My  trouble  is,  such  a  subject  cannot  be  seriously  looked  at  without 
intensifying  itself  toward  a  center  which  is  beyond  what  I,  or  anyone 
else,  is  capable  of  writing  of.  .  .Trying  to  write  it  in  terms  of  moral 
problems  alone  is  more  than  I  can  possibly  do.  My  main  hope  is  to 
state  the  central  subject  and  my  ignorance  from  the  start. 

James  Agee/Letter  to  Father  Flye 
Where  is  this  country?  How  does  one  get  there?  If  one  is  a  born  lover 

20 


with  an  innate  philosophic  bent,  one  will  get  there. 

Plotinus/r/ie  Intelligence,  the  Idea  and  Being  (p.  125) 

After  wandering  about  Branning-at-sea  for  sometime  Lobey 
finds  himself  at  Spider's  house.  Ostensibly,  Lobey  has  gone  to  Spi- 
der's home  to  collect  his  pay.  Spider  asks  Lobey  to  sit  down  "I  want 
to  talk  to  you"  (p.  125).  Lobey  answers  "About  what?  I  asked.  Our 
voices  echoed.  The  music  was  nearly  silent.  'I  have  to  be  on  my  way 
to  get  Friza,  to  find  Kid  Death'  "  (p.  126).  Spider  tells  Lobey  "That's 
why  I  suggest  you  sit  down  .  .  .  What  do  you  know  about  mythology, 
Lobey?"  (p.  126).  Lobey  recounts  briefly  his  meager  knowledge  of 
mythology  fo  Spider  and  Spider  once  again  questions  "Again,  what 
do  you  know  about  mythology? — I'm  not  asking  you  what  myths  we 
have,  nor  even  where  they  come  from,  but  why  we  have  them,  what 
we  use  them  for"  (p.  126).  Lobey  initially  believes  that  the  function 
of  mythology  is  to  guide  him  in  his  search  for  Friza.  He  tells  us  "I 
could  offer  nothing  else"  (p.  126).  Spider  then  raises  the  central 
question  which  leads  to  the  center  of  this  section  and  the  novel  "Do 
you  understand  difference,  Lobey"  (p.  127).  Lobey  replies  "I  live  in 
a  different  world,  where  many  have  it  [diff'erence]  and  many  do 
not.  I  just  discovered  it  myself  weeks  ago.  I  know  the  world  moves 
toward  it  with  every  pulse  of  the  great  rock  and  the  great  roll.  But  I 
don't  understand  it"  (p.  127).  We  are  briefly  told  that  all  we  can  ever 
hope  to  know  of  difference  "is  what  it  is  not"  (p.  127).  Spider,  in 
answer  to  Lobey's  "What  isn't  it?"  replies  in  a  rather  lengthy  ex- 
planation that 

It  isn't  telepathy;  it's  not  telekinesis — though  both  are 
chance  phenomena  that  increase  as  difference  increases. 
Lobey,  Earth,  the  world,  fifth  planet  from  the  sun — the 
species  that  stands  on  two  legs  and  roams  this  thin  wet 
crust:  it's  changing,  Lobey.  It's  not  the  same.  Some  people 
walk  under  the  sun  and  accept  that  change,  others  close 
their  eyes,  clap  their  hands  to  their  ears  and  deny  the  world 
with  their  tongues.  Most  snicker,  giggle,  jeer  and  point 
when  they  think  no  one  else  is  looking — that  is  how  the 
humans  acted  throughout  their  history.  We  have  taken  over 
their  abandoned  world,  and  something  new  is  happening  to 
the  fragments,  something  we  can't  define  with  mankind's 
leftover  vocabulary.  You  must  take  its  importance  exactly 
as  that:  it  is  wonderful,  fearful,  deep,  ineffable  to  your  ex- 
planations, opaque  to  your  efforts  to  see  through  it;  yet  it 
demands  you  take  journeys,  defines  your  stopping  and 
starting  points,  can  propel  you  with  love  and  hate,  even  to 
seek  death  for  Kid  Death—"  (p.  127) 

Lobey  finishes  Spider's  explanation  with  "—or  make  me  make 
music.  .  ."  even  though  he  is  unaware  of  the  significance  of  what  he 
has  just  suggested  by  his  own  conclusion  (p.  127).  Clearly,  Lobey  has 
not  yet  fully  understood  Spider.  He  questions  "What  are  you  talking 
about  Spider?"  and  Spider  replies 

21 


If  I  could  tell  you,  or  you  could  understand  from  my  inferences, 
Lobey,  it  would  lose  all  value.  Wars  and  chaoses  and  paradoxes  ago, 
two  mathematicians  between  them  ended  an  age  and  began  another 
for  our  hosts,  our  ghosts  called  Man.  One  was  Einstein,  who  with 
his  Theory  of  Relativity  defined  the  limits  of  man's  perception  by 
expressing  mathematically  just  how  far  the  condition  of  the  observer 
influences  the  thing  he  perceives,  (p.  127-28) 

What  Spider  is  trying  to  explain  to  Lobey  is  that  man  is  a  prisoner 
trapped  by  his  senses  in  a  world  which  he  can  only  imperfectly  under- 
stand. Yet  the  attempt  must  be  made  to  come  to  an  understanding 
of  the  essential  nature  of  the  world  and  man's  position  in  it.  As  Spider 
has  already  explained,  "it  demands  you  take  journeys,"  for  it  is  only 
through  defining  "your  stopping  and  starting  points"  that  you  may 
bectme  aware  of  your  own  identity  and  your  place  in  the  world  (p. 
127).  Once  the  nature  of  the  world  is  dis  change.  We  have  already 
discussed  at  some  length  the  significance  of  relativity  and  the  limita- 
tions it  imposes  on  the  observer  and  the  influence  the  observer  may 
have  on  the  thing  he  perceives.  What  is  more  important,  however,  is 
that  the  explanation  Spider  gives  Lobey  forms  the  nexus  or  analogical 
center  and  counterpart  conceptually  to  the  novel  itself.  Another  way 
of  stating  this  is  to  suggest  that  the  novel  is  a  fictional  system  which 
contains  within  itself  its  own  explanation,  this  explanation  contain- 
ing, in  a  sense,  the  conceptual  model  of  the  novel.  It  clearly  suggests 
what  the  function  of  the  creative  act  is  in  Lobey's  world.  Spider 
points  out  that  the  other  mathematician 

.  .  .  was  Goedel,  a  contemporary  of  Einstein,  who  was  the  first  to 
bring  back  a  mathematically  precise  statement  about  the  vaster 
realm  beyond  the  limits  Einstein  defined:  In  any  closed  mathe- 
matical system — you  may  read  'perceivable,  measurable  phenom- 
ena'— which  though  contained  in  the  original  system,  can  not  be 
deduced  from  it — read  'proven  with  ordinary  or  extraordinary  logic' 
Which  is  to  say,  there  are  more  things  in  heaven  and  Earth  than  are 
dreamed  of  in  your  philosophy,  Horatio.  There  are  an  infinite  num- 
ber of  true  things  in  the  world  with  no  way  of  ascertaining  their 
truth.  Einstein  defined  the  extent  of  the  rational.  Goedel  stuck  a  pin 
into  the  irrational  and  fixed  it  to  the  wall  of  the  universe  so  that  it 
held  still  long  enough  for  people  to  know  it  was  there.  And  the  world 
and  humanity  began  to  change.  And  from  the  other  side  of  the 
universe,  we  were  drawn  slowly  here.  The  visible  eff"ects  of  Einstein's 
theory  leaped  up  on  a  convex  curve,  its  production  huge  in  the  first 
century  after  its  discovery,  then  leveling  oflf.  The  production  of  Goe- 
del's  law  crept  up  on  a  concave  curve,  microscopic  at  first,  then 
leaping  to  equal  the  Einsteinian  curve,  cross  it,  outstrip  it.  At  the 
point  of  intersection,  humanity  was  able  to  reach  the  limits  of  the 
known  universe.  .  .  .(pp.  128-29) 

It  should  be  clear  that  the  title  of  the  novel  is  taken  from  this 
explanation.  Spider's  comments  about  the  meaning  and  significance 

22 


of  Einstein  and  Goedel  form  the  literary  and  philosophical  center  for 
what  occurs  in  The  Einstein  Intersection.  What  we  are  to  understand 
is  that,  as  Spider  tells  Lobey,  "There's  just  as  much  suspense  today 
as  there  was  when  the  first  singer  woke  from  his  song  to  discover  the 
worth  of  the  concomitant  sacrifice.  You  don't  know  Lobey.  This  all 
may  be  a  false  note,  at  best  a  passing  dissonance  in  the  harmonies  of 
the  great  rock  and  the  great  roll"  (p.  131).  Spider  is  telling  us,  albeit 
indirectly,  that  the  creative  act  today  still  has  all  the  meaning  and 
significance  that  it  has  always  had.  We  are  told  that  "Things  passing 
in  a  world  of  difference  have  their  surrealistic  corollaries  in  the  pres- 
ent. Green-eye  creates,  but  what  he  creates  is  an  oblique  side  eflfect 
of  something  else.  You  receive  and  conceive  music;  again  only  an 
oblique  characteristic  of  who  you  are — "  (p.  133).  But  though  Lobey 
has  understood  much,  he  still  fails  to  perceive  the  nature  of  his  ident- 
ity. He  is,  of  course,  a  musician.  This  is  clear  from  the  first  paragraph 
of  the  novel.  Yet  Lobey  himself  is  unaware  of  what  being  a  musician 
entails,  that  is,  that  he  must  continually  commit  himself  to  the  crea- 
tive act  and  all  that  that  suggests.  After  all,  Lobey  has  been  told  by 
Spider  that  "there  are  more  things  in  heaven  and  Earth  than  are 
dreamed  of  in  your  philosophy,  Horatio"  (p.  128).  It  remains  for 
Lobey  to  discover  his  nature  and  realize  the  full  implications  of  what 
it  means  to  be  a  creative  artist.  Once  Lobey  discovers  himself  he  will 
become  a  writer  since  he  is  a  narrator  agent  who  produces  a  noticea- 
ble effect  on  what  he  elects  to  present  as  his  story. 

The  novel,  then,  grows  out  of  two  great  systems  of  thought  and 
justifies  the  idea  that  form  is,  after  all,  only  an  extension  of  content 
and  nothing  more.  Yet  it  is  equally  clear  that  the  theory  Spider  pres- 
ents creates  an  implicit  world  view  or,  as  I  have  preferred  to  call  it,  a 
physics.  It  is  a  physics  because  it  explains  the  phenomena  of  Lobey's 
world  and  the  way  in  which  those  phenomena  take  their  shape  and 
find  their  significance  in  relation  to  the  narrator's  own  perceptual 
awareness  of  his  world — its  limitations  and  possibilities.  It  is  also 
equally  clear  that  whatever  occurs  in  the  novel  is  meant  to  be  under- 
stood by  making  a  comparison  between  the  intersection  of  Ein- 
steinian  thought  with  that  of  Goedelian.  Two  great  systems  of 
thought  intersect  in  the  novel.  The  Goedelian  triumphs  since  it  rein- 
forces the  novel's  literary  dimensions.  It  does  so  because  it  admits  the 
limitations  of  science  while  at  the  same  time  it  gives  "absolute" 
justification  to  man's  art,  his  creativity.  The  concepts  of  mathemat- 
ics and  physics  form  the  inner  model  to  the  novel  as  a  fictional  sys- 
tem. This  system  in  turn  forces  us  to  realize  that  what  a  man  can 
"truly  know"  is,  in  the  final  analysis,  limited  to  the  "prison  house  of 
his  senses"  to  the  familiar  experiences  of  his  world.  Where  physics 
and  mathematics  may  suggest  that  there  are  limitations  to  man's 
abilities,  they  too,  like  fiction,  release  him  into  the  far  vaster  realm 

23 


of  the  imagination  whose  boundaries  are  determined  and  limited  only 
by  the  creative  act,  by  the  power  of  the  imagination.  As  Wallace 
Stevens  has  said,  "We  live  in  the  mind."'^  Yet  if  we  live  in  the  mind, 
the  things  of  the  mind  present  themselves  to  us  through  structured 
systems,  in  this  case,  language,  and  the  various  forms  which  language 
may  take  are,  in  their  own  turn,  the  result  of  the  imagination  insofar 
as  the  imagination  presents  the  possibilities  of  things. 

What  I  want  to  suggest  is  that  Delany's  novel  represents  a  shift 
in  the  art  of  the  science-fiction  novel  and  that  this  shift  is  under- 
standable only  in  terms  of  the  various  premises  that  give  rise  to  it. 
This  shift  in  the  art  of  the  science-fiction  novel  is,  to  borrow  an 
analogy  from  Judith  Merril,  "as  though  a  figurative  planet  composed 
of  man's  intellect,  suddenly  acquired  so  much  additional  mass,  or 
velocity  (or  both?)  that  it  flew  out  of  orbit,  breaking  up  and  fragment- 
ing under  the  strain,""'  In  other  words,  this  shift  in  the  art  of  the 
science-fiction  novel  is  a  result  of  a  different  way  of  looking  at  man 
and  the  world.  The  various  premises  which  constitute  this  new  way 
of  looking  at  man  and  the  world  are  of  such  a  different  order  that  they 
may  be  compared  to  the  breaking  up  of  a  figurative  planet  and  its 
assumption  of  a  new  orbit  about  the  sun. 

Ostensibly,  the  various  themes  of  The  Einstein  Intersection  are 
worked  out  in  terms  of  myth,  as  I  have  already  suggested.  Delany 
informs  us  that  "The  central  subject  of  the  book  is  myth"  (p.  78). 
Stephen  Scobie  in  "Different  Mazes:  Mythology  in  Samuel  R.  De- 
lany's 'The  Einstein  Intersection'  "  suggests  that  "  'Myth,'  however, 
is  not  a  simple  or  a  unified  concept."''  Scobie  identifies  or  discovers 
"(at  least)  three  distinct  levels  of  myth"  in  the  novel  (pp.  12-13). 
First,  there  is  what  he  terms  "  'fictional  myth,'  mainly  Greek,  the 
central  references  being  to  Orpheus,  Theseus  and  the  maze,  and  Pan. 
This  is  a  mythology  to  which  we  do  not  give  any  literal  belief,  though 
we  do  admit  that  it  carries  a  kind  of  'truth,'  in  anthropological,  social, 
or  psychological  terms"  (p.  12).  Second,  Scobie  notes  that  there  is  a 
"  'religious  myth.'  This  is  a  mythology  that  is  still  alive  as  a  religious 
faith:  while  few  people  today  believe  in  Apollo,  a  great  many  do 
believe  in  Jesus  Christ"  (p.  12).  And  finally,  there  is  "'historical 
myth,'  the  main  references  being  Billy  the  Kid,  Jean  Harlow,  and 

'■'  Wallace  Stevens,  "Imagination  as  Value",  in  The  Necessary  Angel,  New 

York:  Vintage-Snopf,  1951,  p.  140. 

'"  Judith  Merril,  "What  Do  You  Mean:  Science?  Fiction?",  in  SF:  The  Other 

Side  of  Realism,  Thomas  D.  Clareson,  editor.  Bowling  Green:  Bowling  Green 

University  Popular  Press,  1971,  p.  56. 

'"  Stephen  Scobie,  "Different  Mazes:  Mythology  in  Samuel  R.  Delany's  "The 

Einstein  Intersection",  Riverside  Quarterly,  V,  No.  1  (1973),  p.  12. 

24 


Ringo  Starr"  (p.  13).  Further,  Scobie  suggests  that  "Beyond  these 
three  levels  of  mythology,  and  such  minor  references  to  comic-book 
and  movie  serial  mythology  as  Spiderman'  and  the  'cliffhanger' 
scene,  there  is  one  basic  over-riding  level.  The  characters  of  the  book 
are  not  human;  they  are  another  race  who  have  assumed  the  patterns 
of  the  human  body  and  soul,  and — as  one  of  my  [Scobie's]  students 
most  concisely  put  it — they  have  made  myths  out  of  us"  (p.  13). 
Scobie  is  correct  when  he  cites  his  student's  remark  that  the  charac- 
ters of  the  novel  "have  made  myths  out  of  us."  All  of  the  character's 
names  in  the  novel  are  suggestive  of  various  fictional,  historical,  and 
religioui  figures.  For  instance,  Lobey  becomes  Orpheus  while  at  the 
same  time  his  name  suggests  indirectly,  perhaps,  Lobo  (wolf),  though 
admittedly  this  connection  is  rather  tenuous  and  is  made  only  to 
suggest  a  certain  character  trait  of  Lobey's  personality;  that  is,  he  is 
an  individual  alone  in  his  world.  Lobey's  name,  in  the  novel,  is  also 
linked  to  Ringo  Starr  and  Billy  the  Kid.  The  Dove  is,  in  the  novel, 
linked  to  Helen  of  Troy  and  Jean  Harlow.  Green-eye  becomes  Christ 
or  any  great  martyr  and  Spider  "every  traitor  you've  [Lobey]  imag- 
ined" (Delany,  p.  130).  The  purpose,  of  course,  of  using  names  as 
Delany  has  done  in  The  Einstein  Intersection  is  to  deepen  our  sense 
of  historical  continuity  in  order  to  allow  us  to  move  into  the  future 
and  see  Lobey  as  a  heroic  figure.  In  a  sense  Lobey  is  a  composite 
figure  who  exhibits  the  traits  of  great  figures  of  the  past  while  at  the 
same  time  emerging  as  a  unique  figure.  Although  Scobie  has  under- 
stood much  about  The  Einstein  Intersection,  in  an  important  sense, 
however,  he  has  missed  the  point  of  the  novel,  for  he  fails  to  perceive 
another  and  more  significant  level  to  myth  in  the  novel.  If  The  Ein- 
stein Intersection  treats  the  interface  between  Lobey  and  his  memo- 
ries (racial  or  whatever)  and  if  it  treats  the  interface  between  Lobey 
and  his  world,  then  it  also  treats  the  "human"  problems  which  arise 
out  of  Lobey's  relation  to  the  phenomena  and  science  of  his  world. 
What  I  am  suggesting  is  that  Scobie  has  overlooked  two  fundamental 
levels  of  myth  in  The  Einstein  Intersection.  First,  and  most  impor- 
tantly, science  itself  becomes  a  myth  in  the  novel.  After  all,  Lobey 
has  inherited  man's  science,  or  at  least  it  would  seem  a  safe  assump- 
tion that  he  has  inherited  his  science,  since  he  tells  us  about  it  in  his 
story.  The  actual  science  available  to  Lobey,  however,  may  be  less 
than  that  which  was  known  to  man,  though  the  novel  in  several 
places  suggests  that  the  products  of  man's  science — his  "ships  and 
projection  forces" — "are  still  available  to  anyone  who  wants  to  use 
them"  (Delany,  p.  129).  The  presence  of  science  in  Lobey's  world  is 
comparable  to  what  Scobie  suggests  about  the  function  of  fictional 
myth,  that  is,  Lobey  does  not  give  any  literal  belief  to  what  Spider 
tells  him  of  the  theories  of  Einstein  and  Goedel.  Spider  himself  sug- 
gests "I  want  a  Goedelian,  not  an  Einsteinian  answer.  I  don't  want 

25 


to  know  what's  inside  the  myths,  nor  how  they  clang  and  set  one 
another  ringing,  their  gUttering  focuses,  their  limits  and  genesis.  I 
want  their  shape,  their  texture,  how  they  feel  when  you  brush  by 
them  on  a  dark  road,  when  you  see  them  receding  into  the  fog,  their 
weight  as  they  leap  your  shoulder  from  behind;  I  want  to  know  how 
you  take  to  the  idea  of  carrying  three  when  you  already  bear  two.  Who 
are  you,  Lobey?"  (Delany,  p.  130).  Spider's  interest  in  science  is  not 
functional;  that  is,  he  is  not  interested  in  putting  science  to  work  for 
him  to  achieve  some  type  of  control  over  the  physical  world,  but 
rather  he  is  interested  in  the  shape  and  texture  of  science  as  an 
explanation  for  the  existence  of  certain  phenomena.  Further,  Spider's 
explanation  of  the  meaning  of  Einstein  and  Goedel,  though  accurate, 
gives  only  the  shape  and  texture  to  Einstein  and  Goedel's  theories.  I 
might  also  point  out  that  Lobey's  science  is  inherited  in  the  same  way 
in  which  the  Greek  myths  of  Orpheus,  Theseus,  and  Pan  and  the 
myths  of  Billy  the  Kid,  Ringo  Starr,  and  Jean  Harlow  have  been 
inherited.  However,  there  is  one  important  difference  between  science 
as  a  myth  and  the  myths  of  the  Greek  Orpheus  and  the  twentieth- 
century  Billy  the  Kid.  That  difference  is  simply  that  Lobey's  race  is 
on  the  verge  of  re-discovering  the  power  of  science.  In  other  words, 
science  may  exist  as  a  myth  in  Lobey's  world,  but  at  the  same  time 
it  holds  possibilities  inherent  in  that  future.  Science,  or  rather  the 
explanation  of  scientific  thought  which  Spider  presents  to  Lobey, 
forms  the  philosophical  and  conceptual  center  of  the  novel  and  sug- 
gests the  possible  solution  to  Lobey's  understanding  of  the  nature  of 
the  world  and,  since,  as  we  have  already  seen.  The  Einstein 
Intersection  is  concerned  with  the  subject  of  myth,  then  science  itself 
becomes  a  myth  and  serves  a  mythic  function  in  the  novel.  The 
Einstein  Intersection  reconciles  art  with  science  (mathematical  phys- 
ics) and  demonstrates  that  they  are  not  incompatible  interests  or 
incommensurate  ways  of  seeing  the  world.  The  reason  for  this  recon- 
ciliation, once  grasped,  is  quite  simple.  DeLong  suggests  "Just  as 
indeterminateness,  previously  considered  peculiar  to  imaginative  cre- 
ations, was  found  in  the  physical  world  with  the  discovery  of  the 
quantum  theory,  so  indeterminateness  was  also  found  in  mathemat- 
ics with  the  discovery  of  the  limitative  theorems"  (p.  59).  The  recon- 
ciliation between  art  and  science  which  takes  place  in  The  Einstein 
Intersection  is  made  possible  by  this  understanding.  This  is  clearly 
the  case  since  the  Einsteinian  world  of  relativity  places  a  premium 
on  perceptual  relativity  while  the  world  as  Goedel  conceived  it  em- 
phasizes the  indeterminate  and  irrational — both  points  of  view  which 
would  have  been  impossible  in  classical  physics.  In  a  sense  man's 
science  has  caught  up  with  man's  art.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  remains 
that  the  concepts  of  mathematical  physics  which  stand  at  the  center 
of  the  novel  explain  the  nature  of  Lobey's  world  of  physical  (genetic 

26 


and  material)  and  psychic  abnormality.  The  reconciliation  which 
takes  place  in  the  novel  between  art  and  science  and  between  classi- 
cal and  contemporary  physics,  of  course,  occurs  ultimately  in  the 
creative  act,  in  the  imagination,  and  it  does  so  since  Lobey's  story  is 
an  imaginative  presentation  of  the  possibilities  of  things.  In  other 
words,  Lobey  selects  and  "edits"  his  presentation  from  that  which  is 
implicit  in  his  act  of  telling  his  own  story.  Lobey's  act  of  telling  his 
own  story  is  implicit  in  the  structure  of  the  novel  and  its  narrative 
technique  and  is  one  of  the  philosophical  and  creative  consequences 
of  the  fact  that  what  has  been  presented  only  points  to  what  is  im- 
plicit in  what  was  presented. 

The  second  level  of  myth  in  The  Einstein  Intersection  which 
Scobie  fails  to  identify  is  concerned  with  the  nature  of  creation  and 
the  creative  act.  In  The  Einstein  Intersection  the  creative  act  is  given 
the  status  of  a  myth.  Everything  in  the  novel  points  toward  this 
central  fact — that  the  novel  is  a  product  of  the  imagination  which 
presents,  after  its  own  fashion,  a  study  of  the  creative  process  as  it 
works  itself  out  in  Lobey's  mind.  The  emphasis  throughout  the  novel 
is  on  the  act  of  doing  or  making  something — music,  and  conse- 
quently, the  novel.  What  Scobie  fails  to  understand,  then,  are  the 
implications  of  what  is  inherent  in  the  conclusion  he  draws  about  the 
function  of  myth  in  The  Einstein  Intersection. 

The  ending  of  The  Einstein  Intersection  leaves  everything  still  open 
to  question.  The  individual  response  still  has  to  be  made:  by  Lobey, 
and  by  the  reader.  Mythology  also  is  inconclusive:  the  pattern  of  the 
maze  exists,  but  you  must  still  create  your  own  as  you  walk  through 
it.  Myths  are  not  images,  not  answers,  (p.  18) 

Myths  may  not  be  "images"  or  "answers"  but  they  do,  as  Goeffrey 
Hartman  points  out,  "allow  man  to  keep  on  functioning."'*  What 
Delany  is  saying,  and  has  said  several  different  times  in  The  Einstein 
Intersection,  is  that  the  traditional  myths  (Greek  or  whatever)  no 
longer  serve  the  same  function  they  once  did.  Myths  live  and  die  like 
fashions  in  the  garment  industry,  though  admittedly  their  life  is 
longer.  The  creation  of  a  personal  mythology  (Blake  is  a  good  exam- 
ple) is  a  response  of  the  individual  to  the  death  of  a  more  general 
pervasive  mythology.  This  is  why,  in  part.  Spider  wants  "a  Goe- 
delian"  and  "not  an  Einsteinian  answer"  to  his  questions  about  my- 
thology. This  is  why  Lobey  "may  be  Orpheus"  or  he  "may  be  some- 
one else"  (Delany,  p.  131).  The  reason,  as  Spider  informs  us,  is  that 
"the  world  is  not  the  same.  That's  what  I've  been  trying  to  tell  you 


"*  Goeffrey  Hartman,  "Structuralism:  The  Anglo-American  Adventure",  in 
Structuralism,  Jacques  Ehrmann,  editor.  New  York:  Doubleday  &  Company, 
Inc..  1970,  p.  152. 


27 


[Lobey].  It's  different"  (Delany,  p.  131).  Myths  are  models.'"  They 
establish  a  context  which  allows  the  individual  a  way  of  explaining 
the  essentially  mysterious  and  unfathomable  nature  of  the  world  and 
life.  They  are  pre-scientific  explanations,  if  not  pre-rational,  and,  as 
such,  they  "are  productive  of  social  cohesion."^"  Delany's  response  to 
the  problem  of  mythology  is  to  attempt  to  create  a  new  mythology, 
one  which  emphasizes  the  creative  nature  of  man  and  life  and  is  not 
backward  looking.  This  is  why  he  leads  us  in  The  Einstein 
Intersection  through  the  traditional  myths  of  western  society,  from 
the  past  to  the  present.  Billy  the  Kid,  Jean  Harlow,  and  the  Beatles 
become,  in  The  Einstein  Intersection,  the  mythology  of  the  twentieth 
century  upon  which  Lobey  builds  his  own  responses  to  the  indetermi- 
nateness  of  his  world.  If  Lobey  and  his  race  "have  made  myths  out 
of  us,"  then  we  must  conclude  that  the  traditional  myths  (Greek, 
etc.)  are  wanting  in  some  vital  way.  What  they  lack  is,  of  course, 
functionality.  Delany  tells  us,  in  an  excerpt  from  his  journal  at  the 
beginning  to  section  twelve,  that  "Lobey  starts  the  last  leg  of  his 
journey.  I  cannot  follow  him  there"  (p.  136).  The  reason  why  Delany 
cannot  follow  Lobey  in  his  journey  is  clear — the  traditional  myths  (of 
Orpheus,  Theseus  and  Pan,  Ringo  and  Billy  the  Kid)  are  outworn  and 
no  longer  serve  their  purpose.  They  are  the  responses  of  a  different 
world  to  its  own  problems.  What  Scobie  fails  to  understand  is  that 
artistically  it  is  necessary  first  to  present  the  old  backward  looking 
myths  in  order  to  allow  us  to  move  through  them  and  into  a  new 
response  to  the  world.  The  creative  act  demands  a  new  response,  a 
new  exploration.  Delany  may  not  be  able  to  follow  Lobey,  since  Lobey 
has  fictional  existence  in  his  own  right,  but  Delany,  in  his  own  way, 
does  create  his  own  response  to  the  problem,  and  that  response  is  The 
Einstein  Intersection.  Further,  through  the  use  of  the  quotations  from 
the  author's  journal  which  are  prefixed  to  the  beginning  of  each  sec- 
tion Delany  allows  us  to  trace  his  own  journey,  its  starting  and  stop- 
ping points. 

The  "historical"  and  "religious"  myths  of  the  novel,  the  ones 
Scobie  identifies,  are  thematic  and  structural  devices  which  are  nec- 
essary in  order  to  allow  us  to  create  a  new  and  more  powerful  mythol- 
ogy, and  that  mythology  is  nothing  less  than  science.  Science,  once 
seen  and  understood  as  this  new  mythology,  is  reflected  in  the  very 
title  of  the  novel.  The  intersection  of  the  Einsteinian  world  of  relativ- 
ity with  the  Goedelian  world  of  indeterminateness  emphasizes  the 
irrational  and  leads  us  only  deeper  "into  a  misty  realm  of  symbolism 
and  abstraction."  Science  cannot  take  us  further  than  Goedel.  Yet  in 


Ibid.,  p.  143. 
Ibid. 


28 


that  distance  lies  a  remarkable  achievement.  For  it  suggests  that  a 
radical  shift  in  the  art  of  the  science-fiction  novel  has  taken  place.  It 
does  so  since  the  concepts  of  mathematical  physics  which  Spider 
presents  are  used  to  "support"  and  justify  the  nature  of  the  creative 
act.  In  other  words,  the  metaphors  (models)  which  form  the  frame- 
work and  structure  of  the  novel  are  scientific  principles  and  concepts 
"with  their  ideal  aim  of  corresponding  to  structures  that  'really'  exist 
in  the  universe  forever  unverifiable."^'  They  are  not  drawn  from  na- 
ture but  rather  portray  a  relationship  between  various  events  and 
occurrences  which  take  place  in  The  Einstein  Intersection.  What  I  am 
suggesting  is  that  our  perception  of  a  change  in  the  art  of  the  science- 
fiction  novel  and,  specifically,  in  The  Einstein  Intersection,  is  depen- 
dent upon  perceiving  a  shift  in  the  way  in  which  the  narrator,  in  this 
case  Lobey,  sees  his  world.  You  cannot  see  or  understand  the  novel 
through  the  lens  of  traditional  criticism,  for  to  do  so  is  only  to  per- 
ceive, in  the  final  analysis,  the  tradition. 

The  narrative  strategy  of  the  novel  is  dependent,  then,  upon 
Lobey's  recognition  that  a  shift  has  occurred  in  his  visual-conceptual 
field.  Lobey  may  be  a  futuristic  Orpheus  but,  more  importantly,  he 
is  a  fictive  "I"  or  eye,  a  consciousness  made  aware  of  the  meaning  of 
"diff'erence"  and  its  role  in  his  world.  Wayne  C.  Booth  in  The  Rheto- 
ric of  Fiction  points  out  that  "as  soon  as  we  encounter  an  'I,'  "  in 
fiction  "we  are  conscious  of  an  experiencing  mind  whose  views  of  the 
experience  will  come  between  us  and  the  event.""  Lobey  is  a 
narrator-agent  since  he  produces  "a  measurable  eff'ect  on  the  direc- 
tion of  the  events  he  selects  to  present  as  his  story. "^^  The  fundamen- 
tal problem  of  the  novel  demands  a  clear  understanding  of  what  is 
implicit  in  this  type  of  narrative  technique.  That  understanding  in- 
volves the  strategy  which  the  narrator  uses  to  tell  his  story.  Ob- 
viously, Lobey  is  a  musician.  The  novel  begins  significantly  enough 
with  a  description  of  Lobey's  flute-machete: 

There  is  a  hollow,  holey  cylinder  running  from  hilt  to  point  in  my 
machete.  When  I  blow  across  the  mouth-piece  in  the  handle,  I  make 
music  with  my  blade.  When  all  the  holes  are  covered,  the  sound  is 
sad,  as  rough  as  rough  can  be  and  be  called  smooth.  When  all  the 
holes  are  open,  the  sound  pipes  about,  bringing  to  the  eye  flakes  of 
sun  on  water,  crushed  metal.  There  are  twenty  holes,  (p.  5) 

2'  Sallie  Sears  and  Georgianna  W.  Lord,  "Introduction",  in  The  Discontin- 
uous Universe,  Sallie  Sears  and  Georgianna  W.  Lord,  editors,  New  York: 
Basic  Books,  Inc.,  1972,  p.  v. 

22  Wayne  C.  Booth,  The  Rhetoric  of  Fiction,  Chicago:  The  University  of 
Chicago  Press,  1967,  pp.  151-152. 
''  Ibid.,  pp.  153-154. 

29 


Lobey's  flute-machete  has  significance  in  several  important  ways. 
First,  Lobey  focuses  our  attention  on  his  instrument  as  a  physical 
device  which  serves  a  creative  function — to  make  music.  The  empha- 
sis in  the  opening  paragraph  is  on  the  creative  act — to  make  some- 
thing happen,  occur — and  the  possibilities  inherent  in  that  act.  Yet 
Lobey,  himself,  is  unaware  at  this  point  of  the  full  meaning  and 
significance  of  this  act.  The  flute-machete  may  serve  as  a  device  for 
creativity,  but  it  may  also  serve  as  a  device  for  destruction — the 
musician's  axe.  Since  our  attention  is  initially  focused  on  the  object 
used  in  the  creative  act,  it  is  clear  that  the  user  is  an  artist.  What  is 
more  important,  however,  is  our  realization  that  this  opening  para- 
graph establishes  the  narrative  point  of  view  of  the  novel  and  informs 
us  that  Lobey  will  tell  his  own  story.  Though  our  attention  may  be 
initially  focused  on  the  story  of  Lobey  who,  like  Orpheus,  sets  out  on 
a  journey  (quest)  to  regain  his  lost  love,  the  fact  that  the  story  has 
already  taken  place  forces  us  to  conclude  that  the  author  of  his  story, 
Lobey,  has  already  discovered  certain  things  about  the  nature  of 
himself,  his  world,  and  his  relation  to  that  world.  In  other  words, 
there  exist  at  least  two  stories  in  The  Einstein  Intersection.  The  first 
story,  as  told  by  Lobey,  concerns  an  earlier  history  of  himself  as  the 
artist  (musician)  who  sets  out  on  a  journey  to  accomplish  a  specific 
end.  As  in  all  traditional  quests,  the  protagonist  will  face  certain 
hardships  and  trials.  It  is  out  of  these  "encounters"  with  the  phenom- 
ena of  his  world  that  his  experience  will  come  into  conflict  with  his 
understanding  of  that  world.  Likewise,  the  fact  that  Lobey  is  the 
narrator  of  his  own  story  suggests  that  he  has  made  certain  discover- 
ies about  the  nature  of  his  world  and  his  way  of  seeing  in  that  world. 
These  discoveries  force  Lobey  to  a  new  understanding  of  himself  and 
his  relation  to  his  world.  We  never  remember  reality  but  only  the 
memory  of  that  reality,  and  our  memory  of  that  reality  will,  of  necess- 
ity, be  different  from  our  actual  experience  of  it.  Lobey's  problem, 
then,  is  an  artistic  one  and  demands  that  he  make  choices. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  section  of  The  Einstein  Intersection 
Delany  quotes  John  Ciardi's  "How  Does  a  Poem  Mean"  to  the  effect 
that  "A  Poem  is  a  machine  for  making  choices"  (p.  65).  The  analogy 
Delany  wishes  us  to  make  is  clear.  We  should  consider  the  novel  a 
machine  for  making  choices  and  the  choices  we  make  will  be  deter- 
mined by  our  previous  understanding  of  the  creative  process  and  its 
relation  to  the  imagination.  Though  Delany's  ploy  is  to  call  on  au- 
thority, at  this  point  in  the  development  of  the  novel,  to  justify  the 
idea  of  the  possibilities  inherent  in  the  act  of  making  a  choice,  it  still 
remains  for  the  novel  to  demonstrate  Lobey  engaged  in  the  act  of 
making  choices.  And,  after  all,  the  choices  Lobey  will  make  are  condi- 
tioned on  the  supposition  that  he  has  a  purpose — to  find  Friza. 
Though  Lobey  may  choose  one  route  over  another,  the  choice  he  does 

30 


make  will  be  directed  toward  what  he  understands  as  his  goal.  What 
he  will  discover,  at  some  point  in  his  journey,  is  that  the  basic  nature 
of  his  goal  has  changed,  and  with  his  recognition  of  that  change  will 
come  a  different  perception  of  himself  and  his  world. 

However,  what  is  even  more  important  than  the  fact  that  Lobey 
is  a  musician  is  the  fact  that  he  is  an  author.  There  is,  then,  the  inner 
story  of  Lobey  the  musician  who  sets  forth  on  a  journey  of  discovery 
in  his  attempt  to  find  Friza.  In  this  respect  the  novel  is  quite  tradi- 
tional. Yet  it  is  out  of  this  quest  that  Lobey's  confrontation  with  the 
phenomena  of  his  world  arises.  The  basic  incongruities  that  arise  out 
of  this  quest  continually  impinge  upon  his  senses.  Out  of  the  familiar 
world  the  narrator  has  always  known — the  world  of  his  senses — will 
grow  the  strange  and  unfamiliar,  so  that,  in  a  sense,  by  the  end  of 
the  novel,  Lobey  will  have  undergone  a  radical  shift  in  his  visual- 
conceptual  field.  He  will  see  the  world  and  himself  with  a  difference. 
As  Scobie  notes,  "  'Difference'  and  'different'  are  the  key  words  of 
the  book;  they  recur  on  almost  every  page"  (p.  14).  Further  Scobie 
correctly  points  out  that  not  only  is  "the  basic  characteristic  of  their 
society  [Lobey's].  .  .change;  its  controlling  myth  is  metamorphosis. 
Delany's  major  image  for  this  is  genetic  mutation,  but  it  is  apparent 
also  in  the  language  and  structure  of  the  book"  (p.  13).  Consequently, 
the  first  paragraph  of  the  novel  serves  several  important  functions. 
It  establishes  the  narrative  framework  and  point  of  view  of  the  novel. 
Lobey  is  a  reflective  intellectual  consciousness.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  distance  which  separates  Lobey  as  narrator  from  Lobey 
as  musician  is  never  great  within  the  confines  of  the  novel  itself.  He 
continually  intrudes  upon  his  story  to  remind  us  that  he  is  telling  it. 
The  effect  of  this  intrusion  by  Lobey  into  his  narrative  is  to  remind 
us  that  the  story  that  is  immediately  in  front  of  us  is  a  device  for 
taking  us  step  by  step  to  that  point  where  we  may  realize  that  the 
real  story  is  the  one  that  emerges  from  Lobey's  very  act  of  telling  his 
story.  We  may  begin  with  relative  stability  in  point  of  view,  with 
relative  harmony  in  Lobey's  presentation  of  his  world,  but  by  the  end 
of  the  novel  this  has  all  changed  and  we  are  allowed  to  see  an  entirely 
different  world  from  that  with  which  we  began. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  discovery  Lobey  makes  is  made  in 
terms  of  his  recognition  that  his  world  continually  is  engaged  in 
change.  Lobey  informs  us  "the  year  I  was  born  a  rash  of  hermaphrod- 
ites" were  born  and  "the  doctors  thought  I  might  be  one"  (p.  6). 
Lobey's  very  birth  suggests  that  it  is  indeterminate.  Further,  Lobey's 
quest  for  Friza  becomes  a  journey  towards  discovery  of  self  and  the 
nature  of  identity.  However,  within  the  inner  story  of  the  novel 
Lobey,  as  musician,  will  never  make  this  discovery.  The  discovery 
remains  to  be  realized  by  the  reader  who  comes  to  understand  that 
Lobey,  as  author,  is  a  narrator  agent  who  has  already  arrived  at  the 

31 


conclusion  that  his  purpose  and  function  is  inseparable  from  the 
nature  of  his  art.  His  function  as  author  is  to  tell  his  own  story;  this 
is  implicit  in  the  narrative  strategy  of  the  novel  and  involves  that 
which  has  been  already  discussed.  Once  Lobey  discovers  his  identity 
he  does  not  talk  about  it  but  rather  presents  it — and  that  is  The 
Einstein  Intersection. 

In  The  World  We  Imagine,  Mark  Schorer  suggests 

The  virtue  of  the  modern  novelist — from  James  and  Conrad 
down — is  not  only  that  he  pays  so  much  attention  to  his  medium, 
but  that,  when  he  pays  most,  he  discovers  through  it  a  new  subject 
matter,  and  a  greater  one.  Under  the  "immense  artistic  preoccupa- 
tions" of  James  and  Conrad  and  Joyce,  the  form  of  the  novel 
changed,  and  with  the  technical  change,  analogous  changes  took 
place  in  substance,  in  point  of  view,  in  the  whole  conception  of 
fiction.  And  the  final  lesson  of  the  modern  novel  is  that  technique 
is  not  the  secondary  machination,  a  mechanical  affair,  but  a  deep 
and  primary  operation;  not  only  that  technique  contains  intellectual 
and  moral  implications,  but  that  it  discovers  them.^^ 

Under  the  artistic  preoccupations  of  writers  such  as  Samuel  R. 
Delany,  the  narrative  art  of  the  science-fiction  novel  has  changed. 
The  final  lesson  of  the  novel  may  well  be,  as  Schorer  suggests,  "that 
technique  is  not  secondary.  .  .but  a  deep  and  primary  operation." 
However,  it  has  become  increasingly  clear  that  technique  may  not  be 
separated  from  the  subject  matter  it  gives  rise  to  and  expresses  in  the 
novel. 

The  form  of  The  Einstein  Intersection  grows  out  of  this  deep  and 
primary  operation  concerned  with  the  nature  of  technique.  It  is  a 
technique  which  manifests  a  world  view  whose  ideas  come  from  the 
implications  of  Einstein's  theory  of  relativity  and  Goedel's  limitative 
theorems  and  which  leads  us  to  suggest  that  a  new  form  of  organicism 
has  arisen.  The  "new  organicism,"  however,  unlike  that  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  is  not  based  on  a  set  of  metaphors  which  present  us 
with  a  picture  of  nature.  Rather,  this  "new  organicism"  finds  its 
expression  and  justification  in  the  abstract  models  science  creates  in 
its  attempt  to  penetrate  to  the  underlying  structure  of  the  universe. 
Further,  these  "scientific"  models,  rather  than  capturing  the  nature 
of  reality  only  present  and  define  an  event,  thereby  producing  the 
radical  shift  in  the  art  of  the  science-fiction  novel  which  has  been 
discussed  in  this  essay.  Yet  the  very  term  "organic"  itself  seems 
limited  in  its  ability  to  suggest  what  has  taken  place  in  the  nature  of 
the  science-fiction  novel  since  it  seems  to  suggest  that  it  is  somehow 

'^*  Mark  Schorer,  The  World  We  Imagine,  New  York:  Farrar,  Straus  and 
Giroux,  1968,  p.  10. 

32 


in  touch  with  nature.  And,  as  I  have  shown,  modern  science  (mathe- 
matical physics)  never  lays  bare  the  underlying  reality  of  the  universe 
but  only  leads  us  forever  deeper  into  the  realm  of  abstraction  and 
symbolism.  But  the  symbols  change.  They  may  lead  us  deeper  into 
abstraction,  but  the  creative  act  remains  the  center  to  which  all  our 
efforts  are  ultimately  directed.  What  we  have  seen  in  this  paper, 
then,  is  that  the  creative  act,  like  all  products  of  the  imagination,  like 
science  itself,  is  indeterminate.  All  we  can  possibly  hope  to  accom- 
plish is  to  illuminate  the  paths  which  the  imagination  takes  in  the 
hope  that  somewhow  knowledge  will  be  the  result,  and  that  knowl- 
edge will  be  ephemeral  and  indeterminate. 


33 


ARE  SOME  BANKERS  "CRYING  WOLF?" 

by  CAROLE  E.  SCOTT* 

Actions  taken  by  banks  in  the  go-go  60's  to  chase  the  earnings 
"carrot"  have  today  placed  some  in  the  shadow  of  the  Securities  and 
Exchange  Commission  "stick".  In  the  60's  many  banks  set  up  bank 
holding  companies  in  order  to  enter  lucrative,  less  regulated,  non- 
banking  markets,  an  action  which  put  them  under  the  scrutiny  of 
outside  auditors  and  the  SEC.  In  the  fall  of  1975  the  Financial  Ac- 
counting Standards  Board  issued  a  foreign  currency  translation  stan- 
dard which  precludes  banks  from  smoothing  out  fluctuations  in  cur- 
rency values  by  the  use  of  balance  sheet  reserves,  which  had  been 
their  practice  in  the  past.  Bankers  fear  that  the  next  step  will  be  a 
current  value  approach  to  loans,  and  they  are  speaking  out  against 
such  a  standard. 

At  the  National  Association  of  Accountants  meeting  in  June, 
1976,  Walter  B.  Wriston,  chairman,  Citicorp,  painted  a  dire  picture 
of  future  unemployment,  bankruptcy,  inefficient  allocation  of  re- 
sources, and  consumers  unable  to  obtain  either  mortgages  or  insur- 
ance as  the  result  of  a  requirement  to  use  current  value  accounting. 
(Wriston  is  probably  aware  of  the  successful  effort  to  stop  Congres- 
sional action  on  restructuring  financial  institutions  and  of  the  role  of 
construction  unions  which  are  afraid  there  will  be  a  reduction  in 
mortgage  lending.) 

One  could,  of  course,  have  expected  a  negative  reaction  by  execu- 
tives of  any  firm  which,  as  a  result  of  changing  accounting  methods, 
would  report  a  lower  and/or  more  fluctuating  level  of  earnings.  Their 
fear,  of  course,  is  that  this  will  reduce  the  price  of  their  firm's  securi- 
ties. Clearly  such  executives  believe  that  security  prices  are  corre- 
lated with  reported  rather  than  real  income  and/or  the  capitalization 
rate  is  not  increased  by  uncertainty  about  the  size  of  the  possible 
divergence  between  reported  and  real  income. 

Obviously,  it  is  only  by  matching  current  revenues  with  current, 
rather  than  historical,  costs  that  investors  can  be  assured  that  profits 
are  adequate  for  a  company  to  remain  in  business.  Presumably,  Wris- 
ton doesn't  believe  most  investors  are  aware  of  this,  or  he  prefers  to 
keep  them  ignorant  of  the  true  size  of  profits. 

If,  due  to  using  original  cost  rather  than  current  value,  investors 
coritinue  to  pour  money  into  a  firm  not  earning  enough  profit  to 
remain  in  business,  resources  are  being  misallocated.  Such  an  exist- 


Associate  Professor  of  Economics,  West  Georgia  College. 

34 


ing  misallocation  wasn't  mentioned  by  Wriston.  Current  value  ac- 
counting is,  he  says,  simply  "an  attempt  to  foster  intellectual  concep- 
tual purity  in  accounting". 

"Constant  dollars  are  an  economic  concept  and  not  an  account- 
ing one,"  he  says.  Why?  Because,  he  says,  people  receiving  pension 
checks  and  standing  in  grocery  store  lines  are  dealing  with  current 
dollars.  Apparently  Wriston  hasn't  noticed  the  widespread  discontent 
of  both  these  groups  with  the  lesser  purchasing  power  of  these  dollars. 
Perhaps  Wriston  thinks  that  labor  unions  which  demand  escalator 
clauses  in  their  contracts  geared  to  the  price  index  are  exceptionally 
sophisticated,  but  certainly  he  can't  really  believe  such  sophistica- 
tion is  typical  of  complaining  welfare  recipients. 

Wriston  says  that  the  economic  reality  of  a  transaction  will  not 
be  affected  by  switching  to  current  values,  only  how  it  is  reported. 
Revenues  and  expenses  will  simply  be  shifted.  (Accrual  accounting 
already  allows  for  a  lot  of  this.)  The  short-term  effect  will,  however, 
be  to  "significantly  influence  whether  or  not  a  particular,  and  other- 
wise desirable,  business  transaction  is  to  be  undertaken." 

In  effect,  Wriston  is  saying  that  one  sets  his  freezer  at  the  same 
temperature  regardless  of  whether  the  scale  is  Fahrenheit  or  Centi- 
grade. Certainly  most  executives  are  more  intelligent  than  this!  As 
long  as  original  cost  is  used,  uneconomic  business  transactions  will 
be  undertaken  because  price  will  not  be  set  high  enough  to  cover  real 
costs;  thus,  the  economic  reality  of  a  transaction  will  be  changed  by 
using  current  value  accounting,  and  this  change  will  be  for  the  better. 

Wriston  contends  that  current  value  accounting  will  make  it 
increasingly  difficult  to  obtain  insurance,  because  insurance  regula- 
tors use  the  so-called  Kenny  ratio  to  determine  how  much  insurance 
may  safely  be  written  by  a  given  company.  This  ratio  gives  the  annu- 
alized premium  as  a  multiple  of  an  insurance  company's  net  worth. 
This  ratio  would,  says  Wriston,  gyrate  wildly  if  statutory  surplus  was 
computed  in  accordance  with  current-value  accounting.  Are  insur- 
ance regulators  so  incompetent  that  if  the  meaning  of  this  ratio  is 
changed  they  will  not  alter  their  interpretation  of  it?  Certainly  we  can 
count  on  the  insurance  industry  to  bring  this  change  to  their  atten- 
tion. Is  this  ratio  being  used  because  it  doesn't  represent  reality? 
Wouldn't  current-value  accounting  better  portray  reality?  After  all, 
the  amount  of  insurance  it  is  safe  for  an  insurance  company  to  write 
depends  on  the  actual  liquidation  value  of  its  assets,  not  what  may 
appear  on  its  books.  That's  why  there's  a  law  against  what  Mutual 
Equity  Funding  did:  put  phony  assets  on  the  books.  Yet,  by  allowing 
original  cost  accounting,  we  permit  companies  to  achieve  the  same 
result  obtained  by  Mutual  Equity:  misstatement  of  assets'  value  i.e., 
not  market,  replacement,  or  earning  power. 

It  seems  that  Wriston  doesn't  read  even  the  most  popular  busi- 

35 


ness  publications.  He  claims  that  only  a  relatively  small  group  of 
accounting  theorists  are  demanding  current-value  accounting;  yet, 
William  Blackie,  former  chairman  of  the  board  of  Caterpillar  Tractor 
Company  was  quoted  in  Business  Week  in  1974  as  saying  that  the 
SEC  should  push  ahead  without  delay  in  requiring  some  form  of 
price-change  accounting,  because,  otherwise,  we  are  basing  policy  on 
an  illusion.' 

Bankers  and  other  lenders,  Wriston  says,  do  not  demand  current- 
value  accounting  because  one  of  their  first  rules  is  to  study  compara- 
ble data  over  time.  What's  comparable  about  accounting  statements 
based  on  original  cost? 

Over  an  inflationary  period  a  firm  now  shows  a  rising  book  value 
of  tangible  assets,  even  though  there  has  been  no  physical  change  in 
them,  because  replacements  have  cost  ever  more.  The  resulting  book 
value  doesn't  represent  either  market,  replacement,  or  earning  power 
value,  because  of  the  different-valued  dollars  involved. 

Wriston  says  that  accounting  conventions  should  not  drive  busi- 
ness decisions,  but  should  reflect  them  in  a  meaningful  manner. 
What's  meaningful  about  original  cost?  Do  bankers  ignore  liquidation 
values  of  collateral  or  assume  book-values  are  liquidation  values? 

"If  lenders  are  required  to  reprice  their  long-term  financial  assets 
to  market  value  each  month-end  with  the  resultant  offset  against 
earnings,"  says  Wriston,  "they  will  obviously  be  strongly  motivated 
to  purchase  only  securities  with  very  short  maturities  which  are  rela- 
tively unaffected  by  changes  in  interest  rates."  He  ignores  the  offset- 
ting, greater  variance  in  long-term  return  this  would  cause.  Would 
only  short  maturities  necessarily  be  bad?  If  bankers  had  followed  this 
policy  in  the  past  they  would  have  avoided  the  REIT  disaster. 
(Maybe  Hamilton  National  wouldn't  have  gone  under.) 

States  and  municipalities  will,  he  says,  be  forced  to  finance 
themselves  on  a  short-term  basis,  as  their  long-term  obligations  will 
no  longer  be  attractive.  Many  people  holding  New  York  City  debts 
would  be  better  oflF  if  this  had  been  the  case  in  the  past.  New  York 
City  would  be  better  off  too,  as  it  wouldn't  have  been  able  to  operate 
so  long  with  expenses  exceeding  revenues. 

Wriston  says  that  today  many  companies  which  could  be  are  not 
being  forced  into  bankruptcy  by  banks,  and  this  saves  thousands  of 
jobs.  With  current  value  accounting,  he  says,  banks  will  lack  the 
incentive  to  work  out  problems  with  borrowers.  Instead,  they  will 
throw  them  into  bankruptcy.  Did  lending  more  to  W.T.  Grant's  save 
any  jobs?  Didn't  it  cause  more  job  loss  by  causing  suppliers  to  extend 


'  William  Blackie,  "The  Need  for  Inflation  Accounting,"  Business  Week, 
March  30,  1974,  p.  16. 


36 


more  credit  to  Grant's,  causing  tiiem  not  to  be  able  to  survive  Grant's 
failure?  And  what  about  the  jobs  that  could  have  been  created  by 
anothr  company  if  it  had  been  lent  this  money  instead  of  Grant's? 
Wriston  conveniently  ignores  opportunity  cost. 

Wriston  is  very  concerned  with  bank  holdings  of  foreign  curren- 
cies whose  value  sometimes  changes  substantially  and  does  so  in  a 
short  period  of  time.  He  wants  to  ignore  short-term  changes.  But 
shouldn't  assets  exposed  to  devaluation  be  considered  a  cost  of  busi- 
ness and  be  covered  in  price?  If  such  devaluations  are  not  considered, 
price  will  likely  not  cover  this  cost.  Wouldn't  Franklin  National, 
heavily  involved  in  currency  speculation,  have  been  less  likely  to  go 
bankrupt  if  it  had  had  to  comply  with  the  foreign  currency  transla- 
tion standand?  The  Franklin  National  failure  serves  as  a  partial  re- 
buttal to  Wriston's  claim  that  meaningful  data  will  not  be  generated 
by  the  foreign  currency  translation  standard.  As  "proof  of  this  claim 
that  currency  translation  is  a  disaster,  he  points  to  Citicorp's  swing 
from  a  $12  million  foreign  currency  gain  to  an  $8  million  loss  between 
July  1  and  August  30,  1973,  while,  with  a  similar  currency  position, 
experiencing  only  a  2  percent  impact  on  total  earnings  over  two  years 
ending  in  1974.  But  Citicorp  couldn't  know  in  advance  that  there 
would  be  a  2  percent  (of  what?)  change  over  two  years.  In  the  short- 
run  one  needs  to  know  if  very  short-term  upswings  are  offsetting 
downswings. 

Certainly  fluctuations  in  income  will  be  less  the  less  frequently 
one  computes  income,  but  is  Wriston  going  to  suggest  that  financial 
statements  cover  five  or  ten  year  periods?  This  practice  would  smooth 
out  income  fluctuations  and,  thus,  following  Wriston's  logic,  result  in 
higher  security  prices. 

The  Citicorp  Chairman  argues  that  a  price  index  fails  to  measure 
qualitative  differences  and  increases  in  productivity.  Yet,  he  is  oppos- 
ing a  new  accounting  standard  for  banks,  and  these  problems  are 
insignificant  for  providers  of  services  like  banks.  Replacement  cost  for 
equal  productive  capacity  can  be  used,  and  is  being  used,  in  lieu  of  a 
price  index  as  a  way  of  solving  these  problems.  Wriston  agrees  that 
the  use  of  replacement  cost  instead  of  historical  cost  "is  simply  an 
intelligent  attempt  to  produce  the  cash  flow  necessary  for  increased 
capital  investments."  For  monetary  assets,  adjustment  on  the  basis 
of  a  price  index  is,  in  effect,  replacement  cost. 

Wriston  ignores  the  more  equitable  taxation  of  earnings  which 
will  result  from  government  acceptance  of  current  value  accounting. 
Wriston  says  that  "we  run  a  very  real  danger  that  the  secondary 
consequences  of  rule  changes  will  be  devastating  for  our  society." 
Perhaps  our  existing  accounting  standards  have  had  devastating  pri- 
mary and  secondary  consequences  for  our  society  which  will  continue 
as  long  as  we  continue  using  them. 

37 


ABSTRACTS 

OF 

MASTER'S  THESES 

AND 

SPECIALIST  IN  EDUCATION  PROJECTS 


Abbott,  LaVerne  M.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, August,  1975) 

CHANGES  IN  PHYSICAL  FITNESS  AND  SELF-CONCEPT 
DURING  A  PHYSICAL  DEVELOPMENT  PROGRAM 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  effects  that  prac- 
tice in  calisthenics  has  on  physical  fitness.  Change  in  self-concept 
during  a  program  of  physical  fitness  was  also  investigated. 

Fifty-two  fifth  grade  students  at  Due  West  Elementary  School 
in  Cobb  County,  Georgia  were  randomly  selected  for  the  study. 
Twenty-six  students  were  in  the  experimental  group  and  twenty-six 
students  were  in  the  control  group.  Each  group  was  given  the  AAH- 
PER  Youth  Fitness  Test  and  the  Piers-Harris  Children's  Self- 
Concept  Scale  as  a  pretest  and  as  a  posttest. 

The  treatment  consisted  of  calisthenics  and  a  program  of  train- 
ing and  practice  on  certain  physical  activities  for  the  experimental 
group.  This  treatment  was  for  thirty  to  forty  minutes  each  morning 
during  the  regular  physical  education  period  for  five  weeks.  The  con- 
trol group  had  no  calisthenics,  but  they  participated  in  a  regular 
physical  education  program  of  team  games.  Fifth  grade  classroom 
teachers  were  the  instructors  for  the  investigation. 

The  Mann-Whitney  U,  a  nonparametric  devise  using  rank  order, 
was  used  because  the  kinds  of  raw  scores  on  the  subtests  differed.  The 
.05  level  of  significance  was  chosen  as  the  level  at  which  the  hy- 
potheses would  be  rejected. 

There  was  found  to  be  no  significant  difference  on  pull-ups, 
flexed  arm  hang,  shuttle  run,  girls  standing  broad  jump,  fifty  yard 
dash,  boy's  sit-ups,  softball  throw  for  distance,  600  yard  walk-run  or 
self-concept.  There  was  not  a  significant  correlation  between  self- 
concept  and  physical  fitness. 

There  was  found  to  be  a  significant  difference  at  the  .05  level  of 
confidence  for  girls  on  sit-ups  and  for  the  control  boys'  group  on 
standing  broad  jump. 

38 


The  investigation  seems  to  indicate  that  calisthenics  done  ten 
minutes  per  day  for  five  weeks  do  not  make  a  significant  diff'erence 
in  physical  fitness.  Further  the  data  from  this  study  indicates  that 
there  is  no  significant  correlation  between  physical  fitness  and  self- 
concept. 

Buice,  Edwin  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
August,  1975) 

EVALUATING  STUDENTS  SUCCESS  IN  REGULAR  PRO- 
GRAMS AFTER  PARTICIPATING  IN  THE  WORK  SAMPLE 
EVALUATION  CENTER  AT  WALKER  COUNTY  VOCATIONAL- 
TECHNICAL  SCHOOL 

A  group  of  thirty  students  who  had  participated  in  the  Work 
Sample  Evaluation  Center  and  then  entered  the  regular  program 
were  compared  with  a  random  sample  of  thirty  students  from  the 
regular  program.  Grades,  absences,  and  dropouts  were  compiled  on 
both  groups  for  two  quarters.  The  mean  grade  average  of  the  Evalua- 
tion Center  group  was  2.96  while  the  Regular  group's  mean  was  2.87. 
There  was  no  significant  diff'erence  between  the  two  groupson  grades 
at  any  level.  The  mean  absences  for  the  Evaluation  Center  group  was 
4.17  while  the  Regular  group's  mean  was  6.47.  The  results  for  ab- 
sences were  significant  at  the  .10  level,  but  not  at  the  .05  level  in  favor 
of  the  Evaluation  Center  group.  The  dropout  rate  for  the  Evaluation 
Center  group  was  13.3  percent  while  the  Regular  group's  was  16.7 
percent.  There  was  no  significant  difference  between  dropout  rates  on 
the  two  groups.  It  was  concluded  from  the  study  that  the  Evaluation 
Center  has  done  an  adequate  job  in  helping  their  students  choose  and 
enter  a  regular  program.  Furthermore,  it  was  recommended  that  a 
study  be  conducted  following  Evaluation  Center  Students  all  the  way 
through  school  and  at  least  six  months  on  the  job. 

Bundy,  Lynn  Oliver  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1975) 

TIME  STRUCTURING  IN  DREAMS; 
AN  APPROACH  THROUGH  TRANSACTIONAL  ANALYSIS 

Berne's  Transactional  Analysis  model  of  time  structure  was  used 
to  descriptively  analyze  a  sample  of  165  dreams.  The  dreams  were 
obtained  from  13  volunteers  who  recorded  them  over  a  period  of  three 
weeks.  Each  dream  was  broken  down  into  single,  basic  units  of  time 
structure  and  referred  to  as  dream  segments.  The  dream  segments 
were  then  each  classified  according  to  Berne's  model;  1)  Withdrawal, 
2)  Ritual,  3)  Activity,  4)  Pastime,  5)  Game  or  6)  Intimacy. 

39 


Twenty-six  percent  of  the  dream  segments  were  found  to  lack 
social  context  and  were  considered  not  applicable  for  classification. 
Of  those  segments  classified,  48%  were  found  to  be  Game  oriented. 
The  remaining  529o  were  scattered  somewhat  evenly  between  the 
other  five  methods  of  time  structure. 

Callins,  Mary  A.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
August,  1975) 

ENGAGING  HIGH  SCHOOL  SENIORS  IN  DECISION 

MAKING  PROCESS  LEADING  TO  THEIR  MAKING 

CAREER  CHOICES 

Every  year  the  number  of  students  undecided  about  career  choices 
increases  which  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  career  development 
needs  of  students  are  not  being  met.  These  students  have  difficulty 
making  the  important  decisions  that  are  required  in  the  planning  and 
realization  of  a  career.  The  need  for  a  planned  systematic  approach 
to  help  these  individuals  with  decision  making  skills  regarding  career 
choices  and  life  roles  as  a  whole  is  evident  in  the  majority  of  studies 
and  articles  cited.  The  investigator  used  an  approach  using  pre-post 
test,  slides,  filmstrips,  and  career  games  with  a  group  of  six  students 
undecided  about  a  career.  This  method  was  used  to  help  the  students 
gain  awareness  of  themselves  in  terms  of  abilities  and  interest,  to  gain 
skills  in  making  decisions,  to  increase  knowledge  of  occupations  and 
training,  and  to  examine  choices  through  orientation  and  exploration. 
The  subjects  met  two  hours  for  eight  sessions.  There  was  some  evi- 
dence of  success  with  the  approach  used.  The  effectiveness  of  the 
research  was  weakened  because  the  group  was  very  small  and  there 
was  no  control  group  for  comparison.  A  follow-up  is  desirable  on  each 
student  to  test  the  consistency  of  choices  made. 

Chalfant,  Donald  W.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
June,  1975) 

HOW  THE  PRESSURE  OF  TIME  IS  RELATED  TO  THE 

WRITTEN  RESPONSES  HIGH  SCHOOL  STUDENTS 

MAKE  TO  SELECTED  SHORT  STORIES 

The  written  responses  of  54  high  school  students  to  six  short  sto- 
ries under  untimed  and  timed  conditions  were  investigated  in  order 
to  determine  if  there  were  differences  in  the  scattering  of  responses 
attributable  to  the  time  variable.  Approximately  half  of  the  students 
were  given  unlimited  time  for  written  responses  to  each  story  while 
the  other  half  were  given  a  time  limit  of  four  minutes. 

40 


The  following  null  hypotheses  were  tested: 

1.  There  is  no  significant  difference  in  the  patterns  of  written 
responses  high  school  students  make  from  one  short  story  to  another. 

2.  There  is  no  significant  difference  in  the  patterns  of  written 
responses  made  by  male  and  those  by  female  high  school  students  to 
the  short  stories  selected. 

3.  There  is  no  significant  difference  in  the  patterns  of  written 
responses  male  high  school  students  make  to  selected  short  stories 
under  untimed  versus  timed  testing  conditions. 

4.  There  is  no  significant  difference  in  the  patterns  of  written 
responses  female  high  school  students  make  to  selected  short  stories 
under  untimed  versuds  timed  testing  conditions. 

A  chi-square  test  with  a  seven  contingency  table  was  used  to 
interpret  the  data.  Both  the  short  story  variable  and  the  variable  of 
sex  were  found  to  be  significant  at  the  .01  level,  and  the  variable  of 
untimed  versus  timed  conditions  was  found  to  be  significant  at  the 
.05  level  for  both  male  responders  and  for  female  responders. 

Two  implications  were  derived  from  the  study: 

1.  Time  limitations  on  responses  to  literature  limit  students' 
full  range  of  written  expression. 

2.  Sex  differences  and  individual  differences  in  response  to  lit- 
erature indicate  the  need  to  provide  students  with  a  number  of  liter- 
ary selections  containing  a  large  range  of  possibilities  for  adolescent 
identification  and  involvement. 

Crook,  Morgan  Ray,  Jr.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1975) 

INSTITUTIONS  OF  ABNORMAL  BEHAVIOR 

IN  THREE  PRIMITIVE  SOCIETIES: 

AN  EVOLUTIONARY  MODEL 

The  concern  of  this  thesis  is  the  evolution  of  institutions  of  abnor- 
mal behavior  viewed  in  cross  cultural  perspective.  The  cultural  sys- 
tems of  the  Arunta,  the  Nuer  and  the  Trobriand  Islanders  are  utilized 
as  examples  of  the  three  socio-cultural  levels  of  integration  within 
Primitive  society.  Abnormal  behavior  institutions  are  less  productive 
than  the  productive  norm  of  the  cultural  system  and  their  existance 
is  dependent  upon  economic  support  from  the  productive  norm. 
Therefore  as  energy  capture  per  capita  increases,  more  institutions  of 
abnormal  behavior  occur.  The  relationship  between  institutions  of 
abnormal  behavior  and  the  energy  capture  of  the  cultural  system  is 
plotted  statistically  within  the  thesis. 


41 


Dodds,  Robert  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
August,  1975) 

THE  EFFECT  OF  CAREER  EDUCATION  COURSES  ON 

PERCEIVED  POST-GRADUATION  OCCUPATIONAL 

PLANS  OF  EIGHTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  an  enormous  increase  in 
the  emphasis  on  Career  Awareness  in  American  Education.  As  a  part 
of  this  emphasis  a  Career  Education  Program  was  introduced  into  the 
curriculum  of  LaGrange  Boys'  Junior  High  School.  This  study  is  a 
follow-up  of  three  years  of  this  program.  It  is  not  the  intent  of  this 
research  to  evaluate  the  entire  program.  It  is  the  author's  purpose  to 
study  only  one  aspect  of  the  program,  namely,  to  determine  if  those 
students  who  participated  in  this  particular  program  make  a  higher 
percentage  of  appropriate  selections  on  a  Post-Graduation  Occupa- 
tional Plans  Questionaire  than  do  those  who  do  not  participate  in  the 
program. 

The  subjects  of  the  study  included  the  entire  eighth  grade  class 
of  206  boys.  The  students  were  then  divided  into  two  groups  accord- 
ing to  whether  or  not  they  took  Career  Education  courses.  Their 
reponses  on  the  Post-Graduation  Occupational  Plans  Questionaire 
were  then  compared  with  their  records  and  classified  as  appropriate 
or  inappropriate  selections. 

Results  of  the  study  seem  indicative  that  participation  in  the 
Career  Education  Program  had  no  measurable  effect  upon  the  selec- 
tion of  appropriate  occupational  goals.  There  is  some  indication  from 
the  control  group  figures  that  a  longitudinal  study  with  pre-post  eval- 
uation might  show  positive  results  from  this  program. 

Farrior,  David  Truitt  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, June,  1975) 

DEVELOPING  AND  EVALUATING  AN  AUDIO-VISUAL 

ORIENTATION  PROGRAM  AT  WALKER  COUNTY 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOL 

An  audio-visual  orientation  program  was  developed  for  use  at 
Walker  County  Technical  School.  In  order  to  evaluate  the  program, 
it  was  compared  with  the  traditional  orientation  program.  Forty-six 
entering  students  participated  in  the  study.  Twenty-three  individu- 
als were  randomly  assigned  to  the  experimental  group  in  which  orien- 
tation information  was  presented  to  the  group  by  using  audio-visual 
equipment.  The  other  twenty-three  students  participated  in  the  tra- 
ditional, lecture-type  orientation  program.  An  information  test  was 

42 


administered  to  both  groups  before  and  after  the  orientation  pro- 
grams. On  the  twenty-item  test,  the  mean  gain  for  the  experimental 
group  was  4.57  and  3.96  for  the  control  group.  The  post-test  results 
were  significant  at  the  .10  level  but  not  at  the  .05  level  in  favor  of  the 
experimental  group.  It  was  concluded  from  the  study  that  the  audio- 
visual program  was  as  effective  as  the  traditional  program  in  present- 
ing orientation  information  to  entering  students.  Furthermore,  it  was 
recommended  that  the  audio-visual  orientation  program  be  perma- 
nently implemented  at  the  school. 

Fulks,  William  N.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel- 
ing, August,  1975) 

A  PILOT  PEER  COUNSELING   PROJECT  AT  LAFAYETTE 

HIGH  SCHOOL 

An  experimental  study  was  conducted  using  peer  counselors  with 
ninth  grade  students  at  LaFayette  High  School  in  LaFayette,  Geor- 
gia. The  purpose  of  the  study  was  to  expand  the  guidance  services, 
to  evaluate  the  effects  of  peer  counseling,  to  determine  the  feasibility 
of  such  a  program  being  adopted,  and  to  determine  the  extent  to 
which  the  program  would  be  accepted  by  the  staff  and  students. 

The  basic  problem  of  the  investigation  was  to  determine  if  peer 
counselors  would  be  effective  by  evaluating  certain  criteria.  Evalua- 
tion was  made  on  counselee  response  on  pre-  and  post-test  of  the 
Tennessee  Self  Concept  Scale  (TSCS);  evaluation  of  grade  point  av- 
erage was  made  on  pre-  and  post-measurements;  and  subjective  eval- 
uation of  personal  growth  of  peer  counselors. 

A  review  of  the  literature  was  conducted  in  the  area  of  peer 
counseling.  On  the  basis  of  this  review,  the  use  of  peer  counselors  in 
helping  relationships  was  supported.  The  literature  revealed  that  in- 
dividuals and  institutions  are  increasingly  using  peers  as  helpers  in 
a  number  of  educational  settings. 

A  tutorial  program  served  as  an  adjunct  to  the  peer  counseling 
program.  The  sample  for  the  investigation  consisted  of  six  senior  peer 
counselors  who  tutored  twelve  ninth  grade  low-achieving  students. 
The  training  program  for  the  peer  counselors  consisted  of  ten  sessions 
which  ran  concurrent  with  the  tutorial  program. 

An  analysis  of  a  t-test  of  significance%idicated  that  there  was  no 
significant  difference  between  grade  point  average  means  at  the  .05 
level  for  the  counselees'  pre-  and  post-measurement,  although  there 
was  significance  at  the  .10  level.  All  subscale  means  of  the  Tennessee 
Self  Concept  Scale  (TSCS)  improved  except  one  (moral  self).  How- 
ever, the  change  was  not  significant  at  the  .05  level.  Subjective  obser- 
vations, consultations,  and  feedback  indicated  greater  personal 

43 


growth  of  the  peer  counselors  as  a  result  of  actively  participating  in 
the  peer  counseling  program. 

Garrett,  Jane  B.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
August,  1975) 

IMPLEMENTATION  OF  AN  OBJECTIVE-BASED  GUIDANCE 

PLAN 

In  an  effort  to  clarify  the  role  of  the  counselor  and  to  verify  the 
effectiveness  of  guidance  services,  an  objective-based  program  was 
developed  in  calendar  form  and  the  program  was  implemented 
throughout  the  year. 

Students'  perceptions  of  guidance  services  were  relatively  un- 
changed through  implementation  of  an  objective-based  program, 
however  student  performance  changed  through  implementation  of 
individualprocess  objectives.  Teachers  exhibited  a  more  positive 
opinion  of  guidance  service  after  the  program  was  implemented. 

The  counselor  in  the  objective-based  program  provided  services 
for  more  students  and  the  services  were  more  directed  toward  student 
needs  than  a  control  group  in  traditional  programs. 

Hickson,  Margaret  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood 
Education,  June,  1975) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  TRADITIONAL  APPROACH  VERSUS  AN 

INCIDENTAL  APPROACH  IN  TEACHING  SPELLING  AT  THE 

SECOND  GRADE  LEVEL  IN  THE  MAPLE  STREET  SCHOOL 

CARROLLTON,  GEORGIA 

Spelling  is  a  basic  element  of  communication  and  learning,  the 
importance  of  which  should  not  be  over-looked.  The  purpose  of  this 
study  was  to  determine  if  an  incidental  approach  to  teaching  spelling 
had  an  equally  positive  effect  on  spelling  achievement  as  did  the 
traditional  approach  to  teaching  spelling. 

The  subjects  for  this  study  were  two  second-grade  classes  at 
Maple  Street  School  in  Carrollton,  Georgia.  The  subjects  were  placed 
in  each  classroom  without  regard  to  mental  ability,  academic 
achievement,  or  socio-economic  back-ground. 

The  control  group,  a  class  of  twenty-four  students,  was  taught 
spelling  using  the  traditional  approach.  The  experimental  group,  a 
class  of  twenty-five  students,  was  taught  spelling  using  an  incidental 
approach.  The  study  lasted  twelve  weeks  at  the  end  of  which  time  a 
posttest  was  given  over  the  words,  randomly  selected,  that  had  been 

44 


studied  only  by  the  control  group,  a  delayed  posttest  was  given  after 
the  eighteenth  week  of  the  study  over  the  words,  randomly  selected, 
that  had  been  studied  only  by  the  control  group. 

The  results  of  the  posttest  and  the  results  of  the  delayed  posttest 
showed  that  the  control  group  and  the  experimental  group  were  equal 
in  achievement.  The  statistical  test  for  this  study  was  the  Mann 
Whitney  U  Test  converted  to  a  z  formula  with  a  correction  for  tied 
scores. 

The  conclusion  was  that  the  results  were  of  such  a  nature  that 
the  difference  could  be  attributed  to  chance. 

It  is  recommended  that  similar  studies  be  conducted  to  assess 
the  effect  of  the  incidental  method  when  subjects  and  teachers  are 
selected  from  different  schools  and  different  areas. 

Highley,  Jackson  Herschel  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1975) 

THE  DEATH  OF  SUICIDE:  THE  HUMOR  OF  MORBIDITY 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  explore  the  interrelationships  be- 
tween the  topics  of  laughter  and  death.  Suicide  is  not  a  funny  act. 
Yet  it  is  sometimes  parodied  in  the  Black  Humor  literature.  Is  laugh- 
ing at  the  morbid  a  repression  mechanism,  or,  is  it  a  psychological 
device  that  helps  affirm  the  realities  of  death  and  of  life?  Through  a 
literature  review,  the  experimenter  found  the  human  tendency  to 
laugh  at  grim  realities,  especially  of  suicide. 

Humor  appears  in  unusual  circumstances.  And  so  does  suicide. 
One  might  laugh  to  avoid  committing  suicide.  Or,  one  might  commit 
suicide  to  avoid  the  laughing. 

Alternative  approaches  to  suicide  research  openly  discuss  sui- 
cide, place  few  or  no  moral  judgments  on  suicides  or  suicide- 
attempts,  rely  on  individual  experience  rather  than  statistics,  and 
promote  individual  liberty  in  a  theme  of  high  regard  for  human  life. 
All  of  these  approaches  are  in  the  humanistic  tradition  that  one 
should  be  able  to  choose  his  experiential  world. 

Dichotomizing  is  a  narrow  form  of  perception  concurrent  with 
the  view  of  taking  oneself  and  the  world  seriously.  Surrendering  is 
creative  and  imaginative  reconstructions  of  the  situation. 

In  laughter  is  the  determination  to  continue  the  struggle  to  live. 
Perhaps  in  enjoying  the  humor  of  morbidity  there  is  a  "death  of 
suicide",  as  the  serious  urge  to  terminate  no  longer  seems  so  impor- 
tant. Hence,  the  investigation  into  the  "topic  of  suicide"  gives  way 
to  a  rebirth  of  exploring  other  alternatives  to  live. 

For  the  comic  perspective  plays  a  significant  role  in  individual 
and  group  expression.  By  not  taking  ourselves  so  seriously,  man  be- 
gins to  understand  himself  and  his  brother.  The  comic  perspective 

45 


defies  putting  existence  under  the  aegis  of  rational  law,  moral  con- 
ventions, social  structures,  or  considerations  of  worth  or  utility.  In- 
verting a  system  of  categories,  humor  continually  thwarts  arbitrari- 
ness. In  our  attempts  to  control,  we  lose  touch  with  the  reality  around 
us.  Furthermore,  in  holding  our  convictions  with  some  lightness,  we 
add  grace  to  our  life.  Expressing  a  state  of  inner  harmony,  the  realm 
of  play  is  an  experience  of  fullness. 

Holcombe,  Richard  B.  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1975) 

DYING,  DEATH,  AND  SUICIDE: 
A  PSYCHOLOGICAL,  POETIC,  AND  PERSONAL  INQUIRY 

In  this  paper,  the  human  awareness  of  death  and  dying  is  explored 
in  the  following  ways:  the  role  of  the  will  of  the  individual  in  his  own 
death,  several  general  propositions  about  the  individual's  concept  of 
death,  and  the  author's  recollection  of  a  friend's  experience  of  death, 
and  its  impact  on  both  of  us.  The  author  relates  a  series  of  mystical 
and  psychic  experiences  that  culminated  in  the  friend's  experience  of 
dying.  That  series  of  events  had  a  profound  effect  upon  both  the 
author  and  his  friend. 

The  poetic  consideration  of  death  is  explored  in  the  works  of  Ezra 
Pound  and  T.S.  Eliot.  The  author  notes  the  impact  of  both  poets 
upon  literature  and  their  generation,  comparing  the  wholeness  or 
completed  gestalt  in  Eliot's  work  to  a  lack  of  such  in  Pound's  work. 
The  "Savage  God"  presented  by  A.  Alvarez  appears  under  a  similar 
guise  in  the  poetry  of  T.S.  Eliot.  In  his  later  work  T.S.  Eliot  spoke 
increasingly  of  an  ordered,  meaningful  aspect  of  life  and  experience. 
Death  and  its  acceptance  in  the  works  of  Leo  Tolstoy,  Elisabeth 
Kubler-Ross,  and  John  Gunther  are  presented.  The  reasons  for  mod- 
ern man's  search  for  a  soul  are  explored.  The  death  of  Ivan  Ilych  is 
seen  as  an  ideal. 

A  focus  for  considering  suicide  is  found  in  the  life  and  work  of 
Sylvia  Plath,  American  author  and  poetess  who  took  her  own  life.  Her 
beautiful  and  morbid  poetry  illustrates  a  particularly  complex  and 
poignant  comtemplation  of  a  self-inflicted  death  and  is  analyzed  with 
a  view  to  understanding  the  suicide's  inner  vision.  The  issue  of  under- 
standing suicide  and  the  suicidal  person  is  examined  in  the  writings 
of  Shneidman,  Farberow,  Szasz,  and  Karl  Menninger. 


46 


Kerr,  Julia  A.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education,  Au- 
gust, 1975) 

A  SYSTEMATIC  SURVEY  OF  THE  LITERATURE 

CONCERNING  THE  RELATIONSHIP 

BETWEEN  SELECTED  AUTHORITIES  IN  THE 

FIELD  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATION  AND 

SELECTED  PROPONENTS  OF  HUMANISTIC  EDUCATION 

Long,  Mary  F.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood  Education, 
August,  1975) 

THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  NEWMAN 
AREA  WITH  EMPHASIS  ON  SELECTED  HOMES  BUILT  BE- 
TWEEN 1830-1900 

This  historical  research  was  designed  in  two  parts.  One  part  was 
an  in-depth  research  paper  on  the  location  and  settlement  of  the 
Newnan  area,  with  emphasis  on  the  early  Indian  inhabitants  of  the 
region.  The  other  part  being  a  slide  presentation  of  nineteen  out- 
standing homes  built  in  this  area  between  1830  and  1900  and  for 
which  this  area  is  famous.  The  research  was  accomplished  so  that 
elementary  school  children  could  be  provided  with  a  segment  of  local 
history  in  celebration  of  the  Bicentennial  of  the  United  States.  The 
completion  of  the  research  also  coincided  with  the  Sesquicentennial 
year  for  the  city  of  Newnan.  The  written  part  included  extensive 
research  into  local  and  state  histories.  The  slide  presentation  in- 
volved visiting  each  home,  interviewing  the  present  occupants,  and 
securing  permission  to  use  the  residences  in  this  work.  After  the  writ- 
ten work  was  finished,  final  approval  was  secured  from  the  owners. 

The  researching  of  the  settlement  of  the  Newnan  area  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  present  location  was  designed  so  that  students 
would  see  the  place  of  Coweta  County  in  the  total  settlement  of 
Georgia.  This  area,  famous  for  antebellum  homes,  featured  homes 
chosen  from  several  locations  in  the  county  so  that  school  children  in 
the  outlying  areas,  as  well  as  those  in  the  city  of  Newnan,  would  be 
able  to  see  at  least  one  of  the  homes  studied. 

This  project  placed  in  one  central  location  the  history  of  this  area 
so  that  teachers  could  have  access  to  the  material  and  this  removed 
one  major  obstacle  encountered  in  the  teaching  of  local  history. 


47 


Matthews,  Eluera  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 

August,  1975) 

EFFECTS     OF     CHOICE     OF     COUNSELOR     ON     SELF- 
DISCLOSURE  OF  JUNIOR  HIGH  STUDENTS 

Choice  of  counselor  and  whether  this  choice  significantly  affects 
self-disclosure  among  junior  high  students  was  examined  in  this  re- 
search. Two  full  time  counselors,  one  male  and  one  female,  at  Jones- 
boro  Junior  High  School,  Jonesboro,  Georgia,  interviewed  sixty-four, 
eighth  grade  subjects  who  were  randomly  selected  to  participate. 
These  subjects  comprised  four  groups  of  sixteen  subjects  each  (eight 
males  and  eight  females).  Each  of  the  two  counselors  had  a  no-choice 
and  choice  group.  The  instrument  that  was  used  was  a  set  of  seventy- 
one  pictures  which  were  presented  to  each  subject,  and  their  respon- 
ses were  recorded  on  a  data  sheet.  Data  were  analyzed  by  a  standard 
statistical  procedure  using  the  t-test.  The  computed  t-value  at  the  .05 
level  of  confidence  was  L87.  These  results  deomonstrate  no  signifi- 
cant diff"erences  between  self-disclosure  in  choice-of-counselor  groups 
and  no-choice  of  counselor  groups.  Further  analysis  of  the  data  shows 
that  the  computed  t-value  of  data  concerning  the  effects  of  sex  of 
counselor  on  subjects'  self-disclosure  was  3.26  at  the  .05  level  of  con- 
fidence. This  indicates  that  the  sex  of  counselor  significantly  affects 
the  self-disclosure  of  subjects. 

Moore,  Elizabeth  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Business  Education, 
August,  1975) 

A  STUDY  TO  DETERMINE  THE  MOST  EFFECTIVE  WAY  TO 

TEACH  PROOFREADING  TO  BEGINNING  TYPEWRITING 

STUDENTS  AT  THE  SECONDARY-SCHOOL  LEVEL 

Problem 

The  problem  was  to  determine  the  most  effective  way  to  teach 
proofreading  to  beginning  typewriting  students  at  the  secondary- 
school  level. 

Subproblems 

The  first  subproblem  was  to  determine  whether  teaching  proof- 
reading using  a  positive  approach  was  effective  in  teaching  high 
school  students  to  proofread  in  beginning  typewriting  classes. 

The  second  subproblem  was  to  determine  whether  teaching 
proofreading  using  a  negative  approach  was  effective  in  teaching  high 

48 


school  students  to  proofread  in  beginning  typewriting  classes. 

The  third  subproblem  was  to  determine  whether  students 
learned  to  proofread  effectively  without  being  taught  specific  proof- 
reading methods  and  techniques. 

F^rocedure 

Six  beginning  typewriting  classes  at  Cherokee  High  School  partic- 
ipated in  this  study  to  determine  the  most  effective  approach  to  use 
when  teaching  proofreading.  These  classes  were  assigned  to  either  a 
control  group,  a  positive  experimental  group,  or  a  negative  experi- 
mental group. 

The  control  group  received  no  proofreading  instruction  and  was 
treated  with  a  neutral  approach.  Both  experimental  groups  received 
proofreading  instruction,  but  one  was  treated  with  a  positive  ap- 
proach while  the  other  was  treated  with  a  negative  approach. 

All  three  groups  spent  ten  days  on  each  of  three  units:  business 
letters,  tabulation  problems,  and  manuscripts.  The  experimental 
groups  were  taught  proofreading  methods  and  techniques  in  addition 
to  the  normal  class  schedule  followed  by  all  the  groups. 

The  grading  plan  for  production  typewriting  used  in  all  three 
groups  did  not  change  from  the  normal  grading  plan  followed  by  the 
teachers.  However,  after  the  grade  had  been  figured  on  the  assign- 
ment, the  positive  group  had  bonus  points  added  for  accurate  proof- 
reading and  the  negative  group  had  points  deducted  for  a  lack  of 
proofreading.  Proofreading  drills  in  the  positive  group  were  graded  by 
adding  points  for  each  error  found;  whereas,  the  drills  in  the  negative 
group  were  graded  by  subtracting  points  for  errors  left  undetected. 

All  three  groups  were  given  proofreading  and  typewriting  pre- 
tests, achievement  tests  on  each  unit,  and  proofreading  and  typewrit- 
ing posttests. 

Natour,  Fahmi  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1975) 

THEORETICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  ANXIETY  AND 
ITS  RELATIONSHIPS  TO  LEARNING  PERFORMANCE  AND 

PERSONALITY 

In  addition  to  many  basic  diflferences  among  different  schools  of 
psychology,  undergraduate  and  graduate  psychology  are  divided  into 
somewhat  arbitrarily  defined  course  areas.  This  means  that  many 
interesting  problems  of  psychology  lie  in  the  cross-relationships  of 
these  arbitrary  divisions  and  subdivisions. 

The  objective  of  this  thesis  is  to  deal  with  the  issue  of  anxiety 
from  the  perspective  of  two  different  yet  related  course  areas:  Learn- 

49 


ing  and  motivation  and  theories  of  personality. 

I  shall  discuss,  compare  and  contrast  the  types  of  methodologies 
used  and  the  major  theoretical  approaches  of  these  two  areas. 

The  underlying  premise  of  this  thesis  is  to  demonstrate  the  im- 
portance of  cross-relationships  among  different  areas  and  finally  to 
draw  special  attention  to  the  yet  unanswered  questions  about  anxi- 
ety. 

Chapter  one  considers  the  area  of  learning  and  motivation  and 
how  the  issue  of  anxiety  is  handled  in  this  area.  The  discussion  will 
center  around  the  Hullian  Drive  Reduction  Theory  as  a  representa- 
tive of  this  area.  The  learning  theory  approach  is  compared  and  con- 
trasted with  the  ethological  approach. 

Chapter  two  considers  the  application  of  the  Drive  Reduction 
Theory  to  the  area  of  personality  and  the  role  of  anxiety  in  personal- 
ity. The  learning  theory  approach  is  compared  and  contrasted  with 
the  personality  approach. 

Chapter  three  consists  mainly  of  my  own  suggestions  and  what  I 
see  as  the  important  questions  that  remained  unanswered.  These  are 
basically  my  own  speculations  that  grew  out  of  my  frustration  with 
the  published  literature  I  have  reviewed  for  this  study.  The  conclu- 
sion is  reached  that  anxiety  should  be  defined  as  the  uncertainty 
about  something  important  and  considered  as  an  all-or-none  fashion 
phenomenon.  Finally,  anxiety  should  be  considered  to  have  no  enh- 
ancing effects  and  to  be  disruptive. 

Ruskell,  Virginia  Ann  (MA,  English,  August,  1975) 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  YOGA  PHILOSOPHY  IN  THE  BHA- 
GAVAD  GITA  ON  HENRY  DAVID  THOREAU'S  WALDEN 

The  Bhagavad  Gita  is  a  Sanskrit  classic  which  contains  three 
different  yoga  philosophies:  karma,  jnana,  and  bhakti.  Karma  or 
action  yoga  is  the  pathway  to  union  through  desireless  action.  Jnana 
or  knowledge  yoga  is  concerned  with  gaining  wisdom  and  perceiving 
reality.  Bhakti  yoga  is  the  yoga  of  love  and  devotion  and  results  in 
dedicating  one's  life  to  God.  These  three  philosophies  are  examined 
in  the  Gita  which  is  a  philosophical  discourse  between  Krishna,  the 
teacher,  and  Arjuna,  the  pupil. 

.  Henry  David  Thoreau  read  the  Bhagavad  Gita  while  he  was  at 
Walden  pond.  That  it  had  a  profound  effect  on  him  is  shown  in  his 
inclusion  of  the  book  and  its  philosophy  in  Walden.  This  book  is  the 
story  of  his  stay  at  the  pond,  but  it  also  is  an  account  of  Thoreau's 
struggles  with  yoga  and  how  he  became  a  liberated  man. 


50 


Shahan,  Kay  Salmon  (Specialist  in  Education,  Business  Education, 
August,  1975) 

AN  EXPERIMENT  TO  DETERMINE  THE  EFFECTIVENESS 

OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  PROGRESS  METHOD  AND 

THE  TRADITIONAL  METHOD 

IN  TEACHING  SHORTHAND 

The  problem  of  this  study  was  to  compare  the  achievement  of  high 
school  students  who  were  taught  shorthand  by  the  Individual  Prog- 
ress Method  with  students  who  were  taught  shorthand  by  the  Tradi- 
tional Method. 

Four  teachers  were  involved  in  the  study.  Two  taught  their 
classes  by  the  Individual  Progress  Method  (experimental  group)  and 
two  taught  their  classes  by  the  Traditional  Method  (control  group). 

The  experimental  group  learned  shorthand  through  the  use  of 
cassette  tapes,  programmed  for  each  lesson.  Students  in  this  group 
were  allowed  to  progress  at  his  own  rate  with  no  restrictions  on  the 
time  taken  to  complete  each  lesson.  The  control  group  learned  short- 
hand through  teacher-directed  activities,  according  to  the  sugges- 
tions in  the  handbook  accompanying  the  traditional  shorthand  text- 
book. Students  in  this  group  progressed  in  unison,  covering  one  lesson 
a  day. 

Data  were  collected  from  theory  tests,  shorthand  reading  tests, 
transcription  tests,  and  dictation  tests.  These  tests  were  analyzed 
through  the  use  of  the  t  test  to  determine  significance. 

Based  upon  the  findings  of  the  study,  the  following  conclusions 
were  reached: 

L  There  is  no  significant  diff"erence  in  achievement  on  theory 
tests  between  the  experimental  group  and  the  control  group  which 
can  be  attributed  to  the  two  methods  of  teaching  shorthand.  Two  of 
these  tests  were  significant.  One  was  favorable  to  the  experimental 
group,  and  the  other  was  favorable  to  the  control  group.  Therefore, 
the  general  conclusion  is  still  substantiated. 

2.  There  is  a  significant  difference  in  achievement  on  reading 
tests  between  the  experimental  group  and  the  control  group  which 
can  be  attributed  to  the  Traditional  Method  of  teaching  shorthand. 

3.  There  is  no  significant  difference  in  the  achievement  on  tran- 
scription tests  between  the  experimental  group  and  the  control  group 
which  can  be  attributed  to  the  two  methods  of  teaching  shorthand. 
Two  of  these  tests  were  significant.  One  was  favorable  to  the  experi- 
mental group,  and  the  other  was  favorable  to  the  control  group. 
Therefore,  the  general  conclusion  is  still  substantiated. 

4.  There  is  no  significant  difference  is  the  achievement  on  dic- 
tation tests  between  the  experimental  group  and  the  control  group 

51 


which  can  be  attributed  to  the  two  methods  of  teaching  shorthand. 

5.  The  Individual  Progress  Method  is  more  effective  in  learning 
shorthand  theory  and  developing  dictation  skills  than  it  is  in  develop- 
ing reading  ability. 

6.  The  individual  Progress  Method  has  no  adverse  effect  on 
achievement  of  the  students  taught  by  this  method. 

Smith,  David  A.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Su- 
pervision, August,  1975) 

AN   ANALYSIS   OF  ATTITUDES   HELD   BY   FORMER   STU- 
DENTS TOWARD  WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE'S  GRADUATE 
PROGRAM  IN  ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION 

This  study  represented  an  effort  to  obtain  opinions  of  former  grad- 
uate students  concerning  West  Georgia  College's  Administra- 
tion/Supervision program.  Its  general  purpose  was  three-fold.  First, 
to  learn  the  perceptions  of  former  students  toward  their  adequacies 
in  their  administrative  or  supervisory  role.  Second,  the  student's  per- 
ceptions of  the  adequacies  of  the  preparation  program;  and  finally, 
suggestions  for  improvement  of  the  Administration/Supervision  pro- 
gram. 

The  data  were  collected  by  means  of  a  questionnaire  mailed 
directly  to  all  persons  who  have  completed  the  Master  of  Education 
Degree  or  Specialist  in  Education  Degree  programs  in  Administra- 
tion/Supervision at  West  Georgia  College.  The  questionnaire  was 
divided  into  sections  dealing  with  personal  information,  perception 
of  their  administrative  or  supervisory  role  adequacy,  preparation 
given  by  the  program,  suggested  improvement  for  the  program,  and 
possible  differences  between  on-campus  and  off-campus  courses. 

The  data  collected  and  developed  revealed  a  majority  of  the 
former  students  perceived  their  adequacy  in  their  administrative  or 
supervisory  role  as  above  average  or  excellent.  Ninety-six  per  cent  of 
the  respondents  stated  that  they  would  recommend  West  Georgia 
College's  Administration/Supervision  program  to  a  fellow  teacher. 

Spiuey,  Cathryn  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
August,  1975) 

A  STUDY  TO  COMPARE  VIEWS 

OF  STUDENTS,  PARENTS,  AND  SCHOOL  PERSONNEL 

WITH  RESPECT  TO  THE  GOALS  OF  SECONDARY  SOCIAL 

STUDIES 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  compare  views  of  students,  par- 

52 


ents,  teachers,  and  school  administrators  of  Cobb  County  concerning 
the  objectives  of  the  secondary  social  studies  program.  Students  for 
this  study  were  randomly  selected  at  Robert  L.  Osborne  Senior  High 
School.  The  parents  for  the  study  were  also  randomly  selected  from 
the  Osborne  Senior  High  School  District.  All  social  studies  teachers 
and  all  administrators  in  the  nine  senior  high  schools  of  Cobb  County 
were  asked  to  participate  in  the  survey.  The  four  groups  ranked 
twelve  objectives  of  the  secondary  social  studies  program  which  had 
been  extracted  from  the  writings  of  leading  social  studies  educators 
and  from  the  Cobb  County  Public  Schools  Course  Guide.  An  analysis 
of  variance  was  computed  to  determine  whether  or  not  actual  differ- 
ences existed  in  the  rankings  of  the  four  groups.  The  results  revealed 
that  differences  existed  in  the  ranking  of  ten  of  the  objectives  to  the 
degree  that  further  study  was  warranted.  Another  analysis  of  vari- 
ance was  computed  for  differences  in  the  means  for  students-parents, 
students-teachers,  students-administrators,  parents-teachers, 
parents-administrators,  and  teachers-administrators.  It  was  con- 
cluded that  significant  differences  do  exist  among  the  four  groups 
compared  concerning  the  objectives  of  secondary  social  studies  pro- 
grams. The  comparisons  found  the  teachers  to  be  the  group  most 
cognitive  oriented  while  students  were  oriented  more  toward  affective 
objectives. 

Steele,  James  L.,  Sr.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, June,  1975) 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  FUNCTIONAL  USE  OF 
STRUCTURAL  ANALYSIS  SKILLS  ON  SPECIALIZED 
VOCABULARY  IN  SIXTH  GRADE  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

A  study  was  conducted  to  compare  the  achievement  of  two  groups 
in  specialized  social  studies  vocabulary.  Group  A  was  taught  social 
studies  vocabulary  by  a  systematic  method  emphasizing  structural 
analysis  and  dictionary  study  skills  in  a  functional,  content-centered 
approach.  Group  B  was  taught  by  the  teachers'  usual  methods. 

The  classes  in  Group  A  and  B  were  heterogeneously  grouped. 
They  were  considered  equivalent  because  assignment  to  classes  was 
a  random  process.  Eight  teachers  were  involved  in  this  study.  The 
researcher  was  not  one  of  the  teachers  involved. 

A  posttest  equivalent  group  design  was  used  in  the  study.  The 
data  were  analyzed  by  a  t-test  of  the  significance  of  the  difference 
between  the  means.  The  results  of  the  comparison  reveal  that  follow- 
ing a  systematic  method  for  teaching  specialized  social  studies  vocab- 
ulary was  not  more  effective  than  having  teachers  follow  their  usual 
methods  for  teaching. 

53 


Tyson,  George  R.,  Jr.  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1975) 

AN  INTEGRATED  COGNITIVE  AND  AFFECTIVE  APPROACH 
TO  EARLY  CHILDHOOD  AND  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

This  thesis  is  an  experiential  and  theoretical  investigation  into 
early  childhood  and  elementary  education.  The  author's  aim  is  to 
stress  the  importance  of  a  well-integrated  cognitive  and  affective  ap- 
proach to  education. 

Chapter  I  is  an  experiential  account  of  the  author's  personal 
feelings  and  concerns  regarding  his  child's  growth  and  development. 

Chapter  II  is  a  report  of  some  interesting  developments  in  infant 
and  preschool  education. 

Chapter  III  is  an  integrated  (cognitive  and  affective)  approach 
to  an  elementary  education  for  the  whole  child. 

Chapter  IV  reports  some  of  the  costs  and  benefits  such  education 
may  offer  our  society. 

Vaughn,  Eldridge  V.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, August,  1975) 

THE  ROLE  OF  THE  COUNSELOR:  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  WHAT  IT 

SHOULD  BE  AS  PERCEIVED  BY  STUDENTS,  TEACHERS, 

COUNSELORS  AND  ADMINISTRATORS  OF  COLLINS  HIGH 

SCHOOL,  COLLEGE  PARK,  GEORGIA 

This  descriptive  study  sought  to  appraise  the  merits  and/or  defi- 
ciencies of  the  guidance  program  at  M.  D.  Collins  High  School,  Col- 
lege Park,  Georgia  as  they  are  viewed  by  the  students,  teachers,  coun- 
selors, and  administrators  and  to  define  the  role  of  the  counselor  in 
this  program.  Opinions  were  sought  concerning  what  is  now  occurring 
in  the  program  and  what  should  be  occurring  as  perceived  by  the  four 
groups.  These  opinions  were  considered  indications  of  what  the 
groups  perceive  to  be  the  role  of  the  counselor  as  practiced  and  what 
they  perceive  to  be  the  ideal  role. 

The  Georgia  Guidance  Services  Inventory  was  administered  to 
all  students,  teachers,  counselors,  and  administrators  at  the  school. 
This  instrument  uses  a  survey  technique  to  obtain  ratings  by  each  of 
the  groups  on  five  factors  or  areas  of  the  guidance  program.  Mean 
factor  scores  were  computed  on  each  of  the  factors  for  each  of  the 
populations  studied. 


54 


Wade,  Priscilla  M.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood  Educa- 
tion, August,  1975) 

THE  STUDY  OF  THE  EFFECTS  OF  EARLY  CHILDHOOD 

METHODS  AND  LANGUAGE  ARTS  PROGRAMMING  ON 

BLOCK  STUDENTS  AT  WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 

AFTER  ENTERING  THE  TEACHING  PROFESSION 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  results  of  an  atti- 
tude questionaire  concerning  the  effects  of  early  childhood  methods 
and  language  arts  programming  on  the  block  students  at  West  Geor- 
gia College  after  they  have  entered  the  teaching  profession. 

Fifty-two  questionaire  results  were  tabulated.  The  results 
showed  that  the  students  felt  favorable  about  the  early  childhood 
methods  and  language  arts  block  programming  at  West  Georgia  Col- 
lege. 

Young,  Elizabeth  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood  Edu- 
cation, August,  1975) 

A  MEASURE  OF  THE  SPEECH  INTELLIGIBILITY 

OF  A  VERBOTONALLY  TRAINED 

DEAF  CHILD 

This  study  was  designed  to  evaluate  the  speech  of  a  four  year  old 
deaf  child  who  had  been  trained  for  a  period  of  two  years  by  the 
Verbotonal  Method  of  Instruction  for  the  Deaf.  Ann  was  one  chosen 
from  seven  four  and  five  year  old  nursery  pupils  who  had  been 
grouped  according  to  ability  and  who  were  tutored  individually  for 
approximately  ten  minutes  daily.  She  was  chosen  as  one  who  was 
profoundly  deaf,  without  other  complications  and  who  had  exhibited 
a  readiness  to  learn.  For  twenty  days  Ann's  tutoring  involved  five 
expressions  that  were  taught  in  sequence,  using  a  situational  story 
involving  a  man  and  boy  crossing  the  street. 

Eighteen  pairs  of  judges  were  chosen  with  the  qualifying  factors 
of  whether  they  were  familiar  or  unfamiliar  with  the  voice  and  speech 
of  the  deaf.  Each  judge  was  given  a  test  sheet  to  mark  in  the  order 
he  heard  the  five  recorded  expressions  that  Ann  had  been  taught.  The 
Pearson  Product-Moment  formula,  using  a  raw  score  method,  was 
appropriate  for  computing  the  coefficient  of  correlation  of  the  judges. 

The  analysis  showed  a  high  relationship  between  the  scores  of  the 
two  groups  of  judges,  indicating  the  acceptance  of  the  hypothesis  that 
the  Verbotonal  method  is  effective  in  speech  training  for  a  deaf  child 
and  that  the  speech  was  equally  intelligible  to  those  familiar  and 
those  unfamiliar  with  the  speech  of  the  deaf. 

55 


Young,  Frances  T.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 

August,  1975) 

STUDENT  GROWTH  IN  INTERPRETATION 
OF  LITERARY  MATERIALS:  SELF-DIRECTION  VS.  TEACHER 

DIRECTION 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  effect  of  teacher- 
directed  activities  as  opposed  to  a  student-directed  approach  on  de- 
veloping eleventh  grade  students'  skills  in  interpreting  literature.  The 
reading  section  of  the  Iowa  Test  of  Academic  Progress  was  used  as  a 
pretest  and  posttest  to  determine  student  progress.  IQ  scores  from  the 
Otis  Quick-Scoring  Test  of  Mental  Ability  were  used  to  match  stu- 
dents as  pairs  in  the  control  and  experimental  groups.  A  t-test  was 
used  at  the  end  of  the  study  to  determine  whether  students  had  made 
significant  progress  at  the  .05  level. 

Two  classes  of  eleventh  grade  students  assigned  to  American 
literature  classes  at  Pebblebrook  High  School,  Mableton,  Georgia, 
were  used  to  select  control  and  experimental  groups  during  winter 
and  spring  quarters  of  1974-1975.  The  findings  showed  no  significant 
diff"erence  between  the  progress  of  students  who  were  allowed  to  de- 
termine their  own  activities  in  the  interpretation  of  literature  and  in 
the  progress  of  those  who  were  taught  by  a  teacher-directed  approach. 

Beasley,  William  M.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
August,  1976) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  ATTITUDES 

OF  THE  JUNIOR  AND  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  LEVELS 

OF  CERTAIN  SOCIAL  STUDIES  CONCEPTS 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  identify  differences  in  the  likes 
and  dislikes  of  junior  high  school  students  and  senior  high  school 
students  in  regard  to  several  teaching  methods  and  certain  social 
studies  concepts. 

The  subjects  for  this  study  were  students  from  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  at  Woodstock  Elementary  School  and  students  from 
the  ninth,  tenth  and  eleventh  grades  at  Cherokee  High  School  in 
Cherokee  County,  Georgia.  These  students  were  randomly  selected 
from  social  studies  classes  at  these  two  schools. 

The  survey  to  which  these  students  responded  consisted  of  eight- 
een statements  dealing  with  teaching  methods  and  curriculum  con- 
tent in  the  social  studies.  This  survey  was  constructed  from  an  open 
line  questionnaire  that  asked  junior  high  school  students  and  senior 

56 


high  school  students  what  they  hked  and  disHked  about  their  social 
studies  courses. 

This  study  found  that  junior  high  school  students  tended  to  have 
a  more  positive  attitude  toward  school  than  did  senior  high  school 
students.  Boys  generally  preferred  the  study  of  military  and  political 
history  while  girls  generally  preferred  the  study  of  cultural  history. 
Girls  tended  to  favor  the  study  of  cultural  geography,  sociology  and 
government  more  than  did  boys. 

Blake,  Joy  T.    (Specialist  in  Education,   Secondary  Education, 
March,  1976) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  READABILITY  LEVELS  OF  SELECTED 

STATE  ADOPTED  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

TEXTBOOKS  IN  USE  IN  THE  NORTHWEST 

GEORGIA  CESA  AREA 

Two  instruments  for  measuring  readability  were  applied  to  four- 
teen selected  state-adopted  United  States  history  texts  frequently 
used  at  the  secondary  level.  According  to  results  produced  by  the  Fry 
Readability  Graph,  only  two  of  the  books  were  found  to  be  above 
designated  grade  level.  The  SMOG  Grading  Formula,  however, 
placed  eleven  of  the  fourteen  texts  above  grade  level.  Readability 
levels  profuced  by  application  of  the  two  formulas  were  then  com- 
pared to  tested  reading  achievement  levels  of  students  in  an  area 
school  system  in  order  to  provide  a  further  basis  for  consideration  of 
results  of  the  formulas. 

Blake,  Martha  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education,  June, 
1976) 

RESEARCH  IN  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT: 
A  SYNTHESIS  FOR  CLASSROOM  USE  IN  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

This  paper  reviews  recent  research  and  theory  in  the  field  of  moral 
development.  Its  purpose  is  to  synthesize  those  results  and  data 
which  influence  moral  growth  into  a  planned  and  purposeful  program 
of  moral  development  for  secondary  public  schools. 

It  is  developed  primarily  from  Kohlberg's  research  in  moral  de- 
velopment. It  integrates  other  research  and  data  which  appear  to 
supplement  or  reinforce  Kohlberg's  conclusions. 

As  such,  it  presents  a  program  of  education  which  offers  maxi- 
mum opportunity  for  the  moral  development  of  the  student  as  to  his 
potential  both  in  moral  judgment  and  in  moral  action,  while  avoiding 

57 


(by  its  very  nature)  the  two  extremes  of  aimlessness  and  of  indoctri- 
nation. Both  the  cognitive  and  affective  domain  are  recognized  as 
important  to  this  process. 

Recent  trends  and  innovations  in  the  new  social  studies  are  inte- 
grated into  this  program  which  may  be  utilized  by  a  system,  a  school, 
or  an  individual  classroom  teacher. 

Brannon,  Sharon  A.  (MA,  English,  August,  1976) 

SUT  LOVINGOOD:  RENAISSANCE  FOOL  IN  EAST  TENNES- 
SEE 

George  Washington  Harris  created  Sut  Lovingood  as  a  "nat'ral 
born  durn'd  fool."  To  what  extent  Sut  is  a  "fool"  in  the  traditional 
sense  of  the  word  is  examined  in  this  paper. 

The  first  chapter  deals  with  the  proper  definition  of  a  "nat'ral 
fool"  and  its  uses  from  its  first  application  in  Greece  and  Rome  to  the 
Renaissance.  The  Renaissance  fool  is  especially  examined  and  the 
distinction  between  a  natural  fool  and  an  artificial  fool  discussed. 
The  characteristics  of  the  artificial  fool  examined  are:  his  grotesque- 
ness,  his  alienation  from  his  surroundings,  his  freedom  of  expression 
and  action,  and  especially  his  wisdom  and  his  uncanny  knack  for 
exposing  the  truth.  These  are  the  basic  characteristics  of  the  artificial 
fool  and  can  be  seen  in  varying  degrees  in  the  Shakespearean  fools 
who  are  examined:  Launcelot  Gobbo,  Touchstone,  Feste,  FalstafF, 
and  Lear's  Fool. 

The  second  section  compares  the  buffoon,  Till  Eulenspiegel,  Er- 
asmus' Folly,  and  the  Shakespearean  fools  cited  in  the  first  chapter 
with  Sut  Lovingood.  It  shows  the  similarities  between  these  Renais- 
sance fools  and  the  Tennessee  fool:  he  escapes  from  unpleasant  situa- 
tions by  relying  on  his  legs  like  Eulenspiegel  and  Gobbo;  he  is  a  wise 
fool  much  like  Folly  and  Touchstone;  he  is  grotesque  in  appearance 
like  Falstaff";  he  often  exposes  Puritans  like  Feste  and  like  Feste  and 
Falstaff  relishes  the  here  and  now;  he  has  a  sense  of  humanity  and 
respects  the  sincere,  downtrodden  man  as  does  Lear's  Fool. 

The  final  chapter  deals  exclusively  with  Sut  and  his  characteris- 
tics as  fool.  Through  an  examination  of  his  traits  as  well  as  numerous 
examples  we  see  that  Sut  Lovingood  is  indeed  a  "wise  fool"  of  the 
Renaissance,  grotesque  in  appearance  and  candid  and  honest  in  his 
remarks,  exposing  the  affectations  of  hypocrites  while  uplifting  the 
common  man. 


58 


Carroll,  Valeria  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1976) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  ACHIEVEMENT  IN  FRACTIONS 

BETWEEN  INDIVIDUALIZED  INSTRUCTION  AND 

LARGE  GROUP  INSTRUCTION 

This  study  was  designed  to  compare  results  of  two  methods  of 
instruction,  individualized  and  large  group,  in  arithmetic  in  the  area 
of  fractions. 

Subjects  used  in  this  study  were  students  of  two  sixth  grade 
classes  with  a  wide  range  of  abilities.  One  of  these  classes  composed 
the  experimental  group,  the  other  the  control  group.  There  were  fifty- 
six  students  in  both  groups  at  the  beginning  of  the  study  but  only 
forty-nine  completed  the  experiment.  The  subjects  of  both  groups 
were  similar  in  age,  sex,  and  economic  status. 

A  teacher-made  diagnostic  test  was  used  in  the  study  as  both 
pretest  and  posttest.  The  pretest  was  given  to  both  groups  on  April 
3,  1975,  and  the  posttest  on  May  1,  1975,  at  the  end  of  the  four-week 
treatment  period.  Weekly  tests  were  administered  during  the  period 
to  check  the  progress  of  material  covered. 

The  t  test  was  used  to  analyze  the  data  and  the  null  hypotheses 
were  not  rejected  at  the  .05  level  of  significance  with  the  exception 
of  hypothesis  1  which  was  rejected. 

Conclusions  were  that,  although  the  change  from  the  pretest  to 
the  posttest  was  not  significant  for  either  group,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  mean  changes  was  significant  in  favor  of  the  experimental 
group.  The  control  group  means  for  the  weekly  tests  were  slightly 
higher  than  the  experimental  group  means  on  the  four  basic  opera- 
tions of  fractions  through  this  was  not  significant.  It  was  recom- 
mended that  a  validity  and  reliability  pilot  study  be  made  on  testing. 

Chambers,  Margie  F.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, August,  1976) 

AN  EVALUATION  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  KINDERGARTEN 

EXPERIENCE,  SEX,  AND  CHRONOLOGICAL 

AGE  ON  READING  READINESS  IN 

PAULDING  COUNTY,  GEORGIA 

This  study  was  to  determine  whether  kindergarten  experience, 
sex,  or  chronological  age  affected  reading  readiness  of  first  graders. 
A  data  collection  form  was  distributed  to  all  first  grade  teachers  in 
the  Paulding  County  School  System.  The  form  obtained  the  following 
information  for  each  student:  sex,  birth  date,  date  of  the  readiness 

59 


testing,  raw  score  on  the  Metropolitan  Readiness  Test,  Form  A,  kin- 
dergarten experience,  the  length  of  the  kindergarten  experience,  and 
whether  the  kindergarten  was  public  or  private. 

After  the  data  were  collected,  the  subjects  were  divided  into  two 
groups  designated  kindergarten  and  non-kindergarten  groups.  The 
criteria  for  inclusion  were  one  year  of  kindergarten  experience  or  no 
kindergarten  experience.  All  repeaters  were  disregarded  for  the  study. 
The  kindergarten  group  was  comprised  of  138  children,  67  boys  and 
71  girls.  The  non-kindergarten  group  was  comprised  of  158  children, 
77  boys  and  81  girls. 

Three  null  hypotheses  were  tested: 

1.  There  is  no  significant  difference  between  the  performance 
of  kindergarteners  and  non-kindergarteners  on  the  Metropolitan 
Readiness  Test,  Form  A. 

2.  There  is  no  significant  difference  between  the  performance 
of  males  and  females  on  the  Metropolitan  Readiness  Test,  Form  A. 

3.  There  is  no  significant  correlation  between  the  age  in  months 
and  the  readiness  score  on  the  Metropolitan  Readiness  Test,  Form  A. 

Analyses  of  variance  were  used  to  test  hypotheses  one  and  two. 
A  correlation  coefficient  was  computed  to  test  hypothesis  three.  The 
.05  level  of  significance  was  used  as  the  level  at  which  the  hypotheses 
would  be  rejected. 

The  results  indicated  that  kindergarten  experience  significantly 
affected  reading  readiness  scores.  It  especially  benefitted  the  girls. 
However,  sex  did  not  appear  to  be  a  determining  factor  for  readiness, 
since  when  the  female  non-kindergarteners  were  compared  to  the 
male  non-kindergarteners,  they  were  almost  exactly  equal  in  reading 
readiness. 

The  correlation  coefficient  found  that  age  and  readiness  were 
significantly  related  for  both  boys  and  girls  at  the  .05  level  of  signifi- 
cance. But  the  coefficient  was  relatively  small  and  could  not  be  safely 
used  as  the  sole  determining  factor  for  the  placement  of  students. 

When  all  results  were  analyzed,  the  first  and  third  hypotheses 
were  rejected.  The  second  hypothesis  was  supported  by  the  fact  that 
the  two  non-kindergarten  group  means  on  readiness  were  almost  ex- 
actly equal. 

The  study  concluded  that  kindergarten  experience  especially  was 
a  determining  factor  in  reading  readiness.  A  significant  correlation 
was  found  between  the  age  and  performance  on  the  Metropolitan 
Readiness  Test.  However,  the  coefficient  was  low  and  therefore,  age 
alone  should  not  be  the  only  factor  used  in  placement  of  students. 
Also  concluded  from  the  study  was  the  fact  that  the  variable  sex  did 
not  affect  reading  readiness.  The  findings  suggested  that  girls  adapt 
more  readily  to  school  experience,  but  that  the  sex  of  a  child  did  not 

60 


have  any  bearing.  This  suggestion  certainly  merits  further  investiga- 
tion. 


Collins,  Susanne  S.  (SpeciaHst  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel- 
ing, August,  1976) 

PEER  COUNSELING  WITH  POTENTIAL 
HIGH  SCHOOL  DROP-OUTS 

This  study  was  designed  to  determine  if  peer  counseling  with 
freshmen  potential  drop-outs  in  high  school  would  have  a  significant 
effect  on  grade  point  average,  study  habits  and  attitudes. 

A  total  of  eighty-seven  ninth  grade  students  were  administered 
the  Survey  of  Study  Habits  and  Attitudes.  Forty-two  students  were 
below  the  50th  percentile  in  almost  all  areas  on  the  survey.  Of  these 
forty-two  students,  twenty-four  students  met  the  criteria  set  up  to 
identify  potential  drop-outs.  These  twenty-four  students  were  div- 
ided equally  into  two  groups.  The  experimental  group  received  peer 
counseling  for  twelve  weeks  and  the  control  group  received  no  coun- 
seling. 

At  the  end  of  a  twelve  week  period,  the  t  test  was  used  to  find 
the  significant  difference  in  the  means  of  Winter  quarter  grade  point 
averages  of  both  groups.  There  was  no  significant  difference. 

The  experimental  group  was  administered  the  Survey  of  Study 
Habits  and  Attitudes  a  second  time.  The  t  test  was  applied  to  find 
the  significant  difference  in  the  means  of  the  study  orientation  scores 
of  both  groups.  It  was  found  that  there  was  a  significant  difference 
in  study  orientation  of  the  experimental  group. 

It  is  concluded  that  peer  counseling  has  little  effect  on  grade 
point  averages  in  a  short  period  of  time.  However,  peer  counseling 
does  improve  study  habits  and  attitudes. 

Cook,  Charles  A.  (MA,  History,  August,  1976) 

THE  OCONEE  FRONTIER 
THE  ADVANCE  OF  GEORGIA  TO  THE  OCONEE  RIVER 

The  purpose  of  this  thesis  is  to  trace  the  advance  of  Georgia  from 
the  Ogeechee  to  the  Oconee  River.  A  major  concern  is  the  process  by 
which  the  Creek  Indians  were  forced  to  give  up  their  territory  to  land 
hungry  settlers  advancing  against  Indians  who  were  determined  to 
hold  onto  their  land.  The  end  result  was  frontier  warfare  which  re- 
sulted in  deaths  and  a  deep  and  abiding  hatred  on  each  side.  Ulti- 
mately the  settlers,  due  to  their  greater  numbers  and  more  advanced 

61 


technology,  gained  control  of  the  land  they  coveted. 

Beyond  the  struggle  for  the  land  itself  along  an  advancing  fron- 
tier, there  was  an  international  situation  born  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution and  not  fully  resolved  until  the  United  States  asserted  itself 
as  a  self-reliant  nation.  It  is  the  object  of  this  thesis  to  fully  explain 
and  expound  upon  internationall  events  which  played  a  vital  role  in 
Georgia's  acquisition  of  the  Creek  Oconee  Territory.  At  the  close  of 
the  American  Revolution,  the  Creeks  stood  a  semi-independent  peo- 
ple. Although  deserted  by  their  former  British  allies,  Britain,  Spain, 
and  the  United  States  served  as  potential  allies  to  be  used  by  the 
Creeks.  Alexander  McGillivray  rose  to  power  as  the  most  influential 
Creek  Chief.  It  was  his  skill  at  international  diplomacy  which  main- 
tained a  balance  between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  thus  allowing 
the  Creeks  to  remain  independent.  Only  after  the  death  of  McGilli- 
vray was  the  issue  of  Georgia's  control  of  the  Oconee  Territory  settled 
and  the  Creeks  reduced  to  the  status  of  wards  of  the  United  States. 

The  thesis  further  deals  with  the  struggle  between  Georgia  and 
the  national  government  for  control  of  Indian  affairs.  Georgia  under 
the  Articles  of  Confederation  asserted  her  right  to  sole  control  of  the 
Indians  within  her  territory.  The  end  result  was  the  making  of  three 
treaties  with  the  Creeks  for  the  Oconee  Territory,  none  of  which  was 
recognized  by  a  majority  of  the  Creeks.  After  the  Constitution  was 
adopted,  the  United  States  took  over  Indian  relations.  The  first  at- 
tempt of  the  national  government  to  resolve  the  issue  by  drafting  a 
treaty  for  the  granting  of  the  Oconee  Territory  to  Georgia  also  failed. 
It  was  only  after  the  death  of  McGillivray  that  a  final  compromise 
treaty  was  drafted.  Under  the  Treaty  of  Coleraine  of  1796,  not  only 
did  the  Oconee  Territory  finally  become  a  permanent  part  of  Georgia, 
but  the  Creeks  became  wards  of  the  United  States.  This  was  not  the 
end  the  struggle  of  the  Creeks  to  hold  on  to  their  territory  and  auton- 
omy as  a  people,  but  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  end. 

Cuff,  Jelene  B.  (MA,  English,  August,  1976) 

LILITH  AND  EVE  IN  NINETEENTH  CENTURY  AMERICAN 
FICTION:  MELVILLE  AND  HAWTHORNE 

This  thesis  is  an  examination  of  the  ancient  ideas  and  experiences 
that  were  the  basis  of  the  archetypal  dual  personifications  of  woman 
as  Good  and  woman  as  Evil  in  religious  and  literary  myth,  folklore, 
poetry,  and  prose.  The  earliest  recorded  personifications  of  these  ex- 
tremes, Lilith  and  Eve,  are  traced  from  their  conception  through 
western  literature.  Particular  attention  is  given  to  the  predominance 
of  these  figures  in  the  romance  genre.  The  figure  of  man  as  Adam  is 
also  discussed  in  its  symbolic  relationship  to  these  two  female  figures. 

62 


The  nature  of  American  literature  is  then  discussed,  with  special 
emphasis  on  the  wide  use  of  these  three  archetypal  figures  and  the 
Garden  of  Eden  story  in  our  native  literature.  The  focus  of  the  study 
then  narrows  to  particular  American  authors  and  their  uses  of  this 
device.  Finally,  two  romance-novels,  Pierre  or  the  Ambiguities  by 
Herman  Melville  and  The  Marble  Faun  by  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  are 
discussed  in  greater  detail,  noting  specifically  the  similarities  be- 
tween the  two  works  in  their  use  of  these  dual  archetypal  female 
figures,  their  symbolic  characterizations  of  Adam,  Lilith,  and  Eve, 
their  comparative  themes,  and  their  kindred  plots. 

Culp,  Juanita  H.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1976) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY:  TWO  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
READING— PROGRAMMED  READING  AND  READING 

SYSTEMS 

The  study  was  conducted  to  determine  whether  statistically  there 
would  be  a  significant  difference  in  the  mean  reading  achievement  if 
third-grade  remedial  reading  pupils  studied  in  Sullivan  Programmed 
BRL  linguistic  reading  materials  or  if  they  studied  in  Scott  Foresman 
Systems  congnitive-linguistic  reading  materials. 

An  intact  group  of  twenty-six  third-grade  pupils  who  were  expe- 
riencing reading  difficulties  were  ordered  into  matched  pairs  accord- 
ing to  similar  pretest  scores  on  the  California  Upper  Primary  Reading 
Test,  Pretest  Form  W.  One  member  from  each  pair  was  assigned  to 
each  of  the  two  experimental  groups.  Upon  termination  of  the  experi- 
ment, the  posttest  of  the  aforementioned  test  was  administered  to  the 
twenty-two  pupils  remaining  in  the  experiment. 

A  pretest-posttest  randomized  blocks  research  design  with  the  t 
test  was  used  to  test  the  hypotheses.  The  eight  criterion  variables  for 
the  hypotheses  were  the  scores  from  each  subtest  and  total  test  of  the 
California  Reading  Test.  The  experiment  was  conducted  during 
eighty  consecutive  school  days. 

The  t  test  was  applied  to  analyze  the  difference  between  the 
means  on  each  criterion.  At  the  .05  significance  level  none  of  the  null 
hypotheses  were  rejected. 


63 


Curry,  James  Linton,  Jr.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Edu 
cation,  August,  1976) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  TEACHER  ENCOURAGEMENT  AND 

EXPECTATIONS  ON  THE  SPELLING  TEST  SCORES  OF 

SIXTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

In  order  to  determine  the  effects  of  teacher  encouragement  and 
expectations  on  the  spelling  test  scores  of  sixth  grade  students,  the 
following  study  was  conducted.  The  27  students  involved  were  in  the 
sixth  grade  at  Garden  Lakes  School  in  Rome,  Georgia.  In  order  to 
assure  statistical  soundness,  randomization  procedures  were  em- 
ployed. Fourteen  students  composed  the  experimental  group.  Thir- 
teen students  composed  the  control  group. 

At  the  onset  of  the  study,  a  sixty  spelling  word  pretest  was  ad- 
ministered. The  first  twenty  words  of  the  pretest  were  then  used  as 
the  instructional  material  for  the  first  week  of  the  study;  the  second 
twenty  were  used  the  second  week;  the  third  twenty  were  used  the 
third  week.  The  same  sixty  words  were  also  used  as  the  posttest. 
Students  were  not  told  that  they  were  taking  part  in  a  research  study. 

Weekly  "pep  talks"  served  as  encouragement  to  the  experimen- 
tal group.  All  other  conditions  were  the  same  for  both  groups. 

Statistical  findings  indicated  that  a  significant  difference  oc- 
cured  only  when  comparing  the  first  week's  mean  quiz  score  of  the 
experimental  group  with  the  first  week's  mean  quiz  score  of  the  con- 
trol group.  Statistical  significance  was  not  realized  when  comparing 
the  second  week's  mean  quiz  score  and  the  third  week's  mean  quiz 
score  of  the  experimental  group  with  the  corresponding  mean  quiz 
scores  of  the  control  group.  Likewise,  no  significant  difference  was 
realized  when  comparing  the  mean  of  the  gain  scores  of  the  pre  and 
posttests  for  the  experimental  group  with  the  mean  of  the  gain  scores 
of  the  pre  and  posttests  for  the  control  group. 

It  was  concluded  that  the  results  of  this  study  indicate  that 
teacher  encouragement  and  expectations  may  sometimes  signifi- 
cantly affect  the  performance  of  students  and  at  other  times  may  not. 


64 


Davenport,  Sibyl  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
August,  1976) 

HETEROGENEOUS  GROUPING  VERSUS  HOMOGENEOUS 

GROUPING  BY  CLASSROOMS  IN  THE  SECOND  GRADE  AT 

BUCHANAN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  AND  THE  EFFECTS  OF 

EACH  ON  ACHIEVEMENT  AND  ATTITUDE 

This  study  was  designed  to  compare  results  of  grouping  heteroge- 
neously  and  homogeneously. 

Subjects  used  in  this  study  were  all  the  second  grade  pupils  in 
Buchanan  Elementary  School.  One  third  of  the  pupils  were  selected 
with  a  wide  range  of  abilities  (Group  1).  The  rest  were  divided  into  a 
high  group  (Group  2)  and  a  low  group  (Group  3)  with  less  range  in 
abilities.  There  were  eighty-five  involved  in  the  study  but  only 
seventy-five  completed  the  study.  The  study  lasted  approximately 
seven  months. 

The  Metropolitan  Achievement  Tests  and  Animal  Crackers  atti- 
tude tests  were  used  as  pre  and  posttests.  The  Otis  Lennon  Mental 
Ability  Test  was  administered  to  measure  IQ. 

The  gain  score  between  pre  and  posttests  were  used  as  a  measure 
of  the  dependent  variables:  self  concept,  word  knowledge,  word  anal- 
ysis, reading,  total  reading,  spelling,  mathematics  computation, 
mathematics  concepts,  mathematics  problem  solving,  total  mathe- 
matics. Analysis  of  covariance  with  IQ  as  the  covariate  was  used  and 
six  of  the  hypotheses  were  rejected  at  the  .05  level  of  significance. 

Results  of  the  analysis  indicated  significant  differences  on  six  of 
the  dependent  variables  with  Group  2  scoring  significantly  higher 
than  Group  1  and  Group  3  on  word  knowledge,  mathematics  compu- 
tation, mathematics  problem  solving,  and  total  mathematics.  How- 
ever, Group  3  scored  significantly  higher  than  Groups  1  and  2  on 
reading.  On  total  reading  Group  2  was  significantly  higher  than 
Group  1  and  Group  3  was  significantly  higher  than  Group  1. 

Davis,  Cynthia  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel- 
ing, March,  1976) 

PERSONALITY  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  JUNIOR  COLLEGE 
SPECIAL  STUDIES  STUDENTS 

An  investigation  of  the  personality  characteristics  of  students  en- 
rolled in  a  junior  college  Special  Studies  program  was  conducted. 
Special  Studies  males  and  females  under  21  years  of  age  were  com- 
pared to  control  groups  of  regularly  admitted  freshmen  using  the 
Sixteen  Personality  Factor  Questionnaire.  Within  the  Special  Stud- 

65 


ies  subject  group,  male  and  female  students  under  21  were  also  com- 
pared with  students  21  and  over. 

It  was  found  that  young  Special  Studies  males  are  more  outgo- 
ing, warmhearted,  and  participating  than  regularly  admitted  fresh- 
men. They  tend  to  be  calmer  and  less  easily  upset  as  well  as  more 
venturesome,  socially  bold  and  uninhibited  than  other  freshmen. 

Young  Special  Studies  females  are  less  intelligent  and  more  con- 
crete in  their  thinking  than  regularly  admitted  females.  They  also 
appear  to  be  more  dependent,  over-protected,  and  sensitive. 

Older  Special  Studies  students  of  both  sexes  are  more  trusting, 
adaptable,  and  easy  to  get  on  with  than  younger  students.  It  seems 
that  young  Special  Studies  students  have  a  tendency  to  be  more 
mistrusting  and  suspicious. 

Older  males  in  Special  Studies  were  found  to  be  more  humble 
and  conforming  than  younger  males  who  have  a  tendency  to  be  asser- 
tive, aggressive,  and  independent.  These  older  men  are  also  not  as 
quick  to  grasp  new  ideas  and  are  more  literal  in  their  thinking  than 
the  younger  males. 

Older  females  in  Special  Studies  appear  to  be  more  emotionally 
stable  and  realistic  about  life  than  younger  females  who  tend  to  be 
easily  upset  and  affected  by  feelings. 

Garrett,  Donald  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1976) 

SELF  ACTUALIZATION  AND  RELIGIOUS  EXPERIENCE 

121  volunteers  from  the  Miracle  Deliverance,  the  Triumphing 
Church  of  the  Apostolic  Faith  were  administered  the  Personal  Orien- 
tation Inventory.  From  interviewing,  it  was  found  that  20  of  those 
surveyed  had  been  "saved"  from  one  day  to  one  year  six  months  and 
101  had  been  saved  more  than  one  year  six  months.  Self-actualization 
was  associated  with  the  salvation  experience  itself.  It  was  also  con- 
cluded that  the  fellowship  of  the  church  meetings  on  the  second  and 
fourth  weekends  only  enhanced  the  self-image,  that  the  salvation 
experience  had  already  delivered. 

Golden,  Meluin  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  June,  1976) 

TEACHER  SELECTION  CRITERIA  FOR  CARROLL  COUNTY 

GEORGIA 

This  study  was  done  as  an  applied  research  project  to  develop  a 
teacher  selection  process  for  Carroll  County  Georgia.  With  a  suffi- 

66 


cient  supply  of  teachers  available  and  the  complications  in  the  dis- 
missal of  teachers  caused  by  the  Fair  Dismissal  Law  passed  by  the 
1973  Georgia  Legislature,  the  need  for  a  selection  process  that  will 
help  assure  more  effective  teachers  being  employed  is  great. 

In  developing  the  process  a  review  of  selected  literature  on 
teacher  selection  waas  conducted.  The  questionnaire  used  by  May 
and  Doerge  in  Louisiana  (1972)  was  adapted  for  use  in  this  study. 
That  instrument  contained  most  of  the  items  mentioned  in  other 
studies  and  has  been  validated.  The  questionnaire  was  administered 
to  all  professional  personnel  in  the  Carroll  County  School  System. 
The  professional  personnel  were  divided  into  four  groups;  principals 
and  central  office  personnel,  high  school  teachers,  elementary  teach- 
ers and  primary  teachers.  The  mean  for  each  of  the  55  items  on  the 
questionnaire  was  calculated  and  the  means  were  ranked  from  high- 
est to  lowest  in  each  group.  The  items  ranked  by  the  principal  and 
central  office  group  as  very  important  to  essential  were  used  as  the 
basis  for  comparison.  The  null  hypothesis — that  there  was  no  signifi- 
cant correlation  between  the  rankings  of  these  items  by  the  principals 
and  central  office  personnel  group  and  each  of  the  other  teacher 
groups  was  made.  The  null  hypothesis  was  rejected  in  each  case.  The 
23  items  ranked  as  very  important  to  essential  by  the  principals  and 
central  office  group  were  used  to  develop  the  selection  process. 

The  process  of  teacher  selection  recommended  as  a  result  of  this 
study  has  the  following  steps.  An  updated  application  form  should  be 
completed  and  a  copy  of  the  applicant's  college  transcript  should  be 
sent  to  the  system  office.  The  superintendent  or  his  designee  would 
review  the  application  and  check  the  list  of  vacancies  given  him  by 
the  principals.  The  list  of  vacancies  should  include  a  complete  job 
description.  The  superintendent  or  his  designee  would  then  conduct 
the  first  interview  and  contact  the  former  associates  of  the  applicant 
either  personally  or  by  telephone.  All  the  information  gained  by  these 
steps  should  be  recorded  on  check  lists  and  passed  on  to  the  principal. 
He  would  review  the  information  and  conduct  the  second  interview. 
The  teachers  with  whom  the  applicant  would  be  working  would  con- 
duct the  third  interview  and  give  the  principal  a  composite  rating  on 
the  same  items  that  were  sought  in  the  other  interviews.  The  princi- 
pal should  then  make  the  recommendation  for  employment  based  on 
all  the  information  gathered.  The  board  of  education  could  then  ei- 
ther employ  or  reject  the  applicant. 


67 


Greear,  Mildred  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
August,  1976) 

A  HISTORY  OF  THE  SCIENCE  FAIR  MOVEMENT  IN  GEOGIA 

WITH  A  SURVEY  OF  ATTITUDES  HELD  TOWARD 

SCIENCE  FAIRS  BY  SELECTED 

FLOYD  COUNTY  STUDENTS 

The  first  Georgia  State  Science  Fair  was  held  in  Atlanta  in  1949, 
with  students  chiefly  from  the  Atlanta  area  showing  313  entries.  En- 
tries represented  the  work  of  students  from  kindergarten  through 
grade  twelve. 

The  fair  has  now  grown  to  an  organization  that  attracts  500 
entries  yearly  from  students  who  have  won  first  or  second  place  in 
certified  pre-selection  fairs. 

Among  the  agencies  assisting  the  fair  to  its  present  status  are  the 
Georgia  Academy  of  Science,  the  Georgia  Junior  Academy  of  Science, 
and  the  University  of  Georgia.  A  number  of  Georgia  industries  and 
businesses  have  sponsored  the  fair  financially. 

Now  officially  the  Georgia  Science  and  Engineering  Fair,  it  has 
affiliation  with  the  Westinghouse  National  Science  Talent  Search 
and  the  International  Science  and  Engineering  Fair. 

Since  1957,  the  fair  has  been  held  at  the  University  of  Georgia. 

The  attitudinal  survey  accompanying  the  history  polled  270  sci- 
ence fair  participants  in  Cave  Spring  and  Model  High  Schools  in 
Floyd  County,  Georgia.  Respondents  were  from  the  freshman,  sopho- 
more and  junior  classes.  The  descriptive  statistical  treatment  de- 
tailed responses  for  the  sub-groups  school,  grade,  sex,  and  winning 
status. 

Winners  and  non-winners  gave  first  goal  priority  to  investigating 
a  problem  that  had  meaning  for  them,  but  differed  in  other  priority 
rankings  for  goals  and  for  sources  of  information  for  science  fair  pro- 
jects. 

An  encouraging  finding  was  that  58  percent  of  the  students 
agreed  that  they  and  their  teachers  have  clearly  understood  objec- 
tives when  they  enter  a  science  fair. 

More  than  half  of  the  respondents  took  the  strongly  agree  posi- 
tion that  participation  in  science  fairs  should  be  voluntary. 

Two  items  provided  for  open  ended  responses  and  those  were 
appended  with  other  survey  data.  Also  appended  were  copies  of  the 
catalog  for  the  first  Georgia  State  Science  Fair  and  for  the  first  At- 
lanta Science  Congress. 


68 


Harman,   William  S.,  Jr.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration 
and  Supervision,  June,  1976) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  LEARNING  CLIMATE 

BETWEEN  OPEN  AND  TRADITIONAL 

PRIMARY  SCHOOLS  IN  CARROLL  COUNTY,  GEORGIA 

This  study  was  conducted  to  investigate  the  following  questions: 
Is  there  a  positive  relationship  between  the  design  of  a  building  and 
the  attitude  of  teachers  in  seven  primary  schools  in  Carroll  County, 
Georgia?  What  effect  do  the  following  factors  have  on  teachers'  atti- 
tudes: Leadership,  Freedom,  Evaluation,  Compliance,  and  Coopera- 
tion. The  instrument  used  in  conductting  this  study  was  the  Learning 
Climate  Inventory  developed  by  John  R.  Hoyle.  The  data  for  this 
investigation  was  collected  by  administering  the  above  mentioned 
instrument  to  all  of  the  faculty  members  of  seven  primary  schools, 
grades  1-3,.  The  total  population  was  80.  The  findings  resulted  in  no 
significant  difference  in  a  positive  relationship  between  the  design  of 
the  building  and  the  attitude  of  teachers.  Also,  there  was  no  signifi- 
cant difference  in  the  climate  factors  on  teacher  attitudes. 

Harrell,  Ronald  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 

August,  1976) 

AN  EVALUATION  OF  UNITED  STATES  HIGH  SCHOOL 

HISTORY  TEXTBOOKS  IN  REFERENCE  TO  CONFLICTING 

INTERPRETATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ENTRY  INTO 

WORLD  WAR  I,  WORLD  WAR  H,  AND  THE  COLD  WAR 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  two-fold.  First,  it  was  an  exami- 
naion  of  high  school  United  States  history  textbooks  to  determine 
what  historical  interpretation  was  given  and  if  alternative  interpreta- 
tions of  history  were  presented  to  the  student  with  reference  to  the 
United  States'  entry  into  World  War  I,  the  United  States'  entry  into 
World  War  II,  and  the  United  States'  entry  into  the  Cold  War. 

The  second  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  if  there  was 
any  correlation  between  the  date  a  textbook  was  published,  and 
whether  or  not  the  textbook  offered  the  student  alternative  interpre- 
tations of  history. 

After  the  study  was  completed,  the  following  conclusions  were 
reached: 

1.  In  the  period  between  1962-1972,  it  was  found  that  high 
school  United  States  history  textbooks  have  changed  very  little  in  the 
approaches  to  the  material  presented. 

69 


2.  Traditional  interpretations  are  given  in  reference  to  the 
United  States'  entry  into  World  War  I,  World  War  II,  and  the  Cold 
War. 

3.  The  textbooks  do  not  give  the  student  information  on  alter- 
native historical  interpretations  in  existence. 

4.  Textbook  authors  seem  to  be  hampered  by  feelings  of  nation- 
alism and  emotionalism  in  their  writings.  The  result  is  that  the  stu- 
dent gets  only  one  view  of  historical  events. 

5.  Textbooks  are  written  as  if  history  were  an  objective  subject. 
But  the  failure  to  make  the  student  aware  that  conflicting  interpreta- 
tions do  exist  makes  the  textbook  essentially  biased. 

Hatfield,  Archie  E.,  Jr.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and 
Counseling,  March,  1976) 

NONVERBAL  COMMUNICATION  OF  CLIENTS  AND  THE 
AUDIBLE  COUNSELING  SETTING 

The  counselor  in  his  office  has  the  freedom  to  modify  his  environ- 
ment as  he  deems  necessary.  As  could  be  expected,  the  counselor 
usually  tries  to  create  a  favorable  psychological  atmosphere  for  the 
client.  The  researcher,  by  observation  of  client  behaviors  and  direct 
questions,  discovered  that  clients  were  less  responsive  and  more  anx- 
ious in  direct  conjunction  with  the  volume  and  frequency  of  external 
sound.  Having  recognized  the  problem,  attempts  were  made  within 
the  local  school  system  to  soundproof,  baffle  or  otherwise  restrict 
noises  in  the  counseling  area.  The  use  of  radio  programs  was  at- 
tempted but  abandoned  when  moods  and  changes  in  client  disposi- 
tion were  noted  to  often  correspond  with  music,  news,  or  commercial 
messages. 

The  necessary  medium  was  one  of  a  neutral  nature,  pleasant  but 
not  subject  to  overtones  of  a  psychological  nature.  An  inexpensive 
"White  Sound"  generator  was  purchased  and  operated  during  coun- 
selor client  sessions.  The  eff'ected  sound  approached  realistically  the 
steady  roll  of  waves,  of  moderate  size,  upon  a  sandy  beach.  The 
resulting  effect  on  clients  previously  scheduled  were  immediate  and 
promising. 

The  population  for  this  study  was  the  entire  tenth  grade  class  of 
Hardaway  High  School  with  the  exception  of  forty  three  students, 
this  created  a  derived  N  of  384.  A  control  experimental  group  was 
created  by  split  half  method.  Both  groups  approached  the  overall 
mean  in  racial  make  up,  sex,  age,  IQ  and  achievement. 

The  clients  nonverbal  behavior,  those  utilized  in  the  study 
deemed  to  be  most  objectively  observable,  were  recorded  by  the  re- 
searcher in  each  case.  Only  the  first  occurence  was  measured  in  order 

70 


to  allow  for  individual  differences  and  self  reinforcing  behaviors.  A 
simplified  modification  of  Kinesic  shorthand  was  utilized  and  clients 
seemed  unaware  of  the  notation.  All  other  conditions,  as  could  be 
controlled  through  time,  were  normal  and  contamination  minimal. 
The  season  of  the  year  was  spring  and  air  conditioning  was  func- 
tional. The  office  in  question  has  no  windows  and  only  one  door  which 
was  closed  during  the  experimental  time  period. 

The  resulting  information  supported  the  hypothesis  that  the  di- 
rect variable,  the  presence  of  white  sound,  caruse  an  approximate 
209c)  difference  in  the  frequency  of  certain  nonverbal  behaviors.  Most 
significant  was  the  distance  chosen  by  clients  to  sit  in  relation  to  the 
sound  and  the  counselor.  Thye  hypothesis  that  there  is  a  specific 
relationship  between  the  presence  of  a  specific  white  sound  and  cer- 
tain selected  nonverbal  behaviors  of  the  population  in  question  seems 
to  be  indicated. 

Other  areas  of  investigation  which  may  prove  fruitful  and  might 
be  implied  from  this  study  were:  eye  contact  and  racially  mixed 
counseling  sessions,  the  relative  importance  of  seating  within  the 
counseling  office,  the  nonverbal  behavior  of  juveniles  in  secondary 
schools  before  and  after  lunch,  reduction  of  anxiety  through  use  of 
nonverbal  behavior  in  sound  controlled  environments,  or  what  are  the 
implications  of  the  nonverbal  behavior  observed  with  regard  to  the 
counseling  process.  This  latter  promises  to  be  a  highly  complex  but 
most  likely  the  most  beneficial  avenue  of  research. 

Hochman,  Neil  (MA,  Psychology,  March,  1976) 

EMG  FEEDBACK  AND  RELAXATION  TRAINING 
AS  AN  ANCILLARY  TREATMENT  FOR 
ELEVATED  INTRAOCULAR  PRESSURE 

The  self-regulation  of  intraocular  pressure  (lOP)  through  EMG 
feedback  training  was  explored.  Eight  subjects  were  obtained:  Two 
were  diagnosed  as  open  angle  glaucoma  and  the  remaining  six  as 
ocular  hypertensives.  Both  glaucoma  patients  and  three  of  the  ocular 
hypertensives  were  receiving  ophthalmic  medication.  In  addition, 
nine  control  subjects  that  matched  the  experimental  subjects  in 
terms  of  lOP,  clinical  diagnosis,  and  approximate  age  were  selected. 
The  experimental  subjects  reported  to  an  ophthalmoligist's  office 
where  the  biofeedback  sessions  were  conducted  twice  a  week  for  eight 
weeks.  A  program  of  taped  relaxation  instruction  (a  series  of  three 
audio  cassettes)  was  utilized.  The  control  group  received  no  treat- 
ment. Ocular  pressures  were  measured  on  a  pre-  and  post-  basis  using 
a  Goldman  applanation  tonometer. 

71 


An  analysis  of  covariance  indicated  that  there  were  no  significant 
differences  between  the  two  groups.  Although  this  is  a  sensitive  test 
of  differences  between  treatments,  its  power  is  profoundly  limited  by 
sample  size. 

At  the  last  training  session,  the  experimental  subjects  were  also 
measured  on  a  pre-  and  post-  basis  during  the  session.  A  repeated 
measures  analysis  of  variance  showed  a  significant  reduction  of  lOP 
for  both  the  right  eyes  (p037)  and  left  eyes  (ppOOl).  Considering  these 
results,  and  the  fact  that  the  pressure  decreases  in  the  experimental 
group  (after  eight  weeks)  were  of  such  magnitude  as  to  be  clinically 
important,  it  would  be  premature  to  reject  this  technique  without 
replication  using  a  larger  sample. 

The  significance  of  this  work  lies  in  the  possible  use  of  this  ap- 
proach as  a  treatment  ancillary  to  those  already  used  for  ocular  hy- 
pertension or  open  angle  glaucoma. 

Holland,  David  A.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  March,  1976) 

THE  ROLE  OF  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  DEPARTMENT 
HEAD  IN  GEORGIA 

Supervision  of  curriculum  and  instruction  has,  for  many  years, 
been  considered  one  of  the  chief  responsibilities  of  the  secondary 
school  principal.  The  task  of  supervising  curriculm  and  instruction 
is  too  great  for  the  principal  to  perform  alone.  It  is;  therefore,  appro- 
priate for  someone  to  be  selected  to  help  him  perform  these  important 
tasks.  Many  principals  have  selected  a  person  in  each  of  their  subject 
matter  areas  to  help  them  and  called  them  department  heads. 

Five  aspects  of  the  department  headship  were  researched  in  both 
the  literature  and  in  the  state  of  Georgia,  as  perceived  by  secondary 
school  principals.  These  five  aspects  were:  (1)  selecting  the  depart- 
ment head;  (2)  training  the  department  head;  (3)  duties  and  respon- 
sibilities; (4)  monetary  reward  for  the  department  head;  and  (5)  re- 
leased time  for  the  department  head.  The  literature  was  almost  com- 
pletely void  of  information  concerning  department  heads  in  small 
and  Georgia  schools.  A  survey  instrument  was  mailed  to  all  secondary 
school  principals  whose  names  appeared  in  the  1975  edition  of  the 
Georgia  School  Directory.  Over  58  per  cent  of  the  principals  re- 
sponded without  a  follow-up  reminder. 

Over  83  per  cent  of  respondents'  schools  were  organized  by  de- 
partments and  97  per  cent  indicated  that,  if  they  were  organizing  a 
new  school,  they  would  use  departmental  organization.  Most  Georgia 
department  heads  are  not  supported  in  the  five  aspects  mentioned 

72 


sufficiently  for  them  to  perform  effectively  and;  therefore,  remove  the 
responsibility  for  supervising  curriculum  and  instruction  from  the 
principal. 

Accrediting  agencies  have  required  that  the  principal  spend  50 
per  cent  of  his  time  supervising  curriculum  and  instruction.  Because 
this  is  an  almost  impossible  task  it  is  recommended  that  accrediting 
agencies  develop  criteria  that  require  department  heads  to  be  respon- 
sible for  curriculum  and  instruction  supervision.  It  is  further  recom- 
mended that  the  department  head  be  selected  by  the  principal  after 
he  recieves  input  from  department  members;  that  he  be  given  respon- 
sibility for  curriculum  and  instruction  supervision  and  the  authority 
to  make  him  effective;  that  he  be  released  for  1  period,  in  addition 
to  planning  time  allowed  other  teachers,  for  the  first  3  to  5  depart- 
ment members  and  a  second  period  for  6  or  more  department  mem- 
bers; that  the  State  Department  of  Education  and  colleges  of  educa- 
tion consider  training  programs  for  department  heads;  and  that  the 
department  head  be  compensated  a  yearly  salary  that  is  indicated, 
at  the  local  school  level,  by  economic  conditions. 

The  Georgia  department  headship  is  dominated  by  the  white 
female.  Black  males  are  almost  completely  absent  from  the  depart- 
ment headship  with  black  females  occupying  the  headship  only 
slightly  more  often  than  the  black  male. 

Houston,  Louise  B.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel- 
ing, March,  1976) 

SELF-CONCEPT  VS.  ACADEMIC  ACHIEVEMENT  IN  THE 

INTERMEDIATE  GRADES  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

CHILDREN 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  two  fold:  one,  to  compare  the  aca- 
demic achievement  of  the  child  with  low  self-concept  with  the  aca- 
demic achievement  of  the  child  with  high  self-concept;  and  two,  to 
compare  the  aggressive  behavior  as  observed  by  the  teacher  of  the 
child  with  low  self-concept  and  the  child  with  high  self-concept. 

The  subjects  of  this  study  were  selected  children  from  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  sixth  grades  of  North  Jonesboro  Elementary  School,  Clay- 
ton County,  Georgia.  These  children  ranked  above  or  below  one  stan- 
dard deviation  of  the  mean  on  the  Piers- Harris  Children's  Self- 

Concept  Scale. 

Standardized  achievement  tests  and  itelligence  tests  were  ad- 
ministered to  all  the  children  of  the  two  groups.  Teachers  made  obser- 
vations on  an  informal  survey  at  the  end  of  the  first  two  weeks  of  the 
academic  school  year  of  aggressive  behaviors  of  the  students. 

73 


A  comparison  of  the  academic  achievement  of  the  students  who 
rated  themselves  with  high  and  low  self-concept  as  measured  by  the 
Piers-Harris  Scale  was  made  by  applying  the  Mann-Whitney  U  Test. 
The  results  of  the  study  indicated  that  the  composite  scores  in  the 
areas  of  spelling,  reading,  and  arithmetic  showed  no  significant  dif- 
ference at  the  .05  level  (z  =  +  -1.96). 

Aggressive  behaviors  as  observed  by  the  teachers  were  not  signifi- 
cantly different  in  children  with  high  or  low  self-concept. 

Hudgins,  Oliver  G.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  March,  1976) 

THE  STATUS  OF  COLLECTIVE  NEGOTIATIONS  BETWEEN 
SCHOOL  BOARDS  AND  THEIR  EMPLOYEES 

The  concept  of  collective  negotiations  between  district  school 
boards  and  their  professional  employees  has  become  a  serious  concern 
of  many  board  members  and  school  administrators  throughout  the 
nation.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  threefold.  First  was  a  determi- 
nation of  the  status  of  state  and  federal  legislation  relating  to  collec- 
tice  negotiation  between  professional  educational  personnel  and  their 
employers.  Secondly,  was  an  investigation  of  the  status  of  negotia- 
tions between  school  boards  and  the  certificated  school  personnel  in 
Georgia.  And  thirdly,  was  the  identification  of  some  guidelines  which 
school  boards  might  consider  when  preparing  for  collective  bargain- 
ing. 

The  information  and  data  necessary  to  the  development  of  this 
study  was  obtained  through  the  synthesis  of  the  literature  on  this 
topic.  An  analysis  of  existing  state  statutes  and  pending  federal  legis- 
lation was  critical  to  the  development  of  this  research  project.  The 
information  obtained  from  various  court  decisons  and  attorney  gen- 
eral's opinions  was  important  in  determining  the  status  of  collective 
negotiations  for  public  employees  in  Georgia. 

This  study  has  shown  that  two  distinct  situations  relating  to 
collective  bargaining  for  public  employees  exist  within  the  United 
States.  About  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  states  have  legal  precedent 
either  mandating  or  permitting  school  boards  to  negotiate  with  their 
employees.  Thirty-one  states  have  authorized  negotiations  by  the 
enactment  of  collective  bargaining  legislation.  The  school  boards  in 
twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  states  have  no  statutory  obligation  to 
negotiate  with  their  employees.  Even  so,  negotiations  have  occurred 
in  some  of  these  states  and  written  contracts  executed. 

This  study  has  shown  that  the  statutory  laws  of  Georgia  are 
silent  on  the  subject  of  negotiations  between  public  employers  and 

74 


their  employees.  However,  it  was  concluded  that  school  boards,  if 
they  so  desired,  could  meet  their  employees  and  negotiate  concerning 
the  terms  and  conditions  of  employment.  School  boards  cannot  be 
forced  into  negotiations,  nor  can  they  enter  into  a  binding  contract 
with  a  third  party  in  the  absence  of  legislation. 

Before  entering  negotiations,  school  boards  must  address  them- 
selves to  two  critical  problem  areas.  The  selection  of  a  chief  negotia- 
tor is  crucial  to  successful  bargaining.  It  was  concluded  that  some  in- 
house  administrator  should  be  selected  to  serve  as  chief  negotiator. 
This  person  would  already  have  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  school 
system  he  is  representing.  The  second  problem  area  is  the  prepara- 
tions of  the  management  team  for  actual  bargaining.  The  board 
should  insist  that  the  negotiating  team  be  supplied  with  all  the  essen- 
tial data  and  information  required  for  successful  negotiations. 

Ison,  Tommy  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Super- 
vision, August,  1976) 

ATTITUDES  OF  ELEMENTARY  PERSONNEL  IN  THE 

GRIFFIN -SPALDING  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  TOWARD 

USING  STATEWIDE  ASSESSMENT  PROGRAMS  AS  A  MEANS 

OF  DETERMINING  EDUCATIONAL  ACCOUNTABILITY 

This  study  was  undertaken  to  present  the  attitudes  of  elementary 
classroom  personnel  in  the  Griffin-Spalding  School  System  toward 
their  professional  commitment  to  the  educational  system  and  to  de- 
termine their  attitudes  about  using  statewide  evaluation  programs  as 
a  means  of  determining  educational  accountability.  An  educational 
opinionnaire  was  designed  and  pilot  tested  on  a  group  of  graduate 
students  attending  off  campus  classes  offered  by  the  Department  of 
Education  at  West  Georgia  College.  The  opinionnaire  instrument 
yielded  a  coefficient  alpha  reliability  of  .70.  Following  the  pilot  test- 
ing, the  opinionnaire  instrument  was  distributed  to  293  elementary 
school  personnel  in  the  Griffin-Spalding  School  System  and  61%  of 
the  total  opinionnaires  distributed  were  returned.  From  the  tabula- 
tion and  analytical  treatment  of  the  data  it  was  concluded  that  ele- 
mentary personnel  in  this  particular  school  system  displayed  strong 
negative  attitudes  about  using  statewide  test  results  to  determine 
educational  accountability.  It  was  also  concluded  that  the  elemen- 
tary school  personnel  generally  held  positive  attitudes  about  their 
overall  commitment  to  the  educational  system,  and  that  they  dis- 
played positive  attitudes  about  the  educational  system  in  Griffin- 
Spalding  with  two  notable  exceptions.  These  exceptions  were  teacher 


75 


attitudes  about  the  adequacy  of  present  school  faciHties  and  teachei 
attitudes  about  the  operational  procedures  of  the  local  board  of  edu 
cation. 

Jackson,  John  Calvin  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, August,  1976) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  EFFECT  OF  TEAM  TEACHING 
UPON  ACHIEVEMENT  IN  AND  ATTITUDE  TOWARD  UNITED 
STATES  HISTORY  AMONG  STUDENTS  AT  CHEROKEE  HIGH 

SCHOOL 

This  study  attempted  to  determine  if  the  use  of  an  interdisci- 
plinary team  teaching  approach  would  result  in  a  significant  gain  in 
achievement  or  in  attitude  when  compared  to  a  traditional  one- 
teacher  approach.  The  experimental  group  consisted  of  two  intact 
classes  which  were  taught  by  a  team  of  two  teachers  and  were  also 
part  of  a  larger  English-United  States  history  class  taught  by  four 
teachers.  The  control  group  consisted  of  two  intact  classes  taught  by 
one  teacher  in  a  traditional  classroom.  Null  hypothesis  were  used. 

Both  groups  were  given  form  A  of  the  Cooperative  Social  Studies 
Tests:  American  History  as  an  achievement  pretest  and  form  A  of 
Remmers  Any  School  Subject  Survey  as  an  attitude  pretest.  Form 
Am  of  the  Otis  Quick-Scoring  Mental  Ability  Gamma  Test  was  given 
to  determine  if  the  two  groups  were  of  equal  mental  ability.  The  t- 
tests  for  the  difference  between  means  were  computed  and  no  signifi- 
cant differences  were  found  in  either  mental  ability  or  achievement. 
However,  the  control  group  was  significantly  higher  at  the  .05  level 
on  the  attitude  survey. 

The  experimental  period  lasted  for  seven  school  months.  At  the 
end  of  the  treatment  form  B  of  the  Cooperative  Social  Studies  Tests: 
American  History  and  form  B  of  the  Remmers  Any  School  Subject 
Survey  were  given  as  posttests.  Mean  gains  in  achievement  and  atti- 
tude, as  demonstrated  by  scores  on  the  pretests  and  the  posttests, 
were  calculated.  The  t-test  for  independent  samples  found  no  signifi- 
cant difference  in  achievement  gains  at  the  .05  level.  Hypothesis  one 
was  accepted.  A  significant  difference  in  the  attitude  gains,  at  the  .01 
level,  was  found  to  favor  the  experimental  group.  It  was  concluded, 
therefore,  that  the  team  teaching  approach  may  produce  a  more  fa- 
vorable attitude  toward  subject  matter  than  the  traditional  ap- 
proach. Hypothesis  two  was  rejected. 


76 


Jenkins,  James  T.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Su- 
pervison,  August,  1976) 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  TEACHER  EVALUATION 

INSTRUMENT  BY  THE  DISCRIMINANT  PERCEPTION 

REPERTORY  TEST  METHOD 

The  purpose  of  this  project  was  to  develop  a  teacher  evaluation 
instrument  designed  to  help  school  administrators  and  teachers  in 
the  improvement  of  instruction.  The  construction  of  the  instrument 
involved  a  cooperative  effort  between  teachers  and  those  designed  as 
evaluators.  The  input  of  the  teachers  as  to  the  areas  of  evaluation  was 
considered  to  be  important  in  the  construction  of  the  instrument. 

The  project  effort  involved  receiving  input  from  38  classroom 
teachers,  relative  to  the  areas  they  felt  strongest  about  on  teacher 
performance.  The  teachers  listed  factors  which  they  felt  made  a 
teacher  either  an  effective  teacher,  or  characteristics  which  contrib- 
uted to  being  ineffective.  Alan  F.  Brown's  Discriminant  Perception 
Repertory  Test  was  the  method  used  to  gather  the  information  for  the 
construction  of  the  instrument. 

The  project  was  effective  in  producing  significant  areas  that 
teachers  felt  were  important  to  effectiveness  in  the  classroom. 
Teacher  involvement  in  the  construction  of  the  instrument  helped  to 
break  down  several  of  the  previous  communications  barriers  con- 
nected with  evaluation. 

Jones,  Betty  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
June,  1976) 

MODIFYING  AGGRESSIVE  BEHAVIOR  OF  ELEMENTARY 
STUDENTS  BY  THE  USE  OF  BEHAVIORAL  SELF  CONTROL 

TECHNIQUES 

This  research  examined  the  effectiveness  of  a  behavioral  self  con- 
trol program  on  the  reduction  of  aggressive  primary  grade  children. 
One  experimenter,  the  Counselor  at  Mountain  View  Elementary 
School,  Mountain  View,  Ga.  established  a  base  rate  for  three  specific 
aggressive  behaviors  during  a  two  week  period  prior  to  beginning  the 
training  program.  The  conditioning  phase,  during  which  the  program 
was  administered,  lasted  for  five  weeks.  After  that  time,  the  program 
was  discontinued.  Approximately  three  weeks  later,  the  experimenter 
again  observed  in  the  classroom  to  determine  if  the  behavior  rates 
had  increased  or  decreased  after  the  treatment  had  been  terminated. 
The  data  was  analyzed  by  use  of  Wilcoxon  Matched  Pairs  Signed 

77 


Ranks  Test.  Analyzed  difference  between  pretraining  period  an 
training  periods  represented  by  the  first  week,  second  week,  thir 
week,  fourth  week,  and  fifth  week  produced  significant  results  at  oi 
beyond  the  .05  level. 


Long,  Deborah  H.  (MA,  English,  March,  1976) 

THREE  RECURRING  THEMES  IN  THE  WORKS  OF  JAMES 

DICKEY 

The  poetry  and  prose  of  James  Dickey  covers  a  wide  range  of 
subject  matter,  but  the  largest  part  of  this  writing  deals  with  a  few 
prominent  themes:  death  and  rebirth,  initiation,  and  man's  moral 
dilemma.  This  thesis  attempts  such  a  thematic  analysis  of  Dickey's 
poetry  and  his  one  novel.  Deliverance. 

The  theme  of  death  and  rebirth  transcends  historical  boundaries, 
and  Dickey,  always  aware  of  the  problems  the  individual  faces  in  a 
modern  society,  relates  this  theme  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  in  a 
contemporary  world.  Spiritual  regeneration  in  Dickey's  poems  relies 
on  the  power  of  the  imagination  to  transcend  the  rational  world. 
Consequently,  renewal  may  occur  in  almost  any  experience,  the  poet 
implies,  but  the  natural  world  off'ers  the  most  promise  for  such  an 
experience.  Dickey's  persona  most  often  witnesses  the  recurring  cycle 
of  life,  death,  and  resurrection  in  nature. 

In  the  theme  of  initiation,  too,  Dickey  is  able  to  stress  the  trans- 
forming capacity  the  imagination  holds  for  the  sensitive  man.  The 
rite  de  passage  in  Dickey's  works  almost  always  involves  some  trau- 
matic and  terrifying  experience  in  which  the  initiate  is  forced  to 
exceed  his  own  limitations.  In  the  course  of  the  adventure  the  initiate 
gains  an  unusual  view  of  man  in  general  and  himself  in  particular; 
he  usually  discovers  within  himself  the  primitive  and  savage  nature 
that  lies  hidden  within  all  men.  Ritualistic  elements  found  in  the 
poems  and  in  Deliuerence  serve  to  point  out  the  importance  of  the 
experience  to  primitive  and  modern  man  alike. 

The  poet  also  explores  such  traditional  subjects  as  war,  family, 
love,  and  many  forms  of  human  relationships  and  finds  the  human 
condition  wrought  with  serious  and  complex  predicaments.  The 
theme  of  man's  moral  dilemma  is  considered  in  poems  which  depict 
the  complex  human  emotion  of  guilt,  futility,  and  fear.  These  emo- 
tions are  often  irrational  and  consequently  cannot  always  be  alle- 
viated by  imaginative  visions,  such  as  those  found  in  poems  dealing 
with  death  and  rebirth  and  initiation.  Nevertheless,  the  imagination 
is  always  at  work  in  whatever  Dickey  writes  and  lends  a  type  of 
consistency  to  his  works. 

78 


Lovuorn,  Demmervel  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and 
Counseling,  June,  1976) 

INTERPERSONAL  ADJUSTMENT  AND  CAREER 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  STUDENTS  THROUGH 

GROUP  COUNSELING 

This  study  sought  to  determine  the  short-term  effect  of  group  and 
individual  guidance  and  counseling  in  career  development  using  four 
groups  of  students.  The  Piers-Harris  Self  Concept  Scale  was  used  as 
a  pre-test  and  post-test  to  determine,  with  t  test,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  means  of  the  treatment  groups  at  the  critical  value  of  .05. 
Significant  differences  were  found  between  the  treatment  groups. 
Positive  results  were  found  for  those  treated  experimentally  with 
guidance  activities.  Students  had  more  information  about  opportuni- 
ties in  different  vocations,  attitudes  and  behavior  improved,  personal 
satisfaction  in  school  activities  increased,  and  the  guidance  program 
services  were  expanded  through  the  career  development  group  coun- 
seling activity. 

Lumsden,  Carolyn  F.  (MA,  English,  August,  1976) 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  REGIONAL  FOLKLORE  AND  TRADITON 
IN  THREE  OF  THOMAS  HARDY'S  WESSEX  NOVELS 

In  the  Wessex  novels  of  Thomas  Hardy,  the  incorporation  of  folk- 
lore and  tradition  from  his  native  county  of  Dorset  is  a  substantial 
contribution.  The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  examine  Hardy's  use 
of  the  folktales  and  traditions  and  to  determine  their  function  in  three 
of  those  novels.  The  endeavor  to  fully  appreciate  the  contribution 
included  a  study  of  the  origins  of  the  folkways  and  stories,  an  investi- 
gation into  Hardy's  own  assimilation  of  the  traditions,  an  exploration 
of  the  use  of  the  material  in  each  novel,  and  a  thoughtful  attempt  to 
explain  how  the  folklore  and  traditions  distinguish  Hardy's  works. 

In  order  to  establish  the  origins  of  the  Dorset  County  legends  and 
folkways  which  are  the  bases  of  their  Wessex  counterparts,  a  study 
was  done  of  the  myths  and  customs  of  that  region  in  England.  Out 
of  the  many  excellent  British  studies  of  folklore  and  tradition  were 
chosen  the  ones  whose  descriptions  of  the  folkways  most  accurately 
corresponded  with  the  ones  in  Hardy's  works  in  detail  and  geographi- 
cal origin.  A  thorough  study  of  biographies,  letters,  and  notebooks  of 
Hardy's  revealed  the  gradual  assimilation  of  the  folk  material  he 
used.  More  importantly,  it  revealed  the  importance  that  Hardy  at- 
tached to  his  folk  hertiage.  The  novels  considered  in  this  study  were 

79 


The  Return  of  the  Native,  The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge,  and  Tess  of 
the  D'Urberuilles,  and  they  provided  the  most  vital  material.  The 
many  uses  of  tradition  and  folklore  were  examined  in  the  context  of 
the  novels.  Hardy's  own  descriptions  of  the  traditions  and  folklore 
provided  the  best  source  of  information  about  the  Dorset  County 
culture  which  he  emulated. 

The  research  revealed  that  there  were  three  major  contributions 
made  to  the  Wessex  novels  through  Hardy's  use  of  folklore  and  tradi- 
tion. The  most  apparent  one  was  the  use  Hardy  made  of  unusual 
stories  or  customs  to  create  a  tone  of  mystery  or  foreboding.  Secondly, 
Hardy  used  traditions  and  folklore  to  foreshadow  more  important 
events  in  the  novels  which  contribute  to  the  pathos.  The  least  obvious 
use  was  Hardy's  integration  of  the  folk  material  into  characterizatons 
in  order  to  dramatize  unusual  attributes.  The  conclusion  of  this  study 
was  that  the  contributions  made  by  the  folk  material  in  achieving  a 
mysterious  tone,  in  foreshadowing  major  events,  and  in  characteriza- 
tion distinguish  the  novels  as  great  works  and  contribute  to  their 
univerality. 

Mayben,  James  H.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  August,  1976). 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STUDENTS  WITH 

BEHAVIOR  PROBLEMS  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  WITH  THE 

PURPOSE  OF  ESTABLISHING  COUNTY-WIDE  POLICIES 

WITH  AIM  OF  REDUCING  DISCIPLINE  PROBLEMS 

The  study  was  conducted  to  determine  whether  students  with 
discipline  problems  could  be  identified  and  if  so  what  characteristics 
they  exhibited.  This  study  surveyed  teachers  in  grades  four,  and  eight 
in  Polk  School  District,  Cedertown,  Georgia.  Students  were  separated 
into  two  different  categories.  One  category  was  for  students  who  were 
considered  to  be  discipline  problems,  while  the  other  category  was  for 
students  who  were  termed  good  students. 

The  teachers  identified  one  hundred  discipline  problem  students 
and  one  hundred  eighty-seven  good  students.  After  the  lists  had  been 
compiled,  the  students  were  administered  (1)  Feelings  About  School 
instrument  and  (2)  Index  of  Adjustment  and  Values  instrument. 

These  two  instruments  and  the  students'  permanent  record  cards 
were  used  to  help  determine  what  characteristics  students  with  be- 
havior problems  exhibited. 

The  instrument  on  Adjustment  and  Values  did  not  appear  to 
provide  the  type  data  needed  to  discriminate  between  good  students 
and  those  students  with  discipline  problems.  The  instrument  on  Feel- 

80 


ings  About  School  appears  to  provide  the  type  data  needed  to  dis- 
criminate between  good  students  and  those  students  with  discipline 
problems. 

McClure,  Charles  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, March,  1976) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  SELECTED  MANIPULATIVE  MATERIALS 

ON  THE  LEVEL  OF  MOTIVATION  TO  ACHIEVE  OF 

FIRST  GRADE  CHILDREN 

The  study  was  undertaken  to  determine  the  potential  of  selected 
manipulative  materials  for  changing  the  level  of  motivation  to 
achieve  of  first  grade  students.  All  students  involved  in  the  study 
were  from  two  diflferent  urban  schools  within  Fulton  County,  Georgia. 
Students  from  one  school  became  the  experimental  group  and  were 
exposed  to  the  selected  manipulative  materials.  Students  from  the 
other  school  had  no  such  exposure. 

The  pretest  and  posttest  for  both  groups  was  Animal  Crackers: 
A  Test  of  Motivation  to  Achieve.  A  statistical  comparison  of  the  mean 
gain  scores  of  the  experimental  and  control  groups  in  each  of  the  six 
areas  of  Animal  Crackers  was  made.  No  significant  gain  favoring 
either  group  was  found  for  school  enjoyment,  self-confidence,  purpo- 
siveness,  instrumental  activity,  or  self-evaluation;  however,  the  gain 
for  the  experimental  oroup  in  total  motivation  to  achieve  was  signifi- 
cant at  the  .05  level.  Findings  indicate  that  the  total  impact  of  the 
inclusion  of  selected  manipulative  materials  can  be  beneficial  in  the 
first  grade  as  a  means  of  increasing  achievement  motivation. 

McCrory,  Bobbie  D.F.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, August,  1976) 

A  CASE  STUDY  OF  THE  IMPACT  OF  A  MATRIARCHAL 

FAMILY  UPON  THE  EMOTIONAL  LIVES  OF  FOUR 

GENERATIONS 

The  objective  of  this  research  paper  is  to  deal  with  the  issue  of  the 
emotional  effects  of  a  matriarchal  family  upon  four  generations  and 
the  perspective  of  dealing  with  the  problems  so  all  members  can  live 
successful  and  contributing  lives  for  themselves  and  society. 

I  shall  present,  compare,  and  contrast  the  types  of  family  pat- 
terns that  exist  and  the  characteristics  of  each  including  problems 
which  they  present.  Also  a  historical  background  will  be  given  to  show 
how  the  family  structure  and  problems  evolved. 

81 


The  underlying  premise  of  this  paper  is  to  demonstrate  the  im- 
portance of  dealing  with  the  matriarchal  family  and  its  affects  upon 
human  beings,  presenting  a  case  study  that  contains  the  matriarchal 
family  and  its  problems,  and  the  data  secured  from  working  with  the 
family. 

Chapter  one  deals  with  general  information. 

Chapter  two  deals  with  related  literature. 

Chapter  three  deals  with  the  case  study. 

Chapter  four  deals  with  the  findings  and  interpretations  of  data. 

Chapter  five  deals  with  the  summary,  conclusions,  and  recom- 
mendations. 

McMillian,  John  W.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  August,  1976) 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  DECISION-MAKING  MODEL 

APPROPRIATE  FOR  USE  BY  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS  IN 

MAKING  NONPROGRAMED  DECISIONS 

Although  much  attention  has  been  given  to  decision-making  tech- 
niques in  the  business  world,  little  effort  has  been  made  in  providing 
decision-making  models  appropriate  to  the  use  of  the  school  adminis- 
trator. The  central  problem  of  this  study,  therefore,  was  the  develop- 
ment of  a  decision-making  model  for  educational  administrators  that 
could  be  applied  to  current  nonprogrammed  decision  areas  within 
public  education. 

The  model  developed  in  this  study  consisted  of  four  major 
phases.  These  phases  were  combined  in  an  order  which  was  logical 
when  extracted  from  the  work  of  the  authors  researched  for  this 
paper.  The  model  was  developed  specifically  by  combining  the  four 
basic  phases  of  decision-making  recommended  by  Stufflebeam,  et.  al. 
(1971),  with  those  decision-making  principles  attributed  to  March 
and  Simon  (1958),  and  Simon  (1965).  These  decision-making  princi- 
ples were  further  combined  with  those  planning  principles  recom- 
mended by  Hellreigel  and  Slocum  (1974). 

The  developed  model  was  applied  to  the  solution  of  two  problem 
areas  at  Central  High  School,  Newnan,  Georgia.  These  problems  con- 
cerned developing  school  identity  and  spirit,  and  solving  curriculum 
articulation  problems  in  the  area  of  business  education  and  home 
economics. 

The  basic  value  derived  from  the  model  developed  in  this  study 
was  that  it  provided  a  systematic  approach  to  nonprogrammed 
decision-making  situations.  By  guiding  the  administrator  into  the 
identification,  evaluation,  and  selection  of  alternatives  the  model 

82 


served  as  a  rational  vehicle  to  overcome  the  tendency  to  make  impor- 
tant educational  decisions  based  only  on  an  administrator's  intuition 
or  experiences,  unstructured  guesses,  or  other  arbitrary  choices  of  any 
type. 

Miller,  Burt  R.,  Ill  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  August,  1976) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  PARENTAL  ATTITUDES  ABOUT  GRADE 
REPORTING  PROCEDURES  IN  TWO  COWETA  COUNTY  ELE- 
MENTARY SCHOOLS 

This  study  was  designed  to  compare  the  attitudes  of  two  elemen- 
tary school  parent  populations  concerning  the  grade  reporting  proce- 
dures employed  by  the  respective  schools.  The  Atkinson  School  (235 
family  units)  used  the  traditional  report  card  with  evaluative  terms 
A,  B,  C,  D  and  F;  while  the  Elm  Street  School  (345  family  units)  used 
a  skill  oriented  progress  report  with  evaluative  terms  "S"  (Satisfac- 
tory) and  "N"  (Needs  Improvement).  Parents  were  asked  to  respond 
to  fifteen  survey  statements  which  covered  four  basic  grade  reporting 
areas:  Reporting  format,  evaluative  terms,  student  classwork  for- 
warded home,  and  parent-teacher  conferences.  Elm  Street  School 
received  a  71  percent  return  from  parents,  while  Atkinson  School 
received  a  51  percent  return.  Generalizations  about  the  total  parent 
population  of  Atkinson  School  were  not  possible  due  to  the  low  survey 
return  from  the  Atkinson  parents.  Analysis  of  the  survey  data  re- 
sulted in  an  F  ratio  of  1.697  indicating  that  there  was  no  significant 
difference  in  parent  attitudes  about  grade  reporting  between  the  two 
schools  on  the  total  survey. 

Morgan,  Frank  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1976) 

PARANORMAL  HEALING 

BEGINNING  A  THEORETICAL  BRIDGE 

FROM  PHENOMENA  TO  STRUCTURED  UNDERSTANDING 

The  focus  of  interest  in  this  study  was  the  phenomena  of  paranor- 
mal healing,  both  through  the  laying  on  of  hands  and  absent  healing. 
The  experimental  results  of  various  researches  in  paranormal  healing, 
and  parapsychology  generally,  were  examined.  A  comparative  analy- 
sis of  another  leading  theory  of  paranormal  healing,  that  of  Lawrence 
Le  Shan  was  made  in  light  of  the  full  range  of  data.  The  facts  were 


83 


considered  in  an  effort  to  move  toward  a  cogent  theory  of  paranormal 
healing. 

Morgan,  Harriet  M.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  June,  1976) 

THE  DOUGLAS  COUNTY  POLICY  REFERENCE  MANUAL 

In  order  for  boards  of  education  to  provide  for  efficient  and  effec- 
tive management  and  operation  of  schools,  they  must  have  a  struc- 
tural base  upon  which  to  make  decisions.  The  Douglas  County  Board 
of  Education  through  a  project  director,  assessed  its  structural  base 
by  updating,  codifying,  editing  and  rewriting  policies  where  needed. 
All  policies  were  based  upon  current  constitutional,  statutory  and 
State  Board  of  Education  regulations. 

The  procedures  used  in  this  study  were:  (1)  review  of  1972-1976 
Board  documents;  (2)  identification  of  policy  areas  where  conflicts 
existed  and  areas  where  no  policies  existed;  and  (3)  editing,  writing 
and  codifying  Board  documents  according  to  the  codification  system 
of  the  Georgia  School  Boards  Association;  and  (4)  final  approval  by 
the  Board  resulted  in  an  updated  Douglas  County  Policy  Reference 
Manual.  Recommendations  for  continued  revision  of  the  Manual 
were  also  included  in  this  study. 


Mueller,  Manfred  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1976) 

IN  SEARCH  OF  THE  LOST  CHORD:  A  STUDY  OF 
GEMEINSCHAFTSGEFUHL  IN  HUMANISTIC  PSYCHOLOGY 

This  paper  makes  a  plea  for  the  oneness  of  all  beings  and  the 
existence  of  a  common  meaning  which  ties  individsals  together.  Man 
is  condemned  to  belong.  The  feeling  of  belonging  as  a  basic  life  energy 
is  viewed  as  a  fundamental  aspect  of  all  experience.  The  situation  of 
an  individual  as  a  growing  human  being  is  conceptualized  as  the 
continuing  change  in  how  one's  belonging  is  perceived.  An  investiga- 
tion of  the  influences  of  Alfred  Adler,  one  of  the  first  psychologists  to 
emphasize  the  social  embeddedness  of  man.  His  concept  of 
Gemeinschaftsgefuhl  may  indeed  be  the  foundation  of  Third  Force 
psychology.  The  thesis  concludes  with  a  portrait  of  the  communion 
of  man  as  the  responsible  subject  of  his  existence. 


84 


Nettles,  Henry  S.,  Jr.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  June,  1976) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  LEARNING 

CLIMATE  OF  TRADITIONAL  AND  OPEN 

SPACE  MIDDLE  SCHOOLS  WITHIN 

COBB  COUNTY,  GEORGIA 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  investigate  the  learning  climates 
of  three  traditional  middle  schools  and  three  open-space  middle 
schools  within  the  Cobb  County  School  System.  Also,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  determine  the  factors  that  caused  a  more  positive  learning 
climate.  Field  data  were  gathered  from  248  teachers  using  the  Learn- 
ing Climate  Inventory  and  three  items  of  personal  information.  There 
were  125  responses  from  traditional  middle  school  teachers  and  123 
responses  from  open-space  middle  school  teachers.  The  responses 
were  analyzed  by  a  one-way  analysis  of  variance. 

There  were  three  major  findings  with  this  study.  There  was  a 
significent  difference  found  between  the  learning  climates  of  the 
open-space  middle  schools  and  the  traditional  middle  schools.  There 
was  a  significant  difference  found  in  regard  to  the  leadership  behav- 
iors of  the  administration,  the  freedom  the  teachers  feel  to  experi- 
ment with  their  instructional  activities,  and  in  regard  to  the  extent 
the  teachers  and  students  are  involved  in  teacher  and  administration 
evaluations.  There  was  not  a  significant  difference  found  in  regard  to 
the  extent  teachers  are  supported  in  their  efforts  to  team  teach  and 
use  resources  people. 

The  nature  and  environment  of  the  open-space  middle  schools 
tend  to  lend  themselves  to  a  more  open  learning  climate.  The  teach- 
ers are  in  a  situation  whereby  they  must  team  teach,  therefore,  re- 
quiring more  direct  supervision  from  the  administrators.  This  ap- 
pears to  cause  a  more  open  climate  for  freedom  and  evaluation  for  the 
teachers  and  administrators. 

The  teachers  in  the  traditional  middle  school  appear  to  have 
more  support  from  the  administration.  This  may  be  due  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  encouragement  by  the  administration  for  team  teaching  to 
be  implemented  in  the  traditional  middle  schools. 

There  appears  to  be  a  factor  of  the  certificate  level  of  a  faculty 
contributing  to  the  more  positive  learning  climate,  whereas,  the  age 
of  the  faculty  and  the  teaching  experience  do  not  appear  to  contribute 
to  a  positive  learning  climate. 

The  major  recommendations  to  be  made  are  for  more  assistance 
at  the  system  level  with  the  staff  development  programs  to  help  de- 
velop the  faculties  of  the  traditional  schools  with  the  middle  school 
programs.  There  should  not  be  any  future  conversions  of  traditional 

85 


junior  high  schools  to  middle  schools  without  attention  being  given 
to  developing  the  teacher  for  the  transition. 

Neville,  Mary  A. T.  (MA,  Biology,  March,  1976) 

AN  ECOLOGICAL  STUDY  OF  THE  MOSSES  OF 
KENNESAW  MOUNTAIN  NATIONAL  BATTLEFIELD  PARK 

This  study  lists  78  species  of  mosses  representing  28  families 
found  in  Kennesaw  Mountain  National  Battlefield  Park.  The  moss 
flora  is  described  in  relation  to  habitat,  frequently  of  occurrence  and 
fruiting  season. 

Potter,  John  R.  (MA,  Psychology,  March,  1976) 

AN  ADVENTURE  IN  CONSCIOUSNESS: 
THE  GROWTH  OF  EXPERIENCING 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  explore  the  ontology,  epistemol- 
ogy,  and  structural  dimesions  of  conscious  experiencing.  Ontological 
consciousness  and  objective  consciousness  were  juxtaposed  and  the 
consequences  of  each  was  demonstrated.  Objective  consciousness  was 
found  to  be  descriptive  of  a  plit  condition  that  denies  the  wholeness 
of  being  disclosed  by  ontological  consciousness.  The  growth  of  experi- 
encing is  a  move  toward  wholeness;  it  is  a  move  away  from  fixed 
constructs  to  perception  founded  on  phenomenological  fluidity.  The 
consequent  epistemology  of  self/other  from  onotological  an  objective 
perspectives  is  discussed.  Objective  knowing  is  seen  to  act  upon  the 
environment  and  aflfect  the  reality  oserved.  Hence,  an  undisturbed 
percentage  of  reality  is  unavailable  from  this  perspective.  An 
experiential-phenomenological  knowing  that  grows  out  of  an  ontolog- 
ical grounding  is  considered  to  be  a  process  of  undoing  the  fixation 
of  distinctions  that  create  boundaries,  realities  and  letting  experience 
in.  Inside/outside,  self/other  are  found  to  be  the  same  in  some  way 
and  it  is  by  looking  inward  to  the  depths  of  being  (feeling,  intuitive, 
and  sensual  modes)  that  a  perception  of  wholeness  is  possible.  A 
perception  of  what  is  flows  in  when  ego  constructions  are  emptied. 
The  growth  of  experiencing  is  found  to  be  a  move  toward  wholeness 
of  being  and  the  movement  from  alienated  to  wwole  knowing.  The 
structural  dimensions  of  consciousness  are  one's  embeddedness  in 
time,  space,  body,  and  the  psyche  in  which  one's  quest  for  the  latter- 
day  Grail,  growth,  is  situated.  The  movement  from  objective  con- 
sciousness to  experiential-phenomenological  consciousness  is  found 
to  be  a  disjunctive  jump  upon  which  other  crossings,  linear  or  dis- 
junctive, may  be  made. 

86 


Puckett,  Christine  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, August,  1976) 

AN  ASSESSMENT  TO  DETERMINE  THE  EFFECTIVENESS  OF 

PROJECT  SUCCESS  ON  CLASSROOM  BEHAVIOR  IN  THE 

RURAL  SETTING  OF  A  FLOYD  COUNTY  SCHOOL 

This  study  was  designed  to  provide  experimental  data  on  the 
effectiveness  of  Project  Success  in  lowering  the  number  of  discipline 
cases  handled  through  the  school  office,  thereby  showing  an  overall 
decrease  in  negative  type  discipline  handled  throughout  the  school. 
Records  were  kept  for  two  years  of  discipline  cases  handled  in  the 
principal's  office,  and  then  the  chi  square  statistical  test  was  incorpo- 
rated to  test  for  significance  in  the  drop  of  discipline  cases  handled 
for  the  second  year.  The  .05  significance  level  was  chosen  for  the 
comparison.  The  records  were  compared  in  total  and  in  the  six  disci- 
pline areas  of  (1)  student  conferences  and  warnings  (2)  parent  confer- 
ences (3)  paddlings  (4)  written  assignments  (5)  suspensions,  and  (6) 
other.  A  significant  diff"erence  was  determined  in  every  area  except 
parent  conferences  which  also  showed  a  drop  for  the  second  year, 
although  not  a  significant  one. 

Puckett,  Robert  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  June,  1976) 

IDENTIFYING  CRITICAL  NEEDS  OF  FLOYD  COUNTY 

SCHOOL  STUDENTS  THROUGH  A  COMPREHENSIVE 

NEEDS  ASSESSMENT 

This  project  was  undertaken  in  an  eflFort  to  provide  a  basis  to 
make  decisions  concerning  the  educational  programs  of  the  Floyd 
County  School  System.  The  objective  of  this  project  was  to  enable 
Floyd  County  personnel  to  acquire  the  understandings,  skills,  and 
attitudes  needed  to  implement  selected  educational  improvement 
activities  and  practices  directed  at  priority  student  needs.  The  prob- 
lem was  to  rank  identified  student  needs  and  develop  strategies  to 
meet  these  needs. 

A  needs  assessment  survey  was  conducted  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Staff  Development  Planning  Committee.  The  organization  of  the 
survey  originated  through  the  Curriculum  Coordination  Council.  The 
individual  schools  in  the  county  set  up  a  local  Needs  Assessment 
Committee  within  their  schools  and  community  to  coordinate  the 
survey.  This  committee  consisted  of  teachers,  administrators,  par- 
ents, lay  persons,  and  students.  A  sample  of  the  school  population 

87 


was  selected  and  the  survey  instruments  were  distributed  to  parents, 
teachers,  and  students  and  returned  through  the  mail.  At  the  comple- 
tion of  the  survey,  the  Staff  Developing  Planning  Committee  met  to 
re-evaluate  the  needs  and  goals  and  presented  them  to  the  Floyd 
County  Board  of  Education. 

There  were  1,000  survey  instruments  administered  with  a  return 
of  641  instruments.  The  results  indicated  a  need  for  an  in-service  staff 
development  program  for  teachers  to  strengthen  the  areas  of  basic 
mathematics  skills  and  language  arts  skills  in  grades  K-12.  This  was 
the  second  ranked  goal  in  the  Floyd  County  School  System. 

The  study  might  be  repeated  at  least  every  two  years  for  the  next 
four  to  six  years  to  provide  longitudinal  data  relative  to  student 
needs.  The  program  might  be  expanded  to  analyze  needs  by  the  sub- 
population  in  order  to  determine  which  needs  are  most  critical  to 
each  subgroup  tested.  Also,  the  in-service  staff  development  program 
could  be  continued  in  order  to  meet  these  identified  needs. 

Pulliam,  Timothy  N.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  August,  1976) 

THE  SELECTION  OF  ELEMENTARY  TEACHERS  (1-6)  IN  THE 

HENRY  COUNTY,  GEORGIA  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  AS 

DETERMINED  BY  PERSONALITY  CHARACTERISTICS 

The  problem  for  this  research  project  was  to  develop  an  elemen- 
tary teacher  selection  procedure  for  Henry  County  based  on  the  per- 
sonality data  obtained  for  the  elementary  teachers  who  were  tested 
and  based  on  the  theoretical  information  obtained  from  the  review  of 
the  literature.  An  additional  aspect  of  the  problem  involved  the  de- 
velopment of  an  interview  guide  for  elementary  principals  to  use  in 
the  teacher  selection  process. 

All  elementary  teachers  in  Henry  County  were  asked  to  partici- 
pate in  this  study.  A  total  sample  of  107  teachers  were  administered 
four  personality  tests:  the  Gordon  Personal  Profile,  the  Gordon  Per- 
sonal Inventory,  the  Survey  of  Personal  Values,  and  the  Survey  of 
Interpersonal  Values.  The  results  of  these  tests  were  correlated  with 
each  other  and  with  other  variables  such  as  the  age  of  the  teacher  and 
length  of  service  in  Henry  County.  The  relationship  between  length 
of  service  and  certain  personality  characteristics  was  used  in  the  de- 
velopment of  an  interview  guide  for  use  by  principals  in  the  selection 
of  prospective  teachers  for  the  school  system. 


88 


Rahman,  Kalim  Ur  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1976) 

HUMAN  MOTIVATION:  A  CRITIQUE  OF  AMINALCENRISM 

In  my  study  of  human  notivation  in  contemporary  psychology,  I 
constantly  felt  concerned  about  human  beings  being  treated  at  the 
level  of  either  animals  or  automatons.  In  this  paper  I  have  tried  to 
argue  against  this  approach.  My  thesis  is  that  human  motivation  is 
essentially  different  from  animal  motivation  and  that  while  animal 
behavior  is  instinctive  and  stereotyped,  human  behavior  is  infinitely 
varied  and  complex.  Also  I  have  tried  to  bring  out  what  is  uniquely 
human — the  aspect  of  meaning,  significance  and  intentionality.  The 
higher  needs  of  human  beings  as  opposed  to  the  merely  physiological 
and  instinctive  needs  of  the  lower  animals  are  discussed  in  detail  here 
to  form  a  more  holistic  and  humanistic  approach  to  human  motiva- 
tion. 

Rat  ledge,  Patricia  M.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, August,  1976) 

A  DIAGOSTIC  STUDY  OF  EMPLOY  ABILITY  SKILLS  OF 
EDUCABLE  MENTALLY  RETARDED  STUDENTS 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  assess  the  knowledge  of  employa- 
bility  skills  of  the  Educable  Mentally  Retarded  pupil  in  three  se- 
lected Gwinnett  County  Schools.  The  Wechsler  Intellegence  Scale  for 
Children  and  the  Social  and  Pre-vocational  Information  Battery  were 
administered  to  measure  the  employability  levels  of  those  participat- 
ing in  the  study. 

Pre-test  data  collected  from  the  participating  students  indicated 
a  certain  lack  of  information  in  the  areas  of  Job  Search  Skills  and  Job 
Related  Behavior.  After  reviewing  the  pre-test  data  with  participat- 
ing EMR  class  instructors,  individualized  career  development  pro- 
grams, the  post-test  data  revealed  an  increase  in  the  deficient  areas 
pevously  identified  by  the  SPIB  pre-test  scores. 

Results  from  this  study,  even  though  a  limited  sample,  clearly 
suggest  that  certain  standardized  tests  can  be  useful  in  assisting 
EMR  class  teachers  in  planning  more  meaningful  career  development 
programs  for  their  pupils. 


89 


Rawlston,  Barbara  H.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood 
Education,  August,  1976) 

THE  STUDY  OF  STUDENT  EVALUATIONS  OF  THE  EARLY 
CHILDHOOD  EDUCATION  GRADUATE  PROGRAM  AT  WEST 
GEORGIA  COLLEGE  FROM  JANUARY,  1973  THROUGH  JUNE, 

1976 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  formally  tabulate  and  assess 
student  evaluations  of  the  early  childhood  education  graduate  pro- 
gram at  West  Georgia  College  from  January,  1973  through  June, 
1976. 

One  hundred  questionnaire  results  were  tabulated.  The  results 
showed  that  the  students  had  positive  attitudes  toward  the  early 
childhood  education  graduate  program  at  West  Georgia  College. 

Remillard,  Donald  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, August,  1976) 

STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN 

SATISFACTION  WITH  SCHOOL  AND 

ACHIEVEMENT  OF  ELEVENTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

AT  LITHIA  SPRINGS  COMPREHENSIVE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Satisfaction  with  school  was  assessed  from  the  256  students  en- 
rolled in  eleventh  grade  English  classes  at  Lithia  Springs  Comprehen- 
sive High  School  in  Lithia  Springs,  Georgia  by  means  of  a  60-item 
questionnaire.  Those  students  who  scored  in  the  top  and  bottom 
twenty-five  per  cent,  selected  separately  by  sex,  were  designated  as 
satisfied  (36  boys,  28  girls)  and  dissatisfied  (36  boys,  28  girls),  respec- 
tively. Satisfaction  with  school  for  the  extreme  groups  was  then  re- 
lated to  measures  of  intellectual  ability,  academic  success  and  ratings 
given  by  both  English  and  vocational  or  fine  arts  teachers.  There  was 
no  significant  relationship  between  satisfaction  with  school  and 
achievement  test  scores  for  boys,  but  a  significant  relationship  did 
exist  between  school  satisfaction  and  composition  and  verbal 
achievement  for  girls.  There  was  no  significant  relationship  between 
girls'  attitudes  toward  school  and  mathematics  achievement.  The 
findings  also  showed  that  there  was  a  significant  relationship  between 
students'  attitudes  toward  school  and  the  report  card  grades  they 
received  from  their  English  teacher.  When  comparing  satisfaction 
toward  school  with  teacher  ratings  the  findings  showed  that  there  was 
a  statistically  significant  relationship  between  students'  attitudes 
toward  school  and  the  ratings  given  them  by  their  English  teacher, 

90 


but  that  no  significant  relationship  existed  between  school  satisfac- 
tion and  the  ratings  given  students  by  their  vocational  or  fine  arts 
teachers. 


Richardson,  Janice  W.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Educa- 
tion, August,  1976) 

A  STUDY  TO  COMPARE  VIEWS 

OF  STUDENTS,  PARENTS,  AND  SCHOOL  PERSONNEL 

WITH  RESPECT  TO  THE  GOALS  OF  SECONDARY  SOCIAL 

STUDIES 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  compare  views  of  students,  par- 
ents, teachers,  and  school  administrators  of  Clayton  County  concern- 
ing the  objectives  for  the  secondary  social  studies  program.  Students 
and  parents  for  this  study  were  randomly  selected  from  the  students 
and  parents  of  students  at  North  Clayton  Senior  High  School.  All 
social  studies  teachers  in  the  senior  high  schools  in  the  county  were 
asked  to  participate  in  the  survey.  All  administrators  in  the  senior 
and  junior  high  schools,  and  those  administrators  in  the  Clayton 
County  Board  of  Education  office  to  deal  with  the  social  studies 
curriculum  were  given  surveys.  The  four  groups  rated  the  importance 
of  twelve  objectives  of  the  secondary  social  studies  program  which 
had  been  extracted  from  the  writing  of  leading  social  studies  educa- 
tors. Chi  square  was  computed  to  determine  whether  or  not  actual 
differences  existed  in  the  ratings  by  the  four  groups.  The  results 
revealed  that  differences  existed  in  the  rating  of  nine  of  the  objectives 
to  the  degree  that  further  study  was  warranted.  Another  chi  square 
was  computed  for  each  of  the  six  pairs  of  groups:  student-parents, 
student- teacher,  student-administrators,  teachers-administrators, 
parents-administrators  and  parents-teachers.  It  was  concluded  that 
significant  differences  did  exist  among  the  four  groups  compared  con- 
cerning the  objectives  of  the  secondary  social  studies  program.  The 
greatest  amount  of  difference  was  found  between  students  and  teach- 
ers. Teachers  and  administrators  were  similar  in  their  viewing  of  the 
objectives.  The  comparisons  found  that  the  teachers  tended  to  be  the 
most  affective-oriented  group  and  students  the  more  cognitive  group. 


91 


Robertson,  Alice  A.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educatior 
August,  1976) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  SELECTED  PUPIL  VARIABLES  ON  THE 

READING  ACHIEVEMENT  OF  FIRST,  THIRD, 

AND  SEVENTH  GRADE  PUPILS 

This  study  was  designed  to  analyze  what  effects  and  interactions 
the  variables  age,  sex,  and  family  placement  have  on  reading  achieve-l 
ment  of  students  in  grades  one,  three,  and  seven.  The  students  in  tht 
study  were  all  from  one  school,  had  birthdays  in  months  older  thanl 
June,  July  and  August,  and  had  never  been  retained  during  their| 
school  enrollment. 

A  2  X  2  X  3  Factorial  Analysis  of  Variance  was  the  statistical! 
technique  employed.  Program  AVAR23  was  used  which  yielded 
weighted  means.  This  was  necessary  because  of  the  unequal  number 
of  subjects  per  cell.  The  results  showed  that  in  grades  three  and  seven 
age,  sex,  family  placement  and  the  interactions  of  these  were  not 
significant  at  the  .05  level  of  significance.  However,  in  grade  one,  the 
age  of  the  child  and  the  sex  of  the  child  ere  significant.  All  other 
variables  and  interactons  in  grade  one  were  not  significant  at  the  .05 
level. 

The  program  was  determined  to  be  a  very  successful  one  in  this 
rural  setting  just  as  it  had  previously  been  found  to  be  in  the  inner- 
city  situation  of  Atlanta,  Georgia.  It  is  therefore  suggested  that  the 
program  be  continued  in  this  school  as  well  as  other  schools  in  the 
county  and  that  records  continue  to  be  kept  for  a  continuous  compari- 
son from  year  to  year. 

Rouse,  C.  Paul  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Super- 
vision, August,  1976) 

A  BEHAVIOR  MODIFICATION  MODEL  TO  ENCOURAGE  POSI- 
TIVE BEHAVIOR  IN  A  SEVENTH  DAY  ADVENTIST  ACADEMY 
RESIDENCE  HALL 

The  purpose  of  this  project  was  to  design  a  residence  hall  manage- 
ment program  which  would  reduce  situations  that  tend  to  create 
negative  feelings  within  the  student.  These  negative  feelings  too  often 
develop  into  many  adverse  reactions  such  as  negative  attitudes,  low 
morale,  and  sometimes  destrictiveness. 

A  comprehensive  historical  research  of  the  literature  revealed 
numerous  principles  and  techinques  successfully  used  in  the  class- 
room, but  none  were  found  in  which  a  residence  hall  was  the  base  for 
study.  However,  the  methods  of  behavior  modification  used  in  these 

92 


studies  reviewed  were  conducive  to  stimulating  positive  behavior  at 
different  times  and  in  varied  situations.  Therefore,  if  care  was  used 
in  application  of  these  methods  to  a  residence  hall  program,  then  that 
program  should  succeed. 

The  methods  that  were  determined  to  be  applicable  to  a  resi- 
dence hall  program  were  the  principles  of  positive  reinforcement  and 
aversive  control.  Positive  reinforcement  techniques  used  were  based 
on  a  point  system,  or  token  reinforcement,  and  contingency  contract- 
ing, both  individual  and  group.  The  aversive  control  te  techniques 
were  response  cost,  time-out,  and  punishment. 

It  was  concluded  that  this  program  would  result  in  the  student 
gaining  in  the  following  ways:  (1)  increased  self-esteem;  (2)  increased 
self-perception;  (3)  greater  self-confidence;  (4)  more  positive  atti- 
tude; (5)  more  positive  relationship;  (6)  increased  academic  achieve- 
ment; (7)  more  favorable  habits. 

With  these  conclusions,  it  was  recommended  that  the  program 
be  given  a  nine-week  trial  period  to  be  then  evaluated  as  to  its  effec- 
tiveness. 

It  is  pointed  out  that  this  program  does  not  infer  to  be  the  pana- 
cea for  eliminating  negative  feelings,  nor  does  it  represent  the  final 
word.  What  it  does  is  to  offer  a  different  approach  to  residence  hall 
management  with  the  intent  of  making  the  dormitory  a  place  where 
the  residents  experience  a  positive  and  harmonious  development  of 
their  physical,  mental,  and  spiritual  powers. 

Sampson,  Larry  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
March,  1976) 

A  TEACHER'S  RESOURCE  GUIDE  FOR  THE  PREPARATION 
OF  A  HISTORY  OF  MURRAY  COUNTY,  GEORGIA 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  provide  a  resource  guide  for  high 
school  teachrs  of  Murray  County  High  School,  Chatsworth,  Georgia, 
to  use  in  helping  students  prepare  a  history  of  the  county.  There 
exists  no  modern,  up-to-date  written  history  of  Murray  County  at 
present.  This  guide  is  intended  to  present  information  and  techniques 
in  the  collection  and  writing  of  local  history.  The  intention  is  for  it 
to  be  used  with  a  class  of  selected  high  school  students  over  a  period 
of  time. 

Special  emphasis  is  given  to  the  discipline  of  oral  history  and 
how  this  technique  may  be  used  in  gathering  local  history. 

The  section  specifically  dealing  with  Murray  County  is  a  collec- 
tion of  resource  people,  location  of  records,  etc.,  to  be  used  as  leads 
into  the  deeper  probing  of  the  county's  history. 

93 


Sentell,  Susan  D.  (MA,  History,  August,  1976) 

THE  AMERICAN  REVOLUTIONARY  WAR  SOLDIER  AND 
HIS  ATTITUDE  TOWARD  WAR,  1775-1783 

The  colonial  soldier  during  the  American  Revolution  was  not  a 
professional  warrior.  He  had  to  quickly  acquire  milirary  skills  and 
strategy  that  would  enable  him  to  survive  and  eventually  to  win  a 
protracted  war.  In  addition  to  the  dangers  of  conflict,  the  soldier  was 
compelled  to  adjust  to  the  boredom  and  lonliness  that  accompanies 
every  war.  Many  soldiers  deserted,  some  in  order  to  return  to  their 
family  and  business  responsibilities,  others  because  of  their  hatred  of 
the  discipline  inherent  in  army  life.  Recruiting  was  a  persistent  prob- 
lem throughout  the  conflict.  Ultimately,  however,  an  adequate  legion 
was  raised  and  galvanized  into  an  eff'ective  fighting  force. 

The  task  of  directing  amateur  soldiers  fell  to  amateur  officiers. 
General  Washington  was  plagued  by  inexperienced  subalterns  and  by 
the  petty  machinations  of  Congress.  Nevertheless,  some  American 
commanders — and  several  foreign  volunteers — acted  in  a  distin- 
guished manner.  The  officers  faced  many  of  the  same  problems  which 
confronted  the  enlisted  men.  In  addition  to  inadequate  food  and 
shelter,  the  officer  frequently  went  without  pay.  Like  the  conscripts, 
not  a  few  officers  deserted  the  Continental  Army. 

On  the  home  front,  civilian  leaders  faced  the  task  of  arousing  and 
maintaining  enthusiasm  for  the  war.  Newspapermen,  pamphleteers 
like  Thomas  Paine  and  Samuel  Adams,  and  numerous  clergymen 
proved  to  be  adroit  propagandists. 

At  war's  end  the  military  ideas  embraced  by  this  generation  were 
codified  in  the  United  States  Constitution.  The  debates  at  the  Con- 
stitutional Convention  principally  reflected  the  American's  concern 
over  standing  armies  and  civilian  control  of  the  military.  Throughout 
these  debates  and  the  ensuing  ratifying  conventions,  the  Founding 
Fathers  constructed  a  document  which  reflected  the  colonial  and 
Revoluntionary  experience  with  warfare. 

Shoemaker,  Garland  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Coun- 
seling, June,  1976) 

THE  COMPARISON  OF  AUDIO-VISUAL  DEMONSTRATION 
METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  THE  TRADITIONAL- 
LECTURE  METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  AREA  OF  JOB 
INTERVIEW  SKILLS  IN  THE  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATIONAL 
AWARENESS  PROGRAM  OF  NEWMAN  HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  problem  of  this  thesis  was  to  determine  if  there  was  a  signifi- 

94 


cant  difference  in  the  achievement  of  high  school  students  who  had 
been  taught  Job  Interview  skills  by  the  audio-visual  demonstration 
method  and  those  taught  by  the  traditional  lecture  method  of  in- 
struction. Students  were  to  be  tested  by  a  pencil  and  paper  test  and 
by  a  simulated  job  interview. 

The  teacher  taught  two  groups  of  ten  students  each  for  ten  55 
minute  periods.  The  control  group  was  taught  job  interview  skills  by 
the  traditional-lecture  method  of  instruction  where  the  teacher  lec- 
tured and  students  listened.  Questions  were  permitted;  however,  they 
were  not  encouraged.  Questions  from  the  end  of  the  textbook  were 
assigned  to  the  student  to  answer. 

The  experimental  group  was  taught  job  interview  skills  by  the 
audio-visual  demonstration  method  of  instruction.  One  tape  series 
and  one  tape-slide  series  was  used.  Student  questions  and  discussion 
was  encouraged.  Also,  each  student  participated  in  two  role-playing 
job  interviews. 

The  conclusions  from  this  study  were  threefold: 

1.  That  simulated  experiences  in  the  classroom  do  make  a  dif- 
ference in  student  achievement  when  student  evaluation  is  also  based 
on  simulated  situations. 

2.  That  there  may  be  little  difference  in  the  effectiveness  of 
audio-visual  demonstration  instruction  and  the  traditional-lecture 
method  of  instruction  when  the  evaluation  to  be  given  is  just  a  pencil 
and  paper  test. 

3.  That  the  kind  of  evaluation  given  to  a  group  of  students  may 
be  as  important  as  the  instruction  given  those  students. 

Standridge,  Robert  D.  (MA,  English,  March,  1976) 

ALIENS  IN  BABYLON:  THREE  ORIGINAL  SHORT  STORIES 

DEMONSTRATING  THE  THEME  OF  ALIENATION  IN 

LITERATURE  WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 

The  fiction  of  Joyce,  Mann  and  Proust  reveals  man's  estangement 
from  society,  nature  and  God.  In  Ulysses,  Joyce  created  two  contrast- 
ing examples  of  the  alienated  character.  Bloom  is  an  example  of  the 
estranged  organization  man,  while  Dedalus  is  the  exiled  artist.  Lever- 
kuhn,  in  Mann's  Dr.  Faustus,  isolates  himself  to  create  art,  while 
Castorp,  in  The  Magic  Mountain,  alienates  himself  from  life  by  his 
fascination  with  death.  In  Swann's  Way,  Proust  suggests  that  Marcel 
is  isolated  from  life  by  his  tendency  to  cling  to  disease.  Swann  belongs 
neither  to  the  bourgeois  society  nor  the  fashionable  society,  but  oscil- 
lates between  them. 

The  theme  of  alienation  of  these  three  writers  is  also  the  theme 

95 


of  Mr.  Stnad  Standridge's  short  stories,  "An  Alien  In  Babylon", 
"Cantey",  and  "Doctor  Spalt." 

At  the  beginning  of  "An  Alien  In  Babylon,"  Yucel  is  dressing  for 
work.  He  walks  to  the  university  and  enters  the  student  center.  He 
is  told  to  wax  the  floor.  Yucel  waxes  the  floor  and  goes  to  a  lecture. 
He  sees  the  woman  who  has  repelled  his  advances  and  speaks  to  her, 
but  she  rejects  him.  Disappointed,  he  walks  to  the  sea  and  helps  two 
men  with  a  sailboat.  Yucel  is  insulted  by  the  fat  man  and  starts  a 
fight  and  is  beaten. 

At  the  beginning  of  "Cantey,"  Cantey  and  the  narrator  have 
returned  from  a  lecture.  They  sit  and  talk  on  the  campus  lawn.  It 
begins  to  rain,  so  they  seek  refuge  in  a  chapel.  Cantey  acts  strangely 
and  talks  about  his  father's  suicide.  They  go  to  the  hotel  and  decide 
to  attend  a  concert.  At  the  concert,  Cantey  is  very  stimulated  by  the 
music.  At  intermission,  the  narrator  leaves  to  call  his  uncle  and  when 
he  returns,  Cantey  has  shot  himself. 

"Doctor  Spalt"  begins  with  Spalt  pacing  his  room  and  brooding 
on  his  inability  to  create.  He  contemplates  suicide.  Dr.  Mephitis 
enters  the  room  and  entices  Dr.  Spalt  to  the  hotel  nightclub.  The 
psychiatrist-professor  tells  Dr.  Spalt  that  Spalt  is  an  insincere  person 
and  says  that  Spalt's  inability  to  create  anything  but  superficial  art, 
is  due  to  his  lack  of  passion  for  the  flesh.  Miss  Chambers  and  Miss 
Long  enter  the  nightclub.  Dr.  Spalt  and  Miss  Chambers  dance  and 
he  excuses  himself  to  go  to  the  bathroom,  instead  he  leaves  the  night- 
club and  goes  for  a  walk  by  the  sea. 

Summeruille,  Sandra  P.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Edu- 
cation, August,  1976) 

TEACHING  THE  DOLCH  SIGHT  WORD  LIST  AS  A  MEANS 

OF  IMPROVING  READING  ACHIEVEMENT 

AT  THE  SECOND  GRADE  LEVEL 

This  experimental  research  design  was  undertaken  to  determine 
if  the  teaching  of  the  Dolch  Sight  Word  List  would  result  in  an  in- 
creased level  of  skill  in  reading  achievement. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  study  all  second  grade  students  at  East- 
side  School  were  tested  and  subjects  were  chosen  for  inclusion  in  the 
study  on  the  basis  of  test  scores  on  the  Metropolitan  Achievement 
Test.  Primary  II,  Form  G.  Only  those  students  whose  scores  on  total 
reading  were  no  greater  than  L3  grade  equivalent  were  considered  for 
inclusion  as  subjects.  Only  students  who  had  completed  first  grade 
at  Eastside  School  were  considered  for  inclusion  as  subjects.  Subjects 
selected  were  22  experimental  group  and  24  control  group  second 
grade  students  matched  on  the  bases  of  age,  sex,  IQ,  race,  reading 

96 


achievement  test  scores,  and  socio-economic  level.  These  subjects 
represented  the  medium  range  for  second  grade  with  both  extremes 
of  high  and  low  scores  being  eliminated  from  the  study. 

Groups  received  instruction  that  was  parallel  in  all  respects  ex- 
cept that  the  experimental  group  received  intensive  instruction  in  the 
Dolch  Sight  Word  List. 

A  significance  level  of  .05  was  established  as  indicating  a  statisti- 
cally significant  event  which  could  not  be  attributed  to  the  probabil- 
ity of  chance.  Results  for  the  total  group  showed  no  significant  differ- 
ence at  the  the  t  value  of  1.37  between  the  two  groups  in  the  area  of 
word  knowledge.  There  was  a  significance  diflFerence  at  the  t  value  of 
2.84  in  favor  of  the  experimental  group  in  the  area  of  word  analysis. 
This  was  statistically  different  at  the  .01  level  of  reading.  This  was 
statistically  different  at  the  .001  level  of  significance.  There  was  a 
significant  difference  at  a  t  value  of  3.16  in  favor  of  the  experimental 
group  in  the  area  of  total  reading.  This  was  statistically  different  at 
the  .01  level  of  significance.  There  was  a  significant  difference  at  a  t 
value  of  4.22  in  favor  of  the  experimental  group  in  the  area  of  reading. 
This  was  statistically  different  at  the  .001  level  of  significance.  There 
was  a  significance  difference  at  a  t  value  of  3.16  in  favor  of  the  experi- 
mental group  in  the  area  of  total  reading.  This  was  statistically  differ- 
ent at  the  .01  level  of  significance. 

It  was  concluded  that  while  there  was  no  signficant  difference  in 
the  area  of  word  knowledge,  the  Dolch  Sight  Word  List  is  still  a 
valuable  tool  in  the  teaching  of  reading  in  view  of  the  significance 
found  in  the  areas  of  word  analysis,  reading,  and  total  reading. 

In  the  course  of  an  ancillary  analyses  of  data  generated  by  this 
study,  it  was  found  that  boys  responded  to  a  greater  degree  than  girls 
to  this  method  of  instruction.  It  was  also  found  that  the  Caucasian 
population  responded  to  a  greater  degree  to  this  method  of  instruc- 
tion than  the  black  population.  These  findings  pose  implications  for 
further  study. 

Walton,  Ronnie  B.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
March,  1976) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  METHODS  FOR  TEACHING 

RECOGNITION  VOCABULARY  TO 

HIGH  SCHOOL  STUDENTS 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  whether  students 
learn  meanings  of  new  words  most  effectively  when  taught  by  the 
context  method,  when  taught  by  the  dictionary  method,  or  when  no 
specific  vocabulary  instruction. 

97 


The  seventy-five  subjects  for  the  study  were  selected  from  three 
tenth  grade  English  classes  at  Carrollton  High  School.  Two  classes 
served  as  experimental  groups  while  the  third  served  as  the  control 
group. 

A  pretest  was  administered  to  each  group  immediately  prior  to 
the  beginning  of  the  teaching  unit  which  was  comprised  of  reading 
and  discussion  in  class  Dosen's  play,  An  Enemy  of  the  People.  An 
identical  posttest  was  given  a  week  after  the  completion  of  the  unit. 

The  null  hypothesis  tested  was  stated  as  follows:  There  is  no 
significant  difl^erence  in  improvement  of  reading  vocabulary  among 
a  group  of  high  school  students  taught  by  the  dictionary  method,  one 
taught  by  the  teacher-directed  context  method,  and  a  control  group 
receiving  no  special  emphasis  on  word  study. 

An  F-test  was  used  to  interpret  the  data.  The  variable  of  teach- 
ing method  was  not  found  to  be  significant  at  the  .05  level. 

Implications  derived  from  the  study  include  the  following: 

(l)Students'  word  recognition  skills  are  not  necessarily  improved 
by  implementing  direct  teaching  methods  such  as  the  context  and 
dictionary  study  methods. 

(2)Perhaps  the  incidental  method  of  word  study — broad  reading 
without  specific  attention  devoted  to  individual  words — is  as  eff"ective 
in  improving  word  recognition  skills  as  are  more  direct  methods. 

Weiss,  Steven  M.  (MA,  Psychology,  March,  1976) 

A  STUDY  OF  SPIRITUAL  PEAK 
EXPERIENCE  AND  RELIGIOUS  ECSTACY 

This  thesis  has  been  produced  as  an  audiovisual  tape  rather  than 
a  written  manuscript. 

Although  accompanied  by  this  abstract  and  another,  more  com- 
prehensive documentation  of  sources,  methodology  and  explanations 
of  purpose,  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the  tape  rather  than  the 
written  material  constitutes  the  substance  of  the  theses. 

The  tape  is  about  a  group  of  people  and  the  nature  of  their 
religious  experiences.  They  believe  in  a  strict  literal  interpretation 
of  the  Bible  (both  Old  and  New  Testaments)  and  because  of  this, 
they  see  the  passages  in  St.  Mark,  Chapter  16,  Verses  16-18,  as  a 
direct  injunction  to  handle  venomous  snakes,  drink  deadly  sub- 
stances (most  often  strychnine),  cast  out  devils,  speak  in  unknown 
tongues  and  perform  healing  by  "the  laying  on  of  hands." 

The  videotape  is  a  one-hour  edited  version  of  approximately 
twelve  hours  of  footage.  It  was  taped  at  the  Holiness  Church  of  God 
In  Jesus  Name  in  Kingston,  Georgia  during  three  separate  worship 
services. 

98 


It  is  an  attempt  to  capture  the  essence  of  the  spiritual  experience 
of  the  worshipers  as  well  as  to  show  the  types  of  rituals  and  activities 
which  are  a  part  of  the  worship  services. 

Amick,  Hervey  W.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  March,  1977) 

THE  MANAGEMENT  ROLE  OF  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

PRINCIPAL 

AND  RELATED  TASKS  OF  DEPARTMENT  HEADS 

Principals  of  large,  suburban  high  schools  are  confronted  daily 
with  a  variety  of  administrative  and  educational  problems  which 
demand  positive  solutions.  Basic  approaches  to  the  job  could  include, 
first,  a  clear  and  realistic  role  definition  for  principals  and,  second, 
clarification  of  those  duties  which  can  be  delegated  to  others.  The 
problem  of  this  study  was  to  describe  the  managerial  role  of  the 
principal  from  a  classical  management  viewpoint,  as  presented  by 
Koontz  and  O'Donnell,  and  to  specify  those  tasks  delegated  to  de- 
partment heads.  The  viewpoints  of  a  number  of  authorities  in  the 
field  of  educational  research  were  analyzed. 

Current  literature  on  the  principal's  role  as  a  manager  and  on 
duties  assumed  by  department  heads  was  reviewed.  Educational  lit- 
erature was  devoid  of  research  concerning  department  heads'  duties; 
for  that  reason  Holland's  paper,  "The  Role  of  the  Secondary  School 
Department  Head  in  Georgia,"  was  used  as  a  major  source  for  this 
paper.  The  managerial  role  of  the  principal  was  analyzed  and  mana- 
gerial tasks  of  department  heads  were  defined.  Shared  responsibili- 
ties were  noted,  and  a  control  system  was  suggested. 

It  was  found  that  a  highly  useful  method  of  dividing  up  the  total 
task  of  management  was  in  terms  of  planning,  organizing,  staffing, 
directing,  and  controlling.  Within  these  areas,  the  managerial  roles 
of  principals  and  department  heads  were  discussed  citing  those  spe- 
cific duties  which  could  be  performed  by  principals  and  department 
heads.  The  effective  performance  of  each  of  these  tasks  contributed 
to  the  overall  management  of  the  school. 

The  following  points  emerged  as  findings  from  the  study: 

1.  The  pilot  group  of  students  illustrated  improvement  in  three 
areas: 

a.  Students  placed  on  contract  illustrated  a  decreased  rate  of 
absenteeism  in  comparison  to  a  comparable  time  prior  to  the  con- 
tract. 

b.  Students  placed  on  contract  illustrated  positive  gains  of 
approximately  one-half  of  a  letter  grade  in  academic  average. 

99 


c.  Students  placed  on  contract  illustrated  a  decrease  in  the 
number  of  times  they  were  referred  to  the  office  for  discipline  stem- 
ming from  misbehavior. 

2.  The  pilot  students  were  offered  a  chance  to  change  in  order 
to  gain  from  the  contract  approach  more  than  from  the  method  of 
suspension  and  retention  by  the  juvenile  authorities. 

a.  Satisfactory  compliance  with  regulations  of  the  contract 
could  lead  to  a  shortenting  of  the  probationary  period. 

b.  In -school  suspension  avoided  interrupting  the  continuity  of 
his  education. 

3.  The  contract  approach  provided  advantages  to  the  adminis- 
trative staff: 

a.  There  was  no  loss  of  finances  due  to  absenteeism. 

b.  There  was  less  likelihood  of  subjection  to  court  action  under 
the  Forteenth  Amendment  of  the  United  States  Constitution. 

4.  Student  behavior  was  modified  into  more  acceptable  stan- 
dards as  illustrated  by  the  sharp  decrease  in  the  number  of  office 
referrals  for  the  major  recommendations  for  the  contract  model  are 
for: 

1.  Reorganizing  the  program  to  provide  a  full  time  behavior 
disorder  trained  teacher  and  visiting  teacher  to  administer  the  pro- 
gram. 

2.  Enlarging  the  program  to  incorporate  other  students  outside 
those  on  probation. 

3.  Continued  experimentation  with  the  contract  approach  to 
determine  if  the  effects  were  due  exclusively  to  the  contract  or  other 
factors. 

4.  Alerting  principals  and  system  heads  to  the  contract  ap- 
proach as  a  possible  development  in  treating  the  serious  problem  of 
drug  abuse. 

Beggs,  Rosemary  P.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
June,  1977) 

THE  WECHSLER  INTELLIGENCE  SCALE  FOR  CHILDREN 

IN  DIAGNOSING  SPELLING  DEFICIENCIES 

OF  LEARNING  DISABILITY  STUDENTS 

Teachers  each  year  are  confronted  with  students  of  average  or 
above  average  ability  who  are  extremely  poor  spellers.  The  students 
may  be  admonished  by  the  teacher  to  study  the  spelling  list.  Or  the 
teacher  may  be  trial  and  error  experimentation  find  a  new  method 
of  teaching  which  fosters  spelling  success.  From  general  observations 
over  several  years,  there  seems  to  be  very  few  individualized  spelling 

100 


programs  although  small  group  and  individualized  reading  and  arith- 
metic programs  are  widely  accepted  throughout  the  country. 

There  are  many  questions  concerning  an  effective  method  of  in- 
struction. The  purpose  of  this  research  will  be  directed  toward  learn- 
ing strategies  to  improve  spelling. 

Many  of  the  students  scheduled  for  extra  help  in  Learning  Disa- 
bility Resource  room  in  Cobb  County  have  been  given  the  Wechsler 
Intelligence  Scale  for  Children.  They  have  also  been  given  the  Wide 
Range  Achievement  Test  to  measure  academic  achievement  in  read- 
ing, spelling  and  arithmetic.  Using  these  two  diagnostic  tests,  an  an- 
aylsis  will  be  made  for  indications  of  common  deficits  in  children  with 
spelling  problems. 

Blake,  Kenneth  R.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  March,  1977) 

A  SYSTEM  MODEL  OF  CONTRACT 

TREATMENT  AND  REHABILITATION 

OF  JUNIOR  HIGH  STUDENTS 

CONVICTED  OF  DRUG  ABUSE 

AND  RELATED  CRIMES 

The  tremendous  increase  in  drug  abuse  in  the  public  school  sys- 
tem has  brought  about  great  pressure,  emphasis,  and  demand  on 
administrators  to  establish  policies  dealing  with  the  drug  problem. 
The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  the  presentation  of  an  effective  model 
to  be  used  in  public  schools  in  dealing  with  drgu  drug  abuse  and 
related  crimes.  The  proposed  model  is  a  contract  approach.  An  at- 
tempt was  made  to  show  that  this  approach  was  more  effective  than 
the  traditional  method  of  suspension  of  the  students  and/or  his  reten- 
tion by  the  juvenile  authorities. 

The  pilot  group  for  the  study  consisted  of  10  junior  high  school 
students  who,  at  the  time  they  were  placed  on  contract,  were  on 
probation  with  the  Clayton  County  Juvenile  Court  for  drug  abuse  and 
related  crimes.  The  actual  time  involved  in  the  study  of  these  stu- 
dents was  the  one  quarter  they  were  on  contract  together. 

The  contract  approach  literally  involved  the  signing  of  a  contract 
with  specific  performance  standards.  The  contract  stipulated  regula- 
tions concerning  a  student's  behavior  and  indicated  the  reward  given 
if  regulations  were  maintained  and  the  punishment  of  an  infraction 
was  committed.  The  contract  approach  operated  on  the  basis  of  a 
point  system,  and  the  contract  stipulated  the  number  of  points  which 
were  to  be  earned  weekly. 


101 


Bonds,   Neil  C.   (Specialist  in  Education,   Secondary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  STUDY  COMPARING  THE  EFFECT 

OF  TEACHING  PUNCTUATION 

WITH  AND  WITHOUT  RULES 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  compare  students'  performance 
in  punctuation  when  taught  by  two  different  methods;  by  noting 
intonation  cues  and  sentence  patterns  and  when  taught  by  using 
traditional  rules. 

The  sixty-six  subjects  for  the  study  were  two  tenth-grade  English 
merit  (advanced)  classes  at  Marietta  High  School,  Marietta,  Georgia. 
One  group  served  as  an  experimental  group  while  the  second  group 
served  as  the  control  group. 

A  pretest  was  administered  to  both  groups  immediately  prior  to 
the  beginning  of  the  teaching  unit  on  the  comma  and  the  semi-colon. 
An  identical  posttest  was  given  immediately  upon  the  completion  of 
the  six-week  unit. 

The  null  hypothesis  tested  was  stated  as  follows:  There  is  no 
significant  difference  between  the  students'  proficiency  in  punctua- 
tion when  taught  by  traditional  rules  and  their  proficiency  when 
taught  by  the  use  of  intonation  cues. 

The  t-test  was  used  to  interpret  the  data.  The  variable  of  teach- 
ing method  was  not  found  to  be  significant  at  the  .05  level. 

The  following  implications  were  derived  from  this  study: 

1.  Students'  punctuation  skills  do  improve  whether  taught  by 
intonation  cues  and  sentence  patterns  or  by  study  of  traditional  rules. 

2.  The  results  of  the  study  did  support  the  use  of  the  intonation 
method  as  an  equally  effective  alternative  to  the  method  of  using 
traditional  grammar  rules. 

Cantey,  Patricia  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  ACADEMIC  ACHIEVEMENT 

OF  CHILDREN  IN  RESOURCE  AND  SELF-CONTAINED 

LEARNING  DISABILITIES  CLASSES 

This  study  was  designed  to  compare  the  academic  achievement 
of  children  in  resource  and  self-contained  learning  disabilities  classes. 
The  pretest  and  posttest  of  the  Gray-Votaw-Rogers  Achievement 
Test  were  used  to  determine  if  there  were  a  significant  difference 
between  the  two  class  placements.  The  four  subtests  used  were  read- 

102 


ing  vocabulary,  reading  comprehension,  spelling,  and  arithmetic 
computation. 

There  were  295  children  involved  in  this  study,  and  they  were 
assigned  to  one  of  nine  self-contained  or  eighteen  resource  classes  for 
the  entire  year,  1974-1975.  The  testing  for  each  group  was  done  by  the 
special  education  teacher  for  that  group. 

The  t-test  for  independent  means  was  used  to  test  the  hypotheses 
comparing  differences  between  the  two  groups  and  between  the  boys 
and  girls.  The  t-test  for  dependent  means  was  used  to  test  hypotheses 
comparing  pretest-posttest  gain  measures  on  the  same  individuals. 

Significant  gains  were  made  by  both  groups,  and  both  sexes.  A 
significant  difference  was  found  in  favor  of  the  self-contained  group 
in  one  subtest,  arithmetic  computation. 

Choate,  Donovan  H.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  READABILITY  SURVEY  OF  TWENTY-FIVE 
JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  LEVEL 
SOCIAL  STUDIES  TEXTBOOKS 

The  readability  levels  often  geography,  ten  United  States  history, 
and  revised  versions  of  the  Fry  Readability  Graph  and  the  SMOG 
Grading  Formula. 

The  revised  Fry  Readability  Graph  showed  the  textbooks  as- 
sessed to  be  approximately  one  grade  level  higher  than  the  original 
Fry  formula,  which  did  not  include  the  counting  of  proper  nouns  as 
an  indicator  of  reading  difficulty. 

A  comparison  of  the  revised  Fry  Readability  Graph  to  the  SMOG 
Grading  Formula  resulted  in  the  SMOG  formula  placing  most  of  the 
textbooks  at  from  two  to  three  grade  levels  above  the  revised  Fry 
formula.  Both  formulas  indicated  that  most  junior  high  level  social 
studies  textbooks  are  too  difficult  for  many  students  for  whom  they 
are  intended.  This  indication  is  based  on  a  comparison  of  the  reada- 
bility levels  obtained  from  the  two  formulas  to  the  scores  of  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  students  in  Floyd  County  on  the  Short  Form  Test 
of  Academic  Aptitude  administered  in  October,  1975. 

Both  the  revised  Fry  Readability  Graph  and  the  SMOG  Grading 
Formula  showed  the  United  States  history  texts  to  be  written  at  a  less 
difficult  level  than  the  civics  or  geography  texts.  The  geography  texts 
were  shown  to  be  approximately  one  grade  level  of  difficulty  higher 
than  the  civics  texts  according  to  the  SMOG  formula,  but  the  Fry 
formula  showed  geography  texts  to  be  one  grade  level  lower  than  the 
civics  textbooks. 

103 


The  revised  Fry  Readability  Graph  was  applied  to  each  textbook 
to  assess  variations  in  readability.  The  results  of  this  application 
revealed  that  the  textbooks  surveyed  possessed  a  range  of  at  least  one 
grade  level  of  reading  difficulty,  and  most  textbooks  had  internal 
variations  of  three  or  more  grade  levels. 

Cook,  Jack  P.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
June,  1977) 

COUNSELING  ADULT  WOMEN  FOR  CAREER 
DEVELOPMENT:  A  GROUP  APPROACH 

The  traditional  roles  of  women  are  being  challenged  and  counsel- 
ors need  to  find  new  and  more  effective  ways  of  assisting  female 
student  with  vocational  decisions  and  life  style  options.  The  review 
of  literature  for  this  project  revealed  that  there  has  been  a  tendency 
to  neglect  exploration  of  career  options  for  women  in  career  develop- 
ment theories.  This  project  attempted  to  address  the  needs  of  women 
for  career  development  counseling  and  extract  and  implement  ele- 
ments of  vocational  theories  applicable  to  women. 

The  project  describes  a  group  vocational  counseling  encounter 
with  adult  women  and  the  resulting  attitude  changes.  The  basic 
objective  of  this  action  research  project  was  to  provide  an  atmosphere 
in  which  women  could  have  an  exposure  to  the  forces  and  circumstan- 
ces that  shaped  their  personalities  and  lives  in  addition  to  an  explora- 
tion into  self-concept,  components  of  interest,  individual  talents,  de- 
cision making,  strengths  and  weaknesses.  The  desired  behavioral  out- 
come was  accopmplished  in  that,  with  greater  self-awareness  and 
increased  self-esteem,  the  women  participants  were  able  to  report 
expanded  decision  making  abilities  in  the  area  of  career  choice. 

The  research  methodology  involved  administration  of  a  re- 
searcher designed  pre-course/post-course  attitude  evaluation  to  each 
of  the  35  adult  women  participants.  The  10  items  on  the  evaluation 
corresponded  to  one  or  more  of  the  topics  covered  in  six  group  ses- 
sions. The  evaluation  was  a  Likert  type  rating  scale  designed  to  assess 
attitude  changes  over  the  span  of  the  six  week  (two  hours  each  week) 
group  counseling  experience.  Each  of  the  10  items  were  paired 
(pre/post)  and  treated  statistically  using  a  t-test  for  correlated  sam- 
ples. Using  a  one-tailed  test,  all  10  items  were  significant  at  the  .01 
level. 

The  results  indicated  that  significant  changes  occurred  in  the 
women's  attitudes  about  themselves  and  their  abilities.  The  conclu- 
sions indicate  a  definite  need  among  women  for  exploration  of  their 
human  potential  as  it  relates  to  self-concept  and  career  development. 

104 


Costopoulos,  Photios  (MA,  English,  March,  1977) 

BYRON'S  PHILHELLENISM 

It  is  true  that  in  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  last  century  many 
writers  and  poets  expressed  their  philhellenic  feelings  and  ideas  in 
their  works.  But  Byron  was  the  only  poet  whose  life  and  poetry  was 
much  related  to  the  current  of  Philhellenism.  When  I  speak  of  the 
philhellenism  of  his  life,  I  mean  his  two  journeys  to  Greece,  which 
played  an  important  role  not  only  in  his  life  but  also  in  his  poetry. 
This  is  the  reason  that  my  thesis  is  divided  into  the  following  three 
chapters:  "Byron's  First  Journey  to  Greece",  "Byron's  Last  Journey 
to  Greece."  and  "Byron's  Philhellenism  in  his  Poetry." 

In  the  first  chapter  I  give  an  account  of  the  journey  in  which 
Byron  and  his  friend  John  Cam  Hobhouse  had  the  opportunity  not 
only  to  visit  many  beautiful  parts  of  Greece  but  also  to  become  well 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  people.  During  this  time  in  Greece  Byron 
wrote  the  two  cantos  of  Childe  Harold,  which  made  him  a  famous 
poet.  He  also  had  the  opportunity  to  attain  considerable  mastery  of 
the  modern  Greek  language.  Moreover,  some  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  this  chapter  are  the  special  information  that  I  can  bring  to 
this  thesis,  either  as  a  citizen  of  Greece  or  a  reader  of  literature.  Of 
course  some  special  information  can  also  be  found  in  the  following 
chapters,  but  in  this  one  the  special  information  is  my  main  purpose. 

In  the  second  chapter,  I  give  an  account  of  Byron's  last  journey 
to  Greece  according  to  his  most  important  biographers.  In  the  conclu- 
sion of  this  chapter  I  find  the  opportunity  to  express  my  own  opinion 
about  Byron's  philhellenism  and  the  Greeks.  According  to  this  opin- 
ion Byron  was  sincere  in  his  love  for  Greece  and  went  to  Missolonghi 
for  the  purpose  of  liberating  an  enslaved  people.  The  Greeks,  there- 
fore, have  never  forgotten  Byron.  They  have  loved  him  as  a  national 
hero. 

In  the  third  chapter,  I  try  to  point  out  the  importance  of  Childe 
Harold  in  the  current  of  philhellenism  in  English  literature.  Moreo- 
ver, I  refer  to  the  ways  in  which  Byron  expressed  his  philhellenism 
in  his  poetry.  Byron's  philhellenism  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the 
other  Romantic  poets. 

In  the  conclusion  of  this  chapter  I  relate  Byron's  philhellenism 
to  the  eff^orts  of  the  Third  World  in  our  century  and  the  ideas  of  our 
contemporary  writers. 


105 


Dale,  Karen  L.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1977) 

ACCEPTANCE:  A  DIFFERENT  WAY  OF  KNOWING 

Acceptance  and  consciousness  are  two  ways  of  knowing  which 
provide  us  with  two  different  descriptions  of  the  world.  Conscious- 
ness, through  explicit  knowing,  is  that  function  which  differentiates, 
separates,  divides  and  labels  the  world.  Acceptance,  through  tacit 
knowing,  is  that  function  which  perceives  the  whole  through  its  parts, 
and  relates  the  parts  to  their  context  in  the  whole.  In  this  paper  I  have 
described  the  implications  of  acceptance  as  a  way  of  knowing  in  the 
context  of  man's  relationship  to  himself,  to  significant  others,  and  to 
the  Divine  or  Transcendent.  The  postscript  deals  with  acceptance 
and  its  implications  for  our  postindustrial  society. 

Donges,  Carolyn  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel- 
ing, March,  1977) 

THE  ORGANIZATION,  IMPLEMENTATION 
AND  EVALUATION  OF  THE  TEEN  INVOLVEMENT  PRO- 
GRAM AT  NORTH  CLAYTON  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

This  study  sought  to  compile  a  handbook  or  guide  for  a  peer 
counseling  program,  called  Teen  Involvement,  at  North  Clayton  Sen- 
ior High  School  in  College  Park,  Georgia.  The  organization,  imple- 
mentation and  evaluation  of  such  a  program  was  outlined  in  detail 
in  this  study. 

Procedures  for  organizing  the  program  through  the  administra- 
tion, faculty  and  student  body  support  was  discussed  and  examples 
were  cited  of  the  various  procedures. 

Implementation  of  the  program  was  described  in  detail  through 
a  day-by-day  description  of  the  training  sessions  set  up  for  the  peer 
counselors.  Clayton  County  Mental  Health  assisted  in  the  training 
sessions  as  resource  personnel. 

The  AS  I  SEE  MYSELF  SCALE  was  administered  to  the  peer 
counselors  and  to  a  sample  of  students  not  participating  in  the  pro- 
gram. Questionnaires  for  evaluation  were  administered  to  the  Peer 
Counselors  and  to  the  Student  Counselees  in  the  sixth  and  eighth 
grades  who  participated  in  the  program. 

Comparisons  of  mean  scores  of  Peer  Counselors  and  students  not 
participating  in  the  program  on  the  AS  I  SEE  MYSELF  SCALE  were 
catagorized. 

The  results  of  this  study  reported  that,  overall,  students  partici- 
pating in  the  Teen  Involvement  Program,  either  as  Peer  Counselors 
or  Student  Counselees,  had  a  positive  view  of  self  and  others,  were 

106 


more  aware  of  their  own  feelings  and  feelings  of  others,  and  felt  that 
their  participation  in  the  program  had  changed  attitudes  toward  the 
regular  school  program. 

Edwards,  Annie  B.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  GUIDE  FOR  THE  STAFF  OF  THE  TITLE  I  PROGRAM 
OF  DOUGLAS  COUNTY 

This  study  was  designed  to  prepare  a  useful  guide  for  the  entire 
staff  of  the  Title  I  Program  of  Douglas  County,  Douglasville,  Georgia. 
Since  the  Title  I  Program  deals  with  remedial  reading,  the  review  of 
literature  was  in  this  area. 

Many  staff  members  came  into  the  program  not  realizing  exactly 
what  the  Title  I  Program  really  is.  A  brief  history  of  the  program  was 
written  to  provide  them  with  a  better  understanding  of  the  program 
in  which  they  were  involved. 

A  major  part  of  the  guide  interprets  the  various  aspects  of  the 
program.  Pertinent  information  related  to  the  objectives  of  the  pro- 
gram, to  the  materials  used  in  the  program,  and  to  the  guidelines  set 
forth  by  the  government  is  included. $ 

The  Title  I  teachers  had  the  opportunity  to  evaluate  the  guide. 
According  to  their  evaluation,  the  study  was  a  very  profitable  en- 
deavor. 


Edwards,  Katherine  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, March,  1977) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  ACADEMIC 

ACHIEVEMENT  OF  TWO  GROUPS  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL 

EDUCABLE  MENTALLY  RETARDED  STUDENTS 

The  study  was  undertaken  to  compare  the  academic  achievement 
of  two  groups  of  high  school  Educable  Mentally  Retarded  students. 
All  of  the  students  involved  in  the  study  came  from  a  school  system 
located  in  the  northern  part  of  Georgia.  For  the  purpose  of  this  study, 
this  system  is  referred  to  as  System  X.  One  of  the  two  groups,  referred 
to  as  Group  I  or  the  EMR  Group,  had  been  enrolled  in  self-contained 
EMR  classes  for  more  than  two  years.  The  mean  time,  in  EMR 
classes  for  this  group,  was  almost  four  years.  The  other  group,  re- 
ferred to  as  Group  II  or  the  Regular  Classroom  Group,  had  been 
enrolled  in  self-contained  EMR  classes  for  less  than  two  years.  Most 
of  these  students  had  been  identified  as  EMR  and  had  entered  EMR 

107 


classes  during  the  1975-1976  school  year.  These  two  groups  (Groups  I 
and  II)  were  regrouped  to  form  Group  III  and  Group  IV.  All  of  the 
students  involved  in  the  study  had  been  administered  the  Wechsler 
Intelligence  Scale  for  Children  and  the  Wide  Range  Achievement 
Test  at  least  once.  Group  IV  consisted  of  students  who  had  a  pretest 
and  posttest  for  both  the  WISC  and  the  WRAT.  Group  III  had  been 
tested  only  once.  This  group  was  used  only  for  classification.  No 
statistical  analyses  were  conducted  on  this  group. 

There  was  no  significant  difference  in  IQ's  of  the  two  groups. 
Based  on  the  percentage  of  students  receiving  free  lunches,  both 
groups  were  similar  socio-economically.  When  computed  the  mean 
CA  of  the  Regular  Class  Group  was  six  months  more  than  the  EMR 
Group.  The  results  of  the  statistical  analyses  indicate  that  EMR 
students  who  had  remained  in  regular  classes  had  made  significant 
gains  in  reading,  spelling  and  arithmetic.  In  each  of  the  three  aca- 
demic areas  (reading,  spelling  and  math)  they  had  achieved  signifi- 
cantly more  than  their  expected  gain  based  on  the  Melcher  Formula. 
In  none  of  the  academic  areas  did  the  EMR  Group  reach  their  ex- 
pected gain.  In  almost  four  years  of  enrollment  in  self-contained 
EMR  classes,  the  EMR  Group  made  less  than  a  three  month  gain  in 
reading,  less  than  a  three  month  gain  in  spelling,  and  less  than  a  two 
month  gain  in  arithmetic.  The  statistical  findings  of  the  study  were 
highly  indicative  that  the  self-contained  EMR  classes  in  System  X 
were  not  conductive  to  the  academic  achievement  of  the  System's 
Educable  Mentally  Retarded  Students. 

Faires,  Gayle  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

THE  STUDY  OF  STUDENT  EVALUATIONS  OF  THE 

ELEMENTARY-READING  MASTER  OF  EDUCATION 

PROGRAMS  IN  THE  SCHOOL  OF  EDUCATION 

AT  WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE  FROM  FALL, 

1975,  THROUGH  SUMMER,  1976 

Since  the  inception  of  graduate  work  at  West  Georgia  College 
during  the  summer  quarter  of  1967  many  changes  have  taken  place. 
Along  with  two  general  organizational  changes  in  administrative 
structure,  there  have  been  numerous  departmental  and  program 
modifications.  The  creation  of  an  early  childhood  education  depart- 
ment, separating  it  from  elementary  education,  and  the  creation  of  a 
graduate  program  in  reading  within  the  department  of  elementary 
education  have  resulted  from  previous  evaluative  endeavors. 

This  study  is  a  formal  attempt  at  updating  the  student  assess- 

108 


ments  of  the  master  of  education  programs  in  both  elementary  educa- 
tion and  reading. 

The  data  presented  are  a  tabulation  of  141  responses  anony- 
mously given  by  all  of  those  graduating  with  master  of  education 
degrees  in  elementary  education  and  reading  for  the  fall  quarter  1975, 
through  summer  quarter  1976. 

The  results  showed  that  the  students  had  positive  reactions  to- 
ward the  graduate  programs  in  elementary  education  and  reading  at 
West  Georgia  College. 

Franklin,  Gail  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  FUNCTIONAL  READING 

STRATEGY  ON  THE  PERFORMANCE  OF  NINTH  GRADE 

SOCIAL  STUDIES  STUDENTS 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  if  a  functional  reading 
strategy  improved  students'  ability  to  read  social  studies  materials  as 
well  as  their  general  reading  ability. 

The  subjects  for  this  study  were  forty-two  ninth  grade  students 
at  Lithia  Springs  Comprehensive  High  School  in  Douglas  County, 
Georgia.  The  students,  enrolled  in  the  lowest  track  of  social  studies 
classes,  made  up  two  classes  which  were  the  experimental  group  and 
the  control  group. 

The  experimental  group  was  taught  for  a  two-month  period  using 
a  functional  reading  strategy,  while  the  control  group  was  taught 
content  only. 

The  evaluative  instrument  was  Form  3A  and  Form  3B  of  the 
Sequential  Test  of  Educational  Progress  in  Reading  and  the  Sequen- 
tial Test  of  Educational  Progress  in  Social  Studies.  These  were  ad- 
ministered as  pretests  and  posttests. 

The  study  found  that  there  was  no  significant  difference  in  either 
the  ability  read  social  studies  materials  or  in  the  general  reading 
ability  between  those  students  exposed  to  a  functional  reading  strat- 
egy and  those  which  were  taught  content  only. 

Good,  John  C.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervi- 
sion, June,  1977) 

TEACHER  SELECTION  PROCEDURES  AND  CRITERIA 

FOR  THE  SMALL,  RURAL  GEORGIA 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

This  study  was  done  as  an  applied  research  project  to  develop  a 

109 


teacher  selection  for  the  principal  of  a  small,  rural  Georgia  elemen- 
tary school.  An  oversupply  of  teachers  assuring  larger-than-ever  num- 
bers of  applicants  from  which  to  choose  and  new  regulations  govern- 
ing teacher  dismissal  have  made  the  development  of  an  effective 
teacher  selection  process  an  immediate  need. 

A  review  of  the  related  literature  was  conducted  and  a  survey 
instrument  which  contained  the  selection  criteria  recognized  as  im- 
portant in  the  literature  was  developed.  The  questionnaire  used  by 
May  and  Doerge  (1972)  as  a  model.  The  principal  of  81  elementary 
schools  in  Georgia  with  20  or  fewer  teachers  were  surveyed.  The  rank- 
order  of  the  criteria  was  determined  and  the  results  were  used  to 
develop  the  teacher  selection  process  for  the  principal  of  the  small, 
rural  Georgia  elementary  school. 

The  survey  indicated  nine  criteria  considered  essential  to  the 
teacher  selection  process  by  the  principals  surveyed.  They  are:  (1) 
classroom  control,  (2)  health,  (3)  attitude  toward  authority,  (4)  or- 
ganization of  instructional  material,  (5)  personality,  (6)  moral  char- 
acter, (7)  opinion  of  the  previous  principal,  (8)  appearance,  and  (9) 
verbal  faculty. 

The  teacher  selection  process  developed  as  a  result  of  this  study 
contains  nine  steps  through  which  the  principal  can  collect  and  eval- 
uate information  about  the  candidate  pertaining  to  the  essential  cri- 
teria. These  steps  are:  (1)  submission  of  written  application,  (2)  re- 
view of  application,  (3)  interview  by  principal,  (4)  rating  of  candidate 
by  the  principal,  (5)  reference  check,  (6)  interview  by  appropriate 
staff  members,  (7)  rating  of  candidate  by  appropriate  staff  members, 
(8)  comparison  of  ratings,  and  (9)  decision  by  principal  to  hire  or  not 
to  hire. 


Hale,  Elaine  M.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  SEX-BIASED  CONTENT  OF  THE 

PROBLEM  SOLVING  PERFORMANCE  OF 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADE  STUDENTS 

A  study  was  conducted  to  determine  the  possible  effects  of  sex- 
biased  content  on  the  problem  solving  performance  of  419  seventh 
and  eighth  grade  students.  A  problem  solving  test  was  administered 
and  four  types  of  scores  were  compared  by  sex  and  grade  level — male- 
biased  problems,  female-biased  problems,  neutral  problems,  and 
total  problems.  IQ  tests  were  also  administered  and  scores  were  de- 
rived for  the  data.  A  one-way  analysis  of  covariance  was  used  in  the 
data  analysis.  When  the  effects  of  IQ  were  statistically  eliminated,  it 

110 


was  found  that  sex-biased  content  had  no  significant  effects  on  the 
problem  solving  performance  of  the  subjects.  Therefore,  the  null  hy- 
potheses were  rejected  at  the  .05  level  of  significance. 

Herrick,  Elaine  S.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  SIMULATION  GAME 

ON  THE  LEARNING  ACHIEVEMENT  IN  SOCIAL  STUDIES  OF 

THIRD  GRADE  STUDENTS 

This  study  was  designed  to  determine  the  potential  effects  of  a 
simulation  game  on  the  learning  achievement  in  social  studies  of 
third  grade  students.  All  students  involved  in  this  study  were  from  a 
rural  school  within  Carroll  County,  Georgia.  Students  from  one  of  the 
third  grade  classes  became  the  experimental  group  and  participated 
in  a  simulation  game  in  social  studies.  Students  from  another  third 
grade  class  became  the  control  group  and  received  the  same  social 
studies  instruction  by  a  "read  the  textbook-discussion"  approach. 

A  social  studies  test  was  administered  as  the  pretest  and  posttest 
for  both  groups.  A  statistical  comparison  of  the  mean  gain  scores  of 
the  experimental  and  control  groups  were  made.  A  significant  differ- 
ence at  the  .01  level  of  confidence  favoring  the  experimental  group 
resulted.  Findings  indicate  that  the  simulation  game  method  in  social 
studies  can  be  beneficial  in  the  third  grade  as  a  means  of  increasing 
learning  achievement. 

Hill,  Richard  G.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
March,  1977) 

THE  COLLEGE  DROPOUT:  A  STUDY  OF  ATTRITION  IN 
HIGHER  EDUCATION  AT  DALTON  JUNIOR  COLLEGE 

There  is  a  significant  number  of  students  who  drop  out  of  colleges 
and  universities  before  the  completion  of  a  planned  program  of  study 
or  fulfillment  of  requirements  for  a  degree;  therefore,  the  central 
problem  of  this  study  was  to  examine  the  effects  of  possible  contribut- 
ing factors,  more  specifically  those  of  academics,  to  this  withdrawal 
dilemma.  The  purpose  of  this  investigation,  consequently,  was  to 
compare  the  academic  performance  and  potential  ability  of  those 
students  who  fail  to  complete  a  program  of  study  or  to  satisfy  degree 
requirements  with  the  performance  and  ability  of  those  pupils  who 
successfully  accomplish  such  an  endeavor. 

Subjects  selected  for  this  study  were  freshmen  and  sophomore 

111 


students  entering  Dalton  Junior  College  for  the  first  time  during  the 
1972-73  academic  year.  Dalton  Junior  College  is  a  coeducational, 
nonresidential,  liberal  arts  instituion  located  in  Dalton,  Georgia,  with 
a  student  population  of  approximately  1,800.  The  majority  of  the 
subjects  came  from  a  five-county  area  immediately  surrounding  the 
institution,  although  a  small  percentage  were  from  other  localities. 

Random  selection  procedures  or  sampling  techniques  were  not 
employed  since  all  newly  enrolled  students  were  considered  in  the 
investigation.  Each  pupil  was  assessed  during  summer  quarter,  1976, 
and  classified  according  to  the  following  three  major  divisions:  (1) 
dropout;  (2)  transfer;  or  (3)  graduate.  Those  whom  the  above  three 
categories  did  not  suit  could  be  assumed  still  enrolled  in  the  institu- 
tion and  were  not  considered  in  this  study  as  also  were  those  classified 
as  transfer  students  not  included.  An  initial  population  of  779  sub- 
jects yielded  a  total  of  224  cases  satisfying  criteria  for  inclusion  in  the 
study.  From  data  stored  in  the  office  of  records  and  admissions  at 
Dalton  Junior  College,  the  sex,  high  school  average,  cumulative  col- 
lege grade  point  average  at  time  of  departure  (either  withdrawal  or 
graduation),  and  Scholastic  Aptitude  Test  scores  (both  math  and 
verbal)  were  collected  on  those  remaining  students  classified  as  dro- 
pouts or  graduate. 

With  respect  to  the  sex  of  each  subject,  the  means,  standard 
deviations,  and  differences  in  the  means  for  both  the  dropout  and 
graduate  groups  were  computed  in  order  to  test  each  of  the  hy- 
potheses of  this  study.  To  determine  the  statistical  significance  of  the 
difference  between  the  means  of  the  variables  under  consideration, 
the  t-test  was  employed.  In  this  study,  graduate  means  were  greater 
with  regard  to  all  variables  and  t-ratios  indicated  that  the  differences 
between  the  means  of  the  dropout  and  graduate  groups  were  signifi- 
cant at  the  .05  level  or  higher. 

Findings  derived  from  this  investigation  revealed  that  the  aca- 
demic performance  and  potential  ability  of  those  students  who  fail 
to  complete  a  program  of  study  or  to  satisfy  degree  requirements 
differ  significantly  from  the  performance  and  ability  of  those  pupils 
who  successfully  complete  such  an  endeavor.  More  specifically,  those 
in  the  graduate  category  statistically  proved  superior  both  in  the  area 
of  potential  ability  and  academic  performance  to  those  who  con- 
cluded their  formal  education  before  such  a  time  as  they  received  a 
certificate  or  diploma  for  studies  successfully  completed.  Therefore, 
as  these  results  indicate,  those  scholastically  inclined  students,  in 
terms  of  both  achievement  and  aptitude,  appear  less  likely  to  with- 
draw permanently  from  the  institution  than  do  those  pupils  not  so 
intellectually  oriented. 

It  is  recommended  that  (1)  this  study  be  replicated  on  a  larger 
scale  using  a  broader  sample  of  subjects  from  many  different  institu- 

112 


tions;  (2)  less  emphasis  be  placed  on  recruitment  of  students  and 
nstead  greater  attention  be  given  to  increasing  the  number  of  stu- 
ients  who  remain  in  school  after  once  enrolling;  (3)  the  predicted 
jrade  point  average  be  computed  for  all  students  upon  their  initial 
sntrance  to  the  institution  as  a  means  of  identifying  those  who  per- 
laps  are  potential  dropouts;  (4)  an  indicator  of  the  future  academic 
success  (a  ratio  of  the  cumulative  college  grade  point  average  to  the 
predicted  college  grade  point  average)  be  computed  for  all  pupils 
immediately  following  their  first  quarter  in  attendance  at  the  institu- 
tion; and  (5)  a  complete  profile,  similar  in  design  to  this  study  of 
attrition,  be  developed  for  all  students  at  the  earliest  possible  time 
after  their  admission  to  and  entrance  in  the  institution  since  aca- 
demic variables  have  proven  to  be  for  this  study  good  predictors  of 
student  retention. 

Horton,  Reta  N.H.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1977) 

THE  INDIVIDUAL'S  RESPONSIBILITY  TO  HIMSELF: 

A  PHILOSOPHICAL  AND  PSYCHOLOGICAL  INQUIRY 

INTO  THE  BASES  OF  HUMAN  AND  SOCIAL  PROBLEMS 

A  level  of  spiritual  and  ethical  commitment  is  a  prerequisite  for 
a  healthy  society.  The  apparent  increase  in  social  problems  in  mod- 
ern industrial  societies  can  be  traced,  at  least,  in  part  to  a  decrease 
in  such  commitment.  Commitment  begins  at  the  individual  level; 
hence  it  is  at  the  individual  level  that  a  lasting  answer  to  society's 
problems  must  be  sought.  The  present  study  attemptedd  to  delineate 
the  nature  of  this  commitment,  the  manner  of  its  decline,  and  ways 
of  restoring  it. 

The  term  "responsibility"  was  examined  in  terms  of  the  two 
components:  freedom  and  obligation.  Freedom  represents  a  basic 
condition  of  human  existence,  whether  innate  or  acquired  through 
struggle.  In  order  to  be  responsible,  it  is  first  necessary  to  be  free;  but 
freedom  does  not  guarantee  the  fulfillment  of  obligation.  Otherwise 
stated,  freedom  from  does  not  guarantee  freedom  to.  Obligation  may 
be  interpreted  either  as  a  moral  dictum  or  as  a  desirable  state  whose 
acquisition  is  dictated  by  necessity.  Moral  obligation  has  been  ques- 
tioned, but  the  same  state  may  be  sought  because  it  is  desirable. 
Subjective  motivation  is  cardinal:  doing  something  because  it  is  de- 
sirable can  be  enriching  to  the  person  and  his  relationships. 

The  failure  to  live  responsibly  was  shown  to  have  a  number  of 
precursors — historical,  cultural,  and  personal.  The  forces  making  for 
failure  surround  the  person  and  reside  with  him.  The  cultivation  of 
originality — the  embodiment  of  responsibility  to  oneself — is  admit- 

113 


tedly  a  difficult  task.  Yet  the  task  must  be  carried  out,  even  if  one 
fails  at  it. 

A  program  for  the  development  of  self  was  outlined.  It  included 
the  following  elements:  self-observation;  deconditioning  of  old  ideas 
and  habits;  overcoming  social  pressure,  fear  of  rejection,  and  loneli- 
ness; commitment  to  oneself;  development  of  a  philosophy;  and 
transfer  to  the  social  sphere.  It  was  shown  how  each  phase  lays  the 
ground-work  for  the  one  succeeding  it;  collectively,  these  elements 
contribute  to  the  benefit  of  society. 

A  number  of  arguments  were  presented  in  support  of  the  asser- 
tion that  the  pursuit  of  self-interest  benefits  society.  These  include 
the  following:  that  self-observation  enhances  sensitivity  for  the  other; 
that  casting  off  destructive  cultural  introjects  can  be  of  demonstrable 
benefit  to  the  individual;  that  self-actualizing  individuals,  while  not 
necessarily  conforming,  are  often  modelss  of  social  interest;  and  that 
a  sane  philosophy  of  life  would  promote  the  interests  of  both  self  and 
society.  It  was  concluded  that  responsibility  to  oneself  is  a  prerequis- 
ite to  social  responsibility. 

Jones,  Sandra  P.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  USE  OF 

CHRISTENSEN'S  CUMULATIVE  SENTENCE  IN  THE 

EXPOSITORY  WRITINGS  OF  SELECTED  PROFESSIONAL 

WRITERS 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  measure  to  what  extent  skilled 
professional  writers  use  the  sentence  pattern  described  by  Francis 
Christensen  as  cumulative.  Christensen  observed  that  professional 
writers  used  the  cumulative  sentence  more  frequently  than  they  used 
sentences  with  modifiers  before  and  within  the  main  clause.  He  also 
noted  that  professional  writers  had  a  high  frequency  of  free  modifiers 
in  all  positions  in  the  sentence.  This  theory  formed  the  basis  for  The 
Christensen  Rhetoric  Program. 

For  this  study,  samples  of  writings  of  skilled  professionals  were 
the  twenty-five  essays  constituting  "A  Standard  Corpus  of  Contem- 
porary American  Expository  Essays"  (SCCAEE).  The  essays  were  a 
randomly  selected  group  of  completely  expository  essays  from  five 
magazines  identified  by  college  professors  as  consistently  containing 
the  best  modern  prose.  The  essays  were  published  between  January 
1964  and  March  1965  inclusive  in  The  Atlantic,  Harper's,  The  New 
Yorker,  The  Reporter,  and  Saturday  Review. 

The  researcher  counted  the  first  fifty  T-units  after  the  introduc- 
tory paragraph  in  each  essay.  The  count  was  made  in  order  to  deter- 

114 


mine  (1)  the  percentage  of  words  in  base  clauses  and  in  free  modifiers, 
(2)  the  average  number  of  words  in  free  modifiers  and  in  base  clauses 
compared  to  the  average  T-unit  lengths,  (3)  the  number  of  words  in 
free  modifiers  in  initial,  medial,  and  final  positions  in  the  sentence. 
The  frequency  of  free  modifiers  in  the  final  position  was  measured  by 
comparing  the  number  of  free  modifiers  in  the  final  position  with  the 
number  in  all  positions. 

The  results  of  the  study  showed  that  the  writers  in  SCCAEE  did 
not  use  free  modifiers  to  the  extent  that  Christensen  described.  When 
they  did  use  free  modifiers,  they  did  use  them  in  the  final  position 
more  often  than  in  the  initial  and  medial  positions.  The  writers  did 
not  use  the  appositive  and  the  verbid  clause  as  frequently  as  Chris- 
tensen had  suggested.  No  significant  correlation  was  found  between 
the  average  T-unit  length  in  each  essay  and  the  writer's  use  of  free 
modifiers.  This  finding  indicated  that  the  use  of  free  modifiers  may 
not  be  a  valid  index  of  syntactic  maturity. 

The  researcher  concluded  that  the  use  of  the  cumulative  sent- 
ence by  skilled  professional  writers  was  not  extensive  enough  to  jus- 
tify its  being  the  basis  for  an  entire  program  of  composition.  The 
program  might  be  used  as  a  method  of  teaching  students  to  use  free 
modifiers  to  vary  their  style  and  to  expand  their  ideas  in  sentences 
and  paragraphs.  It  fails  as  a  total  composition  program  because  it 
attempts  to  short-cut  the  natural  language  growth  of  the  student. 

Reserch  is  needed  to  compare  the  overall  quality  of  students' 
writing  when  taught  by  The  Christensen  Rhetoric  Program  and  when 
taught  by  other  methods.  Research  is  also  needed  to  study  the  effect 
on  overall  composition  quality  of  the  Christensen  method  when  it  is 
used  in  conjunction  with  one  or  more  other  methods. 

Knott,  Charles  E.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1977) 

ADVENTURES  IN  HUMANE  TEACHING 
TOWARD  PERSONAL  AND  INTERPERSONAL  GROWTH 

This  paper  describes  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  a  college  instructor 
to  integrate  his  knowledge  of  humanistic  psychology  into  his  teach- 
ing. There  also  is  an  extensive  description  of  the  author's  own  views 
on  education  in  America;  these  views  are  developed  against  a  back- 
ground presentation  of  his  own  educational  experiences.  Primarily, 
the  paper  discusses  group  process,  experiential  games,  role  play,  and 
individual  therapy  in  terms  of  their  effect  on  student  and  teacher  in 
an  experimental  classroom.  Student  reactions  to  classroom  events  are 
documented.  Further,  teaching  is  shown  to  be  an  individuating  expe- 
rience when  the  instructor  makes  conscious  efforts  to  form  in-depth 

115 


relationships  with  students.  Such  relationships,  aimed  at  challenging 
the  total  personality  of  teacher  and  student,  are  seen  as  bringing  a 
new  meaning  and  a  new  affective  level  to  the  classroom. 

Lynch,  Jan  Hope  (MA,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  March,  1977) 

A  STUDY  OF  ADOLESCENTS'  PERCEPTIONS  OF  DIVORCE 

This  descriptive  study  was  conducted  during  November,  1976,  at 
M.  D.  Collins  High  School  in  College  Park,  Georgia.  The  intent  of  the 
study  was  to  gain  a  greater  insight  regarding  the  number  of  students 
with  divorced  parents  and  the  resultant  effects  of  the  divorce  as  per- 
ceived by  the  students.  A  better  understanding  of  the  magnitude  and 
the  nature  of  the  divorced-family  problem  was  desired  by  the  guid- 
ance and  counseling  staff  in  order  to  provide  more  effective  and  ap- 
propriate services  to  students  from  divorced  homes. 

A  questionnaire  using  the  survey  technique  was  administered  to 
all  of  the  students.  The  results  of  the  questionnaires  of  the  students 
from  intact  homes  were  compared  according  to  the  student's  age  and 
sex.  The  results  of  the  questionnaires  of  student  from  divorced  fami- 
lies were  compared  according  to  the  student's  age  at  the  time  of  the 
parental  divorce  and  the  student's  sex. 

The  results  of  the  study  indicated  that  of  the  eighty-three  per- 
cent of  the  student  body  who  responded  to  the  questionnaire,  thirty- 
one  percent  were  from  divorced  homes.  After  comparing  the  total 
percentage  responses  of  the  sex  and  age  groupings,  the  notable  varia- 
tions and  implications  were  given  for  each  question.  Based  on  the 
implications  of  the  study,  the  guidance  and  counseling  staff  con- 
cluded that  there  is  a  pronounce  need  to  implement  and  extend  pro- 
grams designed  to  facilitate  the  coping  and  growth  development  of 
students  with  family  problems,  particularly  those  from  homes  with 
divorced  parents.  The  need  for  a  group  counseling  program  for 
divorced-home  students  was  especially  emphasized  by  the  response 
of  thirty-eight  percent  of  the  students  with  divorced  parents  that  they 
would  like  to  participate  in  group  counseling  to  discuss  their  feelings 
with  other  students  from  divorced  homes. 

May,  Morton  J.,  II  (MA,  Psychology,  March,  1977) 

APPROVAL  CERTIFICATE  SELF  AND  ENERGY 

The  bioenergetic  tradition  and  the  mystical  tradition  both  make 
inquiries  into  the  nature  of  self  and  into  the  nauture  of  life  energy. 
These  inquiries  are  very  different,  yet  they  have  much  in  common. 

116 


Close  analysis  of  what  the  two  traditions  say  about  each  subject  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  they  can  be  synthesized  into  a  single  tradition. 
The  result  is  a  continuum  of  growth  stretching  from  dis-integration 
(psychosis)  to  the  mystical  experience.  Each  tradition  is  seen  as  ap- 
propriate to  that  area  of  the  continuum  from  which  they  principally 
draw  their  clientele.  A  definition  of  self  is  proposed  which  combines 
bioenergetic  and  mystic  conceptions. 

Northcutt,  J.  Carta  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

THE  STATE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  CURRICULUM 
COBB  COUNTY,  GEORGIA  1976 

In  an  effort  to  determine  if  statistically  significant  differences 
exist  in  the  ranking  of  selected  English  goals  among  the  groups  of 
persons  involved  in  the  educational  process  in  Cobb  County,  Georgia, 
a  random  sampling  procedure  selected  one  hundred  freshmen  and 
their  parents  and  one  hundred  seniors  and  their  parents  from  Wheeler 
High  School,  Marietta,  Georgia,  to  respond  to  a  questionnaire.  High 
School  administrators  and  High  School  English  teachers  from  nine 
other  Cobb  County  schools  were  asked  to  respond  to  the  same  ques- 
tionnaire. A  total  of  415  persons  responded  to  the  questionnaire  which 
asked  each  person  to  rank,  on  a  Likert  Scale  of  one  to  five,  thirty- 
eight  goals  of  an  English  curriculum. 

The  results  of  each  questionnaire  were  prepared  for  computer 
analysis.  The  chi-square  (x  )  test,  which  compared  each  group's  re- 
sponse with  each  other  group  on  each  item,  resulted  in  570  separate 
chi-square  values,  of  which  45  were  significant  at  the  .05  level,  and 
106  were  significant  at  the  .01  level. 

Of  the  four  areas  of  the  English  included  in  the  questionnaire 
(writing,  reading,  speaking,  and  literature),  there  was  more  signifi- 
cant disagreement  in  the  area  of  writing.  Thirteen  rankings  were 
significant  at  the  105  level  and  thirty-nine  were  significant  at  the  .01 
level.  Of  the  six  groups  who  responded,  English  teachers  and  fresh- 
men students  disagreed  most  with  each  other.  Out  of  thirty-eight 
goals,  they  disagreed  significantly  on  twenty-eight,  six  at  the  .05  level 
and  twenty-two  significant  at  the  .01  level.  The  least  disagreement 
occurred  between  senior  parents  and  freshmen  parents,  who  disa- 
greed significantly  only  two  times  on  the  thirty-eight  goals.  Out  of  190 
possible  interactions  with  the  five  other  groups,  the  English  teachers 
disagreed  significantly  ninety-two  times  or  48  percent  of  the  time. 

Only  five  of  the  thirty-eight  selected  goals  received  a  five  rank 
(the  highest  rank)  from  the  majority  (51  percent)  of  each  of  the  six 
groups.  None  of  the  selected  goals  in  literature  received  a  high  rank- 

117 


ing  from  the  majority  of  any  group  except  the  English  teachers.  An 
EngHsh  curriculum  designed  as  a  result  of  the  five  rankings  of  the 
majority  of  the  six  groups  would  contain  only  the  following  goals: 
writing  correct  English  sentences,  using  appropriate  grammar,  com- 
prehending what  is  read,  expressing  ideas,  clearly,  and  listening  to 
and  respecting  the  other  person's  point  of  view. 

Since  much  statistically  significant  disagreement  occurs  among 
the  groups  who  responded  to  the  questionnaire,  this  researcher  rec- 
ommends that  subsequent  revision  of  the  English  curriculum  and  its 
goals  include  input  from  teachers,  students,  parents,  and  administra- 
tors. For  such  revision,  local  school  committees  could  be  established 
to  make  recommendations  for  updating  and  improving  the  English 
curriculum. 


Nowlin,  Phyllis  R.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  1977) 

GINN  READING  360  AS  A  CRITERION-REFERENCED 
MEASURE  IN  PREDICTING  READING  ACHIEVEMENT  ON 
THE  NORM -REFERENCED  IOWA  TESTS  OF  BASIC  SKILLS 

This  was  an  attempt  to  gather  data  which  would  cause  those 
concerned  to  discover  whether  the  basal  reading  series  used  at  H.  A. 
Jones  Elementary  School  in  Bremen,  Georgia,  is  a  predictor  of  the 
results  on  the  ITBS  which  is  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
grade  each  year. 

The  data  collected  showed  a  significant  difference  between  both 
the  vocabulary  and  the  reading  means  on  the  ITBS  as  compared  with 
the  reading  level  placement  in  Ginn  Reading  360.  The  data  failed  to 
show  significant  diflferences  between  the  mean  reading  level  place- 
ment in  Ginn  Reading  360  as  compared  with  both  the  spelling  and 
total  language  means  on  the  ITBS.  In  all  four  areas  tested  (vocabu- 
lary, reading,  spelling,  and  total  language),  the  results  of  the  Pearson 
Product  Moment  Correlation  showed  positive  correlations  at  the  .001 
level  of  significance. 

The  data  partially  supports  the  idea  that  the  level  of  perform- 
ance in  the  Ginn  Reading  360  program  is  a  predictor  of  the  outcome 
of  the  ITBS  for  beginning  fourth  graders  at  H.  A.  Jones  Elementary 
School  in  Bremen,  Georgia.  Due  to  limitations  in  the  study,  the  out- 
comes are  inconclusive. 

In  light  of  the  related  research,  it  is  recommended  that  faculty 
and  administration  study  the  ramifications  connected  with  the  Ginn 
Reading  360  program  with  the  idea  of  improvement  in  mind.  It  is 
further  recommended  that  special  attention  be  given  to  the  related 
research  in  order  to  determine  what  kinds  of  tests  seem  to  be  most 

118 


needed  and  beneficial  to  H.  A.  Jones  Elementary  School.  Advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  criterion-referenced  and  norm -referenced 
tests  should  be  studied  in  depth. 

Pedro,  Nicholas  J.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  June,  1977) 

ANALYSIS  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

CONCERNING  THE  ESTABLISHMENT 

AND  CONTINUING  ADMINISTRATIVE  PROCESSES 

OF  A  COMMUNITY  SCHOOLS  PROGRAM 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  analyze  and  make  recommenda- 
tions concerning  the  establishment  and  continuing  administrative 
process  of  a  community  schools  program.  A  primary  concern  was  to 
determine  the  most  efficient  method  of  publicizing  programs  within 
the  Lindley  Community  School  Cluster. 

A  questionnaire  was  constructed  through  the  joint  efforts  of  the 
nine  community  school  directors  and  the  community  schools  coordi- 
nator of  Cobb  County,  Georgia.  This  questionnaire  asked  parents  to 
indicate  those  kinds  of  activities  they  and  their  families  would  like 
to  participate  in.  The  items  were  listed  in  three  broad  areas  of  inter- 
est: Adult  Enrichment,  Hobbies  and  Recreation,  and  Family  Inter- 
est. The  questionnaire  also  asked  for  other  information  on  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  participant. 

The  initial  course  offerings  were  established  through  an  evalua- 
tion of  the  total  checks  in  areas  of  interest.  Brochures  listing  course 
off'erings  were  distributed  throughout  the  Cobb  County,  Georgia  area. 

A  second  questionnaire  was  compiled  through  the  joint  efforts  of 
the  nine  community  school  directors  and  the  community  schools  co- 
ordinator to  be  distributed  during  the  quarter  to  aid  in  determining 
the  relative  effectiveness  of  the  various  publicity  programs.  This 
questionnaire  asked  for  information  about  the  characteristics  of  the 
participants,  their  reasons  for  enrolling  in  the  community  school  pro- 
grams, and  questions  concerning  how  they  received  information 
about  the  community  school  program. 

It  was  determined  that  the  various  elements  of  the  publicity 
program  were  about  equal  in  total  effectiveness.  It  was  also  deter- 
mined that  the  continuing  administrative  processes  of  a  community 
school  program  must  be  continually  analyzed  in  order  to  produce  the 
most  effective  means  of  administering  a  community  schooll  program. 


119 


Peek,  Samuel  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Su- 
pervision, March,  1977) 

EFFECTS  OF  RETENTION  ON  ACHIEVEMENT  AND  ATTI- 
TUDE 

This  study  was  concerned  with  the  effects  of  retention  on  achieve- 
ment rate  and  attitude  toward  school  of  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth 
grade  students  enrolled  at  Calhoun  High  School  during  the  1976-77 
school  year.  These  students  had  attended  elementary  schools  in  Gor- 
don County  and  Calhoun  City  School  Systems.  The  percentage  at- 
tending each  system  was  seventy-three  and  twenty-seven  percent  re- 
spectively. Forty  of  these  students  had  been  retained  once  during  the 
primary  grades  and  forty  students  had  never  been  retained. 

To  accomplish  this  purpose,  related  literature  was  reviewed  to 
provide  a  background  of  understanding.  Standardized  test  scores 
were  compared  to  determine  the  achievement  rate  of  students  before 
and  after  retention.  A  student  survey  was  also  conducted  to  deter- 
mine the  attitudes  of  both  groups  of  students  toward  school. 

Many  educational  researchers,  having  studied  student  retention, 
pointed  out  that  school  achievement  rate  for  promoted  low  achieving 
students  was  better  than  the  school  achievement  rate  of  low  achieving 
students  that  had  been  retained.  They  also  indicated  that  promotion 
provided  students  with  a  basis  for  positive  attitudes  toward  school 
while  retention  provided  students  with  a  basis  for  negative  attitudes 
toward  school. 

It  was  discovered  in  this  study  that  a  grade  equivalent  of  one  and 
two-tenths  percent  annual  increase  in  achievement  rate  was  made  by 
students  that  had  been  retained  once  in  the  primary  grades.  It  was 
uncertian  what  teachers  expected  in  achievement  rate  increase  for 
students.  However,  a  grade  equivalent  of  one  and  two-tenths  percent 
achievement  rate  increase  seemed  to  be  a  very  small  gain  for  an  extra 
year  spent  in  a  primary  grade. 

The  student  attitude  survey  revealed  that  retained  students  had 
seven  and  four-tenths  percent  more  negative  attitudes  toward  school 
than  promoted  students.  Only  in  one  area  of  the  entire  survey  did 
promoted  students  demonstrate  more  negative  attitudes  than  re- 
tained students.  When  teachers  practiced  unprofessional  behavior, 
promoted  students  gave  a  slightly  greater  negative  response  to  their 
conduct  than  retained  students. 


120 


Purdy,  Phyllis  B.  W.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Educa- 
tion, March,  1977) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  THIRD  GRADE  CHILDREN  WHO  HAVE 

TRAVELED  WITH  THOSE  WHO  HAVE  LIVED  IN  GORDON 

COUNTY  AND  NOT  TRAVELED  AS  REGARDS  TO  THE 

ACQUIRED  UNDERSTANDING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

This  experimental  research  design  was  undertaken  to  determine 
if  travel  has  a  significant  bearing  on  the  geographic  understanding  of 
the  third  grade  student. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  study,  all  third  grade  students  at  Eastside 
School,  Calhoun,  Georgia,  were  tested  and  subjects  chosen  for  inclu- 
sion in  the  study  on  the  basis  of  travel  and  non-travel. 

Subjects  selected  were: 

L  Thirteen  third  grade  students  who  had  always  lived  in  Gor- 
don County,  and  not  traveled  outside  of  the  state  of  Georgia  in  the 
past  two  years. 

2.  Sixty-nine  third  grade  students  who  had  made  limited  trips 
to  Alabama,  Florida,  and/or  Tennessee  in  the  past  two  years. 

3.  Twenty-seven  third  grade  students  who  had  not  always  lived 
in  Gordon  County  and  who  had  traveled  beyond  the  states  of  Ala- 
bama, Florida,  and  Tennessee  in  the  past  two  years. 

The  hypotheses  were  constructed  to  test  the  total  groups  and  the 
groups  by  sex. 

The  Analysis  of  Variance  and  Duncan's  Multiple  Range  Test 
were  used.  A  significance  level  of  .05  was  established.  Results  for  the 
total  group  showed  a  significant  difference  with  an  F  ratio  of  4.238  in 
favor  of  the  travel  group.  There  was  a  significant  diflference  with  an 
F  ratio  of  3.362  in  favor  of  the  girls  who  had  traveled.  There  was  no 
significant  difference  among  the  boys  in  the  areas  of  geographic 
knowledge. 

Rushing,  Jimmy  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel- 
ing, June,  1977) 

DEVELOPING  AND  EVALUATING  AN  AUDIO 

VISUAL  ORIENTATION  TO  GUIDANCE  SERVICES 

PROGRAM  FOR  ENTERING  EIGHTH  GRADE 

STUDENTS  AT  LAFAYETTE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

An  audio  visual  program  designed  to  orient  entering  eighth  grad- 
ers to  the  guidance  services  was  developed  for  use  at  LaFayette  High 
School.  Since  there  was  no  orientation  program  in  use,  the  program 

121 


was  informational  in  nature.  All  students  in  the  eighth  grade  partici 
pated,  with  twenty-six  being  randomly  chosen  to  serve  as  the  sample 
An  information  test  was  developed  and  administered  before  and  after 
the  program.  The  mean  gain  for  the  sample  was  4.27.  The  post-test 
versus  pre-test  results  were  significant  at  the  .01  level.  It  was  con 
eluded  that  the  audio  visual  orientation  program  was  eflfective  and 
should  become  a  part  of  orientation  for  all  entering  eighth  grade 
students. 

Seckinger,  Paul  H.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counsel 
ing,  March,  1977) 

IMPLEMENTATION  OF  CAREER  EDUCATION  AS  AN 
INNOVATION  IN  CURRICULUM  DEVELOPMENT 

This  study  sought  to  determine  the  effects  of  infusing  occupa- 
tional information  into  a  Law  Education  class  at  Morrow  Senior  High 
School,  Morrow,  Georgia.  Two  Law  Education  classes  and  one  social 
studies  class  containing  students  who  were  not  presently  nor  ever  had 
been  enrolled  in  Law  Education  were  used  in  the  study.  The  instru- 
ments used  were  the  Attitude  Scale  and  the  Knowing  About  Jobs 
subsection  of  the  Career  Maturity  Profile  and  an  objective  teacher- 
made  test. 

Data  were  analyzed  by  a  standard  statistical  procedure  using  the 
t-test.  The  first  hypothesis,  there  will  be  no  significant  diff'erence  in 
attitude  change  in  the  experimental  group,  was  rejected  with  a  t- 
value  of  2.07  which  is  significant  at  the  .05  level.  Students'  attitudes 
were  improved  when  occupational  information  was  included  in  the 
curriculum.  The  second  hypothesis,  there  will  be  no  significant  diff'er- 
ence in  attitudes  in  the  control  group,  was  accepted  with  a  t-value  of 
1.08.  The  third  hypothesis,  there  will  be  no  significant  difference  in 
attitude  change  in  the  second  control  groupp,  was  accepted  with  a  t- 
value  of  .30. 

Smith,  Billy  G.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Super- 
vision, March,  1977) 

DEVELOPING  A  MODEL  FOR  EVALUATING  THE 
EFFECTIVENESS  OF  TITLE  I  READING  PROGRAMS 

This  study  was  concerned  with  the  development  of  a  model  to  be 
utilized  in  evaluating  the  Title  I  Compensatory  Education  Program 
in  Gordon  County  Schools.  To  accomplish  this  end,  recent  relative 
literature  was  reviewed  to  provide  a  rationale  for  developing  the 

122 


model.  The  developed  model  consists  of  five  phases:  (a)  assessment 
of  the  environment,  (b)  resource  evaluation,  (c)  process  evaluation, 
(d)  product  evaluation,  and  (e)  dissemination  of  information. 

Smith,  Phillip  B.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education, 
March,  19777) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  TWO  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
FIFTH  GRADE  SCIENCE 

A  study  of  gains  in  achievement  of  two  groups  of  fifth  grade  stu- 
dents was  conducted  in  order  to  compare  two  methods  of  instruction, 
children  in  group  A  received  traditional  method  of  instruction.  Chil- 
dren in  group  B  received  an  individualized  method  of  instruction. 
There  were  twenty-eight  students  in  the  study. 

The  null  hypothesis  was  tested  to  determine  if  there  existed  any 
significant  difference  between  the  two  groups.  The  t-test  was  used  to 
test  the  hypothesis.  There  was  found  to  be  no  significant  difference; 
therefore,  the  null  hypothesis  was  not  rejected. 

Recommendations  for  further  study  were  included  since  a  larger 
group  over  a  longer  period  of  time  may  have  produced  diff'erent  re- 
sults. 

Stiles,  Pat  T.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
June,  1977) 

PRE-SCHOOL  ASSESSMENT  USING  A  CONDENSED 

VERSION  OF  THE  GESELL  DEVELOPMENTAL 

EXAMINATION  TESTS 

In  May,  1976,  twenty  children  from  a  public  kindergarten  were 
tested  using  the  Gesell  Developmental  Examination  Tests,  to  see  if 
at  least  one  of  the  subtests  correlated  significantly  at  the  .05  level 
with  the  overall  GDET.  This  would  enable  school  counselors  or  teach- 
ers to  administer  a  shorter  version  of  the  GDET,  yet  obtain  the  same 
needed  information  about  each  child  tested. 

The  total  score  of  each  subtest  was  compared  with  the  overall 
total  of  the  test.  Pearson  Product-Moment  and  Corrected  Correlation 
were  used  to  compute  the  correlation  coefficients. 

Three  subtests  were  found  to  be  significant  at  the  desired  level. 
It  was  suggested,  however,  that  the  largest  correlated  subtest  be  used 
because  of  ease  of  administering  and  scoring. 


123 


Walker,    Wallace  G.   (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  anc 
Supervision,  March,  1977) 

REASONS  PARENTS  PAY  TUITION  TO  SEND  CHILDREN 

TO  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS  RATHER  THAN  COUNTY 

SCHOOL  SYSTEMS  IN  THREE  SMALL 

GEORGIA  COUNTIES 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  reasons  parents 
pay  tuition  to  send  their  children  to  city  schools  rather  than  county 
schools  in  three  small  Georgia  counties.  The  second  aspect  of  the 
study  was  to  embed  the  findings  in  a  Bayesian  Enrollment  Projection 
model. 

A  parent  questionnaire  was  constructed  from  information  ob- 
tained in  interviews  with  the  superintendents  of  the  Bremen,  Carroll- 
ton,  Cartersville  and  Dalton  School  Systems  and  randomly  selected 
county  parents  who  send  their  children  to  the  Carrollton  City  School 
System.  This  questionnaire  asked  parents  to  rank  the  items  accord- 
ing to  their  importance  in  the  parents'  decision  to  pay  tuition  to  send 
their  child  to  a  city  school  system.  The  items  to  be  ranked  included 
academic  program,  career  development  program,  faculty  and  admin- 
istration, extra-curricular  activities,  facilities,  social  climate,  conven- 
ience, previous  attendance,  lunch  program  and  public  relations  pro- 
gram. The  questionnaire  also  asked  for  other  information  to  draw 
information  on  the  characteristics  of  the  tuition-paying  parents. 

The  academic  program  received  top  ranking  by  all  the  systems' 
parents.  Academics  was  followed  by  an  overall  second  ranking  of  staff 
and  administration.  Bremen  parents  ranked  previous  attendance  and 
convenience  second  and  third.  Bremen  differed  significantly  in  other 
areas  of  the  questionnaire  such  as  having  a  higher  percentage  of  par- 
ents with  a  lower  than  high  school  education  and  having  fewer  par- 
ents living  further  than  four  and  one-half  miles  from  the  city  school. 
The  findings  of  this  study  showed  Bremen  to  be  unique.  This  unique- 
ness was  probably  a  result  of  this  being  the  first  year  for  tuition  at 
Bremen;  whereas,  Cartersville  and  Dalton  have  practiced  this  for 
several  years. 

The  variable  identified  as  being  most  useful  for  embedding  in  the 
Bayesian  Enrollment  Projection  was  distance  from  home  to  city 
school.  This  was  the  most  identifiable  information  in  Bremen.  It  was 
determined  that  the  325  non-resident  students  residing  within  four 
and  one-half  miles  of  the  city  school  comprised  1L48  per  cent  of  the 
population  of  this  area.  This  percentage  figure  was  the  basis  for  the 
first  variable  in  the  projection  model.  The  remaining  twenty-nine 
non-resident  students  comprised  0.3  per  cent  of  the  remainder  of 
Haralson  County's  population.  This  percentage  figure  was  entered  as 

124 


the  second  variable  concerning  tuition-paying  stude  ts. 

The  revised  projection  model  based  on  the  information  obtained 
from  the  questionnarie  supplied  a  much  more  accurate  total  popula- 
tion than  the  original  projection.  The  distribution  for  grade  level  was, 
however,  significantly  different  from  the  actual  enrollment.  Further 
study  is  warranted  in  this  area. 

Warner,  Emory  D.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and 
Supervision,  March,  1977) 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  AN  INSTRUMENT  TO  EVALUATE 
EFFECTIVENESS  OF  CAREERA^OCATIONAL  TEACHERS 

The  study  was  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  developing  an  evalua- 
tive instrument  to  determine  the  effectiveness  of  career/vocational 
teachers  in  the  Polk  School  District.  The  selection  of  competency 
criteria  for  the  development  of  the  evaluative  instrument  was  made 
by  surveying  career  and  vocational  students,  using  the  critical  inci- 
dent method  of  data  collection.  A  random  sample  of  200  students,  in 
grades  8-12,  were  asked  to  think  of  the  one  most  effective  career  or 
vocational  education  teacher  with  whom  they  had  been  closely  asso- 
ciated recently.  Each  student  was  asked  to  name  the  most  recent 
thing  the  teacher  did  which  was  noteworthy  and,  thus,  was  perceived 
by  the  student  as,  indeed,  making  this  an  effective  teacher. 

The  data  gathered  from  the  critical  incident  survey  was  the  most 
crucial  factor  in  designing  the  evaluative  instrument.  The  teaching 
criteria  or  competencies  suggested  in  the  students'  responses  were 
combined  into  a  testing  instrument  of  twenty-five  items  designed  to 
measure  the  process  approach  to  effective  teaching,  as  perceived  by 
the  students.  No  attempt  was  made  to  include  such  factors  as  the 
teacher's  age,  sex,  experience,  or  race  as  a  part  of  the  instrument. 
Each  statement  on  the  instrument  was  accompanied  by  a  scale  rang- 
ing from  5  (way  above  average)  to  1  (way  below  average).  The  instru- 
ment was  then  administered  to  two  hundred  students  who  were  asked 
to  evaluate  their  career  or  vocational  education  teacher.  Four  car- 
eer/vocational teachers  were  involved  in  this  study. 

Based  on  the  analysis  of  the  data  collected,  it  appears  that  stu- 
dents, rather  consistently,  want  as  a  teacher  a  friendly  person  who 
tells  them  what  they  do  wrong,  is  fair,  knows  subject  matter  he  is 
teaching,  is  concerned  about  all  students,  and  understands  each  indi- 
vidual. Three  of  the  four  teachers  evaluated  scored  well  with  the 
students  in  these  areas. 

Statistical  analysis  of  the  evaluative  instrument  confirmed  it  to 
be  reliable.  Face  validity  based  on  what  students  perceive  to  be  effec- 
tive teaching  was  also  achieved. 

125 


Waters,  Billie  Patton  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood  Edu- 
cation, March,  1977) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN  THE 
SOCIO-ECONOMIC  STATUS  OF  FIRST  GRADE  CHILDREN 

AND 
THEIR  SCORES  ON  THE  METROPOLITAN  READINESS  TEST 

A  study  was  conducted  to  determine  if  the  socio-economic  status 
of  first  grade  children  does  make  a  difference  in  scores  on  the  Metro- 
politan Readiness  Test.  All  first  grade  children  enrolled  in  the  La- 
Grange  Public  Schools  were  administered  the  Metropolitan  Readi- 
ness Test  during  the  third  week  of  the  school  term.  The  occupation 
of  the  head  of  the  household  determined  each  child's  socio-economic 
status. 

The  hypothesis  tested  stated  that  first  grade  children  from  mid- 
dle socio-economic  backgrounds  would  make  higher  scores  on  the 
Metropolitan  Readiness  Test  than  children  of  families  from  the  lower 
socio-economic  level.  The  mean  test  was  used  to  compare  the  scores 
of  the  children  from  the  two  socio-economic  levels.  Results  showed 
that  children  in  the  middle  socio-economic  level  did  make  higher 
scores  on  the  test. 

A  recommendation  was  made  for  further  study  into  socio- 
economic factors  that  lead  to  higher  test  scores. 

Whatley,  Edna  E.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Business  Education, 
March,  1977) 

A  STUDY  TO  DETERMINE  TASKS  PERFORMED  BY  THE 

LEGAL  OFFICE  WORKER  IN  LAW  FIRMS  IN  THE 

NORTHWEST  GEORGIA  AREA  SERVED  BY  COOSA  VALLEY 

VOCATIONAL  TECHNICAL  SCHOOL 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  determine  the  tasks  that  are 
performed  by  the  legal  office  worker  in  law  firms  located  in  the  North- 
west Georgia  area  served  by  the  Coosa  Valley  Vocational  Technical 
School.  Subproblems  were:  (1)  to  determine  what  tasks  were  being 
taught  in  the  business  education  curriculum  at  the  vocational  techni- 
cal school;  (2)  to  determine  if  other  vocational  schools  in  Georgia  were 
providing  training  for  the  legal  office  worker;  and  (3)  to  determine  the 
necessary  changes  in  the  present  curriculum  for  the  implementation 
of  a  specialized  training  program  for  the  legal  office  worker. 

A  questionnaire  was  used  to  collect  the  data  from  the  office  work- 
ers. This  instrument  included  both  a  personal  data  section  and  a  task 
checklist  to  identify  job  performance.  The  questionnaire  requested 

126 


the  job  title,  the  number  of  years  employed  in  a  law  firm  and/or  other 
offices,  the  educational  background  of  the  respondent,  interest  in 
further  training  in  either  a  day  or  an  evening  program,  and  preference 
of  courses. 

A  separate  questionnaire  was  sent  to  the  twenty-nine  vocational 
technical  schools  in  Georgia.  This  questionnaire  inquired  if  course 
options  were  offered  for  training  the  legal  office  worker  and  requested 
curriculum  information  including  specific  course  titles  and  the  length 
of  the  program. 

The  task  checklist  was  divided  into  twelve  duty  categories  as 
suggested  by  an  occupational  performance  survey  conducted  by  Ohio 
State  University  and  included  a  total  of  180  selected  task  statements. 

A  survey  form  and  a  cover  letter  were  mailed  to  127  individual 
office  workers.  The  mailing  list  was  compiled  by  making  telephone 
calls  to  law  firms  listed  in  five  telephone  directories  of  cities  served 
by  the  Coosa  Valley  Vocational  Technical  School.  A  return  of  77 
percent  was  received  from  the  survey.  Of  the  98  responses,  94  were 
valid  for  use  in  the  study. 

The  Data  Processing  Technology  Department  at  Coosa  Valley 
Vocational  Technical  School  cooperated  with  this  study  in  the  tabu- 
lation of  the  data.  The  assistance  from  this  department  insured  a 
more  efficient  summary  of  the  data,  and  a  complete  print-out  of 
information  for  desired  tables  was  obtained. 

The  analysis  and  tabulation  of  data  involved: 

1.  The  job  titles  of  legal  office  workers  in  Northwest  Georgia  as 
identified  by  the  questionnaire 

2.  A  comparison  of  length  of  employment  in  a  law  firm,  and  the 
length  of  previous  employment  in  other  types  of  offices,  for  secretaries 
and  legal  secretaries 

3.  A  comparison  of  job  titles  and  educational  background  of 
legal  office  worker 

4.  The  number  of  office  workers  indicating  interest  in  further 
training  and  the  legal  specialty  courses  desired 

5.  The  tasks  most  frequently  performed  by  legal  office  workers 

6.  A  comparison  of  tasks  performed  by  the  legal  secretary  and 
the  secretary  in  law  firms 

7.  The  legal  course  options  offered  by  the  vocational  technical 
schools  in  Georgia 

8.  The  tasks  on  the  checklist  which  are  presently  included  in 
the  business  education  curriculum  at  the  Coosa  Valley  Vocational 
Technical  School 

The  following  conclusions  were  reached: 

The  study  pointed  out  that  the  majority  of  the  tasks  performed 
by  the  legal  office  workers  are  currently  being  taught  in  the  business 
education  program  at  thee  vocational  technical  school. 

127 


The  responses  show  that  the  majority  of  the  legal  secretaries  and 
the  secretaries  perform  basically  the  same  tasks. 

The  legal  office  workers  have  obtained  job  experience  and  exper- 
tise through  previous  employment. 

A  high  school  educational  background  combined  with  legal  office 
experience  qualifies  a  person  for  the  job  responsibilities  of  a  legal 
secretary  or  a  secretary  in  a  law  firm. 

The  majority  of  the  tasks  included  in  the  checklist  were  indi- 
cated as  being  performed  by  the  legal  office  workers. 

A  sufficient  number  of  presently  employed  legal  office  workers 
were  interested  in  further  training  to  improve  their  skills;  thus,  the 
inclusion  of  legal  courses  in  the  evening  business  education  program 
is  warranted. 

An  increased  interest  in  future  demands  for  courses  to  train  the 
legal  office  worker  is  developing  throughout  Georgia. 

The  recommendations  of  this  study  are: 

1.  That  further  study  of  the  tasks  performed  by  the  majority  of 
legal  office  workers  be  made  and  compared  with  the  tasks  being 
taught 

2.  That  a  course  be  included  in  the  evening  program  and  an 
additional  course  be  added  each  quarter  as  community  interest  devel- 
ops and  appropriate  teaching  media  are  developed 

3.  That  students  completing  the  fourth  quarter  of  their  busi- 
ness education  program  at  Coosa  Valley  Tech  check  the  task  checkl- 
ist according  to  those  tasks  in  which  they  have  received  instruction 
and  identify  the  course  in  which  the  instruction  was  received. 

Wheeler,  Frank  D.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1977) 

THE  DEVELOPMENTAL  PROCESS  OF  CONSCIOUSNESS  IN 

CREATIVITY 

This  thesis  is  a  psychological  search  for  a  meaningful  humanistic 
relationship  connecting  the  developmental  process  of  consciousness 
to  creativity. 

Method  of  development  is:  selected  readings  in  the  fields  of  Psy- 
chology, Anthropology,  Philosophy,  Theology,  and  Sociology;  se- 
lected studies  in  Existentialism,  Zen,  Phenomenology,  and  Perspec- 
tivity;  special  readings  from  the  Wisdom  of  Confucius,  and  one  se- 
lected study  from  the  mental  efficiency  state  series  of  Youtomo- 
Tashi. 

Personal  experience  was  derived  from:  seven  years  military  serv- 
ice (Air-borne  Ranger  Command,  U.S.  Army);  three  years  training  at 
Sun  Coast  Osteopathic  Hospital,  Largo,  Florida,  in  fields  of  Radiol- 
ogy and  Osteopathic  Medicine;  six  months  observation  and  study  of 

128 


Black  Magic  and  Witchcraft  as  a  protestant  missionary  to  the  West 
Indies;  two  years  work  as  psychiatric  assistant,  psychology  depart- 
ment, Georgia  Regional  Hospital,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  developing  be- 
havior modification  techniques  and  related  psychiatric  procedures; 
two  years  work  with  psychiatric  department  of  Floyd  General  Hospi- 
tal, Rome,  Georgia;  and  assisted  in  the  development  of  home  for 
Mentally  Retarded. 

The  meaningful  humanistic  relationship  in  psychology  today  is 
changing  the  concept  of  mental  health.  It  places  emphases  on  the 
whole  person  rather  than  his  part-function.  I  feel  that  the 
humanistic-existential  approach  is  becoming  increasingly  prominent 
in  psychology.  It  is  allowing  new  avenues  to  open  whereby  daily  living 
experiences  are  increasingly  developing  the  potential  for  creative 
being  as  opposed  to  behavioral  classifications. 

Wood,  Jan  M.  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1977) 

THE  HUMANIZATION  OF  THE  HOME 

"With  or  without  a  conscious  philosophy  or  explicit  recognition  of 
the  fact,  designers  are  shaping  people  as  well  as  buildings."  (Sommer, 
1969:  vii) 

This  paper  shall  be  a  grouping  of  explorations  dedicated  to  the 
purpose  of  the  eventual  establishment  of  an  architectural  psychology 
with  an  emphasis  on  the  humanization  of  dwelling  design,  both  as  a 
form  and  a  process.  The  thread  which  holds  these  explorations  to- 
gether is  tenuous.  This  thesis  is  not  presented  as  an  integrated  whole 
but  as  a  compendium  of  ideas  which  are  directed  toward  the  same 
end.  This  is  not  a  rationalization  for  chaos  but  a  description  of  a 
collection  of  explorations  each  seeking  an  endpoint,  which  is  only 
partially  articulatable. 

Contrary  to  the  customary  practice  of  isolating  an  obscure  bit  of 
knowledge  and  developing  it  thoroughly  with  extreme  attention  to 
detail,  I  have  taken  a  broad  subject — the  interface  of  housing  and 
psychology — and  have  approached  it  from  as  many  vantage  points  as 
I  have  found  relevant.  It  is  interesting  to  see  how  slum  shacks  can  be 
emotionally  satisfying,  and  how  Colonial  mansions  fail  to  satisfy  cer- 
tain psychological  needs.  The  fulfillment  of  the  needs  for  safety  and 
security  in  a  house  is  seen  in  contrast  to  the  fulfillment  of  needs  for 
the  actualization  of  the  self  through  architectural  design  and  hand- 
crafted construction.  I  have  sought  to  expand  into  the  recesses  of  a 
psychological  approach  to  domestic  architectural  design,  rather  than 
to  isolate  and  illuminate  a  single  bit  of  data  through  a  research  pro- 
ject. I  have  written  this  thesis  in  an  attempt  to  fill  a  gap  that  still 

129 


looms  large  before  me.  That  gap  in  human  knowledge  remains.  How 
ever  slight  the  accomplishment  in  objective  terms,  it  has  been  no 
mean  feat  for  me  to  have  identified  that  gap  and  to  have  begun  the 
lifelong  process  of  filling  it.  Bruce  Alsopp  (1974:96-7)  has  described 
the  parent  chasm  of  my  little  gap  as  succintly  as  anyone: 

We  need  a  new  subject — architectural  psychology — which  is  con- 
cerned with  people's  feelings  in  relation  to  their  environment,  the 
basis  of  their  evolution,  the  importance  of  symbolism,  meaning, 
home  relationships,  and  continuity,  their  response  to  textures  and 
cultures,  the  effects  of  massing,  the  problems  of  scale  relationships, 
the  sense  of  place,  recognition  symbols,  family  patterns,  geriatric 
problems,  the  right  size  of  buildings,  the  value  of  diversity  and  of 
employing  different  designers  for  adjacent  buildings,  the  effects  of 
thingking  too  big,  of  monotony  and  the  imposition  of  so-called  de- 
sign values  upon  people,  whether  they  like  them  or  not,  and  the 
architectural  causes  of  vandalism. 

The  fledging  field  of  architectural  psychology  which  is  an  offshoot 
of  the  growing  field  of  environmental  psychology,  (which  has  its  own 
professional  journal)  is  doing  most  of  its  growing  in  relation  to  the 
urban  setting,  (I  will  cite  studies  of  urban  slums  in  Puerto  Rico  and 
Boston.)  and  to  the  architecture  of  the  working  environment  which 
comes  under  the  category  of  human  engineering.  From  the  little  re- 
search being  done  in  the  area  of  the  proper  design  of  mental  hospitals, 
much  significant  data  has  been  recorded.  But  in  the  area  of  domestic 
architectural  design,  i.e.,  the  design  of  homes,  psychologists  are  still 
virtual  strangers.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  I  have  chosen  this  area  of 
study.  The  fact  that  I  have  chosen  a  critical  area  for  investigation 
helps  to  compensate  for  the  fact  that  I  have  barely  begun  the  process 
of  applying  psychology,  especially  humanistic  psychology,  to  domes- 
tic architectural  design. 

The  Humanization  of  the  Home  is  an  attempt  at  provoking  inter- 
est in  the  humanistic  quality  of  the  spaces  in  which  we  dwell.  It  is 
also  a  naive  effort  toward  a  theoretical  framework  for  ordering  diver- 
gencies and  contradictions  in  the  exploratory  data.  If  the  sheer  enor- 
mousness  of  the  task  has  proven  to  be  unrealistic,  it  has  also  been 
fruitful.  A  wide  range  of  considerations  is  made  available  to  the 
dweller  to  help  put  the  dwelling  experience  in  an  alterable  category. 
Not  only  does  one  get  the  feeling  that  something  can  be  done  about 
the  form  and  process  of  dwelling,  but  that  a  simple  change  of  attitude 
ca«  effect  positive,  three  dimensional,  and,  (I  dare  say)  measurable 
changes.  The  Humanization  of  the  Home  offers  a  challenge  and  a 
promise — a  challenge  to  transcend  the  mediocre  in  housing  and  a 
promise  that  a  response  to  that  challenge  will  bear  fruit  if  undertaken 
in  the  right  spirit.  It  is  based  on  the  conviction  that  the  design  of  the 
structure  and  experience  of  the  dwelling  is  also  the  design  and  crea- 
tion of  oneself. 

130 


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(Fall,  1975),  354-355. 

Review  of  France  Under  the  Directory  by  Martyn  Lyons.  The 
History  Teacher,  X  (Nov.,  1976),  162-163. 

Review  of  Josephine:  The  Empress  and  Her  Children  by  Nina 
Epton.  History:  Reviews  of  New  Books,  IV  (Aug.,  1976),  203. 

"The  French  Are  on  the  Sea:  Irish,  French,  and  British  Reac- 
tions to  the  Abortive  Bantry  Expedition  in  1796."  Paper  read 
at  Western  Society  for  French  History,  Denver,  Colorado, 
Dec,  1975. 

"Irish  Catholic  Reaction  to  the  French  Revolution."  Paper 
read  at  Missouri  Valley  History  Conference,  Omaha,  Ne- 
braska, Mar.,  1976. 

Moderator  of  "A  Bicentennial  Theme".  Introduction  and 
comments  on  three  papers  read  at  Georgia  Association  of 
Historians,  Savannah,  Georgia,  Apr.,  1976. 


133 


Klee,  James  B. 

"A  Reflection  on  Encounter  Groups."  Interpersonal 
Development,  VI,  No.  1  (1975/6),  62-64. 

"The  Absolute  and  the  Relative."  The  Healthy  Personality, 
second  edition.  H.  M.  Chiang  and  A.  H.  Maslow,  co-editors. 
New  York:  D.  Van  Nostrand  and  Company,  1977,  pp.  79-88. 

Lorentz,  Jeffrey  L. 

"A  Computer  System  for  Behaviorally  Oriented  Curriculum 
Objectives."  Educational  Technology,  XV  (Feb.,  1975),  26- 
30. 

Review  oi  Evaluation:  An  Introduction  to  Research  Design  by 
Janet  P.  Moursund.  Measurement  and  Evaluation  in 
Guidance,  VIII  (Jul.,  1975),  113. 

"An  Examination  of  Student  Coping  Style,  Teacher  Control 
and  Student  Achievement  in  Reading."  With  Homer  Coker. 
Paper  read  at  National  Reading  Conference,  St.  Petersburg, 
Florida,  Dec,  1975.  Published  in  Reflections  and  Investiga- 
tions on  Readings,  yearbook  of  the  Conference. 

"The  Design  of  a  Study  to  Validate  Teacher  Competencies  in 
Terms  of  Pupil  Growth."  Paper  read  at  American  Educa- 
tional Research  Association,  San  Francisco,  California,  Apr., 
1976. 

"Growth  in  Reading  as  a  Correlate  of  Student  Classroom 
Behavior."  With  Homer  Coker.  Paper  read  at  National  Read- 
ing Conference,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Dec,  1976. 

Masters,  Paul  E.,  Jr. 

"Political  Socialization  in  a  World  Society:  A  Study  in  Geo- 
centric Politics."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (political 
science),  St.  Louis  University,  1976. 

Review  of  Arafat,  The  Man  and  the  Myth  by  Thomas  Kier- 
nan.  St.  Louis  Globe-Democrat,  Nov.  27-28,  1976. 

McClain,  J.  Dudley,  Jr. 

Review  of  Watergate:  Its  Effects  on  the  American  Political 
System  by  David  C.  SafFell,  editor.  Georgia  Political  Science 
Association  Journal,  III  (Spring,  1975),  154-156. 
"Political  Morality,  Responsiveness  and  Reform  in  Amer- 
ica." Volume  Editor.  West  Georgia  College  Studies  in  the 
Social  Sciences,  XIV  (Jun.,  1975). 

134 


"Political  Morality,  Governmental  Responsiveness  and  Citi- 
zen Support:  Perceived  Legitimacy  and  System  Viability." 
Phi  Kappa  Phi  Journal,  LVI  (Summer,  1976),  1-8. 

McTeer,  J.  Hugh 

"The  Relationship  of  Selected  Variables  to  Student  Interest 
in  Social  Studies  in  Comparison  with  Other  Academic 
Areas."  With  F.  L.  Blanton  and  H.  W.  Lee.  Journal  of  Educa- 
tional Research,  LXVIII,  No.  6  (Feb.,  1975),  238-240. 

"Music  for  the  Teaching  of  the  History  of  the  Civil  War." 
Georgia  Social  Science  Journal,  VI,  No.  3  (Spring,  1975),  19- 
23. 

"The  Relationship  of  Sex  to  Student's  Interest  in  Social 
Studies."  The  Social  Studies,  LXVI,  No.  4  (Jul./Aug.,  1975), 
167-168. 

"Teaching  Local  History  at  West  Rome  Junior  High 
School."  With  M.  C.  Bartlett  and  L.  B.  Findley.  Crackers 
and  Red  Suspenders:  Teaching  Local  History  and  Govern- 
ment in  Georgia.  Atlanta:  Georgia  Council  for  the  Social  Sci- 
ences, 1976,  pp.  55-62. 

"Ways  of  Increasing  Girl's  Interest  in  the  Social  Studies." 
Southern  Social  Studies  Quarterly,  II,  No.  1  (Summer,  1976), 
33-35. 

Murphy,  James  K. 

"Georgia's  Journalistic  Jesters."  Georgia  Life,  II  (Autumn, 
1975),  18-19. 

"Will  N.  Harben's  Backwoods  Characters."  Southern  Folk- 
lore Quarterly,  XXXIX  (Sep.,  1975),  291-296. 

"Will  N.  Harben's  'Virginia  Demarest'  Novels:  An  Adden- 
dum." Mississippi  Quarterly,  XXIX  (Winter,  1975-76),  105- 
108. 

Myers,  Robert  R. 

"Spatial  Variation  in  Public  School  Expenditures  in  Geor- 
gia: 1973-1974."  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science, 
XXXIV  (Apr.,  1976),  76.  (Abstract) 

"The  Effects  of  Mastery  and  Aptitude  on  Achievement  and 
Attitude."  Paper  read  at  American  Educational  Research 
Association,  San  Francisco,  California,  Apr.,  1976. 


135 


Offiong,  Daniel  A. 

"The  Proletarian  Revolution  and  the  International  Energy 
Crisis:  A  Third  World  View."  West  Georgia  College  Review, 
VII  (1974),  11-19. 

Review  of  The  Second  World  War  and  Politics  in  Nigeria, 
1939-1953  by  G.  0.  Olusanya.  The  Journal  of  Modern  African 
Studies,  XII  (1974),  498-500. 

"Garveyism  and  Nkrumahism:  The  Quest  for  Black  Irreden- 
tism."  Pan  African  Review,  VRI  (1975),  89-102. 

"The  Impact  of  the  African  Revolution  on  Racialism  in  the 
United  States."  The  Third  World  Review,  I  (1975),  99-111. 

"The  AFL-CIO  Foreign  Policy  in  Latin  America  and  Africa." 
The  Third  World  Review,  II  (1975),  36-48. 

"Racialism  and  the  United  States  African  Policy."  Paper 
read  at  African  Heritage  Studies  Association  Meetings,  At- 
lanta, Georgia,  1976. 

"Internal  Homogeneity  in  the  Developed  and  Underdevel- 
oped Societies?  The  Cases  of  Nigeria,  India,  and  the  U.S." 
With  Jagan  Lingamneni.  Paper  read  at  Rural  Sociological 
Society  Meetings,  New  York,  New  York,  1976. 

"The  Sociology  of  Development  and  African  Underdevelop- 
ment." Paper  read  at  American  Sociological  Association 
Meetings,  New  York,  New  York,  1976. 

"The  Ideology  of  Colonial  Imperialism  and  the  Distortions  of 
African  History:  The  Case  of  Nigeria."  Paper  read  at  Ameri- 
can Society  for  Ethnohistory  Meetings,  Albuquerque,  New 
Mexico,  1976. 

"The  Power  State  of  Ibn  Khaldun  and  Niccolo  Machiavelli." 
Paper  read  at  Mid-South  Sociological  Association  Meetings, 
Monroe,  Louisiana,  1976. 

O'Malley,  James  R. 

"A  Geographic  Analysis  of  Hamlet  Population  Change  in 
East  Tennessee."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (geogra- 
phy). University  of  Tennessee,  1976. 

"The  T  House:  An  Indicator  of  Agricultural  Attainment  in 
the  Southern  Appalachian  Valley."  Readings  on  Appalachia. 
Dubuque,  Iowa:  Kendall-Hunt  Co.,  1976,  pp.  105-119. 

"Coastal  Surveillance:  A  Georgia  Example."  With  E.  Metev- 
ier.  Proceedings  of  the  Symposium  on  the  Utilization  of  Re- 
mote Sensing  Data  in  the  Southeastern  United  States.  Falls 

136 


Church,  Virginia:  American  Society  of  Photogrammetry, 
1976,  pp.  1-7. 

"Hungarian  and  Slovakian  Viticulture  in  Western  Georgia: 
An  Ephemeral  Cultural  Anomaly."  With  J.  Upchurch.  Paper 
read  at  Southeastern  Division,  Association  of  American  Ge- 
ographers, Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  Nov.,  1976. 

Powell,  Bobby  E. 

"The  December  13,  1974  Partial  Solar  Eclipse."  With  G.  D. 
Bagwell.  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science, 
XXXm  (Apr.,  1975),  83.  (Abstract) 

"The  Astronomy  Program  at  West  Georgia  College."  Bulletin 
of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science  XXXIII  (Apr.,  1975),  86. 
(Abstract) 

"Properties  of  In  Bi."  With  Jack  Davis.  Bulletin  of  the  Geor- 
gia Academy  of  Science,  XXXIV  (Apr.,  1976),  96.  (Abstract) 

Quertermus,  Carl  J.,  Jr. 

"Prior  Experience  as  a  Factor  in  Habitat  Selection  by  the 
Cichlid  Fish  Tilapia  mossambica.  Transactions  of  the  Ameri- 
can Fisheries  Society,  CIV,  No.  4  (1975),  742-751. 

Ryback,  David 

Delivered  talks  on  personal  cross-cultural  research  on  child 
rearing  to  International  Training  Center  for  Community 
Service  in  Haifa,  Israel  and  to  Kibbutz  Family  and  Child 
Clinic  in  Tel  Aviv,  Israel,  Jan.,  1975. 

"The  Basic  Needs  of  the  Autistic  Citizen  in  the  Home  and 
in  the  Community."  Panel  participant,  Atlanta  Regional 
Conference  on  Autism,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Jan.,  1976. 

"Methods  for  Teaching  Autistic  Children."  Workshop  direc- 
tor. National  Society  for  Autistic  Children  at  the  Georgia 
Mental  Health  Institute,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  May,  1976. 

"Assertiveness  Skills  for  Personal  and  Volunteer  Effective- 
ness." Workshop  presentation,  Council  of  Volunteer  Admin- 
istrators, Atlanta,  Georgia,  May,  1976. 

"More  Power  to  You  in  the  Open  Classroom."  Forum  on 
Open  Education,  III,  No.  3  (1976),  8-10. 
"Child-Rearing  and  Child-Care  Practices  Among  Israeli  Stu- 
dents." Psychological  Reports,  XXXVIII  (1976),  922. 


137 


"Behavioral  Control  Pollution."  American  Psychologist, 
XXXI,  No.  1  (1976),  94. 
"A  'Sweep'  Procedure  for  Reading  Improvement."  Reading 
Improvement,  XIII,  No.  2  (1976),  101-102. 

"Creative  Responsibility  and  the  Regulated  Society." 
Journal  of  Pastoral  Counseling,  XI,  No.  1  (1976),  54-57. 

"Infantile  Autism  and  its  Treatment."  Paper  read  at  Coun- 
cil for  Exceptional  Children,  Carrollton,  Georgia,  March, 
1976. 

Sanders,  C.  Gerald 

"Climactic  Chilling  in  Georgia."  Georgia  Agricultural 
Research,  XVIII,  No.  1  (Summer,  1976),  19-21. 

Critique  of  "Environmental  Location  of  Largest  Trees  of 
Eastern  Deciduous  Forest"  at  Southeastern  Division  of  the 
Association  of  American  Geographers,  Fredericksburg,  Vir- 
ginia, Nov.,  1976. 

Saunders,  Martha  A. 

"Renaissance  Literary  Theory:  Sidney,  Milton,  and  the 
Angel  Raphael."  West  Georgia  College  Review,  VIII  (May, 
1975),  20-22. 

Setter,  Henry  C. 

"Mary's  Virtues  in  Symbol."  The  Marianist,  L,  No.  1  (Jan., 
1959),  25-41. 

"A  Fribourg  Artist— YOKI."  The  Columbia  Review,  XLIV 
(Apr.,  1959),  6-15.  (University  of  Fribourg,  Switzerland  pub- 
lication) 

"Mosaic  in  Cobblestone."  The  Marianist,  LII,  Nos.  3-4 
(Mar.-Apr.,  1961),  25-41. 

"Nursery  Rhymes  or  Mystery?"  Paper  read  at  Ohio  Catholic 
Education  Convention,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Apr.,  1965. 

"Contemporary  Church  Design — The  Baptistry."  Paper  read 
at  Liturgical  Arts  Guild,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Feb.,  1966. 
Review  of  The  Jesuits:  A  History  by  Christopher  HoUis.  Utica 
Weekly  Observer,  Nov.,  1969. 

"Ecomenism  Looks  at  Religious  Sculpture."  Television  pro- 
gram produced  by  WLW-D,  Dayton,  Ohio,  Dec.  6,  1969. 
Review  of  Scandal  in  the  Assembly  by  Morris  L.  West  and 
Robert  Francis  Morrow.  Utica  Weekly  Observer,  Jun.  28, 
1970,  12. 

138 


"A  View  of  the  Omega  Point  Sculpture — The  Sculptor  Re- 
plies." University  of  Dayton  FOCUS,  (Dec,  1973),  6. 

Commissions:  "Agnus  Dei"  mosaic,  Salve  Regina  Chapel, 
Fribourg  Switzerland,  1958;  "Nuestra  Senora  del  Pilar" 
mosaic.  Salve  Regina  Chapel,  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  1959; 
"Marian  Symbols"  window  sandblastings,  Queen  of  Apostles 
Chapel,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1963;  "Contemplative"  laminated 
woodcarving,  University  of  Dayton,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1964;  Alu- 
minum Eucharistic  Tabernacle,  Marianist  Provincialate 
Chapel,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1966;  Carved  Stone  Altar,  Bergamo 
Center  Chapel,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1968;  "John  XXIII — Pacem  in 
Terris"  bronze  casting,  Bergamo  Center,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1970; 
"John  XXIII — Pacem  in  Terris"  bronze  casting,  Bergamo- 
East,  Marcy,  New  York,  1970;  "The  Journeyman"  mural 
painting,  Kolping  House,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1971;  "Marian 
Library  International  Award"  bronze  medal  with  A.  Joseph 
Barrish,  Marian  Library,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1973;  "John  XXIII- 
Pax  et  Obedientia"  bronze  portrait,  Rhode  Island  Hospital 
Trust  National  Bank,  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  1973; 
"Omega  Point"  aluminum  sculpture.  University  of  Dayton, 
Dayton,  Ohio,  1973;  "Coat  of  Arms"  welded  sculpture,  Mari- 
anist Provincialate,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1974;  "The  Wisdom  of 
Age"  mural  painting.  Southern  Ecumenical  Ministry  Villa, 
Milford,  Ohio,  1975;  "Noosphere"  aluminum  sculpture,  Drew 
Gallery,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1975. 

Invitational  One  Man  Show:  Fall  River  Gallery,  Fall  River, 
Massachusetts,  1974. 

One  Man  Shows:  Newman  Center,  Athens,  Georgia,  1972;  J. 
F.  Kennedy  Gallery,  Dayton,  Ohio,  1975;  Drew  Gallery,  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  1975;  West  Georgia  College,  Carrollton,  Geor- 
gia, 1976. 

Prize  Winning  Exhibition:  Second  prize  in  sculpture.  Six- 
teenth Annual  Fall  River  Exhibit,  Fall  River,  Massachusetts, 
1973. 

Exhibitions:  Marianists  of  USA,  San  Antonio,  Texas,  1957; 
Festival  of  the  Lively  Arts,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1964;  Ohio 
State  Fair  Professional  Artists,  Columbus,  Ohio,  1964;  San 
Giuseppe  Studios,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1965;  Liturgical  Arts 
Exhibit,  Rochester,  New  York,  1970;  Gardens  Art  Festival  9, 
Callaway  Gardens,  Georgia,  1972;  Georgia  Museum  of  Art, 
Athens,  Georgia,  1972;  A. I. A.  Liturgical  Arts  Exhibit,  At- 
lanta, Georgia,  1972;  Georgia  Artists  2,  High  Museum,  At- 
lanta, Georgia,  1972;  Chiaha  Annual  Exhibit,  Rome,  Georgia, 
1976;  Quinlan  Art  Center,  Gainesville,  Georgia,  1976. 

139 


Short,  Verl  M. 

Young  Children  and  Their  Environment.  New  York:  MSS 
Information  Corporation,  1975. 

The  Learning  Centers  Book.  .  .An  Integrated  Approach. 
With  T.  J.  Davidson,  Rachel  B.  Grogan,  Phyllis  L.  Fountain, 
and  Judy  Steely.  Pacific  Palisades,  California:  Goodyear 
Publishing  Company,  1976. 

My  Bicentennial  Story  Book.  Atlanta:  Historical  Children's 
Publications,  1975. 

Learning  Centers  for  Everyone.  With  P.  Wade.  Carrollton, 
Georgia:  Southeast  Educators  Services,  Inc.,  1975. 

Your  Favorite  Fingerplays  and  Poems  for  the  Young  Child. 
With  J.  Steely.  Carrollton,  Georgia:  Southeast  Educators 
Services,  Inc.,  1975. 

Tips  For  Teachers.  With  J.  Sanders  and  P.  Wade.  Atlanta: 
Georgia  Association  for  Childhood  Education,  1976. 

Stokes,  Jimmy  C. 

"An  Approach  to  Drug  Education."  With  W.  G.  Esslinger 
and  J.  L.  Grogan.  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Academy  of 
Science,  XXXIII  (1975),  95.  (Abstract) 

"Individualized  Instruction  in  General  Chemistry."  Presen- 
tation at  the  University  System  of  Georgia  Subcommittee  on 
Professional  Development,  Columbus  College,  Columbus, 
Georgia,  Sep.,  1975. 

"Lecture  Oriented  PSI  for  College  Chemistry."  Proceedings 
of  the  LaGrange  Symposium  on  Individualized  Instruction, 
LaGrange,  Georgia:  LaGrange  College,  1975,  pp.  10-13. 

"A  Quasi-Statistical  Analysis  of  Performance  in  a  Self- 
Paced  General  Chemistry  Course."  With  W.  L.  Lockhart  and 
H.  W.  Pope.  West  Georgia  College  Review,  VIII  (May,  1975), 
23-27. 

"A  One  Quarter  Project  Oriented  Laboratory  for  Science 
Major  General  Chemistry."  With  W.  L.  Lockhart,  H.  W. 
Pope,  and  L.  M.  Barnes.  Paper  read  at  Southeastern- 
Southwestern  Regional  American  Chemical  Society,  Mem- 
phis, Tennessee,  Oct.,  1975. 

"Consumer  Drug  Index."  With  W.  G.  Esslinger.  Journal  of 
Chemical  Education,  LII  (1975),  784-786. 

"Batman  vs.  The  Penguin  and  Cyanide."  With  W.  L.  Lock- 
hart. Journal  of  College  Science  Teaching,  V  (1976),  175-176. 

140 


"Development  in  Action  at  the  Senior  College  Level:  An  Ex- 
amination of  a  Self-Paced,  Videotaped  General  Chemistry 
Course  for  Use  at  West  Georgia  College."  Paper  read  at  Geor- 
gia Association  of  Instructional  Technology,  Morrow,  Geor- 
gia, Jan.,  1976. 

Panelist  on  "College  Chemistry — The  First  Year  and  High 
School  Chemistry  Background"  at  Metro  Atlanta  Chemical 
Educators  Meeting,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Feb.,  1976. 

"Lecture  Oriented  PSI  for  Liberal  Arts  Chemistry."  Bulletin 
of  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science,  XXXIV  (Jan.,  1976),  17- 
20. 

Review  of  An  Introduction  to  General,  Organic,  and  Biologi- 
cal Chemistry  by  N.  L.  Allinger,  J.  A.  Bigelow,  and  H.  C. 
McCallister  for  Wadsworth  Publishing  Company,  Mar.,  1976. 

Review  of  Chemistry  for  the  Health  Sciences  manuscript  by 
J.  Christensen  and  Mary  H.  Keuhnelian  for  Saunders  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Apr.,  1976. 

"A  Project  Oriented  Laboratory  for  Science  Major  General 
Chemistry."  With  W.  L.  Lockhart  and  H.  W.  Pope.  Journal 
of  College  Science  Teaching,  V  (1976),  328. 

"Field  Trips  as  a  Supplement  to  Science  Major  General 
Chemistry  Laboratory."  With  W.  L.  Lockhart  and  L.  M. 
Barnes.  Journal  of  Chemical  Education,  LIII  (1976),  370. 

Review  of  General  Chemistry  manuscript  by  Clair  Wood  for 
Willard  Grant  Press,  Aug.,  1976. 

Workbook  for  General  Chemistry.  With  W.  L.  Lockhart. 
Minneapolis:  Burgess  Publishing  Company,  1976. 

"Chemistry  for  Health-Related  Sciences."  Journal  of  College 
Science  Teaching,  VI  (1976),  43-44. 

"Chemistry  Economics  Laboratory."  With  W.  L.  Lockhart, 
Chemistry  in  the  Two-Year  College,  XIII  (1976),  60. 

"ACS  Cooperative  Examination  in  General  Chemis- 
try— Form  1975."  Examinations  Committee  of  the  Division  of 
Chemical  Education  of  the  American  Chemical  Society. 

Upchurch,  John  C. 

General  Editor,  The  American  Revolution:  The  Home  Front. 
Volume  XV  of  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences  (J.  Ferling, 
Volume  Editor).  Carrollton,  Georgia:  West  Georgia  College, 
1976.  pp.  vii  and  106. 

"Future  Demographic  Assessment:  A  Problem  Tool  in  Local 
Planning."  With  D.  Weaver.  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  XXXIV  (Apr.,  1976),  81.  (Abstract) 

141 


"Hungarian  and  Slovakian  Viticulture  in  Western  Georgia: 
An  Ephemeral  Cultural  Anomaly."  With  J.  O'Malley.  Paper 
read  at  Southeastern  Division,  Association  of  American  Ge- 
ographers, Fredericksburg,  Virginia,  Nov.,  1976, 

Wagner,  Donald  R. 

"On  Habermas's  Freud  and  Merleau-Ponty's  Marx."  Paper 
read  at  Southern  Political  Science  Association,  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  Nov.,  1975. 

"Order  in  the  Madhouse:  The  Practice  of  Ancient  Political 
Theory."  Paper  read  at  Georgia  Political  Science  Association, 
Savannah,  Georgia,  Jan.,  1976. 

"Comments  on  the  Relevance  for  Political  Theory  of  Gada- 
mar's  Hermeneutics  and  Wittgenstein's  Language  Analysis." 
Commentary  on  two  papers  read  at  Southern  Political  Sci- 
ence Association,  Atlanta,  Georgia,  Nov.,  1976. 

Weaver,  David  C. 

"Future  Demographic  Assessment:  A  Problem  Tool  in  Local 
Planning."  With  J.  Upchurch.  Bulletin  of  the  Georgia  Acad- 
emy of  Science,  XXXIV  (Apr.,  1976),  81.  (Abstract) 


142 


WEST  GEOI  COLLEGE 


REVIEW 


Learnirii^  Resources  Committee 
Chairman,  E.  M.  Blut; 


^    Roy  h 
Louis  vw..  , 
Jetf  Dean 


I    Robert  Jobson 


Lucille  Kiee 
Joe  Mann 
Lenise  K' 
Edith  Ma...... 

Jerome  Mock 
Huey  Owings 
Sara  Rigg 
Carole  Scott 


.  Lockhart,  Editor 
la  A.  Saunders,  Associate  Editoi 


is  to  provide  encouragement  ioM 

ci  to  make  available  results  of  such  activity.  The| 

1  annually,  accepts  original  scholarly  work  and  cre#| 

tive  writing.  West  Georgia  College  assumes  no  responsibility  for  coii?«| 

'  ^   t      '  '■.        >'       .  ■ 'e  is  Kate  L.  Turabian,  A  Manual  fom 

-.  primarily  a  medium  for  the  faculty  of;i 
ege,  other  sources  are 

An  annual  bibliography  includes  doctoral  dissertations,  major  recitals'! 
and  major  art  exhibits.  Theses  and  articles  in  progress  or  accepte 
not  listed.  A  faculty  member's  initial  listing  is  comprehensive  and ,, 
appears  in  the  issue  of  the  year  of  his  employment.  The  abstracts  of  aj^ 
''  '      •  1  specialist's  projec    "'  f    '^    'f 

they  are  awarded 


WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE 


REVIEW 


Volume  X  r-*-,.^  May,  1978 

TABLE         ''^^^^ 

The  Counter-Revolution  in  Linguistics: 

A  Behavioral  View David  Ryback        3 

Storm  Imagery  in  Troilus  and  Criseyde Frank  Sadler      13 

Sex  as  a  Variable  in  Attitude  Change Jeffrey  Mutnick      19 

Abstracts  of  Master's  Theses  and  Specialist  in 

Education  Projects 24 

Bibliography  of  West  Georgia  College  Faculty 39 

Copyright  ®  1978,  West  Georgia  College 

Printed  in  U.S.A. 

Thomasson  Printing  &  Office  Equipment  Company,  Inc. 
CarroUton,  Georgia  30117 


THE  COUNTER-REVOLUTION  IN 

LINGUISTICS: 

A  BEHAVIORAL  VIEW 

by  DAVID  RYBACK* 

The  cognitivist-behaviorist  counter-revolution  against  Chomskian 
linguistics  has  been  in  evidence  for  more  than  five  years  now.  Although 
the  Chomskian  Revolution  did  much  to  revitalize  linguistics,  the  pendu- 
lum is  beginning  to  swing  the  other  way  as  research  in  verbal  learning 
theory,  semantics  and  syntax  point  to  gaps  in  the  Chomskian  structure. 
This  paper  presents  a  behaviorist's  view  of  some  of  the  points  that 
Chomsky  has  put  forth. 

Lyons'  sees  Chomsky's  primary  contribution  as  the  mathematical 
rigor  and  precision  of  his  formalized  properties.  Hymes^  sees  Chomsky's 
primary  contribution  as  his  research  on  the  formalization  of  linguistic 
theory  and  his  views  of  psychological  and  philosophical  issues  of  mind. 
This  paper  focuses  more  specifically  on  the  duality  of  surface  and  deep 
structures  in  linguistic  analysis  and  the  duality  of  performance  and 
competence. 

At  best  the  surface-deep  duality  is  a  confused  one.  Chomsky  con- 
cedes that  the  surface  structure  of  language  may  be  learned  behaviorally, 
but  reserves  for  the  underlying  structure  a  kind  of  intrinsic,  innate 
nature  which  comprises  the  universal  aspects  of  language.  How  else, 
asks  Chomsky,  could  infinite  use  be  made  of  finite  means? 

For  one  thing,  Chomsky's  understanding  of  behavioral  analysis  is 
rather  oversimplistic.  His  insistence  on  a  "substantive"  interpretation  of 
behaviorism  is  difficult  to  comprehend  unless  by  "substantive"  Chomsky 
means  to  refer  to  the  simplistic  approach  of  John  Watson's  method- 
ological behaviorism  or  to  Skinner's  laboratory-oriented  approach. 

More  current  behavioral  approaches  to  language  (what  Staats' 
refers  to  as  the  third  generation  of  learning  theories)  have  no  difficulty 
at  all  in  explaining  the  infinite  nature  of  a  finite  language  system.  Medi- 
ated generalization  of  semantic  responses  is  the  only  concept  needed  to 
account  for  it.  (More  will  be  said  about  this  later  on.) 

Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  in  the  applied  area  of  prediction  and 
control  of  language,  behavioral  approaches  have  far  outshone  any 

*Temporary  Assistant  Professor  of  Psychology,  West  Georgia  College. 

'  T.  Lyons,  Noam  Chomsky.  New  York:  Viking  Press,  1970,  p.  43. 

^  D.  Hymes.  Review  of  Noam  Chomsky  by  T.  Lyons.  Language,  XLVIII,  No.  2 

(1972),  p.  422. 

'  A.W.   Staats,  "Lingustic  — mentalistic  Theory   Versus  an   Explanatory   S-R 

Learning  Theory  of  Language  Development"  in  The  Autogeny  of  Grammar, 

D.I.  Slobin,  editor,  New  York:  Academic  Press,  1971. 


nativistic  approaches.  It  was  the  behavioral  approach  that  succeeded  in 
teaching  language  skills  to  previously  mute  or  echolalic  schizophrenic 
and  autistic  children  (Lovaas  et  al*;  Ryback^)  not  the  nativistic  approach. 
And  it  is  the  behaviorist  who  is  providing  our  educational  institutions 
with  programs  for  alleviating  reading  problems  (Staats  et  al!'). 

But  perhaps  all  this  is  merely  surface.  It  is  the  underlying  structure 
which  is  intrinsic,  not  the  surface  manifestation.  Then  let  us  focus  on 
what  Chomsky  shows  us  to  be  the  underlying  structure  of  language. 
Chomsky's  own  example  appears  in  the  difference  between  the  two  fol- 
lowing sentences  which  appear  similar  on  the  surface,  but  which  Chomsky 
shows  to  have  an  underlying  difference: 

Ai.     I  persuaded  a  specialist  to  examine  John. 

Bi.     I  expected  a  specialist  to  examine  John. 
The  transformation  showing  the  underlying  difference  results  in: 

Aii.     I  persuaded  John  to  be  examined  by  a  specialist. 

Bii.     I  expected  John  to  be  examined  by  a  specialist. 
Chomsky's  analysis  is  as  follows: 

Ai.     Noun  phrase  — verb— noun  phrase  — sentence. 

I  —  persuaded  — a  specialist  — a  specialist  will  examine  John. 

Aii.     Noun  phrase  — verb  — noun  phrase  — sentence 

I  —  persuaded— John  —  a  specialist  will  examine  John. 

Bi.     Noun  phrase  — verb  — sentence 

I  —  expected  — a  specialist  will  examine  John. 

Bii.     Noun  phrase  — verb— sentence 

I  —  expected  — a  specialist  will  examine  John. 

Although  linguistics  can  readily  prove  the  validity  of  the  underlying 
difference  between  A  and  B  (Chen''),  it  is  also  possible  to  account  for 
the  difference  by  focusing  on  the  verbal  qualities  of  "persuaded"  and 
"expected". 

The  affinity  that  certain  verbs  have  for  certain  nouns  as  objects  can 
perhaps  be  best  exemplified  by  taking  some  examples  from  Mandarin. 
Although  "jyau"  means  "teach",  I  teach  would  be  "wo  jyau  shu"  (literally, 
"I  teach  book(s)")  and  although  "chr"  means  "eat",  "I  eat"  would  be 
"wo  chr  fan"  (Uterally,  "I  eat  rice"  — "I  eat  a  meal",  implied). 

These  verb-object  affinities  are  not  found  in  similar  intensity  in 
English,  but  what  should  not  be  overlooked  is  that  certain  verbs  do  take 


"  O.  I.  Lovaas,  J.  P.  Berberich,  B.  F.  Perloff,  and  B.  Schaeffer,  "Acquisition  of 
Imitative  Speech  by  Schizophrenic  Children".  Science,  CLI  (1966),  705-707. 

*  D.  Ryback,  "M&M's  and  Behavior  Modification",  you/na/  of  the  Council  for 
Exceptional  Children,  XVI,  No.  1  (1966),  3-7. 

*  A.  W.  Staats,  K.  A.  Minke,  W.  Goodwin  and  T.  Landeen,  "Cognitive  Behavior 
Modification:  'Motivated  Learning"  Reading  Treatment  with  Subprofessional 
Therapy  Technicians"  Behavior  Research  and  Therapy.  V  (1967),  283-299. 
'  H.  Y.  Chen.  "A  Transformational  Analysis  of  Two  English  Sentences",  English 
Teaching  Quarterly.  Ill,  No.  3  (1971),  40-44. 


particular  kinds  of  objects.  One  does  not  say  with  any  grammatical  justi- 
fication "I  sang  a  table"  unless  "A  Table"  is  the  title  of  a  song  in  which 
case  one  can  correctly  say  "I  sang  'A  Table' ".  The  verb  "to  sing"  takes  as 
its  object  a  song,  melody,  tune,  etc.,  i.e.,  anything  which  is  "singable". 
Similarly,  "to  persuade"  and  "to  expect"  take  particular  classes  of 
objects.  "To  expect"  takes  as  its  object  a  particular  state  of  being.  Even 
when  one  says  "I  expect  him",  what  is  implied  is:  "I  expect  (the  state  of) 
him  (being  (somewhere) )",  or  "I  expect  nothing"  implies  "I  expect  no 
(state  of)  thing  (being)". 

However,  "to  persuade"  takes  as  its  object  something  that  is  per- 
suadable, i.e.,  an  agent,  or,  in  Fillmore's  terms,*  a  noun  phrase  in  the 
agentive  case  of  the  typically  animate  perceived  instigation  of  the 
action.  Although  Fillmore  assigns  the  dative  case  to  the  object  of 
"persuade",  the  argument  is  made  here  that  inasmuch  as  the  object  of 
"persuade"  is  an  agent  capable  of  instigating  action,  the  agentive  case  is 
more  appropriate.  Hence,  we  can  say  "We  persuaded  the  Heavens  (cap- 
able of  some  act)".  Even  where  the  object  of  "persuade"  is  not  the  insti- 
gator of  the  state  of  affairs  being  persuaded  — ^.g.,  "We  persuaded  him 
that  we  were  going."  —the  agent  "him"  is  capable  of  the  act  of  believing 
the  state  of  affairs  being  persuaded.  Hence,  we  have  "We  persuaded  him 
(to  believe)  that  we  were  going".  There  is  no  exception  to  this  rule  that 
"persuade"  takes  as  its  object  an  agent  capable  of  acting,  "to  believe" 
being  one  of  those  acts. 

Since  the  object  of  "persuade"  (to  which  Fillmore  assigns  the  dative 
case)  is  also  affected  by  the  persuasion  as  well  as  being  the  instigator  of 
behef  or  action,  a  more  comprehensive  label  for  the  case  of  the  object 
of  "persuade"  would  be  "dagentive",  subsuming  the  qualities  of  both 
case  functions. 

It  can  now  be  seen  that  the  grammatical  difference  between  A  and 
B  lies  in  the  different  case  functions  of  the  respective  objects  of  "per- 
suaded" and  "expected".  That  this  difference  can  be  illustrated  by  the 
following  diagrams  demonstrates  that  the  difference  between  the  two 
statements  is  close  to  the  surface  structural  level. 

S 


I  persuaded  a  specialist  to  examine  John. 


*  C.  J.  Fillmore,  "The  Case  for  Case",  in  Universals  in  Linguistic  Theoiy.  E. 
Bach  and  R.T.  Harms,  editors.  New  York:  Holt,  Rinehart  &  Winston,  1968.  p.  24. 


I  expected  a  specialist  to  examine  John 


Case  function  resides  in  deeper  structures.  However,  case  function 
was  used  here  only  to  demonstrate  the  difference  which,  once  demon- 
strated, can  easily  be  shown  to  exist  at  the  surface  level,  since  a  surface 
structure  analysis  clearly  shows  the  grammatical  difference  between  the 
statements.  (For  differentiation  between  deep  and  surface  structure 
analysis,  see  Fillmore,  especially  Diagrams  60-63.)' 

Analysis  of  a  predicate  (P)  into  subcomponents  (P,  and  Pj)  is  some- 
what unconventional  but  merely  indicates  overlapping  sentences  of 
which  the  object  of  the  first  is  the  subject  of  the  second,  characterized 
by  the  "dagentive"  case.  Albeit  this  surface  structural  analysis  is  highly 
unconventional,  it  is  presented  here  in  the  spirit  of  stimulating  further 
thought  with  the  ultimate  hope  of  resolving  basic  differences  on  this 
issue. 

Turning  now  to  the  competence-performance  duality,  let  us  begin 
with  Chomsky's  definition  of  "generative  grammar": '° 

By  a  generative  grammar'  I  mean  a  description  of  the  tacit  compe- 
tence of  the  speaker-hearer  that  underlies  his  actual  performance  in 
production  and  perception  (understanding)  of  speech.  A  generative 
grammar,  ideally,  specifies  a  pairing  of  phonetic  and  semantic  repre- 
sentations over  an  infinite  range. 

This  would  imply  that  generative  grammar  and  competence  are  synony- 
mously related  and  that  both  specify  (underlie  ?  direct  ?  influence  ?  )  the 
phonetic  semantic  pairing  of  the  speaker-hearer.  If  Chomsky  is  attempt- 
ing something  akin  to  the  learning-performance  dichotomy,  then  we  are 
doomed  to  speculate  ad  infinitum  on  the  nature  of  competence,  which 
could  not  be  known  to  us  for  observation  except  through  performance 
manifested.  Like  "learning",  "competence"  would  have  to  be  method- 
ologically defined  in  stimulus  terms  only,  never  in  response  terms,  and 
hence  relegated  to  epistemology  and  forever  banned  from  linguistics 


Fillmore,  pp.  35-36. 
N.  Chomsky,  Cartesian  Linguistics.  New  York:  Harper  &  Row,  1966,  p.  75. 


(the  study  of  verbal  behavior).  Performance  is  the  behavioral  manifes- 
tation of  learning  potential;  is  Chomsky's  "performance"  as  well  the 
behavioral  manifestation  of  linguistic  competence?  If  so,  then  why  look 
for  universals  at  the  Platonic  level  which  cannot  be  found  in  reality, 
since  scientists  deal  exclusively  with  reality?  The  point  is  that  postula- 
tions  of  universals  with  no  basis  in  manifested  reality  are  better  left  to 
the  clergy  than  to  scientifically-minded  students  of  linguistics.  And  if 
Chomsky  does  not  mean  to  differentiate  competence  and  performance 
in  this  manner,  then  why  would  he  insist  that  "we  must  isolate  and  study 
the  system  of  linguistic  competence  that  underlies  behavior  but  that  is 
not  realized  in  any  direct  or  simple  way  in  behavior"?" 

Chomsky  defines  "competence"  as  "the  ability  of  the  idealized 
speaker-hearer  to  associate  sounds  and  meanings  strictly  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  of  his  language".  '^  The  insistence  that  competence  is  an 
innate  characteristic  is  hardly  compatible  with  this  definition,  especially 
so  for  anyone  with  experience  in  the  teaching  of  language.  There  is 
nothing  innate  about  the  association  between  sounds  and  meanings,  for 
example,  either  for  the  Chinese  student  learning  English  or  for  the 
English  student  learning  Chinese. 

Admittedly,  there  appears  to  be  a  critical  age  limit  (about  or  before 
puberty)  before  which  languages  are  more  easily  learned  than  later.  And 
thus  learning  a  second  language  in  later  years  is  not  strictly  comparable 
to  acquiring  native  language.  But  it  is  still  not  determined  whether  this 
difference  is  due  to  maturational  factors  or  to  different  learning  environ- 
mental factors.  Motivation  appears  to  be  a  paramount  factor  and  the 
motivation  of  a  child  needing  to  communicate  with  his  elders  and  peers 
for  satisfaction  of  his  bodily  survival  needs  and  his  basic  psychological 
needs  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  child  learning  metalanguage  [i.e., 
grammar)  and  vocabulary  drills  from  a  not-so-reinforcing  textbook  and 
classroom  situation. 

Furthermore,  if  competence  is  defined  "in  accordance  with  the 
rules  of  his  languages",  then  what  of  the  concepts  that  exist  in  some  lan- 
guages but  not  in  others,  e.g.,  the  seven  names  for  snow  in  the  language 
used  by  the  Eskimos,  the  multiplicity  of  nouns  in  the  Thai  language 
which  denote  the  various  kinds  of  smiles,  or  the  specification  of  older  vs. 
younger  siblings  in  the  Chinese  language?  The  terms  "innate"  and  "uni- 
versal" hardly  seem  applicable  when  one  considers  comparing  isolating 
languages  such  as  Chinese  with  flexional  languages  such  as  the  Romance 
languages,  or  with  agglutinative  or  polysynthetic  languages  such  as 
Turkish  or  Kwakiutl  which  incorporate  multiple  concepts  within  single 
words.  The  internalizing  of  a  system  of  universal  rules  for  the  acquisi- 

"  N.  Chomsky,  Language  and  Mind,   New  York:  Harcourt,  Brace  &.  World, 
1968,  p.  4. 

'^  N.  Chomsky,  "The  Formal  Nature  of  Language",  appendix  to  Biolof^ical  Foun- 
dations of  Language.  E.  Lenneberg,  New  York:  Wiley,  1967,  p.  398. 


tion  of  these  various  languages  seems  to  be  an  inaccurate  description  of 
language  acquisition,  yet  this  is  precisely  how  Chomsky"  describes  it. 

Beyond  all  this,  Chomsky  never  seems  to  be  able  to  make  up  his 
mind  as  to  whether  competence  or  generative  grammar  is  a  Platonic 
process  which  is  not  directly  realized  in  behavior,'"  whether  it  provides 
the  basis  for  actual  use  of  language'*  or  whether  it  interacts  with 
psychological  factors  to  determine  language.'*  As  Hymes  has  recently 
stated,'"' 

Chomsky  has  perhaps  never  been  committed  to  any  one  way  of 

warranting  transformational  deep  structure  and  its  significance  for 

the  human  mind,  but  has  from  the  beginning  been  committed  to  the 

reality  of  that  structure  and  that  relationship. 

It  should  not  be  overlooked  here  that  the  arguments  presented  in 
this  paper  stem  from  a  functionalist  rather  than  a  structuralist  viewpoint, 
nor  that  psycholinguistics  differs  from  linguistics  proper  along  the  very 
same  line,  i.e.,  whereas  most  linguists  are  structuralists  and  primarily 
interested  in  observing  R-R  relationships  in  language  behavior,  psycho- 
linguists, more  functionally  inclined,  focus  on  S-R  relationships  or  the 
independent  variables  by  which  language  behaviors  can  be  predicted 
and  controlled.  The  difference  is  as  great  as  that  between  theoretical 
and  applied  sceince.  Hence,  although  the  linguist's  use  of  "deep  level" 
concepts  may  be  quite  valid  and  justifiable  within  his  own  structural 
framework  of  language  theory,  it  behooves  the  psycholinguist  to  com- 
municate with  his  linguist  colleagues  to  his  viewpoint  of  his  fellow's 
camp.  It  is  assumed  that  each  has  much  to  contribute  to  the  other,  to  the 
common  benefit  of  the  study  of  language. 

In  his  recent  review  of  Lyons'  (1970)  book  on  Chomsky,  Hymes 
describes  well  the  situation  in  which  linguistics  currently  finds  itself:  '* 
If  linguistics  eschews  the  sampling  approach  of  many  sciences,  it  has 
its  own  sampling'  (sic)  approach  that  tends  to  reproduce  the  difficulties 
of  prescriptive  grammar,  even  if  the  intentions  are  professional  rather 
than  social.  If  we  let  the  clear  cases,  or  the  grammar,  decide,  we  sever 
the  result  from  any  claim  to  account  for  the  tacit  knowledge  of  actual 
speakers;  we  put  the  entire  significance  claimed  for  grammar,  as  an 
explication  of  speakers'  competence,  into  question. . .  The  study  of 
language  as  human  activity  calls  for  ethnography  as  well  as  logic,  and 
for  a  reconsideration  of  the  foundational  notions  of  linguistics,  as  to 
what  is  to  be  accounted  for  and  how  it  is  organized. 


'^  Chomsky,  Language  and  Mind.  p.  23. 
'*  Ibid.  p.  4. 

N.  Chomsky,  Aspects  of  the  Theory  of  Syntax.  Cambridge,  Massachusetts: 
MIT  Press,  1965,  p.  9. 

'*  Chomsky,  appendix  to  Biological  Foundations  of  Language.  E.  Lenneberg, 

p.  398. 

■'  Hymes,  p.  422. 

"  Hymes,  pp.  420-421. 

8 


Chomsky's  popular  review  of  Skinner's  Verbal  Behavior  has  stimu- 
lated many  a  behavioral  psycholinguist  to  verbal  response. "  However, 
that  Chomsky's  view  of  behaviorism  is  somewhat  oversimplistic  becomes 
evident  in  his  criticism  of  Skinner  in  which,  for  example,  he  describes 
the  situation  of  an  individual  appreciating  a  beautiful  painting.  A  verbal 
response  of  "beautiful"  uttered  loudly  and  frequently  is  compared  with 
the  same  response  murmured  softly  only  once.  Chomsky^"  maintains 
that  Skinner's  criteria  for  response  strength  (frequency  and  ampHtude) 
fail  here  since  the  latter  of  the  two  possible  responses  indicates  just  as 
much  appreciation  as,  if  not  more  than,  the  former  "beautiful"  spoken 
often  and  loudly.  What  Chomsky  conveniently  overlooks  here  is  the 
importance  that  behaviorists  and  other  behavior  scientists  (not  excluding 
clinical  psychologists  and  psychiatrists)  accord  to  latency  in  human 
verbal  responses  and,  as  well,  to  the  concept  of  mediating  verbal 
responses. 

Chomsky^'  faults  Skinner  for  indulging  in  a  tautology  in  his  concept 
of  reinforcement  in  the  law  of  conditioning.  According  to  Skinner's  law 
of  conditioning,  if  the  occurrence  of  an  operant  is  followed  by  the 
presence  of  a  reinforcer,  the  probability  of  response  is  increased.  Since  a 
reinforcer  is  defined  as  that  stimulus  which  strengthens  a  response 
which  it  follows,  then  Chomsky  concludes  that  learning  is  merely  a 
change  in  response  strength  and  that  Skinner  has  added  nothing  new  to 
the  study  of  behavior.  Skinner's  point,  which  seems  to  be  lost  to  Chom- 
sky, is  essentially  that  there  are  certain  classes  of  stimuli  which,  for  a 
given  species,  consistently  increases  the  response  strength  of  the  respon- 
ses they  follow.  We  give  the  name  "reinforcers"  to  these  stimuli  and  by 
arranging  these  stimuli  in  contingent  relationships  with  certain  responses, 
we  can  predict  and  control  behavior.  To  Skinner  a  knowledge  of  which 
stimuli  are  reinforcing  for  particular  situations  and  of  the  functional 
relationship  between  relevant  behaviors  and  appropriate  stimuli  make 
up  the  understanding  of  behavior.  Hence  we  have  prediction,  control 
and  at  least  a  functional  understanding  of  behavior.  Is  this  contributing 
nothing  to  the  study  of  behavior?  The  term  "reinforcement"  need  not 
have  explanatory  force.  It  is  merely  the  name  given  to  the  process  by 
which  behaviors  become  controllable  through  relationships  with  certain 
classes  of  stimuli. 

Nonetheless,  linguists  have  been  highly  justified  in  being  critical  of 
the  behavioral  approach  to  language  study.  Until  quite  recently,  behaviorist 
theories  of  language  have  been  severely  limited  and  restricted  in  their 
approach.  For  example,  learning  theorists  have  explained  language  in 


"  N.  Chomsky.  Review  of  Verbal  Behavior  by  B.  F.  Skinner.  Language.  XXXV, 
No.  1  (1959),  26-58. 
^  Ibid. 
"  Ibid. 


terms  of  operant  conditioning  alone,^^  semantics  alone,"  or  serial  and 
paired  associate  verbal  learning  alone."  As  Staats  says:" 

Obviously,  complex  language  behaviors  cannot  be  accounted  for 
solely  on  the  basis  of  word  associations,  or  word  meanings,  or  the 
operant  conditioning  of  speech,  (p.  104) 

The  fact  is,  in  summary,  the  basic  learning  theory  employed  must 
include  clear  presentation  of  the  principles  of  both  classical  and  in- 
strumental conditioning,  as  well  as  the  manner  in  which  the  principles 
interact,  (p.  105) 

That  is,  although  the  conditioning  principles  themselves  are  simple, 
the  S-R  mechanisms  that  are  formed  in  real  life  consist  of  exceedingly 
complex  arrays  and  constellations  of  functionally  connected  stimulus 
response  events,  (p.  106) 

. .  .Language  consists  of  reponses  of  great  variety  and  complexity. . . 
(p.  108) 

Staats  goes  on  to  explain  how  behavioral  principles  account  for 
complexity  and  infinite  variation  in  language.  Each  word  can  be  seen 
not  only  as  a  verbal  response  in  itself  but  also  as  simultaneously  provid- 
ing stimulus  cues  for  generating  single  word  verbal  responses  to  which 
the  first  word  is  associated.  Each  word  can  of  course  be  associated  with 
a  hierarchy  of  other  words.  For  example,  the  word  "other"  can  provide 
stimulus  cues  for  the  responses  "man",  "car"  or  "toys". 


toys 
In  Staats'  own  words: 

It  should  also  be  indicated  in  the  above  example  that  other  word 
responses  would  be  learned  in  combination  with  each  other  and 
would  acquire  tendencies  to  elicit  each  other  in  certain  orders.  That 
is,  not  only  would  "give"  come  to  elicit  "me",  but  also  "him"  and  "her", 
and  so  on.  It  is  suggested  that  at  each  point  in  the  response  sequence 
there  would  be  a  hierarchy  of  responses  which  would  tend  to  be  elicited, 
not  just  one  single  response,  and  these  hierarchies  could  vary  in  the 


"  B.  F.  Skinner,  Verbal  Behavior  New  York:  Appleton-Century-Crofts,  1957. 
"  C.  E.  Osgood,  G.  T.  Suci  and  P.  H.  Tannenbaum,  The  Measurement  of  Mean- 
ing. Urbana,  Illinois:  University  of  Illinois  Press,  1957. 

^'  L.  Postman  and  L.  Rau,  "Retention  as  a  Function  of  the  Method  of  Measure- 
ment", University  of  California  Publications  in  Psychology.  VIII,  No.  3  (1957). 
"  Staats,  in  The  Autogeny  of  Grammar  D.  I.  SLobin,  editor. 

10 


numbers  of  responses  included,  with  some,  as  in  the  case  of  count  nouns, 
being  very  large.  An  example  of  these  sequences  of  hierarchies  of  re- 
sponses which  would  include  the  sentence  in  the  example  might  be 
as  follows. 


One  final  point:  Chomsky  makes  much  of  the  universal  and  innate 
aspects  of  language.  He  and  his  supporters  ask  why  it  is  that  only 
humans  use  language  and  not  other  species  or  why  there  is  such  a  similar 
range  of  phonemes  in  the  various  languages.  They  also  ask  why  infants 
in  various  cultures  learn  language  at  similar  stages  of  development  and 
why  language  is  always  vocal.  The  answers  to  these  questions,  they 
maintain,  point  to  the  innate  and  universal  character  of  language  as 
opposed  to  the  tabula  rasa  viewpoint  of  the  behaviorists. 

There  is  merely  one  fault  in  this  line  of  reasoning  and  that  is  this: 
to  isolate  a  universal  character  of  verbal  behavior,  it  is  first  necessary  to 
point  to  alternative  possibilities  only  one  of  which  is  the  universal 
characteristic.  Given  the  anatomical  and  physiological  features  of  the 
human  being,  could  any  mode  other  than  vocal  be  as  effective  a  means 
of  communication  as  is  speech,  or  is  it  surprising  that  the  range  of 
phonemes  corresponds  to  the  anatomical  features  of  the  vocal  apparatus? 
Do  not  animals  (not  to  mention  insects— such  as  the  dancing  language 
of  the  bees  and  the  chemical  language  of  ants)  other  than  man  have 
language  (see  Gardner  &  Gardner;^  and  Premack"'^).  What  is  uni- 
versal is  that  people  speak  and  what  they  speak  is  called  "language". 

Each  language  has  its  own  set  of  rules  and  this  is  called  "grammar". 
And  this,  Chomsky  notwithstanding,  is  exactly  where  universals  end.  As 
Lyons^  maintains,  every  grammar  requires  such  categories  as  noun, 
predicator  and  sentence.  Since  we  live  in  a  physical  universe  and  since 
we  are  limited  to  five  sense  modalities,  the  information  upon  which  we 
act  normally  consists  of  objects  in  space  to  which  one  of  two  possibilities 
occurs:  the  objects  change  their  position  in  a  3-dimensional  space 
and/or  objects  interact  in  such  a  way  as  to  change  the  chemical  or  physi- 


2*  R.  A.  Gardner  and  B.  T.  Gardner,  "Teaching  Sign  Language  to  a  Chimpanzee" 
Science.  CLXV  (1969),  664-672. 

"  D.  Premack,  "A  Functional  Analysis  of  Language",  paper  read  at  the  Ameri- 
can Psychological  Association,  Washington,  D.C.,   1969. 
^*  D.  Premack,  "The  Education  of  Sarah",  Psychology  Today.  IV,  No.  4  (1970), 
54-58. 

^  T.  Lyons,  "Toward  a  'Notational  Theory"  of  the  Parts  of  Speech'",  Journal  of 
Lingustics.  II  (1966),  209-236. 


11 


cal  nature  of  one  or  more  of  the  objects.  Objects  are  called  "nouns"  and 
changes  in  objects,  whether  positional  or  material,  are  called  "verbs". 
This  is  why  we  see  language  as  comprised  primarily  of  nouns,  verbs  and 
their  modifiers,  not  because  of  some  underlying  grammatical  universals. 
The  universal  is  physical  rather  than  linguistic.  Across  the  various  cul- 
tures in  our  world,  man  is  limited  to  objects  and  their  changes.  With  the 
evolution  of  man's  language,  nouns  could  take  on  abstract  qualities,  and 
descriptions  of  man's  own  actions  became  subtle  descriptions  of  attitude 
and  disposition.  But  the  basic  units  remained  nouns,  verbs  and  their 
modifiers. 

Perhaps  it  was  because  of  a  universal  in  human  behavior  that 
Chomsky's  nativist  approach  found  such  ready  acceptance  — the  uni- 
versal need  in  man  to  see  himself  as  apart  from  and  above  the  physical 
realm  of  causal  determinacy— an  assumption  which  behaviorists  readily 
accept.  There  is  no  doubt  that  man  is  unique  among  the  creatures  of  the 
world,  but  his  dignity  should  be  based  on  his  own  character,  not  on  that 
of  the  rules  of  grammar. 


12 


STORM  IMAGERY  IN 
TROILUS  AND  CRISEYDE 

by  FRANK  SADLER* 

Men  sen  alday,  and  reden  ek  in  stories, 
That  after  sharpe  shoures  ben  victories. 
-GEOFFREY  CHAUCER 
from  Troilus  and  Criseyde 

This  quotation  from  Book  III  of  Chaucer's  Troilus  and  Criseyde 
suggests  that  the  function  of  the  "storm  imagery"  of  the  first  stanza  of 
Book  II  not  only  foreshadows  the  "surrender"  of  Criseyde  but  also 
serves  a  more  important  function  in  terms  of  the  overall  meaning  of  the 
poem.  Translated  into  contemporary  English,  we  are  told  by  Chaucer 
"that  storms  are  presages  of  victories  which  are  vouched  for  by  the  au- 
thorities." Essentially,  then,  the  function  of  the  "storm  imagery"  in  the 
Troilus  serves  the  purpose  of  foreshadowing  three  types  of  victories. 
First,  as  Walter  Clyde  Curry  notes  in  "Destiny  in  Troilus  and  Criseyde, " 
Chaucer  conceived  "the  brilliant  idea  of  throwing  the  lamentable  history 
of  the  two  lovers  against  the  dark  background  of  the  Trojan  war,  which 
has  already  progressed  nearly  ten  bloody  years  and  which  is  on  the  point 
of  ending  with  the  fall  of  the  great  city."  The  background  of  the  Trojan 
war,  which  is  never  far  behind  the  surface  narration  of  the  poem,  then, 
not  only  acts  as  a  framing  device  for  the  tragedy  of  the  two  lovers  but 
foreshadows  the  ultimate  victory  of  the  Greeks  and  the  imminent  destruc- 
tion of  Troy  itself.  In  this  sense,  the  "storm  imagery"  is  linked  to  the 
"clouds"  of  war  which,  in  turn,  are  closely  allied  to  Chaucer's  point  of 
view.  Second,  the  "storm  imagery"  is  closely  related  to  the  entire  physical 
apparatus  of  Nature  as  it  applies  not  only  to  the  heavens  but  with  respect 
to  the  concepts  of  Destiny  and  Fortune  as  they  are  worked  out  in  the 
poem.  And,  finally,  as  previously  mentioned,  the  "storm  imagery"  fore- 
shadows the  "surrender"  of  Criseyde  and  the  ultimate  betrayal  and 
death  of  Troilus.  There  is,  perhaps,  a  fourth  victory  though  admittedly  it 
is  rather  tenuous.  This  fourth  victory  is  directly  concerned  with  the 
closing  remarks  Chaucer  makes  with  regard  to  the  love  of  Christ  and 
seems  to  suggest  that  the  ultimate  victory  is  a  spiritual  or  religious  one. 

Throughout  the  Troilus  Chaucer's  references  to  "storm  imagery" 
are  subtle.  Early  in  Book  I  Troilus  comments 

Lx)ve,  ayeins  the  which  whoso  defeneth 
Hymselven  most,  hym  alderlest  avaylleth, 
With  disespeyr  so  sorwfulli  me  offendeth. 
That  streight  unto  the  deth  myn  herte  dailleth. 

•Assistant  Professor  of  English,  Austin  Peay  University,  Clarksville,  Tennessee. 

13 


Troilus,  having  fallen  in  love  with  Criseyde,  seems  to  recognize 
here  his  destiny.  The  imagery  of  the  "heart"  as  a  ship  that  sails  on  a 
straight  course  to  death  clearly  points  forward  to  the  storm  imagery  of 
the  second  book  of  the  poem.  Preceeding  Troilus'  comment  by  some 
eleven  stanzas,  he  has  already  informed  us  of  his  desire  to  "ary  ved  in  the 
port/Of  death,  to  which  my  sorwe  wol  me  lede,"  since  "cold  in  love 
towardes  the/Thi  lady  [Criseyde]  is,  as  frost  in  wynter  moone,/And 
thow  fordon,  as  snow  in  fire  is  soone."  The  point,  of  course,  is  clear. 
As  William  George  Dodd  in  "The  System  of  Courtly  Lx)ve"  points  out 
"Love,  to  met  the  requirements  of  the  courtly  system,  must  not  be  too 
easily  obtained."  Though  we  understand  from  the  beginning  of  the 
poem  that  Troilus  will  be  successful  in  obtaining  Criseyde's  love,  Chaucer 
informs  us 

and  thus  Fortune  on  lofte 
And  under  eft.  gan  hem  to  whielen  bothe 
Aftir  hir  course,  ay  whil  that  the!  were  wrothe. 

In  a  very  specific  sense,  then,  with  respect  to  the  context  in  which 
"storm  imagery"  or  the  metaphor  of  the  ship  appears,  this  imagery  is 
linked  to  the  wheel  of  Fortune  in  terms  of  whether  she  "wears  a  smile" 
or  "now  a  frown."  The  secrecy  under  which  Troilus  must  labor  to  fulfill 
the  requirements  of  the  courtly  lover,  indeed,  if  he  is  to  love  at  all, 
weighs  heavy  on  him.  Pardarus  suggests  that 

Now  loke  that  atempre  be  thi  bridel. 
And  for  the  beste  ay  suffre  to  the  tyde,. . . 
and, 

And  sith  that  God  of  Love  hath  the  bistowed 

In  place  digne  unto  thi  worthinesse, 

Stond  faste,  for  to  good  port  hastow  rowed;. . . 

Pandarus'  advice  is  accepted  by  Troilus  who  lays  his  "lif,.  .  .[his] 
deth,  hoi  in  thyn  [Pandarus']  bond."  Though  Chaucer  does  not  provide 
us  with  a  great  number  of  references  or  allusions  to  the  imagery  of 
storms  or  the  sea  in  Book  I  (and  we  have  given  all  of  them)  it  is  not 
simply  a  matter  of  quantity  but  rather  the  way  in  which  the  few  he  does 
give  us  are  used.  In  terms  of  the  literal  narrative  these  references  or 
metaphors  are  simply  given  as  referents  for  expressing  concretely  an 
abstract  ideal  of  the  conventions  of  courtly  love,  etc.  Pandarus  or 
Troilus  are  unaware,  beyond  the  immediacy  of  their  context,  what  they 
suggest  in  terms  of  the  larger  structure  of  the  poem,  though  it  is  clear  to 
the  reader  that  these  images  presage  significant  events  in  the  poem. 
Consequently,  Book  I  establishes  the  "double  sorwe  of  Troilus  to  tellen," 
quickly  sets  the  controlling  structural  metaphor  of  the  poem  in  terms  of 
the  background  of  the  Trojan  war,  introduces  Calchas  the  astrologer 
and  augurer,  provides  the  opportunity  for  Troilus  to  fall  in  love,  and 
suggests  that  the  Fortune  and  Destiny  of  not  only  Troy  but  Troilus  are 
somehow  bound  up  with  the  movement  of  the  stars. 

14 


In  Book  II,  however,  these  various  themes  of  the  poem  accrete  in 
Chaucer's  "Introduction."  We  are  made  to  feel  that  the  predominance 
of  the  "storm  imagery"in  the  first  stanza  is  somehow  tied  into  or  Hnked 
with  the  internal  developments  that  are  taking  place  in  terms  of  the 
Hteral  narrative.  Further,  the  essential  requirement  of  courtly  love  has 
been  introduced  and  briefly  dwelt  upon,  that  is,  as  Dodd  suggests 
"Courtly  love  is  sensual."  Troilus  has  fallen  in  love  as  the  result  of  "a 
passion  arising  from  the  contemplation  of  beauty  in  the  opposite  sex. . . 
[which]  culminat(es)  in  the  gratification  of  physical  desires  thus  awakened." 
Troilus'  "gratification,"  of  course,  does  not  come  until  the  dawn-poem 
or  aube  in  Book  III.  Nevertheless,  the  seeds  of  Troilus'  predicament 
have  been  well  laid.  The  requirements  which  Troilus  finds  himself  labor- 
ing under  in  terms  of  courtly  love  are,  therefore,  I  would  suggest,  sym- 
bolized by  the  imagery  of  the  first  stanza  of  Book  II.  Chaucer  notes  that 

Owt  of  thise  blake  wawes  for  to  saylle, 
O  wynd,  o  wynd,  the  weder  gynneth  clere; 
For  in  this  see  the  boot  hath  swych  travaylle. 
Of  my  connyng,  that  unneth  I  it  steere. 
This  see  clepe  I  the  tempestous  matere 
Of  disespeir  that  Troilus  was  inne; 
But  now  of  hope  the  dalendes  bygynne. 

Though  this  passage,  in  the  immediacy  of  its  context,  refers  specifi- 
cally to  Chaucer's  poetic  problems— his  skill  as  poet  will  hardly  avail  to 
save  the  boat  that  he  sails  in  this  wild  sea,  nevertheless,  the  beginning  of 
the  first  day  of  the  month  (the  "kalendes")  will  bring  hope.  There  is, 
perhaps,  no  other  stanza  in  the  Troilus  which  is  so  forceful  in  the  use  of 
its  imagery.  The  stanza  clearly  suggests  a  double  function.  It  serves  as  a 
device  by  which  Chaucer's  problems  as  an  artist  are  given  expression 
through  the  use  of  a  series  or  cluster  of  images  based  on  "the  weder 
gynneth  clere"  (the  breaking  tempests  clear)  and,  at  the  same  time, 
suggests  that  Troilus  as  a  prisoner  bound  by  the  system  of  courtly  love 
will  find  relief  or  hope  for  the  sensual  consummation  of  his  love  with 
Criseyde.  Troilus'  constraint,  since  he  is  bound  to  maintain  secrecy  by 
his  code,  then,  we  are  suggesting,  is  symbolized  by  the  "weder,"  or,  more 
properly  as  we  have  referred  to  it  here,  by  "storm  imagery."  In  other 
words,  Troilus'  passions  rise  and  fall  in  the  poem  as  the  nature  of  the 
weather  changes.  Troilus'  "disespeir"  is  characterized  by  Chaucer  as 
being  a  troubled  sea  — black.  But,  as  the  "weder  gynneth  clere,"  so  too, 
Troilus'  "disespeir"  will  change.  In  order  for  this  change  to  take  place 
we  are  made  to  feel,  as  Curry  suggests,  that  "the  wandering  or  erratic 
stars,  especially  Venus  and  Luna,  [must]  exert  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  personal  fortunes  of  Troilus  and  Criseyde."  Curry  continues 
by  stating 

. .  .before  Pandarus  sets  out  to  woo  his  niece  for  Troilus,  he  deems 
it  necessary  to  set  up  a  figure  of  the  heavens  in  order  to  learn  whether 

15 


the  Moon  is  favorable  to  such  a  journey;  and  having  determined  that 
the  election  is  favorable,  he  proceeds  with  confidence  (II,  74  ff.). 

The  "weder,"  then,  simply  becomes  in  the  Troilus  an  aspect  of  the 
wheel  of  Fortune  as  it  is  witnessed  in  the  movement  of  the  celestial 
sphere.  When  the  "election  is  favorable,"  whether  it  be  with  respect  to 
the  "weder"  or  to  the  heavens,  conditions  become  opportune  for  change. 
This  change  in  the  "weder"  is  quickly  brought  about  by  Chaucer.  We 
are  told 

In  May,  that  moder  is  of  monthes  glade. 
That  fresshe  floures,  blew  and  white  and  rede, 
Ben  quike  agayn,  that  wynter  dede  made. 
And  ful  of  bawme  is  fletyng  every  mede; 
Whan  Phebus  doth  his  bryghte  bemes  sprede, 
Right  in  the  white  Bole,  it  so  bitidde. 
As  I  shal  synge,  on  Mayes  day  the  thrydde,. . . 

The  contrast  between  this  stanza  and  the  first  of  Book  II  is  startling. 
We  have  moved,  as  it  were,  from  "Owt  of  thise  blake  wawes"  to  "saylle" 
in  "May,  that  moder  is  of  monthes."  But  least  we  think  that  Troilus'  deep 
woe  has  vanished  we  are  quickly  told  that 

Now  myghte  som  envious  jangle  thus: 
"This  was  a  sodeyn  love;  how  myght  it  be 
That  she  so  lightly  loved  Troilus, 
Right  for  the  firste  syghte,  ye,  parde?" 
Now  whoso  seith  so,  mote  he  nevere  ythe! 
For  every  thyng,  a  gynnyng  hath  it  nede 
Er  al  be  wrought,  withowten  any  drede. 

However,  before  slight  beginnings  (Troilus'  love)  may  come  to  full 
completion  the  stars  must  be  favorable. 

And  also  blisful  Venus,  wel  arrayed. 
Sat  in  hire  seventhe  hous  of  hevene  tho. 
Disposed  wel,  and  with  aspects  payed, 
To  helpe  sely  Troilus  of  his  woo,.  . . 

Criseyde,  having  been  approached  by  her  uncle,  Pandarus,  of  the 
love  Troilus  bears  for  her,  begins  to  question  what  she  should  do, 
whether  or  not  she  shouldn't  have  some  fun,  and,  if  so,  if  she  is  able  to 
preserve  her  honor  and  her  name,  whether  or  not  there  is  any  harm  or 
blame  to  her  loving  Troilus.  It  is  at  this  point,  lines  764  through  770,  that 
Chaucer  interrupts  Criseyde's  questioning  and  suggests 

But  right  as  when  the  sonne  shyneth  brighte 
In  March,  that  chaungeth  ofte  tyme  his  face. 
And  that  a  cloude  is  put  with  wynd  to  flighte. 
Which  oversprat  the  sonne  as  for  a  space, 
A  cloudy  thought  gan  thorugh  hire  soule  pace. 
The  overspradde  hire  brighte  thoughtes  alle. 
So  that  for  ferre  almost  she  gan  to  falle. 

16 


As  Troilus'  passions  have  been  portrayed  in  terms  of  black  "weder," 
of  tempests  and  storms,  so  too,  Nature  is  changeable  for  Criseyde,  for 
"A  cloudy  thought"  began  to  "overspradde"  across  her  "soule"  or  heart. 
Criseyde  thinks  that 

"For  love  is  yet  the  mooste  stormy  lyf, 
Right  of  hymself,  that  evere  was  bigonne; 
For  evere  som  mystrust  or  nice  strif 
There  is  in  love,  som  cloude  is  over  that  sonne. 
Therto  we  wrecched  wommen  nothing  konne. 
Whan  us  is  wo,  but  wepe  and  sitte  and  thinke; 
Oure  wrecche  is  this,  oure  owen  wo  to  drynke. 

However,  it  is  not  until  Book  III  that  Troilus  and  Criseyde  are  able 
to  consummate  their  love.  Essentially,  then.  Book's  I  and  II  establish  the 
tenets  of  courtly  love  in  terms  of  each  lover's  passions  with  respect  to 
"storm  imagery,"  Nature,  or,  more  broadly  speaking,  the  wheel  of  Fortune 
as  it  is  evidenced  in  the  heavens. 

In  Book  III,  however,  Troilus  and  Criseyde's  consummation  of 
their  love  is,  in  part,  brought  about  by  the  machinations  of  Pandarus. 
Yet  it  is  not  entirely  due  to  Pardarus'  "scheming"  that  the  lovers  are  able 
finally  to  meet.  In  part,  their  union  is  brought  about  by  Fortune  and 
Destiny.  We  are  told  at  the  beginning  of  Book  III  that 

O  blisful  Hght,  of  which  the  hemes  clere 
Adorneth  al  the  thridde  heven  faire! 
O  sonnes  lief,  O  Joves  doughter  deere, 
Plesance  of  love,  O  goodly  debonaire, 
In  gentil  hertes  ay  redy  to  repaire! 
O  veray  cause  of  heele  and  of  gladnesse, 
Iheryed  be  thy  myght  and  thi  goodnesse! 

As  Professor  Root  is  quoted  as  having  written  in  Curry's  essay 

For  any  question  concerning  love,  the  astrologer  inquires  what 
planets  are  at  the  moment  in  the  seventh  house,  which  'gives  judgment 
of  marriage  and  all  manner  of  love-questions."  A  malefic  planet- 
Saturn  or  Mars— in  the  seventh  house  causes  ill  fortune  inlove.  But 
Venus  is  a  benefic  planet,  and  especially  concerned  with  affairs  of 
love.  Venus  in  the  seventh  house  marks  a  very  propitious  hour. 

The  point,  then,  in  the  preceeding  stanza  is  that,  as  we  find  out 
specifically  in  the  seventh  stanza  of  Book  Ill's  "Incipit  prohenium  tercii 
libri,"  Venus  is  the  "blisful  light,  of  which  the  hemes  clere."  The  wheel  of 
Fortune,  the  workings  of  Destiny,  the  heavens,  all  are  propitious  for  the 
consummation  to  be  conjoined.  The  actual  setting  for  the  union  of 
Troilus  and  Criseyde  is  framed  by  the  "rains  of  heaven." 

The  bente  moone  with  hire  homes  pale, 
Saturne,  and  Jove,  in  Cancro  joyned  were. 
That  swych  a  reyn  from  heven  gan  avale. 
That  every  maner  womman  that  was  there 

17 


Hadde  of  that  smoky  reyn  a  verray  feere; 

At  which  Pandare  the  lough,  and  syde  thenne, 

"Now  there  is  tyme  a  lady  to  gon  henne!. . . 

Or,  as  Pandarus  himself  informs  us  "Heren  noyse  of  reynes  nor  of 
thonder?/By  God,  right  in  my  litel  closet  yonder."  Chaucer,  two  stanzas 
later,  further  comments  "And  evere  mo  so  sterneliche  it  ron,/And  blew 
therwith  so  wondirliche  loude,. . ."  Troilus'  entrance  into  Criseyde's 
chamber  is  "covered"  by  "The  sterne  wynd  so  loude  gan  to  route/That 
no  wight  oother  noise  myghte  here."  The  "storm"  with  its  wind  and  rain 
clearly  prefigures,  then,  the  final  consummation  of  Troilus'  passion.  The 
dawn-poem  or  aube,  then,  is  carefully  presaged  by  the  imagery  of 
storms.  Following  the  aube,  Troilus  in  his  song  tells  us 

"That  that  the  se,  that  gredy  is  to  flowen, 
Constreyneth  to  a  certeyn  ende  so 
His  flodes  that  so  fiersly  they  ne  growen 
To  drenchen  erthe  and  al  for  evere  mo; 
And  if  that  Love  aught  lete  his  bridel  go, 
Al  that  now  loveth  asondre  sholde  lepe, 
And  lost  were  al  that  Love  halt  now  to-hepe. 

The  principle  which  is  proposed  here  is  that  love  is  destined.  It  is 
simply  a  matter  of  the  nature  of  things.  Man  is  destined  to  love.  This  we 
find  out  early  in  Book  I  (I,  214-266)  when  Chaucer  philosophizes  on  the 
power  of  Love.  Yet  in  terms  of  the  "storm  imagery"  of  the  poem,  this 
stanza  marks  the  specific  completionof  the  use  of  that  imagery  to 
presage  a  specific  type  of  victory  — Troilus'  attainment  of  the  sensual 
love  object,  Criseyde.  Chaucer,  immediately  following  this  stanza,  returns 
us  to  the  larger  background  of  the  seige  of  Troy  with  its  ominous  fore- 
bodings of  more  tragic  times  to  come  — the  fall  of  Troy,  Troilus'  betrayal 
by  Criseyde,  and  the  triumph  of  Chaucer's  poem  in  showing  us  that  the 
greatest  victory  does  not  lie  in  courtly  love  but  rather  in  the  love  of 
Christ. 


18 


SEX  AS  A  VARIABLE 
IN  ATTITUDE  CHANGE 

by  JEFFREY  MUTNICK* 

Society  imposes  roles  which  have  been  handed  down,  mother  to 
daughter;  father  to  son,  which  often  reflect  the  economic  realities  of  the 
times.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  when  women  had  ten  children  of  which  three 
survived,  women  were  encouraged  to  marry  early,  stay  at  home,  and 
bear  children.  Today,  when  both  parents  are  needed  to  support  any 
family  unit,  the  stigma  of  a  working  mother  slowly  disappears. 

The  mass  media,  and  in  particular  advertising,  is  one  of  the  main 
ingredients  in  determining  how  men  and  women  react  the  way  they  do. 
The  various  forms  of  the  media  prey  upon  men's  and  women's  basic 
emotional  needs;  the  desire  for  affection,  the  desire  for  emotional 
security,  and  the  desire  for  personal  significance. 

Our  sexual  attitudes  are  learned  through  parental  relationships, 
peer  group  pressures,  and  educators.  Individuals  tend  to  mass  their 
behaviors  through  their  lives  into  certain  patterns  which  are  character- 
istic of  their  beliefs,  attitudes,  and  opinions,  as  well  as  other  personality 
characteristics  in  order  to  conform  to  those  people  who  have  a  direct 
influence  on  their  lives. 

The  issue  of  whether  men  or  women  are  more  adept  and  and/or 
susceptible  to  persuasive  appeals  has  long  been  a  subject  of  speculation 
and,  more  recently,  scholarly  research.  The  multitude  of  variables  in- 
volved in  any  persuasive  situation  makes  definitive  conclusions  difficult, 
but  the  issue  is  provocative  enough  to  warrant  our  continuing  search 
for  some  answers. 

When  an  individual  is  stimulated  sexually,  a  promise  is  implied  that 
should  the  individual  change  his  opinion  or  act  in  a  certain  way  any 
tension  that  may  have  been  built  up  will  be  released  through  some  pro- 
visional form  of  sexual  satisfaction.  In  other  words,  human  attentionis 
quickly  diverted  from  almost  any  other  focus  of  interest  to  a  sexual 
attraction.  Eye  contact  plays  an  important  role  in  this  sexual  stimulation 
as  was  evidenced  through  a  study  conducted  by  Franklyn  S.  Haiman' 
where  he  proved  that  when  a  man  and  a  woman  are  both  persuaders  and 
have  established  high  ethos  (good  credibility),  the  woman,  based  on 
physical  attractiveness,  will  effect  a  greater  shift  of  attitude  change  than 
the  man. 

If  one  wishes  to  take  a  biblical  slant  to  the  power  of  sexual  persua- 
sion, all  he  need  do  is  look  to  Adam  and  Eve  and  that  glorious  piece  of 

*Assistant  Professor  of  Speech,  West  Georgia  College. 

'  Franklyn  S.  Haiman,  "An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Ethos  in  Public 

Speaking",  Speech  Monographs,  XVI  (1949),  pp.  190-202. 

19 


forbidden  fruit  and  wonder  'who  did  what  and  to  whom?'  But  the 
question  remains:  Who  is  more  persuadable?  Is  it  the  man  or  the 
woman?  Factors  which  relate  to  an  individual's  answer  include  his 
marital  status,  his  pride,  and  his  prowess  with  the  opposite  sex. 

After  all,  in  our  culture,  isn't  man  the  seducer,  and  the  woman  the 
one  being  seduced?  Scheidel,^  Whittaker,^  Paulson,^  Furbay,^  Sikkink,* 
and  Garment,  et.  alP  found  that  women  are  more  persuadible  than  men. 
When  we  speak  of  women  being  more  persuadible,  we  are  referring  to 
the  average  woman.  This  does  not  mean  that  men  cannot  be  persuaded 
for  in  the  Haiman*  study,  men  preferred  women  speakers  to  men 
speakers,  based  on  physical  attractiveness,  but  each  equally  competent 
speaker  yielded  the  same  amount  of  attitude  change. 

Yet  our  culture  has  dictated  that  in  the  world  of  business,  the  man  is 
the  superior  specie,  for  it  is  he  who  does  the  greater  amount  of  selling, 
not  the  woman.  Whittaker'  demonstrated  this  principle  when  he  tested 
judgments  made  by  both  sexes.  In  the  experiment,  each  subject  made  a 
series  of  twenty  judgments.  The  subjects  returned  twenty-four  hours 
later  to  be  retested  along  with  a  second  subject.  The  second  session  was 
divided  into  four  groups  each  headed  by  a  control  confederate:  M-M, 
M-F,  F-F,  F-M.  Data  revealed  that  males  had  a  greater  persuasive  effect 
than  females  in  persuading  the  original  subjects  to  change  their  original 
judgments. 

But  our  society  has  trapped  men.  The  need  to  succeed  or  to  prove 
one's  worthiness  has  become  the  male's  aim  in  life.  Carmichael'"  studied 
groups  of  men  and  women  and  discovered  that  when  either  sex  was 
threatened  with  the  failure  to  succeed,  it  was  the  man  who  became  more 
frustrated  than  the  woman.  After  all,  the  woman  can  always  find  a  hus- 

^  Thomas  M.  Scheidel,  "Sex  and  Persuasibility".  Speech  Monographs,  XXX 
(1963),  pp.  353-358. 

^  James  O.  Whittaker,  "Sex  Differences  and  Susceptibility  to  Interpersonal 
Persuasion",  Journal  of  Social  Psychology.  LXVI  (1965),  pp.  91-94. 

*  Stanley  F.  Paulson,  "The  Effects  of  the  Prestige  of  the  Speaker  and  Acknowl- 
edgement of  Opposing  Arguments  on  Audience  Retention  and  Shift  of  Opinion", 
Speech  Monographs,  XXI  (1954),  pp.  267-271. 

*  Albert  L.  Furbay,  "The  Influence  of  Scattered  Versus  Compact  Seating  in 
Audience  Response",  Speech  Monographs.  XXXII  (1965),  pp.  144-148. 

*  Donald  E.  Sikkink,  "An  Experimental  Study  of  the  Effects  of  the  Listener  of 
Anticlimax  Order  and  Authority  in  an  Argumentative  Speech",  Southern  Speech 
Journal,  XXII  (1956),  pp.  73-78. 

'  D.  W.  Garment,  F.S.  Schwartz  and  C.  G.  Miles,  "Participation  and  Attitude 
Ghange  as  Related  to  Cohesiveness  and  Sex  to  Subjects  in  Two-Person  Groups", 
Psychological  Reports.  XIV  (1964),  pp.  694-702. 

*  Haiman,  ibid. 

'  Whittaker,  ibid. 

'"  Garl  W.  Garmichael,  "Frustration,  Sex  and  Persuasibility",  Western  Speech. 

XXXIV  (1970),  pp.  300-307. 

20 


band  to  take  care  of  her.  She  can  always  lean  on  the  man,  but  the  man 
must  be  able  to  provide  for  that  woman  and  it  is  that  situation  which 
causes  the  frustration. 

One's  parents,  peer  group,  and/or  television,  for  that  matter,  instill 
upon  children  that  there  are  various  roles  in  life  that  they  must  pursue 
and  achieve.  To  some  extent,  women  are  resigned  to  the  role  of  home- 
maker  (although  that  role  is  slowly  changing)  and  the  men  must  go  out 
and  earn  a  living.  The  man  is  considered  the  more  dominant,  and  there- 
fore, the  woman  should  'never'  attempt  to  do  what  a  man  does,  for  she 
can  never  do  his  job  as  well  as  he.  Miller  and  McReynolds"  studied  the 
persuasive  effects  between  a  male  speaker  and  a  female  speaker  after 
having  established  their  credibility  as  both  speakers  holding  a  Ph.D.  in 
nuclear  physics.  In  this  study,  the  male  speaker  was  rated  as  the  more 
competent  of  the  two  speakers.  Unfortunately,  the  topic  under  discus- 
sion was  that  of  an  expanded  ABM  missile  system  (a  field  where  many 
knowledgeable  women  just  do  not  exist),  and  one  wonders  what  the 
results  might  have  been  if  the  discussion  had  centered  around  dietetics 
or  child  psychology. 

Haiman'^  and  Paulson''  approached  this  subject  from  different 
perspectives  and  questioned  whether  both  sexes  with  high  established 
ethos  would  be  more  persuadible  than  both  sexes  with  low  established 
ethos.  The  experiment  revealed  that  this  was  the  case,  and  therefore 
might  be  interpreted  that  if  two  high  ethos  sources  are  opposing  each 
other  (one  male  and  one  female);  the  male  will  be  more  persuasive  (have 
a  greater  persuasive  effect),  but  if  both  high  ethos  sources  are  opposing 
low  ethos  sources,  both  male  and  female  high  ethos  sources  will  be 
more  persuasive. 

Many  individuals  have  either  used  or  thought  of  using  the  expression 
'she's  a  typical  dumb  broad'  at  one  time  or  another.  Television  reinforces 
this  belief  through  the  character  portrayed  by  Lucille  Ball.  According  to 
'Lucy,'  being  a  scatterbrain  is  normal.  One  laughs  at  Lucy's  not  realizing 
that  she  is  reinforcing  the  stereotype  that  women  are  less  intelligent  than 
men.  Paulson, ''•  Sikkink,'*  and  Scheidel'*  discovered  that  in  communi- 
cation situations,  women  retained  less  content  than  did  men;  therefore, 
can  one  assume  that  the  average  female  scatterbrain  cannot  remember 
things? 

Another  stereotype  that  has  fostered  itself  upon  society  is  that  of 
the  'talkative  woman.'  Whenever  we  refer  to  conversation,  we  think  of 


"  Gerald  R.  Miller  and  Michael  McReynolds,  "Male  Chauvinism  and  Source 

Competence",  Speech  Monographs,  XL  (1973).  pp.  154-156. 

'^  Haiman,  ibid. 

'■'  Paulson,  ibid. 

'"  Paulson,  ibid. 

'5  Sikkink,  ibid. 

'*  Scheidel,  ibid. 

21 


a  woman  spending  long  hours  on  the  telephone;  over  at  a  neighbor's 
spending  the  entire  morning  gossiping  about  Miss  X  and  her  affair  with 
Mr.  Y  across  the  street.  Yet,  when  we  think  in  terms  of  male  talkativeness, 
we  picture  a  man  being  quite  curt  on  the  telephone,  rarely  gossiping 
with  his  male  friends,  and,  in  short,  most  closed-mouthed.  Garment,  et. 
al}"^  discovered  that  this  situation  is  not  true.  When  presented  with  a 
situation  wherein  men  felt  a  need  to  form  a  basis  for  communication 
with  another  human  being,  the  men  will  always  take  the  initiative  and 
try  to  establish  a  common  ground  or  basis  for  their  being  together. 

Let  us  now  extract  the  various  conclusions  from  this  discussion  and 
see  where  we  stand:  1)  men  prefer  women  speakers  to  men  speakers; 
2)  women  are  more  persuadible  than  men;  3)  men  are  better  persuaders 
than  women;  4)  men  are  more  easily  frustrated  than  women;  5)  men 
speakers  are  rated  as  more  competent  than  women  speakers;  6)  high 
ethos  male  and  female  speakers  are  more  persuasive  than  low  ethos 
male  and  female  speakers;  7)  a  high  ethos  male  speaker  will  obtain  a 
greater  shift  of  opinion  than  low  ethos  female  and  male  speakers;  8) 
women  retained  less  content  than  did  men;  and  9)  men  speak  more 
than  women. 

Some  general  assumptions  can  be  charted  from  these  various  con- 
clusions regarding  speakers  and  listeners  in  a  persuasive  situation: 

MALE  SPEAKER 

(with  high  ethos) 

is  considered  to  be  a  hard  sell  (will  to  succeed) 

will  effect  greater  change  over  low  M/F  speaker 

will  persuade  more  women  than  men 

is  considered  more  competent 

will  speak  longer 

FEMALE  SPEAKER 

(with  high  ethos) 

is  preferred  by  male  listeners 

will  need  to  exert  her  competency 

will  effect  greater  change  over  low  M/F  speaker 

MALE  LISTENER 

will  consider  a  male  a  more  competent  speaker  than  a  female 

will  be  persuaded  more  by  a  high  ethos  M/F  speaker 

is  more  easily  frustrated  than  a  female  listener 

will  retain  more  speech  content  than  a  female 

not  as  easily  persuaded  as  a  female  listener 

prefers  female  speakers,  but  will  probably 

be  persuaded  by  a  male  speaker 


'^  Garment,  Schwartz,  and  Miles,  ibid. 


22 


FEMALE  LISTENER 

is  more  persuadible  than  a  male  listener 

prefers  a  male  speaker  over  a  female  speaker 

is  not  as  easily  frustrated  as  a  male  listener 

will  retain  less  of  the  speech  content  than  males 

will  be  persuaded  more  by  a  high  ethos  M/F  speaker 

will  consider  a  male  a  more  competent  speaker  than  a  female 

Karlins  and  Abelson'*  remark  that  most  experimental  studies  sup- 
porting sex  differences  in  persuasion  deal  with  topics  of  minor  relevance 
and  are  usually  in  controlled  laboratory  situations,  and  that  in  the  'real 
world'  a  woman  may  not  be  as  easily  persuaded  as  she  was  in  the  psycho- 
logical experiment.  After  all,  could  the  same  fellow  who  persuaded  her 
to  change  her  opinion  regarding  the  distance  between  two  light  bulbs 
also  persuade  her  with  as  much  ease  to  go  to  bed  with  him?  Probably  not! 

'*  Marvin  Karlins  and  Herbert  I.  Abelson,  Persuasion.   New  York:  Springer 
Publishing  Co.,  1970,  p.  91. 


23 


ABSTRACTS  OF  MASTER'S  THESES 

AND 

SPECIALIST  IN  EDUCATION  PROJECTS 


Baker.  Richard  R,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
December,  1977) 

A  STAFF  DEVELOPMENT  PROGRAM  ON  TORT  LIABILITY 
FOR  THE  CLASSROOM  TEACHERS  AT  MARIETTA  JR.  HIGH 

It  was  thought  important  to  present  a  staff  development  program  on  tort 
liability  for  the  classroom  teachers  at  Marietta  Jr.  High.  Since  litigation  in  the 
areas  of  corporal  punishment  and  supervision  were  the  critical  areas  for  class- 
room teachers,  the  program  was  limited  to  those  two  subjects. 

The  staff  development  program  was  devised  for  presentation  during  a  one 
day  session.  The  program  was  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  part  included 
a  general  introduction  to  tort  law  as  it  pertained  to  corporal  punishment  and 
supervision.  The  second  segment  of  the  program  was  used  to  acquaint  the 
teachers  with  basic  legal  vocabulary  and  the  specific  laws  relating  to  corporal 
punishment  and  supervision.  The  final  portion  of  the  program  was  spent  in 
reviewing  and  critiquing  recent  cases  involving  both  corporal  punsihment  and 
supervision. 


Barron.  Miller  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
December,  1977) 

A  GENERAL  ORIENTATION  PROGRAM  FOR  FIRST-YEAR 

SECONDARY  TEACHERS  EMPLOYED  BY  THE  COBB  COUNTY 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

The  purpose  of  this  project  was  to  design  an  orientation  program  of  a  gen- 
eralized nature  for  first-year  teachers  employed  in  the  secondary  schools  of  the 
Cobb  County  Public  School  System.  It  was  assumed  such  an  orientation  would 
prove  beneficial  to  the  total  school  system  in  general  and  to  the  first-year 
teachers  in  particular.  It  was  further  assumed  that  appropriate  orientation  of  the 
first-year  teacher  was  both  an  essential  and  indispensable  aspect  for  the  success- 
ful operation  and  function  of  the  Cobb  County  Public  School  System.  Topics 
covered  included  the  areas  of  administration,  personnel,  pupil  personnel  ser- 
vices, and  instruction.  Although  this  program  dealt  specifically  with  the  first- 
year  teachers;  i.e.,  those  teachers  who  had  no  contractual  teaching  experience, 
it  may  be  adapted  and  modified  to  include  experienced  teachers  who  become 
employees  of  the  Cobb  County  Public  School  System. 


24 


Baxter,  Michael  A.,  (MA,  English,  December,  1977) 

THE  SOCIAL  COMMENTARY  IN  SINCLAIR  LEWIS'S  SHORT  STORIES 

The  short  stories  of  Sinclair  Lewis  cover  a  wide  range  of  subject  matter  and 
form  a  social  commentary  on  American  society  in  the  first  half  of  the  twentieth 
century.  Although  Lewis's  novels  also  form  such  a  commentary,  the  stories  have 
a  special  significance  because  they  often  display  more  views  of  a  specific  topic 
than  do  the  novels.  This  thesis  is  an  attempt  to  demonstrate  that  through  his 
stories  Lewis  has  left  a  record  of  the  diversity  of  the  daily  lives  of  his  contempo- 
raries which  can  be  of  great  value  to  anyone  studying  that  period. 

For  example,  love  and  marital  relationships  are  themes  presented  in  many  of 
the  stories.  But  rather  than  producing  a  stereotype  of  the  relationships  between 
men  and  women  during  courtship  and  marriage,  Lewis  shows  characters  involved 
in  stagnant,  deteriorated,  mature,  and  supportive  relationships  and  in  other 
relationships  which  do  not  fit  these  categories.  Overall,  Lewis  displays  a  wide 
range  of  types  of  relationships  between  lovers  and  between  spouses. 

Lewis  presents  a  similar  assortment  of  views  of  business,  intellectualism, 
and  middle-class  styles  of  life.  The  businessmen  in  the  stories  range  from  young 
salesmen  to  tycoons,  from  lawyers  to  embezzlers,  and  from  fake  religious 
prophets  to  ethical  shopkeepers.  Some  housewives,  priests,  businessmen,  and 
farmers  exhibit  a  concern  with.intellectual  matters,  but  others  are  contemptuous 
of  learning  and  culture.  Yet  whatever  subject  is  the  primary  concern  of  an  indi- 
vidual story,  scattered  throughout  that  work  will  be  bits  of  information  describing 
the  daily  lives  of  Americans.  There  is  information  about  such  diverse  subjects  as 
social  clubs  and  intellectual  groups,  about  business  practices,  about  home  life, 
and  about  fads.  Lewis's  short  stories  contain  much  valuable  information  about 
the  contemporary  times  of  which  he  wrote. 

Blackwell  Joe.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision,  August, 

1977) 

GOAL  PRIORITIES  AND  ASSESSMENT  BY  DEPARTMENTS 
AT  ETOWAH  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Seven  departments  and  a  minimum  of  twenty-five  percent  of  the  students 
enrolled  in  each  department  participated  in  this  study  to  ascertain  priorities  and 
to  assess  the  extent  to  which  goals  were  being  attained.  The  teachers  in  each 
department  ranked  departmental  goals  and  evaluated  the  efforts  given  toward 
their  attainment  using  instruments  patterned  after  those  developed  by  Phi  Delta 
Kappa's  Commission  on  Educational  Planning.  Then  students  in  classes  selected 
at  random  evaluated  efforts  given  toward  the  attainment  of  goals. 

The  data  from  students  and  teachers  were  treated  separately.  A  mean  and 
standard  deviation  for  each  departmental  goal  was  determined  using  teacher 
evaluations  and  then  a  mean  score  and  standard  deviation  was  determined  using 
student  evaluations. 

An  analysis  of  the  data  collected  in  this  study  showed  that  some  depart- 
ments at  Etowah  (Trades  and  Industry,  Business,  and  Physical  Education)  were 
perceived  as  doing  a  better  job  of  attaining  goals,  by  both  teachers  and  students, 

25 


than  other  departments.  All  departments  were  perceived  as  having  room  for 
improvement  in  attaining  one  or  more  goals.  These  and  other  findings  will  be 
used  in  an  effort  to  upgrade  the  quality  of  education  at  Etowah  High  School. 

Brooke.  Vida  //.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  March, 

1978) 

THE  EFFECT  OF  ACTIVITY  GROUP  COUNSELING 
ON  SIXTH  GRADE  STUDENTS'  SELF-CONCEPT 

An  activity  group  counseling  project  was  carried  out  at  Garrett  Middle 
School,  located  in  Austell,  Georgia.  Eight  girls  were  randomly  selected  from  a 
total  of  thirty-one  in  one  sixth  grade  pod.  The  group  met  for  nineteen,  thirty 
minute  sessions.  The  Piers-Harris  Children's  Self-Concept  Scale  was  adminis- 
tered as  a  pretest  and  a  posttest  and  compared  to  measure  the  effectiveness  of 
the  activity  group  on  the  students'  self-concept.  There  was  no  significant  differ- 
ence in  the  scores. 

Brown.  Joan  J..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision,  De- 
cember, 1977) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  FULTON  COUNTY  ATTENDANCE 

POLICY  AND  ITS  EFFECT  ON  SECONDARY 

SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  IN  THE  SYSTEM 

Fulton  County  Board  of  Education  approved  an  attendance  policy  in  1974- 
75  to  limit  absences  of  high  school  students  and  thus  improve  average  daily 
attendance  (ADA),  a  basis  of  state  funding  to  the  system.  Anticipated  results 
were  added  revenues  and  reemphasis  of  the  importance  of  classroom  partici- 
pation. Informational  preparation  combined  with  adequate  implementation 
planning  and  deliberate  follow  through  enabled  the  high  schools  to  handle  in- 
creased paper  work  and  record  keeping.  Historical  data  of  attendance  records 
and  reports  were  studied  and  comparisons  made  of  results  prior  to  and  since 
implementation  of  the  policy.  Results  indicated  that  student  attendance  in  the 
system  improved  most  sharply  in  the  first  year  of  the  policy  and  increased  each 
year  since  1973-74.  Added  funding  resulted  from  increased  ADA;  students  who 
violated  regulations  of  the  policy  lost  credit,  ranging  from  five  to  thirty  hours; 
and  fewer  dropouts  were  reported  each  year. 

Chappell.  Mvline  W..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education,  August, 

1977) 

THE  USE  OF  THE  CLOZE  PROCEDURE  WITH  SIXTH  GRADE 

STUDENTS  TO  EVALUATE  THE  APPLICABILITY  OF 

FOUR  READABILITY  FORMULAS  TO  THE  GEORGIA 

CHILDREN'S  BOOK  AWARD  WINNERS 

A  study  was  conducted  to  determine  the  relationship  between  cloze  test 
scores  and  the  degree  to  which  students'  reading  levels  match  the  readability 

26 


level  of  books,  as  reflected  by  each  of  the  four  selected  readability  formulas. 
The  following  formulas  were  applied  to  passages  in  books  which  have  won  the 
Georgia  Children's  Book  Award:  the  Dale-Chall  formula,  the  Fry  readability 
graph  formula,  the  Raygor  readability  estimate  formula,  and  the  SMOG  grading 
formula.  Reading  grade  levels  were  determined  by  the  students'  levels  in  the 
Scott  Foresman  Reading  Systems. 

The  subjects  of  this  study  were  sixth  grade  students.  A  stratified  random 
selection  process  was  used  to  select  thirty  subjects  for  each  book.  Students  were 
given  cloze  tests  on  each  of  the  eight  selected  books  which  they  had  never  read 
or  had  never  heard  read  aloud. 

The  correlation  between  the  cloze  test  scores  and  the  formula  grade  level 
estimates  in  relation  to  the  students'  reading  grade  levels  was  accomplished  by 
use  of  the  Pearson  product-moment  correlation.  The  null  hypotheses  were 
rejected  at  the  .01  level  of  significance. 

Although  all  four  formulas  show  a  significant  correlation  with  cloze  test 
scores  in  relation  to  the  students'  reading  grade  levels,  both  the  Fry  and  Raygor 
formulas  correlate  significantly  higher  than  the  Dale-Chall  and  SMOG  formulas. 

Collins,  Jackie  R..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
August,  1977) 

A  CASE  STUDY  OF  COMMUNICATIONS  FLOW  AND  THE 
MANAGEMENT  IMPLICATIONS-ARMUCHEE  SCHOOL 

A  questionnaire  was  adapted  from  one  previously  established  by  Karlene 
H.  Roberts  and  Charles  A.  O'Reilly  III  (1974).  The  questionnaire  was  designed 
to  assess  openness,  accuracy,  direction,  and  satisfaction  with  the  communica- 
tions in  a  school  setting. 

The  problem  of  the  study  was  to  identify,  measure,  and  analyze  the  com- 
munication flow  within  Armuchee  School,  and  to  design  or  recommend  tactics 
to  help  facilitate  communication. 

The  reliability  of  the  various  test  questions  was  established  by  Roberts  and 
O'Reilly,  and  there  was  apparent  face  validity  during  the  development  of  the 
questionnaire. 

The  mean  scores  of  respondents  with  subordinates  and  those  without  sub- 
ordinates were  compared  and  a  pattern  seemingly  developed  concerning  the 
variations  of  responses  on  several  questions  contained  in  the  questionnaire. 
Recommendations  and  further  study  were  included. 

Cowan,  Deborah  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education,  Decem- 
ber, 1977) 

AN  EXPERIMENTAL  METHOD  OF  TEACHING  READING 

TO  TITLE  I  STUDENTS  WHICH  EMPHASIZES  THE 

ENHANCEMENT  OF  THE  SELF-CONCEPT  BY  MEANS 

OF  A  SYSTEMATIC  APPROACH 

This  study  was  undertaken  to  determine  if  students  enrolled  in  a  Title  I 
remedial  reading  program  who  were  taught  reading  by  an  experimental  method 

27 


which  emphasized  the  enhancement  of  the  self-concept  could  significantly 
improve  their  reading  skills.  The  problem  of  this  study  was  to  determine:  (1)  if 
self-concept  could  be  significantly  improved,  (2)  if  reading  gains  could  be  sig- 
nificantly improved,  (3)  if  there  was  a  positive  correlation  between  changes  in 
self-concept  and  reading  gains,  and  (4)  if  there  was  a  positive  correlation 
between  one's  self-concept  and  his  reading  gain.  Thirty-one  subjects  from 
Model  Elementary  School  in  the  Floyd  County  School  System  participated. 
There  were  thirteen  girls  and  eighteen  boys,  all  of  whom  were  Caucasian. 

The  Piers-Harris  Children's  Self-Concept  Scale  was  administered  to  the 
subjects  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  1976-1977  school  term  in  order  to 
measure  changes  in  self-concept.  The  total  reading  score  of  the  Comprehensive 
Tests  of  Basic  Skills  was  used  to  determine  each  year's  growth  of  the  subjects 
from  the  beginning  of  their  school  career  until  the  end  of  the  1976-1977  school 
term.  The  teaching  technique  used  in  this  study  was  based  on  the  ideas  of 
Purkey  (1970)  in  his  book  Self-Concept  and  School  Achievement.  These  six 
factors  served  as  guidelines  for  developing  the  kinds  of  activities  necessary  for 
improving  the  self-concept:  (1)  Challenge,  (2)  Freedom,  (3)  Respect,  (4)  Warmth, 
(5)  Control,  and  (6)  Success.  Examples  of  activities  included:  (1)  birthday 
cakes,  (2)  activities  with  video  taping,  and  (3)  learning  activities  at  a  level  which 
guaranteed  success. 

The  results  of  this  study,  tested  at  the  .10  level  of  significance,  were  as 
follows:  (1)  the  total  self-concepts  of  the  subjects  were  significantly  improved, 
(2)  reading  gains  improved  with  significance  at  the  .001  level,  (3)  there  was  a 
significant  positive  correlation  between  changes  in  self-concept  and  reading 
gains,  and  (4)  there  was  a  positive  correlation  between  self-concept,  post  test 
results,  and  1977  reading  gains,  but  the  correlation  was  not  significant.  These 
findings  indicate  that  a  teaching  technique  designed  to  improve  the  self-concept 
will  also  significantly  improve  reading  gain. 

Daniel,   Wanda  /?.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Business  Education,  December, 

1977) 

THE  PREPARATION  AND  EVALUATION  OF  ECONOMICS 
MATERIALS  FOR  TEACHING  THE  MARKET  SYSTEM 

The  Problem 
The  problem  of  this  study  was  threefold:  To  identify  specific  economic  and 
business  terms  which  serve  as  background  information  for  all  economic  study; 
to  prepare  materials  which  are  simple  and  interesting  enough  for  the  majority  of 
students  to  understand  and  hopefully  enjoy;  and  to  evaluate  the  usefulness  of 
the  materials  prepared. 

Procedures 
Preliminary  steps  in  the  preparation  of  the  study  were:  (a)  to  determine  the 
economic  concepts  which  should  be  emphasized,  (b)  to  determine  the  objectives 
of  each  project,  (c)  to  determine  the  means  by  which  concepts  can  be  taught, 
for  example,  skits,  graphics,  and  poems,  (d)  to  produce  the  graphics,  recordings, 
and  skits,  which  relate  to  the  objectives  of  the  study,  (e)  to  select  a  panel  of 
experts  to  evaluate  the  materials,  (f)  to  produce  an  evaluation  instrument  and 
to  tally  the  scores  of  the  panel. 

28 


The  market  system  was  selected  as  the  area  to  be  emphasized  in  the  study 
because  it  is  a  concept  which  includes  terminology  and  theory  basic  to  all  other 
economic  understanding.  The  skits,  drawings,  and  recordings  were  prepared  to 
capture  student  attention  and  to  make  learning  more  enjoyable.  A  panel  of 
thirteen  selected  business  and  economic  educators  were  chosen  to  evaluate  the 
effectiveness  of  the  teaching  materials.  The  panel  rated  the  material  in  four 
areas:  Usefulness,  clarity,  creativity,  and  accuracy  of  information. 

Conclusions 
The  following  conclusions  were  drawn  as  the  result  of  the  study: 

1.  Economic  concepts  can  to  varying  degrees  be  integrated  into  all  business 
and  office  education  courses. 

2.  Students  appear  to  enjoy  learning  more  when  they  have  a  part  in  the 
preparation  of  their  learning  materials. 

3.  Activities  ranked  highest  by  the  panel  of  experts  were  the  shortest,  had 
the  fewest  economic  or  business  concepts  embodied  in  their  content,  and  in- 
cluded the  most  visual  and  audio  assistance  in  their  presentations. 

Davis.  Jimmy  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Secondary  Education,  December, 

1977) 

AN  OUTLINE  FOR  THE  THREE  REQUIRED  COURSES  IN 

SEVENTH  GRADE  SOCIAL  STUDIES  FOR  THE  ROME  CITY 

HIGH  SCHOOLS 

The  purpose  of  this  project  was  to  provide  a  resource  guide  for  junior  high 
school  teachers  in  the  Rome  City  System  to  use  in  teaching  the  three  required 
courses  in  seventh  grade  social  studies— Physical  Geography,  World  Culture, 
and  Civics. 

Following  a  research  of  the  literature  dealing  with  social  studies  curriculum 
planning  and  implementation  on  the  junior  high  level,  course  content  for  the 
three  required  courses  in  seventh  grade  social  studies  was  researched  and 
developed. 

Preceding  the  content  section  of  each  course  was  a  philosophy  and  a  list  of 
primary  objectives.  Following  the  content  section  were  suggested  activities, 
suggested  materials  and  resources,  and  a  bibliography  for  the  teacher. 

Data  was  gathered  from  selected  persons  with  some  expertise  in  social 
studies  on  their  level  of  agreement  or  disagreement  with  the  guide. 

Conclusions  reached  as  a  result  of  this  study  indicated:  (1)  that  the  guide 
be  adopted  for  use  in  the  Rome  City  School  System,  (2)  that  an  effort  be  made 
to  provide  curriculum  guides  to  teachers  in  all  subjects,  and  (3)  curriculum 
guides  be  continuously  updated  and  revised. 

Fleury,  Mabel  L,  (MA,  Psychology,  August,  1977) 

HUMAN  GROWTH  AND  POTENTIAL  FOR  DISADVANTAGED  ADULTS 

Most  books  and  manuals  for  human  growth  and  potential  address  them- 
selves to  the  educated  middle  class.  There  is  a  great  need  for  those  disadvan- 

29 


taged  adults  to  have  the  opportunity  to  examine,  identify,  and  utilize  their 
strengths  to  move  towards  their  potentialities,  so  that  they  may  lead  more 
autonomous,  active,  responsible,  purposeful  and  fulfilling  lives.  Self  actualiza- 
tion needs  not  be  a  luxury  of  the  middle  class. 

This  training  module  enables  the  facilitator  to  help  the  students  explore 
eight  areas  that  would  enhance  their  growth  and  potential:  1)  Talking  About 
Myself  (personal  disclosure);  2)  Listening  With  Feeling  and  Understanding 
(effective  communications);  3)  What  Do  I  Believe?  (value  clarification);  4) 
What  Do  I  Need?  (needs  assessment);  5)  I'm  O.K.,  You're  O.K.  (strength  assess- 
ment); 6)  The  "WOW"  Feeling  (peak  experiences);  7)  What's  Stopping  Me? 
(blocks  to  growth  and  potential);  8)  What  Can  I  Do  About  It?  (behavioral 
contracting). 

The  workshop  format  includes;  1)  Discussion  of  Concept;  2)  Objectives  of 
the  Concept;  3)  Activity  for  Student  and  Facilitator  Participation;  4)  Problems 
Peculiar  to  the  Disadvantaged  Adults  in  the  Activity. 

All  presentations  are  geared  towards  the  social,  economic,  and  educational 
experiences  of  the  disadvantaged  adults. 

A  bibliography  is  also  provided  for  further  explorations  into  human  growth 
and  potential. 

Harris.  Lucian,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision,  June, 
1978) 

IMPROVING  PUBLIC  RELATIONS  AT  MARIETTA 
JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

It  was  thought  important  to  develop  a  professional  guide  on  public  relations 
for  the  faculty  and  administrative  staff  at  Marietta  Junior  High  School.  The 
problem  was  to  examine  the  following  relationships  between  the  home  and  the 
school  as  they  relate  to  the  progress  of  the  student; 

1.  The  student  as  a  reporter  of  his  school. 

2.  Homework  as  a  public  relations  tool. 

3.  Parent-teacher  conferences. 

4.  Telephone  contacts  with  the  home. 

5.  The  involvement  of  administrators  in  explaining  the  policies  and  prac- 
tices of  the  school. 

These  relationships  were  examined  through  large  and  small  group  discus- 
sions with  the  faculty  and  administrative  staff.  From  these  discussions,  a  ques- 
tionnaire was  designed  and  distributed  to  the  faculty  and  administrative  staff. 
The  results  were  compiled  and  analyzed.  They  provided  the  basis  for  the  small 
group  discussions  and  recommendations  from  the  faculty  and  administrative 
staff  as  to  ways  of  improving  public  relations  at  Marietta  Junior  High  School. 

Hartman.  Joseph  E..  (MA,  Psychology.  August,  1977) 

THE  JUVENILE  JUSTICE  SYSTEM:  A  VIEW  FROM  WITHIN 

This  thesis  is  an  attempt  by  the  author  to  describe  the  juvenile  justice  sys- 
tem from  a  historical,  a  personal  and  an  experiential  point  of  view.  It  is  to  a  large 

30 


degree  autobiographical  and  explains  how  the  author  became  involved  with  the 
juvenile  justice  system  and  why,  after  several  years,  he  felt  obligated  to  leave. 
Also  depicted  are  the  various  subsystems  and  the  procedures  by  which  kids  are 
"processed."  Present  concerns  with  juvenile  crime  and  the  inadequacies  and 
injustices  of  the  juvenile  justice  system  are  shown  to  mirror  similar  concerns  to 
those  at  the  turn  of  the  20th  century.  Although  no  specific  solutions  are  offered, 
some  existing  alternatives  are  discussed.  The  author's  basic  point,  however,  is 
that  no  system  by  itself  can  solve  the  juvenile  crime  problem.  He  feels  that 
crime  is  symptomatic  of  underlying  community  problems  which  need  to  be 
dealt  with  by  the  individuals  making  up  the  community.  As  long  as  the  problems 
precipitating  the  crime  continue  to  exist,  so  will  the  crime  itself. 

Houston,  Larry  M..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
August,  1977) 

A  CASE  STUDY  OF  THE  COOPERATIVE  PURCHASING  SYSTEM 

IN  THE  PIONEER  COOPERATIVE  EDUCATIONAL  SERVICE 

AGENCY  IN  THE  STATE  OF  GEORGIA 

The  Pioneer  Cooperative  Education  Service  Agency  as  a  purchasing  coop- 
erative exists  to  provide  the  ability  for  small  school  systems  who  are  members  of 
the  agency  to  gain  the  benefits  of  volume  purchasing.  The  purpose  of  this  paper 
is  to  investigate  the  cooperative  purchasing  system  used  by  the  Pioneer  Coop- 
erative Education  Service  Agency  (CESA)  and  to  examine  its  benefits  and  prob- 
lems to  include  specification  development,  bidding  procedures,  and  purchasing 
power. 

To  complete  the  stated  objective  for  the  study,  the  following  plan  of  work 
was  followed.  A  review  of  the  literature  was  conducted  with  the  following  areas 
reviewed:  school  purchasing  principles  and  procedures  and  public  school 
cooperative  purchasing.  A  study  of  the  background  of  the  Pioneer  CESA  was 
conducted  following  several  selected  characteristics.  The  characteristics  in- 
vestigated included  the  purchasing  power,  organizational  structure,  specifica- 
tion development,  bidding  procedures,  and  procedures  for  handling  purchase 
orders,  payment,  and  delivery  of  items  purchased  by  the  Pioneer  CESA. 

The  information  obtained  for  the  investigation  of  the  Pioneer  CESA  as  a 
cooperative  purchasing  system  was  primarily  through  personal  interviews,  the 
use  of  an  interview  guide,  telephone  conversations,  and  procurement  of  printed 
matter  on  the  Pioneer  CESA.  During  the  investigation,  several  benefits  of  the 
Pioneer  CESA  were  examined  as  well  as  some  problems  discovered. 

The  findings  of  this  case  study  were  based  on  the  benefits  and  problems 
presently  provided  by  the  structure  and  development  of  the  Pioneer  CESA  in 
the  state  of  Georgia. 

Findings  from  the  study  included: 

1.  The  Pioneer  CESA  as  a  purchasing  cooperative  was  organized  under  a 
written  set  of  policies  and  procedures. 

2.  Within  the  Pioneer  CESA,  each  member  system  had  input  in  the  coop- 
erative purchasing  process. 

3.  Accurate  records  were  kept  by  the  Pioneer  CESA  to  show  savings 
realized  by  the  cooperative  purchasing  system. 

31 


4.  The  Pioneer  CESA  as  a  purchasing  cooperative  was  effective  in  meeting 
the  demands  of  a  public  school  purchasing  cooperative  such  as  obtain- 
ing the  maximum  value  of  the  expenditures  at  the  lowest  cost. 

5.  Purchasing  power  was  increased  for  the  systems  by  the  use  of  the 
Pioneer  CESA  purchasing  cooperative. 

6.  An  annual  evaluation  of  the  Pioneer  CESA  was  conducted. 

7.  Developing  unified  specifications  desired  by  the  participating  sc"hool 
systems  in  the  Pioneer  CESA  was  somewhat  of  a  problem. 

Jennings,  James  C,  HI,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Super- 
vision, August,  1977) 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  ROLE-ASSESSMENT  MODEL  OF  TIME 
USE  FOR  THE  ROLE  OF  ASSISTANT  PRINCIPAL 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  formulate  a  self-assessment  model  of  time 
use  to  be  used  by  persons  in  the  role  of  assistant  principal.  A  chronological  log 
was  kept  for  two  weeks  to  define  an  exact  record  of  daily  activity,  contact  and 
communication.  A  questionnaire  sampling  of  Coweta  County  school  adminis- 
trators was  used  to  determine  the  roles  of  an  assistant  principal.  The  results  of 
the  chronological  log  were  charted  according  to  amount  of  time  spent  in  each 
role,  amount  of  time  spent  in  face  to  face  contact,  mail  processing  and  tele- 
phone communication.  The  percentage  of  time  spent  with  students,  parents, 
teachers  and  staff  was  determined.  Correlations  were  made  to  evaluate  the 
results  of  the  survey  given  to  Coweta  County  administrators. 

Spearman's  Rank  Order  Correlation  of  Coefficient  Formula  was  used  to 
compare  the  actual  amount  of  time  spent  in  each  role  with  the  concept  of  its 
importance,  the  amount  of  self  satisfaction  in  the  role  and  the  preparation  for 
the  role. 

It  was  found  that  the  major  role  in  regard  to  time  consumption  was  that  of 
monitor.  However,  the  role  of  liaison  was  considered  by  the  administrators  sur- 
veyed to  be  the  most  important  role.  The  vast  majority  of  contacts  were  face  to 
face  contacts,  with  students  accounting  for  the  highest  percentage  (28.4%). 
There  was  found  to  be  no  statistically  significant  correlation  between  the  sur- 
veyed view  of  the  roles  and  the  actual  practice  of  the  role  by  the  assistant 
principal. 

Krieger.  Alan  P..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Elementary  Education,  June,  1978) 

A  COMPARISON  OF  READING  ACHIEVEMENT  RATES  OF 

SLOW  READERS  IN  SMALL  AND  LARGE  CLASS  INSTRUCTION 

AT  CENTRAL  PRIMARY  SCHOOL  IN  1977-1978 

This  investigation  was  designed  to  determine  the  effect  of  class  size  on  the 
rate  of  reading  achievement  of  below  average  readers  in  the  third  and  fourth 
grades.  Two  different  studies  were  implemented  for  this  purpose. 

The  first  study  involved  a  comparison  of  reading  achievement  over  a  five 
month  period.  All  of  the  third  and  fourth  grade  students  at  the  test  school  with 
below  grade  level  basel  reading  levels  were  used.  Each  grade  had  two  five  stu- 

32 


dent  experimental  classes.  The  third  grade  control  class  consisted  of  21  students. 
The  fourth  grade  had  a  control  class  of  23  students. 

The  second  study  was  conducted  to  determine  the  effect  of  class  size  on 
one  fifteen  minute  instructional  period.  Forty-two  fourth  grade  students  were 
used  in  this  study.  They  were  randomly  divided  into  two  experimental  classes 
of  five  students  and  one  control  class  of  32  students. 

There  were  three  hypotheses  used  to  determine  the  significance  of  this 
study.  The  hypotheses  are  as  follows: 

First  Hypothesis 

At  the  end  of  this  study,  the  third  grade  small  experimental  classes  will  not 
show  a  significantly  greater  rate  of  achievement  in  reading  than  the  third  grade 
large  control  class  over  a  five  month  instructional  period. 

Second  Hypothesis 

At  the  end  of  this  study,  the  fourth  grade  small  experimental  classes  will  not 
show  a  significantly  greater  rate  of  achievement  in  reading  than  the  fourth 
grade  large  control  class  over  a  five  month  instructional  period. 

Third  Hypothesis 

At  the  end  of  this  study,  the  fourth  grade  small  experimental  groups  will  not 
show  a  significantly  greater  proficiency  in  a  specific  reading  skill  than  the  fourth 
grade  large  control  group  after  one  fifteen  minute  instructional  period. 

A  pretest  —  treatment  —  post  test  control  group  design  was  used  for  all  of 
the  experiments.  Because  of  differences  in  reading  ability,  an  analysis  of  covari- 
ance  was  used  to  treat  the  data  with  pretest  scores  as  the  covariate.  The  results 
of  the  first  hypothesis  approached  significance,  but  was  not  significant  at  the  .05 
level  of  significance.  The  second  and  third  hypotheses  did  not  approach  signifi- 
cance. Therefore,  class  size  was  not  shown  to  be  a  significant  factor  in  the  rate 
of  reading  achievement  of  below  average  readers  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades. 

Lee,  Jane,  (MA,  Psychology,  December,   1977) 

POLICE  BEHAVIOR:  A  NORMAL  ADJUSTMENT 
TO  THE  ENVIRONMENT 

Compiled  by  a  Police  Officer,  as  well  as  graduate  student,  this  thesis  will 
deal  with  the  heart  of  the  police  problem— the  problem  of  personnel.  It  will 
summarize  what  is  known  about  the  police  environment  and  sub-culture  and 
consider  the  "normal  adjustments"  the  officer  makes  in  order  to  survive  and 
function  within  this  environment.  Through  an  awareness  of  the  stressors  which 
affect  the  police  officer  daily,  will  the  officer  be  able  to  cope  and  maintain 
mental  stability. 


33 


Lickwar,  Richard  A.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
August,  1977) 

A  SYSTEMATIC  APPROACH  TO  DECISION  MAKING 

The  purpose  of  this  work  was  to  design  a  graduate  level  staff  development 
unit  dealing  with  the  full  scope  of  decision-making  techniques  and  specifically 
attuned  to  those  educational  professionals  whose  mathematical  background 
was  minimal.  A  thorough  review  of  decisioning  techniques  and  problems  was 
integrated  with  coverage  of  subsequent  quantitative  innovations.  As  a  result, 
educators  who  are  not  analysts  by  training  or  inclination  will  be  better  prepared 
to  communicate  with  those  professionals  trained  in  quantitative  measures. 

Miller.  Mary  J.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Early  Childhood,  August,  1977) 

THE  STUDY  OF  STUDENT  EVALUATIONS  OF  THE  EARLY 

CHILDHOOD  EDUCATION  GRADUATE  PROGRAM  AT 

WEST  GEORGIA  COLLEGE  FROM  AUGUST,  1976 

THROUGH  JUNE,  1977 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  formally  tabulate  and  assess  all  the  student 
evaluations  of  the  early  childhood  education  graduate  program  at  West  Georgia 
College  from  August  1976  through  June  1977. 

Sixty-two  questionnaire  results  were  tabulated.  The  results  showed  that  the 
students  had  positive  attitudes  towards  the  early  childhood  education  graduate 
program  at  West  Georgia  College. 


Moore.  George  R..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
August,  1977) 

COMPARISON  OF  COEDUCATIONAL  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 

STUDENTS  WITH  NON  COEDUCATIONAL  JUNIOR  HIGH 

STUDENTS  RELATIVE  TO  THEIR  ATTITUDES  TOWARD 

THEIR  LEARNING  ENVIRONMENTS 

This  study  was  an  attempt  to  determine  what  differences  existed  in  stu- 
dents' attitudes  toward  their  learning  environments  in  four  junior  high  schools 
in  LaGrange  and  Troup  County,  Georgia.  Six  hundred  nine  subjects  were  ad- 
ministered the  Learning  Environment  Inventory. 

Five  subscales  of  the  LEI  1)  cohesiveness,  2)  friction,  3)  democracy,  4) 
cliqueness,  and  5)  apathy  were  obtained  for  609  subjects.  There  were  189  stu- 
dents in  LaGrange  Boys'  Junior  High,  99  in  Eastside  Girls'  Junior  High,  95  in 
Westside  Girls'  Junior  High,  and  226  in  Troup  County  Junior  High  School.  Five 
tables  on  analysis  of  variance  were  developed  from  the  data  for  each  subscale 
showing  variance  between  groups,  within  groups  and  F  ratio.  Two  additional 
tables  showed  mean  rank  by  scale  and  school  and  mean  and  standard  deviation 
by  scale  and  school. 

Data  revealed  that  there  were  no  significant  differences  in  the  attitudes  of 

34 


students  toward  their  learning  environments  in  the  four  schools  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Eastside  Girls'  Junior  High  and  Troup  Junior  High  School  on  the 
subscale  cohesiveness.  Eastside  Girls'  Junior  High  was  more  cohesive  than 
Troup  County  Junior  High  School. 

The  following  tentative  conclusions  were  derived  from  data  when  mean 
scores  were  compared: 

1.  There  was  more  apathy  and  friction  at  LaGrange  Boys'  Junior  High 
School  than  the  other  three  schools. 

2.  There  was  more  cohesiveness  and  democracy  at  Eastside  Girls'  Junior 
High  than  the  other  three  schools. 

3.  There  was  more  cliqueness  at  Westside  Girls'  Junior  High  than  at  the 
other  three  schools. 

4.  There  was  less  cohesiveness  and  friction  at  Troup  Junior  High  than  the 
other  three  schools. 

5.  There  was  less  democracy  and  cliqueness  at  LaGrange  Boys'  Junior 
High  than  the  other  three  schools. 

6.  There  was  less  apathy  at  Westside  Girls'  Junior  High  than  the  other 
three  schools. 

7.  The  all  boys'  school  was  similar  to  the  coeducational  school  on  co- 
hesiveness, democracy,  and  apathy. 

8.  The  all  girls'  schools  were  similar  to  the  coeducational  school  on  fric- 
tion and  cliqueness. 

9.  The  all  boys'  school  was  less  democractic  and  cohesive  than  the  all 
girls'  schools. 

10.  The  all  girls'  schools  had  more  cliqueness  than  the  all  boys'  school. 

11.  The  all  boys'  school  had  more  friction  and  apathy  than  the  all  girls' 
schools. 


Parrott,  David  L.  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
December,  1977) 

A  COMPETENCY  BASED  MANUAL  FOR  INSERVICE 

TRAINING  OF  COWETA  COUNTY  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOL  PRINCIPALS 

The  major  thrust  of  this  study  was  determined  by  the  need  for  inservice 
training  that  would  provide  instruction  in  the  competencies  relative  to  the  needs 
of  the  elementary  school  principal  of  Coweta  County.  Study  of  available  litera- 
ture revealed  that:  the  principal  occupies  a  pivotal  position  in  relation  to  the 
success  of  his  school;  formal  preparation  is  inadequate  for  the  success  of  the 
administrator;  an  inservice  training  program  could  provide  the  administrator 
with  a  means  to  stay  current  with  the  changing  needs  of  the  school  environment. 
The  Coweta  County  school  system  has  identified  the  following  specific  compe- 
tencies for  the  principal's  instruction:  1.  develop  skills  in  the  Purdue  method  of 
classroom  observation;  2.  acquire  knowledge  of  the  typical  behavior  of  elemen- 
tary age  students;  3.  improve  interpersonal  communication  skills,  emphasizing 
conflict  resolution  and  changing  behavior.  Through  the  evaluation  of  the  evi- 
dence of  this  study,  it  was  determined  that  a  manual,  designed  specifically  for 
the  needs  of  the  elementary  school  principal  in  Coweta  County  and  based  on 

35 


the  three  identified  competencies,  would  provide  a  beneficial  program  of  in- 
service  training.  The  manual,  which  is  included  in  the  study,  affords  the  par- 
ticipants an  open  ended  guide  by  which  he  can  progress  according  to  his 
priorities  and  the  particular  demands  of  his  school  environment. 

Price.  Clay  L,  III  (MA,  Psychology,  June,  1978) 

A  SURVEY  OF  SOUTHERN  BAPTIST  ATTITUDES  TOWARD 
THE  ROLE  OF  WOMEN  IN  CHURCH  AND  SOCIETY 

As  effects  of  the  Women's  Liberation  Movement  spread  to  religious  de- 
nominations. Southern  Baptist  churches  have  faced  questions  about  women  in 
the  ministry.  This  paper  examined  Southern  Baptist  attitudes  on  acceptance  of 
women  in  the  pastorate,  ordination  of  women  to  the  ministry,  the  role  of  women 
in  church-related  work,  and  the  role  of  women  in  business  and  politics.  It  was 
hypothesized  attitudes  would  not  differ  significantly  with  respect  to  leadership 
status,  age  and  sex,  education,  region  of  the  country  or  support  for  women's 
rights. 

A  sample  of  668  Southern  Baptist  pastors,  Sunday  School  teachers,  Wo- 
man's Missionary  Union  directors,  and  lay  members  were  mailed  a  twenty-four 
item  questionnaire  designed  to  record  dichotomous  responses.  The  results  of 
the  389  respondents  were  analyzed  using  chi  square  to  determine  significant 
relationships. 

Overall,  the  respondents  were  supportive  of  women's  roles  in  business, 
politics,  and  non-pastoral  ministries.  Less  than  20  per  cent  of  the  total  respon- 
dents were  supportive  of  women  in  pastoral  roles.  Pastors  were  significantly  less 
open  to  women  in  non-pastoral  roles  (religious  education,  youth  work,  and 
social  ministries)  than  church  members. 

Education  displayed  a  greater  effect  on  attitudes  than  age.  Significant  dif- 
ferences between  the  responses  of  persons  with  less  than  a  high  school  education 
and  persons  with  more  than  a  high  school  education  were  observed  on  eighteen 
of  the  twenty-four  items.  Persons  with  more  education  tended  to  be  more 
supportive  of  women's  roles  outside  the  home. 

Region  of  the  country  was  associated  with  items  on  women's  understanding 
of  and  vocal  participation  in  politics  and  with  an  item  that  attitude  change  will 
occur  in  the  future.  Support  for  women's  rights  was  associated  with  support  for 
women  in  the  ministry. 

Two-thirds  of  the  respondents  expected  attitudes  toward  women  in  the 
ministry  to  change  within  the  next  twenty-five  years.  If  women  continue  to  enter 
the  ministry  and  if  current  trends  in  education,  labor  force  participation  and 
family  patterns  continue,  it  is  likely  that  attitudes  will  indeed  change  to  a  more 
open  acceptance  of  women  in  expanding  roles. 


36 


Randall,  Willie  G.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling,  August, 
1977) 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  VOCATIONAL  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
EXPERIENCES  OF  A  GROUP  OF  1973  HIGH  SCHOOL  GRADUATES 

The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  assess  the  perceptions  of  a  group  of  1973 
high  school  graduates  about  their  high  school  course  offerings  as  they  related  to 
career  and  post  secondary  school  preparations.  A  questionnaire  consisting  of 
twenty-three  questions  and  a  letter  stating  the  purpose  of  the  study  were  mailed 
to  all  two  hundred  graduates  of  the  class  of  1973  during  the  fall  of  1976. 

Forty  percent  of  the  questionnaires  were  returned.  The  data  was  organized 
and  tabularly  arranged  using  numbers  and  percentage  distributions.  The  results 
of  the  study  indicate  that  the  majority  of  the  graduates  did  not  perceive  their 
high  school  courses  as  being  very  helpful  in  preparing  them  for  the  world  of 
work.  The  responses  from  graduates  who  attended  post  secondary  schools 
indicated  that  the  high  school  course  offerings  did  benefit  them  in  preparation 
for  post  secondary  education.  There  were  indications,  however,  that  the  high 
school  can  make  a  greater  effort  in  providing  an  adequate  curriculum  that  will 
alleviate  many  of  the  difficulties  experienced  by  the  graduates  in  employment 
gratification  and  in  post  secondary  education. 

Roquemore,  Aaron  Q..  (Specialist  in  Education,  Guidance  and  Counseling, 
June,  1978) 

A  CONTRAST  BETWEEN  OFFENDERS  AND 
NON-OFFENDERS  IN  THEIR  FAMILY  PERCEPTIONS 

This  research  compared  the  family  environment  perceptions  between  indi- 
viduals who  are  incarcerated  in  a  penal  institution  and  those  individuals  who 
comprised  the  normative  sample  of  the  Family  Environment  Scale.  One  experi- 
menter, a  Counselor  at  the  Georgia  Diagnostic  and  Classification  Center,  Jack- 
son, Georgia  tested  eighty-three  criminal  offenders  utilizing  the  Family  Environ- 
ment Scale,  during  a  two  week  period.  After  that  time,  the  program  was 
discontinued. 

The  mean,  standard  deviation,  and  t-test  for  each  of  the  two  groups  was 
computed.  Analyzed  difference  between  existing  normative  data  developed  by 
Rudolf  H.  Moos  and  that  data  developed  by  this  investigator  produced  signifi- 
cant results  at  or  beyond  .05  level. 

Scott,  Charles  W.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
June,  1978) 

THE  IOWA  TEST  OF  BASIC  SKILLS  AS  A  NORM  REFERENCED 

MEASURE  IN  PREDICTING  READING  ACHIEVEMENT  ON 

THE  GEORGIA  CRITERION-REFERENCED  TEST 

The  problem  was  to  determine  whether  there  was  a  positive  coorelation 
between  the  Iowa  Test  of  Basic  Skills  in  language  arts,  including  vocabulary, 

37 


word  analysis,  reading  and  spelling,  at  the  third  grade  level  and  the  Georgia 
Criterion-Referenced  Test  in  reading  at  the  fourth  grade  level. 

Information  was  gathered  to  determine  whether  the  Iowa  Test  of  Basic 
Skills,  level  7,  form  6,  used  with  third  grade  students  at  Compton  Elementary 
School  in  Powder  Springs,  Georgia  was  a  predictor  of  the  Georgia  CRT  reading 
scores  obtained  by  testing  the  same  pupils  as  fourth  grade  students  in  the  Spring 
of  the  following  year. 

Positive  correlations  at  the  .001  level  of  significance  were  shown  by  using 
the  Pearson  Product-Moment  Correlation.  Correlations  of  .61,  .52,  .54  and  .47 
were  shown  respectively  between  the  vocabulary,  word  analysis,  reading  and 
spelling  subtests  of  the  ITBS  and  the  Georgia  CRT  in  reading. 

The  ITBS  in  language  arts  at  the  third  grade  level  can  be  considered  as  a 
significant  predictor  of  achievement  on  the  fourth  grade  Georgia  CRT  in  reading. 

Overall  the  data  would  not  suggest  that  the  Georgia  CRT  be  used  to  sup- 
plant the  ITBS.  However,  as  the  different  purposes  of  the  two  tests  are  con- 
sidered, perhaps  recognition  of  the  significant  correlations  between  the  IBS 
subtests  and  the  Georgia  CRT  could  help  teachers  approach  the  Georgia  CRT 
with  some  confidence  as  they  plan  instructional  strategies  and  interpret  the  test 
results  to  parents. 

Swantic.  Frances  M.,  (Specialist  in  Education,  Administration  and  Supervision, 
March,  1978) 

A  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  TEACHER'S  RETIREMENT 

SYSTEM  AND  THE  EMPLOYEES'  RETIREMENT  SYSTEM 

OF  GEORGIA 

This  study  was  concerned  with  the  comparison,  of  benefits  and  provisions, 
of  the  Teachers'  Retirement  System  with  the  Employees'  Retirement  System  in 
the  State  of  Georgia.  To  accomplish  this,  relevant  literature  and  laws  were 
reviewed  and  provisions  were  compared.  The  comparison  consisted  of  the  fol- 
lowing areas:  (a)  membership  eligibility,  (b)  administration,  (c)  creditable  ser- 
vice, (d)  employee  and  employer  contributions,  (e)  retirement  benefit  formulas, 
(f)  benefits  and  options,  (g)  vesting,  (h)  inflation  protection,  (i)  disability  bene- 
fits, (j)  early  retirement  benefits,  and  (k)  death  benefits.  The  study  concluded 
that  disparities  and  inequities  existed  between  the  systems.  Proposals  were 
listed  to  correct  imbalances  found. 


38 


FACULTY  BIBLIOGRAPHY  FOR  1977 

Chowns,  Timothy  M. 

"An  Occurence  of  Kinkaid  Age  Pterotocrinus  Species  at  Rising 
Fawn,  Georgia."  With  J.  A.  Waters.  Georgia  Journal  of  Science, 
XXXV  (Apr.,   1977),  83.  (Abstract) 

Stratigraphy  and  Economic  Geology  of  Cambrian  and  Ordovician 
Rocks  in  Bartow  and  Polk  Counties,  Georgia.  Guidebook  for  12th 
Annual  Meeting  of  Georgia  Geological  Society.  Atlanta:  Georgia 
Geological  Society,  1977. 

"Structure  and  Stratigraphy  of  and  Below  the  Georgia  Coastal 
Plain."  With  H.  R.  Cramer  and  D.  D.  Arden.  Presented  in  poster 
session,  American  Association  of  Petroleum  Geologists,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  Jun.,  1977. 

Claxton,  Robert  H. 

Review  of  Nuestro  pensamiento  politico  en  sus  fuentes  by  Enrique 

Benavides.  Hispanic  American  Historical  Review,  LVII  (Feb.,  1977), 

178. 

"Investigating  Past  Weather  Patterns:  The  Case  of  Guatemala." 

Paper  read  at  the  Georgia  Academy  of  Science,  Atlanta,  Georgia, 

Apr.,  1977. 

"Em  que  mundo  estamos?  Ambientalismo  latino-americano:  fraco 

e  limitado  as  elites."  Raizes,  I  (Aug.,  1977),  9. 

Review  of  El  pensamiento  vivo  de  Sandino  by  Sergio  Ramires. 

Hispanic  American  Historical  Review,  LVII  (Nov.,  1977),  797-798. 

DeVillier,  J.  Lincoln 

"Dollars  and  Sense  and  Life  Insurance."  The  Financial  Planner. 
(Aug.,  1977),  10-12,  28. 

"Apply  'Present  Value*  Test."  The  Financial  Planner,  (Sep.,  1977), 
64. 

Haisty,  Donna  B. 

"Individualization:  Basic  English  as  a  Guided  Study."  Notes  on 
Teaching  English,  V,  No.  1  (Dec,  1977),  14-16. 

McTeer,  J.  Hugh 

"Attitudes  Toward  the  Teaching  of  Economics  in  the  Secondary 
Schools."  Georgia  Social  Science  Journal,  VIII,  No.  1  (Winter, 
1977),  5-8. 

"Reading  Level  of  United  States  History  Textbooks."  With  Joy  T. 
Blake.  Georgia  Social  Science  Journal,  VIII,  No.  3  (Spring,  1977), 
18-21. 

39 


"Effect  of  a  Slide-Series  Teaching  Technique  Upon  Cognitive  Learn- 
ing in  Graduate  Classes."  Educational  Technology,  XVII,  No.  8 
(Aug.,  1977),  39-40. 

"The  Effect  of  Team  Teaching  Upon  Achievement  in  and  Attitude 

Toward  United  States  History."  With  John  C.  Jackson.  The  High 

School  Journal,  LXI,  No.  1  (Oct.,  1977),  1-6. 

Teacher's  Guide:    Georgia  and  the   United  States  Constitution, 

1787-1789.  Atlanta,  Georgia:  Georgia  Commission  for  the  National 

Bicentennial  Celebration,  1977. 

"A  Study  of  Differences  of  Views  of  Students,  Parents,  Teachers, 

and  Administrators  on  Selected  Teaching  Objectives."  With  F. 

Lamar  Blanton  and  Janice  W.  Richardson.  ERIC  ED  130957,  (Mar., 

1977). 

"Student  Preferences  for  Social  Studies  Content  and  Methodology." 

With  William  M.  Beasley.  ERIC  ED137212,  (Aug.,  1977). 

"Student  Interest  in  Social  Studies  Content  and  Methodology." 

ERIC  ED139712,  (Oct.,  1977). 

Myers,  Robert  R. 

"Irrigated  Agriculture  in  Georgia:  A  Geographical  Appraisal." 
With  J.  Upchurch.  Georgia  Journal  of  Science,  XXXV  (Apr.,  1977), 
76.  (Abstract) 

Atlas  of  Georgia  Agriculture.  With  D.  Weaver  and  J.  Upchurch. 
CarroUton,  Georgia:  West  Georgia  College,  1977. 

Mutnick,  Jeffrey 

"American  Intervention  in  Vietnam:  The  Public  Image  Presented 
by  Lyndon  Baines  Johnson."  Unpublished  PhD  dissertation  (Speech/ 
Mass  Communication),  Indiana  University,  1977. 
"How  Information  Flow  Information  May  Be  Analyzed  Within  an 
Organizational  Structure  Utilizing  a  Systems  Approach."  Profiles 
in  Communication.  II  (Spring,  1973). 

O'Malley.  James  R. 

"Landsat  Platforms,  Sensors,  and  Images."  With  B.  Richason.  Paper 
read  at  National  Council  for  Geographic  Education,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, Nov.,  1977. 

"Uses  of  Remote  Sensing  in  Cultural  Geography."  Paper  read  at 
National  Council  for  Geographic  Education,  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 

Nov..  1977. 


40 


Sanders,  C.  Gerald 

"A  Graphical  View  of  Possible  Short-Period  Climatic  Fluctuations 
in  Georgia."  Paper  read  at  Southeastern  Division,  Association  of 
American  Geographers,  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  Nov.,  1977. 

Short,  Verl  M. 

Editor,  Journal  of  Humanistic  Education.  I,  1977- 

Editor,  Georgia  Association  for  Childhood  Education  Newsletter 

I,  1977. 

Upchurch,  John  C. 

"Irrigated  Agriculture  in  Georgia:  A  Geographical  Appraisal." 
With  R.  Myers.  Georgia  Journal  of  Science,  XXXV  (Apr.,  1977), 
76.  (Abstract) 

Atlas  of  Georgia  Agriculture.  With  R.  Myers  and  D.  Weaver.  Car- 
rollton,  Georgia:  West  Georgia  College,  1977. 
General  Editor,  Essays  on  the  Human  Geography  of  the  South- 
eastern United  States.  Volume  XVI  of  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences 
(D.  Weaver,  Volume  Editor).  Carrollton,  Georgia:  West  Georgia 
College,  1977,  pp.  vii  and  90. 

Wagner,  Donald  R. 

"Comments  on  'Zero-Based  Budgeting*,  'State  Industrial  Develop- 
ment Programs',  and  'The  Changing  Focus  of  State  Planning."" 
Commentary  on  three  papers  read  at  Georgia  Political  Science 
Association,  Macon,  Georgia,  Jan.,  1977. 
"Party  and  Faction."  Commentary,  LXIII  (May,  1977),  8-10. 
"Rhetoric  and  Politcal  Analysis."  Panel  Chairman  at  American 
Political  Science  Association,  Washington,  D.C.,  Sep.,  1977. 

Wepfer,  Anita  J. 

"The  Asbetiform-fiber  Contamination  of  Lake  Superior  and  the 
Resulting  Potential  Health  Hazard:  An  Interpretation  of  Interlock- 
ing Physical  and  Human  Geographical  Systems."  Unpublished  PhD 
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