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^YCKOLOGICAL MONOGRAPHS
V. 23, No. 2. # 99. 1917
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THE LIBRARY
The Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education
Toronto, Canada
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PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW PUBLICATIONS
THE
Whole No 99
1917
Psychological Monographs
EDITED BY
JAMES ROWLAXD ANGELL, University of Chicago
HOWARD C. WARREN, Princeton University {Review)
JOHN B. WATSON, John Hopkins University (/. of Exp. Psych.)
SHEPHERD I. FRANZ, Govt. Hosp. for Insane {Bulletin) and
MADISON BENTLEY, University of Illinois {Index)
STUDIES FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORA-
TORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
Whole vs. Part Methods in Motor
Learning. A Comparative Study •
BY
LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Psychology in the University of Rochester
PSYCHOLOCilCAL REVIEW COMPANY
PRINCETON, N. J.
AND LANCASTER, PA.
Agents: G. E. STECHERT & CO., London (2 Star Yard. Carey St. W. C);
Leipzig (Koenigstr., 37); Paris (16 rue de Conde)
LIBRARY
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university/
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Professor James R. Angell and Professor Harvey A. Carr
have aided the research. Such assistance has been but part of a
broader kindness to the writer.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Chapter I. Nature of the Problem i
Chapter II. Comparison of the 'Whole' and 'Part' ^leth-
ocls With Returns Permitted lo
Chapter III. Influence of the Prevention of Returns. ... 15
Chapter IV. Elements of Waste in Tart' Learning.
(a) Loss Due to Negative Transfer in
the Learning of the Motor Units. . 21
(b) Loss Due to Disintegration Through
Time 23
(c) Loss Due to Retro-Active Inhibition 24
(d) Loss Due to Contiguity in L^nit Func-
tioning 25
(e) Loss Due to Unit Incompatibility in
a Larger Series 26
Chapter V. Place Association and its Relation to Im-
provement of the 'Part' IMethod 29
( 1 ) 'Direct Repetitive" 32
(2) 'Reversed Repetitive' 33
(3 ) 'Progressive Part' 35
(4) 'Elaborative Part' 36
Chapter \T. Elements of Advantage in 'Part" Learning. . 48
(a) Transfer 49
(b) Learning Effort and Length of Ma-
terial 55
Chapter VII. Massed vs. Distributed Effort in 'Whole'
and 'Part' Learning 59
Chapter VIII. Comparison and Summary C^y
Appendix 70
Bibliography 79
WHOLE Vs. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING—
A COMPARATIVE STUDY
CHAPTER I.
Nature of the Problem
One of the several problems of the general pedagogical-psy-
chological field that warrants full analysis is the 'whole' vs.
'part' method of learning. Whole method procedure demands
the continuous repetition of an entire body of material until the
desired stage of mastery is attained. Part procedure requires
an initial mastery of definite sections of the material and the
final connection of these different sections in proper serial order.
This 'whole' — 'part' problem loomed large during the past de-
cade, but interest in it seems to have waned, due no doubt to
the acceptance of the experimental evidence as final. This evi-
dence was first deduced from the learning of the Ebbinghaus
nonsense syllables. This pioneer in the scientific study of mem-
ory set the problem. Meumann (ii) presents his own work,
planned to supplement the splendid efforts of StefTens (19).
Ephrussi (4), Neumann (13), Pentschew (15) of the German
laboratories, Larguier des Bancels (10) of the French, and
Henderson (6), Kuhlmann (8), Lakenan (9), Pyle (17), Pyle
and Snyder (18), Watt (21), and numerous other writers in
English have investigated the problem. The statements of Meu-
mann (11) may be summarized as typical, i.e., learning by
parts becomes more disadvantageous the more the material is
subdivided; conversely, the more closely the 'part' learning ap-
proximates to 'whole' learning, the more rapidly and certainly
is the task accomplished. The learning advantage for the
'whole' method is even greater with meaningful material than
with the nonsensical. The superiority of the 'whole' method is
manifested by fewer repetitions being required for mastery,
more correct formations of associations, and more permanent
retention. These results hold for the adult and also for the
2 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECH STEIN
child, as soon as the latter becomes aware of the advantages of
the 'whole' method. These findings are likewise true for ma-
terial not constituting a coherent whole. There are possible
mediating procedures of the 'whole' method, such as brief rest-
ing pauses in the forward directed method or the temporary
delay upon parts of obvious difficulty.
The material presented and the evidence reviewed lead to
the acceptance of the 'whole' method as the more efficient in
the learning of nonsense material and poetry of short lengths.
For longer lengths, Pyle and Snyder (i8) verified the results
for poetic material of 240 lines and Lakenan (9) for prose of
300 words.
Following Steffens, Meumann, Pentschew, and others, the
following causes of waste in part learning are, perhaps, sug-
gested, though none of these have been subjected to laboratory
testing.
(a) Learning of transitions between units (b) Learning of
backward directed associations. (c) Break up of helpful
mediate associations and the disturbance of the absolute position
assigned to each item during the learning of its own part or
section, (d) Lack of uniformity in distribution of the learn-
ing, (e) Loss of the aid of logical coherence with sense
material.
The above brief survey points to the wide interest the prob-
lem has attained and to the strong agreement of the experimental
findings. But the interest has not been carried over into the
motor field and very few references have been made to the
conditions as they would appear in definite class-room situa-
tions. Parker (14) is a notable exception. In his recent
"Methods of Teaching in High Schools," he suggests that, in
the school activities of the gymnasium and shop, in dancing,
in musical technique, in the pronunciation of a foreign language,
etc., motor control may in some instances possibly be hastened
if attention is directed toward the elementary movements in-
volved. Excluding this bare suggestion, the question of the
unit ('part') method as opposed to 'whole' learning of the
motor act seems to have been disregarded by the experimental
WHOLE J'S. PART METHODS IX MOTOR LEARNING 3
psychologist. Dearborn, Ordahl, Richardson, Swift, Freeman,
Colvin, Book, Bryan and Harter, Lenba and Hyde, Ruger, and
Thorndike may be mentioned as having either overlooked the
problem or else considered the evidence in rote and logical
learning so conclusive as to warrant analysis of the parallel
motor situation relatively useless.
Summarizing, the following points are descriptive of the
work done upon the problem of 'whole' vs. 'part' learning: (a)
It has been confined to logical and rote material, (b) Humans
have been tested but not animals, (c) The pure 'part' method
has been investigated but practically no modifications of it.
(d) Greater economy obtains with the 'whole' method, (e) Sev-
eral proposed explanations of the waste in 'part' learning have
been ofliered, but none of these has been tested under controlled
conditions.
The concern of this research, then, may be stated in certain
definite propositions :
( I ) To see whether the 'whole' and 'part' findings in rote
and logical learning hold for sensory-motor, adaptive problems ;
• (2) To determine whether these laws hold for animals as
well as humans when learning conditions are comparable;
(3) To test out certain hypotheses and determine which fac-
tors are causative for economy or waste in these methods of
learning ;
(4) To devise such modifications or combinations as may be
better than either of the above methods;
(5) To draw such conclusions from the data secured as may
have heuristic and practical values in enforcing or modifying
learning conditions imposed upon the school child.
The above program seems to the writer to be timely. The
poverty of knowledge of the motor field is obvious. As regards
the attempt to determine universality of methods, the com-
parative psychologist has likewise been dilatory. Barring the
research of Hunter (7) upon the Delayed Reaction, the litera-
ture fails to show a thoroughgoing attempt to elicit data for
humans and animals secured under identical conditions. If the
sole excuse for comparative study is to secure information that
4 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
will promote the prediction and control of human behavior rather
than to gather facts of animal behavior that have a value "in
and for themselves", then this research certainly seems oppor- '
tune. Furthermore, this research makes a thoroughgoing at-
tempt to reduce to a measurable level such obscure terms as the
strength of backward directed associations, the learning of tran-
sitions between units, etc. Finally, the need for bettering
existing methods of learning is always urgent. No doubt
criticism may be raised regarding the details of the research.
But the writer hopes that his methods will prove stimulating"
and suggestive to other investigators and that experimentation
in an exact and truly comparative sense may be carried out by-
them. Until the identity of learning conditions is established,
any talk of relative degrees of intelligence between different life
forms, universality of behavior, etc., seems little short of
academic.
In the search for a motor problem where conditions of learn-
ing might be as nearly identical as possible for the human and
the animal, the maze was selected. The researches of Small,
Watson, Carr, Kinnaman, Porter, Yerkes, Hicks, Vincent,
Bogardus and Henke, and numerous additional papers, of
scarcely less magnitude have served to make the maze problem
well nigh commonplace with the psychological experimenter.
Perrin (i6) continued the work of the Chicago Laboratory
with pencil mazes, but the comparative possibilities of his work
were not followed up^ A description of the rat and pencil
mazes used by the writer and an analysis of the method of ex-
perimentation bring out the comparability of conditions in the
present research.
Apparatus and Procedure
A maze of special design was constructed, the details
being determined solely for their adaptability to the Svhole' and
'part' learning methods. This maze "A" (page 70) was square,
1 Since the above was written, Dr. Perrin's Cs) article upon the human
and child maze reactions has appeared. It will prove interesting to the
comparative psychologist to have this valuable experimentation duplicated
with the rat.
WHOLE J'S. PART METHODS IX MOTOR LEARNING 5
with a food-box 8''-8'' in the center. The maze consisted
of four independent sections, each having its own entrance
and exit into the food-box. A distributing gaUery around
the food-box made it possible by the removal of the panels
to learn the sections in any order and to connect tbem as
desired without changing the general exit into the com-
mon food-box. Several of the connections are discussed
in detail in subsequent passages. The dotted lines (Fig. I, p. 70)
show the position of doors and removable panels. It is at once
obvious that the sectional arrangements, the conditions of enter-
ing and leaving each section, the absolute simplicity of throw-
ing the various sections into a larger motor situation, etc.,
render this design of immense value for the problem under
investigation. The doors and panels were of galvanized iron
and worked vertically in slotted brass posts. The posts were
securely screwed through the floor of the maze to a 16"- 16''
metal plate fastened under the maze floor. The passageways
were 4'' in width and height. The partitions were made of
%" stock. Each section contained three cul de sacs, each being
12'' in depth. The final one in each section (immediately
preceding the turn to the food-box) was the same in general
position for all sections. The remainder of the blinds \vere
differently placed, furnishing four distinct maze patterns. The
true pathway for each section was of constant length, 100".
This equality of the four sections in point of number of pos-
sible errors and length of the true pathway is partially com-
parable to logical memory conditions (where verses to be learned
are of the same length) and rote material (where the length of
the series and its parts are easily controllable). When the parts
were thrown together, the total distance represented in the
twelve cul de sacs was 48'^ with 400'' in the true pathway. The
interior walls, panels and doors were painted black. Covering-
was by four glass frames, the food-box being left open. Slid-
ing panels were attached to the right wall of errors number 3,
6, 9, 12. A rod extended through the outer wall of the maze
box and, when this was pulled, it closed the passageway and
prevented the return of the rat over the section just traversed.
6 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
Such a device made it easy to test the influence of the returns
in maze learning.
A second maze (Maze B) was one used by Bogardus and
Henke (i). This was used only to verify the results obtained
for one phase of the experimentation upon Maze A, namely,
the influence of preventing returns. It was unsuited in design
for further use. It contained double section alleys, these total-
ling thirteen single sections. Sliding doors were arranged for
blockino- returns at the end of sections marked b, d, and h.
Consequently, four distinct maze areas are learned but these
do not approach equality in number of errors, length of path-
wa}', etc., as in Maze A.
The human mazes duplicated exactly the pattern of the ones
just described. They were constructed out of solid brass. The
walls were made equal in thickness to the passage-ways, namely,
.7 cm. Maze A had cul de sacs 4 cm. in length. The true path-
way covered 30 cm. in each section. The entrances, exits,
blocking panels, etc, were solid brass plugs, each equipped with
a small metal post and fitted into a hole drilled in the maze
floor. The plugs were carefully adjusted and never presented
rough edges. To the tactual sense, they were parts of the reg-
ular maze wall. By adjustment, the sections could be learned
in any order and the run modified in the same ways as described
above for the animal mazes. Sections could be eliminated
without disturbing the general exit into the common open place.
Maze B was constructed along similar lines, though without
any detail of sectional complexity, since its utility was very
limited.
Each brass maze was laid flat on the table when in use and
any movement during the testing act was prevented by re-
straining strips tacked around it. The entire table was covered
with a black cloth hood. The subject could move his arm
freely under the hood, so that his learning of the maze was un-
obstructed. His only handicap consisted in being deprived of
vision. The hood was open toward the observer, so that the
learning efforts of each trial could be observed and recorded.
Animals selected for the experimentation were white rats.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS I\ MOTOR LEARNING 7
They were secured mainly from the local dealers as needed.
Some few groups were bred in the laboratory. No strain
selection was attempted. For all the groups, training began at
the age of eight or nine weeks. The rats were caged in groups
varying from five to seven for a cage and not segregated. The
cages were placed on racks around the walls of a 12' by 12'
room and were never moved from position during the learning
period. The rats were fed in the food-box for a period of ten
days before the tuition was begun. They were allowed to run
at will over the glass top of the maze. They became accus-
tomed to the feeding- environment and to human handling.
Food consisted of a bread and milk diet, each group being fed
in the food-box seven minutes per day following the comple-
tion of the day's run. Also, each rat was allowed a nibble of
food upon reaching the food-box after each run. The cages
were cleaned once per week while the group was feeding. Any
disturbances due to changes in bedding, etc., were hereby given
opportunity for subsiding during the twenty-four hours in-
tervening before the next trial. During the day, shades to
three windows were raised for sanitary reasons. These were
invariably drawn when the experimenter entered the room for
the day's testing and electric lights were switched on, one oc-
cupying the center of the ceiling and directly above the maze,
the other a drop light six feet to the rear of the main maze
entrance. All testing was done by electric light. One hundred
and seventy-seven rats were trained, ninety-one male and eighty-
six female.
The human subjects were university students from the writ-
er's classes in Introductory Psychology. Their college classifi-
cation called for sophomore standing or higher. Seventy-five
percent were sophomores. There were fifty-three men and
fifty-nine women used for the testing. The testing groups
numbered six. Each student reported privately for his test
at a period kept constant from day to day. Testing continued
at this regular period each day (barring Sunday) until the
maze was mastered. No testing was permitted with visitors
present. The testing was done in an annex to the experimenter's
8 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
office. Constant conditions of lighting, furniture arrangement-
and quietness were maintained. It is here in order to express
thanks to the students for their long-continued and punctual
observance of the testing conditions. Without their faithful-
ness, the results would be vitiated.
Regarding the method of testing, each rat was given one
run per day in the maze for four days. Following this, two
runs were given in succession per day until four out of five
successive runs were without errors. Learning was then con-
sidered finished. Time was recorded with a stop-watch from
the time the rat turned from the entrance door until he emerged
into the food-box. Errors of three types were listed sep-
arately. ( I ) Cul de sacs entered while the rat was going for-
ward. These are called Type A errors. Entrance into a cul
de sac was considered accomplished whenever the body was
squarely oriented in the error pathway. (2) Cul de sacs en-
tered while the rat was returning toward the entrance, i.e.,
blind alley errors due to the retracing. These are called Type
B errors. (3) Retracing over the true pathway. These are
called Type C errors. Such are scored when the rat is return-
ino- toward the entrance. Each short section of the return
pathway traversed constitutes one such error. During the runs
the experimenter was seated back of the main entrance and
retained this position, irrespective of the complexity of a par-
ticular learning method. The maze box was so constructed
that the rat could be placed in the various entry-ways without
causing any change in the experimenter's position.
The human subjects were given the same number of runs
per day as the rats. The criteria for mastery, scoring of
data, etc., were likewise identical. The results of each trial
were listed during the run (or immediately following in the
case of hurried, almost perfect runs). When the subject was
ready for the first run, the experimenter lifted the hand on to
the maze area, fixing the stylus in the required locality. The
following instructions were then given : "You are now on a
surface that has a pathway in various directions. Explore
the area, being careful to keep the pointer in the groove and
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 9
not allowing it to become dislodged — so ! Continue to explore
the area until I tell you to stop." No description of this or of
any maze was given. No directions as to the types of errors,
their avoidances, or striving for speed were given at any time.
The subjects were chosen primarily because of their total un-
familiarity with the maze problem. Only after the runner had
explored the entire surface and reached the open area, did the
experimenter say, "You are now in a large, square area — so!
That is called home. You must learn to reach home in the most
economical fashion."
It is obvious that the human is forced under these conditions
to rely upon contact values for the detection of blinds and the
gaining of a sense of direction. Deprived of vision, he is
'sizing' up the novel situation as the rat has been shown to do,
a fact ably demonstrated by Watson, Small, Carr and others.
In the same stumbling, trial and error fashion he learns the
concrete meaning of blind alleys, returning to a closed entrance
and the final position that means success. No attempt is here
made to state that the mental processes involved in the mastery
of the maze situation are identical for the rat and the human.
It is maintained, however, that the two have been forced to
determine the nature of a situation regarding which they were
equally in ignorance and to rely upon the same sensory avenues
fot data gathering. The satisfying of these conditions is a
prerequisite for any comparative study.
CHAPTER II
Comparison of the 'Whole' and 'Part' ^Methods With
Returns Permitted
The introductory chapter has brought out the fact that the
maze problem was the one chosen for testing the 'whole' and
'part' procedures. It has been shown that this choice makes
possible the establishment of identical conditions of learning
for the rat and the human. The identity of the maze problems
and the duplication of testing conditions for the rats and humans
have been fully set. forth. The specially designed mazes have
been described at length and their adaptability for testing the
'whole' and 'part' methods commented upon. The present chap-
ter shows how groups of rats and humans were taught the
problem by these different methods. Each group is treated
separately and its learning behavior and records are displayed
below.
(a) Utilizing Maze A, a group of twelve rate, five males
and seven females was used to establish results for 'whole'
method learning. The behavior of these rats in learning the
maze was different in no way from the descriptions generally
given. The results of this regular method of maze learning
appear in Table II. See page 72.
(b) For learning Maze A by the 'part' method, a group of
nine rats, four males and five females was used. The rats
were trained in Section I until mastery was attained. As soon
as the individual rat had reached this stage, he was transferred
to Section II, using of course entrance II and exit II. It has
been shown in Chapter I how the learning of a section did not
involve any of the other sections, since each section has an
independent entrance and exit to the food-box. Upon master}^
of this Section, tuition in the remaining units was successively
carried out. The behavior in learning the four distinct sections
presented no peculiarities, except the readiness with which the
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING ii
rat began the learning of each new problem. The general
hesitancy of attitude was lacking after Section I had been
learned. As soon as the mastery of the four units was attained,
the separating panels were removed and the rat started at
entrance I. The difference in behavior now became marked
and was characteristic for the entire group. Starting off at
full speed and with almost uniform perfection in Section I,
the rat would come suddenly to a halt at the closed door of
exit I. Sometimes he would dart back through Section I to
the entrance and would return full tilt. A hurried run into Sec-
tion II produced the same result at exit II. Hereupon the rat's
reaction generally went to pieces. Occasionally he might run
perfectly into Section II, check his speed, stop, and then return
the entire maze length. Retracing, entering blind alleys long
since eliminated, pausing, cautiously exploring the various Sec-
tions were characteristic features. Frequent complete returns
were made. Occasionally a fresh start and a rapid run would
suffice to carry the rat through the entire course. But each rat
of the group behaved uniformly respecting the inability to con-
nect the serially learned units, the enormous time lost in re-
tracing and exploring, and the speed of motion. Nor did this
confusion subside after the first successful act of connection,
as is shown from the data tabulated below. Table I gives the
number of trials and the time required for each Section and
for the connection of these, together with the errors. Table II
gives these results in comparison with the group learning by
the 'whole' method. (See page '/2.)
These numerical data show an advantage (io%) in the num-
ber of learning trials for the whole method, but this is ofifset
by an enormous expenditure of time (ii8%) and errors made
(9.5%)^ An inspection of the types of errors reveals that the
^ The attention of the reader is called to the case of a rat of the 'part*
learning group, whose records are excluded from the data presented.
This rat learned the different units in normal fashion but was unable to
connect these. For the first trial, he ran perfectly into Section II, thence
retraced until the entrance to Section I was reached. Here he sat for
one hour, whereupon he was removed. For this run, he scored no forward
going blind alleys. Two were made on the return and twenty-seven re
12
LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECTISTEIN
high number was due to retracing both the true pathway and
the cul de sacs. These are more numerous in each case for the
'whole' method (139 vs. 108 for the retrace errors and 24 vs.
17 for the retracing cul de sacs). Much of the great time
expenditure in 'whole' method learning occurs in this retracing
activity. Consequently, it points out one disadvantage of using
the 'whole' method for learning the maze. The problem im-
mediately emerges whether such repetition and time expendi-
ture due to retracing are advantageous. This is seriously called
into question, since the only favorable score of the 'whole'
method is in the scant saving of 10% of trials. The utility
of the returning effort will be investigated in Chapter III,
(c) With the human experimentation in 'whole' method learn-
ing, the behavior was identical with the general type as de-
scribed by Perrin. It agreed also wath that of the rats. The
early trials accumulated errors of all types. Much time was
expended in apparently useless movements into blinds and re-
peated returning to the entrance. Often the subject w^ould pause
as if for reflection and then attack the problem with renewed
zeal. See Table IV (page 72) for the results of this test,
(d) In the 'part' learning, the subject was never told when he
was set to w^ork upon a new section, yet he seemed to detect
the change very quickly. As in the case of the rat, the human
worked hard to master each new problem. When the four
units w^ere learned, the act of connection gave the same difficulty
as was shown by the rats. Some subjects seemed to have a
strong determination to go ahead but their control over the
situation invariably failed.- The quickest subject to connect
traces. On the next day he started out rapidly, ran without error into
Section II, returned without error to the entrance, where he sat until
removed one hour later. He was not run again. He was the single rat
of the entire group unable to connect the units.
2 It is clear that the human subject knew no more of the nature of his
task than the rat. He had not been informed that he was to connect
four sections that had been learned as units. It was part of his problem
to discover this, just as it was with the rat. The writer cannot say whether
such previous information would have modified his learning results. Such
previous instruction would certainly have rendered comparison with the
rat records impossible.
WHOLE I'S. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 13
the units required six trials, while the slowest required forty-
seven. The records of this experiment are listed in Table III,
and compared in Table IV with the 'whole' method records.
This comparison of human records shows an enormous ad-
vantage of the 'whole' method and this advantage applies to all
the measuring criteria. There is a superiority of 47% for both
total errors and time and 48% saving for number of trials.
Likewise, this advantage is equitably distributed for all types
of errors, since there is a substantial saving for each type when
learning is by the 'whole' method.
Comparing the records of the rats and humans (Table V, p.
73), we find agreement in that the 'whole' method brings final
success with fewer trials, though with greater percentage of gain
for the humans. It is seen that the rats learn their problem
wdth a saving of time and errors by the 'part' method, as op-
posed to the humans succeeding best by the 'whole'. Yet the
'whole' method is also more efficient for the rats, if the for-
ward going cul de sacs (Type A errors) are made the criterion
of measurement. If the retracings were eliminated from the
records, the 'whole' method would prove superior in all re-
spects, both for rats and humans. (This shows again the neces-
sity of testing the influence of the returning, especially with
the rats). In absolute terms, the humans learn the problem
with fewer trials and less time than the rats, both for 'whole'
and 'part' learning methods. They accumulate more errors than
the rats when the 'part' method is employed, fewer errors with
the 'whole' method. This high error accumulation in 'part'
learning is assignable mainly to the connecting of the parts.
Rats and humans agree in finding this connecting- process very
difficult, but the humans here require more trials and accumu-
late more errors of all tvpes. especially of the retracing varietv
(Type C). '
The results of this 'v/hole' and 'part' testing may be sum-
marized as follows :
( I ) Rats. Mastery is attained with a slightly less number
of trials when learning is by the 'whole' method. Such learn-
ing accumulates more errors and requires a much greater time
14 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
expenditure. The errors in excess are not cul de sacs entered
while going forward (Type A) but those due to retracing
(Type C) and the cul de sacs made possible by this (Type B).
(2) Humans. Mastery is attained with fewer trials, less
time expenditure and fewer errors of all types when learning
is by the 'whole' method.
It is apparent that additional testing is required to determine
the influence of the returning tendency. This alone prevented
the 'whole' method from proving more efficient in all cases.
If the returns are not counted in the records, it has been shown
that the 'whole' method would be better for the rats in all
respects, as it had proved with the humans. But it is not justifi-
able to exclude these returns arbitrarily. Rather, a test situa-
tion must be prepared where no more returning is allowed
in 'whole' method procedure than in 'part' learning. This is
the problem of Chapter III.
CHAPTER III
Influence of the Prevention of Returns
The experimentation reported in Chapter II made clear that
the 'whole' method invariably proves superior with the humans
and likewise with the rats, except when comparison is with
reference to the great number of retrace errors accumulated
by the latter. It was shown that the rats probably have a
greater tendency to return than the humans, and that this
tendency is no doubt exaggerated in the 'whole' method pro-
cedure. Logically, it is a question whether these returns are
causal parts of the learning process or merely incidental by-
products. If they are assisting in the mastery of the problem,
they must be counted, both for rats and humans and in both
learning methods. It might appear, consequently, that their
relative advantage would be different not only for the different
methods but also for the rats and humans. It was pointed out
that the rats accumulated a high proportion of these errors
in 'whole' method learning but that the humans did not. On
the other hand, if these errors are shown to be relatively use-
less, they should not be counted in any case for either animals
or humans. The problem of this chapter is to test the influence
of these returns.
The ec[uipment of Maze A with sliding panels for the pre-
vention of returns has been described in the introduction. It
is, of course, obvious that all returning is not prevented. It is
not feasible to prevent all retracing. For our comparative pur-
poses, it is necessary to restrict the returns in 'whole' procedure
to the same number possible in 'part' method learning. This
demands preventing the return into a definite unit section as
soon as this section has been traversed. This effectively divides
the whole maze into the four units established for 'part' learn-
ing. It renders the amount of returning in the 'whole' method
plan practically the same as naturally occurs in the 'part' method.
lO LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
It makes possible a comparison of the two methods with the
same degree of returning. This is exactly the condition desired.
A group of nine rats, four males and five females, was used
in this test. As soon as the rat had reached the closed exit
to Section I, the return panel was noiselessly pulled. By quietly
stepping to the opposite side of the maze the operator was
enabled to close the blocks to Sections II and III without dis-
tracting the animal from his task of exploration. Often the
animals would return to the closed passageway, but the find-
ing of this blocked never resulted in fright or the cessation
of the exploring activity. At no time did this group manifest
the confusion and random expenditure of energy so typical
of the previously described groups. The results of this ex-
periment are arranged for comparative purposes in Table YL
The returns in the human experimentation were prevented
by inserting the tip of a long handled rubber block. This was
constructed to fit the pathway completely. It was so held by
the experimenter as to prevent any motion if the subject re-
explored the area. Because of the general maze direction it
was possible to block the returns without getting in the way
of the subject. For the first few trials the subject was con-
fused at his inability to return. All knowledge that his path-
way had been blocked seemed lacking and he assigned his
inability to his own carelessness (see Table VI, page /t,).
Inspecting the data of Table VI, its remarkable uniformity
of results is manifest. For both animal and human learning,
prevention of returns increases the number of trials required
for complete mastery, but at an enormous saving of time and
errors. So far as regards time and errors, the greater amount
of saving is for the rats (151% vs. 18% for time, 95% vs.
56% for errors). With trials, there is 10% vs. 29% increase
in number for the humans. Considering the high savings in
time and errors and the relatively small loss in number of trials,
efBciency as between these types of 'whole' methods rests over-
whelmingly with the prevention of returns.
The study of the infiuence of the returns as a factor in
learning was continued with Maze B. This experiment in-
WHOLE I'S. PART METHODS LY MOTOR LEARXING 17
volves the double section alley as contrasted with the single
section alley of Maze A. Fourteen rats were used for the
unobstructed learning, thirteen for learning with returns blocked.
The entire groups were given fifty runs upon the maze, and
the records of all the rats for the entire period are combined.
These are summarized in Table VII, p. 73. They show for the
groups a large amount of saving, both for time and errors.
By the end of the tuition period, 64% of the unrestricted
group had mastered the mazje but only 54% of the group w^here
returns were prevented. The records of these somew^hat
quicker learners are abstracted and appear in Table VIII. They
show the same time and error saving as do the entire group
records. While a larger percentage of the unrestricted had mas-
tered the maze within the alloted period, the average number
of trials required is slightly higher. This latter fact is at
variance with the parallel results in Maze A. There is no
reason to assign this to the difference in type of alleys of
the two mazes, or to attempt any explanation, since the re-
sults are for a picked group. If, however, the results for the
humans upon the same double section maze (where learning
was continued until mastery was attained), should contradict
the conclusions drawn from the work on Maze A, the ques-
tion of double section alleys might be raised. Otherwise, it
might be concluded that the full completion of the training
would produce the results in increased number of trials for
obstructed learning as previously stated for Maze A.
Turning to the human learning of Maze B, here again it is
found that the entire group masters the problem wath less runs
when freedom is allowed but that more errors are amassed
(Table VIII, p. 73). The restricted group fails slightly to main-
tain the time advantages generally secured (2.7% decrease),
but this and the extraordinarily high number of trials are trace-
able no doubt to two students of the restricted group, who
required 79 and 87 runs respectively for mastery.^
1 The daily records of these two fail to show a continuous fixation of
specific errors but rather a general inability to secure a uniform record from
day to day. The extreme length of their learning series increased a native
tendency to nervousness.
i8 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
From the data of human and rat learning, both for Mazes
A and B and not only for complete mastery but also for a
limited number of trials, it seems correct to conclude that pre-
vention of returns increases slightly the number of trials re-
quired for mastery but this is accomplished by an enormous
saving in time and accumulated errors.
It cannot now be said that the retracing plays no part in
the final mastery of the maze situation. Such an answer will
depend finally upon maze records where returns are absolutely
blocked. The writer is planning the details of such an experi-
ment. He now has in preparation a detailed analysis of the
learning of the maze with and without prevention of returns.
Here there will be an attempt made to determine the exact
value of the retrace error and the retrace cul de sac as factors
in mastery. It appears almost conclusive from present data
that the retracing and entering into blind alleys, made pos-
sible by this retracing are practically useless items. Graphs
for the rats learning Maze A show that retracing is a negligible
factor long before the first half of the number of required
trials has been made; that the return cul de sacs cease to play
any part after the first two-fifths of the trials in the case of
unobstructed learning and after the first fifth for obstructed;
that the forward directed errors are almost identical in num-
ber and in distribution throughout the entire learning period
and that they and they almost solely determine the learning
curve for the last half of the tuition period. (See graphs I to
lY). This seems to indicate that the beginning trials are
very wasteful when waste is permitted; that the maze is never
mastered until the rat finally settles down to the difificult task
of forward elimination of errors; that the early trials do
not measure learning but primarily the extravagant and use-
less expenditure of energy. This would argue that the re-
tracing is mainly of no efficiency in learning and hence should
be disregarded. If the retracings are eliminated from the
records discussed in Chapter II, it is certain that the 'whole'
method ranks superior in every possible respect. It was in-
sisted upon in the earlier discussion that the retracings are
WHOLE JS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 19
the only factors contributing to the high error scores of the
'whole' method procedure, and that such a condition maintained
only with the rats. This view is certainly strengthened by the
findings of the present chapter. The obvious implications of
this are two. ( i ) It seems fair to question whether the cus-
tomary practice of including the retracing in the measurement
of maze learning is justified. (2) Considerable light is shed
upon the advantage of the complete forward direction of effort
throughout the entire learning period.
Furthermore, this evidence leads the writer to question the
reliability of viewpoint basic to the recent controversial litera-
ture resrardino- the order of the elimination of errors in maze
learning. It seems important that the investigators should take
into account the big question regarding the influence of the
prevention of the returns before any conclusions are drawn
in reference to a general eliminative tendency. Again, if true
learning is not to be measured by total errors (as suggested
above), should the measuring of the alleged eliminative ten-
dency be begun until the stage of aggressive, forward directed
learning is reached? This monograph waives any discussion
of the order of error elimination, but the topic will be discussed
at a later period.
Having tested out the influences of the partial prevention of
returns and found that such procedure produces an enormous
saving in time and errors, it is in order to compare these re-
sults with the statistics of 'part' learning as presented in
Chapter II. See Table IX, p. 74, for the data. For both rats and
humans, the 'whole' method is strikingly superior. Any ques-
tion of approximate value for the two methods would rest upon
the like number of trials for the rat learning (30 trials for
both 'whole' and 'part'). But the evaluation of the two methods
as equally efficient is totally unwarranted in the face of the
overwhelming decrease of time (13%) and errors (44%).
With the humans, this decrease is 26, 126 and 1937^ respectively
for number of trials, time and errors. It is certain, then, that
for both rats and humans the 'whole' method in motor learn-
ing is to be preferred to the 'part' method, provided unlimited
20 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECH STEIN
returning is prevented, or if not prevented, that the return
errors are excluded from the data being compared.
The resuUs of testing the prevention of the returns in
Svhole' method procedure may be summarized as follows :
(i) The number of trials for mastery is slightly increased,
both for rats and humans.
(2) There is a very marked saving in time for mastery and
the number of errors is greatly reduced.
(3) The saving in time and the avoidance of errors are
assignable directly to the prevention of the retracing.
(4) The forward going cul de sac errors (Type A) are
almost constant in number with each method for the same
divisions of the learning period.
(5) The retracing is largely useless and should probably
be disregarded.
(6) The rat's tendency to retrace is stronger than the
human's, but the prevention of returns affects the learning of
both in identical fashion.
(7) 'Whole' method learning is more efficient than 'part'
learning for both rats and humans, provided no more retracing
is allowed than is possible in 'part" procedure.
CHx\PTER IV
Elements of Waste in Tart' Learning
The preceding chapter has shown that the 'whole' method
of motor learning proves superior in all cases, provided no
more retracing is allowed than is present in 'part' learning.
It is conclusive that the 'part' method fails to secure success
with fewer trials, less time consumption, and the accumulation
of fewer errors. Naturally, it is necessary to determine the
exact factors that create such a condition. Specifically, this
means to seek out experimentally the elements of weakness in
the 'part' method. Investigators of the methods in the rote
and logical fields came to agreement regarding the causes con-
tributing toward making the 'whole' method universally su-
perior. These proposed explanations have been stated in the
opening chapter (see p. 2). Two comments need to be
made. These proposed causative factors have never been tested
in motor learning, nor have they ever been subjected to meas-
urement under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. The
aim of this chapter is to test various a priori hypotheses and
hereby secure a statistical evaluation of their validity. Several,
of those proposed for rote and logical learning are handled.
However, several distinctly new conditioning factors are tested,
not only because of their immediate connection with the maze
act but also because of their logical reference to learning in
general.
(a) Loss due to negative transfer in the learning of the
motor units.
Until determined to the contrary, it may be argued that learn-
ing one section (one motor unit) exerts an unfavorable in-
fluence upon the mastery of succeeding units. While transfer
in motor learning has often been investigated, there are no
results that show conclusively whether such transfer — either
positive or negative — continues unchecked in operation for sev-
22 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
eral successive problems. This influence may be so great as
to cause an enormous expenditure of learning effort upon the
subsequent maze sections. This harmful negative transfer may
be the chief factor contributing to the accumulation of the
numerous errors in 'part' learning. Reference to Tables I and
III shows that this situation cannot be ignored.
Control groups, numbering six for both rats and humans,
were taught as a single problem either Part II, III or IV of
IMaze A. These records denote the normal time required for
the mastery of each unit when the learner is free from the
influence of a previous learning act. A comparison of these
with the records of the groups learning all the four units (the
'part' learners discussed in Chapter II) reveals that successive
learning is rendered far easier by previous related activity (See
Tables X, XI, p. 74). This positive transfer can be roughly esti-
mated by bringing together our measurements of learning in
the formula T = — ^^- where t, s, and e rep-
t.s.e.
resent the number of trials, time in seconds and errors respect-
ively for the case of original learning and t', s', and e' for the
parallelled transfer conditions. The formula thus stated re-
lates the amount of saving to the original learning conditions.
Employing it, there is found positive transfer of 43, 47 and
g% respectively for Sects. II, III, and IV in the rat situation,
and 2.3, 46 and 70% for the human. ^ Instead of finding an
element of waste in 'part' learning, there has been revealed one
of its fundamental advantages. Therefore, transfer as an ele-
ment of waste in 'part' learning of this maze type must be
1 The percentage of transfer increases with the human throughout the
learning of the four mazes. The rat percentage for the fourth problem
is relatively a marked decline. This is due to a single rat of the 'part'-
learning group requiring 47 runs to eliminate a single error. This raised
the group average so high as to allow only a factor of i^ run to function
for the number of trial gain in the formulaic estimation. It is an interesting
problem to determine whether transfer should be increasingly favorable
in successive mazes numbering more than four and to what limits. The
writer believes it obtains certainly for four simple mazes and probably
beyond the number. Many factors naturally enter in.
WHOLE J'S. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 23
rejected, for transfer is strongly positive and advantageous.
(b) Loss due to disintegration through time.
Considering that the learning effort was distributed from
day to day and that the mastery of the individual units in-
volved relatively long periods of time, it appears logical to
assign a good part of the great loss in 'part' learning to a mere
forgetting of the earlier learned pathways. By averaging the
number of days elapsing between the learning of Sections I,
II, and III, and the return to these in the final act of connec-
tion, there is found a very appreciable time interval. This is
fifteen, eleven, and four days for section I, II, and III re-
spectively with the rats and thirteen, eight, and five respectively
for the humans.
Different groups of untrained rats were taught a single unit
and then allowed to rest for the recjuired time interval. During
this interval, the rats vrere placed daily upon the maze top
and allowed to run for one minute before food was placed in
the food-box. This furnished approximately the same amount
of daily activity upon the maze and gave the rat the exercise
demanded to preserve good bodily conditions. Cramped cage
conditions necessitate this. At the end of the interval, the rats
were retrained upon their respective sections. This was con-
tinued until the mastery criterion of four successful runs was
satisfied. Hence, the disintegration through time is measured
by the relearning expenditure. Human groups were excused
from reporting to the laboratory for the appropriate interval.
Their loss due to time is likewise measured by the relearning
method. Tables XV, X\T, pp. 75-6, present these data. The dis-
integration is notably small. In fact, nearly all the group mem-
bers were perfect in retention and the relearning effort was
mainly expended by a single rat and some human subjects that
had originally learned their problem very hurriedly.^ It is
certain, therefore, that disintegration through time must be
disregarded as a waste element in motor 'part' learning.^
2 This was especially true with Rat Number 4 of the Section II group.
His original learning required but one trial, with two errors, and 487 sec-
onds. His relearning required seven trials, eleven errors, and forty seconds.
This suggests not only the question of relationship between speed of
24 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
(c) Loss due to retro-active inhibition.
It has been shown above that learning one motor unit is
favorable for mastering subsequent ones and that a unit will
not disintegrate during a limited time interval, provided only
one such unit has been learned. But are the conditions re-
versed when the rat is taught several such units? Specifically,
do the learning efforts expended in mastering Sections II, III,
& IV, impair the ability of running I, II, III, and even the last
mastered, IV? The influence of the interval of time under such
conditions may logically be disregarded (see section above)
but it is mandatory that the control over each sectional path-
way be carefully tested. If this control has been broken up by
subsecjuent learning activity, it is obvious that herein rests
the explanation for much of the inability to connect the units
in the final motor series.
An entirely new control group of rats was trained upon the
learning and accuracy in retention but also whether the maze has ever
been learned until the rat has taken time to work it out thoroughly, —
either in the original learning or relearning process. There is fundamental
difference between knowing how to steer by the unexplored areas (cul de
sacs never entered) and knowing the character, depth, and position of
these. The writer has never had a rat that did not work out the maze
completely, either in the original or relearning situation. Considerable
data relative to the learning time and retention accuracy will be published
at a later period.
3 This paper has waived detailed discussion of the question of retention,
though the writer heartily agrees that one measure of the efficiency of a
learning method is the strength of retention (as Meumann had shown
in the case of rote ilearning). Group records have been accumulated
for 'whole' method learners, witli and without the prevention of
returns, and for eight, seven, and five weeks. No big differences seem
to appear for the same time intervals. The accuracy is very high, the
loss being in the time of the first several runs in retesting. This is not
due to exploration of cul de sacs or retracing but to slow and cautious
rate of forward progress. Records for 'whole' and 'part' learners, where
there was progressive retesting for i, 2, 3, and 4 week intervals between the
retesting (hot the original learning) seem again to reveal strong reten-
tion, but with a probable time value in favor of the 'whole' learners.
This is to be expected, since the final four perfect runs of 'part' learners
in the original learning act are invariably slower than for the 'whole'
learners. However, the writer regards the retention question in its rela-
tion to original learning methods as being practically unattacked in this
motor realm.
WHOLE FS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 25
four motor units, following the exact procedure laid dov/n for
the 'part' group. As soon as the individual rat had mastered
the final unit, Section IV, he was retrained upon Section I.
Such retraining was kept up until the mastery criterion of four
successful runs was satisfied. By this relearning method, there-
fore, the experimenter was enabled to measure the retro-active
inhibition exerted upon Section I. Note that entirely differ-
ent and completely trained control groups would be required
for measuring- this inhibition on Section II and Section III,
provided the single group failed to demonstrate its ability to
run not only Section I, but Sections II and III in turn. Table
XII, page 75, embodies the data. Inspection reveals practically
absolute control of the successive units."* Hence, only one group
was employed for the testing of all the sections. When the
entire group recjuired for the complete relearning of the four
sections but an average of .6 trials, 3.9 seconds, and .65 errors
per section (with all the relearning effort being directed to one
section and herein expended mainly by a single blind rat), it
is obvious that retro-active inhibition must be disregarded as an
element of the great waste m learning the maze by the 'part'
method.
(d) Loss due to contiguity of unit functioning.
It has been shown that learning a section does not interfere
with the acquisition of a section on subsequent days (Transfer).
Also, it is clear that the mastery of a new section does not
interfere with the running of previously learned sections, pro-
vided that at least a day interval is allowed between tests.
{Retro-active inhibition). Finally, all the motor units learned
may function perfectly, provided a day or more elapses be-
tween the trial acts. {Retro-active inhibition). But it is pos-
4 Attention is called to the fact that Section III alone presented difficulty.
This difficulty is almost negligible, since 2.2 errors for a group is of
course practically to be disregarded. It will furnish cold comfort to some
of the present day animal psychologists to be told that the errors of
Section III were made by two rats, the first, completely blind, whose re-
learning effort required seven trials, nine errors and fifty-three seconds,
the other, three trials, two errors and fourteen seconds. These two rats
alone determine the scores for Section III. If the blind rat were ex-
cluded, the averages for the group would approach zero.
26 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
sible that two acts might function successfully without any
interference between them when there is interposed this con-
siderable time interval, and yet that marked interference might
occur if these different motor habits were forced to function im-
mediately in succession, a condition that maintains in the con-
necting act of 'part' procedure. The difficulty so clearly demon-
strated in the connecting act in 'part' learning may consist
primarily in an interference resulting from this contiguity of
function. The validity of this hypothesis had to be tested, not
only in the case of motor acts learned in immediate succession,
but for all possible combinations of the total collection of acts
at the disposal of the subject.
A new group of rats (six in number), was taught the four
maze sections. Retesting was made upon various sections as
soon as Section IV was mastered. Here, differing from the
group reported in the retro-active inhibition test, each rat was
given but one run per section and then changed immediately
to one not successively learned. This requires two distinct
adjustments. All typical combinations were tested. These, for
successive days, were I & III, II & IV, IV & I, III & I,
IV & II. These tests of five days produce almost perfect re-
sults. In no case did the group average higher than 2/5 errors
for the day. Most individuals of the group were able to adjust
immediately to any such combinations and to accommodate to
these changing recjuirements day after day. Finally, the daily
task was increased by compelling double the general amount of
work and this in the inverted order of learning, namely, suc-
cessive runs in IV, III, II and I. This increasing demand in
amount of work and complexity failed absolutely to create a
breakdown in control. Three of the rats ran the entire four
sections perfectly, each of the remaining three attained a single
error for the entire four problems. The scantiness of errors
renders untenable any opinion that the 'part' learner does not
have control over the specific units he has mastered. This
control exists irrespective of the order in which the units are
required to function or of their functional contiguity.
(e) Loss due to unit incompatibility in a larger series.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 27
It is logically possible that the various units present in-
hibitory tendencies one to the other in the act of connection
and that these units have to be destroyed before the final act
of union can be made. In other words, it needs to be shown
whether any motor unit can function as a specific part in a
bigger motor situation. Section (d) above merely showed that
the units can function in temporal contiguity. It argued noth-
ing regarding whether a definite part of a total act can function
independent of that act. Obviously, if a group having mastery
of the entire motor situation can run all parts of that situation
as parts and various combinations of these parts, the ques-
tions of incompatibility of units and their inability to function
as parts of a whole must be answered negatively.
The rat and human groups having been taught ]\Iaze A in
the most advantageous fashion ('whole' method with returns
prevented) were tested upon the various parts. (These so-
called parts are the four jtnifs mastered in 'part' learning). By
the removal and insertion of panels in the rat mazes and metal
plugs for the humans, new connections were easily made
possible, yet the character of the parts was unchanged. It was
considered essential to try the rearranged parts in the forward
learning order and the more crucial condition of inverted learn-
ing order. Hence, the subjects were tested in successive order
upon I to III, II to IV, and IV to I Maze constructions. Between
the completion of each such test, the subject was retrained
upon the maze as a whole. This not only tested his ability
to add to a modified act all the original parts but prepared him
for an equitable attack upon each novel construction.
The behavior in the several changes was typical throughout
for both rats and humans. A slowing up of speed at the new
junction and an occasional retrace were followed by a headlong
dash into the new section. No retracing occurred in the new
section. An inspection of Tables XIII and XIV, p. 75, shows the
amazing accuracy of both rats and humans in running the
sections in variable order. This points to the fact that a motor
unit may function as such, provided it has been mastered as
part of a zvJioIe. It shows that no incompatibility as between
28 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
specific parts exists in the motor problem. iVgain, it enforced
the conckision reached in (d), that the sections have no in-
herent interference when functioning in immediate contiguity.
Taken in conjunction with (d), it proved that the difficulty
of putting the parts together is because the parts were learned
as unit wholes.
From the above series of tests, certain definite conclusions
may be stated, these having reference to the alleged causes of
waste in 'part' learning. The conclusions apply for animals
and humans.
( 1 ) Learning one motor unit does not render the mastery
of subsequent units more difficult. Transfer is strongly posi-
tive, thus pointing out a clear advantage of the 'part' method.
(2) Practically no disintegration of the motor habit occurs
during the time between initial mastery and the final connecting
act.
(3) No retro-active inhibition is exerted upon motor habits
by the learning of subsequent ones.
(4) Different motor units may function as units in any
order. Contiguity of unit functioning fails to disturb the motor
habits.
(5) Parts of a motor act present no incompatibility to each
other when they are learned as parts of a larger motor situa-
tion. They may function perfectly as parts, in any successive
combination of parts, or in the entire motor series. Their
capacity for part functioning is never lost.
The above generalizations emphasize the necessity of exclud-
ing as factors of waste in 'part' learning whatever refers to
the mastery of the several units or the interrelationship between
these units. By these elimination tests, the writer is led to
conclude that waste in the maze problem occurs only in the
act of connection and is here traceable almost entirely to the
influence .of place association. This hypothesis is discussed and
tested at length in the following chapter.
CHAPTER \'
Place Association and its Relation to Impovement of
THE 'Part' Method
The universal inferiority of the 'part' method has been demon-
strated. Numerous proposed causes of waste in 'part' learn-
ing have been tested and rejected. Chapter IV brought out
the fact that the writer relies mainly upon place association
for an explanation of the poor results obtained by this method.
Place association refers to the definite location of an ele-
ment of a problem in reference not only to the remaining de-
tails of that problem but to the entire environment. In the
case of rote learning a certain syllable is learned in reference
to its antecedent and consequent (immediate association) and
to the remainder of the terms (mediate association). It is
hereby assigned a definite position in the word series. This
places it in a conceptual scheme. It is located at a definite
number of syllable intervals from both the introductory term
and the terminal one of the list. It is reached after the same
time expenditure in each trial and is followed by a constant
time span for the completion of the presentation. Both spatial
and temporal factors are concerned in establishing the positional
relationsliips.
In motor learning of the maze type, the establishment of
place associations represents a large part of the learning. These
associations are no doubt very complex. Certain ones may
be indicated, (a) Time. The learner comes to relate a cer-
tain time span to a certain change of activity. Specifically,
a short time run for the rat means a cessation of the running
activity and the substitution for this of feeding. Also, it is
logical to suppose that each critical turn or element of the
maze pathway is located (though not in a conceptual sense)
in the entire time span just as definitely as a term is located in
a series of nonsense syllables. (b) Distance. The learner
30
LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
is taught to run a certain distance and secure a desired change
of activity. In the case of 'part' learning, each section re-
quires that the same distance be traversed. Consequently, the
learner attacks his daily problem with the expectation of having
it solved when certain clearly defined time and distance de-
mands have been satisfied, (c) Details of the maze pathways.
Each turn, cul de sac and section of the true pathway become
positionally established. A given corner may be located in
reference to many factors, e.g., the opening into the food-box,
the starting place, the next cul de sac, the electric lights, the
position of the experimenter, etc. Each aspect of the course
is no doubt associated with and located in reference to all the
details of the course and to the entire objective environment
as well.
The above suggestions may not be exhaustive. It seems to
the writer, however, that they state the main types of place
associations that are set up in learning the maze problem.
Also, it seems logical to assign the difficulty of the act of
connection in 'part' learning to the break up of these specific
positional factors. If they are causative of the waste in 'part'
learning, the behavior of the learners should reveal it. Again,
the evidence drawn from the previous experiments must sup-
port the hypothesis. Finally, the factors of place association
must be so experimentally treated as to show the exact way
they are operating to condition waste. Such a treatment of these
factors would produce better learning results than were secured
by the pure 'part' method provided the factors are eliminated
or negated to some degree. This would demand the devising
of improved methods of 'part' learning. The task of the chapter
is given to the three necessary lines of procedure stated above.
(a) Behavior.
The behavior of both rats and humans in the act of con-
necting the successive sections was described in Chapter II.
It may be characterized as passing through ten distinct stages,
(i) Free and unchecked. When started at the remotely learned
Section I, the subject "got his bearings" and proceeded rapidly
and accurately. (2) Break down in control. This occurred
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 31
at the closed exit to Section I. It is characterized by a cessa-
tion of forward directed activity. (3) Testing of old habits.
The subject might retrace or dash into Section II. He had
learned the meaning of the retracing habit when the pathway
was blocked (e.g., in a cul de sac) and also the going ahead
habit. (4) Failure of habitual adjustment. Retracing brings
failure. Arrival at the exit of Section II (generally the ex-
ception for the opening trial at connecting) brings like results.
The run through Section II was irregular, wavering, and gen-
erally given up, the subject returning to Exit I and then into
Section I. This stage is characterized by the development of
a strong emotional factor, roughly to be designated as con-
fusion or lack of confidence. (5) Random activity. Here
complete inability to handle the situation is manifest. Aimless
darting into alleys, incessant complete and partial returns, com-
plete cessation of activity followed by rapid attacks are evident.
(6) Directed activity. The subject settles down to the prob-
lem, relying not on specific control of units but upon his gen-
eral maze knowledge. This stage is one characterized by per-
sistency. (7) Accidental success. No less than in the first
act of learning, this trial and error process brings the desired
result. Judging by the behavior upon the last few sectional
passageways, the subject had little, if any, knowledge that he
was approaching the desired goal. Following the first suc-
cessful trial, the subsequent trials suffice for the (8) fixation
of the useful movements, (9) elimination of the useless, and
the (10) final complete organization of the sensori-motor
connection.
The above analysis of the behavior in the act of connection
shows clearly the complete breakdown of control. Short time
and distance relationships absolutely fail to bring the changed
activity previously secured. A specific maze corner ceases to
mean a turn "to be followed by food getting." It is now a
turn that leads to a new situation, calling for far more time
expenditure, more distance to be traversed, etc. The several
closed exits represent the critical points where old habits fail.
Here the subjects halts, explores the situation, and shows in
33 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
every possible way that his control over the motor situation
has broken down.
(b) Comparison with previous tests.
It was demonstrated in Chapter III that each unit of the
maze could function perfectly as an element. This ability
w^as shown to maintain irrespective of the order of functioning
of the several units. This fact argues that positional factors
are never disturbed so long as the motor habits are allowed
to function as units, but that the connection of these unit habits
into a series immediately brings disturbance. It was also dem-
onstrated that elements learned as parts of a whole could be
put together in any fashion without difficulty. Such opera-
tions did not call for an extension and enlargement of short
temporal and spatial relationships. Rather, they represent cases
where the subject reaches his goal with less time consumption
and less distance traversed than is customary. This difference
emphasizes the writer's general contention. It seems certain
from these facts that the place associations set up when the
parts are mastered have such great strength that they render
the act of serial connection extremely difficult.
(c) Experimentation directed toward the elimination of the
positional factors.
It is obviously impossible to devise modified methods of
'part' learning where some positional factors (short time acts,
short distance traversed, etc.) are not established. No test
can be devised to eliminate all these factors at once. It is
necessary to eliminate these progressively and in the most ad-
vantageous fashion. The tests to be described have value to
the extent in which they eliminate or negate to a degree some
one or some group of the positional factors. The nature of
each new test and the learning will be treated comparatively.
A presentation of the learning scores and an appropriate evalua-
tion of each method are reserved until this preliminary survey
of the methods and the learning behavior has been made. (See
pages 39 sq.)
(i) 'Direct Repetitive'.
Rat groups and humans were trained upon Section I until
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 33
mastery was accomplished. At this stage, the individual sub-
ject was required to run through the mastered Section I into
Section II. This change in the maze pathway was rendered
possible by the removal of the dividing panel and the closing
of Exit I. When mastery of the I-II course was completed,
III was added to the accumulating series, finally IV. In each
modification, then, the subject was required to repeat the familiar
area and to enter the strange. A review of the mastered sec-
tions was hereby given in each trial. Furthermore, the place
associations set up during the mastery of Section I were re-
constructed as soon as mastery was attained. The problem
was made to expand. 'Part' learning called for an isolated
attack upon Section II, this and subsec[uent sections serving
very largely to make more deeply seated the short time and
short distance factors of each maze unit. The identity in length
of the four units argues for this. But by this 'direct repetitive'
method, however, the positional factors are no sooner set up
than they are made to relate to a larger, more complex situation.
The behavior of these groups was characteristic. Upon finding
Exit I blocked, the rat usually proceeded very cautiously into
Section II, generally making numerous partial returns to Exit I.
Seldom was retracing continued through Section I. The human
behaved the same way, but the retracing was probably less marked.
Both for rats and humans, there was little or no hesitation
after the second trial upon the arrival at Exit I. The same
is true for retracing. The entire efforts of the learners seemed
directed to the mastery of the final, unfamiliar unit. The speed
of approach to this attack was generated by the running of
Section I. It shows the operation of a factor roughly to be
considered the influence of the known. It bespeaks for the
method a favorable "warming-up" period. (See Tables XVII &
XVIII).
(2) 'Reversed Repetitive'.
Rat and human groups were trained upon Section I\' until
mastery was attained. As soon as the individual mastered this
final unit, he was required to attack the third, working through
this into the previously learned IV. In turn, he added on as the
first part of the accumulating motor series Sections II and I.
34 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECIJSTEIN
In each modification, then, the subject attacked the novel and
ended each trial by traversing the familiar. The problem may
be stated as testing the influence of the unknown. This
method of learning is, therefore, the reverse of the 'direct repe-
titive' described above. It consists essentially in learning the
maze backwards, as opposed to the forward aspect of the pre-
vious method. Each trial calls not only for the partial mastery
of a new section (the first part of each run) but for the final
review of the previously mastered units as well. Both these
'repetitive' methods differ from the 'part' method in the fact
that the various sections are not mastered separately. The value
of these repetitive methods seems obvious. Place factors never
become strongly established. This is doubly clear in this last
mentioned method ('reversed repetitive'). Herein the subject
has never learned habits of stopping, except at one particular
place, i.e., the open door of the food-box. The following para-
graph on the behavior in this learning method shows why this is
true.
The behavior of these groups differs from that of the 'direct
repetitive' type. Usually, after the learning of general maze
habits in Section IV, the new problem was attacked eagerly.
When the entrance from III into IV was reached (a place where
the subject had never learned to stop) recognition with the rats
was extremely obvious. Speed was quickened and Section IV
run with precision. This general behavior was manifest for all
the successive modifications. There was never any stopping at
a closed door, for the subject had never made any associations
of food getting, changing of running activity, etc., with this.
Rather, the closed door meant the entrance to a familiar maze
section, one that called for quickened speed and the satisfying
of the desired activity at the same identical terminal point.
But the recognition cue in the case of the humans failed to
function as definitely.^ (See Tables XVII and XVIII.) Conse-
1 Maze studies of Carr and Watson (31 and 20) seem to argue for the
strengtih of the kinaesthetic cue as the recognitive agency in the maze
situation. The evidence of the present research assigns most of the
recognitive capacity to vision. Failure of recognition with the humans
may be due to lack of vision. Of course, the question whether the human
had reduced the control to the kinaesthetic level is involved.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 35
qiiently this method fails to score very high with the humans.
(3) 'Progressive Part'.
Rat and human groups were trained in Section I, and then
taught Section II as a new problem. Connection of Sections I
and II was then required, this being followed by a mastery of
III and its addition to the I-II course. A final tuition on IV
and its addition to the I-III series completed the experiment.
This type of learning resembles the part method in that the
sections are learned as definite units. But these parts are made
to function as soon as the first two are learned in a bigger,
more complex motor situation. The strength of place asso-
ciations is not continually on the increase, as is the case when
four equal units are mastered in pure 'part' learning. Rather,
single groups of these positional factors are progressively elimin-
ated. Consequently, the method may be termed 'progressive
part'. Tlie iiiflitcnce of successively learned additions is hereby
measured. Herein the difference between this 'progressive part'
and the 'repetitive part' methods is clearly seen. The latter call
for a review of the mastered areas in conjunction with the
learning of the new. Two types of activity are present. The
former method demands either the exploring activity or that
different type required for the connection of mastered sections.
These cases are quite dift'erent. The significance of this fact
will be commented upon later in the chapter. Also, these
methods relate dift'erently to the positional factors. The 'direct
repetitive' method demands a disregard of the place associa-
tions set up in reference to the exit of the first short maze
section and an entry into an unknown area. The 'reversed repe-
titive' method calls for an initial attack upon a novel situation,
this being terminated by a recognition of and a hurried traversal
through the known areas. Little unseating of place associations
is demanded. The 'progressive part' method demands a dis-
regard of the place associations as in the 'direct repetitive' case.
However, such disregard is far easier because the area to be
entered is entirely familiar and is that which has just been
mastered. The difference of these three cases is highly
significant.
36 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
The behavior of rats and humans was strictly parallel. Sec-
tions I and II were mastered in regular fashion. The connec-
tion of the two presented little difficulty, not nearly the degree
manifested by the original 'Part' Group. It was shown in
Chapter II that few of these 'part' learners progressed as far
as Exit II without errors. (Note that such a group has four
units mastered rather than two). In fact, most of the sub-
jects, both rats and humans, effected the connection without
errors of any type. The subsequent learning of III and IV
and their successive additions follow the description of easy
learning just stated for I and II. Certain rats and humans
effected the entire series of combining acts without error. The
behavior of each subject clearly shows that the elimination of
the place associations is rendered very easy by this 'progressive
part' method. (See Tables XVII and XVIII.)
(4) 'Elaborative Part'.
This experiment was not planned as an improvement upon
the part method but represents one of the happy accidents that
occasionally turn up in a research largely directed into the dark.
The work was restricted to rats. It is included here for sug-
gestive and not comparative purposes. Also, it throws some
light upon the results of the 'modified part' methods just de-
scribed. The work is here discussed in detail, as it will not be
referred to in the subsequent discussion of results (pp. 39 sq.).
The test group of rats was the same as that reported in
Chapter IV, Section d. This group had been trained as for
'part' learning except that no act of connection had been
allowed. Hence, the rats had command of four distinct maze
habits. They were tested upon succeeding days for their control
of the units, taking in succession various changing pairs. On
the sixth day, the rats were required to run the entire collec-
tion of units but in the order directly opposed to that finally to
be desired.- The extreme skill in doing this has been com-
2 This complex reviewing of the units in no sense altered the place-
association factors set up for each motor unit. Rather, it required the
rat to adapt quickly to a change in sensory conditions. It forced him to
utilize successively all the motor habits at his disposal. It prepared him to
attack any maze situation without delay. In these respects the 'elaborative
WHOLE J'S. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 37
merited upon. (See page 26.) Immediately at the dose of
this IV, III, II, I testing, the rat was placed in Section I and
given opportunity of connecting all the parts. The data are
recorded in Table XIX. These are itemized for the specific runs
given and are complete up to trial four. By the end of this
trial the entire group had mastered the entire maze. (Trials
2-4 were given the day following trial i).
Significant comment must be made regarding the connecting
behavior. Two of the rats ran perfectly ; three entered one
blind alley; but continued the journey; one entered one blind
alley and returned fifteen sections to the doorway, this being
followed by a perfect run. The time of this initial trial was
remarkably low (41 seconds). The ability to connect the sec-
tions certainly seemed amazing in view of the behavior mani-
fested by the 'part' group reported in Chapter II. The method
closely duplicates the original 'part' method. The sole differ-
ences are that the unit sections were run in immediate succes-
sion as units just before the connecting act, and that there
was a review of the parts during the several days just preceding
the connecting trial. This is responsible for the great dif-
ference in results.
Certain causative factors are perhaps statable.
(a) It may be that there is a slight loss in the ability to control
the specific motor habits, this being traceable to the disintegra-
tion through time and to retroactive inhilDition. But such a
loss certainly proves non-effective in causing disturbance when
the sections are run simply as units. The general adaptive
powers of the organism may prove too weak, however, when
the four motor habits are required to function together, and
in conjunction with disturbances of place associations. Hence,
the 'elaborative part' procedure has its value not in running
two or more sections on the same day, but in practicing the
various sections separately and hereby eliminating loss. This
is a 'practice', a 'warming up', or a 'refreshing' theory.
part' method dififers from the pure 'part' method. The two methods do
not differ in so far as the former has specifically eliminated certain of
the positional factors before the final act of connection.
38 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
(b) The diU'erence between the 'part' and 'elaborative part'
scores may be due to place association. In 'part' learning, the
rat learns a series of acts, — runs one section; eats food; runs
the same section; eats food; removal to cage. This is a unitary
series and is completed each day. In the 'elaborative' method,
the final procedure is different. Here the series of acts learned
is illustrated by the following procedure : — runs Section I ; eats
food ; runs Section II ; eats food ; etc. ; removal to cage. This
is wholly different from the series established while mastery
of the separate units w^as being attained. It breaks up this
earlier series of acts. This break-up is not so great but that
the rat can adapt to it. Yet it is sufficient to make the transfer
to the connecting situation (I-IV) far easier. In other words,
it might be possible to proceed from four unit sections to link-
ing these without a manifest disturbance, provided such was
accomplished by gradual steps.
(c) In linking four units together, positive association must
be established. Some connection may be established while the
units are being learned, for all the units are parts of a com-
mon situation of food, location environment, experience, etc.
The act of linking requires a closer association and this is ac-
complished by contiguity, — functioning in immediate succes-
sion. The connecting act of 'part' learning serves this need.
The 'elaborative part' method aids the establishment of the
final close association by bringing the units together in time
and in succession for the first time, and yet in such a way that
the distractions which cause errors are not present. The units
are first brought together two at a time instead of four, and
this proceeding by easy stages is advantageous.
(d) On first thought, the difference in scores for the 'part'
and 'elaborative part' groups may be largely due to group dif-
ferences. This hypothesis is worthless, as the behavior and
records of the two groups clearly show. (See pages ii and
37-)
(e) Some possibility unnoticed by the writer may be ex-
planatory for the difference of results. The above points are
merely suggestive and it may be that they are not exhaustive
for the situation.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 39
Leaving the speculative treatment of the 'elaborative part'
method, there are certain general conclusions that may be drawn
from an inspection of Tables XVII and XVIII, page 76, re-
garding the 'modified part' methods.
( 1 ) For the rats.
The three modifications of the 'part' method all prove superior
to the 'pure part' method and to the 'whole', irrespective of the
favorable blockage of returns. Superiority is demonstrated by
all the criteria of measurement (time, trials, and total errors),
except for the total error criterion in the case of the 'direct
repetitive' method. Here the total errors exceed the number
in the 'whole' method with returns prevented. This difference
is no doubt due directly to an allowable retracing (Type C
error) in the case of the former method. This exception, how^-
ever, disappears by making a comparison with the forward
cul de sac (Type A) error. The 'part' method and the 'whole'
method with returns allowed prove inefficient as learning
methods.
(2) For the humans.
One of the modified part methods ('progressive part') proves
sitperior by all criteria of measurement to the 'whole' and
'part' modes of maze learning. The 'direct repetitive' method
proves superior by all measuring criteria to the 'whole' method
with returns unprevented. However, this 'direct repetitive'
method requires more time and develops more errors than the
'whole' method with returns prevented. This difference again
disappears by making a trial comparison with Type A errors.
Time was lost and errors accumulated by the possibility of
returns, as the data show the errors of the B and C type are
higher than in the 'whole prevented' method. The 'reversed
reoetitive' method falls to fifth olace and its location is like-
wise definite for all criteria of measurement. The enormous
number of retrace errors (Type C) is due no doubt to failure
in recognizing the mastered section upon reaching it. Here
the behavior and records differ markedly from the rats and
raise the question of kinaesthesis functioning as a recognitive
means (see note, p. 34). The pure 'part' method is last in
the list, irrespective of measuring criteria.
40 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
(3) Rats and humans.
The 'progressive part' method jproves universally superior
for all types of learning methods. The 'reversed repetitive' is
highly favorable with the rat but less so with the human, this
difference being statable in terms of recognitive ability. The
'direct repetitive' method is for both groups more favorable
than 'part' learning and, in general, than for 'whole' learning
(See exception in 2 above). It thus shares favorable univer-
sality with the 'progressive part' method. The 'whole' method
when returns are prevented is universally superior to the case
where returns are allowed in so far as regards time and errors
but not the number of trials; in comparison with modified 'part'
methods either 'whole' method is inferior. The 'reversed repeti-
tive' method fails to prove efficient with the human, due no
doubt to the failure in recognition of the previously mastered
sections. The pure 'part' method is the most inefficient method
used, waiving a single exception with the rats, this poor result
being assignable to the unlimited possibilities of retracing. It
is interesting to note that the number of trials, number of
seconds, and number of total errors for mastery by a certain
method are in absolute terms, universally less for the human
than for the rat.
(4) Correlations.
Table XX shows roughly the (a) correlation between the dif-
ferent measuring criteria for all types of motor problems de-
vised. For both rats and humans this correlation is high. It
argues that rats or humans manifest high regularity in time
and energy expenditure for various motor methods. It shows
that there is no royal road to mastery for the human not open
to the rat. Also, it shows that correlation is very strong be-
tween number of trials and Type A errors, but that this weak-
ens in comparing Type A errors with total time or total errors.
(b) The cross comparison for rats and humans shows that
there is good correlation in respect to the number of trials re-
quired by the various learning methods for mastery. There is
much less correlation when the measurement is in terms of time
expenditure or the accumulation of errors. The error measure-
WHOLE JS. PART METHODS IX MOTOR LEARNING 41
ments show that the highest correlation exists between the Type
A errors (forward directed cul de sacs).
The above experiments have been directed toward the verifica-
tion of the place association hypothesis proposed in the earlier
sections of the chapter. They have shown that the positional
factors may be so progressively eliminated in various forms of
'part' learning- as to render these forms {i.e., modified 'part'
methods) much more efficient than the original 'part' or 'whole'
methods. At the risk of repetition, it seems advisable to restate
certain favorable aspects of these efficient modified 'part' methods.
(a) Progressive elimination of the emotional factor.
Remembering the indecision, random activity, full stopping,
etc., of the 'part' learners when in the act of connection, its
absence in modified 'part' behavior is significant. With the 'pro-
gressive part' method, the learning of Part I and II arouses
a complex emotional state which must perforce be overcome
while these parts are being mastered. The connection of these
fails to re-arouse indecision, fear (with the rats, especially), etc.,
for the entire course is a known safe one, presenting but a single
novel feature, i.e., the connecting unit. This seems to be at-
tacked without bringing any strong emotional accessories. Part
III is again a new but relatively less emotion-provoking situa-
tion. Its addition to the known course follows the subsidence
of the emotional complex. Again, the task presents but a single
new feature, comparable to the like feature previously met. The
course to be traversed is a longer, but still a safe course. Part
IV is learned without arousing to a significant degree any emo-
tional tone whatever and the various motor acts have been so
progressively interrelated as to call forth little if any of this
emotional disturbance during the final combining stage. In gen-
eral, the only occasions for the arousal of the complex are dur-
ing the short task of unit learning (where the state must be
eliminated before final mastery) and in the single act of con-
nection (the three successive acts becoming successively easier).
With the pure 'part' method, the mastery of each part has called
for the arousal and subsiding of fear, hesitation, etc. The task
of connection involves, therefore, a re-arousal of the injurious
42 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
emotional tone at the three critical connecting points. And the
strength of this is cumulative. The connection of the first two
maze elements arouses it very little, but the subsequent addition
of the remaining section brings very marked disturbance. Neither
rat nor human succeeds in avoiding this. The 'direct repetitive'
and 'reversed repetitive' methods demand a rhythmic arousal
and subsidence of the emotional factor, this having a degree of
strength far greater than with the 'progressive' method. It is
simultaneously involved in mastering the added unfamiliar sec-
tion (w^hether approached from the familiar or leading to it)
and in affecting the junction of the two. The emotional com-
plexity logically results in poorer learning scores, an hypothesis
admirably supported by the data. However, this becomes rela-
tively less operative for the final additions. In all cases, this
complexity is much less than is produced by the act of con-
nection in the 'part' method. It is clear, therefore, that the
emotional element, though always present, can be distributed to
one or several definite maze points and progressively eliminated.
This is impossible with 'part' learning and likewise with 'whole'
learning, where numerous tricky, blocking situations are met with
for many successive trials.
(b) Progressive elimination of the positional factors.
(i) Temporal. Partially causative of the emotional disturb-
ance are, of course, the time relationships. In 'part' learning,
each run has been shown to correlate with a brief time span,
this ending with changed sensory conditions of desirability. In
learning two short units, the brevity of the temporal series is
not so firmly a part of the subjects reacting system as when four
had been mastered. Hence, the tendency to stop after running
a single unit is more easily modified. Also, the overcoming of
this stopping tendency is always followed by success and with
utilizing but one, short-time activity. As the accumulation and
connection of parts proceed, the successive demands never call for
but one such short-time addition. The temporal series progres-
sively increases but always by a definite, short-time, success-
bringing act. With the pure 'part' method, the subject knows
little beyond a relatively high number of deeply intrenched short-
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 43
time acts. The break-up of one of these temporal relationships
is relatively easy (though harder than if only two had been es-
tablished), but this is unattended with success. Neither are the
immediately subsequent ones success giving, for only the last
and most recently mastered time unit can so function. The
demands upon the time relationships are invariably too great.
With the other forms of modified 'part' methods, no short-time
factor ever becomes strongly seated. As soon as one is set up,
it is immediately modified by an addition of like extent. The
erection of the temporal side of the final maze situation is pro-
gressive throughout. This progression is by stated, constant,
temporal units and differs herein from the 'whole' methods. In
the latter, theoretically, the final time series is under construc-
tion from the beginning of the tuition period. By preventing re-
turns (by cutting the course into four sections), not one but four
rival time units of the final total are being constructed, and not
only as units but as parts of an indefinite whole. With returns
allowed, probably many more such units are set up ; having to do
with all areas of difficulty of the course. In neither such case,
therefore, is the erection of the time series progressively or
chronologically made. Temporal habits of stopping are not
deeply engendered, but the final series is slow in being attained.
It is evident, therefore, that the values of the modified 'part'
methods rest in large measure upon (a) progressive elimination
of the positional factor of time and the fact that the (b) final
time series is successively extended by short regular additions as
opposed to an internal adjustment of a constant and highly com-
plex whole.
(2) Spatial.
Spatial factors function in like manner. The position of each
section and turn (no doubt especially so for final turns) is
mediately associated with the spatial terminus of the run. The
last turn means open doorway, food getting, and a complete
change in sensory factors. With 'progressive part' learning,
relatively few of these are set up by mastering Sections I and
II. Those that are indicative of arrival at Exit I do have to
be uprooted in the first connecting act. Their poverty of
44 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
number is in their favor. Once eliminated they function in
the larger series. Each addition to the expanding series calls
for a readjustment but this is always directed towards a con-
stant goal, constant results, and over familiar territory. Many
of the adjustments are primarily with an unconnected but
familiar unit, not internal to the great mass already satisfactorily
arranged and now functioning as a unit group. This spatial
demand is, therefore, progressively met. With connection of
many parts being required, the demands of spatial readjust-
ment obviously are multiplied to a high degree. Suppose each
section requires for mastery the establishment of at least two
positional factors. Using letter denominations, in Section I
are established factors A and B. But logically and empirically
these are to have unit functioning, i.e., as AB. Mastery of
Section II required the establishment of C and D, but these
are reduced to the single CD unity. The immediate connec-
tion of the dual AB and CD groups again involves but two
adjustments. Section III requires two establishments for E
and F, but their reduction to unit functioning requires only two
new establishments with the ABCD unity. In short, for the
complete mastery of these hypothetical situations, there is de-
manded the establishment of only fourteen such relational fac-
tors. The small number is traceable to the demonstrated
capacity of a complex, automatized group to function as a unit
in needed adjustments to an external situation. No internal
readjustments of great degree seems rationally or empirically
needed.
With the 'direct repetitive' method the first section reduces
the two adjustments, A and B, to a unit. When this unit
adjusfs to the new, now-to-be-mastered, C-D situation, 'the
permutations are between three terms, namely AB, C and D.
Consequently six adjustments are required to establish the
ABCD unit. With the addition of E-F and again of G-H, the
adjusting demands remain six for each such addition. This
method requires, therefore, a total of seventy such spatial
positional attainments. The same number holds for the 're-
versed repetitive' method. In both cases, the demands of read-
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 45
justmeiit of the spatial factors are successively met. The
demand is initially never high and it becomes increasingly easy.
Yet these 'repetitive' methods always require a greater number
of adjustments than the 'progressive part' methods and the
character of these adjustments is more complex. This increase
in complexity of character depends mainly upon the demand
for a triple accommodation {e.g., AB with C and D) as opposed
to a dual demand {e.g., AB with CD).
The spatial complexity in the remaining methods is obvious.
In 'part' learning, the four units require a minimum of eight
positional establishments. When each pair is reduced to a
unit and thrown into the connection series, the four units func-
tioning w^ithout errors rec^uire twelve combinations, bringing
a total to equal either 'repetitive' method and to exceed the
'progressive part' by 43%. But even this numerical equality
is deceiving. The permutations are not in reference to single
successive functional units but to remotely successive as well,
and both forward and backward in direction. Rationally, then,
the task is hard. Empirically, the ability of units to function
as a whole is destroyed. A veritable dissociation of component
maze elements takes place. The subject, having had the mastered
groups broken up, begins the new and highly complex task of
erecting a bigger, positional series out of the wreckage left
him. The maze records show that he does this little or no
better than if he had had no earlier sectional training. (In
the case of the rat, the group seems almost the worse for the
training. Tables I and VI reveal that the connecting act re-
quired almost the time of, and accumulated more errors than,
'whole-prevented' learning. Tables III and IV show that con-
ditions were even more disturbed for the human, even in the
'whole-allowed' case). In 'whole' learning, with all eight A-H
establishments simultaneously in demand, fifty-six combinations
are needed. In the 'whole-prevented' method, the same number
is required, but the arbitrary cutting of the maze into four
sections may tend to reduce sectional pairs to relatively early
and complete unity. This has its reward in the saving of errors
and time. This possible economy is spent with 'whole-allow^ed'
46 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
learning in setting up the numerous far-distant and backward
directed associations.
It appears, therefore, that vakies of modified 'part' methods in
comparison with pure 'part' and 'whole' methods are statable
mainly in the progressive and distributive handling they furnish to
the positional factors, whether these are considered as emo-
tional or in more objective forms of time and space. Such
conclusions have apparent justification in logical, mathematical,
and empirical sources. They argue that the relative advantages
of the various 'part' methods must be due mainly to the degree
in which place associations are obviated.
The results of the employment of modified 'part' methods
for the elimination of place associations may be summarized
as follows :
( 1 ) The behavior in the act of connection, the conclusions
drawn from previous tests, and the data secured by utilizing
modified 'part' methods show that place associations render
the act of connection in 'part' learning extremely difficult.
(2) These injurious place associations are statable in both
the temporal and spatial series.
(3) Modified 'part' methods are originated which eliminate
or negate to a degree some of the harmful place associations.
(4) These modified 'part' methods prove far more efficient
than either the pure 'part' or 'whole' methods. This is true
for rats and humans.
(5) These methods have been named the 'progressive part',
'elaborative part', 'direct repetitive', and 'reversed repetitive'.
The relative values of these vary for rats and humans. Dif-
ferences are statable in terms of the recognitive capacity.
(6) The value of these methods consists mainly in the pro-
gressive and distributive handling they furnish to the positional
factors.
(7) There is no royal road to mastery for the human not
open to the rat. Both rats and humans manifest high regularity
in time and energy expenditure for various motor methods.
But the question immediately emerges regarding the super-
iority of these 'modified part' methods over the universally
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 47
efficient 'whole' method. The partial elimination of the posi-
tional factors set up in the mastery of the separate maze areas
not only improved the scores secured in 'part' learning, but
produced results far superior to those of 'whole' method learn-
ing. If these positional factors had been entirely eliminated,
it looks as though the results should merely have equalled
those secured by the 'whole' method procedure. But the uni-
versal superiority of certain of the 'modified part' methods
argues at once that there are certain inherent values to 'part'
procedure. A further analysis of these part learning methods
must be made, with a view to ascertaining their inherent ad-
vantages. Such an analysis is attempted in the following
chapter.
CHAPTER VI
Elements of Advantage in Tart' Learning
The results of the preceding chapter are highly significant.
It has been shown that 'modified part' methods can be de-
vised which prove far superior to the pure 'part' method of
learning. The improvements produced by these new methods
have been shown to depend partly upon the progressive and
distributive handling they furnish to the positional factors of
the temporal and spatial series. But a result of far greater
significance has been obtained. These 'modified part' methods
prove superior to the 'v^diole' method, even when this latter
method is operating under the favorable condtion of blocked
returns. From a logical viewpoint, this result seems improbable.
A method which obviates some of the weaknesses of the 'part'
method {e.g., place associations) should produce scores that
approach the results of 'whole' method learning as a limit. If
place associations were the only differential aspects between
'part' and 'whole' method learning, the 'modified part' methods
could never excel the 'whole' method. Indeed, the impossi-
bility of devising any modifications of the 'part' method that da
more than partially obviate some of the injurious place associa-
tions is frankly acknowledged by the writer. It is clear that
there are factors operating in 'part' procedure, which are pro-
ducing the remarkable scores.
The fact that learning scores are inferior under the 'part'
method must not blind the reader to the significance of its
advantages. These favorable factors may have been operating
and yet been apparently submerged by the demonstrated weak-
nesses of the method. Again, the conclusions long ago reached
regarding the learning of verbal material must not blind the
reader. The investigators in this field showed the inferiority
of pure 'part' learning, as has the present research for the
motor field. But none of these former experimenters have
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 49
attempted to modify the connecting act. No one has been
in a position, therefore, where he was forced to recognize the
fundamental advantages of any 'part' method. Such a recog-
nition logically depends upon empirical findings similar to those of
the writer, namely, that modifications of the 'part' method not
only equal the 'whole' method in efficiency but prove far su-
perior to it. The writer is not arguing against the present
conclusions regarding verbal material. He is merely pointing
out that there is an angle of the problem not yet faced by
the investigators, and showing the conditions in motor learn-
ing that make such an issue seem vital.
There seem to be certain obvious advana,tges to any 'part'
procedure in maze learning. These operate to produce learn-
ing scores superior to 'whole' method results.
(a) Transfer.
The present work of the writer has presented definite data
regarding the maintenance of transfer. (Chapter IV, pp. 22-
23.) The formula for its estimation takes account of the
trials, time and total errors and gives a mathematical result
that is easily interpreted. The results tend to show that transfer
is progressively increasing through the learning of four suc-
cessive maze habits. (See previous conclusions, p. 22.) If the
formulaic estimations are made for the successive stages of
the 'modified part' methods, the same conditions of positive
transfer are again seen to operate. The conclusion is that sub-
sequent maze habits are mastered far easier than the earlier
ones.
Two questions immediately emerge. ( i ) What are the trans-
fer items that render successive maze habits more easily
set up? (2) Do not these operate when the maze is being learned
as a whole? Does the learner fail to master the final sections of
the maze (specifically, the final three quarterly divisions) with
a progressively decreasing energy expenditure? The writer
can do little more than speculate regarding the answer.
(i) Transfer items in learning successive maze habits.
General. By general transfer is meant that there are certain
habits or attitudes that can function unimpaired in any new
so LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
maze situation. These general items refer in no sense to the
details of the new maze pattern, but solely to the general char-
acter of the problem. Chief of these is probably the general
maze habit. Several definite elements are involved, (x) Re-
tracing. The dominance of the familiar has often been com-
mented upon. The return pathway is known to be safe. The
rat seems natively inclined to leturn to the closed entrance.
Final maze mastery means the complete elimination of this
retracing. Learning any maze — long or short — actually in-
hibits the retracing tendency in subsequent maze learning,
(y) Knowledge of the nature of errors. A single maze mas-
tered suffices to teach the learner the concrete meaning of the
blind alley. A cul de sac ceases to be a detail that must be
cautiously explored. It comes to mean a condition that must
be left as soon as possible, (z) Sense of direction. Some
learners have almost a "going ahead" instinct. Others become
hopelessly confused when leaving a blind alley and learn only
through repeated trials to make the turn that leads away from
the closed entrance. In subsequent mazes, the truly sophisti-
cated learner will enter the cul de sac, but will proceed along
the forward pathway when he returns to the true course. These
three elements are fundamental in the development of a general
maze habit.
A second item of general transfer is consciousness of poiver.
A maze learner spends many minutes in apparently aimless
wandering. Hesitation, ceasing to explore the blinds, pausing
to wash and rest, etc, are indicative of the rat's indecision and
lack of confidence. Even the human will argue his inability
of getting through his first long maze. Nor does this lack of
confidence become eliminated after the first successful trial.
For many days the task is an arduous one and is approached
with hesitation. With subsequent mazes, however, the con-
sciousness of power is clearly seen. No Svarming-up' period
is needed. There is no delay at the entrance. Work has come
to mean invariable accomplishment and reward. The entire
attack upon the new problem is aggressive. The learner has
learned to do by previous doing.
s»*^
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 51
Clearly associated with the above is a third general item,
namely, — proper emotional attiUide. It has been shown that
a harmful emotional complex arises when the learner is first
introduced to the maze situation and again when he is required
to connect small maze units. It has been shown that final
success cannot be attained until this attitude — a mixture of fear,
indecision, curiosity, and perhaps anger — has been eliminated.
In its place comes an attitude strongly conducive to success.
Confidence, elation and hope may be descriptive of this. Irre-
spective of anthropomorphic criticisms, the writer is content
to believe that the maze learner — animal as well as human —
does attack the second maze problem with an entirely different
and far more beneficial attitude from that which maintained
throughout almost the entire first learning period.
Specific. By specific transfer is meant a certain definite
maze habit that can function partially or unimpaired in a new
maze situation. The waiter is referring directly to the details
of the maze patterns. Certain ones may be commented upon.
If the first maze has taught the learner that a long run is to
be followed by a turn to the right rather than to the left;
by a turn of 180 degrees rather than 90; by a sharp, cautious
turn of 180 degrees rather than a wide, safe turn of the same
type, in so far as the second maze possesses like elements,
specific transfer will tend to operate. A concrete example of
this is found in Maze A used throughout the experiment. Cul
de sacs numbered 3, 6, 9, 12 were constant in location for the
four distinct maze units; were all approached by making a
turn to the left; were each met with after the same time and
distance factors had functioned; were the third and final cul
de sacs for each motor unit. (See Figure I.) When the maze
was learned as a whole, each of these errors was frequently
made. Nos. 6, 9. and 12 (the final error) were especially nu-
merous. In learning the four maze sections separately and
successively (as did the 'part' learners), nos. 6 and 9 were
rarely entered and no. 12 practically not at all. The maze
had been designed with a view of establishing a partial identity
of detail for the four sections, so that this element of specific
%
52
LOL'IS .lUCUSTUS PECHSTEIN
transfer might be partially tested. The present evidence, though
limited, seems to argue for the transfer of this specific motor
item.
General elements of transfer probably do not operate at their
full value until the third or fourth maze is being mastered.
It seems to the writer that they should progressively increase
in strength to a maximum and thereafter remain constant.
Specific elements of transfer probably operate differently. With
an increase in number, these specific elements probably tend to
generate an inhibition when later motor units are being mas-
tered. No rule can be stated, but it seems to the writer that
specific transfer should increase to a maximum (probably dur-
ing the learning of three or four simple maze habits) and there-
after should operate with a progressively decreasing valency,
even to a negative or harmful level. Controlled laboratory
testing may refute these mere theories, and also the rough
analysis given above of the transfer qualities. Certainly noth-
ing beyond mere speculation is here proposed. The hope of
the writer is that some experimenter will set to work to isolate
the transfer cjualities, both general and specific.
The above sections have been concerned with the principles
of transfer that operate in rendering the second or subsequent
maze habits more easily set up. Now, in that both 'part' and
'modified part' methods of learning call for the mastery of new
problems after one or more related ones have been learned,
it follows that the transfer factors can operate to their fullest
strength when learning is by some part method. Transfer is
fully utilized when the maze problem is broken up into unit
sections. This is a great element of strength in any part pro-
cedure. But does this argue that these same transfer effects
fail to operate when the maze is learned in toto? If not, a
transfer hypothesis will fail to explain why 'modified part'
methods produce better results than the original 'whole' pro-
cedure.
(2) Transfer in 'whole' method learning.
General. Adopting the analysis given above as truly descrip-
tive of transfer qualities operating in 'part' learning, it is nee-
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS /.V MOTOR LEARXING 53
essary to see if these operate when a large maze is being mas-
tered as a whole. First for consideration is the general maze
habit, (a) Retracing. This is one marked characteristic of
'whole' method learning. By many partial returns and many
frequent ones for the entire length of the return pathway, the
subject finally learns that the retracing must be discontinued.
Yet this retracing may continue until the last four successful
runs. Chapter III brought out the fact that this retracing is
probably useless and even harmful. The 'part' learners are
forced to inhibit retracing when their problem is simple and
when the retracing cannot take much time and accumulate many
errors. They master this aspect of the general maze concept
under simple conditions, the 'whole' learners under complex
ones. Also, a knowledge of the uselessness of retracing gained
through the earlier section of the entire maze fails to prevent
retracing in the final maze areas. With Maze A, the greatest
amount of retracing (after the earlier trials) was from the
terminal point of the third division (the end of Section III)
and error no. lo in Section IV. With Maze B, the greatest
tendency was to enter the final cul de sac and to retrace there-
from. It appears conclusive that 'whole' method learning fails
to make full use of the general non-retracing concept in the
final areas of the maze. 'Part' method learning is exactly op-
posed to this condition, for the final motor units are learned
almost without retrace errors. (Tables I and III.) (b) knowl-
edge of the nature of errors. The earlier sections of the total
maze suffice to develop this concept. Were it not for the emo-
tional complications, the latter sections of the maze could be
run with increasing skill, just as if the areas were being mas-
tered as successive parts, (c) Sense of direction. Here, again,
there is no logical reason why the subject should not have
learned in the first part of the maze which of the two possible
turns from the cul de sac meant a return direction. Fear,
hesitation, etc., are leading- the runner to take the return path-
way, however, so that the transfer values are not allowed
to operate.
In the second place, the consciousness of poivcr is almost
54 . LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
ineffectual. For many succeeding runs both the rat and the
human proceed cautiously. Aggressive attacks come only with
experience. And until the maze is almost mastered, a high
initial speed will die down long before the final areas of the
course have been reached. In 'part' learning, these final areas
are mastered with great speed, but here the 'whole' method
learners are the most tardy. Many acts of short duration, fol-
lowed by desirable changes in activity, develop this needed con-
sciousness of power. An act of long duration, carried out
through many difficulties, develops this feeling after the time
for its greatest utility as a learning tool has passed.
Regarding a proper emotional tone, it has been shown earlier
that 'whole' method learning involves fear, hesitation, etc.,
throughout almost the entire learning period. This is naturally
accumulative, as has been made clear in earlier chapters. Even
when fear is almost eliminated, any disturbing factor, e.g., a
slight noise, will cause this injurious condition to operate again.
The entire run may be affected. This disturbance often fails
to subside for many days. The 'part' learner rarely if ever
manifests such instability after one short maze has been mas-
tered. So it seems as though no favorable emotional tone
can operate as a transfer element in a long maze, because of
the very complexity of the course and the many pitfalls and
surprises involved.
Specific. The writer has little to say regarding specific transfer
in the entire act. However it may have tended to operate,
it seems unable to do so to any great degree, this fact being
traceable mainly to the operation of injurious emotional con-
ditions. For example, the duplicated cul de sacs — nos. 3, 6, 9,
12 in Maze A show far greater frequency in 'whole' method
learning than in 'part'.
In summary, the writer is convinced that neither general nor
specific elements of transfer can be utilized to any high degree
in learning a complex motor problem when learning is by the
'whole' method. The demonstrated ability of these transfer
items to operate at their full value in 'part' learning seems to
the writer to be unmistakable evidence of the advantage of
WHOLE J'S. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 55
'part' procedures. This, taken in conjunction with the progres-
sive elimination of the positional factors established in 'modified
part' learning, goes a long way towards explaining the favor-
able results obtained by the 'modified part' methods.
(b) Learning effort and length of material.
An additional aspect of learning a motor problem by short
stages needs to be considered. The relation between the learn-
ing effort and the length of material needs to be known. Is
there a law of diminishing returns operating that makes a long
maze more than twice as hard to master as one only half the
length? Data are at hand to answer the problem.
It has been shown that the units of Maze A are, in number
of cul de sacs, length of true pathway, etc., exactly equal.
Consecjuently, each of these is an equal fourth of the entire
maze. No better motor situation could be desired for the com-
parison of learning effort and length of material. Even series
of nonsense syllables furnish scarcely more equitable bases for
comparison. The lists used are made ecjual in length and sup-
posedly in difficulty. Roughly, the short maze sections seem to
satisfy the same conditions. Even though these sections may
differ in difficulty (as measured by the learning criteria), a
comparison of each of them with the total maze will give
results highly valuable. It is logically necessary to make this
comparison for the entire four, since they are integral parts
of the total problem under consideration. The three learning
criteria may be brought together in the following form-
t S €
ula,- ~7^~^ — , where t', s' and e' represent the records ni
trials, time and errors respectively of the control groups on
Section I, II, III, or IV and t. s and e the corresponding records
for the entire maze. Such a formula may weight to an unfair
degree certain of the learning criteria. But it is far from being
decided which criterion is the best, so the writer is inclined
to utilize them all in one formula. If these criteria varied
directly, such a formula would not be needed.
The records used are listed in Tables I, VI and X for the
rats and Tables III, VI and XI for the humans. The records
for the learning of the problem as a whole are those w'here
56 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
no more retracing was allowed than normally occurs in the
learning of the separate parts ('whole' method with returns
prevented).-^ For Section I the records of the 'part' learners
are used. Control groups furnish the records for the remain-
ing sections.
The results of the formulaic estimations are decidedly
significant. For the rats it is found that 15, i, 3 and 2 percent
of the learning energy expended upon the entire maze is re-
quired to master units I, II, III and IV respectively. With
the humans, the results are 4, 6, i and 11 percent. As a final
average, the rats score 5.25 percent, the humans 5.5 percent.
It is clear that this value would be 25 percent, provided that
learning effort varied directly with the length of material. The
figures argue that mazes of porportionate difficulty and of one-
fourth the length of a larger maze, require scarcely more than
one-twentieth the learning effort needed to master the larger
problem.^ This generalization holds for both rats and humans.
^ Chapter III brought out the logical necessity of making comparisons
with these data rather than with the results where freedom of retracing
into the return sections was allowed. Of course the time and error records
are far higher under the non-restricted conditions.
- Ebbinghaus has shown that there is no direct relationship between
the length of nonsense series and the learning effort required. He pre-
sents two tables of data (Memory, pp. 47-49, Columbia University Teachers
College Educational Reprints No. 3), these being secured during two
testing periods separated by an interval of three years. They have
special value in showing not only that diminishing returns for the learning
effort operate but also that this loss (due to excessive length of the ma-
terial) is not fully eliminated when practice effect is developed to its
maximum. This is shown by bringing together the original data into one
table and starring the results from the first testing series.
Number of Number of repetitions
syllables necessary for first
in a series errorless reproduction
(exclusive of it)
7 I
ID 13*
12 16.6
13 23*
16 30
16 32*
19 38*
24 44*
36 55
The periodic regularity in which these results distribute is marked. The
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 57
The significance of these results for the 'whole'-'part' problem
is clear. It pays — other things being equal— to learn a complex
motor problem by easy stages. Otherwise, diminishing returns
for the energy expenditure are secured. The causes of this
need not be sought here, although they are probably inherent
in the conditions of transfer discussed in the present chapter.
Irrespective of causes, the facts of energy expenditure function
well in explaining the results of 'modified part' procedure. The
advantage of learning by easy stages, taken in conjunction with
transfer conditions and the progressive elimination of the posi-
tional factors set up in 'part' learning, go a long way not only
toward explaining the superiority of the 'modified part' methods
over the 'whole' method, but also toward pointing out the in-
herent advantages of any 'part' procedure. There are probably
other explanatory factors that have not been suggested. The
above are not meant to be exhaustive. They do represent to
the writer, however, the only explanations he can now set for-
ward to meet a novel and exceedingly interesting experimental
finding.
The following summary lists the important developments of
the chapter :
(i) Transfer factors operate at their full value in 'part'
procedure.
(2) This transfer is general and specific. The important
general items are a general maze habit, consciousness of power,
and favorable emotional tone. The specific items refer to the
details of the maze pattern.
(3) Transfer fails to render the final areas of a complex
motor problem more easily mastered. 'Part' procedure re-
verses these conditions.
(4) Learning effort does not vary directly with the length
chief significance of these results for the present research rests, however,
upon the fact that they, taken in conjunction with the resuUs of the present
research, make it possible to state that the law of diminishing returns
operates (a) in the mental field, (b) for the learning of motor and verbal
material, (c) for humans and animals, and (d) irrespective of earlier
practice, though this is contradicted by Meumann.
S8 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
of material. Diminishing returns are secured as the material
is lengthened.
(5) The inherent advantages of 'part' learning are mainly
the complete utilization of the transfer items and the avoidance
of diminishing returns due to the excessive length of the motor
problem.
(6) The inherent advantages of 'part' learning, together with
the elimination of place associations, explain the universal su-
periority of 'modified part' methods in motor learning.
CHAPTER VII
Massed vs. Distributed Effort in 'Whole' and 'Part'
Learning
The relation of the distribution of learning effort to the
'whole'-'part' discussion is obvious. Nothing totally new is being
injected into the research. Heretofore the writer has considered
the 'whole' and 'part' methods when two trials were allowed
per day. Limiting the number of trials per day is necessary
when rats are being employed for the experimentation. Con-
sequently, the same time relationships had to be maintained
for the humans, otherwise no comparative statements could be
made. Under these defined learning conditions, it has been
shown that the 'whole' method of learning is superior to the
'part' method but that the bad aspects of the 'part' method
can be so eliminated as to produce 'modified part' methods far
superior to the original 'whole' method. These generalizations
have been shown to hold for both rats and humans. But it is
obvious that no comparison can be made with any previous
work on humans, where verbal material was used. Massed
effort has always been used in the 'whole'-'part' testing, whether
the learning was nonsense material, prose or poetry. Hence, the
writer desires to find whether the relative value of the 'whole'
vs. the 'part' methods depended to any degree upon massing
or distributing the learning effort. With maze results estab-
lished for massed learning conditions, comparisons might then
be made with the verbal results.
The experimental literature contains numerous references to
the value of distributed effort in motor learning. Browning,
Brown and Washburn (2) early showed that such distribution
was favorable. Murphy (12) has just published his results for
javelin throwing. His conclusions are based upon the records
of groups practicing one, three or five times per week. He is
inclined to generalize for rote and logical learning as well as
6o LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECIISTEIN
for motor. "Better work, for the amount of time expended,
can be done in our schools (both for hand manipulations and
also so-called mental work), through a distribution of three
times per week than through a distribution of five times per
week." Ulrich showed that rats learned the maze with fewer
trials when effort was distributed to trials every third day.
No human maze experimentation has been published. No com-
parative experimentation has been done with rats and humans
to test out the respective value of massed vs. distributed effort.^
So far as regards the 'whole' and 'part' methods in relation
to the distribution question, the literature shows that the matter
has never been treated. The present chapter is concerned with
this problem.
Six new groups of humans were secured. Each group in-
cluded six subjects. Each group was taught Maze A by one
of the methods described in earlier chapters. These in order
were as follows : 'Whole', with returns allowed, 'whole', with
returns prevented, 'total part', 'progressive part', 'direct repeti-
tive', and 'reversed repet^itive." Preliminary instructions,
methods of data gathering, etc., were the same as in previous
experiments. The sole difference was that no time was allowed
to elapse between trials.- As soon as a run was completed, the
subject was given subsequent trials, with no time for rest,
conversation, removal of the hand from the maze area, etc.
Continuous attack upon the learning problem was absolutely
secured.
The behavior of these groups merits some comment. The
^ Obviously, a problem would need to be relatively simple to permit
mastery by the rat in successive trials. The initial emotional complex,
constant distractive tendencies, etc., render massed tuition extremely difficult.
However, with a simple problem, thorough preliminary training, utilization
of hunger, sex and other stimuli, the rat may be taught a motor problem
without the customary time interval. At least the learning could be
concentrated within a few hours.
2 Perrin's recent comparative work on adult and child maze learning
allowed "all the time between trials they desired for rest, physical and
mental recreation." Such is no doubt needed with the children. It is a
question, however, whether conclusions may justly be drawn between in-
dividual children or between children and adults if the time interval is not
constant as to length.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS /.Y MOTOR LEARNING 6i
group learning the maze as a whole and with no prevention of
returns attacked the problem well. After a few trials, improve-
ment ceased and the learning act became very trying. A long,
period of almost random activity, hurried yet purposeless ex-
ploring ensued. Each student showed signs of nervousness
when the first dozen trials failed to bring success. To this ex-
citability the men were even more susceptible than the women.
As each successive trial continued to bring errors, the run
became more hurried, jerky and erratic. Generally the student
reached a stage in his learning where he knitted his brow,
closed his eyes, checked his speed and settled down to a slow,
laborious process of eliminating certain specific errors per trial.
The period of high tension remained and the completion of
the final successful runs always brought unmistakable relief.
The 'whole' method with returns prevented produced behavior
such as the above, yet this was to a lesser degree. Without ex-
ception, the 'part' methods failed to arouse a strong emotional
tone or to cause nervous excitement. The attack upon the prob-
lem was always steady, irrespective of the method employed.
The act of connection in 'part' learning was singularly free
from confusion, this being a very marked departure from the
behavior so characteristic of both humans and rats when learn-
ing was broken by the twenty-four hour interim. The data
of these experiments in massed effort are compared with those
of the humans when effort is distributed in Table XXI. In
Table XXII is found the percentage of advantage or disad-
vantage obtained by massing effort. The table is complete for
trials, time, and errors of the various types. See pages yy, 78.
In agreement with the previous conclusions, massing the
learning effort is highly unfavorable for certain methods. It
increases the number of trials, the learning time, and all types
of errors when the 'whole' method of learning is used. This
is true irrespective of the prevention of returns and applies
to all measuring criteria. Without exception there is a marked
percentage of gain when distribution occurs. This is true also
for two 'part' methods^he 'direct repetitive' and the most
efficient for all human and animal learning under distributive
%
62 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
conditions, namely the 'progressive part'. The advantage is,
however, less marked than for 'whole' method learning. In
some items of comparison, the absolute differences are almost
negligible. Significant changes occur so far as the total 'part'
method and the 'reversed repetitive' are concerned. By all
measuring criteria, the 'part' method gains over distributive
results and the same is true for the 'reversed repetitive' (with
slight and unimportant exceptions for this latter.)
But the significant results are not so much in reference to
the comparison of the same method under these changed tem-
poral conditions as to the important fact that each 'part' method
shows superior (by all criteria of measurement) to either type
of 'whole' method, thus altering very markedly the 'whole'-
'part' results set forward in earlier chapters. Furthermore,
the total 'part' method (so unsuccessful under distributive con-
ditions) under massed conditions becomes not only better but
almost the best of all available methods. It is even slightly
more efficient than the universally superior 'progressive part' in
point of trials but slightly weaker in time and considerably so in
total errors. Consequently it is considered second in advantages.
But its rise in the efficiency scale under these massed conditions is
unmistakable. Its great gain consisted not so much in the learn-
ing of the four units but in the connecting act. For Section
I the total error record was greater than in the distributed case,
the remaining three being almost identical. (24, 12; 10, 9; 5, 4;
7, 5 for I, II, III, IV respectively). The change of results for
the 'part' method are so marked that a full comparison of the
data is made in Table XXIII. The difference in scores is es-
pecially obvious in the I-IV act of connection. See page 78.
It is evident that explanation is needed for these massed
effort results. It needs to be shown why each type of 'part'
learning is superior to that of the 'whole'. These results are
not only opposed to those secured under distributive conditions
but exactly contradictory to the ones commonly accepted for
verbal learning. In the latter, learning effort is always massed,
yet herein have the results always been in favor of the 'whole'
method procedure. The writer can do little more than speculate.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 63
Until the problem of massed effort is understood and its re-
lationship not only to distributed eft'ort but also to different
types of problems established, final conclusions directed towards
the 'whole'-'part' procedure are impossible. Each is a separate
problem, yet each depends upon and illuminates the other.
Learning of the maze problem passes through two distinct
stages, (a) Elimination. The subject, after getting acquainted
with the general character of the maze, settles down to the
arduous task of eliminating all types of errors. The enormous
time expenditure and the great number of errors made during
the first half of the tuition period point out the difficulty of
this learning act. Increasing complexity of the maze bring's
increasing demands upon the subject. These specific demands
have been commented upon at length in earlier chapters. Now,
with massed eft'ort the confusion is cumulative from trial to trial.
In place of the errors being gradually eliminated, instability is
generated. Through this period there is little chance that the
needless movements of one trial will fail to appear in the ones
directly following. Even their disappearance for one trial ar-
gues little for their permanent loss. It is during this stage of
discovery and elimination that distributed effort has its place.
The many useless movements tend to fall away from the suc-
cess-bringing series, while the latter seems to affect the serial
bonds during the interim of inactivity. With rats and humans,
the measured improvement is, from day to day, too commonplace
to warrant comment.
(b) Mechanisation. Logically following the preceding but
chronologically inseparable from its final stages, is the period
where the subject is hammering in the final, sensori-motor co-
ordinations. Tendencies to enter cul de sacs, to retrace, etc.,
are still present but these are swamped in the rapid, forward-
going activity. The function of this period is to render definite
the elimination of these errors and to increase the speed of the
run. Exploration has now no place. The activity is well on
its road to the habitual level. Its momentum is its major guar-
antee of success. This is the time for massed effort. By suc-
cessive repetitions of the successful runs, the tendencies to error
«
64 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECH STEIN
become less and less liable to function, as the fixation proceeds
rapidly and surely. In a strictly psychological sense, the subject
who hesitates is lost. He can now drive out of the series the
danger-giving elements and so render their elimination perma-
nent. In distributing his effort, such permanent elimination is
certainly less slow in attainment. Efficiency demands massing
of the learning.
The principles of elimination and mechanization have imme-
diate applicability to the 'whole'-'part' learning problem. They
show at once, no doubt, why any form of the 'part' method is
superior to the 'whole' under massed conditions. The parts as
such were always simple. Hence, the need for distribution of
learning effort was reduced to a minimum. (It seems logical
that distributive and massed efforts should be equally efficient
for simple mazes. This needs to be shown experimentally).
However, even in our simple I-IV sections, there was slight ad-
vantage with distribution. (See figures, p. 62.) The act of
connection demanded speedy, non-exploring, rapidly succeeding
attacks. Massing the effort provided this, hence making all the
'part' methods highly efficient. With the 'whole' methods there
was no opportunity for the great number of useless movements
to disappear automatically during the time interval. Rather,
they remained to mar the runs, to delay final success, and in-
crease the nervousness of the subject. Only by the greatest
effort were they finally eliminated. If the subject had been
able to break up the task of error learning into simple, easily
mastered units, to eliminate errors and mechanize each unit, and
to expend his best energies in rapid attacks at connection, suc-
cess would have been far more cjuickly attained.
It appears, therefore, that reliance upon massed or distributed
effort depends somewhat upon three fundamental factors, (i)
Difficulty of the problem. The problem with many possibilities
of error needs distributive handling. This need decreases with
decreasing difficulty of the problem. (2) Stage of the learning.
In the discovery and eliminating stages, distribution is essential.
In the stage of strenuous mechanization, massing of effort is
advisable. (3) Method of learning. The 'whole' method re-
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 65
quires distribution for easy mastery, the 'part' methods may
require distribution for mastery of the units but massing for
connection. Under massed conditions the 'part' methods are
always more efficient.
These principles seem fundamental for the human pencil
maze situation. They may need expansion or qualification.
They are put forward as suggestive and with the hope that
experimentation may be directed toward a problem regarding
which there is practically no knowledge. It may be that the
results for learning verbal material under massed and dis-
tributed conditions must be recanvassed. It is clear that one
or more of four conditions must maintain, (i) The conclu-
sions of the writer are not truly descriptive of the specific motor
problem discussed. (2) These results, though true for the
maze, are not general for the entire motor field of learning.
(3) The results in verbal learning (for all types of material)
need reconsideration. (4) There are no correlations to be
drawn between learning upon the motor and ideational levels.
The wTiter cannot agree to the accuracy of (i). He is inclined
to argue from his results to the general motor field (2). Any
opinion regarding (3) and (4) is sheer speculation, whose
validity must rest upon experimental results.
The results of this investigation of the distribution of learning
effort in relation to the 'whole' and 'part' methods of learning'
may be summarized as follows :
(i) Massing the learning effort is highly unfavorable for
'whole' method learning. This is in agreement with the ac-
cepted results in the experimental field. /4(VVtt.V T^i^i' e "r Pqv^T /-s Mffs
(2) The pure 'part' method proves much more efficient than
when effort is distributed.
(3) All types of 'part' methods produce better learning re-
sults under massed conditions than do the 'whole' methods.
This superiority is demonstrated by all measuring criteria.
(4) The superiority of the 'part' methods are probably
statable in terms of the eliminative and mechanizing aspects of
the learning period.
(5) Reliance upon massed or distributive effort depends upon
G6 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
a number of fundamental factors. Chief of these are the diffi-
culty of the problem, the stage of the learning, and the method
of learning.
(6) Learning a motor problem by 'part' methods produces
results that contradict the findings secured under like massed
conditions with rote and logical material.
(7) The full significance of the distribution of the learning
effort is far from being known.
CHAPTER VIII.
Comparison and Summary
The conclusions of this experiment have been cumulative.
They have been discussed at length in the body of the paper
at their point of emergence. It is here merely in order to
state the hnal conclusions regarding the propositions formulated
in Chapter I.
I. Efficiency of various 'whole'-'part' learning methods in the
motor situation.
a. The 'whole' method with returns prevented is more
efficient than with returns allowed.
b. The 'whole' method is far more advantageous than the
'part' method.
c. The 'whole' method is decidedly less favorable than the
'progressive part' and 'direct repetitive' part methods.
^A^ith the rats, the 'reversed repetitive' part methods,
is also more efficient. Failure for this to prove so with
the human is due to the inability of the kinaesthetic cue
to function as the recognitive agent.
d. The weaknesses of the 'part' method are not due to
negative transfer in the learning of the motor units,
disintegration through time, retro-active inhibition, con-
tiguity of unit functioning, nor unit incompatibility in a
larger series. The weaknesses are due to failure in the
act of connection, the conditioning factors being traced
to the positional aspects of the temporal and spatial
series.
e. 'Part' procedure possesses certain inherent advantages.
These are mainly the complete utilization of the transfer
items and the avoidance of diminishing returns due to
the excessive length of the motor problem.
f. The strength of all types of improved ('modified') part
methods rests upon the progressive elimination and dis-
tributive handling of the emotional and positional
factors, together with the inherent advantages of any
'part' procedure.
II. Universality of various 'whole'-'part' learning methods
in the motor situation.
68 LOVIS AUGUSTUS PECH STEIN
a. Improvement of 'whole' method learning universally
follows when returns are prevented.
b. The pure 'part' method is universally inferior to the
Svhole' method.
c. The 'progressive part' and 'direct repetitive' methods are
universally far more advantageous than the 'whole'
method. The 'reversed repetitive' method fails to at-
tain like universality, owing to the recognitive inefficiency
of kinaesthesis in the human. In general, however, al-
most any type of 'modified part' method is universally
to be preferred.
d. For all methods the correlations between the various
learning criteria of trials, time and errors are universally
high. No royal road in motor learning is open to the
human and denied to the rat. Certain changes in posi-
tion for certain methods render a cross correlation less
marked. These shifts are traceable to differences in the
retracing tendency and the recognitive capacity. They
do not vitiate the comparative results listed in a-c above.
e. The pure 'part' and 'modified part' methods become in-
creasingly superior to the 'whole' method when learn-
ing effort is massed rather than distributed.
III. Comparison of motor learning and learning verbatim,
(i) Comparison of methods.
a. The 'whole' method with returns allowed is the N-Ver-
fahren or "natural" method (Steffens).
b. The 'whole' method with returns prevented is the G-Ver-
fahren (Steffens), Das Lesen im ganzen (Ephrussi),
Lernen im ganzen (Pentschew, Meumann, etc.), Methode
globale (Larguier des Bancels) and the standardized
'whole' procedure of the English investigators (Lake-
nan, .Pyle and Snyder, etc).
c. The pure 'part' method is the second S-Verfahren
(Steffens), Das Lesen mit gehaiiften Wiederholungen
(Ephrussi), Lernen in Gruppen (Pentschew), Methode
fragmentaire (Larguier des Bancels) and the 'part'
method of the English experimentation (Lakenan, etc).
d. The 'progressive part' method resembles to a slight degree
the second part method of Pyle and Snyder.
e. The 'direct repetitive' method resembles to a slight de-
gree the first S-Verfahren (Steffens). The 'reversed
repetitive' method finds no method comparable to it.
f. The 'elaborative part' method resembles to a slight de-
gree the first part method of Pyle and Snyder.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 69
g. No motor method employed is comparable to the Lernen
im gebrochenen ganzen (Pentschew).
(2) Comparison of results in motor learning and learning
verbatim.
a. The 'whole' method with returns allowed agrees with
the "natural" method in learning verbatim as being very
inefficient.
b. The 'whole' method with returns prevented agrees with
the 'whole' method in learning verbatim as being superior
to the "natural" method and the pure 'part' method,
(waiving the single exception of Ephrussi's conclusions
for learning nonsensical material by the 'part' method).
c. The 'progressive part', the 'elaborative part', and the
'repetitive part' methods, though proving superior to the
'whole' method in motor learning, fail to do so in learn-
ing verbatim. However, these motor methods have not
been strictly duplicated in learning verbatim (either with
rote or logical material), so an exact comparison is
unwarranted.
e. The several favorable modifications of the 'part' method
as employed in motor learning, need to be tested in learn-
ing verbatim. Until such be done, it seems unwarranted
to argue that all types of 'part' methods are inferior
to the 'whole' method for the learning of rote and
logical material.
IV. Relation of the conculsions to practical schoolroom ac-
tivities of the motor type.
a. The complex motor problem is probably always best
mastered by one of the several 'modified part' methods.
The one universally to be preferred is the 'progressive
part'.
b. Distribution of the learning effort is of value for the
'whole' method but not for the 'part' procedure.
c. Distribution of the learning efifort is of value for the
exploring and eliminative stages of learning, not for the
rapid mechanizing stage. Here effort should be massed.
d. When the conditions of learning call for a massing of
learning effort, the 'whole' method becomes increasingly
inefficient with increase in problem complexity, the 'part'
methods increasingly more efficient.
e. The conclusions drawn apply solely to the motor type
of learning, though they suggest that the rote and logical
types need additional experimentation.
70 LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
APPENDIX
Figure i. Maze A. Roman numerals refer to the four independent sec-
tions of the maze. Dotted division lines indicate the entrances and exits
for the different sections into the food-box. Also, they designate the
removable panels. The running dotted lines shovi^ the true pathway for
each section. The arrows between sections point out, the continuous path-
way when the maze is being learned as a whole or in the connection of
the separately learned units. The vertical arrows indicate the main en-
trance and exit. Arabic numerals designate the cul de sacs. Slides for the
prevention of returns occur after cul de sacs numbered 3, 6, 9, 12.
in.
s.
"^- --. .^- 1
f'~^\
3
/' ~"\
/' . \ .
\
1
1
1
»
/ '
1
1
T
1
6
'
4
■t
1
J
i
9
1
i
1
1
\_J
\ - ■
I
■■■ J \
1 1
FGOD
BOX
-4-
,4-*
hJ.^.
. . ^
f \
10
/ 'r- '
\
1
1
1
t
r r r
5
1
r
VI
/
18
i
c
1
■
.^
l. .,'
1
11
c
1
1
\
Z
1
1
^
\ -'
I '
iST.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 71
Graphs I-IV. To show graphically the learning curves of two rat groups
in learning Maze A with and without the prevention of returns. The
unrestricted group had 12 rats, the restricted 9. The former is represented
by the solid line, the latter by the dotted. No. i is the total error curve;
no. II for the retraces (Type C) ; no. Ill for the forward cul de sacs
(Type A); no. IV for the retrace cul de sacs (Type B). See Table VI.
(The learning is divided into ten equal stages as based on the number
of trials and the errors of each tenth of the learning computed. See the
method of Vincent, The Function of the Vibrissae in the Behavior of
the White Rat, Behavior Mon., i, 5, 1912, pp. 15-17.)
JS.
LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
I
34
470"
37
2
13
52
II
2
2,i
I
0
2
3
III
14
127
9
0
5
14
IV
9
III
8
0
3
II
I-IV
15
ii66
19
15
85
119
Total
30
1907"
74
17
108
199
Table I. A table to show the average number of trials, time and errors
of nine rats in learning Maze A by the 'part' method. In estimating the total
number of runs, each sectional run is arbitrarily counted as one-fourth of
a complete run.
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Whole
Part
27
30
4174"
1907"
54
74
24
17
139
loS
217
199
Table II. A table to compare the average number of trials, time and
errors of two rat groups learning Maze A by the 'whole' and 'part' methods
respectively.
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
I
6
198"
4
0
20
24
II
3
47
3
2
5
ID
III
2
49
I
0
4
5
IV
I
25
I
I
5
7
I-IV
20
901
28
22
141
191
Total
23
1220"
37
25
175
237
Table III. A table to show the average number of trials, time and errors
of seven humans in learning Maze A by the 'part' method.
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Whole
Part
12
23
641"
1220"
16
2,7
13
25
97
175
126
2i7
Table IV. A table to compare the average number of trials, time and
errors of two human groups, learning Maze A by the 'whole' and 'part'
methods respectively.
WHOLE IS. PART METHODS LV MOTOR LEARXIXG
/ o
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Rats
Whole
27
4174"
54
24
139
217
Part
30
1907
74
17
108
199
Humans
Whole
12
641
16
13
97
126
Part
23
1220
37
25
175
237
Table V. A table to compare the averages of rats and humans in 'whole'
vs. 'part' learning. These data are extracted from Tables I-IV.
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Rats
Allowed
27
4174"
54
24
139
217
Prevented
30
1666
56
4
51
III
Humans
Allowed
12
641
16
13
97
126
Prevented
17
541
23
6
51
81
Table VI. A table to compare the average number of trials, time and errors
of rat and human groups, learning a motor problem (Alaze A) as a whole,
with returns allowed and prevented.
Trials
Time
Errors
A and B C
Total
Allowed
Prevented
50
50
2886"
1813"
188 ! 124
151 1 53
312
204
Table VH. A table to show the average number of trials, time and errors
of two rat groups given fifty trials upon Maze B, with and without the pre-
vention of returns.
Percentage
of Group
Trials
Time
Errors
1
A ; B
c
Total
Rats
Allowed
Prevented
Humans
Allowed
Prevented
64
54
100
100
36"
33
33
51
2676
1818
2599
2669
155
116
loi 1 155
130 1 130
119
55
407
388
274
171
663
648
Table VHI. A table to show the average learning record of rat and human
groups upon Maze B with and without the prevention of returns.
74
LOriS AUGUSTUS PECIISTEIN
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Rats
Whole
30
1 666"
56
4
51
III
Part
30
1907
74
17
108
199
Humans
Whole
17
541
23
6
51
81
Part
23
1220
37
25
175
237
Table IX. A table to compare the average number of trials, time and
errors of rat and human groups, learning Maze A by the 'whole-prevented'
and 'part' methods.
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Control
Sec. II
Group
Part
8
128"
6
I
6
13
Learners
2
32
I
0
2
3
Control
Sec. Ill
Group
Part
20
254
19
2
14
35
Learners
14
127
9
0
5
14
Control
Sec. IV
Group
Part
9-25
316
7
2
21
30
Learners
9
III
8
0
3
II
Table X. A table to compare the average learning of rat groups upon a
single maze (control group) with the averages for the group having pre-
viously learned one or more mazes (Part Learners).
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Control
Sec. II
Group
Part
5
132"
2
2
7
II
Learners
3
47
3
2
5
10
Control
Sec. Ill
Group
Part
8
183
7
6
19
32
Learners
2
49
I
0
4
5
Control
Sec. IV
Group
Part
ID
254
4
4
43
51
Learners
I
25
I
I
5
7
Table XI. As for Table X, human learning.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS /.V MOTOR LEARNING
/3
Trials
Time
Errors
.
A
B
C
Total
I
.4
2.5"
.4
0
0
•4
II
0
0
0
0
0
0
III
2
13-4
I
.2
I
2.2
IV
0
0
0
0
0
0
Average
.6
3.9"
.35
•05
.25
•65
Table XII. A table to show the average relearning effort of a group of
rats having been taught subsequent motor habits after mastering earlier ones.
The data are indicative of retro-active inhibition.
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
c
Total
I & III
.2
6.3"
0
.1
I
I.I
I-IV
0
0
0
0
0
0
II & IV
•3
53
■33
0
0
•33
I-IV
0
0
0
0
0
0
IV & I
4
10
.2
•3
1-5
2
Table XIII. A table to show the average records of a rat group in the
elimination and subsequent reconstruction of specific motor units learned as
parts of a larger motor situation (Maze A).
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
I & III
2
12"
'•25
0
.5
1^75
I-IV
0
0
0
0
0
0
II & IV
•5
3"
•50
0
•25
•75
I-IV
I
24"
•5
•25
•5
125
IV & I
•5
ID"
•25
0
1^5
1^75
Table XIV. As for Table XIII, human group record.
Time
Interval
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
I
II
III
Average
15 Days
8 Days
5 Days
9.33 Days
• 17
I
• 17
.45
I"
7
.67
2.89
• 17
1^33
.17
.56
0
0
0
0
0
•5
0
• 17
.17
1.83
• 17
.72
Table XV. A table to show the disintegration through time of the control
upon the various maze sections as mastered in part learning, based on the
average for six rats.
;6
LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
Time
Interval
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
I
II
III
Average
13 Days
8 Days
5 Days
8.67 Days
0
1.5
1.3
•93
0
9.3"
lO.I
6.5
0
.83
I
.61
0000
0
0
I
.3
0
.83
2
•94
Table XVI. As for Table XV, human group records.
No. of Rats
Trials
Time
Errors
Method
A
B C
Total
Progressive
Part
9
II
662"
39
2
24
65
Reversed
Repetitive
Direct
8
17
882"
22
5
49
76
Repetitive
Whole Returns
II
21
1442"
45
9
88
142
Prevented
9
30
1666"
56
4
51
III
Total Part
Whole Returns
9
30
1907"
74
17
108
199
Allowed
12
27
4174"
54
24
139
217
Table XVII. A table to shov^r the average group records for the learning
of Maze A by standard and original methods. In estimating total trials for
these methods, each section traversed is counted quite arbitrarily as one-
fourth a run. This probably weights the runs through the mastered sections
but never in such a way as would produce more favorable comparisons with
the 'whole' or pure 'part' methods. The methods are listed in their apparent
order of merit, although the three measuring criteria do not always agree
in arguing for this order.
No. of
Humans
Trials
Time
Errors
Method
A
B
C
Total
Progressive
Part
6
10
352"
10
3
44
57
Direct
Repetitive
6
II
618
15
II
70
96
Whole Returns
Allowed
6
12
641
16
13
Q7
126
Whole Returns
Prevented
6
17
541
23
6
51
81
Reversed
Repetitive
6
22
1014
27
24
175
226
Total Part
6
23
1220
36
25
176
237
Table XVIII.
As for Tab
le XVII, hun
lan learning'.
WHOLE VS. PART METHODS IN MOTOR LEARNING 77
Time
Errors
Trials
A
B
c
Total
I
2
3
4
41"
26"
33"
24"
■4
2
•4
0
.2
0
0
0
3-4
0
0
0
4
.2
•4
0
Table XIX. A table to show the average time and errors per trial of six
rats in connecting four sections, such connection having been preceded by an
increasingly complex review of the various units. This is the nearest rat
approach to massed learning effort.
Trials
and
Time
Trials and
Total
Errors
Time and
Total
Errors
Trials and
Type A
Errors
Time and
Type A
, Errors
Total and
Type A
Errors
Rats
Humans
.8705
•8325
.8325
.8325
.9451
1. 0000
.9269
1. 0000
■7750
.8325
•6775
.8325
!
Trials
j Time
Total Errors Type
A Errors
•4465
Rats and h
[umans
.6180
•3335
.3335 '
Table XX. A table to show the correlation between the learning criteria
for all methods, both for rats and humans . Also, the correlation between
the rat and human learning for all methods, correlation being measured by
62D'
a single learning criterion. Ranking method P=i — j^/j^2 j\
Trials
Time
Errors
Method
A
B
C
Total
Whole-Returns
Allowed
30
1250"
41
27
192
260
12
641
16
13
97
126
Whole-Returns
Prevented
25
1208
40
14
150
204
17
541
23
6
51
81
Total Part
10
538
15
9
83
107
23
1220
36
25
176
237
Progressive
Part
14
536
24
10
62
96
10
352
10
3
44
57
Direct
Repetitive
24
716
37
7
76
120
n
618
15
II
70
96
Reversed
Repetitive
20
764
29
10
87
126
22
1014
27
24
175
226
Table XXI. A table to compare the average learning records of human
groups for the various methods, with effort being massed and distributed.
The results for massed effort always appear first.
78
LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
Trials
Time
Errors
A
B
C
Total
Whole-Returns
Allowed
150
95
156
98
108
106
Whole-Returns
Prevented
47
123
74
133
194
152
Total Part
-57
-56
-58
-56
-53
-55
Progressive
Part
40
52
140
233
41
68
Direct
Repetitive
n8
16
147
-36
9
25
Reversed
Repetitive
-9
-25
7
58
-62
-44
Table XXII, A table to show the percentage of advantage or disadvantage
of massed in comparison with distributed effort.
Trials
Time
Errors
Section
A
B
C
Total
I
5-4
6
93"
198
2
4
2
0
8
20
12
24
II
1.2
3
45
47
I
3
I
2
7
5
9
10
III
2.4
2
28
49
3
I
0
0
I
4
4
5
IV
2.4
I
28
25
I
I
0
I
4
5
5
7
I-IV
7.6
20
344
901
8
28
6
22
64
141
78
191
Total
ID
22,
538
1220
15
27
9
25
84
175
108
227
Table XXIII. A table to compare the average learning records of human
groups for the 'part' method, with effort being massed and distributed. The
results for massed effort always appear first.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BoGARDUS, E. S. and Henke, F. G. Experiments on
Tactual Sensations in the White Rat. Jour, of Animal
Beh.. 191 1, Vol. I., 125-137.
2. Browning. Brown and Washburn. The Efifect of the
Interval Between Repetitions on the Speed of Learn-
ing a Series of Movements. Amer. Jour, of Psych.,
1913, 24. 580-583.
3. Carr, H. and Watson, J. B. Orientation in the White
Rat. Jour, of Com. Neur. and Psych., 1908, Vol. 18,
27-44.
4. Ei^HRUssi, P. Experimentelle Beitriige zur Lehre vom
Gedachtnis. Zeitschr. f. Psychol., XXXVII. , 1905,
56-103; 161-234.
5. Gould, M. C. and Perrin, F. A. C. A Comparison
of the Factors Involved in the Maze Learning of
Human Adults and Children. Jour of Exper. Psych.,
Vol. I, No. 2.
6. Henderson, E. N. A Study of Memory for Connected
Trains of Thought. Psychol. Rev., Mon. Supp., No.
23, 1903.
7. Hunter, W. S. The Delayed Reaction in Animals and
Children. Behavior Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 6.
8. KuHLMANN, F. The Present Status of Memory Investi-
gations. Psych. Bull., 5, 1908, 292.
9. Lakenan, M. E. Whole and Part Methods of Memorizing
Poetry and Prose. Jour, of Edu. Psych., 1913, IV,
189-198.
10. Larguier des Bancels, Sur les Methodes de Memorisation.
L'Annee Psychologique, 8, 1901, 185.
11. Meumann, S. The Psychology of Learning (3rd German
Edition, 1912.) 240-255; 335. (Also, for extensive
bibliography).
12. Murphy, H. H. Distribution of Practice Periods in
Learning. Jour, of Edu. Psych., 1916, VII, 150-162.
(See bibliography).
13. Neumann, G. Experimentelle Beitrage zur Lehre von der
Oekonomie und Technique des Lernens. Zeitschs. f.
exp. Padagogik, IV, 1907, 63-101.
So LOUIS AUGUSTUS PECHSTEIN
14. Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools,
191 5. Ch. VI and Ch. VIII. (See bibliographies.)
15. Pentschew, C. Untersitchungen zur Oekonomie und
Technik des Lernens. Arch. f. d. ges. Psychol. I.,
1903, 417-526.
16. Perrin, F. a. C. An Experimental and Introspective
Study of the Human Learning Process in the Maze.
Psychol. Monog., 1914, XVI, No. 70.
17. Pyle, W. H. Economical Learning. Jour, of Edu.
Psych., 191 3, IV, 148-158. Concentrated Versus Dis-
tributed Practice. Jour, of Edu. Psych., 1914, V, 247-
258.
18. Pyle, W. H. and Snyder, J. C. The Most Economical
Unit for Committing to Memory. Jour, of Edu.
Psych., 191 1, II, 133-142.
19. Steffens, L. Experimentelle Beitrage zur Lehre vom
oekonomischen Lernen. Zeitschr. f. Psychol., XXII. ,,
1900, 321-382; 465-
20. Watson, ]. B. Kinaesthetic and Organic Sensations.
Psychol. Rev., Mon. Supp., Vol. VIII, No. 2.
21. Watt, H. J. The Economy and Training of Memory.
1907, 1-128.
m
150.8 P974v.23no.2c.1
Pechstein # Whole vs.
Ill
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thods in motor lea
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P974
Psychological monographs: genera
and applied, v. 23, no. 2 -
Pechstein - Whole vs. part
methods in motor learning
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